Transforming higher education in afghanistan : success admidst ongoing struggles 9781937724511, 1937724514

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Transforming Higher Education in Afghanistan

Success Admidst Ongoing Struggles by Fred M. Hayward

Transforming Higher Education in Afghanistan | Fred Hayward

ii

Transforming Higher Education in Afghanistan: Success Amidst Ongoing Struggles by Fred M. Hayward

Society for College and University Planning www.scup.org © 2015 by the Society for College and University Planning All rights reserved. Published 2015. ISBN 978-1-937724-51-1

About the Society for College and University Planning (SCUP) The Society for College and University Planning is a community of higher education planning professionals that provides its members with the knowledge and resources to establish and achieve institutional planning goals within the context of best practices and emerging trends. For more information, visit www.scup.org. What is Integrated Planning? Integrated planning is a sustainable approach to planning that builds relationships, aligns the organization, and emphasizes preparedness for change.

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Contents Foreword..........................................................................................................................................iv Preface...............................................................................................................................................vi Acknowledgements...................................................................................................................xi Chapter 1: The Promise and the Challenges of Higher Education in Fragile Regions..............................................1 Chapter 2: The National Context for Higher Education.................................... 9 Chapter 3: The Higher Education Context...............................................................35 Chapter 4: Leadership Challenges in Higher Education............................... 54 Chapter 5: Challenges on Campus...............................................................................87 Chapter 6: Funding for Higher Education and the Role of Donors...... 117 Chapter 7: Lessons from Experience........................................................................126 Chapter 8: Goals for the Next Five to Ten Years: Continuing the Transformation Process.......................................145 Chapter 9: Conclusions.....................................................................................................154 Appendix.....................................................................................................................................157 Endnotes.....................................................................................................................................166 References..................................................................................................................................170 Author Biography...................................................................................................................176

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Foreword In a speech given on June 6, 1966, in Jameson Hall

effects on higher education on a nation’s plans

at the University of Cape Town on the university’s

for elementary and secondary education; student

annual “Day of Affirmation,” Bobby Kennedy quoted

activism in a politically charged environment; styles of

an unnamed Italian philosopher as saying, “There is

leadership; the interaction between higher education

nothing more difficult to take in hand, more perilous to

and the economy; the impact of culture on gender

conduct, or more uncertain in its success than to take

equity; persistence and personal heroism in the face

the lead in the introduction of a new order of things.”

of conflict (both armed and unarmed); priority setting

Having worked in 15 countries in various stages of

and quality assurance when resources are scarce;

development and sometimes in the midst of armed

introducing radical change such as accreditation

conflict, Fred Hayward has dedicated a considerable

and faculty evaluations when there is little or no

portion of his career to doing the “difficult,” the

institutional history of either; and taking account of

“perilous,” and the “uncertain” in service to higher

external factors such as politics and corruption when

education. Moreover, in a Foreword to a 1999 UNICEF

making a plan.

report entitled The State of the World’s Children, then U. N. Secretary-General Kofi A. Annan wrote,

Then, there is the setting—Afghanistan—a nation that

regarding education, that “on its foundation rest the

has been a dominant subject in the news for at least 35

cornerstones of freedom, democracy and sustainable

years, i.e., since about the start of the Soviet–Afghan

human development.” Given that assessment, it also

War in 1979. Not surprisingly, the people, places, and

seems reasonable to propose that Fred Hayward’s

institutions of Afghanistan that have been in the news

work in higher education has done nothing less than to

are the people, places, and institutions that are the

advance “freedom, democracy and sustainable human

subject of this book. For instance, it was interesting

development” in those places around the world where

to learn that it was President Hamid Karzai who

they may be most needed.

personally “issued a decree requiring a review and ranking of all private higher education institutions” in

Welcome to you, the reader! This is a book that will

Afghanistan. In addition, when I read an account of a

be of benefit to those who study higher education or

recent firefight in Afghanistan, my first reaction was

government and to planners and policy makers no

“Oh my, I read in Fred’s book that there is a university

matter whether they are institution based, system

in that city—I wonder how its students, faculty, and

based, or nation based—and no matter whether the

staff fared in the conflict and how the fighting will

nation in which they work is advanced or undeveloped

interfere with their lives.” And, who in academe could

or at peace or at war. And, because the book is at once

not be interested to learn that, as recently as the 1970s,

an analysis, a history, a candid assessment, and a

“Afghan higher education was among the best in the

memoir, it offers a generous buffet of observations,

region”?

insights, and ideas that have application to everyday use. The menu includes choice topics such as the www.scup.org

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Finally, and above all, there is what turns out to be both the thesis and the conclusion of this book, to wit, “despite the odds against it, in the midst of a prolonged and horrific war, higher education has been transformed in Afghanistan.” Like a member of an audience at an especially good magic show, one might excitedly ask, “how did they do that?” Read on and enjoy! Raymond M. (Ray) Haas Professor Emeritus, University of Virginia and Past President, Society for College and University Planning

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Preface This is a story of success in the face of almost

Afghans to transform the country. They saw a chance

insurmountable odds—success in a fragile state that

to build on the defeat and withdrawal of the Taliban

began a higher education transformation process in

and the promise of a new democratic order, one that

a context of ongoing war and terrorist attacks, lack

would focus on national development, education, and

of funding, rampant corruption, mismanagement in

equality. I jumped at the opportunity to participate in

many parts of government, a large and unresponsive

that process.

bureaucracy, the loss of many of the most well-trained and successful faculty members and administrators

What attracted me most once I got to Afghanistan

due to the Russian invasion, intimidation, threats,

in 2003 was the widespread belief that life would

and other major challenges. What makes this story

be better: dreams realized, democracy put in place,

especially remarkable is that success has occurred

gender equality possible, and opportunities available

despite rapidly growing enrollments and very limited

for everyone to have a better life. The young people

funding.

interviewed were full of hope and ready to do their part in bringing about change, the leaders in higher

Most of what has been written about Afghanistan has

education were committed to this dream, and it

focused on the problems: war, corruption, difficulties

seemed so possible at that moment. And I fell in

in training the armed forces, mismanagement, the

love with Afghanistan, its people, their goals, the

failure of U.S. and other donor assistance, violence

possibilities, and the brave struggle underway.

against civilians, the plight of women and the failures of gender equity, low-quality health care, and a host

It was soon clear that there were many more obstacles

of other problems. Higher education in Afghanistan,

in the way of reaching these goals than people had

on the other hand, has been a remarkable success to

thought: not all leaders were committed to their

date despite tremendous obstacles, rapidly growing

promises, funding for development was slow to

enrollments, tepid support from government, and

materialize, and little of that funding was earmarked

the limited interest of most donors. This success

for higher education. Yet progress was being made.

has occurred quietly with no fanfare and almost no recognition in the press, by governments, or among

What kept me coming to Afghanistan as the problems

most funders. Perhaps that has been beneficial in

became clearer was the dedication of the people I

that thus higher education has not been a center of

was working with in the face of these obstacles. The

attention. Indeed, even those of us involved in higher

battle against incompetence, selfishness, corruption,

education have been surprised by the degree and

powerbrokers, greed, thuggery, passiveness, and

extent of success.

submission was a daily one—one fought amid growing corruption and insecurity in Kabul and the rest of

What drew me to Afghanistan more than 12 years ago

the country brought about by suicide bombers, the

were the dreams and commitments of a number of

Taliban, and their allies. And of course there was the

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ongoing war—now more than 30 years of violence,

5,000 Afghan soldiers and police were killed in 2014,

death, and fear. I met amazingly brave people who put

the most in all the years of war.

their lives on the line to improve higher education, people who had to deal with threats to themselves

This study also grows out of my long-standing interest

and their children to defend their commitments.

in system change and transformation; the struggle

It was often a daily struggle for the integrity of the

for independence in Africa; the creation of political

whole higher education system for those defending

organizations and parties where none had been

the fairness of the admissions process or the integrity

allowed before; elections and political competition;

of medical education or for the young female

the struggle against apartheid, dictatorship, and

academic administrator who worked to improve her

authoritarianism; the search for equality; and the need

university despite constant threats by AK-47-toting

for quality higher education. It also reflects a long-

gangsters, midnight telephone calls, and warnings

standing interest in educational transformation and

of assassination from conservative faculty members

the relationship between higher education and national

because she insisted on following the law and because

development.

she was a women. There were many others who took a public stand for quality in the face of threats to

Previous work has shown the vital role of higher

their well-being. And progress was made. All this

education in national development through knowledge

happened quietly, without shrillness or fanfare. As

production. We know that “the role of tertiary

I worked with higher education leaders I saw how

education in the construction of knowledge economies

widespread was the commitment to integrity, honesty,

and democratic societies is more influential than ever.

fair play, equity, and high quality. Year after year these

Indeed, tertiary education is central to the creation

sometimes seemingly small acts of bravery began to

of the intellectual capacity on which knowledge

add up, encouraging others to do the same thing and

production and utilization depend” (World Bank 2002,

little by little bringing about changes unimagined at

p. xvii). How could that be done amid conflict and war

the beginning. Those leading the process were modest,

in a very fragile state? I wanted to find out.

unobtrusive, yet totally committed. What are the major issues for higher education in I had seen other such leaders in the more than dozen

a fragile state? Surely they include stability, safety

countries in which I had worked, but there was

for students and staff, continued access to learning,

something special about the effort in Afghanistan:

funding, retaining staff, and maintaining quality.

the depth of commitment of some of my Afghan

But how can these be achieved? Further, does higher

colleagues, the lack of fear—or when fearful the

education play a role in facilitating stability in a war

unwillingness to show it—and, for some, the need to

environment? We will see that it does in many ways.

put their lives on the line on a daily basis. I had seen

In part it gives students and staff a positive focus—a

nothing like it except during the struggle against

way to look to something better, prepare for jobs and

apartheid in South Africa. As in South Africa, no one

a normal life, and commit to knowledge production.

talked about fear or threats. And all the time the war

And it has an integrating function, bringing people

raged, with the country paying a very high price: at

together from various parts of the country. While that

least 3,188 Afghan civilians died in 2014 alone and

sometimes sparks conflict, it also teaches students

6,439 were injured (Johnson 2014). In addition, almost

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In a microcosm, higher education helps solve national

decentralization and centered on people. Based on

problems. Gender equity begins to develop in higher

that discussion I prepared an outline with suggestions

education, and that has multiplier effects as we will

for how he and the ministry might go about putting

see. Higher education also can provide the essential

together a strategic plan for higher education.

skills and knowledge needed for development. But that

Some months later the AED asked me to lead a

has to be fostered. I was interested in how that could

team to prepare a feasibility study on private sector

be done.

involvement in the development of tertiary education in Afghanistan. I agreed and was soon joined by Sara

As you will see in the pages that follow, the successes

Amiryar, then at George Washington University, and in

of higher education in Afghanistan provide some

Afghanistan by Mohammed Essa, an AED employee.2

important lessons for other developing countries. These include recognition of the importance of

This was a period of great optimism and excitement

strategic planning and new rules and regulations

in Afghanistan. We traveled around the country a

for faculty and students following the carnage of

great deal talking to people about their hopes for

war in order to get things back on track after a long

higher education and whether they thought there was

period of politicization, disorganization, and loss of

a role for private higher education in this process.

community. Afghanistan needed to reestablish a sense

Our work resulted in a report to the Ministry of

of community. How do you do that? How do you begin

Higher Education (MoHE) and the World Bank with

a process of communication, debate, exploration, and

recommendations about possible roles for private

rebuilding in a context of shattered lives, destroyed

higher education in Afghanistan (Hayward and

buildings, loss of infrastructure, and the loss of

Amiryar 2003). We suggested that private higher

half the faculty and staff? These are questions to be

education could play an important part in the revival

explored in what follows.

and development of Afghanistan.

My work in Afghanistan began in 2002 when I was

That began an enduring relationship with higher

asked by the Academy for Educational Development

education in Afghanistan that continues to this day.

(AED) to participate in a meeting considering ways in

After the study for the World Bank and AED, I worked

which funders, NGOs, and universities might assist the

for the World Bank in 2006 and 2007 as part of the

new government of Afghanistan in rebuilding higher

Strengthening Higher Education Program, helping

education after the removal of the Taliban regime.

six universities develop institutional strategic plans.

There were several officials of the new government

That was followed a few years later by my work on

present at that meeting, including the new minister

the Higher Education Project from 2009 through

of higher education, Dr. Sharif Fayez. He was eager

December 2013 and by consultations for the University

to start work on a strategic plan for higher education.

Support and Workforce Development Program in

Since strategic planning was an area of specialization

2014–15. These projects involved close collaboration

for me, I was asked to work with him to suggest how

and interaction with the MoHE and many university

he might undertake such a plan and to help him

leaders. For the last five years, as senior higher

think about the process. We spent some time talking

education advisor to the deputy minister for academic

about his goals for higher education. He had a vision

affairs, Prof. Mohammad Osman Babury, there was

for a new order in higher education—one focused on

daily contact.

1

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Throughout this 12-year period I worked closely

when critical. I wish to thank all those who have been

with MoHE officials; many of the chancellors, vice

so helpful, hospitable, and open to me during the last

chancellors, and deans; faculty members; and students.

12 years. I hope this document does justice to the

In 2003 Sara Amiryar and I conducted focus groups

tremendous contributions and the numerous sacrifices

in four provinces with 11th- and 12th-grade students,

made by many of those I worked with over the years,

university students, faculty members, parents,

the risks some of them took in the face of threats to

business people, and, in Kabul, a women’s group. Since

their lives (and in a few cases to their children), and the

that time I have had the opportunity to work with

successes they have achieved. There have been a few

people from most of the public universities and higher

people whom I have criticized, though not by name,

education institutes and many of the private higher

in the hope of presenting a fair and balanced picture

education institutions. Some of these relationships

of my experiences, my research, and my assessment

have lasted for more than a decade. Over the years a

of higher education in Afghanistan. I come away with

number of Afghans have become close friends, and

great admiration for the people of Afghanistan and

I am regarded as a family member by some of them.

tremendous respect for their achievements in the face

This has given me the opportunity to see Afghanistan

of challenges that would have deterred most people.

in both a professional and personal way, sharing in many of the intimate experiences of family life in

Recently, M. O. Babury, deputy minister for academic

Afghanistan as well as in its professional and public

affairs for higher education, and I wrote about

face.

these successes in an article entitled “Afghanistan Higher Education: The Struggle for Quality, Merit,

While working in the MoHE from 2009 to 2013, I

and Transformation” (Babury and Hayward 2014). I

was given extraordinary access and became part of

summarize some of those successes in the paragraphs

the inner circle of senior MoHE staff. I was asked

that follow. In this study I seek to put those changes

to represent the minister at a number of meetings,

in context and assess how the MoHE was able to be so

give presentations on his behalf and for the deputy

successful given the challenges facing a fragile state

minister for academic affairs, and represent the MoHE

and the setting in which it operated. I analyze the

at the Human Resources Development Board, which

achievements and difficulties and suggest why higher

consisted of the Ministry of Education, the Ministry

education has succeeded in making such important

of Higher Education, the Ministry of Labor, and the

transformations to date. However, despite the

Ministry of Public Health with the Ministry of Finance

significant progress, higher education has a long way

as an observer. This document draws on many of those

to go to achieve the goals spelled out in the National

experiences over more than a decade. At the same

Higher Education Strategic Plan: 2010–2014 (MoHE

time, I have tried to avoid violating the confidences and

2009a). (An executive summary of the plan is included

trust extended to me. In the few cases in which I talk

in the appendix.) The current successes are fragile and

about sensitive topics, the identities of those involved

many challenges remain, especially due to the effects of

have been changed or blurred.

more than 30 years of war and the tremendous hurdles that still need to be overcome to bring peace.

I feel a close connection to Afghanistan. No doubt that affects my assessments to some extent, although I

In the pages that follow, I explore the successes to

have tried to be rigorous in my analysis and unsparing

date in higher education, review the challenges that www.scup.org

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remain to reach the level of quality needed for national development and better employment opportunities for graduates, and suggest some of the steps that should be taken to ensure long-term success. In the course of this assessment I highlight some of the extraordinary people who have facilitated the successes to date. All of this has occurred against the complex background of Afghan history, and so I start with a brief historical background of higher education. I next lay out some of the changes that have been made to date and try to set them in the context in which higher education operates. I follow up with an assessment of some of the challenges that remain and my thoughts about what might be done to sustain the successes that have occurred. Finally, I discuss some of the lessons others might learn from both the successes of Afghanistan in this fragile environment and the challenges that remain for Afghan higher education. My more than a decade working with higher education in Afghanistan suggests that this remarkable effort has a great deal to teach those of us committed to development and quality improvement in higher education generally.

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Acknowledgements This book grew out of my work in Afghanistan over

For my first contacts with Afghanistan I am indebted

more than a decade and builds on years of working in

to the Academy for Educational Development (AED), to

higher education in both the United States and abroad.

its then president Steven F. Moseley (now of the United

I owe a deep debt of gratitude to those who paved the

Nations Association), and to my boss John Gillies (now

way for me with their openness, friendship, hospitality,

with FHI 360) who made it possible for me to lead a

honesty, and kindness. From my first steps in Sierra

team as we started to work on Afghan higher education

Leone in 1966 to my most recent flight out of Kabul

in 2002 and to go to Afghanistan in 2003. To my

in 2015, I have been aided by countless people who

wonderful teammates, Sara Amiryar and Mohammed

have opened doors for me and given me new insights

Essa, I owe a great deal for introducing Afghanistan to

into the challenges of life in developing nations, the

me. And to Minister Sharif Fayez, whose graciousness

difficulties of politics, the highs of victory and the

continued from our first meeting in Washington, DC,

depths of despair of elections lost, the need for freedom

in 2002 until my most recent meetings with him in

and the willingness to sacrifice everything for it, the

Kabul in 2014, I express my deep appreciation for his

power of truth especially in the face of denial, the

wonderful openness and assistance.

uselessness of hatred, and the satisfaction of a victory gained through commitment and understanding—

More recently, in my work in Afghanistan from 2009

people who have experienced ruthless dictatorships,

through 2013 as part of the Higher Education Project

imprisonment, torture, and humiliation but who

funded by USAID and administered by AED and the

have also seen the joys of victory and vindication

University of Massachusetts, Amherst, I am especially

after years of struggle. I am deeply indebted to these

grateful for the support, advice, and fellowship of Joe

friends, acquaintances, colleagues, and, occasionally,

Berger who co-led the program, the assistance of David

bystanders, some of whom became my “brothers,”

Evans, and the leadership of Michael Blundell when he

“sisters,” and “partners,” and I, in a twist of fate or

was deputy chief of party and chief of party of HEP—

biology, sometimes their “dear father” or “dear uncle.”

and since as a master at every level and a wonderful

I am grateful for their willingness to share their

friend. That work continued under the University

experiences and their lives to help me understand—no

Support and Workforce Development Program

doubt imperfectly—their struggles, challenges, and

(USWDP) administered by FHI 360 and the University

triumphs and sometimes their demons, fears, and

of Massachusetts, Amherst, and supported by USAID.

nightmares. I have spent many of the last 50 years

I am particularly indebted to a number of wonderful

abroad, and sometimes I was able to be an “insider”

colleagues at HEP and USWDP, especially my two

in many ways though always an outsider too. To those

excellent assistants, Mujtaba Hedayet and Mohammad

who trusted me so much, who opened up to me, and

Asef, as well as Razia Karim, Sunila Saqib, and Hassan

who shared parts of their lives with me, I owe so very

Aslami. My debt to Wahid Omar, the current chief of

much in ways words cannot tell. I only hope this book

party, is substantial as is my debt to my former HEP

does justice to their trust, interest, assistance, and

colleagues Santwana Dasgupta, Fiona Rowand, Paul

faith.

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I was also assisted by a number of people at USAID

I am particularly indebted to Kathy Benton, Associate

and the State Department, both in Afghanistan and

Director, Education & Product Development at

the United States. I especially want to acknowledge

the Society for College and University Planning

the assistance of Jean E. Manes, now principal deputy

(SCUP), and Claire Turcotte, managing editor of

coordinator, Bureau of International Information

SCUP’s Planning for Higher Education journal, for

Programs, Department of State, who was of invaluable

encouraging me to turn these writings into a book.

assistance in leading the drive for the critical addition

I am especially grateful to Claire for her thoughtful

of women’s dormitories in Afghanistan that resulted

reading of the manuscript and her many useful

in the building of two dorms for women as well as

suggestions that significantly improved the final

numerous scholarships for women and other critical

product. I also want to thank Kimberly Mass for her

contributions. I am also grateful to Malcom Phelps of

careful editing of the final version and the other staff

USAID who worked closely with us and demonstrated

members at SCUP who helped make this book possible.

a clear understanding of Afghan higher education and its needs, working tirelessly to provide support.

None of these people, of course, are responsible for what is written here. That responsibility is solely my

My most profound debt in Afghanistan and at the

own.

Ministry of Higher Education is owed to Deputy Minister for Academic Affairs Professor Mohammed

Finally, I want to acknowledge the contributions of my

Osman Babury with whom I have worked closely since

family, the children now grown and married, Kent,

2009. He has given me a profound understanding of

Alexandra, Mark, and Adrian, and my wife Linda

Afghanistan that I would never have had otherwise. I

Hunter for her tremendous support of this publication

have learned a great deal from watching him oversee

and my work over more than 30 years. She read every

higher education during that time. I also want to

page—most more than once—and thoughtfully gave

acknowledge the assistance of former minister

her comments, criticism, and suggestions. She also put

Mohammad Azam Dadfur whose warmth and interest

up with my years of travels to Afghanistan, and earlier

in our work was invaluable.

to many other parts of the world, with marvelous patience, good humor, and support. I owe her the

Madeleine F. Green, former vice president of the

greatest debt of all.

American Council on Education (ACE) with whom I worked for more than 10 years; Teboho Moja, professor of education at New York University and a colleague for many years; and Joe Berger, professor of education at University of Massachusetts, Amherst, all read drafts of this book and provided indispensable support, invaluable suggestions, and insights that have added tremendously to this work.

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—DEDICATION—

To the people of Afghanistan

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Chapter 1

Chapter 1: The Promise and the Challenges of Higher Education in Fragile Regions Afghanistan is among a group of countries consisting

terrible for those in the cesspool and dangerous for

of about a billion citizens that are falling behind the

those who live next to it. We had better do something

rest of the world, are highly at risk, and are populated

about it. The question is what.” Collier (2007) makes

by those who struggle to survive on a daily basis

a number of suggestions, including aid, but notes that

(Collier 2007) with 54 percent living in poverty. These

the most successful reforms will come from within. I

fragile states have become the subject of increasing

will explore what was done in Afghanistan as a fragile

concern to scholars and donors (World Bank 2012).

state, what led to its successes in higher education, and

The situation in Afghanistan, one of these countries,

what that suggests for fragile states in general.

is complicated by an ongoing war that was in its 32nd year as I wrote this. It is one of 33 fragile conflict states identified by the World Bank. While 20 of these states have made some progress toward meeting the U.N.’s Millennium Development Goals,1 many of them, including Afghanistan, are unlikely to meet the targets by the end of 2015 as expected (World Bank 2013). The tragedy of these fragile states is that for years they have been largely ignored (Ghani and Lockhart 2009). It was assumed that many of them were lost causes or that improvement depended on ending ongoing conflicts. As Collier (2007, p. 99) emphasizes, “a group of countries with nearly a billion people living in them have been caught in one or another of four traps [civil war, the resources curse, being landlocked, and bad government]. As a result, while the rest of the developing world has been growing at an unprecedented rate, they have stagnated or even declined.” He continues, “A future world with a billion people living in impoverished and stagnant countries is just not a scenario we can countenance. A cesspool of misery next to a world of growing prosperity is both

The Relationship between Fragility and Education Ideally, education mitigates the conditions that create and sustain fragility, although there are some writers who worry that education can contribute to fragility (Dupuy 2008; Inter-Agency Network for Education in Emergencies 2010). Bush and Saltarelli (2000) show how education can be used to undermine stability and exacerbate conflict in their study of armed conflicts, whether through denial of education, manipulation of textbooks, cultural repression, or fostering of ethnic conflict. While the preponderance of recent evidence suggests that this is not generally the case (Østby and Urdal 2011; Winthrop and Matsui 2013), their findings are an important cautionary tale. Winthrop and Matsui (2013, p. 2) argue that they “have found compelling evidence showing that education can play an important role for accelerating progress in fragile states for four main reasons”: they argue that education fosters economic growth and poverty reduction, enhances

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Chapter 1

children’s protection and well-being, encourages

externally fostered conflicts. These weaknesses have

peace building and state building, and reduces risks

profound implications for governance in general,

from disasters. Østby and Urdal (2011, p. 1) provide

the provision of education at every level, and the

especially strong evidence based on a review of 30

establishment of the legitimacy of the government

studies that suggests that “increasing education levels

itself.

overall has pacifying effects” and “rapid expansion of higher education is not a threat”—indeed, higher

The emphasis on primary education

education reduces the chances of conflict. They argue that the policy implications of their findings indicate

Fragile states have been particularly affected by the

that it is important to continue educational expansion

emphasis of donors on primary education as part of

and that this is something most governments can

UNESCO’s Education for All movement, which seeks to

do. They conclude that “this review summarizes

have universal primary education by the end of 2015.

evidence that very clearly points to the pacifying effect

As a result, both primary and secondary education

of education, at all levels.” They go on to state that

have undergone tremendous expansion in many parts

“there is little support for concern that governments

of the world. The results of this in Afghanistan are now

should be cautious about rapidly expanding access to

being seen in the increased numbers of graduates from

education” (Østby and Urdal 2011, p. 4).

secondary school. What has not received very much attention is the effect of this growth in the long run on

Definition of fragile environments

universities and institutions of higher education. As growing numbers of students graduate from secondary

While there is no agreed-upon definition of fragile

school, there is a corresponding increase in the number

environments, most writers concur that the term

who want to go on to higher education. In Afghanistan

refers to states that fail to perform the tasks expected

in 2010 the number of graduates from secondary

of them to meet the basic needs of their citizens. This

school increased by 36 percent, in 2011 by 25 percent,

may include the inability to maintain security; ensure

and in 2012 by 29 percent. This increase will continue

the rule of law; provide basic services such as health

at double-digit levels until 2022 when it will fall off

care, justice, water, and electricity; and meet economic

somewhat. That is over 200,000 high school graduates

expectations. For purposes of this discussion, I am

a year, and by 2016, it will be over 300,000. Of the

using the following definition of a fragile region: “[O]

students who graduate about 80 percent will apply for

ne that is significantly susceptible to crisis in one or

admission to higher education institutions. The MoHE

more of its sub-systems and particularly vulnerable

will only be able to admit about 50,000 since most

to internal and external shocks and domestic and

higher education institutions are already over capacity.

international conflicts” (GSDRC 2015, ¶ 5). What

Some of the graduates will instead go on to technical

is important for the purposes of this analysis is

and vocational training or to teacher training but at

that the state is weak and unable to perform the

least half will not find places.

functions needed by its citizens, provide many of the badly needed services, guarantee security, control

Although higher education has been trying to grow

corruption, and ensure the fair administration of

in Afghanistan, its facilities will not accommodate

law and justice. It is often not in control of all the

increased demand. Despite requests by the MoHE,

areas defined as part of the state due to civil war or

there has been little infrastructure expansion. Most

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donors have said that they do not do “bricks and

tertiary education systems are not adequately prepared

mortar” and are not interested in higher education.

to capitalize on the creation and use of knowledge”

Thus a crisis is in the making. While not all high school

(World Bank 2002, p. xix). Recognizing these

graduates should go on to higher education, the best of

challenges, I will later explore what has been attempted

them should be accommodated in ways that produce

in Afghan higher education since 2001.

high-quality results. However, not enough funding has been provided to increase quality to the level required.

The need to focus on higher education in fragile states

Thus there is a growing potential for a serious crisis both in terms of places for graduates who deserve them

My work in Afghanistan, South Africa, Sierra Leone,

and the quality of higher education required. I will

and several other fragile environments suggests that

examine these problems in the pages that follow. There

higher education can play a critical role in facilitating

is a critical need for a post-basic-education approach to

stability and, in the long run, fostering development.

education in fragile regions.

On the other hand, there are risks of the reverse: increased unemployment, students unhappy with

The critical role of quality higher education in development We know that knowledge is increasingly the “main driver of growth, and the information and communication revolution” (World Bank 2002, p. xvii). Indeed, the ability to produce and use knowledge is essential for ongoing economic growth. As the World Bank (2002, p. 7) notes, “[k]nowledge has become the most important factor in economic development.” It is higher education that is the main producer of knowledge around the world, and it is the primary repository and source of knowledge production in the developing world. The World Bank goes on to emphasize that “[t]oday, economic growth is as much a process of knowledge accumulation as of capital accumulation” (World Bank 2002, p. 8). Unfortunately, most fragile states suffer from inadequate funding for higher education, lack of sufficient numbers of well-trained staff, inadequate access to higher education for most citizens, problems of quality, and the need to update a curriculum not attuned to the needs of today’s business, government, or private sectors. Thus, “developing and transition countries are at risk of being further marginalized in a highly competitive world economy because their

the low quality of their education, or the potential use of higher education as a tool to foster conflict. However, higher education in Afghanistan seems to have fostered stability by focusing student efforts on the future and the need to develop the skills required to gain employment and be competitive in an increasingly competitive world. Students are well aware of the nature of competition today and, as we will see, understand how much their higher education institutions need to improve to properly prepare them for today’s work environment. They too are part of the pressure for quality improvement. They are often among the best critics, and since they are easily mobilized, administrators need to pay attention to their concerns. Further, even as higher education institutions rebuild, they help foster stability by keeping students and staff focused on the future—keeping hope alive for a normal life and a better tomorrow. Higher education is also important in bringing people together from all over the country and teaching them how to work together. Higher education, even when not up to the quality levels sought in the long run, is national in its focus, general in its overview, and increasingly global in nature. Its goals are forward looking (for the most

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part), its aims are future oriented, and its staff are

broad issues and questions that force them to look at

inclined to eschew looking backward. Even the most

the world in new ways, with different horizons than

conservative faculty members regard themselves as

usual, and explore a variety of alternative solutions.

creative and forward looking and tend to impart those

They learn, often for the first time, that many problems

values to students. There is increasing pressure on staff

have multiple solutions—but some are far superior

to think in terms of the skills students need; to talk

to others and the challenge is to find and use those

with employers; and to work to make sure the needs of

solutions.

government, business, and industry are incorporated in their courses and their teaching. I listened recently

Priorities for higher education in fragile regions

to one minister of higher education push chancellors and faculty leaders to think about international

The challenges for higher education in fragile

standards for their institutions and push their faculty

environments are Herculean. Most are faced with

members to do the same. Given the pressures they

violence and conflict, lack of security in many parts of

too are under, most were remarkably responsive. The

the country, lack of funding, and the loss of talented

question was not why, but how to do that effectively.

faculty members due to brain drain, suppression, and

Even in a fragile state, faculty members understand

violence. Many are faced with a weak and often corrupt

that they have an obligation to create a pool of well-

civil service, frequently made up of incompetent staff

trained professionals who can respond to employers’

with little commitment to their jobs. And in most

requirements and meet the nation’s needs.

cases, donors have little interest in higher education, believing that primary and secondary education are

It is important to emphasize the traditional values

the keys to progress. While they are important, no

of higher education—the role of teaching and the

nation moves into the realm of developing countries

multiplier effect that good teaching has on students,

without a high-quality higher education system. That,

as well as the ability of students to write well, speak

unfortunately, is usually not recognized by those in

in public, think critically, conduct research, ask good

government or most funders, although the World Bank

questions, and think clearly and logically. Students

and USAID have been exceptions.

should also learn soft skills, such as the ability to work in teams or groups. That is something businesses

One potential advantage for higher education in fragile

around the world are seeking. Universities are a critical

regions is the fact that these environments are often

laboratory for teaching students how to approach a

fluid. Collier (2007, p. 151) notes that although conflict

problem, work on it collectively, and discard findings

and post-conflict situations “typically start out with

that do not move the process forward while embracing

very poor governance and policies, they are highly

those that do. Higher education institutions are also

fluid: change is easy.” This offers a great deal of latitude

increasingly helping students think about what they

to those who would bring about change. That flexibility

can do for their community and their nation’s citizens

has facilitated change in a number of fragile states,

and their obligation to give something back in return

especially where leaders had clear plans and were able

for their free education. I have been surprised again

to mobilize people to implement them.

and again in fragile states by the strong commitment of many students to make a contribution. In no other context are students more likely to be presented with

What makes for success? The capacity to ensure stability and the safety of students and staff. Leaders

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with clear goals and plans for meeting them, an ability

send their daughters to higher education institutions

to articulate their approach and gain support, and the

without safe, supervised dormitories for them.

strength to lead a successful implementation. I will explore the successes of several masterful leaders in

Another critical issue in most fragile regions is the

Afghanistan and assess some of the factors that helped

need to help government officials, elected leaders

them realize their goals for change.

including members of Parliament, and citizens understand that quality education requires substantial

I will also examine what seem to me to be the priorities

funding. While people are usually eager to have their

for leaders of higher education in fragile environments.

children back in higher education, they forget the

Among them is the identification of key areas for initial

cost of rebuilding and making necessary upgrades,

policy making. What is important depends on the

such as properly equipped laboratories, good housing

country and the situation. But as we will see, getting

for female students, and classrooms large enough to

the house in order has to be an early priority: setting

accommodate students. Most universities in developing

out rules and regulations for faculty members, staff,

countries were built at a time when it was assumed

and students; rethinking administrative processes;

that these would be elite institutions; thus, classrooms

bringing together major leaders to build consensus;

were built to accommodate no more than 40 students.

and building trust in the leadership. A key priority

There were no large lecture halls or small discussion

is strategic planning, building on the goals and

rooms. As these institutions grow, there is a limit

consensus established. Another priority is recruitment

on how many students can be accommodated on the

and the return of quality staff members who have

floor or outside of these small classrooms. Most of us

left. In myriad fragile states such as South Africa and

have seen the situation of a packed lecture room with

Afghanistan, many of the best and brightest faculty

students standing in line waiting for the last class

members fled persecution, imprisonment, and lack

to leave and then 50–60 more students standing or

of freedom. Attracting them back can be a major

sitting on the floor or outside the doors and windows

task, one that becomes more difficult as time passes.

to hear the lecture. Making the case for educational

In the process of rebuilding it is also important to

funding is a critical part of rebuilding in fragile states.

target fields that are critical to national development: agriculture, business, economics, public health, public administration, and teacher education. Rebuilding an infrastructure damaged by war, lack of maintenance due to unrest, or long periods of neglect is also usually a major challenge, particularly because of a lack of funding led by the growing refusal of donors to invest in bricks and mortar. Yet without infrastructure it is very hard to get science programs moving again, research started, and appropriate teaching underway. Further, getting women back on campus will often require an improved environment including women’s dormitories since families will not

What Are the Lessons Learned? How Can We Apply Them Broadly in Developing Countries? In most post-conflict situations, a new set of student and faculty rules and procedures should be among the first priorities to ensure that institutions get started appropriately. The revived institutions are usually opened after a period of educational anarchy or closure; they may have been part of a system rife with corruption or taken over by various factions and run with a particular ideology or factional position

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governing their activities. This may need to be

put in long hours, listen, think creatively, talk to their

reviewed and the system reorganized.

colleagues, and run risks to bring about change. There was also an unspoken commitment to looking forward,

Rebuilding a sense of academic community is another

not backward.

necessary task. The community cohesion that existed before will no doubt have been lost along with top

Some goals such as gender equity are difficult to

faculty members and administrators or as a result

achieve in any context, and in several fragile regions

of politicization. Rebuilding a sense of academic

they are especially challenging given a long history of

community is central to a successful educational

regarding women as second-class citizens. Yet, as will

enterprise, but it takes time to build a new sense of

be shown later, sticking to a commitment to gender

trust, mutual respect, and a commitment to teaching,

equity—even when it is a contentious issue—can bring

service, and research. In many cases it will be

about success one small step at a time. The overall

necessary to draw people away from their focus on

successes in both South Africa and Afghanistan

survival—a focus that allowed them to survive the

demonstrate the importance of continuous broad

strife, hardships, and suffering. That takes time and

consultation. No country did that as well, in my

patience. In some communities in places like South

experience, as South Africa in the post-apartheid

Africa, Sierra Leone, and Afghanistan it will also be

transition period. While it seemed to many people

necessary to deal with the physical and mental trauma

involved that there were constant meetings, those

of war faced by those who lost limbs to the rebels or to

long and detailed discussions paid off. And the rule

land mines, those with other war injuries, and those

for those discussions was that everyone had a chance

who witnessed terrible atrocities. All three countries

to speak before anyone had a second turn—a rule that

have suffered from post-traumatic stress disorder, with

held for everyone, including the most powerful leader.

Afghanistan having among the highest clinical levels of depression, anxiety, and PTSD in the world (Babury

Not all efforts to revive higher education will take place

and Hayward 2013). Dealing with these issues requires

in a free environment, but, as Sen (1999) notes, where

professional assistance and a great deal of thought

that is possible, there will likely be a great deal more

to develop communication networks, discussions,

communication, consensus, and democracy in the

outreach, and other activities that bring out the best in

development process. That is a tremendous advantage.

people.

It was critical in the later years for South Africa and has been very important over the last 10 years in

In Afghanistan, great progress has been made in

Afghanistan.

higher education in part because the leadership in the MoHE mobilized a pool of the best experienced faculty members and brought them into the process of reorganization, quality improvement, and capacity building. That process was tied together by the carefully developed National Higher Education Strategic Plan: 2010–2014 prepared in 2009, about which more will be said later. That remarkable group of leaders set the tone for the future. They were willing to

What Are the Challenges for Fragile Societies? The risks are high in fragile societies, especially in those that are still experiencing conflict or are early post-conflict. There is always the possibility that the violence will start once again or that it will grow to a

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point that no higher education is possible. Fortunately

standards? Local standards? Someone else’s

that has not happened to date in Afghanistan but the

standards? These conflicts can lead to bruising

risks remain. And when agreement breaks down, there

battles. But if handled thoughtfully, in a context

is the possibility that old rivalries will be revived or

in which leaders stick to core values and insist on

new ones will be created and shooting will replace

open discussion, they can be overcome. Once again,

talking.

these issues can be buried under the pretext of other issues. This is where clear-headed, frank leadership is

Complicating the efforts to bring about substantial

invaluable.

change in higher education are the issues typical in fragile states: weak central government, corruption,

Staffing is another potential minefield even when merit

the inability to provide adequate security, lack of

is the agreed-upon goal and value. Once again, good

adequate funding, and weak support for higher

committees made up of experienced, credible, and

education among the government and most of the

thoughtful people can save the day. Majority rule is

donor community. Within the higher education

also a good principle that has solved many a personnel

community itself there are also areas of fragility as a

issue although it can be used by dominant groups to

result of years of war and its ongoing impact on higher

defeat merit. Once the merit principle breaks down it

education.

is very hard to get it going again. Thus these values are worth fighting for even if it takes a great deal of time.

All of this results in ongoing challenges in the search for quality. For example, while people agree on the

Finally, the issue of finances is often contentious.

importance of the merit principle in higher education,

Making sure that financial decisions are made

they nonetheless want exceptions for those who were

collectively, transparently, and thoughtfully is key.

important to the struggle or who suffered a great

Discussion and agreement on decision rules in advance

deal regardless of their lack of merit. Then there will

can be vital. Above all, having decision makers who

be the conflicts pitting numbers against quality—

clearly have overall higher education goals as their

the eagerness to admit more students than can be

guide, absent themselves from decisions in which

accommodated without decreasing quality, which in

others might see a conflict of interest, and provide a

most cases will not yet be up to acceptable levels.

periodic public review of finance decisions will help keep those decisions on track and in accordance with

There are other pressures that affect quality

goals. My 20 years of experience with finances in

improvement including issues of ethnicity and social

both South Africa and Afghanistan demonstrated

inequality by gender, religion, region, and class. In

the potency of these rules of discussion and the

many cases these pressures are not expressed blatantly

importance of transparency and public discussion in

but appear as subtexts in decisions about who leads,

financial issues.

who serves on critical committees, or who gets to travel abroad. This terrain requires great tact to cover

The case of higher education in Afghanistan over the

successfully.

last decade is an especially useful one for thinking about the role of higher education in the development

There are also issues regarding standards. Whose

of fragile states. Both the extent of its success and the

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interesting. While Afghanistan still has a long way to go to realize the quality and breadth of higher education that are the hallmarks of its goals, its successes to date are far reaching, and the lessons it has for all of us are impressive—and sometimes breathtaking.

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Chapter 2: The National Context for Higher Education Historical Background to 2014

the Faculty of Science and Economics with Bonn

Afghanistan has a long tradition of education and

Faculty of Education and Kabul Education University

learning going back to 500 BC. Its centers of learning included Herat, known for its rich cultural heritage in art, science, music, and philosophy and as a center for poetry, drawing scholars from around the region, and Balkh, traditionally a birthplace of the Zoroastrianism religion and a center of culture and learning for hundreds of years. Afghanistan’s links with European education go back to 1919 when King Amanullah sent a number of students to study in Europe. The foundations for the current system of higher education were laid with the establishment of the Faculty of Medicine in Kabul in 1932, the Faculty of Law (1936), the Faculty of Science (1942), and the Faculty of Letters (1946). These became the core of Kabul University, which was established in 1946. The second university to be established was Nangarhar University, which opened in 1963. By 1990 there were 14,600 students in the system including approximately 10,000 at Kabul University of whom 60 percent were women (Samady 2001). By 2015 the system had 36 public universities with more than 170,000 students (figure 1). Higher education in Afghanistan received a great deal of assistance from many nations in its early years including France, Germany, the United States, Norway, Japan, Russia, and a number of others. Many faculties benefited from cooperative arrangements

(Germany); the Polytechnic with Russia; and the with Columbia University and the University of Massachusetts, Amherst. There were also more than 100 foreign academics teaching in Afghan universities before the Russian invasion. Afghan higher education was among the best in the region at that time, attracting students from Asia and the Middle East to its most prestigious institutions, Kabul University, Kabul Polytechnic University, and Nangarhar University. About one-third of the faculty had Ph.Ds. Research was well established, especially in engineering and agriculture. In particular, the Engineering Faculty had carried out major projects in irrigation and dam building in various parts of the country and had an international reputation for its research on irrigation and water projects. Many of the achievements of this period were damaged or destroyed after the Russian invasion in 1979 that followed the coup of the previous year. The Russian occupation lasted almost 10 years, and the struggle to oust Russian forces was devastating. It was followed by a civil war and then the Taliban regime. As we will see in the sections that follow, these struggles had a damaging effect on higher education. It was only with the establishment of the new democratic government at the end of 2001 that it became possible to begin to rebuild higher education in Afghanistan.

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Figure 1 Student Enrollment Totals in Public Universities and Higher Education Institutions: 1992–2014

Source: MoHE data.

Universities and Higher Education Institutions 1. Kabul University

23. Ghazni University

2. Kabul Medical University

24. Ghazni Technical University

3. Kabul Polytechnic University

25. Kandahar Agricultural University

4. Shaheed Rabbani Education University 5. Balkh University 6. Alberony University 7. Nangarhar University 8. Herat University 9. Takhar University 10. Khost University 11. Bamyan University 12. Jozwjan University 13. Kandahar University 14. Kunar University 15. Laghman University 16. Parwan University 17. Baghlan University 18. Kunduz University 19. Paktia University 20. Faryab University 21. Badakhshan University 22. Helmand University

26. Samangan Institute of Higher Education 27. Farah Institute of Higher Education 28. Badghis Institute of Higher Education 29. Panjshir Institute of Higher Education 30. Paktika Institute of Higher Education 31. Urozgan Institute of Higher Education 32. Ghor Institute of Higher Education 33. Sara-e-Pul Institute of Higher Education 34. Logar Institute of Higher Education 35. Daikundy Institute of Higher Education 36. Wardak Institute of Higher Education

Map of Afghanistan with location of universities and higher education institutes. Source: MoHE.

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The period from 2002 to 2014 saw remarkable progress in higher education on many fronts, particularly after 2008. These efforts included the preparation and release of the National Higher Education Strategic Plan: 2010–2014; quality assurance and accreditation; curriculum review, reform, and updating; merit hiring and promotion; faculty development focused on master’s and Ph.D. training; recruitment of more than 1,600 faculty members since 2008; new student rules and procedures including those regarding plagiarism, publications, and research expectations; preparation of a higher education gender strategy; increased access

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»» enshrines equity including gender equity »» is knowledge based »» is responsive and efficient »» has an active stimulated academic heartland (following Clark 1998) »» is open to the world of ideas and enshrines academic freedom »» operates in a supportive environment »» is sustainable

leading to a doubling of enrollment between 2008 and 2013; and the first steps in granting financial autonomy

In looking at Afghan higher education in terms

and the decentralization of authority to universities.

of these characteristics of transformed systems, we found that there was some success in terms of

As pointed out in Babury and Hayward (2014), those

fundamental changes in the basic aspects and values

changes were in many respects transformational,

of the system. Both the establishment of accreditation

though they remain fragile. In that piece we defined

and the adoption of merit as a basis for recruitment

system transformation to mean that the system is

and promotion were fundamental changes. The latter

fundamentally altered in its structure and in some of

was clearly a major move away from the traditional

its major values. Somewhere along the low end of the

hierarchical patronage-based system. On the other

continuum are isolated changes (Eckel et al. 1999)1,

hand, while progress was made in enshrining equity

changes in one unit or one department that may be

(including gender equity), there remained a long

extensive but do not affect the rest of the university

way to go in this area. The system was becoming

or system. Further along toward the high end of the

increasingly knowledge based in some areas but there

continuum are various degrees of more extensive

were also major gaps in that only some institutions

changes. Finally at the high end of the continuum is

were beginning to move in that direction. Although

transformational change—change that is pervasive and

we found that the system was more responsive and

deep in a way that fundamentally alters the system’s

effective than it was 10 years before, it was still

structure and some of its major values. In assessing

stymied by a hierarchical and cumbersome traditional

transformation following our definition, we suggested

bureaucratic structure with only a few real decision

that in a transformed higher education system there

makers at the very top. This also made it inefficient.

are fundamental changes in basic aspects of the

The academic core was very small and had a long way

system, including major values, and a move from a

to go to qualify as a “stimulated academic heartland”

traditional hierarchical system to one that is primarily

(Clark 1998, p. 5). The sense of academic community

merit based and relatively flat. Further, a transformed

was still being reestablished, along with a culture

higher education system

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a supportive governmental, public, or (with a few

realities ranging from the ongoing war to that fact that

exceptions) donor environment. There remained

nearly one-third of the Afghan population cannot get

many threats to the system’s successes, including lack

enough food for healthy lives (World Food Programme

of funding, corruption, and nepotism. Even in those

2014), exemplified by levels of malnutrition among

areas in which transformation had been achieved,

children that have increased 50 percent since 2012

in which change was both pervasive and deep—as

(Queally 2014).

was the case with the introduction of accreditation, the establishment of merit hiring and promotions, and a major upgrade to at least one-third of the curricula—it was not yet clear that the changes would be sustainable, although the prospects looked good. That was where we found Afghan higher education transformation in mid-2014. In this document I explore these transformations in more detail and look at some of those who helped bring them about. These are remarkable stories of persistence against tremendous odds. Some demonstrate the high stakes that can be involved in higher education change—including threats to life. Collectively these efforts show the depth and breadth of commitment to building a high-quality higher education system in a context that was far from fertile ground for such activity. I start with a look at the current context of higher education in Afghanistan. What is the situation in 2014–15? Given that context, what should be the major goals of the MoHE for the next five years? What are the major challenges to be faced? What are the most critical obstacles to achieving these goals? How can they be overcome? Should some of those challenges be approached from new and different perspectives? What should be the highest priorities? What strategies seem most appropriate? What can we learn from the experiences

National Context 2014–2015 The carnage of war Overshadowing everything is the carnage of continuing war. It is something that is always there no matter who you are. Afghans do not talk about it, and it never comes up in day-to-day discussions of work, plans for the future, or concerns about the challenges that confront higher education. But the evidence is everywhere in the bullet-pocked walls in every town and village, the rubble that remains in many of them, the burned-out hulks of tanks and military vehicles, and the other detritus of war. In more than 30 years of war, tens of thousands of Afghan civilians were killed, with some estimates at over two million. Thousands of Afghan soldiers, Mujahideen, and local defense forces died, and more than six million Afghans fled the destruction of their homes or the threat to their lives or were forcibly expelled, with more than five million of them living abroad in refugee camps, with friends, or on their own. On top of the experience of war is the daily evidence of fighting: the armored vehicles racing down the streets, their machine gun turrets rotating menacingly, the roadblocks, and from time to time a suicide bombing or Taliban attack. And always there

of Afghanistan?

are civilians killed, especially women and children who

Let’s begin by looking at the national context of higher

An average of 152 civilians were killed each month in

education as it exists in 2014–15. It is easy to forget that everything done in the process of working on higher education is affected by a number of national

are most likely to be in a market or out on the street. war attacks, and an average of 52 more were killed each month by land mines despite a major effort to demine the country led by the Norwegians and others

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(Lancet 2001). On top of that are the kidnappings

parts of the country was very dangerous. One had to

of prominent or wealthy civilians by gangs, another

take that into consideration on a daily basis. Several of

product of war with the perpetrators hoping for

my staff were threatened at roadblocks even without

ransom money

any evidence of foreign employment. Many were not willing to do any work outside Kabul because they

Almost every Afghan family has lost family members,

feared the consequences. For female staff in particular,

seen someone close to them killed, lost their home or

such trips became nearly impossible. Although we did

had it damaged, spent time as refugees, or suffered in

not lose any staff, all of us had friends, both Afghan

some other way from the devastation of war. It affects

and foreign, who were killed, wounded, or abducted

people of every age. Families have spent many nights

when traveling outside Kabul.

hunkered down in their basements during rocket and artillery barrages. Some have had young children

Added to that are other consequences of war: the loss

taken away to be abused by warlords or soldiers,

of jobs, an increase in communal violence, and a rise in

usually never to be seen again. With the release of

mental health problems. The incidence of depression

prisoners by some forces, banditry, rape, and pillaging

and anxiety disorders is high, especially among women

became so widespread that people were afraid to

and children. One survey in 2008 found that 22.2

leave their houses. And when the shelling became

percent of children met the criteria for the probability

impossible to bear, people fled to the homes of friends

of psychiatric disorder (Panter-Brick et al. 2009). A

and neighbors.

2002 study by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control put the number much higher with symptoms of depression

The effect of this on children has been especially

found in 69.7 percent of the national sample and

horrific. The Panter-Brick et al. (2009) study

symptoms of anxiety found in 72.2 percent (Cardozo et

of schoolchildren is but one indication of the

al. 2004). That contrasts with a recent report stating

consequences. While life in some places was relatively

that seven percent of the population in the United

safe, almost every family had family members living in

States had suffered from depression in the past year

cities, villages, or towns that experienced tremendous

(Lehrer 2010). Panter-Brick et al. (2009) also reported

levels of violence. In many areas, violence was a daily

that post-traumatic stress disorder was found in 23.9

experience. Most extended families tried to maintain

percent of students aged 11 to 16. The Centers for

close contact, yet a trip to their rural family homes

Disease Control study put that number at 42.1 percent

could be a dangerous challenge with the possibility

(Cardozo et al. 2004).

of Taliban, warlord, or military roadblocks along the way; bombings by allied airplanes; or routes made

Then there are the normal problems of growing

impassable by previous fighting. Afghans working

up—illness, accidents, stress, divorce, etc. Almost 64

for a foreign employer were especially at risk when

percent of children in the Panter-Brick study reported

they travelled. Most companies instructed their staff

exposure to some traumatic event—about half of which

not to carry any evidence of their employment with

were war related, including witnessing severe violence

a foreign organization—such evidence could lead to

to another person (13.9 percent) or being displaced by

death if discovered at a roadblock. For those staff

force (8.6 percent) as shown in figure 2.

working with me, as well as for the staff of other NGOs or government bodies, rural travel for work in many www.scup.org

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Queens Palace, Kabul, damaged by war.

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Chapter 2

War damage in Kabul. Source: Student photo.

War damage in Kabul. Source: Student photo.

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Figure 2 Most Distressing Lifetime Event from Afghan School-Based Survey

15

Chapter 2

of violence and suppression. By the early 1980s the Russian campaign of bombing villages and dropping anti-personnel mines in rural areas to force people into the cities was in full swing—with devastating effects. That war lasted nine years with hundreds of thousands of civilians killed, several million people forced to flee, primarily to Pakistan and Iran, and countless soldiers killed. The communist coup followed by the Russian occupation had dire consequences for higher education. As the first minister of higher education under President Karzai wrote, “The invasion and communist ideology, which bred leftist and Islamic

Note: “Severe physical injury” includes traffic and other accidents; beaten by a relative; beaten by a neighbor; frightening medical treatment; no access to medical care; war-related injury. “Witnessed severe violence to another person” includes killing or beating by Taliban; saw a dead body; community violence; death from rocket explosion; domestic violence; accidental death or injury. “Death or loss of a close relative” includes due to acts of war; accidental death; criminal acts; missing person. Source: Panter-Brick et al. 2009, figure 4.

extremism and thus polarized the campuses and society in general, brutally radicalized the higher education institutions. During the occupation, all the institutions, constantly harassed by the regime’s security apparatus and violent elements of the ruling communist party, were isolated from their communities” (Fayez 2012, part 1). That began the breakdown of the sense of academic community and

Girls and young women suffered from mental health

brought ideology and religion into higher education

problems in greater numbers than men because of

in a way it had never been before. The campuses were

discrimination, lack of opportunities, lower levels of

inundated with Marxist literature on the one hand and

education, and the requirement for some to stay at

religious publications on the other, especially from

home most of the time. In one study of Afghan young

Iran and Pakistan. As former minister Fayez notes of

people aged 11 to 16, girls showed a two-fold higher risk

the period: “As a result a propaganda mindset began

of psychopathology (Panter-Brick et al. 2009). These

to replace intellectual curiosity and the quest for

problems are compounded by the fact that the mental

knowledge in Afghan academia” (Fayez 2012, part 2).

health care system in Afghanistan is very limited. As noted in one review, “The mental health situation in

The war against the Russians was led by the

Afghanistan is characterized by a highly felt need and

Mujahideen, a combination of local fighters and

an extremely incapacitated mental health care system”

volunteers from neighboring countries. In its later

(Ventevogel et al. 2002, p. 1).

years the war against the Russians was aided by funding from countries including the United States,

More than 30 years of war has left a terrible legacy.

Iran, Pakistan, and Saudi Arabia. It developed into a

Someone has to be over 40 years old to remember a

grueling and bloody guerrilla war involving a variety

time without war. There was the Russian invasion in

of factional armies with different goals supported

December 1979 that resulted in a tremendous amount

variously by the United States, Pakistan, China, and www.scup.org

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others. The year 1985 was said to be the bloodiest year

destroyed and thousands were killed or injured. In

of the war with an estimated one million Afghans

January 1994 Dostum joined forces with Hekmatyar

killed, thousands wounded, and many more fleeing

against Massoud and the interim government, which

to Pakistan and Iran (Ansary 2012). The fighters

led to more artillery fire, rockets, and bombing and to

eventually forced the Russians to leave in February

the further destruction of Kabul. This brought anarchy

1989 with control nominally under the Najibullah

to some parts of the city.

regime. During 1994, the Taliban began to emerge as an Not long after the Russians departed a civil war began

important force in Afghanistan. They were welcomed

that continued for several years. At the outset, the

in many areas with their promise of law and order in

government of President Najibullah had a substantial

contrast to the unruly Mujahideen and other warlord

army with at least 100,000 fighters, heavy artillery,

fighters who were responsible for a great deal of

tanks, jet fighters, and rockets, all supported by the

ongoing violence and theft and a number of attacks

Russians. Najibullah’s forces were opposed by 11

against local citizens. The Taliban soon began to obtain

armies that surrounded Kabul. Attempts to broker a

substantial amounts of aid from Pakistan, which

cease-fire failed; the main dissenter was Gulbuddin

was tired of the unpredictability of Hekmatyar and

Hekmatyar, who started to move into Kabul on April

his lack of success. Within a few months the Taliban

17, 1992. Most of the other leaders had formed a loose

had modern guns, ammunition, airplanes, artillery,

coalition to work together to capture Kabul, including

tanks, helicopters, and sophisticated communications

Ahmad Shah Massoud, Abdul Rashid Dostum, and

equipment, mostly supplied by Pakistan (Ansary

Abdul Rasul Sayyaf. Some of Najibullah’s army

2012). Their first major assault resulted in the capture

defected to join the army of Massoud (Ansary 2012).

of Kandahar in November and soon thereafter Herat.

In April 1992, the Peshawar Accord was agreed to by

They then turned to Kabul, reaching its outskirts in

most of the leaders, with the exception of Gulbuddin

September 1995. They were not successful in their

Hekmatyar, who wanted to become the sole ruler of

initial assault and so laid siege to Kabul for the next

Afghanistan and was supported by Pakistan. He played

several months, subjecting the city to a bombardment

on Pashtun fears of a victory by the northern alliance

that drove half its residents from their homes. The

as part of his resistance to cooperation. An interim

siege continued until April 1996 when the Taliban

Islamic government was set up in Kabul, but no one

brought 400 tanks to the battle. At this point the main

controlled the city, although a Shi’a Mujahideen group

defenders of Kabul, Dostum and Massoud, withdrew

supported by Iran and aided by some Arabs controlled

their forces, realizing they were outgunned. On

about one-fourth of it (Rubin 2002). Refusing to join

September 26, 1996, the Taliban took control of Kabul

the others, Hekmatyar ordered his troops to begin a

(Ansary 2012).

bombardment of Kabul, firing thousands of rockets that wreaked havoc and killed thousands in the

The Taliban consolidated their control of Afghanistan

first few days. His forces also released thousands of

with great success except in small areas in the north

prisoners, many of whom took up arms and carried

that they were never able to control. In 2001, the

out terrible crimes against local citizens. Other forces

9/11 attacks in New York City and Washington, DC,

fired on Hekmatyar’s troops, and several other forces

by Osama bin Laden and al-Qaeda were followed by

fired on each other. As a result, much of the city was

U.S. retaliatory bombings and then the joint allied www.scup.org

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operation led by the United States to capture bin Laden

major targets remained military. After 2009 there were

and eliminate al-Qaeda. That struggle still continues,

more attacks on foreigners working in Afghanistan

and it has been a costly one. Since 2009 more than

including doctors, nurses, and others working at

14,252 Afghan civilians have been killed and more

hospitals and some offices although, as before, the

than 5,000 Afghan soldiers lost (Johnson 2014). U.S.

targets remained primarily military. However, if you

casualties by mid-2014 were 2,320 killed and 19,415

happened to be near a convoy when a suicide bomber

wounded (Cole 2013; Department of Defense 2014).

attacked, you were likely to be killed or injured. We

Added to that is the tremendous human cost to Afghan

knew every day that violence could affect us. And

civilians, U.S. and Afghan soldiers and their families,

sometimes it did. In my own case, as I was preparing

and others involved in the struggle.

to give a presentation at a hotel in Kabul, machine gun fire rang out from the building next door, a rocket

For the expatriates working in Afghanistan there were

crashed into an upper floor of the hotel, and glass and

other experiences of war. A number of expatriates

debris came crashing down outside the open windows.

working for NGOs, with aid organizations, and as

We were hurried to a room in the hotel basement as

consultants to the Afghan government have been killed

the fighting continued. After five hours we were finally

or wounded—a recent estimate places the number at

able to leave the hotel thanks to the Afghan police

298 since 2001 (Watson Institute for International

and a contingent of Norwegian troops, though the

and Public Affairs 2014). Though not involved in the

shooting continued for many hours after that. This

fighting, expatriates see reminders of war all around. I

was something one had learned to expect, but it was

vividly remember arriving in Kabul in 2003, knowing

nonetheless a jarring experience. We were fortunate

about the damage done during the civil war but having

that no one in the hotel died, but many others did that

no idea of its magnitude. Driving over the hills in

day.

front of the Intercontinental Hotel, I was shocked and amazed to see that almost one-third of Kabul had been

We had to travel with bodyguards wherever we went,

flattened as if it had been struck by an atomic bomb.

and that was a constant reminder that we were in a war

I was horrified by what that implied in terms of death

zone. No matter how calm one was about the potential

and suffering for Afghans. There was rubble all the way

for violence, the possibility was constantly there, and

from the front of the Ministry of Higher Education to

one had to take that into account in planning any

the badly damaged Queens Palace almost three miles

travel, even the short two-block walk from the office

away. Everywhere we went were the bullet-pocked

to our residence. I would like to say that it had no

walls of buildings, some bombed out, others partly

effect on my work or my life. But that is not true. The

destroyed—and some with people still living in what

possibility of an attack was always there, and one had

was left of them, often protected from the elements by

to be on guard all the time. It did wear on people, some

only a curtain or rug hung over the gaping holes.

more than others. I would realize how much each time I went on leave and suddenly realized I didn’t need a

At the beginning of my stay in 2003, most of the

bodyguard. The relief was real as was the recognition

attacks were on military targets. Later there were a

that one did pay a price for living with violence and

few attacks on civilians working on elections or in

war.

hospitals. Subsequently they spread to people working for NGOs and government organizations although the www.scup.org

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It was the people I knew or the soldiers killed or

atrocities, including the random bombings in

wounded that affected me the most. I would see

rural areas to depopulate the villages and towns

wounded U.S. veterans who were being treated at

the Russians couldn’t control, as noted above. The

Walter Reed Hospital when I was on leave. I would see

Russians planted and airdropped thousands of mines

them visiting the mall, operating their wheelchairs

throughout the country (which still kill or injure people

or, in the case of those with missing legs and arms,

regularly) to force people into the cities where they

being pushed by a loved one or another soldier. Most

thought they could control them. After the Russians

of them were in their late teens and early twenties, and

withdrew, there was the violence of the civil war that

it always hurt me to see them. I never had to serve in

lasted from 1989 to 1992. That brought more killings,

the military, having either a student or occupational

brutality, destruction, and ethnic violence as various

deferment—something I sometimes feel guilty about.

factions fought for control of the country. And then

Seeing these servicemen and -women and thinking

there were the Taliban who ruled most of the country

about the U.S. military personnel I had worked with at

from 1996 to 2001 and brought more fear and violence.

the MoHE or seen at the embassy or on patrol made me

That was reignited after 9/11 when the United States

feel very strongly that I had to work even harder at my

and its allies sent troops to eliminate al-Qaeda and the

commitment to help improve higher education. Even

Taliban. The allied effort resulted in major successes

if the Taliban were defeated, it would still be critical to

but at a high price. The struggle continues, with most

national development to provide jobs for young people

foreign forces leaving at the end of 2015 but a small

and crucial to the well-being of all Afghans to leave a

contingent remaining over the next two years.

legacy of high-quality higher education. Fear is always hovering in the background for everyone The cost of the war has been extremely high for

in Afghanistan—fear that you will be in the wrong

Afghanistan, and a very high price has also been paid

place at the wrong time and killed or injured in a

by the United States and some of our allies. On the

Taliban suicide bombing; fear of being attacked in the

ground, substantial progress is being made in building

workplace, in a market or shop, in a government office,

a quality higher education system. Nonetheless, there

or at a major event; fear of being a victim of a robbery

remains a long way to go before there is the high-

or a kidnapping or an errant air strike. And in some

quality system required. No nation enters the realm of

parts of the country there is the constant fear of an

developing economies without a high-quality higher

attack by the Taliban or by coalition forces. People are

education system (World Bank 2002). After all the

wary of going to markets and especially of being out at

carnage, death, and injury, the nation must move

night. Students who travel home worry about Taliban

forward more quickly over the next few years to make

roadblocks, and a few have been threatened when

that goal a reality.

traveling. One family and an employee were confronted by his former schoolmate at a Taliban roadblock only

Violence and fear

a dozen miles from Kabul on the way to Parwan. The schoolmate knew he was working on a U.S. project. He

The people of Afghanistan have been the victims of

was harassed, threatened with an AK-47, and made to

massive levels of violence for more than 30 years.

promise to leave his job. After that he did not return

Afghans have seen the bloodshed of the Russian

to Parwan to see his extended family, though he did

invasion in December 1979 and the later terrible

not leave his job either. And even in Kabul there are www.scup.org

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the dangers of suicide attacks; there is also the fear of

rural areas and from Afghanistan. As a result of the

being shot by coalition forces for following too close

ongoing violence, more than six million people have

to a military convoy, as happened to one of USAID’s

fled the rural areas over the years, with many going to

Higher Education Project employees who inadvertently

Pakistan and Iran to find safety. While most of them

passed a vehicle to suddenly find himself next to a

returned with the inauguration of a new democratic

convoy. He had his windshield shot out and his car

government in 2001, that event did not bring peace.

riddled with bullets. Fortunately neither he nor his

There were more bombings, and the violence of war

family was hurt, but others have not been as lucky.

continues to this day. With it have come even more bombing, strafing, and rocket attacks, many of which

While there were not many bombings or shootings

are the result of error on the one hand and the Taliban

in and around Kabul until 2014, they do take place

on the other even in places like Kabul that were once

regularly in various parts of Afghanistan, more

thought relatively safe. All this has continued to create

frequently in the south. The evidence of violence can

a climate of fear that for many people rekindles earlier

be seen almost everywhere. There was little or no

memories of violence.

concern for civilian life. Indeed, during some of the strife roving gangs of soldiers sought out people from

Most Afghans have seen or know of family members

particular ethnic groups, regions, or religions to kill,

killed or taken away by the police or military for

rape, maim, rob, or humiliate (Gopal 2014). Homes

unknown reasons. Indeed, the number of innocent

were looted and often destroyed with families forced to

people killed, injured, and frequently hauled off to

flee.

jail is in the thousands (Gopal 2014). Some of this was done by the government of the day, but some

Those of us who have been in buildings that were

was a product of the failure of U.S. and coalition

attacked have vivid memories of rockets and shots

troops to adequately understand traditional Afghan

being fired into them, the rat-a-tat-tat of continuing

politics or even the political system they were there

machine gun fire, the explosion of bombs and

to support with President Karzai at its head. Some of

grenades, the falling glass, and the eerie silence

those imprisoned were Karzai supporters, long-time

between bursts of gunfire. We remember waiting for

enemies of the Taliban. Some of them were people

the police or army to intervene, rushing to basement

competing for power, contracts, and resources with

shelters, waiting for hours, making desperate phone

Afghans close to the U.S. military. At a time when

calls, enduring more shooting and more waiting,

there were large rewards for information leading to the

trying to stay calm, and hoping for news of relief on

arrests of Taliban, some of those close to certain U.S.

the way. And when relief arrived at the scene, it was

commands fed faulty intelligence to U.S. forces, which

often unable to get to you because of the fighting. After

then arrested and often killed key leaders working

such an experience, the sound of gun fire elicits an

with the government who had been “identified” by

automatic sense of panic, if only for a moment, and for

these “informants” as Taliban—leaders who actually

those who saw death or were wounded, the recurring

had been key in turning local communities against

flashbacks often never go away.

the Taliban. Some of these leaders ended up in prison in Afghanistan or Guantanamo Bay or were killed or

Starting with the Russian bombing of villages in

badly wounded (Gopal 2014).

the 1980s, there has been a steady exodus from the www.scup.org

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These atrocities by U.S. forces were well known to

is already undermining our work in higher education

the general public, especially in the south around

in some areas and creating conditions that can foster a

Kandahar, and they turned a local population disposed

resurgence of the Taliban.

to support the U.S. effort against it. This helped foster a resurgence of the Taliban. It also raised the

Even for those who applaud the coalition efforts to root

level of uncertainty in these communities since even

out the Taliban, the terrible and avoidable mistakes

strong support for the United States seemed not to

and the lack of understanding of Afghan culture and

guarantee that one wouldn’t be arrested or attacked

even its current political system have sown widespread

if unscrupulous elements turned in false intelligence

distrust and anger. For those who have lost family

reports for personal gain. There was also the accidental

members or had them jailed, maimed, or wounded

bombing of a wedding party in July 2008 in which 47

(and there have been many), these failures will never

civilians from one family were killed, mostly women

be forgotten. As a result, mistrust of coalition forces—

and children. The United States insisted this was a

and Afghan military and police—is high in many

group of insurgents and thus refused to apologize (Gall

places. The massive and often unregulated use of force

2014). And there were other unfortunate accidents for

has led to the totally unnecessary alienation of huge

which few if any apologies were ever made. There were

areas of the country, areas that were not havens of

also revenge attacks against rivals and efforts to get

Taliban activity or control.

rid of competitors by those working closely with U.S. forces (Gall 2014). The United States seemed to make

All this violence, and the fear of it, has affected

no serious effort to check such allegations even though

students—not just in terms of their day-to-day

it would have been a simple thing to do. Many of these

activities, but in terms of their plans for the future. The

people worked with the Karzai government or U.S.

uncertainty, the loss of trust, the seeming randomness

agencies and could have been identified easily if an

of events, and the often callous response to (and the

effort had been made.

occasional lie about) what has taken place have created a lingering depression and an uncertainty about the

A recent report describes Afghan units trained and

future in general and particularly about the future in

funded by U.S. Special Operations Forces to fight

Afghanistan. It has become difficult to plan for one’s

against the Taliban. While they were successful in

future, to think about job prospects, or to tailor one’s

that regard, they also terrorized the local population,

higher education with the future in mind. What kind

“fostering an environment of lawlessness and

of Afghanistan will be left in a few years? Will it be

impunity, exacerbating Afghanistan’s longstanding

democratic? Will it be run by the Taliban? Will the

problems, and creating fertile ground for the Taliban

rampant corruption of today be the norm tomorrow? If

insurgency to survive” (Gopal 2014, ¶ 5). Although

things seem likely to take a turn for the worse—and for

they fostered corruption and insecurity they continued

many students they do—wouldn’t it be smarter to try

to be supported by U.S. forces who argued that “the

to get out of Afghanistan? Many students want to go to

corruption piece is hard because security reigns

the United States or Europe. But if they can’t go there,

supreme. We won’t remove corrupt officials if it looks

they still want to get out of Afghanistan if they can.

like it will interrupt security” (Gopal 2014, ¶ 11). Yet it

In recent months, more and more students have been

is this very type of operation that has raised the level

trying to find ways to go abroad. Some see scholarships

of fear and led to a growing hostility to U.S. efforts. It

like the Fulbright as at least a way to get out of the www.scup.org

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country for two years or more and hope that things will

so damaging to morale and the future of the country.

be better at the end of that time. Others seek a more

The future of Afghanistan depends on keeping the best

permanent escape.

and the brightest in the country. The growing levels of violence and fear are not going to make that easy.

While expatriates working in Afghanistan do not have such a long history of experience with violence or the

Hunger and malnutrition

threat of it, the need to have bodyguards is a constant reminder of the dangers posed—and to some extent one

For those who live and work in Kabul it is easy to

realizes that just having a bodyguard calls attention

miss the fact that one-third of the population suffers

to you. Most foreign advisors cannot go out without

from malnutrition to the extent that they do not

them, whether it is to shop for groceries or travel to

live active and healthy lives. Another 37 percent of

the office. Some advisors are totally restricted to their

the population (8.5 million people) is on the border

residences or headquarters. For most of us, the guards

of food insecurity (World Food Programme 2014).

have become part of our family since they have worked

This latter group frequently falls victim to natural

for the project for many years. And we know that the

disasters, as was the case when Afghanistan suffered

guards put their lives on the line for us. Several have

a severe drought in 2008. The fighting in some areas

lost their lives doing so. The need for personal security

exacerbates these problems. Although health care has

is a constant reminder that foreign workers are in

improved substantially over the last five years, it is

a war zone, the threats are real, and the danger is

this population that is the first to suffer from national

always present. The situation has become worse over

calamities given the fragility of their life situations.

the 10 years I have been in Afghanistan. In the early 2000s we traveled in Kabul and almost anywhere else

The recent sharp increase in infant malnutrition in

in the country without guards, except in the extreme

Afghanistan seems to belie the improvements in health

south. Sometimes it was necessary to check with the

care, primary and secondary education, and higher

Ministry of Interior to get permission to go to some

education and comes as a surprise. Yet the United

towns or cities, but only once did we need guards in

Nations’ figures show a 50 percent increase in severe

my early days in Afghanistan—when we took a short

malnutrition in children nationwide, even in the capital

trip from Kunduz to the northern border to meet with

(Nordland 2014). The reasons for this increase are not

the commander of the region. That is no longer the

clear. Some of it may be tied to the reduction in breast-

case. Over the years the problem has become worse. By

feeding, not only because of maternal malnutrition but

2009 the project had armored cars and armed guards.

also because of the growing belief that powdered milk

To walk the block from the residence to the office

is better. Another factor that may be leading to the

required four guards with AK-47s on the street and

increased awareness of malnutrition is the availability

one escorting us with a gun. Now both buildings are

of more health treatment centers. Malnutrition is due

guarded day and night by about half a dozen guards.

in part to the disruption of agriculture resulting from

The stakes are higher now for foreign advisors and the

the continuing effects of Russian landmines laid on

Afghans who work with them because of the years of

agricultural lands, in part to the illiteracy of most rural

violence and the continued uncertainty. While there

women, and in the long run is primarily a result of the

have been worse periods, such as the civil war, it is the

war and the disruptions caused by it.

constant threat and the ongoing uncertainty that is www.scup.org

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Kabul in winter.

View of Kabul.

Housing on the hills above Kabul.

Orchards outside of Kabul. www.scup.org

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The potential long-term consequences of malnutrition

As well, the number of those not admitted to some

are worrying: acute malnutrition can cause permanent

form of higher education will continue to grow from

brain damage, stunted growth, developmental

about 44,000 in 2015 to 200,000 in 2020 and about

problems, and lower resistance to disease; in severe

300,000 in 2025. We have some information about the

cases, it can lead to death. The shift from breast

efforts people are making to find work and their level of

milk to powdered milk is also creating other health

success that is presented in the pages that follow. It is a

problems since the formula is usually mixed with water

distressing story and not one likely to get better soon.

that is not clean, leading to diarrhea for the child and

Indeed, all indications are that the problem is getting

further exacerbating the malnutrition.

worse. If Afghanistan fails to meet the needs of people for formal education, especially higher education, the

These problems, when coupled with a host of other

problem will get even worse given the rapid growth in

medical problems including continued high levels

the population of young people.

of infant mortality and one of the highest rates of maternal mortality in the world at 1,600 deaths

The crisis of unemployment is also getting worse.

per 100,000 births (World Food Programme 2014),

The National Risk and Vulnerability Assessment

growing economic problems, continuing high

in 2007–08 estimated that the unemployment rate

unemployment (see the section that follows), and low

was a modest 7.1 percent, which equates to 823,000

levels of female education, demonstrate the complexity

people (International Labour Organization 2012).

of the crises facing the nation.

That is surely an underestimate. Current data suggest that 78.6 percent of the jobs are in agriculture, 5.7

Unemployed and underemployed: A growing crisis for Afghanistan The ranks of the unemployed and underemployed are growing in Afghanistan. They remain a silent threat for now, but in time are likely to become a very vocal, raucous, and potentially violent part of daily life. Data are scarce about the number of unemployed and underemployed, with information about the underemployed especially difficult to obtain. The number of unemployed has been reported to be between 800,000 (International Labour Organization 2012) and several million. No one has even tried to guess the number of underemployed, but it must be many times the number of unemployed. These numbers will grow as the number of high school graduates increases thanks to the success of Education for All (see the section below). The number of those currently unemployed will be augmented by the growing number of secondary school graduates, which is increasing at an average of about 14 percent a year.

percent in industry, and 15.7 percent in services. The minister of economic affairs, Abdul Hadi Arghandiwal, reported in 2013 that 48 percent of Afghanistan’s labor force was unemployed or had only seasonal jobs (International Labour Organization and World Bank 2013). That would be about 5.6 million people. The Ministry of Labor, Social Affairs, Martyrs and Disables reports that Afghanistan needs to create 500,000 jobs a year to deal with its employment problems (Al Jazeera 2013). That is not happening. What makes the current situation even more worrisome is that in the last year there has been a spike in unemployment in Afghanistan caused in part by the beginning of the drawdown of ISAF (International Security Assistance Force) forces, the loss of many jobs related to support for the troops, and the departure of some NGOs and other aid organizations. Added to that are the departures resulting from recent Taliban attacks on civilians in Kabul and other cities, which www.scup.org

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have also caused some organizations to reduce both

for long periods of time. What happens to the

their expatriate and local staffs because of safety

unemployed graduates and others who don’t find jobs

concerns (Druzin 2013). Many of these were high

in Afghanistan? We don’t know very much about them

paying jobs that supported extended families while

but let’s look at one study. A report from Kunduz about

others were jobs for laborers at the usual salaries, but

graduates notes that during one period studied, 320

in all cases they are jobs that will be hard to replace.

educated young people, including some with master’s

This problem will grow as the allies continue to draw

degrees, 180 of whom were women, were jobless in

down their forces through 2016. At the moment, there

May 2013 (Hamdard 2012). Some found jobs in the

do not seem to be any major new employers on the

brick kilns, others managed to find teaching jobs, but

horizon to offset these losses although the mining

the majority remained unemployed or underemployed.

sector is expected to grow over the next few years once the security situation improves. However, the start-

Major efforts to promote job creation and business

up time from the initial decision to start a mining

development are badly needed. These include programs

project to the actual beginning of the operation of the

by the Ministry of Labor and several other efforts

enterprise is usually several years.

supported by USAID and other donors. Especially critical are current plans to improve programs that

While the figures for unemployment are murky,

develop a trained workforce through technical and

there is no question that the level of unemployment

vocational education and training (TVET), community

is substantial and that high school graduates are

colleges, and university-level programs. Then and only

having a hard time finding jobs. In 2013 the minister

then will businesses begin to develop, create jobs, and

of economic affairs criticized the international

reinvest in the economy.

community for creating only short-term employment that is not sustainable (Minister of Economics

A number of Afghans find jobs abroad, many through

2013). The problems of employment for women are

legitimate brokers who operate under the rules of the

even worse than those for men with discrimination

Government of Afghanistan through the Ministry

prevalent, sexual harassment common, and even rape

of Labor and Social Affairs. The ministry has set up

on the job not unknown (Kittleson 2013). Further, a

a program to help Afghans find jobs abroad under

major effort by the Taliban uses “night letters” and

bilateral agreements that include provisions to protect

other intimidation tactics to push women out of jobs

worker safety, health, and welfare. The workers go to

when they have them. A recent International Labour

Pakistan, India, Dubai in the UAE, and elsewhere. The

Organization (2012, p. 7) study reports that “[s]ince

objectives of the program are “to reduce the poverty,

mobility outside the home is limited for cultural

unemployment, and to enhance material and spiritual

reasons, women—especially in rural areas—are

living standard of Afghan workers” (Ministry of Labor,

primarily involved in home-based income-generating

Social Affairs, Martyrs and Disables 2005, p. 2).

activities like carpet weaving, sewing, tailoring, agricultural work and taking care of livestock and

While some workers find jobs in this way, it appears

selling dairy products.”

that many of those who go abroad do so through illegal middlemen, brokers, or acquaintances, some of whom

There are few opportunities amid the growing

charge high fees and put them at risk once they arrive

unemployment. Many graduates remain jobless

abroad. Smugglers charge as much as $15,000 for a www.scup.org

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Chapter 2

trip, with the young people (mostly boys but some girls)

gangs that ply the countryside involved in robbery and

forced to work off the fee over the next four or five

kidnapping.

years. Some of them have tried to walk all the way to Scandinavia where they have heard that the reception

The unemployed are also easy targets for recruitment

is good. Most do not make it and are frequently abused,

by the Taliban as their resentment grows over the

often imprisoned, and sometimes killed along the way

lack of jobs and what they see as the failures of the

(Cooper 2013).

government. A growing number of young people were increasingly unhappy with the Karzai government

There have been reports of an “exodus” from

and its chronic corruption. It remains to be seen if the

Afghanistan ever since 2000. For the most part, it

new Ghani government can reverse those perceptions.

seems not to have materialized, though once again

As the number of unemployed continues to grow

there is talk about its resumption. The announcement

and donors begin to leave with the drawdown of

of the withdrawal of most combat troops by the

troops, this is likely to become an even more serious

end of 2014 served to revive these concerns, raising

problem unless solutions are found. In Bagram and

fears about instability and fueling worries, even

the surrounding villages, about 2,000 people lost their

among graduates, about violence and safety. In 2011,

jobs within six months as the military base downsized

more people fled Afghanistan than in any prior year

(Druzin 2013). It is clear that many young people who

according to the United Nations High Commissioner

join the Taliban do so more for economic reasons than

for Refugees (Clark 2013) with an estimated 30,000

for ideological ones.

people seeking asylum abroad (Mail Foreign Service 2012). An alarming report in June 2013 suggests

The problems of unemployment will continue to

that 105 Afghan diplomats due to return from their

grow until the economy begins to produce jobs in

rotations did not return as expected, seemingly having

substantial numbers, not only in agriculture (currently

decided to stay in the countries in which they were

the largest employer), but also in business, commerce,

posted (Kazim 2013). If correct, that sends a very

and industry. The prospects for agricultural recovery

negative signal to others. Some Afghans still remain

are dependent in large part on the weather, but also

as refugees in Pakistan, Iran, and elsewhere, though

on the continued demining of the thousands of acres

more than three million have returned. However,

still unusable because of Russian mines, improved

many of them are finding it difficult to resettle in

agricultural production, improved infrastructure

their homeland, in part because of the high level of

for exports, and better transportation. The most

unemployment.

promising employment opportunities lie in the exploration of Afghanistan’s mineral resources—

As unemployment continues, many young Afghans

in mining, oil, gas, and others—some soon to be

have been drawn to work in the poppy fields by the

developed, others hindered by war. Equally important

lucrative day wages. Those are risky jobs, however,

is equipping Afghan young people with the knowledge,

since the government is increasing its efforts to

skills, and creativity required to meet employer needs

eradicate poppy fields. There have been reports of 50 to

and the ability to think of themselves as entrepreneurs

60 police and an unknown number of workers killed in

who can establish their own businesses to fill the

2013 in these efforts (Maudoodi 2013). Some also join

many economic gaps, whether in import substitution, the development and export of medicinal plants, the www.scup.org

Transforming Higher Education in Afghanistan | Fred Hayward

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Chapter 2

provision of services needed for the growing mining

along with Somalia and North Korea (Transparency

sectors, or other areas of need. That will take changing

International 2013). In a report to Congress in 2013

the mind-set of students who typically see the

the Pentagon noted that “[t]he progress made by

government as their potential employer; getting young

Afghan forces in taking the security lead from allied

people to think in terms of developing businesses (and

troops has been offset by Afghanistan’s deep-rooted

thinking of innovations as they do); doing a better job

climate of corruption that threatens to derail efforts

in training people with useful job skills through TVET;

to leave behind a fledgling democracy capable of

and fostering the success of community colleges in

holding off the Taliban” (Sisk 2013, ¶ 1). In a news

preparing a new level of pre-professional graduates in

summary in The Week in April 2013, it was suggested

areas like engineering technology, medical technology,

that the biggest source of corruption was the United

accounting, social work, information technology, and

States. The article reported that the CIA has been

many areas of business.

sending bags of cash to Hamid Karzai totaling tens of millions of dollars (Wagstaff 2013). These payments

The scourge of corruption

were confirmed by President Karzai’s office (Gall 2014) and were purported to be intended to “maintain

Corruption has been an ongoing problem in

access to Mr. Karzai and his inner circle” (Wagstaff

Afghanistan for many years. However, it has grown

2013, ¶ 5). The effects of corruption on the Afghan

significantly worse over the last 10 years so that it is

population as a whole have been devastating. A recent

now one of the major obstacles to the operation of an

press report notes that while the Taliban was less of a

effective government able to gain the confidence and

threat than previously given the improvements in the

trust of the public. Much of the corruption has been

Afghan military, “that is of little solace to the millions

fueled by the lavish spending of the allies in recent

of Afghans who may face a graver enemy in the

years, especially the ISAF expenditures for supplies,

government itself—a bundle of inept and corruption-

security, construction, and other services. Those

plagued institutions whose actions could threaten the

involved were more interested in instant results than

gains of the past decade” (Sieff 2014b, ¶ 2).

in checking out the legitimacy or commitment to integrity of the people they recruited to assist them.

When people were asked in 2009 and 2012 what

Especially in the area of security, where local forces

they thought were the nation’s most serious

were used to protect the perimeters of military bases,

problems, corruption and insecurity were at the top

convoys, and other facilities, many of the contractors

(unemployment, poverty, external influences, and

were originally local warlords who soon built up huge

performance of government were the other options),

private armies with the funds they received. Many of

with corruption identified by 60 percent of respondents

them also employed those forces for drug smuggling

in 2009 and 55 percent in 2012 and insecurity

and other illegal activities, often using their links

identified by 53 percent of respondents in 2009 and

to ISAF as a front. Some became very powerful and

58 percent in 2012. When asked about the prevalence

effectively untouchable by the government or any other

of bribery, 60 percent of respondents reported that it

authority (Gall 2014).

was high in 2009, and 50 percent said the same thing in 2012—a slight improvement. However, when people

Afghanistan is ranked among the most corrupt

were asked about having to pay bribes, they reported

countries in the world at 175th on the corruption index

the average number of bribes paid during the year as www.scup.org

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Chapter 2

4.7 in 2009 and 5.2 in 2012, an increase. The number

Those involved at the top have no inclination to stop

of bribes paid in rural areas was slightly higher than

despite donor complaints, in part I suspect because

in urban areas (United Nations Office on Drugs and

many of them have little faith in the future and so

Crime 2012). Military payments, corruption, and

want to accumulate as much as they can now. As Bates

bribery have flooded the country with cash, much of

(2008, p. 102) notes, “A bureaucracy that had been

it transferred abroad by those involved. All this has

created to facilitate the lives of the citizens began

set up a pattern of corruption at the leadership level

instead to undermine their welfare. Its members began

that fosters corruption at lower levels and affects the

to feed themselves by consuming the time and money

operations of government across the country. Added to

of those they once had served.” He goes on to point out

that are the large amounts of money being made from

that the civil servants, soldiers, and others are paying

drug crops and smuggling. While that has benefited

themselves (Bates 2008). That has gone on in an

local economies in some parts of Afghanistan, the

increasingly big way in Afghanistan in recent years.

Taliban have also benefited substantially from the drug trade although they did not believe Afghans would be

Corruption can thrive in a country like Afghanistan

victims. In fact, there are now more than one million

in part because, as Leys (2002, p. 66) points out, “the

addicts in Afghanistan, at least 25 percent of whom

idea of the national interest is weak because the idea

are women and 10 percent children. The women are

of a nation is new. And the institutions and offices of

given drugs to calm them when they are tired of being

the state are, for most people, remote and perplexing.”

virtual prisoners unable to leave their homes without

He goes on to note that corruption is relatively easy

male escorts. The children too are sometimes given

to conceal in a new state or new system. That was

small amounts of drugs to calm them when they are

the case in Afghanistan. More recently, however, the

fussy, but are most often affected by breathing in the

remarkably free press in Afghanistan has made people

smoke from drug use. One doctor who works with me

much more aware of the extent of corruption. Yet,

and has treated many of these young children states

those involved have seldom been caught, or if they are,

that “dealing with children in drug withdrawal is one

they are not punished. Seldom has restitution been

of the most terrible things I have ever seen.”2

sought or made. Even those caught are soon hired elsewhere or, on occasion, rehired at the institution in

Corruption has spread as uncertainty about the

which the corruption took place.3 And so the process

future grows. People say to themselves, “I want to get

continues and grows, no lessons are learned about the

mine while I can”—and they are doing just that. The

cost of corruption, and people get increasingly cynical.

war has caused a kind of moral breakdown in many

Because corruption is so pervasive, we will come back

areas of government aided and abetted by donors,

to it again and again in the sections that follow. We will

foreign governments, and especially the military,

also look specifically at the role of corruption in higher

which is eager for quick responses to its needs and

education later in this study.

little concerned about the consequences other than for security. In some cases corruption pervades whole sectors of the system, as with some police units in which everything from promotions to protection of individual citizens has a price, and those involved divide the spoils in commonly understood shares. www.scup.org

Transforming Higher Education in Afghanistan | Fred Hayward

The economy

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Chapter 2

Household Survey showed that the poverty rate was 36 percent, a little higher than previously, with the

The funding situation for higher education is clearly

growth rate of the top 20 percent of the population

affected by the condition of the Afghan economy.

three times as high as that of the bottom 20 percent

The part of the budget devoted to higher education,

(Joya and Khan 2014). Economic development was

as noted elsewhere, is very much a function of the

sluggish in 2013 with a growth rate of 3.4 percent and

success—or lack thereof—of the MoHE in making the

estimated in 2014 to be even lower at only 1.7 percent

case for higher education. Overall, the Afghan economy

due to political uncertainty and a worsening security

slowed somewhat during 2013 after good growth in

situation; the growth rate is projected to be slightly

2012, largely because of poorer revenue collection,

better in 2015 at 3.5 percent (Asian Development Bank

especially in customs, and uncertainty about the

2015). Part of the problem for the Afghan economy is

political transition and security situation. The national

its “high dependency level,” which the World Bank has

budget increased slightly from $6.8 billion in 2013

described as a low level of females in the labor force. In

to $7.6 billion in 2014 due largely to the shift of more

Afghanistan, women are estimated to make up only 19

of the security costs to on-budget expenses. Of the

percent of the labor force and are primarily employed

total budget, 65 percent is funded by foreign grants

in low-level and low-productivity jobs (Joya and Khan

while only 34 percent comes from domestic revenue;

2014). This is a huge waste of talent and a major drag

1 percent comes from loans and credits. Security

on the economy.

expenditures in 2013 grew from 10.4 percent of GDP to 11.5 percent. Conversely, austerity measures in

Afghanistan is projected to add an additional 400,000

place for 2013 lowered civilian expenditures from 13.4

workers to the economy a year (Joya and Khan 2014),

percent of GDP to 12.8 percent. The overall education

and that poses a serious unemployment threat, as

budget increased slightly from 3.5 percent of GDP

noted previously. This growth increases the pressure

to 3.6 percent (Joya and Khan 2014). (The higher

on education generally to ensure that graduates

education budget will be discussed in a later section.)

are prepared for the job market. That is part of the

A revenue shortfall of 20 percent occurred in 2014

motivation for the MoHE’s addition of community

resulting in budget cuts (Sieff 2014a). Afghanistan had

colleges, which are preparing job-ready graduates

a GDP per capita income of $688 in 2012 (Joya and

through a 2.5-year associate’s degree program that

Khan 2014), compared to $1,527 for India and $1,164

provides mid-level professional training for such jobs

for Pakistan (Global Property Guide 2014–2015).

as medical technician, business person, engineering technician, accountant, social worker, IT specialist,

On the positive side, agricultural outputs reached

and other professional areas. It is also why the MoHE

record levels in 2013 due largely to good weather

is working to ensure that its programs correspond

conditions. However, construction and private

to the needs of employers and emphasizing needs

investment slowed during the year because of

assessments by faculties as they review their curricula.

uncertainty about the elections and the security

Those reviews include assessments of the satisfaction

situation, with the growth in new firm registrations

of employers with their recent hires and involve

down considerably (Joya and Khan 2014). Inflation

increased cooperation between faculties and business,

increased slightly to 7.7 percent with food prices

government, and other employers.

going up about 9.8 percent (Joya and Khan 2014). The www.scup.org

Transforming Higher Education in Afghanistan | Fred Hayward

External threats

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Chapter 2

various opposition groups including Hekmatyar during the period of Russian occupation and the Taliban up to

Afghanistan has been at the center of external intrigue

the present, despite protestations to the contrary. Iran

and intervention for centuries. In the 1800s both the

has also played a role especially in the area around

British and Russians coveted the territory. For the

Herat and in efforts to influence students in Kabul,

Russians, expanding through Afghanistan was part

Herat, and elsewhere. In more recent years, China has

of their plan to get access to ports on the Arabian

become involved, primarily out of its interest in raw

Sea, and for the British, Afghanistan was thought to

materials.

be key to protecting their Indian colony from what they perceived as the Russian threat (Ansary 2012).

The United States, Britain, Germany, France, Turkey,

That led to the ill-fated invasion of Afghanistan by

and other allies have played a major role both militarily

British troops from India in 1838 when Lord Auckland

and politically since the offensive against the Taliban

mistakenly thought that Dost Mohammad had made

began in 1991. The role of the United States, as the

an alliance with the Russians. That ushered in a

leading partner in the coalition, will continue through

long period of British involvement in Afghanistan,

2016 militarily and no doubt beyond that through

though they never succeeded in controlling the

USAID and possible military assistance. Afghanistan

country. Germany gained influence in Afghanistan

has been both the victim and the beneficiary of

starting in 1919 as a hedge against both the British

external involvement for centuries. Some of the

and the Russians. This relationship was a positive

assistance has helped higher education, especially

one, leading to a number of successful development

support from Germany, the USSR, the United States,

projects including water and electricity developments.

France, Japan, Norway, Sweden, Canada, India, and

Both the United States and Russia vied for influence

several other countries.

in Afghanistan after World War II, with the United States building roads and schools, conducting a major agricultural project in the Helmand Valley, and providing assistance to Kabul University from Columbia University, Indiana University, and others. The United States also built the international airport in Kandahar. In the 1950s, the Russians carried out major road projects in the north including the impressive two-mile-long tunnel high in the mountains in Salang; built a large bakery complex in Kabul, the military airport in Bagram, and a textile factory in the north; and provided a wide range of military equipment including MiGs and other aircraft (Ansary 2012). Pakistan too played a role in Afghanistan throughout this period, seeing a weak Afghanistan as important in its ongoing conflict with India and thus doing its best to destabilize Afghanistan when it could. That continued, as noted earlier, with Pakistani support of

Ethnic and religious conflict Ethnicity and religion play important roles in the daily life of most Afghans. With a few exceptions, however, they have not been the source of major conflict in political or social processes although that may change as the conflicts during the 2014 elections suggest. There have been numerous attempts from outside Afghanistan to mobilize religious and ethnic ties (as I have noted at several points), including recent efforts by both Pakistan and Iran. And there are ethnic animosities that remain strong, especially in regard to the persecution of the Hazara during the Taliban era and in earlier periods and as a result of what some people see as the overbearing ethnic chauvinism of some leaders since then. There are some points in the history of Afghanistan where religion and ethnicity

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Chapter 2

played a major role. Indeed, the end of the rule of King

I was amazed at this but people seemed very sincere

Amanullah came after he tried to make major social

about it. Similarly, in the ministry and at meetings,

changes and limit the role of Islam. That led to growing

people would often thank me and other Americans for

opposition and mobilized a number of religious forces

our service to the country.

against him, which eventually led to his downfall in 1929.4 Ethnicity also played a role during the civil war

People also worried about our safety. While there were

in the post-Soviet period as we have seen.

no bombing attacks when I first arrived in Afghanistan in 2003, there were a few kidnappings and shootings

What is remarkable, however, is that for the most

in Kabul. The suicide bombing began in 2003 with

part efforts to mobilize religious differences have

an attack on a German bus carrying servicemen to

not succeeded in recent years. The same holds true

the airport at the end of their tour of duty. This was

of ethnicity in general. Nonetheless, people are very

a shock to everyone especially since Germany had a

much aware of ethnic issues and usually work to avoid

long history of good relations with Afghanistan going

conflicts and operate in ways that do not inflame

back to 1919 and was considered to be a vital partner

underlying ethnic differences. Similarly, most Afghans

and friend of the country, in part as a protector against

are not concerned about Islamic religious differences.

both the British and Russians in earlier years. That

People will worship at whatever mosque is nearby

attack raised concerns for all foreign employers. By

when prayer time comes be it Sunni or Shia. The recent

2005–06 there were more frequent bombings along

tensions at Kabul University that resulted in some

with rocket attacks on Kabul. People frequently urged

violence were much more a result of the election crisis

us to be careful and warned us about kidnappings by

than ethnic tension although some people portrayed

criminals who would demand bribes or sell hostages to

them in terms of ethnicity. Nonetheless, the potential

the Taliban. On the whole, however, the situation did

to spark such conflicts is real. Afghans in leadership

not seem particularly dangerous to most expatriates.

positions in higher education have worked hard to avoid, prevent, or resolve them—as was the case in the

In the early years we traveled around most of the

recent conflicts at Kabul University that resulted in

country without guards or fear, occasionally having to

some violence and injuries.

check in with the Ministry of Interior. Our reception whether working for the World Bank, USAID, AED,

Foreigners

or the University of Massachusetts was always friendly, appreciative, and easy. I can only think of one

It was always clear that I was a foreigner in

occasion during which there was some hostility. This

Afghanistan, though not as starkly as when working

was in 2003 in Herat when Sara Amiryar and I were

in Africa. For one thing I always needed a bodyguard

working there interviewing secondary school students,

when I went out, and although they didn’t outwardly

university students, business people, and business

carry arms, they did have pistols. Though many

groups. We were taken by our host, an Afghan doctor,

Afghans are as light skinned as I am, it was evident

to the beautiful Blue Mosque, built before 500 BC, and

that I was an American. To my surprise, when I first

shown into the building. After looking around a bit,

arrived in 2003 people on the street would stop me and

we were suddenly told we needed to leave. People had

thank me for coming to help Afghanistan—old men

thought we were German and therefore welcome, but

in traditional dress and younger men of military age.

after discovering we were American they wanted us www.scup.org

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to go. Several angry-looking young men came toward

One evening the commander talked about his

us and we left very quickly. That was the only such

successes against the Russians as a leader of troops

incident for 10 years. Overall, people went out of their

at a young age. He attributed most of his success to

way to welcome us warmly with tea, local snacks of

what he had learned from his older brother, a famous

nuts and dried fruit, and often a meal. This was true

commander, about how to treat people rather than to

in both the north and south. People knew we were

his military expertise. He said he had learned from his

interested in helping with higher education. Educators

father to listen—that was the first rule. That allowed

are traditionally highly respected in Afghanistan, and

you to think of many options, weigh them, and make

we were shown that respect.

good decisions. He recalled that they had great hopes of U.S. support in those early days when the United

On one occasion in 2003 the regional commander

States started to provide equipment in the battle

in Kunduz generously invited my team to stay in his

against the Russians. Those hopes were shattered

almost-completed personal residence. The hospitality

when the United States abandoned them after the

was overwhelming. When we arrived the house was

Russians left. With that left their hopes of the United

empty but soon people began bringing in piles of rugs

States actively intervening to prevent the factional

and cushions, along with a few chairs and a western

struggle that led to the terrible civil war.

toilet, which was soon installed. The commander’s inner porch was set up in the usual way for gatherings

The commander and I developed a good relationship

with layers of handmade Afghan rugs, cushions

over the next few days. One evening he turned to

around the walls, and at mealtime an oilcloth spread

me and said that he regarded me as his brother and

out in the middle covered with plates of rice, lamb,

would do whatever he could to help us during our

chicken, eggplant in a yoghurt sauce, bread, and

stay in Afghanistan. He was a strong supporter of

lots of fresh fruit. We had many very enjoyable and

higher education. He wanted young people to go to

frank discussions over dinner and developed an

universities and then set up businesses on their own

excellent rapport over those few days. One evening the

rather than depending on the government for jobs.

commander wanted to know if I thought the United

The commander and his staff arranged a number of

States would abandon Afghanistan again as it did in

meetings for us at our request and joined us for some

1992 after the Russians left. I told him that I hoped not

of them. The students, teachers, and others we met

but it would be wise to be cautious. He was a strong

turned out to be eager to talk with us and hopeful for

supporter of President Karzai and had worked hard to

some U.S. help with higher education. Our system was

rid the area of the Taliban. While local people reported

a model for them.

that the Taliban had a good reputation for cutting down on crime, the people hated what they had done

During 2003, we, with a small team, conducted focus

in the name of religion as well as their rigidity and

groups in various parts of Afghanistan to get the views

cruelty to their enemies. Several women in particular

of 11th and 12th graders, undergraduates, faculty

noted that they felt safer then. Others talked about the

members, parents, business people, and others about

Taliban’s harsh treatment of women and the closing of

the state of higher education.5 Wherever we went we

education to women.

found a high level of hope and optimism about the future. As one 12th grader in Kapisa put it, “Education is key to success in life. Peace and stability will not be www.scup.org

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returned in Afghanistan unless people are educated

put it, “Higher education will not allow women to be

and trained properly.”6 We were struck by the fact

victimized any longer, although many men still have

that about half the students wanted to do things that

some sort of fear of educated women.”8

would benefit the country. This is not the case today, although there are still some with such idealism. Part

In the 2003 focus groups, there was a general

of the change in focus since then is no doubt a result

recognition that the models for quality higher

of the cynicism that has grown from seeing so much

education at that time were to be found abroad and

corruption in government and business. Students are

that Afghanistan had to work hard to catch up.

also distressed by the long period of maladministration

Participants also knew that higher education in

and incompetence in so much of the government. As

Afghanistan 20 years earlier had been much better.

one university student said in 2003, “This is a failed

Indeed, Afghan higher education in an earlier era

state. We have to get it to working properly.” That was

had been among the best in South Asia, attracting

even more the case by 2013.

students from all over the region. The level of concern among high school students in 2003 about the quality

People had hoped that education would improve

of higher education was especially striking. They

more quickly. Some understood that the government

were very aware that Afghan higher education at that

had little money and that it had many priorities in

time was not up to standard—that institutions abroad

addition to education. People we interviewed expressed

were much better. And they told us what was missing,

gratitude for the assistance provided by the United

including not enough faculty members with Ph.D.s

States, Germany, UNESCO, and others. Nonetheless,

and master’s degrees, lack of proper training, lack

they lamented how much remained to be done. People

of laboratories and other equipment, few up-to-date

were also grateful to the United States for having

books and other curriculum materials, and inadequate

helped free them from the Taliban and now hoped for a

facilities. Concerns about the poor quality of education

better future. In Kapisa, in particular, the Taliban were

and lack of well-trained teachers were widespread

never able to gain complete control and were fearful to

among all respondents in 2003, including faculty

stay overnight. That allowed some underground girls’

members. These concerns reflected the realization

schools to continue during the Taliban rule, and as a

that without a quality education in proper facilities,

result Kapisa was able to send 15 girls to the university

students would not have the training to succeed and

when it reopened.

compete in a world in which technology and knowledge were far ahead of that in Afghanistan. As one

We heard a lot about how women had been deprived

Kabul University student put it, “Our teachers don’t

under the Taliban. As one female student emphasized

know how to answer a question in terms of modern

in Herat, “The war killed a million people in the last

technology. Teachers should be sent abroad for short

23 years but the Taliban killed education, especially

courses—refresher courses and specialized subjects.”9

for girls. Some female students don’t know which one

People also believed that the quality of education was

was worse—being killed or being forbidden to receive

lower outside Kabul and wanted that rectified.

any education. I must receive education at any cost.”

7

Almost universally, the people interviewed were

When we look back at students’ complaints from 10

hopeful that education for women would improve—

years ago, we see that many of them are still valid,

that, as another female student at Kabul University

although there has been a great deal of progress. www.scup.org

Transforming Higher Education in Afghanistan | Fred Hayward

33

Chapter 2

Participants also were aware that many of the best

and frequently asked, “Why don’t Afghan experts

faculty members had fled and not returned. Again

return to Afghanistan?” They also knew they needed

and again we heard it said that these people had an

foreign experts to help improve higher education and

obligation to return from abroad to help Afghanistan

welcomed that. Students in Kapisa noted that “we

rebuild. They also knew that some of the best people

have very many natural resources. If the international

had been killed, wounded, or imprisoned.

community is serious to help us in any way, then they should help us revitalize these resources. With this

There was widespread hope that foreign funds would

revitalization, work will be created and our economy

do more to help rebuild higher education. There were

will improve considerably. Then we will be able to

many comments about visits from NGOs that had

select the field of study of our choice and even pay

made promises of assistance but nothing had come of

for our education.” At this time the Internet was

them. They were very critical of NGOs’ high salaries,

just beginning to be connected to urban areas in

their propensity to hire the best teachers (thus taking

Afghanistan but students were already aware of the

them from schools and universities), and their failure

need for it. As one student in Herat noted, “Another

to deliver. As one high school senior in Kunduz said

problem is that we are not connected to the rest of the

of NGOs, “Everyone comes and takes surveys, makes

world by Internet. We need that for research and for

false promises, and we don’t hear from them again.”

our studies.” And young people were already paying

Yet people were still hopeful in 2003. They were

to learn how to access and use the Internet in private

concerned by what they felt were broad promises to

courses and Internet cafés in Kabul, Herat, Kapisa, and

help higher education by foreign governments but

Kunduz. As the same student noted, “We, the Afghan

little sign of that help in construction, renovation, or

children, are talented and have the capacity to learn as

modern technology and equipment. They were also

long as the conditions are provided.”11

very concerned that neither foreign governments nor their own government seemed to put higher education

As we have seen, there was substantial progress made

as a very high priority. As one high school 12th-grade

in education by 2015, much of it funded by foreign

girl put it, “This is the time for us to study—and it

assistance. The number of public higher education

will not come again. If education is provided for us

institutions has grown from 18 to 36 with student

now, we will make every effort to study and become

numbers increasing from 25,564 in 2004 to 170,582—

specialized in our fields. Instead of building roads

a more than fivefold increase in 10 years. The number

and restoring electricity, our needs should be taken

of private higher education institutions has grown

into consideration such as providing us with books,

from zero in 2006 to more than 90 in 2014 with about

laboratories, libraries, and qualified teachers. These

130,000 students. Graduate education has developed

should be given priority because once the students are

from no programs in 2003 to 42 in 2014. Much of this

educated and teachers are properly trained, then they

has taken place with the help of two major foreign

can help rebuild the country.”10

donors, the World Bank and USAID. In addition, some assistance has been received from Germany,

Students, parents, faculty members, and business

Japan, Norway, Great Britain, India, and several

people recognized the need for expertise from abroad.

other countries. Most of the technical assistance

They hoped some of that would be provided by

has been supported by the World Bank through the

returning Afghans who fled during the years of war

Strengthening Higher Education Program (SHEP) and www.scup.org

Transforming Higher Education in Afghanistan | Fred Hayward

34

Chapter 2

USAID’s Higher Education Project (HEP), with some

and health have been especially appreciated. At the

additional technical assistance to the MoHE from

same time, the tragic and unacceptable errors of allied

Germany and UNESCO.

forces, in particular the bombing of innocent civilians, the night raids on the homes of the innocent, and the

When talking to students in 2014, one would still hear

concerns about the mistreatment of women by some

complaints about the lack of faculty members with

troops in the south, have hurt the reputation of the

advanced degrees, too few textbooks, overcrowded

allies and left large numbers of people angry. That

lectures, and limited laboratories. And they were

may yet undermine the contributions made to higher

correct. Faculty members would complain about the

education, and education in general, as well as spike

lack of classroom space, limited teaching facilities, lack

or reverse some of the remarkable progress made in

of office space, limited research support, and heavy

higher education to date.

teaching loads. They too were correct. Nonetheless, the improvement over the last five years has been amazing given the limited funding and very little help from foreign donors other than the World Bank, USAID, India, Germany, and a few others. At the same time, the MoHE had to respond to the tremendous increase in student numbers over this period as the success of Education for All began to produce more graduates from secondary school each year, adding to the strain on the system. Overall, people in higher education will acknowledge the substantial assistance of the foreign community to higher education while noting that the bulk of the funding has gone to primary and secondary education. The contributions are greatly appreciated in the MoHE, at the universities, and by most students. There have been no demonstrations against foreign assistance to higher education, and the lines of students applying for scholarships to study abroad, especially in the United States, India, and Europe, are long. While since 2012, one can occasionally hear shouts against the United States or its allies from a car on the street, this is not generally the case. Since the announced withdrawal of most foreign troops at the end of 2014 and all by 2016, indeed there have been many public expressions of fear about what that withdrawal might mean for Afghan higher education and the safety and security of the population. The foreign contributions to education www.scup.org

Transforming Higher Education in Afghanistan | Fred Hayward

35

Chapter 3

Chapter 3: The Higher Education Context Given this assessment, what are the effects of the

However, we added that success would be conditional

national context on higher education? Are there major

on the Kabul Donor Group living up to its commitment

disconnects between the two? How can they best be

of $236 million to higher education and depend on

dealt with by the MoHE? What are the key goals for

several other things as well:

the next five years? How different are they from those laid out in the National Higher Education Strategic

[I]f the government increases its support for

Plan: 2010–2014? What are the major challenges?

higher education, and if the MoHE can continue

How can they be met? What lessons can be learned

its focus on quality improvement, new pedagogy

from work on the previous strategic plan? What should

and teaching, merit-based appointments,

be the strategy of the MoHE over the next five years?

revival of research, and faculty development (in

What can the MoHE do to institutionalize the changes

particular Ph.D. and master’s training), Afghan

already made given the fragility of some of them? Can

higher education stands a very good chance of

the MoHE produce the high-quality system needed

even greater success. There are tremendous

over the next five years? How can it do so given the

challenges that confront it, corruption and

very limited financial resources likely to be available to

political interference being the most difficult.

it and the institutions?

Nonetheless, there is a cadre of committed, hardworking academics and administrators who

Deputy Minister Babury and I ended our article on the

are dedicated to the transformation of the system.

current state of higher education with the question,

With a little more financial support, they just

Has Afghan higher education been transformed? And

might succeed in sustaining those efforts and

we answered as follows:

institutionalizing them. (Babury and Hayward 2014, p. 30)

Basically yes, with the caveats noted, and indeed to a surprising degree given its limited resources

We noted that these transformation successes were

and the little support it has received. To its

fragile but significant and welcomed at the universities

credit, the MoHE has focused on critical areas

and higher education institutes. How can these

for quality improvement: the establishment

changes be institutionalized and expanded? How can

of accreditation, an emphasis on faculty

the MoHE move forward given the many challenges it

development, a focus on curriculum development

faces nationally? What strengths does higher education

and upgrading, and a commitment to merit

have to do this? What kinds of human resources are

recruitment and promotion. These efforts have

available to make this happen? How might the ministry

laid the groundwork for transformation. (Babury

sustain and expand transformation? I will look at these

and Hayward 2014, p. 30) www.scup.org

Transforming Higher Education in Afghanistan | Fred Hayward

36

Chapter 3

issues in the pages that follow starting with several of

(Ministry of Education 2014). The primary limitations

the biggest challenges.

on higher education expansion are lack of facilities, a shortage of qualified staff members with master’s degrees and Ph.D.s, and inadequate funding for

Access to Higher Education

infrastructure development including laboratories,

Afghanistan had one of the smallest higher education student populations in the world. Ten years ago only about one percent of college-age students were enrolled in higher education. That has grown to about 9.7 percent in 2014 (see figure 3 below). This compares to 12 percent in India, 7.8 percent in Pakistan (University World News 2011), 9 percent in Vietnam, 17 percent in South Africa, and 60 percent in the developed nations. In South Asia overall, the average college-age student enrollment is 11 percent (Altbach, Reisberg, and Rumbley 2009). These low enrollments occurred despite the fact that higher education is free in Afghanistan—guaranteed in the Constitution through undergraduate education.1 Nonetheless, many families cannot afford to send their children to higher education. Even with tuition, housing, and meals paid for by the state (room and board is covered for students living more than 36 kilometers from the university), the cost per student averages about $918 per year for books, clothing, transportation, and other education costs. In a country with a per capita income of $425 in 2014,2 that is beyond the reach of many families. Among the challenges related to increased access is the fact that in 2014–15 Afghan public higher education institutions are at capacity in terms of their infrastructure, staffing, and housing for students from outside the campus community, especially women. In an earlier period, access was limited by the small number of students attending primary and secondary schools. However, primary and secondary school enrollments have grown substantially over the last decade from one million in 2001 to the Ministry of Education-published total of nine million in 2014 3

libraries, information technology, classrooms, and student housing. As emphasized earlier, the lack of adequate numbers of faculty members with master’s degrees and Ph.D.s limits the ability of universities to upgrade programs in many areas to meet quality needs. Lack of English language capacity among faculty and students also limits effective access to the Internet even though MoHE faculty members, staff, and students now have access to over 8,000 journals in the MoHE digital library4 (most of which are in English, the international language of academics today). With help from NATO, the MoHE has expanded Internet connectivity to most institutions, but the lack of English language competency limits its effective use by most faculty members and students. Funding shortages have also limited expansion of computer facilities and Internet access on many campuses. The MoHE has plans in its new National Higher Education Strategic Plan: 2016–2020 for intensive English language training for faculty members and some students and is moving to offer more public higher education programs in English beyond medicine and engineering, which began instruction in English in 2014. Lack of funding is a major stumbling block for both offering additional English language training and further upgrading IT facilities. Overall, the rapid growth in primary and secondary education, the significant expansion of public higher education enrollments over the last five years to about 170,000 in 2014, and the legalization of private higher education in 2006 and its substantial growth to about 130,000 students in 2014 has resulted in a phenomenal www.scup.org

Transforming Higher Education in Afghanistan | Fred Hayward

37

Chapter 3

Figure 3 Growth of Students in Public and Private Universities: 2001–2014

Source: MoHE data 2001–2014.

Student in pharmacy laboratory. Photo by MoHE.

Female students in all-female computer center class, part of a USAID and State Department program. Photo by U.S. State Department. www.scup.org

Transforming Higher Education in Afghanistan | Fred Hayward

increase in the total number of university and fouryear higher education students to more than 300,000

38

Chapter 3

Figure 4 Estimated Student Admissions by Type of Institution: 2015

(figure 3). That has opened up additional opportunities for the young people of Afghanistan.

Graduates from secondary school 2014 for 2015 admissions

225,000

The rapid growth in the number of students in primary

Number taking the Kankor (percent of graduates)

180,000

80.0%

Number passing the Kankor (percent of those taking it)

57,600

32.0%

Number admitted to public higher education (percent of passed)

50,000

27.8%

Number graduates admitted to private higher ed. (est.)*

43,333

24.1%

Number Kankor takers admitted to TVET (est.)**

20,250

11.3%

Number Kankor takers admitted to teacher training (est.)

35,000

19.4%

Estimate of graduates going abroad for undergraduate study

2,250

1.0%

Potential yearly intake for community colleges

1,500

0.7%

Total Kankor takers admitted to some higher ed program (est.)

152,333

84.6%

and secondary education is in large part due to the success of Education for All.5 Primary and secondary school enrollments have continued to grow from 3.5 million in 2003 to an estimated nine million in 2014, an increase of 388 percent. That has resulted in a substantial increase in the number of graduates from secondary school from 26,800 in 2003 to an estimated 225,000 in 2014. Of that number approximately 80 percent (180,000 students) will apply to take the Kankor higher education admissions examination. The MoHE will only admit about 50,000 of those students (27.8 percent) to its universities and institutions of education since almost all the institutions are full or oversubscribed in terms of available places. About 43,000 students will be admitted to private higher education institutions. Another 20,250 will be admitted to TVET, and about 35,000 will be

Percent of those graduating from secondary school

67.7%

admitted to teacher training colleges. Approximately

Percent of Kankor takers

84.6%

2,250 others will go to universities abroad at the

Kankor takers not admitted to any higher education institution

27,667

15.4%

Graduates not in any higher education institution

72,667

32.3%

undergraduate level. Overall then, about 84.6 percent of those who took the Kankor examination and 67.8 percent of high school graduates will be admitted to some form of higher education. That leaves a little more than 27,660 Kankor takers, people who had hoped to go on to higher education, without admission to any higher education institution. Some of them will take the Kankor the following year and be successful the second time around. Figure 4 summarizes these statistics. The MoHE has been a strong supporter of Education for All and applauds its successes around the world and in Afghanistan. However, very little thought has been given in Afghanistan, or anywhere else, to the

*Number in 2014 x 33% **Number from 2013 x 25% Source: MoHE and Ministry of Education data.

consequences of its success once the products of the program start graduating from secondary schools in large numbers. The leadership of the MoHE has been worrying about its impact on higher education in Afghanistan for the last five years, requesting funding for more buildings to house the additional graduates, most of whom will want to go on to higher education. However, these requests have not met with much success. www.scup.org

Transforming Higher Education in Afghanistan | Fred Hayward

Challenges of access to universities and higher education institutions In 2009, the MoHE released the National Higher Education Strategic Plan: 2010–2014 (NHESP: 2010–2014), which envisioned doubling the capacity of higher education to 115,000 by 2015 to meet the growing demand for access to university-level

39

Chapter 3

a few years. The private higher education sector, which is growing rapidly and now has a head count of about 130,000 students, can probably accept an additional 43,000 students per year. Approximately 2,250 students per year study at foreign universities. That means that about 152,000 students will have access to some kind of higher education in 2015.

education as well as employment needs. In fact that

Conservative estimates of enrollment increases over

goal was achieved in 2013, more than a year ahead

the next eight years suggest an average increase in

of schedule. The budget (requested funding) for the

secondary school graduates of about 14 percent a year

strategic plan was $560 million, regarded as modest

until 2022 when the increases begin to decline and fall

by donors and others who reviewed it. About $111

to about 2 percent in 2024. Nonetheless we are talking

million (20 percent) of the requested funding was

about almost 625,000 secondary school graduates

received from donors, and I estimate that another

in 2022, up from 225,000 in 2014. At the current

$124 million came from the MoHE development

admission rate for the Kankor of 25 to 30 percent,

budget6 (about 42 percent of the NHESP: 2010–2014

about 118,500 students would be admitted in 2022,

budget). An additional $225 million was requested

bringing total public higher education enrollment

of and approved by the Kabul Donor Group, but none

to about 407,300 students, almost twice the current

of those funds have been forthcoming to date. If that

number. Will higher education be able to accommodate

funding is received, that would bring the total to 82

that many students without lowering quality? It seems

percent of the request. Forty percent of that request

unlikely unless a major commitment is made now

was for additional infrastructure construction,

to substantially expand the infrastructure and hire

provision of laboratories and equipment, and repair

almost 10,000 additional faculty members to keep

to existing buildings. If those funds materialize, a

the student-faculty ratio near the 25:1 goal, a goal

major step forward for Afghanistan’s higher education

that will be very difficult to achieve. The alternative

infrastructure will have been realized. While this

is significantly increasing class size and lowering

will not fully accommodate the expected demand for

quality, the opposite of what is required for economic

public higher education given the already overcrowded

development in Afghanistan.

facilities, it will be a critical step in meeting major infrastructure needs.

One of the problems faced by planners at the MoHE is the wide variation in predictions of student

Some of the increased demand for higher education

numbers provided by the Ministry of Education. The

can be absorbed by other higher education programs

differences have profound implications for planning.

including those offered by TVET institutions, which

I have been using the most conservative Ministry of

can probably absorb another 20,000 students per

Education numbers here, but between 2012 and 2014

year given the program’s planned expansion. Teacher

the MoHE received three sets of predictions about

education programs can take an additional 35,000

the growth of primary and secondary enrollments

students. The new community colleges starting in 2015

and they were each very different. More recently,

will be able to admit about 1,500 students per year in

officials in the Ministry of Education and USAID www.scup.org

Transforming Higher Education in Afghanistan | Fred Hayward

40

Chapter 3

have called into question the totals they provided.

another Ministry of Education projection about the

It is clear, for example, that at least some of the

number of students who will graduate from secondary

totals included students who had dropped out. The

school in 2013 was 14 percent higher, and the

MoHE uses the Ministry of Education student data to

ministry’s projection in June 2012 was an average of 42

estimate the long-term demand for higher education,

percent higher than that. If we take the higher figures

which is especially important to budget requests

in which the Ministry of Education projected 347,293

for infrastructure, which take at least three years to

graduates in 2013, we would expect 277,000 students

process.

to take the Kankor in 2014 and of those about 70,000

7

to be admitted. That is a difference of 63 percent over In this context it is difficult for the MoHE to provide

the figures above.

reliable estimates of the potential growth of higher education. As I noted earlier, the Ministry of Education

Regarding long-term projections, the higher June 2012

(MoE) estimates vary considerably as can be seen in

Ministry of Education figures led us to predict that

figure 6. In 2012 the MoHE used the data in what is

there would be 545,325 total students in public higher

called MoE model 1. In 2013 the MoHE received new

education in 2020 whereas the April 2014 figures

data from the MoE and have been using it as model

suggest a projected total of 313,387 students—almost

2. Then in early 2014 we received access to some

half the earlier figure. The MoHE had been using the

MoE internal data (model 3), which I am using in this

higher Ministry of Education data for projections over

piece (figure 5). However, as can be seen in figure 6, the long-term effects of these different predictions are quite significant with the totals for 2025 being nearly twice as high in model 1 as in model 3. That

Figure 5 Growth Model 3 for Higher Education: 2014–2025

presents different challenges for infrastructure planning depending on which model is employed.8

Increase in secondary school graduates, number & percent

Total higher education students

Total admitted (est.)

Model 4 is based on the assumption of a maximum

Year

of 44,000 students admitted per year as suggested

2014

225,000

10% 

170,582

55,600

by some donors. Model 5 is based on the assumption

2015

248,562

10%

193,166

56,700

that enrollments are allowed to grow only 10 percent

2016

304,415

22%

212,696

58,164

each year starting in 2015. Each of these models

2017

354,098

16%

233,171

63,014

2018

398,303

12%

256,648

70,111

2019

450,876

13%

282,390

77,072

has major consequences for the infrastructure, faculty

2020

511,390

13%

319,886

93,331

members, and dormitories required as well as other

2021

572,757

12%

361,252

105,858

needs. For example, from the most recent projection

2022

624,305

9%

407,563

118,561

from the Ministry of Education of 210,106 students

2023

655,520

5%

455,281

129,231

graduating at the end of 2013 we can predict that about

2024

668,631

2%

499,887

135,662

168,000 students will take the Kankor in 2014 and of

2025

682,003

2%

538,316

138,407

makes similar assumptions about conditions. The implications of the others are enrollments three to seven times the current total number of students. That

those about 43,000 will be admitted to universities and MoHE institutions of higher education. However,

Source: MoHE and Ministry of Education data; MoHE estimates from 2014. www.scup.org

Transforming Higher Education in Afghanistan | Fred Hayward

41

Chapter 3

Figure 6 Growth Models Based on Various Ministry of Education Estimates Student estimates by MoHE for higher education using various Ministry of Education (MoE) estimates of graduates Estimated growth

2013

2015

2020

2025

Model 1: MoE (June 18, 2012)

132,643

236,919

545,325

964,300

Model 2: MoE (April 2012)

132,643

164,330

313,387

536,422

Model 3: MoE (May 2014)

132,643

155,504

281,657

477,832

Model 4: Cap growth in 2016 @ 44,000

132,643

155,504

198,644

213,075

Model 5: Cap growth in 2015 @ 10% increase

132,643

158,345

251,914

404,692

Source: MoHE and Ministry of Education data; models developed by the MoHE.

the last few years (model 1). Those projections suggest

last five years, that has meant that about 25 percent

an even greater potential shortage of space in higher

of those who take the Kankor are admitted. However,

education than the more recent figures. The lower

in the last two years, in response to political pressure,

figures are from internal Ministry of Education data

the MoHE has admitted as many as 35 percent of

that the MoHE only just recently received (model 3).

those who took the Kankor. The result has been large

The differences are staggering and the implications for

classes, some with more than 100 students, with most

long-term planning tremendous. I suspect the reason

in classrooms too small for that number. Increased

for the differences in models 1, 2, and 3 relates to the

enrollment has also led the MoHE to open night classes

pressure on the Ministry of Education to show that it

at nine universities. This has increased the teaching

is rapidly increasing the number of students enrolled

burden on many faculty members.

in primary and secondary education in keeping with the goals of Education for All. That has probably led

Until 2012, any increases in the number of students

officials and some schools to inflate their enrollment

admitted to university-level education by the MoHE

reports. We also know that some of the data reported

were based on the number of places available at each

did not reflect the significant drop-out rate, which

institution and the admission examination score

shows up after about the eighth week of school. In

faculty members set as required for a particular

2015, new senior officials at the Ministry of Education

discipline. In recent years, in an attempt to deal with

reported that their predecessors had inflated student

the bulge in secondary school enrollments and growing

number, as noted above (Khan 2015). In any case, the

political pressure to increase access, admissions have

MoHE will have trouble meeting the demand for places

gone beyond that. One effort to accommodate that

even with the lower totals, but a discrepancy of the

pressure has been the introduction of night classes,

magnitude of 63 percent is staggering. It appears that

which now enroll more than 9,000 students. While

the recent data (model 3) was for internal use and is

enrollments were allowed to grow faster than originally

more accurate.

planned, there are limits to possible growth. The expansion has come at some cost as seven universities

Given the shortage of facilities, the MoHE has tried

are on double sessions and one is on triple sessions.

to restrict admissions to the space available. Over the

Current growth has meant that many faculty members www.scup.org

Transforming Higher Education in Afghanistan | Fred Hayward

42

Chapter 3

are teaching in two or three sessions and therefore

teacher training colleges, private higher education

have little time for advising students, for research,

institutions, or universities abroad for a total of almost

or for public service. That has hurt quality at several

85 percent of those taking the Kankor admissions

institutions. This year, it has also meant that many

examination admitted to some higher education

class enrollments are larger than the classrooms, most

institution. This is a big improvement over two years

of which were designed for only 20 to 40 students.

ago when only 65 percent of Kankor takers were

At Kabul University for example there are a number

admitted to some higher education institution. Some

of classes of 100 or more being taught in classrooms

of the 15 percent of Kankor takers who do not get

designed for 40 students—a product of the past when

into a higher education institution will attempt to

universities were seen as places for a small elite taught

gain admission by seeking to go around the normal

in small classes. That is no longer the case, but few new

admissions process by requesting that their Member

classrooms have been built recently, and there are very

of Parliament (MP) or another important person

few large lecture halls on any campus. Laboratories

intervene with the MoHE to have them added to the

too are overcrowded with the average designed for 15

list of admitted students. Each year there are hundreds

or 20 students. In these cases students have to work

of such petitions with candidates brought to the MoHE

two to three (or more) to a lab space, which limits the

by an MP or sent with a letter from a vice president

hands-on experience that is so important to a solid

or other notable seeking to have them admitted

understanding of the material.

despite their lack of qualifications. In a few of these cases it may be possible to demonstrate a compelling

The excessive admissions in the last two years were

reason for an exception, but that is rare. Most of these

not planned in advance but urged on the MoHE by

requests are from students whose scores are well below

Cabinet and through other pressures. This meant that

the minimum for admission. I cite two examples of

there was no planning for the extra students. As one

such cases.

vice chancellor reported to me, “The university had prepared for 1,300 more students this year than last,

The first case was in 2012 on a day set aside for MPs

but the MoHE sent 1,300 extra students besides the

to come to the MoHE without an appointment. On

1,300 expected. This was a big challenge for us because

that occasion, one of the more powerful MPs came

we do not have the facilities to teach those students

to see the deputy minister for academic affairs,

properly. We don’t have the extra classrooms, desks, or

bringing along a young student who he wanted to have

chairs.”9 The vice chancellor called a meeting of deans

admitted. The MP was a very impressive older man

to work out a solution for teaching these students.

with a substantial build dressed in traditional Pashtun

In the meantime the university turned to the local

attire with a very large turban. The deputy minister

mayor for help. He managed to provide 1,000 chairs

knew him and they greeted each other with affection.

and desks and build five wooden classrooms for 100

The MP made the case that this student was from a

students each that will work at least in the short term.

very poor family in an underserved area in the south

Not all institutions are able to draw on this kind of

and argued that he therefore should be admitted to the

local support.

medical school in Kabul, especially since the area he came from was short of doctors. The deputy minister

About half of the students not admitted to the

looked at the papers the student and MP had provided

universities will gain admission to TVET institutions,

and noted that the student’s grades were way below www.scup.org

Transforming Higher Education in Afghanistan | Fred Hayward

43

Chapter 3

the minimum for admission. The deputy minister

for help. The deputy minister greeted the man warmly

asked one of the admissions people to bring in the

and thanked him for his service to the nation. The

admissions list showing all the scores on the Kankor.

man brushed that aside and emphasized in a furious

He then showed the MP that the student’s admissions

voice that he had been a commander in the war against

score was way below what was needed. Nonetheless,

the Russians and had been badly wounded in the

in a very forceful tone of voice the MP pushed for

fighting, losing an eye—which was evident. He noted

admission. At this point the MP’s phone rang and he

that since that time he had not been able to work or

was called away for an urgent meeting. After he left

make much of an income and had struggled to get

the deputy minister patiently explained to the student

his son through school. He agreed that his son had

that his scores were not only too low to get into Kabul

done badly on the entrance examination but argued

Medical University (which requires among the highest

that he should nonetheless be admitted as a reward to

scores), but also too low for any university and thus

the father who had given so much to the country. The

he could not recommend admission. The student

deputy minister again complimented the commander

seemed to understand his explanation. He asked the

on his service to the country and commiserated with

deputy minister if he would write something to that

him about his injury. He then explained the process of

effect on the letter of request. The deputy minister

the examination to the father, noting that it was totally

did so. The student looked at it, thanked the deputy

open and there were no secret deals. He pointed out

minister profusely for the kind letter, and departed.

that the exams were scored separately from identifying

After the student had left, the deputy minister turned

information, with the results printed out when the two

to me laughing and said, “You know, I think this young

parts were matched by machine. He then asked the son

man is illiterate. What I wrote was that under no

what his score had been. It turned out that his score

circumstances should this student be admitted since

was among the lowest of those who took the exam.

his scores are way too low. If he could read, he wouldn’t

The deputy minister then spoke very gently to the son,

have thanked me so profusely.” He went on to say, “I

telling him that he must work hard to improve and

suspect he has gotten through primary and secondary

then he could take the exam again—that he owed that

school the same way—through pressure from high-

to the father. All this took about 15 to 20 minutes but

ranking people—and thus never learned to read.”

father and son left understanding the system, mollified for being heard, and hopeful for success on a second

The second case, in April 2010, involved a man who

try.

came with his son who had done very badly on the admissions examination. The receptionist told us that

There are hundreds of such petitions each year. What

the man was a former commander of the Mujahideen

is unique about the deputy minister is that he takes

known for his successes in defeating the Russians.

the time to understand each request and then explain

He had waited several days for an appointment and

politely to each MP or sponsor and student the reasons

was very, very angry, as we could see when he walked

for his decision. In most cases they leave satisfied. He

in. There was also a policeman in the office with a

will often show them the list of scores and point out

petition, and he was so concerned that he moved to the

that their score is, say, 50 points below the last student

edge of his seat in case the man attacked the deputy

admitted. He might ask, “Which student should we

minister. At the beginning I also feared violence and

cut to admit you?” or “How would we explain your

thought that the deputy minister might have to call

admission to those above you who are not admitted?” www.scup.org

Transforming Higher Education in Afghanistan | Fred Hayward

44

Chapter 3

The usual answer is “You can’t justify that,” and so

and community colleges. Private higher education has

they leave satisfied. They tried, were heard, and now

been growing rapidly too, from no institutions in 2006

understand the logic and fairness of the system. By

to 93 in 2014 with more than 130,000 students. I will

patiently doing this day after day, the word gets out

assume that the freeze on admissions would result in

that even a letter from the president will not get a

a constant 44,000 admissions to MoHE public higher

student admitted—something the president knows too.

education (that is, the universities and institutes of

And the president has told the deputy minister to keep

higher education) per year. The consequences are

up his good work in upholding standards. When he is

shown below in figure 7 the table for model 4 with the

pressured to write such a letter, he knows it will not

freeze starting in 2016.

affect admissions. The immediate effect of the freeze would be a drop in As we have seen, thanks to the success of Education

admissions to public universities and higher education

for All, the number of graduates from secondary

institutes from between 23 and 25 percent of high

school will keep increasing by an average of about 14

school graduates to 14 percent in 2016. Admissions

percent per year, using the most conservative Ministry

would fall further in 2017 with only 12 percent

of Education estimate, until they begin to stabilize in

of graduates getting into public higher education

2023–24 as shown in figure 5. But even in 2023, that

given the growing number of students coming out

would mean admitting about 130,000 students, which,

of secondary school. The percentage of high school

after adjusting for the estimated number of graduates

graduates admitted to public higher education would

that year, would be an increase of more than 40,000

fall to 11 percent in 2018, 7 percent in 2022, and only

students. Under that scenario, more modest increases

6 percent in 2025. The number admitted to MoHE

would continue over the next few years. Those

institutions will still increase, but at a much slower

increases would still require an ongoing institutional

rate than during the period 2011–14. Even if we

expansion, though a more modest one than is needed

assume that non-MoHE institutions and private higher

in 2014–15. In 2021, the number of students would be

education institutions will take up some of the slack,

over 360,000, more than twice the current number of

the percentage of high school graduates getting into

170,000.

some form of higher education would continue to fall until 2024 when the number of high school graduates

Some donors have suggested that a proper solution

begins to level off.

to the access problem is to freeze enrollments at something like the current level of a little more than

Other higher education institutions such as TVET

40,000 students and use the money saved to improve

programs, teacher training colleges, community

quality. Let us assume that some reasonable formula

colleges, private higher education institutions, and

could be worked out to increase per capita spending

foreign institutions would probably pick up some

to at least $800 per student while holding to this

of the losses especially given the recent expansion

enrollment ceiling. What would be the consequences

of private higher education and TVET. Indeed, the

for admissions to higher education for the country as

percentage of total graduates admitted to other higher

a whole, considering as well what sorts of admissions

education institutions would grow to 60 percent by

levels are likely for other sectors of higher education?

2025. However, the number of students not admitted

Several of these sectors are growing, including TVET

to any higher education would grow from 85,000 in www.scup.org

Transforming Higher Education in Afghanistan | Fred Hayward

45

Chapter 3

2014 to 272,000 in 2022. As shown in figure 7, by

As noted, the major burden of admissions would

2025, while the admissions in public higher education

be increasingly taken up by TVET, teacher training

institutions would fall to about 6 percent of graduates,

colleges, community colleges, and private higher

the admissions in other higher education institutions

education institutions. They would grow from

would grow to 10 times that number. This assumes that

accepting about 37 percent of high school graduates

private higher education could sustain that growth—

in 2014 to 60 percent in 2025. That growth may be

growth that is funded by tuition from students and

appropriate. Yet, as the number of those not admitted

their families. My own guess is that this would be

to any higher education grows—and it will be over

difficult. More importantly, I do not think the public

200,000 by 2020, about half of whom will have taken

would stand for that kind of major limitation on the

the Kankor—there will be growing pressure on the

growth of public higher education. Thus, I think the

MoHE to increase admissions to public universities

“capping enrollment” argument is a non-starter in

and higher education institutions. A critical question

the long run, and probably also in the short run, as a

is whether the proposed cap could be used to bring

solution to funding and infrastructure problems.

the quality of public universities and higher education institutions up to the level needed, or would these

Figure 7 Estimated Growth of Students from 2014–2025 with Admission Capped at 44,000 in 2016 Secondary school graduates

%

Percent admitted to other higher ed

Percent secondary graduates admitted to some higher ed

Total students other higher ed

48,524

30%

47%

69,875

147,211

84,753

Total students MoHE higher ed institution

Total admitted to MoHE institution

Percent admitted to MoHE institution

Admitted to some other higher ed institution*

77,336

27,000

17%

Total higher ed students

Students not admitted to any higher ed institution

Year

number

2011

160,277

2014

225,000

10%

170,582

55,600

25%

83,850

37%

62%

200,625

371,207

85,550

2015

248,562

10%

193,166

56,700

23%

102,333

41%

64%

240,750

433,916

89,529

2016

304,415

22%

198,532

44,000

14%

122,800

40%

55%

288,900

487,432

137,615

2017

354,098

16%

202,826

44,000

12%

147,360

42%

54%

346,680

549,506

162,738

2018

398,303

12%

206,261

44,000

11%

176,831

44%

55%

416,016

622,277

177,472

2019

450,876

13%

209,009

44,000

10%

212,198

47%

57%

457,618

666,626

194,678

2020

511,390

13%

211,207

44,000

9%

254,637

50%

58%

503,379

714,586

212,753

2021

572,757

12%

212,966

44,000

8%

280,101

49%

57%

553,717

766,683

248,656

2022

624,305

9%

214,372

44,000

7%

308,111

49%

56%

609,089

823,461

272,194

2023

655,520

5%

215,498

44,000

7%

338,922

52%

58%

669,998

885,496

272,598

2024

668,631

2%

216,398

44,000

7%

372,814

56%

62%

736,998

953,396

251,816

2025

682,003

2%

217,119

44,000

6%

410,096

60%

67%

810,697

1,027,816

227,907

*Includes TVET, TTC, community colleges, private higher education, and universities abroad. Assumptions: Enrollments in 2014 actual; 2015 calculated @ 80% of graduates with 23% acceptance rate; from 2016 capped at 44,000. Starting in 2015 admissions to other higher education grow at 20 percent, then starting in 2020 grow at 10 percent. The number of students who graduate each year is estimated at 20 percent of enrollments. Source: MoHE and Ministry of Education data. www.scup.org

Transforming Higher Education in Afghanistan | Fred Hayward

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Chapter 3

institutions continue to be underfunded and unable to

community college, and a number of other areas in

achieve the necessary quality.

which training is available. Many students will be happier and do better if they focus on non-university

What people will focus on is the large number of those

training, whether it is in technical work, agriculture,

who do not get into any form of higher education

business employment, the life of an artist, or any

along with the increasing burden of tuition for those

of a wide range of other occupations for which they

going to private higher education institutions. As

have the talent. For some, the best training will be in

noted, the number of those not getting into any higher

technical and vocational education through TVET.

education will grow from about 85,000 in 2014 to

Others will be superb teachers and should go into

almost 228,000 by 2025, about one-third of the

teacher training.

high school graduates that year. While some of these graduates will find jobs, most will have difficulty.

Afghanistan needs to attract some of its best and

That number of students failing to gain entrance into

brightest students to teaching and not relegate it

any higher education institution will probably not be

to the lowest level of prestige by sending the worst

politically acceptable even if the 44,000 maximum

performers in secondary school to become teachers as

admissions level for public higher education is seen to

is now the case. That is part of the problem confronting

be effective in increasing higher education quality to

the quality of primary and secondary education today.

required levels. Those who are unemployed who sought

Some students will find their niche at community

admission to higher education but failed to be admitted

colleges, training to become IT specialists, medical

are certain to demonstrate, as they have in the past.

technicians, or other professionals. Most students

My fear is that the results may cause the kinds of chaos

are not told that there are a wide range of non-

we saw in North Africa during the Arab Spring.10 Thus

university options available to them that are exciting

my view is that this kind of enrollment ceiling is not a

and attractive and provide a good living. Thus it is

viable option. In a previous section I discussed what we

important to devise better methods to help secondary

know about what happens to those students who are

students understand the wealth of options available to

not able to go on to higher education and cannot find

them so they can make wise and appropriate choices.

jobs. It is not a pretty picture.

And, some students who want to go to university just do not have the talent to succeed—part of the logic for

The access problems leave the MoHE and the country

admissions examinations.

as a whole faced with a number of pressures and realities that are not easy to resolve. On the one hand,

There is already a shortage in Afghanistan of people

most students who go to secondary school see the

trained for middle-level professional and technical

university as the next logical step in their education.

jobs—jobs that are mostly filled at the present time by

They are also led to believe that getting a university

foreigners from Pakistan, India, Turkey, Philippines,

education is the sensible thing to expect, having been

and elsewhere while thousands of Afghans are

told that by their teachers over the years. The reality

unemployed. Foreign workers are working in finance

is that not all secondary school graduates belong in

departments, as medical and science technicians,

a university. As I have noted, there are other non-

in businesses, and in other professional areas. This

university higher education programs including

is because Afghanistan does not offer appropriate

technical and vocational education, teacher education,

training in these fields. These foreign workers did www.scup.org

Transforming Higher Education in Afghanistan | Fred Hayward

47

Chapter 3

get the appropriate training for these positions in

quality thus making employment potentially more

their homeland at the equivalent of community

difficult for their graduates. The MoHE is working to

colleges and technical and vocational centers. They

improve the quality and relevance of public university

come to Afghanistan because they meet the job

training to ensure that its graduates meet the

requirements and know they will earn a good living.

employment needs of business, industry, government,

It is important to encourage young people to think

and the private sector. As the security situation

about these occupational possibilities and the training

improves and foreign investment increases, there will

they will need for them. Both the salaries and the

be a greater need for well-trained graduates, especially

opportunities in these areas are very good. Thus, a

in the science, technology, business, and health sectors.

major information campaign needs to be prepared to

However, there is a limit to how many graduates will

help secondary school students become aware of job

be needed and how many can be trained at the level

opportunities, areas in which there are major employer

of quality required. The needs of current and future

needs, and new fields that will require new kinds of

employers should be explored further through new

well-trained specialists. Students and their teachers

needs and employment surveys and the results used

should also think about the possibility of starting a

to help plan for more training in those areas that

business rather than expecting a government job.

need to be expanded as well as to identify new areas

One secondary school in Kabul has begun to advise

of need. Similarly, community colleges are already

secondary students not only about university options

being established in areas where we know there is a

but also about all the educational options beyond

demonstrated need for people with associate’s degrees

universities, and that has met with great success.

and the in-service training they receive as part of

Such career advising will help limit the pressure on

their program of study. The MoHE is working closely

universities and lead to more appropriate training for

with the Ministry of Labor to ensure that appropriate

many graduates of secondary schools—training that

data are gathered on labor and employer needs. Those

will help them become appropriately employed. This

data will be used by the MoHE and higher education

will also more clearly meet the needs of employers and,

institutions to be sure that university training

in most cases, be more in tune with students’ interests,

responds to employer needs and the rapidly changing

skills, and long-term well-being. With such training

job markets in the contemporary world.

Afghans can fill the well-paid jobs now being taken by foreigners.

Secondary education should also focus more clearly on preparing students for the workforce with more

A second challenge relates to the number of university

writing practice, better language skills acquisition

graduates who can be absorbed by employers in

(including in Dari and Pashtu), improved math and

Afghanistan. While the need for university-trained

science training, an understanding of what students

graduates is substantial, it is not unlimited. Expanding

might do for themselves as entrepreneurs, and better

university enrollments by too large a number will

guidance counseling. Students should not just look to

result in unemployed university graduates as has

government for jobs, but also to business, industry,

happened in Egypt and many other countries—and

agriculture, and commerce as well as their own

that is a disaster worth avoiding. The problem is

initiative and creativity for employment they will enjoy

complicated by the rapid expansion of private higher

that will also meet national needs and foster national

education institutions, many of which are of low

development. www.scup.org

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Chapter 3

It is also critical to build a new sense of commitment to

content that is seen to be “contrary to the principles

national development in Afghanistan among students

of Islam or offensive to other religions and sects”

at every level, the kind that existed beginning in 2001.

(Freedom House 2014, ¶ 2).

Much of that energy, romanticism, hope, and national consciousness has been lost during the last decade. It

Freedom was reflected in Afghan society in general

can be rebuilt. With that must come an improvement in

through the expansion of the media and press from

the quality of education at every level and a willingness

one government-owned television station during the

in the donor community to make serious investments,

Taliban period to 65 local and national TV stations

including in university-level education, which has

in 2014. There were also 174 radio stations, 200 news

been sorely neglected in the past by government and

outlets, and 12 news agencies in 2013 (Freedom House

most donors. That must be reversed if Afghanistan is

2014). To hear alternative views under the Taliban,

to move forward. Both donors and government must

the only options were foreign broadcasts such as

emphasize that 2016 is not the end of the world, that

those from the BBC and Voice of America. However,

donors will be here then and long thereafter, that

they posed risks if you were caught listening to them.

commitments remain intact, and that higher education

Now there is a wide diversity of options ranged across

is now a high priority. Otherwise, the efforts to date in

the political spectrum from extreme conservatism

higher education and the contributions of those who

to libertarianism, and there is little attempt at

gave their lives for a better Afghanistan will have been

censorship or suppression of opinions of any type.

wasted. That need not happen.

Government continues to own a few of the media but most are privately owned and reflect different

Academic and Other Freedoms Academic freedom was an integral part of values of higher education in Afghanistan from its beginning in 1946. That freedom was shattered following the communist coup in 1978 and the Russian invasion in 1979, as noted in Chapter 2. During this period free speech was curtailed and faculty members were increasingly intimidated. Their activities were monitored, some were removed from their positions, and some were even arrested. This began an exodus of faculty, one that continued through the Taliban period when religion and ideology increasingly defined success in higher education. Those with contrary views either kept quiet or were silenced in other ways. Thus there was great relief with the coming of the new order in December 2001 and its promise of democracy and freedom. Article 34 of the Constitution promises freedom of the press and expression, limiting only

political views with some partisan and others more interested in entertainment. A few are supported by foreign countries such as the United States, Iran, and Pakistan. Some depend on such support to survive but others such as Tolo TV are successful commercial ventures broadcasting a variety of popular programs including talent shows, news, football matches, English lessons, political discussions, and music. Most TV stations also have programs for women (Khan 2012). Many publications do not hesitate to criticize the government, point to instances of corruption, or spotlight military disasters by Afghan or foreign forces. Nonetheless, the press is constantly watched and sometimes threatened by warlords, conservative religious groups, and the Taliban. As one publication noted, “With all the accomplishments Afghan media has had in [the] past ten years, it faces some daunting challenges. Plentiful obstacles still deter the continuous flow of communication to the public and therefore [make] freedom of speech vulnerable. Since www.scup.org

Transforming Higher Education in Afghanistan | Fred Hayward

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Chapter 3

there is still a vicious war going on in Afghanistan, the

the discussions on most issues could have taken place

extreme challenge Afghan journalists face is how to

at any university in the United States, Great Britain, or

survive in a society full of thrones and traps” (Khan

France.

2012, ¶ 5). Academic freedom became a given starting early Freedom House rated Afghanistan low in terms of

in 2002. To be sure, people were cautious at the

freedom of the press, giving it a score of 66 in 2014,

beginning, especially in the more conservative rural

with 100 being the lowest. However, that was an

areas. A certain level of self-censorship continued

improvement over its score of 74 in 2012 (Freedom

on some campuses even in 2014. But there was no

House 2012). Part of the low rating was due to the war,

evidence of it in discussions at the MoHE or in its

which has made Afghanistan an especially dangerous

commissions or indeed during meetings of chancellors,

place for journalists. The Afghanistan Journalists

vice chancellors, deans, and other senior leaders

Center reported 84 attacks against journalists in 2013

other than that one outburst in 2009 during my whole

(Freedom House 2014).

tenure at the MoHE. This does not apply to decisions about individual capabilities or institutions meeting

Since 2001, the campus environment has been one

standards. These were not free speech issues but

of increasing academic freedom following more than

decisions about performance.

two decades of restrictions under communist rule and then under the Taliban, as noted earlier. People

Looking back on more than five years of such

generally feel free to say what they want on campus

discussions, I realize now how important that was.

with occasional interference based on religious beliefs.

It was in stark contrast to my early work on higher

There has been little interference with discussion

education in South Africa during the last years of

of higher education policy except in cases of gender,

apartheid. At that time, one had to be very careful

religion, or evaluation of credentials. In my 10 years

about what was said in the presence of government

of working with the MoHE, I never experienced or

officials and supporters of apartheid. My phone was

heard of any interference or intimidation in policy

tapped, which I suspected and later learned to be

discussions. There were no government, party,

true, and thus I and others were very careful about

religious, or other “informers” around. No one feared to

what we said, even when talking about plans for

say what they thought about policy proposals, and the

higher education. I later learned a dossier was kept

one attempt to stop such discussions by a conservative

on me during that period.11 Similarly, when I was

chancellor in a 2009 meeting of chancellors was totally

working on higher education in Pakistan some years

ignored by all those present. The same has been true

later, one had to be careful not to discuss anything

of social gatherings and other discussions when policy

related to politics and education on some university

issues come up. Harsh criticism of officials, both in

campuses. There were never such concerns during

higher education and government, can be heard on a

my work in Afghanistan. There was no need to have

regular basis. Most issues are thoroughly discussed,

some discussions outside the normal forums, no sense

and the debate occasionally becomes heated. I never

of fear when criticizing the government, no concern

had the sense that anyone was holding back in such

about talking on the telephone. That allowed a full

discussions because of fear of censorship, punishment,

discussion of issues, including sensitive ones, to be

or other personal concerns beyond politeness. Indeed,

carried out in the proper forums and publically when www.scup.org

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Chapter 3

appropriate. That is not to say there were not issues

capable leaders to begin a two-way discussion of

that were confidential, but that was never used to avoid

ways to do that—policies that would open up higher

discussion because of fear of authorities, police, or

education, thus expanding capabilities while at the

government.

same time enhancing individual freedoms through the expansion of higher education opportunities that

The importance of freedom in development has been

would help create economic and social opportunities

especially well stated by Amartya Sen. He writes

for increasing numbers of individuals. That could

in Development as Freedom that the “freedoms

not have happened without the freedoms that began

of individuals” are the basic building blocks of

to grow in the post-Taliban period and continue to

development. He goes on to say that “attention is thus

expand to this day. Thus the critical role of academic

paid particularly to the expansion of the ‘capabilities’ of

and other freedoms to the progress that has been made

persons to lead the kind of lives they value—and have

to date is clear.

reason to value. These capabilities can be enhanced by public policy, but also, on the other side, the direction of public policy can be influenced by the effective use of participatory capabilities by the public” (Sen 1999, p. 18). This two-way relationship is essential. Sen views development as a process of “expansion of substantive freedoms that connect with one another” (Sen 1999, p. 8). He suggests that

The Role of Private Higher Education Public higher education institutions were the only legal mechanism for providing university-level education in Afghanistan until relatively recently. Private higher education for Afghans was illegal despite several requests by providers to establish such institutions.

Freedoms are not only the primary ends of

In 2003, at the request of the World Bank, the AED

development, they are among its principal means.

was asked to send a team to assess whether private

. . . Political freedoms (in the form of free speech

higher education was feasible in Afghanistan. I was

and elections) help to promote economic security.

recruited to lead that team, which included several

Social opportunities (in the form of education and

other specialists in education.12 The team was to assess

health facilities) facilitate economic participation.

the demand for tertiary education and the supply of

Economic facilities (in the form of opportunities

higher education in 2003 and determine if there was a

for participation in trade and production) can

role for the private sector in the overall tertiary sector

help to generate personal abundance as well as

and the willingness to and ability of students and

public resources for social facilities. (Sen 1999,

parents to pay for private higher education (Hayward

pp. 10–11)

and Amiryar 2003). “Private higher education” was defined broadly as “any non-government provision

This is what happened with higher education in

of education” and “private support” as “any non-

Afghanistan. The expansion of individual freedoms in

government funding—including student fees or tuition”

the post-Taliban period fostered a rethinking of higher

(Hayward and Amiryar 2003, p. 3). Thus private

education and the values it reflects. It allowed for an

involvement in tertiary education could range along a

expanding discussion of new policies that reflected

broad continuum from a fully-funded private higher

a desire to improve human capabilities and expand

education institution funded privately to individual

social opportunities. This then allowed thoughtful,

payment for part of the cost of higher education.

www.scup.org

Transforming Higher Education in Afghanistan | Fred Hayward

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Chapter 3

The study concluded that public higher education in

by public tertiary education institutions alone” and

Afghanistan needed to be supplemented by private

adds that “the MoHE will encourage the development

higher education since public higher education alone

of quality private education—especially non-profit

could not meet the need or demand. The report

institutions” (MoHE 2009a, p. 21). Despite the fact

recommended that the MoHE develop a detailed legal

that the World Bank/AED report recommended that

framework for private higher education. Then, under

non-profit institutions be encouraged, only two of

the careful oversight of the MoHE and in the context

these institutions are non-profit: AUAF and Cheragh

of that framework, private higher education should be

Medical University and Hospital. The rapid increase in

encouraged (Hayward and Amiryar 2003).

the number of private higher education institutions in the last few years has made it difficult to ensure their

Legislation was approved in 2006 that allowed for the

quality. In 2013, 17 percent of the students in private

creation of private higher education. The first private

higher education institutions were women, while in

higher education institution established was the

public higher education that number was 19 percent.

American University of Afghanistan (AUAF) in 2006, followed soon thereafter by the Kardan Institute of

During the first few years of private higher education,

Higher Education and several others. By August 2013

growth was slow and carefully regulated. By

there were 63 private higher education institutions

2008 there were only 15 private higher education

officially (and several others unregistered); by May

institutions, but by 2010 the number had grown to

2014 there were more than 90 private higher education

35. Nineteen more were established in 2011 during a

institutions with over 124,000 students (figure 8). A

period when the then minster was encouraging private

little more than half the institutions were in the Kabul

higher education and granted “permission to open” to

area, with five in Balkh, six in Herat, six in Nangarhar,

many institutions without having them screened by

two in Kandahar, and individual institutions in

the MoHE committee established to do so. More than

Baghlan, Kunduz, Jawzjan, Takhar, and Samangan.

40 private higher education institutions were approved between 2010 and 2013—a level of growth that called

The MoHE regards private higher education as a vital

into question the legitimacy of the approval process.

part of its plans to expand access to higher education.

By 2014 there were more than 90 private institutions.

Indeed, the NHESP: 2010–2014 states that the

In 2015 that number had grown to 125. It soon became

“access needs of Afghanistan cannot be met solely Figure 8 Private Higher Education Institutes: 2006–2014 Year Item

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

Private Higher Ed Institutes

2

7

12

21

34

50

66

72

91

Faculties

9

29

45

82

120

156

222

229

269

13

47

86

148

211

244

368

375

383

288

920

2,316

7,046

20,512

35,325

64,459

90,110

122,395

15

38

116

299

1,149

1,714

2,267

2,643

2,643

Departments Students Faculty members Source: MoHE data.

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clear that the primary motivation for some proprietors

institutions, ranging from a low of 1 to a high of 4 with

was financial gain rather than education.

only three of those numbers actually being used.

Almost all the students who go to private higher

At the request of the president and Minister of Higher

education institutions had hoped to attend public

Education Obaid, the deputy minister and I worked

institutions, which have no tuition. They had expected

to facilitate a new review process with support from

to obtain high enough scores on the Kankor to be

HEP. As Minister Obaid stated, the current situation

admitted to a public institution. However, as noted

represented a terrible abuse of higher education and

earlier, on average only 25 percent of students who

risked making a mockery of private higher education in

take the Kankor are admitted. That leaves a large

general. That needed to be prevented. This new review

number turning to private higher education. A few

effort was important to protect academic quality and

private institutions such as AUAF are the first choice of

try to get private education back on track and moving

students because of their high quality. Indeed almost

toward overall quality improvement. It was envisioned

all AUAF students took the Kankor examination

that the review would take one to two months using

though it was not needed for admission. For most

faculty members and staff as assessors working after

students, however, private higher education is a

normal working hours. However, funding was not

fallback both because of its cost and the perception

released until early December, making it unlikely that

that public institutions are higher quality. The fees for

all 90 reviews could be completed before the funding

private institutions range from several hundred dollars

deadline of January 15, 2013, or winter weather made

for one course to $5,000 per year for AUAF and one or

some visits impossible. In the end, all the private

two others.

institutions except those in two rural provinces were reviewed by that time. The others were reviewed in the

The rapid expansion of private higher education

spring when new funding became available.

has worried many in the MoHE, especially since a number of these institutions were turned down for

The reviews were carried out by teams of professionals

“permission to open” by the committee set up to review

selected by the deputy minister in consultation with his

them—in one case, an institution was rejected three

staff. The project was overseen by a steering committee

different times. President Karzai was convinced that

appointed by the deputy minister. I prepared a draft

some of the private institutions were fraudulent or

protocol for the process and several sample worksheets

far below minimal standards. In 2012 by presidential

that could be used. This material was reviewed and

decree he ordered a review and ranking of all private

edited somewhat by the review steering committee.

higher education institutions by the MoHE. A review

In addition to checking the quality of each institution,

was carried out by the Directorate of Private Higher

the president asked that the institutions be ranked

Education. However, the Office of the President

based on the review. The review was also intended

decided that this review was unreliable because the

to identify improvements that needed to be made in

methods employed were woefully inadequate, partly

those institutions that fell below what was regarded as

because the reviewers were not qualified (and included

minimum standards, with necessary improvements

no faculty members), the results defied common sense,

spelled out in each area in which the institution was

and the range of scores was too narrow to differentiate

deficient. In egregious cases, the institutions were to be closed and arrangements made for the students www.scup.org

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Chapter 3

to transfer to another institution if they wished. The

or merged. The report was released in 2015 after the

goal, however, was not to close institutions, except in

minister was removed.

extreme cases, but to get institutions with deficiencies to improve quality to the point that they met minimum

The decision to undertake this review—and its

standards.

implementation—was a critical step in preventing further deterioration in both the public and

Although the reviewers had a training session,

professional assessment of private higher education. It

given the deadline the training was rushed. It soon

has made it clear that the MoHE will enforce minimal

became apparent that the reviewers were not clear

standards and not hesitate to close institutions that do

about how to assess the institutions once they got to

not meet them.

the field. In keeping with Afghan traditions against saying anything derogatory about colleagues or other

President Karzai’s action was important because

institutions, the reviewers ranked everything as high

private higher education had become so politicized,

quality. The MoHE quickly halted the visits by the

with some institutions linked to people of questionable

reviewers and carried out additional training with

ethical standards, that inaction would have made it

clearer guidelines for the rankings. A ladder model

almost impossible to stem the downward trend in

was used with examples of what level of quality each

the quality of private higher education in the future.

rung on the ladder indicated. When the reviewers

The ministry desperately needed to close the door

saw the simple ladder diagram, such as is commonly

on an already burgeoning private sector that was

used in surveys about well-being, showing what the

out of control for lack of any reasonable restraint on

different scores should indicate, they understood

institutional approval or enforcement of minimal

the complexity involved. Once that was clear the

quality standards. There are already additional

process continued without any major problems. This

proposals being prepared to establish new private

was but another demonstration of the importance of

institutions. Some of them are designed either for

careful consultations, clear directions, and ongoing

political purposes or to make money, with little or

monitoring of such processes. When the review was

no concern about quality or educating students for

completed, the results from the evaluation of 256

jobs. Completion of the review and release of the

faculties showed that 11 were ranked very poor and

results will help get private higher education overall

the institutions should be closed, 19 were ranked

back on a proper footing and ensure that both public

poor and should be given one semester to improve or

and private higher education institutions are making

be closed, 209 were satisfactory, 117 were good, and

high-quality contributions to the preparation and

none achieved a ranking of very good. However, the

training of Afghan students. In early 2015, acting at the

minister at the time refused to release the results

request of Acting Minister of Higher Education Babury,

and delayed the process. He asked that the bottom

President Ghani removed the head of the Private

group be reexamined. That resulted in the decision to

Higher Education Directorate, called a halt to the

close only one institution. The review committee then

approval of new private higher education institutions,

decided that the 11 institutions ranked very poor and

and selected a new experienced director for private

the 19 ranked poor would be given a set period during

higher education. This, coupled with the release of the

which they needed to meet quality targets or be closed

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Chapter 4

Chapter 4: Leadership Challenges in Higher Education The country was destroyed by people who were

Characteristics and Challenges

experts in destruction. It will take experts of even greater ability to rebuild it.1

The pages that follow describe many of the characteristics of the Afghan leadership environment

Early during my first visit to Afghanistan in 2003,

and the challenges faced in developing strong, effective

my colleagues and I had a meeting with Hilalluddin

leadership in Afghan higher education.

Hilal, deputy minister for security and police. We were talking about the challenges facing Afghanistan. In the course of that discussion he paused and then looked at us thoughtfully saying, “The country was destroyed by people who were experts in destruction. It will take experts of even greater ability to rebuild it.” Those comments have stayed with me over the last 11 years as I worked in higher education with people who sought to rebuild and improve it. As you will see in the pages that follow, higher education did find those experts “of even greater ability,” and they combined that ability with amazing vision, commitment, drive, and energy. In writing this piece I wasn’t looking for such experts, and if I had been, I would probably have expected to find them in politics, not higher education. Indeed, some of the leaders in higher education did seem to be experts in destruction in their own drive for personal gain or power. Others just did their jobs; nothing more. But what was striking as I began to explore the individual changes that had produced the higher education transformation in Afghanistan was the discovery of the contributions of a number of remarkable leaders at various levels whose expertise and skills turned out to be critical, in their collective ways, to the fundamental changes that took place.

Centralization The Afghan tradition of highly centralized leadership has presented a major challenge in developing effective leadership in higher education. It has produced a hierarchical system in which most decisions are made at the top and little authority is decentralized to lower levels in the ministry, the universities, or the institutes of higher education. In a sense, below the senior administrative level one can talk about a “bureaucracy without authority.” We will come back to that topic. Centralization was also a trap for leaders. It gave some delusions of grandeur—a sense that they had more power than they really did. Others were overwhelmed by the constant demand for signatures, the need to speak to almost every visitor, and the long lines in waiting rooms and hallways. Unless one learned how to manage the demands, how to distinguish the urgent from the unimportant and the necessary from the waste of time, they could be fatal, leaving a trail of undone tasks; unhappy students, parents, colleagues, and staff; and an exhausted leader. My work in Afghanistan and several other developing countries suggests that it is much more important to have good leadership in the developing world than in www.scup.org

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Chapter 4

the developed. In the latter case, it is possible to find

not only had the doubters changed their minds, but

ways to work around an ineffective leader because

they were now among the staunchest supporters of the

almost everyone knows what they should be doing.

process—in fact, the most opposed became the chief

That is not the case in most of the developing world. A

backer.

leadership vacuum can set back the system for years. Furthermore, in a hierarchical system where all major

Understanding Afghan culture

decisions are expected to be made at the top, people are afraid to take the initiative even when they know what

Looking at leadership in Afghan higher education

should be done because the power at the top is often

overall, it is clear that the most effective leaders are

capricious and vindictive. Subordinates have seen what

those who have a clear understanding of the cultures

happens to those who anger the leadership and so pass

of Afghanistan and know how to work within them.

decisions up to the top. This slows down the normal

Leaders such as Minister Fayez, Minister Dadfar,

work of an institution and is especially disruptive

Deputy Minister Babury, and Chancellor Amin

when major changes are sought. Even under effective

were especially respectful of traditional values and

leaders, a hierarchical system creates inefficiencies

niceties—they greeted everyone, listened to their

and bottlenecks that often result in failures because

problems, laughed at their stories, asked about

key decisions are delayed, deadlines are missed, errors

their children (often by name), and attended their

occur due to a lack of information or an overworked

celebrations and their family funerals. The bonds of

executive, or no decision is made at all.

loyalty built up over the years were strong and helped make the case for the changes they sought to put in

Shared values

place. Understanding and respecting Afghan cultures helped avoid conflict between traditions and the

Leadership is most effective when there are shared

changes desired. It was amazing how many Afghans

values (Posner, Kouzes, and Schmidt 1985). Part of

seemed to miss this important part of leadership and

the success of several of the ministers and deputy

paid a high price for it—sometimes being mocked as

ministers in Afghanistan has been due to their

outsiders.

effectiveness in building consensus and shared values. They create a kind of “corporate culture” that fosters

Knowing how to listen

movement in the direction of new goals, goals that are understood and shared. They create a sense of

The most successful leaders at the national and

the “common good” in the work of the institution

institutional levels were those who knew how to listen.

or ministry. The work on quality assurance and

That means more than stopping to pay attention to

accreditation is an excellent example of this. The initial

different views—it includes actually hearing and paying

reaction to the proposal for accreditation was “this is

attention to other views in ways that the speaker

not Afghan” and “it won’t be acceptable here.” Yet the

recognizes and the leader responds to. That response

discussions went forward, differences were worked out,

might be accepting the suggestion, partly adjusting

and work continued with a sense of common purpose

his or her position in response to it, or spelling out

over the next six months by the bright, thoughtful

the reasons for rejecting it. Not many leaders, in my

faculty and administrative leaders brought together

experience, have that talent. This became clear to me

to consider accreditation. By the end of that period,

during my first months in the ministry. It amazed

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Chapter 4

me how many discussions, led by some member of

one resigned because of fear, though in several cases

a commission, a consultant, an administrator, or

the threats were very real, including death threats. In

a university chancellor, quickly degenerated into

at least one case, family members were also threatened,

monologues. Other views were seldom sought or if they

and it was deemed necessary to move the children to a

were acknowledged, seldom taken seriously or acted

safer school. To these leaders’ credit, in only one case

upon. Little serious discussion or collective action

that I am aware of was a threat successful in affecting

resulted during these gatherings. Often eyes rolled.

a decision, and that was disguised by a majority vote by intimidated officials. This was a unique case that

Asking questions

caused great consternation. That is the only incident of that kind during the five years I worked in the

Related to listening is the willingness to ask questions,

ministry. Overall, in higher education people did not

to ask for a fuller explanation; for example, “What

give in to threats when they occurred. Partly that

do you think about that issue?” And then pay careful

was a tribute to the trust built up among leaders and

attention to the comments or suggestions, and when a

participants in the process. Partly it was the strength

good solution is suggested, agree and move forward.

of the commitment to what was being done. And when

Several of the members of the committees and

people were threatened, and there were quite a few,

commissions were old hands in the MoHE, and they

they talked to these leaders who then took appropriate

had a great deal of experience to draw on—experience

action in ways that solidified that trust.

they were sometimes unwilling to share when faced with dominant leaders who didn’t listen. When they

Dealing with corruption

were heard, they usually had useful suggestions, often reminding people of existing rules or regulations that

In an environment in which corruption was rife, it was

needed to be taken into consideration or incorporated

possible nonetheless for a handful of people to end

to ensure success.

the corruption in the Kankor admissions examination process because they had reputations as honest

Instilling trust

leaders committed to working for the common good, the energy to undertake the task, and the authority to

A key characteristic of successful leaders in

make badly needed changes. That was how Minister

Afghanistan was the ability to instill trust and loyalty.

Dadfar and Deputy Minister Babury managed to clean

Several of the leaders, including Minister Fayez,

up corruption in the admissions process. And once

Minister Dadfar, and Deputy Minister Babury, as well

these efforts succeeded the leadership continued to

as several members of the commissions had that skill

work hard to ensure that corruption did not reappear.

and it paid off handsomely. Others did not, and that

That required regular attention to the process—

was soon clear to everyone. For some, it was their

travelling to examination sites, talking to invigilators,

failure to keep promises in the past. For others it was

watching students take the examination, and, if people

lack of principles or their unwillingness to stand up

were caught cheating, making sure proper procedures

to bullying or threats. There were a few people others

were followed to remove and punish those responsible.

trusted completely—even with their lives. And in

In the financial area it required careful ongoing

several cases that trust was needed when members of

oversight and regular review of expenditures. When

commissions or administrators were threatened. No

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Chapter 4

the corruption reappeared, and once again those same

move on to try another. As I look back at the leaders at

leaders were called back to help restore trust and order.

the MoHE and in the universities during this period, it is clear that most of them worked to be successful.

One characteristic of weak leadership is that it spawns

For some the prize was power, authority, deference, or

more weak leadership in the people around it. As

obedience, while for others it was more communal—

Bennis (2007, p. 3) notes, Lipman-Blumen reminds

seeking broad systemwide benefits for society,

us in The Allure of Toxic Leaders (Oxford University

students, faculty members, and the public. The latter

Press, 2006) that “most of the time we choose our bad

focus had a lot to do with the success of many of the

leaders, they do not kidnap us.” And it was almost eerie

leaders in the long run.

how again and again these weak leaders would bring onboard other weak people who detracted from and

Former Minister Fayez, talking about his first day in

often derailed the work of a team. This was particularly

the ministry in 2002, reported that he found it and the

true of one of the MoHE directors, who himself was

staff in total disarray. There was no water or electricity

seldom present at meetings, but who seemed to

in the building, parts of it were damaged, none of the

manage to send in his place people who continually

bathrooms worked, people were wandering around,

disrupted the discussion and hindered progress.

and no one seemed to know what to do.2 The first step was to get the system running effectively again, and

Principled adaptability

that required regaining control of the directorates and the institutions. Some of the universities had

The most important quality of successful leaders

been taken over by warlords or politicians, and

in Afghanistan is what some authors have called

others were closed. Part of this effort involved having

“principled adaptability”—the ability to adjust to

elections, overseen by the MoHE, for chancellors at

changing circumstances while still maintaining one’s

some universities. The plan was to bring the higher

moral compass. In the war conditions of Afghanistan,

education institutions back under central control and

with the constantly changing environment, limited

then decentralize (Fayez 2012). The elections ushered

resources, growing frustration with the failures of

in new leadership at those institutions—leadership that

government, and lack of promised financial support,

had legitimacy and was open to new ideas. The process

leaders needed to be adaptable and flexible within

worked because of the esteem in which the minister

limited ethical parameters. Bennis (2007) suggests

was held. In the months that followed, Minister Fayez

that adaptive capacity or resilience is the most

made a start on a strategic action plan, building on

important quality of leadership, and I agree. The

work he had started in Washington, DC, early in

success in bringing some level of transformation to

his administration.3 The MoHE focused on making

higher education in Afghanistan was a tribute to the

the most urgently needed repairs to institutional

adaptability and flexibility of the leaders and their

infrastructures, worked on a new higher education

commitment to integrity. As Bennis (2007, p. 5) notes,

law, and prepared a decentralization plan. That work

“They create a sense of mission, they motivate others

was interrupted when a new minister was appointed

to join them on that mission, they create an adaptive

in December 2004, driven by President Karzai’s

social architecture for their followers, they generate

efforts to have ministers with large followings that he

trust and optimism, they develop other leaders, and

hoped would help him in the forthcoming presidential

they get results.” If one strategy doesn’t work, they

elections. Minister Fayez had been in the United States www.scup.org

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Chapter 4

Projecting a vision

could call on. Another important trait of successful leaders is the With the new minister, the MoHE seemed to drift for a

ability to have and project a vision for the future.

time. To some extent this was due to weak leadership;

Prof. M. O. Babury was appointed deputy minister for

it was also due in part to public suspicion of growing

academic affairs in April 2007. He exemplifies what

corruption in the Kankor admissions process and in

can be done with a clear vision for change. He arrived

the Office of the Deputy Minister for Academic Affairs.

at the MoHE with a vision for higher education that

The main interest of that deputy minister seemed to be

focused on improving quality. He started by working

opportunities to travel with little being done for higher

to establish a foundation of rules and procedures for

education institutions.

governance, recruitment, promotions, students, and faculty. Next he focused on quality assurance and

There were two bright spots during this period—the

accreditation (broadly speaking) including faculty

first was the World Bank’s Strengthening Higher

development, curriculum upgrading and improvement,

Education Program (SHEP), initiated by Minister

and improvement in teaching. What distinguished the

Fayez, which provided $40 million starting in July

deputy minister was his thorough understanding of

2005 to help rebuild and improve higher education.

higher education coupled with a clear vision for raising

That was a major boost for the MoHE. The second, in

the quality of higher education and a plan for making

September 2005, was the USAID-supported Higher

that vision a reality. He envisioned a fundamentally

Education Project (HEP), which provided $40 million

transformed higher education system. That included

focused primarily on improving education faculties,

moving from appointments made through the “old

developing master’s programs in education and

boy’s network”—who you knew, who you pleased, who

public administration, and establishing a program

favored you for whatever reasons—to a system based

to strengthen the capacity of the participating

on merit—what you had done, your training, your

institutions. The project was broadened in scope in

research and publications, your teaching success, your

2009 to include assistance with the preparation of a

service. That in itself was transformational. Some of

strategic plan for the MoHE; quality assurance and

his vision was based on the past successes of Afghan

accreditation; curriculum upgrading; student services

higher education when it was one of the best systems

at 10 universities; professional development centers

in the region—one in which there was a great deal of

at 15 higher education institutions; increased MoHE

important research produced, teachers were devoted

capacity management; ministry and university staff

to their students, and faculty members were involved

training; assistance to the Human Resource Cluster

in the governance of higher education and in making

ministries (Ministry of Education, Ministry of Higher

contributions to the needs of Afghanistan.

Education, Ministry of Women’s Affairs, Ministry of Public Health, and the Ministry of Labor, Social

Having a plan

Affairs, Martyrs and Disables); and advice on policy matters to the ministry.

A vision for the future must be turned into concrete plans. While strategic planning in higher education had been discussed as early as 2002 when Minister Fayez was thinking about an action plan, and although www.scup.org

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Chapter 4

over the years several draft plans had been prepared,

some of them just won’t buy in, at least at first.” Indeed,

it was not until 2009 that a strategic plan was put in

some of the senior leaders were not on board with

place and actually followed by the MoHE. The National

this vision, although Minister Dadfar proved to be a

Higher Education Strategic Plan: 2010–2014 was

powerful supporter. The deputy minister recognized

developed over nine months in 2009. It was initiated

that more support was needed than just that of the

by Minister Dadfar and Deputy Minister Babury early

minister and worked carefully to build a broad base

that year. A steering committee was put in place to help

of support for the changes he envisioned. Part of

prepare the plan. It was a collective effort involving

that support was developed through the various

a number of sub-committees and bringing together

commissions he appointed, including Publications,

leaders from various higher education institutions,

Research, and Curriculum Renewal and later the

NGOs, donor groups, and others. Its two major goals,

Quality Assurance and Accreditation Commission and

as noted earlier, were quality improvement and

the Curriculum Commission. He also worked with

increased access, broadly defined. What was different

the chancellors of the Kabul universities and several

about this plan was that it reflected broad agreement

other major universities including those in Herat,

in the higher education community about the direction

Nangarhar, and Balkh through regular meetings in

and goals for higher education, the meaning of

Kabul. Part of his success in bringing about change was

quality improvement in terms of faculty development,

the care he took in posing questions and discussing

curriculum change and upgrading, and new faculty

the related issues in detail. He didn’t say, “We are

rules and procedures, as well as a broad commitment

going to transform higher education or we are going to

to rebuilding and improving the quality of almost

eliminate nepotism.” But he did talk a great deal about

every aspect of higher education. Unlike so many other

the changes needed, putting them forward one at a

strategic plans in Afghanistan and elsewhere, the plan

time. He would start in a general way and work down

was not relegated to the bookcase. Rather, this plan

to specifics later in the discussion.

actually became the basis for almost all decisions and actions of the MoHE, the focus of donor funding, and

Quality improvement is a good example of this

the basis for individual institutional strategic plans.

approach. No one is against quality improvement. So

Given the consensus that had been developed around

he started talking about quality improvement, and

the plan, movement toward the achievement of its

everyone agreed that needed to be done, especially

goals eventually was largely uncontested (with a few

after years of war and little investment in higher

exceptions), and it became part of the fabric of higher

education. But how might that be done? One way

education planning and action for the next five years.

was to improve the quality of the people hired. That discussion led, over time, to talking about the qualities

Coalition building

needed in new faculty members, and that eventually led to merit hiring. No one talked about abolishing the

Deputy Minister Babury understood that it was not

old boy’s network—but that is how it happened. That

enough to just have a vision and a plan; the goals had

discussion also eventually led to a discussion about

to be spelled out in detail and have broad support

quality assurance in general. During these discussions,

from what Kotter (1996, p. 6) calls a “powerful guiding

the deputy minister asked me to write a concept paper

coalition.” As Kotter (1996, p. 6) notes, “This group

about how that might be done, and that became the

rarely includes all of the most senior people because

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The commissions were an important part of turning

carefully written and thought out that it was hard to

the vision into reality. In the beginning the meetings

disagree with what was said.

would start with a presentation, usually by the deputy minister, about some aspect of quality improvement.

Thus, over a period of years, the deputy minister

It might be faculty development and how to expand

communicated his vision bit by bit, and the members

it. It might be some thoughts on faculty research

of the commissions, as leaders in their own right,

based on a concept paper I had written, or it might

spread it too, as did the chancellors who were regularly

reflect a problem that had arisen about teaching—an

consulted along the way. I can remember only one

absent faculty member, student complaints, employer

occasion on which there was a strong objection to

complaints. It might then lead to a discussion about

any of this, and that was at a very early meeting of

faculty responsibilities—and that discussion in time

chancellors from all the public higher education

would lead to the commission writing something

institutions. Part way through a discussion of faculty

about the expectations for faculty members regarding

rules and procedures one of the very conservative

publications. Or, the deputy minister might have a

chancellors from the south interrupted and said, “We

concept paper translated into Dari so that it could be

shouldn’t be talking about these changes—we have no

read and discussed by a commission. One of those

right to do that—a law must be passed first—we should

concept papers was on accreditation (Hayward 2009).

adjourn and wait for that.” Most of the chancellors

It was read and passed around. The gist of the early

present were stunned. This was a kind of reverse

discussion was that the idea of accreditation was

notion of democracy—the idea that decisions still

interesting but not something that could be done in

had to come from the top. Nonetheless the general

Afghanistan. Yet over time, people came back to it, and

discussion continued and no one left the meeting.

in due course it became the basis of the Criteria for

There were some differences of opinion expressed

Accreditation (standards) for the country.

during the discussions about how various policies should be carried out. And there were some issues

Although the deputy minister was at the helm of this

that were not brought up at all in such meetings, such

effort, it was a collective process. There were a number

as gender equity, because the MoHE leadership knew

of very bright and experienced faculty members on

they were divisive, especially with the conservative

these commissions, especially the Quality Assurance

chancellors from the south. The MoHE leadership

Commission. They were leaders in their fields and their

would wait until a year later to begin to work publicly

institutions. They didn’t always agree as they moved

on that subject.

forward but worked through the issues carefully and thoughtfully. The deputy minister attended almost

Divisive issues were worked on in small groups,

every meeting, but if he could not, he received a

little by little. Minister Dadfar and Deputy Minister

briefing about it. The care and thought that went

Babury had a sixth sense for that too—what ideas to

into each sentence of the policies prepared by the

lead with and what ideas to put off until a later date.

commission members was sometimes frustrating, but

Nonetheless, the overall vision was communicated

as one of the members said, we may have to defend

regularly over several years in a variety of forms and

these in court at some point so let’s get it right. That

in a variety of ways, along with strategies about how

care proved to be critical to success in the long run

to achieve the goals involved.4 Part of the success can

because the processes, rules, and regulations were so

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minister. It put people at ease and fostered discussion

critical to higher education success in the long run.

rather than dissent. Through it all there was the strong

Sometimes it was hard for people to see the value in

support of Minister Dadfar. There was nothing shrill

a particular proposal at first, as was the case early on

or dogmatic about the discussions. Green (1997, p. 37)

for accreditation. Yet, over time people saw that it was

captures this talent well when she writes, “through the

a process based on shared values—the same values

moral force of their words and actions, they can set an

used to select students based on merit—so how could

example for the community.” The two of them made a

it be otherwise when it came institutional quality

very powerful team.

assurance? That too must be a decision based on merit.

Managing change

Critical to moving the change agenda forward was a group of committed, talented, and experienced faculty

One of the great talents of Deputy Minister Babury is his ability to manage change. He does so in a quiet, clear manner that brings people in, shows them the logic of the change, and explains its importance. As Green (1997, pp. 36–37) notes, “As higher education around the world undergoes profound change, leaders must shape the process to the extent feasible, monitoring and interpreting the external environment and providing a forum for change to be discussed, understood, debated, and implemented.” That was what was done again and again over five years—with great success. Despite the fact that the country was at war and many of the changes being proposed were far reaching, in the end most higher education leaders came to see that each of the goals had an important place in higher education and reflected values that were

members who served on the various committees and commissions of the MoHE. Their contributions, along with those of Minister Muhammad Azam Dadfar and Deputy Minister Mohammad Osman Babury, were profound. They included Prof. Hamidullah Amin (geography), Prof. Mohammad Hassan Rashiq (head of the Academic Affairs Coordination Department), Dr. Danish (medicine), Ahmad Shaw (engineering), Homa Khalid (engineering), Dr. Wahid Omar (HEP), Prof. Anwar Afzal (medicine), and Prof. Gul Mohammad Tanin (veterinary science). All of these individuals were important to the success of the policies prepared during this period and to spreading the word to faculty members at the various institutions. They brought a great deal of wisdom, experience, integrity, honesty, and talent to the activities of the MoHE as well as a willingness to spend long hours thinking through the needs, challenges, and strategies essential to MoHE success. As senior faculty members they drew on their experience and understanding of higher education, its changes over the years, and the problems it faced. Collectively, they were an excellent source of knowledge about higher education history, rules and regulations, problems faced in the past, useful ways to get things done, experience with various other ministries and departments, and ideas about the future. These faculty members encompassed a

Minister Dadfur, Deputy Minister Babury, and the author, right to left. Photo by MoHE.

pool of experience that was absolutely essential to the progress made. The fact that Minister Dadfar and www.scup.org

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Deputy Minster Babury were able to attract this group

and pursued. Some chose to flee to other countries

of intellectuals and practical leaders to work with the

where they could teach and work without hindrance.

MoHE was a major part of the success in bringing

Over the next 15 years about half the faculty and staff

about the changes that took place during this period.

left higher education. Most found academic positions abroad. Those faculty members who left were primarily

Sense of community

the best—those outspoken in the defense of academic autonomy, freedom to carry out research on any topic,

One of the memories from the 1960s and 1970s

and a university free of political interference. Thus

occasionally shared by faculty members and former

they tended to be targets, first of the communists, then

students of higher education in Afghanistan was the

others, and finally the Taliban. As the losses mounted,

sense of academic community that existed in academic

those who remained became more cautious, stayed to

life at its major universities, Kabul University,

themselves, did their work, and kept quiet. Research

Nangarhar University, and Kabul Polytechnic

efforts declined, as did the funding for them, and

University. They were centers of active research

those most versed in research methods departed. The

on important issues in agriculture, engineering,

quality of teaching too declined as faculty members

geography, and other areas. Teaching was highly

were lost or feared to express their views, and where

regarded, and its quality attracted students from

replacements were found, most had only bachelor’s

all over the region. Faculty members cooperated on

degrees and very much less experience to offer

research and held lively discussions about their work,

students.

findings, and challenges. They had a powerful shared academic culture. As one writer notes, “To speak of a

A key question for leadership in 2015 is how to rebuild

‘universal academic culture’ is not an overstatement.

the academic culture that once prevailed in the major

The values of unfettered inquiry, the pursuit of

institutions—the sense of community in university

knowledge for its own sake, the quest for freedom from

academic life. Related to that is the question of how

external interference, and the dedication to preparing

to rebuild the culture of teaching and research.

the next generation of leaders, professionals, and

That has turned out to be a difficult task. Part of the

citizens are transcendent academic values” (Green

problem is the history of repression, interference, and

1997, p. 40).

distrust developed over the previous 30 years. That legacy has not been erased from the minds of most

Over the years following the Soviet invasion, the

faculty members. Much of what is needed is difficult

links that created that sense of academic community

to replicate—the academic excellence that comes

were weakened as ideology began to be forced into

from well-trained faculty members with master’s

faculty discussions, harassment began to interrupt

degrees and Ph.D.s and extensive research experience.

university activities, and political factors began

Recognizing these challenges, the MoHE has been

to intrude into institutional administration and

working, as noted earlier, to build a larger core of

activity. The freedom that is at the heart of academic

well-trained faculty members. While that work is in

productivity disappeared as faculty members were

progress, moving from fewer than five percent of the

pressured or arrested for their beliefs and academic

faculty with a Ph.D. to a minimum of 25 percent will

values were attacked or hampered. A number of faculty

take time. And I suspect that is what it will take to

members were imprisoned; others were intimidated

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only 30 percent of the faculty have master’s degrees

members on the commissions understood the need

despite a major effort by the MoHE to send faculty

to emphasize the importance of university and higher

members abroad for master’s training as well as to

education autonomy. When faced with interference

significantly expand the number of master’s programs

in person, the deputy minister would often read from

in Afghanistan from a mere four to the more than 42

appropriate passages in the higher education law or

today. While the number of faculty members returning

MoHE regulations showing why he could not accede to

with higher degrees continues to grow, it is a slow

a particular request. This was surprisingly successful

process.

with MPs. However, pressure from higher up was often more difficult to resist. The deputy minister would

Those faculty members returning from master’s and

often respond that such an action would be unlawful.

Ph.D. study abroad, and indeed many of those getting

That usually worked.

master’s degrees in Afghanistan, are bringing with them a new interest in teaching and learning based

Corruption, as mentioned earlier, was another

on a student-centered approach, a real desire to carry

challenge for leadership. It was a challenge at

out research into nationally important problems

many levels—in the ministry, especially regarding

and issues, and a new sense of attachment to their

admissions in the pre-2007 period, and in

universities and their colleagues. It will take time to

construction. Corruption was also seen from time

rebuild an effective academic community at even the

to time with faculty members, though it was not a

best of the universities, though I suspect that those

widespread problem. The most frequent occurrence

with the largest number of faculty members returning

involving the faculty related to review sessions prior

from master’s and Ph.D. training abroad and master’s

to examinations when a faculty member might offer

training in Afghanistan will be the first to do so. I am

a review session—for a fee. Nonetheless, students,

confident that it will be in place within the next five

faculty members, and administrators were on the

years.

lookout for this, and it was not a major problem. There were other types of petty corruption—requests for

Political interference

favors, special treatment, bending the rules—involving senior government officials or other important people.

There are other challenges for higher education

As mentioned elsewhere, Deputy Minister Babury was

leadership as well, and political interference is one of

well known for turning these requests down, and fewer

them. In the sections that follow I provide a number of

MPs came by with such requests as the years went

examples of political interference in higher education—

by. But there were others who were only too eager to

both at individual institutions and in the system as

please and saw this as part of their role. The biggest

a whole. That has to be resisted as much as possible,

opportunities for corruption were in construction

though resistance is often a difficult dance. Those in

projects, which had so many contracts, obstacles,

positions of power in government often believe that

and cost issues that they provided fertile ground. I

they are in charge of everything in higher education,

did not deal directly with this area, and the deputy

and they often fail to see that their authority has limits

minister avoided it. Thus, I have no direct knowledge

or, when they do understand that, they see themselves

of what transpired. Nonetheless, the feeling that

as exceptions. Both Minister Dadfar and Deputy

corruption was rife in purchasing and construction

Minister Babury as well as a number of the faculty

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senior MoHE officials, who therefore avoided having

with him over the last six years, I would lay out his

anything to do with construction. Hopefully, with a

strategy as follows: First, identify the major goals for

new government in place, this is an area that can be

the next few years. In this case the two major goals

attacked with the same success that the MoHE had in

were quality improvement and increased access.

cleaning up the admissions process.

That included faculty development (master’s and Ph.D. training), curriculum upgrading, gender equity,

Lack of resources

accreditation, upgrades for laboratories and facilities, decentralization of administration and finance,

The lack of resources, as noted previously, has always

doubling student access with a focus on women

been a challenge for leaders in higher education. In

and underserved areas, upgrading private higher

earlier years, the MoHE had not done well in making

education, merit hiring and promotion, and revision of

the case for funding for higher education. This was

faculty and student rules and procedures. Though we

especially striking in comparison to the Ministry of

never talked about it explicitly, I think he then ranked

Education, whose minister, Ghulam Farooq Wardak,

them in his head in terms of both the ease of doing

was a master at fund-raising. He also had the

them and the likely opposition.

advantage of the strong push by UNESCO and other donors to fund Education for All, which was a very

The most important goals would then be discussed

popular worldwide project supported by most donors

broadly, and the more complicated of them turned

with the goal of having universal primary education

over to a commission. Several of these goals were

by 2015. The Ministry of Education continually did

very difficult, especially gender equity, which had

well in both annual funding and supplemental funding

already elicited some strong opposition when it was

from donors compared to the MoHE. Over the last

included in the NHESP: 2010–2014. However, there

four years, the MoHE began to push hard to make the

was also major criticism by a number of donors that its

case for funding higher education and started to have

inclusion was too weak. That latter argument misread

some success in terms of the government subvention.

the current public attitude in Afghanistan. Indeed,

However, that was not the case with donor funding

in order to have the term “gender equity” in the plan

generally. Donor funding continued to come primarily

at all as a long-term goal, the MoHE had to agree to

from only two sources, the World Bank and USAID.

leave out the term “affirmative action” and reduce the mention of gender to only one short section in the plan

Timing Another of the challenges for leadership was the question of timing. Given the large number of changes that the MoHE hoped to put in place, how could one know when a change could be introduced successfully? How should changes be sequenced? Which ones should come first? Which could be put forward right away? Which needed to be delayed? The consummate master in developing an appropriate strategy and timing is Deputy Minister Babury. As I look back on working

in contrast to the many examples and mentions in the original draft. Thus, gender equity was placed as a lower priority, though this did not change the MoHE’s continuing effort to improve the situation for female students and female faculty members. Similarly, it was clear that there would not be enough funding to do much in the way of upgrading facilities. That too was put further down the list. The highest priority was quality improvement with its many parts. While that was a complicated goal with multiple sub-goals, it could be started right away. One aspect of quality www.scup.org

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improvement was faculty development, which focused

Gender equity was an issue about which there was

on giving more faculty members opportunities to

strong opposition from conservative religious groups,

obtain master’s degrees and Ph.D.s. While it was

the Taliban, and others. The MoHE had responded

recognized that money might be a problem given the

to that somewhat by limiting the discussion about

cost of study abroad, there was no opposition to faculty

it in the NHESP, as noted earlier. Nonetheless, the

development so it was started immediately with some

MoHE continued to work to increase the number of

World Bank and USAID funding.

female students and faculty members. At the same time, a small group at the MoHE worked on a higher

The MoHE was worried about the access problem.

education gender strategy. Much of that document was

While everyone agreed that access, especially for

shared with various groups including the leadership of

women and people from deprived areas, should be

the Ministry of Women’s Affairs, female MPs, senior

increased, the MoHE was concerned about the lack

female faculty members, some male faculty members,

of classrooms, dormitories, laboratories, and faculty

some of the chancellors of major universities, and

members. However, it was clear that the real challenge

senior members of the MoHE. The draft was in its

was going to be how to limit the increase in the number

final form for almost a year while it was read and

of students given the growing number of graduates

reviewed by many people, with minor revisions made

from secondary school, not how to increase access. The

as suggestions came in over that period. Indeed, some

NHESP: 2010–2014 goal was to double access from

of those who read it wanted it strengthened to include

about 55,000 students to 115,000 by 2014. That goal

additional items such as housing for single female

was encouraged from the outset. In a sense, the deputy

faculty members, free daycare, and a 30 percent target

minister did a kind of cost-benefit analysis of all the

for female faculty members. Those suggestions were

goals and ranked them starting with those he knew

not financially feasible and so could not be accepted,

had support or, as in the case of access, would occur

but the overall result was that very few changes were

regardless. Thus the MoHE moved forward on faculty

needed when the document was finally released in Dari

development, increased access, and a number of rules

and Pashtu in 2015.

and regulations that would take time to develop but were not controversial.

The following is another example of timing related to the issue of dealing with controversial topics.

Accreditation faced some opposition, which the deputy

When would be the right time to release a potentially

minister recognized. But by linking it with quality

controversial document like the gender strategy—or to

assurance, which everyone supported, the MoHE

introduce a major change such as merit recruitment

could start thinking about it. The quality improvement

and promotions or decentralization of financial

process required devising a method to assess quality

and administrative authority? It turned out that

at the institutions—in the long run, accreditation.

the latter case was easy. The opposition to financial

The deputy minister knew that this would be a

decentralization had come primarily from the

time-consuming process. To get started, he set up a

Ministry of Finance. Its concern was that people at

Commission on Quality Assurance and Accreditation,

the universities did not have the training to monitor

a process discussed earlier. This would lay the

funding. This was an argument the MoHE had heard

groundwork for accreditation.

for years. The MoHE had argued, “How can they demonstrate capacity if we do not give them some www.scup.org

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opportunity to show they can do it?” To deal with

a stamp of approval, permission, or some other

this problem, the MoHE set up a pilot finance project

document. Students mostly want grades, transfers,

with the four Kabul-based universities. After a year

or permissions of one sort or another. It is always like

the Ministry of Finance could see that they had the

that, more crowded when examination results are

capacity needed since they did very well.

due, sometimes frantic, but usually calm. Then there are those who work in the building moving with great

Failing to gain agreement from Parliament to amend

purpose, the more senior in dark suits, the more junior

the Higher Education Act to allow decentralization

often with a tie, and others in traditional dress. There

for reasons having nothing to do with the law or

are very few women working in the building, and only

any other MoHE issues,5 the ministry put together

a few student petitioners are women. When you see

a “MoHE Regulation” to allow the decentralization

them their heads are covered and they are wearing

of major areas of finance. A regulation only requires

long skirts or pants. Somehow, by 4:00 p.m. the crowds

the approval of the Ministry of Finance, Ministry of

have dispersed with signatures received, answers

Justice, and Cabinet. In November 2013, they gave that

given, data secured, or efforts unsuccessful and so with

approval, and the MoHE began to prepare for greater

plans to return another day.

financial decentralization at the major universities. Higher education, like everything else in Afghanistan, I once asked the deputy minister how he knew when

is highly centralized, following a long history of

the time was right to introduce a change. He replied,

centralization in government and education. Even if

“After you have talked to everyone about it, tried to

you start with a clerk in your search for permission to

sway the opposition, and then begin to hear your

transfer to another institution, for example, in the end

arguments for the change coming back to you, that is

you will need the signature of a high official. But you

when you know you can move forward.” He was very

will usually need to go to two or three offices before

good at setting the stage for consensus. Once when we

you can get to that. Even the most minor university

were discussing this issue he said something like, “You

requests normally have to be run through the ministry.

listen to the wind. When you hear that it is all right,

The forms for admission to a university are there,

you move forward.” That seemed like a wonderful

as are the admissions examination forms needed to

description of the process. The deputy minister was a

take the Kankor; identification cards; transcripts of

master at that—he had a very good ear—and that was a

grades; forms for permission to change university, drop

key to success.

courses after the deadline, or take an examination a second time; and proof of graduation—almost every

Bureaucracy without Authority One thing that strikes you when entering the MoHE is that the halls and offices are always packed with people, mostly students, waiting for something. There are also older people of all ages moving from office to office, some with folders full of papers and some clearly MPs or other important officials, seeking a signature,

kind of documentation requires a trip to the ministry and one or more signatures. This is a product of a hierarchical society and a hierarchical political system with a long history. It is so entrenched that people at lower levels who might have the authority to make decisions frequently defer to higher authorities so that there is no risk of them making a mistake. And so decisions keep getting www.scup.org

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referred to a higher level to the point that even the

Something like the desire to transfer to another

most efficient administrator is overloaded. All this

institution (due to, for example, family circumstances,

takes time, and thus even a simple procedure like

a spouse having a job in the area, or a family crisis)

getting a transcript can take several days or a week.

also requires a trip to the ministry. Why this is the case is a mystery. The rules about transfers are spelled

The need for the signature of a senior person on

out clearly: when they can take place, the conditions

almost any major document takes up a great deal of

under which they are allowed, and the agreements

the time of senior administrators like the minister

required of those involved. Why should transfers

or deputy ministers. Every graduate’s diploma must

involve the ministry? If there was a major question or

be signed by the minister and at least one deputy

disagreement about a particular case, then that might

minister. Last year 25,000 students graduated from

have to be referred to a higher level, but not every case.

public higher education institutions. Thus the minister and deputy minister spent parts of many days just

All financial matters are also centralized in the

signing these documents. In most parts of the world

ministry. Until recently, many of the institutions

these documents would be signed by the university

didn’t even have a clear idea of their budgets. They

chancellor and perhaps a dean of the college involved

had virtually no authority to make purchases, order

or the president of the council. They would not be

supplies, make minor repairs, or even replace a broken

signed by the head of the system.

window without ministry approval. Indeed, almost all purchases had to go through the ministry. Similarly, all

All promotions at the 36 public institutions must

funds received had to be turned over to the ministry

be signed by the minister and deputy minister for

and sent to the treasury. Funds earned from university

academic affairs. In the rest of the world they would be

activities were also sent to the treasury. And in cases

signed by the relevant department chair and perhaps

where money was made on a project, such as fees

the appropriate dean. Even the chancellor would not

collected from teaching a night class or analyzing

be involved. Yet in Afghanistan all these documents

drugs for the Ministry of Public Health, the funds went

pass through the ministry, are reviewed by several

to the treasury. The cost of salaries or of the analysis

people, and are signed by at least two or more senior

could not be deducted from the money paid for the

administrators.

service. All the funds received had to be turned over and in most cases were not seen again. Needless to say,

Getting a transcript of grades or proof of graduation

this discouraged entrepreneurial activity.

also requires a trip to the ministry and a visit to two or three offices. It also requires a trip to the institution

In November 2013, after years of trying, the MoHE

in question. Sometimes one must also pay a small

finally obtained approval of a regulation that allows

fee for copies of the documents. At one time these

higher education institutions to raise funds through

requirements might have been due to lack of trust,

entrepreneurial and other means and keep the profits.

but that is not the case now for the major institutions.

These could be spent on university needs. Of course,

Yet the process still takes up a great deal of the time

proper financial accounting procedures are required.

of many different people, disrupts the work of senior

This is a very important reform that will provide

people who must sign the documents, and wastes a lot

badly needed flexibility to university administration,

of time for the student or others—often days.

encourage fund-raising and entrepreneurialism, and www.scup.org

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inspire donors to provide funding. In the past, donor

construction projects and some senior administrators

funding would usually end up in the treasury and not

to fail to push for needed infrastructure projects

be seen again. Especially important, this change will

knowing that some funds would be lost or wasted.

allow much greater decentralization of funding to the institutional level, which will free institutions to

Recruitment of faculty members and staff begins

respond quickly to urgent needs—repairs to broken

at the department level (except at new institutions,

windows after an explosion, chemicals for a new

which work with an established institution like Kabul

experiment, or a requirement for matching funds from

University) once an institution has a vacancy or new

a donor. In the short term, the Ministry of Finance

position. The position must be advertised, candidates

has required a waiting period of one year to access

interviewed, and a top person selected. At that point

these funds. That defeats part of the purpose of the

the candidate must be approved by the institutional

regulation. The MoHE is working to have that rule

academic council. Once that is done, the selection is

changed.

reviewed by the MoHE. A rule change in 2009 requires all faculty members to be recruited and promoted

Major projects will continue to be handled from the

based on merit and reviewed annually based on their

ministry, including construction that needs to be

teaching, research, and service. This change has been

planned on a systemwide basis, overall recruitment

embraced by faculty members because it is transparent

of faculty members and staff, and salary decisions.

and fair and ensures that the old boy’s network is

Construction, in particular, needs to be centrally

not the defining interest in hiring and promotion.

planned. While each higher education institution

Reviews of new hires and promotions at the ministerial

should have a strategic plan, they are not always

level have found few cases in which the proposed

followed. Construction planning is often influenced by

candidates did not meet the requirements. The biggest

local MPs or donors without reference to the strategic

problems have occurred at the senior level where

plan or a needs assessment. And as noted, there is

several requests for promotion have failed because the

not enough money allocated to meet infrastructure

published material presented did not include original

needs. As a result, there is a shortage of classrooms,

material or did not reach the level of quality required.

dormitories for women, and laboratories. The

Reviewers at the MoHE level have been troubled by

classroom shortage grows out of the old assumption

several cases of plagiarism, and in at least one case the

that higher education was an elite process with small

reviewers were reluctant to reject it. Nonetheless, it

classes. That is no longer the case since in the face of

was rejected in the end.

6

rising demand higher education is moving to a more mass-based system. Most current classrooms are

It should be possible to decentralize the whole

designed for 30 to 40 students. The large numbers

recruitment and promotion process to the institutions

now enrolling require more large classrooms, more

as is the case in many other parts of the world.

laboratories, and more facilities that are multi-use to

However, some of the newer institutions are not yet

allow for student-centered instruction. Construction

mature enough at this stage to do so. In the long run

remains subject to corruption, and it is my belief that

both recruitment and promotion cases should be

corruption has resulted in substantial losses of funds,

decided at the institutional level with a review by an

lower quality, and decisions based on goals other than

appropriate MoHE committee or senior official only for

academic need. This has led donors to shy away from www.scup.org

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professorial-level hires and promotions—that is at the

now that a regulation to allow the decentralization

level of assistant, associate, or full professor.

of finances has been approved. That should help to both increase efficiency and provide for greater

The current centralized processes required for the

accountability at the institutional level. The current

approval of a wide variety of requests ranging from

lag between when a request is made by a university

something as simple as solving an individual grade

and the time it is approved remains far too long. For

problem to something as complex as obtaining

example, after a recent bomb attack outside Kabul

approval for a women’s dormitory consume an

Education University that broke hundreds of windows,

inordinate amount of time in the ministry and

some department heads paid for new windows out

necessitate the involvement of a large number of

of their own pockets because the ministry process

people. Even the simplest of requests can take days

was too slow to ensure that equipment was safe or to

to be approved. It is rare that something can be

keep out the winter cold. The ability of departments

approved with a single signature. In many cases the

and institutions to respond quickly to emergencies,

process is made even more time consuming by the

research needs, ordinary upkeep, and repairs will

failure of people to be in their office when they should.

be greatly enhanced with the new decentralization

Absenteeism is common. By 3:00 p.m. most days,

policies. This should end an era of bureaucracy without

the ministry is virtually empty except for a small

authority, enhance responsiveness, and improve

number of hard-working and loyal staff members, most

efficiency. These changes should also raise morale and

working for the deputy minister for academic affairs.

enhance quality.

There are those staff members who make people come back another day as a way of showing how powerful they are. Sometimes the delays are caused by junior staff members who just don’t feel like doing whatever is needed—finding the file, identifying eligibility, checking a score—so they delay things for a day or two. Prior to 2007, bribes were often demanded for admission to certain programs, especially engineering and medicine. Admission to a medical school could cost $10,000. It was also possible to have your admissions examination score raised for $200–$500. These problems were attacked starting in 2007 by the minister and the deputy minister for academic affairs. Several dozen people were fired before the admissions and examination processes were cleaned up. Since that time, ongoing vigilance has ensured that such

The Minister of Higher Education There were five ministers of higher education during the term of President Karzai. I have worked with all of them, some more closely than others. All were appointed by the president but required approval of Parliament, and several nominees were rejected. Each of these ministers had a very different leadership style ranging from authoritarian and top down to near-absentee leadership; there were leadership styles featuring collegiality, bullying, and a variety of other approaches as you will see in the pages that follow. The first minister of higher education appointed

corruption has not reappeared.

by President Karzai at the beginning of the interim

Decentralization of a great deal of financial and

until 2004. I first met him in July 2002 in the United

administrative authority to the institutions is a goal of the NHESP, and it is beginning to be implemented

government was Sharif Fayez who served from 2002 States at a conference at the AED designed to organize support for higher education in Afghanistan. While

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he was in the United States, as noted earlier, we

tight.” With help from the government of Germany,

worked on an outline for a national higher education

a Rectors’ Association was established to give a voice

strategic plan (Hayward 1992) that became the basis

to the private institutions and foster cooperation

for his strategic action plan. Minister Fayez saw

among them. The number of private higher education

his main tasks as four: to develop a strategic action

institutions grew from the original two in 2006 to

plan for higher education; to prepare a new higher

more than 90, only two of which were not-for-profit.

education law that would give greater autonomy to the institutions; to initiate a joint project with UNESCO

Minister Fayez was a great proponent of community

that would focus on renewal and development; and to

colleges and in 2003 convinced the World Bank to fund

develop a decentralization plan to give more authority

the first community college in Afghanistan as a pilot

and power to the universities.7 Minister Fayez’s initial

project on the grounds of the MoHE. The building was

challenge was to open the higher education institutions

constructed by the Bank but unfortunately the next

that were closed because of the war. Some had come

minister, Amir Shah Hasanyar, was not interested in

under the control of local warlords, politicians, and

community colleges and so the building became part

others, and he moved to get them back under the

of the office complex of the MoHE. During the tenure

MoHE. He was successful in doing that. He also

of Minister Fayez significant progress was made on

focused on rebuilding the war-damaged infrastructure.

repairing the higher education infrastructure, and

Minister Fayez helped lay the foundation for the

several new institutions were established. Minister

legalization of private higher education in Afghanistan.

Fayez was a tireless worker and was able to get the

He supported the World Bank review of the

World Bank to provide substantial assistance to higher

possibilities for establishing private higher education

education. Following his term in office Minister Fayez

institutions in Afghanistan, which were illegal at the

played a major role in helping establish the American

time. That review recommended legislation to allow

University of Afghanistan and became its first

private higher education in Afghanistan (Hayward and

president.

Amiryar 2003). That legislation was approved in 2006 with the first private higher education institutions

The period under the leadership of Minister Amir

established that year. They were the American

Shah Hasanyar (December 2004 to March 2006) saw

University of Afghanistan and the Kardan Institute of

a number of improvements in higher education. With

Higher Education.

the help of the World Bank, the Strengthening Higher Education Program (SHEP I) provided $40 million

Minister Fayez believed that private tertiary education

to Afghan higher education over the next several

could help meet some of the challenges faced by the

years. That project was initiated under Minister Fayez

country. However, he felt strongly that government

but final approval came under Minister Hasanyar

should primarily support not-for-profit higher

in May 2005. SHEP I provided six universities with

education, stating, “I do believe that if you want

funds for master’s and Ph.D. training for faculty

good universities you need to go private and non-

members abroad; partnerships with a number of

profit.” He went on to say, “There are some private

universities in the United States, Germany, Thailand,

higher education institutions which are making good

India, and Great Britain; and funds to improve their

progress. They are all teaching skills. But I feel the

infrastructures. It laid the groundwork for major

for-profit institutions will collapse if the economy gets

planning and development at these six universities www.scup.org

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and provided support for the development of 160

about the effects of the war, the refugee camps, and the

faculty members through master’s and Ph.D. training

continuing insecurity, especially on children. Talking

abroad. The institutions were Kabul University, Kabul

about the camps he said, “In the camps, there is no

Polytechnic University, Kabul Education University,

laughter, no playing, no music, almost no education, no

Balkh University, Herat University, and Nangarhar

social stimulation” (Kamm 1988, ¶ 11). After he became

University. All six of the universities were provided

minister, the MoHE began planning a mental health

with technical assistance to help them develop and

project for students under his tutelage. Due to lack of

write institutional strategic plans, including goals and

funds and the inability to find properly trained staff,

budgets for development, for the next five years. The

the process was delayed until 2013 when, with help

plans were prepared during 2005–06 by strategic

from the Higher Education Project, plans for a pilot

planning committees at each institution and reviewed

mental health program for students were completed

by a World Bank consultant at intervals until they

with the intention of starting the program at Kabul

were approved. All plans were completed by the end of

University and Albiruni University in 2014. Planning

2006.

was continued by the USAID-funded University Support and Workforce development Project (USWDP)

During this period, the admissions and placement

with the hope of putting it in place during 2016.

process based on the Kankor examination was badly compromised, as noted earlier. Some students

During Minister Dadfar’s tenure substantial progress

managed to have their results improved through

was made in continuing to rebuild higher education

payment of bribes. Admission to medicine and

facilities that had been damaged. This was done with

engineering, the most difficult programs to gain

help from the World Bank and USAID in particular.

admission to, could be achieved by paying bribes to

The Higher Education Project, which was originally

employees involved in the admissions process. The

to focus on teacher education, was expanded in 2009

reputation of the ministry during this period was badly

to include training at the MoHE for staff and at the

damaged.

universities for administrators and faculty members. During that time the first work on accreditation was

In March 2006, Mohammad Azam Dadfar was

started under Deputy Minister Babury. Efforts also

appointed minister. He had previously been minister of

continued to send more faculty members abroad for

refugees. He was a medical doctor trained at the Kabul

master’s and Ph.D. training.

Medical Faculty and served as a lecturer there. He had been imprisoned for 14 months by the communist

Minister Dadfar’s leadership style was quiet,

regime for his student activism against the Russian

intellectual, and collective. He was an excellent

presence in Afghanistan and was tortured as a result.

listener with a thirst for knowledge, a deep concern

He eventually managed to escape and went to live in

for the faculty and staff, and a broad understanding

Peshawar, Pakistan, where he founded and worked

of the need for high quality in higher education. He

in the Psychiatry Center for Afghan Refugees. At its

would usually ask the deputy minister and me to sit

peak he saw as many as 100 patients a day who were

next to him at meetings and during the lunch break

affected by the traumas of war and exile (Kamm 1988).

pepper us with questions about education in the

His experiences in prison and in the refugee camps

United States or about something we were working on

made him a champion for mental health. He worried

such as accreditation procedures. He worked closely www.scup.org

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with Deputy Minister Babury on broadly improving

President Karzai. He was a very quiet and hands-off

quality in higher education. When he became tired

minister, leaving the running of the ministry primarily

of the constant crush of people coming to his office

to the deputy ministers and directors. Deputy Minister

requesting favors, most of which he could not and

Babury often substituted for him at Cabinet meetings.

did not fill because they were against the rules and

He spent most of his afternoons teaching at a local

procedures of the MoHE, he would come to the deputy

private higher education institution. Minister Danish

minister’s office and join us for a cup of tea to hear

did not leave much of a stamp on higher education

how we were progressing on whatever project we had

except to encourage the continuation of work on the

underway at that moment or whatever problem we

strategic plan as laid out in 2009.

were trying to solve. He had broad support throughout the ministry and at the universities partly because of

In 2012 President Karzai tried again to get approval

his concern about progress, his interest in people, and

for the appointment of Obaidullah Obaid as minister

his skill as a consensus builder.

of higher education. Obaid had recently served as ambassador to Iran. He had a medical degree from

Minister Dadfar and Deputy Minister Babury began

Kabul University and a master’s degree. He had been

to work together to tackle corruption in the ministry

a professor at Kabul Medical University and was later

as soon as the deputy minister was appointed in 2007.

its chancellor. During his studies, he spent some time

They focused particularly on corruption in the Kankor

in California at Loma Linda University—something

examination admissions process and succeeded in

about which he was very proud and a part of the United

eliminating it that year. Minister Dadfar was very

States we had in common and recalled on occasion.

supportive of the quality assurance and accreditation process. As his term was coming to an end, he told

As minister he represented a common tradition of

President Karzai that he wanted to retire. That request

leadership, one dedicated to rewarding friends and

was greeted with sadness among the staff because of

helping those who had supported him for the post and

his exceptional leadership and many successes.

continued to do so. He was an active campaigner for his supporters and measured decisions in part based

The search for a replacement for Minister Dadfar

on who would benefit. He was a friend to many MPs

turned out to be difficult for President Karzai. He first

and they were regular visitors to his office.

nominated Obaidullah Obaid in early January 2010 but he was rejected by Parliament. Next he chose

I came to know him when he was a chancellor. He was

Mohammad Hashim Esmatullahi. However, he too

charming and a good conversationalist and hoped I

failed to gain approval from Parliament. The third

would be a key to more funding for the institutions. He

nominee was Sarwar Danish who was also rejected by

was supportive of the HEP project at Kabul Medical

Parliament. However, the president was unwilling to

University to upgrade the Department of Public

nominate another candidate so Danish served as acting

Health. However, its staff members were not interested

minister for the next two years until February 2012.

and did very little to improve the program. In the long

Minister Danish attended higher education institutions

run the project was cancelled by USAID. As chancellor,

in Iraq, Syria, and Iran and had a master’s degree in

he often came to the office of the deputy minister,

Islamic jurisprudence. He had been a member of the

and we had a chance to talk about medicine and the

Constitutional Drafting Commission appointed by

needs of higher education. As minister, he insisted that www.scup.org

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MoHE staff come to work on time, sometimes having

translated for me. He enjoyed demonstrating his

offices checked to make sure people were there or

English skills.

calling early morning meetings to ensure people were in place. He reveled in the spotlight and worked hard

For a time early in Minister Obaid’s appointment, he

to be the center of attention, calling press conferences

seemed wary of Deputy Minister Babury, though at

frequently.

the same time dependent on him for his wealth of knowledge about higher education. Perhaps he felt that

When he became minister, he wanted to know

the deputy minister was undermining him—something

specifically what HEP had done, and I provided a

that was not true. I suspect it was an idea planted

detailed report that I presented through the deputy

by one of his advisors who was constantly trying to

minister. I later heard that he said he was not

undermine the deputy minister for academic affairs.

impressed—for him doing something was to build

My suspicion was that the advisor wanted the deputy

a building, start a specific program, or construct

minister’s job. I think this advisor was also frustrated

something concrete. Capacity building, such as starting

that the deputy minister had thwarted several of his

an accreditation program, did not impress him initially

schemes to hijack proposals we had prepared in ways

although he became a strong supporter of HEP later in

designed to benefit him. He never succeeded but in the

his term.

process of derailing him we lost out on the funding that would have been provided to higher education based

Minister Obaid had read the National Higher

on the proposals we had written.

Education Strategic Plan: 2010–2014 and gave it his strong support, pushing in particular for more

At one point early in Minister Obaid’s appointment

progress on curriculum review and updating. He

when the deputy minister was out of the country, he

encouraged all universities to do a careful but quick

fired two of the deputy minister’s senior directors

review of their curricula, develop more appropriate

without consulting him. The deputy minister returned

pedagogy, and upgrade their curricula to meet

to discover that the two directors had been fired and

international expectations.

learned that they had been replaced by two faculty members who were faculty union leaders but who

Minister Obaid knew that I had played a major role in preparing the national strategic plan, though it was a collective effort with the Afghan members of the steering committee, a number of chancellors, several NGOs, and especially assistance from Joel Reyes of the World Bank plus some help from UNESCO. Minister Obaid was always respectful and went out of his way on formal occasions to shake my hand when he entered the room. My traditional seat was to the right of the deputy minister for academic affairs who always sat to his right. I seldom spoke at such meetings but if I raised my hand he always called on me immediately and I was treated with deference—and he sometimes

Minister Obaid presenting the author with a Certificate of Appreciation in 2013. Photo by MoHE. www.scup.org

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did not seem to fit the usual pattern of appointees—

of the president, and the deputy minister felt he needed

distinguished faculty members, active researchers,

to tender his resignation again. President Karzai told

or highly regarded scholars. As a result of this action,

him he could not resign because if he did the ministry

Deputy Minister Babury turned in his resignation to

would collapse into total chaos. That was probably

President Karzai, but the president would not allow

true. However, by this time the deputy minister had

him to resign. He invited the minister, Deputy Minister

begun to worry that the level of corruption was so

Babury, the other deputy ministers, two university

high that he would be tainted by it. My own view was

chancellors, and others to lunch. Over lunch the

that everyone knew that the deputy minister was

president made it clear that it was not appropriate

incorruptible and the last bastion against corruption in

for the minister to fire the senior staff of the deputy

the MoHE and I told him that. He was encouraged to

minister without consultation with and agreement

remain by a number of senior government officials and

from him. He noted that he had appointed the deputy

university leaders who were worried about what would

minister and asked for assurances that problems like

happen if he departed. After several days of thinking

this would not happen again. The minister apologized

about it he reluctantly agreed to stay.

and agreed. At one point the deputy minister and I thought we Despite this meeting, the minister continued to go

might be able to change things if we prepared a

around the deputy minister by making decisions in

“strategy for greatness” for the minister. This was at a

the deputy minister’s areas of authority. This posed

point when we realized how much had been achieved in

difficulties for the effective operation of the MoHE.

implementing the NHESP: 2010–2014. It thus would

While the minister had the legal authority to do these

not be hard to make the case that the minister could

things, in my 10 years of experience with the MoHE,

go down in history as a great minister if he were just to

no other minister had ever circumvented the rules and

do a few additional things and cut down on favors for

procedures in this way.

MPs and other important people. We thought it might be worth appealing to his ego and laid out a series

Minister Obaid was very deferential to Members of

of things the minister could say and do to make this

Parliament. When he could, he would help them obtain

case. We spent one evening talking about how to have

admission for students who had not been admitted to

one or both of us present the ideas to him. I prepared

university or assist in finding scholarships for students

a list of successes, noting that the MoHE had met

they supported. All this created a sense that some

many of the strategic plan targets ahead of schedule

people had special access to the ministry and that the

including doubling enrollments, developing new rules

admissions process and some other procedures were

and regulations requiring merit hiring and promotion,

rigged. The minister was also not very good at keeping

undertaking curriculum review in all public

track of budgets, and at the end of the year it was

universities, establishing accreditation, hiring almost

revealed that the ministry had expended only a little

1,000 faculty members in the last two years, sending

over half of its development budget because of poor

434 faculty members abroad for master’s degrees and

management.

Ph.D.s, and providing master’s training for 390 faculty members in Afghanistan during the NHESP: 2010–

The relationship between the minister and the deputy

2014. In the end, we didn’t make that presentation

minister did not improve much after the intervention www.scup.org

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because we were worried about how the minister would

the reasons for his decision. Very often the issue is

react. Perhaps an opportunity was missed.

a request for university admission for someone who does not qualify—typically, a student brought in by

The minister had strong loyalties to MPs and other

an MP representing some important official or family.

important people who had helped him obtain his

The deputy minister will point out that the student’s

appointment. In this regard he was in the mold of

score on the Kankor is too low to allow admission; he

leaders generally in high positions in Afghanistan.

will often call in someone from the admissions office

In contrast, the deputy minister felt that his loyalties

to bring in the list of Kankor scores and show the MP

and obligations were rather to the public, the students,

and the student that they are, for example, 50 places

the faculty, and the staff. The minister’s vision of

below the lowest admission score. He may say, “These

leadership, however, was often in direct competition

other people would have to be excluded if we move

with the merit-based values of higher education, and

you up” and ask “Is that fair?” Or if it is a request to

that posed problems in the ministry and often put the

be moved to a more prestigious university, he will pull

minister’s actions at odds with other higher education

out the rulebook and show them the regulations. And

leaders and faculty members.

usually when it is all over, they are disappointed but understand. Even when they come with a letter from

The Deputy Minister for Academic Affairs: A Source of Progress The first thing you notice about Deputy Minister Mohammed Osman Babury is his openness—the kind look on his face and the way he greets everyone as he walks down the halls, stopping periodically to say a few words to one of the cleaners or exchange greetings with a former classmate, a student, or a colleague. He is among the first people in the office in the morning and usually the last to leave—often as late as 7:00 pm.

He is the most respected person in the ministry

for his ability to move policy forward, his thoughtful

the vice president or some other high official, he will say no but explain why. And then there are the just complaints—those about a faculty member who is being unfair, about an exam missed because of illness, about sexual harassment. The deputy minister is quick to respond by making a phone call right then to rectify the problem or calling someone into his office to deal with the issue. In one such harassment case, he dressed down the offender—a guard in this case—and called in the boss of security and asked him to deal further with the problem. The man was suspended. This openness and

administration, his willingness to talk to anyone, and his honesty, integrity, and fairness. I have watched him deal with angry students, MPs who want a special favor that goes against the rules, those treated unfairly by someone at a university, a student needing help, a staff member in distress, or someone who has flouted the rules. In each case he takes the time to hear the complaint or issue, give his opinion, and ensure that the person understands

Deputy Minister Babury cutting ribbon for new laboratory at Kabul Polytechnic University. Photo by MoHE. www.scup.org

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responsiveness takes time—and thus on most days

about the process and worried about whether it would

the backlog in the office is long, with both outer offices

work in Afghanistan. A few days later the deputy

filled with people wanting to see the deputy minister.

minister and I talked about it again, along with a

At the end of the day he may have the last of them

number of other subjects including a strategic plan for

brought into his office five at a time to listen to their

the ministry. In the course of that discussion he asked

cases and make decisions, keeping both his executive

me to write a concept paper about quality assurance

assistants standing by to respond to the problems and

and accreditation, taking the discussion further and

other officials coming and going depending on the

including a timetable. I had a consulting commitment

issues.

in Madagascar during the month of February, but when I returned in mid-March I began working on that

His greatest successes relate to the many changes

paper.

he has brought to higher education over the last six years—merit hiring and promotions, quality assurance

In late April I gave him my thoughts on the subject:

and accreditation, curriculum upgrading, a code of

“Concept Paper: Establishing a Quality Assurance and

conduct for faculty and students (with former Minister

Improvement Program in Afghanistan” (Hayward

Dadfar), a gender strategy, development of the NHESP:

2009). In May the concept paper was revised and

2010–2014, implementation of most of the strategic

circulated under both the deputy minister’s and my

plan’s goals, and a policy for study abroad for faculty

names. We received a great deal of comment on it in

members. Usually these new policy efforts began with

June, including comments from UNESCO specialist

a short conversation between us, as was the case with

Jairam Reddy, and made changes to the document as a

accreditation for example. He knew that I had worked

result. Not all the comments were positive. A number

on accreditation in several countries including the

of people thought this was not something that should

United States. One day he asked me, “Would you write

be done by the MoHE. In June I was asked to prepare

something—not more than a few pages—about how

a sample “Self-assessment Protocol” that would spell

we might begin a process of quality assurance and

out criteria or standards for accreditation. In August

accreditation here?” And I would then spend several

I prepared a tentative budget for accreditation to give

days, or in some cases weeks, writing up a short piece.

a sense of the possible costs based on work I had done

Quality assurance was one of the first policies he asked

on accreditation in several other Asian and African

me about, and only a few days after I started working

countries, in particular my review of accreditation in

with him I wrote a short article entitled “Thoughts

Africa for the World Bank in 2003 (Hayward 2006).

on Accreditation” (January 21, 2009). We discussed

All of this was reviewed by the deputy minister and

it together late one afternoon, and then he invited

the commission as well as by a number of chancellors.

me to talk to a group of senior faculty members and

By August the commission was working with me

directors about it a few days later. They had read the

on a draft: Bye-Laws for Quality Assurance and

piece. I knew a few of them from having spent time in

Accreditation.

the ministry earlier when I worked for the World Bank and AED on private higher education in 2003 and for

The deputy minister worked closely with the

the World Bank on strategic planning in 2006–07. We

commission throughout this period, attending most

had a very thoughtful discussion and they were very

of the meetings and getting reports if he did not

polite and seemed receptive, but had many questions

attend. Through it all he was constantly consulting www.scup.org

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with university leaders, especially the chancellors of

to support projects not in its mandate but deemed

the major institutions, as well as with some senior

important by the minister including painting the

administrators and faculty members who he felt were

ministry buildings, maintaining gardens around the

leaders in higher education who understood its needs.

compound, and providing vehicles for the minister.

Throughout this period revisions were made to the

These projects were not necessarily high priorities of

documents, and when they were in final form they

the MoHE or the universities—and because of them,

were translated into Dari. The deputy minister wanted

some scheduled projects went unfunded.

to be sure, as did members of the commission, that the Dari was carefully written to reflect our meaning

Among the most challenging aspects of the position

and not just a word-for-word translation. We spent

was dealing with efforts by senior government

almost a year working on the translations of the major

officials, MPs, and other prominent people to get

documents to make sure that they read like Dari

special treatment for their family members, friends,

documents and that the concepts were laid out with the

or constituents. This usually had to do with admission

meaning intended by the members. The Dari version is

to a particular desired university or a difficult-to-enter

the official version of the documents so it must clearly

program such as medicine or engineering. It might

and correctly spell out all aspects of the process. While

also relate to a failed admissions examination or poor

the original timetable had set the end of 2009 for the

performance in a particular program. The official

beginning of the self-assessment process, it was soon

would send a letter with the student, or frequently

clear that it would take considerably more time to be

come personally with the student, to try to gain the

sure everyone was ready to start. We were prepared to

desired outcomes. As noted earlier, that generally did

take as much time as was needed.

not happen unless there was a legitimate reason for the complaint or petition. Sometimes these discussions

A major challenge for the deputy minister was

were long, and occasionally they were heated with the

the World Bank-supported Strengthening Higher

need to call security on one or two occasions.

Education Program (SHEP), which had its own structure and employees inside the MoHE. This

In many cases in which letters from senior officials,

program provided critical support in a number of areas

such as those in the President’s Office, were presented,

including capacity development at six universities

the president knew that the deputy minister would

(the first five years) and then at 12 universities as part

not admit the student and thus felt safe in pleasing

of SHEP II. Funding included support for master’s

a constituent with a letter of support while knowing

and Ph.D. training for faculty members at those

there would be no action taken. At one point the

institutions, laboratory improvements, classroom

president told the deputy minster to keep doing what

upgrades, quality assurance, funding for faculty

he was doing in upholding the standards and the rules.

research, and several other projects.

Nonetheless, these attempts at political interference in the normal processes of the MoHE took up a great deal

Over time, SHEP became a kingdom of its own

of time, and some of them succeeded through other

within the MoHE, with a great deal of patronage in

channels. This was true for at least 40 scholarships for

employment and inefficiency in operation. Those in

study in India that were given to relatives or friends

charge often operated without consulting the deputy

of high officials who did not meet the qualifications

minister. In later years, its funds were often used

for selection—an effort coordinated by senior officials www.scup.org

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outside the MoHE with the cooperation of the Indian

Those inflated scores had the effect of cutting out many

government but not the knowledge of the ministry.

people who should have qualified for admission since the number of total places was already established.

A growing number of conflicts developed in the MoHE during the tenure of two rather difficult ministers—

Similar corrupting influences were in play related to

the first was not much interested in higher education

awarding some scholarships for study abroad. In the

and was not an academic, and the second was a

end many of these scholarship students (who didn’t

former chancellor eager to assist his patrons and

meet the qualifications for university in India in

use his position and personal power to pay back his

one case) did poorly. They demonstrated, publically

supporters, help his friends, and enhance his status.

blaming their failures on what they said was the poor

These efforts sometimes resulted in conflict with

quality of Indian universities. In fact, they had been

the integrity of the deputy minister and his effort to

sent to some of the best universities in the country.8

raise the quality of higher education and ensure its

The demonstrations greatly embarrassed the Afghan

openness, honesty, and commitment to merit-based

government, which had benefited from Indian

principles.

generosity in allowing large numbers of Afghans to attend their best universities, thus depriving some

The minister moved control of the Kankor examination

Indian students of places. The deputy minister was

from the deputy minister for academic affairs to the

sent to India by the minister to solve these problems.

deputy minister for student affairs, who was easygoing,

Given the poor performance of the students, that was

not well organized, and less strict about rules and

not possible. There was no way to make these students

procedures. The shift in control of the Kankor from

able to meet the requirements of the universities given

the deputy minister for academic affairs unfortunately

their lack of preparation and inability to perform up to

provided an opportunity for attacks on the integrity

expectations. Passing them under those circumstances

of the examination process, not because the deputy

was not an option. Eventually they were sent back to

minister for student affairs was corrupt but because he

Afghanistan in disgrace. It need not have happened.

was not well organized and provided little oversight. In one case, armed men interfered with the process in

One unfortunate consequence of the corruption in

one part of the country. Afterward, the minister was

construction, from my perspective, was that the

reluctant to act against those involved. The results

deputy minister and others shied away from pushing

of that interference were reflected in unusually high

some badly needed construction projects because

scores for students in that region overall. Efforts by the

they did not want to be linked to the corruption.

deputy minister for academic affairs to have the exam

As a result, far too few buildings and projects were

results nullified in that province and the students re-

constructed—construction that was essential to

sit the exam were thwarted by the minister, probably

quality improvement and to accommodating the

because those involved were associated with very

legitimate enrollment growth resulting from the

powerful people. The tainted results were allowed to

growing number of graduates from secondary schools.

stand and no one was punished. We were to learn of

Among these projects were more laboratories, more

further interference in at least seven other areas that

and larger classrooms, and office space for the 1,000

resulted in inflated examination results benefiting

new faculty members. The unwillingness to push

certain groups (as described elsewhere in this study).

hard for infrastructure expansion was an unintended www.scup.org

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consequence of the effort to avoid corruption. It also

seriously. They included threats against his children,

affected donors’ willingness to support building

which caused the deputy minister and his wife to move

projects. They did not want to get involved in

them to more secure schools. The deputy minister was

construction because of the pervasive corruption and

reluctant to have personal security, especially at his

the difficulties of trying to control it.

home, since he felt that made him more of a target. I worried about this very much, as did others, and urged

Indeed, one of the biggest challenges at the MoHE from

him to reconsider. He worried too, but did not feel he

the inception of the new government was corruption.

could trust the security forces, as the head of one group

The admissions process had become corrupt by the

was close to one of the warlords who had threatened

time the deputy minister was appointed in April

him. So far he has been lucky.

2007. One of the deputy minister’s first tasks upon getting the position was to work with Minister Dadfar

When I first met the deputy minister he already had

to set up a separate Kankor Department within the

a clear vision of what needed to be done for Afghan

ministry and move to root out the corruption in the

higher education. The initial goal was to repair the

admissions process—an effort that was successful but

worst of the physical destruction—there were damaged

that required continuing vigilance. The admissions

buildings on almost every campus—resulting from

process was computerized, and major efforts were

more than 30 years of war. Compounding that was the

taken to eliminate the possibility of interference. A

fact that there had been little upkeep or repair in recent

number of staff members were fired, and the deputy

years. Several institutions lacked adequate utility

minister personally oversaw the examination process.

services including water, sanitation, and electricity.

I traveled with him during several examination cycles

Another high priority was to recruit additional staff

where we checked on the invigilators, observed the

to replace the faculty members and staff lost to war.

process at several testing sites, and were present

The deputy minister recognized that most of the new

when numerous efforts to cheat were uncovered. They

faculty members would be hired without master’s

included false IDs, switching identification numbers,

degrees or Ph.D.s given the lack of opportunity for

and impersonation. One year, students in one area

graduate study during the war, and thus most would

thought that if they used the examination ID number

require government assistance to get them the

of a very bright student but their own names, they

advanced training they needed.

would get that person’s high scores. In the end, the computer threw out all the examinations with identical

The deputy minister also understood that new

ID numbers and the plan failed. The effort to keep

policies were necessary to bring the universities into

the process honest was an ongoing one that had to

the modern era, including a variety of faculty and

be carefully overseen each time the examination was

staff regulations spelling out academic expectations

given.

including publication, updated professional standards, and a new legal framework for faculty members and

As a consequence of his honesty, forthrightness in

students. He believed it was essential to make the

speaking out against corruption, and efforts to block

new system more transparent, open, and efficient

corruption, the deputy minister received a number

while at the same time allowing institutions greater

of threats on his life. Several were made by known

autonomy in the name of productivity and flexibility. In

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particular, he was committed to ending corruption at

resignation on several occasions as noted earlier.

the ministry.

However, President Karzai would not let him resign, urging him to stay on several occasions. While I

The deputy minister knew that the curriculum was

was on my last home leave, he resigned again after

badly in need of upgrading, that new laboratories

a particularly unfortunate decision was made by the

and equipment were required to bring teaching up to

minister. Once again the president made it clear that he

international standards, and that teaching methods

had appointed the deputy minister and wanted him to

needed to be improved and made more student

remain in office. It was a difficult period for the deputy

focused. The administrative system had been badly

minister but he acceded to the president’s wishes,

weakened during the war years in part because some

recognizing that much of the progress that had been

institutions had been taken over by local warlords and

made in rebuilding higher education would be at risk if

officials. The institutional administrations needed to

he left. Nonetheless, it was a constant struggle between

be strengthened while at the same time governance

two different philosophies of leadership: the one based

needed to become more participatory, particularly

on helping friends and supporters common in Afghan

for faculty members. Most importantly, the deputy

tradition, and the other based on merit and openness.

minister understood that quality improvement at

The deputy minister and I talked about these pressures

every level was critical as was the establishment of

on many occasions.

mechanisms for continuous assessment to ensure that the process was sustained. He also believed

The corruption in the ministry, in particular, ate at the

that private higher education was an important part

deputy minister constantly. He had cleaned it up in his

of meeting national needs and that this required a

own section, but that was only one part of the ministry.

major effort by the MoHE to improve the quality of

He refused to be part of it, but it was widespread in

private institutions. He wanted to bring them under

some other parts of the ministry. The deputy minister

the umbrella of the MoHE so that the public could be

was aware of that yet he could not control it except

protected from fraudulent institutions and those that

in his own part of the MoHE—academic affairs.

were not focused on academics but were seen primarily

The conflicts tore at him. He and I knew that if he

as money-making bodies for their owners or that were

resigned, corruption was likely to completely take

built for political purposes.

over the MoHE. And so the deputy minister remained on the job. One thing that helped him was that it was

The pressure of the job, the corruption, the threats, and

clear to everyone that he had the total support of the

the constant tension within the MoHE took a terrible

president. But still he worried. As he said during a

toll on several of the leaders in higher education. The

discussion with me on June 12, 2013, “How do you

deputy minister had high blood pressure and the work

make progress and bring change in higher education

tended to aggravate it. He worked long hours and that,

when you are dealing with people who are involved

coupled with the threats and constant requests for

in corruption, nepotism, threats, and incompetence?

illegal favors, wore him down. The MoHE worked to

You realize that there are a lot of good people there

counter these pressures but the human cost remained.

too who are trying to do the right thing and make the system work correctly and you work with them.” The

The corruption and several actions by a minister

question is whether that will be enough to stem the

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tide of corruption and favoritism to make it possible to

chancellors. The deputy minister also had it reviewed

continue and sustain progress.

by faculty members with expertise in Sharia law to be sure that what was said about Islam and gender

Deputy Minister Babury is one of the most admired

was correct. All this was to be certain that something

people in the Afghan Civil Service. I was told that

as critical as gender equity would not be hindered by

countless times by other senior managers in the four

errors on the part of the ministry or something written

other ministries I worked with as a liaison between

that offended. The deputy minister knew that success

the MoHE and other Human Resources Development

in the long run would rise or fall on how well the case

Board members (the Ministry of Public Health,

was presented. The goal was to make as much progress

the Ministry of Women’s Affairs, the Ministry of

as possible in this difficult area—an area in which

Education, and the Ministry of Labor, Social Affairs,

there were centuries of tradition placing women in an

Martyrs and Disables) and the two economics

inferior position. The deputy minister knew how to

ministries, the Ministry of Finance and the Ministry of

limit opposition and maximize the chances of success

Economy. I was in an unusual position as an American

even in an area as controversial as gender equity. He

trusted to represent the MoHE in many meetings and

used to say, “We have to deal with reality.” That did not

on special occasions.

mean that he compromised on principles, but that we made the strongest case conceivable and brought along

The deputy minister is one of the most effective leaders

as many waverers as possible early in the process. That

I have seen in the 15 countries in which I have worked

careful preparation allowed the deputy minister to

on higher education. He is a warm human being with

succeed with most of his policy initiatives.

personal values that govern his every action. He is honest, of impeccable integrity, hardworking, and amazingly talented. He understands people and their

Some Directors with Different Quests

moods, and he is able to recognize when the right time has come to move forward with a policy decision

There are more than a dozen directorates at the MoHE

and when it is necessary to wait. That is what he did

including Internal Audit, Procurement, Student

with accreditation, and even more so with the Higher

Affairs, University Relations, Academic Affairs

Education Gender Strategy (MoHE 2015). We had

Coordination, Information Technology, Planning,

completed the gender strategy document long before

Finance, Human Resources, Study Abroad, Private

it was released. Part of the delay was a major conflict

Education, Quality Assurance, Foreign Relations, and

over gender in Parliament caused by the premature

Scholarships. Most of them are well run by dedicated

release of a bill on gender that mobilized conservatives

leaders. However, there are a few who operate for

against gender equity in general, causing a big public

their own ends. Some of them made progress difficult

uproar. So we waited a few more months. And during

in other areas. This section is the story of several

that period he had additional leaders of women’s

of those directors based on an amalgamation of the

organizations in the university community, Parliament,

actions of a number of them—people with relatively

the Ministry of Women’s Affairs, and elsewhere read

similar characteristics who illustrate several different

the document and provide comments. The gender

types of leadership in higher education, some of which

strategy was also reviewed by several prominent

have created challenges to progress in the MoHE. I

faculty members, deans, vice chancellors, and

have altered their backgrounds and made a number

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of changes in discussing them and the events that

graces despite his lack of productivity. He had been in

transpired in order to hide their identities while

place through several ministers.

illustrating their particular brand of leadership. Another director was appointed by the minister over One was a hard worker, focusing almost entirely on his

the objection of several senior leaders who were

work at some expense to his wife and children. He was

concerned about his history of difficulty in working

a former broadcaster and a regular on television talk

with people. Another was virtually unknown but

shows since he had an opinion on almost any issue. He

because he replaced someone incompetent people were

was also very active on a particular campus prior to his

willing to give him a chance. Both were tasked with

appointment. He was enamored by power and eager to

improving the directorates they headed and filling

wield it. He had been largely successful in the past with

vacant positions. Neither director knew much about

a solid record of achievement. He had a tendency to

the area he was to lead but it was hoped each would be

dominate meetings and talked like an expert in every

quick studies and rapidly overcome those limitations.

field. This did not make him popular with his fellow

I spent some time briefing both about the work that

committee members, yet he was respected for being

had been done and what seemed to me a number of key

able to get work done.

issues for their directorates.

Another came out of an administrative background in

One of the directors was receptive to my assistance and

another ministry. He did not have any higher education

carefully reviewed the material I provided. However,

experience but had good connections at senior levels

it soon became clear that his understanding of the

in the government. He saw himself as a power broker

subject was superficial and likely to create problems

who could take advantage of his connections to make

since he was not very good at listening to advice

things happen. He was not concerned with rules and

from his advisory committee. Another listened and

regulations but with getting what his backers wanted

seemed appreciative. His directorate was in dire need

done—with considerable success. His understanding of

of direction having had little leadership prior to his

ethics was limited. He had developed close connections

appointment. The advisory committee of one of the

with those he was supposed to regulate.

directors was excellent and had worked to carefully lay out the policies for the activities of the directorate and

Yet another director was an affable and popular leader

committee relative to the higher education institutions.

who was a longtime bureaucrat but at one time had

The committee members were hardworking academics

been a university language teacher. He moved up

under the leadership of a deputy minister. They were

through the civil service and was eventually appointed

an independent-minded group of highly motivated,

a director. He was a bon vivant with an open office

thoughtful faculty members and administrators who

door. There were always tea and sweets available for

sought to improve higher education as a whole and

visitors. However, his directorate was noted for its

were willing to put in long hours on a weekly basis to

inefficiency and limited output. Some people suspected

do that. Several of them were also involved in other

that it was also a center of corruption, but I never

committees working on the improvement of higher

saw any evidence of that. It was his popularity and

education. The other directorate lacked an advisory

friendliness with everyone that kept him in good

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Soon into the tenure of these directors it became

questions. As a result, some changes were made. The

clear that they were not consulting the appropriate

process had worked well, resulting in the development

deputy minister who was their supervisor. They both

of an excellent relationship between the commission

focused primarily on the minister, who had little

and the higher education institutions. The results were

knowledge about these areas. One paid most of his

positive to this point and engendered a great deal of

attention to some of the institutions he was supposed

interest from the institutions.

to be regulating. The air of confidence of one of the directors and his interest in almost every aspect of

In another case, some of the higher education

higher education soon had him involved in many areas

institutions were not happy with the Bye Laws

other than his own. Among his earliest initiatives was

prepared by the MoHE and regarded them as an

a proposal for major changes in the Bye Laws for his

intrusion. The Bye Laws were intended to protect the

directorate. The thrust of the proposed changes was

public but the institutions saw them as interference.

to give more power to the director, allowing him to

They sought to have a number of them changed and

override decisions of the advisory committee. This was

argued that they were autonomous bodies and so

something not even the minister could do. The Bye

could not be regulated by the MoHE. The director

Laws and other procedures had been worked out over

set up a new advisory committee that included some

more than a year by committees that had taken great

of the strongest objectors. Together they revised the

care to ensure that the language was clear and the

Bye Laws, weakening many of the major provisions

process free of political or other improper influences as

including protections for the public. These Bye Laws

well as transparent with careful checks and balances.

were then put in place without having gone through the

The committees believed that the procedures needed to

proper MoHE vetting procedure. Indeed, most of the

be open and clear to all participants while at the same

MoHE was not aware of these changes until a major

time protecting confidential and personal information.

crisis emerged some months later.

A major goal was to encourage universities and higher education institutions to view their relationship with

Up to this point the process of planning in one

the MoHE as a positive one—one that would benefit

directorate had been led by a deputy minister or, in his

the institution. The founding members saw the

absence, a senior faculty member, a very experienced,

process between the MoHE and the institutions as a

dynamic, and thoughtful person who was a former

cooperative one that included a learning process for

administrator at a major university. The members

the institutions designed to make improvements, not

worked well together and the results were clear—the

punish or penalize.

outcome of careful collaboration, expert input from a consultant, discussions about the process in other

The committee members had been very careful

parts of the world, and review by experienced faculty

to work with the chancellors, vice chancellors for

members and administrators. Everyone was happy

academic affairs, deans, and other academics to

with the outcome after the last workshop with the

explain the process, get their feedback on the rules

institutions. There were no dissenters.

and procedures, and support the institutions so that the process worked well. In one case, once the Bye

Soon after the new directors were appointed they

Laws were agreed upon, the committee held a number

began to assemble staffs. None of the new staff

of workshops to explain the process and answer

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not surprising since the processes in these areas

During this period one director became increasingly,

were relatively new to Afghanistan. In one case, the

and publicly, critical of the major donor to his

director began to run the committee meetings in an

directorate. He so offended the staff of the donor

overbearing manner, no longer as a collective effort

that they refused to work with him. The ministry

but one in which he told the members what he had

was also getting complaints from universities and

done and did not foster discussion. What discussion

higher education institutes about his arrogance, high-

did occur concerned policy issues about which

handedness, and lack of respect for senior academics

he had already made decisions and in some cases

and administrators. The director publicly criticized

written to the institutions to inform them without

senior MoHE management as well as some chancellors

any consultation with the committee. People on the

in ways people found offensive and untrue. They

committee were polite, but made it clear that was not

complained to the minister and told him that the

how they believed the work should be carried out.

director was undermining the whole process. While

As this leadership behavior continued unchanged, a

the minister recognized this was the case, he seemed

number of committee members stopped attending

unwilling to remove the director, perhaps afraid of his

meetings because they were no longer consultations

ties to one of the nation’s leaders and his links to other

but sessions in which differences of opinion were not

important people. Thus nothing was done.

welcome. This deprived the directorate of some of its best and most knowledgeable leaders. Nonetheless,

It became increasingly difficult for many in the MoHE

several of the remaining members and the advisor did

to work with several of these directors. One director’s

not hesitate to disagree when things were suggested

tone during meetings with his committee became

that they did not think were proper or appropriate.

increasingly strident and threatening. Funding was becoming a problem, and he demanded more

At this point the relationship between this director

funding from the donors, refusing to move forward

and many of the higher education institutions began

with the program unless the donors put more funds

to sour. The director began to threaten institutions

at his disposal. In the meantime he became publicly

with sanctions if they did not respond to him quickly

disparaging of the donors and accused their staff

or move to the new timetables he had set out for their

of incompetence. At this point the donors froze the

activities. He had developed timetables for institutional

remaining funding. The director argued that he was

action that seemed to many of the committee

protecting the project and the faculty against donor

members to be unrealistic. In part this reflected his

interference and said he would not move until he

lack of experience—his lack of understanding of the

was given what he wanted even if the work of the

complexity of the processes and the need for adequate

committee and the directorate had to be stopped.

time to carry them out properly. Soon thereafter, the

Indeed, by the time my contract finished at the end of

director began to send letters to the institutions about

December 2013, the work had come to a halt.

their slow response to his timetable. Most included veiled threats of sanctions for those who were late.

In another case, the director defied orders to carry

He publically accused some of the chancellors of not

out a detailed review of institutions, instead using his

working very hard. In another case, the director began

staff to do the job in a way that did little to distinguish

to treat institutions unequally, favoring some and

those that were performing well from those that were

punishing others. This caused a major uproar.

failing to meet minimum standards. The effort was www.scup.org

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deemed unacceptable by almost everyone including

the protector of some institutions against both the

senior government officials. The whole episode was an

government and the MoHE. It was their interests that

embarrassment to the ministry.

were most important. As a result people lost faith in both his directorate and in many of the institutions he

The irony of one situation was that the director was

represented.

a very capable person who worked hard—indeed, it appeared that higher education absorbed his entire

There are a number of lessons to be learned from

interest and all his time leaving little for himself or his

these cases—most critically, the importance of

family. Yet it was also clear that he liked power and

leadership that is committed to the goals of the

control and constantly sought it. He seldom asked for

ministry, not to the power or the potential benefits

input from committee members, in contrast to the way

for themselves or their personal clients. The change

the committee had operated previously. When some

process had proceeded without major difficulty prior

members dropped out he appointed replacements

to the appointment of these directors, with major

without consulting the appropriate deputy minister

buy-in by most of the institutions, faculty members,

who was the appointing authority. This director

and leadership because they came to understand the

increasingly wrote hostile-sounding letters to the

potential benefits of the changes proposed for their

institutions, to other sections in the MoHE, and to the

ability to attract students, provide opportunities to

major donor. For example, he would say to a university

faculty members, and demonstrate capacity. That

or faculty representative, “If you do not do ‘x’ by next

hard-won trust and confidence was eroded by these

week, I will report you to the minister and then there

directors, in one case at the institutions and in the

will be serious consequences for you to pay.” As a

other with the public. In their quest for power, these

result, he lost much of the good will that had been built

directors alienated many of the higher education

between the committee members and the institutions

institutions, turning what started out as a positive

over the years of hard work. What had seemed to be a

experience into an arduous nightmare for many and

joint effort between the ministry and the institutions

a bureaucratic ordeal for others. While their styles

became a complex chore for the universities, with

mirrored many of the traditions of leadership in

increasing demands for action accompanied by regular

Afghanistan—the patron-client leader, the all-powerful

criticism and browbeating. The whole process became

leader, the popular leader—they weakened respect

increasingly bureaucratic and oppressive, totally unlike

for the MoHE, harmed the reputation of institutions,

what was intended. People were afraid of the director,

and undid some of the goodwill that had been built

many staff members avoided him, attendance fell off at

up by the MoHE over the years. In these cases, their

committee meetings, yet he seemed to grow in power—

connections to powerful politicians made it difficult,

and all of this was very damaging to the MoHE.

if not impossible, to remove them. They seemed untouchable for a while, although one was finally

In another case, the director acted in a very

removed. Perhaps that will be seen as a lesson to be

highhanded way, favoring some institutions and

learned by the others.

ignoring or punishing others. He had especially close ties with several higher education institutions in

Despite these problems, a number of the institutions

ways that verged on conflicts of interest, something

working with these directorates have made especially

that worried many leaders. He regarded himself as

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committed, and they have been able to work with, or around, these directors. There has also continued to be a major commitment of time and energy by a dozen or so of the brightest, most dedicated faculty and staff members to help bring about major changes in these areas despite the problems. Nonetheless, the misdirection of these directorates has been disastrous for the MoHE, weakening some of the major successes of the NHESP: 2010–2014 in their areas of control. However, significant progress has still been made. These cases show that it is possible to move forward when support is broad even in a context in which some powerful and influential people are hindering progress.

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Chapter 5: Challenges on Campus The Challenge of Gender Equity

The MoHE has requested funding for additional

Gender equity has been a formal goal of the Ministry

proposal to the donor working group and its budget

of Higher Education since 2009 as laid out in the National Higher Education Strategic Plan: 2010– 2014 (MoHE 2009a) and the Higher Education Gender Strategy (MoHE 2015). The MoHE has been committed to the National Action Plan for the Women of Afghanistan (Ministry of Women’s Affairs 2007) and has been working closely with the Ministry of Women’s Affairs to both develop its own gender strategy and help bring the national action plan to reality. The ministry has been committed to increasing the number of female students and faculty members since the end of the Taliban era, during which women were excluded from primary, secondary, and higher education and as faculty members. The MoHE set a target of 25 percent female students by 2015. That number is currently at 18.2 percent (figure 9), and it seems unlikely that the target will be met for reasons we will explore. Although the number of female students increased by 5,791 in 2014 and almost 6,000 the year before, a lack of housing for women has prevented greater increases. To offset that problem, the MoHE is building two women’s dorms during 2014–15. One has already been completed by the U.S. military at Herat, and one other is under construction—a two-block dormitory for 800 female students at Balkh University

dormitory places for 4,000 female students in its request to government. That should help higher education move closer to the 25 percent goal for female students since the lack of safe housing remains the main factor in deterring women from applying for admission. The effort to recruit more female faculty members with a goal of women making up 20 percent of all faculty members by 2015 has been less successful; this number now stands at 14 percent (figure 10). Even with a 20 percent increase in female faculty members last year, higher education will still not meet the 20 percent goal by 2015. The obstacles to the recruitment of female faculty members remain substantial. They include too few women studying for advanced degrees (only 28 percent of the total graduate student population), the difficulty women have in getting permission to study for graduate degrees abroad, the pressure of family obligations, and the lingering resistance to encouraging women to become professors. The small number of female faculty members, 693 in 2014, also means that there are few women to mentor female graduate students, particularly since only two percent of female faculty members have Ph.D.s and only 30 percent have master’s degrees. My experience elsewhere suggests that recruitment will become much easier once at least 25 percent of faculty members are women. To that end, departments have been encouraged to make a special effort to recruit women, scholarships have been set

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Figure 9 Female Students in Higher Education: 2008–2014 (number and percentage) Students % increase

Number of females

Number of males

% female

9,991

44,692

18.3%

% increase female

Increased number of females

Year

Total

2008

54,683

2009

59.206

8.4%

12,180

49,529

19.7%

21.9%

2,189

2010

63,837

7.7%

12,465

51,372

19.5%

2.3%

285

2011

77,336

21.1%

15,025

62,311

19.4%

20.5%

2,560

2012

101,300

31.0%

19,215

82,085

19.0%

27.9%

4,190

2013

132,949

31.2%

25,206

107,743

18.9%

31.2%

5,991

2014

170,582

28.3%

30,997

139,585

18.2%

23.0%

5,791

Source: MoHE data.

Female dormitory in Herat funded by the United States. Photo by MoHE.

Female dormitory in Kabul remodeled and upgraded by U.S. State Department. Photo by MoHE.

English language training in Kabul University dormitory. Photo by U.S. State Department. www.scup.org

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Chapter 5

aside for graduate study for female faculty members,

brightest female students have received scholarships to

funding is being sought for research by female faculty

study abroad only to have their families refuse to sign

members, and a program is being established to

the required papers.2 There also appear to be cases in

encourage bright female undergraduates to go on to

which women have been delayed in getting promotions.

graduate school to become academics. In addition, a

The MoHE is in the process of setting up a commission

review of promotion to ensure there is no gender bias

to review all promotions for bias. However, as we know

will be undertaken, and a number of other measures

from U.S. experience, proving bias in promotion cases

are planned that are designed to improve gender equity

is very difficult even in an environment in which the

at the departmental, institutional, and system levels

rules and laws about gender equity are very clear.

(MoHE 2015). The difficulties for professional women, including The ministry has recognized the many challenges

several faculty members at Kabul University, were

that must be faced in the effort to achieve gender

made clear in interviews in 2003. As one respondent

equity—including some within the ministry itself.

put it:

But the reality is that biases against women remain strong especially among older faculty members and

The problem is culture, not religion. If we want

staff. Some of the bias is based on the misguided belief

to restore the rights of women we have to educate

that there is a religious basis for it in Islam, which is

the men—begin with the right of woman on the

not the case.1 There are also deep-seated traditional

basis of the Qur’an. Islam has given a lot of rights

prejudices that are hard to overcome, although

to woman, but a lot of men are illiterate. . . . Even

education is beginning to make a difference, especially

if they do read, they don’t know the meaning of

with the growing number of girls getting a primary

it because it is written in Arabic—they do not

and secondary education. There have been attacks on

know anything different than the conservative

female students going to and from school and attacks on schools themselves as recently as this year. Sexual harassment and intimidation also occur

Figure 10 Female Faculty Members in Higher Education: 2008–2014

at higher education institutions though the Female Faculty Members

MoHE has put in place strict rules to prevent Year  

Total faculty

Percent increase

Number female

Increase number female

Percent female of total

Percent increase female

2008

2,556

 

382

 

14.95%

 

2009*

2,789

9.1%

419

37

15.02%

9.69%

2010

3,023

8.4%

456

37

15.08%

8.83%

loads for teaching assistants (most women are

2011

3,110

2.9%

474

18

15.24%

3.95%

teaching assistants), difficulty in obtaining

2012

3,427

10.2%

512

38

14.94%

8.02%

advanced training such as a master’s degree

2013

4,169

21.4%

616

104

14.81%

20.31%

or Ph.D. because of family resistance to study

2014

4,946

18.2%

693

77

14.00%

12.50%

it. Sexual violence is not unknown, although traditions about the separation of men and women make such contact less likely to happen than in many other countries. At the faculty level, women face many additional obstacles including discrimination, heavy teaching

abroad, and pressure from family obligations. There are a number of cases in which some of the

*2009 data are estimates. Source: MoHE data. www.scup.org

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way. Even the husbands of professional women

One reason for the higher rate of mental health

wield tremendous power. If they say do not do

problems among young women compared to men is

something that is it. One woman reported that

the constant oversight of parents and family and the

she liked to paint. It upset her husband that she

concern that once they graduate their parents will

would sit outside and paint something for a long

marry them off. Even if that marriage turns out to be

time—people will talk [say nasty things] about

a good one, they will nonetheless usually have a very

her—this is not good for the husband’s reputation.

unequal relationship with their husbands, have trouble

Therefore, the husband did not allow her to paint

getting a job (assuming their husbands allow that), and

and said no to her demand—what could she do

run the risk of discrimination and harassment once

but stop?3

employed.

The woman went on to note that even though Afghan

There are other types of intimidation women face as

law states that men and women should be treated

well. The night letter4 is one of these. A night letter

equally, you cannot take a man to court. As one of

was handed to one of the women working for me as

them, a professor of law, put it, “Traditions about the

she got home from the office by a masked man who

role of women are more important than the law. You

then fled. It read, “We know where you work and you

cannot go against these powerful traditions.” While

must stop working for the Americans. We know you

the situation has improved somewhat in the last 10

live with your mother alone and if you do not stop

years, the basic problems noted by these professional

this work you both will face consequences.” She did

women in 2003 remain very real today. For the average

not stop working, but she was badly shaken by this

woman, the situation is even worse. These women are

and asked to be allowed to apply to a U.S. program

often secluded in their homes, unable to leave without

to move to the United States with her mother—which

a male escort and then only if they keep their bodies

was refused by the U.S. Embassy because she worked

covered with a burqa. In extended families, they are

for a contractor, not directly for the U.S. government.

also often under the authority of their mother-in-law,

Unfortunately, even those who worked directly for

which is frequently a difficult relationship.

the U.S. government—even some who were wounded in that work— were seldom given visas despite U.S.

Women in urban areas have a great deal more freedom

promises to the contrary.

now than they did 10 years ago. More are employed, and fewer than five percent wear a burqa in contrast

Young women who want to go to university often have

to 95 percent in Kabul 10 years ago. The cell phone

a hard time getting permission from their family or

has been an important tool in freeing young women

spouse to attend. Thus, for the most part only those

somewhat from parental authority—they now have

women who do extremely well in school are allowed

better communication with their families when at the

to go because there is great pressure on their family

university to the relief of many mothers. Some young

to let them continue. This means that overall those

people do make decisions about their own partners for

women who do get into the university are on average

marriage, but even in Kabul that holds true for fewer

brighter and more articulate than the men. Some

than 10 percent of marriages, which remain arranged

women at the university face discrimination from

for most people.

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is unusual since male/female contact is limited and

at the end of 2016, there is widespread fear that the

opportunities are few. Female students generally

progress made to date on women’s rights will be

receive less assistance from faculty members and less

reversed and there will be a reemergence of extremely

mentoring than male students, in part because male

restrictive views about the place of women in society.

teachers worry about seeming to be alone with female

All these concerns increase the pressure on women,

students and because there are too few female faculty

making their day-to-day lives difficult and the picture

members to provide the amount of mentoring needed.

of their future clouded and uncertain. A positive

Only 14 percent of faculty members are women while

change for higher education is the appointment in 2015

19 percent of undergraduates are women. To put that

of a woman as minister of higher education. She is

numerically, in 2013 there were 43,750 female students

taking an active role in issues facing women.

in higher education and only 615 female faculty members, a ratio of 71:1.

An example of the challenges faced by a young professional woman is presented in the section below.

Female students are often under great pressure from

This young academic is someone I was asked to mentor

their extended families to get married at puberty

by the MoHE. She was a top student and an effective

and to stop their university studies before they have

teacher and is now one of the highest ranking women

graduated. If they get married during their university

in any administrative position in higher education in

years they often withdraw. These and other pressures,

Afghanistan. While her experiences are not those of a

plus the experiences of more than 30 years of war,

typical woman, they illustrate how difficult it is for a

have led to a high incidence of clinical levels of post-

young female professional to operate at a university,

traumatic stress disorder, depression, and anxiety

even with strong support from the leadership of the

among women. This affects at least 40 percent of

MoHE. For her protection I will not identify her or her

college-age students and is twice as high among

institution. I have changed a few facts that might give

women as men (Babury and Hayward 2013), as we

her and the location of her institution away, but the

noted earlier, in part because of the daily pressures on

basic issues, circumstances, and threats are facts from

women plus the fear that the future holds little hope for

her experiences.

them. These fears are borne out by the experiences of their older female siblings and the experiences of other female graduates. The job situation for female university graduates has improved somewhat, and there are a greater number of women working in government, for NGOs or private companies, and in education than there were even five years ago. As to marriage, most women still do not have a say in their marriage arrangements. A few women have a degree of freedom in marriage choices but that is the exception even for college graduates of either sex. With the uncertainties around the elections and the departure of all or most NATO troops expected

The Challenging Life of a Female University Professional and Administrator At our first meeting I was struck by the confidence and poise of this young woman. A senior ministry official had asked me to meet with her to give her some suggestions about how to deal with some of the serious challenges she faced at her institution as vice chancellor for academic affairs. Here was someone who was totally comfortable with herself, courageous, and very open to talking about herself and the situation at her university. She carried herself with ease, standing

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up straight to her maximum height or sitting tall and

a woman. She is young, about 29, and lives with her

assured. Her eyes on that first day I met her reflected

parents, brother, and sisters in a city but commutes to

a kind of honesty that was striking and haunting. Her

work outside the city. The ministry is supportive of her

face was kind and open and without make-up except

as one of the few women in leadership positions and

for around her eyes in the Afghan way.

eager to ensure that she can continue her work despite the obstacles put in her way because she is a woman.

She talked in a clear confident voice, emphasizing

Trust came quickly, partly because I was asked by a

certain points with her hands. As her comments were

respected senior ministry official to help her, partly

translated for me she waited patiently but was eager

because I am a foreigner with no ethnic associations

to go on. I was to meet with her many times over the

or political links in Afghanistan and am not tainted

next year to help her deal with a wide range of issues

by a culture of looking down on or ignoring women,

on a troubled campus. In time I was able to read her

and partly because I am her elder. During the year, we

face a little bit better, and that was helpful in getting

developed the openness and respect of a trusted and

past her outward confidence and her initial reluctance

admired elder and a very respectful daughter. It was

to say negative things about anyone or to lay out

an amazing and unusual experience, especially in this

the magnitude of the threats against her. I began to

culture. There was no touching, no hugs, no pats on

understand how the troubles were affecting her. It was

the back, no contact. That is forbidden in this culture.

her eyes that reflected what was going on in her life,

And our conversations, though spoken directly to each

what she had seen and experienced, although only

other, were translated (usually by a female translator)

after several meetings did I begin to learn the details

so we were always one step removed in a way. Yet when

of some of the more frightening and outrageous of her

I left Afghanistan for the last time in January there

experiences. When she was troubled her eyes showed

was deep sadness.

it, a bit marked with sadness, but they also showed a kind of determination when threatened, a deeper set

She was appointed to a senior administrative position

when exhausted, a warmth when happy, and a glow

by the ministry on the recommendation of her

when proud.

institution’s chancellor after she had taught there for several years and then finished her master’s degree

As I came to know her, she told me about several

at the top of her class. That program was a new one

threats to her life, attempts to humiliate her to prevent

supported by USAID using the American model—very

her from carrying out her duties, and efforts to

demanding with a great deal of writing, many oral

blackmail her. She also explained the need to keep all

presentations, and a heavy reading load. She was very

this from her family lest they forbid her to continue

motivated by what she had learned in the program

working. There was her obvious hurt in the context

and wanted to put some of these new ideas into place

of her good intensions, her efforts to improve the

at her university, especially those ideas that would

institution. Later, there were a few occasions when

improve the quality of teaching. This university was

tears welled up in her eyes, yet she never lost her poise.

notorious for its lack of discipline, with both faculty

Through it all she remained proud and unbowed.

members and students often missing class. The requirements of the institution, such as the required

Over time I got to know her well since I met with her

final examinations, were frequently ignored. Early in

regularly as a mentor—always with a translator, usually

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members show up for their classes on time and take

is devout. Some of this opposition was organized with

attendance of their students.

the knowledge of a senior administrator who wanted someone else in her job—someone who would be more

The university was subject to a great deal of

passive. He tried to have her removed without reason

interference from powerful local MPs and people in

but did not succeed.

the community, and that made progress difficult. She began a number of workshops to improve teaching.

Because a senior administrator now opposed her, most

She established committees on scholarships, strategic

faculty members were afraid to show their support

planning, examinations, rules and regulations, and

for her work, fearing retribution. However, over time

quality assurance. She established new faculties of

they realized that she was their best hope for positive

economics and computer science, was able to obtain

change on campus. A number of faculty members and

tables and chairs from ISAF (the International Security

many students began to show strong support for her

Assistance Force in Afghanistan) for 20 classrooms,

and went on strike when the chancellor tried to remove

held regular meetings with students, and worked

her. A delegation of faculty members went to the

to build good relations with faculty members. She

ministry to register their support.

convinced a merchant in town to build toilets for the women—something that did not exist prior to that.

Despite the pressure, she remains committed to her work, to being the best in her field, to making a

At the outset her appointment was fought by

difference in her university, to supporting women, and

conservatives at the university and in the community—

to bringing fairness and equity to campus. She is a

people who did not want a woman in a position of

stickler for following the rules—perhaps a bit too much

authority. The ministry intervened and gave her its

for her own good at times—and impeccably honest,

strong support. Nonetheless, several conservative

ethical, and moral. As she says of herself, although

faculty members tried to organize some students

there are many difficulties, “I can say that it is my

against her. While these efforts failed, they were

honesty, my morals [beliefs], my sentiment of loving

draining and discouraging. As she began to enforce the

for my country that caused that I should bring changes

rules, particularly about faculty attendance at classes,

in this university.” Added to these problems was the

some faculty members tried to intimidate her. One

fact that at her university she was also in a minority in

came to her office with an AK-47 and warned her to

terms of ethnicity and that too was held against her.

stop taking attendance. At one point things became especially critical. During a break, she was threatened

It would be nice to report almost two years later

with death if she came back to campus. The ministry

that all this has ended happily with strong support

intervened and warned that it would put police

for her from faculty and students. But many of the

on campus if the threats continued. Yet on several

pressures continued, in open as well as in less overt

other occasions she received phone threats and was

ways. In June 2014 the chancellor was replaced, and

frequently assaulted verbally. A fire was started outside

his replacement was someone who was willing to

her office, several people went to her home in the city

work in concert with her. At that point her situation

to threaten her, and others attempted to humiliate her

began to improve. However, anonymous people began

by starting rumors about her personal life. One group

to call her, threatening to kill her if she returned to

also claimed she was not religious though in fact she

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end the harassment and threats once more. It is hard

to enforce concerning the faculty—about being in

to know if this will bring peace to the campus. On the

class each day on time and teaching as they are paid

advice of the ministry she stayed away for a few days

to do—and the resistance of some faculty members

but is now back on campus with strong support from

who do not take these expectations seriously and

the new chancellor and the ministry. We will see what

some men who do not believe a woman should hold a

transpires. The costs to her personally are high, and

senior administrative position. She was among the first

she is exhausted by the strain.

women to be appointed to that position and remains one of the few at that level.

Here is someone trying to improve the quality and environment of this rather undistinguished institution,

Her motivation to become a teacher and professional

help improve the status of all faculty members,

developed early in her undergraduate years through

protect the rights of female faculty, and set the stage

discussions and interactions with other students. She

for more female administrators. As a result her life

did very well at the university, being first in her class in

was threatened, people tried to humiliate her, and

all four years. She felt that she didn’t get into one of the

others sought her removal. Although she has strong

central universities because of her ethnicity, and so she

support from most faculty and students on campus,

went to a university in the provinces. After two years

the price she has paid is very high. The lessons taken

of teaching at that institution she was admitted into a

from these events by other women may make them

master’s program and again was at the top of her class.

reluctant to speak out or take leadership positions.

Her hard work and brilliance led to her appointment as

While conditions have improved, the situation remains

a senior administrator.

worrisome. Her situation is similar to that of many young women She wrote me recently about her continued concerns: “I

in higher education—dealing with the opposition of

have been under terrible physical and mental pressure

large segments of the population to any education for

from the mentioned group of men in the university,

women, including opposition from family members

especially from some ranking staff of the university

as well as many in the community. She was offered

who has come from another province. The mentioned

a scholarship to the United States based on her

staff and the [X] Department professors even incite

outstanding leadership but was unable to take it. For

students against me. They have spread rumors about

many women in positions of authority, the lack of

my personality and character in order to insult me and

respect, disparaging comments, or efforts to belittle

make me resign from the position.” Yet she persists

are regular experiences. It is having to steel yourself

with strong support from the MoHE, her chancellor,

to that every day and not let it show, not let it eat at

most faculty members and students at her university,

you. That is demoralizing. And women in positions

and others. Nonetheless, all this is taking a toll on

of authority frequently face those who refuse to

her, and in 2014 she reported that she was worn out

acknowledge their authority. Many of those who act

and sick due in part to “the challenges with the rules

inappropriately or without respect are powerful people

and regulations that I’m faced with every day.” She

themselves, in some cases MPs or chancellors or senior

continued, “I feel a little tired and unhappy with such

faculty members. There is the constant need to deal

a situation.” By “the challenges with the rules and

with comments that “a women shouldn’t be doing this”

regulations” she means those that she tries faithfully

or assumptions that “women do not belong here.” And www.scup.org

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even women who have strong support seldom get that

the ministry—something seen as threatening to many

support when they are threatened. People are afraid.

of those in weak institutions. The ministry hoped this

As she wrote recently, “Without having a supporter it is

cleansing process would give private higher education

difficult for a woman to work in an environment which

some legitimacy and reverse the decline in the quality

is still so unsecure.” The cost of being among the first

of that sector.

women in a university leadership position is very high indeed.

Participating in this review effort involved real risks for those faculty members involved—especially for

Faculty Leadership in Action: Taking Risks for Their Commitment to Change I know it might cost me my life, but I want to do my own small part to change the system and will take that chance. I will lead the review. While most threats are against senior leaders, faculty members involved in the change process are sometimes targets, especially those involved in reviewing programs or institutions that might be closed, fined, or put on probation as a result. This was a concern for some of those involved in the review to assess the quality and right to operate of private higher education institutions. The comments above came from a medical school faculty member I had been working on to lead the planned review of private higher education institutions requested by President Karzai. The rapid and largely unfettered growth in the number of private higher education institutions led to a number of weak or fraudulent institutions. The public soon discovered that many of these institutions were weak, and that began to affect public attitudes about private higher education in general—deservedly so. President Karzai was among those concerned about low quality. He issued a presidential decree5 ordering a review to weed out the corrupt and below-par institutions and encourage the weaker ones to improve. The MoHE was to undertake this review, which involved the assertion of greater oversight over private higher education by

the leadership because of the political connections of some of those involved in establishing the private institutions. The physician who took on the leadership of this review was one of a small number of faculty members who had already given a great deal of time, thought, and energy to the work of the ministry on quality assurance and accreditation. Let’s look at how the process transpired. Review of private higher education Because of growing concern about the quality of many of the new private higher education institutions, President Karzai issued a decree requiring a review and ranking of all private higher education institutions, as previously noted. The MoHE Directorate of Private Higher Education undertook the review but both the methods used and the staff involved lacked credibility, and the results were deemed unreliable. This was a serious embarrassment for the ministry. As a result the minister asked the deputy minister and me to facilitate a new review using appropriate methods and faculty reviewers. The stakes were high since most of the institutions were for-profit and closure or a poor performance report would be costly. There was opposition to this second review from the Directorate of Private Higher Education since its leaders didn’t want any interference with the close relationships they had developed with some of the institutions. The director of private higher education argued that a viable review was not possible in any case since the owners would lie about their

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finances, give false information about employees, limit

were overcome through discussion and persuasion

the reviewers’ access, and probably try to intimidate

by team members and MoHE officials. In the end,

or bribe the reviewers. For the seven private medical

perseverance, care, and even-handedness allowed the

universities the stakes were particularly high since

process to be completed in all but two regions of the

one of the review’s leaders was a medical doctor

country. Work there was prevented by the onset of

known for his high standards. There had already been

winter weather. Soon thereafter the funding expired.

several public statements suggesting that some of these

Those reviews that were not completed were carried

medical schools were of such low quality that they put

out with different funding when warmer weather

patients at risk and should be closed.

arrived.

These concerns made preparation for the review a

The success of these reviews was crucial in trying to

challenge. In addition, the president had set a very

reverse the quality decline in private higher education

limited time frame. The funding from USAID for the

and beginning to recoup its legitimacy with the public.

review also had a short time frame. While my staff

The reviews could not have taken place without the

and I had already prepared an assessment protocol,

dedication, diligence, and risk taking of several dozen

the faculty reviewers had to be trained and that would

committed faculty members. Although there were a

take time. Given the opposition to the review, it was

few threats and attempts at intimidation, the process

critical for the peer reviewers to demonstrate an open

went forward. A few reviewers were intimidated and

and unbiased demeanor and be prepared to make

dropped out after the first day, but the rest continued

differential judgments about quality. Following the

and prepared careful, thoughtful assessments that

training the first reviews were undertaken. As noted

allowed the institutions to be ranked with a few put

earlier, the results of the first few institutional reviews

on probation or threatened with closure if they did

were alarming. The reviewers gave high scores to

not meet standards within a short period of time.

all the institutions on almost every item reviewed.

This process is but one example of the commitment

They did not seem to understand their obligations in

of many faculty members and a handful of dedicated

the process, and the review was halted immediately.

administrators to bringing about fundamental changes

Additional training was mandated for the reviewers

in the system.6

emphasizing the importance of a wide-ranging scale that differentiated excellence from medium and low

Quality assurance and accreditation

quality and providing clear examples of what each level of the ranking should indicate—e.g., the highest

Quality assurance was the responsibility of the MoHE

level indicates one of the best in the country. This time

when I started there in 2009. No processes were in

the training was effective and the reviews proceeded

place to review or assess the quality of institutions,

appropriately.

the curricula, or any other aspect of higher education. Most neighboring countries had accreditation

Some review teams had problems of access at the

programs; India had been accrediting universities

outset including difficulty in gaining permission

since 1994 and Pakistan since 2005. By 2009, the

to enter the campus, having open access to faculty

ministry was eager to put a quality assurance process

members, and obtaining information about faculty

in place. Deputy Minister Babury knew that I had

members’ background and training. These problems

been executive vice president of the Council for Higher

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Education Accreditation in the United States and had

rather than program accreditation.7 Members then

helped set up accreditation in Pakistan, Ethiopia,

turned to the development of bye-laws and a set of

and Madagascar and worked on it in several other

12 criteria (standards) to be used in the accreditation

countries. Thus, one of my first tasks when I arrived

process. They also developed a draft accreditation

at the ministry that year was to help establish quality

process building on existing models in Asia, Europe,

assurance and accreditation. Much of that work has

the Americas, and Africa. The discussion was

been discussed earlier in this study. I want to focus

thorough, sometimes heated, but always positive.

here on faculty participation in the process. The deputy

As the discussion proceeded, it became clear that

minister for academic affairs set up a commission

opposition had ceased and that even the most ardent

to review the early material on accreditation and

critic was now a strong supporter. The members of

consider the appropriateness and possible scope of

the commission, with one or two exceptions who

such a process. At the outset, I don’t think anyone was

soon withdrew, were dedicated, hardworking, and

aware of the commitment this would involve for the

thoughtful, and they became increasingly convinced

MoHE or the faculty members on the commission. As

that accreditation was not only a good idea, but also

it turned out, they met two times a week for two hours

essential for developing the kind of quality higher

each time from early 2009 through 2013 with most

education system they all wanted for Afghanistan.

members serving throughout that whole period. This

After discussion with university leaders, the ministry

was volunteered time with only minimal payment for

approved the process of accreditation. Seminars

travel.

on accreditation led by the faculty members on the commission were then held to familiarize universities

Some academics in Afghanistan were aware of

and higher education institutions with the process.

accreditation in other countries, but no one had any

Accreditation was inaugurated in June 2012 for public

experience with it. The general view outside the

higher education institutions to be followed a year

MoHE at the outset was that it was not something that

later by the inclusion of private higher education

was needed in Afghanistan. However, it was clear to

institutions.

the minister and the deputy minister for academic affairs that accreditation was essential to quality

Public higher education institutions then began to

improvement and to the ability of graduates to study

prepare their individual institutional self-assessments

abroad for advanced degrees since many of those

to show how well they met each of the 12 criteria for

universities would only accept graduate students from

the first step in the accreditation process, candidacy

accredited institutions. The eight faculty members on

for accreditation.8 The self-assessments were to

the commission worked with me as an advisor over

demonstrate their degree of compliance with the

the next six months on initial efforts to set up the

criteria (standards)9—how closely they met each

program, reviewing documents on accreditation from

of them. For example, there were criteria related

several countries and other material I had prepared

to faculty qualifications, teaching, and research;

as well as exploring a great deal of literature about

facilities such as adequate laboratories and libraries;

accreditation in university systems around the world.

and computer access for students. Watching

This led to a general consensus that accreditation

the commission members review the individual

should be considered for Afghanistan and that

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support of each institution’s case. For example, they

the process for institutions, and then the review of

looked carefully at statements about the library and

the revised and upgraded curricula of each of the 157

its holdings, the hours of computer access, and the

public university faculties during 2013. In each case in

publications by faculty members. The commission

which weaknesses were found (about half the cases),

was generally divided into two groups to carry out the

the commission reported back to the institution,

reviews. One member took notes on the discussion,

often meeting with representatives of the institution

another read the self-assessment aloud, and a third

to explain its comments about the deficiencies found.

read the criteria and the sub-categories for each item.

The goal of these meetings was improvement, with

It usually took several two-hour meetings to finalize

the commission members showing great care and

the review of each institutional self-assessment. By

patience in helping the institutions understand what

the end of 2013, 34 institutional self-assessments had

they needed to do to gain approval. In late 2013 the

been completed and reviewed with comments sent

commission also began to review the curricula of a

back to the institution. Six institutions had been visited

number of private higher education institutions that

by peer review teams of four to six faculty members.

had started the process.

These teams made a recommendation for “admission to candidacy” or denial of admission. Six universities

At the outset of the review, some private institutions

had “admission to candidacy level 1” recommended by

tried to avoid the process, arguing that the curriculum

the site visit teams and approved by the commission.10

was the responsibility of the individual institution.

The first step in accreditation had been achieved and

Some of the institutions feared that this process was a

the process was well underway. The success of the

MoHE effort to force them all to adopt public university

process was a tribute to the careful, tireless efforts of

curricula. That was not the case at all. Indeed, many

the faculty members and administrators involved since 2009. Curriculum Commission A critical part of the transformation effort was the plan to review and upgrade all the curricula in public higher education with the goal of bringing them up to international standards. Years of war and isolation

Workshop on curriculum revision and updating at the MoHE.

had left Afghan higher education behind most of the world in terms of material covered, up-to-date programs, pedagogy, and methodology. Major changes were needed. To oversee this effort a Curriculum Commission was established, composed of about 10 faculty members and MoHE staff. As was the case with accreditation, this group was to devote a great deal of time (two hours twice a week for two years) to the preparation of procedures for curriculum review (MoHE 2012), the conducting of workshops about

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senior leaders saw the competition between public and

commitment of time by the faculty members on the

private higher education institutions as positive for

commission, often including a site visit. This was all

the system in the long run. People realized that in time

voluntary, with occasional support for local travel. The

some of the best institutions in Afghanistan might well

costs of the site visits were covered by the MoHE, HEP,

be private universities. Already, at least one of them

or SHEP. This was the first time in the history of higher

was moving quickly in that direction.

education in Afghanistan that a major systematic curriculum review had been undertaken followed by

Overall, however, almost everyone involved recognized

an upgrading of all curricula. By the end of 2013, one-

that most of the curricula at the private institutions

third of the reviews and upgrades had been completed

were in need of review and updating. The helpful,

with 50 of those by public institutions published and

cooperative tone adopted by the commission members

made available to interested parties. This curriculum

allayed most fears and led to very productive

upgrading was a major success for the transformation

engagement with the institutions. In particular, several

effort and was only possible because of the enormous

new institutions were relieved to have this assistance

commitment of these faculty members and the strong

as they began to set up their programs. Members were

support of the minister, deputy minister for academic

especially helpful to several of these institutions, which

affairs, and other senior administrators.

had set very high quality goals for themselves. Each of the faculties was to write a report showing how it had reviewed its curricula, carried out a needs assessment, and then revised and upgraded the curriculum. Each of these reports was to include the results of the needs assessment, the purpose of the program, its educational goals and objectives, the educational strategy (types of instruction, labs, student focus, field trips, etc.), an implementation plan, and plans for assessing the program during the semester and after it was completed (MoHE 2012) as well as a syllabus for each program with a detailed outline and a list of textbooks and readings. Over the course of 2013, the members reviewed each program carefully, meeting with faculty members when they had questions or when the commission felt there were major weaknesses that required further discussion. By the end of December 2013 the commission had reviewed and approved 52 curricula of faculties at public higher education institutions (many a second time with revisions) and reviewed those of 30 faculties or programs at private institutions. As with quality assurance, this process involved a tremendous

Committee on Graduate Studies— High Commission for Coordination of Graduate Programs In 2010 there were only half a dozen graduate programs. The ministry was eager to expand this number if it could be done with high quality so that more people, especially faculty members and women, could obtain master’s degrees without going abroad. Not only was study abroad expensive, it was largely not viable for female faculty members who had children, needed family approval for such trips, or faced other obstacles, noted earlier, to undertaking such travel. In this context a committee was established to review proposals for new graduate programs, which could only be offered by major universities. This committee was called the High Commission for Coordination of Graduate Programs (HCOMP). As was the case with the other faculty committees and commissions, the graduate committee required a great deal of time from its faculty members. In several cases, master’s programs had been set up without the permission of the MoHE, which was required by law, and thus if the

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committee rejected a program, the work of students to

Chapter 5

Kankor review

date and any degrees awarded would be invalidated. The Kankor examination (admissions examination) Given the stakes involved, committee members were

is another effort that depends on substantial

under a great deal of pressure from some senior

contributions from a large number of faculty members.

faculty members, deans, and chancellors to approve

This examination is taken by high school graduates

particular programs during the initial review process.

who hope to be admitted to public higher education

In several cases people went to see the minister and

institutions—universities and higher education

urged him to take the unusual step of putting pressure

institutes run by the MoHE and technical and

on the HCOMP to approve their program—which he

vocational institutions and teachers colleges run by the

did on several occasions. But the HCOMP was firm

Ministry of Education. More than 100,000 students

and insisted on following its procedures thoroughly.

have taken the examination in each of the last few

In at least one case a member was threatened by some

years with the number growing each year because of

senior administrators, but the process was carried out

the increase in the number of students graduating

appropriately despite the fact that some members of

from secondary education. Several hundred people

the HCOMP felt intimidated. One member in particular

are needed to invigilate the examination, most of them

stood up to those making inappropriate demands and

faculty members. Faculty members also prepare the

in so doing gave courage to a few wavering members.

questions.

That made it possible for the process to continue unaltered. The tough stand taken by the committee in

As noted earlier, a major crisis occurred in 2013

this case made it clear that the process could not be

because of disruption, intimidation, and, in one case,

compromised by pressure or threats.

armed intervention that took place during the Kankor examination. For the first time in five years, there were

The courage and perseverance of the HCOMP is a

a number of breaches that threatened to undermine

tribute to the strength, integrity, and courage of a

the whole process. As a result, a committee was

handful of faculty members who were fearless in the

established to make recommendations about how to

face of unprecedented pressure, some of it unethical.

prevent a recurrence of these problems.

Their commitment set a precedent for all to see. Over the next months, the committee members continued

An investigation of the examination nationwide

to do their jobs appropriately. In the course of their

showed that there had been massive irregularities and

deliberations they rejected several master’s program

interference in more than a half dozen places. As a

requests that did not meet the requirements. Early

result, some people received much higher scores than

on they closed three existing programs including the

they would have otherwise. Some of the interference

Kabul University master’s in physics, which no longer

was facilitated by schoolteachers who had been used as

had enough Ph.D. faculty to qualify to offer a master’s

proctors because of the increased number of students

degree. They also resisted pressure to approve two

and a shortage of faculty members. In other cases the

Ph.D. programs that did not meet requirements. Their

interference was by regional administrators or other

commitment, along with that of the commissions

high officials, which made resistance difficult. The

mentioned above, helped solidify the procedures put in

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but the officials in charge of the examination were

and students coming from the same families. It is

unwilling to do that.

statistically improbable that there could have been

Chapter 5

improvements in the results of this magnitude over The post-examination review committee was under

the space of one year. This interference had the overall

great pressure to prevent a repeat of these violations of

effect of rejecting for admission a large number of

the process when the Kankor admissions examinations

students who through their own hard work should have

were given again in 2014. It was clear to most that

qualified for admission. The magnitude of the fraud

these interventions had benefited some people at the

affected thousands of students, advantaging many

expense of others since there are only a fixed number

and depriving an equal number of the admission they

of places open for admission. It appeared that the aim

deserved. While admissions for 2013 were increased

had been to advantage some regional or ethnic groups.

over the previous year by almost six percent, that does

The unusually high scores in several of these areas

not account for the differences in these provinces.

would eliminate some good students elsewhere whose

Many of those admitted had not achieved their scores

scores would now be below the cutoff for admission.

honestly. Those who had tried to prevent or rectify

For example, in one of the most egregious cases, scores

this fraud were threatened and cowed into silence. The

in a particular province had averaged 49.7 percent

process was thoroughly sullied, which made the work

over the previous three years. In this examination the

of the committee all the more difficult. In the end there

averages reported were 85.9 percent for men and 81.8

was no real resolution for the students, although new

percent for women. That was an increase of 173 percent

procedures were agreed on for the 2014 examinations

over the previous three-year average. In another area

in the hope that there would not be a repeat of the

where the average had been 16.5 percent over three

problems of 2013. As a result of this corruption, I

years, the scores for 2013 were 60.3 percent for men

believe it will take a long time for public trust of the

and 54.7 percent for women—a 365 percent increase

Kankor to return.

for men and a 332 percent increase for women. In another area with a three-year average of 28.1 percent,

A number of remedies were proposed to improve

the scores were 83.4 percent for men and 67.1 percent

the Kankor process, one of which was to turn the

for women, a 219 percent increase over the previous

administration of the examination over to a new body.

three-year average for men. The magnitude of the

That seemed unlikely to lead to improvements and

fraud is clear, and it means that a large number of

more likely to create additional confusion. Another

people in other regions who should have been admitted

remedy proposed was to allocate places by regional

to universities were not admitted because the inflated

school population rather than merit. That suggestion

scores gave these individuals an unfair advantage.

had strong support from people in areas with weak

The increase in the number of people who passed

schools and less student success on the examination.

the examination in 2013 in the seven provinces with

After heated discussions that effort failed. Another

questionable results was in the thousands.

proposal (from the subcommittee) included a mix of merit and regional admissions on the grounds that

These increases did not happen by chance. The

more regional places would lessen the temptation for

secondary schools attended by the students taking the

organized fraud and not penalize those areas with

examination were the same ones as in previous years,

weak schools as severely as in the present system.

with generally the same teachers, the same curricula,

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There was also a proposal to admit the top 10 percent

The meeting about the Kankor involved over 100

of students from every secondary school. While that

participants, more than half of whom were higher

had initial support, people realized that it would

education faculty members who appeared on a

disadvantage students from better schools, which

voluntary basis, along with a number of MPs,

sometimes have as many as 100 percent of their

university officials, and a few administrators from

students surpassing the Kankor cutoff score, while

other ministries such as the Ministry of Education

admitting many students from weak schools who do

and the Ministry of Public Health. Sadly, they failed to

not meet university standards. The most successful

resolve many of the problems related to the Kankor—

schools are usually in urban areas such as Kabul or

interference, excessive numbers of exam takers,

Herat. They are usually better funded and the teachers

threats to merit admissions principles, and regional

better qualified. This proposal was initially accepted

concerns about being shortchanged. They did set the

but when the total number of students who would be

stage for some improvements in examination security.

affected became clear, it also was dropped. The story of interference in the admissions A problem facing the MoHE when the results are

examinations of 2013 emphasizes the ease and the

posted is the anger of the large number of students

impact of intimidation and outright violence on both

who do not get admitted to any higher education

the admissions process and the policy process in

institution—about 65 percent of those who take the

higher education. The people subjected to efforts to

Kankor. They usually demonstrate in Kabul and other

intimidate, which for the most part succeeded (and

urban areas, demanding an increase in the number of

there were quite a few), were unable or unwilling

admissions to accommodate more students. As it stood

to resist. Most of them were afraid to say anything

in 2013, more students had already been admitted than

and did not call for assistance. In the face of guns

places for them, creating major problems for the more

and intimidation, those involved in oversight at one

popular institutions which were already overcrowded.

location were so fearful that they did not report the

Only about 35 percent of those who take the Kankor

incident for several days. In the aftermath, most senior

are usually admitted. One solution to the large number

administrators were afraid to speak their minds at a

of unhappy exam takers was a suggestion that the

meeting on the subject and so said nothing—in fact

ministry set a minimum score required for students to

they did not even support the one administrator who

be able to take the Kankor in the first place, perhaps

spoke out to request that the examination results

a 65 percent average in secondary school. This would

be cancelled in that area and the exam given again.

cut out a large percentage of takers who would not be

Several people involved told me later that they were

able to pass the examination in any case. That way

too afraid to speak up. The one who did had his life

they would not have false hopes of success. After long

threatened.

discussion, that solution was agreed upon. However, a month later it was overturned by Cabinet. Thus, the

People in other areas where irregularities occurred

examination will continue to be open to all comers.

were also afraid to say anything. As one senior faculty

Some changes were made to reduce the number of

member said to me, “What can you do when the

examination centers to make security easier and to

governor and his people are doing these things?” The

further improve security by putting the national police

irregularities in other places ranged from allowing

in charge of it in 2014.

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Chapter 5

people in the exam rooms to provide help with actual

there were disruptions again in several areas, some

exam questions and admitting others to the exam

encouraged by local officials. This time, the acting

rooms who should not have been there. In several

minister annulled the results in those areas and set

cases, the interventions appeared to be a systematic

new examinations with enhanced security. They went

effort to raise scores in particular regions or provinces.

off without difficulty. Thus the Kankor is back on the

Several faculty members were so put off by the

correct path. Despite the problems in 2013 and the

threats and interference that they told me they would

challenges of fragile states when it comes to dealing

refuse to invigilate outside of Kabul (which didn’t

with violence and intimidation, the overall record

have problems) in the future. Though some of the

of faculty members in the transformation of Afghan

perpetrators were identified, no one was punished. Two

higher education over the last six years is one of

officials in the Kankor office who were caught changing

courage, determination, dedication, and success. As we

scores by the police were moved to other offices but not

have seen, there have been many acts of great courage

fired. Thus it appeared that such corruption could be

in the process of bringing about these successes.

carried out with impunity, and that will no doubt lead to other disruptions in the future. This sad saga adds to the perception, already widespread in some areas, that the examination process is corrupt, although in fact prior to 2013 only a few individual or small-scale efforts to cheat had been identified. The process was fair and transparent overall during the previous four years. This is a clear example of the failure of the administrative process to work as it should, to guarantee a fair and open examination experience where the final decisions are based on merit, and to protect the integrity of academic processes. Although faculty members were minor players in the final decision regarding the Kankor in 2013, they were in the front lines of the intimidation and threats. In contrast to the other successes noted above that have played a major role in the transformation of higher education in Afghanistan over the last five years, this case is a clear setback to progress and a warning about how hard it will be to continue to move forward with the major changes in direction spelled out in the National Higher Education Strategic Plan: 2010–2014. Fortunately in 2015 the process was once again under the direction of Acting Minister Babury. Because of the failure to take strong action in 2013,

Reestablishing a Culture of Teaching, Research, and Service Decades of war have left a difficult legacy for teaching, research, and service that is proving hard to reverse for a number of reasons. In some ways the most straightforward problem to overcome is the loss of many of the most talented scholars and researchers, many of whom fled the violence, intimidation, and destruction starting with the Russian invasion and continuing through the attacks on intellectuals over the following years—purges of those felt to have the “wrong” values or who were opposed to the regime in power. Some of those lost have been replaced by new young faculty members who for the most part only have bachelor’s degrees. Others, however, are recently returned faculty members with master’s degrees and Ph.D.s earned while studying in the United States, Europe, Asia, and elsewhere or in the new master’s programs in Afghanistan. Most of these returned and recently trained faculty members are eager to impart their excitement and new knowledge to their students, carry out research to help deal with many of the nation’s challenges, and restore the traditions of excellence that made Afghan higher education so

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Chapter 5

outstanding in the past. Having given workshops to

especially in the urban areas. Water, electricity, and

some of them, I found these young faculty members to

other services were interrupted, several universities

be an exciting, highly stimulated group bursting with

were closed, and even Kabul University had to move

questions, eager to make a contribution to the quality

its operations to mosques and other facilities for a time

of higher education, full of ideas about research, and

when its campus was taken over by warring factions.

committed to a better Afghanistan. Their main worry was whether their older colleagues would give them

During this period, almost every day was a struggle

the freedom to do that. While it will take time for these

for survival for many faculty members and staff.

new faculty members to reach the top ranks in their

Violence was a constant threat, especially in places

fields, develop their own research specialties, gain

like Kabul during the civil war, with parts of the city

an international reputation, and become leaders in

destroyed, daily shelling, and attacks on civilians by

teaching, I am impressed by their talent, energy, and

troops from different factions—along with the struggle

early productivity. Some of them will have to confront

for food and safety. Much of urban Afghanistan was

older faculty members jealous of the competition they

destroyed, and many of the staff had to flee as their

represent and reluctant to share leadership—and that

homes were damaged or demolished by the fighting

is already happening on several campuses. However,

and shelling of rival factions. Salaries were often paid

in the long run they will prevail. Indeed, in this new

late, which made the struggle to survive even more

system where merit is becoming paramount, they will

difficult. People began to look inward as they struggled

succeed and emerge as the new leaders in the long run.

to keep themselves and their families alive. During this

Some are already there.

period, the sense of community at most universities broke down. Faculty members continued to be targeted

More difficult is the struggle to overcome the

amid political rivalries, violence, and the breakdown

consequences of the violence, depredation, and

of higher education. In some cases the curriculum

hardship faced by those faulty members and staff

became a victim of the struggle, further dividing

who remained through the war years. They were

faculty members; some campuses were invaded and

isolated from their peers abroad, unable to travel

badly damaged in the fighting. Some faculty members

to professional meetings or go abroad for advanced

were arrested and imprisoned, while others continued

training, and kept out of touch with higher education

to flee the violence, the lucky ones finding jobs in

outside Afghanistan for decades since most of

Pakistan, Iran, the Middle East, Europe, and the

their isolation preceded the age of the Internet.

United States. Those who remained in Afghanistan

They faced increasingly difficult conditions at their

suffered but continued to try to keep the institutions

institutions over the years—deteriorating facilities,

going—often at great personal cost.

lack of equipment, insufficient funding, shortages of staff, loss of research funds, and increased teaching

Many of the faculty members and staff who remained

loads. On top of that was the growing politicization

endured this situation for decades. For others it was

of higher education under the communists and later

a shorter period, but for all of them the war left an

the Taliban—ideological purges, political oversight,

indelible mark. As one administrator said to me, “We

and hostility. That was followed by high-level anarchy

all suffer from post-traumatic stress disorder to some

during the civil war that resulted in damage to and

extent as a result of wars.” Indeed, the level of clinical

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Chapter 5

the highest in the world, affecting almost half the

an obligation to help rebuild education for their people.

population. And for some of those who stayed behind

If I were in their place, I would have come back.”11

there is bitterness about those who left for Pakistan, Iran, or elsewhere and did not suffer. Those who

Most of the replacement faculty members were new

remained felt that they stayed and kept the universities

recruits, as were the new faculty members hired to

going. They didn’t have a chance to get higher degrees

deal with the growing enrollments. Few of them had

or expand their knowledge during this period. They

master’s degrees or Ph.D.s. This was particularly

suffered and believed they should be rewarded for it.

true of female faculty members because, as noted

To be sure, many of those who fled also suffered greatly

earlier, they had difficulties going abroad due to family

while trying to escape, often fleeing at night, frequently

obligations or because they could not get permission

having to walk long distances, risking arrest, suffering

from their spouses or families to travel for advanced

injuries along the way, and sometimes enduring

training, even if it was available. This meant that many

robberies, beatings, imprisonment, and even rape.

of those who were teaching were newly graduated and

And almost all of them left their belongings behind.

only a few years older than the students they were

The conditions they found in Pakistan and Iran were

teaching. Many students resented that. They wanted

often appalling, with limited sanitation, little access to

experienced teachers. While the ministry tried to

health facilities, and difficult housing in refugee camps.

send as many of these young faculty members as possible abroad for master’s and Ph.D. training, given

Some former faculty members who left Afghanistan

the shortage of staff and funding the number had to

did manage to do well abroad, obtaining good

be limited. In 2012 President Karzai found funds to

academic jobs. It was this group in particular that

increase the number of faculty members sent abroad.

people hoped would come back to help rehabilitate

At the same time, the ministry was increasing the

higher education, bringing with them what they had

number of master’s programs in country so that by

learned abroad. And some of them did return including

2013, almost 200 faculty members were working on

Sharif Fayez, the first minister of higher education;

master’s degrees in Afghanistan. This was important

Chancellor Hamidullah Amin of Kabul University;

for female faculty members in particular.

Ashraf Ghani, who was minister of finance, then chancellor of Kabul University, and now president; and

The fact that few new faculty members had advanced

others. However, the total number of returnees was

degrees when hired meant that the cost of master’s and

low, a much smaller percentage than in South Africa at

Ph.D. training had to be borne by the state. As noted

the end of apartheid, for example. Part of the difference

earlier, the need to hire large numbers of new faculty

may have been the many years that some had been

members to replace those lost and meet the demand

away and their new obligations to children in schools

of the growing number of students seeking higher

or universities abroad. The MoHE made major efforts

education meant a delay in increasing the percentage

to attract them, but with little success. People were

of faculty members with advanced degrees. That also

disappointed at the lack of response. Several students

meant that the effort to recreate a culture of teaching

in 2003 were puzzled that so few former faculty

and research was slowed since few of the new hires

members had returned. As a 12th-grade girl in Kapisa

had any research experience. Their own education in

said, “It is their birthplace—their country. They have

Afghanistan had been provided by faculty members

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who also had little research or professional experience;

excuse for not carrying out research was that there

most were also without master’s degrees or Ph.D.s.

was no funding. That was largely correct until 2010

Chapter 5

when limited funding was provided by the World Bank Added to these problems were the effects of inflation—

through SHEP. But it was more than funding that

especially increasing food prices—on faculty morale.

had been lost during the war years; it was the culture

The consumer price index had been increasing at about

of research with its focus on new ideas, creativity,

10 percent a year since 2004, but in 2008 it jumped to

questioning, and problem solving.

30 percent (World Bank 2015). Salaries were doubled in 2009 but by then the increase only caught up with

The most productive researchers were among those

inflation. Many faculty members had to have second

lost in the years after the Russian invasion—lost in

jobs to survive, with some working for private higher

part because they were often faculty leaders and

education institutions when they became legal after

thus victimized during the politicization of higher

2006. However, it was not legal for faculty members of

education. As repression and violence increased, they

public institutions to also teach at private institutions

looked for opportunities to obtain academic or related

without authorization. Most who did such teaching did

positions abroad—and they found them, much more

not seek authorization. They were often paid higher

than their less productive colleagues did. Many of

salaries, and this income was frequently not reported

those who left were role models in their departments,

for tax purposes. Although such teaching could only be

mentors of young faculty members, research partners,

done legally on weekends or after hours, most taught

and opinion leaders. Also lost during this period were

during normal school hours, which meant they were

most of the 100 foreign faculty members, many from

not on their public institution’s campus when students

partner institutions in Germany, France, Great Britain,

needed them. This limited their ability to advise

and the United States. They too were active researchers

students, carry out research, participate in university

often involved in joint research with their Afghan

governance, or provide service to the government

faculty colleagues, sometimes bringing research

or the community. Although the number of public

funding with them. They often served as mentors for

university faculty members who taught in private

faculty members and brought with them expertise

higher education institutions is unknown, it was

and contacts that facilitated research and teaching

probably as high as 50 percent in Kabul and several

linkages. The wars and violence brought most of these

other urban areas.

productive partnerships to an end.

The fact that public higher education institutions

Putting all these factors together, coupled with the

had to operate with these limitations over many

daily struggle to keep the universities open, explains

years led to the loss of the original traditions and

the development of the “culture of survival” that

expectations for teaching and research that had once

prevailed on most campuses. Keeping the institutions

distinguished Afghan higher education. New patterns

going was a major effort on its own. Added to that

had been institutionalized—patterns that were less

was the struggle to keep one’s own program and one’s

student-centered, ignored research, and disregarded

family going, ensuring their safety and meeting basic

community service. All this resulted in new models

needs amid the constant worries created by a nation

that turned out to be hard to change. The effort to

at war against a foreign invader, torn apart by civil

increase faculty research had limited results. The

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Chapter 5

from outside Afghanistan. Then there was the presence

facilities, and build additional classrooms and offices

of foreign military forces that came to assist in the

for faculty members? And all this is in the context of a

struggle against al-Qaeda, but that far too often

very fragile state that is having trouble providing basic

inflicted substantial damage on the local population in

services such as electricity, clean water, health care,

a war that seemed without end.

roads, and, most needed of all, security. As we saw during 2012–14, these are not easy questions to answer

These were some of the challenges faced by the

in a very tight financial situation with an ongoing war.

MoHE as it came to the end of the National Higher

Yet the current priority must be to both consolidate

Education Strategic Plan: 2010–2014. As we noted in

the gains made to date and continue to move higher

a previous paper (Babury and Hayward 2014), there

education to the level of quality that must be achieved

has been a major transformation in higher education,

if it is to make the contributions so necessary for

but there remains a long way to go to realize all the

national development and provide the employment

plan’s goals. Furthermore, many of the changes made

opportunities graduates deserve.

are precarious and exist in the context of a very fragile state. And major challenges remain. The most

Part of the problem is the general failure of senior

serious of these is the substantial underfunding of

administrators and faculty members to reestablish

higher education (see section on funding). Related

a sense of community on the campuses. Much of

to that is the failure to expand the higher education

that failure is a consequence of the inward-looking

infrastructure to meet the increased enrollment

character of most of the university staff members

and the need for modern, up-to-date laboratories,

who had to endure so much carnage, chaos, violence,

information technology, and student-centered

and disruption over the last 30 years. To some extent,

teaching. Equally serious is the fact that only about

that loss of faith is being blunted by some of the new

40 percent of faculty members have master’s degrees

faculty members who have been hired over the last 10

or Ph.D.s, leaving 60 percent teaching with only a

years, who now constitute 59.8 percent of the current

bachelor’s degree—something that makes it very hard

faculty. Over this same 10-year period, 38 percent of

to increase the quality of instruction and thus the

the faculty members have earned master’s degrees

quality of university graduates.

and Ph.D.s. Yet most of these new additions are young faculty members not yet at professorial levels. They

How does a university, or a system, reestablish a

are spread out over a number of institutions. At least

culture of teaching and learning and a culture of

five institutions (Kabul University, Kabul Polytechnic

research? How does it create a sense of community

University, Kabul Medical University, Kabul Education

once again? How does it ensure that the new student-

University, and Nangarhar University) now have

focused pedagogy is actually implemented? How does

enough faculty with master’s degrees and Ph.D.s to

it rekindle a sense of obligation on the part of faculty

begin to change attitudes and create a new, more

members and institutions to both the communities in

positive, sense of community. The faculty members

which they operate and the nation when that idea has

coming back from abroad with master’s and Ph.D.

been lost? What needs to be done to make the case

training are especially positive, excited about what

for adequate funding for higher education in a way

they can achieve, and eager to pass on what they have

that legislators will understand in order to expand

learned to students. There are not yet enough of them

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is beginning in some faculties. Part of the delay in recreating a sense of academic community relates to the large number of faculty members who have second

Chapter 5

Challenges for Effective Governance in Afghan Higher Education

jobs and are thus off campus a high percentage of the

The outline of governance in Afghan higher

time. That is a problem that must be tackled soon if

education—on paper—is not unlike that in many

quality is to continue to be improved and if a new sense

universities in the United States and most of the rest

of community is to be established in Afghan higher

of the world. Much of the authority rests with the

education.

faculty members in departments and faculties, with

There are some positive signs however. As mentioned above, the large numbers of recent faculty hires bring new energy and enthusiasm to their institutions. Many of them are fresh from master’s and Ph.D. study abroad or in Afghanistan, excited about the research they carried out, and eager to make a contribution. Many of those who went abroad took advantage of the technology available in laboratories and classrooms, using computers, PowerPoint, the Internet, and other information technology in their teaching and research. They intend to do the same in Afghanistan. While technology and the Internet are not as good as the MoHE would like, they have improved greatly over the last five years and will continue to improve. Most of these young faculty members also know English and can thus take full advantage of what the Internet has to offer, including the 8,000 journals in the MoHE digital library that are available for free to all students, faculty, and staff members. In addition, in the new National Higher Education Strategic Plan: 2016–2020, the MoHE calls for a distance education

the latter being the center of initial decision making in hiring, promotion, course adoption, review of faculty members, and other academic decisions. The deans also play an important role and by law are elected by the faculty members although they are sometimes appointed by the minister and deputy minister for academic affairs.13 Major decisions of the faculties must be approved by the Academic Council, much like the Faculty Senate in the United States, which is chaired by the chancellor. The Academic Council has committees to deal with more complicated issues such as promotions, although the initiative there too rests with the faculty members in the departments and faculties. The roles of the chancellor and vice chancellors are weaker than in the U.S. system, though as always it depends somewhat on the personality and drive of the individual. The deans are often more powerful than the chancellors, especially where they are elected. Some have been in place for many years and have strong faculty support although by law they can only be reelected once.

pilot project, both to provide access to the many

The chancellors and vice chancellors have been

people who do not have it at the present time and

appointed by the ministry in most cases ever since

to begin to use this important instructional tool in

Minister Fayez held elections at several universities

general.12 While the MoHE has faced many problems

in the early post-Taliban period. In contrast to the

with distance education in the past, including forged

U.S. system, the bulk of the authority remains in the

documents, it is time to establish rules and regulations

MoHE, with all major decisions including hiring,

for distance education and procedures that facilitate

promotion, new courses, major revisions, budgets,

the contributions that can be made to higher education

and other decisions dependent on approval at the

by taking advantage of this important tool (Hayward

ministry. This fits in with the general pattern of highly

2013).

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earlier, this means that much of the load of higher

the faculty and staff each year, and major equipment

education rests on the shoulders of the minister and

purchases should continue to be budgeted centrally

deputy minister for academic affairs. Even with an

on an annual basis based on requests from the

efficient and effective minister and deputy minister,

institutions. Decentralization will increase flexibility,

that puts too much authority in the hands of the

help improve the effectiveness of institutional

MoHE, slows down the processes of governance, and

academic performance, and give university leaders the

leads to great inefficiencies. That affects hiring and

opportunity to respond to academic needs when they

promotions, but more importantly affects the day-

occur as well as to research and other opportunities

to-day operation of the institutions and hinders even

that might be missed while waiting for the MoHE

minor decisions in areas such as repairs, upkeep, and

bureaucracy to move or for information to get up the

normal administrative processes like the graduation of

chain of command—which at present takes far too long.

students, since the minister and deputy minister have to sign all the degrees.

Such decentralization will require additional training for university administrative leaders.14 The MoHE,

Since 2009, the leadership of the MoHE has pushed

working with HEP, has tried to start this process

for greater autonomy for higher education institutions,

through a series of staff training exercises at both

arguing that it is essential for effective governance in

the senior and lower administrative levels. The

both financial matters and administrative affairs. The

deputy minister for academic affairs has held regular

leadership has been trying to make this happen for the

workshops with senior leadership focusing on quality

last five years. The new decentralization regulation for

assurance, leadership problems, curriculum review,

finance now being put in place will help. Similarly, I

teaching methods, and other topics. HEP has provided

believe that decentralization efforts should extend to

a number of workshops in Kabul and at the institutions

promotions and hiring at the lower levels with approval

on leadership, teaching methods, team building,

needed only for positions at the professorial level

testing, curriculum upgrading, and a wide range of

(assistant professor and above). The initial positions

other topics.

would still need to be allocated by the MoHE since that is really a budgetary decision with systemwide

Accountability is increasingly being demanded of

implications. Similarly, degrees and certificates should

higher education at every level. Higher education

be signed by institutional leaders—department chairs,

institutions must have a high level of autonomy if

deans, vice chancellors, and the chancellor—with no

they are to carry out their functions effectively. The

signatures from the MoHE. Those should be saved for

appropriate mix of autonomy and accountability is

Ph.D.s.

often difficult to find. However, it has been clear to the leaders at the MoHE since at least 2009 that greater

Decentralization will increase efficiency when

autonomy is needed. They have worked over the last

dealing with emergencies such as natural disasters

few years to make greater autonomy possible while

(for example, storm damage), violence on campus,

holding the institutions accountable through regular

and major equipment malfunctions, with each

meetings with institutional leaders, accreditation,

institution having a reasonable budget allocation

periodic reviews, financial audits, and other measures

to cover those contingencies. Major items such as

of accountability. The system remains too hierarchical,

buildings, the number of people to be recruited to

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greater decentralization. More is planned for the

intellectual growth. At the same time, political texts,

future.

both liberal and conservative—including Marxist literature and Islamic texts—were secretly passed

Students and an Unknown Future in Afghanistan The character of the Afghan higher education student population has changed dramatically in the years since Kabul University first opened in 1946. Similar to most universities in developing countries at that time, it was seen as a place to train a small elite of professionals— specialists who would work for government as civil servants and leaders in a broad range of fields. Classes were to be small and intimate, and the buildings reflected that with most classrooms built to accommodate from 20 to 30 students. Expanding higher education became a priority for the government in the late 1940s with higher education getting 40 percent of the education budget in 1969 (Giustozzi 2010). Although the government was pushing for the expansion of higher education, government officials did not plan to include these graduates or the faculty members in national affairs. Indeed, the growing educated elite was largely excluded from politics, and, as a result, by the 1960s the universities were becoming centers of opposition to the government. As one writer put it, “[T]he increasingly frustrated intelligentsia started clamouring for more influence, and soon turned against the ruling elite. The radicalisation of the educated class in the 1960–70s was arguably one of the causes of the crisis of the Afghan state from 1973 onwards” (Giustozzi 2010, p. 2). In a society that was closed and generally conservative, the more open atmosphere of the universities and their emphasis on discussion and critical thinking provided a fertile ground for political debate and

around some faculties. It was during this period that several students who were later to become prominently involved in politics got their early political education: Gulbuddin Hekmatyar, Mohammad Najibullah (later to be president), Ahmad Shah Massoud, Babrak Karmal, and others (Giustozzi 2010). Various political organizations had their roots in the universities, including Maoist organizations, various Islamic groups, and the pro-Soviet organizations that were to play a major political role at the universities after the coup in 1978.15 The student unions also became very active during this period with Islamists battling Maoists for control at one point. Women were also active in these organizations, although this was primarily limited to Kabul—until the period of Taliban rule when women were excluded from higher and other education. There were also a number of ethnic-based organizations at Kabul University, Herat University, Nangarhar University, and several others. Many Pashtun students were active in Afghan Millat in Kabul, Mazar-i-Sharif, and Herat. There was also a group in Kabul called Yashlar Jawanan (Students Live) dedicated to improving Uzbek culture (Giustozzi 2010). As in most developing countries, many of the student organizations were anti-government regardless of their political orientation, and this led to conflicts in several cases. Many of the students came from political and professional families, although the number from rural areas also increased as the universities expanded. Student activism was extreme by the mid-1960s with organizations on both the left and the right. Some students who had been educated in Russia brought back Communist ideas, and many of those who had been in Egypt and other Islamic countries had been influenced by radical Islamists. As one writer put it www.scup.org

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about this period, “the student activists of Afghanistan

for their futures. So did many others who had fled

were polarized from the start. What’s more, neither

Afghanistan and the legacies of violence, oppression,

extreme had a single, unified leadership. Both Right

and fear. Many of them began to return. High school

and Left splintered into many factions, reflecting

students interviewed in 2003 had high expectations

underlying ethnic, tribal, and personal conflicts;

for the future; they saw higher education as “the key

and even the splinters were riven by rivalries, which

to success in life” and were desperate for “security,

generated further splinters” (Ansary 2012, p. 175).

peace, stability, and a good economy.” But they were

The disruption of higher education by student

sure that “peace and stability [would] not be restored

organizations during this period was destructive. By

in Afghanistan unless the people [were] educated and

the late 1960s activism had spread to the schools and

trained properly.”16

was marked by numerous student strikes at both the universities and the schools, especially in Kabul.

Some of those already in the universities during that period were discouraged by the conditions they

As higher education enrollments began to grow

found: the shortage of faculty members with advanced

from 1,700 students in 1950 to 7,600 in 1970, 18,000

degrees, the damaged facilities, the lack of funding,

in 1980, and 25,500 in 2003, the nature of higher

and the lingering corruption in admissions and

education began to change—it lost its elite character

scholarships. The university students talked about

and moved away from being primarily an urban

how the “Taliban killed education,” but they were also

phenomenon. In 2003 about one percent of college-age

upset that the teachers were not well trained, that

young people were enrolled in higher education. By

some were not very serious about teaching, and that

2014 the total enrollment in public higher education

the best teachers had fled and not returned. Yet they

had grown to 170,000, more than six times the number

understood that conditions were getting better. As one

10 years earlier. Adding the 130,000 students in private

student at Kabul University said in 2003, “If I compare

higher education results in a total of about 300,000

higher education today with that in the Taliban period

students enrolled in higher education in 2014—almost

it was zero then and now it is up to five [on a ten-point

10 percent of young people of college age. While this is

scale]. Hopefully it will continue to get better.” A group

not yet “mass education,” it is moving in that direction

of students summarized their feelings: “We the Afghan

rather quickly and will continue to do so because of the

children are talented and have the capacity to learn as

success of Education for All. Given the shortage of staff

long as the conditions are provided.” However, they

and the rapid growth in student numbers, there were

worried that the improvements needed would not come

fewer small classes in 2014 with many larger than 100

fast enough for them.17

students. Student-teacher ratios have grown from 15 to 1 in 2003 to 36 to 1 in 2014.

Students recognized the need for quality education. As a student at Herat University put it, “Although the

The period following the Russian invasion, the civil

government tries hard to provide education for us, the

war, and then Taliban rule was devastating for higher

world should also help make it possible for us to receive

education, as noted earlier. With the coming of the

proper higher education.” Another student went on to

democratic government in 2001–02 and the promised

say,

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It is very important to receive higher education,

primary and secondary school, get into the university,

but a quality education. If we compare our

and as long as you pass you will get a government

education today with the world, our quality of

job. And then there is another group of students who

education is substantially lower. The teachers

are in higher education because that was the next

have to be trained—upgraded in order to teach

place to go after secondary school. They are not very

us properly. We too need to be trained as

motivated, and many would have been better off going

specialists—future experts in our fields of study.

to a teachers college, a technical or vocational school,

In the last few years [during the Taliban period]

or one of the new community colleges where they

education was not important. But now that we

would receive the professional training to guarantee

have been afforded another opportunity we

employment, filling positions now held by foreigners.

should take advantage of it in order to have a

The old expectations of these students are hard to

prosperous future.

break.

18

We heard again and again the concerns of students

Ministry leaders are working on ways to instill ideas

about the need to upgrade the faculty, attract more

of entrepreneurialism among students. They want to

Ph.D. faculty, improve the curriculum, and provide the

encourage students to think about businesses they can

needed equipment for laboratories and instruction.

set up, new ways to serve the public, and new products

What was especially interesting was the widespread

that are needed—and to not expect government to

concern about standards and quality. They didn’t

provide jobs. If one travels through any town or village,

just want a degree; they wanted to have the skills and

one can see how entrepreneurial many Afghans have

expertise that would make it possible for them to have

been in the hundreds of small shops and businesses

jobs in what they already saw as a highly competitive

they operate. What they need is training in a variety

world.

of business areas such as finance, marketing, and management—skills that will allow them to grow

Current students continue to worry about the quality

their businesses. Students need to learn to think as

of higher education but have seen major improvements

entrepreneurs along with their other studies—to learn

over the last five years. Many are highly motivated,

to think as innovators early in their university lives,

take full advantage of what they can find on the

if not in secondary school, so that they will begin to

Internet, search out opportunities to work on academic

explore what they can do themselves to start new

projects, and work to improve their computer skills,

businesses, provide new services, or develop products

learn English or another language, or learn new

and techniques that will provide solutions to the

techniques. There is another group of students who

many challenges facing Afghanistan. Deputy Minister

just want to get a job—preferably a government job as

Babury is working to try to encourage the teaching

they still believe that government should provide jobs

of entrepreneurialism as well as a focus on student

for every graduate, a story they may have heard from

research and innovation as part of instruction—

their teachers in primary school. That is no longer

especially in engineering and the sciences. He recently

possible for many graduates. One of the concerns of

prepared a paper with me on the subject (Babury and

the senior officials at the ministry is this expectation

Hayward 2015) in an attempt to lay out a process to

of employment. While the ministry tries to disabuse

incorporate these practices in higher education.

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The small number of female students, only 18 percent

2010, p. 6); they were actively anti-Taliban. There were

of total students in 2014, leads to male-dominated

also pro-Soviet groups during the Soviet occupation,

campuses in general, with some fields such as

as noted earlier, and a small number of underground

engineering having almost no female students. While

groups as well. Overall, however, after the collapse of

women are no longer separated from men (as they

Najibullah’s regime and then during the Taliban period

were in some cases as recently as 2003) there is still

there was less space for politics on campus (Ruttig

only limited interaction between male and female

n.d.).

students, and they tend to sit in different parts of the classroom and stand apart during breaks. They are not

After 2001, political groups on campus were banned by

as vocal as male students in those classes where there

the MoHE, and that shifted political activity away from

is discussion, although this is beginning to change as

higher education, although a number of politicians and

faculty members encourage their participation.

some foreign governments continued to try to influence students’ opinions on particular political and religious

The quality of students is improving overall, and with

issues.19 The ministry actively worked to prevent

the upgrading of the curriculum in almost half the

political organizations from operating on campuses,

public universities (and now underway in the rest of

and when politicians attempted to become involved in

them), the quality of the graduates, and thus their

student life administrators tried to thwart them, for

chances of employment, should improve. Private

example by urging MPs to desist from such activity

higher education is also moving to begin the processes

during the student disturbances in 2012. Because of

of curriculum upgrading and quality assurance. The

President Karzai’s suspicion of political parties and

changes initiated at the MoHE have started to improve

his refusal to be part of any political party, the role

the quality of higher education and should improve the

of political parties in Afghanistan remained weak.

quality and employability of graduates over the next

Given the prohibition against political activities on

few years.

campus and the constant turnover of students, party leaders did not find the universities fertile ground

Students and politics

for mobilization. Thus what activity did take place on campus tended to revolve around ethnic or religious

While student politics was an active part of university

issues or support for a particular MP who provided

life at the major urban institutions from the 1960s to

assistance to student supporters.

the 1980s, it was disrupted by the Russian invasion and later the Taliban period. Most of the political

As Ruttig (n.d., p. 44) noted about politics during

activity during those periods was focused on either

this period, “The real demarcation runs between the

pro-government or anti-government activity, the latter

new democrats, the post-PDPA 20 left and most of the

by necessity being underground and thus difficult to

ethno-nationalists on one hand, and the Islamists on

organize in a university setting. Nonetheless, there

the other, on their intransigently divergent positions

was some student political activity during these

on the relationship between government and religion,

periods. For example, there were the Hazara political

i.e., Islam. While the latter support an Islamic republic,

parties, which were active on some campuses and

the former favour secularism.” Thus throughout

said to be “the only ones in the country to openly limit

this period political parties remained weak, and the

themselves to Hazara or Shiite members” (Giustozzi

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on their own. Nonetheless, there was a small group of

to rise, and so in the context of the unresolved election

politically active students on both the left and right—a

crisis and demonstrations, the MoHE decided to close

very small number who supported the Taliban; others

all classes until August 2nd so that the mix of tensions

linked to ethnic, religious, or other radical groups.

would not escalate into a major battle spurred on by

The majority of political activity that did take place

political interests.

involved students who lived in the dormitories—an environment that fostered ethnic, religious, and some

Ethnicity and religion

political activism with occasional external support from MPs and others. Those students who lived at

While Afghanistan has had religious conflicts, they

home were generally not involved in such activities.

have most often been sparked by ethnic conflicts

Overall, the majority of students are not involved

rather than by religion. Indeed, Afghanistan has been

politically at the present time; they support the system

remarkably successful at preventing Sunni vs. Shiite

in a critical and pragmatic way and watch the direction

tensions, with Muslims attending each other’s mosques

of the current political situation with concern.

for prayers when they happen to be closer to one than the other. However, outside groups from both Pakistan

The most recent example of student conflict, which

and Iran have tried to spark Sunni vs. Shiite conflicts.

occurred in July 2014, started as a clash between

The worst case was an attack on a mosque by suicide

students on a soccer field and resulted in a brawl

bombers from Pakistan in 2011 that killed more than

between some Tajik and Hazara students living in the

60 Sunni and Shiite worshipers during the Ashura

dorms. Campus security officers broke it up and took

celebrations and shocked Afghans since such attacks

those involved to the head of security who resolved

were practically unknown there.

the issue. However, news of the fight had spread, and a crowd of Hazara and Tajik students gathered

Despite efforts to prevent ethnic and religious conflict

outside the dorm to support their ethnic colleagues.

on campus there have been forces that brought those

The students involved tried to tell the crowd that the

issues to the fore on several occasions over the last

issue was settled. The deputy minister for academic

few years. There was a conflict at Kabul Education

affairs also tried to calm the situation and the students

University when President Karzai changed its name

dispersed. However, some of the students, partly

to Martyr of Peace Professor Burhanuddin Rabbani

motivated by the conflict over the elections—which

University, in honor of Mr. Rabbani, a Tajik and former

was seen by some as a conflict between Hazaras and

president of Afghanistan who was killed by a suicide

Tajiks—left and got knives and swords. This group then

bomber. That caused some fighting between Pashtun

came back to the dorm and attacked Hazara students

and Tajik students that was quickly dealt with by

as they were breaking their fast. That brought out

administrators who rushed to the scene. There was

armed Hazara students to protect their comrades. In

also a disturbance that threatened to get out of hand

the course of the trouble about half a dozen Hazara

that grew out of some Hazara students failing an

students were injured. There were others trying to

examination. They charged that they were victims of

provoke tension between Sunni and Shia. The police

ethnic bias. The incident was initially badly handled by

eventually broke up the fighting. In reality, there were

administrators, but the deputy minister for academic

no doubt several motivations for the tension. As time

affairs with support from President Karzai eventually

passed it became clear that tensions were continuing

worked out a solution to what had become a crisis that

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threatened to turn into a full-scale battle between

out of hand it is almost always because of the failure

Hazara and other ethnic groups on campus.

of administrative leaders to respond appropriately.

Chapter 5

For example, the conditions in many dormitories are The worst case of ethnic conflict happened during the

unacceptable,21 partly because of the lack of funding.

celebration of Ashura at Kabul University in 2012. The

Administrators should respond to that complaint by

crisis had its origins in an attempt by Shiite students,

acknowledging that the problem exists and making an

MPs, and non-students to turn this Muslim holiday

effort to resolve at least the worst of the conditions.

into a specifically Shiite holiday. These efforts were

Too often, administrators at the university respond in

supported by Iran, which spent a considerable amount

hostile ways or accuse the students of being impolite

of money erecting arches throughout Kabul for the

or disrespectful. The problems usually escalate from

celebration and encouraging students to press the

there. During my work with the deputy minister of

university for a campus celebration. This has always

academic affairs, we have met with dozens of groups

been both a Sunni and Shiite holiday in Afghanistan,

of students in his office. In some cases we have met

though celebrated more actively by Shiites. As part

with demonstration leaders there while a few thousand

of the festivities, a group of Shiite students asked

students chanted and waited outside the gates of the

permission to have a Shiite ceremony in a mosque

ministry. I have always found the students polite,

attached to the Kabul University dormitories. Their

thoughtful, and respectful of us and each other. They

request was refused on the grounds that this was a

know that the deputy minister insists on that, and on

celebration for all Muslims, and the ministry would not

one or two occasions when a student has gotten out of

support use of the mosque by only one religious group.

line, the deputy minister has had to ask that student to

Despite MoHE efforts to prevent problems, the Shiite

leave. The result is that there is a thoughtful discussion

students broke into the mosque and started their own

that includes a give and take of ideas, and in every

celebration while the Sunni students tried to prevent

case so far, some kind of agreement has been reached.

them from doing that. The trouble started with stone

Several times during these discussions, after making

throwing but soon turned into a brutal brawl with one

great progress, we have been joined by a chancellor,

student killed and several students wounded (Ahmed

vice chancellor, or dean who is so angry about what

2012). As a result, the MoHE closed the universities

he sees as a student’s “lack of respect” that he comes

until the beginning of the new semester in March in

close to reversing the progress made. The deputy

order to let things calm down so that there would not

minister has to calm the administrator and steer the

be counterattacks and other escalations that could get

conversation back on a positive track—occasionally

out of control. It was a sensible plan and seems to have

admonishing the administrator in front of the

worked well.

students—which in the Afghan culture is seldom done, but works.

Most student demonstrations, and there are a few from time to time, are about specific student

Hopes and concerns for the future

complaints such as conditions on campus including overcrowding in the dorms, the quality of food in

The major concerns of students are about the future.

the cafeteria, or limited Internet connectivity or the

They are aware of the limited number of jobs available

actions of a particular faculty member or dean. In my

in government, the private sector, NGOs, and other

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as engineering, they are competing with people from

Most worrying to me is the widespread anxiety among

neighboring countries with better and more advanced

students about the direction of the country. They are

training. That is what leads them to complain about

fed up with the extensive corruption in the system as

the lack of faculty members with Ph.D.s, the limited

a whole and worried about what will happen when

amount of modern lab equipment, or the outdated

the foreign troops depart Afghanistan in 2016 along

texts and curricula. They understand that the MoHE

with many donors. Many of them have lost faith

is working to improve these areas and they say so.

in the political system. This is in stark contrast to

But they also know that it may be too late for them.

the students we interviewed in 2003 who were so

Their challenges are very real, and even in areas that

hopeful, so excited about the future, and so pleased

are growing, like mining, the need for specialized

with their new freedoms; many of them talked about

engineers and technicians is several years off.

their commitment to helping rebuild Afghanistan. You don’t hear much of that talk anymore. Part of this

Prospects for students vary by individual success,

malaise is the result of the general failure of senior

their field, and their experience, if any. On the one

administrators and faculty members to reestablish

hand there is a group of incredibly bright, motivated,

a sense of community on the campuses, as I noted

hardworking students who will do well working in

in an earlier section. With that sense of community

government or the private sector, at NGOs, or on their

would have come a new interest in research, discovery,

own. They are a very impressive group, many of whom

innovation, problem solving, and creativity that would

are able to compete with graduates from other regional

have suggested what students might do on their own,

universities—as, for example, Herat graduates are in

fostered entrepreneurialism, and enhanced hope for

information technology. There is another group of

the future. On the other hand, much of the student

students who are not as bright or well-trained but who

distress is caused by events happening outside the

should be able to find employment in the long run,

university—national politics, the loss of foreign

although they will struggle in the process. And then

commitments, the ongoing war, the security situation,

there are those who went to university because that

and the general malaise enveloping the whole country

was the next thing to do, who didn’t work very hard

given the uncertainties about the new government and

and were not interested in much of anything, who did

whether it will be able to deal with corruption, improve

not distinguish themselves, and who will probably

security, and move the economy forward. Added

have great difficulty finding jobs. Many will remain

to that are the vagaries that haunt a fragile state:

unemployed unless they have family connections. They

administrative weakness, corruption, lack of funding,

are also the most likely to complain and to blame the

incompetence, and general uncertainty. All these

MoHE or the government for their failures. These are

factors are out of students’ control and leave them

the people that the government needs to worry about

filled with uncertainty, anxious about their next steps,

because if their numbers grow too large, they will

concerned about their future, and trying to devise

become a major political problem for the government

strategies that will protect them in the long run.

22

and the country as a whole.

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Chapter 6

Chapter 6: Funding for Higher Education and the Role of Donors Government Funding for Higher Education

noted earlier, to date the MoHE has received about 42 percent of that—below what it will take to raise quality

Funding is a major and ongoing problem for higher

to necessary levels and meet reasonable increases in

education in Afghanistan. Part of the problem is that

enrollments.1 A major effort needs to be made to obtain

higher education has not been a very high funding

more funding. The Kabul Donor Group promised an

priority for government or most donors in recent

additional $236 million, which would bring the total

years, as noted earlier. The focus has been on primary

funding for the NHESP: 2010–2014 to 82 percent of

education, in particular on Education for All, the very

that requested, a major improvement. However, despite

laudable effort by UNESCO and other donors to have

the approval of this request by the donors and the

universal primary education around the world by 2015.

Ministry of Finance more than three years ago, none of

What has been ignored is that the success of Education

that funding has been forthcoming.

for All produces an increasing number of secondary school graduates in the long run. Most of them want

The World Bank and the United States have been the

to go on to higher education. Not much thought has

major donors to higher education with some additional

been given to these consequences except at the MoHE,

funding coming from France, Germany, Norway,

and its pleas for additional funding to accommodate

Turkey, India, Pakistan, Japan, and ISAF. Despite the

these students have been largely ignored over the

MoHE’s success in meeting most of its strategic plan

last five years. These students are now graduating

goals by the end of 2014, because of a lack of funding

from secondary schools in increasing numbers—far

it has not been able to embark on a major expansion

more than can or should be accommodated by higher

of the infrastructure to accommodate growth and

education. Equally important, if higher education

continue improving quality. Such an expansion would

is to produce the high-quality graduates required

include building more facilities to meet the needs of a

for national development and employment, it must

larger number of students: more and larger classrooms

continue to improve the quality of its institutions. That

and lecture halls; offices for new faculty members;

cannot be done without increased funding.

high-quality laboratories in physics and other areas of science, the health sciences, and technology; and

The MoHE’s funding request in the National Higher

additional teaching equipment including expanded IT

Education Strategic Plan: 2010–2014 was $564

facilities. In addition, libraries need to be upgraded to

million over five years, a total regarded as modest

take advantage of the Internet access now available in

by most donors and those who reviewed the plan. As

Afghanistan, dormitories need to be built for female www.scup.org

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students to break a major bottleneck to increased

Budgets for the MoHE have been far too modest to

access for women, and some additional dorms need to

allow it to provide the quality of education required to

be built for men—and there are a variety of other needs

attract investment and meet development needs. As

that must be met so that all higher education campuses

shown in figure 11, per capita funding has decreased

can be brought up to a level where faculty members can

over the last five years from $521 in 2010 to $443

provide first-class instruction and learning.

in 2014, a decline of almost 18 percent. A general assumption is that a good-quality higher education

Additional funding is also needed to help implement

program in a developing country should cost about

plans to upgrade the curriculum, offer more

$1,000 per capita.2 As can be seen, the MoHE’s per

internships and in-service training (essential to

capita budget is a little less than half that amount. In

employment), and develop additional high-quality

comparison to Afghanistan’s spending of $443 dollars

graduate programs so that most master’s training

per student in 2014, Pakistan spent $3,328 per capita;

can be provided in Afghanistan. In the long run,

India, $2,627; Ghana, $3,197; Kenya, $1,850; Senegal,

preparations need to be made to add Ph.D. programs in

$4,140; Iran, $2,130; and Turkey, $4,128 (Saint 2002;

critical areas in the sciences and technology. However,

UNESCO 2014). These figures present a stark contrast

more faculty members with Ph.D.s in each of these

to Afghanistan.

areas will be required to produce high-quality Ph.D. programs. Anything less would be a waste of funding

The problems are compounded by the fact that the

and deceptive to students. The MoHE needs significant

actual funding provided is usually lower than either

additional funding to continue to send substantial

the approved budget or the allocated budget as can be

numbers of faculty members abroad for master’s

seen in figure 12 for 2012—a year that is an excellent

and Ph.D. training until at least 60 percent of the

example of the problem. The MoHE’s approved

faculty have those degrees—only 40 percent of faculty

ordinary budget in 2012 was $47 million and its

members had master’s degrees or Ph.D.s in 2014—after

development budget $57.2 million. However, its actual

which the number of faculty members sent abroad can

received development budget was only $24.6 million

be reduced.

(43 percent of that originally allocated).3 Since total funding is usually only allocated toward the end of the year it is often hard to spend all of it on development

Figure 11 MoHE Budget: 2010–2014

Final examinations taken outdoors because of the lack of large halls at Nangarhar University.

Year

Ordinary Budget (US dollars)

2010

$33,295,162

2011

35,000,000

5.1%

20,500,000

98%

452.57

2012

47,133,996

34.7%

57,224,514

179%

465.40

2013

64,000,000

35.8%

78,000,000

36.3%

481.39

2014

71,429,000

11.6%

82,696,472

6.0%

443.07

Increase %

Development Budget (US dollars)

Increase %

$10,379,000

Ordinary budget per capita $521.57

Source: MoHE data 2014. www.scup.org

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efforts in the last days of the budget cycle. The

Given the increases in enrollments over the last two

limited development budget makes it especially hard

years of 31 percent in 2012 and 31 percent again in

to meet the desperate need to expand and upgrade

2013—plus a 28 percent increase in 2014—it is clear

the infrastructure. Donors, with the exception of

that the increases in the budget have not kept up.

USAID, the World Bank, and a few others, have not

Substantial enrollment increases are expected to

contributed to infrastructure development, arguing

continue over the next six years after which graduation

that they no longer fund “bricks and mortar.” Only the

rates from secondary schools will finally drop to single

World Bank, USAID, and GIZ of Germany have made

digit increases. Thus, Afghan higher education is going

major infrastructure contributions to the goals of the

to continue to need substantially more funding just to

National Higher Education Strategic Plan: 2010–

keep up with enrollment growth. When one adds to

2014.

that the current shortage of classrooms, dormitories for women, and offices for new faculty members along

Of the total allocation for education in the government

with the need to expand and upgrade most laboratories

budget, only about 10 percent goes to higher

and other teaching facilities, it is clear that the funding

education. The other 90 percent goes to primary,

crisis has reached a critical point. Further added to

secondary, technical, and other education. The

that is the desperate need to increase quality overall

actual funds allocated for higher education in 2012

if higher education is to meet national development

were even less: only eight percent (Boardman et al.

needs. That too has costs: advanced training for faculty

2012). The usual allocation in developing countries

members, up-to-date laboratory equipment, state-of-

is about 20 percent of the education budget to

the-art textbooks, expanded internships for students,

higher education. In Pakistan it is over 20 percent;

and other needs. Afghanistan should increase its

Turkey, 31 percent; India, 19.6 percent; Thailand,

support to higher education to at least the average

18 percent; and Malaysia, 37.6 percent (Altbach,

level of 20 percent of its education budget or to a per

Reisberg, and Rumbley 2009). The base budget for

student expenditure of at least $600 in 2016 and $800

2012 was a little better than for 2011 with an approved

by 2018 if it is to begin to meet the minimum quality

ordinary budget of $47,133,996 and a development budget of $58,276,051. The actual allocations were $47,126,791 and

Figure 12 An Example of the Reduction from Approved to Allocated MoHE Budget: 2012

$24,639,090 respectively. During 2012, MoHE expenditures of the ordinary budget were $44,242,880 (93.9 percent of the total approved ordinary budget). Its expenditures of the development budget during 2012 were only $22,796,620 (39.8 percent of the total approved development budget), primarily because the budget year was changed to only nine months so that in the future the budget and calendar years will be the same. Source: Boardman et al. 2012, p. 35. www.scup.org

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standards needed to foster national development. A

year delay. Prior to this, any funds received went to

$600 per capita allocation would have produced an

the treasury and were seldom seen again. This new

ordinary budget of $96 million for 2014 as opposed

initiative should substantially assist higher education

to the approved budget of $71.4 million, an increase

institutions in raising funds on their own to invest in

of 35 percent. As it is, increases in the budget do not

upgrading higher education. While the results of this

keep up with increased enrollments and do not allow

financial decentralization will take time to appear—

for the quality improvement necessary to develop the

and will probably be seen only in the Kabul institutions

kind of public higher education system that will foster

at first—I am optimistic about the possibilities in the

essential national development and produce graduates

medium term.

who find employment or are able to develop their own businesses or professions as entrepreneurs.

Other funding options need to be considered as well. The Afghan constitution guarantees free higher

In addition to increasing government support to both

education through the undergraduate level. Students

the ordinary and development budgets, one quick

pay fees for master’s and Ph.D. programs and for

way to improve the budget situation is to allow higher

night classes. In the short run, at least, it would not

education institutions to raise and keep funding from

be possible to amend the constitution to change that.

entrepreneurial activities, donations, and other fund-

Such an effort would guarantee student opposition

raising. Since 2001 that has allowed higher education

and violence. On the other hand, as I have noted

institutions in Pakistan to increase their income by

earlier, no nation can afford to cover all the costs of

an average of 49 percent while at the same time the

higher education. One possibility would be to charge

government subvention increased by 98 percent.

students for accommodations and food. The costs of

This would be an easy partial solution to the funding

housing and feeding students eat up a little more than

crisis in Afghanistan that would have little effect on

one-quarter of the ordinary higher education budget.

the treasury since this is not income being earned

The charges could be assessed on a needs basis. As it

by anyone at the present time—it is income forgone

stands, a good many students could afford to pay for

and lost to higher education forever. If such a change

housing since they come primarily from middle- or

had happened in Afghanistan in 2001, as it did in

upper-class families. Furthermore, in contrast to

Pakistan, that income would have created a multiplier

students in public higher education, students in private

effect of investments, resulting in millions of dollars

higher education pay most or all of the costs of their

of additional income to the Afghan economy each

education, some as much as $5,000 per year.4 Private

year. One study suggests a benefit of 14 to 15 percent

higher education in Afghanistan now accounts for

on funds invested (Universities Australia and KPMG

about 45 percent of student enrollments.

Econtech 2009). Afghan higher education would be in a much better position if that had happened.

South Africa moved to privatize its student housing several years ago, and the plan worked smoothly and

In that context, in November 2013, the government

well in part because it gave students more control over

approved a recommendation that for the first time

their accommodations including which companies

will allow public higher education institutions that

provided the meals. Students in South Africa now

have the capacity to raise and keep funds, although

review three or four different catering firms each

their ability to access those funds is subject to a one-

year and the winner gets a year-long contract. Meals www.scup.org

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have improved significantly in South Africa, and the

such low quality that no one would want to hire them.

headache of housing is no longer an ongoing problem

It would also guarantee that Afghanistan would be

for university administrators—something that used

deprived of the economic contributions that come from

to take up to half of their time. In Afghanistan, the

high-quality public higher education.

poorest students could continue to receive subsidized food and housing at public institutions with others

Given the fact that the government is facing a 20

paying on a graduated scale from half to full cost based

percent budget shortfall (Sieff 2014a), some alternative

on family income.

solutions for funding higher education are essential in the long run. It seems unlikely that anything close

If government is unable to increase its funding for

to the current level of external support will continue

higher education, one of the only other alternatives

beyond 2016 when the last of the foreign troops are

is to allow standards and quality to fall and make no

scheduled to leave. The medium-term economic

pretensions of striving for high quality. That seems to

prospects for Afghanistan are very good given the

me an unacceptable solution for any government. On

known mineral, oil, and gas deposits throughout

the other hand, we have seen that happen in a number

the country. However, those take time to develop,

of developing countries—Kenya and Nigeria being good

especially in a war environment. Even if new mining

examples where public higher education quality has

operations started today, they would not produce

fallen below that of private institutions. In Nigeria, the

much in the way of revenue for at least five years

quality of higher education was so low that businesses

because of the need to build access roads to the mines,

would only hire Nigerian graduates from universities

prepare the sites, build housing for workers, purchase

abroad. In cases like these, the wealthy send their

equipment, put in place mining and processing

children to private institutions or universities abroad.

structures, begin to mine the ore and refine it, and

That, however, hurts the economy (through a large net

set up marketing and delivery mechanisms. Thus, it

outflow of foreign exchange to pay tuitions abroad, as

is especially critical that plans begin to be made right

happened in Kenya), increases the gap between the

away to ensure that higher education has access to the

poor and the wealthy, and deprives the country of the

funding it needs now for both quality improvement and

other benefits of quality public higher education such

infrastructure expansion. That will require a major

as research and service. In the meantime the graduates

national economic plan and an enhanced commitment

of public universities are unemployed, unhappy

to higher education.

5

about it, and likely to become both disruptive and destabilizing. The only other alternative, if additional funding is not available, is to limit enrollment to the current number of students or an even lower number to free up funds to improve quality. While that would be very hard to do and the pressure from new secondary school graduates demanding admission would be enormous, to allow the institutions to expand while quality falls would be to guarantee that the graduates produced would be of

Donors and the Challenges Posed Donors have been very generous in support of education in Afghanistan in general, but, as noted above, with the exception of USAID and the World Bank, higher education has not been included in that support. The vast majority of donor funding for education has gone to primary and secondary education. Part of the reason for that has been the

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emphasis on Education for All, which grew out of a

USAID and the World Bank have been excellent

mandate from the Dakar Forum in 2000 and aims to

partners of the MoHE. They regularly consult with

provide basic education for all children around the

the ministry about its priorities and have paid careful

world by 2015. In addition to USAID and the World

attention to the NHESP: 2010–2014. That has not

Bank, a few other donors have provided support

been the case with a number of other donors. One in

for specific areas of higher education, but the donor

particular has consistently failed to consult with the

community in general has made it clear that it

ministry prior to providing aid. This has led to the

“does not do higher education,” as one donor put it,

duplication of other donors’ efforts in several cases

suggesting that it was not important to the future of

involving very costly equipment and laboratories. In

Afghanistan. Indeed, higher education has not been

other cases it has resulted in the double funding of

a high budget priority for government, although it is

projects. In some cases those funds can be shifted

one of the pillars of the Afghan National Development

to other uses but in others the funding is wasted.

Strategy. The donor focus on basic education has made

Another donor has sometimes sent equipment without

it very difficult for higher education to obtain the

instructions for its setup, maintenance, or operation

funding needed to support the goals of the National

or has sent directions in a language for which there

Higher Education Strategic Plan: 2010–2014.

are no translators in Afghanistan. Furthermore, this largess has tended to focus on areas and institutions

For reasons that are hard to comprehend, neither the

that are not among the ministry’s priorities. The MoHE

government nor most donors seem to understand the

usually learns about such contributions only after

findings of the World Bank and several other research

they have arrived and are publically announced by the

organizations that show that no nation joins the ranks

donor. Consultation could have ensured that the items

of developing countries without a high-quality higher

purchased were priorities that everyone could celebrate

education system (see, in particular, World Bank

once they were put in place and working. As a result of

2002, Chapter 1). Although Afghan higher education

these issues, some of the equipment provided remains

has improved tremendously over the last five years, it

in boxes unused because there are no instructions or

has not yet reached that level of quality. While public

training for its use, because duplicate equipment is

support for education is generally strong, except among

already in place, or because it is not needed. This is a

supporters of the Taliban and in some other extremely

tragic waste of funds when there are so many needs

conservative Islamic communities, neither the public

in science, technology, and numerous other areas of

nor the government appear to understand that national

higher education.

economic development and the ability to attract foreign investment depends on a substantial improvement in

When working for the World Bank in Afghanistan

the quality of Afghan higher education. Other than

in 2005–06, I was struck by the cooperative way in

those in the MoHE (and, more recently, in the Ministry

which World Bank staff worked with the ministry to

of Education), no one is making that case. Without

develop proposals for Bank support. That approach

strong government support and the necessary funding,

continued in 2009–10 when I was on the other side

the improvements in the quality of Afghan higher

of those efforts working with the MoHE. World Bank

education required will not be achieved in time to do

staff and ministry officials and staff met or consulted

much good.

almost daily over a month-long period to work out a proposal for the Bank based on the priorities set out in www.scup.org

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the NHESP: 2010–2014. The result was a joint funding

has prioritized English as the most important foreign

proposal written by both parties that truly reflected

language for students; other languages, including

the goals of the MoHE. I had never before seen such

German, Chinese, Russian, French, Spanish, and

detailed and careful collaboration between a donor and

Japanese, are considered secondary. Because of the

a ministry in any country. It was a model of how such

high cost of language instruction, the ministry is

work should be done.

eager to focus its limited resources on English since by presidential decree all programs in engineering and

In more recent years, such World Bank cooperation

medicine are to be taught in English beginning in 2015.

has not been the norm. Rather, a plan is developed in

That target is going to be difficult to meet even under

Washington or elsewhere and some partial drafts are

ideal circumstances. While the MoHE has shown its

shared along the way by e-mail, but there is nothing

appreciation for the generous gifts of buildings and

joint or cooperative about the process. While there

equipment intended to be used for instruction in other

may be a meeting to discuss the plan, the “discussion”

languages, all of this consumes scarce resources in

is only one way with very little listening on the part

faculty salaries, upkeep, repair, instruction, heating,

of World Bank officials. What has resulted in these

support staff, and related costs. Suddenly those funds

cases is a proposal that duplicates work already done,

are not available for support of priority areas.

neglects to consider achievements made already, and fails to build on the current state of affairs. Consultants

The shortage of English speakers among the faculty

are sent to repeat work already completed, wasting

has meant that some scholarships provided by various

their time as well as that of people at the MoHE. With

governments for master’s and Ph.D. training abroad

careful cooperation the same funds could be used

have gone unused because there are not enough

to move forward from the current state of affairs to

faculty members who can achieve high enough scores

achieve results close to the ultimate goals of both

on the required language proficiency examination

the MoHE and the funder. By 2015 the World Bank

to be able to use them. Most instruction abroad is in

procedures seem to have improved with consultation

English including that in India, the European Union,

again taking place as it should. Nonetheless, there is a

Turkey, Pakistan, the United States, and a number

tendency among donors to think “we know what should

of other countries. The lack of English proficiency

be done” and a failure to recognize that professionals

also limits access to graduate scholarships for a

in the ministry and advisors from various parts of the

number of students. Ph.D. and master’s training is

world have already moved beyond a particular stage.

a critical need for faculty members. Yet once again,

In such cases, both time and precious resources are

when these scholarships cannot be used because of

wasted, and no one is satisfied with the results.

the lack of language proficiency these resources and opportunities go to waste—opportunities that are

Another problem that occurs far too frequently is

unlikely to continue to be available to faculty members

that with little or no consultation a donor provides

and graduate students for much longer. There are

funds for a specific project that is of interest to the

several other cases in which support and non-priority

donor but not a high priority for the MoHE. This

academic programs have diverted funding from critical

was the case in several language areas, although the

areas in the sciences, social science, and technology.

problem is not limited to that area. While the ministry

While the generosity is appreciated, these gifts often

is eager to have students learn a foreign language, it www.scup.org

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Chapter 6

make it financially difficult for the MoHE to provide

from both the institutional and employer perspective.

the support needed in critical areas.

One-third of the faculties (35) have completed their reviews including the needs assessment. In the new

Recently there has been a great deal of donor interest

National Higher Education Strategic Plan: 2016–

in workforce and skills development. Much of this

2020 there is a section on workforce development

relates to valid concerns that university graduates are

urging institutions to increase their consultation with

not being adequately prepared for employment—that

employers to ensure that graduates are appropriately

their education is not relevant to the world of jobs,

prepared for the workforce (MoHE 2015). The MoHE

the needs of employers, or the changing nature of the

expects its graduates to be able to use their training

market. The MoHE has worked for years to ensure

to deal with a changing environment, adapt to the

that the curriculum includes training that relates

constantly evolving work needs of the modern world,

to employer needs and expectations. However, the

and apply their creative abilities to the development

ministry has heard from some employers, especially in

of innovative solutions for tomorrow’s challenges and

engineering, that graduates of engineering schools are

problems. Thus, while higher education training should

not meeting their needs. Others have expressed similar

be relevant to today’s employment needs, it must also

concerns about the need for more relevance. Some of

train students for an unknown future: new issues they

the donor concerns seem unfocused—preparing the

will need to confront, new techniques that will have

graduate for “an appropriate role in the economy”

to be developed, new methods that will be required

(Roth 2014, p. 2). What does that mean? What is an

to improve today’s technology, and new software and

appropriate role? Who defines that? Nonetheless, the

processes that will be needed to meet future demands.

MoHE takes these concerns seriously and is working with faculties to solve these problems. It is for that

An ongoing problem with some donors is their failure

reason that in 2012 the MoHE included a “needs

to maintain regular and continuing coordination

assessment,” referring to the needs of employers and

with the leaders of the projects they are funding. Too

other institutions, in the procedures for curriculum

often their local staffs do not bother to talk with those

review and upgrading.

involved in the actual process of implementation at the MoHE or university. Often they meet only with

The MoHE continues to take the concerns of employers

the minister or other senior officials who usually do

seriously and is working with a number of them to

not have much understanding of the details of the

meet their needs. For that reason the MoHE directed

process. Those meetings are important, but they must

its Curriculum Commission to ensure that in the

be followed up by regular consultations with the actual

process of mandated curriculum reviews, faculties

implementers. The donors assume that the minister

consulted with employers to ascertain their needs,

passes on any suggestions they make, which is often

hear any criticism they might have about the training

not the case. While this is partly a problem the MoHE

of students, and listen to suggestions for future

needs to solve, it requires work by both parties. Even

training. During 2012, the Curriculum Commission

the most informed senior ministry official will not

developed its “Curriculum Review and Development

be aware of a project’s day-to-day issues, problems,

Guidelines,” which include a section about the

obstacles, or needs. Sometimes this leads to the total

process of needs assessment that was used during

failure of critical sections of a major project—as it did

the curriculum reviews in 2013–14 to identify needs

in the case of SHEP—when regular consultations could www.scup.org

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have ensured success. There are many such examples.

This list of challenges does not negate the strong and

While meetings with the minister and senior officials

positive relationships the MoHE has had with most

are essential, it seems to me that they often appeal

donors. The problems are mentioned here in the hope

to donors because they sound more prestigious than

that they will help future donors think through their

meetings with ordinary staff. Yes, the prestige may be

processes and operating procedures in ways that will

there, but in the long run some of these projects fail to

help improve cooperation, increase the effectiveness of

meet their targets and may fail totally. This problem

grants, and provide an even better connection between

has gotten worse in recent years as donor staffs have

donors and the ministry. As part of the MoHE’s effort

been reduced and security concerns often mean

to improve coordination, it plans to reconstitute the

that those who are there seldom leave their offices.

Higher Education Donor Group and hold regular

Yet, project managers continue to need direct input

meetings with its members to help build closer ties and

from donors in order to rectify problems or eliminate

ensure that the donors and the MoHE are partners in

bottlenecks.

these efforts, working closely together, targeting the same goals, and able to celebrate even more exciting

Some donors’ staff members seem to shy away from

successes in the future.

working closely with staff in the field or getting directly involved in or observing the operation of projects. This breakdown of contact and cooperation is increasing and does not bode well for the future. Regular meetings with staff in the field also help donors understand the workings of Afghan higher education, the challenges to be faced, the local culture, and the kinds of pressures that can spoil a good project or, if properly understood, lead to great success. Part of the problem recently was the assumption that donor coordination was occurring through the Human Resource Development Board.6 This body does provide important mechanisms for communication at a general level. But as a former member of that body for over three years, I can say that it is no substitute for personal contact with those directly involved in a project.

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Chapter 7: Lessons from Experience What Lessons Have Been Learned to Date?

be done. That was part of the reason why the first steps taken by the leadership were to reestablish

Most importantly, we have seen that a significant

faculty rules and regulations about obligations, duties,

transformation of the public higher education sector is

conditions of service, teaching, research expectations,

possible even in a war environment in a fragile state.

and proper conduct. This strategy worked because

This was possible because leaders were committed

a small but active pool of senior leaders and faculty

both to rebuilding higher education to what it had

members was clear about these rules and expectations

been before the Russian invasion—a leader in the

and made them explicit early. That enabled them to

region—and to building a high-quality system that

mobilize administrators and faculty leaders to bring

would foster national development regardless of the

about changes in attitudes and behaviors by working

challenges. They spelled out these goals clearly in

with others willing to make the commitments needed

2009 in the National Higher Education Strategic

to create change. Further, the process of implementing

Plan: 2010–2014. The leaders of the MoHE saw war

the new rules and regulations was carefully developed

as but one of the many challenges they faced and, in

so that the goals and mechanisms for implementation

many respects, not the worst of them. The fragile state

were understood, put in place, and followed.

posed additional challenges that had to be dealt with one by one, including weak government, unpredictable

A good example of success in that vein was the

funding, limited support from other sectors of

implementation of policies about merit recruitment

government, and regular political interference. The

and merit promotions. This was a change that

war had created a number of problems that made

many senior faculty leaders did not think could be

progress more difficult including an inward-looking

implemented because they felt it was not “the Afghan

faculty and staff more focused on survival than

way” and thus faculty members would not agree. Yet in

anything else. That attitude had fostered a kind of

the end there were no major problems in implementing

selfishness that made corruption and irresponsibility

these policies. Why was that? Because the changes

easier and broke down the strong sense of community

were explained clearly along with the justification for

that had existed prior to the Russian invasion and civil

them, people knew about the changes well in advance

war. It had also weakened faculty members’ sense of

and understood the reasons for them, and, most

responsibility for the state of higher education.

importantly, people agreed with the changes. They all knew that the traditional system based on the “old

It was the corruption, irresponsibility, and survival

boy’s network” was unfair—some of them had suffered

instinct that were hardest to overcome. To tackle these

from it, and many of them were fearful that it would

challenges required a clear vision of what needed to

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Chapter 7

also knew from experience that it didn’t work very

faculty members know they should do research. This

well in terms of the quality of the people promoted

was drummed into them during their training and

or recruited. An additional factor fostering support

is part of the assumption about faculty obligations

was the argument made by MoHE leaders that since

worldwide. Some faculty members are already doing

students were admitted on the basis of merit, the

research, and many others have thought about topics

ministry could not continue to support a non-merit

but used the excuse of lack of time to explain their

system for the hiring or promotion of faculty members.

inaction to date. Some are hindered by the fact that

Indeed, as we have seen overall, there was no major

they have second jobs teaching or consulting, often

long-term resistance to any of the policy changes

without university approval. But they expect to carry

introduced over the last five years except in the case of

out research in the future. In addition, there is the

those policies regarding the review of private higher

option of writing a textbook, which meets the research

education institutions—and that only by a small group

requirement as long as the department or faculty

with a conflict of interest.

agrees that the text is needed. Many faculty members have taken that option. In the arts it is clear that a

Two changes that affected many faculty members and

major show, performance, or exhibition is equivalent to

might have sparked resistance did not: the requirement

publication.

that faculty members know a major foreign language and the requirement that they conduct research in

While the real test of the research requirement may

order to be promoted. Part of the explanation for

come later, it is not likely to become a major issue. It

the lack of resistance to the language requirement

doesn’t affect older faculty members who are already

is that because of the 10-year Russian occupation of

at the associate or full professor level or on their

Afghanistan, many faculty members already know

way. What will be harder is the development of good-

Russian. In addition, a significant number already

quality research projects by some of the younger

know English, or if they do not they realize they should

faculty members who do not really know much about

if they want to be part of the international academic

research—how to write a proper research question or

community or work abroad. Those that do not know

choose appropriate research methods—and who have

English plan to learn it. Even if they have not already

no mentors in their field to guide them. As they work

started to do so they expect to start in the near future.

toward promotion, they may have trouble producing

Thus the requirement is not a threat.

the research required. On the other hand, the youngest faculty members who have had the chance to obtain a

The lack of resistance to the requirement for research

master’s degree or Ph.D. abroad have come back full of

is a more difficult one to explain. It has not engendered

ideas about research, well versed in research methods,

resistance so far, only questions: Where is the money

and eager to carry out new research or continue

to fund research? Does the requirement really apply to

research they started as graduate students. The

the new universities and higher education institutions?

challenge for some of them, especially in the sciences

How is research defined in the arts? These questions

and technology, will be finding the funding needed for

have straightforward answers that were well thought

their projects. Little funding is now available but the

through in the process of preparing the rules and

new World Bank project in 2015 is expected to include

regulations regarding research. Resistance to the

some funding for research.1 The fact that there will

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with master’s degrees and Ph.D.s is the best hope

private institutions are now often higher than at public

for rebuilding a culture of research and will, I am

institutions, enforcing the rule might lead the faculty

confident, succeed.

member involved to leave—as a few have. Nonetheless, if an effective academic community is to be rebuilt

Of the challenges that remain, perhaps the most

and a culture of teaching and research rekindled,

difficult will be rebuilding the academic community—

faculty members must be present on campus full

the culture of teaching and research and the sense of

time, available to provide direction and counseling to

community that existed prior to the Russian invasion.

students, and engaged in research they can share with

Part of the difficulty, as mentioned previously, is the

colleagues and students.

loss of senior faculty stars and mentors, many of whom left Afghanistan following the Soviet invasion. Few of

Related to faculty research is the need to expand

them have been replaced, although a little research

graduate education opportunities in Afghanistan.

continues to be done. Nonetheless, the isolation and

That is important because sending people abroad for

self-interest, discussed earlier, resulting from so

master’s and Ph.D. training is very expensive and

many years of fear, the struggle to survive, and the

probably cannot be continued at the current level

unknowable consequences of war will be hard to break.

except in highly specialized areas that can’t be offered

I see this most clearly in the flouting of faculty rules

in Afghanistan. In addition, depending on foreign

regarding the prohibition against outside teaching,

institutions for advanced degree training largely

especially during normal university business hours, by

eliminates that possibility for women who often have

a large number of faculty members. I would guess that

trouble getting permission to go abroad, frequently

at some institutions as many as 50 percent of faculty

have child care responsibilities that make foreign study

members violate this rule.

difficult, and usually have husbands who are unable to join them. Thus the expansion of graduate programs in

Faculty members are not actively protesting these

Afghanistan is especially important for female faculty

rules because they are only rarely being enforced and

members and female graduate students who hope to

then only in particularly audacious cases or when

become faculty members. We are currently learning

there are many student complaints. Furthermore,

the lesson that the expansion of graduate programs

administrators recognize the need for many faculty

requires additional faculty members with Ph.D.s to

members to take these jobs to support their families

oversee them. These Ph.D. faculty members also must

given the way inflation has cut into salaries in recent

be committed to teaching, research, service, and their

years. Nonetheless, this violation of the rule on outside

colleagues. That is the only way first-rate graduate

teaching means that these faculty members are not

programs can be offered, and as their numbers

on campus much of the time and thus not available

increase, more faculty members will be needed full

to advise students, participate regularly in faculty

time on campus to make sure high quality prevails.

governance, or carry out research. There is also the

Quality graduate programs must be led by faculty

belief of many faculty members that they should be

members who are active in research, leaders in their

able to have outside work as long as they meet their

fields, and full time at their institutions so that they

obligations to their home university. That is a much

are available to impart their knowledge and research

more difficult and complicated problem to police. There

expertise to their graduate students as well as work

is also fear among administrators that since salaries at

with their colleagues.

2

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Another lesson that should have been learned is the

meet normal work expectations. It seems to be a good

difficulty of controlling outside teaching. The lesson

solution to the problem though only time will tell.

that should be taken from the failure to enforce these rules is that given the economic conditions and low

Another lesson learned relates to making the case for

salaries a more reasonable approach is needed. It is

more funding for higher education. This is a difficult

not a good idea to have rules that end up being broken

challenge that will take persistence, well-prepared

by so many people. That makes “law breakers” out

data, good concise examples, and strong support from

of a large proportion of the faculty members. While

other sectors of government to overcome. Despite

the main impediment to ending outside teaching and

requests for more funding over the last five years, the

consulting is low salaries, and while there is some

MoHE has not made a substantial, sustained effort

talk about salary increases for faculty members, the

to make the case for a major funding increase to

government’s current financial situation is unlikely

Parliament, the Ministry of Finance, and other leaders.

to allow a salary increase significant enough to make

The facts for a strong argument are there including

faculty members believe they no longer need outside

the huge and continuing growth in graduation rates

employment.

from high school, the resulting rapid enrollment growth, the critical need to expand the infrastructure,

One step that might be taken to help eliminate this

and the need to improve quality to meet development

issue would be to relax the current rules somewhat so

requirements.

that a faculty member could teach elsewhere one day a week as long as he or she was on campus the rest of

There has been little success to show for funding

the week. The salary problems and the tight definition

requests to date. The effort to make the case was

of outside employment are barriers to keeping faculty

intensified in 2013, which was the first year the MoHE

members on campus full time and thus an impediment

seemed to make some headway. In addition, this

to the improvements needed to restore high quality,

was the first time the Ministry of Education joined

establish more essential graduate programs, and

in support of the MoHE in its efforts to get greater

rebuild the academic community. A more effective

funding. The Ministry of Education realized that the

policy on outside teaching needs to be put in place

MoHE was underfunded and that it was in its best

to make this possible. The new National Higher

interest to ensure that the MoHE was adequately

Education Strategic Plan: 2016–2020 proposes a

funded since that ministry trains its secondary school

review of the rules on outside teaching and suggests

teachers and because TVET and teacher education

recognition of the right of faculty members to teach

are affected by higher education admissions. The

up to two courses outside their public institutions, but

battle is far from being won, and the MoHE will need

only with permission, with proof that they are meeting

to continue to work very hard to make its case. Part

their teaching, advising, administrative, research,

of the problem is getting people to understand the

and service obligations, and on the condition that one

trade-off involved—that increased access without

course be outside normal teaching hours (the other

increased funding results in the loss of quality and

can be during regular hours if not more than half a

an inadequate higher education for their children.

normal teaching day is missed) (MoHE 2015). This

While people understand the quality issues somewhat,

proposal recognizes the need of many faculty members

they are much more concerned about access to higher

for extra income, but also requires that those involved

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carefully refined in ways that policymakers can better

While students, on the whole, are supportive of gender

understand, perhaps by focusing on specific examples

equity, and most faculty members say they agree,

of areas where Afghanistan higher education is behind

there is little action in following up on those views.

its neighbors and competitors, such as in medicine or

We have watched Parliament weaken existing laws

engineering.

and reject proposals to protect women from rape. We have also seen faculty members who are reluctant to

The Higher Education Gender Strategy (MoHE 2015)

advise female students for fear of what their colleagues

is being released after two years of development and

will say. It has been difficult to get women onto

extensive consultation. It is clear that some parts of

commissions and major committees partly because

the strategy are going to be difficult to implement, in

of their home obligations but primarily because male

particular the push to increase the number of women

members are reluctant to nominate them or support

undertaking graduate education and the number of

their inclusion. I have noted earlier some of the

female faculty members. The MoHE learned a great

problems the MoHE has faced in attracting women

deal about resistance to gender equity in the process of

to faculty positions and the difficulties many women

preparing the gender strategy. Staff members witnessed

have in getting permission to do graduate work abroad.

the subtle resistance of many ministries to the efforts of

To some extent the latter problem is being lessened

the Ministry of Women’s Affairs to work with them on

by the increase in the number of master’s programs

gender equity issues, including increased employment

now offered in Afghanistan. Added to these problems

for women. Their method of resistance was to simply

are those faced by women who do get into senior

fail to show up for those meetings. Only the MoHE was

administrative and leadership positions—problems I

present at most of the meetings with the Ministry of

have highlighted earlier in this study.

Women’s Affairs. Thus the Ministry of Women’s Affairs gave up trying to work with other ministries on gender

Hiring more female faculty members, while hindered

equity. In recognition of the MoHE’s support, the

by the small number of candidates, is primarily

Ministry of Women’s Affairs provided a great deal of

hampered, in my view, by the biases of male faculty

assistance on its gender strategy and will have a major

members who do not want more women employed

role in its success.

in the faculties. The lack of candidates, while true, is mostly an excuse. The same holds true for the promotion of women. While the MoHE has not yet reviewed recent promotions as it promised to do in the Higher Education Gender Strategy, it is clear that it is harder for women to be considered for promotions than men. Part of this is because of their usual family duties that make it harder for them to meet the expectations of publication and service needed for promotion, but I suspect a larger part of it is the attitudes of male faculty members who do not want to see women promoted partly for sexist reasons and partly because they fear the competition. Most of the

Meeting about Higher Education Gender Strategy. Photo by Asef Mehry.

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the very brightest students because they had to work

serious deficiencies. As a result, the process moved

especially hard and be particularly competitive to

forward with very few problems.

Chapter 7

survive in the system long enough to reach graduate school. They will be tough competition, but so much

The potential utility of outside consultants is another

the better for quality purposes. Nonetheless, strategies

lesson learned. That has been demonstrated again and

need to be developed that will make it harder to

again for the MoHE in preparing the national higher

discriminate against women and provide opportunities

education strategic plans, setting up accreditation,

and incentives to at least equalize or level the playing

undertaking institutional strategic planning,

field. The MoHE has learned that tough problem areas

establishing community colleges, and preparing of

like this one require careful preparation, a medium-

a variety of policies in areas such as study abroad

term approach, patience, and hard work to make the

(including the return of graduates and their obligations

case.

to the MoHE), gender strategy, rules and procedures for merit promotions, new graduate programs, and

Another lesson learned is the importance of extensive

others. To be sure, great care must be taken in picking

consultation, especially when something new is being

the right kind of consultants—people who listen to

proposed. A good example of this is the development

what is needed locally, respect Afghan traditions and

of a system of accreditation. The MoHE started

honor them, are open to other ideas and not defensive,

working on accreditation in 2009. The commission

and understand the environment of developing

working on accreditation developed Bye Laws for

countries. The MoHE has had some bad experiences

Quality Assurance and Accreditation during 2009–10

with consultants who didn’t meet those requirements.

that were completed in final form by July 2011.

Overall, however, foreign consultants can bring, and

However, wanting to be sure that the process was

have brought, badly needed specialized expertise

fully understood and that there were no obstacles to

that was lacking in country. Much of the explanation

its implementation, the MoHE waited until July 2012

for success has to do with the expertise of individual

to publically announce accreditation and start the

advisors, and in that respect one lesson learned is

process. During that year the bye laws were reviewed

that they must be carefully vetted.3 One advantage

by chancellors, many senior faculty members, the

of consultants is their neutrality—the fact that they

Ministry of Justice, and a variety of specialists in

are not from a particular ethnic group or associated

Afghanistan and abroad. The MoHE held four general

with politics, political parties, or particular factions.

workshops on accreditation and additional smaller

They are thus easier to fire than local staff if they don’t

workshops at the major campuses. In addition, the

produce—and this was done in three cases over the last

MoHE asked the Kabul universities to pilot the self-

five years. Other advantages include the fact that they

assessment and used their feedback to improve the

usually do not have long-term interests in Afghanistan

procedures. By the time all the consultation was

and thus do not stand to benefit from their consultation

completed, almost everyone agreed that it was a good

beyond their payment as employees, as well as the

process, relatively easy to undertake, and important

fact that most people who have worked in several

to improving the quality of higher education in

foreign environments are not likely to be dogmatic or

Afghanistan. Furthermore, the pilot experience helped

wedded to one particular way of doing things. Foreign

universities understand their own weaknesses and

consultants also provide an important check on local

gave them time to work on areas in which they had

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because an experienced consultant can draw on many

lack of funding, the difficulty in identifying mental

similar experiences in many different countries under

health specialists who could be used, and the shortage

a wide range of conditions. If something worked well in

of ministry staff prevented immediate action.4

several other similar settings, the odds are high that it

Nonetheless, a small core of senior staff kept the issue

will work in Afghanistan.

alive.

The problem of mental health provides another lesson

In late 2013 Deputy Minister Babury appointed a

learned—one that demonstrates the importance of

steering committee on mental health at the MoHE that

persevering even when an issue seems critical but

included members from the Ministry of Public Health,

unrecognized or unmet and never giving up in the face

the Ministry of Education, Kabul University, HEP,

of multiple roadblocks. Sometimes it is important to

Kabul Medical University, and Albiruni University.

wait for the right moment, seek the right partners, or

With support from USAID through the HEP program,

pause until adequate funding is secured.

plans were made to set up two pilot mental health centers, one at Kabul University and one at Albiruni

That was the case with the issue of mental health

University. This was an issue that the deputy minister

care for students in Afghanistan. Afghans, as well as

and his advisor had kept alive since 2009 awaiting an

most of the rest of the world, have been reluctant to

opportunity to move forward.

recognize the mental health problems that exist as a consequence of more than 30 years of war. And of

During 2013, the Ministry of Public Health developed

course people around the world tend to look the other

a national project on mental health and began to

way when mental health issues come up, to ignore

train professional staff5 who could work in clinics

them or write them off since they seem to show human

with doctors. However, the Ministry of Public Health

weakness. Men in particular are loath to recognize

did not have the funding or the capacity to include

these problems in themselves and thus more likely

higher education. During discussions with senior staff

to ignore them in others. Yet, the damage caused by

at the Ministry of Public Health about the problems

years of war and other traumas has affected the mental

faced by the MoHE, it became clear that there was an

health of at least 40 percent of university students with

opportunity to join forces to include this mental health

a much higher percentage of women affected than men.

effort as part of a MoHE pilot project. This cooperation

The effects on women are higher for many reasons we

would expand the Ministry of Public Health program

have noted including the pressure put on them by their

in ways it could not on its own and assist the MoHE

families to help at home or get married, the greater

in addressing the mental health issues it had been

obstacles they face in continuing their education,

working on for several years. HEP contributed a staff

the reality of sexual harassment, and the fear that

member, a doctor who was the only woman trained

their future options will be limited. Some leaders in

and certified in mental health by the Ministry of Public

higher education recognized these problems early on,

Health, Dr. Brishna Sadiqi. The University Support and

especially under the enlighten direction of Minister

Workforce Development Program will continue that

Mohammad Azam Dadfar (March 2006–January

collaboration. Dr. Sidiqi worked with the senior higher

2010) who was himself a trained psychologist. With

education specialist to help develop the outline and lay

his help the ministry began to work on mechanisms

the foundation for this effort as well as with the staff

to help students with mental health problems. A

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material they had prepared. As a result, two clinics for

education institutions, and for most donors, going

students are planned and expected to open at Kabul

through numerous reprints in English, Dari, and

University and Albiruni University in 2016 as pilot

Pashtu. The NHESP: 2010–2014 was widely regarded

projects on student mental health. This will be a first

as a model of strategic planning among donors, NGOs,

step in beginning to meet the mental health needs

and others interested in higher education.

of students and in time of faculty members as well. Funding or in-kind assistance was provided in small

Finally, the successes in Afghan higher education

amounts by most of the participants, all believers

demonstrate the importance of operating in a relatively

in the critical need for mental health services to

free environment. This has been the case not only in

alleviate a major and mostly unrecognized problem

higher education in Afghanistan over the last decade

on university campuses. Clinical levels of depression,

but also in society generally, with an active and

anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder affect

growing media representing a wide range of views,

nearly half the students, cause some to drop out,

willing to criticize government, NGOs, and higher

undermine the educational progress of a large number

education, and prepared to take on almost any issue.

of others, and in extreme cases lead to long-term

This freedom has helped Afghanistan realize an

disability or suicide. These are problems that can be

expansion of social opportunity, especially in health

resolved and results that can usually be prevented. The

care and in primary, secondary, and higher education.

first steps in that direction have now been taken.

Academic freedom and freedom of expression have been the keys to successful change. As Sen (1999,

This case demonstrates the importance of

p. 18) notes, freedom is “a principal determinant of

perseverance—keeping after a problem even when it

individual initiative and social effectiveness. Greater

seems impossible to resolve it in the short run, even

freedom enhances the ability of people to help

when needed expertise and funding are lacking at

themselves and also to influence the world, and these

the moment. The problem remains as do the negative

matters are central to the process of development.”

consequences. In the case of mental health in higher

This freedom was critical to the process of change in

education, this perseverance means that in the long

Afghan higher education, allowing a five-year process

run the chances of success are much higher.

of discussion, debate, and exploration to result in a variety of fundamental changes that facilitated higher

Another key lesson learned is the importance of

education’s transformation—a process that is still

careful strategic planning—planning that creates

underway.

consensus but also produces a new model for higher education.6 Unlike so many strategic plans that have been written around the world, the National Higher Education Strategic Plan: 2010–2014 became the basis for almost everything done during that five-year period. Because of the consensus that was developed over time regarding the plan’s goals—all of which were linked to the two overall goals of quality improvement and increased access—the plan became a constant

Were Some Key Issues or Problems Missed Along the Way? Looking back on the work done since 2009, it is clear that some key issues had to be left until a later date or were missed altogether along the way. Let’s look at some of these:

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Differentiation

Chapter 7

that there is not a single model for higher education, and realize that Afghanistan needs a diversified

One of the major goals spelled out in the NHESP:

system with multiple missions divided among the

2010–2014 was “to lead and manage a diversified and

nation’s institutions. As missions are differentiated,

coordinated system of higher education comprised of

it is important to ensure that there is a division of

public and private universities, institutes and colleges”

labor, not a hierarchy.8 Excellence must be fostered

(MoHE 2009a, p. 6). At that time, differentiation

at all institutions, but duplication must be avoided.

was thought to comprise universities, the MoHE’s

Expansion should meet Afghanistan’s need for Afghan

institutions of higher education,7 and community

institutions while at the same time producing students

colleges, although differentiation had not been clearly

who meet the global standards of today’s highly

defined. Part of the problem the MoHE faced was that

competitive environment.

all its higher education institutions aspired to become universities and offer at least master’s degrees, if not

As van Vught (University World News 2008, ¶ 5)

eventually Ph.D.s. The distinction between a university

points out differentiation has many advantages for

and an institution of higher education was primarily

the system, including that it “improves access for

based on whether or not the institution had four or

students with different educational backgrounds

more faculties. That criterion was not hard to meet—

and achievements.” It also helps “meet the needs of

it didn’t define the quality of the programs or the

the labour market by creating the growing variety

expertise of the faculty members or say anything about

of specialisations that are needed for economic and

research. Furthermore, there was a political push in

social development” (¶ 6). Differentiated systems

some regions that had higher education institutes to

also encourage “the crucial combination of elite and

have them called universities for reasons of prestige—

mass higher education” since they “absorb a [more]

and indeed some had their status changed before they

heterogeneous clientele” than elite systems (University

had met the criterion. This missed the fundamental

World News 2008, ¶ 7). Added to that is the fact that

need for differentiation, which was academic,

differentiated systems are more cost effective and

financial, and practical. In short, no real plan for the

efficient in that they limit master’s and Ph.D. training

differentiation of the system was in place by 2014.

to a smaller group of institutions with the highly trained and qualified Ph.D. staff required to teach in

Yet a truly differentiated system is essential both to

those programs. Master’s and Ph.D. programs are at

provide the high quality needed and to use scarce

least 10 times more expensive per student to operate

resources effectively. To respond to the tremendous

than undergraduate programs. It does not make sense

growth in the number of young people graduating

to spread them over the system either in terms of

from secondary school, the resources for higher

cost or existing faculty expertise. In addition, high-

education must be expanded, but that expansion must

cost undergraduate programs in the sciences and

be targeted and efficient. As access is increased, it is

engineering should be limited to those institutions

important to help students understand that there are

set up for graduate education with the Ph.D. staff and

many paths to excellence that meet their different

research expertise needed to produce high-quality

talents and dreams as well as national needs. Similarly,

programs. Thus, a differentiated system fits the

administrators and faculty members need to be clear

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Afghanistan and responds to its quality requirements

of themselves as potential research universities,

as well as its constrained financial condition.

proposed master’s programs, and tried to emulate

Chapter 7

Kabul University. That wastes resources, drawing them In 2014 MoHE higher education institutions were

away from the effort to build high-quality institutions

only divided into two categories, universities and

and is likely to lead to the creation of a total system

higher education institutes, the main distinguishing

that is mediocre at best.

factors being the number of faculties and size. A third category, community colleges, was established in 2015,

No nation can afford to operate as if all institutions

and the first two have begun instruction.

are potentially comprehensive research institutions with graduate programs. That is just not financially

The solution to providing the quality graduates

viable even in wealthy states, nor will it produce the

needed in Afghanistan must involve much more than

quality needed. Furthermore, the research institutions

just creating opportunities for access—that will be

and their faculty members must be held to a very high

meaningless unless the system is highly differentiated

standard of achievement or be financially penalized.9

and founded on high quality, integrity, and creativity as

To make this work well, an integrated higher education

well as committed faculty members and staff. It must

system must be established with distinct missions

be a system that fosters an inclusive approach to the

spelled out clearly to meet a diversity of needs, talents,

different missions of each institution as part of a whole

and goals. The system must inspire excellence in

with carefully managed growth and expansion. The

students, faculty, and staff at every institution at every

system must be dedicated to the development of all the

level if it is to produce students who will contribute

people of Afghanistan—regardless of wealth, gender,

to the growth, development, and creativity that will

family occupation, region, or origin. The diversity

distinguish Afghanistan once again as a regional

of Afghanistan should be carefully and sensitively

leader making unique contributions to growth and

managed to foster the development of the nation as a

development. As noted, this type of system constitutes

whole. That means that the boundaries between types

a division of labor between types of institutions, not a

of systems must be clear and policies must be put in

hierarchy. The brightest students may well choose to

place that do not allow “mission creep” of the sort that

go to a community college because it fits their dreams,

is happening in Afghanistan today. It also has to be

background, and talents. This system should also help

recognized that the costs differ substantially between

Afghanistan move away from thinking of programs

types of institutions, with the comprehensive research

in hierarchical terms with medicine and engineering

and graduate institutions the most expensive given

at the top and education at the bottom.10 Why would

their advanced programs and research emphasis.

one want a system in which the weakest students are

Those budget distinctions must be clear and followed

trained to be the teachers of our brightest students in

with care.

primary and secondary school? They too need to be the best and brightest.

Although this type of differentiation was discussed in detail in 2013 and a concept paper developed for

In a differentiated system in Afghanistan, one

Cabinet, nothing happened. And so many institutions

group would comprise the “research and graduate

that were categorized as comprehensive universities

universities” and might consist of Kabul University,

and general education institutions continued to think

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University, Kabul Medical University, Herat University,

Institute of Higher Education is affiliated with Kabul

Nangarhar University, and possibly Balkh University,

Education University.

although it might belong in the second category. These universities have large numbers of students, significant

The fourth group is the “community colleges,” which

numbers of faculty members with master’s degrees,

are now being developed. The first two community

some faculty with Ph.D.s (and many in training), large

colleges will be colleges of Kabul Polytechnic

numbers of graduates each year, and all but Balkh and

University and Kabul Medical University. They will

Nangarhar are authorized to offer master’s programs.

provide 2.5 years of mid-level professional training (including a six-month internship) designed to prepare

The second tier would be called the “comprehensive

students for employment at the end of the program.

universities” and made up of somewhat smaller

They will grant associate’s degrees. They fill a critical

universities that are still experienced and well

need for well-trained, mid-level professional and

established, offering well-developed programs. They

technical graduates. These jobs are now being filled

have fewer faculty members at the master’s and

primarily by foreigners from Pakistan, Turkey, India,

Ph.D. levels, but are stable with a clear direction and

Iran, and the Philippines. Graduates would not be

mission and working to increase the number of faculty

allowed to transfer to universities or higher education

members with advanced degrees. To avoid duplication

institutions. Thus, community colleges will not be an

and ensure quality at the graduate level, they would

alternative gateway to university-level education. If at a

not be allowed to have Ph.D. programs. They include

later date some graduates want to go on to universities,

Takhar, Bamyan, Khost, Parwan, Albiruni, Paktia,

they would be eligible only after five years of

Jawzjan, Baghlan, and Kunduz Universities.

employment and success on the Kankor examination, which they would need to take at that point.

The third group would be called the “general education institutes” and would include other higher education

Limits on the number of research universities

institutions, many of which are newer institutions. Most of them are just getting underway and do not

The NHESP: 2010–2014 stated a goal to limit master’s

yet have well-planned programs or strategic plans

and Ph.D. programs to a small number of universities.

in place. This group needs special attention to better

To date, those universities have not been identified.

integrate their programs, develop high-quality

That has allowed all higher education institutions to

education, and bring them fully into the system. They

think of themselves as potential research universities

will not be allowed to offer specialized undergraduate

offering master’s degrees and Ph.D.s. That is

programs like the comprehensive universities will.

unfortunate, as such an open system is much more

Their capacities will be improved by having each of

costly than a limited one and is unlikely to be of high

them mentored by an institution in the first or second

quality. Furthermore, it is more costly at a time when

group; if they have especially serious problems they

resources are scarce. It is important for the MoHE to

could be put under the direct supervision of one of

set these boundaries clearly, although it has not done

the institutions in group one or two. In 2014 six of

so before now. A similar set of boundaries needs to be

these institutions were under the mentorship of older

put in place for private higher education institutions,

institutions. For example, Farah Institute of Higher

several of which have been allowed to offer master’s

Education is affiliated with Herat University, and Logar

programs.

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Moratorium on new public higher education institutions

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issue year after year, and policies need to be developed regarding access. These include how large the higher

In the NHESP: 2010–2014, a moratorium on building

education system will be allowed to grow by 2025, and

new higher education institutions was suggested

here I refer to the public universities and MoHE higher

(MoHE 2009a). There was tremendous pressure to

education institutes. Although the number of graduates

build a higher education institution in every province

from secondary school is continuing to grow each year

in the country. That is financially impossible and

and doesn’t begin to level off until about 2022, how

would be inefficient and counterproductive to quality.

big should the higher education sector be allowed to

What is needed is to consolidate and build on existing

grow? How much do we know about the demand for

institutions. Furthermore, having many small

higher education graduates? How much can higher

institutions is much more expensive to operate than

education be allowed to grow and still make the

a smaller number of large institutions since there are

quality improvements needed? What are the space and

few if any economies of scale in small institutions.

infrastructure needs in terms of expanded facilities?

Nonetheless, the MoHE has not been able to totally halt

How will the growing cost of increased access and

the expansion of institutions even when it has opposed

improved quality be met?

this expansion in Cabinet. The political pressures have proven impossible to resist, and so Afghanistan

It is essential that the MoHE make some long-term

has moved from a system of 22 higher education

decisions about the rate of growth that is possible,

institutions in 2009 to 36 today. That has weakened

determine the costs involved, and set those plans in

quality overall. There are 16 institutions without a

motion as an integral part of MoHE policy. Working

single Ph.D. faculty member and six without anyone

with the Ministry of Education and the Ministry

with a master’s degree or Ph.D. That means that all

of Labor, Social Affairs, Martyrs and Disables, the

their teachers are operating with only a bachelor’s

MoHE should try to get a better understanding of the

degree. There are 16 institutions where the highest

needs of employers than is now possible. Although

ranking faculty member is a teaching assistant, and in

the Ministry of Labor has the legal responsibility to

most of those the highest ranking faculty member is a

assess employment needs and prevents the Ministry

junior teaching assistant. That should be unacceptable.

of Education and MoHE from doing that on their

This is no way to produce graduates who will meet

own, it has not been responsive to the requests of

employer needs, and it runs the risk of creating a

either ministry for studies of the current labor force

large pool of unemployed and unemployable higher

or estimates of labor needs. With a new president in

education graduates. The moratorium needs to be put

place, this may change. Otherwise the Ministry of

in place once again.

Education and the MoHE are making estimates of need in a partial vacuum. The MoHE has carried out

Confronting issues related to access

some focus groups with employers in preparing for the community colleges. However, much more long-term

At one level the MoHE has successfully responded to

planning and needs estimates should be conducted

demands for increased access by meeting its goal of

as soon as possible. That requires assistance from the

doubling the number of students in higher education

Ministry of Labor, Social Affairs, Martyrs and Disables

by 2014 as noted above. Indeed, it met that goal a year

as specified by law. The MoHE cannot legally do such

earlier than planned. However, access remains an

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Decentralization

Expanding the infrastructure

Decentralization has been a goal of the MoHE

There has been some infrastructure growth over the

since 2001 when Minister Fayez sought to put it

last five years but it has been based on individual

in place, though without success. It was a goal of

campus decisions about what was needed rather

the NHESP: 2010–2014, again with only minor

than an overall plan for system growth that takes

success. Decentralization continues to be a goal of

into consideration national needs including employer

the new National Higher Education Strategic Plan:

demand, economic growth prospects, and the possible

2016–2020. The major impediment has been the

expansion of local businesses and industries such as

Ministry of Finance, which has resisted MoHE, World

mining, gas, and oil. While government has been eager

Bank, and other efforts to decentralize financial and

to see higher education enrollments grow, it has not

administrative authority to the institutions. During

provided the funding needed to appropriately teach

the last few years the MoHE has managed to carry

and house these additional students. This has hurt

out a pilot project with the four Kabul universities

quality in general and dulled some of the major quality

that allowed them financial control over some of their

improvement efforts put in place by the MoHE. An

smaller expenditures. That project has been a success.

overall plan for the infrastructure growth of the whole

That success helped the MoHE gain the authority

MoHE higher education system is essential, one based

in 2013 to allow higher education institutions that

on a careful examination of needs, funding prospects,

demonstrated they had the capacity to raise funds

and educational realities.

and keep them to use for various budgetary needs as long as they followed proper accounting procedures. However, as noted earlier, institutions must wait a year before they can access those funds. Thus, while this is a step in the direction of greater decentralization, decentralization is not yet a real fact. The MoHE also needs to work out mechanisms to decentralize many of the administrative functions now centralized in the ministry to those institutions that can manage them. This should include control over graduation certification, student records, and transfers from other institutions as well as greater control over promotions, with review by the MoHE only for the senior professorial levels (associate and full professor). These goals are part of the National Higher Education Strategic Plan: 2016–2020 and should be put in place over the next few years along with expanded institutional financial authority for expenditures and other budget matters, including elimination of the oneyear wait to use funds from entrepreneurial activities and gifts.

Was the MoHE Using the Wrong Models? The MoHE is following a Western model of higher education modified for Afghan realities that emphasizes good teaching, careful and practical research, and service to the community and the nation. Afghan higher education also enshrines academic freedom, open discussion, and participation. Is that the right model for Afghanistan? Some people have suggested it is not. In particular, it is argued that this model is not appropriate in terms of “Asian values,” which one writer suggests “are supposed to be more keen on order and discipline than on liberty and freedom” (Sen 1999, p. 149). It is argued that Asian values put the state before the individual and Asian traditions see individualism as potentially destructive. Yet, it is hard to find verification for that other than in the words of autocrats and dictators. These statements were particularly popular in the proclamations of Lee www.scup.org

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Kuan Yew, who as head of the government in Singapore

Some people have suggested that the idea of gender

combined an authoritarian state with a phenomenal

equity is also something based on a Western model.

economic rise. His efforts achieved wide acclaim at

That is not correct. There is a great deal of evidence

the time, and he and others attributed these successes

to the contrary from various parts of the world where

in large part to strong state control. Yet, Asia has its

gender equity is well enshrined in tradition, as in early

own traditions of freedom and individualism including

hunting and gathering societies and some parts of

Buddhism and early philosophies in India such as

Africa with a history of female chiefs. In Madagascar

Carvaka and Lokayata (Sen 1999). Some have asserted

women are treated as equals, have served as monarchs,

that academic freedom and an open participatory

and any gender biases, where they exist, seem to be

model is unsuited to Asia. That is reflected, it is said, in

something introduced by French colonialism.

the difficulties some Afghans seem to have in making public judgments about other people. The tendency is

Was the MoHE’s slow approach to gender equity the

just to say “everything is fine” and give high ratings to

proper strategy? Yes, I think it was, and the successes

everyone. The MoHE had that problem with the first

so far support that. Indeed, the problems of gender

group of private higher education reviewers, but not

equity at the national level in May 2013 reflected an

with the peer reviewers for accreditation or any other

effort to push a policy through Parliament before

reviewers once they were given proper training. The

adequate background work had been done. That

problems with the initial private education reviewers

resulted not only in its defeat, but also in additional

were resolved once the MoHE provided them with

legislation that reduced existing protections for

clear indicators for each level of quality. The reviewers

women (International Crisis Group 2013). Should the

then had no problem making differential judgements

MoHE have accepted the biases as givens, as some

and did so very well.

have suggested, and not advocated for gender equity? Will the Higher Education Gender Strategy create

It is hard to see what an alternative model of education

a backlash for the MoHE? There will no doubt be

for Afghanistan might be. Indeed, I do not think this is

some opposition from the conservatives, but that is

a Western model, but rather a general set of standards

to be expected. The current leadership of the MoHE

for effective higher education. Higher education is

is operating under the assumption that if higher

about knowledge and the search for knowledge; the

education does not push gender equity, then there is a

search for truth; the process of asking questions,

great risk of losing much of the progress already made.

exploring, seeking new knowledge, and replacing old

Gender inequity is a tremendous waste of human

knowledge with new findings when you have them;

resources and the potential contributions of half of

and then passing that knowledge and the techniques

society–something Afghanistan can ill afford. Taliban

for using it on to the next generation. It has to be an

views against education for women are still strong as

open, participatory, and free process. That requires

are the similar views of conservatives and many of

honesty, truth, accuracy, and a process that links new

the uneducated. However, young people on the whole

knowledge to old knowledge, building on tradition

regard gender equity as important in their lives. The

and history. That is what the MoHE is doing in

steps taken to date by the MoHE have been managed

Afghanistan.

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members in higher education in 2001. The MoHE

returning from abroad after twenty years as refugees

policies are firm, based on reason, and not pushed with

showed a similar desire to make money.”

excessive haste. We will see how people respond to the Higher Education Gender Strategy over time.

This is an aberration, not a tradition. The notion that corruption is traditional is just an excuse for tolerating it and not doing anything about it. Corruption in

Does Afghanistan’s Uniqueness Require a Different Approach?

Afghanistan has grown tremendously over the last 10 years. Yet it was not an important factor when I arrived in 1993. Its spread is a consequence of many factors.

Every society is unique, with its own traditions,

One of those factors, as noted in an earlier section, is

expectations, and customs. The MoHE and those

the huge amount of money brought into Afghanistan

working with it have tried to be very cognizant of

by ISAF forces and donors, mostly in cash in the early

those traditions. Indeed, some people have argued

days. Most of it was spent without requiring much

that corruption is an Afghan tradition and people

accountability. That created opportunities that fostered

shouldn’t worry too much about it. I don’t believe

corruption, and soon large numbers of people were

that. One writer (Gall 2014, p. 216) puts it well: “This

out to get all they could while it lasted. But there are

was a society that functioned on patronage, a duty to

other causes as well, as noted earlier, including a moral

help your relatives and clan, and the everyday use of

breakdown in some parts of society, the drug trade

bakshish—whether a tip or a bribe.” But she goes on to

and the influx of a great deal of drug money, and the

say of the Karzai government: “Yet the combination of

many opportunities provided for corruption by the

Karzai’s poor management and the influx of vast sums

development process. Now of course the corruption

of assistance, often poorly administered by donors,

will be very difficult to stop, but it must be reduced if

created the most corrupt regime Afghans had ever

Afghanistan is to have effective governance. The large

seen. The mujahideen commanders who came into

amount of donor funding will not continue to pour

government brought an unbridled sense of entitlement

in much longer, and many donors will depart even

to take property, ministries, and jobs. . . . Afghans

sooner if corruption is not reduced. Furthermore, most of the population is fed up with corruption. The new government of Ashraf Ghani is off to a good start in its effort to curtail corruption. While corruption is not unique to Afghanistan it has become out of control. The problem needs to be tackled quickly, broadly, and seriously. Religious issues are also not unique to Afghanistan, although the mixes are different in other parts of the region. The historical traditions, though unique (as they are everywhere), do not constitute unique situations that must be treated differently. Thus, I see no basis for arguing that Afghanistan requires a

Female students in pharmacy laboratory. Photo by MoHE.

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any development project or change in Afghanistan

the outset and 60 percent within five years; graduate

requires careful planning, an understanding of Afghan

programs must be high quality with the requisite

history and culture, and extensive consultations and

number of Ph.D. faculty members (and certified by the

planning with those involved, as was done for the

Graduate Committee); 30 percent of the faculty must

National Higher Education Strategic Plan: 2010–

be engaged in ongoing research at the outset and 60

2014. Successful development also requires a careful

percent must have publications that are peer reviewed

assessment of its impacts, costs, benefits, and possible

within three years; 20 percent of the students and

unintended consequences. To date, that is how the

15 percent of the faculty members should be women;

MoHE has approached most of the planning described

the curricula of all faculties must be updated and

in the previous pages—which has led to success. I see

those updates implemented; the institution must

no need for a different approach.

reach full accreditation status within four years; half the courses offered must be evaluated annually

Focus on Quality Graduate and Research Universities Success in achieving the broad quality goals of the new NHESP: 2016–2020 should start with a focus on select institutions and targeted funding. The target institutions should include those that can move quickly and are the most likely to be productive in terms of national development. The MoHE should focus initially on those universities that could be identified as research and graduate institutions11 since already they are the most advanced, yield the best graduates, and can produce what is most critical to national development: high-quality graduates, faculty research on critical national problems, and highquality graduate programs. The ministry’s focus should include institutional performance expectations; a time line for achieving teaching, graduate program, and research goals; and a willingness to make changes in institutional leadership and transfer faculty members where progress is lacking. A significant amount of funding should be set aside for this purpose, with goals and expectations clearly spelled out. The goals at minimum should include the following: at least 40 percent of the faculty members must have master’s degrees or Ph.D.s at

(preferably by students but at least by senior faculty members) starting within the next two years; and all departments and faculties must have in place up-todate statistics on the job placement of their graduates one year and two years after graduation. The top four or five institutions meeting these conditions should receive a special top-up of at least 25 percent of their development budget as funding to enhance the achievement of the quality goals noted below. No other public institutions would be eligible to offer Ph.D. degrees. The additional goals are to »» Improve infrastructure: Upgrade existing classrooms and build additional facilities to meet reasonable enrollment projections. This must include large lecture halls and large classrooms for 50–100 students; offices for new faculty members; up-to-date laboratories and modern equipment in the sciences, IT, some social sciences (sociology, political science, and psychology), engineering, and health; and administrative offices to accommodate the new staff needed for the decentralization of many financial and administrative decisions as spelled out in the strategic plan. »» Improve academic quality and standards: Provide funds to implement updated curricula as spelled

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out in the programs presented by the faculties

to graduate and research universities on a

and approved by the Curriculum Commission.

competitive basis.

»» Provide research support. Provide funds to be

»» Continue curriculum upgrades and follow up

administered competitively at each graduate and

on the upgrades proposed. Provide funds to

research university based on the quality of faculty

support the Curriculum Commission’s follow-up

research proposals as reviewed by an appropriate

reviews starting with the research and graduate

panel of faculty members.

universities.

»» Fund graduate instruction and research. Provide

»» Enhance gender equity. Follow up on the goals

supplemental funding for graduate education

of the Higher Education Gender Strategy for

including master’s research programs. Only

institutions, faculty members, and students to

those graduate programs certified as high

ensure that progress is being made.

quality by the Graduate Commission would be eligible. Focusing attention on the quality of graduate education is critical to future growth in Afghanistan. We can see what happened in subSaharan Africa because of the neglect of quality graduate instruction—a period of economic decline and stagnation.12 That need not happen in Afghanistan. »» Link academic programs to employer and

»» Continue support for faculty development. Foster the development of well-trained faculty members (at least 60 percent with master’s degrees and Ph.D.s) and an active research and teaching culture. The most expensive part of this is the need to continue to send large numbers of faculty members abroad for Ph.D.s. Most of the programs needed cannot be found in Afghanistan, nor should they be in the short run. In addition,

development needs. Provide funding to allow

in some specialized areas master’s candidates

faculties to contact a significant percentage of

will also have to be sent abroad. Priority for

employers of their graduates to determine their

scholarship support for faculty members should

satisfaction with these graduates as employees

be given to research institutions until they meet

and a sample of at least 25 percent of recent

the 60 percent goal.

graduates to assess the utility of their training to the jobs they now have. »» Continue to foster accreditation with funds for upgrades where weaknesses are found based on the priorities of institutional action programs. »» Provide funds designed to significantly improve

Preparing for an Unknown Future Over the next few years there will be a number of unanticipated challenges for Afghan higher education that will complicate the tasks faced by the MoHE.

the quality of science and technology programs.

Given the war and the fragility of the state, there are

Make funds available to graduate and research

likely to be more unpredicted challenges than might

universities on a competitive basis determined by

be considered usual. Nonetheless, given the successful

the quality of proposals.

transformation in many critical areas of higher

»» Continue efforts to improve teaching with studentcentered approaches. Make funds available

education over the last five years, the tasks ahead will be much easier than they would have been otherwise. Let’s look at what are likely to be the major areas in www.scup.org

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which unexpected events may occur that will affect

above, especially expanding and upgrading the

higher education in Afghanistan over the next five to

infrastructure? This is a major unknown.

ten years. »» Finding the delicate balance between funding and the number of students that can be admitted to quality higher education. The challenge is to ensure that although enrollments increase, they do not do so at the expense of quality. Academic quality must continue to be brought up to appropriate levels to foster national development and encourage foreign investment. This balance

»» Developing leadership. Will the government and the MoHE be able to attract and appoint the active, supportive, talented, honest, and committed leadership needed to continue progress in higher education? Will the related ministries have leadership that will be supportive? These are unknowns that will be played out over the next few years. »» Enduring the war and understanding the prospects

will be hard to assess given the unknowns related

for peace. Of immediate concern to Afghans is the

to donor support, government revenue, success

departure of most of the coalition forces and the

in reducing corruption, and the ability of the

increasing role of Afghan military and police in

MoHE to move higher education farther up the

the fighting, although a small contingent of U.S.

government financing priority list.

combat troops will remain. The year 2014 was

»» Limiting external interference in higher education. It is critical for the MoHE to have the ability to set enrollment targets, budget priorities, rules and procedures, and quality targets without having them overruled by Cabinet, the president, or Parliament—or because of public pressure to expand enrollment beyond the targets. Part of the ability to do that depends on solid planning by the MoHE, the initial key to which is the new NHESP: 2016–2020. »» Obtaining adequate funding to ensure continued quality improvement. A key unknown is whether donors will live up to their commitments to provide funding for the NHESP: 2016–2020 and whether government will be able and willing to commit the increased funds needed. Will the government be able to increase the allocation to higher education from the ordinary budget to something close to $800 per capita within the next two years and increase the development budget sufficiently to fund the goals prioritized

the most costly in terms of death to the Afghan armed forces with about 5,000 killed. The civilian toll for 2014 was also the highest of the war with an estimated 3,699 civilian deaths for a total of 26,270 since 2001 (Taylor 2015). There is concern that without continued U.S. assistance the tide may turn against Afghan forces. On the other hand, the Afghan military and police have been doing better in the field of late, and people are more hopeful. They remind each other that Afghan forces soundly defeated the Russians in an earlier period. Nonetheless, after more than 30 years people are very tired of war. While some peace talks have been taking place, the timing of the onset of peace is likely to be unknown for some time to come. We have already seen that several early efforts made by President Ashraf Ghani were rejected by the Taliban though more talks are said to have begun. These talks are almost always carried out in secret, and there will surely be more of them. Higher education has managed to make remarkable progress even in the midst of war. Imagine what could be done www.scup.org

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in an environment of peace. This is the most important unknown of all. Let us hope peace comes very soon so that the talent, creative energies, and resources of Afghanistan and the donor community can concentrate on national development at all levels of education and throughout the country as a whole.

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Chapter 8: Goals for the Next Five to Ten Years: Continuing the Transformation Process What are now the most critical needs of higher

graduates committed to national development who

education in Afghanistan? What should be its goals

have the honesty and commitment to transparency

for the next five to ten years? Which of them should

required to restore public faith in government,

be the highest priorities? In the preceding pages I

business, and major institutions; and to encourage

have explored a wide range of challenges facing higher

in graduates the entrepreneurship needed to take

education in Afghanistan. Addressing these challenges

advantage of the many opportunities that can be

requires a number of goals to be met. And as is almost

created and developed in the new knowledge economy.

always the case, choices will have to be made in terms

The country is already behind its neighbors in this

of priorities, available funding, logical order, need, and

regard. It must move quickly to catch up.

1

the current realities of Afghanistan. What goals are most important to continuing the transformation of

Moving quickly will require a great deal of political

higher education?

will and commitment to goals, some of which are likely to face strong opposition. In the short run, success

Afghanistan faces a number of key decisions that

will require the MoHE to focus its major quality push

will be critical to continuing the transformation

on a small number of institutions, the research and

process. Many of them will not be easy. There is one

graduate universities. That will not be an easy task and

goal that must be paramount—continuing the quality

is likely to be contentious as other institutions feel left

improvement process to bring at least the research

out. Nonetheless, real progress requires focused action.

and graduate universities up to a level of quality within the next five years that will allow them to reach

In the early sections of this piece I have described both

the international standards essential for success in

the major accomplishments of and the challenges for

today’s highly competitive environment. This is a

Afghan higher education given the work carried out

critical moment for Afghanistan if higher education

by the MoHE through 2014. In the comments that

is to produce the well-trained graduates desperately

follow I want to spell out what seem to me to be the

needed to contribute to national development. Quality

most important goals for the next five to ten years.

higher education is also essential to attracting the

These goals should be highlighted in the new National

foreign investment needed to develop its many

Higher Education Strategic Plan: 2016–2020.

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Access to Higher Education

if enrollment growth becomes a threat to increased

How should higher education respond to the

enrollment limits by making tough decisions about the

substantial increase in the number of graduates from secondary school? Can higher education institutions accommodate the growing demand? What alternatives are there for graduates? What can be done to limit growing unemployment? There is no easy solution to this crisis. However, one thing is clear: increasing the number of students in universities and higher education institutes without increasing quality would be counterproductive. Already, some of the progress made in improving quality over the last five years has been hurt by the far-too-rapid increases in enrollments. Indeed, efforts to improve quality must receive the increased support needed to provide better equipped laboratories and additional classrooms, continue advanced degree training for faculty members, follow up on curriculum updates, and continue the accreditation process. Only by increasing the quality of instruction will Afghanistan have the kind of quality graduates needed to attract investment and foster economic growth. While the bulge in graduates from secondary school creates problems, the large number of people in this age group—estimated at 42.3 percent of the population under the age of 15 and 68 percent of the population under 25 (Lavender 2011)—represents a huge population shift, and if they are well educated, potentially a huge shift in attitudes. Thus, part of the solution to meeting the needs of Afghanistan is to make sure that the half of the student population that is able to get into higher education has access to a better and more appropriate education than is available today and that those who do not get in are steered to training that will make them employable or able to set up their own businesses. For that to happen, a great deal more planning is needed to ensure that growing enrollments do not lower quality and,

quality, growth is curtailed. That means setting number of admissions each year. Ideally, university and higher education institution enrollments should not be allowed to grow more than 10 percent a year for the foreseeable future. That is a level of growth that can be accommodated by reasonable expectations for increased higher education funding. While higher education overall (including TVET, teachers colleges, and community colleges) could continue to admit as many as 25 percent of those taking the Kankor, the additional enrollments should be directed to TVET, teacher education (TTC), and community colleges. The majority of these additional students might be taken up by the new community colleges, which are focused on employment. For that to happen, their rate of growth must be increased. TVET should become more oriented to jobs, with limits on the movement from TVET to higher education enforced and significant improvements in quality made in TVET itself. TTCs should focus more clearly on teacher training and be protected from becoming a waystation for those who want a university education but have no interest in teaching, as is currently the case for probably at least 25 percent of TTC students. It is essential, as noted above, to make sure that the critical balance between enrollment growth and funding for quality improvement is met. That will require tough decisions to limit access so that growth does not affect quality improvement. It will also require teachers to encourage high school students to think about options other than universities for their future. Quality improvement must continue to be the highest priority of the MoHE for the next decade—and that includes private higher education as well. Failure in this area will produce more admissions and more graduates, but they will be graduates without the www.scup.org

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kind of quality training needed to meet employer and

funding needed to ensure high-quality infrastructure

development needs who will then create a growing pool

expansion that meets the needs spelled out in the plan.

of unemployed that will be a long-term threat to the

There are many reasons why such planning has not

nation’s security and stability.

been done. These efforts were begun in the Office of the Deputy Minister for Academic Affairs. However,

Expansion of the Infrastructure to Meet Enrollment and Quality Needs While some discussion has taken place internally at the MoHE over the last five years about the need to expand the infrastructure, there is no overall plan to do so and there have been no space needs assessments, space use studies, or other systematic planning conducted regarding the most critical infrastructure needs. In previous sections I have written about infrastructure needs for teaching, especially laboratories and more and larger classrooms; for research, especially laboratories and equipment; for faculty member offices, which are already in short supply and will be in even greater need as hundreds of additional faculty members are hired with the expectation that they will be available to consult with students, carry out research, and provide services to the university and community; for women’s dormitories, given that this is the most critical bottleneck to increasing the number of female students; and for basic services such as water, sanitation, heating, and electricity. There is no need to make the case for the expansion of the infrastructure again here. The missing link has been the lack of will to prepare a badly needed broad-based plan; to undertake the hard political task of setting priorities; to lay out detailed plans with their far-reaching implications for additional services; to rationalize the use of existing space so that it is fully utilized six days a week and not the private possession of each faculty; to make decisions based on the quality of programs rather than political

to make such planning meaningful requires the support, cooperation, and commitment of the minister and other senior officials as well as the president and Cabinet. The conditions to make such planning happen were not present during the 10 years I worked in Afghanistan. The results of the one space audit carried out at a single university during that time were quickly hidden away because they showed too much unused space—that is, the results were politically unacceptable. Even when ideas about space use were discussed, it was clear that the challenges could not be met through the Office of the Deputy Minister for Academic Affairs alone, although no one else was willing to support the tough decisions needed. To make such planning effective requires a number of other difficult decisions of the sort mentioned earlier including a limit on the rate of growth, a strict limit on the number of research and graduate universities, stringent differentiation of higher education institutions by type and mission (as noted above), and a commitment of funding to implement these changes from both the government and donors. I am not talking about huge increases in funding but increases significant enough to bring per capita ordinary budget spending to at least $800 per student. This is doable, but will take a new commitment to higher education, very thoughtful and careful planning in the MoHE, and support from the president and Cabinet. Development funding will need to be increased to cover the costs of infrastructure expansion as worked out in such a plan. That will require a major new commitment to higher education.

or historic considerations; and finally to allocate the

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Differentiation of Higher Education Institutions

The differentiation of higher education should be

In the earlier section on the differentiation of higher

and complaints from the second-tier institutions, but

education institutions, I laid out a four-part structure

that kind of differentiation is essential given limited

that differentiated the four categories of MoHE higher

funding. Not all higher education institutions can be

education institutions: (1) the research and graduate

Kabul Universities, just as not all U.S. institutions

universities with first-rate graduate programs, (2)

can be Harvards or Berkeleys or all UK institutions

the comprehensive universities focusing exclusively

Oxfords. No country can afford to maintain a limitless

on high-quality undergraduate education, (3) the

number of top-quality institutions offering a broad

general education institutes, and (4) the community

range of courses and graduate programs. Nonetheless,

colleges. Master’s and Ph.D. training would be limited

all institutions can offer quality undergraduate

to the first category of institutions, the research and

programs focused on those niche areas in which they

graduate universities. I would not expect that group to

have qualified faculty members.

number more than six to eight universities including perhaps two private higher education institutions. The conditions for this status were laid out in the section on differentiation. The comprehensive universities would offer a broad range of undergraduate programs. The general education institutes would be the higher education institutes as they now exist. The fourth category would be the community colleges, as

among the major goals of the next five years. These distinctions by type of institution will pose challenges

Thus, funding must be focused if Afghanistan is to develop the high-quality higher education institutions it needs in a reasonable time frame—in time to ensure progress in attracting major business and industry investment. The alternative is to have a mediocre higher education system that fails to provide the trained graduates required to meet even current

discussed previously.

needs and certainly unable to meet development

Differentiation is essential to the efficiency and

those conditions, those who invest in mining, oil,

effectiveness of higher education, the optimal use

gas, and other development projects would have to be

of funding, and the elimination of unnecessary

prepared to bring in not only senior talent from outside

duplication. While differentiation has been discussed

Afghanistan, but also the kinds of technical expertise

before, it is important to implement such a plan now to

that should be available in any country. Afghanistan

avoid wasting scarce funds and prevent the continued

must develop a diversified higher education climate

expansion of expensive programs at institutions that

attractive to investors that produces the graduates they

do not have the capacity to provide quality teaching—

need at a variety of levels.

including a lack of well-trained faculty members—in many areas in which they now operate. Differentiation would limit graduate programs to a handful of institutions with the qualified faculty members and research background needed to offer high-quality master’s and Ph.D. programs.

needs. That option should be unacceptable! Under

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appropriate graduate courses that meet international

this point must focus on institutions and individual

standards.

faculties.

Quality Assurance Including Faculty Development Higher education in Afghanistan is better today than it was 10 years ago, but it is not good enough. While university education has progressed overall it needs to improve pedagogy, offer more writing opportunities for students, become more student centered, make a commitment to creativity, offer opportunities for research experience at the undergraduate level, foster student/faculty discussion and interaction, and ensure that programs are relevant to employers and meet international standards and employer expectations. Afghan higher education has already moved a long way in this direction, but there must now be a major push helped by a significant infusion of funds in order to upgrade laboratories, build more classrooms, and continue faculty development by sending more faculty members abroad for master’s degrees and Ph.D.s. University-level education continues to suffer from the fact that only 4.1 percent of the faculty have Ph.D.s (a slightly decreased percentage from the previous year given forced retirements and a rapidly growing number of new faculty members without advanced degrees); however, the total number of faculty members with Ph.D.s has increased over the last five years from 134 to 188. The number of faculty members with master’s degrees has increased from 959 in 2009 to 1,496 in 2014, although it is still at about 31 percent for the reasons noted for Ph.D.s. In addition, there are more than 475 faculty members abroad studying for master’s degrees and Ph.D.s. This effort must continue to be supported to allow higher education to raise the quality of instruction to the level expected to meet international standards. Quality assurance at

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The success of Education for All must be followed by a major commitment of funds to continue to raise the quality of higher education, expand its facilities, and encourage students in secondary school to think about the range of postsecondary options including TVET, teacher training, community colleges, and other training options. At the same time, efforts must be expanded to ensure that programs are relevant to employers, government, and business; that they meet international standards (as required); and that students are encouraged to be entrepreneurial so that many of them use the skills, professional knowledge, and creativity sparked by education to establish their own businesses and professions that can develop solutions to critical problems in areas such as agriculture, engineering, business, finance, mining, and countless others. This requires a major emphasis on teaching entrepreneurship and encouraging innovation—all part of quality improvement. Walk down the street of any town or city in Afghanistan to see how entrepreneurial Afghans have become. There are hundreds of shops everywhere, open long hours, competing with each other, and selling an amazing array of goods. By adding new technologies, innovative ideas, and research and development skills to that spirit of entrepreneurship, many new businesses can be started that create employment because they help solve Afghan problems and move Afghanistan back to the forefront in critical areas such as agriculture, engineering, and business. The focus on quality improvement broadly includes continuation of the accreditation process with the expectation that at least half a dozen universities will be accredited in the next three to five years, and all of them, public and private, will reach at least level one candidacy for accreditation. The few private higher www.scup.org

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education institutions that did not succeed in meeting

programs built on well-trained faculty members

minimal requirements in the recent review must be

who are actively engaged in research. Success in

closed, given a short time frame to make necessary

increasing research quality and output is essential to

improvements, or merged with other institutions

the development of the high-quality graduate programs

making progress toward accreditation. Quality

so badly needed in Afghanistan. While the number of

improvement includes the continuation of curriculum

master’s programs has increased substantially, it is

upgrading and its implementation at all public and

Ph.D. programs in critical areas such as the sciences,

private higher education institutions. Another critical

economics, and engineering that will be essential.

part of quality improvement relates to the continuation

That requires rebuilding the culture of research that

of faculty development, with the goal of at least 60

existed in Afghanistan in the 1950s and 1960s. The

percent of faculty members having either a master’s

shortage of faculty members with Ph.D.s limits the

degree or Ph.D. by the end of 2019.

possibility of success in this area. Establishing joint Ph.D. programs with foreign universities might be one

Community Colleges Increased funding to expand the community colleges will be critical to building the pool of technical expertise essential to development and investment. There should be at least five community colleges in place within the next five years serving at least 5,000

way to move forward quickly. While sending faculty members abroad for master’s degrees and Ph.D.s has been important in improving the number of faculty with graduate degrees, it is also expensive and difficult for female faculty members. As noted in the previous section, Ph.D. programs would be limited to the four or five graduate and research universities.

students and providing graduates with 2.5 years of training, including a six-month internship, in their area of specialization to prepare them for employment

Gender Equity and Support for Students from Disadvantaged Areas

as engineering technicians, IT technicians, medical technicians, accountants, finance specialists, business

Gender equity and support for students from

specialists, purchasing agents, human resource

disadvantaged areas were part of the goals of the

management specialists, or specialists in other related

National Higher Education Strategic Plan: 2010–

areas. Community colleges must be a high priority

2014.2 While progress has been made in both areas, as

in order to meet business and government needs in

mentioned in the sections above there is still a long way

these vital professional areas—positions now held by

to go. Implementation of the Higher Education Gender

foreigners while large numbers of Afghans remain

Strategy should be a major goal of the next five years.

unemployed because of their lack of appropriate

This document lays out a comprehensive strategy for

training.

action by the MoHE, the universities, faculty members, staff, and students. Special programs to enhance the

Graduate Instruction and Research Support

admission of students from disadvantaged and conflict areas have been put in place by the MoHE. They should be continued and expanded.

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Moratorium on New Universities and Institutions of Higher Education A moratorium on new universities and institutes of higher education was suggested in the previous national higher education strategic plan to no avail. It should be put in place now. The focus should be on existing rather than new institutions, bringing the smaller ones up to at least 5,000 students since smaller institutions are much more costly per capita. This should be done in conjunction with limits on admissions to keep total student numbers under control, increasing overall at public higher education institutions by no more than 10 percent a year. The moratorium should also be placed on private higher education institutions since no additional institutions were approved in the latest strategic plan.

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required to make the contributions to the economy so desperately needed in this period of transition in Afghanistan. Afghanistan can build on the improved foundation that has developed from the commitment of the MoHE to high quality over the last five years and the resulting transformation of higher education. At the same time, higher education must finally receive the resources needed to expand its overloaded facilities, provide high-quality laboratories and teaching materials, upgrade the training of faculty members to the point that at least 60 percent have master’s degrees or Ph.D.s, and expand high-quality graduate training so that most students can get their master’s degrees in Afghanistan. That will help provide the quality graduates that will attract foreign investment and produce a well-qualified Afghan workforce that will help expand the national economy and build greater

Increased Funding for Higher Education

well-being among the people of Afghanistan on the solid foundation that has been laid.

A major challenge for the MoHE in 2015 is to obtain the funding needed to implement the National Higher Education Strategic Plan: 2016–2020 (MoHE 2015). The plan seeks $450,166,665 in additional funding over the next five years—a total that reviewers agree is modest given what must be done to bring higher education up to acceptable quality levels and respond to student, government, and employer needs. It is essential to convince government and donors to increase their funding for both the ordinary and the development budget. As has been noted, without adequate funding, quality will decrease and graduates will not be adequately prepared with the skills and knowledge required by the modern, highly competitive economy in Afghanistan and internationally. Higher education must have up-to-date capacities in infrastructure, staffing, and facilities to meet the current student surge and to produce graduates with the technical, professional, and creative skills

Dealing with the Consequences of a Fragile Environment How did higher education manage extensive change in such a fragile environment? Is higher education a potentially destabilizing factor in Afghanistan? Did it foster stability? If so, what were its contributions to stability? One reason that higher education was able to move forward in this difficult environment was the fact that it had a number of excellent leaders supported by a core of bright, hardworking faculty members committed to the goal of rebuilding a highquality higher education system—a goal that was not contested. These efforts were undertaken quietly, thoughtfully, and carefully, without fanfare or public celebration. They were not seen as a threat to any other unit or to the aspirations of other ministries,

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and where there were potential conflicts, as with

development funding the MoHE has received over the

the establishment of the community colleges, quiet

last few years.

negotiations took place to ensure that the Ministry of Education, Ministry of Labor, Ministry of Health, and

The MoHE was also fortunate to have the strong

others were in agreement. If concerns about MoHE

support of President Karzai during this period and,

plans came up, they were dealt with quickly and

more recently, the support of President Ashraf Ghani.

quietly on a face-to-face basis so that agreement was

That support was critical when there were crises. It

maintained.

protected Deputy Minister Babury’s position on several occasions and resulted in badly needed funding for

The MoHE worked cooperatively with these other

faculty development from the Office of the President

ministries on a regular basis in support of their

when it was critical in 2012 and thereafter.

programs and efforts and in return gained their support. The Ministry of Education is a case in

Unlike some other ministries, the MoHE generally

point. Prior to 2009, the relationship between the

avoided the spotlight, and most of its ministers over

two ministries had been difficult, with little or no

the last 10 years avoided comments that were likely

cooperation even when the two ministers were in

to spark opposition or create crises. Even the more

agreement, partly because the bureaucracies were

publicity-minded ministers tended to use occasions of

immovable. From 2007, Deputy Minister Babury

success as the basis for press conferences—successes

worked tirelessly to build bridges between the two

such as 50 faculties upgrading their curricula to

ministries as did a number of his staff, regularly

international standards or announcements of student

attending the Human Relations Directorate meetings

scholarships to India or the United States. And while

even when they were focused solely on primary and

there were moments of bad press—such as those

secondary education. That paid off in the long run

reporting disruptions of the Kankor examinations or

with the Ministry of Education publically supporting

violent student demonstrations—the MoHE was not

more funding for higher education in recent years,

defensive but rather honest and apologetic, promising

recognizing that both ministries were working toward

to make improvements and rectify errors.

the same ends and that it was not a zero-sum funding situation—that gains in funding for the MoHE did not

The ministry tended to deal with the problems of a

put Ministry of Education funding at risk and actually

fragile state by working to make its own contribution

benefited the Ministry of Education. Weaknesses in

to improving the situation—providing a stable

other ministries, including the Ministry of Finance,

environment; fostering cooperation, integration,

were dealt with by working closely with them at

and harmony; and focusing on a positive future.

the ministerial level and through their senior staff.

When problems arose with students, staff, or faculty

Ministry of Finance and senior MoHE staff met almost

members, the ministry leaders, in particular Deputy

weekly from 2010 on to discuss development goals

Minister Babury, were quickly on the scene at the

and needs, and in the end the MoHE presented a

university, in the dormitory, outside the ministry

development plan for the National Priority Program

talking to students, or, if it was a mob scene, in the

3 that was regarded by the Ministry of Finance as the

deputy minister’s office quietly meeting with a group

best of any ministry. That opened many doors for the

of student leaders. Most of the time these efforts

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known as a problem solver. He never feared to go on

Nonetheless, the expansion of higher education,

campus—something that could not be said of all higher

especially the rapid increase in the number of low-

education leaders in times of crisis. His commitment

quality private higher education institutions, does

to truth, fairness, and justice was known by all and

pose some risks to stability as Bush and Saltarelli

became part of higher education’s contribution to

(2000) suggest. If large numbers of graduates are

national stability. And on those rare occasions when

unable to find jobs they could become a force for unrest

presidential support was needed to solve a critical

of the sort we have seen in Egypt and other parts of

problem, it was available.

the Middle East. That is why the MoHE has moved forcefully to rein in the expansion of private higher

Indeed, as Winthrop and Matsui (2013) have

education and to insist that weak institutions meet

suggested, higher education in Afghanistan played an

minimum quality standards or be closed, as discussed

important role in bringing progress and stability to the

earlier. This concern is also behind the ongoing efforts

country. Part of this success, as Collier (2007) suggests,

of the MoHE to improve quality in public and private

was its ability to use aid funding effectively. Although

higher education and to ensure that the curricula are

the MoHE was not a major recipient of aid funding, its

geared to the needs of society and potential employers

careful use of those funds enabled it to have additional,

and able to create entrepreneurial opportunities for

and sometime unexpected, opportunities for funding

graduates.

such as the State Department funding for women’s dormitories noted earlier. But most of its successes, as

Finally, the commitment of the MoHE to a high-

Collier (2007) affirms, came from what it did internally

quality higher education system is key to national

on its own—the ongoing push for quality improvement

development, as the World Bank (2002) has

broadly in teaching, curricula, recruitment,

emphasized. While Afghanistan is not yet at that level

promotions, accreditation, and faculty development.

of quality, its continuous effort to improve quality in all areas over the last five years is moving the country

As Østby and Urdal (2011) suggest, the rapid expansion

in that direction. The effort to differentiate higher

of higher education in Afghanistan has also had a

education institutions so that graduate education and

pacifying effect in that it kept the large number of

Ph.D. training is available in only a limited number

secondary school graduates, a consequence of the

of institutions will help. While graduate education in

success of Education for All, occupied in positive

Afghanistan has a long way to go to achieve the level

activities geared toward employment, their future,

of quality desired, the commitment to high quality is

and the opportunity to contribute to their own well-

already having a positive effect on quality at every level

being and that of the nation. To ensure that these

of Afghan higher education.

contributions materialize, the MoHE has been working to guarantee that the curricula meet the needs of employers—something emphasized even more strongly in the new national higher education strategic plan.

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Chapter 9: Conclusions Despite the odds against it in the midst of a prolonged

high-quality higher education system needed for

and horrific war, higher education has been

major development, job creation, and a substantial

transformed in Afghanistan. Looking back at what

improvement in the well-being of its citizens.

has occurred since the defeat of the Taliban and the establishment of the interim government in late 2001,

The continuation of that kind of progress will require a

I am struck by the extent of the changes—and all this

major new commitment by government and donors to

in the context of a fragile state. Afghanistan has moved

increasing funding for higher education—bringing both

from no female students at the end of the Taliban

the ordinary and the development budget to adequate

regime to more than 31,000 women in public higher

levels more in keeping with the funding required for

education in 2014. Public higher education as a whole

successful development, as noted in the section on

has grown from 7,881 students in 2001 to more than

funding, and more in accord with the funding levels

170,000 today. Private higher education, which did

of other successful developing countries. The kinds of

not exist until 2006, now accounts for almost 130,000

progress needed will require some hard choices by the

students for a total higher education enrollment of

MoHE related to access controls that limit enrollment

about 300,000 students in 2014—an increase from one

growth to no more than 10 percent a year and higher

percent of college-age students in higher education to

education system differentiation that includes limiting

9.7 percent—a major transformation in the direction of

graduate education to a small number of universities to

mass education.

ensure high quality and limit costs. Success will also require expanding community colleges and working

The last five years have been especially productive

with the Ministry of Education to steer more secondary

with transformational changes in a wide range of

school graduates to technical and vocational colleges

areas including curriculum upgrading, establishment

(TVET) and teacher training institutions so that there

of accreditation, expansion of the number of graduate

are appropriate education options for those who don’t

programs to over 40, and introduction of merit

get into universities and higher education institutes.

recruitment and promotions. At the same time, it is

In addition, a culture of teaching and research must be

recognized that higher education still has a long way to

revived in higher education with a focus on productive

go to reach the quality levels needed to foster national

full-time faculty committed to teaching and learning,

development, attract investment, and encourage

research in critical areas of need to Afghanistan, and

entrepreneurship. Nonetheless, the remarkable

greater service by institutions to the communities in

improvements to date have laid the groundwork for

which they operate and to the nation.

both the institutionalization of these changes and further progress to ensure that quality continues to

It appears that the elections of 2014 have resulted in

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higher education than has been the case in the past so

resources, few changes would have occurred. And all

that it has both the funding and the political support

of this was accomplished in the face of many obstacles,

needed to carry out the kinds of programs and meet

the most significant of which were the fragility of

the most critical goals laid out in the preceding pages,

state and the war. There was also far too limited

many of which are spelled out in the new National

funding, initial opposition from some segments of

Higher Education Strategic Plan: 2016–2020. I am

the university community, and many other hurdles

confident that the MoHE can build the high-quality

discussed in detail earlier. As we have seen, some of

system essential for development if it has the financial

the people involved have faced grave threats in the

support it needs as well as the political backing for a

course of bringing about these changes. Nonetheless,

process that is forward looking, democratic, honest,

they have carried on and as a result of their courage

and transparent.

and perseverance have succeeded. The success stories here are a tribute to this amazing group of people—

In addition to the substantial progress discussed in

people who had a vison of quality higher education

the preceding pages, I have also described some of

in Afghanistan and who have worked tirelessly over

the challenges that face both the government and

the last five years to make it a reality. It has been an

higher education including widespread corruption,

amazing journey! I have been very privileged to have

inefficiencies, funding shortfalls, technical and

been allowed to be a participant and an observer

technological limitations, and the weakness of many

during this remarkable period of transformation in

government bureaucracies. On top of all that are the

Afghanistan.

effects of years of war—a war that continues. Among the consequences of war are the significant mental

Looking back at the successes in Afghan higher

health problems that years of war have wrought and

education, it is clear that part of what made them

the need to provide help to the 40 percent or more of

possible can be attributed to the rare combination

students affected by them. There are the uncertainties

of talent and leadership that brought together both

surrounding continued external military support after

thinkers and careful strategists who recognized

2016 as well as donor support beyond that time. And

what could be done, how it should be done, and

there is the question of peace: when will it come? These

when it was appropriate to move forward. They laid

are issues that are not under the control of higher

out their plans in the National Higher Education

education.

Strategic Plan: 2010–2014 in a way that mobilized the higher education community and gained financial

What is particularly extraordinary about the

support from some far-sighted donors. These leaders

transformation of higher education in Afghanistan

were successful in part because they operated

is that it is largely the product of the remarkable

in a remarkably free and open environment that

commitments and contributions of a small number

encouraged broad discussion and participation. And

of administrators, faculty members, and staff who,

indeed there were long discussions of most of the major

having the freedom to operate and a commitment

changes, discussions that sometimes seemed endless.

to a participatory process, have managed to bring

But it was those discussions that changed people’s

about major changes in the higher education system—

minds from positions such as “it cannot be done” or “it

changes that none of us thought possible in such a

is not Afghan” and turned them into strong supporters

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The results over a five-year period included a number of policies and changes that when put together brought about the transformation of higher education in remarkable ways. Those of us involved only began to see how far higher education had come during the last year of the process when we began to look back on what had happened over the previous four years and were able to recognize the magnitude of the transformation. There were not just a few minor changes, but changes that were pervasive and deep in ways that fundamentally altered major values and structures, cutting across key areas of higher education from the curriculum to quality assurance to enshrining merit to making progress in the direction of gender equity. Major values were changed, the beginning of a new community vision was formed, and the importance of free expression to the success of the process was recognized—the kind of freedom that produces development and vice versa, as Sen (1999) has suggested. The process is not yet complete, but a vital foundation has been laid that can pave the way for the kind of excellence in higher education that is intended. That will require several more years of hard work, discussion, and debate. Yet, it is now clear that long-term successes are possible in a context that most of us would have predicted was among the least fertile ground for change. Key changes have taken place. Now the challenge is to build on this rich foundation.

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Appendix

Appendix

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Appendix

Islamic Republic of Afghanistan Ministry of Higher Education

Executive Summary for National Higher Education Strategic Plan: 2010-2014

November 2009

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Appendix

Introduction: Higher education in Afghanistan has suffered from thirty years of war, destruction of much of its infrastructure, loss of faculty members, and the near collapse of its teaching, research, and service functions. The last eight years have seen improvements in conditions, extensive consultations, and agreement on goals to transform higher education into an engine of national development, creativity, and knowledge creation. This strategic plan brings together the key elements of that transformation, a realistic plan, consensus on goals, and a commitment of higher education leadership to create a high quality higher education system. The key elements of the plan are to improve access and increase quality – to almost double the number of students in public higher education from the current 62,000 to 115,000 by 2014. Quality improvement is a critical goal and to that end the plan calls for provision of training for more than 1000 faculty members and sponsored students to Master’s or PhD level, adding an additional 1800 faculty members to keep the student teacher ratio constant at 25:1 along with an additional 800 staff members, and a commitment to upgrade facilities to worldclass standards. This is a tall order, but it can be done. The Ministry of Higher Education (MoHE) is committed to success recognizing that quality higher education is the key to national development and the personal well-being of the citizens of Afghanistan. This plan builds on the Constitutional obligation of the state to provide higher education and the Afghanistan National Development Strategy’s provision of higher education as one of its eight pillars. It reflects the Ministry of Higher Education’s commitment to develop a high quality higher education system relevant to national needs and critical for economic and social development. Vision of the Higher Education Strategic Plan A high quality public and private higher education system that responds to Afghanistan’s growth and development needs, improves public well-being, respects traditions, incorporates modern scientific knowledge, is well managed, and internationally recognized. Program I: To educate and train skilled graduates to meet the socio-economic development needs of Afghanistan; enhance teaching, research and learning; and encourage service to the community and the nation. Sub-Program I-1 – Human Resources • Increase the number of faculty members to accommodate a doubling of student numbers by 2014: The MoHE will add more than 1800 new faculty members to the universities and institutes to keep the teaching ratio at 25:1. Attention will be given to increasing the number of female faculty members. Estimated cost is $52 million. • Increase the non-teaching staff to accommodate enrollment growth: The MoHE will increase staff numbers (technical, administrators, support) by more than 800 to meet the

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requirements of increased student numbers. Efforts will be made to increase the percentage of women. Total estimated cost is $3.9 million. Faculty Professional Development: As part of the commitment to increase the quality of higher education the MoHE will increase the number of faculty members with PhDs from the current 5.5% to 20% within five years by sending 330 people for PhD training outside Afghanistan. To increase the percentage of faculty with Master’s to 60%, 700 faculty members and sponsored students will be sent abroad for training. Attention will be given to increasing the participation of women faculty members. The total cost is estimated to be $63 million. Expand Master’s Programs in Afghanistan: through support of 250 Master’s students who will be trained in Afghanistan. Specialist will be retained to help the MoHE and universities at least double the number of Master’s programs by 2014. Cost is estimated at $1.3 million. Staff development: To improve efficiency, quality, and capacity, short courses will be provided for professional development for administrative, technical, and other staff. Cost is estimated at $2.2 million. Teaching and learning: The MoHE will sponsor short courses for faculty members to improve the quality of teaching and learning. Outstanding teaching will be rewarded. Exchanges: Faculty and staff exchanges with other countries and within Afghanistan will be encouraged and facilitated by the MoHE as part of faculty development. Appointments and promotions: Appointment and promotion policies will be clarified, made transparent, and merit-based with regular reviews of all faculty members. Retirement policy: The policies will be clarified with special emeritus status to reward outstanding faculty and allow them to teach on an annual basis after age 65.

Sub-Program: I-2 Curriculum Enhancement and Teaching Material Development • Needs assessment: A national needs assessment will be undertaken to determine critical needs in curriculum reform, development, and expansion in consultation with the private sector, professional organizations, and the Ministries of Education, Labor, and Public Health. • Curriculum reform & expansion: A broad framework will be developed for curriculum upgrading and expansion with emphasis on science and technology and identification of critical new disciplines to be added to respond to national development needs. Estimated cost is $1.7 million. • Emphasis on problem-solving, discussion, and research: The MoHE will stress the importance of the use of improved teaching techniques including problem solving, discussion, encouragement of student research, along with emphasis on writing and oral skills. • English and foreign language instruction: Given the critical importance of English for professional communication, the Internet, international publications, and access to current research, emphasis will be given to improve English and other foreign language proficiency among faculty, staff, and students. Estimated cost is $500,000. • Textbooks: funding will be provided to encourage faculty members to write textbooks in Dari and Pashtu as well as translating outstanding foreign texts into both languages to provide greater access to high quality material to students. Funding requested is $1.1 million.

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Professional practice and internships: Provision of professional practice, internships and other professional practice opportunities for students will be encouraged. Estimated cost is $7.5 million Service learning: Student participation in service learning will be encouraged including the possibilities of credit for such service where appropriate.

Sub-Program I-3: Infrastructure Including Teaching Facilities • Needs assessment: All university and institute buildings will be examined including class rooms, laboratories, libraries, offices, and dormitories to assess whether or not they need to be upgraded or improved. Cost estimated at $514,000. • Moratorium on new universities: A moratorium is in place for the plan period on the establishment of new universities to enable funds to be concentrated on upgrading existing facilities and building new buildings to accommodate an enrollment increase of approximately 60,000 students and 2,800 additional faculty and staff. • Rehabilitation of facilities: Following the needs assessment rehabilitation will be carried out on existing facilities which need it. $28 million is requested for this effort. • Construction of new buildings at existing universities and institutes. Based on the needs assessment new buildings (classrooms, offices, laboratories, etc) will be constructed at existing universities and institutes. $142 million is requested for these projects. • Construction of new dormitories and rehabilitation of existing residence halls. Existing facilities will be rehabilitated and new residence halls built with the goal of accommodating 50% of women students and at least 30% of all students. $112 million is requested for these projects. • IT system infrastructure and management information system: A Higher Education Management Information System (HEMIS) will be established to improve management, data collection, and analysis. System wide and campus IT networks will be established linking all universities and institutes with the MoHE. The seventeen higher education institutions not currently connected to the network will be added. Cost is $36,140,000. Sub-program I-4: Research and Graduate Instruction • Research funding: Dedicated funds for faculty research will be provided to be allocated competitively based on the merit and relevance of research proposals. $5.7 million is requested. • Research unit at MoHE and at universities: The MoHE will establish a research directorate to facilitate research and funding for research at the Ministry. Universities will be encouraged to establish campus research units to provide research administration, assist faculty, and seek research funding. • Regional and international research partnerships: The MoHE will encourage and facilitate research partnerships between institutions in Afghanistan and abroad to foster research collaboration, innovation, and relevant applied research. • Design of Graduate Programs: The MoHE will encourage the comprehensive research universities to establish Master’s programs initially and PhD programs in the long-term in appropriate priority areas where adequate Master’s and PhD staff are available.

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Program II: To lead and manage a coordinated system of higher education comprising universities, institutes, and community colleges dedicated to providing high quality tertiary education. Sub-program II-1 Governance: • Provide capacity building at the MoHE and Higher Education Institutions: Training and capacity building will be provided to the institutions and staff of the MoHE to respond to the planning, implementation, and monitoring needs of the Strategic Plan. The MoHE will restructure some parts of its management to facilitate effective oversight and monitoring of the strategic plan. • The MoHE will have quarterly meetings with the Chancellors and Rectors: The MoHE will facilitate quarterly meeting with the Minister & Deputy Ministers with the Chancellors and Rectors of the universities and institutes. • Establishment of independent Boards of Trustees or Councils for Universities and Institutes: As part of its effort to improve governance and foster decentralization, the MoHE will facilitate the process of establishing independent Boards of Trustees or Councils for universities and institutes. • Donor Council: The MoHE will establish a Donor Council with the donor community to enhance cooperation and coordination of activities. • Association of University Chancellors and Rectors: The MoHE will facilitate the establishment of an association of University Chancellors and Rectors of Institutes. Similar efforts could be undertaken for Staff and Student Associations. • Greater Academic and Financial Autonomy: In keeping with the needs of modern universities in a knowledge and research based environment and given the necessity for institutions to find additional sources of income, the MoHE will work with the institutions and other Ministries to change the higher education law to allow greater financial autonomy and entrepreneurship. • Training for Chancellors, deans, heads of departments and other key administrators: The MoHE will facilitate training programs for senior administrators similar to programs carried out in Europe and the U.S. • Foundations: The MoHE will work to establish a legal framework that will allow higher education institutions to set up foundations to raise and hold non-governmental funds for the institutions. Sub-program II-2 Access, Expansion, and Structure of Higher Education • Efficient use of facilities: In order to accommodate more students and increase access possibilities for working students, the MoHE will encourage institutions to more fully utilize facilities by having early morning and evening classes as well as vacation classes. The MoHE will also seek to expand all higher education institutions to at least 1000 students to provide economies of scale. • Community Colleges: To fill a major gap in higher education training, the MoHE will establish five community colleges to offer mid-level technical training in areas such as science, languages, electrical and mechanical engineering technology, training for medical and laboratory technicians, business, and mid-level professionals leading to an

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associate of arts (AA) degree after 2 years in consultation with the Ministries of Education, Labor, and Public Health. The goal is 5000 students in community colleges by the end of the plan period. Cost of five community colleges including staff over the plan period is estimated to be approximately $26 million. Private higher education. Encourage the expansion of private non-profit higher education institutions as part of the effort to increase access. The MoHE will work with private providers to improve quality, and provide additional assistance to non-profit higher education institutions. Student service: The MoHE will work to establish improved student services at higher education institutions including: counseling, mental health, and placement. $1.8 million has been requested for this effort. Students with special needs: Provision of access and other facilities for students with special needs. Access to education: The MoHE is committed to gender equity. The Ministry will encourage provision of bridging programs for marginalized groups including women.

Sub-program II-3 National Admissions Examination (Kankor) • Acquire and update software and hardware. To improve the efficiency and effectiveness of the Kankor examination, the MoHE will acquire and update the use of IT in the process. • Provide training on software. Staff will receive appropriate training on the new hardware and software. • Redesign the examination to take account of arts and other areas. The MoHE will continue its efforts to redesign the examination to ensure that applicants with high potential in a wide range of disciplines including the arts have fair opportunities for higher education. • Assist universities in provision of admissions and other information to the public. The MoHE will assist and provide funding for higher education institutions to develop catalogues and other information for the public about admissions, requirements, courses offered, rules and regulations. Sub-program II-4 Accreditation and Quality Assurance • Establish a self-assessment process for higher education institutions. The MoHE will encourage and assist higher education institutions in carrying out self-assessments as a first step in the quality improvement process. • Establish the Afghanistan Quality Assurance and Accreditation Agency: To develop and manage a system of quality assurance and accreditation for all public and private higher education institutions in Afghanistan once legislation is approved, the MoHE will establish and facilitate the development of the Afghanistan Quality Assurance Agency. Cost estimated at $2,300,000. • Facilitate interaction between the Accreditation Agency and higher education. The quality assurance process will involve close collaboration between the MoHE, the Agency, and higher education institutions. • Appoint and operate a Board of Directors for the Accreditation Agency. The MoHE will appoint a Board for the Accreditation Agency as soon as the necessary legislation has been approved.

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Sub-program II-5 Funding Strategy • Increase funding for higher education. The MoHE will work to increase government funding for higher education. • The MoHE will continue its efforts to provide for greater decentralization of financial control to universities and institutes. Critical to high quality higher education institutions is substantial financial and academic autonomy. • The MoHE will continue to work to obtain legislation to allow higher education institutions to raise and utilize funds from non-government sources. Institutions must be able to raise funds on their own if they are to achieve the high quality desired. • The MoHE will help facilitate fund-raising from non-governmental sources for higher education. The MoHE will partner with institutions in this effort. • The MoHE will work with higher education institutions to develop mechanisms to reduce expenditures on non-academic expenses and to institute cost-sharing for some services. A reduction of expenditures on non-academic areas is critical to focusing available funds on improving, expanding and enhancing academic programs. Cost sharing will be vital in the long run. • The MoHE will work to establish scholarships for poor students. The future of Afghanistan requires that all students who meet the qualifications for higher education are able to have access regardless of their income or wealth. Sub-program II-6 National Research and Education Network • Establish a Network: The MoHE will develop a national research and education network that will link all universities and institutes to the MoHE and the Internet. • Data collection: The MoHE will develop an efficient data collection and retrieval system for universities and institutes for administrative, student, faculty, and staff data storage, retrieval and analysis (see HEMIS). • Access to Instructional and Research material. The MoHE will organize the Network so that students, faculty, and staff can have access to the vast array of information available around the world for instructional and research purposes. • Digital library. The MoHE hopes to provide access to an extensive digital library for all faculty, staff, and students. • User training: The MoHE will provide user training for administrative, teaching and research uses of the Network. Budget: The total development budget for the Higher Education Strategic Plan 2010-2114 is $564,353,000 in addition to the Ordinary Budget for Higher Education. That breaks down as follows: Program I. Educate and Train Skilled Graduates I.1 Professional Faculty and Staff Development I.2 Curriculum and Materials Development I.3 Infrastructure and Teaching Facilities I.4 Research and Graduate Instruction

$135,755,000 10,260,000 358,159,000 7,475,000

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Program II. Lead and Manage the System of Higher Education II.1 Governance $ 3,375,000 II.2 Access, Expansion and Structure of Higher Education 29,035,000 II.3 National Admissions Examination 1,160,000 II.4 Accreditation and Quality Assurance 3,300,000 II.5 Funding Strategies 1,210,000 II.6 National Research and Education Network 14,604,000 Grand Total $564,353,0001 Conclusions: This strategic plan sets out a vision and goals for higher education designed to move this sector from its current inadequate conditions and transform it into a high quality system that will provide the trained graduates, knowledge, and creativity essential for the national development and well-being of the people of Afghanistan. It is a product of consultation and consensus, realistic in its goals, yet ambitious in recognizing the need for transformation if Afghanistan is to meet its development objectives and be an effective participant in the knowledge economies that are driving growth and prosperity around the world. The Ministry of Higher Education is committed to the successful implementation of this national higher education strategic plan and realization of its vision.

1

The detailed budget can be seen in the National Higher Education Strategic Plan 2010-2014, “Action Plan and Budget,” p. 32. For whole NHESP see: http://planipolis.iiep.unesco.org/upload/Afghanistan/Afghanistan_HESP_2010-­‐2014.pdf

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Endnotes

Endnotes Preface

9. Focus group at Kabul University with undergraduates, June 30, 2003.

1. The Afghanistan Higher Education Consortium Planning Meeting was held on June 24, 2002, hosted by the Academy for Educational Development at its offices in Washington, DC. 2. The work was funded by an Emergency Education

10. Focus group in Kapisa, 11th-grade girl, July 2003. 11. Focus group in Herat, July 22, 2003.

Chapter 3

Rehabilitation and Development Program IDA Grant to AED.

1. Modest fees are charged for graduate education and evening courses.

Chapter 1 1. The eight Millennium Development Goals agreed on by world leaders at a UN summit in 2000 are (1) Eradicate extreme hunger; (2) Achieve universal primary education; (3) Promote gender equality and empower women; (4) Reduce child mortality; (5) Improve maternal health; (6) Combat HIV AIDS, malaria, and other diseases; (7) Ensure environmental sustainability, and (8) Develop a global partnership for development.

Chapter 2 1. In a four-part typology used in the On Change project, the four types of change are adjustments, isolated change, far-reaching change, and transformational change. 2. Personal interview by the author, November 2013. 3. There have been several such cases at the MoHE, much to the anger of those who have been trying to root this out. The usual excuse is that “we need to give the person another chance.” 4. For an excellent description of this period see Ansary 2012, chapters 11–13. 5. Focus groups were conducted during June and July 2003 in Kabul, Kapisa, Kunduz, and Herat. 6. Focus group in Kapisa, June 25, 2003, conducted by the author and Sara Amiryar. 7. Comments of an undergraduate woman at Kabul University during a focus group, July 1, 2003. 8. Focus group in Kabul with a women’s group, June 29, 2003.

2. Trading Economics 2015. Cost of education per year calculated by the author for USAID on April 22, 2010. 3. In 2015 both Ministry of Education officials and USAID officials reported that the nine million student number was inflated. See, for example, Khan 2015. 4. Faculty, students, and staff now have access to over 8,000 international journals and 7,000 e-books through a number of providers including HINARI, AGORA, PERii, and OARDA. 5. The “Dakar Framework for Action” mandated UNESCO to facilitate the effort to achieve universal primary enrollments around the world in cooperation with the four other conveners of the Dakar Forum: the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), UNICEF, and the World Bank. 6. Over the five years of the plan, $248 million was allocated for the MoHE development budget, but in most years only about half was released. Thus, I have estimated that 50 percent of the development budget helped fund the NHESP: 2010–2014 since there is not an item breakdown available. 7. Some estimates suggest that the totals may be off by as many as one million students. See also Khan 2015. 8. I assume that 80 percent of students who graduate take the Kankor examination (which is now the case), and 23 percent of them are admitted to an MoHE higher education institution, which is the average rate over the last 10 years. 9. Personal communication, March 2014.

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10. A wave of demonstrations and revolutionary protests, riots, and violence starting in December 2010 that brought changes in regimes in four countries and major demonstrations and chaos to eight others over the next two years. 11. An African National Congress (ANC) Member of Parliament told me later that when she reviewed her own police file as a member of a Parliamentary Committee looking into past police practices, she found transcripts of our phone calls and reference to my file. 12. The other members were Sara Amiryar of Georgetown

Endnotes

Chapter 5 1. Men and women have equal rights in society (Holy Quran, Al Hujarat, 13). See MoHE 2015, p. 6. 2. By law a women must have permission from her husband or father to obtain a passport to study abroad. 3. Focus group with women’s organization in Kabul, June 29, 2003, by the author and colleagues. 4. A night letter, frequently used by the Taliban, is a warning to stop doing something they want stopped. These letters

University and Mohammed Essa of the AED in

are usually delivered at night to be found by the intended

Afghanistan. John Deupree, principal, Global Education

victim in the morning.

Solutions, also provided some case studies on private providers.

5. See Office of the President 2012. 6. More information on these reviews can be found in the

Chapter 4 1. Comments of Hilalluddin Hilal, deputy minister for security and police, at a meeting in his office with the author and Sara Amiryar in Kabul, June 6, 2003.

section on “The Role of Private Higher Education.” 7. It was recognized that setting up program accreditation would require a much more extensive process with standards or criteria set up for each profession. It would require a huge staff and at the same time leave the

2. Interview with Minister Fayez, August 2003.

institutions as a whole unexamined. The MoHE had

3. In July 1992, I worked with Minister Fayez to lay the

quietly into disuse.

groundwork for a strategic plan and prepared a draft outline for it (see Hayward 1992.) 4. Kotter (1996, p. 21) talks about the importance of using “every vehicle possible to constantly communicate the new vision and strategies.” That is exactly what was done. 5. The issue had to do with language—whether to use a Dari or Pashtu word for university. The MoHE did not have a position on that and tried to work out a variety of compromises over five years. But the hardline language advocates have used the issue to prevent approval of the higher education law. 6. Both SHEP and HEP have encouraged and supported institutional strategic plans since 2005. The MoHE has asked all institutions to prepare them, though many of the newer institutions have not done so. 7. Interview with former Minister Fayez, April 13, 2009. 8. The MoHE had insisted that students be sent to only universities ranked “A” or better in the Indian quality assurance system. That was done at some political cost to

established teacher accreditation, but that program fell

8. The three stages of accreditation were admission to candidacy level 1, admission to candidacy level 2, and accreditation. 9. The commission had decided to have criteria (rather than standards) for accreditation. These focused on mission and purpose; governance and administration; academic programs; faculty and staff; student learning; library and information resources; physical and technical resources; financial resources; strategic planning and evaluation; quality assurance and improvement; contributions to society and development; and integrity, disclosure, and transparency. See MoHE 2009b. 10. Kabul University, Kabul Polytechnic University, Kabul Medical University, Kabul Education University, Nangarhar University, and Herat University. 11. Focus group with 11th- and 12th-grade students in Kapisa, June 25, 2005. 12. MoHE 2015, section 2.5.3 Distance Education.

India since these were the most coveted places.

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Transforming Higher Education in Afghanistan | Fred Hayward 13. According to Article 19 regarding the chancellor and Article 28 regarding deans in the Higher Education Law, both the chancellor and deans are elected by members of the faculty in an “open, confidential and direct election by majority vote of the academic members for three years.” In fact, most chancellors are appointed by the minister

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Chapter 6 1. Elsewhere I recommend that the MoHE limit growth to 10 percent per year. 2. One study suggests that a minimum of $2,000 per student

in consultation with the deputy minister for academic

a year “is an approximate lower bound for the provision

affairs. Some deans are appointed in the same fashion

of a minimally acceptable university education (without

and others are elected depending on the circumstances.

laboratories, computers, or up-to-date textbooks)” (Africa

14. Research shows that in the rapidly moving environment of global education, institutions must have the flexibility to make decisions quickly and effectively. See, for example, Stern, Porter, and Furman 2000. 15. As noted in Giustozzi 2010. These included Sazman-iJawanan-i-Mutarragi (Organization of the Progressive Youth) and Jawanan-i-Muslimum. 16. Extracts from focus groups by the author and team leader as part of the World Bank project looking at possibilities for private education facilitated by the Academy for Educational Development. Interview is in Kapisa with high school students, June 25, 2003. 17. Focus group with students at Kabul University by the author and team, July 1, 2003. 18. Focus group with students at Herat University by the author and team, June 30, 2003. 19. This was particularly the case with the Iranians, who were very involved with students during the Ashura celebrations that eventually led to violence on the Kabul University campus in 2012. 20. The People’s Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA),

Higher Education n.d., ¶ 10). 3. See Boardman et al. 2012, pp. 35–36. 4. American University of Afghanistan is a little over $5,000 per year and a few others are even higher. 5. Based on interviews by the author in Nigeria during a World Bank review in February 1995. 6. Indeed, some Human Resource Development Board officials asserted that the MoHE should no longer meet separately with donors.

Chapter 7 1. The World Bank SHEP project included about $1 million to fund research by faculty members in the 12 participating institutions, but that project is now closed. 2. I recently talked to a faculty chair who argued that outside teaching benefited both individuals and the public universities since it broadened their knowledge base and provided badly needed income, thus keeping them at public institutions. He tempered this by saying that the approval of outside teaching would be conditional on faculty members meeting their public institutional

which was Najibullah’s party during his presidency,

teaching, research, and service requirements and be

divided into a number of factions after his fall but

limited primarily to non-regular university hours.

continued to have influence. 21. This is a major problem for many universities due to lack

3. I am aware of three disasters. In all three cases, the consultants were not vetted except in one case where the

of funds and failure to provide upkeep as they should.

only vetting was by Skype and no references were checked.

See, for example, Ekhtyar 2012.

That kind of “vetting” is an invitation for disaster.

22. This is according to comments by a visiting IT specialist who had just visited Herat University IT students.

4. See Babury and Hayward 2013 for a discussion of this period. 5. See training materials prepared for the project including Ministry of Public Health 2008a and 2008b. 6. In many respects what happened was similar to what Norris et al. (2013, p. 24) calls “expeditionary initiatives” focusing on value-added processes, user networks such as student services, and problem-solving/solution shops, which in this case were various MoHE commissions and committees. www.scup.org

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7. Several types of institutions within the Ministry of Education, including technical and vocational colleges and teacher training colleges, are also institutions of higher education that use the Kankor for admission. This sometimes leads to confusion when talking about higher education. 8. I regard each type of institution as equally important in providing education for particular types of results—all of which have a vital role to play in the economy and national development. Universities are no more important than teacher training colleges. Each has a vital role to fill. 9. In the Netherlands it is two percent of the budget the first

Endnotes

Chapter 8 1. In my experience the one exception to the question of funding involved the higher education strategic plan for Saudi Arabia. In this case, neither need nor funding was an issue—only the logic of sequencing, the availability of trained faculty in some areas, and the country’s priorities had to be considered. As someone asked to review that plan and make recommendations, it was a fascinating experience. The realities of Afghanistan are very different. 2. See MoHE 2009a, p. 5.

year of failing to meet the targets and seven percent the second year. 10. In the medium term changes need to be made in the Kankor system to ensure that the brightest students who wish to be in technical, artistic, or teaching fields are encouraged to apply for them rather than medicine or engineering because “they are the most prestigious.” The MoHE needs especially to encourage the brightest students to become teachers in the secondary and primary schools. 11. The research institutions have been discussed since the first National Higher Education Strategic Plan in 2009 but have not been defined or identified. The National Higher Education Strategic Plan: 2016–2020 suggests a new category of universities called “flagship institutions,” which would include a small number of research universities receiving supplemental funding to foster research and upgrade capacity (see section I.1.8, Institutional Differentiation). 12. For an assessment of similar problems and conditions see Hayward and Ncayiyana 2014.

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Author Biography FRED M . H AY WA RD is a specialist in higher education

Bank, and from January 2009 through December

with more than 25 years of experience as an educator,

2013 as a senior higher education specialist and

scholar, senior administrator, and higher education

an advisor to the Ministry of Higher Education in

consultant. He has a Ph.D. from Princeton University

the USAID-supported Higher Education Project.

and a B.A. from the University of California. He has

He worked periodically for the University Support

taught at the University of Ghana, Fourah Bay College

and Workforce Development Program facilitated by

in Sierra Leone, and the University of Wisconsin-

FHI360 and the University of Massachusetts, Amherst,

Madison where he was professor of political science,

until June 2015. Since 2014 he has also worked as an

department chair, and dean of international programs.

independent higher education consultant. Dr. Hayward

He was senior associate for the American Council

has written extensively on development issues and

on Education for more than 10 years and executive

higher education, and his recent works include

vice president of the Council on Higher Education

“Confronting the Challenges of Graduate Education

Accreditation in 2001 and 2002. He has been a

in Sub-Saharan Africa and Prospects for the Future”

higher education consultant for the World Bank,

(2014) with Daniel J. Ncayiyana in the International

Carnegie Corporation, Ford Foundation, Academy

Journal of African Higher Education; “Afghanistan

for Educational Development (AED), USAID, several

Higher Education: The Struggle for Quality, Merit, and

ministries of education, and numerous universities

Transformation” (2014) with M. O. Babury in Planning

focusing on higher education change, governance,

for Higher Education; and “A Lifetime of Trauma:

strategic planning, and accreditation. He has worked

Mental Health Challenges for Higher Education in a

on higher education in Afghanistan for many years,

Conflict Environment in Afghanistan” (2013) with M.

starting in 2003 for AED, in 2005–2006 for the World

O. Babury in the Education Policy Analysis Archives.

www.scup.org