Transformation of Contemporary Film Genre: The Aesthetics of Chinese Mainland Mainstream Cinema 9811968608, 9789811968600

Citation preview

Transformation of Contemporary Film Genre The Aesthetics of Chinese Mainland Mainstream Cinema Fangyi Xu

Transformation of Contemporary Film Genre

Fangyi Xu

Transformation of Contemporary Film Genre The Aesthetics of Chinese Mainland Mainstream Cinema

Fangyi Xu Institute of Communication Studies Communication University of China Beijing, China

ISBN 978-981-19-6859-4 ISBN 978-981-19-6860-0 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6860-0 Jointly published with Peking University Press The print edition is not for sale in China (Mainland). Customers from China (Mainland) please order the print book from: Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press. © Peking University Press 2022 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publishers, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publishers nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publishers remain neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore

Prologue

Film is a narrative art with great audiovisual expression, a flexible and diverse medium of communication, a ritual rooted in cultural imagination. Film uses its artistic multidimensionality to tell the story of the world, and storytelling is an innate human skill. From cave engravings to bamboo slip poems, from folk myths, fairy tales and ballads in different regions at different times to today’s short videos and mobile games, every form of art has its narrative qualities. But film has a unique narrative aesthetics; it can be divided into many genres, based on the narrator’s perspective, the audience’s needs and the means of communication. Genre film aesthetics is closely related to the refinement of artistic techniques and the scaling-up of production. Its multidimensionality entails a delicate balance between industry and art. If such a balance could be achieved, intriguing artworks and cultural imagery would follow. Based on the two systems of “genre theory” and “narrative theory”, this book analyzes the narrative art and aesthetic imagination of mainmelody commercial film from a cultural perspective. The rise of genre film is an inevitable trend of film art and culture. Domestic commercial genre filmmakers have been blazing the trail ever since “Hero” (2002), a film directed by Zhang Yimou, brought Chinese cinema to international attention. Although the past couple of decades have turned out their fair share of high-concept films and Chinese-language blockbusters, thanks to the mutual feedback between filmmakers and audiences, and the adjustments they made with academia to the spirit of the time, Chinese genre film has v

vi

PROLOGUE

turned on a new look in the twenty-first century: large-scale productions are geared to mixed genres, whereas small and medium-sized productions are stepping up efforts to explore genre elements. Many works of high quality and great influence have emerged during this period, spanning comedy, romance, action, history and other genres. A sector where industry meets art, film is always able to pinpoint the Chinese national consciousness and the Zeitgeist of the new century. As film becomes more segmented, main-melody commercial film emerges as a genre unique to China. Though a hybrid of “main-melody film” and commercial film, main-melody commercial film has its own genre elements. Starting from the development of genres, the author seeks to analyze the aesthetic imagination and value orientation of Chinese film narrative. Genre theory has a close relationship with commercial film. A combination of entertainment, values and mainstream ideas, commercial genre film aims to provide different types of audience with different themes, content and narrative. The genre theory has found wide application for the twenty-first-century Chinese cinema. Genre, as in commercial genre film, is essentially a “normative system”. It focuses on the precise reflection of social psychology, ethical standards and communication methods. Each film genre has a set of standardized narrative rules that not only guide the process from film project application to production, but also control the aesthetic tendency and value orientation. Narrative aesthetics is reflected in the artistic structure of classical screenwriting methods. It is a normative system Hollywood generated for the big screen by drawing on European theater theories. Narrative aesthetics is a process that affects the audience on psychological and sociological levels by satisfying or dampening their expectations of a story. Case studies from the perspective of narrative aesthetics can meet the detailed requirements of content analysis. Also, they can capture the semiotic meaning of narrative elements and the relationship between them, and conduct a holistic and thorough dissection of the text to uncover the underlying values and ideas as well as the reasons why a film is conducive to cultural identity. Through case studies, this book takes a deep dive into three subgenres of Chinese main-melody commercial film: action film, historical film and biographical film. It also analyzes the elements and cultural implications of the three sub-genres. Typically, a main-melody commercial film tells the story of a main character (or composite character) accomplishing a goal through a closed and complete narrative; as the

PROLOGUE

vii

character is fleshed out and the plot advanced, the country’s mainstream ideology is conveyed. Action films, such as “Operation Mekong” (2016), “Wolf Warrior 2” (2017) and “Operation Red Sea” (2018), not only highlight the legitimacy of China as a twenty-first-century global power through the individual heroism of the protagonists, but also underscore the country’s commitment to building a “community of shared future for mankind” by safeguarding people’s lives and property, providing international humanitarian assistance, and supporting ongoing development projects. Historical films, such as The Founding of a Republic (2009), Beginning of the Great Revival (2011) and The Founding of an Army (2017), complete the contemporary construction of the national imagination by proving the legitimacy of the CPPCC that dates back to the Political Consultative Assembly in 1946, of the CPC as a political party with universal support, and of the army needed to build the State. Biographical films, such as Yang Shanzhou (2011), Hsue-shen Tsien (2012) and Li Xuesheng (2018), paint portraits of some exemplary individuals. By presenting their daily routines and detailing their growth stories, these films manifest the protagonists’ devotion to their country and society, and inspire people from all walks of life to follow these moral examples. As the third decade of the twenty-first century is rolling along, every Chinese filmmaker can look upon the country’s fledging film industry and booming film market with heartfelt gratification and confidence. A filmmaker myself, I have done some creative work in China and the US, where the filmmaking systems are quite different. I am also carrying out research on film art and communication. After years of deliberation and discussion with scholars and industry professionals, I am able to put down my thoughts on the contemporary imagination and narrative aesthetics of Chinese cinema. I am grateful to my teachers, friends and relatives for their encouragement, patience and support. I also hope this book will be followed by in-depth exchanges and researches on the aesthetics of genre narration.

Contents

1

2

Introduction Chinese Film Market: New Landscape New Cultural Imagination: Films as Vectors of the Dominant Ideology Modern Expressions of Main-Melody Commercial Films New Perspective: The Aesthetics of Genre Narration Main-Melody Commercial Film: New Genre Aesthetics “Genres” and Mainstream Ideological Films The Changing Genre Aesthetics Film Genres vs. Literature and Drama Industrialized Arts: A Normative System Interactive Cultural Imagination Development of Local Genres Upgrading of Derived Local Genres The Convergence of Mainstream Ideology and Commerciality in Modern Times Thoughts on “Post-Genre” Chinese Cinema Genre Formulas and Conundrums Upgrading and “Leapfrog” Aesthetic Significance of the “Spectral Model” “Spectral Scale Genre Classification Model” Convergence of Main-Melody Film and Commercial Film

1 1 13 13 15 18 23 24 24 26 29 31 31 34 41 41 42 49 50 55

ix

x

CONTENTS

3

Aesthetic Construction of Genre Narration Evolution of Aesthetics in Film Narration Modernism and the Classical Tradition Chinese Cinema: The “Dramatic” Art The Art of Cinematic Narration Cinematic Thinking in Narration The Vehicle for Cinematic Narration Screenplays: Sheet Music for the Symphony of Film Narration Narrative Elements of Cinematic Arts Aesthetic Composition of Genre Narration The Normative Framework for Cinematic Aesthetics Aesthetic Narration in Main-Melody Commercial Films Genre-Specific Characterization and Active Protagonists Closed-Ended Three-Act Structure

4

5

6

61 61 61 64 69 69 73 79 84 84 97 100 100 102

Action: Contemporary Narratives The Evolution of Heroism A Probe into the Rise of National Heroes Identity of Reshaped Heroes Cultural Imagination of the Legitimacy of China’s Global Standing “Wolf Warrior 2”: The Narrative Aesthetics of Heroic Legends Summary: The Hero’s Revenge, Violence and Boundaries

105 105 105 108

Historical Films: Beyond National Imagination New Narrative Aesthetics in Historical Films Narrative of National Ideology Aesthetics of National Imagination The Founding of a Republic: Narrative Aesthetics in Reshaping National History Conclusion: The Legitimacy of a Nation is Forged in the Hearts of the People

147 147 149 152

Biographical Films: Aesthetic Reconstruction of Political Ethics The Art of Ethical Storytelling Cultural Imagery of Artistic Authenticity The Popular Aesthetic of Genre Narratives

112 116 136

155 170 181 181 181 185

CONTENTS

“Yang Shanzhou”: Narrative Aesthetics of Individual Morality Conclusion: Transcend Ethics and Achieve Self-Worth

xi

190 210

Epilogue

217

References

221

Index

229

CHAPTER 1

Introduction

Chinese Film Market: New Landscape Since the beginning of the twenty-first century, Chinese cinema has undergone unprecedented development. It has gradually integrated into the global market while exploring the domestic market. From Zhang Yimou’s “Hero” (2002), which ushered in the era of blockbusters and box office successes, to today’s online/offline interaction between streaming platforms and live theaters, moviegoing has become a way of life connecting individuals and society. Chinese cinema is undoubtedly a fast-growing and formidable art form and industrial product with high ideological, social and economic relevance. “The story of ‘Hero’ is in fact a metaphor in the current context, a metaphor for today’s world. The decisive role of the market and consumerism is evident here.”1 “Zhang Yimou runs off the beaten path. He no longer expresses the aspirations in the fable of a Third World country; instead, he expresses the aspirations of this new world. ‘Hero’ shows that the new state of Chinese culture and society that emerged at the turn of the century is an improvement on a decade ago, when the country was in the early stage of globalization and market economy… The film demonstrates the force of globalization. It is not about a weak Third World country being bullied and humiliated. It is about the ‘confidence’ and ‘power’ of the strong. You cannot get enough 1 Zhang Yiwu, A Transcentury Chinese Imagination, Peking University Press, 2015, p. 295.

© Peking University Press 2022 F. Xu, Transformation of Contemporary Film Genre, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6860-0_1

1

2

F. XU

of it. A departure from the general form of Chinese cinema, ‘Hero’ represents a new strategy of expression and a new type of ideology. On one hand, the film is detached from the imagination of modern Chinese history; on the other hand, it is closely linked to the process of Chinese history like never before, indicating the high level of globalization of the Chinese culture and society.”2 The years between 2002 and 2019 saw the rise of genre film in China’s globalizing market, the competition between local commercial blockbusters and imported films, and the continuous exploration and self-positioning of low- and mid-budget genre film. These forces have combined to reshape Chinese commercial genre film, and each of the existing genres is a converging point of aesthetics, themes, content and ideology. Due to improved quality and striking aesthetic styles, Chinese film has become a cash cow that keeps wowing the viewers. As the domestic market grows and matures, moviegoing as a way of life is spreading from higher-tier to lower-tier cities across the country. In fact, Chinese cinema is expanding in two directions: inward and outward. On one hand, globe-trotting filmmakers are increasingly aware of the cultural gap between Chinese and mainstream Western films. On the other hand, art films, indie films, commercial films, etc. are exploring new aesthetic expression, new themes and content, and new ways of production, publicity and distribution, or focusing on the interpretation of Chinese ideology and cultural imagination. This explains the many genres and sub-genres of commercial film. “Chinese film is turning its eyes from the global market to the domestic market… Although the blockbuster mania is losing steam in China, the expansion of the local film market turns out to be an unstoppable trend with two key results: one is the nationwide spread of viewers… the other is the nationwide reliance on streaming.”3 The Film Industry Promotion Law of the People’s Republic of China was “enacted for the purposes of promoting the sound and thriving development of the film industry, advocating the socialist core values, regulating the film market order, and enriching the spiritual and cultural

2 Zhang Yiwu, A Transcentury Chinese Imagination, p. 298. 3 Zhang Yiwu, Beyond the Blockbuster: A Transcendent Decade for Chinese Cinema,

Contemporary Cinema, 2012 (11), p. 17.

1

INTRODUCTION

3

life of the people”.4 The law was adopted at the 24th Session of the Standing Committee of the 12th National People’s Congress on 7 November 2016, and came into force on 1 March 2017. The year 2017 thus became a milestone for China’s film industry. “With the full implementation of the Film Industry Promotion Law, 2017 was named the ‘Year of Film Quality Promotion’ and the ‘Year of Film Market Regulation’, in an effort to boost the development, transformation and upgrading of the film industry.”5 In 2018, “China’s box office reached RMB 60.976 billion (or about USD 8.9 billion), up 9.06% YoY. The country continued to serve as an important growth engine for the global box office. That year, China produced 902 feature films. The number of movie screens rose to 60,079. A total of 1.716 billion film tickets were sold in cities. Chinese film grossed RMB 37.897 billion, accounting for 62.15% of the total.”6 In 2019, China’s box office reached 64.266 billion yuan, up 5.4% YoY. Throughout the year, the country produced 1037 films. The number of movie screens rose further to 69,787. A total of 1.727 billion film tickets were sold in cities. Chinese film grossed RMB 41.175 billion, accounting for 64.07% of the total. Despite the slowdown of major film markets across the globe, China managed a high growth rate of more than 3%, thus consolidating its position as the second largest film market in the world.7 Although the box office and sold tickets are not the only criteria for films, these data can represent the vitality of the local film market along with the popular demand for and cultural imagination of Chinese film over a certain period of time. The Top 10 films of 2019 at the domestic box office are as follows: 1. Ne Zha (RMB 5.001 billion) (Drama, Comedy, Animation, Fantasy) 4 Xinhuanet.com, Film Industry Promotion Law of the People’s Republic of China, November 7, 2016, http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2016-11/07/c_1119867357. htm, accessed on April 10, 2019. 5 Liu Hanwen and Lu Jiajia, An Analytical Report of Chinese Film Industry Development in 2017 , Contemporary Cinema, 2018 (3), p. 17. 6 Lu Jiajia and Liu Hanwen, An Analytical Report of Chinese Film Industry Development in 2018, Contemporary Cinema, 2019 (3), p. 13. 7 1905.com, China Film Report 2019, December 31, 2019, https://6.u.mgd5.com/ c/h2ku/fyhn/index.html, accessed on March 28, 2020.

4

F. XU

2. The Wandering Earth (RMB 4.679 billion) (Sci-Fi, Adventure, Disaster) 3. Avengers: Endgame (RMB 4.248 billion) (Action, Sci-Fi, Fantasy, Adventure) 4. My People, My Country (RMB 3.119 billion) (Drama) 5. The Captain (RMB 2.9 billion) (Drama, Disaster) 6. Crazy Alien (RMB 2.211 billion) (Comedy, Sci-Fi) 7. Pegasus (RMB 1.726 billion) (Comedy) 8. The Bravest (RMB 1.702 billion) (Drama, Disaster) 9. Better Days (RMB 1.556 billion) (Drama, Romance, Crime) 10. Fast & Furious Presents: Hobbs & Shaw (RMB 1.434 billion) (Action) Domestic films occupied 8 of the Top 10 seats, spanning Animation, SciFi, Comedy, Disaster and other genres. Because 2019 marked the 70th anniversary of the founding of New China, a number of films that pay tribute to this special occasion were produced that year. These films were also box office leaders. Among them, “The Captain”, “My People, My Country” and “The Bravest” hit the Top 10 list; the box office of “The Climbers”, though not on the list, also exceeded RMB 1 billion. As of the end of 2019, a variety of genre films were leading in both box office and popularity in China. The Top 10 films of 2016–2019 at the domestic box office are as follows8 : 1. Wolf Warrior 2 (RMB 5.685 billion) (Action) 2. Ne Zha (RMB 5.001 billion) (Drama, Comedy, Animation, Fantasy) 3. The Wandering Earth (RMB 4.679 billion) (Sci-Fi, Adventure, Disaster) 4. Avengers: Endgame (RMB 4.248 billion) (Action, Sci-Fi, Fantasy, Adventure) 5. Operation Red Sea (RMB 3.651 billion) (Action, War) 6. Detective Chinatown 2 (RMB 3.398 billion) (Comedy, Suspense) 7. The Mermaid (RMB 3.394 billion) (Comedy, Romance, Fantasy) 8. My People, My Country (RMB 3.119 billion) (Drama)

8 1905.com, China Film Report 2019, December 31, 2019, https://6.u.mgd5.com/ c/h2ku/fyhn/index.html, accessed on March 28, 2020.

1

INTRODUCTION

5

9. Dying to Survive (RMB 3.1 billion) (Drama) 10. The Captain (RMB 2.9 billion) (Drama, Disaster) Domestic films took up 9 of the Top 10 seats (“Avengers: Endgame”, the only Hollywood film on the list, is a high-concept action film). They span many different genres, including Action, Animation, Sci-Fi, Disaster, Comedy and Suspense. To be precise, they are more or less of “mixed genres”, which falls in line with the production, promotion and distribution rules of commercial film. Animation, sci-fi and disaster films were few and far between on previous lists, yet China’s catch-up to Hollywood in these genres (including mixed genres) has been nothing short of remarkable. For example, “Wolf Warrior 2” is a military action film with a romantic subplot. Its lines have a light comic ring to them. The film skillfully embeds the national will and mainstream values in a story premised on the community of shared future for mankind and China’s position in the world. Born at a historic moment of Chinese genre film, “Wolf Warrior 2” has been a feast for local audiences. In 2017, it became a benchmark for Chinese film after setting an all-time box office record of RMB 5.685 billion. “Ne Zha”, a fusion of Animation, Fantasy and Comedy, marks a pinnacle of Chinese genre film in terms of audience reach and technical accomplishment. Based on the fairy tale “Nezha Conquers the Dragon King”, the film is a tribute to traditional Chinese culture. It is also a successful exploratory effort to stylize and enrich Chinese film. The theme of the film is far removed from the mythological archetype; instead, it highlights love for family and friends, defiance and struggle against fate, and the courageous pursuit of self-transcendence. Another big plus is that the film is appropriate for all ages and family viewing. From “Monkey King: Hero Is Back” (2015) to “White Snake” (2019) to “Ne Zha”, Chinese filmmakers seem to have found a suitable path for Chinese animated film. Adapted from the eponymous novel by the Chinese sci-fi writer Liu Cixin, “The Wandering Earth” is China’s first successful commercial sci-fi blockbuster in the twenty-first century. Liu’s novels, represented by The Three-Body Problem, have in recent years caused a sensation among scifi fans at home and abroad. Small wonder that “The Wandering Earth” has been watched by tens of thousands of readers attracted to the name Liu Cixin. Meanwhile, the topics that the film created have drawn a wider audience. It is difficult for film adaptations of famous books to

6

F. XU

exceed the expectations of their readers, but “The Wandering Earth” is an exception. The commercial genre film focuses on an emotionally charged story of a father and his son who support each other in completing a heroic rescue act. Interwoven with dramatic conflicts, action-packed scifi elements and heartwarming moments, the film is a visual spectacle, a distinctly Chinese aesthetic depiction of the world and the universe, and a rare form of audiovisual expressions with a “futuristic” feel. In addition, “The Wandering Earth” continues the recent efforts of Chinese mainmelody film to interpret and spread the power and values of China. Like the “Wolf Warrior” series, “Operation Mekong” and “Operation Red Sea”, “The Wandering Earth” represents the voice and position of China in the world. It presents China as a peaceful and powerful nation, and upholds the vision of building a community of shared future for mankind. Released on 30 September 2019, “My People, My Country” is a typical main-melody film that pays tribute to the founding of the PRC. Based on the stories of ordinary people at several key points in the history of China since 1949, the film shows that every citizen, whether in the sun or the shade, has an indispensable role to play in the development of the country. The general audience fully relates to the film, despite its grand narrative. Each of the stories is aesthetically intriguing, distinctively styled and highly imaginative. Together, they are elaborately woven into a rich tapestry featuring the cultural, economic and military landscape of New China. Disaster film, represented by “The Captain” and “The Bravest”, is also worthy of attention. Both films are based on real events, and both were released in the run-up to the 70th anniversary of the founding of the PRC. As the saying goes, “Heroes are made, not born.” The heroes in disaster film are no different from us on normal days. They only become heroes when spectacular things happen, like crash landing or firefighting. Mainstream disaster film brings heroes back to earth by juxtaposing their brilliant exploits with their ordinary lives. It is an easier way to infuse the general audience with mainstream values such as the sense of duty and dedication. Without falling into the trap of moralizing, mainstream disaster film speaks to the legitimacy of patriotism through a loose-andtight audiovisual narrative to which viewers of all ages can relate. Some works outside the list are also worth discussing. Released on the eve of China’s National Day 2019, “The Climbers” exceeded RMB 1 billion at the box office. Although it also pays tribute to the founding of the PRC, the film focuses on an unlikely group of heroes—the

1

INTRODUCTION

7

Chinese climbers who conquered Qomolangma despite the extreme cold and danger. Part romcom, part thriller, “The Climbers” marks a breakthrough in adventure film. Like “The Bravest” and “The Captain”, “The Climbers” is based on historical events. There are many characters in the film. Their personalities are different, but their aspirations are the same. Each of them brings honor to their country. Each stands as a symbol of national unity. Furthermore, the film stands out among main-melody films by expressing particular respect for life. As mentioned above, Chinese cinema is looking both inward and outward. Locally inspired films are emerging along with high-concept, genre-straddling ones in line with global standards. Aside from the box office, a film should be judged by its theme, content and cultural thinking—for example, the middle-class mediocrity of our times; realism and humanistic care; individualism; modernity, as well as psychological and ethical conflicts. Art films, including “Deep in the Heart” (2015), “Song of the Phoenix” (2016), “Angels Wear White” (2017) and “A Cool Fish” (2018), reflect the penetration of humanistic care into popular culture. However, the momentum of romance films (from “Love Is Not Blind” [2011], “20 Once Again” [2015], “The Ex-File 3: The Return of the Exes” [2017] to “Us and Them” [2018]) is slightly pointing down. The reasons are twofold: First, the genre elements, cultural imagination and themes of romance film are limited, and the fusion of Romance with other genres is uncommon. Second, Romance as a genre is ambiguously defined; romance film, therefore, is sometimes confused with teen film or family ethics film. Still, realistic teen films (e.g. “Einstein and Einstein” [2018]) do exist. Other films, like “So Long, My Son” (2019), “Better Days” (2019) and “Sheep Without a Shepherd” (2019), straddle Family, Teen and Crime. By showcasing the conflicts between individual desires and moral concerns, these films try to explore the deepest principle in human nature. Straddling Crime and Drama, “Sheep Without a Shepherd”, though a remake, successfully describes the conflicts between emotions and ethics. The film tells the story of a man who, in order to protect his family, commits illegal acts such as hiding a corpus and destroying evidence, fights with the police, and finally surrenders and redeems himself. Like other characters of this psychologically penetrating film, the protagonist finds himself on the horns of a dilemma: his expectations run counter to his ethical principles. Surely such a dilemma is not lost on the viewers. The story has an unsettling and thought-provoking ending: emotions get

8

F. XU

the best of ethics. Another film that explores the perspective of psychological and ethical conflicts is “So Long, My Son”. It recounts the entangled relationship between two families that stretches over 30 years. Although its box office performance was less than impressive, the film won the Silver Bears for Best Actor and Best Actress at the 69th Berlin International Film Festival, as well as the 32nd Golden Rooster Awards for Best Writing, Best Actor and Best Actress. From an aesthetic perspective, “So Long, My Son” shows the complex entanglements across time and space. Every choice between emotions and ethics plunges the decision-maker in a “prisoner’s dilemma”. The story line is intertwined and sobering. “Sheep Without a Shepherd” and “So Long, My Son” are outstanding representatives of Chinese ethics film. Although they are not perfect, these films are conducive to the development and diversification of genre films. Though rooted in tradition, Chinese genre films are exploring their own path. Meanwhile, they are gradually incorporating the aesthetic expression, cultural imagination and values of main-melody films, hence the advent of “main-melody commercial films”. Action film was the first to find a suitable set of crossover narrative aesthetics (cue military action film). Historical film is also on track for commercialization. With bright narrative rhythms, spectacular scenes and the celebrity effect, mainstream historical film is no longer spouting moral platitudes, but embracing bold innovation. If films like “The Knot” (2006), “Assembly” (2007), “The Taking of Tiger Mountain” (2014) and “Forever Young” (2018) are anything to go by, Chinese cinema is trying to find a point where commercial genre films converge with mainstream national consciousness, where local culture permeates artistic spaces. “Operation Mekong”, “Wolf Warrior 2”, “Operation Red Sea”, “The Founding of a Republic”, “Beginning of the Great Revival” and “The Founding of an Army” are some of the successful cases. In particular, “The Founding of an Army” narrates macro history in a modern way, generating new features of cinematic representation. Although there is still room for improvement, Chinese cinema, on the whole, has developed a keen insight into the changes and characteristics of the new era, and can proactively and skillfully express the symbolic meanings. As filmmaking further evolves into a sophisticated craft and industrial process, the local film market is bristling with life. This book analyzes a new genre of Chinese film: “main-melody commercial film”. To be precise, it is not a novel concept (neither “mainstream” nor “commercial” is a freshly-minted term), but a fusion of

1

INTRODUCTION

9

existing genres like indie film, art film, commercial film and main-melody film—based on the dynamic balance of commercial and artistic value of films in the new era. To define such a balance, the author proposes a “spectral model” for genre classification in Chapter One. The major selling points of main-melody commercial films are their themes and content. These films are full of cultural meaning, aesthetic imagination and contemporary significance. As the Chinese film market is booming, a deep look at main-melody commercial film, a burgeoning genre with unique origins, will be highly rewarding. Main-melody commercial films are highly recognized by professionals and viewers alike. They are not only dominating the box office, but also demonstrating brand-new styles and aesthetics. This is not a fluke, but a sign of the times. Such an achievement is driven by the nationwide recognition of China as a rising global power, and the development of a State-backed film industry. To discuss main-melody commercial films, we need to start from the dual nature (“commercial” and “artistic”) of films, before taking an industrial perspective on content expression and aesthetic narrative, and exploring how these films are influenced by the Zeitgeist, culture and mainstream ideology. The dual nature of cinema has been developing for more than 120 years, a period marked by technical innovation and the formation of cultural imagination. Since the world’s first film, “The Arrival of the Mail Train” (1895) was made by the Lumière brothers, every film has featured a combination of artistic, technical and commercial value. Also, every film is an industrial product that inevitably embodies modern civilization, Western or Eastern. We can see it from the way a film is shown and the information it conveys. Likewise, every Chinese film since “Dingjun Mountain” (1905) is an industrial product with artistic, technical and commercial value. What is more, it is a vector of traditional Chinese culture, and a symbol of the Chinese nation. Cinema is a collection of other art forms such as literature, painting, sculpture, music and drama. Yet cinema also has its own artistic language and aesthetic imagination. As a commercial and industrial product, cinema has everything to do with the power of technology, the means and factors of production, and the modes of communication. It is pushed by several pairs of hands: economy, finance, market, society, politics and culture. Filmmaking, therefore, is no mean feat. Just like a tower block, a film needs to be technically driven, artistically expressive and commercially viable.

10

F. XU

Generally speaking, products tend to be “categorized” under a mature industrial framework. To ensure the stable development of the Chinese film industry, a full-fledged mechanism is needed for the research and production of genre films. Film genres are formed and developed because that is what the market wants. Filmmakers, therefore, need to keep an eye on the market and adjust accordingly. From a psychological perspective, each viewer has his own expectations about where the story is heading and where the characters will end up. These expectations are based on perception, ethics, values and deep psychological needs. Contemporary films are particularly good at showcasing the conflicts between emotion and reason. They take viewers on a roller-coaster ride from self-reflection and self-denial to catharsis on multiple levels. Films and viewers reach a subconscious consensus through artistic discourse. Sympathetic descriptions of individuals’ anxiety, social conflicts and cultural imagination help to foster viewing habits and viewing needs, thus bringing cinematic signifiers and genres into shape. To choose the right theme and the right story, filmmakers need to keep a finger on the public pulse. If a film is in line with the current social psychology, and able to mollify the general audience and find a reasonable way out for them—if it sympathizes with and lends legitimacy to the social psychology, to say the least—then the film is as likely as not to find a ready market. Genre is a combination of content and style, or in other words, a system of norms. We will expand on the concept in the chapter about “genre”. Although the genre theory originated from Hollywood, Chinese cinema has long since developed its own genres, including Martial Arts, Kung Fu and Opera. After the full-scale marketization of Chinese cinema since 1949, main-melody commercial film, through trial and error, has retained a firm foothold as a new genre. Main-melody commercial film, as its name implies, marks the convergence of two paths: commercial film going mainstream (e.g. “Wolf Warrior 2” and “Operation Mekong”), and main-melody film going commercial (“The Founding of a Republic”, “Beginning of the Great Revival” and “The Founding of an Army”, collectively known as the “PRC Trilogy”). “Main-melody commercial film” is a genre with specific ideological content, values, aesthetic characteristics, forms of expression, operational models and dissemination mechanisms. Compared with commercial film, which typically belongs to either a single or a mixed genre, mainmelody commercial film typically belongs to a mixed genre, which is not only commercially orthodox, but also in line with the mainstream

1

INTRODUCTION

11

Chinese ideology and narrative aesthetics. The basis of the aesthetics of genre narration is the script, which means that main-melody commercial films must comply with the screenwriting norms for genre films. Moreover, main-melody commercial firms need to present the unique characteristics of Chinese cultural imagination, thus realizing localized and individualized expression of genre elements. As a staple of the Chinese film industry and the usual choices of moviegoers, genre films, among other types of commercial films, have been seeking new breakthroughs. Still, some genre film producers have got it wrong. One of the common mistakes is the blind use of entertainment and commercial elements. A star-studded cast or violent scenes, for example, could be culturally or artistically inappropriate. The good thing is, the film industry has been moving away from the “pan-entertainment” trend in recent years. More and more genre films “have been pursuing production quality and accomplishment. At the end of the day, good IPs need to be transformed into good works, so quality should take precedence over commercialization”.9 This shows that the industry’s understanding of genre films is gradually deepening and maturing. Genre films cannot be just a patchwork of commercial elements. They need “craftsmanship”. They need norms. To genre films, aesthetic interest and humanistic care are the be-all and end-all. “Genre films need to connect with the audience on an emotional level. Their themes, stories and characters need to be immediately relevant.”10 Not only should genre films follow the normative system, their stories and characters, along with the ideas and concepts they convey, need to fit with the social reality, cultural characteristics and contemporary values. “When it comes to the creation of commercial films, especially genre films… the more important thing is to share the ‘anxieties’ and ‘expectations’ of the modern-day audience… Genre films are, in a sense, a desired source of ideological solace and transcendent satisfaction.”11 Main-melody commercial film emerged in line with the trend of genre films: it not only complies with the normative system, but also features stories and characters that can reflect the characteristics of our times and our culture.

9 China Film Association Theoretical Review Committee, 2018 China Film Art Report, China Film Press, 2018, p. 13. 10 Ibid. 11 Ibid.

12

F. XU

Genre films, especially main-melody commercial films, are highly dependent on the narrative aesthetics of film art. A script is the “seed” that would grow into a genre film. The filmmaker needs to tell a complete story within the time limit of a feature-length film (usually 90 to 120 min), to convey a specific message (e.g. philosophical thoughts, sentiments and lived experience) with which the viewers would identify and empathize. And at the core of that message lies the script. It is true for all kinds of films in today’s Chinese market, from “blockbusters” of the RMB 100 million club to underground indie films. Box office, word of mouth, cultural and industrial contributions…everything relies on the script. Heavyweight directors and screenwriters agree that storytelling makes or breaks a film. The importance of a screenwriter’s professional skills and generic competencies cannot be overstated. Film reviews by critics and the general audience also show that the success of a film is closely related to the story it tells. To misquote a saying, “A good script is half the battle won.” The narrative aesthetics of film art was initially presented in the script. In almost all cases, people read the script because they are intrigued by the film they have watched. Sometimes the script is misunderstood as a wodge of paper with lines written on it, but in fact it is the prototype for a film. The script includes all the audiovisual elements and their structure, along with the aesthetic intentions of the filmmaker. Granted, the analysis of a finished film is part of film research, but script-based exploration of narrative aesthetics could unveil the filmmaking process from the beginning to the end. To explain an economic phenomenon, we need to simplify it into a mathematical formula and identify the core elements before taking each of the additional conditions into account. If we analogize a film to an economic phenomenon, then the script is the mathematical formula on which the entire filmmaking process is based. All the filmmaker’s intentions are presented in the script in a cinematic language. They are translated into scenes, actions and lines for each filmmaking department to understand and execute. Even the post-production editing and audio team needs to follow the script. As you can see, a finished film is an organic whole of parts; there is nothing haphazard about filmmaking. Whether a film can accurately convey the original intentions depends on whether the script is well-written and how effectively each team handles the variables arising in the process of execution. Artistic and cultural analyses of a film should proceed from the essence to the phenomenon, i.e. from the script and production process to viewer feedback and social

1

INTRODUCTION

13

effect. Put another way, analyzing the narrative aesthetics of film art is fundamental to exploring the cultural meaning and aesthetic imagination of films. In conclusion, the development of genres proves that films are both a type of standardized commodities and a form of creative art. Because of the dual nature, films based on genre screenwriting can be classified by theme and content. Screenwriting is a fusion of creation and production, a prerequisite for the making of commercial genre films, a way to implement a normative system. In view of this, the book has introduced two important concepts: genre and screenwriting. The author thinks it necessary to explore the essence of genre screenwriting and go over the texts of some genre films. Starting from screenwriting and the narrative aesthetics of film art, this book conducts case studies on main-melody commercial film as a genre that owes its existence to the full-scale marketization of Chinese cinema. It dwells on genre elements, narrative style, the combination of artistic and commercial value, the underlying cultural meaning and aesthetic imagination, and the future of main-melody commercial film.

New Cultural Imagination: Films as Vectors of the Dominant Ideology Modern Expressions of Main-Melody Commercial Films As the British scholar Terry Eagleton put it, all literary theory is necessarily political. “The history of modern literary theory is part of the political and ideological history of our epoch. From Percy Bysshe Shelley to Norman N. Holland, literary theory has been indissociably bound up with political beliefs and ideological values. Indeed literary theory is less an object of intellectual enquiry in its own right than a particular perspective in which to view the history of our times…Literary theories are not to be upbraided for being political, but for being on the whole covertly or unconsciously so.”12 Likewise, cultural studies of cinema rely on the political and ideological narrative of film texts. Put another way, the narrative of film texts and cultural studies of cinema often have specific tendencies, covertly or unconsciously so, under the 12 Terry Eagleton, Literary Theory: An Introduction, Translated by Wu Xiaoming, Peking University Press, 2007, pp. 196–197.

14

F. XU

influence of political beliefs and ideological values. Some films are classified as “mainstream” because their forms and content are mainstream in accordance with the ontology of cinema. Yet at the bottom of such classification lies the expression of mainstream ideology in art and cultural studies. “Political power always has an ideological control over filmmaking. How is it achieved? By relying on censorship. First to come is ethical censorship (e.g. by the Hayes Code), then political censorship (e.g. by McCarthyism), and finally economic censorship (e.g. by the film rating system).”13 As a matter of fact, Hollywood’s genre-based industry model and genre theory are conducive to the expression of mainstream American ideology. In particular, the game theory has provided a substantial theoretical basis for the development of genre films in China since the globalization of the market. Such development lends legitimacy to the expression of mainstream ideology and cultural imagination in Chinese cinema. “Genrification” is not for the purpose of classification or evaluation, but of finding the ontological characteristics of a certain type of films, observing the development and evolution of such films, analyzing the cultural meaning of such a process, and digging into the dynamic intertextual relationship between the process and social changes over time. Genrification not only serves to establish a clear research system, but also offers guidance on the future of cinema, provided that the genres are not “generalized” due to the change of dimension or the occurrence of exceptions. The concept of genre is a product of Hollywood’s commercial operation mechanism. Since China’s national conditions, society and culture are different from those of the West, domestic films should not be genrified using Hollywood’s framework. Western concepts can be applied to the Chinese genre theory and the cultural studies of domestic films, because “genre films are not just about film institutions and mechanisms, concepts and attitudes. The typical Hollywood genre film also reflects ideological values, or ideological myths…Instead of pure commodities, Chinese films are inevitable bearers of ideological values. It is, therefore, impossible for the Chinese genre film to copy the American model. The only way out is to create the competitive and influential genre of mainmelody commercial film which bases itself on the realities, culture and

13 Régis Dubois, Hollywood—Film and Ideology, Translated by Li Dandan and Li Xinhui, The Commercial Press, 2014, p. 22.

1

INTRODUCTION

15

traditions while striking the fancy of contemporary Chinese viewers.”14 During the gradual formation and expansion of the Chinese film market, ideological values find expression through the production of genre films. To manufacture mainstream ideology, main-melody commercial film effectively combines the pleasure-generating mechanism of commercial film with mainstream values. Currently, main-melody commercial film not only provides the audience with guaranteed pleasure, but also meets Chinese people’s needs for forging a national identity. The aesthetic imagination of the genre is driven exactly by ideology. Cultural development and the changes in the new era have prodded Chinese cinema along the path of commercial genre films, for which going mainstream is the best way to align themselves with the values and spirit of the times. Rao Shuguang explained this development trend in 2008: “While Mr. Yin Hong is still using genres to describe the combination with mainstream/neo-main-melody film, Mr. Han Sanping, Chair of China Film Group Corporation (CFGC), believes that main-melody film itself is a genre whose key role is to promote mainstream ideology and values. What needs to be done now is to genrify main-melody film and introduce commercial models and elements. ‘The Knot’, a mediumbudget film launched by CFGC, is a successful attempt at genrifying main-melody film.”15 Back then, research and practice regarding the production of local genre films was still in its infancy. But nowadays, mainmelody commercial films can already be accurately categorized by genre and sub-genre. How have things changed in a dozen years! New Perspective: The Aesthetics of Genre Narration The mainstream ideology is reflected in the aesthetic imagery of genre films, and the basic production method for main-melody commercial films is in line with the normative system and artistic characteristics of commercial genre films. As commercial films are distinctively genrified, so their corresponding narrative should be. The first things a film needs to determine are its artistic expression, target market and values. These elements

14 Rao Shuguang, The Experience and the Development Strategy of the Chinese Genre Film, Contemporary Cinema, 2008 (5), pp. 9–10. 15 Rao Shuguang, The Experience and the Development Strategy of the Chinese Genre Film, p. 6.

16

F. XU

need to be regulated by a collection of genre concepts, and the regulations in turn need to be implemented through the script. Genre-based screenwriting fuses all the genre elements into a fluid story, and the script, using a cinematic language, provides the structural basis needed for filmmaking. Typically, the information contained in a genre film script has two dimensions: first, the film’s overall value and the ultimate goal of its ideological content; second, the artistic means and aesthetic directions for achieving the goal. Each filmmaking department (e.g. image, audio, editing) needs to translate the script into their own language. From the narrative aesthetics of film art, a.k.a. cinematic narrative, this book introduces the concept of genre-based screenwriting. It argues that only with a deep understanding of this concept can we analyze from the root the values presented by a film and make a clear and complete genrebased interpretation of how the film was created. “The most important thing about a genre film is not the techniques it uses, but its relationship with the audience, because each genre film is essentially a ‘contract’ with the audience. The driving force behind genre films is the social psychology at a certain time, and such psychology determines the changes in film genres, and ultimately the logic and pulse of film narrative.”16 The formation of main-melody commercial film as a genre results from the contemporary culture and ideology of China. Meanwhile, contemporary Chinese audiences have specific expectations for the narrative of main-melody commercial films, and such expectations are to be met as the stories unfold. For example, “The Founding of a Republic” gives a blow-by-blow account of the legitimacy of the PRC, while the story of the heroic Chinese savior in “Wolf Warrior 2” rams home the legitimacy of today’s China as a global power. The process of meeting these expectations is called “narrative”, and the method of narrative is screenwriting. Through case studies on main-melody commercial film, a unique genre of Chinese films, this book explores the cultural meaning and esthetic imagery behind the script. Main-melody commercial films control their value orientation through the script. If the orientation of such films is not accurate and clear, if they are not accepted by people because their content and themes go against the mainstream values, or if their narrative is not well rounded enough to satisfy the audience, then they fail as vectors of mainstream 16 Rao Shuguang, The Experience and the Development Strategy of the Chinese Genre Film, p. 10.

1

INTRODUCTION

17

values. Although main-melody commercial films are not meant for entertainment, they can still be entertaining. They reflect social realities and the cultural imagination of the general public. They also get a lot off the viewers’ chests; such a form of catharsis needs to be in line with the mainstream values, to be sure. Main-melody commercial films have undoubtedly drawn on Hollywood’s rigorous genre theory and screenwriting methods. “The narrative model for Hollywood genre films is very powerful because of its ability to ‘steer’ the psychology of the audience. The tricks are ‘poetic justice’ and ‘happy ending’. In other words, the bad guys will be brought to justice or condemned to self-destruction, whereas the good guys will eventually return to the right route even if they have taken a wrong turn. That is why all screenwriting and film analysis textbooks emphasize the climactic ending—it is not only the most thrilling moment to the audience, but also the moment when the film’s values are fully conveyed.”17 Therefore, the most essential point of mainmelody commercial films is the control of values. From the general idea of the film to the development of the plot and characters, the script needs to keep everything on track. The control of values is not too abstract a concept; in fact, the classical screenwriting methods are a concrete set of approaches to steer the values, so the general idea of the film can resonate with the audience. If its plot and characters feel ‘real’, a film will subtly resonate with the audience. A big plus is a closed ending, which meets the expectations of all. Main-melody commercial films are able to fully implement this method. They can select the right themes and content, and use immediately relevant cultural symbols to present the general idea (for example, choosing young actors with positive images to portray historical figures in the formative years or on the horns of a dilemma, so the audience can identify with both the symbols these actors carry and the mainstream values they convey). The aesthetics of genre narration impress, influence and inspire the audience with a realistic feel, so the mainstream values that the stories convey can play out well. As the French film scholar André Bazin put it, “Film sought to give the spectator as perfect an illusion of reality as possible within the limits of the logical demands of cinematographic narrative and of the current limits of technique…But realism in art can only be achieved in one way—through artifice. Every form of aesthetic 17 Li Xun, Revisiting the Concept of Film: The Craft, Business and Management of Genre Films, Film Art, 2012 (4), p. 62.

18

F. XU

must necessarily choose between what is worth preserving and what should be discarded, and what should not even be considered. But when this aesthetic aims in essence at creating the illusion of reality, as does the cinema, this choice sets up a fundamental contradiction…Actually the ‘art’ of cinema lives off this contradiction. It gets the most out of the potential for abstraction and symbolism provided by the present limits of the screen.”18 Film creates a self-consistent narrative logic and acceptable values. Li Xun also pointed out that “genre films use elements of reality as an appeal to emotions or morality, and end with a closed, symbolic resolution”.19 The closed ending of genre films and the satisfaction of viewers’ expectations reinforce the connection between the characters’ motives and the dramatic actions, thus lending legitimacy and logical credibility to the outcomes. Main-Melody Commercial Film: New Genre Aesthetics As mentioned above, main-melody commercial film marks the convergence of two paths: commercial film going mainstream and main-melody film going commercial. We will dwell on this topic in the chapter about “genre”. A genre unique to the Chinese cinema, main-melody commercial film has gradually taken shape in the twenty-first century. Because they change with the times, these films are both modern and local, as opposed to classic main-melody films of China and main-melody films of other countries and regions. By 2019, Chinese main-melody commercial film had witnessed stable development in three sub-genres: action film, historical film and biographical film. As vectors of the dominant ideology, the three sub-genres highlight the legitimacy of China’s global standing, ruling party and popular morality, respectively. The specific elements, narrative aesthetics and cultural meaning of each sub-genre will be elaborated in later chapters. In general, the aesthetics of genre narration and the cultural meaning of main-melody commercial film can be summarized as follows: As to their themes and content, all films in this genre express the national ideology and mainstream values. Also, they all have the function 18 André Bazin, What Is Cinema?, Translated by Cui Junyan, The Commercial Press, 2017, pp. 259–260. 19 Li Xun, Revisiting the Concept of Film: The Craft, Business and Management of Genre Films, p. 63.

1

INTRODUCTION

19

of constructing social values. Through their storytelling, they communicate the ideas on which modern nations are founded, such as freedom, equality, social harmony, democracy and rule of law. Their favorite themes and content include: the growth of heroes (e.g. “Wolf Warrior 2” and “Operation Red Sea”), which present China as a major player in globalization; national milestones (e.g. the “PRC Trilogy”); and personal histories (e.g. “Yang Shanzhou” and “Hsue-shen Tsien”), which explore the inner landscape of the title characters and promote the positive energy of these ethical role models. In these films, the fate of individuals is tied closely to that of the country, with China’s mainstream values writ large. In terms of storytelling, films in this genre comply with the conventional narrative principles of commercial cinema. By localizing the classical screenwriting methods, these films present themselves with a three-act drama structure. Their closed endings meet the audience’s expectations. The growth and change of each character (especially the main character) is depicted in full. Commercial films strictly follow the system of screenwriting norms. To ensure that the general public identify with the mainstream values they convey, main-melody commercial films need to accurately and thoroughly use the screenwriting methods (e.g. foreshadowing and contrast), no matter how complex they are. Here, the author would like to refute the arbitrary and biased view that only art films tell complex stories, while commercial films are all simple and shallow. In fact, the simpler the content, the more complex the screenwriting should be. Specifically, commercial films need to use such methods as “polarity” and deferred gratification to generate multiple levels of emotions and a sense of reality in the audience. That is no mean feat. To enhance their appeal to the viewers, the stories require an elaborate structure and clever details, and need to be told in a humorous and natural way. The author will dedicate a chapter to the concept of “screenwriting”, and analyze the screenwriting methods for the three sub-genres in the three chapters about case studies. As for characterization, the narrative of main-melody commercial films is informed by the main characters’ self-exploration and selftranscendence. Such a narrative shows humanistic care from a personal angle, and manifests individual and national subjectivity. The motivation of the characters and the dramatic conflict in the script shed light on the reasonable and legitimate expectation of self-fulfillment. The audience empathizes with the expectation, feeling satisfied and fulfilled at the closed

20

F. XU

ending when everything falls into place. Such is the role that the screenwriting methods—and characterization, in particular—play in spreading the dominant ideology. As a matter of fact, manifesting and emphasizing individual subjectivity are an important symptom of modernity. A star cast helps the audience identify and empathize with the dominant ideology that a main-melody commercial film expresses. Stars have great box office appeal. They can form a dynamic relationship with the audience that is at once intimate and “safe”. The audience is also more likely to accept the mainstream values conveyed through the stars. In addition to the star effect, main-melody commercial films have adopted some modern approaches in terms of publicity, distribution and promotion, leading to a lifestyle upgrade of moviegoers in cities of different tiers. As a result, a larger number of viewers on different levels have participated in film watching, discussion and recommendation. Ritualized narrative is also one of the important features of mainmelody commercial films. Ritualization has an extremely strong sociocultural symbolic meaning. “The relationship of a symbol to what it stands for is an arbitrary similarity (i.e. is metaphoric), as the apple proffered by Eve in the Garden of Eden symbolizes ‘worldly knowledge’.”20 Rituals involve a standardized sequence of acts and utterances “of a symbolic character which draws the attention of participants to objects of thought and feeling which they hold to be of special significance”.21 In other words, each ritual is a symbol with a specific meaning that draws the attention of participants or spectators to a specific cultural expression. All the three sub-genres of main-melody commercial films discussed in this book have obviously made use of ritualized scenes such as ceremonies (CPC initiation ceremony, handover ceremony, etc.). The images of characters (e.g. serviceman, etc.), actions (e.g. salute), lines and props (e.g. military cap, national flag and national emblem) go to prove the legitimacy of national consciousness in different dimensions. Thanks to the ingenious symbolism of these scenes, the audience feel the way mainmelody commercial films want them to feel, and becomes more receptive to mainstream values, worldview and morality.

20 Elaine Baldwin et al., Introducing Cultural Studies, Translated by Tao Dongfeng, et al., Higher Education Press, 2004, p. 295. 21 Elaine Baldwin et al., Introducing Cultural Studies, p. 296.

1

INTRODUCTION

21

In summary, main-melody commercial film has grown into an important genre of Chinese cinema. In-depth studies on this genre would be worthwhile because culturally it reflects the development of the times and China’s social changes, and the whole process from filmmaking to viewing and approval is an ideological representation. Main-melody commercial film represents a high water mark for genrification. Because the narrative is presented in a complete and standardized way, such films can be analyzed from the perspective of narrative aesthetics. This book casts light on the genre from a new perspective—screenwriting. A genre is a system of norms, not a simple division of themes, content, or forms of presentation. The first chapter will treat of genre as a normative system. The second chapter will expand on the screenwriting methods. These chapters will knit together two theoretical systems of this book. After a clear explanation of these methods, the author will conduct a detailed case study on main-melody commercial film as a genre, and discuss its three sub-genres in separate chapters. From the perspective of screenwriting, these chapters will answer the following questions: What kind of ideology does a main-melody commercial film present? How to produce a mainstream values-based narrative? How to put ideas in the narrative and translate them into a cinematic language instead of moralizing? How can such a film resonate with the audience on a subconscious level? How can the screenwriting methods help transform mainstream content into a pleasure-generating mechanism while keeping the ideology intact? For main-melody commercial film and Chinese genre films in general, where is the room for development?

CHAPTER 2

“Genres” and Mainstream Ideological Films

China began to take off, economically, technologically and culturally, around the turn of the twenty-first century, and along came a rise of its international influence. The “Belt and Road Initiative”, a top nationallevel design for cooperation, has further envisioned a course where China leads the world in development. China’s film market, in particular, has broken new ground by forging its own identity in the global context, which is manifested culturally through unique genres of Chinese films. The complex of film genres, each with a distinctive set of textual features including theme, intent, audience experience, aesthetic paradigm and artistic language, began with Hollywood as a result of standardized large-scale production. Romance, action, comedy, crime, historical, biographical, Western, science fiction, horror and musical are among the common ones. Across the broad spectrum of Hollywood genres, American films have been produced and marketed to convey the intent of the screenwriters, so as to meet the varying needs and tonal expectations of the audience and channel the ideologies and values that define American culture to the rest of the world. It could be argued that a well-developed film market must work by way of a genre system that dynamically adapts and responds to historical and cultural developments of the times. Over the 40 years after the reform and opening-up, China has developed its own system of film genres, which has largely inherited the classical Hollywood practices but also adapted to China’s local film market in some ways. The high-grossing films in recent years, including © Peking University Press 2022 F. Xu, Transformation of Contemporary Film Genre, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6860-0_2

23

24

F. XU

“Wolf Warrior 2” (RMB 5.685 billion), “The Wandering Earth” (RMB 4.679 billion), “Operation Red Sea” (RMB 3.651 billion), “Detective Chinatown II” (RMB 3.398 billion), “The Mermaid” (RMB 3.394 billion), “My People, My Country” (RMB 3.119 billion), “Dying to Survive” (RMB 3.1 billion), “The Captain” (RMB 2.9 billion), “Hello Mr. Billionaire” (RMB 2.548 billion), “Monster Hunt II” (RMB 2.237 billion), “Crazy Alien” (RMB 2.211 billion), “Never Say Die” (RMB 2.202 billion), “The Ex-File 3: The Return of the Exes” (RMB 1.941 billion), “Pegasus” (RMB 1.726 billion), “The Bravest” (RMB 1.702 billion), “Youth” (RMB 1.423 billion), “Sheep Without a Shepherd” (RMB 1.208 billion) and “The Climbers” (RMB 1.097 billion) fell under the genres of action, war, comedy, fantasy, suspense, crime, science fiction, disaster, love, etc. They were produced and marketed within the respective genre conventions. Despite some partially developed genres, China’s film industry has followed a clear yet unique path of genre development, which is of great significance. While “genre” is a widely discussed concept, genre filmmaking is often advocated and analyzed by film professionals and scholars in China. The author will define and analyze the concept of “genre” and review the development of genre theories, before proving the necessity of genre films in Chinese cinema and discussing the two major constraints on local genre films. Then the author will put forward some personal views on how to change the status quo and where the future is heading. Finally, the author will introduce the theoretical model used in the analysis—the “spectral model” for genre classification. By elevating the genre classification of Chinese films to a new multidimensional platform, the author is able to identify the position of main-melody commercial film vis-a-vis other genres in the model, and thereby explains why it is a “new” genre and explores its genre elements and cultural significance in a new dimension.

The Changing Genre Aesthetics Film Genres vs. Literature and Drama Genre is generally thought of as a classifier that facilitates the understanding of the subject matter. As a scholar points out: “The emergence of the genre theory is an inevitability in art development, as people tend

2

“GENRES” AND MAINSTREAM IDEOLOGICAL FILMS

25

to group objects together based on defined similarities”.1 As genres are necessary for film studies, they should be defined not by an invented static scheme, but by aesthetics, ideology, cultural significance and production process of the works. In their book American Film Studies, Cai Wei and You Fei explain the origin and course of film genres. “Genre” is a French word that means a particular kind or type. The oldest definition of genre goes back to Aristotle in Ancient Greece, whose treatise Poetics has guided the division of literature sources into the genres of tragedy, epic and lyric poetry based on defined features. Influenced by Aristotle’s Poetics, Classicism appeared and boomed across Europe in the eighteenth century when genres were seen as ideal types of artistic expression to be emulated and refined. Classical genres, however, quickly turned into a set of academically defined conventions governing the artistic styles and contents. With the Romantic movement in the nineteenth century, many artists and writers came to see classical genres as an overregulation of both representation and reception. They believed that most genres were structured to confine artists and that real artists should always be able to create new things under the genre labels. By the time of cinema’s arrival in the 1890s, genres had become even more discredited. Genres were associated with popular culture and a “brand name system against which any authentic artistic expression must necessarily struggle”.2 The concept of “genres” was extended to drama during the time of William Shakespeare who experimented with plays in different genres. It was then introduced to film studies and gave birth to a rich list of film genres. As Hollywood towered over the international film industry in the 1920s and 1930s, the genre system of its studios was expanded, improved and finalized, and genre films began to take shape to represent the mainstream of American movies”.3 In a nutshell, genres were borrowed from the literary world to drama and then to film studies and have become a general guideline to define a film due to the success of Hollywood productions. With the change of times, ideologies and technologies, Hollywood film genres have also seen their evolutions. In his book Genre Film, Hao Jian identifies three

1 Zhen Shusen, Film Genres and Genre Films, Jiangsu Education Press, 2006, p. 3. 2 Cai Wei and You Fei, American Film Studies, China Radio Film & TV Press, 2004,

p. 2. 3 Cai Wei and You Fei, American Film Studies, p. 2.

26

F. XU

developmental stages of genre films: “The first stage was from the beginning of the 20th century to the end of the World War II, when genres were developed, divided and solidified. The second stage started in the 1950s, when genre films began to show signs of stagnation after reaching their peak. The third stage is also referred to as ‘The New Hollywood’ era starting from the middle and late 1960s, when a huge wave of young filmmakers at their 30s came to prominence and revived genre movies in the US”.4 Hollywood’s global expansion in the new century, along with the development of genres from hybrids and high concepts, enabled the American film industry to increase global market share and peddle mainstream American values to a wider audience. Hollywood has a surprisingly fine and sophisticated system of genres. American scholar Thomas Schatz identifies dominant Hollywood genres in his book Hollywood Genres, including the Western, gangster, hardboiled detective, screwball comedy, musical and family melodrama.5 China’s film market, as it went global, has adopted some of the Hollywood practices and also invented its own genres. It made attempts on genre categorization and high-concept cinema, following a somehow challenging, tortuous course which will be detailed later. Industrialized Arts: A Normative System “Genre” is originally French and simply means a particular type or category of literature or art. As Hao Jian explains in his Genre Film, “genre” is a French term imported to film theory from literary studies, meaning “type” or “class”.6 Here are a few remarks from several different scholars on the essence of genres. As American scholar David Bordwell puts in his Film Art : An Introduction Film, “genres lack scientific precision; instead, they are convenient terms that develop informally. Filmmakers, industry decision makers, critics, and viewers all contribute to the formation of a shared sense that certain films seem to resemble one another in significant ways”.7 4 Hao Jian, Genre Film, Fudan University Press, 2011, pp. 22–23. 5 See Thomas Schatz, Hollywood Genres, Translated by Feng Xin, Shanghai People’s

Publishing House, 2009. 6 Hao Jian, Genre Film, p. 3. 7 David Bordwell, Film Art: An Introduction, Translated by Zeng Weizhen, Beijing

United Publishing Co., Ltd., 2015, p. 373.

2

“GENRES” AND MAINSTREAM IDEOLOGICAL FILMS

27

He mentions several criteria to place a group of films in a genre: (1) Subjects or themes: “A gangster film centers on large-scale urban crime. A science fiction film features a technology beyond the reach of contemporary science. A Western is usually about life on some frontier”; (2) Manner of presentation: “Musicals are recognizable chiefly by their manner of presentation, i.e. singing, dancing, or both. The detective film is partly defined by the plot pattern of an investigation that solves a mystery”; (3) Distinctive emotional effect, like “amusement in comedies, tension in suspense films”, etc.8 In American Film Studies, Cai Wei and You Fei define genre films as “a group of standardized stories which share significant similarities in themes, plots, settings, filmic techniques and other aspects”.9 Hao Jian compares genres to a “normative framework” or Gestalt— “an overall psychological pattern that informs the way we create, perceive, and react to work”. “A genre is a norm and paradigm of artistic language and a psychological framework for aesthetic creation and perception. It tells the aesthetic expectations of the general audience”.10 “Genre films follow a rule that both filmmakers and viewers are familiar with: They are developed in a known context and strive to find new sparks in old routines”.11 Shao Mujun explains in Essay on Western Film History that “a genre film is created within the firm rubric of its genre or style. This was a particular Hollywood practice of film production during the Golden Age of Hollywood technical films, and offers a norm to standardize art production, especially film production”.12 Films were categorized into different genres for the sake of film development at first; but now they are developed normatively around defining features of each genre. This seems a natural and inevitable progression. Therefore, it can be concluded here that a film genre is a category of films that share similarities in stylistic and aesthetic qualities, and the genre is just what distinguishes one category from another. Some “genre elements”, as scholars often call them, define a genre, and any films built 8 Ibid., p. 374. 9 Cai Wei and You Fei, American Film Studies, p. 3. 10 Hao Jian, Genre Film, p. 8. 11 Ibid., Introduction. 12 Shao Mujun, Essay on Western Film History, China Film Press, 1982, p. 29.

28

F. XU

on such elements generally conform to the normative framework of the genre. It is worth noting that scholarly discussions around Hollywood genres often involve recognizing the similarities and differences between “genre theory” and “auteur theory”. “Auteur theory” was first mentioned in Cahiers du cinema, an influential magazine co-founded by a group of French film theorists and critics under the leadership of André Bazin after the World War II. In a 1954 essay, French film director François Truffaut proposed the revolutionary notion that “the director is the true author of a given film”. He argues that a director reveals a personal worldview through his/her conventional styles and themes. “The ‘auteur theory’ proposed by Bazin and his colleagues (François Truffaut, Claude Chabrol and Jean-Luc Godard) focuses not on those foreign directors who enjoy the greatest freedom of film expression, but on particular Hollywood directors whose creative personality is distinct enough to shine through the interference of the studios”.13 The “auteur theory” recognizes and emphasizes the stylistic coherence or expressive consistency of all films directed by a given filmmaker. The theory “turns an auteur into a genre of his own, a system of conventions used to identify his works”.14 Therefore, an auteur stamps a personal style onto his/her works and establishes a set of rules through recurring film narratives. These rules constitute the auteur’s “normative framework” of filmmaking. John Cassavetes proposes to rephrase the notion of genres in a more straightforward way—formula; in the “auteur theory”, any conventions that tell the style of the auteur are part of a formula. David Bordwell also emphasizes that “plot elements can be configured as a formula”.15 However, the term “genre” has been used too widely to be put another way and hence is still in use today. But defining “formula” helps us to understand what genres actually are. This paper subscribes to the idea that genres can also be referred to as rules, norms, normative system, formulas or other wordings that emphasize the conventions of organizing interrelated features under a genre to make it distinct from other genres. Therefore, the term “normative system” will be used for genres henceforward in this paper.

13 Cai Wei and You Fei, American Film Studies, p. 6. 14 Ibid., p. 8. 15 David Bordwell, Film Art: An Introduction, p. 375.

2

“GENRES” AND MAINSTREAM IDEOLOGICAL FILMS

29

A film genre is a sort of a normative system, whereas a genre film is just an example of that system; there is a part-whole relationship between the two. In an analogy to the Saussurean model of language, Hao Jian and Zheng Shusen compare a genre film to an individual speech act (parole) and a film genre to the overall language system (langue). “A film genre encompasses a complete set of intangible routines, subjects and styles that are manifested through an interesting combination in each film. A genre film takes on a concrete form that can be visualized, whereas a film genre is an abstract, unwritten system”.16 “The film genre and genre film, as with langue and parole, are inseparable. Behind every word we utter (parole), there is a language system (langue), but it doesn’t mean that we can only speak when we have acquired the language system. It’s hard to decide which of them (parole and langue) comes first, as it involves historical accumulation”.17 In a nutshell, a “film genre” is an aggregate of individual “genre films”. Those films form a cohesive narrative over time and across space, and continue to be produced within and, in some senses, beyond the guiding rubric of the normative system. Interactive Cultural Imagination As Shao Mujun explains in his Essay on Western Film History, the rigid paradigm of literature which had flourished during the Classical period was once overturned, before staging a comeback in Hollywood in the twentieth century. However, Hollywood film genres constitute part of a normative framework for studios, somehow different from Aristotle’s descriptive notion of genres. Moreover, genre films “teach ideologies to the audience” to meet the social needs of the times. Shao Mujun cites Judith Hess’s words from Genre Films and the Status Quo to explain the relationship between genre films and the audience: “These films came into being and were financially successful because they temporarily relieved the fears aroused by a recognition of social and political conflicts. They helped to discourage any action which might otherwise follow upon the pressure generated by living with these conflicts. Genre films produce satisfaction rather than action, pity and fear rather than revolt. They serve the interests of the ruling class by assisting in the maintenance of the status quo and

16 Hao Jian, Genre Film, p. 7. 17 Zhen Shusen, Film Genres and Genre Films, p. 7.

30

F. XU

they throw a sop to oppressed groups who, because they are unorganized and therefore afraid to act, eagerly accept the genre film’s absurd solutions to economic and social conflicts. When we return to the complexities of the society in which we live, the same conflicts assert themselves. So we return to genre films for easy comfort and solace—hence their popularity”.18 To sum up Hess’s points, genre films are popular because they produce satisfaction, assist in the maintenance of the status quo and offer easy comfort and solace. The genre aesthetics are interactive as they are associated with the transcendence of spiritual desires and the sense of belonging among viewers. “Genre films”, based on Hollywood studios system and star appeal, reflect a special ideology of consumption. They are in very essence a product of industrialized and commercialized motion picture production and are film series that can be reproduced or even mass-produced to entertain the audience. As a typical kind of commercial cinema, genre films serve a main purpose of generating guaranteed pleasure to entertain the audience through repeated motifs, recurring characters, standardized narratives and specific connotations. Genre hierarchies also shift over time to cater to the changing desires and expectations of the mainstream audience. Indeed, popularity changes over time”.19 This explains the fact that genre films are produced within a commercial system that takes an industrialized approach to filmmaking. Each genre has its own specific target audience, whose interests play a decisive role in filmmaking. It should be noted in this paper that when Chinese viewers slam a film for being “too much” or “too little” of a “commercial”, they are partially interpreting the definition of commerciality. Thomas Schatz, an American film professor who specializes in Hollywood movies and studios system, states in his book Old Hollywood/New Hollywood: Ritual, Art, and Industry that “Hollywood studios have standardized virtually every stage of film production, from plot conception to final release and screening. The studios also use box office performance and other audience measurements to identify hit films. The studio’s reliance on standardized techniques and story formulas—on established

18 Shao Mujun, Essay on Western Film History, pp. 30–31. 19 Rao Shuguang and Xian Jia, The Structural Development and Prospect of the

Genre Film in Contemporary China, Journal of Zhejiang University of Media & Communications, 2013 (2), p. 51.

2

“GENRES” AND MAINSTREAM IDEOLOGICAL FILMS

31

system of conventions—is not merely a means of economizing the material aspects of production, but also of responding to the audience’s collective values and beliefs”.20 He believes that genres are developed through the communication between filmmakers, critics and viewers. Cai Wei and You Fei also point out: “Of any films (and basically all forms of popular arts), box-office success means they will be conventionalized and followed by clones. The Hollywood ‘feedback’ system further strengthens the idea of repeating successful storylines or techniques, as its studios system—production, distribution, and screening vertically—allows filmmakers to determine the necessity of such repetition based on audience responses. It is as if with each commercial effort, the studios introduce another variation on film conventions, and the audience indicates whether the inventive variations would be conventionalized through their repeated usage. In the classic Hollywood era, 400–700 films were produced every year in wide studios which, therefore, increasingly relied on the tried-andtrue formulas and techniques. No Hollywood film theories could avoid mentioning the basic process of production, feedback, and conventionalization”.21 The interactive nature of genre films leads to a normative framework. Genre filmmaking is to conceptualize ideologies aesthetically. While genre films represent the subjective values of their audience and offer guaranteed pleasure, the audience gives feedback and recognitions on the films. The anxiety and stress of modern society must find their outlet in some way. As genre films unfold within respective tonal expectations, they can give vent to the audience’s stress through artistic, poetic, obscure and lyrical expressions.

Development of Local Genres Upgrading of Derived Local Genres By genre, Chinese films are generally divided into “main-melody films that evoke the sense of national identity”, “commercial films” and “art films” to represent “three discourses: the authoritative discourse of the dominant culture, the mass discourse of the popular culture, and the

20 Thomas Schatz, Old Hollywood/New Hollywood: Ritual, Art, and Industry, Translated by Zhou Chuanji and Zhou Huan, Peking University Press, 2013, pp. 13–14. 21 Cai Wei and You Fei, American Film Studies, pp. 12–13.

32

F. XU

refined discourse of the elite culture”.22 This well-known trichotomy offers a clear-cut view of the different production mechanisms and target viewers of Chinese films, but the idea has been so broadly used that genre blurriness and confusion might sometimes happen. In fact, each of the three types of films contains different genre elements. A historical film may be a main-melody film, a commercial film or an art film; a mainmelody film may also have genre elements such as love and kinship, or it may use stars too for commercial interests. In Genre Films : The Inevitable Course of Chinese Cinema, Peng Jixiang mentioned that we have a longstanding misconception that art films are superior to commercial films, and that the former are ideological while the latter exist only for entertainment. However, many commercial films are “both ideological and entertainment, both artistic and spectacular, and they radiate both artistic innovation and cinematic exploration”.23 Any film, especially a contemporary film targeting a wide audience, is usually a fusion of certain genres. Genrification is a basic filmmaking method. To be at once ideological, artistic, entertaining and spectacular, a film needs to carefully select and balance different genre elements. China began to develop local film genres, such as opera films, not long after cinema was introduced in the country. For example, the first Chinese film, the 1905’s “Battle of Dingjunshan”, was adapted from a Peking Opera of the same title. Opera films emerged as a genre closely related to performance arts. China has also embraced other cinematic genres with local cultural roots, such as martial arts, kung fu, spy, war and Chinese comedy. Jia Leilei classifies Chinese films into 15 genres, including “comedy martial arts, action, romance, criminal investigation, spy, anti-espionage, historical, science fiction, mystery, thriller, horror, musical, and gangster films”.24 Wu Qiong recognizes revolutionary and historical film, industrial film, agricultural film, anti-espionage film, melodrama and comedy, etc.25 Hong Kong cinema has boasted a reliable genre system and captured the genre-revealing features of martial arts films, kung fu (swordsman) films and comedies, among others, to 22 Hao Jian, Chinese Mainland Genre Films: Formal Dialogue and Moral Understanding, Contemporary Cinema, 2011 (9), p. 11. 23 Peng Jixiang, Genre Films: The Inevitable Course of Chinese Cinema—Responsibilities of Film Theories, Arts Criticism, 2007 (8), p. 45. 24 Jia Leilei, A Review of Chinese Genre Films (1977–1997), Film Art, 1999 (2), p. 5. 25 See Wu Qiong, Research on Chinese Film Genres, China Film Press, 2005.

2

“GENRES” AND MAINSTREAM IDEOLOGICAL FILMS

33

highlight motifs such as brave heroes (“Young and Dangerous” film series), imaginations around the urban space (Pang Ho-Cheung’s productions) and self-identity (“Infernal Affairs” series). The mainland cinema has also adapted genre thoughts to its local context, and produced a collection of Chinese genre films, including “youth” (1997’s “Blossom Season, Rainy Season”, 2017’s “Our Shining Days”, 2018’s “Einstein & Einstein”); “romance” (2009’s “Sophie’s Revenge”, 2011’s “Love Is Not Blind”, 2013’s “Finding Mr. Right”, 2017’s “The Ex-File 3: The Return of the Exes”); comedy (2006’s “Crazy Stone”, 2015’s “Goodbye Mr. Loser”, 2018’s “Hello Mr. Billionaire”); police and gangster (2013’s “Drug War”, 2016’s “Cold War II”); “crime” (2012’s “Lethal Hostage”, 2017’s “The Liquidator”, 2019’s “Sheep Without a Shepherd”); “fantasy” (2008’s “Painted Skin”); “spy” (2009’s “The Message”), etc. Genre blending is another trend of Chinese films. “American Dreams in China” (2013) represents a mix of drama, inspiration and youth; “Detective Chinatown” (2015) combines the elements of comedy, suspense, action and other genres; “Animal World” (2018) is a drama of action and adventure; “Bodyguards and Assassins” (2009) is a historical war drama; “CJ7” (2008) is a family, sci-fi comedy; “The Mermaid” (2016) is a love, sci-fi comedy. In addition, some traditional Chinese genres have also taken on new looks over time. The “Ip Man” series, “Wu Xia” (2011), and “Taichi 0” (2012) have embedded modernity in martial arts and actions. In their paper A Review of China’s Genre Films: Pattern and Ecology, Aesthetics and Culture, Chen Xuguang and Shi Xiaoxi identify three new trends of genre films: “(1) There are a good variety of sub-genres under the umbrella of main genres; (2) Hybrid genres have emerged after the New Hollywood era to combine one dominant genre with the elements of one or more other genres; (3) Independent genre films are produced, which either ‘inherit the elegant film tradition of Europe’ or ‘find their roots in American B-films to cater to a very niche audience at a low budget’. Despite the formulated conventions, genre films permit certain flexibility in their classification”.26 Chinese genre films are also flexible in this sense. Li Xun points out that “genre filmmaking shall involve an extensive use of genre concepts, paradigms and experiences in everything

26 Chen Xuguang and Shi Xiaoxi, A Review of China’s Genre Films: Pattern and Ecology, Aesthetics and Culture, Studies in National Art, No. 6, Vol. 30, 2017, p. 6.

34

F. XU

from film production to release and screening”.27 According to Hu Ke, “It should be our goal to put genre films on a healthy track and bring them into the most mainstream”.28 In a nutshell, with China’s economic rise and enhanced international presence, cinema has moved from big cities to small towns to entertain both the intellectual elites and the ordinary people. As an inevitable result, the Chinese film market and the audience are segmented by genre. Meanwhile, there have emerged interactive Internet films which are marketed and communicated online and are evolving into new forms as the media landscape shifts. Generally, genre films are made upon the reorganization of genre elements or the blending of two or more genres to tell the stories of our times within established aesthetic conventions. The Convergence of Mainstream Ideology and Commerciality in Modern Times China’s “main-melody films” demonstrate the changes that China has undergone over time and communicate the guiding ideology of the country. Through proper construction of plots and themes, these films represent the will of the state and offer a source of moral guidance at the national level. As a result, not only do they evolve with the film industry, but they also take on new looks as the mainstream values change. China’s politics and culture have been rejuvenated since the reform and opening-up of the late 1970s. The film market has also responded to the bugle call of ideological emancipation and constituted a major part of people’s spiritual life. The trajectory of the film industry thereafter can well prove the growing weight of films in Chinese culture and arts since the 3rd Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee of the CPC in 1978. According to Yin Hong, “Films, as with literature works, have been reshaped by four major trends of ‘scar films’, ‘introspective films’, ‘reform films’ and ‘ancestry films’. From the late-1970s to the mid1980s, both the third and the fourth generations of Chinese filmmakers were active, bringing out a synergy between films and literature. This was followed by the popularity of TV as a medium of mass communication 27 Li Xun, The Only Way to Genre Development, Contemporary Cinema, 2010 (12), p. 79. 28 Hu Ke, Characteristics and Trends of Chinese Genre Films, Contemporary Cinema, 2011 (9), p. 4.

2

“GENRES” AND MAINSTREAM IDEOLOGICAL FILMS

35

since the mid-1980s when TV drama came to constitute an unexpectedly significant part of contemporary China’s cultural landscape. On the other hand, Chinese films, which were caught off guard by the rise of new media and social transformation, drifted to a low ebb and struggled to entertain the audience in a transition from an ‘all-purpose culture’ to a ‘consumer culture’… But the fifth generation of Chinese directors came up like a dark horse, and the sixth started to shine. The last few years of the 1980s saw extensive discussions around entertainment-driven cinema and numerous attempts on genre films. In the late 1990s as the Chinese government took measures to support filmmaking, historical and mainmelody films represented by ‘The Birth of New China’ and ‘Decisive Engagement’”.29 It is worth mentioning that despite the many problems and challenges, Chinese filmmakers never stopped exploring and trying from the mid-1980s to the late 1990s. “The international context brings more experiences and more opportunities, and therefore a driving force for Chinese film market”.30 The rise of main-melody films is at least partly a result of the state vigorously supporting film development. In 1987, China put forward the idea of “promoting diverse cinematic styles while focusing on the sense of national identity”. In 1988, main-melody films seemed “another name for films with revolutionary and historical themes or of great realistic significance”. After commercial films and art films, main-melody films became the third and a unique genre of Chinese films. In addition to major historical films, such as the aforementioned “The Birth of New China” (1989) and “Decisive Engagement: The Liaoxi Shenyang Campaign” (1991), this third genre also includes feature films that tell biographical stories, such as “Jiao Yulu” (1990) and “The Days Without Lei Feng” (1996), etc. China joined the WTO as the twenty-first century opened. Driven by the industrialization of the film market, China underwent an unprecedented cinematic revival in a global, market-oriented and multi-media context, and presented market performance that rocked the world. “First, Chinese film industry took off. Within a short span of 15 years from the 2002 market-oriented reform to 2017, China’s film industry rose

29 Yin Hong, Chinese Films in the 40 Years of Reform and Opening-Up, The Journal of Beijing Film Academy, 2018 (2), pp. 6–7. 30 Yin Hong, Chinese Films in the International Context, The Selected Works of Yin Hong, Fudan University Press, 2004, p. 139.

36

F. XU

like a phoenix from the ashes, with significant growths in both production volume and market size. Its annual box office takings expanded 55 times from less than RMB 1 billion to over RMB 55 billion, making Chinese film business the world’s second largest. Second, Chinese films have returned to prominence in people’s cultural life… Third, films have become a crucial cultural asset that reinforces the soft power of China”.31 Into the new century, theme films took on new looks alongside the enhanced national strength and international influences of China. Under the influence of the “Theory of the State”, Chinese films began to explore “new social and economic forms, new classes, new characters and new ideas”.32 Since China has enhanced its international presence and developed a global vision, we saw an urgency in reinterpreting the country’s mainstream ideology and reflecting its cultural imagination of the new century through cultural lens. Main-melody films answered the needs of the state and the times. Through expanded topics and contents, they started to be produced and presented in new ways to cater to the audience, giving birth to a sub-genre of “main-melody commercial films” that will be detailed later. There was an inevitability to commercial films, which began to take a genre approach as the market economy took root. The reform and opening-up brought liberalization of the Chinese market, and the adoption of a market-driven economic system in the 1990s, pushing filmmaking business onto the commercial track. Note that this is not to deny the existence of commercial films in the previous chapters of the Chinese film history; instead, films were born commercial. Before the Cultural Revolution, China had had commercial films, which constituted an established genre then. However, Chinese films were totally deprived of the right of free speech and expression in the chaotic decade, and the situation remained unchanged until the reform and openingup policy connected China to the world. In 1995, China embarked on the market-oriented reform of the film industry and vigorously developed commercial films. China’s accession to the WTO at the beginning of this century set a milestone in its globalization march. The mainland film market also grew with the country and the times. Zhang Yimou’s

31 Yin Hong, Chinese Films in the 40 Years of Reform and Opening-Up, p. 8. 32 See China Film Association Theoretical Review Committee, 2016 China Film Art

Report, China Film Press, 2016, p. 244.

2

“GENRES” AND MAINSTREAM IDEOLOGICAL FILMS

37

“Hero”, which came out in 2002, marked the advancement of Chinese films into the global marketplace. Three factors underlay the marketization and commercialization of local films. First was a guiding ideology that encouraged film marketization and commercialization. Films are after all a kind of commodities, and the mainland market should meet the growing demands of the audience for films. From the start of marketoriented reform in the 1990s to China’s accession to the WTO and the film “Hero”, the film industry as a comprehensive sector was moving toward large-scale productions. It was further aligned to the market in the decade that followed. Second, as Hollywood genre theories were introduced, accepted and finally implemented in China, the academics began to set up a theoretical framework for domestic film genre research. Third was the support of the film industry through market development, standardized box-office data collection and theater constructions. The domestic box-office total soared to RMB 55.9 billion in 2017, with the giant screens numbering a record 50,776. China was by then the world’s second-largest film market after the US. In 2019, China grossed RMB 64.2 billion at the box office and 69,787 screens nationwide. The genre elements have been refined to develop a clearer understanding of the themes, contents, plots, characters, images and ideologies. Some mainmelody commercial film genres have been practiced, including “youth” (“Our Shining Days”), “romance” (“The Ex-File 3: The Return of the Exes”), “comedy” (“Goodbye Mr. Loser” by Mahua FunAge) and horror (2011’s “Mysterious Island” and 2014’s “The House That Never Dies”), etc. The Chinese film market has also established “main-melody commercial films”, a unique genre based on local cultural characteristics and aesthetic qualities, including “Wolf Warrior 2” and “The Founding of a Republic”. Specifically, the development path of Chinese film genres can be broken down into four stages. Each stage has its corresponding genre films to represent the times and the innovative progress of films. From 2002 to 2006, Chinese film industry brought out its talent, growing from a fresh face on the international film scene to a “billionyuan box office club”. Earlier in 2000, the Chinese-language blockbuster “Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon” came out in an unexpected way that amazed the audience and filmmakers, both at home and abroad, and had an enormous influence on Chinese films and film market. The 2002’s epic “Hero”, directed by Zhang Yimou, was the first over-10-million investment in China’s film history, making Chinese mainland films a critical

38

F. XU

part of the mainstream culture. “Hero” was premiered to great fanfare in the Great Hall of the People and grossed 100 million in ticket sales. The film yielded unprecedentedly high profits locally, sufficient to allow it to compete with international big hits. It reshaped the world’s film industry landscape and marked a beginning of Chinese films sharing the global box office. Chinese films, as a carrier of the Chinese culture, went global in the form of commercial films. Commercial films of this period, such as “Hero”, “House of Flying Daggers” (2004), “The Promise” (2005) and “The Banquet” (2006), exhibited a tendency of big-name directors and 100-million box office. Art films painted quite another picture. Having not chosen the right genre approach, they mostly ended up in obscurity. The sixth-generation directors who aspired to make pure art films refused to add commerciality to their works, and the result did not look good, such as “The Missing Gun” (2002), “Purple Butterfly” (2003) and “Kekexili: Mountain Patrol” (2004). The years 2006 to 2012 witnessed the initial growth of Chinese film industry. The turning point of main-melody commercial cinema came with “Crazy Stone” (2006), whose genre-specific narratives inspired moderate-/low-budget films which sprang up afterward. Since then, moderate-/low-budget feature films started to race on a commercial track to follow the market’s rules and genre conventions, and catapulted to the “billion-yuan box office club”. Meanwhile, the films returned to a narrative approach, and walked through a genre-specific process to guarantee their success. The successful business model brought a rise in ticket sales and reputation. Being a small investment of only more than RMB 3.5 million, “Crazy Stone” smashed 23.5 million box office and brought back a genre that is the backbone of commercial cinema: comedy. Likewise, other genres—historical, action and art—refocused their efforts on “telling a good story”. Commercial films became more diverse in this period, as can be seen from “Curse of the Golden Flower” (2006), “Assembly” (2007), “Painted Skin” (2008), “Forever Enthralled” (2008), “If You Are the One” (2008), “Under the Hawthorn Tree” (2010) and “The Flowers of War” (2011), etc. Art films were also striving for a balance between artistic quality and commerciality, such as “Summer Palace” (2006), “24 City” (2008), “Spring Fever” (2009), “Cow” (2009), “Love and Bruises” (2011), “Design of Death” (2012), etc. “The Founding of a Republic” (2009), a China Film Group Corporation (“CFG”) production, enabled us to gain new insights into main-melody films. As the most effective agents of cultural soft power,

2

“GENRES” AND MAINSTREAM IDEOLOGICAL FILMS

39

films played an unparalleled role. The main-melody commercial films, represented by “The Founding of a Republic” and “Beginning of the Great Revival”, proved China’s transition from a “big filmmaker” to a “strong filmmaker”. From 2012 to 2017, Chinese film genres were finalized, and films of the same genres were produced repeatedly in the wake of “Lost in Thailand”. Everyone went nuts for genre-specific commercial films and popular cultural products. Repeated productions by genre increased exponentially at this stage, including “Lost in Thailand” (2012), “American Dreams in China” (2013), “Lost in Hong Kong” (2015), “Monster Hunt” (2015), “Breakup Buddies” (2015), “The Breakup Guru” (2015), “Chongqing Hot Pot” (2015), “Mojin—The Lost Legend” (2015), “Chronicles of the Ghostly Tribe” (2015), “The Mermaid” (2015) and “Operation Mekong” (2016), etc. Among them, “Operation Mekong”, a commercial action film which fosters a sense of national pride, tells a story about Chinese heroes and their anti-terrorism efforts overseas. Meanwhile, main-melody films also reached out to the audience with commercial appeals. For example, “Hsue-shen Tsien” (2012), starring young actor Chen Kun and actress Zhang Yuqi, tells the story of a scientist who has devoted his life to the great cause of the country. Art films were still swaying between the choices of intact artistic quality and commerciality and put out feelers, such as “Mystery” (2012), “A Touch of Sin” (2013), “Coming Home” (2014), “Blind Massage” (2014) and “The Golden Era” (2014). Then, art films and independent films burst into the popular consciousness and onto the theater scene. New directors imitated the world’s most influential filmmakers they admired (for example, “Fly with the Crane” [2012] and “The Love Songs of Tiedan” [2013]) and employed diverse artistic techniques in their works (for example, “Kaili Blues”). Main-melody commercial film, as a genre, was established after 2017 to present cultural soft power and national ideology through commercial genre films. A typical example was “Wolf Warrior 2”. From “Hero” to “Wolf Warrior 2”, Chinese film sector started to export unique Chinese genres and culture products that can well represent national ideologies. “The Founding of an Army” (2017) is a main-melody commercial film that takes a genre-specific approach to telling a story of history. Thick and fast came commercially successful works that reflected the contemporary aesthetic value of the Chinese nation, including “Operation Red Sea” (2018), “My People, My Country” (2019), “The Captain” (2019), “The

40

F. XU

Bravest” (2019) and “The Climbers” (2019). Art films began to shed light on social issues, showing care and respect for people through genrespecific expressions and theater screenings, such as “Angels Wear White” (2017), “A Cool Fish” (2018) and “So Long, My Son” (2019). Commercial films taking a real-world perspective also turned out a runaway hit, such as “Dying to Survive” (2018). Sci-fi themes compatible with the mainstream ideologies began to be presented, such as “The Wandering Earth” (2019). In a word, China has gained much experience in adding commerciality to genre films, in a way that faithfully represents the national ideology and conveys the mainstream values, cultural spirits and aesthetics of the state. This speaks volumes for the possibility of a dynamic equilibrium between “main-melody film” and “commerciality”. These two seemingly incompatible elements found their convergence in the new century when the film market has matured. Now, Chins has blazed a unique trail to genre filmmaking. Despite the many twists, it is generally heading into a promising future. Chinese film market shall learn as it goes, one step at a time, not going too fast or indiscriminately copying the others. Chinese film market did not move perfectly in step with Hollywood, but it has established a preliminary genre system based on Hollywood’s experiences and theories. Chinese cinema is different from Hollywood in ideology and culture; it wouldn’t become a colon of Hollywood, nor have an identical genre system to that of the Hollywood. The development of genre films was inevitable, so did the emergence of unique film genres in China. In China, single-genre films seemed to have a better quality and market performance, such as “Love is Not Blind” (romance), “Lost in Thailand” (comedy) and “Goodbye Mr. Loser” (comedy). Since 2017, “genre blending” has been widely used in high-quality works, such as “Wolf Warrior 2” (action, war) and “Detective Chinatown” (comedy, suspense). Looking back to the early 2000s, many works that were modeled superficially on high-concept Hollywood films failed to live up to expectations, both at the box office and in word of mouth. Imitating high-concept cinema has been proven by the market to be a little too hasty choice. We were not technically or culturally ready to embrace a “leapfrog” development when a full-blown genre system had not already been in place. Genre development has not been all plain sailings in China. The dilemmas and challenges, as well as the “leapfrog” mentioned above, will be elaborated in the next section.

2

“GENRES” AND MAINSTREAM IDEOLOGICAL FILMS

41

Thoughts on “Post-Genre” Chinese Cinema Genre Formulas and Conundrums Genre classification was indisputably inevitable for Chinese cinema, but the related research, practical and theoretical, has been a bumpy process filled with trials and errors. The exemplary cases mentioned above are not the entire picture. The marketplace has seen both successful and unsuccessful genre films. For one thing, some filmmakers believe that they have worked within a rigid framework (seemingly a set of genre elements), but the film quality or box-office performance turns out to be something of a disappointment. For another, even the clones of successful films (seemingly in the right direction of genre development) might fail the expectations. This means success is hard to replicate or translate into an extensively applicable model to benefit from the economics of scale, or to be used to define genre conventions. Why? There are generally two reasons behind the conundrums. First, some Chinese filmmakers cannot perform genres properly due to a lack of accurate knowledge of their nature. Second, Chinese genre practices and theories have been established, based neither on a statistically significant sample size or number of categories nor on sufficient market experience. The assumed “rigid framework” is not the exact normative system of genres. The filmmakers may have partly employed some genre elements, or jumbled together discrete elements across many genres and failed to stick to them throughout the run of the film. Therefore, the so-tagged “genre films” are not indeed genre specific. As for the second conundrum, even if films of a certain kind are produced around the defining elements of, for example, Hollywood genres, with necessary local adaptations, it still takes time and practices for China-specific genres to finally take shape. Until then could genre aesthetics and practically meaningful replications be spoken of. As Zheng Shusen puts it: “A single work does not constitute a genre; multiple works do. Unlike the language system, an individual film that falls into a certain genre could sometimes seem an alien to the genre or even challenge and reset the conventions of the genre. That is to say, a film which lies ostensibly in a genre can be vastly different from typical members of the genre”.33 Chinese filmmakers shall experiment extensively with genre films, and even the most unsuccessful

33 Zhen Shusen, Film Genres and Genre Films, p. 8.

42

F. XU

experiences are of their value and significance. But it is frowned upon to go blindly. The filmmakers shall take a scientific approach to exploring and expanding genre practices and make progress by carefully reviewing their work and setting right what goes wrong in a timely manner. Chinese filmmakers must come to realize that a genre is in its very essence a “normative system”, not a template to be used mechanically. Though being a guideline for commercial film production, the notion of genres should never be narrowed down and limited to commercial films. Chinese films are often grouped into three categories: commercial films, art films and theme films. Genres are sometimes mistakenly believed to apply only to commercial films; in fact, they also constitute a normative system for art films and theme films. It is not a typical Hollywood practice to label films simply as commercial or artistic; instead, every film is representing a balance between “strictly complying with the normative system” and “exploring possibilities beyond the normative system” to satisfy both the target audience and the filmmakers. Those within the normative system are genre films, while the latter are art films, avantgarde films or independent films. As we know, “one could break the rules only if he/she is familiar with the rules”. Chinese commercial films shall be produced and distributed within the normative system of their target genres. Art films and independent films, which aspire to tell a good story, shall either follow the narrative structure of the normative system, or deliberately go against the norms to refine the genres for the better. (Make sure that you understand the rules before trying to break them; it shall not be a desultory attempt.) Theme films usually serve the purpose of building characters and telling stories—all the more reason to observe the norms. To sum up, the normative system is a concept around all genre films. Upgrading and “Leapfrog” First, “leapfrog” development. China made breakthrough in genre films as soon as it joined the WTO and went global. Scholar Zhang Yiwu describes Zhang Yimou’s “Hero” as “a metaphor for the new century”,34 and believes that the film has “miraculously pioneered an unusual way of going global at a time when Chinese cinema just started to step onto

34 See Zhang Yiwu, A Transcentury Chinese Imagination, p. 294.

2

“GENRES” AND MAINSTREAM IDEOLOGICAL FILMS

43

the world stage… In an unexpected way, Zhang Yimou is connected to China’s history from the late 20th century through to the early 21st . As an essential part of this history, Zhang has contributed to and been shaped by the history”.35 With an impeccable acumen for Chinese cinema in the global context, Zhang Yimou broke new ground. He wanted more than just a motion picture; he wanted to reshape the existing genre paradigms or even create unique local genres. As there wasn’t much experience with genre films in China, he looked to the international examples and produced a “high-concept film” based on Hollywood’s genre codes. Chen Xuguang believes that “Chinese blockbusters” did not come by chance; they were inspired by domestic productions of similar themes in the 1990s and “Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon” in 2000, as well as “the Hollywood’s high-concept ideas. Blockbusters were a sure thing of the new century after 30 years of film industry and film culture development”.36 Zhang Yimou’s “Hero” represented an endeavor of Chinese filmmakers on high-concept cinema in a local context in 2002. High-concept filmmaking, which is high-tech and big-budget, works within Hollywood’s genre system. It aims at the global market and encourages audience loyalty through the emotive force of powerful values. Based on a dynamic feedback loop with the massive audience, larger-scale “high-concept” films are produced to meet and arouse audience expectations. Scholar Chen Yu expresses some views on Hollywood’s evolution from genre films to high-concept films: The Hollywood genre system was first developed to warrant a nuanced and differentiated audience strategy for efficient low-cost productions. From Classical Hollywood to New Hollywood, differentiation remained the name of the game. But the economic globalization of the 1990s gave Hollywood a chance to shine to the world. The industry was scaled up and hence came the idea of high-concept cinema—a standardized production that targets at the global audience, universally acceptable despite age and geographic diversity. This idea was at odds with the niche marketing strategy of Hollywood’s genre system; it can sweep the deck through genre hybrids.37 35 Ibid, p. 315. 36 See Chen Xuguang, Chinese Film Blockbusters —Production, Marketing and Culture,

Peking University Press, 2014, p. 10. 37 Chen Yu, Genre Films: Economic Strategies of Film, Contemporary Cinema, 2010 (12), p. 90.

44

F. XU

“High-concept cinema”, following genre films, is an inevitable evolution of genre filmmaking in the context of globalization. It took Hollywood nearly a century of time to grow from exploring and defining the full set of genres, making genre films, formulating new genres, to finally going back to “genre hybrids” that do not rely on segmented marketing strategies. High-concept cinema has its grounding in the “experienced” audience who has become deeply genre-minded after years of watching “genre films”. Their needs for genre films were huge and have gone even stronger in the process of globalization. The grounding is also in a welldeveloped normative system of genres, which has been tested by time and confirmed by a considerable size of productions. In a nutshell, only with a full understanding of genre rules and formulas can we recognize what genre blending is and how to blend genres. The film “Hero” also came out as we were entering the new century of globalization, but it didn’t comply with all the genre conventions of Hollywood’s high-concept cinema. It seemed a high-concept outwardly, given the big budget, all-star lineup and historical subject, but it didn’t navigate through the normative frameworks of all related genres, for example, the way to tell a historical story or to make heroic figures. In fact, the filmmakers were not even capable of making a high-concept film back then when the film industry of China was not sufficiently developed to support such productions. The Chinese audience, on the other hand, did not have much experience with genre films, or show any inclinations for genre films. The audience neither had a clear idea of historical films or expectations for love plots, nor understood the way thrillers or mysteries normally unfold. They could not relate the film to any previous experience, feel into the characters and stories or anticipate the narratives. It was hard for the viewers to achieve emotional contentment or gain a pleasure after working through the puzzle of the film. Therefore, the author identifies a “leapfrog” trajectory in “Hero” which deviated the normal track of genre films and displayed only a formal resemblance of “post-genre” productions. Among the negative comments, “Hero” was criticized most ontologically for its play and characters, etc. However, as the author sees it, at the root of these problems was the ambiguity of genres, which concerned not only this particular film, but also the entire film industry at that time. Chinese blockbusters that followed “Hero”, including Chen Kaige’s “The Promise” (2005) and “Sacrifice” (2010), Feng Xiaogang’s “The Banquet” (2006), Zhang Yimou’s “House of Flying Daggers” (2004) and “Curse of the Golden

2

“GENRES” AND MAINSTREAM IDEOLOGICAL FILMS

45

Flower” (2006), didn’t go like genre films as they had been expected. The recent blockbusters from non-big-name directors didn’t bring home a stunning report card either, such as “League of Gods” (2015) and “Legend of Ravaging Dynasties” (2015). Even “studio” productions— seemingly detached from the auteurs—which were adapted from famous books with built-in audience could not justify a leapfrog in genre films. In sum, “high-concept cinema” is built upon a well-established genre system. At the infancy of genre films, however, Chinese film industry shall be careful not to take short cuts through a formal resemblance of “high-concept production”; a leapfrog is impossibly difficult. Also worth discussing is the problem of “blurred genres”. Besides “high-concept” attempts, some Chinese filmmakers also followed their heart and added distinct personal touches to their works, such as Jiang Wen’s “Let the Bullets Fly” (2010) and Feng Xiaogang’s “Youth” (2017). These films, which did well at the box office and garnered good reviews, set off a wave of enthusiasm and left a monumental mark in China’s contemporary film history. To be specific, Jiang Wen has created the “auteur” cinema of China. The audience would go watch a film simply because it is directed by Jiang Wen. As shown in the closing credits, Jiang Wen multitasked in his signature film, positioning himself as a practitioner of the “auteur theory”. Feng Xiaogang declared that his productions were always intended to appeal to popular taste and introduced the film “Youth” to a demographic of viewers who would otherwise rarely, if ever, go to the cinema. In fact, Jiang’s seemingly “auteur film” and Feng’s “art film” are both commercial films. To some extent, these works helped to shape Chinese films, but their success was difficult to be repeated, neither by the directors themselves nor by other filmmakers at that time. Jiang’s trilogy of the Republic of China—“Let the Bullets Fly” (2010), “Gone with the Bullets” (2014) and “Hidden Man” (2018)—resulted in slipping grades. His signature style could no longer guarantee a box-office glory or a good reputation. Knowing his “ploys”, the audience began to offer very professional comments on his storylines and characters. It is still too early to say if Jiang’s “auteur style” has turned into a business model that operates under his own normative system, or to predict the viewers’ attitudes towards auteur films. However, it is clear that some extra efforts are needed before Jiang could establish his own “auteur theory”. Feng’s “Youth” melt the heart of its viewers, young and old, across all regions. Like a breath of fresh air among all those blockbusters which “failed to impress the audience with good stories or characters”, “Youth” mostly

46

F. XU

featured shining new faces in its cast and chose every line and performance carefully to tell a story of the times that the characters convincingly represented. However, there are also doubts about whether the success of “Youth” is a sure thing if the theme song is not the “Evelvet Flower” or the audience doesn’t feel nostalgic for the particular time in the film. Then comes the incisive question: What is the charm of this film? Is the success repeatable if it is built upon one or more factors that may (or may not) be chance factors? The same questions can also be applied to Jiang’s film. Can genre films benefit from personal labels or sentiments? Despite the stunning record on ticket sales and word-of-mouth reputation, “Let the Bullets Fly” and “Youth” cannot be used as a paradigm for genre films, because they are neither single-genre nor hybrid-genre works; instead, they are typical examples of genre blurring. One can easily confuse “genre blurring” with “genre blending”. The former means confusions over different genres, whereas the latter refers to an aesthetic paradigm of commercial films. Wang Yichuan points out that “Chinese films have exhibited a tendency of genre ambiguity in recent years, and many works are not as well received elsewhere as they are in China”.38 “Genre blending”, on the other hand, is a way of producing genre films to satisfy the needs of genre-literate audience for dual or multiple genres. For instance, the 1999’s American film “Gladiator” merges the elements from action, history, war and romance genres. In cases of genre blurring, the filmmakers are not fully conversant with a particular genre and all its elements, and the “crossing” of two or more genres fails to make sense. The audience is thrown off track, wondering: “What kind of film is it?” The worst is that these films are not capable of living up to the audience’s expectations for a particular genre or genre hybrids. Disappointed and puzzled though, the audience cannot see the real problems. Even the filmmakers themselves may not be aware of what has gone wrong. This is harmful for Chinese film development. Chinese films have experienced such problems as “leapfrog” and “genre blurring”. What is the right way to genre films? The answer is to build a model, perform all the elements in the normative system and combine them in a systematic and harmonious way. To avoid a leapfrog, filmmakers shall have an in-depth understanding of a particular genre;

38 Wang Yichuan, The Motives, Characteristics and Problems of Chinese Film Genres in the New Century, Contemporary Cinema, 2011 (9), p. 11.

2

“GENRES” AND MAINSTREAM IDEOLOGICAL FILMS

47

to avoid genre blurring, they shall have the ability to complete genrehybrid productions. “Gladiator” marked a successful Hollywood attempt on genre blending. It tells a historical epic, with heroic action beats and a romantic subplot. All the elements of each genre have been included, and the different genres interwoven into a captivating whole. Chinese comedies like “Crazy Stone”, “Lost in Thailand”, “Goodbye Mr. Loser” featured accurate subject choices, playmaking and character setting, as well as complete structures and cohesive dialogues within the normative framework of their genre. They are good examples to be followed. “Wolf Warrior 2” is a successful hybrid of action, military, war and romance. “Operation Red Sea” combines action, drama and war. Despite minor flaws with the storyline and characters, “Wolf Warrior 2” finds consistency among these genres. However, Wu Jing played multiple roles in this film—director, leading actor and screenwriter—which is not the best way to genre filmmaking. “Operation Red Sea” comes completely under the firm rubric of its normative system to achieve aesthetic clarity and consistency. To develop local genre films, Chinese film industry shall learn from the proven experiences of the others. “The international strategic guidelines of Chinese film genres set out clearly that we can only convince and capture overseas audience if following the successful overseas practices of defining and exporting film genres. Otherwise, we would have a narrow vision, and confine ourselves only to the domestic market”.39 Meanwhile, it is shown that after numerous “leapfrog” attempts at the beginning of the twenty-first century, Chinese film industry has now returned to small and medium-sized genre productions with a renewed emphasis on good contents, and it is taking a standardized approach to genre films. Despite some “genre blurring” in this process, there is emerging a clear path to standard genre films and genre hybrids through trials and errors and based on market response. Director Ning Hao continued his dark comedy series after the success of “Crazy Stone” (2006). “Silver Medalist” (2009) followed the track of a comedy, but “Guns and Roses” (2012) began to show the problem of genre blurring. “No Man’s Land” (2013) is generally a Chinese western, road film (it was filmed in 2009 and released four years later). “Breakup Buddies” (2014) is a standard road, romance and

39 Ibid.

48

F. XU

comedy hybrid. The high-grossing performance declared that Ning Hao has found his way to genre films. The most effective way to genre filmmaking is to translate the normative system into a model. As explained above, “genre” is a normative system and can surely be represented by abstract model relationships. To make a genre film work, all the genre elements shall constitute a cohesive whole. However, real-world scenarios might be more complicated, since the normative system encompasses all the processes of film production, from the most fundamental step of playwriting to the commercial operation of publicity, distribution and screening, etc. In addition, there are social factors and times to consider. All in all, the fundamental rules still apply. Therefore, all the genre elements can be abstractly represented as follows: If A denotes a particular genre which has three elements: A1, A2, A3 Then A1 + A2 + A3 constitute a single genre.

A film with all these elements is a successful single-genre work. It can be concluded that a single-genre work includes all the elements of the particular genre and excludes all the elements of other genres. If A and B denote two different genres, each of which has three elements: A1, A2, A3 and B1, B2, B3 Then A1 + B1 + A2 + B2 + A3 + B3 constitute a hybrid genre.

A film with all these elements is a successful hybrid-genre work. As can be seen, the film has all three elements of each of A and B, and organizes the elements in a certain order. That is to say, a film that has all the elements might still fail its attempt on genre blending if the elements cannot be organized systematically and normatively. Genre hybrids run a more complex system of dramatic functions. There are two paths to ensure the integrity of a film, as the genre elements increase manyfold within the limited running time of the film: One is to accelerate the tempo; the other is to add two or more functions to a scene

2

“GENRES” AND MAINSTREAM IDEOLOGICAL FILMS

49

or a sequence. These two paths will be analyzed and discussed in the case study of “Yang Shanzhou”. It is also worth noting that while some genres can be fused together (such as war and romance, action and crime, etc.), some are mutually exclusive and allow only an either-or operation. For example, in the 2000’s “Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon”, Ang Lee instilled “a sense of lightness” into martial arts in the globalized cultural context of the new century. This forms a sharp contrast to the aesthetics of violence in pre-1990s martial arts films (as directed by, for example, Zhang Che and John Woo Yu-Sen). Imagine Jen Yu, who has just flied gracefully over the water and atop a bamboo forest, engaging in a bloody fighting. What a jarring scene! Having explained the “single-genre” and “hybrid genre” models, the author will give a counter example. Genre blurring: A1 + B2.

The film fails to present all the genre elements. With only one of the three elements, it cannot be called a genre film, let alone a genre hybrid. It is only an unfinished work, a blurred genre. While the normative system informs us of the aesthetic implications of a genre film, Chinese film industry shall catch the very essence of film genres and work out local genre strategies through extensive studies of successful (and unsuccessful) cases. Having emphasized the importance of genre films, the author will introduce a new model to recognize, define and perform specific genres. In the next section, a “spectral model” for genre classification will be proposed. Moreover, genre blending is a common practice of commercial films. The main-melody commercial films just represent an example of genre blending with both social recognition (commercial films are often deemed earthy) and commercial success (main-melody films rarely draw well). The author will explain the classification rules of the “spectral model” and give a detailed analysis on “main-melody commercial films”.

Aesthetic Significance of the “Spectral Model” Chinese cinema has celebrated its diversity through a spectrum of genres. Instead of being defined by a single element such as theme or presentation, the genre as a normative system shall feature a dynamic equilibrium

50

F. XU

among elements. Therefore, the author proposes a “spectral scale genre classification model”, briefly referred to as “spectral model”, to explore the dynamic equilibrium of genre film within a multidimensional framework, and to locate main-melody commercial film on the scale and analyze its genre elements. “Spectral Scale Genre Classification Model” From the West to China, the genre theory has evolved substantially, especially in the way that genres are defined and classified. In most cases, a film cannot be defined as a single genre, such as “action” and “martial arts”, nor can it be categorized simply into a commercial film or an art film. For example, the 2000’s “Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon” directed by Ang Lee has both action and martial arts elements, and the “bamboo forest fight” was dubbed by many as a classic sequence. It was a 100% commercial film—an all-star lineup, Chinese-American co-production and Sony Pictures Classics release. The film revealed the director’s faith in oriental aesthetics and Chinese classical culture through its audiovisual narratives and benefited from Hollywood’s playmaking and filmmaking techniques. It reminds us of King Hu’s “A Touch of Zen” (1971). Being an action-martial arts film, “A Touch of Zen” was produced and publicized under the mechanism of commercial cinema but offered new insight into cinematic interpretation of Chinese classical aesthetics. The film added great cinematic artistry to the tapestry of China’s film history. The meticulously choreographed battle in the bamboo forest was quite an influence on martial arts filmmakers and has become a cultural manifestation commonly found in martial arts films that followed. “Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon” also paid a tribute to “A Touch of Zen” in some sequences. “A Touch of Zen” is often credited for the remarkable artistic achievements, as shown by its cultural and cinematic effects as well as innovative filmmaking techniques. It is clear that commerciality and artistry are not mutually exclusive or contradictory extremes; instead, they can be reconciled for the sake of cinematic and cultural effects, etc. as the times and technologies evolve. The textual analysis and cultural studies of film shall take a genre approach to look into the cinematic languages and styles of different genres. The film genres, as can be seen in the “genre” section of individual films in many databases, are termed as “comedy”, “romance”, “action” and “suspense”, etc. “Genre” informs the viewers about a film’s theme,

2

“GENRES” AND MAINSTREAM IDEOLOGICAL FILMS

51

Fig. 2.1 Spectral scale genre classification model

content and style. Robert McKee even made a list of 25 genres and subgenres in his book.40 A complex and elaborated genre system can add precision to screenwriting and character setting. In addition, there are overlaps, similarities and differences among the dramatic rules of different genres, and the researchers shall fully consider their cultural implications. The oversimplified genre labeling will turn film studies into a “detached” dogmatic practice that ignores the overlaps or relations between different films. To lend a more direct and dynamic perspective to film studies and to take into account the cultural factors beyond the play and film, this book adopts a “spectral scale” as the basis for all textual analysis and cultural studies. Film genres move left and right on the scale to strike a dynamic equilibrium in terms of playwriting, distribution channels, audience size, subject matter and functions (Fig. 2.1). The above scale applies only to a well-developed film market. In the early days of the film industry, all works which later have been classified into genres were indeed experimental and pioneering. Only with the development of cinematic works, filmmakers, artistry and industrial structure could film genres expand along the scale from left to right. In other words, Chinese film market has matured enough to adopt this genre classification model and more specific genres will be put on this scale in the future. On the far left of the scale sits “independent film”, which includes experimental and some radical filmmaking and represents the most pioneering and avant-garde works. More than a hundred years ago, in 1895, the Lumière Brothers scared audience unintentionally with their train film “The Arrival of a Train at La Ciotat”; Georges Méliès also brought magic to filmmaking through stop tricks. Like today’s niche film and independent film, they all seemed an alien in the cinematic family,

40 See Robert McKee, Story: Substance, Structure, Style and the Principles of Screenwriting, Translated by Zhou Tiedong, China Film Press, 2001, pp. 94–100.

52

F. XU

a revolutionary way to test whether the boundaries of film expressions could be pushed. That explains why independent film always inverts or breaks the classic playwriting structure. When it comes to the choice of subject matter, independent film tends to break the routine by adopting creative expressions and novel elements and interpreting its views of the world from different perspectives. Being off the beaten path, independent film is designed for a small market composed of viewers who want to further explore the world of films and who find themselves connected to the themes. Fortunately, film festivals and exhibitions as well as academic researchers are not going to miss the value of independent film. As independent film is increasingly recognized and accepted for its avant-garde and groundbreaking vision, the genre moves to the right side along the scale to “art film”. Art film is better received by the market, but not yet accepted by all—it is after all avant-garde and radical, though to a lesser extent than independent film, and tends to break away from existing playmaking conventions. Normally, art film plays are structured within a standard framework, with some experimental techniques like open endings and uncertain expressions. Aiming to capture wider audience, art film often uses clearer popular language to explain the cultural implications and thoughts beyond its artistry. Therefore, some of the theater chains, in addition to art houses, offer art film showing. However, art film has its unique palette of cinematic expressions and philosophies, which reduce its audience mostly to the elite class and other target groups. It is far less entertaining and consumer-oriented than the other two genres to the right, and focuses more on thoughts and feelings. Art film must be inspiring to provoke speculative thinking and feelings among the audience. As the market acceptance and structural integrity of the play are enhanced, the genre moves further to the right to “commercial film”, which represents the largest and most widely distributed film productions. The most noticeable about commercial film is that it is mass-produced, as if on a production line, because it conforms to a classic narrative structure and commits to popular values and expectations. The commercial genre is “repeated” to meet the consumption needs of the viewers and to yield a constant stream of economic benefits. Like an industrial product, the commercial film follows a rigid “three-act” structure with closed endings and a complete character arc to entertain the viewers. In addition, the commercial film helps the viewers to develop preferences and expectations for films. It could be argued that the commercial cinema and the

2

“GENRES” AND MAINSTREAM IDEOLOGICAL FILMS

53

audience educate each other to grow, and the commercial film has the broadest influence on the communication of popular culture. When the audience approaches films from the perspective of national identity, rather than personal interests, the genre reaches the far-right end of the scale—“main-melody film”. Main-melody film conforms to the basic playmaking conventions of commercial film, while manifesting the dominant ideology of the state. The film is widely accepted to reflect the power and will of the country. To serve this clear purpose, the mainmelody film shall come closest to a classic narrative structure than any other genres. It is not designed to challenge the playmaking conventions or pursue non-conformist artistic expressions; it is born to be the medium and mouthpiece of the national power. In addition, main-melody film is supported by the most standard industrial system of film producing, marketing and screening. The “Archplot”, “Miniplot” and “Anti-plot” as shown in Table 2.1 were proposed by McKee and are used here to show that different genres lean toward different storytelling structures and character settings. Archplot is the most classic design for playwriting. “Classical Design means a story built around an active protagonist who struggles against primarily external forces of antagonism to pursue his or her desire, through continuous time, within a consistent and causally connected fictional reality, to a closed ending of absolute. This collection of timeless principles is called the Archplot: Arch in the dictionary sense of ‘eminent above others of the same kind’”.41 The Miniplot represents minimalist variations to the closed structure of Archplot. “Minimalism means that the writer begins with the elements of Classical Design but then reduces them— shrinking or compressing, trimming or truncating the prominent features of the Archplot. I call this set of minimalist variations Miniplot. Miniplot does not mean no plot, for its story must be as beautifully executed as an Archplot”.42 Anti-plot is “the cinema counterpart to the antinovel or Nouveau Roman and Theatre of the Absurd. This set of antistructure variations doesn’t reduce the Classical but reverses it, contradicting traditional forms to exploit, perhaps ridicule the very idea of formal principles. The Anti-plot-maker is rarely interested in understatement or quiet austerity; rather, to make clear his ‘revolutionary’ ambitions, his films

41 Robert McKee, Story, p. 54. 42 Ibid.

54

F. XU

Table 2.1 Characteristics of four genres Independent film

Art film

Commercial film Main-melody film

Playwriting Distribution channel Audience

Anti-plot Independent release Small-scale, target audience

Miniplot Art houses

Archplot Commercial theater chains General public

Theme, content and function

To express the thoughts and feelings of the screenwriter

Some elites, target audience To connect artistic expressions with specific audience

Archplot Mainstream theater chains General public

To entertain the To educate audience the audience

tend toward extravagance and self-conscious overstatement”.43 McKee also summarizes the characteristics of these three narrative styles: An Archplot puts emphasis on “causality, closed ending, linear sequence, external conflict, single protagonist, consistent reality, and active protagonist”. A Miniplot, to the contrary, focuses on “opening ending, internal conflict, multiple protagonists and passive protagonist”. An Anti-plot stresses “coincidence, nonlinear time and inconsistent reality”.44 It can be derived from McKee’s words that a film that either inherits the classic drama narrative or tries to break the conventions shall be based on a plotted story. Both classic commercial film and pioneering art film or independent film must follow the principles within their own narrative frameworks. Based on the “spectral scale genre classification model”, the author will seek a more accurate definition of “Chinese main-melody commercial film” and analyze its genre characteristics, playwriting, symbolic image and cultural representation through classic case studies. The author will explore the film plays from ontological elements to cultural significance to understand the intent and effects of the plays, as well as the way classic cases express their aesthetic style, narrative intention, theme, content, values and aesthetic imagination, etc.

43 Ibid., p. 55. 44 Ibid., p. 53.

2

“GENRES” AND MAINSTREAM IDEOLOGICAL FILMS

55

Convergence of Main-Melody Film and Commercial Film Chinese cinema has been moving on a fast and prosperous track in the new century. The state has attached growing significance to culture development since the 19th CPC National Congress. “Culture is a country and nation’s soul. Our country will thrive only if our culture thrives, and our nation will be strong only if our culture is strong. Without full confidence in our culture, without a rich and prosperous culture, the Chinese nation will not be able to rejuvenate itself. We must develop a socialist culture with Chinese characteristics, inspire the cultural creativity of our whole nation, and develop a great socialist culture in China”.45 As the globalization process moves forward, the box-office crown went from “Red Cliff I” which recorded RMB 270 million worth of ticket sales in 2008 to “Wolf Warrior 2” which topped the 2017 chart by grossing more than 5.68 billion. Clearly, the film market has been expanding to satisfy growing audience demands for cinema as a cultural product. More importantly, the emergence of genre film points to the fact that China’s film industry has matured, growing from high-concept “blockbusters” to a refined set of genres, including action, history, biography, comedy, romance, suspense, etc. “Commercial film” and “main-melody film” have found their convergence in the new century. The convergence point falls somewhere in between “commercial film” and “main-melody film”, if shown on the spectral scale proposed by the author, and is termed “main-melody commercial film” with characteristics of both genres. The author has explained the ins and outs of “main-melody commercial film” which constitutes a unique Chinese genre and located it in the “spectral model”. Instead of a flat classification approach, the spectral model expresses genre elements as a multidimensional dynamic equilibrium. Therefore, “mainmelody commercial film” can be understood as seeking a balance among various elements, which allows more possible element combinations and more accurate genre labeling. Main-melody commercial film is a “genre hybrid”, i.e. a genre film that carry mainstream ideology. Usually, a genre hybrid represents an organic combination of drama, history, family, romance and other genres. The “A Story” is faithful to mainstream values

45 People.cn, Xi Jinping’s report at 19th CPC National Congress, October 28, 2017, http://cpc.people.com.cn/n1/2017/1028/c64094-29613660-9.html, accessed on April 12, 2019.

56

F. XU

and tells the story about a protagonist accomplishing a glorious mission under the guidance of the national ideology. The “B Story” or “C Story” also has a complete narrative structure and adds dimensions, such as humanity, emotion and humanistic care to the characters and plots of the “A Story”. Main-melody commercial film is a standard genre film and a genre hybrid formed based on an accurate understanding of all genre elements. Main-melody commercial film, as a unique Chinese genre, has come into being for its own reasons and has its own elements. Unlike Hollywood, Chinese genre film takes political significance and ideology as genre elements. Chinese film market is special, in that the entire process from film production to distribution is explicitly guided by the will of the state. In 2013, the State Administration of Press, Publication, Radio, Film and Television was founded to promote the development of the news, publishing, radio, film and television industries. On March 1, 2017, the “Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Promotion of the Film Industry” began to be implemented to promote the healthy and prosperous development of the film industry, promote core socialist values, regulate the film market and enrich the spiritual and cultural life of the people. On April 16, 2018, China Film Administration was established under the leadership of the Publicity Department of the CPC Central Committee to offer guidance for films to play a better role in promoting positive ideas and culture and entertaining the public. This marked an effort to regulate and promote the film industry at the state level. In 2018, China’s commercial film genres were generally finalized. Among them, the main-melody commercial film became a carrier of national ideology and, at the same time, a box-office success with strong social impacts. Main-melody commercial film encompasses two essential dimensions: “mainstream” and “commerciality”. “Mainstream” refers to the fact that its contents, themes, storylines and characters are intertwined with national ideology and mainstream cultural values. It helps to build positive energy, promote core socialist values and deliver a local cultural image with Chinese characteristics. Main-melody commercial film normally evolves around historical events or heroic figures to reflect how Chinese people see their own responsibility and identity at the national and world levels. “Commerciality” means the film is created, produced, marketed and released, all on a commercial track. The film is supported by a professional team that follows a standard procedure of project development,

2

“GENRES” AND MAINSTREAM IDEOLOGICAL FILMS

57

screenwriting, shooting, postproduction, marketing and releasing to guarantee reliable “product” quality without compromising the uniqueness and variability of artistic creativities. “Commerciality” can be viewed as a vehicle for effective and accurate communications of “mainstream” ideology to the broad audience. “Mainstream” and “commerciality” once seemed two paths that never crossed. Some main-melody films, such as “Between Life and Death” (2005) and “Decisive Engagement: The Liaoxi Shenyang Campaign” (1991), tried to avoid anything even remotely commercial. Likewise, commercial films tended not to settle on mainstream stories for their lack of commercial values. Individual stories or emerging middle-class family stories, on the other hand, gained much appreciation, such as the Chinese New Year comedy “The Dream Factory” (1997). However, as the film market matured, these two dimensions have found a reasonable and harmonious path to converge, as driven by supportive national policies, to form a cultural image with Chinese characteristics. “Main-melody commercial film” has become a unique, distinctly characteristic genre. It keeps on refining itself based on market feedbacks to foster a readiness to respond to the call of our times, and adapts its contents and forms to national development to improve genre precision. “Main-melody commercial film” is not born out of nowhere; it marks a milestone in the development of genre film. The local Chinese films have done well at both box office and in review in recent years, which justifies genre convergence. “Main-melody commercial film” arises, either by adding commerciality to main-melody film or by adding mainstream ideology to commercial film. In the former case, main-melody film is geared toward the global and national market by, for example, emphasizing the individual subjectivity of characters and adopting a star cast and internet publicity resources, so that classic playmaking techniques can breathe a sense of modernity. For example, by combining revolutionary or historical stories and characters with commercial elements (such as audience market research, star cast, selling points, novelties and popular media communication), we can make national ideology stories more entertaining and popular and drive them to the audience on a commercial vehicle. Successful cases in this sense include the trilogy— “The Founding of a Republic”, “Beginning of the Great Revival” and “The Founding of an Army”. The latter case refers to commercial film carrying mainstream ideology and values of the nation. Created and marketed through a commercial process, the film delivers lofty ideas in

58

F. XU

a down-to-earth and easy-to-communicate way. The messages that represent the national ideology, such as the image of Chinese soldiers, overseas actions, the international status and responsibility of the Chinese people and the close bonds between personal interests and the future of the nation, are put into the commercial envelope that comes with an action or military genre, heroic stories, classic dramas, international production teams, etc. Successful cases include “Operation Mekong”, “Wolf Warrior 2” and “Operation Red Sea”. These are the two paths to genre convergence for main-melody commercial film in mainland China. With guaranteed box-office earnings, favorable film programming policies and a considerable number of moviegoers, main-melody commercial film holds huge cultural significance for the society and conveys China’s mainstream ideology and values. In the prologue, the author has outlined the general principles of main-melody commercial film, in terms of themes, contents, storylines, character building, star cast, ritualization and so on. Having analyzed the nature of genre and path to convergence for main-melody commercial film, this book will further explore the sub-genres and mainstream ideology of such film. The author also identifies three well-developed subgenres—action film, historical film and biopic film—which represent three mainstream values in the new century: the legitimacy of reality, legitimacy of the state and legitimacy of personal morality. The sub-genre of action, represented by “Operation Mekong”, “Wolf Warrior 2” and “Operation Red Sea”, inscribes mainstream ideology into the action genre for “the legitimacy of reality”. This sub-genre tells heroic rescue stories to demonstrate the “hard power” of the state in protecting people’s lives and properties as well as the “soft power” in offering humanitarian assistance to individuals. These films are normally about heroic protagonists accomplishing overseas missions, such as the Golden Triangle anti-drug campaigns in “Operation Mekong” and the evacuation of overseas Chinese from the conflicted areas in “Wolf Warrior 2”. The protagonist uses his heroic spirit to affect the others. The audience feels not only the real empathy for the hero’s great love, strength and bravery as an individual, but also the strength and stance of China as a country. The power of China has given the heroic protagonist enough confidence and ability to assist and protect Chinese nationals and international friends. China’s mainstream values have also been recognized and promoted in this process.

2

“GENRES” AND MAINSTREAM IDEOLOGICAL FILMS

59

The sub-genre of historical film, represented by the trilogy “The Founding of a Republic”, “Beginning of the Great Revival” and “The Founding of an Army”, aims to adapt historical main-melody film to commercial operations to demonstrate the “legitimacy of the state”. This sub-genre adds a new narrative perspective to historical epics in the context of the new era. The trilogy expounds and proves the legitimacy of the state from the perspective of the legitimacy of the CPPCC, the legitimacy of the political party and the legitimacy of the military forces. “The Founding of a Republic” takes the convening of the CPPCC as a starting point, explaining that the CPC inevitably won the support from all social strata and political parties on the road to building a country and the will of the people shall always constitute the foundation of legitimacy. “Beginning of the Great Revival” explores the question about which political party could save China, and details the history where the patriots made unremitting efforts in the movement of enlightenment and national salvation and finally held the first CPC National Congress. “The Founding of an Army” recalls the arduous journey of the CPC from the Nanchang uprising to finally building the people’s armed forces, and explains the significance for the CPC to have its own armed forces. The sub-genre of biopics, represented by drama films such as “Yang Shanzhou” (2011), “Hsue-shen Tsien” (2012) and “Li Xuesheng” (2018), brings commercial vitality to biopics and argues the “legitimacy of personal morality”. In a gentle and artistic way, the sub-genre showcases the spiritual quality of the protagonists through refined and cinematic expression of real events to set a moral benchmark for the public and justify mainstream morals as they are recognized by the audience. “Yang Shanzhou” tells the story of Yang Shanzhou who was devoted to the cause of afforestation. The film depicts a flesh-and-blood individual torn between career and family care, beliefs and emotions. The dramatic tension gives more depth to the moral greatness of the protagonist: smart and witty, humorous and modest, loyal to his career and apologetic for his family. The loving scenes at the end of the film exhibit the moral characters of the protagonist and have a profound impact on the audience. “Li Xuesheng” tells not only the heroic death of the protagonist, but also some details of his daily life to show that he lived up to his motto “good faith”. It is noteworthy that the sub-genre does not establish a lofty, noble, perfect and moralistic character; instead, it digs into the daily life of a “decent man” through genre-based stories to profoundly

60

F. XU

influence the audience and promote mainstream values and humanistic care. These three sub-genres reflect mainstream ideology and themes in genre film. The author will conduct case studies of these sub-genres in the following chapters to understand their respective characteristics and cultural significance.

CHAPTER 3

Aesthetic Construction of Genre Narration

Evolution of Aesthetics in Film Narration Modernism and the Classical Tradition In his book Poetics, Aristotle came up with the notion of “plot constructed on dramatic principles”, defining it as “having a beginning, a middle, and an end”.1 Based on the idea developed a number of dramatic theories in Europe, including George Pierce Baker’s Dramatic Technique and William Archer’s Play-Making: A Manual of Craftsmanship. These theoretical frameworks and concepts were then adapted, summarized and fleshed out in Hollywood for film narration, and that was how the classic Hollywood screenwriting theory came into being. The most typical and widely recognized handbooks based on the theory are Robert McKee’s Story and Blake Snyder’s Save the Cat. Such theoretical continuity from Poetics to drama and then to film means that the film’s backbone is no other than its story. Creators of main-melody commercial films need to tell a complete story to communicate intentions, aesthetic ideas, ideologies, values and feelings, and the audience also expect a story that takes them through a complete emotional journey. The classic screenplay structure as we call it today is, in a broad sense, a set of established conventions distilled from practice and widely used in Hollywood commercial films. Generally regarded as profit-oriented, these 1 See Aristotle, Poetics, Translated by Chen Zhongmei, The Commercial Press, 1996, Chapters 7 and 23.

© Peking University Press 2022 F. Xu, Transformation of Contemporary Film Genre, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6860-0_3

61

62

F. XU

films have the ultimate goal of commercial success, but not necessarily at the cost of artistry. The truth is, a well-crafted commercial film usually follows the basic screenplay framework, if not sticking fast to the complete set of screenwriting rules. Central to the narrative aesthetics of commercial films is the closed narrative structure. Filmmaking was born in France, but it was in Hollywood that the cinema developed into an industry of mass entertainment. At the beginning of the twentieth century, the sunny coastal land of Hollywood in Los Angeles, California attracted a group of filmmakers who, after years of exploring, turned the place into the capital of the film industry. After World War I, the demand for cultural products increased. Great filmmakers from around the world, especially Europe, moved to Hollywood and assimilated into the melting pot of American culture. They produced popular films that told American stories, developing cinematic artistry into an integral part of Hollywood’s industrial production system. With the inflow of Wall Street capital, Hollywood studio system gradually took shape. Since the beginning of the 1990s, globalization has accelerated, and Hollywood films that carry the mainstream American ideology have been exported worldwide and quickly acquired global dominance in the film industry. These commercial films have come from what is criticized in the Frankfurt School’s Cultural Industry Theory as commercialized and standardized production, but such a production model does not diminish their impact as a form of mass culture, conducive to maintaining social stratification in a capitalist society. Consumed as cultural products, commercial films have not only responded effectively to the need of the working class for entertainment in leisure time, but also spread the mainstream values of capitalism subtly to the audience. They have a fixed pattern of closed narrative structure, described by Bordwell as follows: “All art forms have certain structural templates. Although screenplay conventions aren’t as stringent as the rules governing the Petrarchan sonnet and the twelve-bar blues, the manuals’ advice points to fairly firm standards of plot construction and characterization. A film’s main characters, all agree, should pursue important goals and face forbidding obstacles. Conflict should be constant, across the whole film and within each scene. Actions should be bound into a tight chain of cause and effect. Major events should be foreshadowed (‘planted’), but not so obviously

3

AESTHETIC CONSTRUCTION OF GENRE NARRATION

63

that the viewer can predict them. Tension should rise in the course of the film until a climax resolves all the issues”.2 The classical Hollywood narration typically involves a motivated protagonist who works toward a defined goal and finally fulfills it. Only when all the character arcs and plots are complete, will the audience leave satisfied with the storyworld and comfortable with their own life. Such aesthetic imaginations are reinforced repeatedly through decades-long efforts to build film-viewing habits and manipulate audience expectations, and this is how commercial films manage to put mainstream capitalist values up on the screen. Drawing on the classic three-act structure and principles from Gestalt psychology, the well-established classical narration focuses on a narrative logic where the protagonist eventually reaches the “bright yonder”. Such an ending is “inevitable”, given the story’s historical context and the characters’ personalities and reasonable efforts. It echoes both the capitalist idea of self-pursuit and the trend of the era. The first act in the classical screenplay is where the story begins. In this act, an inciting incident disrupts the balance of the world, and the protagonist has to deal with it to restore the balance or create a new balance. The second act depicts the protagonist’s attempt to overcome obstacles and reach his/her goal. It is in this act that the characters develop. In the third and final act, the protagonist tackles the last challenge and achieves victory, bringing a powerful close to the story. Responsible for completing the main task, the strong-willed protagonist strives continually toward the goal, driving the story forward. The ideal protagonist is not a perfect person, but rather a three-dimensional character with both positive and negative traits. These traits lead to inner struggles in the face of tough choices and make the character more real and true to human nature. They are what the audience want to see and what affect their minds and emotions. This is how the basic narrative aesthetics works— exploring human nature and creating dramatic conflicts to play into the audience’s expectations and comfort them, to spread values and finally, to construct a cultural and aesthetic imagination. With impeccable logic and well-conceived screenplay structure, a commercial film allows the audience to identify with the characters and their motivations, and empathize with their desires as the story goes on. When the film ends up with the protagonist achieving the desired goal, 2 David Bordwell, The Way the Hollywood Tells It: Story and Style in Modern Movies, Translated by Xie Bingbing, World Publishing Corporation, 2018, p. 13.

64

F. XU

the audience, regarding the protagonist’s success as one of their own, leave the cinema contentedly. For this reason, tight and logical narrative connections in a screenplay are essential for cinematic arts to be produced at scale as cultural products for mass entertainment. This established art of narration has given rise to countless commercial films topping the box office or becoming cultural phenomena. Apart from commercial films, classical narrative aesthetics is also found in art films and indie films, typically with a twist of modern rationality and self-transcendence. This is called “anti-classical narrative”, also known as “anti-plot” or “mini-plot” in screenplay. Both Robert McKee’s Story and Blake Snyder’s Save the Cat series stand for the classical Hollywood narration structured with three acts, which is what most commercial films with classical screenplays need to adhere to. Art films and indie films, however, usually feature open-ended stories and anti-plot designs. Some films fall into the category of the avant-garde exactly because they buck the classical structure rules. Nevertheless, integrating dramatic theories of over two thousand years and cinematic language developed in the last century, the classical Hollywood narrative structure has evolved into an established screenwriting theory for 90 to 120-minute feature films presented on big screens to mass culture consumers. The theory further shows its inclusiveness and eclecticism by incorporating open-ended and anti-logic narrative rules under the influence of modernism. With such techniques for art and anti-plot films included, the theory has become the screenplay benchmark of commercial films worldwide—and legitimately so. Chinese Cinema: The “Dramatic” Art Throughout the Chinese film history, theorists and practitioners have been exploring the art of narration. A closer look at their efforts reveals that screenwriting in China has evolved from relying heavily on literary and dramatic theories to standing out as a theory in its own right, during which the film underwent its separation from other art forms and a normative system of screenwriting was established. The early Chinese film theories put screenwriting under the framework of playwriting. It was not until the end of World War I when the film industry and studies further developed that screenwriting began to set itself apart as an independent theory. Published in Shanghai in 1924, Xu Zhuodai’s Film Study marked the first book on film studies in China. After comparing the film with drama, it concluded that the

3

AESTHETIC CONSTRUCTION OF GENRE NARRATION

65

film should be independent of drama as an art form. In his Movie Script Writing, Hou Yao proposed that the screenplay was the foundation of filmmaking. He drew a parallel between dramatic theories and the film theory by extensively applying dramatic concepts and elements to the latter, but he did not separate the film from drama: “as a kind of drama, film has all the values that drama has. It has the functions of expressing, criticizing, reconciling, and glorifying, with an impact greater than any other kinds of drama”.3 Under the influence of Western film theories, in China the film was considered part of drama, making the screenwriting theory inseparable from drama. As Li Suyuan put it, “this is a film theory centered on drama… First, the theory argues that historically drama and film are related… Second, it proves that structurally they have the same artistic composition… Third, it highlights that socially they play the same role”.4 After China entered the War of Resistance Against Japanese Aggression in the 1930s, intensified social tensions, conflicts of old and new thinking and social changes catalyzed the revolutionary development of Chinese film and its theory. The emergence of sound films introduced a new potential in cinematic language and expression, as sound technology opened up another dimension, making the audiovisual language that combined sound with image readily available at the disposal of filmmakers. The advent of the New Film Movement, a leftist cinematic movement in the 1930s, elevated the film’s social influence to the ideological level. The development of film industry prepares the ground for ideologically charged narration. Xia Yan observed that film was as commercial as artistic, designed to meet the aesthetic demand of the modern audience. He maintained that the film was an independent art, not a subcategory of drama. In his Methods for Writing Film and Theater Scripts, an unprecedentedly comprehensive and systematic screenplay study, Hong Shen emphasized the story’s ideological function and the writer’s social responsibility. He also advocated cinematic language for screenplays, encouraging writers to script visually and think like film editors, which turned out both insightful and sophisticated. The post-war era saw tremendous historical changes in China. As people pondered over the war and history, they turned increasingly to culture and arts in search

3 Hou Yao, Movie Script Writing, The Oriental Press, 2018, p. 5. 4 Li Suyuan, A History of Modern Chinese Film Theory, Culture and Art Publishing

House, 2005, pp. 23–25.

66

F. XU

for meaning in life and spiritual guidance. Out of this need, Chinese films assumed a greater social role and entered a new stage, with traditional Chinese culture and national issues reflected in their stories, themes and expressions. In the years between the founding of the PRC and the end of Cultural Revolution, Chinese films were shaped largely by national discourse and political context. They focused on grand historical narration and lofty national dreams, with national ideology at the core of film production and distribution. Their stories usually portrayed heroes and glorified their growth, calling for the audience to relate their patriotic feelings to the destiny of the country. After China’s adoption of the reform and opening-up policies in the 1970s, increased global interactions brought about the fusion of Chinese and Western thinking. Chinese cinema ushered in a new era, with genre films on the rise. The opening of the Chinese film market gave the fourthgeneration directors opportunities to express their ethno-national identity and the zeitgeist of civic nationalism. During this period, the narrative focus went back from ideological to traditional aesthetic values. In his 1979 article Throwing away the Crutches of Drama, Bai Jingcheng distinguished films’ dramatic conflicts from drama, contending that film, as a special art form, is more expressive in terms of time and space, and that despite its close affinity with drama, the film should embrace more comprehensive approaches beyond the rules of drama. Zhong Dianfei suggested “a divorce between film and drama”, so that the film could be independent of drama and have its own aesthetics, but he was not against “drama-films”. Cinematic expressions that were poetic, prose-like or picturesque had a huge impact on the fifth-generation Chinese directors. They demonstrated their understanding of historical reconstruction and prioritized the role of images and imagery in filmmaking as never before. In their films, expressing primitive impulses and deep national feelings was prioritized over dramatic structures. Since the beginning of the twenty-first century, screenwriting in China has taken on a new form in response to the development of genre films. After thorough preparation for closer cross-border cooperation in the 1990s, China joined WTO in 2001 and started to internalize the impacts of globalization. During this period, China’s film industry has undergone revolutionary changes. With access to the latest movements and currents in thought around the world, Chinese filmmakers have incorporated into their artistic creation Western theories, including not only

3

AESTHETIC CONSTRUCTION OF GENRE NARRATION

67

such literature and art theories as Sartre’s existentialism, but also classical Hollywood film theories. For example, translated into Chinese in the early 2000s, Robert McKee’s Story: Style, Structure, Substance, and the Principles of Screenwriting has enjoyed a wide readership in cinema and film schools and across the Chinese filmmaking community. In recent years, Robert has frequently left the School of Cinema-Television at the University of Southern California—where he serves as a professor—to teach his storytelling principles all around the world, and in China he has found a particularly eager audience. Chinese filmmakers absorb the merits of his theory and experiment with the classical Hollywood screenplay conventions in Chinese commercial films, leading to financial and reputational success in certain genres. They have even explored ways of using the classical screenplay structure to express the Chinese culture and the anxiety of middle-class Chinese in the era of globalization. For example, starring and directed by Xu Zheng, the 2015 comedy “Lost in Hong Kong” addresses how the middle-class Chinese feel anxious about being ordinary and yearn for fortune, and how they finally arrive at self-acceptance after quite an inner journey. “Wolf Warrior 2”, an action film with Wu Jing as the director and leading actor, also manages to explore Chinese nationality and present the humanity from the perspective of Chinese culture, notably through a closed-ended three-act structure. Increasingly important to Chinese films are dramatic storytelling and the aesthetics of genre narration. Wang Liu highlights the narration and visual aspects of screenwriting, noting that the fifth-generation directors have realized the importance of narration, especially of portraying real feelings between people. To prove this argument, he cites Tian Zhuangzhuang and Zhang Yimou. The former said in an interview with Hong Kong’s Ta Kung Pao in 1991, “one major reason for the limited number of sold copies is that the film is made too subjective and conceptual, while the conceptual part could have been easily conveyed in a more acceptable form. After all, it is the various characters and their real feelings towards one another that the audience are most able to identify with”.5 Zhang Yimou put it more clearly and straightforward: “our previous focus was on things like images and colors, rendering characters no more than symbols. In ‘Ju Dou’, I tried to give more spotlight

5 Wang Liu, Screenwriting: Pedagogy, Craft and Theory, China Film Press, 2004, p. 21.

68

F. XU

to the characters and their life, but that was far from enough. The fifthgeneration Chinese directors tend to pursue something philosophical or conceptual… I am no exception. In the eyes of the audience, however, we are trying too hard and losing elasticity. As a result, the portrayal of characters is compromised. We are criticized—sometimes harshly—for it, but that is understandable. An article I read contends that we fifth-generation directors give little regard to narration, which is indeed our problem. The story and characters should always come first. It finally dawns on me that making films is about telling stories of people, and that characters should always be put at the core of films, occupying the foreground. I might continue to make the kind of films that I used to make, but I will try to do it better”.6 Breaking free from drama does not mean that films should forgo dramatic storytelling approaches altogether. In fact, commercial genre films place more emphasis on “cinematic narration”, or narration based on the artistry of film. For this reason, the author puts forward “genre screenwriting” as the central thesis of this book, to underline the narrative aesthetics of cinematic arts. Genre screenwriting refers to a system of screenwriting principles based on the classical Hollywood screenplay theory. It affirms the rising trend of genre films in China and marks the development of a screenwriting normative system. As Li Xun points out, “Hollywood genre films offer a proven template—a narrative structure of ‘calmness-chaos-calmness’. Distilled from countless myths, fairy tales and folklore, this structure has contributed to Hollywood’s dominance in the international film market. From it evolves many variants, including ‘peace-war-peace’ and ‘rapport-conflict-rapport’”.7 This formula is widely used in Chinese commercial films, where the genre is accurately defined and genre-typical elements are seamlessly crafted into the narration, as is the case with “Operation Red Sea”. In other words, Chinese films are adapting and adopting the classical screenplay principles in both theory and practice. It should be noted that “genre screenwriting” refers to genre-typical storytelling, an aesthetic approach of constructing a story in language exclusive to cinematic arts, which is by no means a return to drama.

6 Wang Liu, Screenwriting: Pedagogy, Craft and Theory, p. 21. 7 Li Xun, Revisiting the Concept of Film: The Craft, Business and Management of Genre

Films, p. 62.

3

AESTHETIC CONSTRUCTION OF GENRE NARRATION

69

On the contrary, the well-developed film genre system makes the film ontology’s attributes all the more prominent in every aspect, especially in its similarities with other closely related art categories. In his comparative study of drama and the film, Chen Yu asserts films’ borrowing from drama. “Being dramatic means that actions in the narrative are coherent and complete, consisting of incidents that are correlated organically—the whole narrative conforms to Aristotle’s definition of tragedy in Poetics ”.8 The widely recognized “dramatic” part of a film is reflected in film narration, whereas the story as a whole has a broader meaning, with an emphasis on affecting the audience through the display of conflicts or changes. As Tan Peisheng notes, “the dramatic part is necessary for a film—it shapes the film along with other elements of cinematic language (like sounds and images)”.9 The author concurs with the film’s inheritance of “storytelling” concepts from literature and drama, but argues that as an independent art form, the film deserves to have a language of its own. (Using the cinematic language, a film communicates dramatically to the audience, just like a painting or a piece of music does.) Broadly speaking, the film influences the audience both emotionally and ideologically through the dramatic part produced by its artistic language. In conclusion, a screenplay is a complete set of aesthetic imagination that not only depicts what happens in a film, but also dictates in cinematic language the design for the final production, and that is what the next section deals with—the artistic attributes of film narration.

The Art of Cinematic Narration Cinematic Thinking in Narration Writing a screenplay is about presenting on page what the film is created for, delivering a result that is artistic. The process goes far beyond writing, in that writers have to think not only literarily, but also cinematically. Central to screenwriting principles is the aesthetics of constructing the narration cinematically, which means that writers can draw on the artistry of literature, fine arts, drama, music, etc., but in the end, they have to

8 Chen Yu, A Comparative Study of Drama and Movie Ontology, China Film Press, 2016, p. 108. 9 Tan Peisheng, The Basics of Film Aesthetics, Jiangsu People’s Publishing House, 1984, p. 58.

70

F. XU

return to the artistry of film itself. Genre screenwriting mentioned in this book mainly addresses the art of storytelling—not simply writing the scenes, but telling a story in images and sounds, within the framework of cinematic time and space. The aesthetics of film narration is best embodied in what can be called “cinematic” thinking. Tan Peisheng maintains that images are part of the thinking, a perspective the author agrees with. “As the foundation of cinematic language, images are the most basic cinematic element, intrinsic to the way film artists (including directors, photographers, and writers) are supposed to approach films, which is a mode of thinking usually described as the logic of ‘images’ or ‘visuals’, or ‘the awareness of the screen’. To make sure that screenplays serve directors and photographers well, writers should understand how images work in the film and acquire a keen ‘awareness of the screen’ by thinking and writing in compliance with the logic of ‘images or ‘visuals’”.10 He also argues that “sounds, natural and unnatural, have made their way into films as an element of cinematic arts, supporting the visuals”.11 Sounds affect how the audience feel: spooky sound effects give the audience a jump scare; scores tap into the emotions a film is trying to convey. The contemporary cinematic thinking has perfected sound designs (including dialogues, sound effects and scores) into an effective storytelling device, making sounds a temporal and spatial medium as important as images. Collectively, the two elements form the audiovisual thinking that should be incorporated into screenplays at the very beginning. In the opening chapters of Screenwriting Studies, Wang Liu distinguishes film scripts from novels and stage scripts, emphasizing that the film is an art form that combines “visual presentation with narration”, “images with sounds” and “time with space”.12 “Scripting visually is known as ‘incorporating the camera into screenplay’ in Western theories. It requires writers to always keep the camera in mind and describe scenes through its lens. Some might regard this as writers’ attempt to overstep their authority and take over some of the director’s responsibilities. However, many established film studies actually propose that writers

10 Tan Peisheng, The Basics of Film Aesthetics, p. 19. 11 Ibid., p. 20. 12 See Wang Liu, Screenwriting Studies (Revised Edition), Communication University of China Press, 2009.

3

AESTHETIC CONSTRUCTION OF GENRE NARRATION

71

should ‘develop the habit of visualizing how everything plays out on the screen’. How could it be possible without seeing through the ‘eye’ of camera? … Nevertheless, this does not mean that writers have to fill screenplays with such camera movement jargons as ‘closeup’, ‘wide shot’, ‘zoom in/out’, ‘dolly’, and ‘pan’. Camera messages should be specifically and perceptibly communicated in scripts, in an artistic rather than technical manner, from the perspective of an artist”.13 This demonstrates that the screenplay not only plays the functional role of guiding the making of a film, but also reveals the narrative aesthetics of cinematic arts by depicting what is eventually presented on screen. Some might argue: isn’t it the director’s job to bring a film to life? How could the writer direct the camera when it is in the hands of the photographer? Is it remotely possible that the cast perform exactly as the writer instructs? Screenplays do not direct a film, to be sure; rather, they guide the creation of a film by serving as a common ground for the creative efforts of various filmmaking departments. It should be noted that first, filmmaking involves a clear division of labor, with responsibilities well-defined for team members including writers, directors, actors and directors of photography. Specifically, the writer and the director assume very different professional roles in film production: the former writes the script, while the latter oversees mise-en-scène, performance, camera techniques, sound designs and editing plans. Second, filmmaking requires open communication. During pre-production, the director and the writer are supposed to have intense communication. Even when the writer is absent from the set—not all TV shows and films need their writers on set (with the exception of the American sitcom “Friends”)—he or she can still make all the intentions known through the script. For example, the writer can indicate a character’s mood by specifying certain settings and techniques. For this reason, communication herein refers more to the effective delivery and accurate understanding among different filmmaking departments of a unified jargon-based meaning system (normative system) in the screenplay. Third, filmmaking is a collaborative process where, under the normative system, every department contributes its artistic efforts that will be incorporated systematically into a cohesive design.

13 Wang Liu, Screenwriting Studies (Revised Edition), pp. 8–9.

72

F. XU

Here is how the writer and the director interact with each other: the writer creates the script with cinematic thinking and leaves it to the analysis of the director, who then reprocesses it to fulfill its creative potential. Consider the stage direction “take a step forward”, which the writer may insert between two lines of a character, usually enclosed in parentheses. What the writer wants to say through this dramatic action is that the character is “using a threatening body language”. It forms a dramatic beat—a concept to be elaborated later—that the director needs to interpret from the page and decides how to present. The director either employs the physical movement as he or she sees fit in the scene, or crosses out “take a step forward” from the script and uses other mediums to achieve the same result, such as camera angles, lighting, props and sounds. So long as their collaboration is productive, based on the shared understanding that the physical movement is designed to express the dramatic beat of “threatening body language”, no one would blame the writer for directing the director, or the director for not respecting the writer’s efforts—and that is how the collaboration works. Screenplays have such an important role in the division of labor and cross-function communication and cooperation that it is essential for those working on the film to understand the basic screenwriting principles. Not that everyone has to learn to write, but they need to know that all the artistic elements in the film are designed to serve the story and its characters. “No artistic creation process can be divided into completely separate stages. The writer should incorporate various cinematic elements into the screenplay, setting the stage for the director to wield his or her creativity. Expressive devices that the director can choose from depend much on the screen images illustrated by the writer. If some of the expressive elements are missing from the writer’s toolkit, the images he presents might be bafflingly vague. And if the director cannot see the images clear, his creativity might fall on barren ground”.14 Because of its conformity to the normative system of genre films, genre screenwriting follows the principles of film aesthetics. It involves a themed story crafted through visual thinking and narrated in a multidimensional way using images and sounds. Sounds and images are the building elements for multiple aspects of narration, ranging from narrative structure and characterization, to the design for the dramatic part. In

14 Wang Liu, Screenwriting Studies (Revised Edition), 12.

3

AESTHETIC CONSTRUCTION OF GENRE NARRATION

73

conclusion, from the perspective of film narrative aesthetics, screenwriting is the practice of writing scripts with cinematic thinking. The Vehicle for Cinematic Narration As mentioned earlier, essential to film narration is the cinematic audiovisual thinking. The significance of screenplays underpinned by such thinking lies in their role as conceptual designs for artistic creation, rather than their literary value to the audience. There are always exceptions, however. Scripts by Hou Hsiao-hsien and his long-term screenplay collaborator Chu Tien-wen can be prose-like, poetic or novelistic. The writing styles serve them well because as a writer-director, Hou Hsiao-hsien is able to render his poetic screenplay cinematically into sounds and images based on the normative system of his own writing. This is not possible for the industrialized production of genre films that runs on linear sequencing of operations by highly specialized departments, which is why screenplays should be written in accordance with a unified and standardized procedure. Genre screenwriting has become the unified norm of genre films throughout their development in China. It goes beyond writing a story by incorporating into screenplays artistic designs for all the involving departments. Here is how it works: A screenplay is the structural foundation of narration. Written in a unified professional language under the normative system, it functions as an operating “manual” for all the filmmaking departments. A screenplay is like a building design: the drawing itself is not an “artwork”, but a “sketch” for a building that the architect wants to show and the audience expect to see. Therefore, the author would like to put it this way: a screenplay is the literary blueprint of a film, based on which all the film artists and technicians are orchestrated to complete the picture. It is a collection of instructions for tasks to be performed by each filmmaking department. A screenplay is the incarnation of cinematic thinking. It is more functional than literary or textual. Screenplays are readable, admittedly, but unlike poems and novels whose literature value come from narration and the arranging of paragraphs, screenplays are crafted and formatted for film production, with each new shot or action beat presented on a new line. The existence of a camera is hardly felt in stage scripts, let alone novels, whereas screenplays contain such cinematic thinking that even

74

F. XU

without explicit camera and composition information, filmmaking professionals are still able to read shots off the lines, along with other cinematic elements like images, sound, performance and mise-en-scène. The essence of a screenplay lies in its implications for the “operation process”, a process of defining how artistic elements are finally presented on screen. Scene headings, descriptions, dialogues and other information are formatted instructively for the convenience of film production. For example, a screenplay should leave enough blank space for a script supervisor to note down the director’s design and the content of each take, so that after reading through the notes, the editor knows exactly what has been shot. (Script supervisors are one example of how sophisticated the division of labor is in Hollywood. In China, film production teams do not have designated script supervisors; the closest role they have is the clapper loader, who keeps far less detailed shot notes than a Hollywood script supervisor does.) In conclusion, a screenplay is not a final artwork, but an operational guide. Approaching a screenplay literally as if it were a novel risks missing out other artistic functions it serves. In fact, screenplays have multiple cinematic and artistic functions that collectively form the narrative aesthetics of genre films: 1. Storytelling through narration and characters. Narration aesthetics is central to the artistic presentation of genre films. It is through characters and stories that films influence the audience’s minds and moods. A screenplay renders on page a story’s “action system”—one of the many screenwriting concepts to be explored later—without indicating how the audience is supposed to respond. It is broken down into scenes, each marked with a heading that specifies when (day or night) and where (interior or exterior space) the scene takes place, allowing the production team to make preparation scene by scene. Regardless of its breakdown form, the director is still able to identify the underlying three-act structure and to read between lines for acts, sequences, scenes and beats, as well as the story’s theme, core and character arcs. A scene contains a series of small actions the characters need to take to achieve a goal, and the smallest unit of action is a beat. Each new beat, description or dialogue is usually presented on a new paragraph, making it easy for the director and actors to analyze characters’ actions and take notes for performance. Such visual separation is mandatory for dialogues and descriptions, but not for beats or other small elements. Nevertheless, clear-headed writers format skillfully to show their intentions.

3

AESTHETIC CONSTRUCTION OF GENRE NARRATION

75

2. Visual presentation, also known as visual thinking, including such elements as composition, camera movement, shot size and lighting. The film, or motion picture, is a form of visual art highly dependent on the dynamic spatial construction and transition. This requires the screenplay to steer away from excessive dialogues and present a story mainly through visually narrative “images”, which are the creative result of cooperation between the camera, lighting and art departments. In his screenwriting theory, McKee emphasizes the principle of “show, don’t tell”, suggesting showing sensory details instead of making statements. Failure to express through visual images is characteristic of many clichéridden, unsuccessful genre films. The audiovisual thinking is also the largest challenge for aspiring writers, as they have to refrain from writing overwhelmingly about what characters say or think (monologues). Monologues and descriptions of mood changes play well in novels to express subtle emotions and thoughts, but they are simply out of the question in films and have to be translated into more concrete cinematic elements. In the standard script format, especially for Hollywood screenplays, a paragraph usually represents a shot. A typical example is the shot/reverse shot used widely for dialogue scenes, where lines of the conversing characters are formatted as separate paragraphs and made into different shots. The format is not mandatory, but it helps the writer to think visually, and the director and the director of photography to analyze a screenplay for storyboard and bird’s-eye view. Here is an example of how a story unfolds in script form: Fade in In the dark, one hand strikes a match with a scraping sound, lights a cigarette, and places it between the lips, through which the tobacco smoke is inhaled deeply and quickly and then exhaled slowly.

This description implies the shot size (close-up) and camera movement (from the match to the hand and then to lips), as well as lighting and color design. 3. Color. Color is a part of the image. The author sets it apart here to stress the importance of color as a cinematic language. In the early days of film when color was simply not an option, filmmakers had to use light and shadow to create images in different tones of gray, ranging from white to black. Even after the significant transition from black-and-white to color, they were still not able to use color consciously as a device to

76

F. XU

tell stories and convey feelings. It was not until Antonioni’s masterful use of color in the film “Red Desert” (1964) that color was officially recognized as an element contributing to the artistry of film—just as how sound has become an artistic element of narration since the advent of sound films. Taking color into consideration when crafting a script augments the potential expressiveness of the film’s content. For example, color symbolism is used to convey subliminal messages and color contrasts help to create visual and psychological impacts on the audience. This is not to say, however, that writers have to specify color designs scene by scene; rather, they should incorporate color into visual thinking and use it skillfully for storytelling. For example, by depicting a scene that includes both a bamboo forest and blood, the screenplay matches green (or cyan, to be more specific) and red, two opposing colors, for strong visual impact and artistic expressiveness, providing huge potential for the director, camera, lighting, art and color correction departments to make creative decisions. 4. Sound. Sound is an important form of expression in cinematic art, including dialogue, background sound, sound effects, scoring and voiceover narration. The aesthetics of film narration requires that sound should be scripted as a storytelling device, similar to the way the visual is used. It is worth mentioning that, just as pause with no action is paradoxically considered an action in drama, the absence of sound is as much an expressive tool as the presence of it. The American film “No Country for Old Men” (2007) sharpens silence and subtle sounds to bring a note of danger toward the killer and build suspense, contributing to the film’s dramatic motives and emotional impacts. Another example of writing audially is the opening sequence in the first draft script of “The Founding of a Republic”, where the sounds of matchstick lighting and cigarette burning are designed to “show” the story. (The cigarette burning sound is too nuanced to get full attention in both real and cinematic worlds, but it is still widely used in films for acoustic subtlety. The audience can feel such subtlety, though they can rarely identify the sound source—neither do they have to.) 5. Mise-en-scène. Guiding cast members on set is the director’s job. What a writer can do is to specify stage directions that allow the director and actors to set the scene. Consider the following stage direction for a breakup scene:

3

AESTHETIC CONSTRUCTION OF GENRE NARRATION

77

INT. LIVING ROOM – DAY A and B sit side by side on the sofa.

Such stage direction leaves little room for scene settings, which happens when a writer lacks the audiovisual thinking, unable to use images and sound effectively to tell the story. The result is a dialogue-heavy screenplay that relies much on conversations to move the narrative forward, compromising the artistry of expression. Now take the revision below: INT. STUDY ROOM – NIGHT A is arranging books from a precarious ladder. B barges in. A gets a scare. The books in A’s hands fall all over the floor.

The revised stage direction opens up the opportunity to use a variety of visual and audio elements—such as the height difference between the two characters, their body language of delivering books, the character’s aversion to dim light and the clock’s tick-tock in the dark—to set the scene and communicate layers of meaning. To sum up, when dealing with mise-en-scène, the writer only needs to specify the scene’s location and characters’ actions, leaving the rest of cat-and-mouse game design to the director and actors, and then to editors and the sound department during post-production. However, it goes undeniable that all these cinematic designs start from the writer’s work, and that is why a screenplay is acknowledged as “the basis for a film production”. 6. Editing. Editing in screenplays refers more to an artistic thinking than a requirement for writers to give editing instructions. The montage filmmakers highlight the powerful role that editing plays in shaping the meaning of a film. The classic screenwriting practice manages to create dramatic effects through the extensive use of editing while preserving narrative continuity, generously delivering an artistic impact almost exclusive to film and television. As mentioned previously in the visual presentation part, a paragraph in a screenplay usually represents a shot, and the transition and connection between shots are where the editing thinking shines out, exemplified by the use of shot/reverse shot for dialogues. This principle applies to both intra—and inter-scene transitions. Here is an example of how a scene transits to another:

78

F. XU

… A Who stole the candy? CUT TO EXT. STREET – DAY B is walking with a smile. …

The “CUT TO” can be omitted, but by specifying it, the writer highlights that this edit is used to create a logical connection, preventing the director or editors from adding extra information in between. B is not necessarily eating candy in the shot (which might be too obvious and deprive the audience of the pleasure in finding the scenes’ connection), but when the scenes are arranged as such, the screenplay clues the audience in on B as the candy thief. In this particular example, the audience know something that A does not, which leaves them wondering whether the character will find out the truth. This forms what is known as “suspense” in the screenwriting theory. Conversely, letting the characters know something that the audience do not is common in the making of thrillers, which will not be elaborated here. The point is, different narrative approaches to a truth generate different feelings and artistic effects, and that is how the editing thinking plays out in screenplays. 7. Pacing and rhythm. The artistic pacing of a screenplay is a comprehensive concept. Unlike novels, whose paces can be increased by the economical use of language or the tensions in plot or characters’ relationship, screenplays are paced primarily for the final artistic presentation on screen. Writers have a number of pacing tools at their disposal: transitional scenes and subplots help to adjust how fast the narrative advances and how quickly the audience are provided with visual and audio stimuli; montage-style paragraphs condense space and time; parallel-montage-style writing presents multiple narrative viewpoints. 8. Others. As an operating manual for film creation and production, a screenplay contains operational instructions for steps throughout production. For example, as part of the marketing strategy, a screenplay may include a well-crafted entrance of a character played by a famous cast member, notably through special designs for such elements as dramatic

3

AESTHETIC CONSTRUCTION OF GENRE NARRATION

79

effects, shots, lines, lighting and sound effects. The key is to put a spotlight on the character as naturally as possible, instead of literally “striking” the audience’s attention through some sensational sound effects. Some dramatic techniques also need to be specified in screenplays to inform the filmmaking departments. Polarity (a concept to be discussed later), for example, requires certain setup in the opening scene to mark a character’s status quo, which can be a room the character lived in or an object he or she used. These elements reappear at the end of film, but by then the relationship between the characters has changed, and so does the audience’s feeling—a contrast that creates the ambience of polarity. The director needs to know the setup from the screenplay to design the shot, lighting, color, art, performance, mise-en-scène, editing and sound accordingly for a finished work that makes the audience sigh “how time flies”, a cinematic experience more artistically compelling than hearing the character say the line directly. Such cinematic creation based on the division of labor and collaboration is the ultimate aesthetic embodiment of cinematic art. Screenplays: Sheet Music for the Symphony of Film Narration The artistry of screenplays is shown through a standard form, where all the sentences are crafted purposefully for artistic expression and formatted precisely. The format is not so much for better visual presentation and readability as for forcing cinematic thinking into screenplays, notably by regulating how the audiovisual language should be used. Screenplays follow a particular format, not only textually, but also artistically and functionally. Figuratively speaking, they are the sheet music that defines the intonation for the movement of cinematic aesthetics. To understand this, consider the following example.

80

F. XU

[Excerpt from “Million Dollar Baby” script, 2004, written by Paul Haggis]15 The example reveals that the fundamental purpose of a standard script format is to communicate the film’s aesthetic artistry in audiovisual language. This important artistic feature distinguishes a screenplay from literature: the latter relies on literary narratives, whereas the former on cinematic telling that sometimes can be monotonous and choppy to

15 The normative system of classical Hollywood screenplays regulates the basic formats of different scripts. Script formats for films and TV series are not the same, for example, as they are designed for different media. (TV series have relatively more lines.) Hollywood screenplays are written in professional screenwriting tools such as Final Draft or Celtx, which format automatically. Description and dialogue paragraphs are indented differently (dialogues center-aligned), allowing the cast to quickly locate their lines and take notes in the margins. Take the example of the screenplay shown above: the scene heading specifies the scene number, interior setting, location and time; actions are left-aligned; and characters’ names and dialogues are center-aligned.

3

AESTHETIC CONSTRUCTION OF GENRE NARRATION

81

read. Chinese screenplays, however, do not have to follow strict formatting standards for text alignment, font and font size. Chinese directors and producers have their own preferences: some consider Americanstyle formatted screenplays easier to understand, while others appreciate novel—or prose-like scripts for better readability. There is no right or wrong in their preferences, but there is one absolute truth about script formats: writers need to tell stories in sounds and images, communicating exactly what will be seen and heard onscreen through scene descriptions, actions and dialogues—and that is what script formatting is all about. Descriptions that are not cinematic—for example, what characters “think”, “consider”, “feel like” or “recall”—usually serve as referenceonly information in screenplays, because they cannot be communicated directly in audiovisual language. For this reason, screenwriting does not enjoy as much freedom as novel writing, but it guarantees the freedom of cinematic creativity. It is safe to say that such artistic freedom comes along with certain restrictions. “As asserted earlier, for all its complexity a screenplay is merely an elaborate list of two—and only two—kinds of information: (1) what is seen and (2) what is heard. All aspects of a screenplay—story, character, action, setting, and everything else—derive from sight and sound. This requires that screenwriters work backward. After conjuring up images in his mind, the writer puts words on paper in such a manner as to cause the reader to see in his own mind something closely resembling the writer’s vision. This is no mean feat. Its success depends upon the writer utilizing his imagination and discipline skillfully, so that from sight and sound alone characters’ thoughts and emotions are revealed to a viewing, listening audience”.16 In this sense, a screenplay is a normative system that regulates the use of audiovisual language and cinematic artistic expression. There are also norms for the length of screenplays, determined by the ideal runtime of a film. Due to physical and mental reasons, the attention span of the audience is limited. By planning for their attention span, films settle in the sweet spot of length to keep the audience in their seats, engaged and satisfied, without causing visual and psychological fatigue. That is why a feature film typically has a runtime of about 100 minutes. (Commercial films average 90 minutes in length for optimal screening

16 Richard Walter, Essentials of Screenwriting: The Art, Craft, and Business of Film and Television Writing, Translated by Yang Jinhua, Tianjin Renmin Press, 2017, pp. 177–178.

82

F. XU

schedule, whereas art films usually last 120 minutes or longer.) Accordingly, a standard feature-length screenplay runs 100–120 pages, with one page equal to one minute of screen time on average. A common practice in Hollywood is to count pages per day on call sheets, with one-eighth of a page as the minimum unit—a standard measurement that allows all the departments to systematically understand the workload. It should be noted, however, that the shooting time of a dialogue-heavy page could be very different from that of an action scene, but this is a subject in its own right. Usually written in regular word processing software such as Microsoft Word or Pages, Chinese screenplays do not follow a standard format, which means their page count and formatting may not be as accurate and precise as standard Hollywood screenplays. Nevertheless, it remains true that a commercial film, be it Chinese or foreign, has about 100 scenes, just the right amount to build a three-act structure. All the data mentioned here are average values for general reference only. The number of scenes varies depending on artistic expressions: films with long shots or intense dramatic conflicts may have fewer scenes, whereas films heavy with action sequences have more scenes, but fewer words. For this reason, writers have to “weigh” the size of the film they are writing for, in terms of its length, budget, genre and production duration, among others. Next is the analysis of artistic attributes in film narration. Consider the following short story: One day in the boring office, A told a joke, which B found not funny. The moment was so embarrassing that time seemed to freeze.

This is a typical narration that shows the literary nature of a novel. “One day in the boring office” sets up a stage for a past event, as if the story were retrieved from memory, which is what a novel can do. “A told a joke” describes A’s action without specifying A’s lines—and that is totally acceptable in a novel because readers do not have to know the exact content of the joke to get the meaning. “Which B found not funny” depicts how B feels, showing the freedom that novels have to explore characters’ inner emotions and thoughts. In the last sentence, the storyteller, as an omniscient narrator, tells readers how they should feel about the situation. Here is a screenplay version of the same story.

3

AESTHETIC CONSTRUCTION OF GENRE NARRATION

83

INT. OFFICE – DAY The cubicles in the office are neatly arranged, stretching endlessly into the distance. A and B stand at their workstations. A We don’t get time off on trivial holidays, because important people don’t care about anything “trivial”. B reacts. Silence falls. Suddenly, the wall clock chimes on the hour.

This is how a screenplay shows the story through cinematic telling. The first sentence translates the boringness of the office environment into dull and cage-like cubicles arranged in a checkerboard pattern, which is both visually presentable and cinematically executable. The description contains clear tasks for the art and photography departments—How to design the scenario? Does the shot require symmetrical composition and wideangle lens? It is up to the two departments submitting their plans to the director, who then makes the final decision. This description also offers great creative potential for scenario design: the narrowness of the space and the partitions between cubicles can be leveraged to produce different artistic effects. A needs a line. Even if the writer does not bother to write it down in the screenplay, the actor still has to say something in front of the camera— he cannot simply say, “I am telling a joke”. This is another proof that screenplays need to get down to specific details. Next is “B reacts”, and here is what the author wants to dig deeper into. The writer who writes “B reacts” is not necessarily being lazy. Chances are this might be an experienced writer who writes economically, communicates the dramatic action clearly and cooperates with the director tacitly. The evidence is that this paragraph (shot) leaves room for performance. Specifically, two abilities are vital to making a performance career in Hollywood: one is to take direction (or to understand the director’s intention), and the other is to listen, also described as to “truly listen, see and feel” in the Chinese performance theory. After going through the beats in the scene, actors are supposed to be very familiar with the premise of the characters. Screenplays can give them some scope for truly felt and executed performance. Of course, screenplays can simply go as follow:

84

F. XU

B does not laugh.

However, this limits B’s response to A’s words and actions. A more dramatic screenplay uses “reacts” and leaves the rest to the inspiration of the actor who, after understanding the relationship between the characters, may settle on keeping a straight face or some loaded yet natural reaction. As a manual designed to guide the production process, a screenplay neither stipulates who should do what, nor contains excessive descriptions of shot types and camera movements—the director will translate it into storyboards and shooting scripts anyway. The last two sentences can be captured in two shots, one two-person medium shot and one close-up of the clock; they can also be combined into a single shot, during which sound serves as the changing element. The quietness and subsequent sound from a physical “sound source” produce a dramatic pause and transition. (It should be noted that quietness is more of an artistic expression strategy. It does not mean that all the soundtracks are empty; ambient or other audio tracks may still have sound waves.) To understand why the two sentences are crafted as such, consider the following two points: (1) unable to tell the audience how they should make of the scene as a narrator, the writer has to show the embarrassment in a sensory way, instead of blurting out “how embarrassing”, as might happen in a novel; (2) the writer uses the sound as a cinematic element to tell the story and convey nuanced meaning, notably through the quietness, the clock sound and the transition between them. From this example, it is clear that although the story is the same, the screenplay takes a route vastly different from a novel, following particular rules of both formatting and narration. In practice of the classical screenplay theory, writers should employ audiovisual thinking and cinematic designs extensively to display the film’s aesthetic attributes to the greatest extent.

Narrative Elements of Cinematic Arts Aesthetic Composition of Genre Narration The screenwriting theory is never about rigid man-made conventions. It is a set of fundamental narrative principles derived from long-term storytelling practices since the start of literature. Consisting of basic rules for a story’s introduction, development, transition and conclusion, the

3

AESTHETIC CONSTRUCTION OF GENRE NARRATION

85

theory focuses on what meets people’s expectations and appeals to them psychologically. By theorizing these general principles, it helps writers and filmmakers to navigate through multifarious narrative elements for well-organized story structures and compelling plot and characterization. Some concepts in the theory are arcane, while others seem nothing more than common sense. Nevertheless, they collectively form the screenplay normative system that offers the only path to understanding a screenplay’s intentions and analyzing a film. To grasp the screenwriting theory, common sense and concepts in narratology, literature and drama certainly helps, but they should not become the dominant thought pattern; more important are the cinematic viewpoint and audiovisual thinking. This section focuses on the basics of the classical screenwriting theory, including not only narratology-related concepts that can be easily understood with common sense, but also comprehensive cinematic concepts. These concepts are sufficient proof of how unique, complex, sophisticated and nuanced the artistic attributes and aesthetic imagination of a film can be. Story. Every story is a story of change, depicting a process where expectations are met (or thwarted). The flow of changes is known as the Story Arc. A story begins with the disruption of the protagonist’s everyday life, which leaves the protagonist with an object of desire and prompts him into active “actions” until finally achieving the desire. The protagonist’s efforts to pursue the desire are known as “actions” in screenwriting. Actions are what characters do that changes the status quo—in other words, actions lead to changes. That is why “persuade” is a dramatic action, while “be happy” is not. “Dramatic movement proceeds by a series of changes of equilibrium. Any change of equilibrium constitutes an action. The play is a system of actions”.17 The protagonist takes active actions to change the status quo, and every action brings him closer to the object of desire until he finally attains it. What he does to achieve the final goal is the “main action” that underpins the whole story. Spanning throughout the story, the main action can be broken down into a hierarchy of sub-actions. The highest-level sub-actions correspond to the three acts in a screenplay, representing the beginning, middle and end of the story. An act can be divided into sequences, sequences into scenes and scenes into beats. Each of the structure elements forms a sub-action of a 17 John Howard Lawson, Theory and Technique of Playwriting and Screenwriting, Translated by Shao Mujun and Qi Zhou, China Film Press, 1989, p. 214.

86

F. XU

different level. The result is a screenplay structure that branches out as a “system of actions”. Case studies in the following chapters showcase how the protagonists achieve the main intentions through a system of actions. Character. The protagonist (hero) should have the willpower18 that qualifies (legitimizes) him to pursue the desired goal. The willpower serves to grant the protagonist the capability to power through the journey as the story requires. It should be strong enough, if not unbreakable, to drive the protagonist toward the goal. A single-protagonist is an individual, which can be a human, an animal or even a floating balloon. Plural protagonists refer to a team of leading characters that share the same desire and mutually suffer and benefit in pursuit of the desire. Multi-protagonists are a group of leading characters that have different goals and desires. The protagonist’s growth and transformation over the course of the story is known as the Character Arc. The most fascinating characters are those with compelling character arcs; a character without change makes no successful protagonist for commercial films. The protagonist has subjectivity, with the desire, capability and willpower to achieve the goal. He shows his strengths and weaknesses and undergoes his moments of determination and hesitation. The complexity in his personality makes his transformation more convincing. Action films usually feature a heroic protagonist defeating the evil and saving the world, which is one of the most typical characters in commercial films. Interestingly, the protagonist is also referred to as the “hero” or “heroine” in screenwriting, which somewhat indicates that protagonists are traditionally heroic. A deep heroic character exhibits both positive and negative qualities. The former usually includes integrity, kindness, courage and sense of responsibility. The protagonist has to be a willful character, not in the strict sense of never surrendering to the enemy even under torture, but in a broader sense that he has the capability to go through the dramatic actions in the hero’s journey, making decisions and sticking to them. Only in this way can the protagonists drive the story forward and evoke sufficient empathy for the audience to care about them, hope for their success and stand ready to accompany them throughout the story. Take the example of Operation Red Sea. The story is made heroic by the personalities of the commando members, notably the strong-willed female

18 Robert McKee, Story, p. 162.

3

AESTHETIC CONSTRUCTION OF GENRE NARRATION

87

fighter and the cool-headed sniper who saves lives and defeats the enemy. As Tan Peisheng says, conflicts have their root in personalities. Apart from willpower, flaws are also essential. Flaws are minor weaknesses that open up the possibility for dramatic conflicts and dilemmas. To understand the concept, a parallel to cracks in pottery might help. Without stress, cracks normally remain as they are; they neither affect how the pottery is appreciated, nor cause dislike or distaste toward it. When under stress, however, cracks break the pottery. Similarly, flaws do not prevent the audience from caring about and empathizing with the character, but when the character has difficult times, they would cause genuine problems and even break the character—that is, if he chooses the wrong path. Showing both the positive and negative qualities of protagonists is a common practice in commercial films. Art films and indie films, which have been incorporated in the classical screenwriting theory as previously discussed, sometimes bring in innovative ideas to break the screenwriting normative system, portraying protagonists who respond passively to the changing environment. Nevertheless, a narrative film with a storyline depends on the protagonist to give the story its direction and momentum, actively or passively. For this reason, the theory has evolved to include protagonists who take passive actions as well. As John puts it, “the agonized struggle of a weak will, seeking to adjust itself to an inhospitable environment, may contain elements of poignant drama. But however weak the will may be, it must be sufficiently strong to sustain the conflict. Drama cannot deal with people whose wills are atrophied, who are unable to make decisions which have even temporary meaning, who adopt no conscious attitude toward events, who make no effort to control their environment. The precise degree of strength of will required is the strength needed to bring the action to an issue, to create a change of equilibrium between the individual and the environment”.19 The “strength needed” hereof refers to sufficient willpower. In conclusion, characters should be multidimensional. This is essential not only to the creation of dramatic conflicts that affect the course of the story, but also to the story’s ability to engage the audience emotionally and deeply into meaningful thoughts about human nature.

19 John Lawson, Theory and Technique of Playwriting and Screenwriting, p. 212.

88

F. XU

Status Quo: At the start of the story, the protagonist lives in a balanced world of normality, with established settings, context, relationships and basic needs. This is what the protagonist’s life is originally like, the daily routine against which he/she has no desire to take dramatic actions, a state of equilibrium similar to ecological balance. In short, it is the status quo. Insignificant as this might sound, the status quo is instrumental to establishing the film’s presumption and aesthetic orientation, showing right and wrong, good and evil, dos and don’ts, moral values, ethical standards and desires in the storyworld. It offers a point of reference, a baseline for upcoming changes and the final status. In a false belief for fast-paced narration, some commercial films plunge directly into stories without first establishing the basic facts, characters and their relationships in the balanced world. The result is unnatural stories driven forcefully by unreasonable motivation, a proof that haste makes waste. Inciting Incident20 : In Robert’s screenwriting theory, the inciting incident is an event that disrupts the protagonist’s status quo, to the extent that he/she will not ever be able to return to it. It leaves the protagonist with no other choice but to act, to restore the balance and establish a new status quo—and that is how the intention of the story comes from. The inciting incident is not a completely new concept. William Archer’s drama theory has a similar notion, the Point of Attack (which can be vaguely understood as the “point of action”), referring to an event potentially leading to changes and crisis. Regardless of its name, this important event is what drives the story forward, similar to Hitchcock’s signature MacGuffin, a dramatic device widely used to build up suspense and advance plot. A story without an inciting incident is a story that never truly starts. Do not confuse the inciting incident with the frequently mentioned concept of trigger, however. The “trigger” is similar to the “cause” as a noun, whereas the inciting incident refers more to the process of the “cause” disrupting the status quo. Main Intention: In screenwriting, the main intention refers to the object of desire that stems from the protagonist’s response to the inciting incident. It is the undeviating goal that the character strives toward in steps through the course of the film. More often than not, the main intention can be captured by a simple sentence with an action, like “defeat

20 Robert McKee, Story, p. 211.

3

AESTHETIC CONSTRUCTION OF GENRE NARRATION

89

the enemy”, “find love” and “revenge on someone”. This action typically involves a transitive verb, indicating that it needs a defined object to make sense and contains certain expectation for the result. One example of such action is “defeat”, a transitive verb that implies the result of winning against somebody. In defining the main intention, the classical screenwriting theory distinguishes the external Want and the internal Need. Want: The want is the character’s specific expectation for the main intention. It should be external and self-evident, with a clear and direct cause. For example, the protagonist’s mother is killed by the enemy, so the want of the protagonist is to take revenge and kill the enemy. Setting a clear goal for the protagonist to pursue is typical of commercial films. Need: The need refers to the character’s inner journey and subconscious desire. Unlike the want, which the character is aware of at the beginning, the need may not surface until after continuous exploration throughout the journey. Take the previous example. The protagonist may not realize what he truly desires is inner freedom and forgiveness until he finally gets (or forgoes) the revenge for his mother’s death. This desire is what he unknowingly seeks all the way—it is the need. In commercial films, the subconscious need sometimes serves as a hidden clue in complement to the external want. In art films, however, the need is usually explored in-depth as the main intention. Action: An action refers specifically to the protagonist’s active action in response to the situation. It should be described by an active verb, such as “persuade”, “seduce” and “threaten”, as opposed to a stative verb that indicates the state of being, like “be happy” and “be sad”. An action leads to an irreversible dramatic change that brings the protagonist closer to his goal. To avoid confusion with violent actions in action films, in screenwriting the action is also referred to as the “dramatic action”. The action is an essential aesthetic element in the narrative art of genre films, without which genre films lose the pillars of narration. It is what characters do in response to conflicts; in this sense, no action means conflicts are nowhere to be shown. “No conflict means no plot, which cannot be remedied however hard the writer tries to design the ‘action’ by making it ‘complex’, ‘intricate’ or ‘sophisticated’… No matter how ingeniously designed, a story arrangement without internal motivation does not guarantee the development of the image… In contrast, a plot

90

F. XU

based on dramatic scenarios unfolds naturally into actions like a spring”.21 As previously discussed, an action a character takes against another character is usually described by an active transitive verb. This action leads to a reaction, which is met in turn with a further action. Take the example of “persuade”. If the reaction is “reject”, the character is likely to take a step further—for example, “seduce”—to achieve the goal. Regardless of the outcome, both sides are making it difficult for each other to achieve their goals during the confrontations. This to-and-fro process is necessary, as low-hanging fruits bring no dramatic conflict. Further discussions on dramatic conflicts can be found later in this section as we introduce the concept of Gap, a device for constructing dramatic conflicts and instigating actions. Main Action: The main action is the action required to accomplish the film’s main intention. It is the Spine of the story, “the deep desire in and effort by the protagonist to restore the balance of life”.22 In commercial films, the main action is typically the character’s external action, overt and concrete, like “defeat the enemy”. Art films, however, are usually driven by characters’ inner journey, ending up with internalized and implicit main actions. Nevertheless, their pattern is the same: characters have to take the main action. The difference is that the main action of commercial films is straightforward and external, whereas that of art films obscure and internal. However, this is not to say that protagonists in commercial films have no inner growth. Films that balance commercial and artistic interests usually feature covert progression about the protagonist’s relationship or transformation, complementary to the overt plot driven by external actions. Such progression is typically more explicit and understandable than the main action in art films, though. In conclusion, main actions in commercial films usually address the want, while in art films, they focus on the need. Sub-action: Described by an active action verb, a sub-action refers to a step of the main action. For example, the main action “persuade” can be broken down into the sub-actions of “seduce”, “bait” and “threaten”, each representing a step further toward the goal.

21 Semen Fre˘ılikh, Dramaturgy of Films, Translated by Fu Lan, China Film Press, 1963, p. 110. 22 Robert McKee, Story, p. 227.

3

AESTHETIC CONSTRUCTION OF GENRE NARRATION

91

Empathy: Empathy is neither a description for feelings, nor a synonym of audience sympathy. It is a screenwriting term that describes the situation where the audience identify with the protagonist and his choice under difficulties, invested in whatever the protagonist is after. One common mistake is to view empathy and sympathy interchangeably, because by nature, they are anything but. Sympathy describes the psychological phenomenon of the audience feeling for characters, whereas empathy is an artistic storytelling device that taps into the unconscious world of the audience. One indication of the device not working properly is the audience’s question over why the characters behave as they do, because this means that the audience cannot relate to the characters’ motivation and their actions toward the goal. Sympathy is personal and subjective; not every character has to be sympathetic—a likable heroine or child is, whereas a powerful antagonist is not. By contrast, empathy is an objective storytelling device; regardless of their likability, all characters must be empathetic. Whether it is the likable heroine wanting to defeat the antagonist or the antagonist wanting to destroy the world, they should have sufficient reasons to do so. That is how the opposite sides are established and conflicts emerge. Empathy legitimizes characters’ actions. Only when the audience empathize with the protagonist can they follow the protagonist through the course of the story. The story fails from the perspective of screenwriting if the audience cannot identify with the protagonist’s actions and motivations, or do not care about what becomes of him. The same is true of all the supporting characters. Their influence on the protagonist should be well-grounded, for reasons that can evoke empathy in the audience, because in the end, it is through empathy that the story builds up tensions. Some young actors are criticized for unskilled, overly exaggerated acting in films. However, the problem may lie not so much in their performance as in the screenplays’ failure to give characters reasonable motivation for rage or crying. When the audience do not see why a character suddenly cries, they find it ridiculous and sneer at the poor acting. For this reason, the usage of empathy deserves more attention in screenwriting. Act: The main action is typically broken into three sub-actions that respectively represent the beginning, middle and end of the story. Each of them constitutes an act. That is why an act is also known as a primary sub-action. Each act follows a normative template with conventions for its dramatic function, ideal length that makes the best of the audience’s attention span, and connection to other acts. Act One is supposed to

92

F. XU

reveal the protagonist’s main intention in the shortest possible way; Act Two takes up a substantial part of the story to describe the protagonist’s efforts toward the main intention; Act Three ties up all the loose ends. Collectively, they make the story self-contained. Sequence: A sequence is a subdivision of an act, also known as a secondary sub-action. It usually involves a moderate step the protagonist takes that delivers an irreversible change—that is, the protagonist cannot return to where he is at the beginning of the sequence. Typically, an act consists of 2 to 4 sequences, each lasting 10 minutes. It should be noted that here the author translates “sequence” into “段落” (literally “paragraph”) in Chinese, but in the Chinese version of Robert’s Story, the term is translated into “序列”. Scene: A scene is a subdivision of a sequence, marked with a heading and number in a script. The concept is aptly named for taking place at one location. Breaking a story into scenes is mostly for the convenience of film production. A typical scene should contain a complete dramatic action or dramatic change (with the exception of transitional scenes designed exclusively to pace the film). A sequence normally has 10 scenes, each lasting 1 minute of screen time on average. The actual number can vary widely in films, but by offering the average value, the author intends to provide a rough idea of a film’s runtime and volume, and of the normative pattern in screenwriting. Beat: A beat is a subdivision of a scene. It is the smallest element of action, a step characters take to complete the scene-level action. Take the previous example of “persuade”. If “persuade” is a scene-level action, then the sub-actions of “seduce”, “bait” and “threaten” constitute three beats showing the character’s strategies (through lines or body language) to get the action done. Such an organization of scene-level actions is widely used in dramas. Action System: An action system refers to a hierarchy of actions from the main action all the way down to the lowest-level sub-actions. The author proposes it as a screenwriting approach—in other words, what is outlined in the action system does not necessarily go into the final script directly, but in forms of scenes, character behaviors and lines. A well-defined action system is instrumental in screenwriting, as it maps out all sub-actions and their relations, the film’s structure and the systematic development of characters and plots. It is based on the action system that writers prepare script summaries and finalize detailed outlines before writing full-fledged stories. In this sense, the birth of a screenplay is

3

AESTHETIC CONSTRUCTION OF GENRE NARRATION

93

much like the growth of a tree, from the root upward to the trunk and then to branches and leaves. The writing process never starts outright with “Scene 1 INT.—DAY”. Even productions as short as sitcoms have what is known as the Beat Sheet, a necessity in the toolkit of Hollywood writers, recording the beats (sub-actions) of the main storyline (A Story) and secondary storylines (B and C Stories), as well as the actions/reactions involved. For film scripts, such information is in an action system outline, whose template can be found in section “The Art of Cinematic Narration”. Mid-Point: The mid-point, also known as the First Culmination, is an important concept in classical screenwriting. Falling usually in the fourth sequence, it marks a victory the protagonist achieves when striving for the goal. Throughout the course of the story, the protagonist encounters and overcomes challenges after challenges in his pursuit of the goal, which constitutes a progressive journey full of increasingly dramatic ups and downs. Toward the end of Act Two, the protagonist arrives at the culminating moment when all the conditions become the most favorable and even the subplots seem to point to the final victory. It mirrors how the film ends and gives the audience a clear glimpse of what would become of the protagonist at the finishing line. Low Point: What follows the mid-point is the low point, the worst moment when everything seems to fall apart, setting up the context for the protagonist’s comeback in Act Three. Generally, every action the protagonist takes traps him in a more challenging situation, but what distinguishes the low point from other difficult moments is that this is when the protagonist is at his lowest, thwarted as never before, as if all the hope were lost. The low point usually sets in the second half of Act Two, allowing the audience to feel the devastation the protagonist goes through despite all the efforts. This is the moment when the audience empathy and expectation will be aroused to the greatest extent if the protagonist gathers himself and fights back. Gap: Each scene contains a goal the protagonist has to achieve by taking the corresponding sub-action. Between the goal and the reality exists a disparity, a gap whose closure requires the protagonist’s willpower. The gap should be set beyond the immediate reach of the protagonist, to avoid lack of obvious actions, changes and dramatic tensions. “The essential character of drama is social conflict—persons against other persons, or individuals against groups, or groups against other groups, or individuals or groups against social or natural forces—in which the conscious

94

F. XU

will, exerted for the accomplishment of specific and understandable aims, is sufficiently strong to bring the conflict to a point of crisis”.23 In other words, to inspire dramatic actions and expressions, the gap should be wide enough for the character to struggle through. Dilemma: A dilemma refers to a situation where the protagonist has to make a difficult trade-off to close the gap. Since everyone can make wise choices when there is no pressure, choices made when nothing is at stake shows little about the protagonist’s values and personalities. It is the protagonist’s choice in dilemmas that reveals his attitude toward key questions. In the case study of Yang Shanzhou, the author will analyze how dilemmas are used to show characters’ inner struggles during transformation. Cost: Also known as the Stake or Risk, the cost is what the character gives up when he makes the trade-off. The higher the cost, the more difficult the choice, the greater the dramatic tension. Every dilemma comes with a difficult choice that forces the character to go through an agonizing process of weighing options. This concept is similar to what is known as the opportunity cost in economics. In the film Yang Shanzhou, the protagonist’s internal conflict is heightened effectively by the design of the cost. Twist: A twist is a negative reversal of fortune or a small crisis near the end of a story, whose resolution makes the finale all the more satisfying. Plant/Payoff: The plant/payoff describes the technique of introducing an element—line, prop, audiovisual element or event plot—early on in a screenplay and have the element return with a changed dramatic function and meaning. The first appearance of the element is the plant (or setup), and its reappearance is the payoff. A variety of complex dramatic and cinematic effects—ranging from polarity to irony and retardation/delay—come from the skillful use of this technique with multiple elements and dimensions. Polarity: Polarity is a term commonly used in classical Hollywood screenwriting. The author translates it as “旧影重现” in Chinese (literally, the reappearance of previous images), to avoid potential confusion with the one-dimensional dramatic technique of “重现” (reappearance). As its name suggests, the concept can be better understood with the help of an analogy to the poles of Earth and magnets. It is a cinematic

23 John Lawson, Theory and Technique of Playwriting and Screenwriting, p. 212.

3

AESTHETIC CONSTRUCTION OF GENRE NARRATION

95

device that uses the reappearance of elements—including but not limited to lines, props, characters, locations, colors, atmosphere and pace—to heighten the change of audience feelings to the opposite direction, a shift, for example, between joy and sadness, love and hatred, and revenge and forgiveness. Also known as the “reversing reappearance”, polarity usually highlights a dimensional change—as if moving from one pole of a magnet to the other—that grants the returned element a new meaning. The feelings evoked by polarity can be described sentimentally by the term “nostalgia”, triggered at the sight of an old object or place. By heightening the reversal of feelings, this cinematic device adds depth and emotional impacts to the film. As the most advanced form of reappearance, it activates the audience’s multidimensional perceptions to imbue the repeated cinematic elements with different meanings. The concept is widely used in the analysis of complex character arcs and dramatic elements, offering subtle artistic experience that is more perceptible than expressible. To deliver such inexpressible experience requires careful designs in the screenplay. Irony: Irony is a dramatic technique in which the character’s lines, actions or intentions have a different meaning for the audience (and sometimes for other characters in the film) than they do for the character. Such insights put the audience into a position of power and fill them with expectations that have to be fulfilled later. Robert categorizes the ironic controlling idea into the positive and negative ironies. The former refers to “the compulsive pursuit of contemporary values— success, fortune, fame, sex, power—will destroy you, but if you see this truth in time and throw away your obsession, you can redeem yourself”24 ; the latter means “if you cling to your obsession, your ruthless pursuit will achieve your desire, then destroy you”.25 The author will analyze the use of dramatic irony in the case study of The Founding of a Republic in Chapter 5. Campfire Scene: Also known as the “relaxing talk” scene, the campfire scene usually comes in the second half of the fight against the enemy, where the leading characters sit back, relax and have an intimate talk after a narrow escape. It is designed with two functions: (1) to strengthen the bond between the characters; (2) to slow the pace and ease the tension

24 Robert McKee, Story, p. 150. 25 Ibid., p. 152.

96

F. XU

built up during the first half of an action film. The talk scene takes its name “campfire scene” in Hollywood because traditionally it takes place around a campfire at night. In Wolf Warrior 2, the campfire scene is where the main and secondary storylines encounter. Retardation/Delay: Retardation is used to intensify established dramatic tensions. The audience anticipate certain outcomes and wait anxiously for them to come true, during which they may feel worried, hopeful, frustrated or gratified. Their anxiety will not be eased until the expectations become reality, which contributes to the buildup of dramatic tensions. Understanding these expectations and delaying their fulfillment exhilarate the audience with greater satisfaction and pleasure, but this has to be done properly—if the delay exhausts and overwhelms them, they become disengaged. The skillful use of retardation calls for a psychological approach to screenwriting that is playful with the human brain. It can be applied to the entire film as well as to a single shot. 1.5-Step Principle: The 1.5-step principle is a psychology-based storytelling approach the author distills from screenwriting theories across the world as well as from her professional experience. Assume that the audience get “one-step” worth of satisfaction when the character takes a step to close the gap between reality and expectation. Having seen so many films and developed increasingly sophisticated movie sense, today’s audience are accustomed to following movements in the story step-by-step, as if crossing a river by evenly distributed stepping stones. An easily reachable gap that requires less than a considerable step to bridge dilutes the dramatic tension. For this reason, writers are suggested to widen the gap to the extent that its closure requires not one small step, but 1.5 steps in action, to keep the audience invested while maintaining enough narrative coherence to prevent them from feeling unsettling, lost or disengaged. In conclusion, the author coins “the 1.5-step principle” for a screenwriting approach that skillfully pushes the boundaries of what the audience are comfortable with. It shows respect to the film-savvy audience by taking them down a more challenging yet interesting story path. However, following the 1.5-step principle to delay audience satisfaction requires careful design based on the writer’s extensive life and professional experience, or it may end up counterproductive. Generally speaking, in conformity with genre screenwriting principles, a film should contain a complete action system, delivering a comprehensive aesthetic experience through well-structured artistic expressions that

3

AESTHETIC CONSTRUCTION OF GENRE NARRATION

97

are psychologically based and logically connected. In the classical screenwriting theory, a film has one or a group of willful leading characters and one main action to be completed by its end. The story starts with establishing the leading characters’ status quo, a balanced world that is later disrupted by an inciting incident. To restore the balance, the leading characters take a series of actions that can be further divided into subactions, which collectively constitute a hierarchy of actions known as the action system. The leading characters are constantly caught in dilemmas, making difficult choices under pressure to close the gap between reality and expectation. The wider the gap, the greater the characters’ efforts, the more intense the dramatic tensions. The journey toward their desire reveals not only the characters’ personalities and true nature, but also changes or transformation they go through, a process known as the character arc. In Act One, the status quo is disrupted and the main intention is established. Act Two shows the leading characters’ journey toward the main intention, during which they hit the low point. Act Three is where the leading characters make the last effort and accomplish the main intention; it is also when the storylines and character arcs of subplots are resolved. Only when all these elements are put in place will a classic three-act screenplay become complete. The Normative Framework for Cinematic Aesthetics Just as the aesthetics of the Golden Section and the Fibonacci Spiral boils down to a mathematical framework, the classical screenwriting theory, which features a three-act structure and an action system, also has a normative framework that underpins the cinematic aesthetics. Featurelength films typically last 90–120 minutes, neither too short to tell a sufficiently complex story, nor too long to sustain the audience’s attention and keep them satisfied. The runtime is not the only hallmark of commercial feature-length films, however. They also follow the normative framework dictating story structure, narrative pace and the use of genretypical elements that systematically meet the audience’s expectations. The author sets out the basic framework of a classical three-act screenplay below. It will be used in the case studies to analyze their screenwriting approaches, as well as how these approaches add cultural meaning and aesthetic imagination to the films.

98

F. XU

Act One Sequence 1: Introduce the protagonist and his world. Sequence 2: The inciting incident disrupts the status quo. The protagonist reacts and arrives at the point of no return.

Act Two Sequence 3: The protagonist encounters the major problem and take actions. Sequence 4: The mid-point (the first culmination that mirrors the finale), ending in false victory. Sequence 5: A turning point. Sequence 6: The low point where all is lost.

Act Three Sequence 7: The protagonist rallies up toward a renewed goal. Sequence 8: False ending/the last turning point (twist). Sequence 9: Finale, revealing the controlling idea. (Depending on stories, sometimes Acts Two and Three may have one sequence fewer than specified above.) This framework will be used in the case studies in this book. It is not the only model explaining the classical screenwriting theory, to be sure. Some models are more detailed and label the sequences differently. Essentially, however, they are all based on the three-act structure. Here is an example of an alternative model. THE BLAKE SNYDER BEAT SHEET26 PROJECT TITLE: GENRE: DATE:

26 Blake Snyder, Save The Cat! The Last Book on Screenwriting You’ll Ever Need, Translated by Wang Xufeng, Zhejiang University Press, 2011, p. 57.

3

AESTHETIC CONSTRUCTION OF GENRE NARRATION

99

1. Opening Image (p. 1) 2. Theme Stated (p. 5) 3. Set-Up (pp. 1–10) 4. Catalyst (p. 12) 5. Debate (pp. 12–25) 6. Break into Two (p. 25) 7. B Story (p. 30) 8. Fun and Games (pp. 30–55) 9. Mid-point (p. 55) 10. Bad Guys Close In (pp. 55–75) 11. All Is Lost (p. 75) 12. Dark Night of the Soul (pp. 75–85) 13. Break into Three (p. 85) 14. Finale (pp. 85–110) 15. Final Image (p. 110) This beat sheet comes from Save the Cat by Blake Snyder, who claims that all a writer has to do is to attend the project meeting, acquire the needed information, and complete the sheet. A closer look at the sheet reveals that it is actually a detailed instruction on constructing a screenplay with three acts (nine sequences). The 15 beats in the sheet have their counterparts in the basic framework the author proposes. For example, “Catalyst” corresponds to the inciting incident, “Mid-point” to the first culmination and “All is Lost” to the low point. The beat sheet specifies the screenplay structure of a feature-length film in detail, to the extent that even page numbers and screen time of each beat are defined (calculated based on the principle of one page per minute), leaving the writer with the simplified task of “fleshing out” the sheet. Rigorous as it seems, the sheet shows one truth about screenwriting: predictable patterns lie behind how writers work and how screenplays serve as an operating manual for filmmaking. “Wolf Warrior 2”, in particular, complies with the structure outlined in the beat sheet, but the model is too sophisticated to be used for the case analysis. To avoid going into unnecessary details, the basic framework is used instead. Essentially, the basic framework is an aesthetic principle, not a rulebook. It is a fundamental storytelling approach underpinned by the basic organization of beginning, middle and end. The universal narrative convention it reveals has been proven so comfortably accepted by the audience that the breaking of it makes them feel the story is incomplete. Dividing three acts into eight or nine sequences that collectively form three cycles of rise and fall also gives the audience a clear direction

100

F. XU

as to what to follow and expect, granting them satisfaction over the story. Good stories in genre films usually follow the framework, if not without adaptions.

Aesthetic Narration in Main-Melody Commercial Films China’s main-melody commercial films represent a fusion of the classical screenwriting theory and the dominant national ideology. They typically feature heroic protagonists who hold the dominant ideological values and display positive personality traits that exemplify China’s national spirit, such as integrity, kindness and perseverance. Another hallmark of these films is their closed ending, where good and evil, and true and false are explained away, delivering a clear message of preferred moral values. In conclusion, main-melody films manage to communicate values via entertaining stories that appeal to the audience. Two elements are key to making these films as educational as commercial: active protagonists and a closed-ended three-act structure. Genre-Specific Characterization and Active Protagonists Since China’s main-melody commercial films are where the main-melody intersects with the pursuit of commercial success, it is not surprising that their characters are designed both “main-melodic” and “commercial”. To begin with, the characters should embody China’s national ideology. Leng Feng in “Wolf Warrior 2” is a fictional protagonist whose story is set against the backdrop of evacuating Chinese civilians from Africa; “Operation Red Sea” features Jiaolong Commando, plural protagonists inspired by real-life people; “The Founding of a Republic” portrays historical figures from China’s revolutionary past; the biopic “Yang Shanzhou” shows the life story of Yang Shanzhou actualizing his personal worth by contributing to a greater cause. Be it fictional or non-fictional, single or plural, historical or modern, these protagonists have the shared attributes of representing the zeitgeist of China and serving as narrators of history. From a commercial viewpoint, instead of diminishing or symbolizing the subjectivity of characters, main-melody films embrace cinematic techniques originating from realism, presenting artistic reality through the reality of life to create deep and multifaceted characters. The result

3

AESTHETIC CONSTRUCTION OF GENRE NARRATION

101

is flesh-and-blood three-dimensional protagonists based on Hollywoodstyle characterization. For example, well-known historical figures in “The Founding of a Republic”, “Beginning of the Great Revival” and “The Founding of an Army” are all played by A-list actors. An attempt to leverage the box-office power of stars, the casting choices are made based on predictions of what attracts and satisfies the audience. Adding popular and modern elements to historical stories makes the historical figures more relatable than lifeless names in textbooks. The performance of actors—images, lines and actions—brings the history and characters to life, making it easier for the audience to empathize with the characters’ choices and to experience from the characters’ perspective the historic events that are traditionally told through grand narrative. The approach provides a bridge between producers and consumers for the communication of historical and national sentiments, which, coupled with celebrity and social network marketing strategies, turns the previously passive audience into motivated moviegoers. As a result, the spreading of the main-melody evolves from the producers’ one-way communication of the national ideology to a more interactive, two-way process that engages the audience. In screenwriting, genre-specific characterization usually comes apace with screenplay structuring. Pivotal to characterization are the principles of narrative aesthetics. China’s main-melody films feature willful heroic protagonists, which complies with the previously mentioned conventions of Hollywood genre films. These characters show great persistence and resolution in accomplishing their main tasks. For example, Leng Feng in “Wolf Warrior 2” fights courageously and altruistically against terrible odds; in the film “Yang Shanzhou”, the protagonist devotes his retirement years unwaveringly to the forest restoration program, regardless of his personal difficulties. Complementary with these noble qualities are negative traits, or character weaknesses, essential not so much to the tradition of dramatic characterization as to the story’s development. In “Wolf Warrior 2”, the inability to recover from the loss of his fiancée becomes Leng Feng’s weak spot that prompts him to undertake the story’s main task; it is also why he hesitates to express his feelings when meeting someone special. Yang Shanzhou’s absence as a father leads to his conflicts with daughters, but it also demonstrates his devotion to the cause of the Party and the nation. These weak spots render heroic protagonists no more than ordinary people. The purpose is to evoke empathy. It is because of their empathy with the characters that the audience project

102

F. XU

onto these characters their own personalities and wholeheartedly wish them success in their tasks. Therefore, making heroes as vulnerable and indecisive as ordinary people does not taint their glorious image; on the contrary, it allows them to be more relatable to the audience. The tricky part of character weaknesses, however, is to do it right, to use them as compellingly as suggestively. Sometimes weaknesses become uncontrollable risks. For example, Leng Feng is a man of feeling, willing to take any risk when what he holds dear is in danger. This trait becomes the Achilles’ heel that potentially drives him into irrational and impulsive behaviors when he confronts the enemy or difficult choices, which is to the advantage of his enemy. Likewise, Yang Shanzhou’s care for his family opens up the possibility of favoritism—though this does not reduce his role as a good father. The risks the weaknesses bring about make the protagonists’ tasks more challenging and add additional depth and tension to the stories. Unlike Hollywood superhero films weaving superpower dreams with surreal settings, China’s main-melody commercial films offer stories against the background of dramatized reality, showing the audience that heroes are among common people, and that anyone can be a hero. The charisma of these Chinese heroes comes from the resonance of national power and individual will. It is not necessarily about fighting for the homeland in battlefield; obeying the national will, defending national interests, supporting world peace and uniting the people are all heroic actions that can stir up national pride. That is why such heroic protagonists take a special place in China’s main-melody commercial films. Instead of a cinematic rendering of slogans and history textbooks, the films follow the narrative pattern of commercial films, telling closed-ended stories that feel inevitable to the audience in a convincing manner. By portraying modern Chinese heroes, main-melody films address patriotic and humanitarian spirit from the perspective of an individual, showing not only the Chinese culture, but also the mutual recognition between China and other mainstream cultures across the world. Closed-Ended Three-Act Structure With the classical screenwriting theory, Hollywood sets an example for the standardized production of commercial films that convey their intentions concisely to the audience through fine stories. To this end, it is essential for Chinese films to apply the theory in practice. In fact, the

3

AESTHETIC CONSTRUCTION OF GENRE NARRATION

103

closed-ended structure in the theory has already made its way into many Chinese films, including “The Founding of a Republic”, a historic drama dedicated to the creation of the PRC, “Operation Red Sea”, loosely based on China’s military operation overseas, and “Yang Shanzhou”, a biopic of an official committed to forest restoration. A good example of how China’s main-melody commercial films tell stories based on the theory is “Wolf Warrior 2”, the highest-grossing Chinese film in 2017. With a clear structure and a logical flow, the film follows the established structure in an easily recognizable yet flexible manner. Dramatic techniques are skillfully used to build up tensions progressively at a balanced pace that speeds up and slows down as the plot demands, creating empathy in the audience. To provide readers with an intuitive picture of how a closed-ended three-act screenplay is structured, the author outlines the film’s structure below. A detailed analysis of the film will be included in Chapter 5. “Wolf Warrior 2” tells the story of the protagonist Leng Feng protecting Chinese workers and African friends from rebels in an African country, during which he achieves personal growth and carries the patriotic feelings and dominant ideology to the audience. The character’s transformation and the destiny of the country are closely intertwined, to the extent that the motivation of his actions comes from the subjectivity of both the national spirit and the individual pursuit. In accordance with the previously mentioned basic framework for a three-act screenplay, the protagonist’s dramatic action of accomplishing the main intention can be broken down as follows. Act One Sequence 1: Introduce the protagonist and the status quo. Sequence 2: The rebellion disrupts the status quo. Leng Feng decides to confront the rebels and protect those caught up in the riot.

Act Two Sequence 3: The medical team are attacked. Leng Feng has a new mission: rescuing those trapped in the Hanbound factory within 18 hours. Sequence 4: The Hanbound factory is attacked. Injured and alienated, Leng Feng hits a low point.

104

F. XU

Sequence 5: The helicopter rescue. The mid-point: people leave via helicopter. The subsequent low point: the helicopter is shot down. Leng Feng decides to fight the enemy head-on.

Act Three Sequence 6: Leng Feng destroys enemy tanks. Sequence 7: The final battle with the ultimate enemy. The revenge and the rescue mission are accomplished. Sequence 8: The elevating finale, where individual and national spirits are aligned. Leng Feng wraps his arm with the national flag and return to China. From the analysis above, it could be concluded that as a complete threeact film with a closed ending and tight logic connection, “Wolf Warrior 2” offers a textbook example of applying the classical screenwriting theory in the context of a Chinese film. Details of the film and its cultural significance will be discussed in the next chapter.

CHAPTER 4

Action: Contemporary Narratives

The Evolution of Heroism A Probe into the Rise of National Heroes Action films with a commercial touch have been gradually fledging through the process of marketization since the reform and opening-up. Being a member of the genre film family, commercial action film shall serve the purpose of establishing legitimacy of heroic individuals and renewing a sense of national identity among the audience, so as to inspire people and help them to find a feeling of belonging to a shared culture and recognize the global standing of the Chinese nation. However, at its infancy, action film had only a hazy idea of genres and lacked a normative framework of production. In the early days of the PRC, its film sector followed the footsteps of the Soviet Union in taking political and cultural publicity as the foremost priority, and produced a significant amount of anti-espionage films. The market preference for spy films continued into the latter part of the Cultural Revolution. Then came films about the chaotic decade as the Revolution ended. Generally speaking, from 1949 to early 1979, Chinese film sector gave up any commercial aspirations and broke off the tradition of martial arts film production under the guidance of China’s political system, economic system and ideology at that time. As for action film, Hong Kong genre film has had a huge impact on the mainland film market. Li Daoxin points out that “In a business context of capital operation and market competition, Taiwan and, more importantly, Hong Kong © Peking University Press 2022 F. Xu, Transformation of Contemporary Film Genre, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6860-0_4

105

106

F. XU

filmmakers inherited the Chinese tradition of martial arts film production which had begun in the mid-1920s and started a glorious era of Chinese commercial film, leaving a profound mark on the film history of China and the world”.1 Martial arts and kung fu films sprang up in Hong Kong during this period, where famous directors and film stars also emerged in multitude. Years of experience made martial arts and kung fu films the best-known genre film of Hong Kong. Being an early starter in martial arts film production, Hong Kong made great advances and had a profound impact on the mainland film market. It’s fair to say that the mainland action film has been guided, shaped and influenced by Hong Kong film throughout its development, especially at the early stage. It was not until the end of the Cultural Revolution that the mainland genre film began to reorient itself. The 1980’s “The Mysterious Buddha” contains many action scenes. Though not yet a typical genre work, the film caused great controversy in the society. “There raised a key question which later turned out the springboard for the mainland action film: How to integrate the mainstream ideology of the mainland with the narrative structure and genre elements of action film”.2 In the early 1980s, China’s action film generally portrayed the image of national heroes to invoke patriotism and vent emotions among the audience. The action film with martial arts and kung fu elements legitimized the leadership of national heroes against the background of traditional culture. “The Shaolin Temple” released in 1982 integrates epic, romance and action scenes in its narrative structure, adding a milestone to the development of China’s action genre film. The film was produced by Chung Yuen Motion Picture, a joint-venture of Great Wall Movie Enterprises and Sun Luen Film Company, written by Shih Hou and Lu Shau-chang, directed by Chang Hsin-yen, and starring Jet Li. It could be seen as a curtain-raiser to co-productions between Hong Kong and mainland, and was followed by numerous action genre films in the next few years, including “The Undaunted Wudang” (1983) and “Young Hero of Shaolin” (1984), etc. However, there was not yet a definite academic conclusion on genre film. Most filmmakers and scholars regarded art film as a more elegant form of cinema and didn’t acknowledge action film 1 Li Daoxin, History of Chinese Film Culture, Peking University Press, 2004, pp. 338– 339. 2 Wang Haizhou, The Development and Evolution of Action Film in Mainland China Since the 1980s, Journal of Beijing Film Academy, 1998 (3), p. 57.

4

ACTION: CONTEMPORARY NARRATIVES

107

with a commercial genre perspective. In the late 1980s, the Chinese film market began to focus more on entertaining the audience and produced films such as Li Shaohong’s “The Case of the Silver Snake” (1988) and Zhang Yimou’s “Code Name: Jaguar” (1989). The film market at this time was moving on double tracks. The entertainment film seemed a rather autonomous operation, whereas the art film was regulated by the state from production functions to publicity and distribution. Genre film began to receive some serious thoughts. After 1989, the state began to exercise great caution over cinematic themes and required filmmakers to highlight the themes of the times. Main-melody films hence emerged in large numbers, such as the “Decisive Engagement” trilogy. War action film also performed well, such as “Surprise Move in Snack Valley” (1989) and “The Stealth Team” (1990). Then commercial action films were repeatedly produced and dominated the market. Martial arts films such as New Dragon Gate Inn (1992) and “Once Upon a Time in China” series drew well. The “heroes save the people” routine of action film really worked on the nerves of the audience, and martial arts and kung fu films, like folk fairy tales, had an enormous vogue. Starring Jet Li, the 1990s’ “Once Upon a Time in China” series portrayed a national hero, who was well-versed in kung fu, of the late Qing Dynasty when the corrupt government brought to the Chinese dire poverty. The country was so weak that it was threatened and bullied by Western imperial powers. The Chinese people wanted to fight for their homes and build a strong country, but they failed. Huang Feihong, as a folk hero, didn’t have an official capacity. His efforts and struggles were by himself, without the support of the country. He was like a ray of light in the darkness to temporarily satisfy the inner desire of the Chinese people and give ordinary people who had experienced the vicissitudes of life some spiritual comfort. Since 1995, China has been importing 10 foreign films on a yearly basis, and in the first year we had “True Lies”, “Rumble in the Bronx” and “Speed”, among others. Though our domestic film grew during this period as inspired by the imported works, it received less appreciation than foreign film. Hong Kong investors found it hard to sustain, and the mainland filmmakers were unable to create action films that could outstrip the imported ones. However, “action films on horseback” were so unusual and different that they began to form a new genre, including “Four Horsemen” (1990), “Going East to Native Land” (1993), “The Sorrow of Brook Steppe” (1996) and “Genghis Khan” (1998), etc. But this genre didn’t last long. There were also war action films, such as “Steel

108

F. XU

Meets Fire” (1991), “Fei Hu Dui” (1995), “Di Hou Wu Gong Dui” (1995). “They attempted to combine the approach of commercial entertainment film of the 1990s with the traditional ‘red classics’ to strike a balance between market appeals and mainstream narratives”.3 However, the heyday of Chinese action film in the early 1990s was over and didn’t come back until the end of the twentieth century. “From 1977 to 1997, the total output of action film was second only to criminal investigation film. A balanced state of creation had been maintained after 1987. However, with limited funds and experiences, Chinese action film failed to establish its own market. We didn’t have action film stars, nor could the quality of action films compete with similar foreign works”.4 Identity of Reshaped Heroes Having been exposed to Western thoughts since its opening to the outside world in the 1990s, the Chinese film market has strived to absorb and adapt novel Western ideas into its traditional cultural fabric in a balanced way. The action film at this time, though still developed within the same story universe of national heroes, began to give some real thoughts to their identity; the film bantered, explored, overturned, rebuilt and finally identified with the heroes. Given the greater depth added to the subjectivity of the heroes and the trend of industrialized genre production, the action film began to take in elements of other genres and created genre hybrids to solve complex plot designs and arouse aesthetic imagination of the identity of the reshaped heroes. Jackie Chan’s kung fu comedy has become a legend of the Hong Kong screen since the late 1970s and has made its way into the mainland market to entertain generations of mainland moviegoers. In addition to some early gang-hood heroic roles, Jackie Chan often played police officers, such as in “Police Story” series, “Crime Story” (1993), “Rumble in the Bronx” (1995) and “Who am I?” (1998). In these roles, he rightfully defended justice and cut off evildoers, like a guardian for the public. “In a highly competitive society where opportunities are not equally shared by all, getting to know that we are loved and cared matters a lot. This is

3 Zhan Qingsheng, The Genre Evolution of Military Action Movies in New China, Film Art, 2017 (6), p. 15. 4 Jia Leilei, A Review of Chinese Genre Film (1977–1997), Film Art, 1999 (2), p. 6.

4

ACTION: CONTEMPORARY NARRATIVES

109

especially true in Hong Kong where East meets West and people lack an ‘integral spiritual identity’. People used to be unable to supervise or regulate any powers, and therefore looked forward to a spiritual guardian”.5 In all these works, Jackie Chan fought alone against dangers and conspiracies, either because it was an unassisted task overseas, or because the backup forces were hampered in speed by institutional limitations, or because the authorities were questionable and untrustworthy. Jackie’s cinematic works in the 1990s, such as “Police Story 4: First Strike”, “Crime Story”, “Rumble in the Bronx” and “Who am I?” (1998), reveal an anxiety about his identity. He was placed in such an awkward position that being a “police officer” or a “special agent”, he could not exercise the powers and privileges that normally come with this identity; instead, he was subject to various limitations. This anxiety could be viewed as “a kind of worrying among the Chinese and even all Easterners about their identity in a West-dominated ‘world’ of the 1990s and their endeavor to position themselves”.6 The action film has been exploring sub-genres and hybrid genres since the twenty-first century, and there grew an appetite for medium and large productions as well as war and military themes, such as “Assembly” (2007) and “Sky Fighters” (2011). It has also paired with other genres, such as adventure suspense (the 2016’s “Time Raiders”), crime (the 2010’s “Wind Blast”), martial arts (the 2011’s “Wu Xia”), gangster (the 2012’s “Cold War”) and fantasy (the 2003’s “Warriors of Heaven and Earth”). It is worth mentioning that the role of actresses has undergone noticeable changes in action film. In most of the earlier works, fighting acts were exclusive to male martial arts actors and female action stars like Michelle Yeoh and Cheng Pei-pei. Actresses not good at martial arts normally played the protected and rescued roles, such as the “Thirteenth Aunt” in “Once Upon a Time in China”. The new century has seen some celebrities with devoted fan bases shining in action sequences of hybrid action film, rather than passively waiting to be rescued, such as Chris Lee in “The Flying Swords of Dragon Gate” (2011) and “The Guillotines” (2011), Lin Chi-Ling in “Switch” and Huang Shengyi in “Its

5 Zhou Xing, On the Oriental Cultural Characteristics of Jackie Chan’s Movies, Contemporary Cinema, 2000 (1), p. 80. 6 Chen Mo, Kung-Fu Star Jackie Chan: From Hong Kong to the World: An Overview of Jackie Chan’s Film Creation, Contemporary Cinema, 2000 (1), p. 78.

110

F. XU

love”. The renewed image of female action heroes also reflects a reshaped identity. The action film continued to expand its theme choices in the new century, but there hadn’t been any innovative changes to its “story core”, until the 2002’s “Charging Out Amazon” came out to set a shining example for contemporary military action film. After years of exchanges, studies and practices in the global context, the mainland action film production progressed significantly. It combined advanced filmmaking techniques, concepts and ideas from the US, Hong Kong and other markets with local culture, values and main-melody ideology, and hence came “Charging Out Amazon”—a 100% Chinese production by August First Film Studio. The film interprets national ideology in an overseas setting, marking an effort of the Chinese film to confirm its identity under the influence of globalization. The protagonists of the film are Chinese Special Forces soldiers performing missions (trainings) overseas. They have an officially approved legitimate identity and a powerful country standing behind them. Though still developed around the theme of patriotism and national pride, this film is different, in that it points to an increasingly stronger country with growing importance in the world. With an iron will, Chinese soldiers finished the military training offered for Special Forces worldwide at the “Hunter School”. At the end of the training, only two national flags were left flying, one of which was Chinese. These Chinese soldiers safeguarded the dignity of the national flag and the honor of their motherland and assisted in the rescue operations that followed. This is a metaphorical representation of China’s national strength, telling us that China has been able to compete with other countries in the world. This marked a breakthrough in the global context at that time. Though “Charging Out Amazon” differs from the 2017’s “Wolf Warrior 2”, in that the latter delivers a sense of absolute confidence and leadership, these two films bring the same perspective to the legitimacy of China’s identity. Given its theme, story, and narrative structure, “Charging Out Amazon” can be seen as a connecting link between its preceding action films and the following “Wolf Warrior 2”. It has also opened the way for Special Forces film, such as “Operation Mekong”, “Wolf Warrior” series and “Operation Red Sea”, etc. With a unique style, Hong Kong action film has had a considerable hold over the mainland film market and received high recognition among mainland moviegoers. After years of exchanges and cooperation, Hong Kong and mainland filmmakers have spread and integrated their cinematic

4

ACTION: CONTEMPORARY NARRATIVES

111

ideas, filmmaking concepts and values to mutually benefit each other. As the mainland film market continued to expand and grow at the end of the twentieth century, its exchanges and integration with Hong Kong gained further momentum. It became a trend for Hong Kong filmmakers to engage in mainland film production, and action films co-produced by Hong Kong and the mainland began to spring up in the twenty-first century, such as “Hero” (2002), “Warriors of Heaven and Earth” (2003), “Kung Fu Hustle” (2004), “The Warlords” (2007), “Ip Man” (2008), “Bodyguards and Assassins” (2009), “Detective Dee” series (2010–2018) and “Taichi” series (2012, 2017), etc. The “Ip Man” series are also of valuable reference. Ip Man’s fist blows in the 2008’s work awakened the national pride of the Chinese people. Set against the background of the Japanese invasion of China in the 1930s, the series feature intense patriotic elements to foster in the audience a deep love for their country and people. They resemble “Once Upon a Time in China” in cinematic theme: Seeing big powers raging through the weak country of old China, the audience could only vent their grievance through the fists of the heroic character. The “Ip Man” series also introduce the life story of the heroic individual, assigning him a legitimate identity to severely punish the enemy who had invaded China. But these works are to offer emotional support. To be specific, Ip Man defeated his opponent to boost the morale of the Chinese nation, but did not produce substantial changes or win real victories for the state. The 2009’s “Bodyguards and Assassins” is a very important work. It tells the story of Sun Yat-sen facing an attempt on his life by assassins sent by the Qing government during a trip to Hong Kong. A motley crew of righteous people from all walks of life banded together to save Sun from great dangers, so Sun left Hong Kong safely. Directed by Teddy Chan and produced by Peter Chan, this film is a co-production between the mainland and Hong Kong, featuring an all-star cast including Donnie Yen, Nicholas Tse, Wang Xueqi, Tony Leung and Chris Lee. The turbulent Hong Kong gave a true portrayal of the precarious Chinese society at that time. The political opponents sent by the Qing court turned out armed fighters, while the revolutionaries became righteous swordmen beyond the reach of the imperial government. The country was still poor and weak. Numerous people with lofty ideals roved in foreign lands, having no sense of belonging, but they cherished the same dreams and wishes. What they wanted was an end to all the hardships, a peaceful and democratic country to live in, and a legal citizenship. Their faith was so unshakable

112

F. XU

that individual efforts, however small, could add up to the completion of a seemingly impossible task, even at the expense of their own lives. The hope and future of the Chinese nation shone through the efforts and struggles of the lower classes. “When an instinct for humanity, willingness to sacrifice and revolutionary idealism were added to the heroism and romance of action films, Hong Kong’s genre film began to make its way into China’s mainstream”.7 Amidst the currents of Western thoughts, these innovative hybrid action films carried on the Chinese culture and expressed a deep concern for the country and the people. The heroism of the protagonists was rooted in patriotism, poetical justice, unyieldingness and other beliefs that have always been part of the traditional Chinese culture. The victory of individual heroes carried the hope of the nation. Given an enhanced national strength and global standing of China, a hero who can win a real victory under the support of the country is emerging. Cultural Imagination of the Legitimacy of China’s Global Standing After the exploration of sub-genres and hybrid genres of action film in the early twenty-first century, China began to open its film market to the outside world under the guidance of the “Belt and Road” initiative and had some further thoughts on its position in the world. It was against such a background that “Wolf Warrior 2” came out to explain China’s global standing and develop a global vision. Instead of favoring the narrow-sensed nationalism, the film takes the perspective of building a community with a shared future for mankind. Under the leadership of the protagonist, the Chinese workers and their international friends won a true victory, justifying the legitimacy of China’s global standing in the new century and the new context. As mentioned above, unlike “Ip Man” who won a spiritual victory, the heroes in “Wolf Warrior 2” and “Operation Red Sea” released a decade later, not only comforted people but also defeated the enemy. They accomplished the glorious mission of protecting overseas Chinese and foreign friends from the dangers and contributed to building a community with a shared future for mankind. These changes have reflected the spirit of our times and the will of our country. The 2014’s “The 7 China Film Association Theoretical Review Committee, 2010 China Film Art Report, China Film Press, 2010, p. 36.

4

ACTION: CONTEMPORARY NARRATIVES

113

Taking of Tiger Mountain” marks an early attempt of remaking red classics into main-melody commercial films. Premiered in 2015, the “Wolf Warrior” adopts a genre-specific narrative structure and has won market recognitions for military action film. “Operation Mekong” (2016) has created a discourse specific to the genre of action film on overseas operations. Based on classic playwriting, its characters and storylines offer some insightful thoughts into human nature. The year 2017 marked a milestone for China’s film market which, in that year, secured its global position. The main-melody commercial film represented by “Wolf Warrior 2” has established a complete set of discourse expressions. “Wolf Warrior 2” was not only a commercial hit which dominated the box office and received high social recognition, but also a successful attempt to embody national ideologies in a genre film. Through precise genre-specific expressions, this film has shown the ideal state of modern China and touched the audience’s nerve. From the emotional comfort of “Ip Man” to the realistic changes in later works, it shows that China is now strong enough to have its voice heard by the world. Once this legitimacy has been proven, Chinese cinema has dropped the old elegiac tone for the broken country and begun to think about the stance of modern China in the world. Despite some rough edges in film production and conception, “Wolf Warrior 2” still plays an extraordinary role. The 2018’s “Operation Red Sea” has gone a step further in commercial genre and production skills. As part of the 2018 Huabiao Film Awards, the honor of top ten feature films went to “Operation Red Sea”, “Wolf Warrior 2”, “Hold Your Hands”, “The Founding of an Army”, “Operation Mekong”, “Our Time Will Come”, etc. These films represent the main-melodies of China and carry some of the commercial genre elements, which highlight the important position of the main-melody commercial film. Wu Jing has impressed the audience deeply with his role of a Special Forces soldier, an army man in the “Wolf Warrior” series. The Chinese nation and Chinese soldiers have more than enough power to defend the peace and safety of their motherland against foreign enemy. A dream that has been so near and dear to the hearts of Chinese for over a century has finally become a reality. In “Wolf Warrior 2”, with a strong country standing behind him, the Chinese soldier Leng protected personal safety and assets of overseas Chinese and rescued the trapped locals in a faraway country of Africa to demonstrate China’s national strength and international status, as well as its humanitarian principles. As Leng said, “Even though a thousand miles away, the man who affront China will pay”.

114

F. XU

The confidence and power in these words sent the blood pulsing through the veins of Chinese audience. Also starring Wu Jing, the 2019’s “The Wandering Earth” falls in the genre of science fiction and adventure, but runs a theme that originates from the “Wolf Warrior” series. The protagonist has changed from Leng Feng who appreciated the aesthetics of violence to Liu Peiqiang, an affectionate yet heroic father who took the safety of all mankind as his own responsibility to foster an advanced sense of identity with the soldiers. In “The Wandering Earth”, Wu Jing still played a soldier, but the theme has come to the height of defending the earth and all mankind to exhibit China’s dominant position in the world and a more inclusive vision. “Operation Mekong” and “Operation Red Sea” resemble “Wolf Warrior 2” in thematic expressions. While Chinese moviegoers have long been exposed to Hollywood stories of the Americans saving the world, the scenes of Chinese police going across the border to hunt criminals in “Operation Mekong” and of Chinese navy performing oversea military operations in “Operation Red Sea” give them a strong sense of confidence, pride and belonging. “Operation Red Sea” builds not an individual heroic image, but a collective image of the Chinese Special Forces soldiers. They have guts, strategies and skills to fight alone or side by side with fellows. The film paints a collective image of China’s armed forces and soldiers who are willing to defend their motherland at any sacrifice, and showcases the strength of China through a display of combat skills, weapons, guns and aircraft carriers, etc. Hybrid genre films have also emerged during this period, such as “Extraordinary Mission” (2017), “Chinese Peacekeeping Forces” (2018) and “The Bravest” (2019). From the 2008 debut to the 2019 sequel “Ip Man 4: The Finale”, the “Ip Man” series have been a constant companion of Chinese audience for ten years and a comprehensive expression of Chinese martial arts action films. The series tell the story of Ip Man who has fought from mainland China to Hong Kong and then to the US, over a span of forty years from the Japanese invasion of China in the 1930s to the global Cold War in the 1970s. The theme has changed, from eulogizing a sense of patriotism and a national spirit that fears no enemy to exploring underlying cultural connotations. “Ip Man 3” focuses more on the traditional culture: The heroism, bravery, a sense of justice, a balanced combination of strength and tenderness, the willingness to always defend the weak against the strong, courage and resolution against enemy and deep love for his wife, as advocated by Chinese martial arts. The bond between

4

ACTION: CONTEMPORARY NARRATIVES

115

father and son/daughter runs through the thread of “Ip Man 4: The Finale”. Against the background of the East–West cultural gap and the Cold War mentality, it shows the tolerance and tenacity embedded in Chinese culture, as well as the solidarity of Chinese people who would stand together no matter where and when. These ethos and cultural traits are, to some extent, an embodiment of the mainstream national ideology and maybe a future direction of main-melody action film. The “Ip Man” series, as an epitome of action film in the twenty-first century, have developed from an exploration of the hero’s identity to the justification of the legitimacy of the country in the new century. Some of the main-melody commercial action film intends to justify the legitimacy of China’s global standing through a display of individual heroism. In these works, the protagonist grows through the process of a mission that helps to build the image of Chinese heroes and a new understanding of China’s position in the world. “Wolf Warrior 2” expresses a recognition of the country and of the “superhero”. It is the military background of Leng and the national support that underpins his acts and decisions. With a country at his back, this “superhero” has emerged to echo the trend of our times and the new global position of China. Chinese popular culture has led us beyond the old limits of imagination. A new story about China and its relationship with the world is told.8 “‘Wolf Warrior 2’ is a war (military) film that comes under the action genre and ‘superhero’ sub-genre. It reflects the concept of Chinese nationalism, the ideological appeal of national image building, and the desire to convey the Chinese dream. Allegorical and metaphorically, it explains China’s international status and the trend of international relations, pushing a subgenre of mainstream blockbusters to an indisputable new height (built on the success of ‘Wolf Warrior’ and ‘Operation Mekong’)”.9

8 Zhang Yiwu, Zhang Yiwu on “Wolf Warrior 2”: The Victory of the New Chinese Superhero, PR World, 2017 (17), p. 49. 9 Chen Xuguang, The New Mainstream Blockbuster “Wolf Warrior 2”: “Genre Strengthening”, National Image Building and “Chinese Dream” Expression, China Film News, August 9, 2017.

116

F. XU

“Wolf Warrior 2”: The Narrative Aesthetics of Heroic Legends “Wolf Warrior 2”, co-written by Wu Jing, Liu Yi and Dong Qun and directed by Wu Jing who also starred in the lead role, portrays a protagonist who rescued overseas Chinese workers and local citizens out of a rebellion in an African country. Produced by Beijing Dengfeng International Media at a cost of RMB 200 million yuan, the film did well at the box office and audience reviews after its release on July 27, 2017. It topped China’s box-office charts with earnings of up to RMB 5.68 billion yuan (or USD 870 million worldwide) and held a 7.2/10 rating on Douban. A wave of national pride and patriotism was sweeping the country in the second half of 2017. “Wolf Warrior 2” is modeled on a superhero who launched a rescue operation, through which his personal growth was achieved. Unlike the 1998’s Hollywood film “Saving Private Ryan”, “Wolf Warrior 2” emphasizes the close ties between the growth of an individual and the future of a nation. Driven by the national spirit and backed up by his country, the protagonist accomplished the mission to show an enhanced strength and global standing of China. In a profound way, the main-melody ideology has been built into the commercial action film. “Wolf Warrior 2” has created a typical heroic figure of the mainmelody commercial film. The playwriting framework of commercial film, and of main-melody commercial film in particular, requires the protagonist to accomplish an externalized and visualized task that takes on a concrete form and reflects a direct causal relationship. This task triggers the “main action” in the action system. In “Wolf Warrior 2”, Leng’s main action, or main task, is to free the hostages and defeat the enemy. As the commercial action film is designed to entertain the viewers and make their senses vibrate, the ideas should be simplified and generalized, and expressed straightforwardly in plain audiovisual language. The viewers will not know what to expect if they are not informed of a concrete task in advance. In the previous chapter, the author has discussed the difference between “wants” and “needs”. Leng wanted to defeat the enemy, but needed to “let go of the past and regain hope” in the subordinate storyline. The story about “a hero completing a certain task” shall begin before the moment the hero accepts the task, and end after the task is completed, and the protagonist shall navigate the audience through this

4

ACTION: CONTEMPORARY NARRATIVES

117

entire process. The following section will decode and analyze in detail the action system of the play based on a three-act structure. The action system of “Wolf Warrior 2”: Act One: Sequence 1: Introduced the protagonist Leng Feng and his status quo. Sequence 2: The Red Scarf rebels disrupted the status quo. Leng responded by deciding to protect the people from vicious attacks.

Act Two: Sequence 3: The medical aid workers were slaughtered. Leng accepted a new mission: To save the trapped workers in the factory within 18 hours. Sequence 4: Chinese-financed Hanbond factory was attacked. Leng fell to a low point: Expelled and injured. Sequence 5: Helicopter rescue. Mid-point: The rescue was successful. But it was immediately followed by a low point: Helicopter crash. Leng decided to fight the enemy to the death.

Act Three: Sequence 6: The protagonist destroyed the enemy tanks. Sequence 7: The protagonist engaged in a final fight with the ultimate enemy to take revenge and save people. Sequence 8: The theme was sublimated by integrating individual and national identity into one. Leng wrapped the Chinese flag around his arm as he moved toward the Chinese fleet. Analysis: (The author will list the dramatic actions in each sequence of a three-act structure, annotate them with playwriting functions, including structural significance and plants/payoffs, and then analyze the cultural meaning and genre elements of each sequence.)

118

F. XU

Act one: Sequence 1: Introduced the protagonist Leng and his status quo. —The legitimacy of “individual heroism” Playwriting analysis: Introduce the background and characters of the protagonist. (1) Introduce Leng: In a masterly long take, the ship was attacked in the sea; the crew was overwhelmed with fright and ran for their lives. Then, the protagonist Leng appeared and jumped into the water. Outnumbered, he fought hand-to-hand with armed enemy and tied them up together. As he got out of the water, he pointed the gun straight at the camera and won with one shot. Leng’s personalities and virtues came through the lens: brave, decisive, calm, physically strong, astute and good at fighting. Plant 1: He didn’t take lives easily; he subdued, not killed, the enemy. The audience finds a compassionate heart of great kindness and humanitarian care beating under the tough exterior and his compassionate nature will play an important role as the story progresses. Plant 2: The protagonist fought the enemy alone, unarmed. This seems a prelude to his singlehanded rescue of hostages with selfmade weapons in the later phases of the story. The background of the protagonist: Leng, once a Special Forces soldier, was discharged from the army for acting on impulse. Plant: He valued friendship very much and therefore acted emotionally. The play captures the complexity of the character through a “moral dilemma”: Leng wanted to protect the family of his deceased comrade, but as a soldier he had to observe the obligatory ethics of not fighting with any civilians. Torn apart by the struggle within him, Leng decided to protect the weak at the price of leaving the army. Here goes an important line: “With or without the uniform, his duty remains”. This line is visually, poetically enhanced by an upgraded shot (slow motion) and a close-up of Leng’s tearful eyes and is highlighted by the solemnity of the reverb and the atmosphere set with the music. This line defines the theme of the story and the spiritual motives of the protagonist.

4

ACTION: CONTEMPORARY NARRATIVES

119

(2) The initial peaceful status quo: Leng has lived in Africa for many years after leaving the army. He has identified himself with the African locals, while looking for clues about the murderer of his fiancée. A subordinate-story character: Leng’s African godson Tundu, who has formed a close attachment with Leng. Plant: Tundu did not have his mother around. Plant: Africa is a place of illicit gang deals and plagues. The drinking scene: Leng was tough as he drank a bottle of white wine in one breath, but he also showed tenderness when he drowned himself in tears, languishing for his fiancée Long Xiaoyun who was believed to have been killed while on a border mission. This scene deals with the background information. Long had proposed a marriage before she set off for the mission, but Leng chickened out under an indecisive state of mind. Plant: An important prop—a bullet. Disclose the tasks of the protagonist when he was living in Africa: To travel across Africa to track down the owner of the bullet and revenge Long. Cultural meaning and genre elements: The film starts by proving the legitimacy of individual heroism. Leng was caught in a moral dilemma: The family of his deceased comrade were driven to despair by forced demolition, whereas as a soldier he had to observe the obligatory ethics of not fighting with any civilians. Then Leng made a choice. Tempted by the righteous and virtuous anger with the forced demolition team, and finally driven beyond endurance by a gun pressed against his head (against his army cap, which amounted to a symbolic violation), Leng put an end to the intolerable injustice. This “impulsive action” constitutes a “flaw” in the play. As explained in the previous chapter on playwriting elements, the “flaw” won’t tarnish the image of the character to cause dislikes among the audience; instead, it goes with all the virtues to flesh out the character. The sense of justice and courage that underlies the “impulsive action” gains the empathy of the audience and builds the legitimacy of individual heroism. When Leng took off his military uniform, his jaw was set, adding an obvious pathos to the sequence. The frustration makes the hero real—he has both merits and drawbacks. The audience empathizes with the character and follows the protagonist into the story. The hero comes from the people and, like

120

F. XU

all the others, he has flesh and blood, love and pain. Likewise, in “Operation Red Sea”, the candy-loving soldier leaped for joy at a candy under heavy fire. This shows the authenticity of the hero. The human nature has a deeper texture in the play, though not in the same sense as the philosophical exploration of life in art film. The commercial film produces convincing dramatic effects through logically structured playwriting and puts the protagonist in an extreme situation that requires him to make a choice. In “Wolf Warrior 2”, Leng was placed under the dramatic setting of a moral dilemma. Whichever choice he made, he would lose something else great on the other end of the scale, namely the “stake”. The classic plays tend to heighten the dramatic tension and reveal some sterling qualities of the protagonist by raising the stakes in his choice. Being kind, righteous and willing to make sacrifices, Leng chose to punish the wicked. This has foreshadowed the later development of the story and indicated that Chinese contemporary commercial film is starting to face the dilemma of human nature and is driven toward bigger stories. However, the right sense of propriety of the dilemma play relies really on the precise understanding of values by the playwriter. This opening sequence introduces the protagonist and the status quo of his world before the story begins. The long shot in the first scene shows advanced filmmaking techniques and carries cultural significance as it portrays the image of Wu Jing, the director and leading actor of this film. Dedicated to carrying forward the spirit of China, Wu Jing has defied all the challenges and dangers to complete the actions of the underwater long shot. Unlike the long shot of the 2014’s Hollywood film “Birdman”, Wu Jing’s long shot shows the attitude of Chinese film workers: Being confident and down-to-earth, they dare to rise to challenges and scale new heights. The use of the breathtaking long shot exhibits “cultural confidence” and makes an “impressive presence”. The contemporary Chinese film holds strong cultural confidence and has the determination to introduce Chinese culture to the world and make China’s voices heard globally. This long shot has larger cultural implications—beyond the technical realm—which justify the legitimacy of China’s place in the contemporary world. Humanism is an important moral principle for global capitalism to win the hearts of people. In almost all the heroic stories of commercial film, the protagonist has an instinct for humanism, advocates the thought of promoting virtues and punishing evils and inspires others. He is ready to make any efforts and sacrifices for the ultimate goal which shines the

4

ACTION: CONTEMPORARY NARRATIVES

121

brilliance of human nature. The audience follows the protagonist through his mission and is educated, in a subtly way, to accept and confirm the presence of humanitarian care in capitalist values. “Wolf Warrior 2” takes up such a stance in the first scene to show that the film has a global vision and shares the humanistic values that currently prevail the world. The main-melody commercial action film usually tells the story of a heroic protagonist accomplishing a great mission. The protagonist realizes personal growth and fully exhibits his personalities and humanistic qualities in the process of the mission. The first sequence is to justify the legitimacy of “individual heroism” of the protagonist (or a group of protagonists) by lending him (or them) artistic authenticity, multidimensional personalities and choice-making qualities. “Operation Red Sea” adopts a “plural protagonist” structure where a group of heroic figures share the same goal. The little stories between the sniper and the assistant at the beginning of the film have informed us about their personalities and prepared us for the awe-inspiring sequences that follow. The leader was held accountable for the wounds of the former sniper, but the sniper himself showed a burning desire to fight the enemy. This impulsive mentality can be seen as a “flaw” in the play. “Operation Red Sea” and “Wolf Warrior 2” feature the same genre elements in the first sequence: The heroes demonstrate righteousness, courage and reckless dedication against the enemy and injustice. The heroism shown in the opening scene brings out empathy among the audience, and the legitimacy of “individual heroism” has been justified as the film introduces the characters and their status quo. In the opening part of “Operation Mekong”, the mutual disapproval between the two male protagonists serves the same purpose. Sequence 2: The Red Scarf rebels disrupted the status quo. Leng responded by deciding to protect people from vicious attacks. —To protect property and reflect national strength. Playwriting analysis: Inciting incident: The Red Scarf rebels upset the once peaceful and self-consistent status quo. Leng reacted: He decided to kill the enemy and save the trapped people.

122

F. XU

(1) Leng asked Qian Bida, a businessman from China, for clues about the bullet, but to no avail. Plant: Qian Bida seemed to be holding something back and showed an eroded sense of national identity as he claimed himself non-Chinese. (2) Inciting incident: The Red Scarf riots Plant 1: In a sadistic way, the rebels killed civilians. Plant 2: China can protect civilians, and a lot of people took refuge in the Chinese embassy. (3) Leng reacted to the inciting incident and decided to save people from vicious attacks. The riots turned Leng’s world upside down. The Chinese government instructed an evacuation of overseas Chinese, but the Chinese forces were not allowed to enter the war zone without the permission of the United Nations. The African leader was assassinated, and Dr. Chen fell into the hands of the enemy. A subordinate-story character: Captain. Righteous and brave though, he was not allowed to provide any support for Leng without the permission of the United Nations. An antagonist: Roach. As a ruthless and conceited mercenary, he killed the African leader. While protecting Qian, Leng appealed to Qian’s better nature of justice and kindness. Qian began to take Leng as a close friend to whom he revealed an important clue: The bullet bore the mark of the local rebels who have hired the most expensive mercenaries from Europe. Plant: The war zone was very dangerous. Knowing that there were still Chinese people trapped in the war zone, including Dr. Chen who was the most wanted man by the terrorists and Tundu’s mother Nessa, Leng decided to go to the war zone alone to rescue the trapped. In Sequence 2, the inciting incident upset Leng’s state of life. The outbreak of war, the trapped overseas Chinese, Tundu looking for his mother… all these elements led Leng toward his goal. The antigovernment rebels symbolized by the specially engraved bullet was the enemy he must wipe out. Therefore, he gave a proactive response to the inciting incident: He offered to rescue the hostages in the war zone alone.

4

ACTION: CONTEMPORARY NARRATIVES

123

Now, the story has its spine—a clear goal for Leng. The last part of the second sequence exposes the audience to the main dramatic conflict that will run through the story: Will Leng defeat the enemy? The end of the first act. Main mission: Leng went the war zone, killing the enemy and saving the people. Cultural meaning and genre elements: This act shows that China has the power to protect civilians. A large number of civilians took refuge in the Chinese embassy. The Chinese ambassador came out, unarmed, in a suit, to confront the Red Scarf rebel army and protect Chinese and African civilians. It tells us that China has the power to protect its people overseas, and this hard power is directly linked to the country’s military strength and international status. The imagery of a supermarket protecting its property indicates that Chinese people own property overseas, and China has the power to protect these people and their properties. Chinese people do not just travel abroad; they live a life there. China must be strong enough to protect its people in as far away as Africa. In this sequence, the riots broke out in Africa. Everyone was helpless as the war landed on their doorstep. The weapons Leng used to fight back were all snatched from the enemy and were thrown away once used up. When he was cornered, he could only pull out a dagger for final resistance. These action scenes tell us the vulnerability, insignificance, helplessness and despair of individual lives in a war. The Chinese nation turned out the savior at this critical moment. The Chinese army confronted the Red Scarf in front of the embassy. The ambassador emphasized the friendship between China and Africa and the Red Scarf retreated. This sequence has impressed the audience with the great power of the country. One thing that truly distinguishes Chinese commercial film from its Hollywood or European counterpart is the embodiment of a shared value of Chinese traditional culture—“personal interests are subordinated to those of the collective”. Though developed within the individual heroic narratives of the capitalist commercial film, the localized Chinese film only depicts heroic individuals with a deep love for the Chinese nation. The film aims to show that a hero, without compromising his independent will, gets even stronger with a powerful nation standing behind him. This

124

F. XU

imagery is manifested in the following acts in which the Chinese army launched missiles and Leng waved the national flag above his head. At the end of the Sequence 2 or the first act, the protagonist identified the mission ahead of him. Generally, the spine of the main-melody commercial film lies in a hero completing a goal upon the national will and the international humanitarian principles. The hero faces a chaotic and irrational world of terror and pursues international moral justice. He considers it an honorable task to protect and rescue his countrymen and international civilians from the chaotic mess of terrorists. Both Leng Feng in “Wolf Warrior 2” and the Jiaolong Assault team in “Operation Red Sea” have this quality. This quality is a frequent feature in ritualized sequences. When Leng stepped off the warship, the Captain, dressed in uniform, made his attitude clear on behalf of China: Though military support was not allowed by international agreements for the time being, China was determined to evacuate its nationals from the war-torn country. When Leng offered to rescue the hostages, he gave a military salute and addressed himself in a proud, loud voice as “a former soldier of the Wolf Warrior Squadron in China’s Special Forces of People’s Liberation Army”. This ritualized imagery (lines, salute and close-up shots) explains the national power and the protagonist’s sense of mission, and gives the audience a sense of national identity, trust, respect and sanctity. Act Two: Sequence 3: The medical aid workers were slaughtered. Leng accepted a new mission: To save the trapped workers in the factory within 18 hours. —To show China’s humanitarian spirit in assisting the citizens of other countries, and its national soft power. Playwriting analysis: (1) The enemy: “Big Daddy”, leader of the mercenaries. Enemy’s goal: To find Dr. Chen. Leng’s goal: To bring back Dr. Chen and 47 overseas Chinese. (2) Hospital fight. The leading lady came out: Rachel, an American doctor in Africa who was brave and fearless and willing to make sacrifice. The first dramatic conflict: Dr. Chen was killed.

4

ACTION: CONTEMPORARY NARRATIVES

125

Leng’s reaction: He saved Rachel and Dr. Chen’s adopted African daughter Pasha and they escaped together. Consequence: Leng escaped, despite the external obstacles of car chase and gunfight, but was infected with Lamanla in the quarantine area. (3) Leng drove away. Rachel cared about Leng, and hence began the subordinate storyline of romance. Plant: The virus would show quick effects and was cureless. The leading mercenary found Pasha important and decided to capture her. Leng’s new mission: To rescue the trapped workers within 18 hours. Cultural meaning and genre elements: This sequence demonstrates China-Africa relations. China has built hospitals in Africa and sent Chinese doctors and aid teams for virus vaccine research and local assistance. Clearly, China has a humanitarian presence overseas and, more importantly, a position in the world. It has the military hard power as shown in the previous sequence, as well as the humanitarian soft power to guarantee survival and well-being for the people of the assisted countries and have its expatriates build a life together with the locals. This sequence goes one step further over the previous sequence to justify the legitimacy of China’s global standing. Heroic rescue operations unfold in the second act of the main-melody commercial action film. The strength of the hero and his country, against the situation he is in, informs us a lot about the time the film is set. The stronger the country is, the wider and deeper support the hero gets. China’s national strength is reflected not only in military terms, but also in its goodwill of offering humanitarian aids. In addition, the heroic protagonists, as a symbol of China’s national power, are taking a leadership role in the films, as can be seen in “Wolf Warrior 2”, “Operation Red Sea” and “Operation Mekong”. This marks a great step forward in main-melody commercial action film of the new century over the previous works such as “Charging Out Amazon” where the protagonist only acted in obedience to the orders of his superior. Sequence 4: Chinese-financed Hanbond factory was attacked. Leng fell to a low point: Expelled and injured. —“Building a community with a shared future for mankind” remains the loftiest goal despite difficulties and challenges.

126

F. XU

Playwriting analysis: (1) Integrate with the factory workers. Leng led his small team to the factory and found the trapped workers who were defending themselves with limited weapons. He Jianguo, the head of security: Calm and composed. Plant: He made a map. Zhuo Yifan: Full of sap, but a little bit conceited, he was an armchair leader. He was attracted to the young doctor Rachel and jealous of Leng. Plant: Pasha didn’t like him because he went in for guns. Pasha symbolized peace and hope in later acts of the story. Tundu’s mom Nessa: A passionate African woman. (2) The second dramatic conflict: The Chinese government sent only one helicopter, not enough to carry all the workers. Lin Zhixiong separated the workers into Chinese and Africans, splitting up some families. Another moral dilemma heightened the dramatic tension, leaving the protagonist with a tough choice to make. Leng has changed and grown. He was not impulsive as he had been; this time, he made a rational, humanitarian decision to evacuate all: Women and children should board the helicopter, and men follow him on foot for the fleet. (3) Attacks at the party. The leading mercenary besieged the factory and shot unarmed civilians. Leng, together with the veteran He Jianguo, outmaneuvered the enemy. Without any actual combat experience, Zhuo Yifan was injured. He was frightened and confused. Leng fought alone until the mercenaries were ordered to fall back by the rebel leader. Consequence: The enemy retreated for the time being. A new crisis: Leng was injured and infected with the virus. He was expelled and left the factory. Prop plant: He Jianguo gave Leng a cartridge clip. Zhuo Yifan’s growth: He accepted Leng who had saved his life to be a friend, and hence began the subordinate storyline of friendship. Rachel’s choice: She followed Leng. The subordinate storyline of romance progressed. The enemy’s new target: Big Daddy killed the rebel leader and decided to capture and kill Leng. The terrorism was escalated and the enemy that Leng would soon confront showed a clearer and more dangerous image.

4

ACTION: CONTEMPORARY NARRATIVES

127

(4) Leng recovered. Pasha’s antibody saved Leng. Rachel completed the task of Dr. Chen, concluding his storyline. Being placed in what is called in playwriting “a dilemma of choices”, the protagonist chose to save both the Chinese and African workers, for he knew that all lives were important and equal, regardless of nationality. But to fulfill dramatic functions, the “stake” of the choice was bound to be huge—it meant more efforts and sacrifices, higher risks and lasting tough battles. A peaceful talk: Leng and Rachel had a heart-to-heart talk at the cemetery to create an imagery of talking about “life” on a place of “death”. They exchanged their understanding of religion and belief, seeking common ground while appreciating differences. They shared a common belief in hope and had the little girl Pasha around, walking us through the imagery of hope and future prospects. Cultural meaning and genre elements: The presence of a Chinese-financed factory in Africa sends a message about “building a community with a shared future for mankind”. China has ensured property safety and medical readiness in the assisted countries and equipped them with know-hows and workforces to ensure that production flows smoothly. The workers have also well integrated with the local community. The factory embodies and advertises China’s hard and soft powers in protecting people’s assets and promoting sustainable production. In a real sense, it demonstrates national influence in the context of global cultures. At the critical moment of the factory, Leng declared the position of his country—to adhere to the principle of “building a community with a shared future for mankind”. This dramatic choice confirmed China’s position in a complex world: Despite the twists and turns in its own development path, China sets its sights high and is always prepared to commit more efforts and resources to protecting the shared interests of all humanity. The notion of “a community with a shared future for mankind” is presented in a dramatic audiovisual way here: There was a Chinese husband and his pregnant African wife, and it was not acceptable to only save the Chinese. This scene bolstered the viewers up and spoke much louder than the sheer slogan “we are family”. Born with a silver spoon, Zhuo Yiwan underwent a personal transformation which was of cultural significance. Pasha didn’t like Zhuo at first because he adored guns, which were of the same model as the one that

128

F. XU

killed Pasha’s father. Pasha was a frail little African girl who symbolized peace and hope. This has set the stage for Zhuo to complete the rescue mission against enemy. This passionate, yet somehow childish young man finally reconciled with the peaceful little African girl after fighting hard against the enemy. It shows the joy of spreading peace and passing down the national spirit to the young. Leng was driven out of the factory for having been infected with the virus. Rachel followed and saved Leng. This ingenious sequence answers a double purpose. For one thing, a romantic subplot can be skillfully woven into the tense narrative to release the tension. Leng and Rachel were growingly attracted to each other, but Leng hadn’t revenged his fiancée (the external cause) and got over her (the internal cause). Therefore, despite the heating affection after confessing to each other, they decided to take a big step back and keep things to themselves. The film doesn’t say too much, but just enough on this part. For another, a Chinese hero and an American lady started a dialogue—a dialogue between China and the West to reach harmonious consensus. In fact, the dialogue had been built up earlier in the second act: Rachel said that she was going to the US embassy for asylum, indicating that she had contacted the embassy on Twitter. Social networks are global, but the users are sometimes isolated. In a war-torn foreign land, the situation keeps changing even for the nationals of major countries. Solidarity and spiritual unity are even more needed in anarchistic, uncivilized places. Therefore, in the warm sun of Africa, Leng and Rachel accepted the beliefs and values of each other and decided to fight the enemy together. The visual imagery presented by the film gives us food for thought: The two stood in front of the graves of people who had worked here before. This indicates that an equal dialogue and consensus between China and the West could be built, only upon long-term efforts of our predecessors. The main-melody commercial action film seeks a higher goal beyond the national mission of protecting overseas assets and offering humanitarian aids; it aims to spread the moral principles through a combination of the country’s soft power and hard power. The challenges and difficulties have never shaken the protagonists’ belief in “building a community with a shared future for mankind”, and that reflects the national will and public values. In “Operation Red Sea”, the French Chinese journalist ran around to rescue her assistant and, in later acts, offered to stand in for other people. These examples have shown that all the characters in this

4

ACTION: CONTEMPORARY NARRATIVES

129

sub-genre uphold the faith in “a community with a shared future for mankind”. Sequence 5: Helicopter rescue. Mid-point: The rescue was successful. It was immediately followed by a low point: Helicopter crash. Leng decided to fight the enemy to the death. —To help vulnerable, helpless civilians, the hero came to the rescue and was willing to make any sacrifice. Playwriting analysis: “Mid-point / first culmination” and “low point”. (1) Leng rushed back into the factory to save the workers. Now, He Jianguo and Zhuo Yifan began to work closely with Leng, as a team. (Subordinate storyline: Friendship). Zhuo defeated a Red Scarf leader who was bullying him and returned him the “spoiled brats” lines. This is a plant and payoff of light comedy, and shows that Zhuo has grown into a brave, calm and decisive man. (3) The helicopter arrived. A sudden-turn: Rachel refused to board the helicopter and insisted on staying with the wounded. Leng held her onto the helicopter. This act shows the brilliance of human nature and the power of humanitarian care. Subordinate storyline: Their love went deep—Leng finally showed his concern for Rachel—but they had to temporarily move apart. The story proceeds to the mid-point/first culmination, very much like the final state where the ultimate goal has been accomplished—Leng successfully had the women and children on board and prepared to evacuate the men. He cared about Rachel and held her onto the plane. This gives the audience an expectation for the ending. (4) The helicopter crashed. The first culmination was followed immediately by an all-time low. The helicopter was shot down by the mercenaries. All the women and children on board fell to the ground. The mercenaries planned another bloodbath. Rachel was lying unconscious. (5) Leng evacuated the workers and brought Rachel through. The subordinate storyline of romance: Leng and Rachel kissed. Leng decided to fight the enemy to the death.

130

F. XU

Act Two ends. Cultural meaning and genre elements: This sequence exemplifies individual heroism. The protagonist put the safety and interests of others before his personal gains and losses and was willing to make heroic efforts or even sacrifices. Having fought through the hardships together and found a reconciliation of cultures, Leng and Rachel returned to the factory. They buried the hatchet and determined to get everyone out. Leng insisted on the “women and children first” rule and sent Rachel away. Leng and Rachel have ironed out their differences and developed a mutual understanding and affinity after saving each other’s life. The main-melody commercial action film embeds in its narratives a sense of recognition of the national power among the young people. In “Wolf Warrior 2”, “Operation Red Sea” and “Operation Mekong”, the middle-aged male protagonists well symbolized national strength. The supporting male roles were mostly young and undisciplined at first, but then identified with the protagonists and fought battles together to practice the national spirit. Zhuo, born with a silver spoon, has grown from having no knowledge about Leng and opposing his ideas to following Leng’s commands and strategies and fighting alongside him. This shift of attitude indicates a recognition of the national power and authoritative heroism among the young. Zhuo defeated a Red Scarf leader who was bullying him and returned him the “spoiled brats” lines. Zhuo has grown in this process. For action genre film, the second act of “hard fight” shall explain in three steps the process of the protagonist battling the enemy. Every step leads the protagonist to a small goal, and all these small goals add up to the ultimate task of defeating the enemy. Normally, the playwriting of the second act follows a properly rigid structure. Since action elements are indispensable, the action sequences shall lay aside the narrative perspective. The film can proceed at a steady pace, as long as the action sequences are carefully designed in the direction of the clearly set goals. A small goal is set for each of the action sequences—the protagonist doesn’t fight for the sake of fighting, and new challenges and difficulties will be triggered as he moves on to the next sequence. Every time the protagonist solves a problem, he finds himself closer to the ultimate goal and, at the same time, interrupted by unexpected things that leave him no other option but to move immediately into the next step. The new problem

4

ACTION: CONTEMPORARY NARRATIVES

131

is always more intense to avoid “diminishing marginal utility” in the film and builds within the audience a renewed sense of tension that would not be obtained through repeated viewing of shootings or physical combats. Act Three: Sequence 6: Took down the enemy tanks. —“Beat the enemy at their own game” to build an image of heroism with wisdom, courage and strategy. Playwriting analysis: Leng, together with He Jianguo and Zhuo, used the enemy’s tank to attack the enemy. Conflict: Ran out of ammo. Leng responded: Hit other tanks with the captured tank. This sequence is mainly about actions (action sequence is a genre element of the action film that contributes to the spectacle of a military war). The scenes and fights in the action sequence come from set pieces to help advance the plot. The characters face many visualized difficulties as they perform specific actions, and the sequence uses plants/payoffs, ingenious prop design and external actions, etc., to build dramatic tensions. Cultural meaning and genre elements: Leng, with no weapons, grabbed a tank from the enemy. Boldly and intelligently, he gunned down several tanks and ran his tank over the enemy. His bravery and wits, which have been clear from the underwater long shot in the first scene of the first act, are further announced in this sequence to show his legitimacy. In fact, the audience has already identified and empathized with him, and this design is to offer an extra guarantee in action film. In this sequence, Leng and the supporting characters teamed up in real sense. Though in a one-to-many tank battle, Leng was not all by himself now; he had a team where three men supported and covered each other and fought the enemy together. “Three heads are better than one”. The presence of partners doesn’t challenge the legitimacy of an individual hero. The decisive battle comes in the third act of the action film—the audience’s expectations raised in the first act must be satisfied to their best

132

F. XU

level here. The opening sequence of the third act is usually about a preliminary fight, or hard fight, where the protagonists fight bravely together. In action film, there is an important element in the formula of a hero’s growth: All members led by the protagonist sink their differences and stand side by side for team battles, so as to prepare the protagonist for the decisive fight. In the third act of “Operation Red Sea”, Jiaolong Assault team fought as one. The next paragraph will introduce how the protagonist fights the final battle alone and, in this sub-genre, how the national will is manifested to complete the paragraph structure of the third act. It is worth mentioning that although action sequences constitute the core of the third act, drama should not be sacrificed. Instead, the dramatic tension can be built through the ingenuity of action design that serves dramatic functions. For example, Leng took a tank by wits. This view is supported by David Bordwell who believes that “In action films, we are told, spectacle overrides narrative, and the result works against the ‘linearity’ of the classical tradition. All the stunts and fights make the film very episodic. But these claims are untenable because narrative and spectacle aren’t mutually exclusive concepts… Every action scene, however ‘spectacular’, is a narrative event and it can advance characters’ goals and alter their states of knowledge… Just as important, if we look at the construction of action films, most aren’t significantly fragmentary. Granted, action set pieces can be integrated with long-running lines of action”.10 Sequence 7: The protagonist engaged in a final fight with the ultimate enemy to take revenge and save people. —To win a substantial victory, demonstrate national power and make China’s voice heard Playwriting analysis: (1) The protagonist, together with his mates, drew “Big Daddy” out of the tank. (2) The mercenaries brought more tanks to kill civilians. He Jianguo and Zhuo were injured and about to be defeated. Leng was stuck under a steel plate and could not move. He took videos of how people were killed and sent it to the fleet. Now, it seemed inevitable that the hero would lose the battle and all the people would die. 10 David Bordwell, The Way Hollywood Tells It, pp. 132–133.

4

ACTION: CONTEMPORARY NARRATIVES

133

This is a “twist” before the end of the third act, normally used to add difficulty and a sense of despair to the last desperate fight. The purpose is to pump up the audience’s expectations by lowing the chance for a win. (3) Finally, Leng used the clip to defeat the enemy. This is the payoff for a prop plant. (The clip was from a teammate who trusted Leng.) Leng was shot by “Big Daddy” and noticed that the bullet was identical to the one that killed his fiancée. Another payoff: “Big Daddy”, the leading mercenary, was the man Leng had been looking for. All the plants have seen their payoffs to guarantee a closed ending. In the grand strings of the theme song, the missiles from the Chinese fleet disabled the enemy’s tanks. Like a bomb, Leng rushed up to his old mortal enemy “Big Daddy”. They got into a vicious fist-fight which, in Leng’s words, was a “blood for blood” fighting. Just as Big Daddy was getting the upper hand, Leng stabbed the silver bullet he had kept around his neck into Big Daddy’s arteries, giving him a bloody end. Then came a punchline in Chinese: “That’s history”. He was waving goodbye to the indecisive and emotional self, and the victory was officially declared here. (The punchline has a familiar ring to it—Just like Zhuo Yifan returned the enemy with the “spoiled brats” line, this punchline has used the plant/payoff technique that screenwriters often use.) Cultural meaning and genre elements: Leng fought the enemy head-on. Hearing Big Daddy saying “People like you will always be inferior to people like me”, Leng violently overpowered Big Daddy in a flash and replied, “That’s history”. These words smashed the label of “Sick Man of east Asia” which was once on the Chinese. The hero rose up from the ashes of humiliation and won a substantial, glorious victory in the final battle to demonstrate a strong resolution of Chinese rejuvenation. This film has formed a contrast to “Ip Man”. Ip Man’s victory against his Japanese rival was heroic, but personal. It represents only a symbolic glory and imagination of national rejuvenation and cannot be interpreted as the victory of the entire nation against Japanese invaders. However, in “Wolf Warrior 2”, Leng won the fight and hence completed the mission, which means the Chinese nation had the final victory. Therefore, “Wolf Warrior 2” can better meet the needs of the audience than any previous works by thoroughly showing the nation’s strength. The Chinese fleet launching missiles to the rescue seems to be the most shocking moment in this act. It is not a “coincidence” (a coincidence is considered to have no dramatic inevitability in the play, or even a clumsy

134

F. XU

tactic used by the screenwriter to solve the main conflict), or a skillful design that depends on a third party other than the protagonist’s own efforts to defeat the enemy. Quite the contrary, it is a solution that fits the ethos of the film. While the weapons of the mercenaries are emblematic of terrorism, the missiles from the Chinese fleet represent the country’s righteous force to maintain peace. In this sense, the missiles taking out the tanks sends the exact message of the film. As mentioned above, behind the heroic individuals of Chinese contemporary commercial film stands a strong country. The flying missiles and the protagonist who bounced up constitute a decisive attack against the evil forces. Leng’s individual subjectivity was not compromised; he still had to face the ultimate enemy “Big Daddy”. Believing that a blood debt must be paid by blood, Leng fought “Big Daddy” unarmed. In this final fight, Leng needed victory in two dimensions. First was to defeat the enemy and accomplish the external goal. Second, on the spiritual level, Leng had to let go of the past, overcome his weaknesses of being impulsive, emotional and indecisive, and become a tougher man who has undergone internal growth and met subconscious needs. This is shown as he stabbed the enemy with the bullet and delivered the last lines. The one-on-one combat that comes last in an action film has a decisive significance. Leng must defeat “Big Daddy”, both physically and mentally. If the ultimate enemy dies, the enemy camp will crumble. But there needs a ritualized visualization of a strong nation standing behind the heroic individual. Therefore, the determined and righteous protagonist wins the military support of a Chinese warship. Meanwhile, the state’s will offers the mental strength for Leng to persist until the end. “Operation Red Sea” also includes sequences where the hero’s willpower and the state’s strength meet each other. The power of the hero brings China’s navy missiles. Indeed, behind each hero stands his country. Every hero has a weapon in his hand, and the country behind him has a powerful force too. The individual heroism and the national willpower merge into one to announce the victory of the Chinese culture as a whole. In the previous action films, victory could only be envisioned to motivate and inspire the audience, but contemporary China wins substantial victories. Sequence 8: The theme was sublimated by integrating individual and national identity into one. Leng wrapped the Chinese flag around his arm as he moved toward the Chinese fleet.

4

ACTION: CONTEMPORARY NARRATIVES

135

—To demonstrate the integration of personal and national identity in a ritualized setting to justify the legitimacy of China’s global standing. Playwriting analysis: On the way home, Leng was resting his head on Rachel’s lap, and the subordinate storyline of romance was hence sublimated. Leng looked around at his friends: injured though, they were all alive. Even Lin Zhixiong, who was once timid and coward, opened his heart. Pasha didn’t like Zhuo at first, but feeding him a candy appeared to be a gesture of reconciliation. The subordinate storyline of friendship was also sublimated, and all the plants have had their payoffs. Everyone threw away their weapons, and Leng wrapped the national flag on his arm and held high as the truck passed through the war zone. The warring sides stopped shooting and let them pass safely.—Ritualized sublimation. Act Three ends. Cultural meaning and genre elements: The sublimation sequence shows the cultural confidence that the film brings to the audience and proves the legitimacy of the global standing of China’s national power. The imagery of Leng holding up the national flag shows an integration of an individual and his country. Leng himself can be seen as the national flag which represents the country that has always been standing behind him. This additional sequence is indeed a subtle arrangement that comes very naturally after the action scene. Everyone laid down their weapons and passed through the war zone in the capacity of civilians. The gunfire was ceased in the war zone. This sequence carries the implication of promoting peace. The action film ends when the enemy is defeated, but there is usually added a short, but extremely shocking and moving sublimation sequence. The national flag, held by Leng, crossed the war zone; the Chinese navy soldiers lined up on the aircraft carrier, looking into the distance and paying tribute to the martyrs. Of a ritualized significance, this sequence is the most intuitive display of the national power; it inspires the viewers on both emotional and cognitive levels so that they can deeply empathize and

136

F. XU

identify with the country after seeing all these hard fights, and acknowledge the bond between a powerful country and powerful people. In this way, mainstream values are conveyed ingeniously and subtly through the intriguing scenes of the films.

Summary: The Hero’s Revenge, Violence and Boundaries The playwriting analysis has revealed a strict narrative logic of “Wolf Warrior 2” which conforms to a complete, closed-ended three-act structure. The film adopts a full-fledged storytelling structure and narrative approach, balancing between commerciality and mainstream ideology. Anchored in a localized dimension, it has been well received by the audience. The storyline burns alive in the audience a sense of identity with the country and the nation, and the playwriting meets all the expectations of the audience for commercial film. Following a systematic narrative routine, the film educates the audience with mainstream ideology in the most subtle way while repeatedly entertaining them with the story. Liu Yi, the screenwriter of “Wolf Warrior 2”, introduced his “3 × 3” playwriting system in an exclusive interview: “It is basically a traditional three-act structure, but with some further divisions. In a 90-minutes screenplay, an installation comes every 10 minutes to set the trends and turns of the story. This is generally how the plot goes”.11 Liu’s system confirms the classic narrative aesthetics, which has in a sense explained the success of “Wolf Warrior 2” as a military action film. When it comes to genre playwriting and China’s genre film, Liu insisted: “A quintessential action genre play must have a fight scene within the first 15 minutes, which is the second climax of the film. No exception. Many newcomers tend to kick over the traces. However, one must know a box inside out before he could jump out of it. How absurd for someone who hasn’t yet had a driving license to throw words about driving on a racing track where everyday traffic rules don’t necessarily apply. If you still confuse accelerator with clutch, how can you dream about breaking free from the most basic rules? I think China’s film industry is not genre-literate enough to pay full respect to genres. Some filmmakers fail to observe the rigidity of 11 Sohu.com, An Interview with Screenwriter Liu Yi of “Wolf Warrior 2”: Film Is a Work with “Dedications”, January 2, 2018, https://www.sohu.com/a/214275794_100 008823, accessed on April 5, 2020.

4

ACTION: CONTEMPORARY NARRATIVES

137

genre conventions; some apply only a rudimentary knowledge of genres to everywhere they could possibly think of”.12 Liu Yi talked about the status quo of genre film and genre playwriting in China from the perspective of a screenwriter and clarified the necessity for Chinese filmmakers to understand genre narrative aesthetics. “Wolf Warrior 2” can be seen as a successful example of classic plays in the Chinese context. Through proper character building, this film aligns Chinese contemporary heroism with mainstream values and national ideology. The theme is sublimated from individual subjectivity to patriotism and humanism. The overseas rescue operations performed by a heroic individual well indicates our national strength in the world. The generosity of the Chinese people justifies the legitimacy of China’s position in a globalized context. Other characters, including the young rich man, veteran and American doctor, have also identified themselves with the heroic protagonist; this shows the influence of Chinese culture on contemporary Chinese and Westerners. However, we shall keep the success of “Wolf Warrior 2” in perspective. Some of the credit must go to the good timing, favorable market dynamics and supportive audience. First, the film was released at a good timing when China was undergoing fast development and becoming a powerful presence in the world. The “Belt and Road” initiative has spread China’s influence that crossed the continents of Asia, Africa and Europe. Second, though flopping at the overseas box office, it was well received on the Chinese market—the second largest in the world—making it a cut above the rest. Third, the film sends a message that resonates very strongly with the Chinese viewers. Their aspiration for a strong and prosperous country has been ignited. The scene of Leng holding up the Five-star Red Flag, which represents the image of the nation, as he passed through the war zone projects in the audience an image of the modern Chinese nation that has stood numerous vicissitudes but never gave up. Despite the huge success, “Wolf Warrior 2” cannot shy away from controversy, especially over its violent tone. Being one of the commonest elements of genre film, the “aesthetic of violence” is like a two-edged sword that cuts both ways. Chinese local cinema is no stranger to it, and this is particularly so of the martial arts film and kung fu film in which violence is deeply embedded. The aesthetic justifies the presence 12 Eastday.com, An Exclusive Interview with Screenwriter Liu Yi of “Wolf Warrior 2”: A Good Playwriter Knows His Boundaries, August 6, 2017, http://mini.eastday.com/a/ 170806004130623-4.html, accessed on April 5, 2020.

138

F. XU

of violence, blood, killing, aggression and similar contents in the film, as a means to attract the audience and reward them with psychological pleasure, so as to maximize commercial interests. However, having too many violent scenes will make a film unwatchable by audience of some ages. Such a film does not contribute to the spread of positivity; instead, it might produce disturbance and negativity that upsets the society and culture. Given the large share of under-age moviegoers, the US has established an “MPA rating system”. If there is too much violence, the film will lose its teen audience; the more violent the scenes are, the more audience will be excluded. Therefore, all Hollywood productions need to weigh up the aesthetic of violence and commercial interests. The rating system has to some extent regulated the use of violent contents in the film. However, China’s film censorship system and market regulations have not drawn a clear line for the legitimacy of violence. “To promote the development of China’s film industry, the National Radio and Television Administration has implemented moderately loose policies on film expression and adopted a ‘bottom-line censorship’ strategy to encourage the diversity of film genres. Though in favor of the film industry, the ‘bottom-line censorship’ is not in the best interests of the under-age viewers. ‘The Great Wall’, a Chinese-Hollywood fantasy film directed by Zhang Yimou, was rated PG-13 in the US. But when it appeared on Chinese screens, the interests of the under-age viewers were not properly taken care of”.13 The PG-13 rating is a caution that some contents included in the film may not be appropriate for children under the age of 13. “Wolf Warrior 2” has borrowed some ideas from the Hollywood blockbusters and inevitably contained a lot of gory and violent scenes, such as the armed men shooting civilians and the bloody fights. How would it be rated by the US standards? Is it suitable for viewers at all ages, given the violence and boundaries, even if not based on the US standards? The film was released in China during a summer vacation, when a lot of parents brought their kids into the theater. Now that a perfect balance is hard to attain between the aesthetic of violence and social ethics, we need industry practices and academic discussions to help us define the boundaries. “Boundaries are always there for filmmakers, be it through state censorship or moral and social constraints or mainstream audience 13 Cao Yiping, Partially Ineffectiveness of American Film Rating System: Reflection on the Report of The Federal Trade Commission, Journal of Beijing Film Academy, 2019 (11), p. 82.

4

ACTION: CONTEMPORARY NARRATIVES

139

expectations”. But where on earth are the boundaries? It’s up to us to find out. As a saying goes, “No turning back even if being encountered with setbacks and failures”. As filmmakers, we shall learn from failures, so we know where to improve on.14 The idea that extremely dramatic actions are appreciated by the classic narrative’s aesthetics cannot justify the abuse of violence in film, especially when it goes against the aesthetic intentions of China’s main-melody commercial films. The classic playwriting structure is used in Hollywood studios to cater to the mainstream capitalist values, whereas Chinese film, especially mainmelody commercial film, is framed by national ideology. They carry different cultural messages in this regard. Therefore, it takes us some time and effort to understand and accept the Western theories, and our works at this stage will undergo substantive adjustments to shape genre variations of the new era. We need to give an objective and dialectical perspective to such works to recognize its significance for film development, and to explore possible chances for improvement. The normative system of genre-based narration works well in China despite occasional hiccups. For example, the ethical conflict between the aesthetic of violence and traditional values is reflected in “Wolf Warrior 2”. The eye-for-eye violence in “Wolf Warrior 2” follows a revenge routine of action film, but Chinese local culture tends to transform the instinct of revenge into reconciliation. Therefore, the aesthetic of violence can be endowed with new meanings under the influence of the Chinese cultural concepts of “courage” and “righteousness”. Along the enhanced national strength has come a growing global role of China. From exporting productivity to exporting creativity, from looking to the West to being seen by the West, China has become a focus of the world’s culture. The ideological education through Chinese films reflects China’s social and cultural soft power and demonstrates to the world the innovative spirit and cultural inclusiveness of China as a big power. It also carries a great social significance as it drives economic growth and trade cooperation, provides broader opportunities for employment and consumption, and blazes a new path for the global transfer of China’ cultural industry. As Xi Jinping pointed out: “As the world is undergoing major developments, transformation, and 14 Sohu.com, An Interview with Screenwriter Liu Yi of “Wolf Warrior 2”: Film Is a Work with “Dedications”, January 2, 2018, https://www.sohu.com/a/214275794_100 008823, accessed on April 5, 2020.

140

F. XU

adjustment, we must stay on guard against potential risks and dangers while seizing the opportunities with a global and strategic perspective. We must stay our course, amid the great changes unseen in a century. The idea of ‘building a community with a shared future for mankind’ on the ‘Belt and Road’ platform is proposed in line with our reform and opening-up policy and long-term national development. It tallies with the deep-rooted Chinese values of universal peace, as well as the principle of amity and good neighborliness that guides our interactions with other countries. This idea is based on a high ground of international morality”.15 Through the playwriting analysis of “Wolf Warrior 2”, it can be seen that the main-melody commercial action film has the following aesthetic characteristics: In terms of the theme, this sub-genre highlights: (1) The country has the hard power to safeguard its people. The supermarket represents property safety, and the rescue mission sequence proves the legitimacy of properties. In the past, military genre film never emphasized the legitimacy of properties which, in fact, were thought to be the most compromisable or even destroyable in order to save people. However, “Wolf Warrior 2” sends a clear message that properties should also be protected, and China has the ability to protect people’s properties. Overseas Chinese are not only guests to other countries, but also legal owners of properties there. In case their safety is endangered by terrorism, the country will send armed forces to protect them and declare their legitimacy of living a life there. (2) The country has the soft power to help others. China has provided humanitarian assistance, built hospitals, sent enabler troops, doctors and workers and offered technical and financial support. This is a well-intentioned output of the soft power that is based upon military strength. (3) The country is dedicated to the great cause of building a community with a shared future for mankind. When faced with a choice, the heroic protagonist gave a humanistic response. To realize the goal of a community with a shared future for mankind, he helped both the Chinese and the foreign people. The Chinese-funded factory in Africa means not only an inflow of workforce and technical support, but also a 15 People.cn, Xi Jinping: We Must Promote Dialogue, Consultation, Contribution, Shared Benefits, Win–Win Cooperation, Exchange and Mutual Learning to Promote Joint Development of the “Belt and Road” and to Benefit People, August 28, 2018, http://jhsjk.people. cn/article/30254542, accessed on March 15, 2019.

4

ACTION: CONTEMPORARY NARRATIVES

141

guarantee of life for factory workers and their families. The factory has the productivity and is a platform of continuous development opportunities. The country spreads mainstream ideology and international discourse power through this platform. (4) Behind the heroic individual stands his country. Unlike the Hollywood stories about individual heroes, the Chinese action film under the umbrella of main-melody commercial genre gives the heroic protagonist a complete storyline and growth trajectory as well as the support from the country. The will of the state is visualized in the film. For example, the missiles of “Wolf Warrior 2” and the warships of “Operation Red Sea” represent a strong nation that is always standing behind the heroes. The country has given the hero an honorable mission and offered strong supports throughout the process. The spirit of a great country is reflected in every detail of the heroic actions. At critical moments, our country never abandons heroes or people; it saves them instead. The national ideology is a constant presence in heroic stories. In terms of the plot, this sub-genre usually works within a paradigm that consists of the following components: (1) The legitimacy of “individual heroism”. The action film starts with a heroic protagonist who has a multifaceted personality. Under the positive image of integrity, strength and bravery, the protagonist also has a weak spot which only goes to show his tenderness and virtuous human nature. (2) A rescue mission. As the living embodiment of the national will, the hero is set to complete a rescue mission. People in such commercial films are mostly the fragile middle class who feel anxious and alarmed for their own safety and properties. The hero speaks with the voice of his country to inform and prove to everyone that they are safe under the protection of the country which is always worth relying upon. (3) Dilemma of choices. Every time the protagonist is driven to a difficult choice between narrow-sensed nationalism and a community with a shared future for mankind, he chooses the latter. This is a necessary situational sequence designed to highlight the theme. Such choices have added clarity to the protagonist’s pursuit of the greatest ideal of creating a world truly shared by all and aroused a heroic soul of unselfish devotion in him. As drama theorist George Pierce Baker put it, “The dramatist knows that not what a man thinks he thinks, but what at a crisis he does, instinctively, spontaneously, best shows his character. The dramatist knows, too, that though we may think, when discussing patriotism in the abstract, that we have firm ideas about it, what reveals our real beliefs is our action at a crisis in the history of our

142

F. XU

country”.16 (4) A decisive battle. Being an essential part of an action film, the decisive battle informs the audience of how the story ends, just like the dust settles to meet their expectations. In a main-melody commercial film, the protagonist must engage in the decisive battle, fighting for a goal beyond his own personal interests—he fights for himself and the nation, for a peaceful world and the shared destiny of the mankind. (5) Ritualized sequences. First, ritualized drama can be added to conventional narrative sequences to justify the legitimacy of heroic individuals representing the national power. For example, Leng offered a military salute and addressed himself as a former Special Forces soldier. Second, a ritualized sequence is also used at the end of the film to confirm the legitimacy of the national power. Following the decisive battle, there is normally a lyric sequence of the protagonists walking along the bright path. The main-melody commercial film, in particular, highlights national power in this sequence. It’s not just about a triumph of the protagonist; it’s a ritualized embodiment of the national power. For example, the ritualized sequences, in which Leng “turned into” the national flag and the Jiaolong Assault team assembled on the aircraft carrier, conclude the film and give the best footnote to the power of the country. In terms of the characters, this sub-genre usually adopts the following character settings: (1) A hero with justified legitimacy of individualism. The protagonist has individual subjectivity. In addition to being brave and kind like ordinary heroes, he also has the initiatives to make his own choices. For example, the interaction between Leng and his African godson is full of emotional depth; the candy-loving soldier in “Operation Red Sea” adds a dimension of humanness to the tough Special Forces soldiers; the protagonist in “Operation Mekong” recalled past happiness with his family. (2) An affectionate partner (family bond, friendship, love). While resolutely performing the national mission, the protagonist has a partner by his side who can inspire his inner soul. Just like “yin” and “yang” are inseparable yet complementary forces, the doctor Rachel with Leng and the journalist with the Jiaolong Assault team leader have explored the human nature of the heroic protagonist through interactions and conflicts. Together, they helped each other and went to the battlefield (the partner was not a vulnerable person waiting to be rescued). (3) A young partner who represents the new force. This role is played by 16 George Baker, Dramatic Technique, Translated by Yu Shangyuan, China Drama Press, 2004, p. 20.

4

ACTION: CONTEMPORARY NARRATIVES

143

young actors and represents the continuation and inheritance of heroism. Given the social influence of the film, young actors have a strong appeal to the youth, who are more likely to identify with people of their generation. The young audience will empathize with the young characters who have shown a growth trajectory in the story and embarked on a journey of spiritual renewal. There are many examples, such as Peng Yuyan in “Operation Mekong”, Zhang Han in “Wolf Warrior 2” and Huang Jingyu in “Operation Red Sea”. (4) A team that represents the national strength. Certainly, national power is not demonstrated by slogans; it must be visualized by a national army that really exists. The navy in “Operation Red Sea” has a strong presence and influence. In the A-story of the Jiaolong Assault team, the navy was awaiting orders and closely monitoring the actions of the heroic protagonists. It was ready to provide support at any time and delivered a final blow to help the hero complete the rescue operation. In terms of the techniques, this sub-genre features many smart designs and ingenuities in cinematic plays: (1) Ritualization. The state power is ritualized and manifested in many details. For example, Leng held up the national flag with his left arm in “Wolf Warrior 2”, and the naval force and warships formed ranks in “Operation Red Sea” to produce a visualized form of ritual effects. As for actions and lines, Leng offered a military salute and addressed himself as “a former soldier of the Wolf Warrior Squadron in China’s Special Forces of People’s Liberation Army” and the Jiaolong Assault team introduced themselves to identify with the national power through a ritualized imagery. These ritualized imageries reflect the protagonist’s sense of mission and lend the audience a sense of identity and trust with the power of the country so that they revere and hallow the country. A sequence or plot can be of ritual significance, so can a line, a prop or even a color. Any signifier that represents an underlying concept at the state level is a ritualized presence. (2) Plant and payoff. The “plant and payoff” is a technique used in screenwriting to weave a narrative structure, in which plot elements loaded with cultural and thematic meanings are sewn together to present the panorama of the story. The “plant and payoff” helps to build up the dramatic tension, telling the audience what to expect and then providing the answer. Instead of sermonizing, the play expresses the will of the state quite naturally through the use of this technique. For example, the bullet gave Leng a clue to track down the terrorists and a way to cherish the memory of his fiancée in the subordinate storyline of romance. The specially engraved bullet, which Leng had

144

F. XU

kept around his neck, led him to “Big Daddy” who was then stabbed to death with the bullet. This was a ritualized revenge to give the enemy a taste of his own medicine. Likewise, the line “That’s history” was a return punch for having once been called the “Sick Man of East Asia”. Leng was fighting back with the weapon that the enemy had used against him. (3) Amusing and lighthearted lines and sequences. This is a common element of commercial action film, and the presence of this “humorous” element in domestic action films points to our advanced techniques and cultural confidence. For example, the line “That’s history” was uttered loud with a human touch by the proud lips. It offers the audience greater pleasure and satisfaction than simply preaching. “Operation Red Sea” brilliantly paints a portray of a young candy-loving soldier: It was only a joke at first to show the warmth of human affection between Special Forces soldiers. When the young soldier was dying, a female soldier, eyes wet with tears, offered him some sweets to refer to the joke. The props of candies and the action of eating candies are an application of the “polarity” technique as introduced by the author in the playwriting chapter. From comedic to tragic tones, from a sense of intimacy which is commonly found among the average people to a solemn feeling after the noble death of the hero, the film has delivered a profound cinematic portrayal of the characters. In recent years, the most popular Chinese action films have shown a tendency to satisfy the audience’s heroic complex and desire. The audience looks forward to seeing the heroes grow, probably through hardships, and successfully complete their missions in the end. This echoes with the mainstream cultural imagination of China. The Special Forces soldier Leng Feng in “Wolf Warrior 2” shows a typical image of a national hero. His growth trajectory was dotted with career challenges, the pain of losing his lover, the persistence of tracking down the enemy and friendship with ordinary people in other countries. Therefore, the audience empathizes with Leng, who is also an ordinary person with flesh and blood. This national hero, coming from the people, performed the mission of rescuing the hostages and protected the lives and properties of foreign civilizes. Through plants and payoffs, his values and stance of building a community with a shared future for all mankind have been recognized by the audience. The things the hero did, the principles he upheld and the responsibilities he shouldered have reflected the strength and position of China as a country that stands on its own feet in the family of nations, and answered the need of the country to show its cultural image to the outside world. The Chinese navy in “Operation Red Sea”

4

ACTION: CONTEMPORARY NARRATIVES

145

and firefighters in “The Bravest” are all national heroes like this. The image of a national hero reflects China’s mainstream aesthetic imagination, expresses the values that represent the positions of the country and the nation, and promotes the basic ethical views of upholding virtues and condemning evils.

CHAPTER 5

Historical Films: Beyond National Imagination

New Narrative Aesthetics in Historical Films As an important film genre in the history of Chinese cinema, revolutionary and historical films have come a long way over the past 70-odd years since the founding of the PRC in 1949. Playing a pivotal role in communicating politics, history and ideology as well as in promoting national image, such films are subject to the regulation and guidance of national policies and film and television authorities. This genre has been redefined several times as the political and cultural needs changed. In 1987, the State Administration of Radio, Film, and Television (SARFT) and the Ministry of Finance issued a joint notice, which clearly stipulates that “revolutionary and historical films refer to films about major revolutionary events in China since the First Opium War in 1840, especially since the founding of the Communist Party of China (CPC) in 1921”.1

1 Su Yun (Editor-in-chief), The Joint Notice of the State Administration of Radio, Film, and Television and the Ministry of Finance on the Establishment of the Fund for Financing the Production of Feature Films on Major Themes, China Film Yearbook, China Film Yearbook Press, 1990, p. 34.

© Peking University Press 2022 F. Xu, Transformation of Contemporary Film Genre, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6860-0_5

147

148

F. XU

In a notice dated July 28, 2003, the SARFT redefined them as “films and TV dramas about major events in the history of the CPC and feats of important Party, government and military leaders or their relatives”.2 In 2006, the SARFT issued a regulation, clarifying that Chinese revolutionary and historical films and TV dramas are those dramatizing the life, work and feats of Party and state leaders as well as important events, figures and decisions in the history of the CPC, the PRC and the PLA. These Party and state leaders include the current and former general secretaries of CPC Central Committee, standing committee members and other members, including alternate members, of the Central Political Bureau of the CPC, secretaries of the Central Secretariat of the CPC; state presidents and vice presidents; chairpersons and vice chairpersons of the NPC Standing Committee; premiers, vice premiers and councilors of the State Council; chairpersons and vice chairpersons of the CPPCC; chairpersons and vice chairpersons of the Central Military Commission; presidents of the Supreme People’s Court and procurators general of the Supreme People’s Procuratorate; and directors, deputy directors and standing committee members of the Central Advisory Commission.3 As we can see, this genre has been penned up in a strict time span and a limited range of themes. Nonetheless, it has thrived thanks to enormous financial and political support from the government. But its production relies heavily on national policies as well as the attention and support of competent authorities, none more so than the films that pay tribute to special occasions, which first appeared during the 10th anniversary celebrations of the founding of the PRC during 1958–1959. “In the second half of 1958, the central government decided to organize a number of cultural activities to pay tribute to the 10th anniversary of the PRC, including the production of seven color feature films”.4 2 Zhao Yuming (Editor-in-chief), Notice of the State Administration of Radio, Film and Television on Adjusting the Project Initiation and Review Methods for Revolutionary and historical Films and TV Dramas, China Radio and Television Yearbook, Chinese Radio and Television Press, 2004, p. 153. 3 Yu Xiaoyi (Editor-in-chief), SARFT Notice on Issuing the Administrative Regulations on Project Initiation and Completion of Revolutionary and historical Films and TV Dramas and the Administrative Regulations on Script Filing and Completion of Documentary Films, China Film Yearbook, China Film Yearbook Press, 2007, p. 18. 4 Ding Yaping and Chu Shuangyue, The History, Status Quo and Problems of the Production of Revolutionary and Historical Films, Journal of Shanghai University (Social Sciences Edition), 2015 (01), p. 52.

5

HISTORICAL FILMS: BEYOND NATIONAL IMAGINATION

149

Following the decision, favorable policies and considerable funds were allocated to support the production of these films. To a great extent, revolutionary and historical films are produced to commemorate special occasions, which determine that their themes, cultural expression and financial investment are all subject to national policies. Narrative of National Ideology Since the founding of the PRC, revolutionary and historical films have basically gone through four stages of development. The first stage spans from 1949 to 1966, during which the production of films in this genre reached the first height, with a myriad of classics presented including “Fighting North and South” (1952), “The Story of South Island” (1955), “Five Heroes on Langya Mountain” (1958), “The Warfare of Landmine” (1962), “The Naval Battle of 1894” (1962) and “Tunnel Warfare” (1965). Films in this period recreate the hard-won victory by China in the revolutionary war, eulogizing heroes of the war and raising the spirit of the people to build a socialist country. “These films have helped shape the mainstream ideology in China by recounting the stories of the revolutionaries who devoted their life to the Party’s cause and arousing patriotic feelings in the people”.5 The second stage lasts from 1966 to 1976, the Cultural Revolution period when a leftward shift in politics and witch-hunting hindered or even stalled the production of all film genres, including revolutionary and historical films. Few films in this genre were made during this stage, including “Reconnaissance Across the Yangtze” (1974), “Sparkling Red Star” (1974) and “Huo Hong De Nian Dai” (1974). The third stage covers the period from 1978 to the late 1990s. After the Cultural Revolution, revolutionary and historical films embarked on a new journey. From the late 1970s to the early 1980s, a wave of films hit the big screen to vent the pent-up emotions and heal the broken hearts of people who had fallen victim to the Cultural Revolution, for instance, “The Great River Flows On” (1978), “Newsboys” (1979), “China in Flammen” (1979), “The Daylight” (1979), “Sleeping Tiger Ridge” (1980), “Cross the Dadu River” (1980) and “Snow on Mountain

5 Yin Hong, Revolutionary and Historical Films Should Be Based on Historical Facts, Wenyi Bao (Literature and Art Newspaper), June 29, 2011, 3rd edition.

150

F. XU

City” (1980). They boldly dramatized the deeds and feats of revolutionary leaders such as Mao Zedong, Zhou Enlai and He Long. Following the film style at the first stage, films in this period tended to romanticize the past rather than tell the truth about the past. Ignoring the diversity and complexity of social structures and lives, they failed to reproduce the true history. Oversimplified characterization of leaders of the KMT and the CPC hardly revealed the inner life of the characters.6 But there were two exceptions, namely, “Nanchang Uprising” (1981) and “Xi’an Incident” (1981) which strived to tell true stories about history, setting the tone in filmmaking for a long time afterward. As the reform and openingup deepened from 1986 to the 1990s, this film genre reached another height.7 In 1987, the steering group for the production of revolutionary and historical films was established, which, to a great extent, has nudged politics into cinema and ideology into history. The late 1980s and the 1990s witnessed a constant stream of epic films propping up, including “The Kunlun Column” (1989), “The Birth of New China” (1989), “Decisive Engagement” (trilogy) (1991–1992), “The Great Turning” (duology) (1996) and “The Great Military March Forward” (tetralogy) (1997–1999). Aiming to reveal the untold history, these films were well received and very popular in China. Particularly, “The Creation of a World” and “Zhou Enlai” dealt with historical facts which were highly controversial at that time. The fourth stage is from the start of the twenty-first century through present. During this period, revolutionary and historical films hit a new high and began shifting toward commercial and genre filmmaking. After China joined the WTO, the wave of globalization and marketization swept across the Chinese film industry. With Hollywood blockbusters and Hong Kong films flooding in and commercial films taking off, revolutionary and historical films had to reinvent themselves and embrace commercial elements to cater to young audience. To this end, they must keep up with the times and yield to audience’s demand on all fronts from production, shooting to marketing, according to Yin Hong.8 For example, “On the Mountain of Tai Hang” (2005) made a breakthrough 6 Ding Yaping and Chu Shuangyue, The History, Status Quo and Problems of the Production of Revolutionary and Historical Films, p. 48. 7 Ibid, p. 50. 8 Yin Hong, Revolutionary and Historical Films Should Be Based on Historical Facts,

3rd edition.

5

HISTORICAL FILMS: BEYOND NATIONAL IMAGINATION

151

by inviting celebrities from Hong Kong and Taiwan to play KMT leaders. Representative films of this period include “Assembly” (2006), “The First of August” (2007), “The Color of Soldiers” (2007), “Super Typhoon” (2008), “Go with the Ice and Snow” (2008), “Wen Chuan Doesn’t Believe Tears” (2008), “Tian An Men” (2009) (paying tribute to the 60th anniversary of the founding of the PRC), “Turning Point 1977” (2009), “The Founding of a Republic” (2009), “City of Life and Death” (2009), “Stands Still, The Last Great Wall” (2009), “Aftershock” (2010), “Beginning of the Great Revival” (2011) (paying tribute to the 90th anniversary of the CPC), “The Space Dream” (2011), “1911 Revolution” (2011), “The Seal of Love” (2011), “The Road of Exploring” (2011), “Back to 1942” (2012) (paying tribute to the 18th CPC National Congress), “Loyalty and Betrayal” (2012), “Phurbu & Tenzin” (2012), “Passing Snow Mountain Grassland” (2012), “The Story of Zhou Enlai” (2013), “My War” (2016), “The Warriors” (2016), “The Founding of an Army” (2017), “Battle of Xiangjiang River” (2017), “My People, My Country” (2019), “Mao Zedong 1949” (2019) and “The Bugle from Gutian” (2019). In 2019, an array of revolutionary and historical films were presented to celebrate the 70th birthday of the PRC. Apart from those mentioned above, there were “The Secret of China”, “The Iron Sichuan Army Die Hard” and “Advance Wave upon Wave”. These films explored new possibilities in narration, artistic expression and characterization. “Art is more concerned with people—what they have done and why”.9 As a comprehensive art, films allow us to relive history by dramatizing the life of historical figures. They portray these great men as ordinary people who do extraordinary things, bringing audiences closer to these heroes and enabling empathy. For example, in The Bugle from Gutian, leaders like Mao Zedong, Zhu De and Chen Yi also lost their temper and quarreled with each other sometimes like everyone else. In Mao Zedong 1949, Chairman Mao played matchmaker for a guard. On one occasion, he even dined and dashed. A great man is not supposed to engage in this kind of behavior, but such imperfections make him human. These pictures may get a knowing laugh, and give the audience a sense of presence. In the said film, the intoxicating violin playing by Ren Bishi absorbs the audience, leaving them weeping for this great man who died young and 9 Yin Hong, Mao Zedong 1949—A New Exploration of the Creation of Historical Films, Contemporary Cinema, 2019 (10), p. 23.

152

F. XU

mourning for the revolutionary martyrs. Music adds an artistic touch to the film and allows the audience to better relate to that era. Meanwhile, filmmakers get better and better at exploring grand themes in microcosm. As an anthology drama film, “My People, My Country” consists of seven short stories based on seven moments since the founding of the PRC. Each story relates to an ordinary person: the engineer Lin Zhiyuan who ensured the technical details were secured to electronically hoist the very first Chinese nation flag at the founding ceremony of the PRC, a little Shanghai boy who helped local adults to watch TV for the Chinese women volleyball team’s Olympic gold medal win in 1984, a Hong Kong watchmaker who fixed the Chinese diplomat’s watch in preparation for the return of Hong Kong from British rule to China, etc. These stories allow the audience to relive those moments and inspire their love for the country. Each story is characterized by the unique artistic and narrative style of its director. For example, the second story Passing By features the unities of action, time and place. It is about a scientist who encountered his lover on a bus after years apart but had to bid farewell forever to her. He struggled emotionally but he had devoted his entire life to the country. The fifth story Hello Beijing is a comedy about a taxi driver who gave a ticket to the opening ceremony of the 2008 Beijing Olympics to a boy from the Sichuan earthquake zone though it was intended to be a birthday gift to his aloof son. In praise of the goodness of humanity, the story also soothed those who had suffered from the earthquake. Anthology films open up new aesthetics, featuring diversity and inclusiveness, for Chinese historical films. Aesthetics of National Imagination The year 2009 marked the 60th anniversary of the founding of the PRC. Authorities at all levels offered great support for the production of films that pay tribute to this occasion. Main-melody films hence got increased investment. In the wake of the Wenchuan earthquake and the successful Beijing Olympics in 2008, solidarity ran high in China and there was a strong demand for literary and artistic works expressing national pride. The Chinese film market met this demand. According to the 2010 China Film Art Report, in 2009, there were films based on major real-life incidents, such as Stands Still, the “Last Great Wall”, “Xilin GuoleWenchuan” and “Go with the Ice and Snow”, films in praise of national

5

HISTORICAL FILMS: BEYOND NATIONAL IMAGINATION

153

models and elites, such as “Iron Men”, “Six Sisters in the War”, “Ripples in Faith”, “Deng Jiaxian” and “Yuan Longping”, main-melody films about the history of the PRC, such as “The Founding of a Republic”, “Tian An Men”, “Who Rules over the Destiny of China”, “Turning Point 1977” and “Da He”, as well as market-oriented films, such as “City of Life and Death” based on the Nanjing Massacre and the biopic “John Rabe”.10 A blockbuster historical drama produced in 2009, “The Founding of a Republic” is undoubtedly a commercial success which provides valuable experience for films in its genre. Typical of commercial films, it includes many famous actors. While promoting mainstream values based on historical facts, the film has taken into account the values and needs of audiences, especially young audiences, perfectly blending the “elite culture” with the “popular culture”. The huge economic and social effects of such films prove that the mass media is capable to close the gap between mainstream dramas and popular entertainment, making them sensible both politically and socially”.11 Unlike others films in this genre, “The Founding of a Republic” shows how the KMT gradually lost the people to the CPC, through the lens of the establishment of the CPPCC, defending the legitimacy of the CPC and the road to socialism. Beginning of the Great Revival, produced in 2011 to mark the 90th anniversary of the founding of the CPC, is a perfect combo of the mainstream culture and the popular culture, centered around “the legitimacy of the CPC”. “Marking the CPC’s 90th birthday and the 100th anniversary of the 1911 Revolution, 2011 saw an upsurge in revolutionary and historical films, with more than 30 films of this kind represented by ‘Beginning of the Great Revival’, ‘The Seal of Love’, and ‘1911 Revolution’ hitting the big screen. This surge was driven more by the integration of diverse cultures during China’s social transformation than festivals. The strong demand of the mainstream culture and ideology, the nostalgia for classic red films, the literary reflection on Chinese revolutionary history, and the clash and collision of diverse cultures have combined to shape the cultural landscape in China and the complex background of Chinese cinema. To cater to the current audience, these films have all adopted a 10 See China Film Association Theoretical Review Committee, 2010 China Film Art Report, Preface. 11 Ding Yaping and Chu Shuangyue, The History, Status Quo and Problems of the Production of Revolutionary and Historical Films, p. 51.

154

F. XU

genre-based approach and included fashion elements, which have brought them closer to audiences of diverse aesthetic tastes, and closed the gap between the mainstream culture and the popular culture, thereby effectively spreading mainstream values”.12 Since “Beginning of the Great Revival” is about the CPC top leaders’ life in their youth; therefore, they were portrayed by young stars instead of typecast actors, which marks a step forward in genre filmmaking. In the PRC Trilogy, “The Founding of an Army” produced in 2017 goes furthest in genre and commercial filmmaking. It portrays the stories of key figures in history to show how the people’s army was established. Directed by a Hong Kong commercial director, the film differs from the other two in the trilogy which are obsessed with “narrative techniques, aesthetic tone and historical sentiment” and are hard to understand by those who know little about the history. Providing a wealth of information about the history, this film follows the rules of drama, the logic of thematic expression, and a cinematic narrative structure. The story is about the bruising battle between the KMT and the revolutionaries. It starts with the April 12 Incident of 1927, reaches a climax with the Nanchang Uprising, the Sanhe Dam blockade, and the Autumn Harvest Uprising, and ends at the Jinggangshan realignment.13 Through a coherent story about the hard choices of historical figures, the film shows the army’s strength in adversity, bravery in difficulty and dedication to the country. Since the beginning of the twenty-first century, revolutionary and historical films have seen a shift toward commercial and genre filmmaking, increased diversity and a trend of examining grand themes in microcosm. “First, commercial and market-oriented means have been adopted, such as inviting famous actors to play a part in the films and waging promotional campaigns. Second, these films use cinematic language with an artistic style and rhythm. Pursuing the pure art of cinema, they reach a high artistic level never seen in Chinese cinema before. Finally, these films attempt to find the reasons behind these true stories in history, for example, why the CPC stood out from hundreds of political parties and became the backbone of the country, and why the CPC chose the 12 Theoretical Review Committee of China Film Association, 2012 China Film Art Report, China Film Press, 2012, pp. 5–6. 13 Theoretical Review Committee of China Film Association, 2018 China Film Art Report, p. 237.

5

HISTORICAL FILMS: BEYOND NATIONAL IMAGINATION

155

Marxist-Leninist road”.14 The PRC Trilogy defends the legitimacy of the CPPCC by portraying the experiences, struggles and choices of different characters, the legitimacy of the CPC as the ruling party by portraying early CPC members’ efforts in uniting the people and their firm beliefs, and the legitimacy of the people’s army by portraying their bravery, sacrifice and dedication in the brutal war. The trilogy represents a new variant of historical films, which opens up new aesthetics for films underscoring the legitimacy of New China.

The Founding of a Republic: Narrative Aesthetics in Reshaping National History “The Founding of a Republic” was produced by CFGC in 2009 to mark the 60th anniversary of the founding of the PRC. The film was written by Wang Xingdong and Chen Baoguang, co-directed by Han Sanping and Huang Jianxin and starring more than 100 Chinese actors. It was premiered on September 16, 2009 and finally made RMB 390 million, making it the highest-grossing domestic film of the year. Taking the preparation of the First Plenary Session of the CPPCC as the narrative perspective, the film portrays the years from the end of the War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression in 1945 to the eve of the founding of the PRC in 1949, when the CPC gradually gained the support of democratic parties and people from all walks of life while the KMT eventually lost the people. Unlike previous main-melody historical films, this film reenacts the establishment of the multi-party cooperation and political consultation system under the leadership of the CPC, defending the legitimacy of the CPPCC. “The Founding of a Republic” has “plural protagonists”, typical for historical films, which are the Chinese Communists, represented by Mao Zedong, who shared a common goal to establish a multi-party cooperation and political consultation system under the leadership of the CPC. The antagonist is the KMT led by Chiang Kai-shek, who, wanting to establish a one-party rule, broke the Double Ten Agreement and launched a civil war against the CPC. Chiang Kai-shek convened the first National

14 Yin Hong, Revolutionary and Historical Films Should Be Based on Historical Facts, 3rd edition.

156

F. XU

Convention, and persecuted the democratic parties. As a result, he gradually lost the people as well as the power. Although Chiang Ching-kuo tried hard to deal with the financial crisis and dig out the root causes of corruption in the KMT, as Chiang Kai-shek put it, cracking down on corruption would tear apart the party, but winking at it would destroy the country. Clearly, the KMT was at the end of its rope. The CPC, by contrast, put the people’s interests first. CPC members united the people to fight back against the KMT’s persecution and gradually gained the trust of the democratic parties. Eventually with the support of democratic parties and people from all walks of life, the CPPCC was established. CPC leaders such as Mao Zedong, Zhou Enlai and Zhu De, on the front line of the war, and members of democratic parties across China, such as Soong Ching-ling, Zhang Lan and Li Jishen, all sought to build a democratic China. Finally, the two forces joined at the end of the story: the First Plenary Session of the CPPCC was held in Beijing, followed by the founding of the PRC. In general, the action system of “The Founding of a Republic” is as follows: Act One: Sequence 1: Introduce the “plural protagonists” and the situation they faced at the beginning of the story. Sequence 2: The KMT broke the Double Tenth Agreement, and the CPC decided to launch a counterattack. Act Two: Sequence 3: The CPC fought back out of necessity. Sequence 4: (First culmination) The CPPCC had a preliminary basis. Sequence 5: The plot hit a low point. Act Three: Sequence 6: The CPC set a new goal, i.e. to go to Beiping. Sequence 7: The CPPCC session was convened in Beiping. Sequence 8: A new Central People’s Government was established. Analysis: Act One: Sequence 1: Introduce the “plural protagonists” and the situation they faced at the beginning of the story.

5

HISTORICAL FILMS: BEYOND NATIONAL IMAGINATION

157

Playwriting analysis: The “plural protagonists” arrived and the historical background was introduced. (1) Plural protagonists: the Chinese Communists, with Mao Zedong at the core. Historical films usually have plural protagonists who share a common goal and work together to achieve it. Antagonists: the KMT. Chiang Kai-shek and Li Zongren appeared. Historical background: The Chongqing Negotiations after World War II ended in 1945. The peace talks began where the main characters appeared in turn. The CPC was here for peace, while the KMT was skeptical of peace with the CPC. Mao Zedong and Chiang Kai-shek answered a reporter’s question about why they both wore the Zhongshan suit. Mao called it “the mantle of the Chinese revolutionary leader Sun Yat-sen”, indicating that the CPC came for democracy. Chiang Kai-shek referred to it as “the official attire of the Nationalist government”, implying that he had abandoned Sun Yat-sen’s democratic ideology. Zhang Lan, chairman of the China Democratic League (CDL), appeared. At a meeting in the Chongqing office of the Eighth Route Army, Zhang Lan proposed to “make concessions” and Mao Zedong decided to concede part of the liberated areas to the KMT. As we can see, the CPC sincerely sought for a peaceful reunification, while the KMT wanted dictatorship. Plant: The “Zhongshan suit” represents the mantle of the Chinese revolutionary leader Sun Yat-sen. In Act Three, there was a reenactment of the story of Sun Yat-sen, which created a new dramatic meaning. (2) The world of balance: After the end of the War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression in 1945, China faced the question of where to go. The CPC wanted to build an independent, strong democracy through peaceful means, while the KMT desired one-party dictatorship, but, due to the national call for peace, pretended to negotiate peace with the Communists. The Double Tenth Agreement was concluded.

158

F. XU

Cultural meaning and genre elements: Sequence 1 explains the backstory of the film. With the end of the war, the people were expecting a democratic China, and the establishment of the CPPCC was underway. “As the Second World War ended and the Cold War was brewing, China, after a grueling war, got on the path from impoverishment to prosperity. And political and social forces in the country were all at a turning point of fate”.15 Commander-in-Chief of the Navy Chen Shaokuan, played by Jet Li, spoke to the absurdity of waging a civil war when the war against foreign invasion just ended. The peace talks were overshadowed by a gloomy prospect: the negotiation would fail and a civil war would start. The film features plural protagonists and multiple intertwined storylines. The main conflict arose between the CPC, which aimed to build a democracy, and the KMT, which wanted dictatorship. The democratic parties took a wait-and-see attitude at first and finally took the CPC’s side. When questioned about whether the two parties could find common ground in “political democratization”, Mao Zedong and Chiang Kai-shek used the Zhongshan suit as a comparison, revealing the core demand to confirm the legitimacy of the establishment of the “New China” through political consultation. However, the lines of Mao and Chiang subtly showed their different tendencies: Chiang referred to the Zhongshan suit as “the official attire of the Nationalist Government”, while Mao called it “the mantle of the Chinese revolutionary leader Sun Yat-sen”. On the surface, they both showed positive expectations for the peace talks; however, Mao desired democracy while Chiang avoided mentioning Sun Yat-sen’s democratic ideas and only boasted about how he was serious about the negotiation. His lines only included neutral words, such as “the Nationalist Government”, “Chairman of the Nationalist Government”, “representing the government”, and “to show solemnity”. The film depicts a piece of history to show the legitimacy of the PRC’s basic political system and its social basis. Each film needs a unique starting point, which is the legitimacy of the CPPCC for “The Founding of a Republic”, the legitimacy of the CPC for “Beginning of the Great Revival” and the legitimacy of the army “The Founding of an Army”. Genre films on historical topics must describe their standing point in the opening sequence. 15 Zhang Yiwu, The Founding of a Republic: A Solemn Expression of State Legitimacy, Contemporary Cinema, 2009 (11), p. 30.

5

HISTORICAL FILMS: BEYOND NATIONAL IMAGINATION

159

Sequence 2: The KMT broke the Double Tenth Agreement, and the CPC decided to launch a counterattack. Playwriting analysis: (1) Chiang Kai-shek wanted to control the country. His arbitrariness went against democracy. Chiang Kai-shek convened a National Assembly and incited the democratic parties to use a carrot-and-stick approach with the CPC. (2) Inciting incident: The KMT broke the Double Tenth Agreement and waged a civil war. Wen Yiduo opposed the civil war and was assassinated as a result. Feng Yuxiang asked for Chiang Kai-shek but was turned away. So he left with a word that “the Three People’s Principles were the cornerstone of the KMT”. Chiang Kai-shek heard him behind the door. Fu Zuoyi made a bet with an American journalist that if the CPC won, he would work for Mao Zedong, which, on the one hand, implies that it was not easy for the CPC to win, and on the other hand, sets the stage for Fu Zuoyi to choose the CPC side later. (3) Reaction of the plural protagonists: The CPC decided to launch a counterattack. In Sequence 2, a civil war broke out, and democrats were assassinated. The communists realized that a democratic China could only be built by force. Act One ends. At the end of Act One, the film shows the audience the dramatic tension that is about to run through the whole story: how the CPC legitimized the political consultation system. Cultural meaning and genre elements: Sequence 2 implies the inevitable defeat of the KMT by revealing its abandonment of democracy and internal conflicts, and at the same time, defends the legitimacy of the CPC’s counterattack. Chiang Kai-shek turning back to Sun Yat-sen’s democratic ideas would inevitably result in the disintegration of the party. Act One already offers some clues. Feng Yuxiang came to meet Chiang Kai-shek, but Chiang refused to see him. Knowing that Chiang was hiding behind the door, Feng tried to persuade him to do the right things but failed. Refusing to see Feng but listening to him behind a door, Chiang knew that he was in the wrong, which reflects that the KMT would inevitably lose the power and the people.

160

F. XU

The main purpose of historical films is to justify the national history, so the first act should present a legitimacy proposition, foreshadow the actions that will follow and make the audience look forward to the fulfillment of the purpose. The CPC’s demand for a democratic country is the main task of the film, and the audience will expect it. The Communists were committed to saving the country and the people, and their choices represented the inevitable trend of history. Act Two: Sequence 3: The CPC fought back out of necessity. Playwriting analysis: This sequence is the first sub-action: the CPC retreated and then made a strategic attack, but ended up being bombarded by the KMT. Despite the support of democrats, the CPC was beset with difficulties. At last, Chiang Kai-shek assumed the presidency and gained power. Scenes: (1) The CPC withdrew its forces from Yan’an, in order to win the whole nation. (2) At the headquarters of the CDL, seeing that the KMT would never be satisfied with the CPC’s concessions, the democratic parties decided to support the CPC, the political consultation mechanism and the democratic coalition government, and not to participate in “Chiang Kai-shek’s National Assembly”. (3) Mao Zedong said we could never put all the eggs in one basket as he made deployments. (4) The KMT seized the headquarters of the CDL, which broke the hearts of the democrats. There was a discord within the KMT, with some members intending to topple Chiang Kai-shek. The CDL wanted to relocate to Hong Kong. (5) The PLA shifted from defense to offense, starting an arduous fight to liberate China. The KMT convened a National Assembly where Chiang Kai-shek was elected the first President of the Republic of China (ROC). While Chiang was shaking hands with everyone amidst applause, Gu Zhutong came to report that they lost Yan’an (irony).

5

HISTORICAL FILMS: BEYOND NATIONAL IMAGINATION

161

(7) Mao insisted on political consultation, saying that it was not enough to just involve the working class (parallel editing, in contrast with Chiang Kai-shek’s dream of dictatorship). (8) The CPC issued a May Day slogan which gave Soong Ching-ling, Zhang Lan and other people a glimpse of its stance on political consultation. Li Jishen, Chairman of the Revolutionary Committee of the Chinese Kuomintang (RCCK) in Hong Kong, also made a response, saying he would wait to see the CPC’s next move. (9) Chiang Kai-shek did not support Li Zongren’s election as vice president, which shows that KMT members were too keen on political rivalry to focus on building a democratic China. (10) At the swearing-in ceremony, Chiang Kai-shek bowed to the portrait of Sun Yat-sen, which is ironic because Chiang had betrayed democracy which Sun advocated. (11) Fu Zuoyi came to Beijing, and his daughter Fu Dongju (an underground CPC member) appeared, foreshadowing the plot in Act Three when Fu Zuoyi chose to stand by the CPC and liberated Beiping. (12) The KMT bombed a base of the CPC (based on the intelligence provided by a spy). Cultural meaning and genre elements: Despite difference in political aspirations and ideas, political parties in China all leaned toward the CPC—a necessary condition for the legitimacy of the CPPCC. It is a dramatic irony that the KMT lost Yan’an at the time of Chiang Kai-shek’s election as president. According to S. W. Dawson, dramatic irony arouses our critical consciousness… it also tells us about the possible limitations of a person.16 When he finally took over the presidency of the ROC as he had always wanted to, Chiang lost Yan’an, which is exactly a “negative irony” as Robert McKee has put it: “if you cling to your obsession, your ruthless pursuit will achieve your desire, then destroy you”.17 Chiang gained his long-desired power, but lost its legitimacy. This sequence uses parallel editing to show two scenes, with one about Chiang Kai-shek elected as the president and the other about Mao Zedong declaring he would not become an emperor, contrasting Mao’s pursuit of a coalition government with Chiang’s dictatorship.

16 S.W. Dawson, Drama & the Dramatic, Translated by Ai Xiaoming, Kunlun Press, 1992, p. 55. 17 Robert McKee, Story, p. 152.

162

F. XU

Generally, genre historical films should show in Act Two a dramatic action of the plural protagonists toward the goal, namely, the first subaction. The CPC’s efforts to establish a democracy started with armed resistance. The KMT breaking the Double Tenth Agreement and waging a civil war and Chiang Kai-shek’s desire for dictatorship triggered the CPC’s counterattack, a legitimate fight for peace. In the PRC Trilogy, the major dramatic action, be it the establishment of the CPPCC, the founding of the CPC or the building of the PLA, begins in Act Two, making the case for the historical necessity of China’s path. Sequence 4: (first culmination) The CPPCC had a preliminary basis. Playwriting analysis: This is the second sub-action, the preparation for the first CPPCC. (1) The Central Committee of the CPC moved to Xibaipo. The democratic parties echoed the May Day slogan, and Mao Zedong announced the preparation for the first CPPCC: “Chiang is entirely isolated, and it is time to make arrangements for the first CPPCC”. (2) The CPC decided to hold the first CPPCC in Harbin, and the democratic parties responded, tending to support the CPC but with reservations. (3) Chiang Ching-kuo arrived in Shanghai to handle the financial crisis and met with Du Yuesheng, who revealed the crime of the Kung family. Cultural meaning and genre elements: It takes a far-sighted plan for a ruling party to establish and consolidate its power. The short-sighted ruling clique of the KMT persisted in maintaining a dictatorial rule, and Chiang Kai-shek’s nepotism led to cliques, severe corruption and weak foreign policy, which combined to push the economy and politics to the brink of collapse. So it was inevitable that the KMT government would lose power. The CPC, on the contrary, had a far-reaching vision and a long-term plan. It took root in the people and united all forces that can be united in its ongoing efforts to build a democracy. The CPC strived to build a country that conforms to the common aspiration of the people, and therefore won the support of people from all walks of life. Despite all the difficulties and setbacks, the CPC was resolute in achieving its goal. The people and democratic parties sat on the fence to start with, but gradually leaned toward the CPC. The film

5

HISTORICAL FILMS: BEYOND NATIONAL IMAGINATION

163

presents this change in great details, highlighting the hard-won victory of the CPC. Sequence 5: The plot hit a low point. Playwriting analysis: (The plural protagonists hit rock bottom, and made a reaction.) This sequence is the third sub-action: The CPC delayed the CPPCC and changed the address to Beiping after hitting rock bottom. (1) Feng Yuxiang’s death on the voyage back to China brought the CPC to the bottom, but stiffened its resolve to establish a democratic and independent China. It sought the views of the democratic parties on holding the CPPCC session, on behalf of the national people’s congress, to elect the Central People’s Government. Zhang Lan believed this was understandable as it was a time of war. Li Jishen emphasized the position of the CPC in front of reporters. (2) Liaoshen campaign. Chiang Ching-kuo closed down the warehouse of Kong Lingkan’s company and accused Kong of gutting the country’s economic pillars. Chiang Ching-kuo insisted on combating corruption to save the national economy from collapse, but Chiang Kai-shek would not risk starting a backyard fire. Meanwhile, Soong Mei-ling was going to the US. (4) Mao Zedong decided to postpone the meeting to the following year and change the address to Beiping. The CPC aimed to rope in Fu Zuoyi for peaceful liberation of Beiping. Act Two ends. Cultural meaning and genre elements: After the death of Feng Yuxiang, who, according to Zhou Enlai, “left behind the desire to build a democratic and independent China”, the CPC accelerated the pace of achieving its goal by having the CPPCC take the place of the national people’s congress to elect the Central People’s Government. At the time of the Battle of Jinzhou, Zhang Lan expressed his understanding of the CPC’s efforts to establish the CPPCC, and Mao Zedong also understood Zhang Lan’s support for the CPC. Despite its belief that political power grows out of the barrel of a gun, the CPC also valued mutual understanding with people from all walks of life. In this way, it finally won the hearts of people.

164

F. XU

While the CPC was vigorously planning the next move, the KMT was on the brink of falling apart. The film shows a sharp contrast between the two parties through multiple intertwining narratives to imply the inevitable fall of the KMT. Chiang Ching-kuo tried to negotiate a settlement with Kong Lingkan, but disappointedly to no avail. Li Zongren persuaded Bai Chongxi to oppose Chiang Kai-shek, and upon the shot of Bai’s gun, the scene cuts to a conversation between Chiang Kai-shek and Chiang Ching-kuo, and a startled flock of white pigeons flying up all at once, seemingly suggesting that the KMT was besieged on all sides. This series of scenes point out the declining power of the KMT. Faced with the dilemma that “cracking down on corruption would tear apart the party, but winking at it would destroy the country”, Chiang Kai-shek put party ahead of country, and as a result Chiang Ching-kuo failed in fighting corruption. All of these are responsible for the downfall of the KMT. But the root cause lies in Chiang Kai-shek’s obsession with dictatorial rule which goes against the development trend of China. While the KMT was gradually hollowed out by corruption and political weakness, the CPC was gaining ground and finally won the war. At a low ebb, the CPC decided to liberate Beiping to pave the way for the convening of the CPPCC, which was a bold yet prudent decision that embodied the protagonists’ perseverance. The Chinese Communists stood together to face the challenge with an unshakable resolution to build a new China. The characters have to reach a low point, which is not only a general rule of drama, but also the way things work. When pursuing a great cause, we could never expect a smooth sail. When hit by a heavy blow, the protagonists stayed calm and quickly worked out coping strategies, demonstrating excellent decision-making and execution abilities under pressure as well as great perseverance toward their goal. At the same time, the protagonists can find a greater echo to their ultimate goal in the audience who, touched by their perseverance, will be more eager to see their victory in the end. Act Three: Sequence 6: The CPC set a new goal, i.e. to go to Beiping.

5

HISTORICAL FILMS: BEYOND NATIONAL IMAGINATION

165

Playwriting analysis: (1) The Northeast Field Army moved southward. Lin Biao resolutely enforced Mao Zedong’s orders, embodying the power of the communist people’s army. (2) All forces leaned toward the CPC after a power struggle: Fu Zuoyi was lobbied by his daughter Fu Dongju to support the CPC, and his faith in the KMT was shaken. After Chiang Kai-shek came to meet him in Beiping, Fu Zuoyi finally decided to meet the Communists. Li Jishen expressed his strong stand against dividing the nation to the KMT lobbyist. (3) Chiang Kai-shek lost power: Soong Mei-ling failed to get American support, and Chiang Kai-shek stepped down. (4) Victory of the CPC: The CPC decided to attend the peace talks, but demanded a final say on the negotiation. Du Yuming’s Army Group was annihilated, and Mao Zedong said: “There will be no more big wars to the north of the Yangtze River”. The Communists chorused: “This is the final struggle…The Internationale will be the human face”. Chiang Kai-shek decided to retreat to Taiwan. (5) The CPC Central Committee moved to Beiping after the city was peacefully liberated. In January 1949, Fu Zuoyi staged a revolt against the KMT and peacefully liberated Beiping, creating favorable conditions for the smooth convening of the CPPCC. Soong Ching-ling refused to accept Li Zongren as acting president. Plant/Payoff: In Act One, both parties claimed to take up “the mantle of the Chinese revolutionary leader Sun Yat-sen”. However, the KMT had run counter to Sun’s democratic ideas. It is extremely ironic that at the end of its rope, the KMT shamelessly used their advocacy for Sun Yat-sen as an excuse to seek Soong Ching-ling’s support. Zhang Lan also refused to accept Li Zongren as acting president. The CPC refused to divide China along the Yangtze River. The participants entered the venue of the 2nd Session of the Seventh Central Committee of the CPC in a ritualized way.

166

F. XU

KMT agents killed 13 democrats in Shanghai. Zhang Lan safely fled from Shanghai under the escort of Yan Jinwen. Mao Zedong determined that political consultation should also involve bourgeois parties and democrats. The CPC Central Committee moved to Beiping. When Fu Zuoyi opened the door for Mao Zedong who was exiting the car, Mao expressed his sincere gratitude, saying: “You need not open the door for me. Instead, we need ask you and everyone else to help us open the door to the new China”. An emotional part of the film is the ceremonial parade where a veteran saluted and made a report to Mao Zedong. Cultural meaning and genre elements: In this sequence, the KMT government completely lost legitimacy. Disappointed by its betrayal of democracy, the democratic parties turned their backs on the KMT, and embraced the CPC. The KMT failed because of not only its defeat in the war, but also its betrayal of the Three People’s Principles. Such betrayal became increasingly evident as the party gradually lost legitimacy, and was highlighted in the dramatically ironic scene where Soong Ching-ling rejected the KMT when it made a last-ditch effort to seek her support. The gradual shift of public support toward the CPC in the course of the story gives expression to the Chinese people’s national identity and recognition for the CPC. In Act Two, Li Jishen rode the fence, yet was leaning toward the CPC bit by bit, and in Act Three, he turned the KMT down flat. In this sequence, Zhang Lan was rescued by underground CPC members from an assassination attempt made by the KMT, hence his choice between the two parties was quite clear. Soong Ching-ling also showed a clear inclination to the CPC. Fu Zuoyi turned his joke about following Mao Zedong into reality, by forsaking the KMT for the CPC, a decision that saved nearly a million lives. All of these have combined to eloquently justify the establishment of the CPPCC. A party relies on the people’s recognition for its historical legitimacy. In historical genre films, the characters usually begin to “reap the fruits of their efforts” in the third act. This film is no exception. The multiple narratives converge in Act Three where the loose strings of the subplots are all tied up to prove the inevitability of the plural protagonists’ success. The success is the result of their perseverant efforts throughout this part of Chinese history as well as the recognition and support of the people.

5

HISTORICAL FILMS: BEYOND NATIONAL IMAGINATION

167

Sequence 7: The CPPCC session was convened in Beiping. Playwriting analysis: (1) Strive for peace and bring people together. On April 20, 1949, negotiations broke down when the Nanjing Nationalist Government refused to sign a peace agreement. On April 21, 1949, the Yangtze River Crossing campaign was launched. On April 23, 1949, the Nanjing Presidential Palace was captured by the PLA. In May 1949, Shanghai was liberated by the PLA. Soong Ching-ling was touched when she saw the PLA soldiers sleeping neatly on the roadside, each holding a gun, and giving way to the tram tracks (ritualized expression). John Leighton Stuart left China. The preparatory meeting for the CPPCC session kicked off in Qinzheng Hall at Zhongnanhai. Mao Zedong recommended Zhang Lan and Li Jishen as vice chairmen, saying “let’s work together to create a new history” (Ritualized handshake). The Soviet Union took the lead in establishing diplomatic relations with the new China. Zhu De proposed that Deng Yingchao go to Shanghai and escort Soong Ching-ling to Beijing. Soong Ching-ling arrived in Beijing and was greeted by Mao Zedong. (2) The CPPCC session was held after it was legalized. Discussions were held on the national flag and national anthem. The CPPCC session kicked off (ritualized presentation). (3) Twist and the ending of Chiang Kai-shek: Chiang Kai-shek planned to bomb Beiping on the day of the founding of New China, but due to little capacity of flying at night, the bombers would not be able to return to the departure base after finishing the bombing mission. Chiang turned to the US for help but was rejected. So the plan went bust. “The KMT is defeated by itself. Cancel the mission”, sighed Chiang who, at the end of the film, was left standing alone in the door watching the rain outside. Chiang was totally defeated. Cultural meaning and genre elements: Here, the three separate story lines finally converge, with the characters of each story line getting their own ending. The CPC finally convened the

168

F. XU

CPPCC session in Beiping; the democrats took the side of the CPC; and the KMT was left high and dry and utterly failed. Zhang Yiwu pointed out that “China in the 20th century was clouded by deep ‘sorrows’ at the humiliation and defeat the country had suffered in modern times and the incomplete sovereignty of the country as a modern nation. Therefore, the Chinese people had a particularly strong and persistent desire to establish ‘national citizenship’. And driven by such a desire, the modern Chinese people were dedicated to fighting for national independence and development. As shown in ‘The Founding of a Republic’, the Chinese people could no longer establish such ‘citizenship’ in the ‘old China’ which could hardly continue to exist. Thus, the legitimacy of ‘New China’ is based on the establishment of new ‘citizenship’ for the Chinese people. It was the relentless pursuit for national autonomy that enabled ‘New China’ to gain great trust and support from the people and main social forces as broad as possible”.18 As the new “citizenship” was established, the legitimacy of the state polity was justified through the ritualized presentation in Act Three. In this sequence, Soong Ching-ling saw the PLA soldiers sleeping neatly on the roadside, each holding a gun, and giving way to the tram tracks. This emotional scene is a ritualized expression. People from all walks of life actively discussed the national flag and anthem, which is even more of ritualized imagery. These elements are iconic representations of the nation, and the legitimacy of the national polity needs to be presented in a ritualized way. The audiovisual presentation of these iconic representations allows the audience to relive the history and shows them the historical inevitability of China’s socialist path through the twists and turns of the story. The result of founding a republic must be shown in detail, to meet the audience’s expectations. Therefore, the founding of the PRC, the CPC and the PLA all need to be evidenced by corresponding visual and sound symbols. In “The Founding of an Army”, the uniforms, caps and emblems used all symbolize that old identities give way to new ones. The uniforms and red flags used in the scene of Jinggangshan realignment also testify to the founding of the army. The ritualized historical events and elements are used to show the legitimacy of the state.

18 Zhang Yiwu, The Founding of a Republic: A Solemn Expression of State Legitimacy, pp. 30–31.

5

HISTORICAL FILMS: BEYOND NATIONAL IMAGINATION

169

Sequence 8: A new Central People’s Government was established. Playwriting analysis: Ending and sublimation: The founding ceremony of the PRC, playback of historical audiovisual materials. A subliminal and heart-stirring ending. Act Three ends. Cultural meaning and genre elements: Act Three wraps up the grand historical narrative by playing back the historical materials. This narrative perspective plays a crucial role in setting the tone of a historical film in the opening scene, and it runs throughout the play until the third act, when all the story lines converge to present a closed ending. “The Founding of a Republic” employs “multiple narratives”, from the perspectives of the CPC, the KMT and democratic parties. These subplots progress separately and intertwine to reach the finale, i.e. the founding of a democratic China. The film begins with the end of the war against Japanese aggression and the rebuilding of the country. In the opening scene, the film depicts the different states of the CPC, the KMT, the democratic parties and various social classes. Facing the urgent task of building New China, the democrats, with their own concerns and positions, held a wait-and-see attitude toward the cooperation between the KMT and the CPC. The KMT harbored dictatorial ambitions, while the CPC insisted on building a democracy. From the interwoven story lines, we see that the KMT gradually isolated itself and turned its back on the people, while the CPC stood with the people. The democratic parties and people from all walks of life gradually leaned toward the CPC, eventually gathering in Beiping to witness the founding of New China, and the KMT retreated to Taiwan in the end. The dramatic conflicts within each story line (e.g. Chiang Ching-kuo’s fight against corruption), the conflicts arising from the interweaving of story lines (e.g. Mao Zedong shaking hands with Li Jishen to create a future together regardless of the past), and the choices made by the characters in the midst of the conflicts (e.g. Fu Zuoyi’s choice of the CPC which saved millions of lives) constitute the inevitability of the direction of these story lines, which eventually converge in the ending and fully justify the legitimacy of the CPPCC.

170

F. XU

The legitimacy of the PRC is finally proven in a ritualized way. At the end of “The Founding of a Republic”, the historical audiovisual materials (of Mao Zedong and other leaders at the founding ceremony of the PRC) and the film footage are stitched together, allowing the audience to relive the history as if they had been there themselves. At the end of “Beginning of the Great Revival”, the final line—“under the leadership of the CPC, China has embarked on a glorious path of national independence, people’s liberation, and national prosperity”—overlaps with the image of Tiananmen Square and the Party flag flying, reflecting the legitimacy of the CPC’s rule. At the end of “The Founding of an Army”, as the troops led by Mao Zedong and Zhu De joined forces in Jinggang Mountains, Mao Zedong’s lines such as “a single spark can start a prairie fire” and “the Party commands the gun”, and the scene of soldiers saluting, cheering and waving flags underscore the importance of the founding of the PLA. The subliminal ending reflects the Chinese people’s national identity. The film takes the audience back to the past to relieve the revolution that produced the “New China”. By the end of the film, the audience will see the legitimacy of the PRC, a great vibrant nation for the people and by the people.

Conclusion: The Legitimacy of a Nation is Forged in the Hearts of the People The National Day in 2019 was the 70th birthday of the PRC. “This year marks the 70th anniversary of the founding of New China. After 70 years of hard work and development, China has undergone radical changes. This achievement is an earth-shattering epic in the history of the Chinese nation as well as in the history of the world. Relevant literary and artistic works are expected to reflect the epic struggle of the Party and the people and interpret the logic behind the changes in China over the past 70 years. These works should clearly illustrate the advantages of the path, theory, system and culture of socialism with Chinese characteristics behind our past achievements, and explain Chinese practice with Chinese theory, so as to inspire the Party and the people to keep moving forward”, stressed President Xi Jinping.19 Historical films need to echo

19 People’s Daily Online, Xi Jinping: Artistic Works Must Have Cultural Confidence, Stay on the Pulse of the Times, and Represent the Voices of the Times to Promote Virtues

5

HISTORICAL FILMS: BEYOND NATIONAL IMAGINATION

171

the national spirit and take on the crucial mission of telling the history of New China. These films feature large-scale production, large casts of characters and intertwining storylines, and if lacking a focus, they will be a simple pile-up of historical events. So, it is really important to choose a narrative perspective. From the perspective of “national legitimacy”, the PRC Trilogy centers the narration around the legitimacy of the CPPCC (“The Founding of a Republic”), the legitimacy of the CPC (“Beginning of the Great Revival”) and the legitimacy of the PLA (“The Founding of an Army”), respectively. Historical films usually have plural protagonists who share a common goal or lifelong cause and work together to achieve the goal in the tide of history. For example, “The Founding of a Republic” has three groups of protagonists: the CPC represented by Mao Zedong, the KMT led by Chiang Kai-shek and democratic parties. The Chinese Communists are courageous and resourceful, open and honest, tolerant and generous, and united as one to fight for their cause. With strong willpower, the characters made an ongoing effort to reach their goal, thus forming a series of dramatic actions to drive the plot and finally attain the goal of the film. Historical films often use multiple narratives, from the perspectives of the protagonists, the antagonists and the people, to justify the legitimacy of the protagonists’ cause. For example, in “The Founding of a Republic”, there are three narrative threads for the aforesaid three groups of characters, each of which completes a story arc. Chiang Kai-shek betrayed the “Three People’s Principles” and was obsessed with dictatorship, and, as a result, the KMT gradually lost its military and political power, the economy and the people, and utterly failed and retreated to Taiwan in the end. By contrast, the Chinese Communists, represented by Mao Zedong, held fast to the cause of creating a democratic China. Out of necessity, they rose up against the KMT which attacked the CPC in an attempt to impose dictatorial rule. While uniting the workers and peasants, the CPC also strived to win the support of the democratic parties and even the KMT members at all costs. After all the twists and turns, they eventually convened of the CPPCC session, with wide support and recognition of the general public, democratic parties and independent democrats such as Soong Ching-ling, and founded New China. The democratic parties took a wait-and-see attitude when the situation of the war between the CPC Among the People, March 5, 2019, http://jhsjk.people.cn/article/30957307, accessed on March 14, 2019.

172

F. XU

and the KMT remained unclear. But as the plot develops, the KMT shows increasingly evident intent to impose dictatorship and suffers intensified internal conflicts; whereas the CPC sets a clearer goal of building a democratic country and convening the CPPCC session. Seeing the prosperity of the revolutionary base areas led by the CPC and the winning streak of its forces, the democratic parties gradually lean toward the CPC and eventually participate in the CPPCC session held in Beiping, working together with the CPC to build a new China under the guidance of a democratic consultation policy. The characters in each storyline move toward a historically inevitable ending, and their different motivations drive the dramatic action forward. These storylines, each of which is complete in itself, are intertwined, and that is where conflict arises. Facing such conflict, the characters must make a choice with both the goal and the situation taken into consideration. The attitude of the democratic parties basically changes at the point where the storylines intertwine in “The Founding of a Republic”. In historical films, a narrative thread runs through a succession of interconnected dramatic actions, forming a complete narrative chain, to argue for the inevitability of historical development and the legitimacy of the characters’ victory. “The Founding of a Republic” uses a series of subactions to prove the inevitability of the CPC winning over the democratic parties and defeating the KMT as well as the legitimacy of the CPPCC and New China. In the meantime, multiple narrative threads contrast with each other to explain the reasons for such inevitability. “The Founding of a Republic” draws a sharp contrast between Chiang Kai-shek’s election as the president of the Republic of China and Mao Zedong’s statement which declares his pursuit of a coalition government rather than the monarchy and stresses the role of all social classes, not just the working class. This contrast demonstrates that a party can succeed only if the people are on its side; otherwise, it is doomed to failure. The above analysis reveals the following aesthetic characteristics of main-melody commercial films. Theme. This sub-genre explores the following themes. First, the legitimacy of the founding of the PRC. The PRC was built through the efforts of the CPC in uniting all the forces that could be united to pursue peace and democracy and resist the KMT’s dictatorship; it was built against the backdrop of the KMT’s betrayal of the people, which eventually led to its disintegration and defeat, and the democrats’ shift from a wait-and-see attitude to a clear radical support of the CPC. The

5

HISTORICAL FILMS: BEYOND NATIONAL IMAGINATION

173

PRC was what the people wanted. Second, the legitimacy of citizenship. The Chinese people, who had been living in humiliation and hardship since the modern period, had an overwhelming desire for legal “citizenship”. The film shows the Chinese people’s sheer joy and excitement at the prospect of legitimate “citizenship”, which they had been pursuing for nearly a century, through the ritualized expression of the convening of the CPPCC session, the preparation for the founding of New China, and the selection of the national flag and anthem. Third, a united front which is fundamental to the legitimacy of the PRC. The CPC adhered to the united front policy and spared no effort to create an independent and democratic China. In stark contrast, the KMT was bent on imposing dictatorship, sacrificing the most fundamental interests of the people for the interests of individual KMT members. Therefore, the CPC gained the support of the people, including all democratic parties and all social classes, while the KMT retreated to Taiwan in defeat. Fourth, the legitimacy of the PLA. The CPC won because it had its own army which had fought a bruising battle to secure the win. Fundamentally, the CPC’s victory relies on the legitimacy of the PLA. It was only after the KMT turned its back on the century-old demand for peace and democracy, brutalized innocent people, and repeatedly inflicted heavy blows on the CPC, that the Communists learned the truth: without an army, it is impossible to negotiate peace and build a democratic China. The narrative of the tortuous process of army building discourses on the army’s legitimacy. In the PRC Trilogy, legitimacy is all justified by a narrative of twists and turns. Take “The Founding of an Army” for example, the legitimacy of the PLA is proven in the scenes when the CPC refused to surrender their arms to the KMT and when troops from the Nanchang Uprising and the CPC-led Autumn Harvest Uprising joined forces in the Jinggang Mountains. Fifth, national identity. Historical legitimacy hinges on the people’s recognition and support. The Chinese people’s common aspiration embodies their national identity. After nearly a century of war and humiliation, the Chinese people harbored a fervent desire for a peaceful, democratic country. However, the KMT turned its back to peace and democracy, thereby losing the people. The CPC, on the other hand, fought relentlessly for the people’s aspiration, leading the Chinese people to their common goal. With their concerted efforts, the CPPCC session was convened, a peaceful, democratic China was to be born, and the long-awaited citizenship was on the way, which was what the people wanted.

174

F. XU

Plot. This sub-genre usually has fixed plot paradigms. First, the presentation of the legitimacy of historical figures. The PRC Trilogy shows in the opening scene a group of strong-willed characters who are courageous and resourceful, open and honest, tolerant and generous and united as one to fight for their cause. They can drive the story and direct audience expectations. Their qualities need to be properly shown at some length. Second, the unique perspective of historical narratives. The PRC Trilogy adopts a brand-new narrative perspective. “The Founding of a Republic” narrates the legitimacy of the CPPCC, “Beginning of the Great Revival” recounts the legitimacy of the CPC and “The Founding of an Army” depicts the legitimacy of the PLA. Third, the brave choice made by the protagonists in a difficult situation leads them to final victory. When pursuing a great cause, we could never expect a smooth sail. There is commonly a rough start, a low point, mounting difficulties and intensifying conflicts. When hit by a heavy blow, the protagonists must stay calm and quickly work out coping strategies. Only in this way can they succeed. Their strong willpower will lead to a great echo in the audience. For example, in “The Founding of an Army”, at the Sanheba Battle, the protagonists all chose to sacrifice their lives for the revolutionary cause. They gave their lives to buy time for the evacuation of their comrades. In “The Founding of a Republic”, the unexpected death of Feng Yuxiang cast a dark shadow over the revolution. Considering the situation, the CPC made a bold decision to hold the CPPCC session at a later time in Beiping which was under the control of the Nationalist general Fu Zuoyi. The CPC tried to draw Fu Zuoyi over to its side. In the end, Fu Zuoyi was persuaded by his daughter Fu Dongju, an underground CPC member, to stand by the CPC, and Beiping was peacefully liberated. The CPPCC session was therefore successfully held. As we can see, in historical films, it is much more important to show the difficulties of the characters in pursuing their goal than to simply narrate the historical facts. Fourth, the decisive battle, which, in a broad sense, can be a meeting or a reunion of forces. It must be rendered in an audiovisual manner to show the endings of the two sides concerned to the audience’s expectation, bringing the protagonists’ efforts to a successful conclusion. Fifth, the ritualized presentation of national power: major historical events such as the founding ceremony of the PRC and the reunion of the CPC armed forces. The exciting ending embodies the Chinese people’s national identity, justifying the legitimacy of national power and signifying the acquisition of legitimate “citizenship”. Ritualized symbolism can be

5

HISTORICAL FILMS: BEYOND NATIONAL IMAGINATION

175

found in not only parades, meetings and ceremonies, but also actions such as saluting, singing and chanting, costumes such as military uniforms, caps, and insignia, and props. “If historical narratives are the classical ideological discourse, then historical symbols are the modern one. Audiovisual elements are inevitably included in the sequence of cultural runes, and filmmakers will purposely encode them”.20 Characters. This sub-genre often employs the following characterizations. First, “plural protagonists”—historical heroes who share a common goal. The protagonists have transcended individual subjectivity. In “The Founding of a Republic”, Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai discussed the progress in the CPPCC session while playing with two little girls, and later carried the girls home at their request. This scene has a threefold function: (1) To drive the plot as Mao and Zhou discussed the recent progress in the CPPCC session; (2) To reflect the humanity of the characters. To the audience, they are no longer merely big names in history, but also amiable elders and ordinary people; (3) To highlight the subjectivity of the characters. They are treated as real-life people who lived in that period of history. In this way, artistic authenticity is achieved. In “The Founding of An Army”, Mao Zedong bid farewell to his wife and son, and the son called out to his father, reflecting that Mao is not only a great CPC leader, but also a husband, a father, a feeling person, which allows the audience to better empathize with the character and thus be more receptive to the values conveyed by the film. By leaving his family to pursue the great cause of the nation, Mao transcended his personal feelings and subjectivity. Second, the people. A regime must derive legitimacy from the people whose support can be gained only when it represents their fundamental interests. Third, young soldiers, military officers, students, peasants or workers who represent a new force and are successors of the revolutionary cause. The youth is the hope of the nation, for whom and the predecessors fight so that they can stand tall in the future. By carrying on the pursuit of the predecessors, they not only honor the predecessors, but also maintain the nation’s vigor. Fourth, the nation’s armed forces. As the saying goes, political power grows out of the barrel of a gun. A nation’s strength relies on its army. Without an army, it is impossible to safeguard peace and democracy.

20 China Film Association Theoretical Review Committee, 2018 China Film Art Report, p. 239.

176

F. XU

Techniques. This sub-genre usually has plentiful clever designs in the play. First, the subjectivity and objectivity of historical narratives. Historical films must be particularly strict with the authenticity of the historical stories they tell to the public. These stories must be true but not boring, and be told without sermonizing, allowing the audience to empathize with the characters while viewing the past with an objective eye. So clever adaptations are needed to respect both historical and artistic authenticity. Chosen and organized for dramatic purpose, these stories are, to some extent, subjective and instructive, and this is where the value of mainmelody commercial films lies. To be palatable to the audience, these films must avoid lousy sermons, which entails effective storytelling. Selected historical events are stitched in a way to highlight the growth of the characters, their relationships, as well as their fates in the historical context. For example, in “The Founding of a Republic”, hearing the unexpected death of General Feng Yuxiang, Zhou Enlai, who was always suave and urbane, uncommonly boiled with anger in grief, and Mao Zedong made a decision concerning their next moves. On the one hand, the spontaneous expression of emotions can arouse the audience’s empathy with the characters; on the other hand, it indicates the CPC was driven into dire straits, further widening the dramatic divide. Mao’s decision made at this critical moment shows his coolness under fire and firm goal commitment in adversity. Second, ritualization. Historical films use a lot of ritualized presentation of national power, including military parades, the founding ceremony of the PRC, the convening of the CPPCC session, as well as audiovisual elements such as uniforms, national flag, emblem and anthem, and the Internationale, as detailed earlier. Third, plant and payoff. By this method, storylines are effectively intertwined, and subplots and cultural meanings are blended together to express the main idea, ultimately presenting a panoramic view of the story. In “The Founding of a Republic”, Fu Zuoyi said dismissively that if the CPC won, he would be Mao Zedong’s servant, and later he greeted Mao in Beiping and opened the car door for him. Fu Zuoyi’s change of attitude suggests that the CPC with Mao Zedong at its core has the legitimacy to lead the Chinese people to peace and democracy. The plant and payoff actually reflect the historical inevitability. Fourth, key lines. Historical films with commercial packaging must highlight the famous quotes of the characters to reinforce the audience’s impression of the event and thus make them more convinced of its historical legitimacy. For example, “The central people’s

5

HISTORICAL FILMS: BEYOND NATIONAL IMAGINATION

177

government of the People’s Republic of China today is established”, a famous quote from Mao Zedong. Because of their complex narrative structure and grand scale, historical films require sophisticated playmaking to convey cinematic meanings, as well as great investment and a large crew. They have three other features than those of action films. First, irony. No story is absolutely objective for all stories have a narrative perspective. Historical films, however, must be objective to an extent that the audience can see historical inevitability, and irony is a perfect way to do so. For example, during the negotiations between the CPC and the KMT in Chongqing, Mao Zedong and Chiang Kai-shek both wore the “Zhongshan suit” which is the mantle of the Chinese revolutionary leader Sun Yat-sen; however, Chiang had betrayed Sun’s legacy. It is extremely ironic that at the end of its rope, the KMT shamelessly used their advocacy for Sun as an excuse to seek Soong Ching-ling’s support. For another example, when elected as president of the ROC, Chiang Kai-shek were told they lost Yan’an amidst the raucous applause for his election, which is also ironic. Second, editing and use of audiovisual elements. Clever editing and use of audiovisual elements can make the story flow better, and convey unspoken connotations. For example, in “The Founding of a Republic”, Li Zongren and Bai Chongxi conspired in the woods to drive Chiang Kaishek out of power, and Bai Chongxi shot his gun. Immediately, the scene cuts to a flock of white pigeons flying up all at once as if they were startled by the gunshot, suggesting that the KMT was beset with internal conflicts and Chiang Kai-shek would be blindsided in the near future. For another example, the parallel editing of two scenes, with one about Chiang Kaishek being elected as president in a spacious auditorium where the mood is subdued, and the other about Mao Zedong declaring he would not become an emperor at a meeting in a small room with a relaxing air. The stark contrast revels the two parties’ different political positions and pursuits, and hints at their ultimate fates. Last, a cast of typecast actors and stars. Historical films must strike a balance between two things. For one, actors should look like the historic people they play; for another, they should be able to engage the audience. To mix main-melody and commercial elements, historical films are usually produced on a grand scale. Their spectacle replies on not only epic scenes but also a star-studded cast. They are a modern retelling of history. For example, “The Founding of a Republic” features 172 A-list

178

F. XU

actors, a real feast for moviegoers. The CPC members and leaders are mainly played by typecast actors, such as Tang Guoqiang playing Mao Zedong and Liu Jin portraying Zhou Enlai, to ensure these characters are convincing and true to life. However, the KMT members are played by famous stars who somewhat look like these historic figures, which is a bold attempt. For example, Chiang Kai-shek is played by Zhang Guoli and Chiang Ching-kuo by Chen Kun. Their convincing performance and high reputation combine to make the audience better to understand the complexity of the characters and stories on the KMT side. Other characters such as the representatives of democratic parties and independent democrats, are played by well-known people to make the audience feel close to these characters, empathize with them and understand their choices. For example, Feng Yuxiang is played by Chen Kaige, a famous film director, and Soong Ching-ling by Xu Qing, a renowned actress. These actors perhaps do not look like the characters they play, but it does not matter. The film also features many guest stars who portray ordinary people living in that history, including Liu Ye playing a veteran, Fan Wei playing a chef, Ge You playing a regimental commander, and Jackie Chan playing a journalist. In a word, “The Founding of a Republic” is a star-studded epic, produced through the joint effort of the production company, the film crew, the cast as well as the audience, to pay tribute to the 60th birthday of the PRC. It marks the rise of Chinese main-melody films.21 As a quote from Tao Te Ching written by Lao Tzu says, “Govern a great nation as you would cook a small fish”. Grand narratives of history should start with small stories. China in the twenty-first century has witnessed the flourishing of historical films which integrate the elements of various genres and produce a new aesthetic imagination. We look into the past in order to learn things that will benefit the present and the future. And historical films are a good way for the public to learn from the past. A good film can touch the heart of as many people as possible through small stories about truth, goodness and beauty in a simple way. In the new century, main-melody films have found a new aesthetic way of presenting the mainstream values of Chinese culture. Profound truths find expression in simple stories.

21 China Film Association Theoretical Review Committee, 2010 China Film Art Report,

p. 5.

5

HISTORICAL FILMS: BEYOND NATIONAL IMAGINATION

179

The PRC Trilogy portrays the historic heroes as ordinary people. Mao Zedong was as loath to leave his wife and son as every husband and father; General Ye Ting was a sharp young man; the determined eye of the revolutionary martyr Cai Qingchuan before his death in the Sanheba Battle was touching. To them, putting the democratic ideal ahead of personal life is not an empty slogan, but a living motto. In “My People, My Country”, “The Eve” tells a story about engineer Lin Zhiyuan who successfully fixed the blocking ball at the top of the electric flagpole with the help of his comrades and the general public. This small ball determines the success of the flag-raising ceremony and hence the success of the founding ceremony of the PRC, and also foretells the success of China. “The Champion” depicts how a little Shanghai boy helped his neighbors in an alley to watch TV for the Chinese women volleyball team’s Olympic gold medal win, reflecting a national reverence for the women’s volleyball team and the close bond between the people and the country. “Going Home” tells a story about a Hong Kong watchmaker who fixed the Chinese diplomat’s watch in preparation for the handover ceremony of Hong Kong. The Chinese national flag must reach the right point at the precise time of handover, and this mission fell on an ordinary watchmaker. The dedication and solidarity of ordinary people in completing a common task is heart-stirring. To achieve something great, one must take concrete actions. And to achieve a lasting prosperity, a country must allow its people to flourish.

CHAPTER 6

Biographical Films: Aesthetic Reconstruction of Political Ethics

The Art of Ethical Storytelling Biographical films (biopics) dramatize the life of historically based people. They convey traditional cultural and mainstream values through these people’s life stories, and can subtly influence the audience with these values. A healthy biopic ecosystem is a symbol of cultural vitality. It plants the root of film art in humanistic care, and lets cultural and mainstream values go into people’s heart. Cultural Imagery of Artistic Authenticity Biography is a form of literature. However, the debate over whether biography belongs to literature or history had continued until the Oxford Dictionary defined it as a type of writing that describes the life history of an individual person in 1928.1 It can be seen that biography is a combination of literature and history. It should have a literary appeal as well as historical authenticity. As an effective mode of communication, film became a new way to tell a person’s life story soon after its interception, hence biopics appeared. “Biopics generally dramatize the life of role models, national heroes, revolutionary leaders, and cultural celebrities. The life stories of these people are recounted in writing originally, and then in films after this new artistic medium was invented. These people 1 Yang Zhengrun, A Modern Poetics of Biography, Nanjing University Press, 2009, p. 22.

© Peking University Press 2022 F. Xu, Transformation of Contemporary Film Genre, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6860-0_6

181

182

F. XU

embody the spirit of the nation and serve as role models for the public, especially for young people. The life of the protagonist is visually and vividly presented to the audience thanks to the director’s ingenuity and the actors’ excellent performance. The stunning effect is far beyond the reach of biographical texts, so biopics have been highly valued by the mainstream ideology.”2 Like biographical books, biopics must also be authentic in the following four aspects: characters, deeds, personalities and relationships. To be specific, “the protagonist is a real-life person; the historical background of his life, his relationship with the outside world, his main activities and their causes and results are authentic; his personality, ideology, emotional activities and personality development are authentic; the activities, thoughts, feelings and personalities of the important people related to the protagonist, especially their relationship with him, are authentic.” 3 Biopics “should also examine and reproduce history with a modern eye, explore the humanistic connotations of the characters, seek maximum emotional and ideological resonance with the audience, and endow artistic images with beauty and sublimity by the power of emotion and sensibility.” The character needs to “transition from historical authenticity to artistic authenticity”, that is, “he must be transformed from a real, natural person to a vivid, touching artistic image.” 4 This is realized through the inner struggle of the character, ethical transgression and environmental conflicts. China saw the first upsurge of biopics from 1949 to 1966. A large number of realistic revolutionary hero films with distinctive artistic styles were produced. At then, New China was just founded, and political stability was yet to be achieved. Biopics began dramatizing the life of the many heroes in the revolutionary war that just ended. Through the stories of these heroes, they showed China’s hard-won victory after a long and arduous struggle for national independence, inspired the public to continue the cause of building a strong nation, and explain the necessity for China to choose the CPC and socialism and the legitimacy of New China. Typical biopics of this period include “Liu Hulan”

2 Ibid, p. 472. 3 Ibid, p. 27. 4 Rao Shuguang, et al., Past, Present, and Future of Chinese Genre Films, China Film

Press, 2013, p. 365.

6

BIOGRAPHICAL FILMS: AESTHETIC RECONSTRUCTION …

183

(1950), “Zhao Yiman” (1950), “Dong Cunrui” (1955) and “Lin Zexu” (1959). At this particular time in history, these films had their unique aesthetics. “Most of them adopt a dramatic mode. They revolve around a dramatic narrative structure, and bring the heroes to life with a single narrative perspective, traditional montage and complanate audiovisual modeling. Since characterization, especially hero portrayal, are subject to many ideological requirements, filmmakers have to pay much attention to political tendencies and ideology, which has resulted in oversimplified characterization.”5 From 1978 to the late 1980s, the film industry, after being hampered by the “Cultural Revolution”, blossomed again. The production of biopics returned to normal and opened up a new horizon. The representative works of this period include “Ji Hongchang” (1979), “Qiu Jin” (1983), “Liao Zhongkai” (1983), “Tan Sitong” (1984), “Sun Yat-sen” (1986) and “Genghis Khan” (1986). The economic reform gradually opened the minds of the Chinese people, including filmmakers, and thus biopics in this period had greater creative freedom than before. At the same time, due to China’s special film production and distribution mechanism, films could be created without considering financial issues such as investment and profit returns, so biopics gradually moved away from merely fulfilling their ideological function in characterization, and instead strived to get into the inner world of the characters. The production of biopics achieved a breakthrough in the 1990s as China deepened its reform and opening up. Biopics of this period were mainly adapted from biographies of leaders and role models. In the early 1990s, the first-generation leaders of the PRC had already left for more than ten years, and the people began to reminisce about them. A range of films were produced to recount their life stories from a new narrative perspective, such as “Mao Zedong and his son” (1991), “Zhou Enlai” (1992) and “Liu Shaoqi’s 44 Days” (1992). These films portrayed these great leaders as ordinary people, and took the real depiction of their emotions as an important creative tool and narrative strategy.”6 The later biopics have continued in this direction. Due to the reform and opening up, the Chinese people became active and open-minded, but

5 Rao Shuguang, Biographical Films: Genre or Theme? Journal of PLA Academy of Art, Issue 3, 2013, p. 7. 6 Rao Shuguang, Biographical Films: Genre or Theme? p. 8.

184

F. XU

also restless, so it was important to guide them with traditional culture, moral qualities and mainstream values. As a result, biopics of role models appeared, including “Jiao Yulu” (1990), “Jiang Zhuying” (1992) and “Kong Fansen” (1995). Like films about national leaders, these films also portrayed the role models as ordinary people instead of superheroes, using self-sacrifice or martyrdom to move the audience. These films have found a way to bring main-melody films to the audience and close to the market.” 7 To sum up, the two types of films are trying to avoid the limitations of characterization and develop “well-rounded” and “realistic” characters who are closer to the audience and can more easily get empathy from them. Genre and commercial biopics first appeared in this period, such as “The Days Without Lei Feng” (1996). In the 1990s, when the Chinese film industry was still exploring the market, this film was not considered a typical commercial film, but its narrative aesthetics were typical of a genre-driven drama. The protagonist, Qiao Anshan, has a clear goal and motivation—to do good like Lei Feng. The accidental death of Lei Feng due to a mistake by Qiao Anshan has caused him a lot of pain and guilt, and motivated him to spend his life making up for it, so he has strong enough “willpower” to achieve his goal. The explicit storyline is driven by Qiao Anshan’s goal of doing good, and the implicit one by his internal need to atone for his mistake (or find redemption). The two storylines are intertwined, forming a profound story with deep meaning. Each of Qiao Anshan’s initiatives is independent and clear, and evolves in a progressive and sublime way. At first, he did good on his own. Inspired by him, many people started to do good deeds to carry on the spirit of Lei Feng. When Qiao Anshan’s car got stuck in the mire, a group of young students helped him push it out. His good deeds benefit himself in the end. This shows that Qiao Anshan has achieved his goal of doing good and spreading the spirit of Lei Feng. The film uses a classic mode of drama. It focuses on the character’s choice in a dilemma. His struggle makes him a real person, so that the audience can empathize with him. He did not give up under pressure, and his touching choice process justified his final choice and highlighted his predicament. Thus, his spirit is more influential to the audience. It is worth mentioning that, at the “low point”, the protagonist suffered a double blow when he saved an injured old man but was

7 Rao Shuguang, Biographical Films: Genre or Theme? p. 8.

6

BIOGRAPHICAL FILMS: AESTHETIC RECONSTRUCTION …

185

falsely accused of being the perpetrator. For one, many people no longer believed in the spirit of Lei Feng. For another, some people said to him “you are the one who killed Lei Feng.” Qiao Anshan set his life goal actually out of “guilt.” So the accusation of “killing Lei Feng” is the most fatal blow to him. The double blow pushed him to the brink of collapse. Then the old man woke up, and Qiao Anshan regained his innocence. Qiao Anshan’s wife said, “This shows that Qiao is a decent person,” which redeemed Qiao in two ways: first, the spirit of Lei Feng still exists, and his pursuit of life has been recognized by everyone; second, he gets relief inside. The two storylines are effectively interwoven to convey the film’s main idea and impress the audience. In terms of genre narrative aesthetics, the film depicts in detail the character’s inner conflict, which creates a great tension in the narrative and opens up the imagination of genre narrative. The Popular Aesthetic of Genre Narratives Main-melody biopics in contemporary China are, on the whole, of a certain mass production scale with positive characters and stories, dealing with key subject maters at the national level. Relatively conservative in terms of values, production and distribution, they are complete dramas. As main-melody commercial films gradually mature, biopics have adjusted to the times, presenting new trends and features. First, main-melody biopics have more diverse characters, including not only role models and national leaders, but also grass-root cadres, scientists, artists, literary scholars, doctors, teachers and advanced figures from all walks of life. More and more ordinary people become the protagonists, and the stories are closely linked to social reality. For example, “Hsue-shen Tsien” (2012) depicts the story of Hsue-Shen Tsien, one of the founding fathers of China’s Two Bombs, One Satellite, who overcame many difficulties to return to China and dedicated his life to the country’s space industry. “Falling Flowers” (2013) tells the poignant love story and legendary life story of Xiao Hong, a female writer and one of the four most talented women in the Republic of China. “Li Xuesheng” (2018) tells the story of Li Xuesheng, who rescued two children from a speeding train and died at the age of 37. “The Composer” (2019) dramatizes the last five years of the life of Xian Xinghai, hailed as the “People’s Composer” in China, in Kazakhstan during World War II.

186

F. XU

Characters of diverse social identities reflect filmmakers’ attention to social reality and humanistic concerns. “Doctor Hu’s Kindness” (2016) examines the grim relationship between doctors and patients through Dr. Hu Pelan’s seven decades of medical practice. Her kindness and professionalism are exactly what society needs and may serve as a guiding light for young doctors. The protagonist in “Li Xuesheng” (2018) is a migrant worker from rural Henan who sacrificed life to save two children. The film deals with several social issues. First, migrant workers have become an indispensable and important part of cities, and they have made great contributions to urban construction and social development. Second, traditional Chinese virtues such as being helpful and honest are questioned in today’s society, but are practiced by a migrant worker. Li Xuesheng possesses the valuable qualities of Chinese farmers, that is, simplicity, honesty, helpfulness and fortitude. He demonstrated his moral legitimacy by lending a helping hand to others in times of distress. “Yang Shanzhou” (2011), “Wen Chaorong” (2018), “The Taste of Apple” (2018) and “Dui Liqiang” (2013) dramatize the stories of grass-roots cadres and agricultural scientists who use reforestation and agricultural technology to lead people in impoverished areas to prosperity. The harsh natural environment and disorganization of local people are like two insurmountable mountains in front of the protagonists. But they are determined to remove the mountains like Yu Gong, an old man in a Chinese myth who lived in mountains and was determined to remove the mountains that blocked his way out and in, shovel by shovel. In 2019, poverty alleviation became a top priority of the CPC Central Committee and the State Council, and the country needed to set “role models of poverty alleviation”, so a number of related films were produced. “The Composer” (2019) was produced at a critical point of China’s “Belt and Road” initiative and is the first film jointly created by China and Kazakhstan, an important country in the “Belt and Road” initiative. So, to some extent, this main-melody biopic reflects the reality in the times. Biopics must reflect social reality and needs of the times. For example, amidst the raging COVID-19 that broke out at the beginning of 2020, we have seen a number of “civilian heroes” who worked selflessly to help the country weather the crisis, including medical workers, scientists, volunteers, police officers, community workers, couriers, caterers and journalists. Films and TV dramas about their stories will add a brilliant chapter to the history of Chinese cinema.

6

BIOGRAPHICAL FILMS: AESTHETIC RECONSTRUCTION …

187

While truthfully portraying historical people, biopics also look at the past from a contemporary perspective, instill contemporary values and explore the modern connotations of the characters and stories, to cater to today’s audiences. Only in this way can “main-melody” films become “mainstream” films. “The Seal of Love” (2011) shows the cruelty of war through the love story between Qu Qiubai, an early leader of the CPC, and Yang Zhihua. Despite a dispute over whether it is a “revolutionary narrative” or a “love story”, the film, as the opening film of the 18th Beijing College Student Film Festival, was well received by the audience, especially college students, which means it has successfully realized its functional value as a main-melody film. “Deng Xiaoping” (2003) dramatizes the last 20 years of Deng Xiaoping’s life, when he made remarkable contributions to the CPC and China. The film focuses on several key milestones, such as Deng’s comeback to power, the Southern Tour Speech and the far-reaching program attempting to correct the mistakes of the Cultural Revolution. Being told from the perspective of contemporary people who lived through that history, the story highlights the changes these events brought to people’s lives and society as a whole, thus reflecting the boldness and greatness of the reform led by Deng Xiaoping. The film takes a lot of effort to portray the inner world of the character, using various play and film techniques to reflect his personality and mindset shift. Second, main-melody biopics show an increasingly evident trend of commercial and genre-based filmmaking. “Yang Shanzhou” (2011) and “Jiao Yulu” (1990), both starring Li Xuejian, tell the story of a grass-roots cadre who overcomes many obstacles and accomplishes his goal of afforestation to benefit local people. “Jiao Yulu” deals with character relationships in a traditional way, with the protagonist supported by his wife, children, colleagues, superiors and the people. “Yang Shanzhou”, on the other hand, uses genre narratives. For example, family relationships are the source of the protagonist’s inner conflict, driving him into a “dilemma.” Fast-paced and tightly plotted, the film portrays a realistic and convincing character who is humorous, strong-willed, but not flawless, so that the audience can better empathize with the character. In this way, the film conveys the mainstream values of responsibility, dedication and fraternity. Commercialization is also reflected in casting. Main-melody biopics are increasingly using young actors who have a lot of fans. For example, “Hsue-shen Tsien” stars Chen Kun and Zhang Yuqi, which to a certain

188

F. XU

extent avoids portraying the protagonist as a traditional hero and makes the film more appealing to young audiences. “Falling Flowers” (2013), starring Song Jia, adopts the narrative style of an art film. The film is also considered a main-melody film as the story involves a reminiscence of history. It aims to leverage the influence of stars to increase market acceptance while maintaining its profound meaning and artistic aesthetics as an art and main-melody film. “The Golden Era” (2013) boldly uses a large number of stars, including Tang Wei, Feng Shaofeng, Wang Zhiwen, Zhu Yawen, Huang Xuan, Hao Lei and Yuan Quan. The film blends the elements of biopics and art films, and innovatively narrates the life story of Xiao Hong from a third-person perspective. Third, main-melody biopics show a trend of genre fusion. Biopics may infuse multiple genres. For example, “Soldier Grandpa” (2017), a biopic paying tribute to the 90th anniversary of the founding of the PLA, absorbs the elements of road films, a commercial genre featuring the wonders and adventures encountered by the protagonist on his journey. In this film, the old veteran, together with his grandson, embarks on a journey to find his comrades. The age gap brings a lot of drama, and the younger-older duo characters casting is eye-catching. While highlighting the love between the grandfather and his grandson, the film reflects on the war and pays tribute to the martyrs by recalling the grandfather’s military life. The commercial elements set off the film’s idea, that is, we should never forget our past, while avoiding sermonizing, thus making the film more appealing to the audience. For another example, “Hajab’s Gift” (2012), which infuses the elements of dramas, music films and biopics, shows the breath-taking landscape and folklore of Inner Mongolia and conveys the theme of national unity. “The Tree in the Rain” (2012) is “a ‘symphonic narrative poem,’ which sets a new benchmark for role model films by blending reality with fantasy. The father-son dialogue across space and time is both realistic and romantic, showing the conflict in a creative way and providing the audience with a new visual experience.”8 Other genres also infuse the elements of biopics. For example, “The Captain” is basically a disaster film, but the crew, including the protagonist, are all based on real people, and the lines of Captain Liu Changjian when he was in danger and the cadence of his voice are all true to the

8 Rao Shuguang, et al., Past, Present, and Future of Chinese Genre Films, p. 368.

6

BIOGRAPHICAL FILMS: AESTHETIC RECONSTRUCTION …

189

actual situation. At the end of the film, the photo of each crew member and the actor playing him/her is displayed, making the audience feel closer to these heroes and better understand their spirit. The film also portrays the tender side of the protagonists, such as Liu Changjian’s deep love for his daughter. As a disaster film based on a real-life story, the film successfully sets the moral benchmark of civilian heroes. “The Climbers” is an adventure film based on the real-life expedition of two generations of Chinese mountaineers to ascend Mount Everest. By recreating the important event in the history of New China, the film portrays these mountaineers as role models and people’s heroes. Infusing the elements of biopics into the story and narration not only meets the aesthetic needs of the general public, but also has a profound social impact due to its artistic authenticity. By promoting positive values such as integrity, kindness, responsibility and perseverance, they add momentum to the spread of the Chinese culture. Chinese main-melody biopics use artistic techniques to recreate real-life stories and employ genre narratives to spread the legitimacy of individual morality. This genre need not reject commercialization, but rather develop a new narrative aesthetic to cater to the general public, thus achieving “genre-based narrative aesthetic.” In the meantime, it should integrate with other genres. “It takes courage and wisdom to make a good biopic, especially a biopic of a great man. The filmmaker must have a dialogue across time and space with the character to understand his thoughts and emotions and find the focal point of artistic expression to reproduce his greatness. At the same time, the filmmaker should make the audience understand the greatness and sublimity of the character through rich artistic connotation and penetrating artistic expression.”9 The year 2019 saw few biopics, and even fewer excellent works. I hope this is because they are gaining momentum and an upsurge is around the corner. I also hope that Chinese biopics will become increasingly skilled at using artistic and genre concepts in pursuit of narrative aesthetics and humanistic concerns. I hope we will see more realistic works that reflect the needs of the times and highlight role models from all walks of life.

9 Rao Shuguang, et al., Past, Present, and Future of Chinese Genre Films, p. 368.

190

F. XU

“Yang Shanzhou”: Narrative Aesthetics of Individual Morality In an article released on 18 December 2018, Xinhuanet noted, “Over the past 40 years of reform and opening up, China has seen a large number of innovative and proactive pioneers who are always ahead of the times.”10 Among the 100 reform pioneers are Yang Shanzhou, former secretary of the Baoshan District Committee of Yunnan Province, and Li Xuejian, an outstanding actor who played Yang Shanzhou. Role models have great social influence, and one of the important social functions of cinema is to present their stories on the big screen to the public. Compared with action films and historical films, biopics have a smaller production scale and less influence on the pop culture. Some biopics are made to promote good deeds and therefore keep a low profile. The Internet is not their main distribution channel. Basically, they respond to current news and focus on social education. For example, “Yang Shanzhou” (2011) was shot after the death of Yang Shanzhou, in response to the national call to learn from his dedication. “Hsue-shen Tsien” (2012) was produced to mark the 100th anniversary of Hsue-shen Tsien’s birth, in response to the country’s call for promoting his lifelong devotion to the “Two Bombs, One Satellite” program of China. In 2011, in response to the call to learn from Yang Shanzhou, Beijing Forbidden City Film Company and Yunnan Film Group co-produced “Yang Shanzhou”, a film written by Dong Ling, Cui Min, Ding Ning and Hu Hanwen, directed by Dong Ling and starring Li Xuejian, which achieved good word-of-mouth and had a positive social impact. The film is not for a commercial or entertainment purpose, but rather serves as an “educational tool”, used in lectures calling for people to learn the spirit of Yang Shanzhou. Around 2011, most of the films on serious subjects featuring role models were showed in this way. In future, biopics should be made in line with popular culture, which will not vulgarize them, but rather enable them to instill the main idea and mainstream values they convey into the audience in a subtle way. Therefore, the subject matter, play structure, characters setting and plot must be handled carefully to

10 Xinhuanet, Decision of the CPC Central Committee and State Council on commending people with outstanding contributions to the reform and opening up, December 18, 2018, http://www.xinhuanet.com/politics/2018-12/18/c_1123872223.htm, December 31, 2018.

6

BIOGRAPHICAL FILMS: AESTHETIC RECONSTRUCTION …

191

avoid sermonizing and instill virtues into the audience’s hearts through a good story. “Yang Shanzhou” is a main-melody genre film with the classic drama structure of a commercial biopic. It conveys the character’s spirit and the mainstream ideology in a closed narrative. The character arc includes the character’s external goal and internal need, and the story is deep and far-reaching, close to life and intriguing. Of superb quality, the film got strong word of mouth and earned over RMB 80 million at box office in 2011. Compared to action films, biopics are more thought-provoking than entertaining, and thus do not appeal to as broad audiences as action films do. But this important commercial genre is growing rapidly. There are many star-studded commercial films in this genre, such as “Hsue-shen Tsien” (RMB 7 million at box office) and “The Seal of Love” (RMB 3 million at box office). But, due to a weak story structure, these films have failed to capitalize on the star power and appeal to a wider audience. By contrast, “Yang Shanzhou” 2011, with a logical story and believable character, is an excellent example worth exploring. I hope that Chinese filmmakers will make more biopics which tell a good story and hence attract a diverse audience through star power and online medium, just like the Hollywood blockbusters Lincoln (2012), Hidden Figs. (2016) and Darkest Hour (2017). “Yang Shanzhou” uses a three-act structure, creating a believable character by skillful use of classic screenwriting techniques such as dilemma and polarity. The strong-willed protagonist overcomes all difficulties and finally achieves his goal. However, his relationship with his daughter creates a conflict, throwing him into a dilemma and hindering him from pursuing his lifelong career. In action and historical films, character flaws are designed to flesh out the character and layer the conflict, but they will not prevent the character from pursuing his goal. For example, “The Founding of an Army” does not feature Mao Zedong’s choice between family and career although he was reluctant to leave his wife and children for the revolutionary cause. Biopics, on the other hand, tap into deep-rooted conflicts in human nature. They use mental and moral struggles to maximize dramatic tension, and give full play to the aesthetics of genre narratives. Following the three-act structure, “Yang Shanzhou” takes beat, gap and dilemma to the extreme in each scene. It is indeed a typical example of excellent screenwriting.

192

F. XU

In General, the Action System of “Yang Shanzhou” is as Follows: Act One: Sequence 1: Introduce the protagonist Yang Shanzhou and his status quo. Sequence 2: As a drought struck, Yang Shanzhou decided to fight the drought.

Act Two: Sequence 3: The solution to drought is to plant trees (the main action). Sequence 4: The saplings survived (first culmination /mid-point). Sequence 5: The protagonist was beset with difficulties (conflicts between tree planting and family and within his team). Sequence 6: Zhou Bo, a key member of the tree planting team, left (low point).

Act Three: Sequence 7: Handover of the tree farm (goal attainment). Sequence 8: The character was reconciled with his family, and his spirit was passed on (sublimity). Analysis: Act One: Establishing the legitimacy of individual morality in a new biographical narrative. Sequence 1: Introduce the protagonist Yang Shanzhou and his status quo. A model of individual morality. Playwriting Analysis: The background and personality of the protagonist, and the difficulty he faces, i.e. the bare Daliang Mountains. Yang Shanzhou, is the Party secretary of the Baoshan city committee who is easy-going and upright, and always puts people first. However, he

6

BIOGRAPHICAL FILMS: AESTHETIC RECONSTRUCTION …

193

is too devoted to work to take care of his family. His work even has a negative impact on the life of other family members, which may lead to family conflicts. Plant 1: Yang Shanzhou meets a farmer who carries two buckets of water in the mountains. The conversation between them explains the reasons for the desolation of Daliang Mountains, namely, logging and water scarcity. The farmer says that water is a good gift for others in the local area and complains that the government officials have not done anything beneficial to the people. Yang Shanzhou helps the farmer carry water, reflecting that he, as a government official, is easy-going and puts people first. Plant 2: Yang Shanzhou passed around a gift list for everyone to look at in the meeting, saying that water was the most precious gift in the local area, and as drought threatened the livelihoods of residents in the bald Daliang Mountains, no one was allowed to use any scoop of water for his own interests. This echoes the previous scene, and paves the way for the scene of “sending water as a gift” at the end of the film. It was a top priority of Yang Shanzhou to green the barren mountains. He said that the fields cannot be short of water, and the people supported him. Plant 3: Yang Shanzhou had strained relations with his family. He was a decisive leader at work, but an indecisive husband and father. This reflects his soft side, which throws him into a dilemma in Act Two, and further reflects his commitment to his cause. Plant 4: Yang Shanzhou is a man of wisdom, able to adapt flexible strategies to solve problems. When two counties were fighting over water, Yang Shanzhou suggested that the two governors switch roles, thus preventing the conflict from escalating and making everyone aware of the importance of water. This reflects Yang Shanzhou’s wit and humor. To solve the problem of water shortage in the barren, mountains requires not only persistence, but also wisdom. Cultural Meaning and Genre Elements: This sequence sets up the image of Yang Shanzhou as a moral role model. As the secretary of the local Party committee, he is upright, diligent and honest. He adapts flexible strategies to solve problems (getting

194

F. XU

the two county governors to switch roles), influences others through action (teaching people to plant rice seedlings), stays at the forefront in work and dares to take responsibility. He never uses his position for the benefit of his family, and feels guilty about neglecting his family. He is an ordinary person who has his own problems. While addressing the vexing problem of drought in Daliang Mountains, he is beset with the irreconcilable conflict between work and family. Such a believable character can get the audience’s empathy and make them think, “What would I do if faced with this situation?” In this way, the film naturally makes the audience accept the moral code, and this is an advanced playwriting technique to convey the connotation of the story. A biopic dramatizes either a segment or the entire life of its protagonist, and usually has a theme. For example, “Yang Shanzhou” and “Hsue-shen Tsien” show the protagonists’ perseverance and dedication to their careers, and “Soldier Grandpa” reflects on war and carries on the martyrs’ spirit. The protagonist usually has to complete a mission which is not necessarily a specific, short-term one like that in an action film which usually has a time limit to increase tension. For example, in “Wolf Warrior 2”, the characters must rescue the trapped workers within 18 h. In biopics, however, the mission may stretch over decades, even through generations. Like action films, biopics have both external and internal conflicts, but not necessarily an antagonist. Yang Shanzhou and Hsueshen Tsien were both charged with an insurmountable mission which took them a lifetime to complete. While accomplishing their missions, the protagonists inevitably experience ups and downs, which are the internal conflicts facing them, including their inner struggles, and relationships with others. For example, Yang Shanzhou and Hsue-shen Tsien had to choose between families and careers. These internal conflicts help the protagonists grow, and their spirit, which gets them through so many trials and tribulations, is invaluable. A genre film lasts merely two hours or so, and the protagonist must have a consistent and clear goal. The protagonist can have only one main action which may consist of multiple sub-actions. In “Yang Shanzhou”, the main action is to green a barren mountain. All the twists in the story (conflict and conflict resolution) must point to a common goal, and the theme must remain consistent even if the external task is not specific. For example, “Doctor Hu’s Kindness” shows the protagonist’s benevolence. All in all, main-melody commercial biopics must have a clear theme, i.e. establishing the moral legitimacy of

6

BIOGRAPHICAL FILMS: AESTHETIC RECONSTRUCTION …

195

the protagonists, and then charge them with a mission which is embodied in concrete things. Sequence 2: As a drought struck and broke the balance of his world, Yang Shanzhou decided to fight the drought. Playwriting Analysis: Inciting incident: Drought posing an unprecedented challenge to people’s life. Reaction: Fight drought and conserve water. (1) The initial reaction (the first sub-action) in response to the inciting incident is digging wells. But it does not work and the situation gets worse. At a meeting, when finding that drought had expanded to all of Baoshan city, Yang Shanzhou decided to open the floodgates to provide drinking water for local residents and animals, and demanded the cadres to fight drought on the front line. This decision reflects Yang Shanzhou’s decisiveness. While directing the fight against drought on the first line, Yang Shanzhou held a temporary meeting in which he proposed to stop constructing the Party committee office building, and use the money to dig wells. But they found no water when they dug to the depth of 80 m. So Yang Shanzhou planned to apply for relief food from the provincial government, saying, “It is more important to fill people’s stomach than to save our face.” Fortunately, it rained, and people cheered. At this point, Yang Shanzhou realized that it took a far greater effort than digging wells to eliminate drought, and said, “From now on, we must work on our own to secure water supplies.” The rain scene is designed not to get the protagonist out of his predicament, but rather to prompt him to think further about what and how much effort it would take to solve his problem. Such an effort is more challenging and time-consuming than digging wells and applying for relief food. (2) Moral role model: Yang Shanzhou never used the official car for private purposes. He would walk home even if it rained heavily. He always put the interests of Baoshan city first, and thanks to his efforts, the experimental fields had a big harvest.

196

F. XU

With his feet on the ground, he demonstrated to the villagers how to plant rice seedlings in order to improve the yield, and invited the village chief to join him, encouraging him to apply this method to all the rice fields. Only then did the villagers realized that this old man was Yang Shanzhou, secretary of the Party committee. (3) Yang Shanzhou’s relationship with his family members, especially his daughters. Yang Shanzhou convinced his daughter to let her son return to school. His second daughter did not inform him of her wedding because he refused to help her change her identity from a rural resident to an urban citizen, which indicates the tense father-daughter relationship and reflected that Yang Shanzhou did not play favorites. Props: Yang Shanzhou selected a wedding bed sheet and had it sent to his daughter as her wedding gift. His daughter cried, but their relationship became even worse. Act One ends. Main task: Fight drought. Cultural Meaning and Genre Elements: To turn barren mountains into oases seemed to be a mission impossible, but the strong-willed protagonist took action (dramatic action), determined to make the impossible mission possible. Yang Shanzhou’s spirit makes the audience empathize with his goal, identify with and follow him, thus establishing his moral legitimacy. Biopics should elaborate on the protagonist’s lifelong goal, usually a difficult task, in the first act. In action films, the goal is usually externalized, specific, focused on one task, and has a time limit; therefore, the protagonist must react quickly under high pressure. In historical films, the protagonist’s choices are usually driven by historical context. Historical narratives must highlight historical inevitability so that they can be convincing. Therefore, historical films place more emphasis on the legitimacy of the protagonist’s choices than on his inner desire. Some historical biopics, such as “The Seal of Love” and “The Golden Era”, find a balance between the protagonist’s inner desire and historical trends. Works that focus on individual growth, on the other hand, need to explore the protagonist’s inner yearning. In “Yang Shanzhou”, the protagonist is of course influenced by the times (which is the case in all works), but, to

6

BIOGRAPHICAL FILMS: AESTHETIC RECONSTRUCTION …

197

a great extent, he is motivated by his inner drive. In Act One, Yang Shanzhou’s choices under pressure show his perseverance and wisdom. After trying a variety of drought-fighting methods and failing, he prepared to apply for relief food in desperate straits. However, a fortuitous downpour relieved his immediate need, but also made him realize that they must green the barren mountains to remove the root cause of drought. This task was much more difficult than digging wells, and he needed to work on it for the rest of his life. The film portrays in detail how the protagonist perseveres to reach an unachievable goal, showing, through a multi-layered narrative, the process of the protagonist finding his ultimate goal and the action he needs to take. And the protagonist knows that it takes great perseverance to accomplish his goal. Act One is the beginning of the arduous journey of reforestation. In comparison, the first act of “Hsue-shen Tsien” is lengthy without defining the protagonist’s ultimate goal. The persecution suffered by Hsue-shen Tsien in the US makes the audience sympathetic (rather than empathetic) to him, but does not constitute an intrinsic motivation for his lifelong devotion to China’s space industry; rather, it appears that he returned to China to keep himself out of trouble. His experience in the US made him realize that Chinese people would not be bullied in the world only if China was strong, and that China was still weak and in dire need of development. The US prevented Hsue-shen Tsien from returning to China because it feared that a strong China would be a threat to the US. If the first act goes in this way, namely, after being persecuted, Hsueshen Tsien was clear that his ultimate goal was to help China become strong, and that, to achieve this goal, he must return to China, then his choice of returning to China and fighting for the rise of China for the rest of his life could be called “a great personal choice in that historical context.” Unfortunately, the film only lists the sufferings of Hsue-shen Tsien in the US, making it seem that he chose to return to China because he wanted to flee the US, rather than to help China grow, which greatly weakens the greatness of his choice. “Hsue-shen Tsien” is a bad example of cinematic narrative. It introduces Hsue-shen Tsien’s dilemma in four separate scenes in which he was not allowed to enter the lab, was asked to leave the US within 30 days, submitted his resignation, and refused to stay at the US. Navy headquarters, respectively. The film could have portrayed the protagonist’s dilemma in the following way: He would not be trusted if he chose to stay in the US, but he would go to jail if he refused to stay. In this way,

198

F. XU

the film can portray the protagonist’s reaction (returning to China) to the inciting incident, as an active action, and attract the audience with dramatic tension. Unfortunately, it has not done so. This is why many people comment that the film lacks plot tension and simply chronicles the life of the protagonist. As a main-melody commercial film, a biopic should demonstrate the spirit and morality of its protagonist, instead of being simply an audiovisual record of the protagonist’s life. It should focus on a few selected events of the protagonist’s life and use proper narrative perspectives and screenwriting techniques to depict these events. The rain in the first act of “Yang Shanzhou” establishes the inevitability of Yang Shanzhou’s main action; while the persecution experienced by Hsue-shen Tsien in the first act of “Hsue-shen Tsien” greatly reduces the inevitability of his main action. In short, the first act of a biopic must get to the core of the protagonist’s journey toward his goal, and only in this way, the story can be intriguing. Act Two: Main action—plant trees to turn the barren mountains into oases. Sequence 3: The solution to drought is to plant trees (the main action). After retirement, the protagonist began pursuing his ultimate goal in life, i.e. to turn the barren mountains into oases. Playwriting Analysis: Preparation: The protagonist retired and handed over his work. He returned to his hometown and called on people to green the mountains. (1) Goal (main task): The protagonist identified his goal, i.e. to green the mountains by planting trees. At a meeting, Yang Shanzhou proposed to plant trees and turn barren mountains into oases so that they could guarantee sufficient water supply. (2) Preparation 1: The protagonist handed over his work and retired, announcing the beginning of a new journey. Yang Shanzhou recommended Niu Changping as his successor, showing his impartiality at work, and his relationship with Niu Changping paves the way for the main storyline of the film. He refused to retire to Kunming. Instead, he decided to go back to his hometown and plant trees on the Daliang Mountains for the benefit of future generations.

6

BIOGRAPHICAL FILMS: AESTHETIC RECONSTRUCTION …

199

When he left the office, Yang Shanzhou only took his potted plant and map, demonstrating his integrity as a government official. Before leaving, he was invited to lead the swearing-in of new CPC members. In a packed auditorium, Yang Shanzhou led the new members in reciting the CPC admission oath, which is an audiovisual expression of the legitimacy of his identity. Then, holding a potted plant and a map, Yang Shanzhou walked out of the auditorium amidst thunderous applause and gradually disappeared into the distance, and at the same time, the scene naturally cuts to his return to his hometown, marking the beginning of a new journey. (3) Preparation 2: The protagonist called on people to plant trees. Yang Shanzhou showed an open-air film, “Romance on Lushan Mountain”, for the villagers. After the film ended, Yang Shanzhou called on the villagers to plant trees on the Daliang Mountains. The villagers could share in the dividends of the trees while he himself would not take a penny. When everyone was hesitating, the farmer, for whom Yang Shanzhou carried water at the beginning of the film, took the lead in joining his cause. Then, the rest villagers followed suit. This is the first payoff of the scene, in which Yang Shanzhou helped the farmer he met in the mountains, at the beginning of the film. Zhou Bo, an important supporting character, appeared. He volunteered to help Yang Shanzhou plant trees, setting the stage for his lifelong commitment to tree planting. (4) Difficulties: The protagonist faced family conflicts while pursuing his cause. Yang Shanzhou felt sad when he found that the wedding gift—a wedding bed sheet—he sent to his daughter was returned. The bed sheet is an important prop, showing that the relationship between Yang Shanzhou and his daughter went to a low point. Yang Shanzhou returned home and his wife prepared his favorite pickled bamboo shoots (plant/payoff). At the dinner table, Yang Shanzhou said he would not go to Kunming, but plant trees on the Daliang Mountains. The family did not understand his decision. His second daughter said, “Mom, you would have been better off if you had married a farmer rather than Dad.” The mother said, “When we married, your father was a farmer.” Yang Shanzhou’s second daughter and her husband were separated, and his mother wanted him to help transfer them to the same place. Yang Shanzhou did not agree.

200

F. XU

Yang Shanzhou chatted with his wife about their second daughter who was angry with him. Back at home, Yang Shanzhou promised to his wife that he would come back once a month to see her. His wife answered she would prepare his favorite pickled bamboo shoots (plant/payoff), which shows the love and understanding between the couple, making the story more compelling. Cultural Meaning and Genre Elements: The moral character of the protagonist needs to be repeated and confirmed in order to impress the audience. On the day of his retirement, Yang Shanzhou was invited to lead new CPC members in the oath of office, showing that Yang Shanzhou and his spirit are recognized by the general public. This deepens the empathy of the viewers who have already come to identify with his spirit. The farmer Yang Shanzhou helped at the beginning of the film took the lead in joining Yang Shanzhou’s tree-planting business at a meeting, a dramatic technique of plant and payoff. His trust and support for Yang Shanzhou makes the audience see his influence among the villagers. The seeds of kindness that Yang Shanzhou sowed in people’s hearts began to grow. He did not influence people by words, but by actions. Compared with other genres, biopics place more emphasis on conflict and drama, expressing the main idea through the protagonist’s growth and self-actualization. Conflicts can enrich the characters and narratives. The opening sequence of the second act depicts the preparation of the protagonist’s career. In preparation for his career, the protagonist begins to experience various inevitable conflicts, which are organized in a way to set up a difficult dilemma for him, thus highlighting his determination and execution to work toward his ultimate goal. In addition, the multilayered narrative is essentially a combination of gap, plant/payoff and other dramatic approaches. The protagonist faces a variety of conflicts, including environmental, ideological, moral, emotional and psychological conflicts, which make the choice more difficult and highlight the value of the chosen path. “Yang Shanzhou” and “Hsue-shen Tsien” show the protagonists’ perseverance in their lifelong career through the conflicts between their careers and families. In “Li Xuesheng”, the protagonist used his life to prove the quality of righteousness and courage upheld by migrant workers. “Soldier Grandpa” reflects on war and highlights the inheritance of revolutionary spirit through the conflict of thoughts between the grandpa and grandchild and the external conflicts.

6

BIOGRAPHICAL FILMS: AESTHETIC RECONSTRUCTION …

201

Sequence 4: The saplings survived (first culmination /mid-point). Playwriting Analysis: (1) Yang Shanzhou got his plant out of the pot and planted it on the hillside (plant/payoff). At a night meeting on the first day in the mountains, Yang Shanzhou boosted team morale and set a goal of planting 30,000 trees. (2) Late at night, high winds blew the tent down. Yang Shanzhou on crutches directed tree planting, reminding everyone to leave adequate space between saplings. Zhou Bo found that the saplings on the south slope were dead. Yang Shanzhou went up the mountain to see what had happened, and found that the cause was “Crofton weed”, so he led everyone up the mountain to remove the grass, and decided to plant the saplings above 50 cm back. (In the meantime, Yang Shanzhou heard on the radio about the central government’s decision to establish Hainan Province, suggesting that Yang Shanzhou was concerned about the country’s development although he was in the mountains.) Through their efforts, the saplings survived (midpoint), heralding the success of Yang Shanzhou in achieving his ultimate goal of reforestation. Cultural Meaning and Genre Elements: Yang Shanzhou cares about national development, and the film has hinted at that. As trees grew tall, he grew old. On the mountain, the radio was his only “window” to the outer world through which he kept a close eye on the development and changes in the country. His tree-planting career is also closely related to the future of the country’s landscape. After the first difficulty (Crofton weed) was overcome, the trees were back to life, and Yang Shanzhou called them his own children. He is not only the father of his three daughters but also the father of afforestation in the Daliang Mountains. This sequence focuses on the difficulties of tree planting. Biopics need to design the “specific actions” taken by the protagonist to achieve his goal as “dramatic actions.” Specifically, the story first sets an unattainable goal for the protagonist, such as Yang Shanzhou to green the barren mountains or Hsue-shen Tsien to complete the “Two Bombs and One Satellite” project, and then shows the audience the process of the protagonist achieving the goal, i.e. the “specific actions.” For example, a love story should tell how the relationship progresses; a business story should tell how the protagonist starts a business; a story about a lifelong career

202

F. XU

should show the protagonist’s work status and growth. These specific actions should be designed as dramatic actions, highlighting the changes in the character’s state and situation, thus to create tension and better communicate the main idea of the film. So the tree-planting sequence in Act Two introduces plentiful tree-planting knowledge. By showing the difficulty of planting trees, the film reflects the protagonist’s firm commitment to his cause, thus showing his moral legitimacy. By contrast, the dramatic action in the second act of “Hsue-shen Tsien” is rather bland. Some people may argue that Hsue-shen Tsien’s cause involves complex physical knowledge, which makes it difficult to show specific actions. But as mentioned above, the success of a play lies not in showing specific actions, but in transforming specific actions into dramatic ones. The film should fully demonstrate the difficulties Hsue-shen Tsien faced in advancing his cause, including his conflicts with the environment, others and himself. Although it faithfully recounts the character’s deeds, the film is not dramatic enough, which leads to plain narratives. Sequence 5: The protagonist was beset with difficulties (conflicts between tree planting and family and within his team). Playwriting Analysis: (1) Family conflict reaches its peak. The film underscores Yang Shanzhou’s integrity by contrasting his “kindness” to a group of children who unintentionally put the trees on the mountain at risk by starting a wildland fire to roast sweet potatoes and his “unkindness” to his daughter who asked him to do her a favor so that she could live together with her husband. Zhou Bo brought these children to Yang Shanzhou. But instead of punishing them, Yang Shanzhou asked why they were not at school and found that there were no teachers. So he invited cadres from relevant departments to the mountain. He showed them the potted plant he had grown in his office, which has now grown into a tall tree on the mountain. Comparing trees to children and tree planters to teachers, he asked the cadres to help turn the substitute teachers at mountain schools into full-time teachers so that they could stay and bring light to the future of children in the mountains. Yang Shanzhou’s second daughter came to see him and begged him to help change her identity from a rural resident to an urban citizen so that she could live with her husband. She did not want to be separated from

6

BIOGRAPHICAL FILMS: AESTHETIC RECONSTRUCTION …

203

her husband all year round, as Yang Shanzhou was apart from his wife in order to plant trees on the mountain. All he had to do was to help her get a document stamped. Despite his guilt over his daughter, Yang Shanzhou refused her request, insisting on not playing favorites. The daughter left in anger after putting down the gift for her father, which reflects that, despite the conflict, she still loves her father deeply. Yang Shanzhou told the onlookers to leave and packed up the gift. Although he held fast to his principle, he was sad in his heart. (2) The tree planting team suffered a major setback. Yang Shanzhou measured the circumference of the trees and pruned the branches. He suggested collecting fruit kernels in the streets and using them as seeds so that they could save money to pay back the loan; however, the team was reluctant to do so. Therefore, Yang Shanzhou went to the street to collect the kernels himself (important plant). (3) Family relations deteriorated. Yang Shanzhou went to visit his mother who was seriously ill. His mother advised his second daughter not to blame Yang Shanzhou for not helping her transfer to the city where her family lived. The second daughter told a lie to comfort her grandmother, and then walked out of the ward crying. Yang Shanzhou’s mother passed away. While recalling the moments with his mother, he thanked his wife for taking care of his mother over the years. His wife cried. This was an improvement for Yang Shanzhou. He finally knew how to express his feelings to his family, though not much was said. Yang Shanzhou carried the luggage for his second daughter who was leaving home. Still angry with her father, she ignored him, walking alone in front and getting into a tractor without saying goodbye to her father. Yang Shanzhou watched his daughter leave, with his eyes filled with love and care. This is a classic scene. The father asked for forgiveness by expressing love and care, but the daughter refused to forgive her father. Although there are no lines, the tension between the two is apparent. (4) The team was on the verge of dissolution. Many team members wanted to quit. Yang Shanzhou agreed that they went home and took a vacation. Zhou Bo said he would take his wife to the mountain to plant trees together with him if he got married in the future.

204

F. XU

Cultural Meaning and Genre Elements: Yang Shanzhou set his sights on the future of the country, and that is why he used his connections to retain teachers for children in the mountains. This was the first and last time he contravened his principle, which, however, reflects that he has always put the country’s interests ahead of his own interests. By planting trees and securing educational resources for children in the mountains, he worked for the bright future of China. In the play, the protagonist faces many dilemmas, and in each case, between his career and his family, he chooses the former, dedicating his life to the future of the Dailiang Mountain. When his daughter cried and begged for his help, Yang Shanzhou had to make a choice between fatherhood and integrity. And as a communist, he chose the latter. He refused to play favorites, deeply breaking his daughter’s heart. When his daughter left home, he helped her carry the heavy luggage bag until she got on a tractor, and thoughtfully locked the door for her. But it was his reluctance to help that forced her to leave home and be separated from her family for seven years. The daughter was angry with her father; the father loved the daughter, but could not go against his principle to help her. This contradictory father-daughter relationship is heart-wrenching, enabling the audience to identify with Yang Shanzhou as a caring father and an upright communist. “Yang Shanzhou” makes good use of “tensions” and “dilemmas” to highlight the moral qualities of the protagonist. In contrast, “Hsue-shen Tsien” is not dramatic enough. It fails to highlight the stress of the protagonist in a dilemma, and thus cannot well gain the audience’s recognition with the protagonist’s moral qualities. In this sequence, the protagonist encounters difficulties in his career. As a main-melody commercial film, and a widely accepted storytelling method, in addition to constantly creating gaps for the protagonist, biopics also have to demonstrate the difficulty for the protagonist to achieve his goal by escalating the conflict in the second act. For example, Yang Shanzhou’s daughter rebuked him for not helping her in front of his team, creating a head-on conflict between the father and the daughter. In this situation, it was difficult and embarrassing for Yang Shanzhou to comfort or reject his daughter. In another word, adhering to his principle became more difficult than ever. And the fact that he adhered to his principle argues even more for the legitimacy of his personal morality.

6

BIOGRAPHICAL FILMS: AESTHETIC RECONSTRUCTION …

205

Sequence 6: Zhou Bo, a key member of the tree planting team, left (low point). Playwriting Analysis: (1) Yang Shanzhou drove his grandson to college. Yang Shanzhou wanted to drive the official car to send his grandson to college. He asked Zhou Bo to turn on the odometer and he would pay the fare. Zhou Bo did not agree because he thought Yang Shanzhou should use the car for free. But Yang Shanzhou insisted, and Zhou Bo had to do as Yang Shanzhou said. (2) Yang Shanzhou’s virtue influenced others, paving the way for Act Three. Niu Changping went up the mountain to see Yang Shanzhou. He was deeply moved at the sight of Yang Shanzhou’s potted plant which had grown into a tree, as well as his humble hut. On the return trip, Niu Changping shed tears and decided to build a house for Yang Shanzhou and repair the roads. Secretary Jia Xiang came to visit Yang Shanzhou, but did not see him. He brushed Yang Shanzhou’s shoes before leaving (plant). (3) Zhou Bo left the tree planting team. While everyone was watching the Spring Festival Gala, Zhou Bo had something on his mind. Yang Shanzhou talked to him and learned that Zhou Bo was asked by his girlfriend’s mother to quit tree planting. He had to choose between his tree-planting career and his girlfriend, and he decided to choose the former. But Yang Shanzhou encouraged him to choose his girlfriend. Influenced by Yang Shanzhou, Zhou Bo also went to the marketplace to pick up fruit kernels. At dinner, Yang Shanzhou made a toast to express his gratitude to his team. He thanked Old Li, who had stayed on the job despite his rheumatism, and encouraged him to go home and see a doctor. He also thanked Zhou Bo who initially promised to work with him for six years, but ended up working for seventeen years. He wished Zhou Bo a happy wedding, and announced that Zhou Bo was hired by the county forestry bureau. In so doing, he helped Zhou Bo make the tough choice. Zhou Bo left the team. Act Two ends.

206

F. XU

Cultural Meaning and Genre Elements: The moral legitimacy of the protagonist must be proven by his influence and successors. In Act Two, the protagonist’s career hits a low point, and all the subplots are planted, awaiting a payoff in Act Three. The protagonist’s morality can only be proven through thoroughly interwoven narratives and enough responses to his influence. Yang Shanzhou’s influence was confirmed by his former secretary Jia Xiang and Niu Changping. Jia Xiang used to think that Yang Shanzhou was too strict with himself and should not have neglected his family. But seeing Yang Shanzhou’s commitment to his career over the years, Jia Xiang changed his opinion. He brushed shoes for Yang Shanzhou, indicating his identification with Yang Shanzhou. Niu Changping, who was nominated by Yang Shanzhou to be the next leader, thought that Yang Shanzhou had a good life on the mountain. However, when seeing Yang Shanzhou’s humble hut, he learned that Yang Shanzhou had spent all his money and resources on tree planting. Moved to tears, he decided to raise money to build roads and houses for Yang Shanzhou. This film is not only to show Yang Shanzhou’s qualities, but also to establish moral legitimacy. So the focus is on showing how his morality influences others and how they identify with him and support him with his goal. Zhou Bo, who has worked for Yang Shanzhou for seventeen years, is a potential successor to Yang Shanzhou’s tree-planting business. Following the example set by Yang Shanzhou, he also went to collect kernels on the street without feeling embarrassed, which shows that he inherited Yang Shanzhou’s character and had the potential to become the next Yang Shanzhou. In this sequence, Yang Shanzhou’s career reached a low point, but he did not give up. Role model stories usually need to demonstrate the difficulty of the protagonist’s career or mission. Both Yang Shanzhou who was committed to a life-long cause of tree planting and Li Xuesheng who sacrificed his life to save others in an emergency need to withstand great pressure and stick to their mission. No great cause or task, whether it is a long-term or short-term one, is easy to accomplish. As an ordinary person, the protagonist can only march step by step toward his goal, which is an exceptionally difficult and bitter process. Therefore, the story must drive the protagonist into a “desperate situation”, hitting rock bottom in every aspect of his life, including his career, family, emotions and self-perception. Eventually, the protagonist grows after all the suffering.

6

BIOGRAPHICAL FILMS: AESTHETIC RECONSTRUCTION …

207

Act Three: The protagonist achieves his goal and his moral legitimacy is established. —The tree planting cause has successors, the protagonist’s spirit has a wide influence on people, and the family is reconciled. Sequence 7: Handover of the tree farm (goal attainment). Playwriting Analysis: (1) Reconciliation. The second daughter passed the exam and was transferred to the central elementary school, weeping with joy. After hearing of this, Yang Shanzhou immediately came to his daughter, carrying a sapling, but found that she was not at home, so he planted the sapling in front of her house, which was a symbol of hope and blessings. In fact, the daughter was at home. She watched her father planting the sapling and leaving through the window, and finally forgave and understood him. Jia Xiang, former secretary of Yang Shanzhou, came to visit him and bought him a new pair of shoes (payoff). Yang Shanzhou was delighted. While everyone was talking about the return of Shenzhou VI, Zhou Bo returned with his wife. Both of them expressed their understanding and support for Yang Shanzhou’s tree-planting career. (2) Ritualized presentation of the ultimate cause. Yang Shanzhou donated the tree farm to the nation and Zhou Bo took over as head of the tree farm. The proceeds of the tree farm were distributed to local villagers in proportion to their share ownership. Zhou Bo uttered the line that Yang Shanzhou said at the beginning of the film, “The Daliang Mountains have eighty large hills and one hundred and seventy-two small hills.” At the beginning of the film, the line expresses the difficulty of greening the barren mountains, while at the end of the film, it expresses the hard-won success of the afforestation project. A ritualized scene: Yang Shanzhou shakes hands with Zhou Bo under the national flag and hands over the farm. Yang Shanzhou, alone and on crutches, walks among the trees, touching the trees he planted. He calls them his children and says he will visit them from time to time. Artistic image: Yang Shanzhou is portrayed as the father of the tree farm, a visual, figurative and lyrical expression of his moral legitimacy.

208

F. XU

Cultural Meaning and Genre Elements: The father-daughter relationship has gradually got better, building up Yang Shanzhou’s image as a caring father. In the film, Yang Shanzhou is also referred to as the “father” of the tree farm. Zhou Bo returned to the mountains with his wife, bringing his home as well as hope to the tree farm. His wife who did not understand him at first now totally supports him in tree planting, which implies that Yang Shanzhou’s cause has no lack of successors and will be supported by more people. After handing over the tree farm to Zhou Bo, Yang Shanzhou wandered in the forest, like the “father” of the trees. The saplings have grown into tall trees, and the barren hills have become green, indicating the success of the reforestation project. Yang Shanzhou’s spirit has also taken roots in people’s heart. This sequence shows the completion of the tree-planting cause. Yang Shanzhou achieved his goal. All subplots are closed here and tie into the main plot. The external dilemmas faced by the protagonist, the conflicts in his relationships and the internal struggles are all resolved. Goal achievement is presented in an audiovisual, figurative and ritualized way, so that the audience can identify with the protagonist’s moral qualities. Both “Yang Shanzhou” and “Hsue-shen Tsien” give visual and ritualized presentations of goal achievement at the end of the films, i.e. Yang Shanzhou wandering in the forest, and the soldiers coming to visit and salute Hsue-shen Tsien. At the end of “Yang Shanzhou”, Zhou Bo’s utterance of Yang Shanzhou’s lines describing the Dailiang Mountains is an audio presentation. Sequence 8: The character was reconciled with his family, and his spirit was passed on (sublimity). Playwriting Analysis: Yang Shanzhou visited the graves of his parents in law with his wife, and planted trees in front of the tombstones. He apologized for not being with his wife over the years. Yang Shanzhou told his family that he did not take the RMB 100,000 reward offered by the county government because the county was too

6

BIOGRAPHICAL FILMS: AESTHETIC RECONSTRUCTION …

209

poor, that the municipal government awarded RMB 200,000 to him, of which RMB 100,000 was donated to the school, RMB 60,000 to the Dailiang Mountains, and the remaining RMB 40,000 left to his wife, and that, after he died, his ashes should be divided into three parts, with one sent to Qingpingdong (the start of his career), one to be buried in the Dailiang Mountains (the end of his career), and the last one to be kept by his children and buried with his wife (he wishes to be with her forever). Yang Shanzhou was seriously ill in hospital and heard about the drought in Yunnan on TV. He was concerned about the Daliang Mountains. Yang Shanzhou’s family members all came to visit him. His wife gave his grandson, who was about to get married, the bed sheet, returned by his second daughter, as a wedding gift. Yang Shanzhou said, “This bed sheet was the best back then,” and the second daughter answered, “It’s still the best now.” This shows the family’s understanding and love of Yang Shanzhou. The wife said she would prepare Yang Shanzhou’s favorite pickled bamboo shoots so that he could eat them as soon as he was back home. This is the third time she mentioned “pickled bamboo shoots”. The first time she mentioned them was at the dinner table when Yang Shanzhou came home from retirement. The second time was in a chat with Yang Shanzhou who told her his decision to go to the mountains to plant trees. This dramatic technique is called “polarity.” The wife expressed her feelings for her husband through his favorite food. The wife went out and cried, telling her daughters that their father might not be able to return this time. Yang Shanzhou’s wife is not a major role in the film, but her affection for Yang Shanzhou is fully embodied by pickled bamboo shoots, Yang Shanzhou’s favorite food. The wife’s deep love and support for the husband are shown in a restrained way. Yang Shanzhou got up to watch his wife leaving at the window and found that many people were standing downstairs, waving to him. Yang Shanzhou came out in his wheelchair to express his gratitude and asked everyone to leave. The farmer who appeared at the beginning of the film came to see Yang Shanzhou with a bucket of water as a “gift”, saying that Yang Shanzhou was not such an official who “got paid to do nothing” (plant/payoff). He told that only Baoshan was exempted from the drought in the southwest region. People passed on a bowl of water to Yang Shanzhou, which

210

F. XU

symbolizes that Yang Shanzhou’s spirit has influenced the people and been carried on by the people. The film ends with a speech by the then President Hu Jintao, affirming the spirit of Yang Shanzhou. Cultural Meaning and Genre Elements: As a moral role model, Yang Shanzhou was also an ordinary person who strived to balance his career and family but had to make a choice between them. Impressed by his spirit, his family finally reconciled with him. At last, he was reunited with his family, able to stay at home with his wife and ultimately obtaining the understanding and support of other family members. Such a happy ending is the greatest affirmation of his spirit. Biopics no longer encourage the abandonment of family for career, because such a character is difficult to get recognition from the audience. So the film portrays Yang Shanzhou as a husband who loves his wife but chooses to sacrifice his personal happiness for the good of the people, so that the audience can better empathize with the protagonist. The “water” brought by the farmer, whom Yang Shanzhou once helped carry water, brings the film to a perfect end. Water is essential to life, and Yang Shanzhou has devoted all his life to securing water for the local people. Through his tireless efforts, the local residents no longer lack of water. The scene where people pass on a bowl of water represents that they will pass on Yang Shanzhou’s spirit. This is the final ritualized and audiovisual presentation of Yang Shanzhou’s moral legitimacy, symbolizing that his spirit has a widespread influence and his cause has no lack of successors.

Conclusion: Transcend Ethics and Achieve Self-Worth Many people will be put off by its name, considering “Yang Shanzhou” as a typical main-melody film and thus choosing not to watch it (films released at the same time in 2011 were mostly commercial films including “Transformers: Dark of the Moon”, “Kung Fu Panda 2” and “Love Is Not Blind”). But those who have seen the film usually speak highly of it. In other words, the film has a large number of “tap-water fans.”11 It 11 “Tap-water fans” is a net-speak term that refers to people who recommend a work of art, such as a film, out of love, indicating that the work gets positive reviews by its high quality and artistry, rather than exaggerated marketing.

6

BIOGRAPHICAL FILMS: AESTHETIC RECONSTRUCTION …

211

is well received by the audience because of its complete and profound story, distinctive characters and logical plot. It uses dramatic techniques to show the protagonist’s spirit and communicate mainstream values. It also delves into the internal struggles of the protagonist, portraying him as a kind, good man. Some people may argue that biopics have little room for adaptation because they are based on real people and stories. As mentioned above, biopics recount real-life stories in an artistic way, so as to engage the audience. “Hsue-shen Tsien” shows a great deal about the protagonist’s life but fails to have an emotional impact on the audience. However, “Yang Shanzhou” uses an artistic expression of the father’s dilemma and his love for the daughter to touch the audience. Biopics value the artistic authenticity created by real emotions, ideas, spirits and ethnics. By showing how the character overcomes his internal struggles and transcends his ego, the film creates noble aesthetic enjoyment. The above analysis reveals the following aesthetic characteristics of main-melody commercial biopics. Theme. This sub-genre explores the following themes. First, personal goal (commitment to one’s dream, aspiration, or faith). Yang Shanzhou’s goal is to green the Daliang Mountains, in a bid to solve water scarcity and drought problems and improve local people’s living standards. His goal is closely related to his morality and identity as the secretary of the local Party committee. When seeing that people in the Daliang Mountains suffered from drought and water scarcity, Yang Shanzhou, who always put people first, was determined to fix these problems, and the only solution was to plant trees. Such an arduous task would be impossible to accomplish without firm commitment and faith. Second, national interests. “Yang Shanzhou” deals with the task of afforestation to change the face of backward areas, a must-do task facing China in the course of development which touches the fundamental interests of the country. “Hsue-shen Tsien” focuses on national defense, an issue that required immediate attention as China gradually improved its international standing. Third, the connection of personal career and national development. Yang Shanzhou’s personal goal serves the national interests. Greening the Daliang Mountains to improve local people’s life is part of the national development mission. Trees and people are part of Yang Shanzhou’s dream, as well as the corner stone of the sustainable development of the country. Fourth, devotion to country. Outstanding people from all walks of life, be it a scientist, a grass-roots cadre, a migrant

212

F. XU

worker, or a doctor, are the pillars of the country and deserve praise. Fifth, resolution of family-country conflict. The protagonists have to choose between family and country. Hsue-shen Tsien failed to fulfill his marital responsibility to his wife for he has devoted himself to the development of national defense; Yang Shanzhou was an absent father who spent all his time on the cause of greening the Daliang Mountains. But these conflicts were resolved in the end. At the end of the film, Jiang Ying, Hsue-shen Tsien’s wife, said, “For this, I’m willing to make a sacrifice. It’s not regret, it’s an honor.” Plot. This sub-genre usually has fixed plot paradigms. First, demonstration of personal moral legitimacy. The protagonists are ordinary people who will encounter setbacks and be bothered by career-family conflicts along the way to achieve their aspirations. It is their extraordinary perseverance and courage to choose the harder path that enable them to achieve their goals. The audience can see themselves in the hero and relate to his experience, thus being motivated to learn from him, which is the purpose of the film. For example, like every man else, Yang Shanzhou is a father, husband and son who has to handle all kinds of family matters. In “Soldier Grandpa”, the grandpa has to find a balance between himself and his family and between his aspiration and his weakening body. In biopics, the difficulties and dilemmas facing the protagonists are designed not to deify them but to bring them closer to the audience. Second, devotion to a great and arduous cause for the good of the country. Like everyone else, the protagonists will encounter all kinds of difficulties and obstacles on the way to their goals. The films must describe these difficulties and obstacles in great detail so as to demonstrate the protagonists’ hard work, including the money, time and effort they spend on overcoming these difficulties and obstacles. They even need to abandon something important. Only in this way, can the audience see the paramount importance of the protagonists’ ultimate goals, the difficulty of sticking to their goals, the value of their spirit and ultimately their moral legitimacy. Yang Shanzhou encountered a load of difficulties, from almost zero survival of saplings, difficulty in repaying the loans, loss of team members, to worsening father-daughter relationship, on the way to his goal. As he wrestled with these difficulties, his force of personality increased. Third, dilemma. The protagonists have to choose between themselves and their country in order to achieve self-transcendence. They must exert mental effort, which is more challenging than financial or physical effort,

6

BIOGRAPHICAL FILMS: AESTHETIC RECONSTRUCTION …

213

to find mutual recognition between individual subjectivity and national subjectivity, and make a choice in a dilemma. By making hard choices one after another under great pressure, the protagonists improve their character and morals and ultimately integrate themselves into the great cause of the country. Fourth, demonstration of the mainstream moral values: serving the country. Main-melody biopics have a common theme, that is, to praise the protagonists’ commitment and devotion to their causes. “Yang Shanzhou” was produced in response to the national call to learn from Yang Shanzhou. The protagonist held fast to his goal of greening the Daliang Mountains. He could have lived an easy life after retirement, but he devoted himself to the cause of afforestation. He could have pulled some strings to help his daughter, but he chose not to play favorites even if his daughter would hate him. Staying true to his mission, he finally accomplished it. As the saying goes, “A country cannot prosper without virtue, and a man cannot succeed without virtue.”12 Fifth, national development and personal fulfillment. The protagonist’s goal is in line with the national development goal in essence. At present, China is striving to realize the Two Centenary Goals and the Chinese Dream of the rejuvenation of the Chinese nation. The Chinese Dream can only be realized when everyone in China realizes their own dream.13 In “Yang Shanzhou”, the protagonist achieved his dream in Act Three. The barren mountains have been covered with trees, solving the drought problem in this area. Yang Shanzhou handed the tree farm over to the country, and distributed the proceeds to local people, improving their living standards. His personal fulfillment contributes to the realization of the national dream. In “Hsue-shen Tsien”, the protagonist’s dream was achieved with the success of the “Two Bombs and One Satellite” project. Sixth, ritualized presentation of goal achievement. The film usually ends with a few scenes containing audiovisual imagery to show the

12 People’s Daily Online, General Secretary Xi Jinping important speech series (2016); XI Gathering strength with core socialist values—on building a strong socialist country, May 5, 2016, http://jhsjk.people.cn/article/28325925, March 15, 2019. 13 People’s Daily Online, Xi Jinping stresses during a visit to Peking University that youth should practice the core socialist values and stand by the country and the people in an effort to create a wonderful life, May 5, 2014, http://cpc.people.com.cn/n/2014/0505/ c64094-24973218.html, March 14, 2019.

214

F. XU

achievement of the protagonist’s goal, meeting the audience’s expectation, as well as to communicate the main idea of the film. “Yang Shanzhou” uses many ritualized expressions. For example, Zhou Bo repeated the line Yang Shanzhou said about the number of hills in the Daliang Mountains at the beginning of the film, which announces the success of the protagonist’s cause and suggests that his cause has no lack of successors. In “Hsue-shen Tsien”, the ritualized presentation of the successful rock launch, on one hand, shows that the protagonist accomplished his cause, and on the other hand, demonstrates China’s national defense achievement and the power of the country. Character. This sub-genre often employs the following characterizations. First, a protagonist with moral legitimacy. The protagonist of a main-melody biopic should have moral qualities consistent with the core socialist values. The purpose of the film is to confirm the protagonist’s moral legitimacy through genre dramatization, so as to attract the audience and convey the main idea of the film. As President Xi Jinping said, “Moral role models can give off positive energy and set an example of adherence to moral values. We should carry out activities to advertise their noble qualities and learn from them in an innovative and effective way, making a positive influence on the general public, and creating a social environment where people value and practice virtues.”14 Second, a partner, be it a family member, a friend, or a lover, whose role is to show the protagonist’s face as an ordinary people and provide a context for his self-transcendence. This character is designed to reflect the morality and humanity of the protagonist, through their interaction or relationship. Different from action films in which the protagonist usually has a specific, external target, such as defeating a monster or winning a battle, biopics do not necessarily have an antagonist to be defeated, but focus on exploring the conflicts in the protagonist’s relationships with his family members, colleagues, or partners. The complicated relationships increase the difficulty of decision-making for the protagonist and thus create more tension. Third, the protagonist’s successor. Main-melody biopics communicate the mainstream ideology, values and ethics in the country in order to influence the audience, especially the young people, in a way that is acceptable to them. In the film, the protagonist usually has a young successor who 14 People’s Daily Online, General Secretary Xi Jinping important speech series (2016); XI Gathering strength with core socialist valuesa—on building a strong socialist country, May 5, 2016, http://jhsjk.people.cn/article/28325925, accessed on March 15, 2019.

6

BIOGRAPHICAL FILMS: AESTHETIC RECONSTRUCTION …

215

will carry on his spirit and cause and represents the future of the country. In “Yang Shanzhou”, Zhou Bo carried on Yang Shanzhou’s tree-planting cause; in “Hsue-shen Tsien”, young soldiers continued to work hard to enhance China’s national defense on the basis of Hsue-shen Tsien’s achievements; in “Soldier Grandpa”, the grandson inherited the will of the martyrs, representing the hope for the future of the country. Technique. This sub-genre usually has plentiful clever designs in the play. First, ritualization. As mentioned above, ritualized scenes show the achievement of the protagonist’s goal. They embody the country’s strength and development, and provide a vision for the future, such as the rocket launch scene and the scene of young soldiers visiting and saluting the protagonist in “Hsue-shen Tsien.” Second, plant/payoff. Plot elements, cultural meanings, and thematic ideas are interwoven and alternately presented, ultimately presenting a panoramic view of the story. For example, in “Hsue-shen Tsien”, when DuBridge asked Tsien what he could possibly find to do in backward China, Tsien replied that he can do anything he wants, “I can grow apples.” At the end of the film, Tsien’s “apple trees” of aerospace industry planted in China produced fruits. Third, conflict. Biopics are based on real people, but are not simply biographical accounts. The film needs to set up external and internal conflicts from multiple dimensions to drive the story and show the protagonist’s spiritual and moral qualities. To this end, the play should do the following: First, the protagonist should be portrayed as an ordinary person, with both strengths and weaknesses, which are potential triggers for conflict. For example, to pursue his career, Yang Shanzhou neglected his family, which is the root cause of his family conflict and internal struggle. Second, the protagonist should be placed in a moral dilemma that forces him to make a choice. After much thought, the protagonist makes clear what he values. This mental journey enables the audience to empathize with him, and makes the character more believable. Finally, the “gap” should be a large enough. The film needs to exert pressure on the protagonist in many aspects, increasing the difficulty of the choice process, so as to demonstrate the value of the choice. Fourth, the use of dilemma to achieve artistic authenticity. Here is a comparison between “Hsue-shen Tsien” and “Yang Shanzhou” in this regard. “Hsue-shen Tsien” is based on authentic history, but fails to fully reveal the dilemma faced by the protagonist and the “gap” to his goal, thus failing to highlight the patriotic feelings, deep emotions, and spiritual qualities of the protagonist. “True character is revealed in the choices a

216

F. XU

human being makes under pressure—the greater the pressure, the deeper the revelation, the truer the choice to the character’s essential nature.” For example, Hsue-shen Tsien’s wife said she was not used to him being home. The subtext is that Tsien rarely came home, and further he did not take care of the family. This reflects Tsien’s difficult choice between family and country for they are like two ends of the scale, and choosing one end means losing the other. This scene could have provided more space to show Tsien’s struggle in the choice process, thus highlighting his selfless dedication to his country. Unfortunately, the film makes the choice process too easy to create enough tension. It does not depict Tsien’s contribution to the country, but instead simply displays the historical events in the subtitles, failing to reveal the true character of the protagonist. Therefore, although the film deals with a grand event, the audience considers it “somewhat bland.” It is a pity that the play is not arranged in a way to generate dramatic tension. By contrast, “Yang Shanzhou” makes full use of dramatic techniques to maximize the “gap” and drama, so as to reveal the protagonist’s character to the fullest. The protagonist also faced a family-country conflict. He had to choose between sticking to the principle of not playing favorites or helping his daughter transfer her job so that she could be reunited with her husband. The scene in which Yang Shanzhou sent his daughter out, following her and carrying her luggage, has no lines, but is full of tension. The authenticity of the details cannot be verified, nor can they be equated with mainstream ideology. But these details exacerbate the “gap” and “dilemma”, showing Yang Shanzhou’s deep love for his daughter. His insisted on not pulling strings for her, which may seem coldhearted, but somewhat encourages her daughter to get what she wants on her own. After a lot of twists and turns, the strained father-daughter relationship is eventually eased, to the satisfaction of the audience. “Yang Shanzhou” outdoes “Hsue-shen Tsien” in using dramatic techniques to reveal the true character of the protagonist and hence enable empathy. The protagonist’s devotion to the country, sense of responsibility, and love for his family are embodied in his everyday life. The harmony between man and nature also adds a unique narrative aesthetic to the film.

Epilogue

Question:

Answer:

How is a revenge film going to end?

The enemy’s blood flows down the knife in the hero’s hand onto the grass. The blood seeps into the soil from which a tiny pink blossom grows.

In the example above, genre screenwriting is typified by the cinematic way of translating the ideological thrust of the revenge ending into a tiny pink blossom. By artistically processing the universal emotions of humanity into audiovisual language, the narrative aesthetics of cinematic art hits the audience’s expectations with pinpoint precision, touches the sensitive areas of society and reflects the true character of contemporary mainstream culture. It escorts a film to the artistic high ground along an off-beaten path which, snowy as it looks, holds no fear for the devout pilgrims. It turns mainstream values into an ingredient of a delicious and easy-to-digest meal that few people can resist. While indulging the audience in a music and dance feast, it keeps its cool amidst the din and allows the soul to rule the body. Genre screenwriting is the norm, the framework, the tapestry of text and sound, the whirligig of images, music and feelings. It is a sharp and proud weapon, wielded by a hero to cut through the thorns, both before his eyes and in his mind. The narrative aesthetics of cinematic art provides an industrial normative system and an aesthetic cultural imagination for genre films. As one © Peking University Press 2022 F. Xu, Transformation of Contemporary Film Genre, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6860-0

217

218

EPILOGUE

of the youngest art forms, cinema has so far undergone the baptism of modern thinking and technical development and become an industry with huge volume, great vibrancy, high rate of synthesis and far-reaching social influence. Because of that, researchers need to be able to see through the complexity of filmmaking and find its essence, the way a skilled butcher dismembers an ox. Genrification is an inevitable trend of film industry and film art. Genre study helps people grasp the creative intent, goals, social impact and artistic details of filmmaking. It also offers guidance on industry-wide practice. Genre is to film as a job title is to an employee; a fully genrified film is in a stronger position to engage with and influence the mass market. The film industry has made a qualitative leap amidst large-scale production and genrification. In this rapidly developing information age, every detail matters to the whole. Therefore, genre screenwriting, as a normative system, provides filmmakers with a controllable and secure framework that ensures maximum freedom. If narrative aesthetics is the spiritual core of cinema, then screenwriting methods are axioms for filmmaking and research. Screenwriting itself is as standardized and systematic as a sophisticated instrument where every part and component has to be designed carefully. As Hollywood put it, “Writing is rewriting.” Screenwriters agree that the first draft almost always goes to the bin. Only after wiping their seemingly clever ideas out of their head can they get to the core of the story and flesh it out through trial and error. That is how a work of art is created and completed. The Chinese film market has already localized genre films and the classical screenwriting methods, but the concept of genre screenwriting has yet to be fully implemented. Also, great room remains for new aesthetic imagination of local genre films, and this book aims exactly to further the aesthetic study on Chinese films. The study and development of genre aesthetics are closely related to the combination of film industry and art. “Cinema is an ideological vessel, a way of aesthetic expression, a system of audiovisual technologies, a norm of commercial operations. The effort to seemlessly integrate all these characteristics is in line with the past, present and future of film. Because it can better interpret film text, the intent of screenwriters, and industrial phenomena, the ‘eclectic’ school of filmmaking is bound to attract industry-wide attention.”1 Under the 1 Li Daoxin, Historical Construction of Chinese Cinema, China Radio Film & TV Press, 2004, p. 406.

EPILOGUE

219

combined influence of the national ideology, thriving economy, bustling cyberspace and burgeoning technologies, the Chinese film market has been producing genre films at scale. Better still, it has developed unique genres and sub-genres and gradually standardized the genre elements. As the local industry upgrades, aesthetic construction of Chinese films has become a front-burner issue. Commercial films should be further genrified based on industrial and aesthetic standards. On one hand, the filmmaking process needs to be systematic, replicable and of industrial scale; on the other hand, timely aesthetic innovation needs to be made to guarantee the artistic quality of films. In the Chinese market, main-melody commercial film is a unique and successful genre that represents the mainstream national ideology. With distinctive characters and a closed story arc, a main-melody commercial film complies with the classic playwriting structure. Through audiovisual elements, camera language and editing finesse, it tells a profoundly ideological story in an easy-to-understand yet artistic manner. The story is moderately paced, neither mind-bending nor niche-oriented. Its focus remains on the will of the state and the mainstream ideology. Also, a main-melody commercial film is able to leverage the market influence of a star cast, the publicity prowess of mainstream media and the extensive reach of social networking platforms to engage with the public and spread the will of the state. China is growing by leaps and bounds; its global standing is gradually improving. Equipped with advanced ideas and technologies, Chinese filmmakers are now able to communicate on the same wavelength with their global peers. This book sheds light on the huge success Chinese filmmakers have made in catering to the local audience and promoting localized production and industrial transformation. As a mainstream art form with far-reaching importance, film strikes a balance between popular culture and aesthetics. Art purifies and soothes our hearts with its sacredness; it inspires a sense of fulfilment and happiness in individuals and society alike. In the spirit of artistic excellence, filmmakers and researchers should ride the waves of the times and build talented and innovative teams, aiming to create a better environment for local filmmaking. The author will conclude this book with a short story. Farmers tend to inject fertilizer deep into the soil, so the seedlings they grow will put their roots down deep to absorb the nutrients. As a rule, deep root fertilization is more productive than topdressing. The stems of plants without deep roots would break and fall when exposed to the elements. We call it

220

EPILOGUE

“shallow fertilizing hurts the roots”. To weather the winds and rains, the Chinese film industry should also take deep roots and grow organically. It needs a large number of talents who can study and implement the normative system, carefully explore the essence of genre films and screenwriting methods, and resist the temptation of “faster yield through shallow fertilizing”. With a solid foundation and a strong impetus for production and exploration, the twenty-first-century Chinese film industry will stand a better chance to thrive with the times.

References

1 William M. Akers, Your Screenplay Sucks!: 100 Ways to Make It Great, Portland: Ringgold, Inc., 2008. 2 Paul Joseph Gulino, Screenwriting: The Sequence Approach, Portland: Ringgold, Inc., 2004. 3 David Howard, How to Build a Great Screenplay: A Master Class in Storytelling for Film, New York: St. Martin’s Griffin, 2004. 4 David Howard, The Tools of Screenwriting: A Writer’s Guide to the Craft and Elements of a Screenplay, New York: St. Martin’s Griffin, 1993. 5 Jean-Paul Ouellette, The New Elements of Standard Screenplay Format, Rockport: Yankee Classic Pictures, 2013. 6 John Vorhaus, The Comic Toolbox: How to Be Funny even if You’re Not, Los Angeles: Silman-James Press, 1994. 7 David West, Chasing Dragons: An Introduction to the Martial Arts Film, London: I.B. Tauris & Co. Ltd., 2006. 8 Daniel Arijon, Grammar of the Film Language, Translated by Chen Guoduo, Li Xi et al., Beijing United Publishing Co., Ltd., 2013. 9 William Archer, Play Making, Translated by Wu Junxie, Nie Wenqi et al., China Drama Press, 2004. 10 Rudolf Arnheim, Film as Art, Translated by Shao Mujun, China Film Press, 2003. 11 Béla Balázs, Theory of the Film, Translated by He Li, China Film Press, 1986. 12 André Bazin, What Is Cinema?, Translated by Cui Junyan, The Commercial Press, 2017. 13 Jean Baudrillard, The Consumer Society, Translated by Liu Chengfu and Quan Zhigang, Nanjing University Press, 2014.

© Peking University Press 2022 F. Xu, Transformation of Contemporary Film Genre, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6860-0

221

222

REFERENCES

14 Elaine Baldwin et al., Introducing Cultural Studies, Translated by Tao Dongfeng, et al., Higher Education Press, 2004. 15 George Baker, Dramatic Technique, Translated by Yu Shangyuan, China Drama Press, 2004. 16 Walter Benjamin, A Lyric Poet in the Era of High Capitalism, Translated by Wang Yong, East China Normal University Press, 2016. 17 Walter Benjamin, The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction, Translate by Wang Caiyong, China City Press, 2002. 18 David Bordwell, Poetics of Cinema, Translated by Zhang Jin, Guangxi Normal University Press, 2010. 19 David Bordwell, The Way the Hollywood Tells It: Story and Style in Modern Movies, Translated by Xie Bingbing, World Publishing Corporation, 2018. 20 David Bordwell, Making Meaning: Inference and Rhetoric in the Interpretation of Cinema, Translated by Chen Xuguang, Su Tao et al., Peking University Press, 2017. 21 David Bordwell, Planet Hong Kong, Translated by He Huiling, Hainan Publishing House, 2003. 22 David Bordwell, Film Art: An Introduction, Translated by Zeng Weizhen, Beijing United Publishing Co., Ltd., 2015. 23 David Bordwell, Kristin Thompson, Minding Movies: Observations on the Art, Craft, and Business of Filmmaking, Translated by He Chao, Beijing World Publishing Corporation, 2014. 24 Gill Branston, Cinema and Cultural Modernity, Translated by Wen Jun and Han Jinpeng, Peking University Press, 2012. 25 S.W. Dawson, Drama & the Dramatic, Translated by Ai Xiaoming, Kunlun Press, 1992. 26 Régis Dubois, Hollywood—Film and Ideology, Translated by Li Dandan and Li Xinhui, The Commercial Press, 2014. 27 Semen Fre˘ılikh, Dramaturgy of Films, Translated by Fu Lan, China Film Press, 1963. 28 Paul Haggis, Million Dollar Baby, 2004. 29 E. Kholodov, Dramatic Structure, Translated by Li Mingkun et al., East China Normal University Press, 1981. 30 Fredric Jameson, Postmodernism and Cultural Theories, Translated by Tang Xiaobing, Peking University Press, 1997. 31 Lev Kuleshov, The Basics of Film Direction, Translated by Zhi Gang, China Film Press, 1961. 32 John Howard Lawson, Theory and Technique of Playwriting and Screenwriting, Translated by Shao Mujun and Qi Zhou, China Film Press, 1989. 33 Marcel Martin, The Language of Film, Translated by He Zhengan, China Film Press, 2006.

REFERENCES

223

34 Robert McKee, Story: Substance, Structure, Style and the Principles of Screenwriting, Translated by Zhou Tiedong, China Film Press, 2001. 35 Vsevolod Pudovkin, Film Technique and Film Acting, Translated by He Li, China Film Press, 1980. 36 Blake Snyder, Save The Cat! The Last Book on Screenwriting You’ll Ever Need, Translated by Wang Xufeng, Zhejiang University Press, 2011. 37 Blake Snyder, Save The Cat! Goes to the Movies: The Screenwriter’s Guide to Every Story Ever Told, Translated by Wang Zhencheng, Zhejiang University Press, 2011. 38 Blake Snyder, Save The Cat! Strikes Back, Translated by Han Cheng and Li Jinlin, Zhejiang University Press, 2013. 39 J.L. Styan, Modern Drama in Theory and Practice, Translated by Liu Guobin et al., China Drama Press, 2002. 40 Thomas Schatz, Hollywood Genres, Translated by Feng Xin, Shanghai People’s Publishing House, 2009. 41 Thomas Schatz, Old Hollywood/New Hollywood: Ritual, Art, and Industry, Translated by Zhou Chuanji and Zhou Huan, Peking University Press, 2013. 42 Richard Walter, Essentials of Screenwriting: The Art, Craft, and Business of Film and Television Writing, Translated by Yang Jinhua, Tianjin Renmin Press, 2017. 43 Aristotle, Poetics, Translated by Chen Zhongmei, The Commercial Press, 1996. 44 Terry Eagleton, Literary Theory: An Introduction, Translated by Wu Xiaoming, Peking University Press, 2007. 45 Cai Wei and You Fei, American Film Studies, China Radio Film & TV Press, 2004. 46 Chen Xuguang, Chinese Film Blockbusters—Production, Marketing and Culture, Peking University Press, 2014. 47 Chen Yu, A Comparative Study of Drama and Movie Ontology, China Film Press, 2016. 48 Dai Jinhua, Film Criticism, Peking University Press, 2004. 49 Dai Jinhua, View in the Mist: Chinese Movie Culture 1978 to 1998, Peking University Press, 2016. 50 Ding Yaping, The History of Contemporary Chinese Cinema, China Film Press, 2011. 51 Hao Jian, Genre Film, Fudan University Press, 2011 (2018 Reprint). 52 Hebei Provincial Administration of Radio, Film and Television, Revolutionary Films: Legends That Never End, China Film Press, 2011. 53 Hong Shen, Methods for Writing Film and Theater Scripts, Cheng Chung Book Co., Ltd., 1935. 54 Hou Yao, Movie Script Writing, The Oriental Press, 2018.

224

REFERENCES

55 Lan Fan, Film Theory—Overall Thoughts on Film Studies, Academia Press, 2013. 56 Li Daoxin, Selected Works on Film by Li Daoxin, Peking University Press, 2017. 57 Li Daoxin, Historical Construction of Chinese Cinema, China Radio Film & TV Press, 2004. 58 Li Daoxin, Monographic Study of the History of Chinese Film, Peking University Press, 2006. 59 Li Daoxin, Monographic Study of the History of Chinese Film, Volume 2, Peking University Press, 2010. 60 Li Daoxin, History of Chinese Film Culture, Peking University Press, 2004. 61 Li Suyuan, A History of Modern Chinese Film Theory, Culture and Art Publishing House, 2005. 62 Liu Xinwu and Zhang Yiwu, Dialogues Between Liu Xinwu and Zhang Yiwu: A Post-Twentieth-Century Cultural Outlook, Lijiang Publishing Limited, 2014. 63 Long Nian, Visual Expression of Historical Memory of the Revolution in the New Century, Hunan People’s Publishing House, 2016. 64 Rao Shuguang et al., Past, Present, and Future of Chinese Genre Films, China Film Press, 2013. 65 Wang Chaowen, Xia Yan, Ke Ling et al., On Playwriting, People’s Literature Publishing House, 1979. 66 Shao Mujun, New Thoughts on Film: Overturning the Seventh Art, China Film Press, 2005. 67 Shao Mujun, Essay on Western Film History, China Film Press, 1982. 68 Shao Mujun, On the History of Western Film, Higher Education Press, 2005. 69 Su Yun (Editor-in-chief), China Film Yearbook 1990, China Film Yearbook Press, 1990. 70 Suo Yabin, Genre and Authorship: A Study on the Commercial Aesthetics of Contemporary Chinese Cinema, The Writers Publishing House, 2016. 71 Tan Peisheng, The Basics of Film Aesthetics, Jiangsu People’s Publishing House, 1984. 72 Tan Peisheng, On the Dramatic, Peking University Press, 2009. 73 Tan Peisheng, The Ontology of Drama, Peking University Press, 2009. 74 Wang Haizhou et al., City, History and Identity: A Study of Hong Kong Cinema, China Film Press, 2010. 75 Wang Xingdong, The Founding of a Republic: Wang Xingdong on Screenplay and Writing, Chinese Literature and History, 2016. 76 Wang Liu, Screenwriting Studies (Revised Edition), Communication University of China Press, 2009. 77 Wang Liu, Screenwriting: Pedagogy, Craft and Theory, China Film Press, 2004.

REFERENCES

225

78 Wang Liu, Screenwriting Structure and Style, China Radio Film & TV Press, 1999. 79 Wu Guanping and Quan Yinghua, Fascinating Image: A Study on Identity, Gender and Celebrity, China Film Press, 2015. 80 Wu Qiong, Research on Chinese Film Genres, China Film Press, 2005. 81 Xiong Chengyu, World Cultural Industry Research, Tsinghua University Press, 2012. 82 Xu Zhuodai, Film Study, Orient Press, 2017. 83 Yang Yuanying, Study of Chinese Film History: Volume on Cinematic Culture, China Film Press, 2006. 84 Yang Zhengrun, A Modern Poetics of Biography, Nanjing University Press, 2009. 85 Yin Hong, The Selected Works of Yin Hong, Fudan University Press, 2004. 86 Yin Hong et al., Crossing the Centennial Year: Chinese Cinema Against the Background of Globalization, Tsinghua University Press, 2007. 87 Yin Hong, World Film Development Report, China Film Press, 2014. 88 Yin Hong and Ling Yan, History of Chinese Film: 1900–2000, Yuelu Press, 2014. 89 Yu Xiaoyi (Editor-in-chief), China Film Yearbook 2007 , China Film Yearbook Press, 2007 90 Yuan Qi, The Rock and the Rainbow: Selected Essays on Life Writing by Yang Zhengrun, Guangxi Normal University Press, 2016. 91 Yuan Wentai, Film Criticism: Gener, Aesthetics and Culture, China Film Press, 2017. 92 Zha Jianying, 1980s: Interviews, SDX Joint Publishing Company, 2006. 93 Zhang Caihong, Celebrity System and the Industrialization of Chinese Cinema, China Radio Film & TV Press, 2017. 94 Zhang Huijun and Huang Yingxia, Film History: Historical Narratives and Comparative Perspectives, China Film Press, 2014. 95 Zhang Jingsong, Genre Film and Ideology, China Social Sciences Press, 2013. 96 Zhang Yiwu, From Modernity to Postmodernity, Guangxi Education Publishing House, 1997. 97 Zhang Yiwu, A Transcentury Chinese Imagination, Peking University Press, 2015. 98 Zhang Yiwu, Modern China, Henan University Press, 2005. 99 Zhao Dunhua, A Brief History of Western Philosophy, Peking University Press, 2000. 100 Zhao Dunhua, Essentials of Western Contemporary Philosophy, Peking University Press, 2014. 101 Zhao Yuming (Editor-in-chief), China Radio and Television Yearbook 2004, Chinese Radio and Television Press, 2004. 102 Zhen Shusen, Film Genres and Genre Films, Jiangsu Education Press, 2006.

226

REFERENCES

103 Zheng Yaling and Hu Bin, World Film History, China Radio Film & TV Press, 1995. 104 China Film Association Industry Research Center, 2009 Film Industry Research: Volume on Mainstream Culture and Chinese Mainstream Blockbusters, Peking University Press, 2010. 105 China Film Association Theoretical Review Committee, 2008 China Film Art Report, China Film Press, 2008. 106 China Film Association Theoretical Review Committee, 2009 China Film Art Report, China Film Press, 2009. 107 China Film Association Theoretical Review Committee, 2010 China Film Art Report, China Film Press, 2010. 108 China Film Association Theoretical Review Committee, 2011 China Film Art Report, China Film Press, 2011. 109 China Film Association Theoretical Review Committee, 2012 China Film Art Report, China Film Press, 2012. 110 China Film Association Theoretical Review Committee, 2013 China Film Art Report, China Film Press, 2013. 111 China Film Association Theoretical Review Committee, 2014 China Film Art Report, China Film Press, 2014. 112 China Film Association Theoretical Review Committee, 2015 China Film Art Report, China Film Press, 2015. 113 China Film Association Theoretical Review Committee, 2016 China Film Art Report, China Film Press, 2016. 114 China Film Association Theoretical Review Committee, 2017 China Film Art Report, China Film Press, 2017. 115 China Film Association Theoretical Review Committee, 2018 China Film Art Report, China Film Press, 2018. 116 Party History Research Center of the CPC Central Committee, A Brief History of the Communist Party of China, History of Chinese Communist Party Publishing House, 2001. 117 Zhou Jianyun, Chen Zuiyun and Wang Xuchang, Film Notes, The Oriental Press, 2018. 118 Cao Yiping, Partially Ineffectiveness of American Film Rating System: Reflection on the Report of The Federal Trade Commission, Journal of Beijing Film Academy, 2019 (11). 119 Chen Mo, Kung-Fu Star Jackie Chan: From Hong Kong to the World: An Overview of Jackie Chan’s Film Creation, Contemporary Cinema, 2000 (1). 120 Chen Xuguang, The New Mainstream Blockbuster “Wolf Warrior 2”: “Genre Strengthening”, National Image Building and “Chinese Dream” Expression, China Film News, August 9, 2017.

REFERENCES

227

121 Chen Xuguang and Shi Xiaoxi, A Review of China’s Genre Films: Pattern and Ecology, Aesthetics and Culture, Studies in National Art, No.6, Vol. 30, 2017. 122 Chen Yu, Genre Films: Economic Strategies of Film, Contemporary Cinema, 2010 (12). 123 Ding Yaping and Chu Shuangyue, The History, Status Quo and Problems of the Production of Revolutionary and Historical Films, Journal of Shanghai University (Social Sciences Edition), 2015 (1). 124 Hao Jian, Chinese Mainland Genre Films: Formal Dialogue and Moral Understanding, Contemporary Cinema, 2011 (9). 125 Hu Ke, Chinese Film Genre and Its Developing Trend, Contemporary Cinema, 2011 (9). 126 Jia Leilei, A Review of Chinese Genre Films (1977–1997), Film Art, 1999 (2). 127 Li Xun, The Only Way to Genre Development, Contemporary Cinema, 2010 (12). 128 Li Xun, Revisiting the Concept of Film: the Craft, Business and Management of Genre Films, Film Art, 2012 (4). 129 Lu Jiajia and Liu Hanwen, An Analytical Report of Chinese Film Industry Development in 2017 , Contemporary Cinema, 2018 (3). 130 Lu Jiajia and Liu Hanwen, An Analytical Report of Chinese Film Industry Development in 2018, Contemporary Cinema, 2019 (3). 131 Peng Jixiang, Genre Films: The Inevitable Course of Chinese Cinema— Responsibilities of Film Theories, Arts Criticism, 2007 (8). 132 Rao Shuguang, Biographical Films: Genre or Theme? Journal of PLA Academy of Art, 2013 (03). 133 Rao Shuguang, The Experience and the Development Strategy of the Chinese Genre Film, Contemporary Cinema, 2008 (5). 134 Rao Shuguang and Xian Jia, The Structural Development and Prospect of the Genre Film in Contemporary China, Journal of Zhejiang University of Media & Communications, 2013 (2). 135 Wang Haizhou, The Development and Evolution of Action Film in Mainland China Since the 1980s, Journal of Beijing Film Academy, 1998 (3). 136 Wang Yichuan, The Motives, Characteristics and Problems of Chinese Film Genres in the New Century, Contemporary Cinema, 2011 (9). 137 Wang Yunman, The Cinematographic and the Dramatic, Movie Literature, 1981 (11). 138 Yin Hong, Revolutionary and Historical Films Should Be Based on Historical Facts, Wenyi Bao (Literature and Art Newspaper), June 29, 2011. 139 Yin Hong, Chinese Films in the 40 Years of Reform and Opening-Up, The Journal of Beijing Film Academy, 2018 (2).

228

REFERENCES

140 Yin Hong, Mao Zedong 1949—A New Exploration of the Creation of Historical Films, Contemporary Cinema, 2019 (10). 141 Zhan Qingsheng, The Genre Evolution of Military Action Movies in New China, Film Art, 2017 (06). 142 Zhang Yiwu, Beyond the Blockbuster: A Transcendent Decade for Chinese Cinema, Contemporary Cinema, 2012 (11). 143 Zhang Yiwu, Zhang Yiwu on “Wolf Warrior 2”: The Victory of the New Chinese Superhero, PR World, 2017 (17). 144 Zhang Yiwu, The Founding of a Republic: A Solemn Expression of State Legitimacy, Contemporary Cinema, 2009 (11). 145 Zhou Xing, On the Oriental Cultural Characteristics of Jackie Chan’s Movies, Contemporary Cinema, 2000 (1). 146 Eastday.com: http://mini.eastday.com. 147 People.cn: http://www.people.com.cn. 148 Sohu.com: https://www.sohu.com/. 149 Xinhuanet: http://www.xinhuanet.com. 150 Endata.com.cn: http://www.cbooo.cn. 151 1905.com, China Film Report 2019, December 31, 2019, https://6.u. mgd5.com/c/h2ku/fyhn/index.html.

Index

A Act, 6, 7, 29, 63, 64, 85, 88, 91, 92, 99, 109, 115, 123, 124, 126, 128–133, 160, 166, 169, 196–198, 200, 202, 204 Action, 4, 5, 12, 18, 20, 23, 24, 33, 38–40, 46, 47, 49, 50, 55, 58, 72–74, 76, 77, 80–98, 101–103, 106, 109, 110, 115, 117, 120, 123, 130–132, 135, 139, 141, 143, 144, 152, 160, 162, 171, 172, 175, 179, 191, 194, 196–198, 200, 202 Action film, 8, 18, 58, 67, 86, 89, 96, 105–116, 121, 125, 128, 130–132, 134–136, 139–142, 144, 177, 190, 191, 194, 196, 214 Action system, 74, 92, 93, 96, 97, 116, 117 Aesthetic imagination, 9, 13, 15, 63, 69, 85, 97, 108, 145, 178, 218 Anti-classical narrative, 64 Art films, 2, 7, 9, 19, 31, 32, 35, 38–40, 42, 45, 50, 52, 54, 64,

82, 87, 89, 90, 106, 107, 120, 188 Artistic authenticity, 121, 175, 176, 189, 211, 215 Auteur theory, 28, 45 B Beat, 47, 72–74, 83, 85, 92, 93, 99, 191 Beat sheet, 93, 99 Biographical film, 18, 181 Blockbusters, 1, 2, 5, 12, 37, 44, 45, 55, 115, 138, 150, 153, 191 Blurred genres, 45, 49 C Campfire scene, 95, 96 Character, 7, 10, 11, 17–20, 37, 42, 44–47, 51, 53, 56–59, 63, 71, 72, 74, 75, 77–92, 94–97, 100–103, 111, 113, 118, 119, 121, 122, 128, 131, 137, 142–144, 150, 155, 157, 164, 166, 167, 169, 171, 172,

© Peking University Press 2022 F. Xu, Transformation of Contemporary Film Genre, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6860-0

229

230

INDEX

174–176, 178, 182–188, 190–192, 194, 199, 200, 202, 206, 208, 210, 211, 213–217, 219 Character arc, 52, 63, 74, 86, 95, 97, 191 China’s film industry, 3, 24, 55, 66 China’s global standing, 18, 112, 115, 125, 135 Chinese cinema, 1, 2, 7, 8, 10, 13–15, 18, 21, 24, 40, 41, 43, 49, 55, 66, 113, 147, 153, 154, 186 Chinese film, 2, 3, 5, 8–11, 15, 16, 23, 24, 31–40, 42, 45–47, 49, 51, 56, 57, 64–68, 102–105, 107, 108, 110, 120, 123, 139, 150, 152, 184, 218–220 Chinese genre film, 5, 8, 21, 33, 56 Cinematic narration, 68 Classical Hollywood narration, 63, 64 Closed ending, 17–20, 52, 53, 100, 104, 133, 169 Color, 75, 76, 79, 95, 143, 148 Comedy film, 3–5, 23, 24, 26, 32, 33, 37, 38, 40, 47, 48, 50, 55, 57, 67, 108, 129, 152 Commercial film, 2, 5, 9–11, 15, 18, 19, 31, 32, 35, 36, 38–40, 42, 45, 46, 49, 50, 52–57, 61–64, 67, 68, 81, 82, 86–90, 102, 106, 116, 120, 123, 134, 136, 141, 150, 153, 184, 191, 210, 219 Contemporary values, 11, 187 Conventional narrative principles, 19 Crime films, 4, 7, 23, 24, 27, 33, 49, 109, 162 Cultural imagination, 2, 3, 7–11, 14, 17, 36, 144, 217 Cultural soft power, 38, 39, 139

D Deferred gratification, 19 Delay, 94, 96, 163 Description, 10, 74, 75, 80, 81, 83, 84, 91 Desire, 7, 11, 30, 53, 63, 85, 86, 88, 89, 97, 107, 115, 121, 144, 157, 158, 162, 163, 168, 173, 196 Dialogue, 47, 70, 74–77, 80, 81, 128, 188 Dilemma, 7, 17, 40, 87, 94, 97, 119, 120, 126, 141, 164, 184, 187, 191, 193, 197, 200, 204, 208, 211–213, 215, 216 Disaster film, 5, 6, 188, 189 Dramatic storytelling, 67, 68 Dramatic tensions, 59, 93, 94, 96, 97, 120, 126, 131, 132, 143, 159, 191, 198, 216 Dual nature, 9, 13

E Editing, 12, 16, 71, 77–79, 161, 177, 219 Empathy, 58, 86, 91, 93, 101, 103, 119, 121, 151, 176, 184, 194, 200, 216 Ethical storytelling, 181

F Feature-length film, 12, 97, 99 Film art, 12, 13, 16, 26, 181, 218 Film genre, 10, 16, 23, 25, 27, 29, 32, 37, 40, 49–51, 69, 147, 149, 150 Filmmaking, 50 Film narration, 61, 69, 70, 73, 76, 82 First culmination, 93, 98, 99, 129, 156, 162, 192, 201 Flaw, 47, 87, 119, 121, 191

INDEX

G Gap, 2, 90, 93, 94, 96, 97, 115, 153, 154, 188, 191, 200, 204, 215, 216 Genre-based screenwriting, 16 Genre blending, 33, 40, 44, 46–49 Genre film, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10–16, 18, 24–27, 29–35, 37, 39–50, 55–57, 60, 66, 68, 72–75, 89, 100, 101, 105–107, 112–114, 130, 136, 137, 140, 158, 166, 191, 194, 217–220 Genre filmmaking, 24, 31, 40, 44, 47, 48, 150, 154 Genre formulas, 41 Global standing, 105, 112, 116, 135, 219 H Hero, 1, 2, 6, 16, 19, 33, 37–39, 42–44, 58, 66, 86, 101, 102, 107, 108, 110–112, 115, 116, 119–121, 123–125, 128, 129, 131–134, 141–145, 149, 151, 175, 179, 182, 183, 188, 189, 212, 217 Heroic legends, 116 Heroine, 86, 91 Heroism, 112, 114, 115, 119, 121, 130, 131, 134, 137, 143 High-concept film, 43, 44 History film, 36, 37, 45, 50, 106, 178, 183, 187–189 Hollywood studios system, 30 Horror film, 23, 37 Hybrid genre, 26, 43, 44, 46–49, 55, 56, 108, 109, 112, 114 I Inciting incident, 63, 88, 97–99, 121, 122, 159, 195, 198

231

Independent film, 39, 42, 51, 52, 54 Indie film, 2, 9, 12, 64, 87 Individual morality, 189, 192 Irony, 94, 95, 160, 161, 177

K Kung Fu film, 10, 107

L Legitimacy, 6, 10, 14, 16, 18, 20, 59, 105, 110, 112, 113, 115, 118–121, 125, 131, 135, 137, 138, 140–142, 153, 155, 158–161, 166, 168–176, 182, 186, 189, 192, 194, 196, 199, 202, 206, 207, 210, 212, 214 Legitimacy of personal morality, 58, 59, 204 Legitimacy of reality, 58 Legitimacy of the state, 58, 59, 168 Lines, 5, 7, 8, 10–12, 15, 17, 20, 46, 52, 72–75, 79, 82, 83, 92–95, 101, 118, 124, 129, 130, 133–135, 138, 140, 143, 144, 156, 158, 167, 169, 170, 176, 188, 190, 195, 203, 207, 208, 213, 214, 216, 218 Locally-inspired films, 7 Low point, 93, 97–99, 103, 104, 117, 125, 129, 156, 163, 164, 174, 184, 192, 199, 205, 206

M Main action, 85, 90–92, 97, 116, 192, 194, 198 Main intention, 86, 88–90, 92, 97, 103 Main-melody commercial films, 8–13, 15–21, 24, 36, 37, 39, 49, 50, 55–58, 61, 100, 102, 103, 113,

232

INDEX

116, 124, 139, 142, 172, 176, 185, 198, 204, 219 Main-melody film, 6–10, 18, 32, 34–36, 38–40, 49, 53–55, 57, 59, 100–102, 107, 152, 153, 178, 184, 187, 188, 210 Mainstream ideology, 9, 14, 15, 36, 55, 57, 58, 60, 136, 141, 191, 214, 216, 219 Martial arts film, 32, 49, 50, 105–107, 137 Mid-point, 93, 98, 99, 104, 117, 129, 192, 201 Mise-en-scène, 74, 76, 77, 79 Motion picture, 43, 75, 106 Motivation, 19, 63, 88, 91, 103, 172, 184, 197 Multi-protagonist, 86 N Narrative aesthetics, 8, 11–13, 16, 18, 21, 62–64, 68, 71, 73, 74, 101, 136, 137, 184, 185, 189, 217, 218 Narrative theory, v National imagination, 152 Need, 9–12, 15–17, 19, 23, 29, 32, 36, 44–46, 52, 61, 62, 64, 66, 71, 72, 74, 77, 79, 81, 83, 87–90, 99, 116, 128, 133, 134, 138, 139, 144, 147, 153, 158, 168, 170, 174, 176, 182, 184, 186, 189, 191, 196, 197, 200, 201, 206, 212, 215, 218–220 Normative system, 11, 13, 15, 21, 28, 29, 41, 42, 44–49, 64, 68, 71–73, 80, 81, 85, 87, 139, 217, 218, 220 O Opera films, 32

P Pacing and rhythm, 78 Payoff, 94, 117, 129, 131, 133, 135, 143, 144, 165, 176, 199–201, 206, 207, 209, 215 Plant, 94, 117–119, 122, 125, 126, 129, 131, 133, 135, 143, 144, 157, 165, 176, 181, 192–194, 196, 198–209, 211, 215, 219 Plural protagonist, 86, 100, 121, 162, 163 Point of Attack, 88 Polarity, 19, 79, 94, 95, 144, 191, 209 Pre-production, 71 Protagonist, 7, 53, 56, 58, 59, 63, 64, 85–94, 98, 100–103, 110, 112, 114–121, 124–128, 130, 132, 134, 137, 140–143, 157, 164, 171, 174, 175, 184–189, 191, 192, 194–202, 204, 206–208, 210–216

R Reaction, 84, 90, 93, 125, 159, 163, 195, 198 Retardation, 94, 96 Risk, 74, 94, 102, 127, 140, 163, 202 Romance film, 7

S Scene, 8, 11, 12, 20, 37, 39, 48, 49, 59, 70, 72, 74–79, 81–85, 92, 93, 95, 96, 106, 114, 119–121, 123, 127, 131, 135–138, 160, 161, 164, 166, 168–170, 173–175, 177, 191, 193, 195, 197, 199, 203, 207, 210, 213, 215, 216 Science fiction films, 27

INDEX

Screenplay, 61–65, 67–86, 91, 92, 94, 95, 97, 99, 101, 103, 136 Screenwriting, 11, 13, 16, 17, 19–21, 51, 57, 61, 62, 64–70, 72–75, 77, 78, 80, 81, 84–89, 91–94, 96–102, 104, 143, 191, 198, 217, 218, 220 Script supervisor, 74 Sequence, 20, 49, 50, 74, 76, 82, 85, 92, 93, 98, 99, 103, 104, 109, 117–125, 128–132, 134, 135, 140–144, 156, 158–164, 166–169, 192, 193, 195, 198, 200–202, 204–208 Single-genre, 40, 46, 48–50 Single-protagonist, 86 Sound, 2, 65, 70–77, 79, 81, 84, 88, 168, 217 “Spectral model” for genre classification, 9, 24, 49 Spine, 90, 123, 124 Stage direction, 72, 76, 77 Stake, 94, 120, 127 Status quo, 85, 88, 97, 98, 103, 117–119, 121, 192 Story, 5–8, 10, 12, 16, 39, 42, 44, 46, 53, 54, 56, 59, 61, 63, 65, 68–70, 72–77, 82–88, 90–94, 96, 97, 99–101, 103, 108, 110, 111, 114–116, 118–121, 123, 126, 129, 136, 142, 143, 152,

233

154, 156, 157, 159, 166–169, 174, 176, 177, 179, 181, 184, 185, 187–189, 191, 194, 198, 200, 201, 206, 211, 215, 218, 219 Story arc, 85, 171, 219 Storytelling, 12, 19, 53, 67–70, 74, 76, 84, 91, 96, 99, 136, 176, 204 Sub-action, 85, 90–93, 97, 160, 162, 163, 172, 194, 195 T Three-act structure, 63, 67, 74, 82, 97, 98, 100, 117, 136, 191 Twist, 40, 64, 94, 98, 127, 133, 167, 168, 171, 173, 194, 216 V Value orientation, 16 Visual presentation, 75, 77, 79 W Want, 10, 20, 43, 52, 63, 72, 73, 83, 89–91, 107, 111, 116, 118, 122, 155, 157–161, 173, 197, 199, 202, 203, 205, 215, 216 Western films, 2, 65 Willpower, 86, 87, 93