Tourism and Protected Areas: Benefits Beyond Boundaries [1 ed.] 9781845931766, 9780851990224

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Tourism and Protected Areas: Benefits Beyond Boundaries

The Vth IUCN World Parks Congress

Edited by Robyn Bushell University of Western Sydney Australia and

Copyright © 2006. CABI. All rights reserved.

Paul Eagles University of Waterloo Canada

www.cabi.org

Bushell, R., and P.F.J. Eagles. Tourism and Protected Areas : Benefits Beyond Boundaries, CABI, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central,

CABI is a trading name of CAB International CABI Head Office Nosworthy Way Wallingford Oxfordshire OX 10 8DE UK Tel:+44 (0)1491 832111 Fax: +44 (0)1491 833508 E-mail: [email protected] Website: www.cabi.org

CABI North American Office 875 Massachusetts Avenue 7th F loor Cambridge, MA 02139 USA Tel: +1 617 395 4056 Fax: +1 617 354 6875 E-mail: [email protected]

© CAB International 2007. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronically, mechanically, by photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owners. The designation of geographical entities in this book, and the presentation of the material, do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of IUCN or other participating organizations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect those of IUCN.

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A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library, London, UK. A catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress, Washington, DC.

ISBN: 978 085199 022 4 Printed and bound in the UK from copy supplied by the editors by Athenaeum Press, Gateshead.

ii Bushell, R., and P.F.J. Eagles. Tourism and Protected Areas : Benefits Beyond Boundaries, CABI, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Table of Contents Foreword Achim Steiner, IUCN David Sheppard, WCPA

xii

Preface Eugenic Yunis, WTO

xiv

Contributors

xvii

Section 1: Tourism and Conservation in the 21st Century Chapter 1 - Tourism and Protected Areas: Benefits Beyond Boundaries Robyn Bushell, Russell Staiff and Paul F. J. Eagles

1

Chapter 2 - Tourism as a Tool for Conservation and Support of Protected Areas: Setting the Agenda Robyn Bushell and Stephen F. McCool

12

Chapter 3 - Global Trends Affecting Tourism in Protected Areas PaulF.J. Eagles

27

Chapter 4 - Key Principles and Directions for Tourism in Protected Areas: A Review of Existing Charters, Guidelines and Declarations Jasmine Foxlee

44

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Section 2: Management Issues and Case Studies Chapter 5 - Tourism, Indigenous and Local Communities and Protected Areas in Developing Nations Lea M. Scherl and Stephen Edwards

71

Chapter 6 - Joint Management: Aboriginal Involvement in Tourism in the Kakadu World Heritage Area Peter Wellings

89

Chapter 7 - Tourism as a Tool for Community-based Conservation and Development Penelope Figgis and Robyn Bushell

101

Chapter 8 - The World Heritage Tourism Programme: Lessons Learned Art Pedersen

115

Chapter 9 - Trans-frontier Conservation Areas and Sustainable Nature-based Tourism Anna Spenceley

129

ill Bushell, R., and P.F.J. Eagles. Tourism and Protected Areas : Benefits Beyond Boundaries, CABI, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Chapter 10 - Sustainable Nature Tourism in Europe: An Overview of NGOs Marielies Schelhaas

141

Chapter 11 - Capacity-building for Ecotourism: Training Programmes for Managers of Protected Areas Wolfgang Strasdas, Brent Corcoran and Thomas Petermann

150

Chapter 12 - The Role of Certification and Accreditation in Ensuring Tourism Contributes to Conservation Martha Honey

168

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Section 3: Economic Issues and Case Studies Chapter 13 - Tourism-based Revenue Generation for Conservation Andy Drumm

191

Chapter 14 - Economic Impacts of Parks on Surrounding Communities: Findings from New South Wales Nicholas Conner

210

Chapter 15 - Management Information Tools for Setting Visitor Fees Kreg Lindberg

231

Chapter 16 - Conservation and Community Development: The Conservation Corporation Africa Model Les Carlisle

244

Chapter 17 - Sabi Sabi: A Model for Effective Ecotourism, Conservation and Community Involvement Rael Loon, Ian Harper and Patrick Shorten

264

Chapter 18 - Financing Parks through Marketing: A Case Study of Ontario Parks Elizabeth Halpenny

277

Chapter 19 - Concessions and Commercial Development: Experience in South African National Parks Peter Fearnhead

301

Chapter 20 - Tourism on the Great Barrier Reef: A Partnership Approach Andrew Skeat and Hilary Skeat

315

Section 4: Conclusion Chapter 21 - Tourism, Protected Areas and the World Parks Congress: Fundamental Lessons, New Horizons and Promising Directions Stephen F. McCool, Paul F.J. Eagles, Robyn Bushell and Jeff McNeely

329

Index

347

IV Bushell, R., and P.F.J. Eagles. Tourism and Protected Areas : Benefits Beyond Boundaries, CABI, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central,

List of Figures Chapter 1 Figure 1

Urban parks, such as Stanley Park, Vancouver, Canada, are valued by local citizens

Figure 2

National parks contain some of the most attractive tourism sites in the world such as this site, Tendele, in Royal Natal National Park in South Africa

Figure 3

The 'Virtuous Circle' influencing parks, visitation and attitudes

Chapter 2 Figure 1

Yellow Water Lagoon in Kakadu National Park.

Chapter 3 Figure 1

Costa Rica national park visitation

Figure 2

Percentage of the 25-64 populations with tertiary-level education

Figure 3

Average age of retirement in Canada

Figure 4

Rondovels in Skukuza Bush Camp in Kruger National Park, South Africa

Figure 5

Maya Mountain Ecolodge in Belize

Figure 6

Global oil and gas production

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Chapter 4 Figure 1

A simple fence protects sensitive dunes from the heavy nearby beach use in Prince Edward Island National Park in Canada

Chapter 5 Figure 1

Indigenous Chachi at the Cotocachi-Cayapas Ecological Reserve

Figure 2

Artesinal fisheries in Mozambique are an important livelihood security

Figure 3

Local community dependence on traditionally used plants for their survival in India

v Bushell, R., and P.F.J. Eagles. Tourism and Protected Areas : Benefits Beyond Boundaries, CABI, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Figure 4

A small family inn bordering Sierra de la Culata National Park, Venezuela

Figure 5

An Achuar community member with a tourist at Kapawi Lodge, Ecuador

Chapter 6 Figure 1

Jim Jim Falls, in Kakadu National Park

Figure 2

The Bowali Cultural Centre presents the visitor with an 'underwater' perspective, highlighting the ecology of the wetlands

Chapter 7 Figure 1

Turtle Island's 'waste' wood is collected and milled for transformation into furniture

Figure 2

Turtle Island's 'waste' wood is collected and milled for use on the island and for sale to resort guests

Chapter 8 Figure 1

The Great Wall of China

Figure 2

Machu Picchu

Figure 3

Local guides

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Chapter 9 Figure 1

South Africa and Lesotho are partners in the Maloti-Drakensberg TFCA, which incorporates the Drakensberg mountains in South Africa

Figure 2

The Delphi consultation process

Chapter 10 Figure 1

Tourists trekking through the Aletsch area of The Alps

Figure 2

A proposal to build a ski lift across the Aletsch Glacier reveals the fragility of the co-operative relationship between stakeholders

Chapter 11 Figure 1

Workshops with protected area managers help to build awareness and capacity for participatory, multidisciplinary ecotourism planning and management VI

Bushell, R., and P.F.J. Eagles. Tourism and Protected Areas : Benefits Beyond Boundaries, CABI, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Figure 2

The structure of InWEnt's ecotourism training seminars

Chapter 12 Figure 1

Types of certification programmes

Figure 2

Geographical distribution of certification programmes

Figure 3

PAN Park's guiding principles

Figure 4

Toth's three-legged stool of certification programmes

Figure 5

Characteristics of process-based certification methodologies

Figure 6

Characteristics of performance-based certification methodologies

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Chapter 13 Figure 1

A fee programme in Bolivia is paying for a plan to control off-road vehicle access and other visitor pressures that threaten such wildlife as the Andean flamingo at the Eduardo Avaroa National Reserve

Figure 2

Predicted impact on visitation levels in response to alternative fee levels

Figure 3

Actual revenue generated by pilot entrance fee program and potential revenue had fee been collected in US$ instead of local currency

Figure 4

Distribution of reserve budget, 2003

Figure 5

Whale sharks gather in the Gladden Spit Marine Reserve at certain times of the lunar calendar

Figure 6

Contingent behaviour analysis price responsiveness

Figure 7

Virtuous Cycle of tourism user fees

Chapter 14 Figure 1

Provision of benefits to individuals and communities from protected areas

Figure 2

Location of protected areas in New South Wales referred to in text

Figure 3

Protected areas and local businesses

Figure 4

Lizard tracks in the sand at Mutawintji National Park

VII Bushell, R., and P.F.J. Eagles. Tourism and Protected Areas : Benefits Beyond Boundaries, CABI, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Figure 5

IUCN protected area categorization

Chapter 15 Figure 1

Foreign park visits and fees in Costa Rica

Figure 2

Price responsiveness at Belizean MPAs - Yes/No question

Figure 3

Effect of price on park visits

Figure 4

Predicted visitation at HUP (Foreign Overnight Visitors)

Chapter 17 Figure 1

The Amber Suite at Earth Lodge, Sabi Sabi Private Game Reserve, is an example of the unique accommodation and high-quality facilities offered at private ecolodges

Figure 2

Private ecolodges often provide high-quality education programs with specialized equipment and guides and amazing opportunities to view big game

Figure 3

The sale of rhino horn has been proposed as one way of financing efforts to conserve rhino

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Chapter 18 Figure 1

Data from Ontario Parks' consumer survey provided data for the formulation of its strategic marketing plan

Figure 2

The Ontario Parks logo

Figure 3

General opinions on Ontario Parks

Figure 4

Campsite 24 - An interactive environmental education tool

Figure 5

Market research identified water as a primary draw for tourists when making travel decisions. It is a dominant image in Ontario Parks' marketing literature

Figure 6

Information sources used for planning overnight trips

Figure 7

Information sources used for planning day trips

Figure 8

Opinions on park fees

Figure 9

Fee-related opinions held by different users' groups viii

Bushell, R., and P.F.J. Eagles. Tourism and Protected Areas : Benefits Beyond Boundaries, CABI, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Figure 10

Willingness-to-pay camping and day-use fees

Figure 11

Campsite reservation trends

Figure 12

Corporate sponsorships

Chapter 19 Figure 1

Net profit/loss (Rand) for all operations (commercial and conservation) in Addo Elephant National Park for period 2000-2004 showing the impact of a range of commercial interventions

Figure 2

South Africa National Parks charges fees and earns income from tourism services

Chapter 20 Figure 1

Map of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park

Figure 2

Photo of historic tourist use

Figure 3

Yearly totals for reef-wide visitor days from data compiled from the Environmental Management Change database at the GBRMPA

Figure 4

Annual Environmental Management Charge income

Figure 5

Income sources for GBRMP management

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Chapter 21 Figure 1

Vth World Parks Congress Resolution 5.2: Tourism

Figure 2

Linkages between communities and protected areas. Both are connected; what happens in one affects the other. Utilitarian linkages involve economics and subsistence values

Figure 3

Park tourism gives rise to innovation in accommodation, equipment and information technology, such as van hire in the Mount Cook National Park, New Zealand

Figure 4

Visitation to the Volcan Poas National Park, in Costa Rica is an important cultural activity for citizens from the nearby capital city of San Jose

IX Bushell, R., and P.F.J. Eagles. Tourism and Protected Areas : Benefits Beyond Boundaries, CABI, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central,

List of Tables Chapter 4 Table 1

International charters, guidelines and declarations relevant to tourism and protected areas

Chapter 5 Table 1

Tourism management models and local communities

Chapter 9 Table 1

Southern African Transfrontier Conservation Areas

Table 2

Consumer attitudes to the environment and sustainable tourism

Chapter 11 Table 1

Types of local people's economic participation in tourism

Chapter 12 Table 1

Costa Rica's Certificate for Sustainable Tourism (CST)

Table 2

ECO Certification - Formerly known as the Nature and Ecotourism Accreditation Program or NEAP

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Chapter 13 Table 1

Types of fees and charges in protected areas

Table 2

Projection of visitation levels and income generated for different fee levels

Table 3

Examples of entrance fees (US$)

Chapter 14 Table 1

Some techniques for valuing protected area benefits

Table 2

Examples of some direct and consequential benefits of Protected Areas (PAs)

Table 3

Economic value of recreation and tourism in selected NSW protected areas

x Bushell, R., and P.F.J. Eagles. Tourism and Protected Areas : Benefits Beyond Boundaries, CABI, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Table 4

Direct and indirect regional economic impacts of park management expenditure and visitor expenditure

Table 5

Benefits typically associated with different IUCN categories of protected area

Chapter 15 Table 1

Estimated visitation and revenue at various price levels, Costa Rica

Table 2

Sample choice experiment task

Chapter 16 Summary of results

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Table 1

xi Bushell, R., and P.F.J. Eagles. Tourism and Protected Areas : Benefits Beyond Boundaries, CABI, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Foreword

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David Sheppard, Secretary General Vth IUCN World Parks Congress; and Head IUCN Programme on Protected Areas Achim Steiner IUCN IUCN convenes the World Parks Congress (WPC) every ten years. These Congresses involve the key players in protected areas from around the world and are instrumental in setting the future agenda for the world's protected areas and for reviewing past progress. The Vth IUCN World Parks Congress, held in Durban, South Africa, in 2003, celebrated an amazing achievement - the establishment by countries of the world of more than 11.5% of the earth's surface as protected area. Co-Congress Patron, Her Majesty Queen Noor, noted this as "one of the most significant collective land use decisions in history" and further noted that such areas "protect our ecosystems, providing clean air and clean water...thus making a major contribution to sustainable development". This significance was also echoed by Co-Congress Patron, the Honourable Mr Nelson Mandela, who noted "a sustainable future depends on a caring partnership with nature as much as anything else". However, the Congress also noted the many threats and problems these precious areas face and urged all involved to reach out - beyond the boundaries of these areas and beyond their traditional constituencies - to ensure they are protected for future generations. Tourism was a vital and recurring theme throughout the Congress. Not surprisingly when one considers its reach and impact: tourism and related activities now contribute to over 10% of global GDP and over 8% of global employment1. Clearly, tourism has major influence and impact. This is an industry which can positively or negatively impact the world's economy, environment, and culture, in a very significant way. The tourism sector is characterized by considerable diversification. Tourism based in and around protected areas is one of the future growth areas over the coming decades, particularly as leisure time, mobility and environmental awareness increase. As noted by Bushell et al. in Chapter 1: "natural and cultural heritage conservation hotspots are draw cards for tourism development both within and outside protected areas". Tourism was highlighted at the Vth IUCN World Parks Congress in a number of ways - through a range of side events, major plenary sessions and also in the key outcomes from the Congress - the Durban Accord and Action Plan. The results as well as some of the key papers are summarized in this invaluable publication - "Tourism and Protected Areas: Benefits Beyond Boundaries". Congress delegates underlined that tourism is a critically important issue for protected area managers and stakeholders at many levels and that this importance will only grow in the future. Global tourism is growing rapidly and is significantly outpacing the growth of global Gross Domestic Product. Tourism focused on protected areas is increasing at a relatively greater rate within this overall global growth. In many countries this growth poses many challenges - on the one hand tourism provides a vital source of revenues for park agencies which, in some cases, are seeing their revenues from traditional government sources decreasing. It also provides a key means for protected area agencies to realize their 1

World Travel and Tourism Council http://www.wttc.org/framesetsitemap.htm xii

Bushell, R., and P.F.J. Eagles. Tourism and Protected Areas : Benefits Beyond Boundaries, CABI, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central,

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objectives relating to visitor appreciation and enjoyment. On the other hand poorly planned and unregulated tourism can cause many negative impacts such as environmental degradation of ecosystems within and around protected areas and can also impact negatively on the livelihoods of poor people. Delegates to the Congress called for increasing recognition on the part of all involved in tourism - from the side of the protected area agency and from the side of the tourism industry. There is a need to learn from past experience and, in this light, publications such as this which share the rich experience from around the world in relation to tourism and protected areas - both good and bad - are particularly important. There is also a need for much more effective dialogue between the tourism and protected areas sectors, and Congress delegates called for forums to be set up to facilitate and encourage such interaction. The Vth IUCN World Parks Congress was a landmark event for both protected areas and World Heritage. Presentations at the Congress were marked by passion, excitement and energy. These attributes are well captured in this publication on "Tourism and Protected Areas: Benefits Beyond Boundaries".

xiii Bushell, R., and P.F.J. Eagles. Tourism and Protected Areas : Benefits Beyond Boundaries, CABI, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central,

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Preface Today's tourism represents an indisputable social and economic component of most societies. Its growth was impressive during the second part of the 20th century and all indicates that it will steadily continue in the future, as developing countries achieve better standards of living. Yet, more important than this growth has been the diversification of destinations that has taken place during the last 30 years or so, both in geographical terms as well as in terms of the type of destinations favoured by tourists. This is illustrated by international tourist arrival figures for 2003, during which the traditional destinations of North America and Europe experienced, respectively, a decrease and a stagnation, while many destinations in Latin America, South Asia and even the Middle East saw an important growth in their international arrivals, in spite of uncertainties resulting from wars, epidemics and economic instabilities in the main generating markets. In the case of nature-based tourism, including ecotourism, there is a lack of accurate and reliable statistical data, due to the dispersal of destinations and their usually small capacity, as well as to the wide range of, and often mixed motivations of, tourists. However, the fragmented reports collected by the World Tourism Organization in the framework of the International Year of Ecotourism corresponding to a number of countries confirm the trends: nature-based destinations, rural hotel establishments, ecolodges, independent hotels and small operators handling independent travellers or small groups are doing better than ever before, and usually better than larger establishments in neighbouring cities or in traditional coastal destinations. This goes hand in hand with another interesting and highly relevant trend, namely the increased awareness of consumers worldwide in respect to environmental and, more recently, socio-cultural issues. Public awareness on these two crucial issues, including their relation with extreme poverty, has been growing and is likely, hopefully, to intensify in the coming years, in part as a result of actions undertaken by some governments, the United Nations system and some NGOs, and partly due to new, more sensitive generations coming into the market. In both these concerns, environmental and social, nature-based tourism in general and ecotourism in particular, if they are respectful towards the natural environment and the local cultures, can become powerful tools for sustainable development, ecosystem and biodiversity conservation, and poverty alleviation. Similarly, nature-based tourism and ecotourism products and services present the peculiarity of offering the tourists the possibility of better and more human contacts, not only with local populations, but also with other tourists met during trips. Such encounters are appreciated nowadays, as a reaction to the strongly impersonal life practised in most large urban areas. From the destinations' point of view, tourism often represents the only opportunity for natural areas to develop an economic activity without deteriorating their environment or disturbing the ecological balance. Unlike other economic activities that are intrinsically based on an irreversible modification of nature (e.g. mining, modern agriculture), tourism can and must take special care not to deplete natural ecosystems, since such depletion would reduce its capacity to attract tourists in the long term. Indeed, if properly planned and managed according to sustainability criteria, tourism can not only be the least harmful xiv Bushell, R., and P.F.J. Eagles. Tourism and Protected Areas : Benefits Beyond Boundaries, CABI, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central,

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industry for ecosystems, but also can positively contribute to their preservation and enhancement, thanks to the economic benefits it generates and to the educational component it carries with it. The World Tourism Organization has, since its creation in 1975, been advising governments on the need to establish national strategies and policies to guide the development of tourism and its management, so as to generate benefits for the people and the territories where it takes place. Tourism needs policies and plans to ensure its long-term sustainability. Tourism needs also regulatory frameworks and monitoring mechanisms to ensure that the expected benefits are being produced and are being fairly distributed among all actors in the process, including of course local host communities. All these principles, policy guidelines and practical management tools have, more recently, been specifically adapted to the needs of the growing ecotourism segment. Key beneficiaries of tourism activities should include protected natural areas. Most protected areas constitute a prime tourist attraction and can, therefore, benefit from this fact, both financially and in terms of awareness creation. Indeed many protected areas have successfully achieved their conservation objectives thanks to the financial resources that have been obtained through tourists'/visitors' expenditures. But it is equally important to recognize that some protected areas have suffered and their delicate natural values have been altered as a result of an unregulated and often massive flow of visitors. Tourist numbers in these areas have usually been beyond the sites' ecological carrying capacity, which have not been monitored; and in some parks visitors use the resources for recreational purposes without any concern for the natural and conservation values, because no directives or guidelines or on-site management have been provided. Intervention in these protected areas has been limited, inadequate or inappropriate in many instances. It is fundamental, therefore, to strengthen the cooperation between those responsible for tourism development, including private operators and public authorities, and those responsible for nature conservation and protected area management. Among the priority areas for cooperation is to reinforce the capacities of protected area managers to handle tourism in a more sustainable way. Reciprocally, it is of high priority to develop a more detailed understanding of biodiversity conservation and environmental management among tourism officials and private sector operators. Mutual understanding and shared objectives are necessary to plan and develop sustainable tourism activities in protected areas that will result in substantial benefits for all stakeholders concerned. It is with this aim in mind that the World Tourism Organization, in its new capacity as Specialized Agency of the United Nations, will continue collaborating with the World Conservation Union (IUCN) and other agencies to steer nature tourism development and management to more sustainable outcomes. Joint publications on sustainable tourism in protected areas have already been issued by these two organizations. The World Parks Congress provided another opportunity for collaboration, and much more can be done in the future. This current publication identifies important issues and provides examples and tools that national and local tourism authorities, protected area authorities and park managers, as well as private nature tourism operators will find helpful to improve the sustainable outcomes, and the equitable distribution of benefits of tourism activities in protected areas. It proposes many helpful, general and specific recommendations, with case studies in all continents, that provide a valuable source of information that can serve to generate ideas xv

Bushell, R., and P.F.J. Eagles. Tourism and Protected Areas : Benefits Beyond Boundaries, CABI, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central,

and assist in adapting sustainable tourism practices to specific local conditions elsewhere. It is a good complement of the existing literature on this topic, promoting partnerships between tourism and conservation. It will encourage the support of tourism worldwide to conservation.

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Eugenio Yunis Head, Department of Sustainable Development of Tourism World Tourism Organization

xvi Bushell, R., and P.F.J. Eagles. Tourism and Protected Areas : Benefits Beyond Boundaries, CABI, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Contributors Robyn Bushell

Dr Robyn Bushell is Head of Tourism for Healthy Futures at the University of Western Sydney in Australia. She is Vice Chair, International Task Force on Tourism for Protected Areas for IUCN; Board Member of Booderee National Park, and Advisory Council, Blue Moutains National Park & World Heritage Area. Her research is in the area of tourism planning; for health, well-being, quality of life and host communities; protection and conservation of cultural and biological diversity; the role of interpretation in conservation education; values of protected places. Les carlisle

Les is Environmental Manager for Conservation Corporation Africa. He grew up in Nelspruit and spent much of his life in the bush. He became involved in game capture in the 1970s during the South African boom in private game reserves. He has been involved since the beginning of CC Africa's plans in 1991 to return bankrupt farmland to wildlife. He has overseen the reintroduction of lion, cheetah, rhino, elephant, buffalo and countless antelope species and for the implementation of ongoing environmental audits at all their properties and lodges, ensuring that CC Africa remains at the forefront of the ecotourism industry. Nicholas Conner

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Nicholas Conner is Principal Conservation Economist with the New South Wales Department of Environment and Conservation in Sydney, Australia. He has a particular interest in the contribution of protected areas to catchment management and sustainable rural development with several publications for NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service on the economic impact of protected areas.

xvii Bushell, R., and P.F.J. Eagles. Tourism and Protected Areas : Benefits Beyond Boundaries, CABI, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Brent Cocoran

Brent has an MPhil in Environmental Planning (University of Cape Town). His work experience includes facilitation of a tourism capacitybuilding programmeme for conservation agency staff in Eastern and Southern Africa; and tourism planning for protected areas in the KwaZulu-Natal Province (South Africa). He is presently involved in conservation and development planning in a transboundary bioregional initiative in Southern Africa.

Andy Drumm

Environmental and ecotourism specialist with 17 years' experience in both private and non-profit sectors principally in Latin America and the Caribbean. Coordinated multi-sectoral alliances, created award-winning ecotourism business, developed conservation finance, tourism planning and management tools and provided technical assistance to partner organizations internationally. Since July 1998 is Senior Ecotourism Specialist at The Nature Conservancy and based in the Washington, DC area.

PaulF.J.Eagles

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Dr Paul F.J. Eagles is a Professor at the University of Waterloo in Canada. He is a biologist and a registered professional planner, specializing in environmental planning. Over a span of 30 years Dr Eagles worked on a wide variety of planning projects, with a strong emphasis on the planning and management of parks and protected areas. His international work in nature-based tourism is based on experience in over 25 countries. He has over 300 publications. Chair of the IUCN Task Force on Tourism and Protected Areas.

Stephen Edwards Stephen Edwards works for Conservation International and is responsible for the management of ecotourism projects in the Andes Region. He works collaboratively with CI's country programmes and partners in Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia. Mr Edwards has overseen ecotourism projects in Latin America, Asia, and Africa, and has facilitated numerous workshops. He is author of several publications on ecotourism, policy, communities, and protected areas.

XVIII Bushell, R., and P.F.J. Eagles. Tourism and Protected Areas : Benefits Beyond Boundaries, CABI, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Peter Fearnhead Peter is one of the key proponents of introducing commercial thinking into the conservation sector in South Africa and the region. He was responsible for the conceptualization and implementation of SANParks' successful Commercialization Strategy which has seen the establishment of an enabling environment for private sector participation in national parks, for more than 50 commercial ventures. He is a co-founder and Director of African Parks, a private initiative which enters into partnerships with African Governments for the long-term management and financing of its protected areas principally through tourism. Penelope Figgis AO Penelope Figgis is a key figure in the Australian environment movement, and is Vice Chair for Australia and New Zealand of the IUCN World Commission on Protected Areas. A political scientist and lobbyist she has held many different offices including Vice President of the Australian Conservation Foundation and Board membership of the Environment Protection Authority of New South Wales, the Australian Tourist Commission, Uluru-Kata Tjuta National Park and the Great Barrier Reef Consultative Committee. She is an Officer of the Order of Australia (AO) for her services to conservation and in 2003 was awarded the Centenary Medal for outstanding contribution to the environment.

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Jasmine Foxlee Jasmine is a PhD student at the University of Western Sydney, undertaking research in heritage tourism and interpretation at UluruKata Tjuta National Park. She has a research background in environmental management, sustainable tourism and heritage interpretation. Prior to undertaking her doctoral studies Jasmine won the Tourism Council Australia and British Awards Scholarship for Tourism and Environmental Management, and worked for Park Service in Tasmania.

XIX Bushell, R., and P.F.J. Eagles. Tourism and Protected Areas : Benefits Beyond Boundaries, CABI, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Elizabeth Halpenny Elizabeth Halpenny is a PhD student in the Department of Recreation and Leisure at the University of Waterloo. Her research examines the relationship between individuals' attachment and visitation to parks and its affect on their environment attitudes and behaviours. She operates a Canadian-based consulting firm specializing in nature and cultural heritage tourism research and planning. Previously she worked with The International Ecotourism Society (TIES). She has researched ecotourism in Canada, Belize, Indonesia, Kenya, Mexico, Malaysia and the Caribbean, examining nature and cultural tourism. Martha Honey Dr Martha Honey is Executive Director of TIES and Centre for Ecotourism and Sustainable Development (a joint project of the Institute for Policy Studies and Stanford University). She has written widely on ecotourism as a tool for development and conservation and is an internationally regarded expert on ecotourism certification. For 20 years she worked as journalist, based first in Tanzania and then in Costa Rica. She holds a PhD in African History from the University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, and is a Fellow at the Institute for Policy Studies.

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Kreg Lindberg Dr Lindberg is the head of the Outdoor Recreation Leadership and Tourism programme at Oregon State University. He previously held positions in the Colorado State University Department of Natural Resource Recreation and Tourism and at universities in Australia and Norway. He has a PhD in forest social science. His research includes pricing, economic impact analysis, and inter-visitor conflict in outdoor recreation and tourism, and the social impacts of tourism development in rural communities. He is widely published, and on the editorial board of Journal of Sustainable Tourism and Journal of Ecotourism. Rael Loon Rael Loon is an independent consultant specializing in the fields of Sustainable Tourism, Conservation Economics and Community-based Natural Resource Management in South Africa. He has been involved in consulting in Sabi Sabi on a number of Conservation and Development issues.

xx Bushell, R., and P.F.J. Eagles. Tourism and Protected Areas : Benefits Beyond Boundaries, CABI, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Stephen F,Mccool Dr Stephen F. McCool is Professor in the Department of Society and Conservation at The University of Montana, Missoula, Montana, USA. Dr McCool emphasizes social science aspects of protected area stewardship in his instruction, research and service, including public engagement, sustainability, and protected area planning processes. He is widely published in this field as author and editor of many books and journal articles.

Jerry McNeely Jeffrey A. McNeely is Chief Scientist at IUCN, where he has worked since 1980. Priorly, he worked in Asia for 12 years in conservation. He has been involved in the development of the Convention on Biological Diversity from its beginnings, and was co-founder of the Global Biodiversity Forum. He is author or editor of over 30 books, and numerous articles on biodiversity and protected areas. He serves on the editorial advisory board of seven international journals. His current research focuses on linking biodiversity to sustainable agriculture, human health, energy, species management, protected areas and ecosystems. Arthur Pwedersen

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Arthur Pedersen is the Sustainable Tourism programme specialist with UNESCO's World Heritage Centre, working on visitor management and tourism issues. He is the World Heritage Centre representative of UNESCO on the UNEP, RARE Centre for Tropical Conservation project entitled, 'Linking Biodiversity Conservation and Sustainable Tourism at World Heritage Sites'.

Marielies Schellhas Marielies Schelhaas works for the Tourism & Biodiversity Programme, Netherlands Committee for IUCN. The Netherlands Committee for IUCN is carrying out a programme on Biodiversity & Tourism with the aim of stimulating a more sustainable form of tourism that can make a contribution to nature conservation. Cooperation with Dutch tour operators, NGOs in the field, school children and is the secretariat for the initiative on sustainable outbound tourism.

XXI Bushell, R., and P.F.J. Eagles. Tourism and Protected Areas : Benefits Beyond Boundaries, CABI, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Lea M.Scheri

Dr Lea Scherl has been an advocate for social justice in the practice of natural resource management, with particular interest in participatory and governance models and the linkages between conservation and sustainable development. She has worked with a variety of indigenous and local communities in several continents, many of those involved with ecotourism.

Andrew Skeat

Andrew Skeat is an Executive Director with the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority with responsibilities including Tourism, Water Quality, and Science. Andrew has more than 25 years' experience developing conservation policy and managing protected areas. A current key task is managing the interaction with the Reef tourism industry.

Hilary Skeat

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Hilary Skeat is a Manager in the Tourism and Recreation Group of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority. The Tourism and Recreation Group is one of four critical issues groups within the Authority and aims to improve the management of tourism and recreation on the Great Barrier Reef. Hilary has worked in a wide range of Commonwealth policy development areas, focusing on natural resource management.

Anna Spenceley Dr Anna Spenceley undertakes research and consultancy on sustainable tourism particularly in Africa, and specializes in tourism that promotes biodiversity conservation, sustainable livelihoods and poverty alleviation.

XXII Bushell, R., and P.F.J. Eagles. Tourism and Protected Areas : Benefits Beyond Boundaries, CABI, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Russell Stariff Dr Staiff is a Senior Lecturer in Cultural and Heritage Tourism at the University of Western Sydney, Australia. He established the postgraduate programme in tourism and the visual arts at the University of Melbourne in conjunction with the art curatorship and museum studies in the School of Fine Arts, Classics, Archaeology and Cinema Studies. He works in cultural interpretation within a tourism and museum context, having taught art history, been a tour director in Italy and more recently working with National Parks in Australia and currently undertaking research in World Heritage Sites in Australia and South East Asia. Wolfgang Strasdas Dr Wolfgang Strasdas is the Director of the Sustainable Tourism Management Master's Programmeme at the Eberswalde University of Applied Sciences near Berlin, Germany. He has extensively worked as an environmental planner, tourism consultant and trainer in Europe, Latin America, Africa and Central Asia. He is also on the Board of Directors of The International Ecotourism Society.

Thomas PEtermann

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Dr Thomas Petermann is Senior Project Manager: Natural Resources Management with InWEnt Capacity-building International, a German Government Institution for dialogue and training under the Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development. Work experience in Africa, Asia and Latin America since 1978 in the fields of land and water management, rural development and nature conservation.

Peter Wellingza Peter was Assistant Secretary, Parks Australia North spending over 20 years working in national park management, mostly in the Northern Territory. His interests include appreciation and protection of natural and cultural values of landscapes, working with Indigenous land owners in joint management of national parks and policy development to progress economic futures to sustain conservation programmemes. A current major focus is working on issues relating to tourism futures in national parks and strategic futures for Kakadu and Uluru-Kata Tjuta National Parks.

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Chapter 1

Tourism and Protected Areas: Benefits Beyond Boundaries Robyn Bushell, Russell Staiff and Paul F.J. Eagles

We know that the key to a sustainable future for Protected Areas lies in the development of partnerships. It is only through alliances and partnerships that Protected Areas can be made relevant to the needs of society.' - Nelson Mandela, Congress Co-Patron Opening Speech

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More than 3000 delegates gathered in Durban, South Africa for the Vth World Parks Congress,1 held every ten years by the World Commission for Protected Areas (WCPA), of the World Conservation Union (IUCN).2 The 11 years since the previous Congress witnessed accelerated global change and the rapid loss of priceless ecosystems due to deforestation, desertification, war and innumerable other natural and human forces (WCPA, 2003). The Congress theme Benefits Beyond Boundaries and the sessions highlighted many achievements and new directions since the 1992 Congress in Caracas, Venezuela. The most significant achievement for protected areas is the increase in total area to 18.8 million km2 across just over 100,000 sites. The area now under protection extends to 11.5% of the surface of the earth, doubling the protected estate since 1992 (Chape, 2003). Conversely, this achievement intensifies the critical issues facing protected areas, and in order to address these, new approaches and new partnerships are essential. Among the challenges: The loss of biodiversity is still accelerating within and beyond the boundaries of protected areas, with serious systems shortcomings, inappropriate adjacent land use, and increasing human expectations and commercial interests. Biodiversity conservation extends beyond the 'artificial' boundaries of parks and thus extends the conservation mandate. This has major implications for the role of protected areas, their management agencies and neighbouring communities. The reality that national borders cut across ecosystems and the management challenges of political geography. The role of society outside protected area boundaries; the need to plan for protected areas as part of development strategies; the need to create biophysical links, corridors and buffer zones; and to engage the support of all sectors that affect protected areas. © CAB International 2007. Tourism and Protected Areas: Benefits Beyond Boundaries (eds R. Bushell and P.F.J. Eagles) Bushell, R., and P.F.J. Eagles. Tourism and Protected Areas : Benefits Beyond Boundaries, CABI, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central,

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The need to engage local communities, especially in urban areas (see Fig. 1) and particularly young people. The lack of funding for future developments and maintaining existing protected areas. The increasing recognition of the multiple values of protected areas alongside the current primacy of biodiversity conservation goals. Conservation constituencies beyond the management regimes of protected area agencies are increasingly recognized, often via the confluence of cultural, social, ecological, political and economic agendas. The low profile of visitation and tourism in the planning and management of parks and protected areas. No global inventory of park tourism exists, resulting in an incomplete understanding of the scale, impacts and trends of visitation. Rising visitation to parks over much of the world. Many parks having insufficient visitation and therefore insufficient income to cover the costs of management. Parks are increasingly seen as icons of society, but must often be managed without concurrent increases in funding. Many parks and park systems are poorly funded because of inadequate tourism development or insufficient income derived from tourism.

Fig.1. Urban parks, such as Stanley Park, Vancouver, Canada, are valued by local citizens. (Photo: P.F.J. Eagles)

Despite the achievements of the past decade, there are ominous signs, a harbinger of the enormous challenges ahead. For example, beyond the continued loss of biodiversity are the global realities of wealth distribution, AIDS and localized epidemics, war and civil disorder, population growth and population mobility, global warming, material and energy consumption, trade inequities and debt - to name a few.

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The main objectives of the Congress were to forge renewed commitment and policy guidance for protected areas and identify the greatest challenges, as listed above. A key conclusion emerging from the conservation discourse leading up to and at the Congress was that protected areas are a crucial element in achieving sustainable development. Protected areas contribute to global aspirations such as the United Nations Millennium Development Goals and those set at the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD)3; and are delivering goods and services well beyond their boundaries. Yet much more effort - and adequate funding - is needed to support biodiversity conservation and to assist in the struggle to alleviate poverty.4 Nine days of workshops, plenary sessions, field trips and side events at the Congress involved representatives of government; conservation agencies; funding bodies; private sector interests; academics and research institutions; indigenous, community-based, international, and non-government organizations (NGOs); and the media. The outcomes can be measured in several ways. The official outputs consist of the Durban Accord, the Action Plan', the Congress Recommendations and the Message to the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).5 Tourism was not a workshop stream. However, it was the focus of a critical plenary session addressing strategic alliances and featured in the key outputs. Tourism was a current running through many of the challenges outlined above. Interestingly, requests to the Congress organizing committee to designate tourism as a stream were declined. Yet the majority of keynote presentations and many other discussions included tourism in their deliberations. The WCPA Task Force on Tourism and Protected Areas was responsible for and coordinated the integration of tourism-related issues into various Congress sessions. Tourism's presence was evident at several significant side-events and concurrent sessions. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)World Heritage Centre sponsored Tourism and World Heritage Sites. The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) sponsored a workshop with The International Ecotourism Society (TIES) and the Rainforest Alliance. Speakers at these and other forums gave an overview of tools available to support sustainable outcomes; means of monitoring tourism; and a range of certification programmes. In particular, there were presentations offering case studies on the value of certification programmes worldwide as a means to ensure the protection of sensitive ecosystems that are a focal point - and essential resource - for tourism.6 UNEP and Conservation International co-sponsored the launch of Tourism and Biodiversity: Mapping Tourism's Global Footprint,1 a manual and CD-ROM about research undertaken to date, with input from a number of partners. This important publication maps the impact of tourism in a number of key biodiversity hotspots.

The Past Decade At the IVth World Parks Congress in Caracas, Venezuela (February 1992) the theme Parks for Life aimed to reach out to and influence sectors beyond those directly concerned with protected areas. The IVth Congress included two workshops on tourism, one focusing on the role of tourism in expanding support for protected areas, and the other concentrating on managing tourism in protected areas, with a marked emphasis on ecotourism (CeballosLascurain, 1996).

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Tourism and Protected Areas: Benefits Beyond Boundaries

In the decade since, much has changed globally. The big issues of climate change/global warming, terrorism/security, information technology (IT) and mass communication - the combination of IT and the media - affect tourism as they do all other areas of human activity. The relationship between tourism and natural heritage is certainly much stronger now, given the greater emphasis internationally, nationally and locally on sustainable tourism. The tourism industry, government agencies, academia and NGOs involved in tourism research, policy and development have all embraced the sustainability concept, largely due to heightened awareness since the Rio Earth Summit (1992).8 Indeed, tourism strategies stressing the urgent need for policies and practices that ensure tourism will develop in line with the principles of sustainable development have been recommended by a wide range of international agencies and instruments including the World Tourism Organization (WTO), UNEP, UNESCO, the CBD, the UN Commission on Sustainable Development, regional UN commissions, and the international banks. Chapter 4 examines key declarations and guidelines and their relevance to protected areas. The International Year of Ecotourism (IYE) in 2002 brought together the largest ever gathering of stakeholders involved in, or affected by, ecotourism. This focused much attention on the ecological, social and cultural costs and benefits of tourism by stimulating a deeper interest in the nexus between them. In 2002 the WSSD also concentrated some energy on tourism and its potential to support the Millenium Development Goals (Bushell, 2004). As part of IYE, the WTO, IUCN and UNEP jointly published guidelines for sustainable tourism in protected areas (Eagles et al., 2002). The Quebec Declaration (May, 2002)9 embodies the efforts of IYE participants and stakeholders and was followed up by the Cairns Charter on Partnerships for Ecotourism in October, 2002.10 Despite all this progress, the WTO sees the road to achieving the goals of sustainable tourism as much longer than it was in 1992 (Yunis, 2003). In the main, this is due to the strong growth of tourism around the world, and the more liberal attitudes that most governments and peoples have adopted towards tourism development. According to WTO statistics, the number of international tourist arrivals reached nearly 700 million in 2000, well over 10% of the world's population. Compared to 1999 figures, this represents a growth of 7.4%, a much higher rate than expected and twice the 3.8% rate of 1998/1999. As the demand for tourism, both international and domestic (and domestic is much higher than international visitation in most countries), continues to grow, particularly from the rapidly rising middle class of the Asian region, so too is an interest in the development of the most ecologically fragile, bio-diverse, aesthetically, culturally and spiritually rich locations. Natural and cultural heritage conservation hotspots are draw cards for tourism development both within and outside protected areas. The challenges and the opportunities this represents have never been so great. The shift in emphasis from eco- to sustainable tourism has not displaced ecotourism as the preferred conceptual model for tourism in protected areas. In other words, regardless of descriptors, the goal in terms of protected areas is to move towards tourism that is specifically designed - in content, modes of transport, accommodation, activities undertaken, and associated services - to make a positive contribution to the protection of natural and cultural heritage, and to local community, as well as providing an educational role. Sustainable tourism could be perceived as demanding that all tourism, recreation and leisure activities (which are commonly aggregated and described generically as tourism) comply with the principles of sustainability.11 Tourism, recreation and leisure collectively bring visitors to protected areas - be they local people, from interstate, or international

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visitors, and regardless of how long they stay, whether they are independent travellers, members of any type of interest group, or 'on tour'. These visitors do not necessarily identify with either the sustainable or ecotourism models. Throughout this book the terms 'tourist' and 'visitor' are used interchangeably and both are intended to cover all visitors to parks. The various tourism sessions at the Congress strove to engage with the broader WCPA and conservation community across the key streams. The intention was to highlight, firstly, the importance of tourism issues most closely aligned to the work of the WCPA, and, secondly, the role for IUCN if these issues are to be addressed and managed in a way that: Facilitates effective methods of park tourism planning and management; Encourages sustainable levels of tourism use; Harnesses the potential of tourism to help finance conservation; Supports local communities; and Fosters a greater level of support for and awareness of the many values of protected areas.

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Fig. 2. National Parks contain some of the most attractive tourism sites in the world such as this site, Tendele, in Royal Natal National Park in South Africa. (Photo: P.F.J. Eagles)

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Tourism Issues Covered at the Congress As noted by many speakers at the Congress, tourism and recreation provides considerable benefits to protected areas and their communities. These benefits are economic and social, creating greater appreciation of cultural and natural heritage. High quality experiences for park visitors increase interest in the protection and conservation of protected area values. When poorly managed, visitation can contribute to the deterioration of cultural biodiversity, and ecosystem resources, and impact negatively on local communities. Tourism in and around protected areas should be a tool for conservation: building support and raising awareness of the many important ecological, cultural, sacred, spiritual, aesthetic, recreational and economic values of protected areas. In addition, tourism generates much-needed income for conservation work in the places that it operates. It should also contribute to the quality of life of local communities; support indigenous people's traditions, respect sacred sites; and recognize the legitimacy of indigenous knowledge and law. Moreover, tourism provides opportunities for local employment and education of visitors. These tourism issues are found in all the key messages of the Congress. Strategic policy implementation with effective management of visitation is essential to ecological integrity. For tourism to be an effective conservation tool, increased understanding of its beneficial effects and its negative consequences is required. This means a considerable capacity-building effort for park staff and communities to ensure the desired outcomes. It also requires a much better level of understanding of park visitation patterns, numbers and trends; and a more sophisticated understanding of effective conservation awareness, education and interpretation strategies. Park visitation and nature-based tourism are vital to gaining support for parks and their conservation work. When used to underpin conservation, tourism becomes an essential component of the processes needed to implement the Convention on Biodiversity and other agreements concerning biodiversity, cultural heritage and sustainable development.12 To achieve the desired outcomes for conservation, local people, the tourism industry, and visitors must collaborate and cooperate with natural resource management agencies, the scientific community, government bodies and international agencies concerned with biological and cultural heritage policy and tourism planning. For the effective development of public-private partnerships involving tourism, there is a corresponding need for guidance in many management issues, such as policies on licensing, concessions and permits. The Congress brought together conservation practitioners, policy-makers, environmentalists, social development activists and industry representatives seeking to influence the debate on the future of sustainable development. Within the debate tension exists between the hard edge, single objective conservation mindset and those seeking much broader outcomes than biodiversity conservation. This has been acknowledged as an important aspect of the debate for some time. 'Conservation now has the challenge of developing strategic responses and substantive inputs to global debates ... One of the lUCN's most important roles is that of fair broker between those whose activities might threaten nature - whether for profit or for sustenance - and those whose main concern is the unprecedented global extinction crisis we now face... [The lUCN's role] is bridging the gap between the heart and mind of conservation.' (Steiner, 2002).

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The themes of the presentations and discussions emphasized the significance of the Congress for tourism, and the relevance of tourism to the current conservation agenda. Some of the tourism issues taken up by the Congress included: If there is to be diversity of stakeholders and a de-emphasis on governments as the sole providers of resources with a divestment of power to other interests (including local communities, private parks and natural resource user groups), then there is a considerable role for the tourism industry. However, there is a proviso: that the industry is responsible and constrained by a committed use of informed guidelines such as those embodied in the Tourism Recommendation adopted by the Congress.13 Similarly, if biodiversity conservation is to be linked to development agendas in the spirit of sustainable development, as articulated at the UN Summits14 the tourism industry will inevitably be part of this. However, it is less clear how the negotiation of global agendas will produce specific conservation outcomes and how to ensure that tourism will assist, rather than exacerbate, these efforts. For example, how can tourism assist with the urgent need to build networks of protected areas rather than islands!

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Africa leads the way in this aspect of sustainable tourism: networks, corridors and buffer zones are being established and tourism is a crucial contributor, unlike under the traditional developed nation systems where park administration is almost wholly government funded.15 Tourism can assist with pressing conservation problems - such as halting the rate of species extinction16 - and advancing the protection of a much larger number of dry-land ecosystems and marine ecosystems, both of which are greatly underrepresented among the world's protected areas. Less than 0.5% of the sea is currently under protection (Chape, 2003). In Chapter 20, Andrew and Hilary Skeat look at the role of tourism in the largest marine protected area in the world, the World Heritage-listed Great Barrier Reef Marine Park in Australia. At the forefront of the development relationship is the expectation that parks provide benefits to communities: health benefits, poverty alleviation, cultural and spiritual sustenance, education outcomes and so on, as well as the provision of ecosystem services such as clean water and air. The potential role that tourism can play is obvious, especially ecotourism and other forms of community or natural and cultural heritagebased tourism. But the ideal, low environmental impact, high-income earning, efficiently managed sustainable tourism scenario, with its attendant expectations, verges on the Utopian. The fundamental idea that nature will only survive if people will it is, a priori, explicitly acknowledged. However, to couple the equally daunting challenges of survival of the natural environment and poverty alleviation is enormously complicated. Is this asking too much of the benefits side of parks and of vehicles, like tourism, that are expected to deliver all these benefits? The role and responsibilities of indigenous communities, which often are or were nomadic, with regard to the conservation and maintenance of landscapes deserves special attention. Indigenous cultural and ecological connection to country is acknowledged. The Congress discussion responded to the widespread colonial and post-colonial practice of removing indigenous peoples from their lands during the establishment of some parks. Equally, delegates responded to the idea that conservation outcomes are better achieved, and with an otherwise unachievable integrity, when

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indigenous people and their land rights are central to the management regime. The Congress further acknowledged that the extension of protected and community conserved areas could arise through reconciliation between indigenous and nonindigenous people in postcolonial contexts, and the extension of indigenous land rights elsewhere. Worldwide, tourism draws on traditional cultures. However, tourism can either enhance or hinder the roles indigenous peoples carry out in heritage conservation. Chapters 5 and 6 discuss this issue with examples of tourism supporting comanagement strategies and community-based conservation areas. The emphasis on the relationship between protected areas and people, and notions of benefits for communities, partnerships with the private sector and financial sustainability prompted extensive discussion about the primacy of biodiversity conservation, and whether this had been overshadowed. There was muted tension between those closest to the hotspots of species extinction and those articulating the need for more effective management of participation, local knowledge, livelihood, security and human well-being. Tourism, when conceptualized as a vehicle for conservation, obviously has a role in the promotion and understanding of the nature/culture/people triad. Sustainable tourism has a higher order responsibility when the attraction is in 'wilderness'17 or other ecologically sensitive areas. Chapters 16 and 17 highlight this issue, with examples of successful, high-yielding tourism ventures in Africa that significantly contribute to both conservation and poverty alleviation. The urgent need for more sustainable financing of conservation work, with park management increasingly dependent on visitor fees and charges, and the need for better mechanisms to capture more economic benefit from tourism. Section 3 of this book devotes eight chapters to examining the issue of consistent funding, economic selfsufficiency and the financial benefits of tourism. All parties agreed on the need for more reliable data and research that bridges epistemologies and is inclusive of traditional knowledge; and that through collaborative partnerships greater understanding of issues, priorities, practices and strategies is essential. The UNEP/CI partnership and book/CD-ROM Tourism and Biodiversity: Mapping Tourism's Global Footprint serves as an excellent example of this essential work. The maps in this publication starkly reveal the overlap between tourism development and areas of greatest biodiversity threat. To prevent tourism cannibalizing itself by destroying the very resources upon which its viability depends, there needs to be greater efforts to strategically bring tourism development, biodiversity conservation and local communities together (Christ et al, 2003). In Chapter 12, Martha Honey (Executive Director, TIES) points out that while tourists desire a safe and quality experience, sustainability is barely registering as a factor in their travels. Consequently progress on sustainability is contested, highlighting the need for certification. Again, partnerships between conservation bodies, government agencies and industry invariably yield the most productive outcomes. The key issues discussed in tourism sessions and reflected in the Congress outputs and this book include: Sources of financial support for protected areas; Supporting sustainable use of natural and cultural diversity; Bushell, R., and P.F.J. Eagles. Tourism and Protected Areas : Benefits Beyond Boundaries, CABI, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central,

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Linking practice to conventions and guidelines; Fostering attachment to heritage through visitation and effective conservation education; Encouraging a stewardship ethic amongst the public; Working with local stakeholders and industry; Supporting local and indigenous community development and poverty alleviation; Co-management of protected areas; and Contributing to civil society, engendering respect for others and for natural and cultural heritage. These issues are discussed in Chapter 2 and form the focus of the following chapters by drawing on case studies presented at the Congress from different regions of the world, by a range of conservation-focused organizations and businesses. These chapters provide insights to the challenges and opportunities for benefits from tourism to protected areas and beyond. In the last days of the Congress, the WPC Recommendations were formally presented. Recommendation 12, Tourism as a Vehicle for Conservation and Support of Protected Areas (www.iucn.org/wpc2003) was adopted. This phrase from the opening paragraph sets the tone and the agenda: 'In this context, visitation, recreation and tourism are a critical component of fostering support for parks and the conservation of biological and cultural heritage. Careful and strategic implementation of policy together with pro-active and effective management of tourism is essential' (WPC, 2003). The Recommendation is detailed in the concluding chapter, together with the social and political context within which the next ten years of stewardship will evolve. This chapter draws together the principal 'lessons learned' from examining tourism as a tool for biodiversity conservation (as described in the preceding chapters). In closing, the final chapter reviews discussion of the challenges and some of the promising directions in the often uneasy relationship between tourism and conservation. The World Parks Congress dealt with broad and sweeping themes. The underlying and micro-themes received less attention than global perspectives. One of the most interesting omissions was a realistic discussion of the citizen, the person who spends their time and money visiting a park. There was scant attention paid to the goals, the loves, and the needs of the visitor. Why does a person visit? Why does s/he return or go elsewhere? What makes for a satisfied visitor? How does a satisfied visitor become a park supporter? There was scant attention paid to the critical fact that the political environment that enables parks and protected areas to exist is inherently tied to the personal values individual citizens gain through attendance at a park. Without individuals gaining personal benefits, no tourism will occur. Park visitation is fundamental to an individual's understanding and appreciation of a park and its resources (Fig. 3). Without visitors, without satisfied visitors, parks and protected areas will cease to exist. Political support for parks only exists if sufficient numbers of satisfied park visitors are influential enough to affect societal decision-making. Park tourism is therefore fundamental to developing a pubic and political constituency for parks and protected areas. We wish to emphasize that successful park visitation is a critical function of parks and protected areas, for without it all other goals

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become unfeasible. Parks will only flourish with an appreciative and mobilized public constituency.

Fig. 3. The 'Virtuous Circle' influencing parks, visitation and attitudes.

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Notes 1. 8th-17th September 2003 2. The RJCN-World Conservation Union was founded in 1948 as the International Union for the Protection of Nature (IUPN), and became the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) in 1956. This was abbreviated to the current title in 1990. 3. For reports and outcomes, go to http://www.johannesburgsummit.org/ 4. Poverty alleviation is now a concurrent aim of UN resolutions, see for example COP7 of the Convention on Biological Diversity and International Biodiversity Day website linking WSSD, MD goals, biodiversity and poverty alleviation, http ://www.biodiv. org/programmes/outreach/awareness/biodiv-day-2003. asp 5. The complete outputs from the Congress are available at URL www.iucn.org/wpc2003. Comprehensive summaries can be found at the International Institute for Sustainable Development page on the IUCN website http://www.iisd.ca/sd/worldparksV/sdvol89num8.html 6. Ecotourism and Sustainable Tourism Policies and Certification Programmes can be found at the UNEP website (www.uneptie.org/pc/tourism/wpc_workshop.htm) 7. Tourism and Biodiversity: Mapping Tourism's Global Footprint is available on the UNEP website at www.uneptie.org/pc/tourism/library/mapping_tourism.html and the Conservation International (CI) website at www.conservation.org. 8. The UN Conference on Environment and Development (the Earth Summit), Rio de Janeiro, 1992. Details at http://www.un.org/geninfo/bp/enviro.html 9. The Quebec Declaration is available at: www.world-tourism.org/sustainable/rYE/quebec/anglais/declaration.html

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10. Links to the Charter can be found at http://www.ecotourism.org.au/cairnscharter.asp 11. The four principles of sustainability are commonly listed as intergenerational equity, the precautionary principle, and conservation of biological diversity and ecological integrity. 12. For example, the World Heritage Convention (see Chapter 7), Millennium Development goals, Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). For a complete list of multilateral environment agreements, see United Nations Environment Programme at http://www.unep.org/dec/index.html 13. see Chapter 20 14. Earth Summit, Rio de Janeiro, 1992; World Summit on Sustainable Development, Johannesburg, 2002 15. The African network building is discussed in chapters 7, 15 and 16 of this book. 16. For example elephant habitat threatened by the timber industry and agricultural needs. Well-managed protected areas may be the only solution to preserving large enough areas and corridors for elephants to remain viable outside zoos and safari parks. Tourism can invest in and contribute to economic selfsufficiency for elephant habitat in a way that complements philanthropy and government. While public and private sectors are subject to the politics and economics of growing populations, these forces act in different ways on each. It is stressed that tourism can assist with these types of conservation concerns, and is not a panacea, in the developing or the developed world. 17. The debate over the term 'wilderness' has received some press in Australia. The renomination and ascription of two indigenous-oriented and co-managed parks, Uluru-Kata Tjuta and Kakadu, as cultural landscapes on the World Heritage list would suggest that 'wilderness' as an ideal for remote and 'untouched' natural sites is losing favour. The redirection is towards an improved understanding by inheritors of colonial era management (or lack thereof) that indigenous natural and cultural knowledge - science and philosophy - is integrated with the sustainable use of land practised for so many thousands of generations.

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References Bushell, R. (2006) Protected Areas and Tourism. In: McNeely, J.A. (ed.) Friends for Life: New Partnerships in Support of Protected Areas. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland: 141-154. Ceballos-Lascurain, H. (1996) Tourism and Ecotourism and Protected Areas. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. Chape, S. (2003) Monitoring Global Commitment. World Conservation: The IUCN Bulletin 34(2) IUCN, Gland, Switzerland: 8-9. Christ, C., Hillel, O., Matus, S. and Sweeting, J. (2003) Tourism & Biodiversity: Mapping Tourism's Global Footprint. United Nations Environment Programme and Conservation International, Washington D.C. Eagles, P.P., McCool, S.F. and Haynes, D. (2002) Sustainable Tourism in Protected Areas: Guidelines for Planning and Management. United Nations Environment Programme, World Tourism Organization and World Conservation Union, IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. Steiner, A. (2002) Between Mind and Heart. World Conservation - The IUCN Bulletin 33(3), IUCN, Gland, Switzerland: 35. World Commission for Protected Areas (2003) World Parks Congress. World Conservation — The IUCN Bulletin 34(1) IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. Yunis, E. (2003) Sustainable Tourism: World Trends and Challenges Ahead. In: Buckley, R., Pickering, C. and Weaver, D. (Eds) Nature-based Tourism, Environment and Land Management. CAB International: 11-16.

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Chapter 2

Tourism as a Tool for Conservation and Support of Protected Areas: Setting the Agenda Robyn Bushell and Stephen F. McCool

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Tourism, Protected Areas and People The world's tourism and recreation industry provides considerable benefits to protected areas and the communities adjacent to or within them. These benefits lead to greater appreciation of cultural and natural heritage and greater knowledge of the interplay between humans and their environment. High-quality recreational, spiritual and educational experiences for park visitors will foster increased interest and commitment to the protection and conservation of biodiversity and cultural values (WCPA, 2003). And yet, such benefits are not without potentially significant costs. If poorly planned and managed, the ecological, social and cultural consequences of tourism can be considerable (McLaren, 1997; Mastny, 2001; Christ et al., 2003). Tourism can contribute to the deterioration of cultural landscapes, threaten biodiversity, contribute to pollution and degradation of ecosystems, displace agricultural land and open spaces, diminish water and energy resources, and drive local communities deeper into poverty. Tourism in and around protected areas must be a tool for conservation: building support and raising awareness of the many important values of protected areas including ecological, cultural, sacred, spiritual, aesthetic, recreational and economic values. Tourism based on protected areas should generate much-needed income for conservation work for the protection of biodiversity, ecosystem integrity and cultural heritage. Tourism should also contribute to the quality of life of local communities; provide incentives to support indigenous people's traditional customs and values; protect and respect sacred sites; and acknowledge traditional knowledge. The process of tourism development itself can lead to a more informed citizenry if participatory processes are employed that lend themselves to deliberation, debate and monitoring. Tourism associated with protected areas and conservation also provides opportunities for people to advance themselves economically. Through this developmental process, more funding becomes available to support conservation of protected areas, interpretation, education and outreach to both tourists and local residents. The protection of these areas through these financial resources leads, in turn, to the provision of important ecosystem services, such as clean air and water. 12

© CAB International 2007. Tourism and Protected Areas: Benefits Beyond Boundaries (eds R. Bushell and P.F.J. Eagles)

Bushell, R., and P.F.J. Eagles. Tourism and Protected Areas : Benefits Beyond Boundaries, CABI, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Tourism as a Tool for Conservation and Support of Protected Areas

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Careful and strategic implementation of policy together with proactive and effective management of tourism is essential. For tourism to be an effective conservation tool, increased understanding of its beneficial effects and means of maximizing these, as well as recognition of the negative consequences, is required. It will also entail a decision-making process that accounts for and monitors negative consequences, and actively attempts to mitigate them. Park visitation and nature-based tourism are critical components for fostering support for parks and conservation of the biological and cultural heritage contained within them. When planned as a conservation tool, tourism is an essential element in the implemention of the Convention on Biodiversity and other agreements concerning the protection of biodiversity and the preservation of cultural heritage. Achieving desired outcomes for conservation requires that a dynamic dialogue be established involving local people, the tourism industry, natural resource management agencies, the scientific community, government bodies and international agencies concerned with biological and cultural heritage. Achieving these goals requires that policy-makers, planners, scientists and the public recognize and support the goals of protected areas, and accept and encourage tourism opportunities that seek to benefit conservation, not exploit protected areas. However, tourism is not a panacea: the design of a tourism and protected area policy must concern itself with the resolution of a number of key issues. In this paper we identify key issues and obstacles to using tourism to build support for protected areas and deliver 'benefits beyond boundaries'.

Key Issues

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1. Providing financial support for protected areas Conservation of protected areas is costly. Typically, national and local government agencies provide the base funding to accomplish the conservation mission. In recent times, however, many governments have reduced their funding support to protected areas and conservation. While there are a number of causes for this, tourism is often viewed as a mechanism to replace lost funding. This occurs in several ways: donations, entrance and user fees, concession and rental fees and licences, taxes on retail purchases by visitors, levies and increased general tax revenues from economic activity associated with tourism. Tourism development within a protected area frequently carries considerable costs and liabilities associated with visitor services above and beyond the basic conservation mission. These costs are real; thus some mechanism must be found to pay for them. Reductions in government budget allocations to conservation have led to increased dependence on external sources of funding, primarily revenues from tourism. The search for external funding sources creates pressure for higher visitation and the granting of more concessions and licences. This demand raises a number of issues, including: raising pressures on protected area values from increased visitation; developing efficient fee collection methods; identifying an equitable fee pricing policy; and determining what activities should be subject to a fee. Additionally, there is debate around the potential commodification of biodiversity, cultural and recreational values within the protected area

Bushell, R., and P.F.J. Eagles. Tourism and Protected Areas : Benefits Beyond Boundaries, CABI, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central,

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Tourism as a Tool for Conservation and Support of Protected Areas

resulting from increased private sector reliance. Pressures to gain revenue from the resource, in turn, increases the potential for negative consequences for biodiversity protection, cultural heritage and for the visitor experiences. The challenge is to derive economic benefit without unacceptable degradation of other values. The impetus to achieve this is the economic benefits of park-based tourism, which can far exceed government expenditures to manage these sites (Driml and Common, 1995; Taskforce on Economic Benefits, 1998) and can also contribute significantly to national economies. For example, the Wet Tropics World Heritage Area of Australia currently has over 200 commercial operators utilizing some 200 designated visitor sites within the WHA, and over 4 million visitors per annum. A study in 1997 estimated that tourism in the WHA contributed over A$170 million directly to the regional economy and as such is supported by the agency which is responsible for the management of this area (Watkinson, 2000). However, unless the activity minimally impacts on the World Heritage values, and a significant proportion of the economic benefits are captured by the resource agency, increased visitation and commercial services for tourism may be simply exploitative and non-sustainable. Innovation is often required to capture the economic rent from values that visitors derive from the protected area. Entrance and user fees are two of the more traditional means. Donation boxes, equipment hire, specialized tours and provision of park guides are among alternative ways to capture visitor-generated funds (FPATF, 2000). A major issue is that most of the world's protected areas charge relatively low entry and user fees. User fees can be collected by protected area staff or concessionaires who pay licence or concession fees to run their businesses within a protected area. One issue with all fees is the extent to which they are actually directly allocated to protected area conservation goals rather than being appropriated into general government functions. Generally speaking, fees that stay at a local site are found more acceptable by visitors. Buckley et al. (2001), in an Australian study, found that variation occurs from one state to another, and within any state, according to size, type, and access issues of different parks. They also found that there are variations in method of payment, from prepaid and annual passes, staffed entry stations, honour collection boxes, and pay and display ticket-vending machines, as well as variation in revenue distribution mechanisms and rates of retention (Buckley et al., 2001). Fee collection itself results in certain costs, such as staffing and accounting, and these will vary according to the site-specific context. Additionally, specialist services and skills for many of the services for which fees are collected are not free. These services include parking, camping, and picnic facilities such as gas barbeques; operating costs of lodging, food and beverage outlet operations, guiding or other services and attractions like diving within a marine protected area; and boat launching. Often fees only cover the cost of such services and do not generate surplus income. In many situations, fees may cover only a small proportion of the cost of protecting and providing the features on which park visitation depends, although there is great variability here. Revenues from fees may provide the funding for park naturalists, while government provides funding to maintain the visitor centre. In other situations, visitor and user fees may provide a higher proportion of the funding needs. For example, entrance and user fees for the Saba Marine Park in the Netherlands Antilles completely pay for the cost of management. Likewise, entrance and user fees and other visitor funding sources for Kruger National Park completely fund operations not only of that park but many others in the South African National Park System.

Bushell, R., and P.F.J. Eagles. Tourism and Protected Areas : Benefits Beyond Boundaries, CABI, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central,

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Many pricing policies for protected areas were developed when the 'public good' of protecting nature was considered a benefit to society, and paid for by society through public taxes (Eagles, 1999). However, as governments reduce funding there is an increasing expectation that since the values contained in parks are experienced and enjoyed primarily by those who visit them, those individuals should share an increased burden for their management. With the growing trend towards nature-based tourism, more private operators are building their businesses out of guided trips to parks; at the same time governments are looking to greater cost recovery, requiring parks to become more financially viable and to utilize visitors as a source of revenue for conservation (Eagles, 1995). Many people hold concerns that the more protected area managers rely on visitationbased funding the more likely compromises will favour development and visitor activities rather than conservation priorities (Figgis, 1999). In Australia over the past six years, the NSW protected area estate has increased by around 35%, while state government expenditure has more than doubled, from A$ 15 to $35 per hectare. The greatest proportion of this increase is spent on providing visitor facilities and services. This places even greater emphasis on funding from visitors and implies that the main benefits from protected areas accrue to individuals and not society as a whole. In addition, raising fee structures in many situations may lead to significant social distributional consequences, many of which are negative. For example, high entrance fees limit access for those with lower incomes. High fees also tend to 'commodify' a value that has typically been insulated from market decisions. Others feel that sole reliance on funding for protected area conservation from tourism revenues raises significant equity issues and challenges the business-based model. An important aspect of equity is ensuring everyone is able to enjoy regular access to natural areas. Like other areas of public policy, such as health and education, there are many consequences of the user-pays approach that can deny access to lower socio-economic groups. In order to address equity issues for a wide range of user groups - like locals, senior citizens, pensioners, school children, family groups and members of park associations some park services have established such complex pricing structures that park staff find them unmanageable. Setting appropriate fees is a complex task and is fraught with contentious politics reflecting conflicting ideologies about protected areas. Low entry and use fees are often the result of a wide range of socio-political factors. These include centralized budget allocation processes; issues of equity and access for all; political concern about increases in park fees upsetting local constituencies; the continued belief that society generally should pay for protected areas; pressure from conservation groups to keep visitation low; lack of planning and marketing for higher levels of visitation; lack of research into appropriate methods of determining reasonable pricing policies; lack of partnerships between private operators and park agencies; and varying levels of visitor services and infrastructure (Eagles, 1999). Research suggests that by using the concept of 'total economic value', it is possible to identify the goods and services or 'products' protected areas offer that are suitable for raising revenue for their conservation. With proper management, the 'products' can be sold repeatedly without diminishing the area's total value. However, this would require not only a comprehensive understanding of what those products are but also the presence of business plans to assess and realize the potential benefits to ensure the long-term financial

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sustainability of protected areas in their care (Taskforce on Economic Benefits, 1998; FPATF, 2000). While Figgis (1999) acknowledges numerous benefits of the user-pays approach, she also points to a number of worrying trends and impacts which can be broadly categorized into two concerns: the commercialization of nature and culture, and the 'distortion' of management. She argues that, with commodification, the needs of tourism, visitors and economic rationalist thinking (tourism-centred planning) take precedence over conservation priorities (nature-centred planning). Many see the trend for commercial tourism developments in protected areas as one of the major threats of ecotourism. The ecotourism label could be perceived as a 'cloak of green' with ecological, aesthetic and cultural impacts ignored due to economic benefits (Figgis, 1999). The trend in some countries such as Australia toward commercial development is the opposite to the USA, where some 50% of parks are 're-greening' after years of commercial development, by closing down roads, food and lodging facilities. This turnaround in management practices is due to lessons learned from the impacts of economic determinism on park values (Figgis, 1999). In other countries, such as South Africa, tourism has successfully bought in much needed financial support. Other chapters look in detail at the financing of conservation from tourism operations.

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2. Supporting sustainable use of natural and cultural heritage While the revenues generated from tourism-oriented activities may help fund conservation, tourism itself may be the source of unacceptable social and environmental change. These effects of tourism development and activity have the capacity to threaten the values for which protected areas are established. The major causes of environmental impacts due to visitors in national parks vary according to the features of the site (soils, topography, aspect, and vegetation), prevailing conditions (e.g. temperature, precipitation), plus the specific behaviours in which visitors engage (Leung and Marion, 2000; Leung et al, 2001). Buckley and Pannell (1990) broadly summarize the types of impacts as: damage to tracks and soils from vehicles; trampling; damage to river banks; firewood collection; water pollution and depletion; human waste; litter; noise; disturbance to wildlife; vandalism; and visual impact due to visitor services infrastructure such as roads, utility lines and structures. Additional impacts relate to soil compaction and erosion; damage to flora and habitat; removal of plants and seed sources; introduction of exotic species, weeds and pests; air and water pollution from inadequate waste management techniques; and, finally, loss of biodiversity. In a UK House of Commons Environment Committee Report The Environmental Impact of Leisure Activities (1995), the following summarizes responses given to the query of how to reduce the damage of over-visitation in England's national parks: closure of specific roads and vehicle access points; limiting car-parking spaces and introducing restrictive car-park pricing mechanisms; levying a charge for entry to sensitive sites; and increased investment in visitor management. The UK report points to the paradox that the better the protection and conservation, the more attractive the site becomes. The more visitors a park receives, the more impacts are compounded (Evans, 2001). A fundamental question tourism managers must face in this context is: how much change to natural systems is acceptable? Any level of use, including minimal visitation, results in some change to the biological or cultural heritage preserved in a protected area.

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To eliminate such change would lead to zero visitation. Thus, managers must determine how much change in their systems is acceptable, which is fundamentally a political or social choice, but one that should be informed by research. A variety of planning and management systems exist that assist managers in ensuring that tourism sustains the values for which protected areas exist (Eagles et al, 2002). The acceptability of change is influenced by a variety of factors, including park objectives, social values, what is being preserved, and public perception of alternatives.

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3. Linking practice to conventions and guidelines In many parts of the world protected areas are viewed by governments as marginal to other areas of policy, such as economic development. Tourism is increasingly seen as an alternative source of much needed revenue, and protected area managers are encountering difficulties integrating the demands of conservation and visitors. Increasing visitation is a global phenomenon. Worldwide, parks are being identified as major attractions for visitors, both domestic and international. For example, protected areas throughout Australia receive more than 60 million visitors per year, making national parks the single largest tourist attraction in Australia (Worboys et al., 2001). Research shows that 50% of international visitors to Australia in 1995 went to a national park during their stay (Blarney, 1995). Most come for recreation ranging from bushwalking, camping, viewing and understanding nature; cycling, picnicking, scenic drives, and community/family gatherings; swimming, snorkelling and other water sports; photography, painting and meditation; and adventure activities like abseiling. More and more, visitors come as part of commercial tours, school excursions or for guided walks. The growing demand for tourism in protected areas currently challenges the capacity of management to meet this demand without unacceptably affecting the values for which protected areas exist. This deficiency in capacity ultimately must be addressed through increasing the skill level of managers and the private tourism sector. As a short-term strategy, however, guideline documents such as minimum impact principles, codes of conduct for operators and visitors, and management principles can be effective in reducing the negative consequences of tourism to protected areas, nearby communities and other visitors. Targeting tourism operators, protected area managers, and governments, as well as tourists themselves, the guidelines for sustainable tourism are typically prepared by NGOs, conservation organizations, international agencies like IUCN and UNEP (e.g. Eagles et al., 2002), and in some cases by the tourism industry itself. Although well intentioned, many are not based on research, and, therefore, may contain suggestions not supported by science. Furthermore, the relative success of implementing sustainable tourism principles and guidelines can been questioned. Despite a plethora of guidelines supporting and promoting sustainable tourism practices that have been developed since the early 1990s, many previous practices seem entrenched. As discussed in Chapter 1, the World Tourism Organization sees achievement of the goals of sustainable tourism as more remote (Yunis, 2003). A review of existing charters, declarations and guidelines for sustainable tourism reveals many similarities between the principles and behaviours promoted. Many are directly related or have relevance to protected area management (Meyer and Garbe, 2001)

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Tourism as a Tool for Conservation and Support of Protected Areas

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with a particular emphasis on developing partnerships, minimizing visitor impacts, raising awareness, and promoting integrated and strategic tourism planning and management. These conclusions are consistent with those discussed by Eagles et al. (2002) in Sustainable Tourism in Protected Areas: Guidelines for Planning and Management. The more detailed and descriptive principles that characterize international documents like Biological Diversity and Tourism: Development of Guidelines for Sustainable Tourism in Vulnerable Ecosystems (UNEP/CBD, 2001) and The European Charter for Sustainable Tourism in Protected Areas (2002) are particularly useful as they offer specified actions for achieving sustainable tourism, including details for preparing a sustainable tourism strategy in a protected area, and an action programme to support the strategy. Perhaps one of the most notable downfalls of many of the existing sustainable tourism declarations, charters and guidelines, in terms of protected areas, is that few documents make any clear reference to the conservation priorities of the authorities responsible for protected areas (Foxlee, 2003). That is, the agenda tends to be driven by the tourism sector and/or non-governmental organizations rather than the protected area managers themselves. More recent documents, such as the Quebec Declaration on Ecotourism (2002) and the Cairns Charter on Partnerships for Ecotourism and Action Plan, also acknowledge the need to share the task of conservation among all stakeholders. That is, conservation responsibilities and objectives are not only with protected area managers; all stakeholders should contribute. Additionally, most of the documents fail to address broader issues associated with tourism, such as community health and well-being, poverty and gender equity. The exceptions include Red Card for Tourism? prepared by DANTE (2002) and WTO's Global Code of Ethics for Tourism (1999). Tourism can be viewed as a tool, but how it is wielded and for what purposes remain highly variable. The World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD, 2002) has urged industry and governments to support the UN Millennium Development Goals. With poverty alleviation a major issue, it becomes imperative for conservation strategies to seek 'benefits beyond boundaries' and to look for partnerships with tourism that will help achieve this end. It is noted here that there is a growing debate about the pragmatics of including social and community concerns in conservation programmes. 4. Fostering attachment to heritage Fostering attachment to heritage can be built through visitation and effective conservation education. Because of growing urbanization, many citizens have less and less connection with nature. Consequently they have little understanding of the benefits of natural areas, and are less likely to provide political support to conservation. Many are afraid of wildlife (Finger, 1993). Without direct experience of nature, teaching about environmental issues may actually breed cynicism about the environment (Trzyna, 2001). Visitation to protected areas is valuable, not just in an economic sense, but also because of the important role it plays in fostering environmental awareness and a conservation ethic. The benefits associated with visitors to protected areas can be significant, ensuring more people enjoy, respect and value nature. More research is needed into the role and effectiveness of conservation education/interpretation, and the multicultural dimensions of these strategies. Comprehensive information on visitors (visitation numbers, source markets, demographic

Bushell, R., and P.F.J. Eagles. Tourism and Protected Areas : Benefits Beyond Boundaries, CABI, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central,

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profile of visitors; patterns of visitation, determining repeat visitation, the length of stay; visitor satisfaction; their motivation for visiting; acceptability of management actions and conditions) is lacking for many protected areas. There is an almost universal need for systematic approaches to address the numerous, complex and dynamic issues associated with visitor management (Gilligan and Allen, 2001), and for these approaches to be based upon principles of public engagement, learning, and consensus-building. If a major purpose of increasing visitation to parks is to encourage the development of a robust conservation constituency within society then it is imperative to evaluate the impact/effect of conservation messages on park users. This would assist in positive behaviour modification both within and beyond the park. To date, much has been done to describe the most effective type of sign, or the most utilitarian approach in reaching audiences of different ages. However, not a lot of effort has gone into understanding deeper questions, such as the different ways that various people construct and relate to nature, and how this understanding could inform more effective approaches to interpretation and education programmes (Staiff et al. 2002; Staiff and Bushell, 2003a,b) as well as the objective of influencing visitors' views on conservation beyond the park visit. This is central to the concept 'Benefits Beyond Boundaries'.

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5. Encouraging a stewardship ethic among the public Natural resource management is now inherently a social science, heavily influenced not only by scientific knowledge but also by political priorities, policy settings and social values (Lockie et al., 2001). While many managers are concerned about significant increases in visitation and the potential of resulting impacts to compromise conservation priorities, there are other important questions about different mechanisms to engage the public. As well as benefiting from their parks, local communities and other groups often make contributions to their local national park and support park management in many other ways. For example, the Lane Cove National Park in Sydney is only 600 ha but has a perimeter of 70 km and over 2000 neighbours. It receives over one million visitors each year, making it one of the most popular national parks in Australia. Most visitors arrive by car. The critical issues for such a site are mostly 'off site', such as water and air quality, exotic species and use of adjacent land. Following severe bushfires in 1994 the New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service received a grant of A$330,000 to support The Friends of Lane Cove National Park, a community-based bush regeneration group programme. In three years, The Friends contributed over 10,000 hours of labour and secured the prospect of a sound future for the park by tapping into the local community to convey conservation messages. The partnership has led to much greater appreciation of the values and vulnerability of 'their' park, in turn leading to positive behaviour such as restraining pets, not dumping garden waste, controlling invasive garden plants and refraining from the use of fertilizers. The community support also influences local governance. In this case, local councils are donating additional adjoining lands (Brown, 2001). Local communities are sometimes portrayed as holding values and preferences in opposition to the 'national' interest embedded in protected areas. In many cases, local communities may be painted with a commodity-oriented or utilitarian interest while national interests are viewed as more sensitive to conservation values. Managers frequently feel they must balance the needs of local communities with their national constituency, which is perceived to have a greater sense of stewardship. Certainly, there are situations in every

Bushell, R., and P.F.J. Eagles. Tourism and Protected Areas : Benefits Beyond Boundaries, CABI, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central,

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country where elements of local communities would prefer to extract commodities, calories and protein from protected areas. But perhaps this interest is a result of failures in national economic policy, not one of intrinsically opposed value systems. Equally, government withdrawal from support to fund conservation reflects different attitudes and values. The local and the global are both distinguished by those who support conservation to the utmost and those who disregard the natural environment. Implied in the notion of balance is that interests are different and opposed; we believe that national and local communities have more in common than in conflict. Local residents often hold extensive knowledge about the area - some places within a protected area may have spiritual or cultural significance to the community - and many local individuals see protected areas through a slightly different lens to others. Thus, managers could exploit these interests through programmes that develop sensitivities to the mission of the protected area and through decision-making processes that acknowledge local interests and integrate rather than balance - local- and national-level values.

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6. Working with local stakeholders and industry In a period of growing demands, new approaches are necessary to ensure protected areas can continue to make outstanding contributions to society and that these are recognized and valued. As the shortcomings of government policies on protected area conservation become more apparent, increased support from non-government sources, such as local communities, private landowners, land users and NGOs become more important (McNeely, 1994). Tourism is one of these areas. According to Figgis (1999) a combination of motivations in the 1980s saw changes in community attitudes toward protected area management in developed nations. Tourism gained some support from conservation groups, as an acceptable alternative economic development strategy, in the battle against the extractive industries of mining and logging. This shift also serves as an incentive for rural and indigenous communities to conserve rather than exploit their natural resources. This strategy, however, is built upon a fundamentally different paradigm from older models of top-down, imported-expert styles of management; rather, it involves dealing with local communities and residents. Sustainable tourism is a highly fragmented industry, with an abundance of opportunity for entrepreneurship, vertical job advancement and creativity. This is a ground up industry composed primarily of small businesses embedded within community. Thus sustainable tourism will require more direct engagement of local communities in strategic planning and policy development. Engagement of local community and other stakeholders in tourism and conservation decision-making is neither simple, cheap nor guaranteed to achieve sustainable use objectives. Some of the most vocal local lobby groups have quite specific agendas, such as groups who champion human use over nature conservation. These include industries and recreational groups who demand access to exploit resources in parks purely for human profit or enjoyment, such as mining, logging, hunting and off road vehicle use (see for example Kirkpatrick, 2000). Many of these groups strongly believe that all areas should be available for unconstrained human activity (Figgis, 1999). Tourism in protected areas should lead to economic benefits to the local community and residents such that they have incentives to support conservation and the protected area. The case of the 5700 ha Minnamurra Rainforest Centre in Budderoo National Park, on the

Bushell, R., and P.F.J. Eagles. Tourism and Protected Areas : Benefits Beyond Boundaries, CABI, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central,

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south coast of New South Wales, serves as an example. The park has a visitor centre, 1.6 km of raised boardwalk, with disabled access, a 2.6 km return access route to the Minnamurra Falls, an outdoor classroom in the rainforest, a cafe and picnic/barbeque facilities and parking. Park visitation increased from 72,000 in 1992 to 140,000 in 1995 following completion of new visitor facilities and attractions. Through the National Parks and Wildlife Service's policy of local purchasing and employment, local expenditure by visitors at the centre was estimated to contribute annually over A$4.1 million in gross regional output and A$2 million in gross regional product, including A$1.4 million in household income payments to the full-time equivalent of 119 local people (Gillespie, 1997; Conner, 1999). While we note the importance of economic strategies in serving as incentives to support conservation priorities, it must be acknowledged that important belief systems underlie stakeholder attitudes toward conservation. Working with residents and visitors to create better understanding of the mission of protected areas is a strategy that must be used in a complementary way. So while protected areas can lead to significant economic benefits, this is not the main reason for them. The primacy of the conservation role of protected areas must be acknowledged and respected by all stakeholders.

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7. Working to support local and indigenous community development The rights of indigenous people to access protected areas and the values they contain remain complex, and, at times, controversial.1 Issues of traditional resource use, land rights, and ownership, particularly for colonized peoples who have been dislocated and have contested identity, relationships and rights within their own communities, dominate much of the policy discourse in this arena. In South Africa, the Restitution of Land Rights Act 22 of 1994 has permitted indigenous people to recover lands from which they were forcibly removed during the apartheid era. Some of these land claims, e.g. the Makuleke, have resulted in new protected area management paradigms. The Makuleke have recovered their lands in the Pafuri region in Kruger National Park, but rather than resettling this land, they have pursued conservation objectives and eventually they will manage that part of Kruger under an agreement with SANParks. The issues of indigenous people are often over-simplified and romanticized. The debates over appropriate use of protected areas and models of management have been linked to efforts to restore and address the land rights of indigenous peoples. A range of cultural and ethical issues surround the identification, evaluation and management of cultural landscapes, particularly those associated with the history of indigenous people and the associated issues of territory, dislocation, secret knowledge, lost language, and sacredness. Examples of the positive relationship between protected areas and indigenous people are presented in several chapters in this book. In the World Heritage Areas of Kakadu and Uluru in Australia, co-management is a legal partnership reflecting the rights, interests and obligations of the Aboriginal owners as well as the relevant government agency. The plans of management in these parks look to tourism to generate significant income for the traditional owners/community and for conservation goals. Tourism is anticipated to be the key to self-sufficiency and provides the mechanism for park values to be communicated to the wider world. Similarly, national parks in the province of Nunuvut, Canada, are co-managed between the local indigenous peoples and Parks Canada (Foxlee, 2004).

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Tourism as a Tool for Conservation and Support of Protected Areas

Fig. 1. Yellow Water Lagoon in Kakadu National Park. (Photo: J. Baker and the Australian Department of the Environment and Heritage)

One of the current social realities is the economic value placed on nature and the role protected area-based tourism plays in realizing this economic potential for indigenous peoples, but it is not without problems both for the environment and for those already living in poverty. For example, the Machu Picchu World Heritage Site has outstanding cultural and agrarian values as a 500-year-old Inca city. For many it is a sacred site. It is also the most visited site in Peru, and one of the most important tourist destinations in Latin America. The number of visitors to Machu Picchu has risen dramatically, with a 30% increase between 1998 and 1999. Tourism brings in some US$5 million for the sanctuary plus important associated economic activities including rail, bus and helicopter transport, accommodation and souvenir trade (Andrade, 2000). Despite the economic success, it

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represents an environmental and social crisis. There are around 1600 urban and 1000 rural inhabitants in the area. Problems include ecosystem degradation and loss of biodiversity due to the presence of both locals and visitors and from uncontrolled development of tourism infrastructure and waste management. From an ethical position the local people, who are among the poorest in the world, are not compensated for the opportunity cost of the sanctuary, including restricted access to scarce arable land, or the tourism activity that increasingly diminishes their available fuel and water, thus impacting in many ways on their quality of life and normal routine. External businesses and national bureaucracies receive the majority of the economic benefit. For these poor people the Machu Picchu World Heritage Site is sacred, yet the system which declared it 'protected' removed them from their land and then encouraged hundreds of thousands of visitors, generating vast income for external operators while the asset itself becomes degraded, both spiritually and ecologically, and the host community experiences loss of the basic necessities: food and water (Andrade, 2000). Models of co-management where local people are properly represented and fully considered are showing that partnerships between protected areas, locals and tourism are an effective way to achieve desired outcomes. Several examples are documented in Chapters 5, 7, 16 and 17.

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8. Contributing to civil society, respect for others and for heritage Consideration of the rights of indigenous peoples to 'protected areas' reinforces the concept of 'nature' as a social construct. Protected areas are social spaces, conceived by people as deserving preservation (Ghimire and Pimbert, 1997: 5). This construction of nature varies in time across cultural, political and social beliefs and economic status. These contextual influences can change the values placed on nature, what is regarded as priority for protection, and what is acceptable use (Bushell, 1999; Staiff et al., 2002). Appreciating how different groups of people value nature is essential to making decisions about tourism and visitor management. Visitor use must be compatible with the overriding mission of a protected area. It occurs within a dynamic social, cultural, legal, institutional and geographic context. Compatibility among users is important to financial success and effective management of protected areas. Incompatible user groups can lead to conflict, loss of support and wasted investment (FPATF, 2000), while overuse can lead to destruction of the asset.

Conclusion The relationship between conservation and recreation has proved somewhat vexed into conflicting views, and the popularity of national parks, as a visitor resource, is currently considered by many in the field of conservation to be threatening the continuing protection of their unique qualities (Evans, 2001: 77). Yet park visitation and nature-based tourism are a critical component of fostering support for parks and conservation when planned as a conservation tool. The issues outlined here are further discussed and illustrated in the following chapters. Good policy, careful planning, strategic management and genuine cooperation are all essential to achieve the desired outcomes.

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Notes 1. Yanner v Eaton [1999] in the High Court of Australia (53), where indigenous activist Murandoo Yanner retained his tribal right to hunt crocodile under the Fauna Conservation Act 1974 (Qld), The Native Title Act 1993 (Cth), The Racial Discrimination Act 1975 (Cth) and s!09 of the Australian Constitution available at URLhttp://www.austlii.edu.au/cgi-bin/disp.pl/au/cases/cth/high%5fct/1999/53.html?query=%5e+yanner

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References Andrade, G.I. (2000) The non-material values of Machu Picchu World Heritage Site: from acknowledgement to action. Parks 10(2): 49-62. Blarney, R. (1995) The Nature ofEcotourism. BTR Occasional Paper No. 21, Bureau of Tourism Research, Canberra, Australia. Brown, I.R. (2001) Lane Cove: National Park in a City. Parks 11(3): 21-27. Buckley, R. and Pannell, J. (1990) Environmental impacts of tourism and recreation in National Parks and Conservation Reserves. Journal of Tourism Studies. 1(1): 24-32. Buckley, R., Witting, N. and Guest, M. (2001) Managing People in Australian Parks (1): Visitor Entrance and Camping Fees. Cooperative Research Centre for Sustainable Tourism, Queensland, Australia. Bushell, R. (1999) Development of Approaches and Practice for Sustainable Use of Biological Resources-Tourism Policy recommendation for the International Union for the Conservation of Nature Agenda Item 4.8. In: Convention on Biological Diversity. Fourth Meeting of the Subsidiary Body on Scientific, Technical and Technological Advice, Montreal, Canada. Bushell, R. (2003) Balancing Conservation and Visitation. In: Buckley, R, Pickering, C. and Weaver, D. (eds) Nature-based Tourism, Environmentand Land Management. CAB International, Wallingford, UK 197-208. Christ, C., Hillel, O., Matus, S. and Sweeting, J. (2003) Tourism & Biodiversity: Mapping Tourism's Global Footprint. United Nations Environment Program and Conservation International, Washington, DC. Conner, N. (1999) The Contribution of National Parks to Sustainable Rural and Regional Development, NSW. NPWS Environmental Economic Series, NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service, Australia. Dio Arbeitsgemeinschaft fur Nachhalfige Tourismus Entiwcklung (DANTE) The NGO Network for Sustainable Tourism Development Working Group (2002) Red Card for Tourism? Basel, Switzerland. Driml, S. and Common, M. (1995) Economic and financial benefits of tourism in major protected areas. Australian Journal of Environmental Management 2(2): 19-39. Eagles, P.F.J. (1995) Tourism and Canadian parks: fiscal relationships. Managing Leisure 1(1): 16-27. Eagles, P.F.J. (1999) International trends in park tourism and ecotourism. Background Paper for the Mediterranean Protected Areas: Status, Adequacy, Management and Training Needs Workshop, Cilento, Italy. Eagles, P.P., McCool, S.F. and Haynes, D. (2002) Sustainable Tourism in Protected Areas: Guidelines for Planning and Management. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. Ecotourism Australia (2002-3) Cairns Charter on Partnerships for Ecotourism and Action Plan. Ecotourism - A World of Difference Conference, Cairns, Australia, 21st - 25th October 2002. See URL http ://www. ecotourism. org.au/cairnscharter. asp Europarc Federation (2002) The European Charter for Sustainable Tourism in Protected Areas. Full text available at URL http://www.europarc.org/european-charter.org/full_text.pdf Evans, S. (2001) Community Forestry: Countering excess visitor demands in England's National Parks. In: McCool, S.E. and Moisey, R.N. (eds) Tourism, Recreation andSustainability. CAB International, Wallingford, UK 77-90. Figgis, P.J. (1999) Australia's National Parks and Protected Areas: Future Directions. Discussion Paper, Australian Committee for IUCN Occasional Paper No 8, Australian Committee for IUCN, Sydney. Financing Protected Areas Task Force (FPATF), World Commission for Protected Areas, in collaboration with the IUCN Economics Unit (2000) Financing Protected Areas. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. Finger, M. (1993) Environmental Adult Learning in Switzerland. Centre for Adult Learning Teachers College, Columbia University, New York. Foxlee, J. (2003) Key Principles and Direction for Tourism in Protected Areas: A review of existing charters, guidelines and declarations. Unpublished report, University of Western Sydney, Australia.

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Foxlee, J. (2004) Stories in the Landscape — Heritage and Cultural Landscape Perspectives from Australia. Paper presented at the 13th Annual Arts Graduate Conference Mediations: Negotiating Cultural Landscapes, University of British Columbia, March 3-5, 2004. Ghimire, K.B. and Pimbert, M.P. (eds) (1997) Social Change and Conservation. Earthscan Publishing, London, UK. Gillespie, R. (1997) Economic Value and Regional Economic Impact of Minnamurra Rainforest Centre, Budderoo National Park. NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service, Sydney, Australia. Gilligan, B. and Allen, C. (2001) Resource and Visitor Management in NSW National Parks. The Fenner Conference on Nature Tourism and the Environment, Australian National University with the Cooperative Research Centre for Sustainable Tourism, Canberra, 3-6 September 2001. Kirkpatrick, J.B. (2000) Ecotourism, local and indigenous people, and the conservation of the Tasmanian Wilderness World Heritage Area. From III Southern Connection Congress, Lincoln, New Zealand, January 2000. Leung, Y.-F. and Marion, J.L. (2000) Research on recreational impacts in wilderness: A state-of-the-knowledge review. In: Cole, D.N. and McCool, S.F. (eds) Proceedings: Wilderness Science in a Time of Change. RMRSP-15-Vol 5. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. http://www.wilderness.net/pubs/sciencel999/volume5.htm Leung, Y.-F., Marion J.L. and Farrell, T.A. (2001) The role of recreation ecology in sustainable tourism and ecotourism. In: McCool, S.F. and Moisey, N. (eds) Tourism, Recreation and Sustainability: Linking Culture and Environment. CAB International, Wallingford, UK, pp. 21-39. Lockie, S., Higgins, V. and Lawrence. G. (2001) What's social about natural resources and why do we need to theorise it? In: Lawrence, G, Higgins, V. and Lockie, S. (eds) Environment, Society and Natural Resource Management: Theoretical Perspectives from Australasia and the Americas. Edward and Elgar Publishing, Cheltenham and Camberley, UK 1-19 Mastny, L. (2001) Travelling Light: New paths for international tourism. WorldWatch Paper 159, WorldWatch Institute, Washington, December 2001. McLaren, D. (1997) Rethinking Tourism and Ecotravel: The paving of paradise and what can you do to stop it? Kumarian Press, Hartford, Connecticut. McNeely, J. A (1994) Protected areas for the twenty first century: working to provide benefits to society, Unasylva. 176(46):3-8. Meyer, M. and Garbe, C. (2001) Compilation and analysis of existing international documents relating to sustainable tourism. Prepared for the Workshop on Biological Diversity and Tourism, Santo Domingo, 4-7 June 2001. Restitution of Land Rights Act 22 (1994) South Africa, available at URL http://wwwserver.law.wits.ac.za/lcc/about.html Staiff, R. and Bushell, R. (2003a) Heritage Interpretation and Cross Cultural Translation in an Age of Global Travel. Journal of Park and Recreation Administration, Special Places Issue 21(4):104-122. Staiff, R. and Bushell, R. (2003b) Travel Knowledgably : The Question of Content in Heritage Interpretation. In: Black, R. and Weiler, B. (eds) Interpreting the Land Down Under: Australian Heritage Interpretation and Tour Guiding. Fulcrum Publishing, Golden, Colorado 92-109. Staiff, R., Bushell, R. and Kennedy, P. (2002) Interpretation in National Parks: Some critical questions. Journal of Sustainable Tourism 10(2): 97-113. Taskforce on Economic Benefits of Protected Areas, World Commission on Protected Areas, IUCN, in collaboration with the IUCN Economic Service Unit (1998) Economic Values of Protected Areas: Guidelines for Protected Area Managers. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland, and Cambridge, UK. Trzyna, T. (2001) California's Protected Areas: Progress despite daunting pressure. Parks 11(3) 4-15. United Nations Environment Program, Convention on Biological Diversity (2001) International Guidelines for activities related to sustainable tourism development in vulnerable terrestrial, marine and coastal and mountain ecosystems. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization MAB Program, Paris, France. United Nations Environment Program, World Tourism Organization (2002) Quebec Declaration on Ecotourism. World Ecotourism Summit, Quebec, Canada, 19-22 May, 2002. Watkinson, R. (2000) Relationships between protected area managers and operators: an illicit affair? Ecotourism Association of Australia Conference, Philip Island, November 2000. WCPA(2003) Vth World Parks Congress http://www.iucn.org/themes/wcpa/wpc2003/index.htm

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Worboys, G., Lockwood, M. and De Lacy, T. (2001) Protected Area Management: Principles and Practice. Oxford University Press, UK. World Tourism Organization (1999) Global Code of Ethics for Tourism. Madrid, Spain. Yanner v Eaton [1999] HCA 53 available at URL http://www.austlii.edu.au/cgibin/disp.pl/au/cases/cth/high%5fct/1999/53.html?query=%5e+yanner Yunis, E. (2003) Sustainable Tourism: World Trends and Challenges Ahead. In: Buckley, R., Pickering, C. and Weaver, D. (Eds) Nature-based Tourism, Environment and Land Management. CAB International, Wallingford, UK, pp. 11-16

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Chapter 3

Global Trends Affecting Tourism in Protected Areas PaulFJ. Eagles

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Introduction Park use and park management are reflections of society in the past. Usually, events in the future flow from the conditions and decisions that are well known because they are based in the past and occur in the present. Preparing for the future requires the manager to consider the challenges and opportunities that could occur. By considering the future, managers are better prepared to deal with the possible issues, questions, problems and opportunities that may arise. Parks and protected areas are based on societal sanction. Personal benefits obtained from visitation are the key element in societal acceptance and approval of parks and their management. Park visitation is a virtuous cycle of visitation, appreciation and further visitation. Therefore, park tourism is fundamental to the development of societal approval and interest in parks. This paper presents some of the more important trends that will influence the planning and management of parks and protected areas in the medium term. While there are many trends visible, the ones chosen here are globally important and sufficiently significant that they should affect the practice of national park and protected area tourism management globally. The roles of parks and tourism will change in response to changing social needs and environmental conditions. There are many challenges and equally many opportunities for tourism-related benefits in parks and protected areas.

Trends Affecting Park Tourism National parks and protected areas exist within a dynamic social and political setting that is sometimes difficult to understand and challenging to predict. This socio-political setting influences both their day-to-day management and the long-term planning of parks. Many factors influence a nation's capacity to establish and manage its natural and cultural heritage, such as a changing national population, economic conditions, demands for quality of life, the viability of government, technological change, war and international tourism trends. One of the key institutional arrangements used by governments for protection is some form of protected area. Different countries use different designation and management © CAB International 2007. Tourism and Protected Areas: Benefits Beyond Boundaries (eds R. Bushell and P.F.J. Eagles)

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approaches. For example the USA manages national park and historic park management in one agency, the National Park Service. In contrast, the UK has such protection divided between English Nature for national nature reserves, The Countryside Agency for national parks, and the English Heritage, a government agency, and the National Trust, an NGO, for historic sites. Such administrative choices are often the result of ancient historical decisions. Importantly, irrespective of the administrative structure in both countries increasing public use shows people voting with their time and money to express an interest in natural and cultural heritage appreciation. Some of the trends are beyond the capability of park managers to handle, such as war or revolution. However, there are other trends that can be successfully anticipated and managed. I have chosen 18 trends in political, social, demographic and technological sectors that bear upon why and how parks and protected areas are managed. These trends will require a managerial response in the future and will influence the societal roles of these areas in each culture. Trend 1: Park visitation will continue to increase.

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In most park systems in most countries tourism use of parks and protected areas has increased strongly over the past 100 years. An increase will continue into the current century. As shown by the visitation to the national parks of Costa Rica, in Fig. 1, a significant amount of this increase is due to international travellers (Baez, 2004). This international element will also continue to be important.

Fig. 1. Costa Rica national park visitation Bushell, R., and P.F.J. Eagles. Tourism and Protected Areas : Benefits Beyond Boundaries, CABI, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central,

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Trend 2: Park tourism leads to increased public participation and collaboration. Park tourism is essentially about people, their interests, and their personal investments of time and money. There is increased concern for direct participation by citizens in government decision-making. The needs and desires of park visitors combine with the larger trend for increased public participation in government decisions to lead to expanded demands for public participation. Such a trend results from a number of factors including: Increasing recognition by park agencies that the needs of park visitors are important. Movement towards tourism marketing, ensuring that tourist needs are given higher priority in service planning. Moves to restore trust between institutions and affected citizens. The desire by visitors for an inclusive and responsive planning processes. A recognition that older methods of planning often marginalize important values. A general and widespread interest in democratic management of resources such as parks. These mean that the planning and management processes that park agencies use must be inclusive of potentially affected values and interests, provide recognition of the legitimacy of different forms of knowledge, and require planners to acquire facilitation skills. These factors lead to increased prominence of park visitors and their needs in park management plans and in day-by-day operation.

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Trend 3: Increasing education levels in society leads to demands for increasing sophistication in park management and park services. Higher education leads to larger life-time earnings. Higher education leads to a broader view of society. Higher education leads to more desire and opportunity to travel. Globally, the average education attainment is increasing (Fig. 2). Use of national parks is predominately by the higher-educated sectors of society. High and increasing education levels, higher incomes and higher travel profiles will lead to higher use levels in parks and protected areas in the future. In addition, highly educated citizens expect information-rich experiences and expect advanced forms of service delivery and management. This is both a challenge and an opportunity for information, interpretation and visitor service planning. As people gain education, their instincts for continuous learning increase. This leads to travel oriented towards intellectual enrichment, such as ecotourism. Park managers will see more demand for information, interpretation and knowledge about the area and the values it contains. Park information must be adapted to a more sophisticated audience. This involves all aspects of information management, from Internet websites to management plan contents, from resource policy documents to pricing policy. This also means that interpretive services must become more sophisticated in terms of what topics are discussed and how that information is delivered to an eager, willing and sophisticated audience. Since visitors are more knowledgeable in general and about parks in particular, interpretation of all types must cater to their skill and knowledge levels accordingly, thus requiring more formal education and training of staff not only in the subject of the interpretive task but the technology and approaches to dealing with people. Many parks will experience higher

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levels of use by specialized ecotourism and cultural tourism operators, private individuals providing programmes to a niche clientele. This will range from adventure travel experiences for youth through to specialized nature education for retirees.

Fig. 2. Percentage of the 25-64 populations with tertiary-level education.

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Trend 4: Increased accessibility of information technology means that potential, current and past visitors will be better informed and knowledgeable about what leisure opportunities exist, the current state of management and consequences of actions.

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The Internet is a revolutionary two-way means of communication. It allows institutions to communicate with clients and it allows clients to communicate with institutions. It leads to greatly increased access to information and knowledge of park visitors. It also provides an inexpensive avenue for groups, ranging from tourism companies to environmental groups, to provide information about parks. This has several consequences for park planning and management. Firstly, it means that potential visitors can more easily become aware of the various recreation opportunities and alternative destinations available both locally and globally. Potential visitors can have more certainty about conditions and facilities available within an area. Secondly, increased accessibility of knowledge and easier communication routes mean that visitors and others interested in protected area planning issues can provide more informed input into decision-making processes. Thirdly, the widespread availability of Internet and digital communications means that it is easier for people to communicate across national boundaries and to organize themselves into activist groups promoting one cause or another. Fourthly, the Internet is an inexpensive method of providing information. Therefore, many groups, such as tourism suppliers, environmental groups, local community groups, can provide abundant levels of information about parks and protected areas. This is challenging for park managers to know what is being said about their park and to ensure that it is accurate and appropriately represents park policy. At present in some poorer countries, third-party interests provide virtually all the park information to tourists. This loss of ability to be the gatekeepers of resource information, policy and management information can have profound impacts on the job that park managers face. An analysis of the tourism content of park agency websites showed a large variability in usefulness and completeness. Generally, park managers show a lack of understanding of the needs of park visitors and, therefore, develop websites that do not provide the types and levels of information that are most appropriate (Murphy et al., 2004). The consequences of these implications are profound for park managers. Generally, park managers must developed increased capacity in the role of the Internet in park tourism. Trend 5: A population shift in the developed world towards increasing numbers of older citizens means there will be significant demand change in activities, settings and experiences visitors seek from national parks and protected areas. The world population is growing and in the developed world the average age is increasing. An example of this situation is Germany. In 1950, 14.6% of the population was age 60 or older. Today it is 23%. By 2050 it will be 35.8% (German Federal Statistical Office, 2004). There is a similar situation becoming apparent in most developed nations. The world's developed nations have significant domestic tourism activities and are also the generators of a major portion of the foreign visitation of many parks. What happens in these countries will affect park use worldwide. For example, Germany is the world's second biggest tourism spender, behind the USA; so social trends in this country affect tourism income in many countries.

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The baby boom generation enters the retirement phase of life in large numbers early in the 21st century (Fig. 3). This generation will be the healthiest, wealthiest and most numerous retirement population in history. Tourism marketers know this concept very well and are aggressively moving to fill the developing tourism opportunities. Generally, park agencies are scarcely understanding or planning for this population shift.

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Fig. 3. Average age of retirement in Canada

As the population ages, there are potentially significant shifts in demands for recreation opportunities as well as changes in the nature of facilities and programmes required at national parks and protected areas. For example, as people age there is some evidence that they participate more frequently in appreciative and learning activities and less in more active-expressive kinds of activities. Leisure scholars indicate that there are two categories of seniors, well seniors and unwell seniors. The former are fit, healthy and capable of travel. The latter have some disability that negatively affects daily activities. A national survey in Canada found that the onset of a major disability on average occurs at age 73, suggesting that the age break between these two groups is at this age. And as people age, their needs increase for supplementary facilities such as wheelchair ramps, trails with lesser grades and other disabled access help. In tune with their changing interests, the demand for interpretive programmes, particularly those dealing with cultural heritage, may increase. Older people are much less likely to camp and much more likely to seek roofed accommodation such as lodges, hotels and cabins. The rate of camping starts to decline rapidly with people in the mid-40s. Since most parks have a scarcity of roofed accommodation, this trend could reduce park use by older citizens. It also creates a larger market for private accommodation providers near the park. People in their healthy, early senior years will often participate in large amounts of travel. Some of this travel involves substantial amounts of nature-based travel, with national parks and private ecolodges frequently selected as choice destinations. With appropriate

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levels of infrastructure, services and accommodation, parks have a lucrative group of potential visitors. This group has the money to purchase park services, programmes and products. Managers could benefit from abundant levels of volunteer effort from many highly skilled people. The possibilities for donations of money are high. Conversely, without appropriate services, programmes and infrastructure these seniors will spend their talents, money and time elsewhere. It is an important management decision whether to cater to the rapidly emerging market of seniors tourism. If parks decide not to provide for these people's demands directly, they can expect to receive some of their use indirectly, through a third party. Private ecotourism ecolodges and tour operators are entering this seniors market aggressively, and some will bring their clients to parks and protected areas. An example of a park that is well situated to cater to the aging population market is Kruger National Park in South Africa (Fig. 4). This park is a major international tourist destination. In addition, there are dozens of private ecolodges situated on the fringes of the park. Kruger has a full range of activity and accommodation options that cater to all ages. The well-equipped bush camps provide excellent accommodation and services to park visitors, and are especially attractive to older visitors who desire roofed accommodation, excellent interpretive programmes and a range of food services. The private ecolodges cater to an upscale market. One of these, Sabi Sabi, is discussed in Chapter 17. These two types of establishment provide a unique blend of opportunities from the very modest camping mode to the expensive, up-market ecolodges.

Fig. 4. Rondovels in Skukuza Bush Camp in Kruger National Park, South Africa

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Trend 6: Advances in the technology of travel and reductions in costs will result in increased demand for park and protected area opportunities distant from one's residence. Over the last 100 years increased use of inexpensive light oil, development of advanced transportation equipment and higher levels of economic attainment resulted in massive increases in international travel. Such travel is expected to grow further in the early 21st century thereby increasing the demand for national parks and protected areas distant from visitors' residences. The volume of air travel is expected to increase over the next ten years as new airplane technologies come online reducing the price of their travel. By making their travel more affordable more people can visit foreign destinations. This trend means that park and protected area managers must be aware of travel trends for proper planning and must begin to consider how they communicate with people with different languages and cultural backgrounds. This communication not only includes language considerations but the differences in custom and tradition as well. Many managers will be faced with visitors that come from very different cultural backgrounds from the visitors in the past. This will bring many challenges in information provision, safety, health provision and supervision. Technological advances in motorized recreation equipment such as snowmobiles, motorcycles, all-terrain vehicles (ATVs), jet boats and helicopters combined with GPS navigation technology allow more people to reach even the most remote wilderness areas and wild waterways. Such use will provide increased challenge to park managers. After 2010, the emerging gap between global oil supply and demand will cause large price increases in energy. The impacts of this are discussed in Trend 16.

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Trend 7: Increasing availability of information technology profoundly influences park visitation. Advances in information technology are rapidly moving towards the situation where park visitors can obtain access to digital information in real time any place on the earth's surface. The use of Geographical Positioning Systems (GPS) allows visitors to accurately locate their position. Wireless communication allows access by hand-held devices to Internetbased information and databases, and allows visitors to transmit information from their field location to data analysis devices. This leads to online, real-time, global communication by visitors in remote areas. The implications are profound and can only be dimly perceived. One simple example can show the potential. A park visitor who is interested in birds hears an interesting bird-call deep in a nature reserve. He records the bird sound on a hand-held device that also records the specific location. This information is digitally communicated via wireless to a central data analysis computer that compares this sound to a database of bird sounds and provides species-level identification. After the record is placed into the central database, the visitor's hand-held device is then told that this is the 5th record for this rare bird species in this location. Such an example shows the potential for park visitors to become major contributors to the science of natural resources. Other examples abound. Pre-booking of recreation opportunities becomes easier and more effective with Internet-based systems. For example, Ontario Provincial Parks manage 300,000 campsite reservations annually, with 45% occurring with an Internet booking system and 55% through telephone contact with an agent. The Internet volume is rapidly increasing, and the telephone contact decreasing. With advanced booking of

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services, managers know months in advance the size and distribution of their future recreation programmes. Online feedback allows rapid assessment of the current situation in programmes. Remote surveying of visitor transportation equipment allows managers to know the number and distribution of visitors. Wildlife cams allow park visitors to keep informed of the situation in the park that they enjoyed at some time in the past. Virtual Friends Groups allow people all over the world to participate in park activities. The implications of rapid advances in information technology will be profound. They offer tremendous opportunities for managers with insight and initiative. Trend 8: New nature travel demands lead to expanded opportunities for innovative managers.

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Nature travel is a large and growing phenomenon. The aging population in the developed world will push a segment of nature travel into new directions. Higher incomes of many travellers, and especially of older nature tourists, provide lucrative market opportunities. All of these trends combine to create new market demands that are much different from the traditional park services. This sophisticated, older and wealthy group wants rich educational experiences, quality personal services, suitable accommodation and attractive food provision. Since park managers are often unwilling or unable to provide the full package of services to fulfill these desires, the private sector often seizes on the opportunity. The rapid and successful development of ecolodges is certainly a reflection of the private sector providing services to this market (Fig. 5).

Fig. 5. Maya Mountain Ecolodge in Belize Bushell, R., and P.F.J. Eagles. Tourism and Protected Areas : Benefits Beyond Boundaries, CABI, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central,

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Ecolodges are often complementary to parks and protected areas, providing compatible land uses around the parks and compatible recreation services. For example, the entire western side of Kruger National Park in South Africa is ringed by private game reserves. Similarly, many private ecolodges in Costa Rica are located adjacent to national parks. These reserves provide effective and complementary landscape conservation measures to the park and tap a high-income market not fully served by existing park programmes. Trend 9: The increase in park area, number of parks and park visitation exceeds the capability of many park management institutions. Globally, the public, and many environmental groups, demand new park creation. Most park systems also have increasing visitor numbers. Simultaneously, the public resists demands for increasing taxes. The growing area to manage, the increasing level of visitation and decreasing tax-based budgets negatively affect the institutional capacity of most agencies to manage their parklands. One result of inadequate funding is the lack of personnel adequately trained to deal with park tourism management, long-range planning and the new technology required to deal with increasing demand. In many park agencies these trends lead to crisis levels of managerial effectiveness. Fortunately, approaches are being found to deal with these issues. There is concern that many government agency legislative mandates are not appropriate for these challenges. For example, centralized government agencies are notoriously poor in reacting to rapidly changing circumstances. The financial limitation of government agency structures also means that park tourism is often poorly served. These limitations are leading to the adoption of more flexible and interactive management structures in many park systems, such as the parastatal form of administration.

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Trend 10: Park management shifts gradually from government agency structures, with centralized financial control, to parastatal forms, with financially flexible management. There is an increasing utilization of management structures beyond the government agency model for many park tourism functions. In some places this means contracting some park operations to private profit-making corporations, thereby replacing government employees and publicly funded services. In other places, it means transferring some management functions to NGOs, such a park Friends Group. In still others, it means restructuring the park agency into a corporate organization, with management structure similar to a corporation. This later form of management, the parastatal, typically has a governmentappointed Board of Directors. It has wide abilities to earn income, retain income, hire staff, set prices and operate. In essence, the parastatal functions like a corporation owned by government. Some criticize this approach because of the possibility of motivation driven more by income generation than one of public service or environmental protection. However, its financial and managerial effectiveness outweighs the concerns. Parastatal forms of park management now occur in many countries. Examples include South African National Parks, the Kenya Wildlife Service, Parks Canada and Ontario Parks. In each of these examples, this form of management has proved to be robust, flexible and effective with park tourism management. This form of management is much more client focused, as the park visitor is seen as a benefit to the park and the agency.

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Trend 11: Park management funding increasingly shifts from government grants to park tourism fees and charges. This results in higher levels of visitor focus in management. Many people argue that the protection of natural and cultural resources benefits all and therefore should be paid for by societal taxes. Others argue that park visitation most benefits those who use these sites and therefore those who benefit should cover the corresponding costs. The conciliation of these two views results in a combination of tax-based government grants and tourist fees and charges in the provision of most park budgets. Limitations in the tax-based grants have put increased emphasis on the use of fees and charges on tourists to provide the revenue necessary to fund park operations, the user-pays approach. Government policies in several countries now require the park agencies to collect increasing amounts of the budget from tourist fees and charges. For example, Parks Canada has a multiyear plan for increasing park income. However, the Government of Canada recognizes that it is not possible for national parks to earn all their financial needs from earned income. Therefore, the ultimate goal is to have a budget composed of income derived from both government allocations and earned income. In some countries with strong competition for tax revenue, such as Tanzania, Kenya and South Africa, the parks do not receive government funding for operation. All operational budgets income comes from fees and charges. Over the last five years the national government of South Africa required that the national parks earn their entire budget from fees and charges as virtually all tax-based government income was removed. SANParks was successful in this effort. In addition, the number of visitors increased as the services provided more carefully matched tourist demand. Parks have many potential sources of tourism-based income, including: entrance fees, recreation services fees, special events and special services, accommodation, equipment rental, food sales (restaurant and store), parking, merchandise sales (equipment, clothing, books, information, supplies), contractual agreements with concessionaires, licensing of intellectual property, and cross-product marketing (Eagles, 2002). All of these sources are used by some park agencies, but very few park agencies use the entire range. Park agencies have the potential utilize a much wider range of income sources than is typically used. The trend for increased use of fee revenue leads to several implications for park management and the services delivered to visitors. One important implication is that of higher levels of charges for park services. Some people worry that this will keep some people from enjoying parks because of high cost. However, there is very little evidence of this trend as park use figures often show increases and strong elasticity in willingness-topay. Another implication is that the only benefits flowing from a park are those for which a charge exists. A third implication is that only services and opportunities that will break even between income and expenses will be provided. If park operations are funded entirely out of ongoing revenue from park visitors the budget must stay in tune with projected revenues. If management costs increase there is the need to increase revenues. In some cases the increased revenue may come from promotional campaigns designed to increase visitation, which in some cases may lead to adverse visitor impacts. In other cases, better pricing policy, the collection of fees from visitation formerly ignored, and higher fees associated with higher service levels provide revenue that is sufficient to cover operating expenses. Increased fees also can raise expectations on the part of visitors about the quantity and quality of services that will be delivered as a result of the fee. Evidence from several Canadian provincial parks systems shows that recent increases in

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fees are associated with higher use levels in parks. This counter-intuitive trend can be explained by the fact that the higher fees are associated with new, more efficient and bettertargeted services. Therefore, park visitors are increasing use as park management better serves their needs. Parks with income derived from park visitation are more client-oriented than parks utilizing government grants. Such parks are much more concerned about the visitor's length of stay, the visitor's satisfaction with the programmes and services, the visitor's recreational needs and the visitor's opinions about park management. Chapter 17 outlines recent successful marketing innovations in Ontario Parks. This important financial trend in parks will spur considerable policy and management debate in parks in the future.

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Trend 12: Parks and park agencies develop increased sophistication in their understanding and management of park visitation and tourism. Park visitor management has often been a hit-or-miss activity. Over time managers experimented with services and retained those that appeared to work. Additionally, much park tourism often had a take-it-or-leave-it style. The visitor had to accept what was offered, or go elsewhere. Competition in park tourism, higher profiles of visitors in management, increasing demands for increased income, and an increased scientific understanding of humanenvironmental interactions all lead to a more professional approach to visitor management. One very important change is the move to service quality goals and measurement. Many park agencies now understand that park visitors have service needs and that quality is important. Increased measurement of visitor satisfaction with the services provided leads to better understanding of the visitor. Parks Canada is the first park agency in the world to have a service quality goal. Each unit in the system, both national parks and national historic sites, is expected to achieve a standardized level of service quality. Those services below this level are reviewed for change. Park managers are typically well behind the private sector in developing a sophisticated understanding of a visitor's expectations and the level of fulfillment of those expectations. In the future, park managers will become more professional in their approach to using more sophisticated and effective methods of tourism management. As databases about socio-economic conditions become more widely accessible, park management has more information about potential visitors: the expectations the people bring with them, the life styles that different people live, the services they desire and their residence. This means that park and protected area managers can become much more sophisticated in tailoring management programmes and providing recreational opportunities to potential tourists. They may be able to deliver information ahead of the visit that will help form appropriate expectations on the part of visitors. Park managers may be able to influence where within a park or among parks people visit. They may be able to design management programmes that can fine tune visitor impacts and visitation patterns. Universities will be expected to increase their offerings in park tourism planning and management.

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39

Trend 13: Foreign aid and grants from NGOs increasingly fund biodiversity conservation and sustainable tourism development in developing nations in order to develop sustainable development that provides both conservation and economic benefit. Conservation and tourism are global and international concerns. Accordingly park management often has an international focus. In many countries the conservation demands are larger than the capacity of the national government. The realization of this fact leads to bilateral aid, such as the Global Environment Facility, providing critical conservation funding. For example, in August 2002 there was agreement by representatives of 32 governments to contribute US$2.92 billion to fund GEF operations over the next four years. This money is to be applied through GEF grants for important conservation initiatives and sustainable development in countries with high biodiversity. In some cases NGOs will continue to expand their roles in terms of funding and technical assistance and also of direct management of parks and protected areas. For example, the Belize Audubon Society does park management. The Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve in Costa Rica is a very important conservation reserve that is owned and managed by a several NGOs. At Monteverde these NGOs have a strong international focus and a strong element of involvement by concerned and committed reserve visitors.

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Trend 14: Park tourism will be damaged by war and civil unrest, especially in Africa and parts of Asia. Tourism is very sensitive to reports of war, civil unrest and personal danger. Park management often ceases to exist in such time of conflict. The Bwindi Impenetrable Forest National Park in Uganda was a site of military activity against national park visitors in the year 2000. This action killed many people and damaged a promising ecotourism industry, which has still not recovered. The terrorist bombing in Bali in 2002 damaged the tourism flow in much of southeast Asia for several years. The terrorist bombing of a resort in Kenya in 2003 severely damaged the important Kenyan tourist economy as visitation dropped precipitously. Park managers can do little to effectively deal with such dramatic and well-publicized incidents. They can do a lot to prepare for news reports that over emphasize the dangers that may occur. Such preparation can include the preparation of public relations material in anticipation of negative news that is not accurate or provides too general a picture. Tourism can be restored after use levels drop due to the publicity of civil unrest or war. Managers should understand this fact and prepare contingency plans for both real and media-created crisis in consumer confidence. Trend 15: The world's international travel will be strongly affected by decreasing supplies of oil and gas and large increases in energy cost in the second decade of the 21st century. The world's prosperity in the 20th century was largely due to the abundant and inexpensive energy available from oil and natural gas. Inexpensive energy led to widespread travel. However, the earth's supply of oil and gas is finite. As easily accessed oil fields become exhausted, more remote, deeper and harder to access supplies must be found. Figure 6 shows that the global production of oil and gas will peak between 2010 and 2020.

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Global Trends Affecting Tourism in Protected Areas

Copyright © 2006. CABI. All rights reserved.

Fig. 6. Global oil and gas production

Once over the peak of production, major economic and social changes will occur. One is rapid movement to other energy sources such as coal, nuclear energy and renewable energy. Another is much higher energy cost. When energy costs increase there will be changes in global consumption, economic and travel patterns. The implications for park tourism are considerable. Overall, long-distance travel will start to decline in volume. Conversely, some domestic travel volume may increase, as people substitute local trips for longer voyages. Decreased economic vitality of many societies will result in severe pressures on many parks and protected areas as people seek the resources, such as the oil, gas, timber and hydroelectric potential, found in those parks. As the world moves out of the era of abundant oil and gas, the impacts on park and protected area management in general and on park tourism specifically will be profound. The increase in energy prices resulting from the divergence of oil and gas supply and demand will be the most significant trend affecting park tourism in the first 25 years of the 21st century. Trend 16: Global climate change will affect many parks and much park tourism. Global climate change will be one the most important environmental issues affecting parks and tourism in the 21st century. According to Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2001) it is likely there will be: Higher maximum temperatures and more hot days over nearly all land areas; Higher minimum temperatures, fewer cold days and frost days over nearly all land areas; Reduced diurnal temperature range over most land areas;

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Increase of heat index over land areas; More intense precipitation events; Increased summer continental drying and associated risk of drought in continental interiors; Increase in tropical cyclone peak wind intensities; Increase in tropical cyclone mean and peak precipitation intensities; and, Higher temperatures in higher latitudes, with arctic ecosystems affected strongly.

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The implications are so large and profound that it is difficult to provide a succinct summary. However, a few trends are obvious. Globally, the climate will warm. The increase will be highest in the higher latitudes. Much warming in Arctic environments has already occurred and more will occur. Global climate change will reduce the ability of some parks to accept tourism, through drought, intense heat and rising ocean level. It will increase the ability of parks in the temperate latitudes to accept tourism, as longer operating seasons occur due to warmer spring and fall seasons. There is already an indication that longer and more ambient summer temperatures in the Canadian Arctic are leading to increased cruise ship tourism. Some of the impacts will be counter-intuitive. Researchers note that in the Great Lakes area of North America winter warming results in less ice on the lakes. Wind moving over the resultant open water picks up moisture, resulting in increased snowfalls in downwind area. Therefore, warmer winters in this area lead in increased snowfall, with the concurrent impacts on travel and on snow-based recreation activities. Increased tropical cyclone wind and precipitation intensity may cause severe damage to some parks, resulting in lowered attractiveness to visitation and lowered abilities to accept visitation. Regional impacts may be considerable. For example, increased drought and heat in the southern and central USA in the summer months may stimulate migration of people northward, both permanently and seasonally. Parks in the northern USA and Canada may experience much higher visitation pressure as a result. The implications of global climate change will be large and profound. All park planners and managers must consider these trends to their fullest extent. Some of the impacts can be dealt with under current management scenarios. Others will require entirely new approaches. Trend 17: Parks further develop as cultural icons. Parks will continue their traditional roles of providing opportunities for people to build understanding about cultural and natural heritage. As parks become more broadly known, they become icons for various communities. Some increasingly become symbols of national identity. Many communities that were initially antagonistic or suspicious of park creation develop higher levels of appreciation over time as the cultural significance grows. As parks become international symbols, there is stronger international pressure on management policies. This leads to more international designations such as Ramsar Wetland, World Heritage and Biosphere Reserve. Such international designations lead to higher levels of tourism as people recognize the sites as being globally significant. To tourists such designations are symbols of quality, a type of well-recognized brand. Therefore, national parks and national wildlife refuges take on the stature of international

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parks and international wildlife refuges. Such a trend is a natural outgrowth of the global ecosystem concept of ecology and the global travel phenomenon.

Conclusion The trends that affect park and protected area management are difficult to predict precisely. This uncertainty can lead to anxiety and even stalemate action, as people, including park managers, remain confused about appropriate courses of action to initiate. While the future is difficult to predict, everyone can prepare for it. This preparation is founded on understanding management systems, the role of people and the principles of ecosystem processes. It is through such a foundation coupled with intelligent responsiveness that managers can practise the stewardship with which they have been charged. The chief resistance to preparing for change will be the complexity of the trends and their synergistic relationships. Many managers will be incapable or unwilling to consider the range of responses necessary to deal with the dramatic changes discussed in this paper. However, it is essential that long-range planning be done. The survival of many park systems, cultural sites and their associated tourism industries depend upon such planning.

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References Baez, A.L. (2004) Visitacion de nacionales y extranjeros a las areas protegidas de Costa Rica. 1985-2001. Unpublished Data. Eagles, P.F.J. (2002) International Trends in Park Tourism and Ecotourism. In: Bondrup-Nielsen, S., Munro, N.W.P., Nelson, G., Willison, J.H.M., Herman, T.B. and Eagles, P. (eds) Managing Protected Areas in a Changing World. Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on Science and Management of Protected Areas, 14-19 May 2000. SAMPAA, Canada, 902-919. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2001) Summary for Policymakers. World Meteorological Organization, Geneva, Switzerland, 20pp. German Federal Statistical Office (2004) Population in Germany will decline by more than 10 million from presently 82 million by 2050. Available at: http://www.destatis.de/presse/englisch/pm2000/p2600022.htm. Murphy, J., Eagles, P., Fan C., Konopek J., Marquez J., Bandoh G, Nowaczek A., Quinlan S., Speirs A., Yin W. and Zealand, C. (2004) Websites for Park Tourism: Practice, Policy and Design. Available at: http://www.ahs.uwaterloo.ca/~rec680/ OECD (2003) OECD, STI Scoreboard. Available at: http://wwwl.oecd.org/publications/e-book/92-2003-04-l7294/PDF%5CA81.pdf

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Acknowledgements

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Stephen McCool of the University of Montana provided important consultation during the development of these ideas in early co-authored papers on this subject. Anna Baez kindly provided information on national park use in Costa Rica. Bruce van Stuudeline of Ontario Parks provided current information on this agency's advanced booking system for lodging.

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Chapter 4

Key Principles and Directions for Tourism in Protected Areas: A Review of Existing Charters, Guidelines and Declarations Jasmine Foxlee

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Introduction The link between tourism and protected areas is becoming increasingly important as tourism activities rely more heavily on, and recognize the importance of the health of, natural and cultural heritage. Protected areas are also becoming more interested in the role of tourism in supporting conservation initiatives; thus tourism is an important and critical component to consider in the establishment and management of protected areas. At the World Parks Congress in Durban, South Africa, September 2003, the World Commission for Protected Areas (WCPA) recognized this link, initiating the workshop known as Workshop Stream II - Building Broader Support for Protected Areas. The purpose of the workshop was to address issues and challenges associated with tourism as a vehicle for conservation and support. One of the main recommendations workshop participants proposed follows the need for tourism to respect the primacy role of conservation for protected areas. The role of the tourism sector in sustainable development and the need to minimize tourism impacts generally has long been recognized and numerous guidelines, charters and declarations have been produced to guide and promote sustainable tourism practices. Some of these guidelines relate directly to tourism in protected areas, others address the issues and challenges associated with sustainable tourism generally. Combined, the guidelines that exist to date offer some key areas for action. A recently published review of existing international guidelines relating to sustainable tourism highlights the need for a fully integrated approach to the management of sustainable tourism and biodiversity (Mayer and Garbe, 2001). Prepared for the Workshop on Biological Diversity and Tourism, Santo Domingo during 4-7 June 2001, the Myer and Garbe review analyses and identifies common sustainable tourism principles. The review reveals that existing guidelines specifically relating to tourism and biodiversity focus mainly on protected areas and the requirements of protected area managers. Furthermore, the analysis found that all principles and guidelines examined contain extensive common and complementary elements, although guidance in terms of implementing the principles was seen to be lacking. Many of the guidelines were also criticized on the basis that they have been produced with minimal research and or supporting data. 44

c CAB International 2007. Tourism and Protected Areas: Benefits Beyond Boundaries (eds R. Bushell and P.F.J. Eagles)

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Building on the Meyer and Garbe review of sustainable tourism guidelines, this survey reviews international sustainable tourism guidelines as they apply to tourism in protected areas (Table 1). Although it is recognized that many countries have produced their own set of national guidelines and documents specifically addressing sustainable tourism1, this chapter is concerned primarily with those produced with an international focus or an intended use internationally. The aim of this review is to identify the key principles and directions for tourism in protected areas currently promoted in international sustainable tourism guidelines.

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Guidelines for Tourism in Protected Areas Sustainable tourism guidelines reflect the need to prevent further damage to the world's natural and cultural heritage and increase the benefits that tourism can create for local communities, indigenous communities and conservation. Targeting tourism operators, protected area managers, governments, as well as tourists themselves, guidelines for sustainable tourism typically evolve out of non-governmental organizations (NGOs), government agencies, international agencies like IUCN, ICOMOS, WTO and UNEP, and in some cases by the tourism industry itself. The profile for sustainable development was raised significantly in the global agenda during the 1992 United Nations Rio Earth Summit. Since this time, key international guidelines for sustainable tourism have emerged. In 1992 Tourism Concern published Beyond the Green Horizon: Principles of Sustainable Tourism (1992). Three years later, the Charter for Sustainable Tourism was prepared at a World Conference on Sustainable Tourism in Lanzarote, Spain. Although not specific to tourism in protected areas, the principles outlined in these two documents represent important concepts and ideals that in later guidelines operate as foundation points. In 1997, some of the international guidelines for sustainable tourism began to directly address the relationships between tourism, biodiversity, heritage conservation and protected areas. Documents like the Berlin Declaration on Biological Diversity and Sustainable Tourism (1997) and the European Charter for Sustainable Tourism in Protected Areas (1997) set out principles for achieving sustainable tourism outcomes that focused more explicitly on conservation outcomes. Following these, the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) released the International Guidelines for Activities Related to Sustainable Tourism Development in Vulnerable Ecosystems (2001), which has since been updated and revised to form the Guidelines on Biodiversity and Tourism Development (2004). These guidelines set out a ten-step process for managing tourism in sensitive areas, and specifically target protected area managers and governments. Supporting these declarations and guidelines are the World Commission on Protected Areas (WCPA) Best Practice Protected Area Guidelines Series. The most recent of this series, Sustainable Tourism in Protected Areas: guidelines for planning and management (2002), offers a detailed set of actions concerning the implementation of sustainable tourism practices. The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and Conservation International (CI) have similarly released a document titled Tourism and Biodiversity: Mapping Tourism's Global Footprint (2003). Based on two years of research, the document reveals the impacts of tourism and provides guidelines to governments, businesses, donor organizations and local communities for supporting more sustainable development.

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Key Principles and Directions for Tourism in Protected Areas

In response to a growing interest and concern for cultural heritage ICOMOS also initiated the International Cultural Tourism Charter (2002). In contrast to some of the earlier sustainable tourism guidelines the set of principles promoted by ICOMOS specifically address the relationships between tourism and places or collections of heritage significance, including cultural landscapes. A selection of charters, declarations and guidelines have also arisen out of the tourism sector. These include Agenda 21 for the Travel and Tourism Industry (1995), the Global Code of Ethics for Tourism (1999) and the Tour Operators' Initiative for Sustainable Tourism Development Statement of Commitment to Sustainable Tourism (2000). Together these documents demonstrate a commitment from the tourism industry to achieve sustainable tourism outcomes, many of which apply to protected areas. Some documents examined in this review have evolved out of workshops and conferences, in which various agencies, organizations and stakeholders have made contributions. Such documents include WTO's Global Code of Ethics for Tourism (1999), UNEP 's Principles for the Implementation of Sustainable Tourism (2000), the Quebec Declaration on Ecotourism (2002) and the Cairns Charter on Ecotourism (2002). Conferences like the International Conference on Sustainable Tourism in Small Developing States (SIDS) (1998), and the Asia-Pacific Ministers Conference (1997) similarly developed statements of action for sustainable tourism, many of which relate to tourism in vulnerable ecosystems. More recently, the Ministers of Tourism of the countries of Asia endorsed the Hue Declaration on Cultural Tourism and Poverty Alleviation to address concerns and possibilities associated with cultural tourism in Asia. With direct reference to protected areas, the Durban Accord (2003) and accompanying action plan (2004) took form following the collective action and concern of 3000 participants at the Vth World Parks Congress in Durban, South Africa. Urging a greater commitment from the international community to acknowledge the role of protected areas in sustainable development initiatives, the Durban Accord compliments the broader principles and recommendations associated with sustainable tourism in the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) Johannesburg Plan of Implementation (2002). Also relevant are the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) that evolved out of the United Nations Millennium Summit of 2000. Looking at sustainable development at a much broader level than other guidelines the MDG's provide the shared vision of a much improved world, setting goals such as poverty alleviation, better world health and the environmental sustainability at their core. A position paper on tourism prepared by WWF-International (2001), and a discussion paper by DANTE titled Red Card for Tourism? (2002) have also been included in the review as documents offering a slightly different perspective on sustainable tourism. Both documents have evolved out of NGOs, putting emphasis on the role of tourism in conservation, and the role of tourism in poverty alleviation. Table 1 lists 24 different international charters, guidelines and declarations relevant to tourism and protected areas. The section that follows highlights key principles and directions presented in the various guidelines reviewed. In some cases the principles are quoted in whole; others are summarized.

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Table 1: International Charters, Guidelines and Declarations relevant to tourism and protected areas. Document (Date) Beyond the Green Horizon: Principles of Sustainable Tourism (1992)

Guiding Agencies

Target Audience

Tourism Concern Tourism sector; • Principles, guidelines government; and measures for international achieving sustainable institutions; local tourism communities; experts; practitioners

Charter for Sustainable International Tourism (1995) Scientific Council for Island www.insula.org/tourism/charte. Development htm

Agenda 21 for the Travel and Tourism Industry (1995)

WTTC, WTO, Earth Council

The Berlin Declaration on Biological Diversity and Sustainable Tourism (1997)

CBD, UNEP, WTO, IUCN

Countries, • General principles for institutions, decisionsustainable tourism makers, experts, practice organizations, tourists Travel and tourism • A commitment to industry sustainable development • Sets out objectives, measures and case studies of best practice

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Tourism sector; government; international institutions; local communities; www.insula.org/tourism/pagina environmental _n4.htm groups The European Charter Federation of Protected area for Sustainable Tourism Nature and mangers; tourism in Protected Areas National Parks of industry; tour (1997) Europe operators and transport companies www.eco-tour.org/info/ w_10168_de.html

Male Declaration on Tourism & Sustainable Development (1997) www.eco-tour.org/info/ w_10194_de.html

Conference on sustainable tourism in Small Islands Developing States (SIDS) and other islands (1998)

Main Focus

WTO, Asia-Pacific Countries; civil Ministers society; national, Conference regional and international organizations UNEP, WTO

• Biodiversity and sustainable tourism • General and specific guidelines putting primary objective of conservation first • Guidelines to help develop high quality sustainable tourism in protected areas • Commits signatories of the charter to strategy formulation and action plan • General guidelines for sustainable development of tourism

Countries • Programme of action AOSIS, UNEP, WTO for Sustainable Tourism in SIDS

http://www.uneptie.org/pc/touris m/documents/lanzarote-e.pdf Bushell, R., and P.F.J. Eagles. Tourism and Protected Areas : Benefits Beyond Boundaries, CABI, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central,

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Table 1 (cent.): International Charters, Guidelines and Declarations relevant to tourism and protected areas. Document (Date) Global Code of Ethics for Tourism (1999)

Guiding Agencies WTO

http://www.world-tourism.org/ code_ethics/eng.html

IUCN-WCPA Development of Approaches and Practice for Sustainable Use of Biological Resources - Tourism (1999) Statement of Commitment to Sustainable Tourism (2000) http://www.toinitiative.org/about/ statement_of_commitment.htm

Position Paper on Tourism (2001)

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Destinations; • Principles for governments; tour responsible, operators; sustainable and developers; travel universally acceptable agents; workers; and tourism travellers themselves • Commitment to implementation of principles • Guiding principles for sustainable tourism

Tour Operators Initiative for Sustainable Tourism Development

Tourism industry

• Measures, objectives and policies for achieving sustainable tourism

WWFInternational

Government; tourism • Principles and industry guidelines for environmentally and socially responsible tourism

UNEP

Government; business and industry

• Policy and objectives • Guidelines covering broad issues related to tourism planning and management

The Network for Sustainable Tourism Development (DANTE)

World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD); international community

• Three pillars of sustainable development, public welfare, economy and environment, in relation to tourism development. • Issues relevant to WSSD

http://www.uneptie.org/pc/touris m/policy/principles.htm

Red Card for Tourism? Ten Principles and Challenges for a Sustainable Tourism Development in the 21st Century (2002)

Main Focus

Tourism organizations

http://www.wwf.org.uk/filelibrary /pdf/wwf_tourism_position_pap er.pdf

Principles for Implementation of Sustainable Tourism (2001)

Target Audience

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Table 1 (cent.): International Charters, Guidelines and Declarations relevant to tourism and protected areas. Document (Date)

Guiding Agencies

Main Focus

Quebec Declaration on UNEP, WTO, Canadian Tourism Ecotourism (2002) Commission, http://www.worldTourisme Quebec

Governments; tourism industry; NGOs; local and indigenous communities; academic and research institutions

• Recommendations for improving ecotourism on a global scale • Discusses various approaches needed to enhance tourism product and create conservation, sociocultural and economic benefits

World Summit on UN Commission Sustainable on Sustainable Development (WSSD) - Development Johannesburg Plan of Implementation (2002)

All levels of government

• Sets out actions for achieving sustainable development including actions for implementing sustainable tourism practices

tourism.org/sustainable/ecotour ism2002/eng.pdf

http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/ documents/WSSD POI PD/En glish/POIToc.htm

Cairns Charter on Ecotourism (2002)

Ecotourism Australia

http://www.ecotourism.org.au/ cairnscharter.asp

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Target Audience

International Cultural ICOMOS Tourism Charter (2002)

• Ecotourism and Indigenous protected area communities; local management communities; partnerships government and inter-governmental organizations; NGOs; ecotourism businesses; financial institutions and development agencies; training, education and research organizations A wide variety of • Principles to guide the conservation and presentation and tourism bodies management of cultural tourism • Basis for dialogue between conservation interests and the tourism industry • To encourage the formulation of plans and policies for the protection and conservation of cultural heritage

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Table 1 (cent.): International Charters, Guidelines and Declarations relevant to tourism and protected areas. Document (Date) Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) (2002)

Guiding Agencies

Target Audience

United Nations Development Programme

Government

• A set of eight goals to provide a shared vision of a much improved world including the need to eradicate extreme poverty, improve health and ensure environmental sustainability

UNEP, Conservation International (Cl)

Governments; business; local communities; donor organizations

• Sets out guidelines for supporting sustainable tourism development • Charts a positive way forward for tourism

Tourism organizations; protected area managers; conservation organizations and others

• Specific recommendations concerning tourism as a vehicle for conservation and support of protected areas • Increased dialogue and partnerships between tourism and protected area managers

www.undp.org/mdg/

Tourism and Biodiversity: Mapping Tourism's Global Footprint (2003)

VthlUCN World Parks lUCN's World Commission on Congress Protected Areas Recommendations (2003), Recommendation # 12. www.iucn.org/wpc2003

Durban Accord (2003) and Action Plan (2004) Copyright © 2006. CABI. All rights reserved.

www.iucn.org/wpc2003

Guidelines on Biodiversity and Tourism Development (2004)2 http://www.biodiv.org/doc/public ations/tou-gd l-en .pdf

Main Focus

lUCN's World Commission on Protected Areas

• Statement and call for Governments; commitment and protected area action for the benefit managers; tourism of protected areas so operators and others that their benefits can be conserved and equitably shared. • Pledge to facilitate understanding and collaboration

CBD

Government; private • Guidelines related to firms and proponents sustainable tourism activities in vulnerable of tourism projects terrestrial, marine and and activities coastal ecosystems of major importance for biological diversity and protected areas

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Table 1 (cent.): International Charters, Guidelines and Declarations relevant to tourism and protected areas. Document (Date) Steps to Sustainable Tourism (2004)

Hue Declaration on Cultural Tourism and Poverty Alleviation (2004)

Guiding Agencies

Target Audience

Australian Government Department of the Environment and Heritage

Tourism operators; local government; tourism organizations; heritage managers; communities and others WTO, Ministers of Governments and Tourism of the tourism operators countries of Asia

Main Focus • Sets out an approac to help develop appropriate long-term solutions for tourism at places of heritage significance • The potential fo tourism to alleviate poverty and support conservation

Common Policy Directions and Principles

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The numerous principles presented in declarations, charters and guidelines for sustainable tourism follow similar themes. The common themes are summarized as: Policy, Legislation and Enforcement - procedures for ensuring tourism activities have a minimal impact on natural and cultural resources. Planning and Management - appropriate planning for tourism, integrated management, impact assessment, flexibility and monitoring. Vulnerable Ecosystems - recognizing that some environments are more vulnerable than others and that there are limits of acceptable change. Partnerships and Cooperation - involving local and indigenous communities, sharing the benefits of tourism and sharing the task of conservation. Incentives and Sensitive Marketing - encouraging and supporting best practice and acknowledging the need for responsible, inclusive and sensitive marketing. Research and Information Exchange - creating open networks for research and communication between stakeholders. Raising Awareness - raising industry, government and tourist awareness of conservation and sustainable tourism through education and interpretation. Capacity-building - supporting sustainability through staff training and the provision of resources. Ethical Tourism - the role of tourism in promoting well-being and health, overcoming poverty, and addressing gender equity and fair trade issues. These themes are discussed in more detail below. Taken together, they point toward a set of key principles for achieving sustainable tourism as they exist in various charters, declarations and guidelines to date. In their original form the principles represent steps on a path towards sustainability. When drawn together, the principles discussed in this review support a more holistic view of sustainability, recognizing the need for socio-cultural, economic and environmental sustainability.

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Policy and legislation

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It is important that tourism is balanced with broader economic, social and environmental objectives at the national, regional and local level. Where protected areas are concerned this requires tourism to be developed in a manner that is consistent with protected area management objectives. Support must be provided for sustainable tourism through policy development, and in some cases legislative control and enforcement will be necessary to ensure the conservation and protection of natural and cultural heritage. Policy and legislative mechanisms able to be utilized by governments and managers of protected areas include: Policies and, where appropriate, legislation, environmental economic instruments and incentives should be developed to ensure that tourism activities meet the needs of nature and biological diversity conservation, including mobilizing funding from tourism (CBD1997, Berlin Declaration, Principle 1.6). Mechanisms, including policies and legislation should be introduced to ensure the flow of benefits [from tourism] to local communities (CBD 1997, Berlin Declaration, Principle 2.8). Review legislation and controls. This review could explore approval and licensing procedures for tourism development and activities, incentives for sustainable tourism, the application of economic instruments for the management of tourism and biodiversity, and the planning and siting of tourism facilities (CBD 2004, Guidelines on Biodiversity and Tourism Development, Section B.4). Provide support through policy development and commitment to promote sustainability in tourism and related activities (UNEP 2001, Principles for Implementation of Sustainable Tourism, Principle 1.1). Future development of tourism policies should include a more decentralized approach to planning and management that is underpinned by greater participation of local authorities and people in the decision-making process and greater attention to fostering partnership arrangements between entrepreneurs and local peoples, landholders and/or communities (IUCN 1999, Approaches and Practice for Sustainable Use of Biological Resources - Tourism). Support implementation of sustainable tourism through an effective legislative framework that establishes standards for land use in tourism development, tourism facilities, management and investment in tourism (UNEP 2001, Principles for Implementation of Sustainable Tourism, Principle 2.4). Regulation and enforcement Regulation and enforcement mechanisms able to be utilized by governments and managers of protected areas include: Tourism-related pollution and exploitation must be carefully controlled and regulated (WWF-International 2001, Position Paper on Tourism). Develop regulatory mechanisms for internalization of environmental costs in all aspects of the tourism product (Quebec Declaration on Ecotourism 2002). Bushell, R., and P.F.J. Eagles. Tourism and Protected Areas : Benefits Beyond Boundaries, CABI, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central,

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Identify and resolve potential or actual conflicts between tourism and other activities over resource use at an early stage. Involve all relevant stakeholders in the development of sound management plans, and provide the organization, facilities and enforcement capacity required for effective implementation of those management plans (UNEP 2001, Principles for Implementation of Sustainable Tourism, Principle 1.4). Protect the environment by setting clear ambient environmental quality standards, along with targets for reducing pollution from all sectors, including tourism, to achieve these standards, and by preventing development in areas where it would be inappropriate (UNEP 2001, Principles for Implementation of Sustainable Tourism, Principle 2.5). Ensure compliance with development plans, planning conditions, standards and targets for sustainable tourism by providing incentives, monitoring compliance, and enforcement activities where necessary (UNEP 2001, Principles for Implementation of Sustainable Tourism, Principle 3.4). The regulation and enforcement mechanism for the tourism industry itself is expressed in the following commitment: we are committed to complying with local, national and international laws and regulations applicable to our business activities (Tour Operators Initiative 2000, Statement of Commitment to Sustainable Tourism, Principle 2.2).

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Planning and management Each park and protected area needs a plan that describes how tourism and visitor activities will be managed (Eagles et al., 2002). Critical factors in understanding planning for tourism in protected areas include the social, political and economic trends that form the context for planning. Developing plans for tourism are important for detailing the specific goals and objectives mandated for the area in its founding legislation, and for describing objectives for tourism development. Such plans are also important for specifying management actions, budgeting and financing. Guides like Steps to Sustainable Tourism (2004) are aimed at assisting protected area managers, tourism operators and others through this planning process. The aim of planning in this context is to maximize the benefits of tourism and conservation while also minimizing costs (financial and non-financial) to protected area managers, the environment and the community. Management approaches to tourism in protected areas are likely to vary between sites and countries. Integrated management is the most desirable approach promoted in most guidelines to date. An integrated management approach to protected areas looks at various aspects of the tourism environment to make sure that the capacity of the natural, social and cultural environment to accommodate visitors is considered (FNNPE, 1997). Managing access to protected areas, impact assessment and monitoring are all features that need to be considered for sustainable outcomes. Impact assessment includes assessment of the environmental, social, cultural, and economic effects, both positive and negative, of proposed developments. It is important that impact assessments are undertaken for all tourism developments and activities, and include taking into account cumulative effects from multiple development activities (CBD, 2004). Being flexible and adapting to changing conditions is also an essential element in tourism management and planning in protected areas.

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Tourism planning Planning guidelines applicable to government and managers of protected areas include: Develop and implement effective land-use planning measures that maximize the potential environmental and economic benefits of travel and tourism while minimizing potential environmental or cultural damage (WTTC 1995, Agenda 21 for Travel and Tourism Industry 1995; iv). Tourism activities should be planned at the appropriate levels with a view to integrate socio-economic, cultural and environmental considerations at all levels. Development, environment, and tourism planning should be integrated processes (UNEP 2001, Principles for Implementation of Sustainable Tourism, Principle 2.3). Planning for tourism development must be integrated with other planning efforts at the site (e.g. protected areas), regional (e.g. regional land-use plans), and national (e.g. national Biodiversity Strategies) levels, applying tools such as strategic environmental assessment and integrated resource management (IUCN 1999, Approaches and Practice for Sustainable Use of Biological Resources - Tourism). Integrated management

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Guidelines for integrated management approaches directed at governments and managers of protected areas include: Deal with the multiple demands on land in an equitable manner, ensuring that development is not visually intrusive and contributes to conserving the environment and culture while generating income (WTTC 1995, Agenda 21 for Travel and Tourism Industry, Section 3 vii). Coordinate the allocation of land uses, and regulate in appropriate activities that damage ecosystems, by strengthening or developing integrated policies and management covering all activities, including Integrated Coastal Zone Management and the adoption of an ecosystem approach (UNEP 2001, Principles for Implementation of Sustainable Tourism, Principle 1.3). Specific measures should be developed to ensure tourism activities remain within the carrying capacity and agreed limits of acceptable change of the natural, cultural and social environment of the area (FNNPE 1997, European Charter for Sustainable Tourism in Protected Areas, Section II). Governments and the competent authorities, with participation of NGOs and local communities, shall undertake actions aimed at integrating the planning of tourism as a contribution to sustainable development (International Scientific Council for Island Development 1995, Charter for Sustainable Tourism, Principle 9). Define appropriate policies, management plans, and interpretation programmes for visitors, and earmark adequate sources of funding for natural areas to manage visitor numbers, protect vulnerable ecosystems, and the sustainable use of sensitive habitats (Quebec Declaration on Ecotourism 2002).

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Access Access guidelines for governments and managers of protected areas include: Tourism should be restricted, and where necessary prevented, in ecologically and culturally sensitive areas. All forms of mass tourism should be avoided in those areas. Where existing tourism activities exceed the carrying capacity, all efforts should be made to reduce negative impacts from tourism activities and to take measures to restore the degraded environment (CBD 1997, Berlin Declaration, Principle 2.9). Tourism in protected areas should be managed in order to ensure that the objectives of the protected area regimes are achieved. In highly vulnerable areas, nature reserves and all other protected areas requiring strict protection, tourism activities should be limited to a bearable minimum (CBD 1997, Berlin Declaration, Principle 2.10). Additional burdens from tourism development should be avoided in areas where nature is already under pressure from tourism activities. Preference should be given to the modernization of existing tourism facilities (CBD 1997, Berlin Declaration, Principle 1.3). Impact assessment

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The guidelines for governments and managers of protected areas in relation to impact assessment include: Tourism activities, including tourism planning, measures to provide tourism infrastructure, and tourism operations, which are likely to have significant impacts on nature and biological diversity should be subject to prior environmental impact assessments (CBD 1997, Berlin Declaration, Principle 2.2). Sustainable tourism requires impact assessment procedures that address biological and socio-economic aspects, and effective monitoring and feedback mechanisms (IUCN 1999, Approaches and Practice for Sustainable Use of Biological Resources Tourism). Baseline information is necessary to enable informed decisions to be taken on any issue. A minimum of baseline information is needed to enable impact assessment and decision-making, and it is recommended that its compilation should follow the ecosystem approach (CBD 2004, Guidelines on Biodiversity and Tourism Development, Section B.I, paragraph 12). Governments are encouraged to develop mechanisms for impact assessment with the participation of all stakeholders, including nature conservation bodies, and to ensure effective implementation of existing mechanisms for the approval of the approach, content and scope of impact assessment. Indigenous and local communities affected by a tourism development or proposal should be fully involved in impact assessment (CBD 2004, Guidelines on Biodiversity and Tourism Development, Section B.5). Institute baseline environmental impact assessment (EIA) studies and surveys that record the social environmental state of destinations, with special attention to endangered species, and invest in, or support institutions that invest in, research

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programmes on ecotourism and sustainable tourism (Quebec Declaration on Ecotourism 2002).

Monitoring Guidelines applicable to all stakeholders in relation to monitoring include: Measures inspired by the principle of precautionary action should be taken to prevent and minimize damage caused by tourism to biological diversity. Such measures should include monitoring of existing activities and assessment of environmental impacts of proposed new activities, including the monitoring of the negative effects of wildlife viewing (CBD 1997, Berlin Declaration, Principle 1.4). Establish realistic indicators of sustainable tourism development, applicable at local and national levels, from which progress can be monitored and assessed (WTTC 1995, Agenda 21 for Travel and Tourism Industry, Section 2 viii). Monitor and conduct research on the actual impacts of ecotourism activities upon ecosystems, biodiversity, local and indigenous cultures and the socio-economic fabric of the ecotourism destinations (Quebec Declaration on Ecotourism 2002). Monitoring guidelines of specific relevance to tour operators include: We will manage and monitor the environmental, cultural and social impacts of our activities (Tourism Operators Initiative 2000, Statement of Commitment to Sustainable Tourism, Principle 2.5). Participate in the maintenance of the natural heritage by helping to monitor the natural areas and keeping protected area staff informed of any changes observed by company employees or visitors during their visits in the protected area (FNNPE 1997, European Charter for Sustainable Tourism in Protected Areas, Section II).

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Guidelines relevant to governments and managers of protected areas include: Monitor impacts and compliance. Developers and operators of tourism facilities and activities should be required to report periodically. Monitoring should cover efforts to protect endangered species, keep out alien invasive species, comply with national and international rules on access to genetic resources, and prevent the unauthorized removal of genetic resources (CBD 2004, Guidelines on Biodiversity and Tourism Development, Section B.9). Ensure consistent monitoring and review of tourism activities to detect problems at an early stage and to enable action to prevent the possibility of more serious damage (UNEP 2001, Principles for Implementation of Sustainable Tourism, Principle 3.2). There should be ongoing programmes of evaluation to assess the progressive impacts of tourism activities and development on the particular place or community (ICOMOS 2002, International Cultural Tourism Charter, Principle 2.7).

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Adaptive management It is important that adaptive management be pursued by governments and managers of protected areas: management must be adaptive, accept the need for some 'learning-bydoing', and monitor and respond to ongoing feedback (CBD 2004, Guidelines on Biodiversity and Tourism Development, Section B. 10). Vulnerable ecosystems

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Tourism can have destructive effects on biodiversity and pristine environments, and can result in the misuse of natural resources such as freshwater, forests, and coral reefs (WWFInternational 2001). Where vulnerable ecosystems are at risk from tourism, recognizing and taking action to prevent damage and loss of biodiversity should be a priority.

Fig. 1. A simple fence protects sensitive dunes from the heavy nearby beach use in Prince Edward Island National Park in Canada. (Photo: P.F.J. Eagles) Mechanisms for governments and managers of protected areas to achieve this include: In all areas where nature is particularly diverse, vulnerable or attractive, all efforts should be made to meet the requirements of nature protection and biological diversity conservation. Particular attention should be paid to the conservation needs of forest areas, grasslands, freshwater ecosystems, areas of spectacular beauty, Arctic and Antarctic ecosystems (CBD 1997, Berlin Declaration, Principle 2.13). In coastal areas all necessary measures should be taken to ensure sustainable forms of tourism, take into account the principles of integrated coastal area management.

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Particular attention should be paid to the conservation of vulnerable zones, such as small islands, coral reefs, coastal waters, mangroves, coastal wetlands, beaches and dunes (CBD 1997, Berlin Declaration, Principle 2.11). Tourism in mountain areas should also be managed in environmentally sustainable ways. Tourism in sensitive mountain regions should be regulated so that the biological diversity of these areas can be preserved (CBD 1997, Berlin Declaration, Principle 2.12). Tourism must respect the fragile balances that characterize many tourist destinations, in particular small islands and environmentally sensitive areas. Tourism should ensure an acceptable evolution as regards its influence on natural resources, biodiversity and capacity for assimilation of any impacts and residues produced (International Scientific Council for Island Development 1995, Charter for Sustainable Tourism, Principle 2). Nature has limits, but the interactions are complex and incremental damage and losses may be very difficult to assess in the short term. Some environments are inherently more fragile than others (IUCN 1999, Approaches and Practice for Sustainable Use of Biological Resources - Tourism). Tourism must not be permitted or promoted without measures for nature conservation and for the sustainable management of natural resources. Particular attention should be paid to the protection of coasts, mountains, wet and drylands (DANTE 2002, Red Card for Tourism?, Principle 3).

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Partnerships and cooperation Sustainable forms of tourism have the potential to contribute to the conservation of biological diversity (CBD, 1997). In the case of protected areas, however, the task of conservation falls heavily onto the shoulders of protected area managers. While recognizing that protected area managers have a primary role in conservation it is important that the tourism industry and other stakeholders also contribute to achieving conservation objectives. Contributions can take various forms including financial contributions to management, public support for conservation and conservation through education. Achieving sustainable forms of tourism is therefore the responsibility of all stakeholders involved. Indeed the long-term sustainability of tourism in protected areas relies on the direct actions of all primary stakeholders, including local community, the tourism industry, and government becoming involved in the development and management of tourism (UNEP, 2001; CBD, 2001; Quebec Declaration on Ecotourism 2002; EAA, 2002). Part of this responsibility includes sharing the benefits arising from tourism including job creation, participation in tourism enterprises and projects, direct investment opportunities, and economic linkages to related sections (CBD, 2001). These benefits should be spread across as wide a range of people as possible, including indigenous and local communities. Similarly, the burdens of tourism, which may include negative environmental impacts, need to be recognized by all stakeholders and, as such, a cooperative management approach is necessary. Local and indigenous communities In relation to local and indigenous communities, the responsibilities for all stakeholders include: Bushell, R., and P.F.J. Eagles. Tourism and Protected Areas : Benefits Beyond Boundaries, CABI, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central,

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Local communities have the right to maintain and control their cultural heritage. Their knowledge and experience in sustainable resource management can make a major contribution to sustainable tourism (WWF-International 2001, Position Paper on Tourism). Tourism must help overcome poverty - social and environmental justice and the participation of local people in destinations must be the foundations for this (DANTE 2002, Red Card for Tourism?, Principle 1). In order to counteract the degradation and commercialization of culture and the local people's private sphere, those affected must be able to have a say with regard to their representation in travel offers. They must have the possibility of self-presentation and of corrective counter-presentation. Local communities must be able to decide on whether, where and how they wish to be presented (DANTE 2002, Red Card for Tourism?, Principle 7). Tourism in protected areas shall contribute to the local economy by promoting local jobs and using local products or skills. Special care should be taken so that a balance is maintained between the benefits arising from tourism and other sectors which play a key role in maintaining the environment (FNNPE 1997, European Charter for Sustainable Tourism for Protected Areas, Principle 5). Sustainable tourism should promote an increased participation of stakeholders, particularly local communities, in the proposal, planning, implementation and evaluation of tourism development initiatives (IUCN 1999, Approaches and Practice for Sustainable Use of Biological Resources - Tourism). Indigenous communities are recognized for their contributions of unique human capital to a partnership, including cultural contributions such as traditional building techniques and materials, modes of transport, traditional foods, medicines, handicrafts and providing access to cultural sites (EAA 2002, Cairns Charter on Ecotourism).

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Responsibilities of the tourism sector towards local and indigenous communities include: We shall encourage and seek to cooperate with national and local authorities, local communities, or any other interested party, to develop and implement the integrated planning and management of destinations (Tour Operators Initiative 2000, Statement of Commitment to Sustainable Tourism, Principle 2.9). Protect and incorporate the interests of communities in developments and to ensure that the environmental lessons learnt by staff, customers and communities are put into practice (WTTC 1995, Agenda 21 for Travel and Tourism Industry, Section 3 viii). Observe limits posed by the ecological and socio-economic carrying capacity of areas with regard to biological diversity. Local communities must be able to take part in deciding on the criteria for evaluating these limits, also with regard to culturally shaped landscapes (DANTE 2002, Red Card for Tourism?, Principle 4). Work actively with indigenous leadership and local communities to ensure that indigenous cultures and communities are depicted accurately and with respect, and that staff and guests are well and accurately informed regarding local and indigenous sites, customs and history (Quebec Declaration on Ecotourism 2002).

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Governments and managers of protected areas have the following responsibilities in relation to local and indigenous communities: Recognition of local factors and support for the identity, culture and interests of the local community must at all times play a central role in the formulation of tourism strategies, particularly in developing countries (International Scientific Council for Island Development 1995, Charter for Sustainable Tourism, Principle 3). Guarantee, in conjunction with local and indigenous communities, the private sector, NGOs and all ecotourism stakeholders, the protection of nature, and local and indigenous cultures, and especially traditional knowledge, genetic resources, and rights to land and property, as well as rights to water (Quebec Declaration on Ecotourism 2002). The local community shall be involved in the decision-making process for sustainable tourism development and in the management of certain tourist activities. The development of tourism should guarantee as many benefits as possible (FNNPE 1997, European Charter for Sustainable Tourism in Protected Areas, Principle 4). The protected area's strategy should encourage tourism-related initiatives involving various sectors of the local economy so that tourism has a positive impact on the local economy (FNNPE 1997, European Charter for Sustainable Tourism in Protected Areas, Section II). The improvement of quality of life for the local community should be a priority project in the strategy for sustainable tourism development of the protected areas (FNNPE 1997, European Charter for Sustainable Tourism in Protected Areas, Section II). Tourism activity should be planned in such a way as to allow traditional cultural crafts and products to survive and flourish, rather than causing them to degenerate and become standardized (WTO 1999, Global Code of Ethics for Tourism, Article 4). Tourism policies should be applied in such a way as to help to raise the standard of living of the population in the regions visited and meet their needs. Special attention should be paid to the specific problems of coastal areas and island territories and vulnerable rural or mountain regions, for which tourism often represents a rare opportunity for income and economic activity in the face of the decline of traditional economic activities (WTO 1999, Global Code of Ethics for Tourism, Article 5). NGOs play a role as facilitators and mediators, encouraging other parties to come together and establish ecotourism partnerships (EAA 2002, Cairns Charter on Ecotourism). Provide support to the revitalization of local traditions including handicrafts, visual and performing arts and other cultural expressions among poor communities, in order for these to become integrated into the cultural tourism offer, but safeguarding at the same time their authenticity and spiritual and religious values (Hue Declaration 2004, Statement 10). To engage with the above approaches, local and indigenous communities themselves would consider strengthening, nurturing and encouraging the community's ability to maintain and use traditional skills, particularly home-based arts and crafts, to grow agricultural produce, and to make use of traditional housing and landscaping that use local natural resources in a sustainable manner (Quebec Declaration on Ecotourism 2002).

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Sharing benefits and burdens

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In relation to benefits and burdens of tourism, governments and managers of protected areas would be guided by the following: It is urgent that measures be promoted to permit a more equitable distribution of the benefits and burdens of tourism. This implies a change of consumption patterns and the introduction of pricing methods which allow environmental costs to be internalized. Governments and multilateral organizations should prioritize and strengthen direct and indirect aid to tourism projects which contribute to improving the quality of the environment. Within this context, it is necessary to explore thoroughly the application of internationally harmonized economic, legal and fiscal instruments to ensure the sustainable use of resources in tourism (International Scientific Council for Island Development 1995, Charter for Sustainable Tourism, Principle 10). Local populations should be associated with tourism activities and share equitably in the economic and cultural benefits they generate, and particularly in the creation of direct and indirect jobs resulting from tourism activities (WTO 1999, Global Code of Ethics for Tourism, Article 5). Sustainable tourism should contribute to improving the well-being of local people in terms of income generation and access to resources and services, while recognizing and respecting their identity, culture and interests. (IUCN 1999, Approaches and Practice for Sustainable Use of Biological Resources - Tourism). Involve and provide support to poor communities living within and around Cultural Heritage Sites and other sites of cultural interest, in order for them to become the beneficiaries and principal actors of tourism development and management in these areas (Hue Declaration 2004, Statement 4). Promote and facilitate the employment of poor local people through the provision of incentives, training and an appropriate regulatory framework (Hue Declaration 2004, Statement 8). We urge commitment to ensuring that people who benefit from or are impacted by protected areas have the opportunity to participate in relevant decision-making on a fair and equitable basis in full respect of their human and social rights (IUCN - WCPA 2003, Durban Accord). We urge commitment to protected area management that shares benefits with indigenous peoples and local communities (IUCN - WCPA 2003, Durban Accord). Meanwhile, the tourism sector itself should ensure long-term commitments and improvements to develop and promote sustainable tourism, through partnerships and voluntary initiatives by all sectors and stakeholders, including initiatives to give local communities a share in the ownership and benefits of tourism (UNEP 2001, Principles for Implementation of Sustainable Tourism, Principle 3.1). Incentives and sensitive marketing Developing incentives for low impact tourism activities within protected areas is a part of encouraging sustainable tourism practices. Incentives in this context can include greater access to park services, reduced licence fees and produce-marketing benefits. In relation to Bushell, R., and P.F.J. Eagles. Tourism and Protected Areas : Benefits Beyond Boundaries, CABI, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central,

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marketing, tourism professionals and park agencies have an obligation to provide tourists with objective and honest information about facilities and park conditions (WTO, 1999). Futher considerations for all stakeholders include: Tourism activities which directly or indirectly contribute to the conservation of nature and biological diversity and which benefit the local communities should be promoted by all stakeholders (CBD 1997, Berlin Declaration, Principle 1.2). Tourism activities which use environmentally sound technologies for saving water and energy, prevent pollution, treat waste water, avoid production of solid waste and encourage recycling should be promoted to the fullest extent (CBD 1997, Berlin Declaration, Principle 1.5). The press, and particularly the specialized travel press and other media, including modern electronic communication, should issue honest and balanced information on events and situations that influence the flow of tourists (WTO 1999, Global Code of Ethics for Tourism, Article 6). Governments and the tourism sector should be guided by the following considerations: Wherever possible and appropriate, economic instruments and incentives including awarding of prizes, certificates and ecolabels for sustainable tourism should be used to encourage the private sector to meet its responsibilities for achieving sustainable tourism. The abolition of economic instruments encouraging environmentally unfriendly activities should be strived for (CBD 1997, Berlin Declaration, Principle

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2.7).

Provide incentives to tourism operators and other service providers (such as marketing and promotion advantages) for them to adopt ecotourism principles and make their operations more environmentally, socially and culturally responsible (Quebec Declaration on Ecotourism 2002). All forms of tourism development that are conducive to saving rare and precious resources, including water and energy, as well as avoiding so far as possible waste production, should be given priority acknowledgement by national, regional and local public authorities (WTO 1999, Global Code of Ethics for Tourism, Article 3). Market tourism in a manner consistent with sustainable development of tourism (UNEP 2001, Principles for Implementation of Sustainable Tourism, Principle 3.1). Use internationally approved and reviewed guidelines to develop certification schemes, ecolabels and other voluntary initiatives geared towards sustainability in ecotourism, encouraging private operators to join such schemes and promoting their recognition by consumers. However, certification systems should reflect regional and local criteria (Quebec Declaration on Ecotourism 2002). The marketing and promotion strategy of the protected area should help increase visitors' awareness of the authentic values of the area and of the objectives of sustainable tourism development (FNNPE 1997, European Charter for Sustainable Tourism in Protected Areas, Principle 8). Media and marketing organizations work with media and marketing networks to inform the public about ecotourism and issues around sustainable tourism (EAA 2002, Cairns Charter on Ecotourism).

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Tourism promotion programmes should provide a wider distribution of benefits and relieve the pressures on more popular places by encouraging visitors to experience the wider cultural and natural heritage characteristics of the region or locality (ICOMOS 2002, International Cultural Tourism Charter, Principle 6.3). Research and information exchange Research can provide new knowledge, insight and procedures for tourism management. Therefore, it is important that protected area managers, tourism operators and research institutions develop a clear path for pursuing and supporting research initiatives in protected areas (Eagles et al, 2002). All stakeholders can benefit from research, especially when information exchange between the park management agency and its relevant stakeholders is pursued. It is important for all stakeholders to participate in the creation of open networks for research, dissemination of information and transfer of appropriate knowledge on tourism and environmentally sustainable tourism technologies (International Scientific Council for Island Development 1995, Charter for Sustainable Tourism, Principle 13). It is also essential that increased opportunities for discussion among all stakeholders be provided, as a means of clarifying and finding agreement on respective roles, rights and responsibilities regarding tourism development initiatives (IUCN 1999, Approaches and Practice for Sustainable Use of Biological Diversity - Tourism). With regard to research and information exchange, governments, NGOs and trade organizations should be guided by the following considerations:

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Communicate the lessons of sustainable tourism between developed and developing nations (WTTC 1995, Agenda 21 for Travel and Tourism Industry, Section 2 v). Facilitate the transfer and assimilation of new environmentally sound, socially acceptable and appropriate technology and know-how (UNEP 2001, Principles for Implementation of Sustainable Tourism, Principle 4.3). Establish information networks to facilitate information sharing among stakeholders, particularly communities that may be interested in developing an ecotourism project (EAA 2002, Cairns Charter on Ecotourism). Research organizations themselves could provide research and technical support in partnership with industry, government and communities (EAA 2002, Cairns Charter on Ecotourism). Raising awareness Public education and awareness-raising campaigns play a significant role in linking the goals of conservation and tourism in protected areas. Such campaigns need to be addressed to both the professional sectors and the general public, informing them about the impacts of tourism on biological diversity and encouraging them to support tourism operations that adopt sustainable principles in their business practice (CBD, 2004). The tourism sector as a whole, along with tourists, should be encouraged to minimize any negative impacts and

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maximize positive impacts on biodiversity and local cultures. Similarly, education for raising awareness is required at all levels of government. Interpretation and education is of particular importance. In this regard, all stakeholders could focus on informing and educating the general public about the benefits of protecting nature and conserving biodiversity through sustainable forms of tourism. Results of research and concepts of sustainable tourism should be increasingly disseminated and implemented (CBD 1997, Berlin Declaration, Principle 1.7). All involved in tourism, including the industry itself, national and local government, local communities and consumers, should be made aware of the positive and negative impacts of tourism, encouraged to adopt more sustainable approaches, and to support conservation through their activities (WWF-International 2001, Position Paper on Tourism). Tourist products or facilities in protected areas should also aim to offer education and interpretation, in particular for the benefit of young people and school children, to encourage people to understand and learn more about protected areas (FNNPE 1997, European Charter for Sustainable Tourism in Protected Areas, Principle 7). The tourism sector itself may wish to create awareness and active involvement with the natural, social and cultural environment of the places its clientele visits. 'We further wish to encourage host communities and our customers to develop a better understanding and mutual respect and understanding for one another' (Tour Operators Initiative 2000, Statement of Commitment to Sustainable Tourism, Principle 3.1). The tourism sector might also wish to make available to customers a complete range of documentation relating to the protected area (tourist guides, maps etc.), as well as making available, to staff, manuals and information on the natural and cultural heritage of the protected area (FNNPE 1997, European Charter for Sustainable Tourism in Protected Areas, Section II). Tourism professionals have an obligation to provide tourists with objective and honest information about places of destination and on the conditions of travel, hospitality and stays (WTO 1999, Global Code of Ethics for Tourism, Article 6). Government and protected area managers should be guided by the following considerations: Education and awareness-raising is required at all levels of government. This should include processes for increasing mutual understanding between tourism and environmental ministries - including joint and innovative approaches for dealing with tourism and environmental issues (CBD 2004, Guidelines on Biodiversity and Tourism Development, Section D, paragraph 88). Promote and develop educational programmes addressed to children and young people to enhance awareness about nature conservation and sustainable use, local and indigenous cultures and their relationship with ecotourism (Quebec Declaration on Ecotourism 2002). Good quality information should be made available to visitors and the local community especially regarding the sensitivity of the natural environment. The public should also be kept informed of the objectives of conservation and sustainable development (FNNPE 1997, European Charter for Sustainable Tourism in Protected Areas, Section II).

Interpretation programmes should present the significance of heritage places, traditions and cultural practices within the past experience and present diversities of the area and Bushell, R., and P.F.J. Eagles. Tourism and Protected Areas : Benefits Beyond Boundaries, CABI, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central,

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the host community, including that of minority cultural or linguistic groups. The visitor should always be informed of the differing cultural values that may be ascribed to a particular heritage resource (ICOMOS 2002, International Cultural Tourism Charter, Principle 1.4). Capacity-building Capacity-building initiatives should aim to develop and strengthen the capacities of governments and all stakeholders to facilitate the effective implementation of sustainable tourism and conservation practices. Capacity-building may be necessary at local, national and international levels. Governments, NGOs and trade organizations could seek to educate all stakeholders in travel and tourism about the need to develop more sustainable forms of tourism and to provide them with the necessary skills to carry out tasks in this respect (WTTC 1995, Agenda 21 for Travel and Tourism Industry, Section 2 iii). Sustainable tourism needs to be supported by capacity-building activities. Building capacity can include strengthening human resources and institutional capacities, transferring know-how, developing appropriate facilities, and training on biodiversity, sustainable tourism, impact assessment and impact management (CBD 2001, Biological Diversity and Tourism). These agencies would also seek to encourage and assist community capacity-building with indigenous communities (EAA 2002, Cairns Charter on Ecotourism), as well as to strengthen the role and the capacities of local authorities and encourage them to focus their tourism development efforts in poor communities (Hue Declaration 2004, Statement 5). Meanwhile, ecotourism industry partners themselves play a role in facilitating community development through business mentoring and educational opportunities that contribute to increasing skills of indigenous communities and local residents as well as stimulating the local economy and industry (EAA 2002, Cairns Charter on Ecotourism).

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Ethical tourism Tourism can offer new possibilities for employment and development, especially in poorer, structurally weak regions. However, the rich industrial countries continue to gain the greatest benefits from tourism (DANTE, 2002). Tourism in protected areas can contribute to the well-being of local communities and if approached sensitively can create ethical outcomes for all. Poverty, gender equity and fair trading are issues that cannot be ignored by tourism stakeholders if sustainable tourism outcomes are desirable. The issues need to be addressed at the local, national and international level. For government, this has the implication that tourism plans must be in line with the goal of socially and environmentally sustainable development of regions and countries and be controlled through careful market research, carried out by independent organizations. Instead of large, growth-orientated projects, decentralized approaches should be preferred which are targeted towards public welfare and the participation of all those affected. (DANTE 2002, Red Card for Tourism?, Principle 1). Further, no money from development aid should be used for the expansion of tourism or infrastructure from which local communities do not benefit (DANTE 2002, Red Card for Tourism?, Principle 1).

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Consistent measures should also be set up by government, at all levels, to guard against gender discrimination and the exploitation of women in tourism: equality and the specific promotion of women in tourism companies; education and support for local suppliers (DANTE 2002, Red Card for Tourism?, Principle 6). All distorting, often hidden subsidies in tourism, especially incentives for foreign investors (which are often extremely disadvantageous for local suppliers), must be abolished. In all areas relevant to tourism, costs must be transparent and must be borne according to the polluter-pays principle (DANTE 2002, Red Card for Tourism?, Principle 9). Tourism policies should be applied to help to raise the standard of living of the populations of the regions visited and meet their needs (WTO 1999, Global Code of Ethics for Tourism, Article 5). Governments also have a responsibility to adjust tourism development policies in order to include in them poverty alleviation objectives and to coordinate their actions in this respect with other government agencies (Hue Declaration 2004, Statement 3). To achieve fair and equitable sharing of profits from tourism, all those affected must be fully involved in all decisions on tourism. This includes processes to establish the criteria for decision-making itself (DANTE 2002, Red Card for Tourism?, Principle 7). Tourism activities should respect the equality of men and women; they should promote human rights and, more particularly, the individual rights of the most vulnerable groups, notably children, the elderly, the handicapped, ethnic minorities and indigenous peoples (WTO 1999, Global Code of Ethics for Tourism, Article 2). Participation in tourism also means access to tourist facilities such as hotels and travel offers for all. No discrimination against local people! (DANTE 2002, Red Card for Tourism?, Principle 7.) Family, youth, student and senior tourism and tourism for people with disabilities should be encouraged and facilitated (WTO 1999, Global Code of Ethics for Tourism, Article 7).

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Summary and Conclusions A review of existing charters, declarations and guidelines for sustainable tourism has revealed a series of common themes. As identified in the Mayer and Garbe (2001) report, many of the existing principles are directly related or have relevance to protected area management. The themes identified in this report highlight key directions for sustainable tourism in protected areas, with a particular emphasis on developing partnerships, minimal impact management and raising awareness. Overall, the themes identified in the review are consistent with broad understandings of the sustainability concept that include the need for economic, socio-cultural and environmental sustainability. The principles identified in this review are also consistent with those discussed by Eagles et al, (2002) in the WCPA publication, Sustainable Tourism in Protected Areas: guidelines for planning and management. The need to develop partnerships, a message promoted in the WCPA publication, is particularly evident in the documents reviewed in this paper, as is the need for integrated and strategic tourism planning and management. The more detailed and descriptive principles that characterize documents like The European Charter for Sustainable Tourism in Protected Areas and the CBD Guidelines on

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Biodiversity and Tourism Development are particularly useful as they offer specified actions for achieving sustainable tourism, including details for preparing a sustainable tourism strategy in a protected area, as well as an action programme to support the strategy. The principles outlined in the ICOMOS International Cultural Tourism Charter are also of particular importance to protected areas, being one of few documents addressing cultural heritage. Mayer and Garbe (2001) argued in their review of sustainable tourism guidelines that the necessary steps or guidance needed to convert responsible thinking into responsible action are not available in existing guidelines. This statement holds true for many of the guidelines reviewed in this paper, such as the Quebec Declaration on Ecotourism (2002) and the Cairns Charter on Ecotourism (2002), which offer broad statements for change, but limited guidance for action. Supporting action plans such as that accompanying the Durban Accord (2003) present an opportunity to encourage sustainable tourism practices beyond thought. Similarly, the emergence of publications like the Australian Government Department of the Environment and Heritage Steps to Sustainable Tourism (2004) offer a clear step-by-step guide to sustainable tourism planning useful for protected area managers, tourism operators and stakeholders involved in tourism at heritage places. Supporting this particular guide is also a programme called Stepping Stones to Tourism3 that works directly with indigenous communities, protected area managers and tourism operators to appropriately plan tourism initiatives. With the exception of a select few, perhaps one of the most notable downfalls of existing sustainable tourism declarations, charters and guidelines in the context of protected areas is the fact that few documents make any clear reference to the wishes of authorities responsible for protected areas. That is, the agenda tends to be driven by the tourism sector and/or NGOs rather than the protected area managers themselves. The issue presented here is that any guidelines, declarations or charters created without close consultation with protected area managers will be inconsistent with conservation objectives. Where charters, declarations and guidelines have been prepared in close consultation with protected area managers, such as The European Charter for Sustainable Tourism in Protected Areas (1997); Berlin Declaration on Biological Diversity (1997); ICOMOS International Cultural Tourism Charter (2002), Durban Accord (2003), and Guidelines on Biodiversity and Tourism Development (2004), there is greater emphasis on conservation objectives. Aside from conservation objectives, a notable gap in most of the documents reviewed here is their failure to address broader issues associated with tourism such as community health and well-being, poverty and gender equity. The exceptions in this case include the document prepared by DANTE (2002) titled Red Card for Tourism?, which outlines ten principles and challenges for sustainable tourism development in the 21st century; WTO's Global Code of Ethics (1999); and the Hue Declaration on Cultural Tourism and Poverty Alleviation (2004). Although the principles presented do not make direct reference to protected areas they do represent important aspects of sustainability that should be considered by all protected area-based tourism stakeholders at the national and international levels. The Millennium Development Goals are especially important for providing tourism with a broader set of goals in which to situate development outcomes associated with protected areas. Part of this process includes the need to support and facilitate local and indigenous community engagements in the process of determining a future for protected areas. While many of the guidelines reviewed encourage partnerships between tourism, protected areas and local and indigenous communities, issues of power and control in

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development and planning processes represent an ongoing threat to the development of successful partnerships. The question still needs to be asked: 'Are indigenous people and local communities going to remain marginalized because they have less power and capacity to drive agendas or enter into decision-making arenas as equal partners?' It could be argued that a greater priority for sustainable tourism initiatives associated with protected areas falls in the area of capacity-building. While some guidelines promote the need for skills development generally, principles and actions addressing capacity-building are limited, or lip service is paid to the concept without elaborating or giving further guidance. Building the skills and knowledge base in communities is a real issue that the tourism industry and protected area managers need to address. This includes the ability for communities to engage in decisionmaking process and contribute to the presentation of places for visitors as participants in the management of tourism and protected areas. It is important to state that sustainable tourism declarations and guidelines are one of many 'tools' that have the potential to encourage action towards sustainability. DANTE (2002) argues that ' "best practice" [tourism] or [sustainable tourism] guidelines, however detailed they may be, can by no means replace the comprehensive, integrative and crosssectoral policies of tourism for a new orientation of tourism towards sustainable development. A coherent, responsible and equitable cooperation among all stakeholders, including local communities, indigenous people, political authorities, the tourism industry, travellers and civil society of North and South, is needed to shape the necessary policies at all levels' (p.6). One of the recommendations coming out of the Workshop Stream II - Building Broader Support for Protected Areas at the Vth World Parks Congress of 2003 states the need for tourism to respect the primacy role of conservation for protected areas. The conservation values of protected areas are the point at which protected area managers, local and indigenous communities and tourism need to develop stronger common ground. This review of existing guidelines, charters and declarations indicates that perhaps we still have more work to do in building a stronger foundation and common ownership of conservation values. From this basis, more concrete conservation outcomes can be sought and achieved with greater common vision and participation from key stakeholders.

Glossary CBD: Convention on Biological Diversity CSD: Convention on Sustainable Development EAA: Ecotourism Association Australia NGO: non-governmental organization DANTE: Network for Sustainable Tourism Development FNNPE: Federation of Nature and National Parks of Europe ICOMOS: International Council on Monuments and Sites IUCN: The World Conservation Union MDG: Millennium Development Goals SIDS: Small Island Developing States WCPA: World Commission on Protected Areas WWF: World Wide Fund for Nature

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WTO: World Tourism Organization UNEP: United Nations Environment Programme UNDP: United Nations Development Programme

Notes 1. For example, Australia has produced guidelines to address sustainable tourism at the national level. Documents like the Australian Heritage Commission's Successful Tourism at Heritage Places (2001) set out principles for protecting natural and cultural heritage values and improving tourism experiences. 2. These guidelines were initially developed by experts at a Workshop held in Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic, in June 2001, and subsequently improved and refined by the Subsidiary Body on Scientific, Technical and Technological Advice of the Convention. Finally, they were adopted by the seventh meeting of the Conference of the Parties, held in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, in February 2004. 3. Stepping Stones to Tourism is a workshop and capacity-building programme for indigenous communities that is currently being developed by the Australian Government Department of Environment and Heritage to complement the process outlined in Steps to Sustainable Tourism. The programme builds capacity in indigenous communities to understand tourism and management issues, and prepares communities for further collaborative discussions with protected area managers and the tourism industry (Australian Government Department of the Environment and Heritage 2004: p.2).

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References Australian Government Department for Environment and Heritage (2004) Steps to Sustainable Tourism. Planning a sustainable future for tourism, heritage and the environment. Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra. Australian Heritage Commission and CRC for Sustainable Tourism (2001) Successful Tourism at Heritage Places. Australian Heritage Commission and CRC for Sustainable Tourism, Canberra. Christ,C., Hillel, O., Matus, S. and Sweeting, J. (2003) Tourism and Biodiversity: mapping tourism's global footprint. UNEP and Conservation International, Washington, DC. Convention on Biological Diversity (1997) The Berlin Declaration on Biological Diversity and Sustainable Tourism. http://www.insula.org/tourism/pagina_n4.htm Convention on Biological Diversity (2001) Report of the Workshop on Biological Diversity and Tourism, Santo Domingo. 4-7 June 2001 URL: www.biodiv.org/doc/meetings/tour/wstour-01/official/wstour-01-04-en.pdf Convention on Biological Diversity (2004) Guidelines on Biodiversity and Tourism Development. Secretariat of the Convention of Biological Diversity, Montreal. URL: www.biodiv.org/doc/publications/tou-gdl-en.pdf DANTE (2002) Red Card for Tourism? Ten Principles and Challenges for a Sustainable Tourism Development in the 21st Century. Eagles, P.P., McCool, S.F. and Haynes, D. (2002) Sustainable Tourism in Protected Areas: Guidelines for Planning and Management. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. Ecotourism Association Australia (2002) Cairns Charter on Partnerships for Ecotourism. URL: www.ecotourism.org.au/cairnscharter.asp Federation of Nature and National Parks of Europe (1997) The European Charter for Sustainable Tourism in Protected Areas. URL: www.eco-tour.org/info/w_10168_de.html Hue Declaration on Cultural Tourism and Poverty Alleviation (2004) International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) (2002) International Cultural Tourism Charter. Principles and Guidelines for Managing Tourism at Places of Cultural and Heritage Significance. Male Declaration on Tourism & Sustainable Development (1997). www.eco-tour.org/info/w_10194_de.html Mayer, M. and Garbe, C. (2001) Compilation and analysis of existing international documents relating to sustainable tourism. Prepared for the Workshop on Biological Diversity and Tourism, Santo Domingo, 4-7 June. Quebec Declaration on Ecotourism (2002) URL: www.world-tourism.org/sustainable/ecotourism2002/eng.pdf The World Conservation Union (IUCN) (1999) Development of Approaches and Practice for Sustainable Use of Biological Resources— Tourism.

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The World Conservation Union (IUCN), World Commission on Protected Areas (2003), Recommendations of the Vth World Parks Congress 2003. www.iucn.org/wpc2003 The World Conservation Union (IUCN), World Commission on Protected Areas (2003) The Durban Accord. URL: www.iucn.org/wpc2003 The World Conservation Union (IUCN), World Commission on Protected Areas (2004) The Durban Action Plan. URL: www.iucn.org/wpc2003 Tourism Concern (1992) Beyond the Green Horizon: Principles of Sustainable Tourism. World Wide Fund for Nature, London. Tour Operators Initiative for Sustainable Tourism Development (2000) Statement of Commitment to Sustainable Tourism. URL: www.toinitiative.org/about/statement_of_commitment.htm International Scientific Council for Island Development (1995) Charter for Sustainable Tourism. URL: www. insula. org/tourism/charte .htm United Nations Environment Programme (2001) Principles for Implementation of Sustainable Tourism. URL: www.uneptie.org/pc/tourism/policy/principles.htm United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development (2002) Johannesburg Plan of Implementation. URL: www.un.org/esa/sustdev/documents/WSSD_POI_PD/English/POIToc.htm United Nations Development Programme (2002) Millennium Development Goals. URL: www.undp.org/mdg/ United Nations Environment Programme (1998) Report on the International Conference on sustainable tourism in Small Islands Developing States (SIDS) and other islands. URL: www.uneptie.org/pc/tourism/documents/lanzarote-e.pdf World Travel and Tourism Council (1995) Agenda 21 for the Travel and Tourism Industry. World Tourism Organization (1999) Global Code of Ethics for Tourism. URL: www.worldtourism.org/code_ethics/eng.html World Wide Fund for Nature - International (2001) Position Paper on Tourism. URL: www. wwf.org. uk/filelibrary/pdf/wwf_tourism_position_paper.pdf

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Chapter 5

Tourism, Indigenous and Local Communities and Protected Areas in Developing Nations Lea M. Scherl and Stephen Edwards Introduction The theme of the Vth IUCN World Parks Congress Benefits Beyond Boundaries envisions the role of protected areas within a broad context. This holistic approach reflects the need to understand the physical, social, cultural and economic environment of protected areas and their role in this broader context. Positioning protected areas within an integrated context means more actors need to be empowered to manage protected areas and ensure their survival and extend their operation. There is no doubt an evolution of the paradigm to manage protected areas towards being more people focused, less centralized in management and looking for better balances between conservation and social, economic and cultural objectives (Phillips, 2003). In this chapter, the opportunities provided by nature-based and cultural tourism activities in protected areas are analysed. Special emphasis is given to the links between tourism and indigenous and other local, traditional communities that reside in or alongside protected areas (PAs), particularly in developing countries. These communities have, over decades now, been extremely important to the support, management and maintenance of PAs in many parts of the world. Whether and how their involvement in PA management has been effective and yielded benefits for the communities and conservation are still much discussed. What is the potential for tourism to generate positive impacts for PAs, their neighbouring or resident communities, and conservation? Some of the challenges and opportunities so far, and issues that need to be addressed, are discussed below. Copyright © 2006. CABI. All rights reserved.

Indigenous and Other Local Communities and Protected Areas 'With respect to a given PA, local and indigenous communities are groups of people with a common identity and who may be involved in an array of related aspects of livelihoods. They often have customary rights related to the area and its natural resources and a strong relationship with the area in one or many dimensions (such as cultural, social, economic, spiritual) and usually a strong dependency on the area for their survival and identity' (Scherl, 2005).

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Fig. 1. Indigenous Chachi at the Cotocachi-Cayapas Ecological Reserve (Photo: Sustainable Use of Biological Diversity Project, CARE Ecuador and USAID)

Professionals in the field of protected area management are moving away from the notion that the interests and rights of local and indigenous communities are in conflict with the objectives of protected areas (Oviedo and Brown, 1999; Beltran and Phillips, 2000). Through a myriad of participatory approaches over the past two decades, technical knowledge of the mechanisms and consequences of community involvement has grown substantially (West and Brenchin, 1991; Western and Wright, 1994; Pimbert and Pretty, 1995; Borrini-Feyerabend, 1996; Jeanrenaud, 1999; Kothari et al., 2000; Scherl et al., 2004). The effective management of the relationship between P As and local communities is of paramount importance to sustainability of any activity that is based on PAs. The following issues need to be taken into account for effective management of the PA-community relationship:

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Equality of cost and benefit distribution. Historical exclusion of indigenous groups from natural resources and control of those resources. Governance systems that facilitate meaningful and effective participation and power sharing among PA management and local communities. Rights and knowledge of indigenous locals that are not fully recognized. Unsustainable poaching and illegal harvesting inside PAs, because policies for sustainable harvesting are lacking in many places. Lack of compensation for loss of livelihood, opportunities, land and resource rights. Effective mechanisms for payment for environmental services. (source: Scherl, 2005)

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The special nature of the relationship between PAs and indigenous and other local communities is based on history, proximity, attachment, values, and social, cultural and economic interdependence, particularly where there are few alternatives: Livelihood security - opportunities to obtain food, clean water, construction materials, and medicinal plants; maintain genetic resources, pollinators, nutrient cycles and natural chemicals important to sustaining agriculture, livestock and fisheries; to retain wild food supply in times of scarcity; reduce vulnerability to natural hazards and environmental change; and access infrastructure put in place to manage protected areas.

Fig. 2. Artesinal fisheries in Mozambique are an important livelihood security. (Photo: Chico Carneiro)

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Economic - opportunities to obtain direct economic benefits through employment in the management of Protected Areas (e.g. park rangers, tourist guides); payment for conservation of environmental services; and profit from visitation that promotes and sustains small business. Cultural and spiritual - maintenance of cultural integrity through the protection of important places of identity, including sacred sites that hold symbolic meaning of spiritual importance, and provision of materials for indigenous arts and utensils. Psychological veil-being and recreation - a sense of identity, belonging and security from place, the knowledge that areas will remain protected and relatively unchanged, thus preserving landscapes, geological features and species diversity. Educational - opportunities to learn about and from nature; to transmit traditional values and customs; and for reciprocal learning amongst different groups on effective management of protected areas. Governance - opportunities to empower communities to participate in decision-making along with other groups, and to be partners in conservation. (source: Scherl, 2005)

Fig. 3. Local community dependence on traditionally used plants for their survival in India (Photo: Ashish Kothari)

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Permeating the many facets of the relationships mentioned above is the fact that indigenous and other local communities living within and adjacent to protected areas in developing nations (or mobile communities that seasonally depend on those areas) are often very poor. Moreover, there is no question that poor people are heavily dependent on natural resources (e.g. DFID, EC, UNDP and WB, 2002; Angelsen and Wunder, 2003). The PAcommunity relationship can be crucial for survival (be it economically, psychologically, or spiritually) and can make a positive difference in terms of aiding efforts to reduce poverty (Goodwin et al., 1997). This is particularly true of developing countries and post-colonial indigenous societies. It is therefore important to lift the level of analysis and recognize that the role of tourism in protected areas and its impacts on local and indigenous communities should be placed within the broader context of poverty alleviation and sustainable development.1

Protected Areas, Sustainable Development and Poverty Alleviation

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At the Vth World Parks Congress there was much discussion on protected areas and sustainable development, particularly poverty eradication (Fisher, 2003; Roe and Elliot, 2003; Scherl, 2003; IUCN-WPC Recommendations, 2003). Protected areas have not been created or designed with the intention of reducing poverty. But increasingly it has been argued that the establishment and management of PAs includes the obligation to respect basic human rights and at least do no harm to resident and adjacent communities. This 'do no harm' principle reflects a minimum standard for PA establishment and management: not to worsen the living conditions of poor, rural, and/or indigenous communities living within and adjacent to parks.

Fig. 4. A small family inn bordering Sierra de la Culata National Park, Venezuela. (Photo: S. Edwards) Bushell, R., and P.F.J. Eagles. Tourism and Protected Areas : Benefits Beyond Boundaries, CABI, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central,

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This requires understanding and acknowledgement that the livelihoods of such communities have entrenched inter-dependency with the biodiversity that PAs exist to conserve (Scherl et al., 2004). This is part of addressing the broader issue of social justice and human rights in conservation (Brechin et al., 2003; Scherl, 2005). A dimension of human rights is to have the opportunity for adequate standards of living and sustainable livelihoods. A comprehensive agenda for social justice in conservation advocates the need to link natural environment sustainability with the rights of impoverished rural populations to sustainable livelihoods. Tourism within PAs has the potential to generate significant economic, environmental and social benefits, particularly where there is widespread poverty (Weaver, 1998; Honey, 1999; Wearing and Neil, 1999; Epler-Wood, 2002). Thus tourism within PAs can contribute to higher standards of living and sustainable livelihoods. These benefits can be realized at local, national and global levels, but the maldistribution of benefits needs to be analysed in order to develop strategies for improvement. For instance, the costs are often accrued locally and the benefits at a distance. Moreover, many local communities living in and around PAs have limited development opportunities, and tourism is an important one. Tourism can be one of the few viable economic options for PA use by local communities. This is due to limitations in PA land use under legislative, policy or operational regimes for conservation and management. Economically viable activities are also quite limited, and often need to be developed within a relatively short period. For example, PA management may not be willing or able to subsidise ongoing operations even when start-up costs have been provided. The limited capacity for investment by communities, and the increasing utilization of co-management models in which community members are playing an increasingly important role (such as Uluru-Kata Tjuta National Park and World Heritage Area) (Bushell, 2005) mean the right mix of economic activity must be carefully determined and monitored. Negative impacts can occur when tourism planning and management takes place without sufficient understanding and respect for social and cultural contexts (Furze et al., 1996; Honey, 1999; Pedersen, 2002). Many argue that the traditional approach to conservation has frequently had a negative impact on the livelihoods of local communities through their loss of rights over resources, loss of control to influence environmental policy, lack of participation in management decision-making, and lack of appreciation of and fair reward for their stewardship. (Ghimire and Pimbert, 1997; Brenchin et al., 2003; Nelson and Hossack, 2003). This has more recently manifested in robust critiques that PAs have been created at the expense of the poor, and via dispossession of Indigenous communities (Geisler, 2003; Cernea and Scmidt-Soltau, 2003). Developing and developed national governments are moving to encourage communities to become involved in tourism as an acceptable PA land use, though it is not benign and must be carefully managed (Christ et al., 2003). This is complemented by the increasing interest of international tourists in nature-based tourism, especially tourism that is 'responsible' in that it benefits local communities and is environmentally friendly, minimizing harm to places of natural and cultural beauty and significance (Gordon, 2002). Therefore, it is important to understand the role that nature-based tourism in parks may perform with respect to sustainable development in local communities. The remainder of this chapter takes a holistic approach that acknowledges tourism can benefit and cost both local communities and sustainable development. It is important to understand the conditions, mechanisms and frameworks which will help to ensure that benefits from PA-

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based tourism accrue locally and that the relationship supports conservation both within and outside the protected area.

Models of Tourism Management in Protected Areas and their Association with Communities As tourism that links communities and PAs develops, many different models of tourism management are emerging. This chapter identifies and describes a number of these and illustrates some case studies that follow. The models have been grouped into three broad categories: Community managed; Private Sector/Non-Governmental Organization (NGO)/ Government managed, and Joint Ventures. The last is a model that combines management among communities, the private sector, government, and NGOs or a combination of these. The various joint venture types are further explained below. These three groups are identified as the most common models of PA-based tourism management. Private sector, government and NGO-managed tourism interests are grouped together because they are considered external to communities, and are often external to PAs as well. These operators may have tremendous vested interests in conserving PAs, and can have a positive impact on local communities such as providing employment and training. However, many may also have non-tourism interests and responsibilities in a specific PA, such as scientific and other research; track and road maintenance; vegetation and animal management; native and exotic species assessment; bush regeneration; maintaining ecological integrity, the legislative regime, and compliance. Table 1. Tourism management models and local communities

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Facets of the relationship between indigenous and other local communities and protected areas

TOURISM MODELS

Community-based

Private sectore/

Government/NGO

Joint venture

Governance

At community level

At corporate, government or NGO level

Collaborative management, community and other stakeholders

Economic benefits/livelihood security

Mostly returned to community

Minimum contribution to the community, benefits leaked via staff from outside area or non-local companies

Shared

Cultural, spiritual and educational values

Increase when community feels sense of ownership

Generally decrease as community well-being not a management priority

May increase or decrease, depending on power sharing arrangements and other factors

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First, we describe the categories of models, and then explore some facets of the relationships between indigenous and other local communities and PAs, as previously described (governance; economic benefits and livelihood security; and cultural, spiritual and educational values) as they manifest in those models. Table 1 provides a framework for the analysis. Community-based management models For the purpose of this chapter, community-based ecotourism is defined as: 'Ecotourism activities where the management, decision-making and ownership is in the hands partially or totally - of the communities in or adjacent to natural areas appropriate for ecotourism, in which the community, and not individuals, receive an important percentage, or all, of the benefits generated by ecotourism. The communities must assume responsibility to conserve cultural and natural resources, and provide appropriate service to visitors in order to guarantee their satisfaction' (Rodriguez, 2004).

An increasingly common approach to tourism management in and around parks is for communities to hold complete, or nearly complete, ownership. This is the case of community-owned lodges, guiding, concessions, and other tourism services. Often the community operates these enterprises via an existing structure such as a 'Friends of...' association or community-based incorporated group. Alternatively, several family members or groups from within the community engage in an ecotourism enterprise. While there are relatively few of these models, they are increasing in number, especially in Latin America (for example, Albergue Chalalan and Mapajo Lodge in Bolivia). There is a need to be mindful that there are Community Conserved Areas (CCAs)3 owned and conserved by communities, where community-based tourism also takes place.

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Case study: a community-owned ecotourism business in Albergue Chalalan, Bolivia Chalalan is the first eco-business in Bolivia that is entirely community-owned and managed. Its achievements in linking tourism with conservation and development are the result of a joint effort between San Jose de Uchupiamonas indigenous community, Conservation International (CI) and the InterAmerican Development Bank (IDE). Madidi National Park, created in 1995, protects a swathe of land that stretches from the high Andes to the Amazon Basin. Spanning 19,000 square kilometers, Madidi features lowland rainforests, cloud forests, dry forests, and pampas grasslands. The park is home to 1000 species of birds, 44% of all mammal species known to the Americas, and 38% of all neotropical amphibians. Each year, 7000-8000 tourists are drawn to the unmatched variety of plants and animals and stunning landscapes. Chalalan Lodge is one component of a broader programme that aims to connect ecotourism with sustainable development, biodiversity conservation, and organizational strengthening in the San Jose de Uchupiamonas community. The guiding philosophy is that the long-term effective management of Madidi NP hinges on the well-being of resident communities. Sustainable development and biodiversity conservation are the long-range goals for the Chalalan project.

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Chalalan had three main steps to complete as a project aimed at offering tourists a jungle tour as well as connecting tourism with biodiversity conservation and community development. The first is to create a viable tourism operation, which entailed building the lodge, related infrastructure and trail systems; then training staff in hotel management and service through on-site experiential learning and rotating shifts; and lastly establishing a corporate structure. A sociedad anonima (legal company) was registered, formally making Chalalan a community-based enterprise. The project implementation spanned five years from inception to transfer of full ownership and management by the San Jose community. As a project aimed at balancing economic needs of people in Madidi with conservation of natural resources in the park, Chalalan is an ongoing endeavour that continues to undergo changes, adjustments, and improvements. Adapted from Stronza, 2004b; IDE, 2002 Private sector/NGO/Government management models in protected areas A more traditional model of PA tourism planning and management is for the private sector, an NGO, or the government to control and operate tourism within or adjacent to a park. This is generally the case within National Parks, where much of the tourism infrastructure is built and maintained by the government. In some cases, operation is delegated to the private sector via concessionary agreements. Similar situations may arise on private reserves, for example those increasingly being developed for safari tourism in South Africa (Wines, 2004) or NGO reserves (e.g. Maquipucuna Reserve in Ecuador), which are set aside as reserves financed by tourism.

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Joint venture management models Joint ventures are a growing area as a model for tourism operations in protected areas. Joint ventures are collaborative efforts with varying degrees of shared ownership, management, and profit sharing, generally between communities and the private sector (for example, Conservation Corporation Africa and Wilderness Safaris in southern and eastern Africa. These shared efforts between communities and the private sector help overcome some of the challenges commonly faced by communities attempting to implement tourism planning and management: lack of access to the market; language difficulties; and lack of communication technology (Drumm and Moore, 2002). To a lesser degree, there are also joint ventures between NGOs and communities: for example, the first stages of Chalalan in Bolivia (above) were undertaken as a cooperative effort between Conservation International and the community of San Jose de Uchupiamonas. A compelling argument for three-way joint ventures among communities, the private sector, and NGOs (Stronza, 2004a) is that this provides efficiencies and strengths from each actor. For example, the community provides the resource base (human, cultural, and in some cases natural); the private sector partner provides capital, infrastructure, management capacity, and quality standards; and the NGO provides for capacity-building, support for conservation, and satellite economic activities such as handicrafts and souvenirs, agriculture, and transportation services (Rodriguez, 2004).

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Fig. 5. An Achuar community member with a tourist at Kapawi Lodge, Ecuador. (Photo: S.A. Canodros)

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Case study of a joint venture: Posada Amazonas, Peru Posada Amazonas is an ecotourism lodge located in Madre de Dios, Peru. The lodge is run as a joint venture between the local community of 80 Ese'eja Indian, mestizo, and Andean colonist families (the Native Community of Infierno) and Rainforest Expeditions (a Peruvian company). The venture operates on a 60/40% profit split basis, favouring the community. The company oversees the day-to-day management, and hires and trains community members to assume increasing responsibility. The long-term goal is to pass full ownership and management of the entire lodge to the community in the year 2017. Each partner has brought different resources and skills to the project. The company has offered financing; marketing skills; experience in the logistics of transport and food service; trained personnel; knowledge of Western tourist preferences, and, perhaps most fundamentally, an immediate demand in the form of several boatloads of tourists. The community has brought labour; local knowledge of wild flora and fauna; title and access to 10,000 hectares of forested land; and their indigenous identity, which has already been featured in the marketing campaign. The area boasts a variety of readily accessible wildlife species to photograph, which is important to the ecotourism experience. The Native Community of Infierno manages approximately 10,000 ha of rainforest which they received title to in 1974. The land borders the Tambopata Candamo Reserved Zone. Tourism is a relatively new activity for the community, providing income and employment; education; capacity-building; and support for conservation of cultural identity. Adapted from Madalengoitia, 2000; and Stronza, 2001

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The Relationship between Communities and Protected Areas in Models of Tourism Management In this section, the various dimensions of the relationship between indigenous communities and protected areas presented in the first part of this chapter are employed as a framework to analyse the models outlined above, from the community perspective. The idea is to further explore how, and for what reasons, different tourism models may or may not effectively involve indigenous and other local communities and return benefits to them. This lays the foundation for considering what can further be done to ensure that diverse tourism enterprises and indigenous and local communities are integrated effectively for the benefit of all involved and/or affected.

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Governance The model of community ownership and operation of tourism enterprises in PAs provides the highest level of opportunity for the local community to be involved in the governance of a tourism enterprise. Community members and/or groups have a direct say in how tourism is managed, often via community associations or enterprises, as well as a vested interest in proper management. Much of the management decision-making related to tourism enterprises will be in the hands of the community, which provides opportunities for empowerment, capacity-building and increased self-esteem. Community participation in the governance of a tourism enterprise owned and operated by the government, private sector, and/or NGO(s) is usually quite limited. While some effort may be made towards co-management, shared governance often does not go beyond consultations and information exchange. Seeking broad participation is often perceived as costly - in both money and time. Real community-based collaboration may also imply the making of decisions that do not match the interests of the 'authority,' (i.e., the government, private sector or NGO non-community partner) and faces further challenges in terms of achieving adequate communication and understanding. There are, however, positive examples of local community participation in public protected areas tourism management, particularly in Australia (Bushell, 2005). The examples of Uluru-Kata Tjuta and Kakadu National Parks co-management structures between local indigenous communities and Parks Australia are promising for future partnerships using this model. Joint ventures have the potential to establish equitable community partnerships, if the process is managed effectively and with sensitivity. In many such cases, the community associations are tasked with representing the interests of the entire community in decisionmaking. This can have both strengths and shortfalls as sometimes community elites or certain groups dominate such associations. Governance (within the community) can ultimately be enhanced for areas beyond tourism decisions, as communities gain the understanding and practice of negotiation (for example, at Posada Amazonas, see case study above). Also, the very need to interact with partners like the private sector can lead to more efficient decision-making by the community (Stronza, 2004a). In Guyana, for instance, the Iwokrama International Centre for Sustainable Use of Tropical Rain Forests has established a partnership agreement with a community-private sector joint venture to manage tourism within a conservation reserve area. In addition, community-owned businesses run tourism trips within the reserve and in the adjoining wetlands as one component of this broader partnership agreement (see below).

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Case study of a joint venture In September 2004 the Iwokrama International Centre signed a contract with Community and Tourism Services (CATS) to manage the Iwokrama Canopy Walkway - the only tourism-oriented canopy walkway in the Guiana Shield. Iwokrama jointly with CATS manage the Canopy Walkway. CATS is a company formed by the Makushi community of Surama and two private sector businesses: Rock View Lodge and Wilderness Explorers. The goal of linking Iwokrama with these organizations is to show how conservation-related partnerships can be financially successful and provide real benefits and ownership to local communities. The Canopy Walkway is a series of suspension bridges and observation decks of up to 30 meters in height and 154 meters in length. The facility's state-of-the-art construction allows trees to grow normally by using adjustable cables and braces throughout the support structure. The observation decks give visitors a new view on the mid- and upper-level forest canopy and allow wildlife to remain relatively free from human intrusion. From IWORAMA web page and newsletter: www.iwokrama.org Issues to consider

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There are a wide variety of issues related to governance and PA-based tourism ventures. These include lack of training, capacity, capital, and rapid decision-making (which is often necessary in a competitive tourism environment); and conflicts at the local community level, such as jealousy, dominant members of the community, and challenges faced in terms of authority to make decisions. The concept of community does not imply homogeneity and usually there are different interest groups and power bases within this social organization. The benefits of a tourism enterprise can accrue to some and not to others. With shared management, governance efforts can be hampered by a lack of transparency (on both sides). The motives of the parties are not necessarily clear, or subject to varying interpretations. Also, there must be systems in place to resolve conflicts and to deal with negotiations in which neither side is prepared to cede beyond a certain point. Shared governance also requires a long-term commitment and outlook. When working effectively, this model promotes long-term sustainability. Economic benefits and livelihood security Under the community-operated tourism model, the majority of economic benefits are kept at the community level because there is little economic leakage to outside parties; direct employment of community members (except in cases where specific, outside expertise is required); and satellite businesses can grow from tourism demand. Increased livelihood security can result from community-operated tourism, especially if tourism is viewed as just one element of a diversified economy, and a supplement to other economic activities. Livelihood security can also be enhanced by tourists' appreciation of a pristine and healthy environment, which provides incentive for conservation and protection of important natural resources. However, there are costs associated with a communityoperated tourism model, especially as the community may not have the capacity or technical training to efficiently manage their tourism product. This is especially difficult in terms of marketing and commercialization.

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The community may receive much needed economic benefits from an NGO/private sector/government-run tourism model in protected areas. Benefits would come in the way of direct employment, indirect employment, and subsidies. However, the majority of economic benefits generally remain with the NGO, private sector operator or government agency (or, in the case of the government, are channeled into consolidated revenue).2 Broadly speaking, there is a lack of incentive on the part of the NGO, private sector or government agency to share economic resources. Livelihood security can in fact decrease if the community is not a major stakeholder or sharing in the benefits. Furthermore, if members or the community as a whole do not have (or feel) ownership of the natural resources in the park and its vicinity, they may decide there is nothing to lose by not managing and protecting resources sustainably. Given that lack of ownership indicates lack of power and authority over management decisions, the community in this situation is not in a position to protect the natural resources anyway. In addition, livelihood security can be threatened by members of the community that harbour resentment because they are receiving little direct benefits for the use of resources that they consider to be theirs by inherent right or traditional law. Joint ventures offer a vehicle in which to share economic benefits, via profit sharing schemes; concessionaire arrangements (perhaps for the use of community lands); sharing equity; and establishment of hiring, purchasing, and capacity-building practices that support employment and development at the local level. While in some cases these agreements may appear to feed fewer direct benefits to communities, especially in the short term, a shared agreement brings more active stakeholders into the drive for success of the tourism operation. This can provide for enhanced revenue opportunities, especially when the private sector expertise and efficiency is coupled with local resources and supported by the local population's knowledge of the area.

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Key issue The equitable distribution of costs and benefits associated with tourism ventures in and around PAs is a critical issue. In any type of tourism enterprise model, such costs and benefits are rarely shared equitably. Even with the community-based model, equity within a particular community is difficult to achieve and can come with high social costs and disruption of internal social processes. The further a model is from genuine community participation, the more likely it is that a large share of positive affects will be accrued outside the local area whilst most of the negative impacts would be borne locally. Cultural and spiritual educational values Tourism (regardless of the model of operations and management) impacts upon cultural and spiritual elements of a community. Undoubtedly, the other factors such as livelihood security, economic benefit, and governance have an important role to play in maintaining and enhancing cultural, spiritual and educational values. In many cases, cultural and educational values can be enhanced by curiosity, appreciation of these elements by tourists, and production and sale of traditional handicrafts, performances and knowledge sharing. Educational values are also promoted when the community perceives a need for specialized training, such as for guiding; demonstration and interpretation of local resources; and as a future investment. Moreover,

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educational values can be promoted to the tourists, who may gain some understanding of indigenous and local cultures. Albeit this is often quite superficial but at least helps sensitizing people to cultural diversity. Spiritual values are less clearly assisted by any type of tourism operation, as the entry of 'outsiders' may play a role in diminishing the importance of traditional lifestyles and beliefs. Moreover, it is critical to have a strong communal system in place to help minimize and/or control impacts on sacred sites and important traditional customs. Key issue The issue of the cultural and social sensitivity at the local level with regard to PA tourism ventures has been raised many times in the literature and received some attention during the Vth World Parks Congress. Cultural and social impact assessment (that also takes into account economic, livelihood and governance issues) is no doubt essential to the natural and cultural tourism sector regardless of what model is used, but is rarely undertaken thoroughly and professionally.

Some General Observations

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The different tourism management models and how they accommodate the many facets of the PA-community relationship need to be placed into a much broader context (and not only of sustainable development and poverty as mentioned above). First, the models of tourism management outlined above can operate under different types of PA management regimes (public, private and statutory), and this should be acknowledged by commentators, government and the tourism industry. Then there is another layer of understanding related to the type of land ownership of a given protected area. Those factors - management regime of the parks themselves and ownership of the land and other resources - play a significant role in shaping the choice and structure of tourism models and influence the relationship between local and indigenous communities and protected areas.

Recommendations The understanding of the many dynamics involved in linking tourism, communities and PAs is evolving, with much still to learn. There have been advances in projects and relationships, especially in the more traditional models of tourism enterprises that are operated and managed by NGOs, governments and the private sector. Community-based operations and joint ventures are still relatively new, have had mixed success, and are still being developed. The following recommendations are applicable to all types of tourism models described in this chapter, but with particular emphasis on community-based and joint ventures. 1. View the role of protected areas and their potential to support tourism activities as part of a broader sustainable development agenda. Tourism is one way in which PAs can contribute to local, regional and national economies and to poverty reduction, and

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offers much potential for both PA and adjacent resident communities' sustainability and viability. 2. View tourism as just one element of a diversified economy. One of the greatest challenges faced by tourism is that it is a fragile and fickle industry. Terrorism, natural catastrophes, political upheaval, economic shifts, epidemics and many other factors can cause major downswings and collapses of seemingly solid tourism enterprises. Seasonality and other fluctuations in tourism also cause significant shifts in tourism flows, and hence revenue. For these reasons, tourism endeavours within communities should not focus exclusively on shifting the community's economy to tourism. Rather, communities should be supported to maintain other economic activities, as primary or secondary sources of income. 3. Strongly promote the need for Social Impact Assessment (SIA) as part of a broader impact assessment process related to tourism in protected areas. There is still a need to ensure that SIAs are rigorously carried out and enough resources allocated to support this complex process. This includes an understanding of potential changes to community lives as a result of constant contact from outsiders. 4. Respect and recognize customary ownership, use and access rights for local, indigenous and traditional people in the development and implementation of any tourism ventures associated with protected areas. This requires sensitivity towards and understanding of those rights through processes of negotiations that needs to occur from the outset of any idea for a tourism venture and throughout planning and implementation.

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5. Empower local and indigenous communities to be active partners and managers of tourism ventures within or surrounding protected areas. This requires the promotion of inclusive and flexible governance systems for tourism ventures that provide for legitimacy of voice, transparency and fairness, and are culturally sensitive. A gender perspective, addressing the different roles that woman and man can have in those ventures, may also be culturally necessary and underscore the success or otherwise of tourism initiatives 6. Establish conflict resolution systems and negotiation protocols. Conflict resolution and negotiation are often extremely complex and tend to be culturally and locally specific. The establishment of systems of sharing information and decision-making can greatly contribute to transparency and greater understanding. 7. Establish written agreements at the outset of joint ventures and collaborations. Managing expectations of ownership, profit and risk sharing, transference of goods and capital and other key elements of any joint venture or collaboration is always a challenge. Reliance on verbal agreements during the course of establishing a tourism enterprise is risky: people in positions of authority may change, political pressures may emerge, and memories may fade. Written agreements developed through negotiation processes that are culturally sensitive are an essential element of any joint venture (Pedersen, 2002). 8. Develop and implement mechanisms to provide for fair compensation for negative impacts on indigenous and other local communities and to ensure equitable Bushell, R., and P.F.J. Eagles. Tourism and Protected Areas : Benefits Beyond Boundaries, CABI, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central,

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distribution of benefits. Cost-benefit analyses should be part of the establishment, evaluation and ongoing monitoring phases of tourism initiatives. 9. Make good use of existing resources, such as the many manuals now available. Many resources have been spent on documenting processes and best practice for engaging communities in tourism (Drumm and Moore, 2002; Hausler and Strasdas, 2002). Often these documents and their lessons do not reach those making decisions and designing projects and enterprises on the ground. These case studies and manuals should be closely reviewed to avoid the costly problem of making the same mistakes. In addition, more general publications and guidelines should be used such as the ones related to Indigenous Peoples and Protected Areas (Beltran and Phillips, 2000) and Indigenous and Local Communities and Protected Areas (Borrini-Feyerabend et al, 2004a); and for comanagement and governance of Natural Resources (Borrini-Feyerabend et al, 2004b). 10. Use the CBD Guidelines. The United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity has developed useful guidelines for developing and implementing tourism in fragile ecosystems (UNCBD, 2003). These guidelines and other regulations and legal instruments should be actively considered and, where appropriate, applied to new projects and tourism enterprises.

Notes

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1. See principles of ecologically sustainable development (ESD) and poverty alleviation in United Nations instruments, particularly the Convention on Biological Diversity, for example the CBD Subsidiary Body On Scientific, Technical And Technological Advice (SBSTTA) Protected Areas Programme at http ://www.biodiv. org/doc/meetings/ sbstta/sbstta-09/official/sbstta-09-06-en. doc 2. See Chapters 17-18 on the economic viability and experience of South African parastatal SANParks and Ontario Parks, the management agency for protected areas in Ontario Provence, Canada. 3. A considerable part of the earth's biodiversity survives on territories under the ownership, control or management of indigenous peoples and local (including mobile) communities. Community Conserved Areas (CCAs) are natural and modified ecosystems, including significant biodiversity, ecological services and cultural values, voluntarily conserved by indigenous and local communities through customary laws or other effective means. The term as used here is meant to connote a broad and open approach to categorizing such community initiatives, and is not intended to constrain the ability of communities to conserve their areas in the way they feel appropriate. (Source: IUCN, World Parks Congress 2003, recommendation 5.26).

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References Angelsen, A. and Wunder, S. (2003) Exploring the Forest--Poverty Link: Key Concepts, Issues and Research Implications. CIFOR Occasional Paper No. 40. (www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/papers} Beltran, J. and Phillips, A. (Eds) (2000) Indigenous and Traditional Peoples and Protected Areas: Principles, Guidelines and Case Studies. IUCN, Gland and Island Press, Washington DC. Borrini-Feyerabend, G. (1996) Collaborative Management of Protected Areas: Tailoring the approach to the context. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. Borrini-Feyerabend, G., Kothari, A. and Oviedo, G. (2004a) Indigenous and Local Communities and Protected Areas: Towards Equity and Enhanced Conservation. Guidance on Policy and Practice for Co-managed Protected Areas and Community Conserved Areas. Best Practice Protected Area Guidelines Series No. 11, Phillips, A. (ed) Borrini-Feyerabend, G., Pimbert, M., Farvar, M.T., Kothari, A. and Renard, Y. with Jeireth, H., Murphree, M., Pattemore, V., Ramirez, R and Warren, P. (2004b) Sharing Power: Learning-By-Doing in Co-Management of Natural Resources Throughout the World. IIED and IUCN/CEESP/CMWG, Cenesta Tehran. Brenchin, S.R., Wilshusen, P.R., Fortwangler, C.L. and West, P. (2003) Contested Nature: Promoting International Biodiversity with Social Justice. SUNY Press, New York. Bushell, R. (2005) Tourism and Protected Areas. In: McNeely, J.A. (ed.) Friends for Life: New Partnerships in Support of Protected Areas. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. Cernea, M. and Schmidt-Soltau, K. (2003) National parks and poverty risks: Is population resettlement the solution? Paper presented at the Vth World Parks Congress, Durban, South Africa. Christ, C., Hillel, O., Matus, S. and Sweeting, J. (2003) Tourism & Biodiversity: Mapping Tourism's Global Footprint. United Nations Environment Programme and Conservation International, Washington D.C. DFID, EC, UNDP and World Bank (2002) Linking Poverty Reduction and Environmental Management: Policy Challenges and Opportunities. Drumm, A. and Moore, A. (2002) Desarrollo delEcoturismo: Un Manual para los Profesionales de Conservacion. The Nature Conservancy, Arlington, Virginia. Epler-Wood, M. (2002)Ecotourism: Principles, Practices and Policies for Sustainability. United Nations Environment Programme, Paris. Fisher, B. (2003) Within Boundaries: the Implications of Pro-Poor Conservation for Protected Areas. Presentation at the 5th World Parks Congress, Durban. Furze, B., DeLacy, T. and Birckhead, J. (1996) Culture Conservation and Biodiversity John Wiley and Sons, Chichester. Geisler, C. (2003) Your park, my poverty: Using Impact Assessment to counter the displacement effects of environmental greenling. In: Brechin, S.R., Wilshusen, P.R., Fortwangler, C.L. and West, P. (eds) Contested Nature: Promoting International Biodiversity with SocialJustice. SUNY Press, New York: 217-230. Ghimire, K. and Pimbert, M. (1997) Social Change and Conservation. Earthscan, London Goodwin, H.J., Kent, I.J., Parker, K.T. and Walpole, M.J. (1997) Tourism, Conservation and Sustainable Development, Vol. 1. Dept for International Development, UK. Gordon, G. (2002) Worlds Apart: A Call to Responsible Global Tourism. A Tearfund Report, London. Hausler, N. and Strasdas, W. (2003) Training Manual for Community-based Tourism. InWEnt, Leipzig. Honey, M. (l999)Ecotourism and Sustainable Development: Who Owns Paradise? Island Press, Washington. Inter-American Development Bank (2002) Bolivia: Sustainable Development and Ecotourism in San Jose de Uchupiamonas and the Buffer Zone of the Proposed Madidi National Park. Resource Book on Participation, Case Study VI, IAD. URL: http://www.iadb.org/aboutus/VI/resource_book/section_iii.cfm#caseVI Accessed 5 October, 2004. IUCN (2003) Recommendations of the Vth World Parks Congress. IUCN, Gland. Jeanrenaud, S. (1999) People-Oriented Approaches in Global Conservation: Is the Leopard Changing its Spots? IIED, London. Kothari, A, Pathak, N. and Vania, F. (2000) Where Communities Care: Community Based Wildlife and Ecosystem Management in South Asia — Evaluating Eden 3. IIED, London. Madalengoitia, L. (2000) Ecoturismo Sustentable con Comunidades Indigenas: Los Casos de Posada Amazonas y del Centra De Investigaciones Tambopata. Organizacion Internacional del Trabajo, Lima, Peru.

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Nelson, J. and Hossack, L. (Eds) (2003) From principles to practice: Indigenous Peoples and Protected Areas in Africa. Forest Peoples Programme. Moreton-in-Marsh, UK. Oviedo, G. and Brown, J. (1999) Building alliances with indigenous peoples to establish and manage protected areas. In: Stulton, S. and Dudley, N. (eds) Partnerships for Protection: New strategies for Planning and Management for Protected Areas. Earthscan, London: 99-108. Pedersen, A. (2002) Managing Tourism at World Heritage Sites. World Heritage Centre, UNESCO, Paris. Phillips, A. (2003) Turning Ideas on their Head -the new paradigm for Protected Areas. The George Wright Forum, 20(2): 8-32. Pimbert, M. and Pretty, J.N. (1995) Parks, people and professionals: Putting participation into Protected Area management. Discussion Paper No. 57, United Nations Research Institute for Social Development, Geneva, Switzerland. Rodriguez, A. (2QQ4) Ecoturismo: Una GuiaPrdcticapara el Desarrollo y Manejo deProyectos (unpublished). Roe, D. and Elliot, J. (2003) Pro-poor conservation: The elusive win-win for conservation and poverty reduction? Paper presented at the Vth World Parks Congress, September 2003, Durban, South Africa. Scherl, L.M. (2003) Working the Links between Protected Areas and Poverty. Presentation at the Vth World Parks Congress, Durban. Scherl, L.M. (2005) Protected Areas and Local and Indigenous Communities. In: McNeely, J.A. (ed.) Friends for Life: New Partnerships in Support of Protected Areas. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland: 101-112. Scherl, L.M., Wilson, A., Wild, R, Blockhus, J., Franks, P., McNeely, J. and McShane, T. (2004) Can Protected Areas Contribute to Poverty Reduction? Opportunities and Limitations. IUCN, Cambridge and Gland. Stronza, A. (2001) Revealing the True Promise of'Community-based Ecotourism: The Case of Posada Amazonas. Paper presented at the Sustainable Development and Management of Ecotourism in the Americas Preparatory Conference for the International Year of Ecotourism, Cuiba, Brazil: 22-24 August 2001. Stronza, A. (2004a) Trueque Amazonico: Lessons in Community-based Ecotourism. Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund, Washington DC. Stronza, A. (2004b) The Chalaldn Ecolodge: Making Ecotourism Work for Biodiversity Conservation and Community Development. Conservation International, Washington DC. United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (2003) Biological Diversity and Tourism: Development of Guidelines for Sustainable Tourism in Vulnerable Ecosystems. URL at: http://www.biodiv.org/programmes/socio-eco/tourism/guidelines.asp Accessed 6 October, 2004 Wearing, S. and Neil, J. (1999) Ecotourism: Impacts, Potentials and Possibilities. Butterworth Heinemann, Oxford. Weaver, D. (1998) Ecotourism in the Less Developed World. CABI Publishing, Wallingford. West, P.C. and Brenchin, S.R. (Eds) (1991) Resident Peoples and National Parks. University of Arizona Press, Tucson, Arizona. Western, D. and Wright, M. (Eds) (1994) Natural Connections: Perspectives in Community-based Conservation. Island Press, Washington, D.C. Wines, M. (2004) Garage the Harvester, Bring on the Rhinos and Zebras. New York Times, New York: August 20, 2004.

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Chapter 6

Joint Management: Aboriginal Involvement in Tourism in the Kakadu World Heritage Area Peter Wellings

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Kakadu - the Joint Management Setting Kakadu National Park is located in the wet-dry tropics of the Northern Territory of Australia, 120 km east of the city of Darwin. A feature of the Northern Territory is its very large area (1,346,200 km2) and small population base (200,000). Tourism is a key industry in the Northern Territory. It is the Territory's single largest employer (estimated to account for more than 1500 jobs directly and indirectly) and the second largest revenue earner after the mining industry. In 2001/02 the total worth of the tourism industry (including indirect effects) was estimated at just over AU$2 billion for that year. Kakadu National Park covers an area of about 20,00km2 and is the largest terrestrial national park in Australia. The park was declared in stages over the period 1979-1991 and was the first place in Australia where Aboriginal Land (land in which legal title is held by indigenous land owners) was specially leased to an agency (in this case the Australian government's Director of National Parks) for the purpose of joint management as a national park. Since that time the concept of 'joint management' of indigenous-owned land for national park purposes has grown across Australia. The growth of joint management has been driven by both the national objective of including more land (much of it held by indigenous land owners) in a 'comprehensive and representative' reserve system, as well as the need to settle indigenous land claims over areas of land already established as national parks. The numerous joint management agreements across Australia all feature their own sitespecific legal and administrative arrangements. Common features are a role for traditional owners in park decision-making, the direct employment of local indigenous people in park management, sharing of benefits from commercial land use of the park estate and the implementation of measures ensuring that indigenous land owners benefit from the management of their traditional lands as national park. Increasingly park managers and indigenous landowners are looking to tourism activity on park land as a key opportunity for economic and community development. In Kakadu the traditional owners are also keen to develop tourism as a way of valuing and maintaining their living cultural traditions and to create economic opportunities encouraging younger people to stay 'on country'. © CAB International 2007. Tourism and Protected Areas: Benefits Beyond Boundaries (eds R. Bushell and P.F.J. Eagles) Bushell, R., and P.F.J. Eagles. Tourism and Protected Areas : Benefits Beyond Boundaries, CABI, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central,

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Park Values

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The significance of Kakadu's cultural and natural heritage has been recognized by the inclusion of the park estate in the list of World Heritage properties that has been established under the international Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage. Kakadu National Park is proud to be one of only 23 'mixed' sites across the world, listed as World Heritage for both its natural and cultural values. Many of Kakadu's values as World Heritage directly relate to the culture of the Aboriginal traditional owners and their long stewardship of the Kakadu landscape over many thousands of years (Roberts et al., 1990). Maintaining living cultural traditions and maintaining cultural identity linked to the Kakadu landscape is a key issue for the traditional owners. An important characteristic of the park is that it includes a complete major river system (the South Alligator River) and a regional landscape that includes features such as an ancient and deeply dissected sandstone plateau, monsoon forest thickets, savannah forests, woodlands, extensive wetlands and significant coastal habitats, including off shore islands. This conjunction of major landforms has produced an ecological diversity that has been described as both representative and unique (Braithwaite and Werner, 1987). The importance of Kakadu's wetlands and waterfowl habitats has also been recognized by the listing of these areas under the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (the Ramsar Convention).

Fig. 1. Jim Jim Falls, in Kakadu National Park. (Photo: R. Bushell)

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Detailed descriptions of the park and its values, including its World Heritage values, are contained in the park's Plan of Management (Kakadu Board of Management and Parks Australia, 1991) and described in detail in Graham et al. (1994).

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The Establishment of Kakadu National Park Plans for a national park in the Kakadu region date from 1965 but little substantial progress in establishing the park took place until a decade later with the need to make decisions in relation to proposed uranium mining in the region. The discovery of substantial uranium deposits in the Kakadu region in the early 1970s led the Commonwealth government to establish a major inquiry (the Ranger Uranium Environmental Inquiry) into Australia's participation in this industry and the implications of developing uranium mines in the Kakadu area. A separate government inquiry at the time (the Woodward Land Rights Commission) was also considering options for legal recognition of indigenous land rights, and it proposed 'a scheme of Aboriginal title, combined with national park status and joint management, would prove acceptable to all interests' (Woodward, 1973). The Ranger Uranium Environmental Inquiry was later expanded to consider an Aboriginal land claim to land in the region under the newly established Aboriginal Land Rights (Northern Territory) Act 1976 - legislation that had been developed in response to the Woodward land rights inquiry. A key issue for the Ranger Inquiry became the potential to recognize Aboriginal title and - via lease back to a park management agency - the establishment of a 'joint managed' national park. One early concern of the Aboriginal claimants was that they would not be able, on their own, to manage adequately and look after the land in the face of growing and competing pressures, including pressures from tourism. It was hoped that by joining with the (then) Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service in managing the land as a national park that this would assist in meeting these challenges (Hill and Press, 1994). The Ranger Inquiry specifically addressed the potential for the park to provide a degree of protection from 'tourism intrusion' and to generally operate as 'a buffer between the Aboriginals, some of whom live within the park, and other people' (Fox et al., 1977). At that time about 600-800 indigenous people were living in the nearby township of Oenpelli, with a further 150 traditional owners and other Aboriginal people living in the area proposed as national park. The Ranger Inquiry recommended that uranium mining be allowed to proceed, that a large national park (Kakadu National Park) be established and that Aboriginal people in the region be granted title to land that could, in turn, be incorporated in the new national park. Title to land in the Kakadu region was eventually granted to Aboriginal claimants and, in November 1978, the Kakadu Aboriginal Land Trust leased three areas of land to the Director of National Parks and Wildlife for the purposes of a national park 'for the use, benefit, and enjoyment of all Australians'. At present, title to about half of the land within Kakadu National Park is held by Aboriginal traditional owners, with most of the remainder of the park still under land claim. Pending resolution of outstanding land claims, it has been the long-standing and continuing

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policy of the joint management partners that commitments to liaison and consultation with Aboriginal people regarding the management of the park extend over the whole park area, not just Aboriginal Land within the park. Park management aims to conform to internationally accepted principles underlying the definition and management of national parks but it also has to take into account the ownership and continuing occupation of land in the park by its indigenous traditional owners. A detailed history of the establishment of the park, description of the politics surrounding the declaration of the park and outline of joint management challenges can be found in Lawrence (2000).

Tourism in Kakadu

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Organized tourism to Kakadu has only a relatively short history, commencing in the late 1950s. Tourism at this time was built around small safari camps established to provide visitors with opportunities to meet local indigenous people, to view Aboriginal rock art, for sport fishing and to hunt crocodiles and the introduced (feral) Asian water buffalo. In the late 1970s political events surrounding uranium mining and indigenous land rights in the Kakadu region established a high national profile for Kakadu National Park. World Heritage listing and the very successful 1986 motion picture film Crocodile Dundee - much of which was filmed in the park - soon promoted its international profile. By the mid 1980s, and partly as a consequence of the promotion of Kakadu by the film Crocodile Dundee, tourism to Kakadu had grown rapidly; and was continuing to grow at 35% per annum. Tourist numbers peaked in 1994 at an estimated 240,000 visitors per annum. A comprehensive visitor survey in 2001 characterized visitors to Kakadu as follows: About 50% of visitors were from overseas (primarily of European origin), 45% were Australian domestic (interstate) visitors and just 5% of visitors were from the Northern Territory. Of visitors on organized tours, 75% were from overseas. 80% of visitors were on their first, and for many probably their only, visit to the park. Most visitors stayed for 1-3 days, with an average length of stay of 2.6 days. Many visitors were young, with 30% of visitors aged 25-34 years. The top five reasons for visiting Kakadu were given as: Appreciating the scenery. Seeing wildlife. Seeing Aboriginal rock art. Seeing the waterfalls. Learning about Aboriginal culture. Tourism to Kakadu is highly seasonal, with 50% of visitation to the park occurring in just three months of the year (June-August). Extending 'seasonality' has been, and continues to be, a key issue for the tourism industry. Bushell, R., and P.F.J. Eagles. Tourism and Protected Areas : Benefits Beyond Boundaries, CABI, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central,

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Fig. 2. The Bowali Cultural Centre presents the visitor with an 'underwater' perspective, highlighting the ecology of the wetlands. (Photo: R. Bushel I)

Tourism to Kakadu is critical to the regional economy, and many of the tourism businesses servicing Kakadu are small eco-adventure tour businesses based in Darwin and Kakadu. Staff of the Northern Territory Tourist Commission have estimated that in 200203 visitors to KNP (around 200,000 that year) contributed around AU$100m to the regional economy. It was estimated at the same time that holiday visitor expenditure in the 'Top End' region of the Northern Territory, including Darwin and the Kakadu area, was in the order of AU$620m. Visitor numbers to Kakadu, and other Top End national park destinations, have been steadily declining since 1999; with 190,000 visitors estimated to have come to Kakadu in 2002, down from the 1994 peak of 240,000 visitors. The decline can be attributed to a range of factors: 'shocks' such as the post-9/11 impact on tourism (2001/02), the Bali bombing (2002), the SARS epidemic (2003) and, some industry analysts say, the consequences of a shift (by the Northern Territory Tourist Commission) to marketing Northern Territory 'experiences', rather than 'destinations' such as Kakadu. In addition, tourism in the Northern Territory is heavily dependent on air travel, and reduced air services have also impacted on visitors arriving in Darwin. In 2003 it became clear that another emerging issue, the growth of the estuarine crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) in the park was also to affect the way the park was

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marketed and presented to visitors. In that year concerns about the risk of crocodile attack led to restrictions on swimming at the popular Twin Falls destination in the park. This led many tourism operators who had built businesses around swimming and trekking in Kakadu to question the future of tourism, especially tourism futures linked to the backpacker/adventure market segment.

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Bininj and Mungguy (Bininj is the term used by local indigenous people in the centre and north of the park to describe themselves. Mungguy has the same meaning for Jawoyn traditional owners who have responsibility for land in the south of the park.) Contemporary Aboriginal owners of Kakadu are the direct descendants of people who have lived in the region for at least 50,000 years (Roberts et al, 1990) and the Aboriginal rock art that is a special feature of the park is said to reflect the longest continuing art tradition in the world. Today about 250 Aboriginal people live in a number of small communities (commonly referred to as 'outstations') within the park, with a further 200 indigenous people living in the Jabiru township (total population 1000) in the park. The nearby community of Kunbarlanjnja (Oenpelli), in Arnhem Land, continues as the home of a further 700 indigenous residents of the region. Aboriginal people organize themselves around land-owning 'clans' that have stewardship relationships (expressed as 'traditional ownership') for land in the park. Responsibility for land (land ownership) is derived through a patralineal descent system so the child of a father is regarded as a traditional owner of the land of the clan of his/her father. There are more than 12 land-owning clans in the park, and a feature of local social organization is an inherent desire for 'clan autonomy' in decision-making - with different land-owning clans wanting to maintain their own identity and to make decisions in line with clan/family priorities and at their own pace. Historically, tourism has been seen as an intrusion, and traditional owners have mostly been passive beneficiaries of tourism activity - via shared ownership of tourism properties and as beneficiaries of land rent payments and a share of park use fees provided for under the park lease agreements. But now, traditional owners increasingly seek to engage in tourism, attracted by opportunities to generate an independent (family-based) income, opportunities for employment for young people (to help retain them 'on country') and opportunities through cultural-based tourism to maintain interest in and valuing of the traditional owners' living cultural traditions. For many traditional owners, being involved in tourism also represents opportunities for financing and underpinning their re-settlement on their land and an active role in day-today management of their traditional estates. As an example, one author, Bessie Coleman, sees involvement in tourism as an opportunity to fulfill special obligations to her country (the appropriate management of public access and use of land in the Jawoyn sickness country) and to pass on her knowledge to young people.

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Joint Management Arrangements Joint management of Kakadu National Park is built around the EPBC Act and park lease agreements (leases between the Director of National Parks and Wildlife and the traditional owners of Aboriginal Land in the park), the park Board of Management, the park Plan of Management and the active day-to-day involvement of traditional owners in decisionmaking and park management activities. The park lease agreements include commitments to: World standard management procedures. The maintenance of traditional occupation (residency) and usage rights. Employment training programmes for traditional owners. Providing employment opportunities for Aboriginal people. Support for Aboriginal business enterprises. Annual rental payments. Sharing of revenue from any fees and charges for use of the park. In 1989 a Board of Management was established for the park, with the majority of the members of the Board coming from among the park's traditional owners. The Board's functions include:

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In conjunction with the Director (of National Parks) the preparation of Plans of Management for the park. The power to make management decisions consistent with the Plan of Management. In conjunction with the Director, the monitoring of the management of the Park. In conjunction with the Director, advice to Government about all aspects of future Park development. The Board has a responsibility equal to that of the Director of National Parks and Wildlife to advise the Minister concerning park policy and management. In the event that the Board and the Director cannot agree the Minister may take steps to resolve the disagreement, ultimately by arbitration. The current Kakadu National Park Board of Management comprises 15 people, including 10 adult Aboriginal people nominated by the traditional owners of the Park. The Aboriginal owners of the Park have majority representation on the Board and the Chairperson is (by convention) selected by and from the Aboriginal members. This arrangement reinforces the status of Aboriginal traditional owners as the landlords (lessors) of much of the park area. Governing legislation specifically requires that due regard be given to the interests of traditional owners (and other Aboriginal people with interests in the park) in the preparation of park Plans of Management. The park plan has statutory force and sets out how the park will be managed for the term of the plan. The most recent Plan of Management (1999) articulates four overriding principles that govern the management of the park:

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Recognition of Bininj/Mungguy interests'. As freehold landowners of much of the land in the park - and claimants to land in the rest of the park - the Aboriginal people of Kakadu have rights and expectations; including the right to hunt and forage, and for economic and community development. The plan aims to support these rights and aspirations as much as possible. Caring for Country: The plan aims to recognize that conserving the special natural and cultural heritage of the park is fundamental to managing the park. The plan also acknowledges Kakadu as a cultural landscape and the important role indigenous landowners have in Caring for Country and maintaining the park's World Heritage values. Tourism: The plan recognizes that Kakadu is an important place for tourism and recreational use and that traditional owners are proud to share their country with visitors, especially those interested in learning about their culture and their land. It is also said that tourism is not to become more important than caring for country and looking after Bininj/Mungguy interests. Telling people about the park: The plan is clear that is important that a programme to communicate the parks heritage and the values of the park to visitors and the broader community be an integral part of management. Hill and Press (1992) have described opportunities for the direct involvement of Aboriginal people in day-to-day decision-making in the park as the 'backbone' of the success of the joint management arrangement. Approximately 40% of the 75 staff members in the park are Aboriginal people, most of whom have a traditional cultural attachment to the park. In addition all park staff members are encouraged to develop and maintain relationships with the local community so that, in effect, all staff share in the responsibility to liaise with the local community.

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Management Challenges Over the past decade a number of issues have coalesced to lead people with interests in Kakadu to question tourism futures for the park. The tourism industry has been concerned about the impact of a crowded tourism marketplace (many small tourism businesses) and diminishing visitor numbers on business profitability. More recently issues relating to crocodiles and visitor safety have led to review of swimming access at some sites. This has caused alarm in some tourism circles, concerned that swimming is a key activity sought by young backpackers and that restrictions on swimming may threaten that market segment. Parks Australia and traditional owners have responded by seeking to replace swimming as an activity with more access to local indigenous tour guides - encouraging learning about local indigenous culture and the cultural landscape values of the park. This is resonating with park visitors and, in 2004, Kakadu scored its highest visitor satisfaction rating from park visitors, as measured in independent surveys by the Northern Territory Tourist Commission. Park staff members have been concerned about the impact on the work loads of servicing tourism in the park and the impact on the park's capacity to address key conservation challenges, particularly threats to biodiversity conservation from invasive (weed) species. Opportunities should be available for partnerships with the tourism industry

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so they play more of a role in servicing park visitors but questions remain how best to manage the transition and flow of benefits and costs. Traditional owners have an array of issues of concern, including an overarching concern that all the economic activity flowing from tourism in the park leads to little net benefit to them. In 1997, the Kakadu Region Social Impact Study (KRSIS, 1997) found that, despite best intentions and arrangements put in place ensure local Aboriginal people were not disadvantaged by development in the region, local Aboriginal people had not benefited as they should have. A further key issue has been that, to date, most traditional-owner benefit from tourism has been passively derived from their investments in tourism properties in the park and share of park use fees. The traditional owners' share of park fees has averaged AU$940,000 per annum over the period 2000-2004. (In mid-2004 the Australian government announced its intention to abolish park use fees, as a device to re-vitalize tourism interest in Kakadu. The government also gave an assurance that traditional owners would not be financially disadvantaged by that decision.) Another key issue has been the potential for cultural tourism to support young people valuing and maintaining their language, stories of country and traditional knowledge. Older traditional owners look to tourism activity as a way for young people to benefit from the western cash economy but also to stay on country - maintaining linkages between people and land. Lastly traditional owners look to being more involved in tourism to ensure that visitors have happy and safe travels on their traditional lands - fulfilling a 'duty of care' obligation to visitors to their land. All of these objectives of the traditional owners link neatly with the promotion of the World Heritage values of the park; however, greater capacity-building is essential to enable tourism operators to engage actively in tourism enterprises.

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Actions In response to all these issues, and industry and government pressure to have a clearer vision for tourism futures in the park, the Director of National Parks and traditional owners have had many discussions about re-shaping and enhancing tourism futures to benefit the regional economy, the park and the well-being of the park's traditional owners. A key task has been how to deliver this, at the same time protecting and promoting the parks World Heritage values and ensuring that plans develop at a pace, and in a way, that traditional owners are comfortable with. During 2002/2003 the focus was on some core actions: Reservation of core business opportunities for local traditional owners to either operate directly or via a joint venture with established tour operators. The Guluyambi boat tours on the East Alligator River, showcasing the natural features of the riverine landscape and traditional beliefs relating to the creation of the landscape, is a very successful example. Taking advantage of traditional owners' capacity to offer exclusive access to sites. Traditional owners have used their decision-making power about access to land in the park to good effect. They have the capacity to offer sole access to sites in the

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park thereby giving tours a marketing edge on competitors, for example the Magela Cultural and Heritage Tours, operating in the northern part of the park, showcase rock art sites, stories and indigenous knowledge of plants and other resources. Encouraging joint ventures. Parks Australia has sought to maximize opportunities for connecting land and 'tourism resource' owners (traditional owners) with potential joint venture partners, through sponsoring traditional owner participation in forums designed to raise understanding of business-critical issues for the tourism industry, tourism trade shows and tourism conferences. This includes training and exchange opportunities with other indigenous communities and professional bodies involved in tourism. Former park staff have been recently engaged as consultants and advise on tourism and business management opportunities for indigenous business enterprises such as the Kakadu Tourism Association. Tours that change according to the season. Being mindful of the highly seasonal nature of tourism in the park, and the impact this has on businesses, Parks Australia and traditional owners have been promoting the idea of changes to tour content and itineraries to reflect the local indigenous seasonal calendar for Kakadu. This also provides opportunities for local Aboriginal people to present and promote the park in a different way - helping visitors to see the park in different ways and how local indigenous people harvest resources at different times according to their 'calendar'. Employing local indigenous people as 'experts'. Parks Australia and traditional owners have been encouraging more participation by local indigenous people in the park's own seasonal ranger programmes and providing training and encouragement for traditional owners taking up work as tour guides. In one part of the park an award-wining tour, Animal Tracks, presents a wildlife 'safari' and wetland tour through the eyes of a local indigenous woman. At Twin Falls young indigenous people are working as tour guides, interpreting Twin Falls as a reverent cultural place - imbued with stories and meaning; previously tourists mostly saw it as a scenic place for a swim and frolic in the sun. More recently the Director of National Parks, the Northern Territory government and the Kakadu Board of Management engaged a highly respected tourism expert, John Morse AM, former head of the Australian Tourist Commission, to define a new tourism vision for the park in consultation with tourism operators and the Board of Management (Morse et al., 2005). This work has now been completed and a number of recommendations to progress tourism futures are being considered for inclusion in the new park Plan of Management currently in preparation. In creating the shared tourism vision, ten key principles were identified and all subsequent actions will need to be reflective of these principles: Kakadu is first and foremost home to Bininj/Mungguy. They will influence, manage, encourage and participate in the development of tourism from which they gain economic and social benefit, at a pace and level they determine. Bininj/Mungguy have leased their land to the Australian Government to be jointly managed as a national park to protect and manage its priceless natural and cultural heritage.

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All parties will recognize and enhance the protection of Kakadu's diverse landscapes, internationally important wetlands and spectacular plants and wildlife. Tourism should not be 'boss of country'. The progress and development of tourism will be undertaken in accordance with the wishes of the Traditional Owners and at a pace which is consistent with their own values and aspirations. All parties will respect the wish of Bininj/Mungguy that tourism develop at an agreed pace and level which harms neither nature or culture. Respect for customary law and traditions will underpin all tourism decisions. All parties will respect the need for Bininj/Mungguy to retain their privacy, to use their land for hunting, fishing and ceremony and to protect and hold private their sacred stories and sites. Aboriginal culture and the land on which it is based will be protected and promoted through well-managed tourism practices and appropriate interpretation. The travel and tourism industry will have security of tenure, profitable investment and the opportunity to provide authentic and memorable visitor experiences, within the context of a commitment to respecting culture and country. Kakadu National Park will be recognized as one of the most significant natural and cultural World Heritage areas, offering visitors a range of enriching and memorable experiences.

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Summary and conclusions Kakadu National Park was established as part of a package of land use decision-making built around the concept of a large regional national park, owned by indigenous people and managed in a formal joint management partnership with a national park management authority. A key lesson learnt through the 20-year history since the park's establishment is that neither the park itself nor the traditional owners have been proactive in determining its tourism futures. Rather they have been the reactive managers of land used by an active, but fragmented, local tourism industry responding to tourism market demands. As time has progressed these 'demands' have started to drift away from the vision that traditional owners themselves had for the future of their land. There have also been missed opportunities for people to promote and market cultural tourism to Kakadu and the presentation of the World Heritage values of the park. Generation change - and the desire of current decision-makers to set tourism futures straight - as well as faltering tourism economies and the goodwill of well-minded governments, has meant that government, traditional owners, park managers and the tourism industry are now working together more closely to develop stronger, more relevant and sustainable tourism futures for the park. A key goal of the new vision document is the active involvement of traditional owners in the development of tourism businesses and their employment as tour guides, celebrating the parks World Heritage values. It is the belief of all involved that this new approach offers the promise of greater sustainability, more benefits for the park and more opportunities for traditional owners to feel actively involved in management decision-making for their country as well as improved social and economic outcomes for their families. The formal joint management arrangements, with traditional owners constituting a majority on the key

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park decision-making body, the Board of Management, make this possible. An important role for traditional owners, through the Board of Management, is emerging: the development of the park Plan of Management and the ability to regulate (through licensing and permit schemes) access to land for tourism purposes.

References

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Braithwaite, R.W. and Werner, P.A. (1987) The biological value of Kakadu National P ark. Search 18(6): 296301. Fox, R.W., Kelleher, G.G. and KerrC.B. (1977) Ranger Uranium Environmental Inquiry Second report. Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra. Graham, A., Press, A. J., Lea, D. and Webb, A. (eds) (1994) Kakadu: The natural and cultural environment and its management. North Australia Research Unit and Australian Nature Conservation Agency, Darwin. Hill, M.A. and Press, A.J. (1992) Kakadu National Park: An Australian experience in joint management. Paper presented at a Community Based Conservation Workshop. The Liz Claiborne Art Ortenberg Foundation, Virginia, USA. Hill, M.A. and Press, A.J. (1994) Kakadu National Park - a history. In: Longmore, R. (ed.) Biodiversity Broadening the debate 2. Australian Nature Conservation Agency, Canberra. Kakadu Board of Management and Parks Australia (1991) Kakadu National Park Plan of Management. ANPWS, Canberra. Lawrence, D. (2000) Kakadu - The making of a national park. Melbourne University Press, Melbourne. Morse, J., King, J. and Bartlett, J. (2005) Kakadu - Walking to the Future Together. A shared tourism vision for tourism in Kakadu National Park. Australian Government, Canberra. Roberts, R.G., Jones, R. and Smith, M.A. (1990) Thermoluminescence dating of a 50,000 year old human occupation site in northern Australia. Nature 345: 153-156. Woodward, AE. (1973) Aboriginal Land Rights Commission. First report, Parliamentary Paper No. 138 of 1973. The Government Printer of Australia, Canberra.

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Chapter 7

Tourism as a Tool for Community-based Conservation and Development Penelope Figgis and Robyn Bushell

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When the Outcome of Nature Conservation is Community Loss Two buses of World Park Congress delegates, well togged up in safari gear and cameras, dodged the potholes approaching the famed St Lucia Wetlands World Heritage Area. From the bus we could see small roadside stalls selling elaborate, decorative root systems and carved animals. When we dismounted briefly at a river to see hippos, a gaggle of small boys clutching some charming, but crudely carved, rhinoceroses began a vigorous sales pitch which descended into pleading when a sale seemed unlikely. We questioned our guide about the souvenir trade and he regretted that whole trees died in harvesting the roots and that the need for carving wood was decimating the local forests outside the park. The small amount of money for the hours of work involved, the ethical and social dissonance of a poor black child begging affluent Europeans, the environmental damage - surely this was not an example of a protected area delivering sustainable 'benefits beyond boundaries' to local communities. Yet too often this has been the pattern of tourism in high conservation value areas, especially in the developing world. Local communities have often endured resource loss through the declaration of the protected area, profited little from its development for tourism and then been left to try to extract some small value from the influx of visitors. More often than not this has occurred in a manner which has further damaged their environment, degraded their resource base and harmed their social fabric. In discussing such potentially adverse impacts, Eagles et al. (2002) write: The dangers are all the greater where there is a sharp contrast between the wealth of the tourists and the poverty of the host community. Where this occurs, local communities are potentially vulnerable to exploitation and their voice may go unheard. Both the protected area manager and the tourist provider have a special responsibility in such circumstances to ensure that the community is listened to, and its views allowed to help shape the form of tourism that takes place.

However, the Durban Congress underscored that tourism will often occur in such lands of 'sharp contrasts'. Much of the remaining lands of high conservation value and of most attraction to tourism are in the developing world and many, if not most, protected areas will © CAB International 2007. Tourism and Protected Areas: Benefits10 Beyond Boundaries (eds R. Bushell and P.F.J. Eagles)

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have neighbouring or resident communities living in poverty. Tourism is the principal export of the 49 least developed nations on earth and the premier exchange earner for 35 (UNEP, 2003). Indeed many high conservation lands are actually owned by indigenous communities or held under various forms of community title. Hence, the need for both conservation and tourism managers and tourism operators to make strong progress on the issue of finding appropriate forms of tourism which deliver genuine social and environmental benefits to local communities has never been more pertinent. The pressure for tangible progress is coming from building pressures on both the conservation and tourism sectors. First, there is pressure on the conservation community to address issues of social justice and delivering benefits from conservation, both as a moral obligation and also as a pragmatic imperative to make conservation more effective. Second, is the cumulative pressure brought to bear on the tourism industry to address past issues of detrimental impacts.

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The Role of Protected Areas in Addressing Poverty As the opening chapter makes clear, the call on the conservation community for protected areas to have a role in addressing poverty and achieving the goal of sustainable development has been a building theme in many key UN Summits and other fora and was confirmed at the Durban Congress. Tourism was the most frequently stated 'ecodevelopment' which might make this goal achievable. This direction reinforces the views of IUCN on social sustainability. In 1997 IUCN published a two-volume publication Beyond Fences: Seeking Social Sustainability in Conservation, which argued that there is a moral imperative to right the wrongs of the past and ensure traditional communities are involved in conservation and genuinely benefit from conservation. In turn pursuing a collaborative path will bring gains for nature conservation that are more effective and sustainable (Borrini-Feyerabend, 1997). The tourism industry has also faced a rising call for greater responsibility. The fact that overall the industry accepts it must address social responsibility and produce benefits is highly significant. It is a result of over a decade of value transition. Until the nineties, with a few exceptions, the international tourism industry's analysis of its social impact was fairly superficial. The industry felt it was bringing development and wealth creation. Development was, by definition, 'good': it meant jobs and prosperity and therefore 'local people' would be better off through the 'trickle down' effect. However, during the late 1980s and early 1990s the reality that tourism often had serious detrimental environmental and social impacts on host communities became increasingly exposed in numerous publications and conferences. 'Killing the golden goose' became the mandatory cliche to describe the common problems of areas being 'spoilt' by tourism through environmental destruction and host community hostility due to various negative impacts. Environmental issues in particular began to appear on tourism industry agendas and the concept of ecotourism emerged as a new 'antidote' direction. Ecotourism, which attracted a broad community of interests and stimulated a more profound level of debate, in turn, became a substantial driver of new ethics in all tourism. Although initially ecotourism was principally seen as promoting a form of benign tourism consistent with biodiversity conservation, the issue of community and local benefits was very much part of the totality of even early ecotourism debates. For example the US-

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based Ecotourism Society founded in 1990 defined ecotourism as 'responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment and sustains the well being of local people'. Similarly in 1993 David Western, in an introductory chapter to Ecotourism: A guide for planners and managers (Lindberg and Hawkins, 1993), wrote that 'conservation and tourism that denies the rights and concerns of local communities is self defeating, if not illegal.' He also asked whether 'tourism [can] bring genuine benefits to local communities, draw on local labour and expertise, build locally sustainable markets and bring improvements in health care and education.'

The Concept of Social Responsibility

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Hence, the concept of social responsibility, with its particular emphasis on local and indigenous populations gathered momentum in the 1990s to be a central issue in major tourism and conservation fora. It was embodied in key declarations such as the 1997 Manila Declaration on the Social Impact of Tourism and the outputs of the 2002 International Year of Ecotourism, the Quebec Declaration and the Cairns Charter. The shift in values was reflected in and taken forward by various tourism leaders. The Pacific Asia Tourism Association (PATA) was a pioneer, setting up a Foundation which supported social and environmental projects; also of particular note were the British Airways Tourism for Tomorrow Awards set up in 1989, which identify best practice standards in environmental and social responsibility. The author was an Asia Pacific judge of the awards, which cover mainstream as well as nature tourism products, for five years in the mid-1990s. She observed first hand how important the issue of what tourism operators were contributing to their communities became in the eyes of judges. The fact that the World Travel and Tourism Council in 2005 became a co-sponsor the Tourism for Tomorrow Awards, is an indicator of how such values have become mainstream1. In Durban, Costas Christ, Senior Director for Ecotourism at Conservation International summed up the cumulative vision when launching the report Tourism and Biodiversity: Mapping Tourism's Global Footprint (UNEP, 2003): By linking tourism development with biodiversity conservation and the well-being of local communities, we can develop strategies that both conserve Earth's most endangered ecosystems and help make a significant contribution to alleviating poverty.

However, this is a challenging goal especially when tourism to sensitive natural areas has grown by 100% between 1990 and 2000 (UNEP, 2003). Is it simply Utopian to talk of tourism that significantly contributes to both conservation and human well-being and development? Fortunately the answer appears to be that this combination is possible. There are good examples around the world of which the following case study of Turtle Island is but one example2. Certainly the vision has not only been pursued by particular destination products but by tour operators. Companies such as Earthwatch and ATG (Ad Terrae Gloriam) Oxford pursue businesses based on environmental conservation and sustainability goals, including community development. The Earthwatch Institute is an international organization which has 50,000 international members and which mobilizes fee-paying volunteers who work with 120 research scientists each year on field research projects around the world. Community development and conservation are seen as compatible and

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essential goals and the organization is putting increasing emphasis on working with local communities3. ATG, an Oxford-based company, focuses on walking tours and involvement in conservation projects. It has a 65% 'buy local' policy and 10% of profits are channelled via a Trust into community-supported projects (ATG Oxford, undated). These examples give us a glimpse of what 'good' looks like; however, the ideas are constantly evolving. From the social side of the agenda the Durban Congress recommended that, in the context of tourism associated with protected areas, the industry should work with others to develop tourism which (WCP Rec 5.12)4: l.c Ensures tourism contributes to local economic development and poverty reduction through: i. Support to local small and medium-size enterprises; ii. Employment of local people; iii. Purchasing of local goods and services; and iv. Fair and equitable partnerships with local communities. These recommendations principally identify economic benefits to communities but these can flow on to other social benefits, such as reducing emigration from rural communities - a major problem in the developing world, and providing greater access to health and education with all the multiple benefits which follow such improvements. Clearly social benefits can also cover much broader areas such as recognition of, and reinforcement of, important cultural values and skills.

Socio-cultural Benefits of Tourism

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UNEP identifies the following positive socio-cultural benefits of tourism: Tourism as a force for peace. It is argued that greater contact between cultures fosters respect and understanding. Strengthening communities. Apart from economic benefits and a higher standard of living it is said that tourism can benefit communities by reviving community events and festivals. Facilities developed for tourism can benefit residents. This benefit derives from tourism supplying infrastructure development such as roads, electricity, sewerage, hospitals and schools which might not have been introduced without the wealth generation of tourism. Revaluation of culture and traditions. Benefits can also flow from the renewed value placed on traditional culture and traditions. Dance, music, ceremonies, art and crafts may be revived and passed on to new generations. Tourism encourages civic involvement and pride. The acknowledgment of the value of traditional cultures by visitors can bring community pride, pride in culture and raise the status of elderly people who carry traditional knowledge (UNEP and WTO, 2005). One well-known example which delivers many of these benefits comes from New Zealand where the Maori people of the South Island community of Kaikoura have reversed the serious disadvantage of their community by launching a successful whale watching Bushell, R., and P.F.J. Eagles. Tourism and Protected Areas : Benefits Beyond Boundaries, CABI, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central,

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business. From a situation in 1987 where Maori unemployment was 92% and racial tension in the town was high it is claimed that up to 400 equivalent full time jobs have been generated and NZ$36 million brought to the region annually (Simmons and Fairweather, 1998). Yearly visitation has risen from less than 4,000 in 1987 to 100,000 in 1994 to 837,000 in 1998. The original Maori business 'Whale watch' stimulated other enterprises and as the major contributor to the towns rejuvenated economy the Ngai Tahu people are now held in esteem. Another excellent example is the 2003 winner of the Tourism for Tomorrow Awards, the Bunaken National Marine Park in North Sulawesi, Indonesia. Here many of the poor local people were engaged in highly damaging resource use such as cyanide poisoning and dynamiting reefs to harvest fish. Waste disposal and hygiene were also low. The park management set up a co-management initiative where 5 out of 15 board members came from the local community. The damaging practices have been stopped, the area has been cleaned up and entrance fees have been introduced of which 30% go into local community development. Alternative livelihoods are being explored and training provided by government and operators. One operator, British Airways, provides scholarships to allow local young adults to train in marine sciences (British Airways, undated).

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Dilemmas for Tourism as a Community Development Tool However, the 1998 publication Towards a Tourism Plan for Kaikoura (Simmons and Fairweather) also highlighted some of the dilemmas for tourism as a community development tool. The report made clear that despite the undoubted economic, cultural and social benefits brought by tourism there were also concerns. The age-old 'killing of the golden goose' issue still applied. The dramatic growth of the venture is threatening its core attraction of naturalness and authenticity. There are 'deepseated concerns over loss of control' of the scale and type of development. While Maori culture had undoubtedly had more exposure, at least some of the community were concerned about overcommercialization and modernization of culture and their cooption and misuse by nonMaori (Simmons and Fairweather, 1998, p. 18). Economic concerns included the rises in the cost of living, selective employment practices and an increase in the crime rate. There was also concern that it was easier for non-Maori and non-locals to raise the capital to start new businesses. The issue of volume is always a critical one in tourism. It is a particularly critical one in the context of remote and comparatively poor communities with a strong culture and high environmental quality. As the world becomes more crowded and less natural these less crowded, remote and natural places are developing strong rarity value. However, while 'small is beautiful' for intrepid travellers, if the development is too small, too humble, the benefits for community development may not be significant. In addition, communities may not turn away from traditional exploitation of wildlife and the environment unless the incentive is adequate. Mulholland and Eagles (2002) have highlighted the problem of inadequate tourism development in Africa being a threat to biodiversity as communities which cannot extract adequate benefits from conservation through tourism may turn to other more extractive and damaging land uses. Yet if tourism is too successful and the development is too large, the very attractors - wildlife, naturalness or small friendly community ambience - can become lost.

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Other cautions are necessary. In recent years we have seen the vulnerability of global tourism to pandemics like the SARs, war or terrorism graphically illustrated. At such times even developed nations suffer. Developing nations are especially vulnerable to these global risks and also very vulnerable to any perceptions of domestic danger, disease, civil unrest and war. For example the very substantial benefits which were flowing from tourism to see the mountain gorillas in Rwanda and Uganda have dramatically dropped since the massacres in 1994 and an attack on tourists in 1999 (Mulholland and Eagles, 2002). Similarly Papua New Guinea undoubtedly has all the assets necessary for major tourism unique exotic cultures, magnificent coastal, reef, mountain and rainforest landscapes and outstanding wildlife. Many tourist enterprises could be established in cooperation with community development goals. However, the country will never reap the benefits while there is a profound perception of danger from violence and crime. From the communities' point of view the key issue would appear to be one of establishing and maintaining control. However, realistically for any community embracing tourism will mean offsets. The question is always going to be whether the participation benefits of employment, health and education opportunities will outweigh the impacts of sharing your region with outsiders. Unfortunately it is difficult for communities to anticipate fully what development will mean in the long run and, in the past, central agencies have been more eager for the short-term income than for long-term planning which might offset some of these concerns.

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Conclusions While tourism can undoubtedly be overstated as a panacea it must also be said that for many communities in developing nations there are not many other development alternatives which do not involve much greater impacts. The case study of Turtle Island, Fiji, at the end of this chapter, highlights many of the key issues. Certainly the co-location of a poor community with few employment prospects and poor infrastructure for health and education in a highly desirable tourism setting is repeated worldwide. It is significant that this resort was not compelled by legislation to pursue high standards. This does suggest that the growing ethical consensus of 'what good looks like' plus the incentives of winning awards and perhaps free editorial exposure may be adequate to produce good practice in many cases. Clearly in this case the leadership of a committed individual in a senior position has also been a major factor. Having said this it would be complacent to presume this will always be the case and national sustainability strategies and legislative requirements are certainly an important part of the evolution of sustainable tourism practice. It is worth highlighting several other aspects of the Turtle Island case study. The commitment to environmental restoration, including revegetation and erosion stabilization, of a degraded area rather than just the development of a naturally beautiful area is significant. Too often the 'easy option' is to establish tourism infrastructure in a pristine environment. Regardless of practices it will be impacted - it is far better practice to restore a degraded area in this manner. The employment of a particular individual responsible for sustainability is also a model worth practising because of the accuracy of the saying that 'what is everyone's job is

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nobody's job'. The practice of having a dedicated position with performance indicators and clear accountability is sound practice. Another aspect of Turtle Island that is praiseworthy is the diversification of industries and employment beyond the resort. The backpacker establishments and furniture-making diversify skills and sources of income. However, it is the involvement of the guests in understanding that they are in a host community and the subtle way in which guests are introduced to the community needs that is outstanding. Too often international travellers seek sun and sand and relaxation in exotic locations and every effort is made by the operator to shield the relaxing and affluent traveller from the harsh realities and deprivation of their host communities. Here guests are clearly encouraged to have close contact with local people, understand, and identify with their needs. Without any heavy-handed appeals patronizing the locals this has over time led many to contribute in various ways to the well-being of the community. The provision of a Foundation vehicle is an increasingly common and highly effective means of channelling goodwill and philanthropy. The increasing number of such excellent models provide some optimism that the aspiration of the pioneers of ecotourism to see tourism deliver community development will be increasingly realized. However, the caveats which arise from Kaikoura suggest good planning, the acceptance of limits and constraints and the retention of community control are all critical ingredients of long-term commercial success and sustainability.

Case study: Turtle Island

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Tourism as a tool for community-based conservation and community development Turtle Island is a 14-room, five-star luxury resort located on a 200 ha, privately owned island (Nanuya Levu) in the Yasawas group of islands, Fiji. Situated in a remote location, it is accessible by seaplane (30 min) or boat (5 hr). Purchased in 1972 by Richard Evanson, who remains as owner-manager, the island was uninhabited and degraded after decades of neglect, overgrazing and clearing. Flora and fauna were depleted, soils eroded and the ecosystem, including mangroves, coral reefs and beaches, were damaged. Mr Evanson made a commitment to restore the island. Owing to its remote location, the island has no access to power or telephone mains. The community in which the resort is situated, the Nacula Tikina (a sub-provincial grouping of villages in the Yasawa Islands) has a sparse population, characterized by low employment, poverty and poor access to educational, medical and other facilities. There is minimal legislation in Fiji requiring sustainable practices in the tourism industry. Additionally, as Turtle Island is a privately owned, freehold property, it is not subject to the Native Land Trust Board (NLTB) so is under no legal requirement to work with the local community. Regardless of the legislative requirements, Turtle Island has implemented a range of innovative environmental and community-based programmes and activities to achieve its own objectives. The resort opened in 1980 after nearly a decade of preparation with a vision to provide a genuine and loving Fijian experience for caring people, and to be a vital resource to its community. The vision also made a commitment to be one of the leading

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ecotourism resorts in the world. With this came a need for a strong focus on environmental management and the introduction of conservation practices.

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Fig. 1. Turtle Island's 'waste' wood is collected and milled (above) for transformation into furniture.

Fig. 2. Turtle Island's 'waste' wood is collected and milled for use on the island and for sale to resort guests. Bushell, R., and P.F.J. Eagles. Tourism and Protected Areas : Benefits Beyond Boundaries, CABI, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central,

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The restoration of the island included the planting of more than 1 million trees that were raised in a nursery set up on the island. Turtle Island now has significant vegetation cover, which has grown from around 10% to over 82% across the island. This includes 140,000 mahogany trees, 180,000 nokonoko (casuarinas), 500 eucalyptus, 100 rainforest trees and thousands of hibiscus and palms (coconut and a variety of other indigenous palms). It also includes many from which native fruits can be harvested. The resort is continuing this reafforestation at a rate of 10,000 trees per annum, as well as supplying neighbouring islands with trees for planting. In order to protect the natural environment further, open fires have been banned on the island and a community education programme has been implemented to eliminate the practice of slash-and-burn on neighbouring islands, as this has been a significant cause of both deforestation and erosion. Reforestation has provided sufficient timber for building works. Trees which are felled due to storms, pruning or culling are milled and cured on Turtle Island then transformed into furniture and fixtures at the Island's on-site wood-working and cabinetry shop (see Figs 1 and 2). Local staff have been retrained in environmental management and rehabilitation, market gardening, complex carpentry and building, as well as work within the resort operations. These items are used in the bures (cottages) on Turtle Island, as well as at three backpacker lodges on nearby islands that Turtle Island has financed. Furniture is also available for sale to resort guests. Palm fronds and other natural materials are also used extensively in the construction of the bures. The use of these natural materials not only has great aesthetic appeal, it also highlights traditional Fijian culture and promotes the sustainable use of local resources. The reforestation has also halted erosion and provided habitat for birds and wildlife. A rich diversity has returned to the island and has resulted in a dramatic increase in the numbers of each species. Rats and feral cats were impacting on the breeding of the native birds, in particular an indigenous species of duck. To provide a safe breeding ground for the duck, a small island within a moat was created. It is also a pleasant spot for guests to enjoy bird watching. The Resort has also established a programme for the protection of green and hawksbill turtles. These endangered sea turtles are caught as a by-product of fish netting activities. As they are considered a delicacy by the indigenous Fijians, the turtles were usually distributed to local villages for consumption, with the shells sometimes making their way into local tourist souvenir shops. Turtle Island Resort has established an arrangement with local fishermen that captured turtles are sold to the Resort. These are then 'auctioned' to the guests. The successful bidder is allowed to paint the shell with a safe, non-toxic paint (thus negating the shell's economic value) before the turtle is released back into the sea. Turtle Island Resort has an arrangement with the local villagers that any 'painted' turtle will be released if captured. Monies from the auction are allocated to fund places at the Turtle Island Secondary School. Turtle Island has several areas of mangroves on its foreshore. Rather than destroying the mangrove wetlands, as many resorts do in an attempt to create more open beach space, Turtle Island Resort has conscientiously conserved these important wetland sites, and has incorporated them as a tourist attraction. Wooden walkways have been built over the mangroves so tourists can explore the wetlands without harming the delicate ecosystem. Tourists can also kayak the groves at low tide. The Resort plans to start a mangrove nursery in the future. Additionally foreshore erosion, which was considerable, has been reduced significantly through the placement of large rocks and boulders sourced from Island

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quarries. These quarries also provide gravel for concrete and rocks for the construction of the Resort buildings. As an element of its environmental management approach the Resort has implemented a range of initiatives. An 'Environmental Purchasing Policy' helps to minimize environmental impacts. The Resort has also commissioned two environmental audits, with a third undertaken in 2005. They have also undertaken a socio-cultural audit. These audits are available to guests in their bures to both educate the guests and to raise their awareness of the environmental objectives of the Resort. In 2003 they commissioned the development of a 'Sustainability Plan', leading to the appointment of a full-time Environmental Officer, an indigenous Fijian woman who is a graduate from the University of the South Pacific. The Environmental Officer has responsibility for the management of environmental practices on the island, providing advice and interpretation for guests, environmental education for neighbouring villages and schools, and establishing research linkages with the University of the South Pacific, government and relevant NGOs. With no natural streams, several dams have been built to ensure abundant supply for the resort's operational water needs. All drinking water on the island is supplied from natural springs. Each of the guest bures has its own septic tank and leach field, which is tested every five years. No leakage has been detected. Grey water is distilled through the septic fields as well. All cleaning materials used on the island are biodegradable and comply with the Resort's Environmental Purchasing Policy. Toiletries and amenity packs for the bures are supplied by Pure Fiji, itself an ecotourism award-winning Fijian company. Garden beds are mulched to reduce the need for watering, and plantings focus on the use of native species suited to the dry tropical conditions of the island. The Resort has established an organic hydroponic vegetable garden, of about a hectare, that supplies about 90% of the required herbs, fruits, root vegetables and salad greens. Flowers for the bures are sourced from the thousands of hibiscus trees that have been planted on the island and from an on-site orchid house. An apiary produces honey, which is consumed at the resort, as well as sold through the resort shop. All hot water to the guests' bures is solar heated, and much of the outside lighting is solar powered. Additional electricity is provided by means of a diesel generator. A heat exchanger has been installed on the generator and this provides hot air for the drying of laundry. Florescent lights are used wherever possible and temperature controls and covers have been installed on spas in the bures to conserve energy further. Information is provided to guests regarding the need to conserve both water and electricity. Usage is monitored separately for each bure. Bures are fan cooled and are positioned to optimize the sea breezes. Landscaping also provides significant shading so air conditioning units have not been necessary, even though it is a five-star resort in the hot tropics. Guest refrigerators are positioned to minimize heat in the bure. The two-stroke outboard motors on boats have recently been replaced with four-stroke engines to reduce fuel consumption and to minimize noise. Guest transportation on the island is by means of electric carts. The only fossil-fuel-powered vehicles are for heavy goods and excavation vehicles. A wind generator has been installed, though it has not performed at the expected level of efficiency. It currently only generates between 6-8% of the electricity required on the island. Being a remote outer island, there are limited options for waste disposal. The Resort has a rubbish separation programme whereby all rubbish is sorted and disposed of in the most sustainable manner possible. All organic waste is composted and used to fertilize the

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gardens; shellfish and bones are disposed of in the sea; non-organic, biodegradable waste is deposited at a site for decomposition; bottles, oil and toxic wastes are sent to the mainland for disposal; plastics (which are minimized) are reused where possible or buried at remote landfill sites, as there are no alternate recycling options at this stage. Even mainland Fiji has no waste recycling programmes available. Thus, even if waste were removed to the mainland, it would be very costly in terms of financial expense and energy consumption, and merely shifts the problem to a new location. In the Yasawa Islands, where Turtle Island is located, there is high unemployment. The only real option for employment is tourism. Turtle Island Resort employs 156 people, 50% of whom come from the local community (total population 3500) and only two employees are expatriate workers. The remainder of the employees come from other areas in Fiji. The Resort provides opportunities for capacity-building through in-service training as well as sending some employees offshore for additional training. Staff members are encouraged to showcase their culture for guests, and traditional activities, such as lovo (native feast), Fijian language, massage, village visits and singing, form an essential part of the 'product'. Not only do guests benefit from these cultural activities, traditional practices are reinforced on a daily basis. Guests are provided with a range of materials about Fijian culture. Guest information literature describes Fijian culture and summarizes important protocols that guests must observe. Each bure is stocked with a selection of literature on the natural, cultural and social history of Fiji. Additional information is available to guests on request. Each bure has a 'bure manager', a member of staff who sees to the guests' needs. These bure managers also act in the important role of cultural interpreter, advising the guests on protocol and providing personalized information about Fiji and Fijian culture. Due to the vision of the resort and the special visitor experience with close contact between guests and staff, philanthropic gestures are quite common. Guests receive information about the community initiatives undertaken by Turtle Island, many guests then wish to contribute. In response to this, in 1992 Turtle Island established the Yasawas Community Foundation (YCF). Guests are able to make a contribution to the YCF, of which 100% of the funds go to community initiatives in education, health care and business opportunities. Children in the local community, wanting to further their education after primary school, have had to board on the mainland at a cost of about FJ$500 per annum. As the average annual family income in the Nacula Tikina is FJ$1500, very few children have had the opportunity to complete high school. Due to the lack of any secondary schools in the area, and very low retention rates post primary school, the Trustees determined to use $200,000 of corpus to assist Turtle Island to found its own secondary school. The building is still under construction, but the school is operational. The school commenced in 2002. In 2005 it had 52 students across four forms, with six teachers. This programme to educate leaders in the community has enabled those young people attending the school to go back to their seven local villages at the weekend. Turtle Island's goal is to have the school educating 60 students by 2006. It is hoped that through providing secondary education, young people will gain the skills to work in the tourism industry in the Nacula Tikina and the trend towards urban drift will be reduced. Turtle Island has recently entered a strategic partnership with Geelong Grammar School in Australia. The school is being provided with a Principal and a teacher, working alongside the Fijian teachers, together with significant educational support from Geelong

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Grammar. The Australian teachers have begun providing in-service training for primary teachers in the Tikina and have been undertaking a range of community liaison activities. Resort guests have also contributed in other ways to the local community. The health care facilities in the Yasawas Islands are also very lacking. It had a nursing station with no electricity or running water, or equipment. Turtle Island has been augmenting the quality of health care available through the provision of several health resources. This includes responding to the endemic problem of blindness due to cataracts and diabetes. For the past 13 years, the resort closes for one week, a team of medical professionals, many of whom have themselves been guests at the resort, donating their time on a pro-bono basis to set up a full eye clinic. In this time more than 11,000 Fijians have had their eyes tested, more than 9000 pairs of glasses have been issued free of charge, over 1000 operations have been performed (mostly cataract removal), and 20 corneal implants provided. As most of the patients are now coming from other parts of Fiji, Turtle Island has worked with other resorts to move the clinics to parts of the country where the needs for the clinic are more acute. As a direct result of this, one of the regional hospitals, Savusavu Hospital, has been upgraded to accommodate the clinics. Since 1997, the Resort has expanded the medical programme to include other specialist health services that would not otherwise be available, such as women's health, paediatrics, dermatology, ear, nose and throat, and dental clinics. Turtle Island Resort has had a long-term commitment to the health of the people of the Nacula Tikina. For some time, the Resort had been planning to build a medical centre on the island to better provide for the health needs of the community. While planning for the medical centre was well underway, this development has halted. As with all interactions between private enterprise, community and government agencies there are inevitable frustrations. As a result of Turtle Island indicating that they were willing to fund a medical centre, funding was going to be withdrawn for the government health clinic in the Tikina. Members of the community raised considerable concern and in response, Turtle Island ceased the development. Funding (both Turtle Island funding as well as contributions made through the YCF) has been diverted to the new school and given as direct contributions to the seven villages in the Tikina for water projects. A grant of FJ$ 10,000 was made to each village in 2004, which has been used to purchase four 10,000 litre water tanks for each village, in order to alleviate their difficult water situation. Turtle Island Resort is the largest employer in the Nacula Tikina area of the Yasawa Islands. There were limited opportunities for economic development in the area and a significant problem of urban drift to the mainland. Under a social entrepreneurial programme, Turtle Island has financed over $1 million in interest-free loans for the construction of three budget backpacker operations in the Tikina and is currently looking at financing a fourth. Turtle Island plays an active role in the governance, marketing and management of the resorts and a proactive role in skills transfer. The resorts have directly and indirectly created over 100 new sustainable jobs in the community. The interest-free loan to establish these businesses will be recovered from the profits of the resorts. Two of the operations, 'Oarsman's Bay Lodge' and 'Safe Landing Resort', are very successful. Oarsman's Bay employs 44 people and Safe Landing another 23. Oarsman's Bay Lodge runs at an average 90% occupancy rate. It is currently making a profit of around FJ$5000$10,000 a month, which is rapidly reducing its loan of FJ$700,000. In only a few more years, the local community will receive all the revenues from the resort because it will be paid off in full.

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The third resort, Sunset Lodge, has not realized the successful outcomes of the other two lodges. Through their own admission, the management of Turtle Island Resort has recognized the need to have 'spent more time on the mat' in discussions with the local land owners about the resort before the development was implemented. As a result, there was a significant dispute among the landowners of the resort. The resort was closed; however, after another round of discussions, an arrangement has been reached whereby the landowners intend to buy the resort back from Turtle Island at the current market value and manage it themselves. Turtle Island will continue to assist with the marketing of the resort. Turtle Island was instrumental in establishing a sub-regional tourism organization, the Nacula Tikina Tourism Association (NTTA), to assist local operators and to work collectively to optimize benefits in such a remote location. The NTTA provides the opportunity for branding of the region, joint marketing, advocacy with government and the benefit of working together for the common good. Meetings are held every two months, during which issues of local interest are discussed. Good environmental management practices are discussed, and members are encouraged to adopt them, both in their operations, as well as in their villages. For example, NTTA members have adopted their own Code of Conduct for responsible tourism practices and have recently published coralfriendly snorkelling guidelines for use by visitors to the area to promote the protection of the marine resources. Though the initiative of Turtle Island Resort, Safe Landing Resort is now hosting the Coral Cay Conservation organization. Up to 16 volunteers, plus two employees, will undertake marine surveys, providing valuable data and information to the Fijian Government about the state of the marine environment in the Nacula Tikina. Turtle Island has assisted Oarsman's Bay Lodge to implement a 'Plant a Tree' scheme, resulting in the planting of an additional 500 trees on Nacula Island as part of the reforestation programme. At the most recent NTTA meeting, negotiations were undertaken to introduce a police post in the Nacula Tikina and the possibility for a branch of Westpac bank to be opened in the community. Both of these are very significant developments for this remote and isolated community that has no shops or other commerce, other than tourism. The ethos of Turtle Island Resort is that its business cannot succeed if the community does not succeed; solid businesses will not succeed in a failed community. This underpins all the operations of Turtle Island Resort. As a result, Turtle Island engages in a range of innovative initiatives to ensure the health and viability of its community. This case study also clearly shows the importance of the link between the health of the natural environment to the well-being of local people and to local business. Hence it demonstrates not only that conservation efforts are essential to sustainable development, but that community and private enterprise conservation strategies are vital, especially in remote areas. Case study sources: Andrew Fairley, Turtle Island; Berno, T., 2002 Turtle Island: to be a vital resource to their community. University of South Pacific; Berno, T., 2004 World Legacy Awards: On-site Evaluation of Turtle Island, Yasawas, Fiji. Christchurch Polytechnic Institute of Technology.

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Notes 1. 2.

3. 4.

Details of the awards, including case studies of past winners, can be found at http://www.britishairways.com/travel/crt 4t/public/en_gb Although focusing principally on revenue generation there are a substantial number of short case studies in Font, X., Cochrane, J. and Tapper, R. Tourism for Protected Area Financing: Understanding tourism revenues for effective mangement plans, Leeds Metropolitan University, Leeds UK available at www.leedsmet.ac.uk/lsif/the/sustainability.htm. The British Tourism for Tomorrow winners are a good source of case studies www.britishairways.com/travel/crt4t/public/en_gb See 'From the President' comments by Roger Bergen, President and CEO of Earthwatch 2003 Annual Report http://www.earthwatch.org/aboutew/AnnualReport03.pdf The recommendations from the Congress are available at www.iucn.org/wpc2003

References

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ATG Oxford (undated) ATG Oxford-About Us: The Company at URL: www.atg-oxford.co.uk/about.php Borrini-Feyerabend, G. (ed.) (1997) Beyond Fences: Seeking Social Sustainability in Conservation, Vols. I & II. IUCN - The World Conservation Union, Gland, Switzerland British Airways (undated) Tourism for Tomorrow at URL: http://www.britishairways.com/travel/crt4t/public/en_gb Eagles P.F.J., McCool, S.F.and Haynes, C.D. (2002) Sustainable Tourism in Protected Areas: guidelines for Planning and Management. IUCN Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. Font, X., Cochrane, J. and Tapper, R. Tourism for Protected Area Financing: Understanding tourism revenues for effective mangement plans. Leeds Metropolitan University, Leeds UK available at www.leedsmet.ac.uk/lsif/the/sustainability.htm Lindberg, K. and Hawkins, D.E. (1993) Ecotourism : A guide for planners and managers. The Ecotourism Society, Vermont. Mulholland, G. and Eagles, Paul F.J. (2002) African Parks: combining fiscal and ecological sustainability. Parks 12(1): Tourism and Protected Areas, IUCN Gland, Switzerland 42-49. Simmons, D.G. and Fairweather, J.R. (1998) Towards a Tourism Plan for Kaikoura, at www.lincoln.ac.nz/trrec/reportlOf%20dist.pdf UNEP (2003) Tourism to Earth's Most Threatened Areas Surges by over 100 Percent in Last Decade, 12 September at URL: www. unep.org/Documents.Multilingual/Default.asp?DocumentID=332&ArticleID=4253&l=en UNEP and WTO (2005)Making tourism more sustainable: a guide for policy makers. United Nations Environment Programme, Paris.

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Chapter 8

The World Heritage Tourism Programme: Lessons Learned Art Pedersen

Introduction The 7881 World Heritage sites currently distributed across more than 120 countries are a convenient set of high-visibility sites upon which to focus international conservation initiatives. World Heritage sites are deemed to be the most important natural and cultural sites in the world, and so generally attract considerable visitation. Because of their diversity, and the growing importance of tourism to site management, World Heritage sites provide ideal locations for research into heritage conservation and tourism management.

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World Heritage and the World Heritage Centre The United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage Centre (WHC) located in Paris, France is the international secretariat coordinating the implementation of the Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, frequently abbreviated to the World Heritage Convention. The Convention, adopted by UNESCO in 1972, is based on the principle that World Heritage sites have intrinsic and universal values and should be preserved for future generations. The World Heritage Convention is the only international convention that protects both natural and cultural properties. The World Heritage Committee - composed of 21 of the total 178 member states - has, over its history, been active in calling attention to tourism issues affecting World Heritage sites. In most cases this has involved issues related to the suitability of infrastructure development in or around sites. In many cases the Committee has been able to apply diplomatic pressure to halt or modify these plans. WHC Programme officers also carry out missions to investigate reports of negative tourism impacts.

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Fig.1. The Great Wall of China Bushell, R., and P.F.J. Eagles. Tourism and Protected Areas : Benefits Beyond Boundaries, CABI, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central,

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The World Heritage Tourism Programme The overriding importance of tourism to World Heritage, both as an opportunity and, if poorly managed, as a threat, was recognized by the World Heritage Committee when it authorized the Centre, in 2001, to develop a World Heritage Tourism Programme. This Programme's goal is to demonstrate linkages between sustainable tourism and the conservation of World Heritage and to develop tools and methods for broad tourism applications. The objectives of the programme include: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Facilitating destination networking between cultural and natural heritage. Exploring the role of World Heritage 'anchors' or platforms that would be used as important focal points in the development of national, regional and local tourism planning and development. Supporting the use of scientific information and knowledge in heritage interpretation programmes. Promoting guide training and high-quality presentation of the World Heritage and its values. Developing and disseminating information and lessons on the importance of heritage in national development tourism planning. Setting up mechanisms for demonstrating the positive role tourism can play in World Heritage conservation. Engaging the tourism industry to aid site protection and local community development is one of the keystones for the Programme Strategy.

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World Heritage Centre Tourism Programme activities Since 2001 the WHC has initiated a number of tourism-related projects and actions. These include: designing projects that link tourism and conservation; promoting local tourism products that support site conservation; assisting in the production of site tourism plans; distributing sustainable tourism information and training materials; and facilitating interactions between site management, local, national and regional authorities and the tourism industry. An important Tourism Programme initiative has been the four-year UNESCO-United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP^Rare^United Nations Foundation project with the goal of linking biodiversity conservation and sustainable tourism development at six World Heritage sites. This effort combines conservation education, planning, business development and marketing techniques to create processes for using tourism to promote the protection of important habitats. A key project component is involving tour operators in site-specific activities to create better tourism products and sustainable management systems. The project sites include El Vizcaino and Sian Ka'an in Mexico, Komodo and Ujung Kulon in Indonesia, Rio Platano in Honduras, and Tikal in Guatemala. Activities at these sites revolve around the following: Enhancing site management capacity for using tourism to support conservation through the development of tourism public use plans. Increasing the level of local awareness of and support for conservation efforts through conservation education.

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Providing local economic incentives for biodiversity conservation by strengthening local capacity for creating community-based enterprises and employment through training local guides and developing local products. Linking regional, national, and international-level tourism marketing strategies and programmes in each country with site and community needs and capabilities. Promoting the sharing of experiences and best practices for linking sustainable tourism with biodiversity with other sites and protected areas. A World Heritage Tourism Programme framework The lessons learned and issues raised during the four years of Tourism Programme initiatives have provided points for reflection and a preliminary framework for continuing Programme activities. The following seven interdependent activities are suggested as key elements upon which to base and guide World Heritage sustainable tourism initiatives and policy. 1. Building the capacity of World Heritage site management to deal with tourism: Two key tools to include in this component are a site assessment process to determine how tourism interventions can be used to mitigate site threats, and the development of a tourism public use planning process providing a broad vision of how site tourism will be developed and managed.

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2. Training local community members in tourism-related activities to participate in the industry and receive tourism's benefits: Tourism generates demand for a wide range of services, providing opportunities for community development. If these services are linked to the protected area, providing an alternative to high-impact land uses such as logging or mining, it is believed that tourism can help foster community support for conservation and site management. Some activities here are: providing training to local people to enter the tourism industry, for example, training local guides and other community members in micro enterprise development; and ongoing training to raise skill and service standards. 3. Aiding communities around the sites to market their products: Marketing local community products is necessary to offer local people an alternative economic source to the extraction of protected area resources. Products and services such as local guides, crafts and boat operators are rarely part of regional, national, or international marketing efforts. It is believed that the WHC, working with the tourism industry, can play a role in providing international links and raising demand for these local products. 4. Raising public awareness of World Heritage and building pride with local communities and visitors through conservation education: Raising awareness of the value of site resources generates respect and a sense of pride among local populations and promotes a feeling that the site must be protected for more than economic reasons. While there are no specific quantified data - and this an aspect that requires greater study - it is generally believed that residents living in and around World Heritage sites have limited knowledge of its global significance and the reasons for its protected status. Carrying out conservation education campaigns at sites can help to fill this deficiency.

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5. Using tourism-generated funds to supplement unmet conservation and protection costs at the sites: Generating funds from tourism and site visitation is a key protected area challenge. Supporting actions that increase site revenue from visitor fees, concessions, or donations generated by the tourism industry are all recommended actions for this activity. The World Heritage label may attract tourism operators to become more involved. This would permit tourism industry partnerships to develop creative mechanisms that deliver financial benefits to site conservation efforts. 6. Sharing the lessons learned with other sites and protected areas: Information and training systems for site managers and staff is a World Heritage Tourism Programme objective. Practical information targeted to site managers is a primary focus, although it is thought that this basic information will also be useful for those engaged at the policy level. The concept of using World Heritage sites as anchor sites for disbursing information and expertise to other protected areas is a key information distribution and training strategy that is being adopted by the Tourism Programme. 7. Building increased awareness of World Heritage and its activities and policies for tourism industry officials and their clients: Raising industry officials' awareness of the importance of safeguarding World Heritage can help coordination with the tourism industry and assist managers to address a number of tourism problems. Support from company officials can generate international support for conservation efforts, change the policies of the ground operators they work with, and motivate visitors to make donations to conservation and respect management regulations. Important elements with respect to raising visitor awareness are presenting a realistic image of the site; describing management efforts and challenges; education on visitor impact minimization; and providing information on how to contribute to the site's protection.

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Key Lessons Learned Four years of the Tourism Programme have generated a number of issues and lessons learned that will impact on future programme initiatives. Several of these issues are presented to promote feedback and further discussion from the sustainable tourism and conservation community and the World Commission for Protected Areas (WCPA) Tourism Task Force. This input will also be used to provide guidance for future World Heritage sustainable tourism activities. Site management The site assessment process at World Heritage sites is useful and can address a wide range of site pressures and threats. Carrying out site assessments to determine tourism interventions that contribute to threat mitigation is a common conservation practice. Site assessment methods have now been used at a number of World Heritage sites, specifically during the aforementioned UNESCO-UNEP-Rare World Heritage project. The primary focus of the assessments has been to identify localized threats that are negatively impacting the sites, for example, illegal plant extraction and illegal hunting.3 After threats are identified, initiatives such as nature

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guides' training and micro enterprise development have then been initiated as alternatives to these unsustainable activities. For World Heritage sites, tourism assessment processes may be expanded for a wider range of pressures than those generated from a strictly local community context. Because of the WHC's capacity to raise international attention and engage in dialogue with a range of economic interests, the assessment processes may also address impacts to sites generated from sources outside the community. These threats could include threats from international and regional interests, for example international logging interests, whose actions or policies at the local scale impact the site's state of conservation. Because of its perceived neutral status, in many cases, the UN can raise attention to these larger issues and facilitate dialogue to positively influence harmful policies and actions. Administrative and institutional site pressures may also be included in World Heritage sites assessment processes. With additional information on the site's administrative and institutional situation, World Heritage Programme officers are better able to support efforts to boost protected area needs related to strengthening site staff capacity. For example, if the assessment found that the site's administration needed tourism planning skills, the Centre could then seek support for strengthening the technical staff's tourism planning abilities.

Fig. 2. Machu Picchu

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Tourism public use plans provide necessary baseline data and a tourism vision that also provide guidance for tourism management and assist in tracking changes to the site. Few World Heritage sites have tourism plans to provide baseline data and a global vision on how tourism will be developed and managed. World Heritage officers must frequently respond to reports of inappropriate tourism development but may have little information on site tourism management policies upon which to base decisions. Having tourism public use plans outlining agreed upon tourism policies, particularly on infrastructure development issues, would help the sites and guide World Heritage decisionmaking. In developing a plan for a World Heritage site, administration may wish to consider incorporating the site's World Heritage values into the broad policy framework. The information on why a site was or will be inscribed, and a statement of significance related to World Heritage criteria, can provide useful input for the plan's broad tourism vision. The site's World Heritage significance could be combined with national regulations and other related policies to form a more robust management instrument. A particular example of this is the potential for World Heritage site designation criteria to provide insights into supporting policies guiding the visual, spatial and functional qualities of site infrastructure. Infrastructure design decisions could be adopted and justified by referencing the World Heritage criteria and the site's significance. For instance, if a site is listed for natural heritage criteria three, which is concerned with the significance of aesthetic values, infrastructure development threatening this value would not be approved. The proposed development of a ten-storey hotel blocking a magnificent view of a pristine natural canyon, for example, is not appropriate for a site listed for aesthetic values. If infrastructure guidelines were written to reflect the stated World Heritage values, management could use the Convention in calling international attention to the hotel initiative in conflict with site values. World Heritage criteria may be referenced when developing the Recreation Opportunity Spectrum (ROS). Planners could reference World Heritage site criteria and values within the different, agreed upon ROS zones. For example, if a World Heritage site is listed as having sacred significance to local people, site management planners could refer to these values to further justify decisions to manage the sacred areas of the site for experiences reflecting the area's sanctity, managing the visitor experience to provide a tranquil and meditative environment. During the World Heritage nomination process a management plan presented in tandem with a tourism plan may help to strengthen the site's nomination dossier. Connecting to the tourism industry Although the tourism industry has contributed grants for restoration and infrastructure such as visitor centres and education activities, engaging the tourism industry to contribute to site protection and local community development has been more difficult. The World Heritage Centre and partner NGOs need creative approaches to engage the industry in support of local community tourism efforts. The World Heritage Tourism Programme successfully implemented training for local people in tourism industry skills, including as guides and in micro enterprise development. Connecting to the tourism industry to support community and site needs continues to present difficult challenges and continuing action is essential.

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Fig. 3. Local guides

In the vertical structure of the large international tourism companies, linking local tourism products and the tourism industry invokes a number of issues. Decisions on local services and products are usually made by ground operators working in the destination country. In some countries, these ground operators may be owned, or partially owned, by the European or North American parent company, but retain decision-making power over which attractions are visited and services used. Parent companies may be approached at the highest levels to advocate for their involvement in supporting site conservation and local products, but this does not necessarily guarantee that local products will be integrated with the ground operator's itinerary. There can also be gaps between upper management and the company representatives managing the day-to-day operations, limiting the use of local products and services. At allinclusive resorts, for example, the parent company's country representatives may receive requests from the head office to use the services of local guides and entrepreneurs. However, country representatives may have little time to dedicate to developing these relationships and possible community add-on attractions. Country representatives frequently have high staff turnover and this can lessen incentives to develop local business relationships. In spite of obstacles, some tour operators may be willing to facilitate and offer local tours as add-on attractions for their clients, distribute information on the local products in their hotels, planes and resorts and provide in-kind services in the form of business training to local communities to lift the quality of their service. To begin to establish dialogue and essential linkages for involving companies at the sites in these activities, systematic and well-programmed site visits for executives could initiate the desired personal relationship with site staff and the local communities.

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Following site visits, several actions could occur. Ideas for local add-on attractions can be suggested and their marketing potential evaluated. Interested tour operators could nominate new local products and training courses to aid local product development, and client surveys could include specific questions about the company's support of local sites, communities, and site projects. If there were positive survey responses, company officials could more easily advocate to their associate ground operators for the use of local product and service attractions. In addition, company officials in the central office could facilitate work policies allowing their country representatives the time to work with local community service providers to develop the necessary linkages to local products. Increased cooperation, exposure of private tourism sector involvement and support to sites and local communities requires systematic media promotion. World Heritage recognition can be an incentive for private sector tourism industry participation at sites. The tourism industry is increasingly engaged in global corporate responsibility actions (corporate governance); partnering with World Heritage sites and participating in associated conservation efforts: this helps gain international recognition. To maintain the continuing movement toward active involvement in conservation efforts media promotion is needed to highlight tourism industry initiatives. Private sector involvement in activities, such as business training to local communities, can bolster the quality of their services. Additionally, the UN/WHC can highlight such involvement to media networks, providing the promotion the industry needs to maintain and increase investment in local ventures. World Heritage participation at international tourism trade fairs is another essential component of this effort. At these large international events, spotlighting a tour company's activities in support of World Heritage could provide competitive advantage. In 2004, the WHC sponsored a stand at the Berlin International Travel Bourse (ITB) to showcase the tourism activities it is engaged in. Local services and products being developed in the local communities around several World Heritage sites, particularly sites related to the UNF tourism project, received significant international exposure. As a result, several international tour operators attending the event became interested in supporting local enterprises being developed at World Heritage Tourism Programme project sites. The cycle of having substantive local actions for the industry to support and the media to report is vital to establishing, maintaining and expanding private sector site involvement and World Heritage tourism industry partnerships. The World Heritage label, the potential for media promotion of tour industry projects at sites, and the trend towards industry social responsibility are all important elements motivating tourism industry involvement in collaborative projects. For the continuing expansion of industry support, ongoing development of conservation and local sustainable tourism projects is fundamental. Private sector involvement in tangible activities, such as the local guides training schemes, represents a win-win situation both for conservation and the tourism industry. In this scenario, sites gain improved conservation and protection, while high-profile, attractive activities produce the media stories the industry is seeking. Action is needed to attract the involvement of specific target tourism market segments that are geared to support WH site conservation efforts and economic development in the neighbouring local communities who aid conservation efforts. Broadening the support of different tourism market segments will complement efforts to gain positive conservation results from tourism. The WHC should be involved in attracting the types of tourists who maximize site conservation benefits and the use of local

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products. These include the travel market segments whose clients use more local services, pay higher prices, make donations to the site, and are attentive to their impact on site natural and cultural resources. The WHC has recently formed a partnership with Earthwatch, an international group bringing paying visitors to World Heritage sites areas and working directly with scientists there. Earthwatch groups and the array of international volunteer and academic groups could form one part of this segmented market approach as they fit a visitor profile that can be motivated to directly benefit the site. Specialty markets, like Earthwatch and other volunteer groups, such as academic travel groups, who use local products and logistical services help 'train' local service providers and can pave the way for more mainstream tourism markets.4

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Government marketing efforts New tourism products, particularly at more remote sites, may not have the potential to generate significant tourism revenues in the short term and therefore are not usually included in government marketing efforts. Creative ways to provide market exposure for local products through official government channels is possible. Local community products that are linked to sites are rarely promoted through international and national tourist campaigns. World Heritage may be able to influence the entry of these products into international and national promotional campaigns. At some sites, working with the industry and governments on a regional marketing approach that links several sites may facilitate government involvement. This would provide a greater chance of local products being included in tourism packages. One example of this approach would be if tourism products and attractions of less visited sites were sold as add-on attractions linked to heavily visited sites. At the Rio Platano site, local people are being trained through the UNESCO-UNEPRare-UNF project to develop local tourism products. The Mosquito Coast of Honduras, including the Bay Islands and several protected areas including the Rio Platano World Heritage site, has been identified by the Honduran Ministry of Tourism as a region to be developed.5 Rio Platano, however, is isolated from those main attractions and the site is constrained by less than easy access. If, however, Rio Platano was listed in the Bay Islands marketing materials, through international, national, and regional marketing schemes, a percentage of people visiting the Bay Islands could be drawn to visit Rio Platano. For many World Heritage sites and their 'satellite' protected areas, a collective approach using a central information hub may aid promotional efforts. Shared lists of qualified guides at each site, a data bank of conservation activities for visitor participation, and information on making donations could all enhance site protection and stimulate local tourism-related economic development. It was suggested at a site managers' meeting of the UNESCO-UNEP-Rare-UNF tourism project that World Heritage play a role in facilitating cooperation for the implementation of these sorts of collective activities. Site management - tourism industry coordination Cooperation with the tourism industry would keep tourism demand stable and the quality of local products high. Many site administrators wish to develop a sustainable local tourism industry, where tourist numbers are limited but those tourists who visit pay favourable prices for local Bushell, R., and P.F.J. Eagles. Tourism and Protected Areas : Benefits Beyond Boundaries, CABI, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central,

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community services. This strategy requires that local community members develop sufficient skills so that service levels are high, enabling them to attract higher paying clients. Additionally, both the number of tourists and the number of concessions granted to local community service providers should be maintained at a constant level. If site visitation were not limited, higher quality services would lead to higher demand. If the number of community members holding concessions were not limited, as visitation increased, communities would run the risk of attracting outsiders to the communities. These outsiders, wishing to work in the industry, would flood the market, thereby driving down local prices. In addition, if the tourism industry saw local services as profitable they may press site management to increase visitation and the number of local concessions to meet demand. Site management would probably resist an increase in visitation as they have limited staff to manage the growing numbers. Site management and local NGOs would probably not have the resources to train more local people to enter the industry. Community members who did not hold tourism concessions would in turn press management for the expansion of the number and size of local concessions granted so they can participate in tourism activities. The result would be creation of enormous social pressures and resentment towards the protected area. A factor in maintaining this strategy of fixed visitor site numbers and charging higher prices for community products and services is cooperation from the tourism industry. If the tourism industry cooperates with site management to limit visitor numbers and create a stable tourism situation, the above scenario may be different. Questions remain on how feasible this cooperation may be. Perhaps cooperation would be facilitated by tourism industry participation from the start. Via activities such as the development of tourism public use plans, the industry would become involved in decisions on visitor numbers and logical concession policies to limit market flooding. In sites with existing problems of growing visitation, industry participation could involve developing add-on attractions to neighbouring sites. This would relieve tourism pressures at highly visited sites. Experience is needed to determine if site management, aided by UNESCO, could garner support from the industry to help create stable environments in which joint management initiatives could secure maximum conservation benefits. Site administration and tourism industry links limit potential benefits. There is a need for a WH officer at the site level to have responsibility for dealing with visitor management, community tourism development and to liaise with the tourism industry. In the UNESCO-UNEP-Rare project, tourism public use coordinators have been trained to carry out planning activities. The original project strategy was to employ tourism public use coordinators not only for tourism planning but also to act as an intermediary with the tourism industry. This could involve contacting ground operators and introducing them to local people and the products developed during the project. While this is happening to some extent, the role at some sites may be in conflict with the coordinator's role as protected area staff member, whose job is to work on planning, monitoring and compliance. Coordinators selected for the project are generally young field staff short of the experience and knowledge to deal with industry at a policy level. Site directors are also unable to fill this role as they are occupied with pressing conservation issues and are not necessarily tourism experts. How to fill this need for a person to represent site interests to the tourism industry is a missing link in the sustainable tourism equation. At several sites, managers suggested that

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World Heritage plays a role in facilitating this cooperation with the ministries of tourism and the industry. Perhaps a short-term stratagem is for the international NGOs with a longterm presence at the site to meet this need. Until protected area systems institutionalize a senior position of a public tourism coordinator to liaise with the tourism industry and appropriate ministries there will exist a gap, limiting site-industry conservation potential. Raising public awareness and building pride in the World Heritage sites The icons of site pride and identity, such as an endangered species, developed with World Heritage conservation education campaigns, could serve as symbols to link with other sites and promote regional conservation. It is assumed that protected areas will be valued if they have a constituency believing and taking pride in the moral value of conserving the site. Site pride and identity by local people are considered essential ingredients in long-term site protection. During the UNESCO-UNEP-Rare-UNF project, conservation education campaigns developed by RARE are being used successfully to develop this sense of site identity. In the RARE campaigns an animal or bird identified by the surrounding local population is used as a symbol upon which to base a social marketing campaign. For example, the symbol for Tikal National Park is a jaguar, and a Manta Ray symbolizes Komodo National Park. Puppet shows for local schools, songs, and drawings are produced with the species symbol as the main focus. These highly effective programmes have produced good results in achieving awareness of the importance of the site.6 As these campaigns take hold and a species becomes identified with the site, it would be interesting to see if the 'pride' in and identity of a particular symbol could be expanded to cover a wider area to improve protection of satellite sites. For example the World Heritage network could be integrated where possible with existing networks such as the Mundo Maya route in MesoAmerica, a tourism route linking sites of outstanding Mayan culture. In these cases further research would determine the interesting question of whether World Heritage awareness and pride could stimulate a regional public and private commitment to conservation.

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Information distribution issues and lessons learned Information distribution may be facilitated by using WH sites as anchor points. Information distribution is now a component of most conservation projects. Electronic transfer of information is standard practice, with project information posted on websites. Another effective option for facilitating information distribution, if resources are available, may be to encourage the use of World Heritage sites as anchor points, or hubs, where collective knowledge and economic development possibilities are expanded outward, creating links to neighbouring World Heritage sites and protected areas. There are practical reasons for this approach. Extending the knowledge gained in the project to neighbouring sites could provide an efficient and less costly means to carry out certain activities. Combined site monitoring and training could be extended to neighbouring areas, providing cost effective economies of scale. Regional workshops organized by the WHC and held at the anchor site could spark an interest in the experiences of the site, lessons learned, and a desire to acquire the skills developed at the anchor site.

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Using tourism-generated funds to supplement site conservation and protection costs Other creative approaches to use tourism to enhance site financing may be available for World Heritage sites. Site managers correctly report that there are a number of restrictions to getting tourism industry-generated funds for on-the-ground site activities. Tourism industry stakeholders want to finance projects rather than operational costs. Tour operators want specific projects to show their clients. Visitor fees in some countries are restricted or returned to the central government with little benefit to the site. Donations are possible, for example, via a surcharge to the tour purchase price that goes to a particular site either directly or though World Heritage. However, there may be other potential mechanisms to explore. One option may be the development of World Heritage tours to support sites. As a follow-up to the Australian Ecotourism Conference in November 2002 the WHC has developed a partnership with Ecotourism Australia, the Australian NGO whose membership is composed of tour operators and other service providers in the Australian ecotourism industry. In November 2003 a Memorandum of Cooperation was signed outlining several possible initiatives; one initiative is the development of World Heritage tours. In this scheme, Ecotourism Australia members donate services such as nights at an eco-lodge, entrance to a nature reserve, and car rentals, for the creation of a World Heritage tour. The donated services are then packaged and the tour sold at retail prices. The profits generated go toward site protection. The tours are now in the development phase. This initiative, and others like the UNEP Tour Operator's Initiative, could be explored so as to realize creative ways of generating benefits from the tourism industry for World Heritage site protection.

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Building conservation awareness with the tourism industry Going beyond the usual guidelines for industry interaction with World Heritage sites may build conservation awareness within the tourism industry. Giving lists of sustainable guidelines and desired behaviours to industry officials is important but it now appears that a deeper and more effective engagement is possible. Support from company officials so as to not exceed the limits of site management capacity in dealing with visitors; generating international backing for conservation efforts; changing ground operator policies; and motivating visitors to make conservation donations are all important objectives. Industry commitment to raising public awareness by teaching the importance of safeguarding World Heritage to their clients is also a priority. Going beyond the usual guidelines of 'dos and don'ts' for industry interaction with World Heritage sites now appears promising and needs continuing development. Now may be the ideal time in the history of conservation-private sector efforts for the UN WHC to play a leading role in facilitating further positive industry engagement in site protection.

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Notes 1. 2. 3. 4.

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5. 6.

Including Purnululu inscribed 2003, Royal Exhibition Bldg and Carlton Gardens, Melbourne, June 2004. Rare is a US-based, international, not-for profit conservation organization. URL: http://rarecentre.org/index.htm Rare is not an acronym. Various site assessment reports form the UNESCO—UNEP—Rare project, Linking Biodiversity Conservation and Sustainable Tourism at World Heritage Sites, 2001-2002. Communication with Robert Llewellyn-Smith, Environmental Partnerships Manager, Earthwatch Institute (Europe), 267 Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7HT UK. Interview with Minister of Tourism, Insituto Hondurano de Turismo 2003. Communication with Maureen O. Cunningham, Director, World Heritage Partnership, Rare ~ Inspiring Conservation, 1840 Wilson Boulevard, Suite 204, Arlington, VA 22201 USA, Tel: +1.703.522.5070, Fax: +1.703.522.5027, E: [email protected].

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Chapter 9

Transfrontier Conservation Areas and Sustainable Nature-based Tourism Anna Spenceley

Overview This chapter describes Transfrontier Conservation Areas (TFCAs) in southern Africa and explores their implications for nature-based tourism and biodiversity conservation. Political and planning factors that southern African stakeholders consider critical to the development of sustainable nature-based tourism in TFCAs are presented. The practical implications of their perceptions are discussed.

Background

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Protected areas and Transfrontier Conservation Areas Protected areas have a number of purposes, which include the protection and enjoyment of natural or cultural heritage, the conservation of biodiversity and maintenance of ecological life-support services (IUCN, 1991). At the Vth World Parks Congress in 2003 the World Conservation Union reported that globally there were 102,102 protected areas conserving over 18.8 million km2 (12.65% of the earth's surface: Chape et al, 2003). The establishment of protected areas is often motivated by the desire to conserve biodiversity (Leader-Williams et al, 1990), but the sites have generally been situated peripherally, on land with relatively low agricultural, mining or industrial development value (Harris, 1974). In addition, protected areas are often fragmented, isolated, and cover relatively small areas of land. Fragmentation has effectively created 'islands' of biodiversity, which are prone to problems of inbreeding depression, genetic heterozygosity, and localized extinctions (Caldecott et al, 1996). Efforts have been made to link protected areas through wildlife corridors, and so allow wildlife to migrate between areas and reduce the likelihood of local extinctions (Newark et al, 1993). There has also been increasing international interest among conservationists regarding Transfrontier Conservation Areas (TFCAs) (e.g. Thorsell, 1990; Westing, 1993; Hanks, 1998).

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Beyond Boundaries (eds R. Bushell and P.F.J. Eagles)

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Table 1. Southern African Transfrontier Conservation Areas Transfrontier Conservation Area Kgalagadi

Countries involved

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Botswana South Africa Great Limpopo Mozambique South Africa Zimbabwe Maloti Drakensberg Lesotho South Africa Ai-Ais Richtersveld Namibia South Africa Chimanimani Mozambique Zimbabwe lona Skeleton Angola Coast Namibia Lubombo Mozambique South Africa Swaziland Limpopo Shashe Botswana South Africa Zimbabwe Nyika Malawi Zambia Vwaza Marsh Malawi Lundazi Zambia Kasungu Lukusuzi Malawi Zambia Source: Braackefa/., 2003

Memorandum of Understanding signed Apr 1999

Formal launch Area (km'1) 12 May 2000

37,991

10Nov2000

9 Dec 2002

35,771

11 Jun2001

22 Aug 2003

14,774

17Aug2001

1 Aug 2003

6046

10Jun2001

Future date

2056

1 Aug 2003

Future date

31,540

Signed as part of other protocols in 2000 Future date

Future date

-25,000

Future date

4872

Future date

Future date

3243

Future date

Future date

>984

Future date

Future date

5936

TFCAs are described as relatively large areas encompassing one or more protected areas, which straddle the frontiers between two or more countries (World Bank, 1996). These areas have the potential to conserve more biodiversity, over larger land areas, and to stimulate cooperative wildlife management than distinct national parks (BSP, 1999). The concept of transboundary conservation management in Africa was first introduced in 1925 when the Albert National Park was established between Ruanda-Urandi (now Rwanda and Burundi) and the Congo. The Belgian colonial regime developed the park in order to conserve natural resources, and after independence the Rwandan part became Pare des Volcans and the Congolese section became the Virunga National Park (Wilkie et al, 2001). By 2003 four TFCAs covering an area of 94,552 km2 had been officially launched in southern Africa, and seven others were being planned (Braack et al., 2003) (see Table 1). Opportunities for tourism may be improved by the establishment of TFCAs, by allowing visitors to disperse over wider areas and have better quality experiences with more diverse attractions (Singh, 1999; van der Linde et al., 2001).

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Fig. 1. South Africa and Lesotho are partners in the Maloti-Drakensberg TFCA, which incorporates the Drakensberg mountains in South Africa

Biodiversity and sustainable nature-based tourism

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Tourism can have significant implications for biodiversity conservation: Tourism can generate revenue in areas of high biodiversity and help to make them economically viable (IUCN, 1993; UNEP, 1996, 2000; Weaver, 1999). Tourism can raise public support for conservation since it can provide environmental education to visitors and hosts, and can generate employment and other economic opportunities for local people. People who perceive a direct value from biodiversity may be motivated to conserve natural areas (Goodwin, 1996). Tourism can be less environmentally damaging than other revenue-generating industries based on natural resource use, including forestry, slash and burn agriculture, pastoral farming and wood collection (Collins, 1998; Ross and Wall, 1999). Tourism may be one of the few economic activities suited to take place within conservation areas located on marginal land (Netboy, 1975). However, tourism should not be perceived as a conservation panacea for all areas of high biodiversity, because tourism does not always generate sufficient revenue to pay for conservation management, and therefore government subsidies and public donations are often required (de la Harpe et al., 2004). There are encouraging indications that a key motivator of private game reserves is an interest in wildlife rather than profit, and therefore they are not exclusively focussed on the bottom line (Aylward, 2003).

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Nature-based tourism uses '...natural resources in a wild or undeveloped form including species, habitat, landscape, scenery and salt and fresh-water features. Nature tourism is travel for the purpose of enjoying undeveloped natural areas or wildlife' (Goodwin, 1996). Although nature-based tourism does not necessarily contribute to biodiversity conservation or host populations it includes sub-categories of tourism that may do so. In the year that the World Commission on Environment and Development released the Bruntland report, Krippendorf proposed that a new, less exploitative form of tourism was needed, which could be evaluated in relation to its capacity to contribute to gross national happiness, by measuring, '...higher incomes, more satisfying jobs, social and cultural facilities, and better housing' (Krippendorf, 1987). Butler (1993) subsequently defined 'sustainable development in the context of tourism' as:

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'...tourism which is developed and maintained in an area (community, environment) in such a manner and at such a scale that it remains viable over an indefinite period and does not degrade or alter the environment (human and physical) in which it exists to such a degree that it prohibits the successful development and wellbeing of other activities and processes' (Butler, 1993: 29).

The volume of tourism research literature focusing on sustainable tourism development has grown since Rio Earth Summit in 1992 (Bramwell and Lane, 1993; Owen et al, 1993; Archer and Cooper, 1994; Murphy, 1994; Harris and Leiper, 1995; Mowforth and Munt, 1998; Eagles et al., 2002). However, the majority of this research has originated in developed countries (Tosun, 2001), despite acknowledgement by the World Tourism Organization that tourism in less developed countries is not the same (OMT/WTO Secretariat, 2002). Tosun (2001: 289) stated that the emphasis of research in industrialized nations '...fail[ed] to provide a conceptual vehicle for policy formulation to progress sustainable tourism development... owing to limitations that originate from the structure of developing countries and the international tourism system'. In addition, sustainable tourism research has been traditionally been dominated by concerns for the environment and community involvement (Roe and Urquhart, 2002) and therefore policy, planning and economic issues have largely been neglected. Some have suggested that this may be a consequence of researchers approaching tourism studies from the main discipline in which they were trained, rather than using holistic approaches (Echtner and Jamal, 1997). Market demand for sustainable tourism products Aside from ethical reasons for policy-makers and planners to promote sustainable naturebased tourism in TFCAs, there is increasing evidence that the market for responsible tourism products is increasing (see Table 2) and that tour operators are increasingly requiring that their ground handlers report on their environmental performance (e.g. the Association of Independent Tour Operators [AITO]) (Spenceley, 2003a). Although most tourists still make holiday purchasing decisions in relation to the price, climate, facilities and quality, market studies indicate that the sustainability of their travel experiences are becoming increasingly important.

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Table 2. Consumer attitudes to the environment and sustainable tourism

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Issue

Proportion of Source sample* Importance of environmentally sensitive policies and practices More likely to book hotels with a 87% British IHEI study, cited in Anon., 2002 good environmental attitude 60% Australians (n = 300 travellers at airports in 54% Americans UK, Australia and US) It was important that their holiday did 71% Stueve et a/., 2002. not damage destination (n = 4300 adults in the USA) environments 2000 - 85% Important that the holiday should not MORI study for ABTA, cited by 2002 - 87% damage the environment Goodwin and Francis, 2003 (n = 963 British public in 2000; n = 71 3 in 2002) 1995-52% At least fairly important to deal with a MORI, 1995, 1997, cited in 1997-61% company that took into account Martin and Stubbs, undated environmental issues when arranging (British Public) holidays and business trips Importance of socially responsible policies and practices 1999-45% Tearfund, 2001,2002 More likely to book a holiday with a 2001 - 52% (1999: nationally and regionally company that had a written code representative sample of guaranteeing good working n = 2032 adults in the UK; 2001 conditions, protection of the n = 927) environment and support of local charities in the tourist destination 24% Mintel, 2001 Knowing that they had booked with a (n = 2028; UK holiday makers = company with good ethical practice 1636) July 2001 made their holiday enjoyable MORI study for ABTA, cited by 2000-71% Importance of the holiday benefiting Goodwin and Francis, 2003 2002 - 76% people in the destination (e.g. (n = 963 British public in 2000; through jobs and business n = 71 3 in 2002) opportunities) Forschungsinstitut fur Freizeit Respect towards the ways of living 95% und Tourismus (FIF), Muller and the traditions of the local host and Landes, 2000 population was the most important (German tourists) criteria for them when booking a holiday The sample size is indicated, where known Source: Spenceley, 2003a

Therefore, it is the responsibility of governments, planners, investors, the tourism industry and other stakeholders to demonstrate that they are operating responsibly and making progress towards sustainable development. No systematic efforts have previously been undertaken to identify which factors stakeholders in developing countries perceive are critical to the implementation of sustainable nature-based tourism in TFCAs. Butler (1998) notes that sustainable tourism must be regarded within the context of the value systems of those involved and the societies in which the tourism exists if it is to be achieved.

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Therefore this chapter describes how a systematic consultation process was used to identify the factors perceived as essential or incompatible with sustainable nature-based tourism by southern African stakeholders.

The Consultation Process

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The Delphi technique is an accepted consultation method for gathering information on issues that are not easy to quantify, and provides a rapid, effective way of gaining consensus from a group of knowledgeable people on complex problems (Pill, 1971; Linstone and Turoff, 1975; Green et al, 1990). An overview of the Delphi consultation process undertaken is depicted in Fig. 2.

Source: Spenceley, 2003a

Fig. 2. The Delphi consultation process

The objectives of the Delphi consultation were to: •Identify factors relevant to the development of sustainable tourism that had not b previously described within the literature.

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Determine the relative importance of these factors in generating sustainable naturebased tourism in TFCAs among southern African stakeholders (Spenceley, 2003a). The choice of consultation panel members was designed to represent a range of conflicting interests from divergent groups across southern Africa that were relevant to sustainable nature-based tourism. Stakeholders were drawn from government, conservation parastatals, academia, consultancies, the private sector and non-governmental organizations. Where stakeholder groups were sufficiently large, panel members were randomly selected. Seventy-five individuals were selected to form the panel in the first round. This scoping round was undertaken to determine factors that regional stakeholders considered were crucial in achieving sustainable nature-based tourism, but which were unlikely to be reflected in the academic literature (e.g. because tour operators rarely write peer-reviewed journal articles). In the second round, 518 individuals were asked to rate the importance of factors identified during the literature review and the scoping round. This larger panel was used to increase the reliability and validity of the process by engaging with more representatives from different institutions across southern Africa. A Likert-scale rating system (Likert, 1967) was used by panel members to rate the relative importance of various factors as either 'essential', 'desirable', 'irrelevant', 'undesirable', or 'incompatible' with sustainable naturebased tourism (Spenceley, 2003a). Ratings made by responding panel members were combined and circulated in the third round, and the panel was asked if they wished to revise their ratings in light of the group's responses. Chi-square analysis was used to evaluate the statistical significance of agreement on different factors. This analysis determined whether the tally of responses on the mode (the most frequently reported rating) was significantly different from other frequently reported ratings. For the purpose of this study, consensus was assumed when the level of agreement on the mode rating was statistically significant (i.e. p < 0.05: *) (Spenceley, 2003a). Over 500 individuals representing nearly 350 organizations within nine southern African countries were invited to participate in the Delphi consultation, and 197 of the invitees chose to contribute to the study. Of 183 policy, planning, economic, environmental, social and cultural factors that consultees concurred were critical to the sustainable development of nature-based tourism in TFCAs, 47 were related to policy and planning issues (25.7%) (Spenceley, 2003a). The policy and planning results are described within this chapter and further details of the consultation process, the other 136 factors and the toolkit are presented elsewhere (Spenceley, 2000, 2003a).

Policy and Planning Factors Critical to Sustainable Nature-Based Tourism A policy factor rated as 'essential' to sustainable nature-based tourism in TFCAs with a highly significant level of consensus (p < 0.01: **) concerned the need for political stability with strong and sustained political support. Stakeholders agreed that multi-lateral agreements regarding TFCAs, and the recognition of sovereign integrity were 'essential' to sustainability. The existence of policy frameworks that supported transboundary cooperation, and policies that addressed corruption and dispute negotiations were also

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considered to be 'essential'. However, one consultee commented that cooperation could be possible even without strong and sustained political support for TFCAs, and another participant indicated that law enforcement should address ecosystem boundaries rather than TFCA borders. Economic policy factors rated as 'essential' at a highly significant level addressed the need for multi-lateral strategic tourism development policies, and policies that facilitated good business management, allowed clear and strong property rights, improved local employment opportunities and incorporated the fair distribution of benefits. One participant highlighted the need for the distribution of benefits to be dictated by market forces rather than by government policy. The panel also concurred that both the presence of multi-lateral management policies relating to natural resources, and clear and secure land tenure policies were 'essential'. However, a respondent indicated that even if land tenure was secure and clear, it might not necessarily be just or stable, as had been indicated during recent years in Zimbabwe. Transparent policies and agreed protocols during periods of conflict were rated as 'essential' with a statistically significant level of agreement by the panel (p < 0.05: *). However, a participant commented that many conservation areas were imposed and maintained by non-transparent unilateral dictates, which were not necessarily desirable. Another participant remarked that enforcing protocols during times of conflict was not practical, however 'essential' it might seem. In relation to planning issues, the panel concurred that a strategic planning framework, integrated and holistic planning processes and the avoidance of overcapitalization and overdevelopment were 'essential' to sustainable nature-based tourism in TFCAs (p < 0.01: **). The need for consistency between strategic land-use plans and authorized developments, and the use of comprehensive impact studies were also agreed to be 'essential'. With regard to overcapitalization, one panel member argued that tourism development could, in some instances, create demand. Also considered 'essential' were that planning guidelines should be designed specifically for sustainable development, and that strategic planning regarding the scale and range of tourism development in the long term should have feasible objectives. There was consensus that plans should state which natural and cultural resources should be sustained, and that plans should also detail how they might be most sustainably and profitably utilized. Respondents noted that collaboration between TFCA stakeholders could be flexible over time; with countries joining the process at different stages. The panel concurred that collaboration between nations and relevant stakeholders throughout the scope of the planning process was 'essential', but that the attitudes towards tourism and sustainability could change over time. The panel agreed that plans should address local community constraints and processes, should enhance local community educational opportunities in business and tourism, and should be sensitive to local attitudes towards wildlife and protected areas. Strategic and coordinated planning of appropriate tourism infrastructure, and zoning of areas in relation to socially and environmentally acceptable conditions (e.g. water availability), and planning control of developments in environmentally and culturally important or sensitive areas, were also agreed to be 'essential' (p < 0.01: **). Comments from panel members regarding these factors emphasized the importance of environmental assessments, and the need for practical and efficient assessments within strategic environmental assessments processes.

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Effective linkages, communication, clear responsibilities, and the need for good management and control were rated as 'essential' to sustainability. The panel also concurred that collaboration and participation between nations and relevant stakeholders throughout the scope of the planning process was 'essential'. Participants agreed that planning should address local community constraints and processes, should enhance local community educational opportunities in business and tourism, and should be sensitive to their attitudes towards wildlife and protected areas. Issues such as population growth, poverty and food security were also prioritized for inclusion within TFCA plans. Statistically significant consensus was achieved (p < 0.05: *) with regard to the 'essential' need for planning frameworks to consider the availability of public services, and that plans should facilitate joint ventures. Although the use of measurable sustainability indicators was promoted, one panel member indicated that some indicators were difficult to measure, while others were often ignored.

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Implications of Transfrontier Conservation Areas for Sustainable Nature-based Tourism Factors that researchers have previously linked to sustainability have now been systematically addressed to provide a definitive picture of what sustainable nature-based tourism in TFCAs means to southern African stakeholders. The consultation provided an array of data that supported and contradicted existing knowledge, in particular regarding economic and environmental aspects of sustainable tourism, and also generated new debate regarding the specific characteristics of nature-based tourism and TFCAs across southern Africa. The application of the Delphi technique in other regions in the future may be useful in ascertaining the similarity of factors relevant to sustainable nature-based tourism in southern Africa with other regions of the globe. If perceptions of the critical factors are consistent, and value systems are similar (Butler, 1998), this would have important implications for the transferability of international efforts to promote sustainable tourism development in destinations. At a wider level, the political, planning, economic, environmental and social results of the Delphi consultation were used to develop and field test a Sustainable Nature-based Tourism Assessment Toolkit (Spenceley, 2003a). In addition to the consultation results, the toolkit incorporated lessons from complementary research programmes on responsible tourism (DEAT, 2002; Spenceley et al, 2002), sustainable livelihoods (Spenceley, 2003b), pro-poor tourism (Ashley et al, 2001; Spenceley and Seif, 2003) and fair trade (Seif, 2002). The toolkit provides a mechanism that goes beyond simply defining sustainable tourism, and has begun a process of tangibly and transparently measuring its characteristics in a reliable and comparable way. By developing a database of economic, environmental, and social benchmarks relevant to sustainability, the toolkit may be used as a mechanism to develop baseline standards and improve performance within the tourism industry: both within and outside TFCAs.

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United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) (2000) Report of the Fifth Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity. Nairobi, 15-26 May 2000. UNEP/CBD/COP/5/23/185195. UNEP, Paris, van der Linde, H., Oglethorpe, J., Sandwith, T., Snelson, D. and Tessema, Y. (with contributions from Tiega, A. and Price T.) (2001) Beyond Boundaries: Transboundary Natural Resource Management in Sub-Saharan Africa. Biodiversity Support Program, Washington, DC. Weaver, D. (1999) Magnitude of Ecotourism in Costa Rica and Kenya. Annals of Tourism Research 26: 792-816. Westing. A.H. (ed.) (1993) Transfrontier Reserves for Peace and Nature: a Contribution to Human Security. UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. Wilkie, D.S., Hakizumwami, E., Garni, N. and Difara, B. (2001) Beyond Boundaries: Regional Overview of Transboundary Natural Resource Management in Central Africa. In: Biodiversity Support Program, Beyond Boundaries: Transboundary Natural Resource Management in Central Africa. Biodiversity Support Program. Washington, DC. World Bank (1996) Mozambique, Transfrontier conservation areas pilot and institutional strengthening project. Global Environment Facility Project Document. World Conservation Union (IUCN) (1991) Parks 2 (3). November [Issue dedicated to ecotourism]. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. World Conservation Union (IUCN) (1993) Parks and Progress: Protected Areas and Economic Development in Latin America and the Caribbean. World Conservation Union, London.

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Chapter 10

Sustainable Nature Tourism in Europe: An Overview of NGOs Marielies Schelhaas

Introduction In the Netherlands, stakeholders in outbound tourism increasingly work together in developing sustainable tourism in nature areas across Europe. This chapter describes projects of some Dutch stakeholders, many of them IUCN members, including members of the Dutch platform for sustainable outbound tourism (IDUT), who cooperate to make outbound Dutch tourism more sustainable. The focus is on Dutch tourism in Europe, and on the efforts of stakeholders on several material projects. This chapter outlines results of some projects, the threats and opportunities for protected areas tourism in European destination countries, and the role of non-governmental organizations.

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The Netherlands, Nature and Tourism Tourism is one of the largest economic sectors in Europe, in terms of employment and money involved, and has large impacts on destinations. Tourism generates income and employment, and impacts on culture, environment and biodiversity. The relationship between biodiversity and tourism is strong, as nature is an important ingredient in many tourism experiences. At the same time tourism developments can seriously affect natural areas when planning and management are deficient. Tourism is a growing industry, with increasing numbers of foreign vacations, more money spent, and further jobs generated. Economic depressions have a short-term influence but the expectation is that in the long term tourism will continue to grow. In Europe, tourism is not only a large but also a long-existing economic sector. The most heavily visited areas are the (Swiss-French-Austrian) Alps and the Mediterranean Sea. This paper concentrates on the Netherlands. The Dutch people are relatively frequent tourism consumers and often travel outside the country. Of the Dutch going on vacation, about one-third stay in the Netherlands, while two-thirds go to a foreign country. Of the people going outside the county, 88% spend their vacation in European countries, while 12% travel outside Europe. In Europe, 29% visit the Mediterranean area of Spain, France, Italy, Greece, Turkey, and 19% visit the Alps. In terms of individual countries, France is the © CAB International 2007. Tourism and Protectef

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most popular destination, accepting 17% of all Dutch vacationers, and Spain and Germany are the second and third most popular country destinations. The fastest-growing visitation is to Turkey, while recently more Dutch tourists are finding their way to Central Europe, particularly the new EU countries of Hungary and the Czech Republic. In 2002, the Dutch spent €9,730 million on vacations (Eurostat, 2002; WTO 2002, 2003; TIAA, 2003).

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Sustainable Outbound Tourism Making tourism more sustainable is a long-term and complicated process. Many stakeholders are involved in tourism developments. Individual tourists are difficult to reach with messages of sustainability. However, when striving for more sustainable tourism, it is necessary to look at all aspects of tourism, and to all stakeholders, including the tourists. It is also important to look not only at the vacation destinations themselves but also at the relationship between the countries of origin of the tourists and the destination. The efforts to realize a more sustainable type of tourism may be more effective when both sides, the outbound operations and destinations, are involved. The Netherlands Committee for the IUCN decided to develop a project to look at the impact on nature and culture of Dutch tourists going on vacation. In regard to outbound tourism, many stakeholders are involved in making tourism more sustainable. Tour operators can play a role in preserving nature and culture by choosing to work with those local suppliers of accommodation, excursions and transportation that operate with an eye on sustainability issues. Tourism schools and institutes play a role through the education of future tourism staff, ranging from hostess to tour operator and manager. These educators can train their students on issues of sustainability and on how to contribute to sustainable development of tourism. Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) have specialized knowledge and contacts on specific issues and can use their expertise in resourcing, lobbying and monitoring. The government has a role in adopting pro-sustainability policies with respect to the travel industry, NGOs, other organizations and consumers. Therefore, to develop sustainable tourism all such groups need to be involved. In the Netherlands, all such organizations work together in a platform for sustainable outbound tourism, entitled IDUT (Initiatiefgroep Duurzaam Toerisme - Initiative Group for Sustainable Tourism). Members include: tour operators, NGOs dealing with nature conservation and agritourism, educational institutions and the Dutch government. The Netherlands Committee for the IUCN (NC-IUCN) has a significant role in the group, as it houses the secretariat, and many IDUT members are also IUCN members. The programme goal of the IDUT is to maximize use of the knowledge of the different organizations and to join forces at a time that sustainable outbound tourism is increasingly important. The platform members cover a broad range of tourism activities, including a range of destination types from ecotourism in remote areas to mass tourism on popular beach destinations. They deal with culture, nature and social aspects of tourism and focus on protected areas and their vicinity.

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Sustainable Tourism Projects of IDUT Platform Members The Dutch platform for sustainable outbound tourism, IDUT, does not have its own projects or activities. Member groups undertake project work. Members share knowledge of their projects with the network, use input of other members and start joint projects and programmes. The range of projects and activities is broad, both in both subject, and in theme and geographical coverage. In this chapter, European-orientated projects are described, and especially those that focus on protected areas.

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NC-IUCN: Natourdata Nature is a major attraction and resource of tourism. If tourists are unaware of the value and the fragility of nature and if tourism operators and providers are not careful about the natural environment, tourism can be disastrous for nature and biodiversity. At the same time, tourism can contribute to nature conservation, for it gives nature an economic value, it raises awareness, and provides a motive for conservation as well as an effective venue for environmental education. Because of this strong, fragile and mutual relationship, the Netherlands Committee for the IUCN started a three-year programme: 'Sustainable outbound tourism and conservation of biodiversity'. The main partners in the programme are Dutch tour operators, the Dutch government, education institutes and NGOs. Together with these partners, NC-IUCN stimulates and supports tour operators to develop more sustainable tours that have positive effects on biodiversity, conservation and poverty reduction. It also develops educational material and information brochures about nature and tourism. The web-based knowledge centre, Natourdata, is a website listing information about nature and sustainable tourism on popular destinations around the world. In cooperation with a tourism information company, the data is available for travel agents. This is also one of the few projects of NC-IUCN that focuses on individual Dutch tourists. Tourists can find basic and easily accessible information about nature in the region they are going to visit: what national parks are in the region; what is special about the landscape; and what is unique about the nature. The information is made for ordinary tourists who would like to know more about the natural environment they are visiting and become more aware of the natural values of the vacation region. In addition, to further educate tourists and others who access the site, NC-IUCN developed a world map with information about sustainable aspects of tourism, emphasizing destinations that are popular among Dutch tourists. Tour operators: environmental management system Many projects that aim for more sustainable tourism are started by 'forerunners': in outbound tourism this is usually NGOs or small tour operators. Unfortunately, successful practices often remain small scale and are not widely understood. Not many tourists and tour operators are reached and the effects remain relatively unrecognized and underutilized. The umbrella organization for tour operators, ANVR (Algemeen Nederlands Verbond van Reisondernemingen - Netherlands Travel Agencies Association), started a product and

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environmental management system that involved the whole Dutch tour operator sector. The 200 or so tour operators who are members of ANVR collectively have agreed to take a stepby-step approach to minimize the impacts of their products on nature and environment, culture and the social climate in vacation destinations. The project encompasses performance levels and measures to be reached by each tour operator. For this purpose a special e-learning course was developed, compulsory for at least one staff member of every tour operator. Further, each tour operator is to have an environmental coordinator. They commit themselves to some basic 'dos and don'ts' and they must all have at least a basic environmental programme with standards in the fields of transport, accommodation, excursions, and information to customers included on the internet. The system was established in 2003. Because 90% of all tour operators in the Netherlands are members of ANVR and therefore incorporate the system, these environmental measures now have a very broad application in the Dutch travel industry. Even if the level of measures is very basic, the broad approach is promising for further development in the future.

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WWF-Netherlands: Pan Parks Pan Parks is an initiative founded and funded by WWF Netherlands, with the IUCN/WCPA as one of the conservation partners. Pan Parks aims to conserve European nature by creating an expanding network of protected areas with high conservation value. The three pillars of the Pan Parks method are: 1) improvement of wilderness management, 2) sustainable tourism, and 3) work with local people. Criteria for inclusion in the system include: 1) good conservation management in the park, 2) a large area of nature, and 3) valuable flora, fauna and landscape. The park has to be accessible to visitors and cooperation with local communities is essential. Pan Parks build partnerships with nature conservation organizations, national parks, tourism businesses, local communities and other interest groups on a local, national and international level. Pan Parks cooperate with tour operators. One of these is a large Dutch tour operator, SNP, specialized in nature-based hiking tours. The Pan Parks brand is supposed to become analogous to a 'Michelin Star' for European nature sites. Four areas have attained the 'Pan Park' label: 1) Fulufjallet in Sweden, 2) Bieszczady National Park in Poland, 3) Oulanka National Park in Finland, and 4) Central Balkan National Park in Bulgaria. Eight other parks that are nominated to become Pan Park certified, mainly in Eastern Europe, are under investigation. Fulufjallet in Sweden, for example, is advertised to be one of the rare wildernesses in Western Europe. It was established in 2002 and is 385 km2 in size. Spectacular species like the brown bear, wolf, wolverine and lynx live in the park. Tour operator SNP and WWFNetherlands have developed an organized tour to the park. Special elements of this eightday tour are visits to nature conservation projects and use of small-scale accommodation that supports the local economy. Special attention in the travel brochure is given to the cooperation with WWF, the special value of the nature in the area and the Pan Parks status. SNP and WWF are developing similar tours to other Pan Parks. Pan Parks and tour development are in the early phases. It is not clear yet if the results will follow expectations, whether the tours will be successful, and, most importantly, if this alliance between nature conservation and tourism contributes to improved nature conservation. In the short time of its existence, the concept of Pan Parks appears to have

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become well known among conservationists. In outbound countries and in the area around the Pan Parks the new status is widely and successfully used for marketing. Apart from attracting tourists, this has also led to developments that are not favourable, for example new building areas and other non-conservation developments near the Pan Park border in Poland. These are teething troubles according to WWF, but could be an example of the well-documented general danger of successful tourism projects, that is the negative impacts that result from 'successful' higher volume tourism.

Case Study: Nature Tourism in the Aletsch Area of The Alps.

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An example of how tourism and conservation organizations work together can be found in a valuable and heavily visited area in the Alps. The Alps, mountains situated in Austria, Germany, France, Italy, Slovenia, and Switzerland, are popular among European tourists, both in winter (skiing and other snow-based activities) and in summer (hiking and nature study). Every year the Alps attract 100 million tourists, mainly from the Alps countries themselves and also from other European countries. Two million of them are Dutch, which is almost 19% of all outbound international Dutch tourists. In the Wallis region of Switzerland many Swiss and non-Swiss organizations are working on making tourism in the region more sustainable. The regional tourist and conservation organizations joined forces and at the same time a Dutch NGO made an alliance with a Dutch tour operator and both have been involved in the effort to make Dutch outbound tourism more sustainable.

Fig. 1. Tourists trekking through the Aletsch area of The Alps. Bushell, R., and P.F.J. Eagles. Tourism and Protected Areas : Benefits Beyond Boundaries, CABI, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central,

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Mountain ecosystems are fragile. Heavy use (e.g. erosion from treading on fragile flora) and environmental factors (waste, pollution by traffic and industry, global warming) have destructive effects on ecosystem integrity and biodiversity. The Wallis region, in the south of Switzerland, is a popular ski and hiking area. Mountains are high even by European standards, with nine peaks of more than 4000 m, and many above 3000 m. The highest mountains are covered throughout summer and winter by snow and ice, including the spectacular Aletsch glacier. At 24 km in length, the Aletsch is the longest glacier in Europe. The flora and fauna are rich, due to the altitudinal variation in the mountains and the warm Mediterranean climate on the southern mountain slopes. In the area around the Aletsch glacier special species occur, such as the glacier flea (that survives in cold climates between 12 degrees and minus 40 degrees), the emerald lizard (that flourishes in hot and dry locations) and the black grouse (Eggel, 2002). Some nature organizations wish to reintroduce the lammergeier, a rare and valuable mountain vulture. Research on the Aletsch glacier shows that in 1860 the glacier was three kilometres longer and more than 200 m thicker than it is now. The melting process of the glacier is continuing at a growing, even alarming, speed. This finding shows that large-scale climate warming is occurring at this location. The Jungfrau-Aletsch-Bietschhorn region is the first UNESCO Natural World Heritage site in the Alps, recognized since 2001. The World Heritage area covers 540 km2, nearly half of which is covered with glaciers. A special aspect of this UNESCO designation was an emphasis on tourism. The largest nature conservation NGO in Switzerland, Pro Natura, and the regional tourist office both supported the World Heritage designation and now work closely together (Eggel, 2002). Tourism is of vital importance to the regional economy. About 80% of the regional population earns income from tourism, both in full time and part time employment. In 2003 tourists spent about 2.2 million nights in the area. The tourism sector sees World Heritage status as major marketing benefit for the region. The tourism office even changed its name from 'Rieder Alp/Bettmer Alps' to 'Aletsch Area', because of the expectation that the World Heritage site name would attract tourists. Indeed, the number of tourists has risen since the new status, especially in the summer (Pedersen, 2002). The tourist office recognizes that there are limits to the growth of tourism in the area. However, they still see possibilities for growth of the number of tourists with the existing facilities, accommodation and infrastructure. The tourist office likes to welcome more visitors in summertime, when it is quieter than in the winter season. Pro Natura accepts growth of the number of tourists, but emphasizes the limitations, for reasons of landscape and environmental capacity. The number of tourists may grow as long as the current facilities can handle them. Pro Natura does not want new ski lifts and ski slopes, new infrastructure, and prefers only very limited growth of tourist apartment buildings. Pro Natura, and other nature conservation organizations in Europe, worry about the effects of a large number of tourists on the fragile environment: the water level drops (e.g. because of hotel water use, swimming pools, snow machines), flora trampling (by mountain scooters, mountain bikes or walking outside paths), and tree removal to build ski slopes and accommodation. The cooperation of the two stakeholders, the tourist office and Pro Natura, is harmonious, as long as their interests are similar and/or complementary. But the cooperation is fragile, and one issue illustrates this. The tourist office has a plan to connect two skiareas, with a new ski lift to be built across the Aletsch glacier. Pro Natura opposes the

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proposal. For Dutch tourists, the area is well known and popular for vacations. Dutch tourists are often not aware of the fragility of the landscape in mountains. The Netherlands Alpine Platform (NAP) was established to help preserve the alpine environment by promoting conscientious and sustainable alpine tourism.

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Fig. 2. A proposal to build a ski lift across the Aletsch Glacier reveals the fragility of the cooperative relationship between stakeholders.

NAP stimulates and supports the sale of environmentally friendly certified tourist products by small-scale Dutch tour operators. NAP also stimulates awareness among consumers of the need for sustainable mountain tourism and informs them via their member organizations about sustainable vacations. Many players are therefore involved in this initiative: tourists (organized and unorganized), travel organizations, travel agency staff, the transport sector (train, bus, local transport), accommodation sector and groups offering tourism-related activities, such as branch associations of the travel sector, climbing and mountain organizations. Together with the travel industry NAP developed six green packages. One of these packages has the Aletsch area as a destination. With Dutch tourists, the UNESCO brand is used for marketing, and the packages are called 'UNESCO hiking round trip'. This 5- to 8day individual hiking package to the Aletsch area is a cooperation between the tour operator Holland International (part of TUI Netherlands, the largest tour operator in the Netherlands) and the Netherlands Alpine Platform. The package aims to show that tourism and nature conservation can exist together. The main target group is families who like to go hiking in the mountains. Tourists stay in hotels in the car-free village of Riederalp. The brochure emphasizes the impressive, quiet and beautiful nature, and the fact that the village and

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surroundings are car-free, making the area safe and underscoring peace and quiet. Hotels that have the VISIT eco-label (Voluntary Initiatives for Sustainability in Tourism - a joint initiative to promote sustainable tourism development) are selected. NGO NAP is heavily involved in this green packaging project.

Further Steps into a Sustainable Future for Tourism Steps to a sustainable future, protected areas and beyond Projects on sustainable tourism are often started in important protected areas, like the Pan Parks and Aletsch projects described above. These projects have a critical role in illustrating best practice. The goal is to show how good policy and cooperation between stakeholders can benefit nature conservation, improve the economy of the region and conserve cultural and local values. Projects like Pan Parks can create public support and show the value of partnerships between conservation organizations and the tourism sector. They also demonstrate that involvement of organizations in tourists' countries of origin is vital. These projects should be an example of how tourism can and should be developed. The tourism sector is growing rapidly in Europe, and the pressure of tourists on protected areas is bigger every year. The only future for tourism and for nature and landscape is a sustainable one. Therefore, the projects described above can be translated to a general way of developing tourism. Protection of nature in Europe goes beyond the borders of protected areas. There are still large areas of nature and valuable landscapes without protected status. Protection of these areas needs a broader approach. The total unprotected area is large, fragmented and with diverse values and land uses. The pressure of tourism can be very high and management issues are often complicated. That is specifically the case in mountainous areas of Europe and coastal areas of the Mediterranean and Atlantic. Therefore, the approaches developed in protected areas need to be applied to significant areas without protected status.

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Cooperation of stakeholders Platforms like IDUT (the Dutch platform for sustainable outbound tourism) are important for stakeholder involvement because they stimulate new initiatives and accumulate knowledge. The Dutch product and environmental management system for tour operators is one example of a successful and broad approach across a valuable tourism sector, that of the travel operators (Couvreur, 2002). New developments Seven European countries entered the European Union in 2004. They will quickly become new tourist destinations for Western Europeans: they are within car-travel distance from most of Western Europe, are relatively cheap and the borders are more open. Many have important nature sites. This situation offers an opportunity to develop a more sustainable way of tourism, using the methods developed in the initiatives described in this paper. In Europe there is no tradition of paying for the tourist use of nature, such as with entrance fees as occurs in many countries. Pan Parks, mainly situated in Eastern Europe, is a

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concept that often uses payment for nature. The new developments in Eastern Europe are a chance to start new ways and traditions in how tourists can financially support nature conservation. The role of nature conservation organizations Although the long-term goals of the nature tourism sector are conservation of nature to protect future tourism flows, some undesirable developments show a tension between shortterm economic goals and the protection and conservation of nature. The challenge of tourism development in the near future is to find a sustainable balance between tourism and nature conservation and to prevent undesirable developments. Nature conservation organizations, especially an intergovernmental organization like the IUCN, have a vital role in this ongoing process (Olsder, 2003). They have the knowledge, the network and the position to monitor this vulnerable balance. The examples shown in this chapter illustrate that successful progress towards sustainable tourism can be made with cooperative activities of NGOs, governments and private tourism companies.

References

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Couvreur, G (2002) Dutch tour operators go sustainable! (The) Nieuwsbrief Duurzaam Toerisme Internationaal Jaar van het Ecotoerisme, 26th August - 4th September 2002, Amsterdam: 3 URL http ://www. duurzaamtoerisme. com Eggel, S. (2002) Jungfrau, Aletsch, Bietschhorn, Verein UNESCO-Weltnaturerbe Jungfrau, Aletsch, Bietschhorn Eurostat (2002) Statistics in Focus - Theme 4, Luxembourg Olsder, K. (2003) The Dutch, Nature & Tourism. Netherlands Committee for IUCN, Amsterdam Tuinederland.nl Pedersen, A. (2002) Managing Tourism at World Heritage Sites: A practical manual for World Heritage Site Managers. UNESCO World Heritage Centre, Paris. Travel Industry Association of America (2003) Europe Travel Demand: Trends and Insights, 2003 Edition. TIA, Washington D.C. World Tourism Organization (2002) WTO Tourism Statistics Yearbook World Tourism Organization (2003). Yearbook of Tourism Statistics 2003, 55th Edition, WTO, Madrid.

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Chapter 11

Capacity-building for Ecotourism: Training Programmes for Managers of Protected Areas Wolfgang Strasdas, Brent Corcoran and Thomas Petermann

Introduction

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This article discusses capacity-building as an important instrument to improve the ability of protected area managers to capture ecotourism's potential for revenue generation. After sketching the shift from traditional biodiversity conservation to participatory, multidisciplinary protected area management and the role of ecotourism in this context, the authors analyse the frequent shortcomings in implementing ecotourism in protected areas. The focus is on developing countries. A major common factor here is the lack of tourism-related knowledge and skills among protected area staff and rural people living in the vicinity of parks. On the other hand, tourism professionals and the private sector lack specific conservation and ecotourism-related knowledge and skills. This chapter presents a case study of training programmes for protected area managers in South Africa and the Caucasus. Training methods and contents are discussed. In evaluating these courses, important lessons learnt are identified. Recommendations for comprehensive ecotourism training programmes addressing different stakeholders involved with tourism in protected areas are made.

A New Management Paradigm and the Role of Ecotourism Protected area agencies and staff today are faced with tasks and challenges quite different from those as little as a decade ago. Conservation is no longer synonymous with building a fence, virtual or real, around a protected area. Until recently, scientific research and species management was performed without much attention to the world beyond park boundaries. The effective protection of biodiversity today is more difficult than ever. This can chiefly be attributed to two factors: Increasing resistance to conservation and protected areas because of restricted use and associated limits on economic opportunities (real or perceived) for local people or other stakeholders. Dwindling financial resources provided by governments and donors. 150

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Quite a few countries, especially from the developing world, have officially designated large portions of their territory as protected. However, many of these parks exist only on paper and suffer numerous encroachments, such as poaching, mining or illegal settlements. Local people dependent on natural resources for their subsistence economies can be seriously affected by environmental regulations. Thus, in the face of widespread poverty in rural areas of developing countries, strict biodiversity protection may be regarded by some as unethical for not taking into account the real needs of the rural poor. Decreased public funds for conservation purposes are another testing reality. Due to different social and political priorities of governments or general economic failure, many protected areas in developing countries rely heavily on international donors for their survival. With the emergence of terrorism and the intensified fight against poverty,1 donors now have different priorities from park management. Equally, many industrialized countries are coping with social and economic pressures that have led to dwindling public funds for conservation.2 In Europe and North America this means smaller budgets for environmental protection, and may lead to a further decrease in world conservation efforts, on which the developing nations depend. As outlined in many other contributions to this book and reflected by the World Commission on Protected Areas (IUCN-WCPA) theme Benefits Beyond Boundaries, the conservation community is well aware of these constraints and challenges. There is now broad consensus that biodiversity can only be protected if there is real political support or at least acceptance of its importance at all levels. Participatory planning and management is the key concept. Ultimately, successful and sustainable management is possible only if an economic value is attached to intact ecosystems and the existence of species. Alternatively, the public may be willing to financially support the wild places they love as individual donors, entrance-fee payers and visitor-spenders. Buffer zone management, natural resource management, and regional development are some of the key concerns in this context. Nature-based tourism3 is one the most promising possibilities for sustainable economic focus on biodiversity. In spite of the events of 11 September 2001, and subsequent attacks, tourism remains one of the world's leading economic sectors and is especially important for a number of developing countries that have few trade and industry alternatives (Benavides, 2002). Nature-based tourism is dependent on resources associated with protected areas, intact ecosystems containing high diversity, wilderness, unspoilt scenery, observable wildlife, and clean water. There is also significant interest in the people and culture of indigenous communities living in or neighbouring protected areas. All these are conditions not commonly found elsewhere, thus giving many protected areas a significant competitive advantage. This is evidenced by the millions of tourists who visit national parks and World Heritage sites around the world. However, as with other forms of use, nature-based tourism creates both positive and negative impacts, depending on how well or how poorly visitation is managed. The concept of ecotourism has been specifically developed with this and the above-mentioned challenges to conservation in mind (Ceballos-Lascurain, 1996; Epler-Wood, 2002). Most conservation and academic organizations consider ecotourism to be a: '... sustainable form of nature tourism that strives to achieve environmental, social and cultural compatibility and to generate economic and other benefits, especially for local rural people and nature conservation purposes' (Strasdas, 2001b).

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Ecotourism is a highly ambitious model for protected areas management and use, as it combines traditional conservation, participatory planning and regional development issues with income generation based on free-market mechanisms. Besides fulfilling the above criteria, ecotourism has to be as successful as a business. As an ecologically sustainable form of development, ecotourism has been formulated and studied by NGOs, development experts and both academic and industry-based researchers (Epler-Wood, 2002). With the modern conservation paradigm in mind, protected area management nowadays is - or should be - a multidisciplinary, stakeholder-oriented task that by nature is equally political as it is ecological (Bushell, 2003). Public relations, regional development issues, negotiating skills, visitor management, revenue raising, and marketing have become as important as wildlife behaviour studies, ecosystem management, environmental monitoring or patrolling and compliance. Many protected area managers, most of whom have science training as biologists, foresters or natural resource managers, are not adequately prepared for this broader role. Tourism requires skills and approaches quite different from traditional conservation techniques and the usual ways of dealing with traditional buffer zone rural economies. As a service-oriented activity, tourism management which includes park marketing, promotion and competitive funding rounds are seen by many conservationists as a less important aspect of their role - not to be taken seriously (Roe et al., 2004). Nevertheless, if income is to be derived from ecotourism, park managers and rangers need to learn how to deal with visitors and the tourism industry (Eagles, 1995; Eagles et al., 2002). They may now be required to negotiate partnerships, serve as facilitators and act as interpreters or hospitality managers for park tourists.

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The Need for Capacity-building High hopes have been attached to ecotourism as a means to support conservation, protected areas and rural economies, while minimizing the negative impacts of visitation on valuable natural and cultural heritage. In Kenya, Tanzania and South Africa, nature-based tourism has contributed substantially to the financing of national protected area systems (see Bushell and McCool, Chapter 2; Eagles, Chapter 3; Pederson, Chapter 7; and Financing Protected Areas Task Force, 2000). Even in industrialized countries, protected areas are now being acknowledged as boosting tourism in their surroundings, thus creating income for local people who otherwise have few employment and development alternatives. In Germany, creating new protected areas or expanding existing ones gains greater acceptance among local people when accompanied by regional promotion of ecotourism. National parks, such as the Bavarian Forest, are now widely recognized as being local job promoters through nature-based tourism. On the other hand, ecotourism received mixed reviews during and prior to the International Year of Ecotourism 2002. In many ways, ecotourism is still in its infancy compared to the high ambitions on its behalf. Two types of shortcomings are frequently observed, especially in developing countries (Strasdas, 200 Ib): Highly attractive and accessible areas (such as World Heritage sites) are very popular tourist destinations. Although this means substantial profits for the tourism operators Bushell, R., and P.F.J. Eagles. Tourism and Protected Areas : Benefits Beyond Boundaries, CABI, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central,

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involved, only a small proportion of the money reaches conservation organizations or local people. Adverse environmental impacts then lead to deterioration in the quality of tourism on offer. In areas that are either less attractive or less accessible, conservation or rural development organizations have tried to develop ecotourism with financial and technical support from donors. These small-scale projects may be well managed from the start in terms of environmental and social impacts, but can be much less successful in commercial terms. This significantly limits their capacity to create positive economic impacts. However, these generalizations can only serve as a certain orientation when analysing the reasons for ecotourism not reaching full potential. Case studies in Chapters 13-19 (see in particular the Ontario Parks research, Chapter 17) demonstrate places and strategies where ecotourism has been highly effective in both financial and conservation terms. Nevertheless, a number of factors have been identified - in the field and in the scientific literature - as affecting the success of ecotourism ventures. Most commonly, these factors relate to lack of funding to protected area agencies, especially in developing countries. This, in turn, leads to a lack of personnel and deficient or badly maintained visitor infrastructure. Other factors include lack of political support, legal uncertainty and problems with protected area compliance and enforcement. Local people - who are meant to be the main beneficiaries of ecotourism along with protected area agencies - also often suffer from a lack of necessary resources. This includes the means to invest, lack of legal and political rights, and insufficient infrastructure. These are external factors, which can only be remedied through financial support (investments, loans, budget allocations) and political/legal action. Investment is needed before ecotourism can return dividend payments to consortia, communities and individuals. As mentioned throughout this book, ecotourism is not and cannot be an environmental panacea in and of itself. In terms of investment of time and research, particularly in developing countries, is the need to address internal shortcomings of stakeholders themselves. Paramount among stakeholder-based concerns is the lack of technical capacity to deal with the complex requirements that successful ecotourism management requires. Capacity in this context is defined as knowledge, understanding and skills. In particular, the following shortcomings have been commonly identified: Among protected area agencies In highly attractive parks there is often a predominantly passive and regulatory, rather than proactive, approach to tourism. The private sector generally initiates tourism ventures, until regulation is no longer effective or accepted. By contrast, park management could actively shape tourism use patterns from the start. Management plans rarely deal with the tourist use of an area comprehensively, thus management action is haphazard and inconsistent. Visitor management techniques are not known or rely too much on the simple concept of carrying capacity.

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There is little service-orientation and limited understanding of how to create attractive tourist experiences or tourism products. Different visitor needs may not be fully researched. Marketing also is often not fully funded, invested in, staffed, or researched. Park administrations may lack understanding of tourism as a business and/or lack business management skills. If fees are charged, procedures tend to be bureaucratic and inflexible rather than correlating with the actual value of a park as an attraction or the tourists' willingness to pay. There is too little cooperation with the tourism sector, be it private or public. Reasons for certain protection measures or the use of fees charged to visitors are not sufficiently communicated. Training specific to these areas is needed to up-skill park staff in order to maximize the benefit of visitation.

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Among local people Involving local people in protected area-based tourism, either as employees, as providers of goods and services, or as independent tourism entrepreneurs, is a key element of the ecotourism concept. This is vital to protected areas in order to create local support for conservation, for protected areas to deliver regional economic benefits, and to tackle poverty alleviation. Protected area agencies should assume an active role in order to ensure that local benefits are indeed being generated, either by employing or promoting local people, for example as tourist guides/drivers, handicraft manufacturers, managers and service personnel. Alternatively, park management may act as a mediator between local people and external investors wishing to establish tourism enterprises in the park or its vicinity. Tourism as a phenomenon of affluent contemporary societies is a particularly difficult concept for most rural people in developing countries to grasp. Unless they have had previous experiences with travellers, such as along traditional trading or pilgrimage routes, they are confronted with something utterly different from their own lives and leisure preferences, especially if foreign tourists are involved. In this sense tourism development may be more difficult than, for example, agricultural or forestry-related activities for which a local tradition usually exists for people to build upon. Shortcomings are similar to the ones cited above for protected area agencies, but a few factors tend to be even more pronounced among rural communities: Lack of formal education or illiteracy. Lack of foreign (or even national) language skills. Different ways of dealing with hygiene, litter, maintenance of infrastructure and buildings. Limited knowledge of food preparation for foreigners, including catering to dietary, nutritional and culinary tastes. Different concepts of time (which can be interpreted by tourists as unreliability). Lack of decision-making and planning skills concerning the possible consequences of tourism coupled with a limited ability to control tourism development, unpredictable political climates, and longer-term funding uncertainty.

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As a consequence, community-based ecotourism facilities and services may be unacceptable to international visitors, except occasional backpackers. Another quite common reaction to the lack of local tourism-related skills is that outside investors bypass local communities, importing goods and using personnel from urban centres. In this way, potential local multiplier effects are lost. On the other hand, externally driven tourism development may get out of hand, causing exploitation of local people, and local economic imbalances, due to poor local planning and management skills or powers. In contrast, virtually every project that has successfully integrated local people into ecotourism enterprises or has created successful local ecotourism ventures has had a strong capacity-building component incorporated in the project design. Examples are the Cultural Tourism Programme, a village tourism project in the vicinity of Northern Tanzania's worldfamous protected areas; the Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife on-the-job training of local employees in the agency's tourism facilities; and Kapawi Lodge, a joint ecotourism venture between an outside investor and an indigenous community in the Ecuadorian Amazon lowlands (Hausler and Strasdas, 2003).

Fig. 1. Workshops with protected area managers help to build awareness and capacity for participatory, multidisciplinary ecotourism planning and management.

The tourism-related capacities that are needed for local communities depend on the degree of involvement with ecotourism activities (see Table 1). The degree of empowerment and the potential for regional development are higher where independent local businesses exist. However, the economic risks and the necessary level of skills and knowledge increase accordingly. Thus, the need for capacity-building is lower when outside investors are involved, as these groups usually take care of business management and marketing. In the case of more autonomous community-based ventures offering a range of services from accommodation to guided tours, the risk is significantly higher. This is because local owners have to acquire business management skills and an in-depth understanding of the tourism market.

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Table 1. Types of local people's economic participation in tourism (source: based on Tourism KwaZulu Natal (undated)). Type of participation

Level of empowerment

Contribution to local development

Level of tourism-related skill required

Security of return

Direction of benefits

Reception of PA use fees

none

low

none

secure

community as a whole

Sale of land to investor

low

low

none, except for ability to negotiate favourable terms

very secure

individuals or community as a whole (depending on land tenure)

Rent of land or delegation of use rights

low

low

secure

individuals or community as a whole (depending on land tenure and use rights)

Employment by outside investor

low

moderate

none, except for ability to negotiate favourable terms management, see for example SAN Parks case study, Chapter 18 low to moderate (high for qualified positions)

fairly secure

individuals, potentially including poorest members

Supply of goods and services

low to moderate

moderate

low to moderate (high for qualified guides)

fairly secure

more active individuals

Communityprivate sector joint venture

moderate to high

high

moderate

fairly secure

active individuals and community as a whole (depending on arrangements with the investor)

Independent community enterprise

high

high

high

insecure

active individuals and community as a whole (depending on arrangements between the community and the group operating the enterprise)

Individual local

high

high

high

insecure

active individuals

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Among tourism professionals A lack of capacity concerning ecotourism's highly complex requirements can also be observed among tour operators, hotel/lodge owners and other private sector tourism professionals. While it is usually assumed that these stakeholders know how to 'do' tourism, they may lack knowledge about how to conduct their business in a sustainable way or how to develop new products that are both sustainable and of high quality. This may even be true at tourism destinations with a long history such as Mexico or Kenya (Strasdas, 200la). The following concerns are raised, mostly relating to highly attractive protected areas which tend to draw in businesses aiming for high profit margins without necessarily being philosophically dedicated to ecotourism: Environmentally damaging business practices; Refusal to contribute (financially or otherwise) to the preservation of the protected areas that are being exploited as a tourism resource, chiefly because the role of conservation in safeguarding these resources is not understood; Culturally insensitive behaviour towards, and/or exploitation of, local communities and their traditions; Lack of product quality due to a low level of interpretation or staged cultural experiences; Lack of understanding of specific ecotourism market segments that are interested in interpretation, and authentic natural and cultural experiences; Poorly focused marketing strategies and promotional material failing to reach target groups.

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At this point the discussion turns to the question of who should be in charge of tourism management and operations when protected areas are being developed for nature-based tourism. What should be the role of the protected area agency, and what part should the private sector perform? This definition of roles or division of labour determines the respective capacities that are needed for the sustainable management of tourism. The following are options for partnerships: Tourism is completely managed by the protected area agency alone. This tends to be the case in many industrialized countries with functioning government structures and sufficient budgets. This role usually encompasses tourism planning, visitor information and the management and operation of small, rustic facilities. All other tourist services (including hotels) are generally located outside the protected area and operated by the private sector. However, a protected area agency may initiate certain tourism activities beyond its immediate boundaries and support the marketing of a region with a high proportion of protected areas, for example the marketing initiative Lust aufNatur;" in the German State of Brandenburg. Partial outsourcing of tourism management to the private sector, mostly tour operations, lodges and shops. Some tourism activities (especially visitor management and interpretation, and some guided tours and facility management) are retained by the protected area agency, provided it has sufficient capacity to do so, for example, Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife, South Africa.

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Total outsourcing of every component of tourism management to the private sector, with the protected area agency holding concessionaires accountable according to their contracts, lease conditions, codes of conduct and environmental management plans, for example, Zambian Wildlife Agency, South African National Parks. Contracting an NGO to manage conservation and tourism (sometimes including facilities and tour operation for specific protected areas, for example, Rio Bravo Conservation and Management Area managed by Programme for Belize on behalf of the government of Belize. Local NGOs (Friends o f . . . organizations) can also take on partial tasks related to tourism, such as guided interpretive tours for visitors. In general, there is a tendency worldwide (including in industrialized countries) to outsource formerly public services. This means that the most needed staff capacities will be in the fields of tourism management and cooperation with the private sector and local organizations. Operational tasks are more likely to be performed by non-government stakeholders. On the other hand, protected area agencies need to become regional partners for the promotion of tourism destinations where protected areas form an important part of regional tourism products. More outsourcing means heightened responsibilities for the private sector. It requires the capacity for sustainable management beyond regular business management skills. This means that tourism organizations (government, mixed or private; national, regional and local) in charge of tourism planning and development must develop a fundamental understanding of conservation needs and associated capacities that enable them to cooperate with protected areas agencies. The environmental and economic justification for this is preservation of the natural resources, which are the primary raw material of nature-based tourism enterprises.

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Among development agencies and NGOs Surprisingly, a lack of ecotourism-related capacity is also an issue with donors and national or international conservation NGOs acting as advisors or mediators in many ecotourism projects. Surprising, because these stakeholders are supposed to help protected area agencies and local communities with their expected ecotourism expertise. As it turns out, this expertise is often deficient or non-existent. Although only a few studies have been conducted on this topic (Strasdas, 200 Ib), it has become clear that ecotourism all too often is only a minor component of conservation projects (usually one of several buffer zone development possibilities) or restricted to financing the construction of visitor infrastructure in protected areas without taking into account further necessities such as product development or marketing. Tourism-related studies tend to investigate environmental carrying capacities rather than market potential, and there is seldom an encompassing management plan for tourism development and management in a park. Though there are exceptions,6 and some recent activities point in the right direction,7 multi- and bilateral donors and international conservation NGOs have not developed and resourced ecotourism programmes, departments or coordinators to their full potential. The staff who design biodiversity projects with a sustainable use component usually have a background in natural science rather than in tourism management. Thus, in the project design phase there may be errors or omissions, such as feasibility and market studies and capacity-building for local staff.

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To summarize, a need for capacity-building exists in different fields for a variety of stakeholders involved with tourism in protected areas, particularly in developing countries. It is essential that capacity-building programmes are designed with the specific needs of target market segments in mind. Capacity-building has also been identified as a key instrument for successful ecotourism development by important conferences in this field. For example, the Quebec Declaration (the final document of the World Ecotourism Summit in 2002) contains a number of recommendations concerning capacity-building, which are summarized by the following statements: 'To non-governmental organizations, community-based associations, academic and research institutions: ... provide technical, financial, educational, capacity-building and other support for ecotourism destinations, host community organizations, small businesses, and the corresponding local authorities 'To inter-governmental organizations, international financial institutions and development assistance agencies: ... build capacity for regional, national and local organizations for the formulation and application of ecotourism policies and plans Capacity-building has also been part of the recommendations that have emanated from theVth World Parks Congress: 'There are many stakeholders in protected area sites, and thus managers need resources and training to enable them to work effectively with different constituencies, including conservation bodies, government departments, community, NGOs, tourism industry, and visitors. Therefore, participants in the 5th World Parks Congress ... call on the IUCN, together with key international agencies, to support research and development and to provide appropriate tourism training for park staff...' (WCPA Recommendation 12).

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InWEnt Training for Protected Area Managers Capacity-building International (InWEnt) is a non-profit organization for international human resources development, training and dialogue and was established through a merger of Carl Duisberg Gesellschaft and the German Foundation for International Development (DSE). InWEnt objectives are to: 'promote knowledge transfer between North and South, East and West; international exchange of experience; initiation of developmental processes; and global cooperation.' The main target group is 'skilled and executive personnel' from institutions in developing countries. Most programmes are financed by the German Federal Ministry of Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ). From 1999 to 2003 the InWEnt Centre for Food, Rural Development and Environment (ZEL) carried out a series of seminars as part of a policy dialogue and professional training programme in Southern and Eastern Africa. This programme was entitled Management of Protected Area Systems towards the Integration of Conservation and Sustainable Use of Natural Resources. Among themes such as community-based land-use planning, conflict management or transboundary protected areas, ecotourism was the topic of three seminars, all of which were held in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa and organized in cooperation with Ezemvelo

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KZN Wildlife. Protected area managers and staff of conservation NGOs were the main target group. Participants came from as far as Ethiopia, a newcomer on the ecotourism map, to neighbouring Mozambique. Countries with a long history of nature-based tourism such as Kenya, Tanzania and Zimbabwe were also represented. The first two seminars were intensive training and work courses that covered ecotourism in-depth. The discussion ranged from basic ecotourism concepts to park management plans (see Fig. 2). Ecotourism was introduced as a business, presenting market trends, typical products (tours, services, facilities), and specific demand segments. This was important at an early stage of the seminar, to make clear that desirable ecotourism impacts from the conservation point of view (for example, generating income for protected areas) depend on its viability and acceptance in the market place. The interface between protected areas and tourism, and park agency management tasks were then examined. These tasks include visitor infrastructure and services, environmental management of tourism (including zoning, visitor management, environmental designs and technologies) and the need to actively involve local people in parks tourism. An extensive planning exercise then integrated all components into a comprehensive management plan constructed by the participants themselves. The third seminar focused on local participation and community-based ecotourism, and explored forms of cooperation such as bilateral joint ventures and community-public-private partnerships. InWEnt's capacity-building seminars apply adult learning methods and tools. The aim is to facilitate lasting and effective learning processes, based on the premise that adults learn more by doing than just listening, according to the following principles of adult learning as formulated by: what we hear - we forget. what we hear and see - we remember. what we do - we know. what we know - we can apply.

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Further, there are principles of participatory and interactive learning that also inform InWEnt seminars, being: Nobody knows everything; everybody knows something. Every resource person is a participant and every participant is a resource person. Everyone can make a contribution. Different experiences are equally important. Participants take responsibility for their learning experience. Besides learning by doing, it is believed that learning from each other is a key element of adult education. Participatory training involves a specific relationship between trainers and trainees. Thus trainers are seen as facilitators whose main responsibility is to stimulate and guide the learning process.

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161

Fig. 2. The structure of InWEnt's ecotourism training seminars.

However, a facilitator or moderator is not enough when participants lack basic tourismrelated knowledge. Therefore the seminars were run by trainers with both moderating skills and technical expertise. Participants must play an active role in InWEnt's seminars. In the case of the South African workshops they were asked to prepare a joint country presentation describing their

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respective protected area systems and their role in relation to tourism. A checklist was provided, listing: the protected areas' tourist attractions; actual tourist use; degree of local participation; positive and negative impacts of tourism on conservation objectives; and tourism management resources. This was to structure input and make it comparable to presentations from other countries. Participants also took part in structured plenary discussions and were asked to report on the major results of sessions. Several group works were undertaken throughout the seminar. Small groups of participants (4-6 people) from different countries worked on specific themes, such as conducting a Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats (SWOT) analysis of a park's tourism potential and identifying a potential unique selling proposition (USP). Another group task was to identify a target market and design a three-days package tour through the park and its surroundings, based on ecotourism principles. At the end of the two-week courses, multinational groups designed a comprehensive park ecotourism management plan. The plans covered a stocktake of existing policies, budget, and staffing to change implementation strategies with task allocation for each proposed measure.8 Practice-oriented, hands-on learning is an important principle of the training. In the case of the tourism seminars in South Africa, this was addressed by asking participants to do a presentation on their country or the area where they work. Some of these parks were also represented at planning exercises so that workshop results could be adapted for the 'real world'. Guest speakers such as community liaison officers, tour operators or lodge owners are another way of acquainting course participants with real examples of ecotourism ventures. Field trips were another important part of each seminar. They are tied into the themes worked on during the seminar and serve relaxation and networking functions. Participants are asked to give feedback on experiences gained through a field trip as part of the learning process. The location helps to ground the training in place and experiential learning. For example, South Africa combines excellent examples of functioning ecotourism and protected area management with cultural and ecologic similarities to which participants from other African countries could easily relate. Finally, visualization is an essential element of all of InWEnt's dialogue and training programmes: discussions and group works are documented and structured using moderation boards. Each thought or contribution is written on a card, which is then placed on the board. Cards are attached by pins and re-arranged according to priorities or themes (for example, by clustering cards). This allows participants to follow the course more easily, to identify major themes, and to document results. This technique is also believed to increase retention rates, and enhance learning and understanding. In 2002 and 2003, InWEnt conducted two seminars in Georgia with participants from the South Caucasian republics of Georgia, Armenia and Azerbeijan. The seminars were requested by the WWF, which is working on establishing protected areas in the Caucasus. The principles applied were more or less the same as in South Africa, although shorter (8 to 10 days) because in this region it was deemed impossible to get trainees to participate in the longer course. The range of participants was broader in the Caucasus, as protected areas and rural tourism such as agritourism and mountain tourism (including ski resorts) were on the agenda, and included protected area managers, staff from rural development NGOs, tourism ministries and sports organizations, and tour operators. The seminars in Georgia were

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supplemented by a study tour to Germany, where some of the same participants visited model examples of protected areas, such as the Rhon Biosphere Reserve, where naturebased and rural tourism is being promoted in conjunction with the local communities. The InWEnt methodology was also used in a series of ecotourism training workshops for protected area managers from Russia and Central Asia. The workshops were organized and funded by the German Federal Agency for Nature Conservation (BfN) with the support of the Naturschutzbund, a German conservation NGO active in Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union. The BfN runs the International Academy for Nature Conservation training facility on the Isle of Vilm, a part of the Southeast Riigen Biosphere Reserve along the Baltic Sea coast. These seminars were 5 to 7 days long. Public protected area managers, conservation NGO staff, tour operators and academics participated.

Lessons Learnt and Recommendations

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In all seminars, participants were asked to fill out evaluation forms and give oral feedback to course organisers and facilitators. Overall the reactions to the courses were positive. This was confirmed by repeat trainees attending follow-up courses. The South Africa seminars were analysed (Corcoran and Petermann, 2002, unpublished) and became the basis for The Ecotourism Training Manual for Protected Area Managers (Strasdas et al, 2002). For the BfN workshops, facilitators wrote evaluation reports based on participants' opinions and their personal views. There has been no systematic follow-up on the participants' ability to apply what they learned to their daily work. The following conclusions and recommendations are based on anecdotal evidence. Cultural contexts will play a decisive role. The seminar facilitators were German, and worked with indigenous co-trainers (from Georgia and South Africa in these cases). Further research is needed. With this note of caution, the following recommendations are proposed: 1. Course content: course participants' initial presentations on their respective parks often showed that tourism is secondary to protected area work. Despite directions received prior to the seminar, the presentations often dealt at length with non-tourism issues. Judging from the feedback forms, there were different priorities concerning course contents. In the South African seminars there was a clear preference for community participation in tourism. Planning, financing mechanisms and concessionary arrangements with the private sector were popular topics. By contrast, participants from the former Soviet Union had a keen interest in ecotourism product development and marketing, sometimes at the expense of planning and visitor management. If possible, participants' professional backgrounds and specific needs should be canvassed prior to designing course contents. However, the comprehensive requirements of ecotourism should be clearly pointed out, even if time does not allow for all aspects to be covered in detail. 2. Training methods: responding to participatory, interactive training methods can initially be difficult for participants who come from different learning cultures, especially former socialist countries. Therefore, stronger guidance from the facilitators may be needed at the beginning. However, in the course of the seminars, this training philosophy was adopted by many. Group work proved to be particularly popular when the work load was

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not overwhelming. Clearly defined tasks, effectively facilitated, were also critical to successful group work. Documentation of results, along with photos are sent to participants to encourage retention and satisfaction rates. 3. Seminar length: the first two South Africa seminars covered the entire range of ecotourism themes in depth. Two weeks is the ideal time-frame to create a favourable learning and working atmosphere and is believed to foster lasting effects. However, limited availability of time away from work and financial issues often restrict this 'generous' allocation. As a pragmatic alternative, one-week courses are sufficient to give a general overview with selected focal points. One-week follow-up sessions are adequate for trainees who have attended a basic course. However, short courses cannot replace vocational training for protected area managers. In terms of formal education, ecotourism should be an integral part of the curriculum. 4. Seminar location: a secluded location in a relaxing environment away from the work place is desirable. In the context of international development cooperation, organizers must choose whether to hold seminars in participants' country of origin or the funding agency's country. The former has the advantage of reducing travel expenses and linking the training to attendants' daily problems and challenges more directly. On the other hand, model examples (for field trips or involving guest lecturers) may be hard to find, if ecotourism development is still very new. This was the case in Georgia. Alternatively, a study tour in a well-established region or country, ecotourism-wise, may provide best practice experiences. Yet it may be still prove difficult to transfer these experiences to participants' home countries because of different general conditions.

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5. Financial issues: it is extremely difficult, if not impossible, to finance ecotourismrelated training programmes for developing countries through participant fees. Subsidies to pay trainers and cover participants' travel expenses are usually needed. Both InWEnt and the BfN have at times provided funds or received money from government agencies to offer the courses. Participants may have access to donors in their region. The issue of having participant contribution to costs is hotly debated. Some argue that a nominal fee would help to select those with a true interest. 6. Participants' background: a homogenous group of participants with similar professional backgrounds and levels of experience can be productive because seminar contents and training methodologies are tailored to their needs. On the other hand, this reduces the opportunity to learn from each other. Mixing different groups of stakeholders (for example, protected area managers and tour operators) makes sense when both sides are accustomed to working together to seek joint solutions. Otherwise, interests may diverge too widely. Bringing together diverse stakeholders from one region for a combined capacitybuilding, dialogue and planning seminar on a specific protected area can be a challenging but useful exercise with directly relevant results. The above recommendations focus on protected area managers as the main target group. The following refer to other stakeholders who are protected areas users or otherwise involved. Bushell, R., and P.F.J. Eagles. Tourism and Protected Areas : Benefits Beyond Boundaries, CABI, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central,

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7. Policy-makers and planners: protected area management, community participation and ecotourism development are affected by government policies, economic cycles and global events at the regional, national and international levels. A wide range of conditions, such as existing infrastructure, immigration procedures, economic policies, community rights, agricultural policies, the education system, and government planning, all influence local outcomes. Thus capacity-building is important to create favourable overall conditions for ecotourism in protected areas. Seminars must address ecotourism policies; planning; management; general tourism development; and other relevant decision-making factors.

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8. Local communities: this is a key target group if benefits from ecotourism are to directly enhance local quality of life. Community members usually require a different training approach to trainees with a high level of formal education. Hands-on methods; practical demonstrations; visualisation techniques; and working with pictures and drawings are essential. Content-wise, basic hospitality skills, food preparation, the art of guiding, foreign language courses, business management and autonomous community development planning techniques are the focus here. Programmes that employ a train-the-trainer approach, with for example community liaison staff from NGOs or protected area agencies, can help to disseminate knowledge at the local level. 9. Tourism professionals: protected area managers often need to gain a greater understanding of the business side to ecotourism. Tourism professionals, on the other hand, tend to require greater knowledge of sustainable business management, particularly with respect to local participation and community-based tourism. Additionally, private company owners and their staff are generally selective as to which professional development courses they attend. For example, courses on how to improve their profile as environmentally friendly may not be perceived to be related to their immediate business interests. Information on ecotourism markets, innovative products and segment-specific marketing and distribution channels are, however, directly relevant, and can be promoted accordingly. It should be made clear that product quality and success in the nature tourism market are closely connected to having an intact natural resource base, and that companies have to make an active contribution to this. Seminars that target the private sector need to: be short; take place outside of the high season; and possibly be held in conjunction with trade shows. Successful examples are the TIES one-day workshops held prior to the World Ecotourism Summit in 2002 (for example on eco-lodges and online-marketing) and one-day marketing seminars run by the GTZ as part of the Tourism Forum International at the Reisepavillon - an annual trade show for sustainable tourism in Germany. 10. Donor agencies: staff from donor agencies and conservation and rural development NGOs need to know about how to design, plan, finance, implement and evaluate ecotourism projects and/or ecotourism components of broader projects in protected areas and rural regions. The GTZ handbook9 was widely distributed in the development cooperation community to address this need.

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Notes UN documents now list poverty alleviation alongside the ecologically sustainable development principles of intergenerational equity, the precautionary principle, conservation of biological diversity and protection of ecological integrity. See for example Biodiversity and poverty alleviation - challenges for sustainable development at http://www.biodiv.org/programmes/outreach/awareness/biodiv-day-2003.asp 2. Much of the decline in public conservation funding can be traced to the rise of economic rationalism, which includes such philosophies as user-pays and the level playing field, which assumes that all competitors in the market have an equal starting point from which to build their businesses. Technological change has also contributed to the decline in unskilled employment opportunities and thus greater disparities in wealth distribution and income inequality. 3. Defined as a segment of tourism taking place in natural areas where the experience of nature, regardless of its specific form, is the main motivation for visiting an area; also referred to as nature tourism. 4. Strasdas (200la) is an in-depth analysis of ecotourism implementation in a variety of developing countries and contains a comprehensive bibliography but is only available in German. 5. A parastatal protected area agency in the South African province of KwaZulu-Natal. 6. 'Experience Nature' - a marketing campaign for nature-oriented package tours initiated by the state's protected area agency in conjunction with local service providers during the International Year of Ecotourism. 7. Among those exceptions are the UNESCO World Heritage Centre and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), both with fulltime tourism co-ordinators (see Pederson Chapter 8), the Dutch development agency SNV (who has a full-time tourism coordinator), the German GTZ (who has a sectoral project on sustainable tourism), The Nature Conservancy (US), Conservation International (both with ecotourism departments), and World Wildlife Fund. The International Ecotourism Society (TIES) provides a range of ecotourism training programmes for developing and developed nations, designed for the public and private sector as well as community-based organizations. 8. For example, 'Tourism's Potential as a Sustainable Development Strategy', a conference organised by the World Tourism Organization and George Washington University in October 2004, brought together a considerable number of donor agencies to discuss the role of sustainable tourism and ecotourism in development cooperation programmes. 9. A particularly good example from Zambia is presented in Strasdas et al. (2002), The Ecotourism Training Manual for Protected Area Managers. 10. Tourism in Technical Co-operation - A guide to the conception, planning and implementation of project accompanying measures in regional-rural development and nature conservation (GTZ, 1999).

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1.

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References

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Benavides, D.D. (2002) Overcoming poverty in developing countries through self-sustainable international tourism. In: Rauschelbach, B., Schafer, A. and Steck, B. (Eds) Cooperating for Sustainable Tourism: Proceedings of the Forum International, Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit (German Agency for Technical Cooperation - GTZ), Reisepavillon, January, 2002. Bushell, R. (2003) Balancing Conservation and Visitation in Protected Areas. In: Buckley, R., Pickering, C. and Weaver, D.B. (eds) Nature-based Tourism, Environment and Development, Ecotourism Series No.l. CAB International, Wallingford, UK, pp. 197-208. Ceballos-Lascurain, H. (1996) Tourism, Ecotourism and Protected Areas. Gland, Switzerland, International Union for Conservation of Nature. Corcoran, B. and Petermann, T. (2002) An evaluation of the DSE Seminars on Sustainable Tourism in Protected Area Systems: Lessons learned on training methodologies and country experiences. Unpublished report, German Foundation for International Development DSE-ZEL, Zschortau, Germany. Eagles, P.F.J. (1995) Tourism and Canadian Parks: Fiscal relationships. Managing Leisure 1(1): 16—27. Eagles, P.P., McCool, S.F. and Haynes, D. (2002) Sustainable Tourism in Protected Areas: Guidelines for Planning and Management. United Nations Environment Programme, World Tourism Organization and World Conservation Union, IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. Epler-Wood, M. (2002) Ecotourism: Principles, Practices and Policies for Sustainability. United Nations Environment Programme and The International Ecotourism Society, UN Publications, New York. Financing Protected Areas Task Force (2000) Financing Protected Areas. World Commission on Protected Areas with the IUCN Economics Unit, Gland, Switzerland. GTZ (1999) Tourism in Technical Co-operation —A guide to the conception, planning and implementation of project accompanying measures in regional-rural development and nature conservation. GTZ BIODIV and Tropical Ecology Support Programme, Eschborn, Germany. GTZ (2002) Cooperating for Sustainable Tourism. Proceedings of the Forum International, Reisepavillon 2002, Eschborn, Germany. Hausler, N. and Strasdas, W. (2003) Training Manual for Community-based Tourism. InWEnt - CapacityBuilding International, Zschortau, Germany. Roe, D., Ashley, C., Page, S. and Meyer, D. (2004) Tourism and the Poor - Analysing and Interpreting Tourism Statistics from a Poverty Perspective. PPT Working Paper No. 16. URL: http://www.propoortourism.org.uk Strasdas, W. (200 la) Ecotourism in Practice — The implementation of the economic and conservation-related goals of an ambitious tourism concept in developing countries. Institute for Tourism and Development, Ammerland, Germany (available in German only). Strasdas, W. (200 Ib) Ecotourism in Development Co-operation. Ecotourism and Sustainability, United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Industry and Environment Magazine, 24(3-4), Paris. Strasdas, W., Petermann, T. and Corcoran, B. (2002) The Ecotourism Training Manual for Protected Area Managers. German Foundation for International Development, Zschortau, Germany.

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Chapter 12

The Role of Certification and Accreditation in Ensuring Tourism Contributes to Conservation Martha Honey

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Introduction As Andrea Bonilla, the general manager of Lapa Rios, a 405 ha private rainforest reserve in Costa Rica's Osa Peninsula, checks in guests at the lodge's front desk, there's a green-andolive-coloured plaque hanging on the wall just behind her. It reads: 'Sustainable Tourism' in both English and Spanish and below the word 'level' there are five white leaves. In her welcome speech, Bonilla states that the lodge is one of the top-rated hotels under the Costa Rican government's Certification for Sustainable Tourism (CST) programme designed to measure the environmental and social impacts of tourism businesses. She explains that Lapa Rios' owners, Karen and John Lewis, built the lodge with the aim of supporting both conservation and the local community through, for instance, putting the land they bought under protection, using low-impact designs and technologies, hiring and training local people, and helping to build and support a local primary school. Guests can choose among a variety of outings - bird walks, night hikes through the rainforest, a medicinal plant walk, snorkeling, a boat trip to a botanical garden - or they just relax at the pool or on the beach (Lewis, 2002; Honey, 2003). On the other side of the globe, tourists en route to the Great Barrier Reef are handed a glossy six-page brochure as they queue to get on board Quicksilver's massive, high-speed catamaran in Port Douglas, Australia. The brochure boasts that Quicksilver has 'won numerous state, national and international awards' and it carries a small logo that reads: 'ECO Tourism Advanced Accreditation'. Quicksilver carries up to 400 tourists a day out to a section of the Outer Barrier Reef where it moors at the company's large permanent diving platform. On board are some dozen qualified dive instructors and marine biologists who divide passengers into groups of snorkelers and scuba divers. With the help of instructional videos and printed materials, they give brief lessons on the ecology and biology of the reef, use of the equipment, safety procedures, and the do's and don'ts on the reef. Some passengers sign up for scenic helicopter rides over the reef, while others choose to stay onboard and view the massive coral structures from an enclosed semi-submersible tank, which is connected to the catamaran's hull. In the air-conditioned salon, the company's General Manager, Max Shepherd, tells his guests that Quicksilver has been named Australia's best tour operator and, as the ECO logo indicates, has received the highest rating under Australia's internationally respected ECO Certification scheme (formally known as the 168

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Nature and Ecotourism Accreditation Programme or NEAP). Shepherd says his company is committed to conservation of this World Heritage Site through educating visitors, generating revenue (each passenger pays a AU$4.00 'environmental management charge'), and providing its ten marine biologists and equipment to help monitor the reef. Shepherd notes, 'We have shown presidents and heads of state from around the world the marvels of the Great Barrier Reef, and he goes on to describe the time he personally accompanied former president Bill Clinton and a phalanx of secret service agents out for a day of snorkeling in the marine park. Lapa Rios is a picture postcard of ecotourism - small scale, low impact, low key while Quicksilver, with its 72-foot hull, triple decks, and spacious, air-conditioned salon, bar and restaurant, borders on mass tourism. Lapa Rios accommodates a maximum of 32 guests at a time and is averaging some 7600 visitors per year. Quicksilver and scores of other boats carry a million visitors a year to the Great Barrier Reef. But despite the differences, these two businesses share much in common and their similarities are summed up in the eco-logos they both have earnt. Costa Rica's CST and Australia's ECO Certification are two of the best known 'green' certification programmes designed to measure sustainability within the tourism industry. (Bien, 2002) Certification is defined as 'a procedure that assesses, audits and gives written assurance that a facility, product, process or service meets specific standards' (Honey, 2002). It awards a marketable logo to those that meet or exceed baseline standards. Increasingly, companies like Lapa Rios and Quicksilver are seeing the benefits of voluntary certification programmes as a way to help ensure they are following the best practices in the industry, help train their staffs on sound environmental and social practices, and help differentiate their businesses from competitors. In addition, the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority has given Quicksilver an extended licence and permit to operate on the reef because of its exemplary practices in sustainable tourism and interpretation. This latter benefit demonstrates the growing interest that protected area managers have in certification as a tool for ensuring that tourism business granted concessions follow best social and environmental practices. Over the last 15 years, and particularly in the wake of the United Nations' 1992 Earth Summit there has been a literal flowering of 'green' certification programmes within the tourism industry. According to a World Tourism Organization study, by 2001, there were 59 'very comprehensive state of the art' tourism certification schemes (see Fig. 1; WTO, 2002). Of these, the majority are for accommodation, but there are a growing number of certification programmes covering other sectors of the tourism industry, including sports facilities (golf courses, ski lifts), transport (tour boats, cruise ships), tour operators, naturalist guides, destinations (communities and towns), beaches, and protected areas. Most certification programmes cover a single country, some are regional, while only a handful most importantly Green Globe - cover accommodations worldwide. The largest concentration of programmes is in Europe (see Fig. 2). However, currently, Latin America has the largest number of new programmes in development. The most ambitious and best financed of these new certification programmes is in Brazil where the InterAmerican Development Bank (IDE) has put up $1.6 million and local NGOs and businesses have raised matching funds to create and launch an environmentally and socially responsible eco-label for hotels.

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Source: World Tourism Organization

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Fig. 1. Types of certification programmes

Source: World Tourism Organization

Fig. 2. Geographical distribution of certification programmes

The UN's declaration of 2002 as the International Year of Ecotourism, which included a series of regional workshops that culminated in the World Ecotourism Summit in May 2002, gave further impetus to the expansion of certification efforts. During the year several new certification programmes were launched, including the Eco-Rating System in Kenya, the first programme in Africa, and the Swedish Ecotourism Society's Nature's Best. And at the World Ecotourism Summit itself, held in Quebec City, plans to develop at least nine more new programmes were announced, including ones in Fiji, Ecuador, and Japan. Then, in September 2003, the lUCN's Vth World Parks Congress, held in Durban, South Africa, became another important venue for promoting 'green' certification programmes. The lUCN's South Africa office used the occasion to promote its new hotel certification programme, Fair Trade in Tourism South Africa (FTTSA), which emphasizes social criteria

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such as fair wages and good working conditions that are in line with South Africa's commitment to using tourism as a tool for poverty alleviation. In addition, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), in partnership with four other organizations Rainforest Alliance, The International Ecotourism Society (TIES), and the Centre on Ecotourism and Sustainable Development (CESD) and the World Tourism Organization (WTO) - presented a half day workshop on certification, specifically geared to protected area managers. Some 120 people attended the workshop, which included presentations and panel discussions on certification as a tool for policy-makers, the role of certification in environmental protection and parks management, the key challenges and opportunities for certification. It also marked the official launch of an international initiative to create a global accreditation body or stewardship council for sustainable tourism and ecotourism. One presentation - on the PAN Parks certification programme - was particularly relevant for protected areas managers. Andre Brasser, Communications Manager of WWFNetherlands, explained that PAN Parks was initiated in 1997 through the unlikely alliance between WWF International and Molecaten Group, a Dutch tourism and leisure company. It was supported as well by the IUCN, various protected area authorities, and a small number of tourism businesses in and around these parks. The aim of PAN Parks is to certify large European protected areas with a minimum of 20,000 hectares 'which are outstanding in terms of natural values and management and in terms of quality nature-oriented tourism products offered.' It seeks to create a network of parks 'with an international reputation for outstanding access to wildlife and excellent tourist facilities, combined with effective habitat protection and the minimal environmental impact possible.' (WTO, 2002; Font and Mihalic, 2002). Its mission, as outlined on its website, is three-fold: 1) to create a European network of wilderness protected areas; 2) to promote sustainable tourism in order to help improve natural protection; and 3) to provide a reliable trademark or logo that guarantees protection of national parks and is recognized by all Europeans (www.panparks.org). PAN Parks criteria include five guiding principles and 23 measurements covering habitat management, natural values, visitor management, strategies for sustainable tourism development, and local business partners (See Fig. 3). The certification process includes a self-assessment questionnaire and feedback, on-site verification visit and desk evaluation by independent parties, annual monitoring, and a new audit every five years. The PAN Parks European Management Organization makes the final decision about whether to grant certification and use of the logo. The protected area applying for certification is expected to cover some of the costs. PAN Parks also collects tourism data, provides marketing, including 'sub-branding' through the use of WWF logo, and helps to build partnerships between protected area authorities and the local communities and businesses surrounding the park. The programme has, however, gotten off to a rather slow start, with delays in producing the verification manual and creating training programmes for local people and/or protected area staff. The IUCN has estimated that there are 75 protected areas in Europe and EU accession countries that could be certified PAN Parks (WTO, 2002). By September 2004, only four parks - in Sweden, Finland, Poland, and Bulgaria - had been certified, with five others expected to be certified by 2006. In 2004, Kalofer, a certified PAN Park in Bulgaria was named as a runner-up in the prestigious Conde Nast Traveller 10th annual Ecotourism Award (www.panparks.org; www.kalofer.com).

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PAN Parks Principle 1: Natural values PAN Parks are large protected areas, representative of Europe's natural heritage and of international importance for wildlife and ecosystems. Principle 2: Habitat management Design and management of the PAN Park aims to maintain and, if necessary, restore the area's natural ecological processes and its biodiversity. Principle 3: Visitor management Visitor management safeguards the natural values of the PAN Park and aims to provide visitors with a high-quality experience based on the appreciation of nature. Principle 4: Sustainable tourism development The Protected Area Authority and its relevant partners in the PAN Parks region aim at achieving a synergy between nature conservation and sustainable tourism by developing and jointly implementing a Sustainable Tourism Development Strategy. Principle 5: Business partners PAN Parks' business partners as legal enterprises are committed to the goals of the protected area in their region and the PAN Parks Organization, and actively cooperate with other stakeholders to effectively implement the region's Sustainable Tourism Development Strategy as developed by the local PAN Parks executive committee. Source: PAN Parks

Fig. 3. PAN Park's guiding principles

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Complexities of the Tourism Industry Travel and tourism is widely estimated to be the world's largest industry, employing directly and indirectly an estimated almost 200 million people (Honey, 2002). This amounts to 11% or one in twelve jobs globally, 10.2% of the world's Gross Domestic Product, and 11.2% of global exports (WTTC, 2003). If tourism were a country, it would be the world's second largest economy, surpassed only by the USA (Honey, 2002). Unlike other green and socially responsible certification programmes for a single product - wood, bananas, coffee, cut flowers, aquarium fish - where the chain of custody can be fairly easily established from the point of origin to wholesalers, retailers, and the consumer, tourism is found in virtually every country, is both multi-faceted and non-linear, and involves a wide variety of both services and products. According to the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP), tourism-related businesses include: Travel: travel agents, tour operators, airlines, car rental companies, buses, railways, and taxis. Bushell, R., and P.F.J. Eagles. Tourism and Protected Areas : Benefits Beyond Boundaries, CABI, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central,

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Accommodation, catering and retail establishments: hotels, guesthouses, hostels, camping sites, cafes, restaurants, and shops (clothing, souvenir, handicraft, etc). Leisure and entertainment: theatres, museums, theme parks, cinemas, and spectator sports. Sports and recreation: athletic centres, diving clubs, chartered transport, safaris and other guided visits (UNEP, 2001). In addition, there is the natural environment on which tourism depends, including parks and protected areas (private and government), beaches, marine protected areas, mountains, and cultural and heritage sites. Before the development of 'green' eco-labels, there were other tourism certification programmes in the United States, Canada and Europe designed to measure professional and business quality, service, and safety standards. By the early 1990s, there were some dozen programmes in the USA that certified tourism professions. The oldest, the Certified Travel Counselor (CTC), was introduced in 1965 by the Institute of Certified Travel Agents as a voluntary programme to rate and recognize the competence of individual travel agents. Other programmes certified a range of professionals, including hotel administrators, meeting professionals, and exhibit managers. This type of certification programme was designed to demonstrate professional competence and performance and to promote selfassessment and improvement (Morrison et al, 1992). While the programmes helped to attest to the integrity of individuals, they were not linked to setting or measuring environmentally and socially responsible criteria for the industry. Much older than professional certification programmes are ones linked to the growth of the automobile and family vacations that rate quality, price, and service of accommodations along major roadways. Beginning in 1900, the French tyre company Michelin published its first guidebook measuring and rating hotels and restaurants. Shortly afterwards, American Automobile Association or Triple A, made up of US automobile clubs, also began producing motorist handbooks that used a series of stars to rate the quality and cost of accommodations and restaurants located along highways. Gradually the 5-star quality and safety rating system for accommodations has spread around the world, although the criteria vary from country to country. Today, in Europe, Costa Rica, Australia, and elsewhere, these 5-star certification programmes often exist side-by-side with newer 'green' certification programmes measuring. There is, however, an increasing recognition of the need to try to fuse these traditional 'quality' programmes with the newer 'green' ones. In 2004, in response to growing consumer demand for 'environmentally friendly' accommodation, AAA Tourism in Australia, in association with Green Globe, launched a new Green STARS programme. This encourages properties to embrace good environmental practice in their businesses for a Green STARS rating based on the accommodation's performance in a number of areas including energy efficiency, waste minimization, and water management, as well as quality and service. In addition to the benefits received through added competitiveness in the market place and operational cost savings, members of the Green STARS programme will automatically become Green Globe participants at the introductory or Affliate level and will be encouraged to move to the next two levels, Benchmarking and Certification (AAA Tourism, 2004).

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As engineer and consultant Robert Toth states, tourist certification programmes can be described as a three-legged stool (see Fig. 4). One leg measures and rates quality, service, and price; a second, health, hygiene, and safety; and a third, sustainability (Toth, 2002).

Source: Robert Toth

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Fig. 4. Toth's three-legged stool of certification programmes

According to Toth, government generally regulates health and safety standards and most tourists take them for granted. (Or, as the SARS virus and bird flu demonstrate, government warnings dramatically affect travel and the travel industry). Certification programmes either include compliance with government health and safety standards or, in countries where standards are weak or poorly enforced, include standards that go beyond government regulations. The second leg - price and quality standards - have typically been most important to travellers and are those most often set and measured by industry associations, such as AAA or Michelin. While the focus of the mass or conventional tourism industry has historically been on rating these first two legs - health and safety and cost and quality - the newer 'green' certification programmes hold that tourism businesses also measure environmental and socio-economic impacts and consider the satisfaction of the host community as well as of the traveller. The origins of this third leg of certification - sustainability - can be traced directly to the rise of the ecotourism movement (Honey, 1999a). Ecotourism and certification The term 'ecotourism' first appeared in the 1970s, a decade that saw the rise of a global environmental movement and a convergence of demand for sustainable and socially responsible forms of tourism. It grew, initially in scattered experiments and without a name, in response to deepening concerns about the negative effects of conventional tourism. Countries in Latin America, Africa and Asia, which viewed tourism as a development tool and foreign exchange earner, were becoming increasingly disillusioned with the economic leakage of tourist dollars and the negative social and environmental impacts of mass

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tourism. Simultaneously, scientists, parks officials, and environmental organizations in various parts of the world were becoming increasingly alarmed by the loss of rain forest and other habitat and of rhino, elephant, tiger and other endangered wildlife. They began to argue that protected areas would only survive if the people in and around these fragile ecosystems saw some tangible benefits from tourism. Mounting criticism of the collateral damage caused by tourism - leakage of profits, pollution, and social ills - led the World Bank and the Inter-American Development Bank, which had invested heavily in large tourism projects, to conclude that tourism was not a sound development strategy. In the late 1970s, both institutions closed down their tourism departments and ceased lending for tourism. (They only moved back into providing loans for tourism projects in the 1990s, this time under the rubric of ecotourism.) Parallel with these trends, a portion of the travelling public was becoming increasingly turned off by packaged cruises, overcrowded campsites, and high-rise beach hotels, and began seeking less crowded and more unspoiled natural areas. Spurred by relatively affordable and plentiful airline routes, increasing numbers of nature lovers began seeking serenity and pristine beauty overseas. And the travel and tourism industry began to see that there was a growing market among the travelling public for 'green' tourism. Gradually these different interests began to coalesce into a new concept that was labeled 'ecotourism.' Back in 1991, when a small group of tourism and conservation experts came together to found The International Ecotourism Society, they spent much of one night hammering out the succinct, 16-word description that remains today the most popular and commonly cited definition: Ecotourism is 'responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment and improves the welfare of local people.' (Honey, 1999b:21) While nature tourism and adventure tourism focus on what the tourist is seeking or doing, ecotourism focuses on the impact of this travel on the traveller, the environment, and the people in the host country and posits that this impact must be positive. As such, ecotourism is closely linked to the concept of sustainable development. Rather than being simply a niche market within tourism or a subset of nature tourism, properly understood, ecotourism is a set of principles and practices for how the public should travel and for how the travel industry should operate. During the 1990s, propelled in part by both the UN's 1992 Earth Summit and a rapidly growing tourism industry, ecotourism literally exploded. By the mid-1990s, ecotourism (together with nature tourism) was being hailed as the fastest growing sector of the travel and tourism industry. The International Ecotourism Society estimated that in 2000 ecotourism was growing by 20% annually, compared with 7% for tourism overall (Mastny, 2001:37). In 1999, Hector Ceballos-Lascurain, the well-known Mexican architect and conservationist, declared, 'Ecotourism is no longer a mere concept or subject of wishful thinking. On the contrary, ecotourism has become a global reality... There seem to be very few countries in the world in which some type of ecotourism development or discussion is not presently taking place' (Ceballos-Lascurain, 1999). More than anything else, this 'global reality' was signified by UN's declaration of 2002 as the International Year of Ecotourism. But parallel to ecotourism's global reach and recognition have been concerns, most articulately and persistently voiced by those in the global South, that the radical tenets of ecotourism would not continue to take root and grow in this new century. There is ample evidence that, in many places, ecotourism's principles and core practices are being corrupted and watered down, hijacked and perverted. Indeed, what is currently being served

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up as ecotourism includes a mixed grill with three rather distinct varieties: 1) ecotourism 'lite' businesses which adopted a few environmental practices (such as not washing sheets and towels each day or using energy saving shower heads), 2) 'green washing' scams which use green rhetoric in their marketing but follow none of the principles and practices, and 3) genuine ecotourism, or those businesses that are striving to implement environmentally and socially responsible practices (Honey, 1999b:47-55). Over the last decade it has become increasingly clear that if ecotourism is to fulfill its revolutionary potential, it must move from imprecision to a set of clear tools, standards, and criteria. Ecotourism needs to not just be conceptualized, but codified, and it is here that 'green' certification programmes are viewed as having a central role to play. While ecotourism seeks to provide tangible benefits for both conservation and local communities, certification that includes socio-economic and environmental criteria seeks to set standards and measure what are the benefits to host countries, local communities, and the environment. Today tourism, via the concept of ecotourism, is viewed, perhaps more than any other global industry, as a tool for both conservation and local community development. 'Ecotourism embraces the principles of sustainable tourism, concerning the economic, social and environmental impacts of tourism,' states the Quebec Declaration. It goes on to affirm that 'different forms of tourism, especially ecotourism, if managed in a sustainable manner can represent a valuable economic opportunity for local and indigenous populations and their cultures and for the conservation and sustainable use of nature for future generations and can be a leading source of revenues for protected areas.' The Quebec Declaration endorses the use to certification as a tool for measuring sound ecotourism and sustainable tourism, while recognizing that 'certification systems should reflect regional and local criteria' (Honey, 1999b:47-55).

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Common Components of Certification Programmes In analysing the current array of 'green' certification programmes within the tourism industry, it can be seen that they are all united by some common components. However, these programmes are as well divided by their methodology - process versus performance and by the sector of the industry they cover - conventional or mass tourism, sustainable tourism, and ecotourism. Examining both the common components and broad distinctions helps to illuminate the strengths and weaknesses of these programmes and to lay out the basic framework and principles that need to be part of any environmentally and socially responsible programmes. While certification programmes within the travel and tourism industry vary widely, they do all have several common features. These include the following. Voluntary enrolment At present, all 'green' certification programmes in the travel and tourism industry are voluntary, i.e., businesses decide whether to apply for certification. Even though governments are involved in financing and in some cases running many of these programmes, they do not require businesses to be certified. In contrast, some governments

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do require hotels to be certified under the 5-star rating system in order to obtain a licence to operate. Standards and criteria Certification requires that businesses be assessed by measuring their level of compliance with prescribed criteria and standards. As described below, this can be done by using one of two broad methods: process that sets up an environment management system tailored to the business, or performance that measures every business against a common set of environmental and socio-economic criteria or benchmarks. As discussed below, understanding the process-performance distinction is crucial in evaluating the effectiveness of socially and environmentally responsible certification programmes. Increasingly, programmes are using a combination of these two methodologies. Assessment and auditing Certification involves first-party, i.e., by the company itself, typically by completing a written questionnaire; second party, i.e., by an industry association like AAA, or third-party, i.e., by an authorized, independent auditor who is not connected with either the company seeking certification or the body that grants certification and issues the logo On-site, thirdparty auditing is considered the most rigorous and credible because it avoids any conflict of interest. Logo

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All programmes award a selective logo, seal, or brand designed to be recognizable to consumers. Most permit the logo to be used only for a specified period of time before another audit is required. Many certification programmes give logos for different levels of achievement, one to five suns, stars, or leaves, for instance. This is considered superior to a single logo because it encourages business to improve and helps customers to distinguish among certified products. Membership and fees While many programmes are initially financed by governments, aid agencies, or NGOs, the long-run aim is to make them self-supporting through, at least in part, charging an enrolment fee to businesses seeking certification. Many times a sliding scale is used, with larger and more profitable businesses paying more. These fees vary widely and, as discussed below, tend to be highest for certification based on environmental management systems that typically require outside consultants. One of the major challenges for 'green' certification programmes is how to make certification programmes self-supporting over the long haul.

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Methodologies: Process versus Performance While certification programmes all share these common components, they are distinguished both by whether they use a process or performance methodology and by the sector of the tourism industry they cover.

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Process-based certification programmes Process-based certification programmes are all variations of environmental management systems (EMS). The EMS method is widely used, particularly for large hotels or hotel chains, to help management conduct baseline studies, do staff training, and set up systems for ongoing monitoring and attainment of set environmental targets such as pollution, water, and electricity reduction. The best known EMS standard for 'green' hotel certification is the ISO 14001 or one of its variants such as ISO 14001 Plus, Eco-Management and Audit System (EMAS), life cycle assessment, and The Nature Step. ISO 14001 was developed in the wake of the 1992 Rio Earth Summit as one of industry's responses to increasing public interest in sustainable development. ISO stands for the International Organization for Standardization, a world federation of standards bodies that develops voluntary standards designed to facilitate international manufacturing, trade, and communications. ISO 14001 contains the specification and framework for creating an EMS for any business, regardless of its size, product, service, or sector. It can be applied corporate-wide, at an individual site, or to one particular part of a firm's operations, with its exact scope left to the discretion of the company. Certification to ISO standards is based on having an acceptable process for developing and revising the EMS; it is not based on implementation of the EMS or achieving any declared benchmarks (Krut and Gleckman, 1998; Synergy, 2000). Another ISO standard, also widely used by the tourism industry, especially hotels, is the 9000 family that sets up management systems for quality and service. Still another cluster - ISO 28, 65, 66, and 67 - contain guidance for establishing and managing certification systems, while ISO 61 contains the requirements for assessment and accreditation of certification bodies. These are important for creating uniformity in how certification programmes function and are accredited. ISO and other forms of process-based certification fit well with how large hotels and chains are organized. The advantages of ISO 14001 are that it is internationally recognized and has standards tailored to the needs of the individual business (see Fig. 5). However, the drawbacks are considerable. It is costly - setting up an EMS usually requires hiring commercial consultants and can cost $20,000 to $40,000 for a medium-sized company; for large hotels, it can cost as much as $400,000. It is also complicated and heavily engineering oriented; focused on internal operating systems, not a company's social and economic impact on the surrounding area or on how a business compares with others in the field; and concerned only with how a company operates, not what it does. The ISO 14001 certification does not guarantee certain standards have been met and does not allow comparisons among resorts. Therefore ISO 14001 and other types of process-based management systems are insufficient, by themselves, to guarantee sustainable tourism practices (Honey and Rome, 2001). There is a growing awareness about the shortcomings of this methodology and growing agreement that, to be credible, certification programmes must include performance-based standards. For instance, in 2002, Green Globe, which had been a largely process-based

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certification programme, teamed up with NEAP to create an international ecotourism standard based mainly on performance criteria. Green Globe, which was itself renamed Green Globe 21, has also incorporated performance criteria. Certification Methodology (Process-based Programmes) •Environmental Management Systems (EMS): ISO 14001 •Management establishes systems for monitoring certain criteria •Requires outside consultants; relatively expensive •Helps ensure internal controls/documentation

Emphasis on internal cost saving a environmental impact reforms No universal standards: cannot compare across businesses Logo given for setting up process, t for achieving fixed goals; pass/fail Best suited to large busine

Source: Honey, 2004

Fig. 5. Characteristics of process-based certification methodologies

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Performance-based certification programmes

Today, an increasing number of certification programmes are performance-based, meaning they include a set of benchmarks, often in the form of yes/no questions, against which a business is measured. Therefore these programmes focus on what a business does in a variety of environmental, socio-cultural, and economic areas. While process-based programmes set up a system for monitoring and improving performance, performance-based methodology states the goals or targets that businesses must achieve to receive certification and use of a logo. These same performance criteria are then used to measure all companies or products seeking certification under that particular programme. Programmes that are largely performance-based, such as CST and ECO Certification, tend to be less costly and permit comparisons among businesses since all are audited based on the same criteria (see Fig. 6). Performance-based certification programmes are typically easier to implement because they do not require setting up complex and costly environmental management systems. They are therefore more attractive to small and medium-size enterprises, which comprise as much as 90% of tourism enterprises worldwide (Mastny, 2001). In addition, although EMS programmes are typically devised by management and outside consultants, the most effective performance-based programmes are created and implemented by a range of stakeholders (including representatives from industry, government, NGOs, host communities, and often academics) and can solicit and integrate opinions from tourists. Performance-based programmes do, however, present some challenges. The yes/no format can be harsh since many questions are better answered with nuances. Even more prevalent, many standards and criteria are qualitative, subjective, and imprecise and therefore difficult to measure, and many sustainability targets are undefined. For instance, the CST does not specify the size of a protected area a hotel must have and this permits a hotel that has a small garden to receive the same points as one that has an extensive private reserve. And the next question, 'The hotel's protected area is appropriately managed' can be open to wide interpretation. Despite these difficulties, there is a growing consensus among

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tourism certification experts that performance standards better measure sustainability that is the environmental and socio-economic impacts of a business. As a study commissioned by the World Wildlife Fund in Britain concludes, 'Only where universal performance levels and targets that tackle sustainability (environmental, social and economic) are specified within and by a standard, and where criteria making their attainment a prerequisite are present, can something akin to sustainability be promised by certification' (Synergy, 2000:10). Certification Methodology (Performance-based Programmes) Set criteria that permit comparisons among certified businesses Measures achievement/results, not intent Can include check list intelligible to both business and consumers More transparent; less expensive

Can include environmental and socioeconomic criteria within and without business Can involve a variety of stakeholders Can offer different levels of logos Suited to small, medium and large businesses

Source: Honey, 2004

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Fig. 6. Characteristics of performance-based certification methodologies

Blue Flag for beaches and marinas, one of the oldest and most successful programmes, includes both process and performance criteria. Increasingly, many of the newer or revamped programmes such as Green Globe 21, ECO Certification in Australia, Green Deal in the Peten region of Guatemala, the Nordic Swan in Scandinavia, and Green Keys in France represent a hybrid of process-based environmental management systems and performance standards or benchmarks (Hamele, 2002:190-194). The WWF study concludes that this combined approach is useful because it 'encourages businesses to establish comprehensive environmental management systems that deliver systematic and continuous improvements, include performance targets and also encourage businesses to invest in technologies that deliver the greatest economic and environmental benefits within a specific region' (Synergy, 2000:19-20). This type of hybrid appears certain to become the norm in the future.

Conventional, Sustainable and Ecotourism Certification Programmes While understanding the distinction between the process and performance methodologies is important in assessing their rigour, certification programmes can also be categorized using a wider lens than methodology. In terms of developing public policy, model programmes, and international standards, it is helpful to distinguish three fundamental types of certification programmes: those covering the conventional (sometimes called mass) tourism, sustainable tourism, and ecotourism markets.

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Conventional tourism certification programmes

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Conventional tourism certification programmes cover companies within the mass tourism market, that is, the large sectors of the tourism industry that have been built without following ecotourism principles and practices. They generally include airlines, car rental agencies, hotel chains, cruise ships, golf courses, and other high-volume types of travel and tourism. While historically certification programmes within the conventional tourism sector have focused on quality and cost, the newer 'green' programmes focus on monitoring and improving environmental efficiency within the business by setting up management systems. They emphasize adopting environmentally friendly systems that also save money on electricity, water, waste, and laundry. For instance, the Green Hotels Association estimates that encouraging guests to reuse sheets and towels can save the hotel US$1.50 per occupied room. The Hilton Tokyo Bay, which is certified under the ECOTEL programme, saved $250,000 in 1999 alone by reducing its garbage from 3.5 tons a day to 1.7 tons (Szuchman, 2000). These programmes focus on the physical plant or the internal business, not wider conservation and community impacts. For instance, the Costao do Sinhindo beach resort in Brazil, which was certified under ISO 14001, has been harshly criticized by local NGO activists for involvement in unsavory land deals - areas which are not examined by environmental management systems. Often these certification programmes are created and run by industry trade associations without wider stakeholder involvement. These programmes are, in a sense, the narrowest and least effective of the certification models. Yet they are also typically the best funded, best known, and most heavily marketed because they have strong industry backing. They are also addressing the heart of the tourism industry where rigorous and responsible standards for environmental and social equity protection are urgently needed. However, most of today's conventional tourism certification programmes fall short: they can lead to some 'green' innovations, but they are insufficient to generate sustainable tourism practices. In essence, the current types of certification for the conventional market usually entail taking useful, but minimal, 'eco-lite' measures that fall far short of the sound practices and principles needed to ensure that the business is socially and environmentally sustainable. Sustainable tourism certification programmes This type of programme measures a range of environmental, and at least some socio-cultural and economic equity issues both internally within the business and externally, on the surrounding community and physical environment. These are primarily or totally performance- or achievement-based programmes, using independent auditors and multifaceted questionnaires drawn up in consultation with a variety of stakeholders. It may also include creating a management system to help establish more efficient environmental procedures. Most often, sustainable tourism certification involves individual or site-specific businesses or attractions such as lodges and beaches. The basic aim or motto of this type of programme can be characterized as 'harm reduction.' A number of the leading programmes today, including CST in Costa Rica, Blue Flag for beaches, ECO Certification's nature tourism level, and a number of the European programmes cover the sustainable tourism certification category. There is growing consensus that sustainable tourism certification

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offers the best option in terms of developing global standards and a model programme (Mohonk Minutes, 2000). Its criteria are broad enough to encompass various sizes of businesses and types of tourism, including niche markets such as nature, historic, and cultural tourism. At the same time, it can contain specific questions tailored to the conditions of a particular country, state or region and it is administered locally. And, because it focuses on performance both inside and outside the business, it offers a more holistic approach to measuring the effects of a tourism business and allows comparisons among those certified. Sustainable tourism is, however, a less clear-cut category than either mass tourism or ecotourism and some worry that it can easily be too broadly drawn. Costa Rica's CST programme, while widely praised as a premier tourism certification programme, also has its detractors and critics who argue it is not suitable for smaller, low budget and often locally owned accommodations. In response to these criticisms, CST officials have undertaken to both modify slightly its criteria and to create a separate set of criteria for ecotourism businesses (see Table 1).

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Ecotourism certification This third category of certification programmes covers those companies that describe themselves (through brochures, websites, guidebooks, etc.) as involved in ecotourism. They are invariably located in or near public or private protected areas and/or indigenous communities. Given this, ecotourism certification programmes emphasize a business's impact on the host community and the ecosystem in which it operates. While 'green' innovations for mainstream tourism reduce energy consumption and waste, ecotourism standards go beyond questions of eco-efficiency and are more responsive to national and local stakeholder concerns. While sustainable tourism certification strives to reduce negative impacts, ecotourism certification gauges whether companies contribute positively to conservation of protected areas and what mechanism are in place to ensure benefits reach local people. In addition to Australia's ECO Certification, other examples include the PAN (Protected Areas Network) Parks for protected areas over 25,000 ha and their surrounding communities and businesses in Europe (Font and Mihalic, 2002), Nature's Best for tour operators in the Arctic which was launched in 2002 by the Swedish Ecotourism Society and WWF (WWF Arctic Program, 2002), and Smart Voyager for tourist vessels ('floating hotels') in Ecuador's environmentally fragile Galapagos Islands (Sanabria, 2001). Even though ecotourism constitutes a small sector of the market, measuring and rating these businesses, services, and products is clearly vital both because of its effects on local communities and fragile ecosystems and because sound ecotourism can help to ratchet up performance standards for the broader tourism industry. In terms of developing a global certification model, it seems most appropriate that ecotourism certification programmes be incorporated as distinct components to sustainable tourism certification programmes that cover a wider spectrum of the market.

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Table 1. Costa Rica's Certificate for Sustainable Tourism (CST)

Geographic scope: Costa Rica. CST was adopted in 2002 as the official tourism certification standard for all seven Central American countries, but it was not implemented outside Costa Rica. However, in mid-2004 the Costa Rican government chose to restrict implementation to Costa Rica and the border areas of neighbouring Panama and Nicaragua. CST is being used as a model for other countries in South America. Sectors covered: Accommodations: hotels and lodges. Criteria for tour operators are being test piloted, and eventually the programme will cover restaurants, transportation and other sectors of the tourism industry. CST also works closely with Blue Flag to certify beaches in Costa Rica. Institution(s): Created and run by Costa Rican Tourism Board (ICT), in association with the National Accreditation Board, an independent certification-accreditation body that approves changes in the norm, certifies businesses based on audit recommendations, and will eventually accredit auditors and outside certification bodies. The accreditation body has representation by ICT, Ministry of the Environment (MINAE), Chamber of Tourism (CANATUR), National Institute of Biodiversity (INBio), Earth Council, IUCN, University of Costa Rica, and INCAE, a business school connected with Harvard University. Date of initiation: Planning began in 1995. Field-tested in 1997. Certification began in 1998. Funding source(s): Government's tourism ministry, the Costa Rican Institute of Tourism (ICT). There are discussions of how to make it self-supporting. Type of industry: Billed as sustainable tourism, but covers all three types: tourism, sustainable tourism, and ecotourism. A new set of criteria for ecotourism businesses is being developed. Criteria: Primarily performance-based but also has environmental management system criteria for assessing the physical plant. The criteria consist of a checklist of 152 'yes/no' questions in four general categories: Biological and physical surroundings (including questions about emissions and waste, policies and programmes, green zones, protection of flora and fauna); Physical plant (including, for instance, management policies, water and energy consumption, waste management, staff training); Customers (including guest facilities and instructions, management of groups, feedback); Social-economic environment (including direct and indirect economic benefits, contributions to cultural development and health, security). Each question is weighted on scale of one to three, with three most important. A formula is used to calculate the final score in each of the four general areas. Then the lowest final score received for any of these four categories becomes the hotel's overall sustainability category. This unusual and seemingly harsh scoring system is designed to encourage improvement.

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Table 1. (cont.) Costa Rica's Certificate for Sustainable Tourism

Auditing: Currently, a team of inspectors (auditors) with various professional specialties work for CST. They do initial site visit to explain CST programme, give managers a manual containing evaluation guidelines, and go over the questionnaire. Then inspectors return a month or two later for formal, written assessment, putting 'yes' or 'no' beside each of criteria. [Inspectors check the hotel and visit the community, but do not interview guests.] After the on-site evaluation, hotels are given a list of recommendations and 15 days to fix various problems. Auditors may go back to see if corrections were made. They submit a written evaluation to the National Accreditation Board. There is also an online self-evaluation so hotels can assess where improvements are needed. The detailed score obtained by each certified business is shown on the CST website. Surveillance audits are supposed to be redone every six months to a year, but there is a large backlog of hotels waiting to be audited. CST wants to switch to use of independent, third-party auditors. This outsourcing of site visits and auditing to governmentauthorized private companies and NGOs will eliminate any appearance of conflict of interest: at present CST inspectors consult and train hotel staff and then do the on-site inspections and make recommendation to Accreditation Board. Awarding of certification: National Accreditation Board, a voluntary, multidisciplinary committee headed by Minister of Tourism and composed of representatives from government, NGOs, scientific organizations, tourism industry, and universities. Reviews all applicants and determines level of award on scale of zero to five. (Those scoring 'zero' are not certified.) The Board holds the CST copyright and makes final decisions about modifications and additions to the system and accreditation of auditors. Levels: Five levels of certification, designed to encourage improvement. Logo(s): Plaque with one to five leaves. Fees: First round has been free, financed by Tourism Ministry in order to attract broad participation. In the future, companies will be charged, both a flat fee and an additional amount, based on size of hotel, but exact amounts are not yet determined. Certified companies/products: Certified Companies/Projects: 52 certified hotels by November 2006. Two had received top five rating (perfect score); six received level four. About 10% of applicants have failed, getting a zero rating. By mid-2000, 171 of the estimated 400 hotels in Costa Rica suitable for certification had signed up to be certified, but bureaucratic difficulties have slowed site visits. In 2006, CST also launched a certification program for tour operators and one company, Horizontes Nature Tours, earned the top level of 5 green leaves. Marketing and promotion: Main promotional tool is CST website, the design of which was financed by USAID. CST is promoted as part of government's general international tourism marketing. Most accommodations have own websites where they post their CST eco-label. However, CST officials say marketing remains a 'huge problem'. Website: www.turismo-sostenible.co.cr (Spanish) or www.sustainable-tourism.co.cr (English)

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Accreditation: Certifying the Certification Schemes During Christmas week 2002, while Costa Rican families headed for the beaches, Ronald Sanabria was burning the midnight oil as he put the finishing touches on a massive feasibility study that he'd vowed to complete before end. The rather esoteric document Sustainable Tourism Stewardship Council: Raising the Standards and Benefits of Sustainable Tourism and Ecotourism Certification(Rainforest Alliance, 2002; Sanabria, 2002) - examines the pros and cons of creating an accreditation body to 'certify' the growing number of ecotourism and sustainable tourism certification programmes. As the above discussion makes clear, despite the proliferation of 'green' tourism certification programmes, the rigour and quality of many of them are uneven. Since 1999, Sanabria, a youthful Costa Rican engineer with a pony-tail, wide smile, and gentle manner, had devoted most of his time as the Director of Sustainable Tourism for the Rainforest Alliance to this multi-dimensional study, known by its acronym as STSC. The study involved a team of researchers, a 43-member advisory committee, and a highly democratic consultative process via workshops around the world and surveys of government, industry, and NGO officials involved in tourism. Its completion marked an important milestone on the road towards creation of a global accreditation body for environmentally and socially responsible tourism, and it paves the way for a new project intended to create, within a few years, an accreditation body or 'stewardship council' for sustainable tourism and ecotourism certification programmes (Rainforest Alliance, 2003). This 'stewardship council' within the tourism industry parallels similar initiatives for wood, marine fisheries, and bananas, among other industries. As 'green' tourism certification programmes have proliferated, there has been a growing international consensus 'about the need for a sound accreditation programme to assess and help standardize' these programmes and to help with 'functions such as marketing, training and development' (Rainforest Alliance, 2003). The process towards rationalizing, harmonizing, and assessing the various certification schemes and building support for an accreditation body for the tourism industry first began in November 2000, at the first ever tourism certification workshop held at Mohonk Mountain House outside New York City. This remarkable gathering of 45 experts from 20 countries revealed a great deal of overlap and commonality among existing sustainable tourism and ecotourism certification programmes. Participants agreed that new programmes should not have to 'reinvent the wheel'; rather, they could be given the basic components or the 'spokes of the wheel' and use these to build a certification programme tailored to their particular needs. To this end, workshop participants drew up and unanimously approved 'The Mohonk Agreement', a four-page document that lays out the framework - the 'spokes' - for credible sustainable tourism and ecotourism certification programmes (Mohonk Agreement, 2000). The workshop also unanimously endorsed the Rainforest Alliance's STSC feasibility study. The Mohonk meeting helped set certification efforts off along two broad tracks over the next couple of years. One was towards a conscious effort by certification practitioners to harmonize new programmes. There has been growing consensus that strong certification programmes need to be largely performance based, have on-site, third-party audits, and include social and economic as well as environmental standards and criteria that measure impacts both within the business and within the wider community in which it operates. Since 2001, some dozen countries in Latin America have agreed to develop their national certification programmes based on common shared standards. In Australia, Green Globe

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and ECO Certification have formed an alliance to promote an international ecotourism standard based on a marriage of the ECO Certification criteria and Green Globe 21 quantified benchmark indicators. And in Europe there are efforts, supported by the European Commission, to reduce the competition and confusion among existing certification programmes by creating a single ecolabel for accommodations. Simultaneously, Sanabria's STSC feasibility study was gaining wide acceptance among government officials, NGOs, and industry. The study also provided important analysis of current industry and market demand for certification and it developed a financial model for establishing and maintaining an accreditation organization. Its final report proposes a threephased process towards setting up a global accreditation body. The first two stages involve building regional networks to share information and technical advice among certification programmes and then creating an international association to promote marketing of certified companies, provide technical training, and help harmonize the criteria, standards, and methods among different certification programmes. The third and final stage would be the implementation of the Sustainabile Tourism Stewardship Council (STSC) to assess and accredit the various certification programmes against agreed upon criteria. By late 2006, the Council's business and marketing plans were being finalized and it was anticipated that the STSC would be launched within a year. While much work remains to be done, there are today considerable grounds for optimism. In January 2003, the Rainforest Alliance, along with the UNEP, WTO, The International Ecotourism Society (TIES), and the Centre on Ecotourism and Sustainable Development (a new research institute jointly run by Stanford University and the Institute for Policy Studies), formed a partnership to work to implement the blueprint outlined in the STSC feasibility study. In February, the Ford Foundation approved a $1.1 million, multiyear grant to the four organizations, thus bringing the STSC closer to reality. The partner organizations, together with the World Tourism Organization, have devised a complex strategy to build, over the next several years, support within key institutions and regional networks for an accreditation body. At the same time, they will further explore and resolve several key issues including how to make an accreditation body for sustainable tourism selfsupporting, how to promote consumer and industry buy-in, and how to provide technical and financial assistance to assist smaller-scale and community-based tourism projects to become certified. While much work remains to be done, there are today considerable grounds for optimism. Propelled by ecotourism as well as the corporate accountability movement, the concept of certification to ensure sustainable environmental and social practices is now one of the hottest topics within the tourism industry. Green certification programmes are helping to measure the impacts of tourism and to set concrete standards for environmentally and socially responsible practices for tourism businesses, professionals, and travellers. They are also beginning to provide real choices for consumers who want to make environmentally and socially responsible vacation choices (see Table 2). All indications are that certification programmes will increase in importance over the next few years and this process is likely to accelerate once the STSC is finally launched. However, certification programmes and a tourism stewardship body should not be viewed as a panacea. Rather they are part of a combination of tools, both voluntary and regulatory, that are needed in order to promote both social equity and a sustainable environment within the tourism industry.

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Table 2. ECO Certification - Formerly known as the Nature and Ecotourism Accreditation Programme or NEAP Geographic scope: Australia. Institution(s): Owned and run by the Ecotourism Australia (EA) which has established the NEAP Management Committee to provide policy and management support. Originally developed by EA and the Victorian Tour Operators Association (VTOA) under its national branch the Australian Tourism Operators Network (ATON), with seed funding and input from the Commonwealth Government, Department of Tourism. Date of initiation: Planning begun in 1993. NEAP I, which originally stood for the National Ecotourism Accreditation Programme, launched a two-tiered system (Ecotourism and Advanced Ecotourism) in 1996, and first products were certified in 1997. In 2001, NEAP II (Nature and Ecotourism Accreditation Programme) was launched, including revised criteria and an additional Nature Tourism category. NEAP II was linked with a separate a newly launched EcoGuide certification programme. In 2002, NEAP and Green Globe 21 developed and launched an International Ecotourism Standard (IES) based largely on NEAP's criteria that is made available to all countries except Australia. In 2004, NEAP 11 changed its name to ECO Certification. Funding source(s): Developed with modest government grants from the Office of National Tourism (ONT). Day-to-day running of the programme financed through fees charged to businesses applying for certification and voluntary 'honorary' services provided by its governing panel. Tourism Queensland has provided grants for auditing Queensland-based products and substantial marketing support. Total cost of development estimated at US$400,000. Currently almost self-funding through fees and grants for administration of the programme (note: audit fees excepted), but currently seeking more support to implement proposed independent auditing programme. Sectors covered: NEAP certifies products - accommodations, tours, and attractions - not entire businesses. (It certifies, for instance, individual hotels, not the overall chain, or individual tours, not the tour company.) The EcoGuide certifies nature and ecotour guides. Green Globe/NEAP's IES will certify ecotourism products outside Australia, with most interest currently in the Asia-Pacific. By September 2004, it was not yet a fully functional programme. Type of industry: Originally only Ecotourism. Now includes Sustainable Tourism in its 'Nature' level. Criteria: Largely performance-based - yes/no and descriptive questions in eight areas for NEAP I and II: Natural area focus, Interpretation, Environmental sustainability, Contribution to conservation, Working with local communities, Cultural component, Customer satisfaction, Responsible marketing. The ECO Certification programme added two more areas to conform to national Australian Tourism Accreditation Authority programme standards: Business management and operational planning, and Business ethics. To qualify for Nature Tourism and Ecotourism levels, all 'core' criteria, specific to whether products are nature-based (only) or are ecotourism-oriented (which have a focus on experiencing and interpretation of natural areas with additional criteria that demand more positive returns to both community and conservation). Recognition of additional criteria, in 'bonus' and 'innovative best practice' categories, are used in awarding the Advanced Ecotourism level.

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Table 2. (cont.) ECO Certification - Formerly known as the Nature and Ecotourism Accreditation Programme

Assessment and auditing: Under NEAP, it was essentially a self-assessment process. NEAP I AND II relied on a trained assessor who was paid on a fee-for-service basis to review and score each written application and contact the two independent references and, if necessary, the operator for clarification. Customer feedback may also be taken into account. The assessment process usually took about two months to complete. Limited on-site inspections or audits have taken place to date. The revised ECO Certification moved to strengthen the audit process -with assessment of applications now conducted in-house at Ecotourism Australia but plans for on-site audits by professional independent auditors once every three years due to begin soon. Levels: Three categories - Nature Tourism, Ecotourism, and Advanced Ecotourism. Logo(s): Says 'ECO Certified' (whether Nature or Ecotourism product) and has a check mark and the level of certification: Nature Tourism, Ecotourism, or Advanced Ecotourism. Fees: Application fees for ECO Certifcation programme vary depending on annual business turnover: the fees consist of AU$85 for the certification application document, a once-off application fee that varies between AU$200 and AU$730, and an annual fee ranging between AU$220 and AU$940. There is also the option of taking out a 'gold' membership for an additional fee, in return for increased marketing and other benefits, that varies between AU$115 and AU$750. Certified companies/products: Over 400 accommodations, tours, attraction products throughout Australia from a total of 179 different operators. Of these, 78 operators are based in Queensland, 20 in New South Wales, 8 in Northern Territory, 19 in South Australia, 3 in Tasmania, 12 in Victoria and 34 in Western Australia. The EcoGuide Programme has certified over 50 individual guides. Marketing and promotion: Tourism promotion guides, such as the Sunlover Guide produced by Tourism Queensland, and publications by the Australian Tourism Board (Tourism Source) provide special listings and recognition of Eco-certified products. Both Tourism Queensland and Ecotourism Australia houses information on NEAP, but there is no online listing of all certified products. Due to a shortage of funding, marketing remains a challenge. Website: www.ecotourism.org.au

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References AAA Tourism (2004) Stars Classification System. URL: www.aaatourism.com.au, accessed August 2004. Bien, A. (2002) Environmental Certification for Tourism in Central America: CST and Other Programs. In Honey, M. (ed.) Ecotourism and Certification. Island Press, Washington, DC, pp. 133-159. Ceballos-Lascurain, H. (1999) A National Ecotourism Strategy for Yemen. Paper presented at meeting hosted by World Tourism Organization, UNDP, and Government of Yemen. Madrid, Spain. Certification for Sustainable Tourism (CST) San Jose, Costa Rica. Available at website: http://www.turismosostenible. co. cr/EN/home. shtml. Chester, G. and Crabtree, A. (2002) Australia: The Nature and Ecotourism Accreditation Programme. In: Honey, M. (ed.) Ecotourism and Certification. Island Press, Washington, DC, pp. 161—185. ECO Certification (formerly NEAP). Australia. Available at website: http://www. ecotourism.org. au/eco_certification.asp Fair Trade in Tourism South Africa (FTTSA) Website: http://www.fairtourismsa.org.za/. Font, X. and Mihalic, T. (2002) Beyond Hotels: Nature-Based Certification in Europe. In: Honey, M. (ed.) Ecotourism and Certification. Island Press, Washington, DC, pp. 211-235. Hamele, H. (2002) Eco-labels for Tourism in Europe: Moving the Market toward More Sustainable Practices. In Honey, M. (ed.) Ecotourism and Certification. Island Press, Washington, DC, pp. 187—210. Honey, M. (1999a) Treading Lightly? Ecotourism's Impact on the Environment. Environment 41(5). Honey, M. (1999b) Ecotourism and Sustainable Development: Who Owns Paradise? Island Press, Washington, DC. Honey, M. (ed.) (2002) Ecotourism and Certification: Setting Standards in Practice. Island Press, Washington, DC. Honey, M. (2003) Protecting Eden: Setting Green Standards for the Tourism Industry. Environment 45(6). Honey, M. (2004) 'Nuts & Bolts' of Ecotourism, Certification & Accreditation:Research Topics. Staff PowerPoint presentation. Washington, DC: TIES/CESD office. Honey, M. and Rome, A. (2001) Protecting Paradise: Certification Programmes for Sustainable Tourism and Ecotourism. Institute for Policy Studies, Washington, DC. Krut, R. and Gleckman, H. (1998) ISO 14001: A Missed Opportunity for Sustainable Global Industrial Development. Earthscan, London. Lewis, K. (2002) The Lapa Rios Story: With Costa Rican Recipes of Intrigue. Lapa Rios, San Jose, Costa Rica Mastny, L. (2001) Travelling Light: New Paths for International Tourism. WorldWatch Paper 159. WorldWatch Institute, Washington, DC. Mohonk Agreement and Minutes of Mohonk Meeting (2000) Ecotourism and Sustainable Tourism Certification Workshop. Conference held at Mohonk Mountain House, New Paltz, New York. Available at: www.ipsdc.org/ecotourism/index/htm. Morrison, A., Hsieh, S. and Wang C.-Y. (1992) Certification in the Travel and Tourism Industry: The North American Experience. The Journal of Tourism Studies 3(2), 22—40. PAN Parks. Website: www.panparks.org. Rainforest Alliance (2002) Sustainable Tourism Stewardship Council: Raising the Standards and Benefits of Sustainable Tourism and Ecotourism Certification. Final report to the Ford Foundation, version 8.4. Rainforest Alliance (2003) New Partnership to Raise Environmental/Social Standards in Tourism Industry. Press release. San Jose, Costa Rica. Sanabria, R. (2001) Evolving Ecotourism Alliances Conserve Biodiversity in the Galapagos Islands. UNEP. Industry and Environment. Sanabria, R. (2002) Accreditation: Certifying the Certifiers. In: Honey, M. (ed.) Ecotourism and Certification. Island Press, Washington, DC, pp. 325-356. Synergy (2000) Tourism Certification: An Analysis of Green Globe 21 and Other Tourism Certification Programmemes. Report prepared for WWF-UK. Synergy: London. Szuchman, P. (2000) Eco-Credibility: Is Your Hotel as Green as it Claims to be? Conde Nast Traveller. Conde Nast Publications, New York. Toth, R. (2002) Exploring the Concepts Underlying Certification. In Honey, M. (ed.) Ecotourism and Certification. Island Press, Washington, DC, pp. 73-101. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). Division of Technology, Industry and Economics. 2001. Ecotourism and Sustainability. Industry and Environment. UNEP: Paris. Vol. 24, No. 3-4, July - December 2001.

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UNEP (2001) Ecotourism: Facts and Figures. Industry and Environment: 5—9. World Ecotourism Summit (2002) Quebec Declaration on Ecotourism. Quebec City, Canada, on website: http://www.uneptie.org/pc/tourism/documents/ecotourism/WESoutcomes/Quebec.Declar-eng.pdf. World Tourism Organization, Sustainable Development of Tourism Section (2002) Voluntary Initiatives for Sustainable Tourism. WTO, Madrid. World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) (2003) The 2003 Travel and Tourism Economic Research. WTTC, London. Website: http://www.wttc.Org/measure/PDF/[email protected]. WWF Arctic Programmem (2002) WWF and the Swedish Ecotourism Association appeal to all Arctic travellers to support plans for ecotourism certification.' Press release. Oslo, Norway. Available at website: http://www.ngo.grida.no/wwfap/core/newsroom/stories2002/04/23041inks.html

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Chapter 13

Tourism-based Revenue Generation for Conservation Andy Drumm

Introduction

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Visitation to natural protected areas is increasing rapidly in many countries around the world. This rising tourism tide is exceeding protected areas' capacity to keep it within sustainable levels so that tourism is increasingly being identified as a threat to biodiversity. To avoid the loss of valuable biodiversity through tourism-related pressures, and in order to access the benefits that tourism can generate for protected areas, it is essential that they have sufficient capacity in terms of infrastructure, personnel and management systems in place. In many developing countries, park systems have not been able to finance the investments necessary to install this capacity at the areas facing pressure from visitation. Furthermore, many have not yet implemented a comprehensive system of tourism-based income-generation mechanisms to at least cover the costs that visitation creates for protected areas. Consequently they are foregoing a significant source of income which could contribute to much-needed investments that could result in: Improved protected area management capacity. Reduced threat to biodiversity. Better quality visitor experience. Greater investment in sustainable development opportunities for local communities. Higher national and international profile of protected areas. More employment opportunities for local people. Enhanced environmental education function. So, unless current tourism trends are reversed, in many countries it will likely lead to the continuing erosion of the natural capital stored in the world's parks and a reduction in the long-term potential of biodiversity to sustain basic life systems and contribute to the global economy. Given the growing tourist demand for access to protected natural areas, it is increasingly important that adequate pricing mechanisms be implemented to ensure that tourism and recreation contribute to biodiversity conservation. It is presumed that the need is even more widely felt than has yet been established. © CAB International 2007. Tourism and Protected Areas: Benefits191

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Tourism has the potential to be a significant contributor to parks' financial sustainability. However, the value of recreation opportunities provided by parks is typically under-priced or inefficiently administered. Many parks around the world either charge low or no fees for visitation. Consequently, funds generated by tourism are usually insufficient to cover conservation management costs of or even the costs associated with providing visitation opportunities themselves. In many parks tourism is creating a net loss that they can ill afford. As a result, a situation exists whereby relatively poor countries like Bolivia and Indonesia are subsidizing tourists from wealthy European and North American countries who visit their parks. This chapter reviews the experiences of several protected areas in developing countries, in their urgent plight to realize tourism's potential as a source of sustainable finance. It also identifies some of the key management issues that have arisen and the challenges that require park system mangers, the tourism industry and other stakeholders to work together to address. These key management issues need to become the focus of greater attention if tourism is to become a net benefit to conservation rather than the threat it increasingly is, and if ecotourism is to achieve the conservation element of its mission. The chapter concludes with a call for the incorporation of a virtuous tourism cycle into protected area management to ensure tourism's sustainability. The virtuous tourism cycle requires that the real costs of providing tourism opportunities incurred by protected areas, in developing countries especially, be covered at a minimum by the developed country visitors and commercial businesses that generate them.

Tourism-based Income-generation Mechanisms for Protected Areas

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Various objectives exist for the charging of tourism fees, including: Cost recovery, which involves generation of sufficient revenue to cover part or all of tourism's financial costs (e.g., construction and maintenance of a visitor centre, signposting, impact monitoring). Generation of 'profit', with the excess of revenue over cost being used to finance traditional conservation activities (at the destination or at other sites). Generation of local business opportunities, by the earmarking of fees to enhance site or experience quality. Provision of maximum opportunities for learning and appreciation of the natural resource, which may also involve low fees for nationals. Visitor management to reduce congestion and/or ecological damage, which would involve fees high enough to limit demand. Types of fees Protected areas have various methods of funding their operations and visitor management. In most cases tax-based governmental appropriations form the bulk of protected area funding. Instituting visitor use fees can fund both protected area operations and visitor management. There are several common visitor use fees levied on protected area visitors and concessionaires that operate on protected area property (see Table 1).

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Table 1. Types of fees and charges in protected areas. Fee type Entrance fee User fee Concession fees Royalties and sales revenue Licences and permits Taxes Leases and rent fees Voluntary donations

Description Allows access to points beyond the entry gate. Fees for facilities within the protected area; e.g., parking, camping, visitor centres, boat use, shelter use, etc. Charges or revenue shares paid by concessionaires that provide services to protected area visitors. Monies from sales of souvenirs, For private firms to operate on protected area property; e.g., tour operators, guides, and other users. Such as hotel room taxes, airport taxes, and vehicle taxes. Charges for renting or leasing park property or equipment, Includes cash, 'in-kind' gifts, and labour; often through 'friends of the park' groups,

(Sources: Laarman and Gregersen, 1996; Mackintosh, 1983; Ibrahim and Cordes, 1993; Harris and Driver, 1987 cited in Brown, 2001)

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Project Background With NGO and government park service partners around the world, The Nature Conservancy (TNC) identified the need for broader application of appropriate mechanisms for realizing the economic value of recreation in protected areas as a key strategy to support biodiversity conservation. Three sites were initially selected from 30 applicants from within our network, to participate in the Conservancy's tourism user fee initiative which was developed with financial support from the Alex C. Walker Foundation and the USAID/TNC Parks in Peril Programme. As a first step, a review of tourism income-generation mechanisms in use around the world was carried out (Benitez, 2001; Brown, 2001) to evaluate how and which fee mechanisms are used. Then at each selected site, an analysis of visitation and of the tourism management structure including capacity and legal context was carried out. Price responsiveness studies including contingent valuation and contingent behaviour studies were carried out to assist in determining appropriate fee levels and mechanisms. Subsequently, a mechanism was identified for test application at each site. Evaluations of these pilot implementation processes have generated valuable results and recommendations for application at other sites across their national systems and in other countries and they form part of this chapter.

Site Selection To assist the process of selecting sites to participate in the initiative from among a large pool of interested candidates from across the Conservancy network we used the following criteria: Tourism has short-term potential to generate US$1 OOK p.a. for site conservation. Site is a strategic priority of The Nature Conservancy's Country Programme. Significant leverage potential to other sites nationally.

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Leverage potential to other sites internationally. Other mechanisms exist at site for economic valuation of ecosystem services. Interest and commitment of protected area (system if appropriate and site) and NGO partner to support implementation of visitor use fees. Capability of site administration to implement visitor user fees. Linkage to the USAID/TNC Parks in Peril Programme. The selected sites were the Eduardo Avaroa Reserve, Bolivia; the Islas del Golfo, Baja California, Mexico; and the Gladden Spit Marine Reserve, Belize.

Fee Mechanism Planning Process

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For each of the three selected sites the following step process was applied (see CFA, 2001 for more detailed description of steps), the Conservancy worked with the protected area managers and authorities and local NGO partners to implement the following process: Tourism diagnostic including visitor profile, principal activities, access points, tourism industry structure, future trends. Stakeholder identification and consultation. Evaluate tour operator opinion and willingness to participate in implementation and local community expectations. Recommendations for establishing or modifying visitor registration system where necessary. Estimate preliminary limits of acceptable change/carrying capacity. Pilot price responsiveness (willingness to pay) studies (60-80 sample size), review, modification, followed by full survey of between 100 and 400 visitors at each site. Determine park management costs and park tourism management costs. Select the most appropriate income-generation mechanisms. Determine fee levels. Propose income management, distribution and investment. Consult stakeholders. Design and print informational materials for visitors. Train guides or 'point of purchase'' staff. Initiate pilot; be transparent. Monitor, evaluate, adjust. Establish Virtuous Cycle. Capacity-building of local partners was a fundamental element throughout the process.

Case Study - Bolivia Entrance fees The Eduardo Avaroa reserve (REA) is the most visited protected area in the Bolivian system with more than 40,000 foreign visitors in 2003. Located in the high Andes in the South of Bolivia on the border with Chile and Argentina, the Reserve has an extension of

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714,745 ha and ranges from 4000 to 6000 m in altitude. Its principal conservation targets are also its principal attractions - lake systems with three species of flamingos. Our principal partner is SERNAP the government national protected area system authority who were very involved at both national and local levels throughout. Such institutional commitment to the process and its incorporation into SERNAP system- and site-level annual work plans was key. When the fee system was introduced in 1999, the estimated visitor growth for the following ten years was 12% annually. In reality REA has reached estimated 2008 visitor levels in 2003. Clearly, the establishment of adequate tourism management capacity of the reserve is even more pressing than when the pilot began. It was anticipated that the pilot fee system would generate experiences and lessons that would facilitate its application in other protected areas in the Bolivian system. Evaluation methodology The basic methodology for establishing the terms of reference for this study is outlined in a document prepared by SERNAP and agreed with TNC (SERNAP, 2002). This divides the process in three parts: Fee levels and structure. Fee collection system and revenue management. Perceptions of key stakeholders.

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1. 2. 3.

Fig. 1. A fee programme in Bolivia is paying for a plan to control off-road vehicle access and other visitor pressures that threaten such wildlife as the Andean flamingo at the Eduardo Avaroa National Reserve. (Photo: A. Drumm/The Nature Conservancy) Bushell, R., and P.F.J. Eagles. Tourism and Protected Areas : Benefits Beyond Boundaries, CABI, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central,

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Initially, a single entrance fee of 30 Bolivianos (the equivalent of US$5) was established for all visitors. For the evaluation of the pilot the following three criteria were used to determine future fee levels: 1. 2. 3.

Price responsiveness. Comparable fee levels at other protected areas to incorporate competitiveness. The actual costs to the protected area of providing quality tourism opportunities.

In order to evaluate the visitors' response to this fee and evaluate more accurately the market potential, a small team was contracted to implement surveys as part of a price responsiveness study, using both contingent valuation and contingent behaviour analyses. Data on visitor demographics was also gathered. Eighty visitors were surveyed in a pilot survey in April 2002. Some adjustments were subsequently made to the questionnaire. A total of more than 400 visitors were interviewed in the main survey. Interviews took place in the REA and at Uyuni and San Pedro de Atacama, the principal entry and exit points to the Reserve. The surveys were designed in collaboration with Dr Kreg Lindberg of the University of Oregon, who also carried out the statistical analysis of the results. Consultations were held with SERNAP staff in the capital, La Paz, in Uyuni and in the Reserve itself to describe and evaluate how fee collection is implemented and managed. In addition to consultations with SERNAP staff, a meeting was held with community representatives and a written questionnaire was also prepared to seek further responses from community leaders. Consultations were also held with tour operator and hotel association representatives and a workshop was held in August 2003 to present the results of the contingent valuation and behaviour studies and to gather tour operator perceptions. 26 of 35 Uyuni-based tour operators participated.

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Results Some US$600,000 was generated over the four years of the pilot, from largely European overland travellers on three twelve-week visits to the Andean region which typically included Chile, Bolivia, Peru and Ecuador. While this money was retained at site level, it led to a corresponding reduction in budget allocation from the park system, so that no net financial benefit accrued to the reserve. Rather, the income generated was used to subsidize budget shortfalls in other parts of the system. Evaluation The results of the contingent valuation and contingent behaviour analysis indicated a price elastacity of -0.06. In other words, a 10% increase in price would lead to a 0.6% decrease in visitation (see Fig. 2). This indicates significant potential to increase the pilot fee (30 Bolivianos) without having a significant impact on visitor levels. In fact, it is likely that, if the new income is invested in improving visitor facilities in the reserve such as toilets and roads, then new tour operators and tourists will be attracted to the reserve, thus compensating for the postulated drop in visitors who would not visit at higher fee levels.

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Fig. 2. Predicted impact on visitation levels in response to alternative fee levels (Source: Lindberg, 2004a)

Table 2 indicates the projected relationship between alternative fee prices, visitor levels and income. Table 2. Projection of visitation levels and income generated for different fee levels Price

Visitor Level

Income (US$)

Bs30 $5 $10 $15 $20 $50

50,000 (current) 50,000(100%) 47,500(95%) 45,000(90%) 41,000(82%) 29,500(59%)

$214,000 $250,000 $475,000 $675,000 $820,000 $1,475,000

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Note: Bs = Bolivianos

Comparable fee levels In most protected areas around the world there is a tiered fee structure with typically a lower fee charged to nationals than to foreigners. This differential recognizes: Nationals already pay taxes for their park system which foreigners do not. The lower economic capacity of nationals compared to European and North American visitors. The higher willingness of developed country visitors to contribute to conservation. Differentials provide greater opportunities for access by nationals to know and learn from their own protected areas.

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In addition, entrance fees may be further tiered to distinguish between adults and children and possibly students. Table 3. Examples of entrance fees (US$) Protected Area

Foreigners

Nationals

Galapagos NP Amboseli (Kenya) Cotopaxi (Ecuador) Annapurna (Nepal)

$100 $27 $10 $12

$6 $7 in local currency $2

A comparison with other similar protected areas indicates that the current 30 Bolivianos fee is comparatively low. Actual costs to the reserve of providing tourism opportunities If tourism is to be a sustainable activity in protected areas - and it should not be permitted if it is not - then a minimum objective of a fee system should be to recover at least the costs incurred by the park in the provision and maintenance of tourism opportunities. In the case of REA the current system does not achieve this for three reasons: 1. 2. 3.

Revenues are currently partially replacing part of the budget allocation from SERNAP, freeing funds for SERNAP to invest in other areas. Consequently, the SISCO revenues are not complementing the basic budget allocation, but partially replacing it. Insufficient revenue is generated (due to single mechanism and low fee). The costs of implementing the necessary tourism management has not been fully calculated and budgeted.

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Examples of the costs that should be covered by tourism fees are outlined below: Cost of fee collection - Inevitably, there are costs involved in collecting fees (transaction costs), and in some cases these costs will make it uneconomic to collect fees. For example, some recreation areas have many entrances, few visitors, and/or high capital costs for collection facilities (Loomis and Walsh, 1997). Nonetheless, there often are ways to reduce collection costs by, for example, selling tickets or passes through tourism or other businesses and by using an honour system, with spot-check enforcement. Data indicate that collection costs for the US National Park Service and Forest Service are about 20% of fee revenue (Lindberg and Halpenny, 2001). Definition of tourist-use zones and visitor sites in the Reserve. Implementation tourism impact monitoring capacity. Signposting. Road maintenance (in collaboration with regional authorities). New infrastructure - The REA needs hides on the shores of Laguna Colorada and maintenance. These will stop the constant yo-yo effect arriving vehicles have on flamingos, causing them to move, in and out of their drinking spots with every new tourist load. Walls fanning out to either side of these buildings would allow cars to pull

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up and unload without being seen by the birds (they are not afraid of passing traffic, only the ones that stop). Such buildings would have some impact on the landscape, but this would seem necessary. The key is that they be placed right near the edge of the water so people can get a better view from within than outside. Otherwise, the problem will persist. Quetena needs a Visitor Centre. There has to be a series of strategically placed toilets around the tour loop. These should not be located in or near points of interest, but rather hidden in the least interesting spots which then become stops in their own right. A greater number of stops and points of interest in the reserve could be highlighted so as to diversify and extend the average tour. Highlighting more stops would benefit the operators who could offer longer, less-hurried options and make more money with less mileage. Tent camps could also be considered, as they cause lower impact than adobe or block construction and are often just as comfortable. Interpretative information and guidelines for visitors. Annual tour operator licensing system. Naturalist guide certification programme. The cost of implementing these components of a tourism management plan needs to be defined, but local conservation NGO, Tropico (1999), estimated the annual cost of such a plan at US$105,000. This should be considered a minimum investment level over the next five years in order to establish the minimum necessary level of tourism management to reduce tourism-related threats to acceptable levels, to increase the quality of experience for visitors and the income-generation opportunities for tour operators, including local communities.

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Fee collection and revenue management The Reserve administration achieved considerable success in difficult conditions in administering the fee collection system. With great skill and dedication they won the collaboration of the tourism industry and tourists for the system. They also made improvements to the original model over time to increase efficiency. Consequently they were responsible for gathering an average of $150,000 per year in new revenues over the past four years. This is all the more laudable given that this has not represented any tangible increase in the site operating budget, but rather has been utilized at national level. However, the current flow of revenues does not provide a tangible incentive at Reserve level that is needed to maximize efficiency in the long term. Additionally, the fee system is not currently enshrined in an official government regulation. In the face of pressures from other SERNAP programmes, local municipalities and other institutions, appropriate legal framework needs to be established as soon as possible. Fee collection Initially, fees were collected in the Uyuni office and via bank deposit by the visitor or tour operator, and park rangers simply controlled at the access points that all visitors arrived with their tickets (SERNAP, 1999). However, the bank deposit system proved to be overly complicated and inconsistent, which contributed to large numbers of visitors arriving at the control points without the necessary entrance ticket. This created difficulties for the park

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rangers who were obliged to either refuse entry and force the visitors to return the eight hours to Uyuni, to let them through without paying, or to charge the fee but without the necessary documentation. Consequently REA administration staff were forced to create more viable alternatives. The current collection system involves the production of numbered, three-part tickets which are sent in a tightly monitored fashion to each of the Reserve's three principal entry points. Additionally a stock is maintained at the Uyuni SERNAP office and the new office in Tupiza - an expanding access point. Several 'cobradores' or field accountants have been hired to manage the fee collection process at the control points. On a regular basis, a cobrador, accompanied by a ranger for security, returns with cash for deposit in Uyuni. Occasionally, some visitors have expressed a demand to know 'where the money goes'. The REA administration has taken some steps to address this need to know with a poster campaign. There is good cooperation from tour operators and visitors in paying the fee. It is now an established and accepted requirement for visiting the REA. However, the current system has several negative implications: Considerable risk to the security of the REA field staff and SERNAP revenue, both at the control points and in travelling between them and Uyuni. Higher administration costs for fee collection that might otherwise be spent on other aspects of Reserve management. Park rangers tied up with providing security for cobradores.

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Finally, the original plan (SERNAP, 1999) attempted to link fee collection with visitor management strategy through the requirement of written authorization from REA for access. This has not been implemented. Visitor management is a key element of the tourism management plan that should be developed separately.

Fig. 3. Actual revenue generated by pilot entrance fee programme and potential revenue had fee been collected in US$ instead of local currency

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Fee currency implications The original fee was set at 30 Bolivianos, which was the equivalent of US$5, but collection is restricted to Bolivianos. However, this figure has now devalued to less than US$4, reducing in real terms the value of the revenue generated. Figure 3 compares actual revenues generated in the pilot in the first column with potential revenues had the fee been maintained at US$5. 'Lost' revenue totals US$103,137 over the four years of the pilot. In addition to the net loss of potential income, there is also a loss of purchasing power through working with Bolivianos instead of dollars. Revenue management Fee revenues do not complement the basic budget assignment, rather in the current system, the basic budget is allocated, but the assignation from system level is then reduced based on fee revenues. In this way, REA is becoming largely dependent on self-generated revenues virtually exclusively. Clearly this makes the REA very vulnerable to fluctuations in the tourism market and may lead to a tendency to encourage more visitation than can be sustainably managed in order to increase income.

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Distribution of revenues Revenue distribution was 13% Value-Added Tax (VAT) to the Finance Ministry and 87% to SERNAP. Of this SERNAP portion, 25% was distributed to two local communities and 75% reserved for management operations. The 25% of revenue earmarked for spending on community projects, because of the terms of the current agreement cannot be considered a conditional payment in exchange for modifying behaviour to conform with the conservation goals of the Reserve, although this is the intention. This funding has been used for such investments as a house for the schoolteacher, a sports arena, a two-roomed health centre, co-funding for the electricity supply to be established, equipment and furnishings for community lodge, salaries for ten-person road maintenance teams for ten-day periods, diesel for the tractor for road maintenance, and for promotional flyers for community ecotourism operations and others. As a consequence of this allocation system, the REA sees no tangible benefit for implementing the entrance fee system. The REA is unable to demonstrate to the tourism sector and visitors any benefit to the Reserve of having paid the fee. Consequently, a perverse situation exists whereby: Biodiversity values of the REA are being eroded; Confidence in SERNAP and the fee system among tourism operators and visitors is weak.

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Perceptions of key stakeholders Visitors In surveys of 480 visitors it was clear that the REA rates highly as an ecotourism destination exclusively because of its great natural attractions, principally: landscapes, lakes and flamingos. However, some observations were repeated by a high number of respondents including concern for the lack of management of tourism impacts and the absence of interpretative information. The overwhelming impression of the REA among visitors is an appreciation of its great natural value, combined with dissatisfaction and concern about the quality of tourism operations and their negative environmental impact. Tour operators There are currently 89 operators registered in Uyuni. Key perceptions of the tour operators are: Tourism is increasing - as is the number of local tour operators. There was a great deal of interest to know how SISCO income was being spent. A strong assertion that there were no visible benefits of this spending in the Reserve. A strong desire expressed to establish a regular dialogue with the Reserve administration.

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Local communities The two communities demonstrate changing attitudes towards the Reserve administration. While satisfaction is expressed with the new benefits being received as a result of the entrance fee, a desire for more is expressed. Community leaders have a very limited understanding of the tourism business, but have proven very single-minded in developing accommodation near a key attraction. This is of extremely poor quality, such that minimal economic benefits are generated, while the image of the Reserve is tarnished and the public health and safety is threatened by the poor design, management and operational style used. The communities look to the Reserve management (and entrance fee system) for the installation of an antenna that would give them cellular phone and Internet access for direct access to the tourism market. They would also like funds, as student grants, to allow local high school graduates to go to university, for guide training, for business training for the community lodge and for English language training (for tourism). SERNAP staff SERNAP staff at the Uyuni and in the field are a dedicated team of conservationists working in challenging conditions. They have internalized the need for an entrance fee system and have worked diligently to implement and improve it. However, they feel that there have been no tangible benefits for the REA, rather, it had created significantly more Bushell, R., and P.F.J. Eagles. Tourism and Protected Areas : Benefits Beyond Boundaries, CABI, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central,

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work for REA staff. Additionally, the responsibility of the REA management currently, to administer the 25% of revenue earmarked for community investment is proving to be a constant source of headaches and time-consuming activities for them. This money should be managed by another authority to relieve the REA management of the responsibility of being 'developers' for the community. Management action taken The reserve proposes to establish an entrance fee of the equivalent in Bolivianos of US$12 for foreigners and $2 for nationals. The park system has allocated extra funds to invest in improving tourism facilities in the reserve prior to introducing the fee increase. Tour operators will get a minimum six-month notice prior to fee implementation to allow time to adjust their promotional materials. The new fee will be indexed to the value of the Boliviano against the dollar. Revenue generated from entrance fees will be managed largely by the Reserve management, as a complement to system-level budget allocations. Revenues allocated to communities will be invested in a fund managed by a committee including community representatives, local municipality, the reserve management and a local NGO. Point of sale will be transferred out of the Reserve to the gateway towns, and tour operators will be able to purchase bulk tickets for resale to their clients. New incomegeneration mechanisms will be introduced including concessions for accommodation and restaurants, annual operating licence fees for tour operators and a 'Friends of Eduardo Avaroa' fund for donations. Local community participation is a key requirement of the concessions. The fee system will be integrated into a new national tourism-based incomegeneration strategy.

Case Study - Mexico

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Donations The project site is Islas del Golfo de California Reserve, in the Sea of Cortez, managed by our partner, the government protected area agency SEMARNAT, in collaboration with local conservation NGO partner - Niparaja. The site includes arid terrestrial landscapes in approximately 900 islands and islets and rich cold marine habitats with abundant marine mammals including blue whales, fin whales, orcas and sea lions. In 2002, the site introduced two income-generation mechanisms: 1) a trust fund for a specific groups of islands, and 2) an entry fee system introduced in 2002 of US$2 per person per day. The fee was set at a nominal, nationwide rate that is affordable to a large proportion of the population (Anaya, 2003). In 2003, 45% of the area's total budget was used for tourism management activities (see Fig. 4).

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Fig. 4. Distribution of reserve budget, 2003 (Source: Anaya, 2003)

Revenues generated by the entrance fee during 2003 at the principal destination in the reserve - Espiritu Santo Island, covered 27% of the cost of tourism management activities implemented in 2003. Entrance fees do not cover the area's management costs, and do not even cover the cost of tourism management. As the entrance fee level established by the park system was relatively low and because it would require a time-consuming and politically sensitive process at congressional level to modify, it was decided to explore alternative and complementary tourism-based, incomegeneration mechanisms.

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Evaluation methodology Four criteria were adopted by which to evaluate this site: Econometrics: Following a price responsiveness survey of visitors, there was evidence of willingness among tourists to pay more to support conservation activities in the protected area. Administrative issues: Determined an appropriate and practicable mechanism for charging fees, including an analysis of administration, legal aspects, fiscal responsibility, expenditure of funds and process for selecting expenditure priorities. Social and policy issues: Consultation with tour operators, tour operator associations and hoteliers and orientation re: user fees and donations as alternative mechanisms. Implementation: An action plan was prepared for implementation proposals, capacitybuilding requirements, promotion of fund. Tourist donations A donation system was selected as the most appropriate mechanism for this initiative. The data gathered on levels of tourist giving could provide important input for modifying the statutory user fees in the future. The fund (FOSANP) was launched in December 2003 as a simple bank account to receive voluntary donations from tourists visiting Islas del Golfo. It is managed by Niparaja, a local conservation NGO who retain 15% as overhead. The remainder is managed by a

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committee including the NGO, TNC and the reserve manager. The fund is spent on conservation priorities within the reserve. Tour operators and hotels play a key collaborative role by engaging their clients and encouraging them to donate to the fund. Attractive key chains are provided to tourists in exchange for a donation. In 2004, this pilot donation system will be evaluated with a view to replication at five protected areas in the South of Baja California.

Case Study - Belize Dive and entrance fees

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Gladden Spit Marine Reserve has one of the few remaining intact spawning aggregation sites (SPAGs) of commercially important fish species along the Meso-American Reef. It attracts over 30 reef fish species to spawn and whale sharks, which feed on the spawn. The presence of numerous whale sharks, at fixed times in the lunar calendar, make the reserve an attractive destination for recreational divers and professional film crews and photographers (see Fig. 5). In fact the growing demand from dive tourism is overextending the reserve's limited budget and management capacity. Friends of Nature (FoN) - a local conservation NGO co-administers the marine reserve with the Ministry of Fisheries and is authorized to collect and manage fees as part of the coadministration agreement. In order to effectively protect and manage the biodiversity and other natural resources of the park, a long-term, sustainable financing system is required. Initial planning discussions with stakeholders have identified tourism-based user fees as an important element in such a system. Opportunities exist for putting in place a variety of user fees. To examine these opportunities the Conservancy supported Friends of Nature in carrying out a study to determine best options.

Fig. 5. Whale sharks gather in the Gladden Spit Marine Reserve at certain times of the lunar calendar. (Photo: A. Drumm) Bushell, R., and P.F.J. Eagles. Tourism and Protected Areas : Benefits Beyond Boundaries, CABI, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central,

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Fee system Following extensive consultation with local tour operators, a system of scheduling access to the whale shark hot spot within the marine reserve was established. A limited number (6) of vessels with a maximum capacity of 12 divers can be in the hot spot for one two-hour slot per day during whale shark season March 1-June 31. A pilot entrance fee of US$15 per person per day for divers and snorkellers in the whale shark zone and $10 for the rest of the MPA was initiated in March 2004. Revenues were to be managed by Friends of Nature who 'co-administer' the MPA and invested as follows: 80% for MPA operational costs, 15% goes to FoN overhead, 5% to Special Scholarship Fund for local children who would not otherwise go to school. Evaluation

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As expected, the number of days decreases as the fee increases. A fee of $20 would lead to an 8% drop in visitation (92% of the visitor-days relative to the $15 baseline), while a fee of $30 would lead to 22% decrease, a fee of $50 a 44% decrease, and a fee of $100 would lead to a 76% decrease. Price elasticity is estimated at -0.25 at a fee of $15. In other words, at $15 a 10% increase in price would lead to a 2.5% decrease in visitation.

Fig. 6. Contingent behaviour analysis price responsiveness. (Source: Lindberg, 2004b)

Visitors who were aware of the actual fee before arriving in Belize are less responsive to fee increases. This relationship could exist for various reasons, including a) that more aware divers are more committed and accepting of fees and/or b) that less aware divers may have been surprised by the fee on arrival and thereby more resistant to fees generally. Visitors with higher income are less responsive to fee increases, presumably because they can more easily afford the higher fees. It is clear that many visitors are willing to pay more than the current US$15, but given the current visitor demographic it seems that visitors are quite price responsive. This suggests that if tourism appears to be a growing threat due to congestion and large numbers, that fee price increases above, say, $30 could have the double benefit of reducing tourism pressure while increasing income for site management.

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Final Conclusions and Recommendations Protected areas are facing unprecedented levels of visitation and the tendency is for parks to be hosting even greater numbers of visitors in the future. Yet a review of the budgets and capacities of parks to manage even current levels of visitation indicates an alarming shortfall, such that we are witnessing the erosion of the natural capital held in our natural resource banks or protected area systems. Visitors, however, demonstrate a desire to have low impacts and to contribute to the conservation of the parks they visit. Tourism certainly has enormous potential to be a significant source of conservation finance for financially challenged protected area systems. As these three case studies have demonstrated, the development of one or more tourismbased income-generation mechanisms is a feasible and fundamental conservation finance and even visitor management tool available to park managers.

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Key elements for success Some key elements for success in harnessing tourism as an opportunity for park conservation include having a financial plan which includes all tourism management costs and which is able to distinguish these from other conservation management costs in the park. Transparency is key to winning the confidence and support of stakeholders. Indeed close collaboration with stakeholders who understand the real costs of conserving the raw material for their businesses and traditional economies, especially the tourism industry, will likely be particularly rewarding in identifying and implementing income-generation mechanisms. Tour operators are much more likely than tourists are to express opposition to fees. Greater transparency and consultation will likely reduce such resistance. Fees, where they are charged at all, are rarely, if ever, linked to the real costs to the protected area of providing tourism and recreation opportunities. In the past, tourism management costs are frequently not budgeted for, as they have been deemed non-essential. This has been short-sighted and is increasingly counter productive. Zoning for public use, visitor management (including a registration system and visitor database), income-generation mechanisms, impact monitoring capacity and naturalist guide training and certification are the key line items (Drumm, 2004; Drumm and Moore, 2004) that must be covered at a minimum by visitors and tour operators who make their profits from public protected areas. To summarize the key recommendations emerging from this initiative: 1. Protected area systems should have an income-generation strategy that includes visitor use fees. 2. The most appropriate user fee system (type and level of fees) will depend on park agency objectives and constraints, as well as visitor price responsiveness and other factors. In general, it is recommended that fees generate sufficient revenue to at least cover the cost of providing recreation opportunities, particularly in developing countries where visitors are mostly from developed countries. 3. Although managers often have anecdotal information on visitor price responsiveness, it is recommended that surveys of visitors be used to evaluate price responsiveness when

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setting fees. Lindberg (Chapter 14) presents an excellent review of this research methodology. 4. Managers involve stakeholders, especially the tourism industry, when setting fees. This can increase support for fee implementation or modification. 5. Fee systems should be: a. subject to change by the protected area agency rather than the legislature; the Galapagos National Park is hamstrung with its fee system design which it is unable to change without a legislative change which would also open the law for revision which in turn would likely lead to the fishing industry seeking to also promote changes which would result in an exacerbation of the existing threats to the marine reserve. b. involve variable fees (e.g., higher fees for foreigners than residents). c. retain revenue within the agency and especially at the site where it is collected. This is important in order to maintain an incentive for local staff to collect fees and ensure demonstrability of tourism's positive contribution to conservation. d. include revenue-sharing programmes with local communities through a system of conditional payments, such that payments are made by the park in exchange for community agreement to adopt specific compatible development behaviours. 6. Donations from tourists and tour operators are often overlooked as a valuable complement to fees as has been seen in Baja California and Galapagos. However, it is important that donations not be perceived as an alternative to adequate fee levels which are based on real tourism management and conservation management costs. 7. Ensure a Virtuous Cycle (see Fig. 7), that is, a positive feedback loop between user fee levels and demand, and consequently the health of conservation targets, should be the goal. Tourism revenues should respond to demand or possibly limit demand in situations where over visitation is a threat to biodiversity conservation. The income generated should be invested sufficiently at site level to ensure biodiversity health.

Fig. 7. Virtuous Cycle of tourism user fees Bushell, R., and P.F.J. Eagles. Tourism and Protected Areas : Benefits Beyond Boundaries, CABI, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central,

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List of Acronyms SISCO - Sistema de Cobros (Bolivian tourism fee system) SERNAP - Servicio Nacional de Areas Protegidas (Bolivian Protected Area Authority) SEMARNAT - Secretaria de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales (Mexican Governmental Secratariat for Environment and Natural Resources) FOSANP - Fondo Sudcaliforniano Para Areas Naturales (South Californian Fund for Natural Resources)

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References Anaya, R.G. (2003) Instrumentos de Financiamiento en el area de Protection de Flora y Fauna Idas del Golfo de California, Mexico. Conference Paper, World Parks Congress, Durban, 2003 Benitez, S. (2001) Visitor Use Fees and Concession Systems in Protected Areas — Galapagos Case Study. The Nature Conservancy, Arlington, VA. Available at: nature.org/ecotourism Brown, C. (2001) Visitor Use Fees and Concession Systems in Protected Areas — Synthesis of the North American, Belize and Costa Rica Experiences. The Nature Conservancy, Arlington, Virginia. Available at: nature. org/ec otourism Conservation Finance Alliance (CFA) (2001) Mobilizing Funding for Biodiversity Conservation: A UserFriendly Training Guide for Understanding, Selecting and Implementing Conservation Finance Mechanisms. URL: http://guide.conservationfmance.org/ Drumm, A. (2004) Evaluation ofthePilotFee System at Eduardo Avaroa Reserve and Recommendations for the Bolivian Protected Area System. The Nature Conservancy, Arlington, Virginia. Available at: nature .org/ec otourism Drumm, A. and Moore, A. (2004) Ecotourism Development, A Manual for Conservation Planners and Managers, Volume 2: The Business of Ecotourism Development and Management. The Nature Conservancy, Arlington, Virginia. Available at: www.nature.org/ecotourism Lindberg, K. (2004a) Price Responsiveness at Eduardo Avaroa Reserve. In: Drumm, A. Evaluation of the Pilot Fee System at Eduardo Avaroa Reserve and Recommendations for the Bolivian Protected Area System. The Nature Conservancy, Arlington, Virginia. Available at: nature.org/ecotourism Lindberg, K. (2004b). Price Responsiveness and Other Visitor Survey Results, Gladden Spit, Belize Survey Project. Report to The Nature Conservancy, 22 July 04, Draft Lindberg, K. and Halpenny, E. (2001) Protected Area Visitor Fees. University of Oregon. Loomis, J.B., and Walsh, R.G. (1997) Recreation Economic Decisions, 2nd edition. Venture Publishing, State College, PA SERNAP (1999) Planificacion Estrategica del Sistema de Cobros para la Reserva Nacional de Fauna Andina Eduardo Avaroa. Ministerio de Desarrollo Sostenible y Planificacion. Uyuni 13 de agosto, 1999 SERNAP (2002) Criterios Para la Evaluacion Tecnica del Sistema de Cobros por Ingreso de Visitantes de La Reserva Nacional de Fauna Andina Eduardo Avaroa (SISCO REA) Tropico (1999) Estudio Para el Establecimiento del Sistema de Recaudaciones de Recursos Financieros por Turismo en La Reserva Nacional de Fauna Andina Eduardo Avaroa.

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Chapter 14

Economic Impacts of Parks on Surrounding Communities: Findings from New South Wales Nicholas Conner

Introduction Economic analysis can be used to quantify the value of biodiversity conservation and protected areas for economic development and community well-being. Such information can then be employed to help park agencies demonstrate to economic planners, decisionmakers, and the wider community that protected areas are economic and social assets that justify public and private sector support. This chapter discusses the results of research from New South Wales (NSW), Australia, which has identified a range of socio-economic benefits that protected areas provide for local communities and wider society.

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Socio-economic Benefits of Protected Areas Governments have traditionally provided financial support for protected areas (PAs) because they contain natural and cultural heritage and provide opportunities for recreation, education and spiritual well-being. However, the provision of PAs by public agencies also supplies a wide range of socio-economic benefits to individuals and the broader community. Traditionally, many park agencies have not considered delivering socioeconomic returns as a part of their functions, or indeed recognized that PAs can be a source of such benefits. From an economic perspective, PAs are financed and supported by governments because they are public goods,1 that is, they are non-rival (they can be used by many consumers simultaneously) and non-excludable (non-owning beneficiaries often cannot be easily excluded, by using market mechanisms, from benefiting). However, the economic returns that flow from this public provision can be both private and public. This situation is shown in Fig. 1 and Table 2. For example, PAs that safeguard the hydrological functions of wetlands may provide benefits to downstream communities through moderating extremes of seasonal flooding, and regulating the flow of groundwater and surface runoff. Although individual members of these communities gain from wetland protection, the provision of these benefits is not restricted to specific individuals and deliberately withheld from others, and the uptake of benefits by one individual does not necessarily preclude others from doing likewise. 210

© CAB International 2007. Tourism and Protected Areas: Benefits

Beyond Boundaries (eds R. Bushell and P.F.J. Eagles)

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Protected Areas Private Goods

public Goods

harvestinb hides, furs,meat seeds, flowers, fruits

e.g. provision ofopen space for visdiotrs ,protection of a wide range of ecosystem services

e.g.private tours in PAs

Priaate Benefits

private benfirts

Community Benefitas

e.g income from sales of

e.g.recreational

e.g community quality of

experiences, income for

life, benefits of proetcting cultuyral heritate, benefits

products

local firms from toruist expenditure in the regional economy health benfots to inidividuals

to welfare agencies using PAs

Fig. 1. Provision of benefits to individuals and communities from protected areas Direct and consequential benefits

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The benefits that individuals, businesses and communities obtain from the provision of private and public goods can be both direct and consequential. PAs provide direct benefits through supplying a range of goods that have commercial value for individuals and businesses and are able to be translated into income-generating activities; for example, the commercial value of species hunted or collected, or income received by tour operators using PAs. Individuals also obtain direct, if intangible, satisfaction from the knowledge that PAs are safeguarding natural and cultural heritage for posterity. PAs impart consequential benefits; for example, local business revenue will rise from spending by visitors who are attracted to their area by the presence of a PA. Examples of some direct and consequential benefits of private and public goods and their positive impact on individuals, businesses and communities are summarized in Table 2.

Concepts and Techniques for Measuring Benefits Some of the economic impacts of PAs can be identified through relatively straightforward and simple measures, such as counting the direct costs of conservation management, the number of tourists visiting a park, or the income derived from park entry fees. Although such empiricist measures provide quantitative information about PAs, they do not provide an economic justification for why governments, firms or individuals should allocate their scarce resources to PA management or visitation, rather than to some other activity. To justify continued and enhanced expenditure on PAs, economists require more sophisticated techniques to explain the interrelationship between economic variables which influence the demand for, and the supply of, the goods and services provided by PAs. Such techniques are generally based on concepts derived from economic theory about the relationship between consumers, firms, and wider economic forces, as described below.

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Key economic concepts Economic analysis helps determine the relative economic efficiency of allocating scarce resources to certain activities rather than others. For example, should a government allocate expenditure to establishing new PAs or to building sporting facilities? To help answer such questions, economists use techniques based on a number of key economic concepts which include the following: Economic Efficiency - The economic welfare of members of society will be enhanced when scarce resources are used for those activities that yield the best return to their private or public owners, as opposed to other activities. Opportunity Costs - To achieve economic efficiency, the income earned from using a resource in a particular way must be greater than the income that is foregone from not being able to use the resource for some other purpose. Public and Private Goods - Where private firms are unwilling or unable to competitively provide certain goods and services, governments may decide that it is necessary to provide such products through public agencies, to safeguard or enhance the welfare of members of society. Distributional Effects - Net economic benefits ultimately accrue to individuals (as owners of firms and as wage and salary-earners). The way these benefits accrue to individuals (e.g. whether they go to wealthy groups or to poor groups) are distributional effects. Governments may choose to influence the flow of benefits to enable particular groups to receive a greater proportion of benefits. Table 1. Some techniques for valuing protected area benefits*

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Valuation Technique Estimation of market value Estimation of contribution to production processes Estimation of avoided costs of replacement, mitigation, or damage aversion Hedonic Pricing Travel Cost Approach Contingent Valuation Choice Modelling Social Cost-Benefit Analysis Cost-Effectiveness Analysis Input-Output Analysis

Application Used to identify actual value of PA goods & services & to estimate private costs & benefits. Used to identify actual value of PA goods & services & to estimate the value of private costs & benefits. Used to estimate costs of alternative sources of services normally provided by PAs, or costs & benefits of protecting PA goods & services. Used to estimate the existence of values & reveal preferences of individuals for particular environmental attributes, based on their behaviour. Used to estimate the value of benefits resulting from recreational experiences in PAs. Used to determine individual's hypothetical valuation of environmental goods & services. Used to determine individual's valuation of specific environmental attributes. Used to identify net public (and private) benefits & costs. Used to identify least-cost options for delivering different environmental outcomes. Used to assess the contribution of PAs to regional economies.

' See also International Centre for Environmental Management (2003), and Emerton and Bos (2004) for a discussion of evaluation techniques Bushell, R., and P.F.J. Eagles. Tourism and Protected Areas : Benefits Beyond Boundaries, CABI, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Table 2. Examples of some direct and consequential benefits of protected areas (PAs). Value Type of Benefit Example 1 . Direct Private Benefits

2. Consequential Private Benefits

Other Implications

Income received by private park Entry fees to private parks. owners.

PAs run for profit may not adequately protect whole ecosystems if management only focuses on icon species.

Harvesting/culling in some PAs. Apiarists, grazing.

Not permitted in some PA systems; may lead to conflicts with other uses & conservation objectives, e.g., European honeybee hives permitted in some PAs in NSW may conflict with native bee species.

Sale of goods and services Fencing, pest control, park infrastructure provided by local firms to park purchased from local businesses, upgrading agencies for park management, or construction of roads into new or existing protected areas, or visitor centres for new or existing national parks.

If no suitable local suppliers, park agencies will have to purchase products from outside the region, so reducing benefit to local economy. Employment of locals in the PA is a significant boost to local/regional economies,

Ecotourism industry operating in PAs.

Tour companies operating in PAs.

Too many tour operations may damage resource or diminish non-market values for other park visitors.

Private business opportunities in parks.

Private firms operating cafes & other concessions in protected areas.

Increased visitor pressure may diminish non-market values for other park visitors.

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Local business opportunities Visitor expenditure on food, accommodation, Congestion can reduce attractiveness of PA to potential from selling goods & services to transport services, other entertainment etc., visitors, who may go to other areas instead, visitors attracted to the area as supplied by local businesses, a result of PA. Local economic activity (incl. Additional jobs created in local economy as Needs to be suitable local economy to take advantage of jobs) as result of flow-on effects result of flow-on effects of park management potential demand for services, of park management & visitor & visitor expenditure, expenditure. Recreational activity.

Value of recreational experience for Although provided as public goods the benefits of this individuals (psychological, physical, spiritual provision accrue to individuals. Congestion will reduce the value). value of experience, travel time to PA will represent a cost for some visitors.

Use of ecosystem services as inputs into the production of goods and services.

Pollination of crops, control of agricultural pests, maintenance of quality & supply of water for crop irrigation.

These services are provided as public goods, but generate private benefits where they are used as inputs into production processes for marketable goods and services. Through protecting the supply of these services, PAs provide a valuable role in facilitating private economic activity.

Table 2. (cont.) Examples of some direct and consequential benefits of protected areas (PAs). Value 3. Direct Public (Non-Market) Benefits

Type Of Benefit

Other Implications

Biophysical functions of ecosystem services.

Mitigation of floods and droughts, microclimate Although there is some crossover with ecosystem services modification, protection of hydrological functions, e.g., providing private benefits (see above), the services for protection of municipal water supplies. considered here generate public benefits, i.e., benefits are available to members of the community as a whole, and cannot be expropriated and withheld by individuals.

Bequest value.

Benefit derived from knowing that biodiversity & cultural heritage is being protected for posterity.

Level of benefit will relate to confidence in PA agency to effectively protect heritage.

Existence value.

Benefit derived from knowing that natural & cultural heritage is being safeguarded.

Level of benefit will relate to confidence in PA agency to effectively protect heritage.

Vicarious value.

Benefit obtained from receiving information from TV, Depends on accuracy of information being provided by print media etc. that biodiversity & cultural heritage are media etc. being protected.

Option value.

Benefit obtained from deferring the use of an environmental resource until a date when the full (scientific) implications of its use can be better assessed.

Assumes that value of resource will increase over time; deferring use of one resource may create pressure for development of other more vulnerable resources.

Improved physical & mental health leading to reduced need for public/community services expenditure, potential reduction in marginalization of socially displaced indigenous communities through better cultural connection.

Need to manage PA to address any potential conflicts between management for biodiversity protection & management for cultural protection (e.g., re access & traditional resource use rights).

4. Consequential Health Swell-being. Public (Non-Market) Benefits

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Example

Education & awareness.

Encourages environmental ethic, use as cheap/free PAs managed to encourage recreation rather than species outdoor laboratory for instruction, training & research, conservation, e.g., regional parks in metropolitan Sydney, at all education levels, e.g., field study centres. can introduce conservation concepts & objectives to urban Deputations.

Local identification.

Support for and focal point for community identification Possibility of differing community perspectives on (for example with icon areas), leading to more positive development. community attitudes to development & innovation.

Other community services. Avoided costs of alternative (more expensive) venues for delivering certain government services using PAs e.g., field studies, bush craft skills, search & rescue training, rehabilitation of juvenile offenders.

Can be considerable annual savings for other agencies from free use of protected areas when compared to alternative venues for delivering the community services involved (see SUPER, 2001).

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These concepts underpin the methods used to assess the economic benefits of PAs described in this chapter. While these concepts provide a theoretical foundation for the techniques described in Table 1, particular techniques will emphasize certain concepts rather than others.

Some Research Findings: Protected Area Benefits in NSW

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This section outlines the results of studies carried out by the New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service2 (NPWS) that have used some of the above techniques to value the potential economic benefits of PAs.

Fig. 2. Location of protected areas in New South Wales referred to in text.

Travel-cost studies of recreational benefits As shown in Fig. 1 and Table 2, PAs provide goods and services that can accrue to individuals as private benefits, such as the value individuals obtain from PAs as a recreational resource or tourist destination. Simply measuring the willingness of individuals to pay entry fees to a PA (where such charges are levied) will not indicate the total value of

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the recreational benefits visitors obtain from their visit. To estimate the total value of these benefits, it will be necessary to obtain information on the major costs individuals incur in visiting the PA (such as transport costs and the opportunity costs of travel time), and to construct a demand schedule which relates park visitation to travel cost. While it could be said that higher travel costs lower the demand for PA visits, these travel costs reflect the value that individuals place on the recreational benefits they obtain visiting the PA in question.3 Information obtained from travel-cost studies can be used by park managers to demonstrate that expenditure on natural and cultural heritage conservation in particular PAs can be justified. This justification is measured up to the point where the marginal value of the economic benefits received for visitors travelling to the PAs equals the marginal level of expenditure incurred by the park agency in park management. The information provides an estimate of the recreational value that tourists obtain from a PA. The results of some travel cost studies of PAs in NSW are summarized in Table 3. Table 3. Economic value of recreation and tourism in selected NSW protected areas

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Gibraltar Range National Park Annual 40,000 Visitation Value of travel time excluded a Economic value/person/ $19 visit Annual Economic $0.8m Value Present Value of $11m Recreational Benefit ° Value of travel time included b Economic value/person/ N.A d visit Annual N.A d Economic Value Present Value of N.A d Recreational Benefit °

Montague Island Nature Reserve

Myall Lakes National Park

Warrumbungle National Park

2,580

50,000

50,000

$17

$32

$41

$0.04m

$1.6m

$2. Om

$0.62m

$23m

$29. Om

$24

$50

$61

$0.1

$2.5m

$3.0m

$1.0m

$35. 5m

$44.0m

a. Assumes that time spent travelling to the site has no other value, b. Assumes that the value of travel time is equivalent to any income visitors would have earned if they had used this time for income-earning activities, instead of travel, c. A discount rate of 7% p. a. was used, d. Not assessed in this study.

(Source: National Parks and Wildlife Service, 2002) Bushell, R., and P.F.J. Eagles. Tourism and Protected Areas : Benefits Beyond Boundaries, CABI, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central,

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Regional input-output analysis of consequential private benefits

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Direct and indirect contribution to rural and regional economies National parks and other protected areas are recognized for their role in conserving unique aspects of natural heritage, including flora and fauna. In addition, the economic activity associated with the establishment, management and recreational use of P As generates direct and indirect socio-economic benefits to firms and local economies, as follows. Park management - Although the principal role of park agencies is to conserve natural and cultural heritage, agencies also directly stimulate local businesses and trade by purchasing local goods and services for PA management. This expenditure flows on to other local businesses as they, in turn, supply goods and services to the businesses dealing directly with the agency. Utilizing local resources also applies to major park management programmes, such as feral pest and weed control. A large proportion of the funding for these activities is generally spent in the local economy where the park is located. Flow-ons to other economic sectors occur as the households directly employed in the management of the PA spend their income on locally supplied goods and services. The business activity generated by this consumer spending means incomes for, and spending by, the households employed in these other sectors, further stimulating local business activity. Capital works - Expenditure on major capital works associated with PAs generates regional economic activity, as local contractors and locally purchased goods and services are generally used.4 Projects may include building PA agency offices or park visitor centres, or upgrading and constructing roads into new or existing PAs. Visitor expenditure - PAs attract visitors into the region in which they are located. While in the area, these visitors purchase goods and services such as accommodation, food and beverages, souvenirs and other retail items, motor vehicle needs, tours, and other recreational services. This expenditure has a positive direct impact on local businesses, which then flow on to other sectors of the economy, and creates new jobs. The NPWS has used input-output analysis to evaluate the direct and flow-on effects of park management expenditure and associated park visitor expenditure in several regional economies in NSW. Input-output analysis is based on the concept of firms in a local economy trading with each other to purchase inputs. The more diverse an economy is, the greater the level of inter-firm trading. Inter-firm trading generates flow-on effects. As noted in National Parks and Wildlife Service (2001), these flow-on effects are categorized as 'production-induced' effects and measure the increased economic activity associated with inter-firm trading. For example, the establishment and ongoing management of a national park generates expenditure on capital works and park management services, and attracts visitors who generate demand for accommodation, meals, handicrafts, and entertainment. These services in turn encourage demand for building supplies, wholesale food supplies, guided tours and so on, as shown in Fig. 3. Industries also employ labour and make payments to households. These households then purchase goods and services, and so generate a stream of 'consumption-induced' effects which, when added to the production-induced effects, provide values for the multipliers (total flow-on effects) used for input-output analysis (National Parks and Wildlife Service, 2001).

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Economic Impacts of Parks on Surrounding Communities

Goods and sertices needed forPA manangement and needed by parkl Visiotors

Local firsms provide services

Locao firms buy imputs from other l;ocal businesses

Local firms buy labnour from local

Firms outside the area provide services

Local firms buy inputs ffrrm outxide the area

Local firms buy labour from outside the area

house holeds

Econimic benefits leak out of region to other areas

Key: Leakeages fro,m the regional econiomy

Fig. 3. Protected areas and local businesses

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Protected areas in Far West NSW: a case study In 2001 the NPWS carried out a study of Sturt, Kinchega and Mutawintji National Parks in the Far West Region of NSW (see Fig. 2). This area has a relatively small regional economy, generating a Gross Regional Product (GRP) of AU$440 million per year and employing 8430 people. The local economy is primarily based on mining and grazing and associated service industries. The Far West Region is part of a wider area of western NSW experiencing significant social and economic dislocation from declining profitability in the pastoral and mining industries and a lack of substitute industries to maintain or increase regional income (NIEIR, 1999). Tourism has some potential as a source of economic activity for the region, but has a small economic base to build from. Although it is not a panacea for the region's socioeconomic problems, the expansion of the tourism industry may play a positive role in the future of the region (NIEIR, 1999). Much of the current tourism activity in the Far West is focused around Broken Hill (1150 kilometres west of Sydney), and its mining history and art industry. The wider region has a range of historical and nature-based features. The Broken Hill Regional Tourist Association (1998) has suggested that potential strengths of the region for tourism include a rich Aboriginal and European cultural heritage, wide open spaces, good accessibility to most attractions, the unique features of outback national parks and a high concentration of plains kangaroos, as well as a variety of other flora and fauna.

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Sturt National Park Sturt National Park is located in the far northwest corner of NSW, about 330 km north of Broken Hill. It extends to the north, east and west of Tibooburra and is bounded by the Queensland border to the north and the South Australian border to the west. The park was established in 1972 and covers over 310,040 ha of semi-desert country. The easily visible wildlife is a major attraction, as are seasonal wildflower displays and the park's historic features. Kinchega National Park

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Kinchega National Park was formally established in 1967 and is situated 113 km south-east of Broken Hill, and south-west of the township of Menindee. The Park is 44,260 ha, extending southwards from Menindee for about 62 km along the Darling River. Lake Menindee and Lake Cawndilla, two of the largest lakes in the Menindee Lakes Storage Scheme, lie within the park. The park has a variety of outstanding cultural features including Aboriginal sites dating back thousands of years, as well as many other more recent sites, and historic sites dating from European settlement. The park contains a diverse range of plant and animal species.

Fig. 4. Lizard tracks in the sand at Mutawintji National Park. (Source: C. Ferrers)

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Mutawintji National Park Mutawintji National Park is 130 km north-east of Broken Hill, near the township of White Cliffs. The park is 68,900 ha in area and contains the Mutawintji Historic Site (486 ha). The Park was formally gazetted in 1983 and the title of the Mutawintji lands was handed back to the traditional Aboriginal owners in 1998. The park is dominated by the Bynguano Ranges, with gorges lined with river red gums and scattered rock pools. Beyond the ranges, the landscape comprises saltbush and mulga plains. A large number of archaeological sites have been recorded in the park. These include Aboriginal art sites, both painted and engraved, camp sites consisting of hearths and artefact scatters, scarred trees, stone arrangements and quarries.

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Table 4. Direct and indirect regional economic impacts of park management expenditure and visitor expenditure. Sturt National Park

Kinchega National Park

Mutawintji National Park

Total Impacts

Annual Visitation Gross Regional Output (AU$m) pa

35,000

7,000

12,000

54,000

Park management1 Visitor expenditure Total Gross Regional Product (AU$m) pa

1.656 4.165

0.797 0.730

0.902 1.395

3.355 6.291

Park management1 Visitor expenditure Total Household Income (AU$m) pa

0.928 2.262

0.568 0.400

0.607 0.763

2.103 3.426 5.529

Park management1 Visitor expenditure Total Annual Employment (equivalent fulltime jobs)

0.670 1.564

0.436 0.269

0.461 0.514

1.566 2.348 3.914

Park management1 Visitor expenditure Total

19 78

13 13

13 26

45 117 162

9.646

(Source: National Parks and Wildlife Service, 2001) Park management expenditure represents recurrent operating costs for established parks, and excludes one-off capital expenditures associated with park establishment or major upgrading/park expansion. Care is required when interpreting data and making comparisons (see National Parks and Wildlife Service, 1999 for further information).

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Research findings As shown in Table 4, the economic activity associated with Sturt, Kinchega and Mutawintji National Parks comprises management expenditure and associated visitor expenditure, providing a valuable and continuing contribution to local employment and output. The direct and flow-on effects of NPWS spending in the region on goods and services for park management, plus the direct and flow-on effects in the region made by people who visit the parks, contributed AU$9.6m to Gross Regional Output (or business turnover of the region). Gross Regional Output does not take into account the costs incurred by local firms and others in providing services to NPWS and to park visitors (i.e. the payments due to the owners of the land, labour, materials and capital used in producing these services). When these costs are taken into account, the parks contributed an estimated AU$5.5 million per year to the Gross Regional Product of the local economy as 'value-added' activity. Of this AU$5.5m, approximately $AU$3.9m per year was paid to households as wages and salaries, which equates to 162 full-time jobs. This employment is reported as 'equivalent' jobs, that is, the positions are spread throughout the regional economy, rather than being for example 30 jobs in catering, 20 jobs in transport etc. The figure for employment represents the sum of the extra employment needed to meet the economic activity generated by park management and visitor expenditure.

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Implications for visitor management in the region One of the findings of this research was that visitors to these parks spend more per capita on local goods and services than was identified in studies of parks closer to Sydney (National Parks and Wildlife Service, 1999, 2000). One explanation for this is that visitors to parks in Far West NSW may be travelling on long trips to outback/central Australia, and replenish food, fuel and other essential goods from businesses in Far West Region towns. This contrasts with visitors to parks in eastern and central NSW who bring more consumption goods with them from home and, consequently, purchase fewer products per visit than people who visit the more remote parks in Far West NSW. In broad terms, the per capita expenditure per visit to a regional destination is likely to increase as the distance and length of time from home increases. Information on visitor type and expenditure patterns in Far West NSW provides a valuable input into the development of strategies for promoting park-related tourism and regional economic development. Future developments A major new park in Far West NSW was announced in October 2002. The 219,500 ha Paroo-Darling National Park and State Conservation Area includes perennial lakes of the Paroo River Overflow, active mound springs which support an endangered ecological plant community, and floodplains of the Central Darling River. As well as protecting the natural and cultural heritage values of the park, managers want to ensure that the establishment and management of the park provide economic benefits to nearby communities. For example, substantial capital works are planned for the park, which will provide business opportunities to local construction and hardware firms. A workshop has now been built in Wilcannia - one of the region's townships - and other works will include a new visitors' centre, a boardwalk/walking trail and new picnic

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grounds. To avoid competition with private businesses in nearby towns offering accommodation, the park will only provide facilities for camping. NPWS staff will also live locally and purchase local goods and services for their everyday needs. Park managers are participating in a three-year training programme to improve their ability to resource Aboriginal people who wish to develop the skills needed to run businesses that provide on-park services, including cultural heritage tourism operators.

Policy Implications and Principles Many factors influence the ability of individuals, local communities and the wider public to capture the potential benefits that PAs and associated tourism can provide. Park managers who wish to promote the socio-economic benefits of particular PAs can manage some of these factors through specific planning decisions and their implementation. Other factors will be influenced by the policies and objectives of non-park agencies and by external forces beyond the control of the park agency.5 This section considers some factors that PA managers should take into account in their planning and management decisions, and is based on experiences gained by researchers carrying out the studies described in this chapter. These factors can be translated into the policy principles identified below, which then assist park managers to deliver PA benefits to individuals, local businesses and the wider community.

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The type of protected area Different types of PAs contribute different types and levels of benefits. For example, wilderness areas in remote locations are unlikely to generate large income flows from visitor expenditure nor especially popular recreational opportunities. However, direct public benefits related to the existence value of protected wilderness may be relatively high. Other categories of PAs, such as national parks with greater visitor and park management expenditure (see Table 5 and Fig. 5) may generate higher consequential private benefits, but lower direct public benefits. The nature of visitor infrastructure and facilities provided in a PA would probably influence the category of visitor who travelled to the area, the value of the private and public benefits they obtained, and the type of goods and services they would be looking to purchase in the area (which would generate private consequential benefits for local businesses). Park managers need to be aware of the different types of benefits that can flow from different categories of PAs, and manage the PAs under their control in ways that promote the appropriate types and mix of benefits. As well as understanding the types of benefits associated with different categories of PAs, managers also need information to demonstrate the value of these benefits. The robustness of this information will be considerably enhanced through the use of primary data collected through on-site surveys, questionnaires and interviews. Where such information is unavailable, it may be possible to draw general conclusions from comparable studies in other areas. Some databases are available for this process of 'benefit transfer' (e.g. see New South Wales Environment Protection Authority, 2001). The availability of relevant economic data allows better calculation of the direct and consequential benefits of protected areas, and assists in more effective planning and management.

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Table 5. Benefits typically associated with different IUCN categories of protected area. IUCN category 1

PA type Nature reserves, wilderness areas

II

National parks

V

Metropolitan regional parks

VI

Biosphere reserves

VI

Main type of benefit Non-market, some recreational benefits, ecosystem services Regional economic benefits, recreational benefits, nonmarket benefits Recreation benefits, non-market benefits Harvesting, non-market benefits, recreational benefits, tourism Ecosystem services

Protected managed special catchment areas See Figure 5 for full IUCN categorisation (categories III and IV not used in New South Wales. WCPA &WCMC, 1994) The IUCN defines a protected area as: 'An area of land and/or sea especially dedicated to the protection and maintenance of biological diversity, and of natural and associated cultural resources, and managed through legal or other effective means.' The IUCN categorizes protected areas by management objective and has identified six distinct categories of protected areas:

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I.

Strict Nature Reserve/Wilderness Area: protected area managed mainly for the science of wilderness protection II. National Park: protected area managed mainly for ecosystem protection and recreation III. Natural Monument: protected area managed mainly for conservation of specific natural features IV. Habitat/Species Management Area: protected area managed mainly for conservation through management intervention V. Protected Landscape/Seascape: protected area managed mainly for landscape/seascape protection and recreation VI. Managed Resource Protected Area: protected area managed mainly for the sustainable use of natural ecosystems. Fig. 5. IUCN protected area categorization (Source: World Commission for Protected Areas and World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1994)

Policy Principle: park managers need to understand the potential economic benefits of different types of PAs. Organizational culture Protected area agencies have traditionally seen their role as managing natural resources for conservation or providing venues for public access to nature. Agencies wishing to encourage the provision of socio-economic benefits from the PAs they manage need to

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foster an organizational culture that supports the role of PAs in delivering socio-economic benefits. This culture involves building organizational links between social science and natural science researchers, policy-makers and park managers, and adopting strategic planning processes which incorporate socio-economic issues and concerns in corporate planning, as well as protecting natural and cultural heritage. Park management plans and other planning instruments used by the park agency will also be needed to ensure that PAs effectively deliver the socio-economic benefits in question over time. This will help to ensure that activities which deliver benefits are adequately resourced. Policy Principle: An organizational culture is needed to support the role of PAs in delivering economic benefits.

The nature and size of the regional economy Most small regional economies in NSW and elsewhere in rural and remote Australia have limited capacity to supply the goods and services needed by park managers and park visitors (National Parks and Wildlife Service, 2001). Despite the willingness of park managers and visitors to purchase goods and services from businesses in communities close to particular PAs (with consequential private benefits for local businesses), these services may not be available locally and potential local profit and growth will be lost to the region. The demand for park management and visitor services resulting from the existence of the PA may encourage local businesses to set up enterprises to meet this demand. Development of new businesses can lead to diversification of the local economy, which increases potential flow-ons to other firms, and to households. Diversification may also improve the long-term economic viability of the region.

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Policy Principle: Park managers need to evaluate the capacity of the local economy to supply park management and park visitor goods and services. The level of public awareness of the benefits of PAs An important principle relating to the delivery of PA benefits is the need for park agencies to promote the natural and cultural heritage values of PAs and to provide information to potential beneficiaries. Such promotion and information will encourage greater public awareness of the objectives of PAs in general, and the attributes of individual PAs. Greater public awareness leads to increased public benefits. When visitors know more about a place, they feel a sense of belonging despite their tourist/visitor identity. Thus they place a higher value on the park's existence; and set a positive cycle in motion, leading to higher private benefits from more visits to PAs, in terms of recreational experiences; and greater private benefits for local businesses from increased park visitor expenditure. Interpretation facilities provided at visitor centres and at specific locations in a park also play a role in generating public benefits via greater public knowledge that particular species

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or ecosystems are present in the park and are being protected. Again, this knowledge can generate higher existence values. Increases in park visitation resulting from greater public awareness of the values of PAs needs to be carefully monitored by park managers to avoid damage to the attributes of the PA, and subsequent reduction in private and public benefits. Policy Principle: PA managers need to enhance the level of public awareness of the benefits of PAs. Local attitudes to development The extent to which the potential benefits of PAs accrue to local economies depends on the 'culture' of the regional economy. This culture includes the willingness of existing and potential business people to initiate, change, expand or diversify and become involved in offering services to park managers and park visitors. The culture also reflects the willingness of local government authorities, economic development groups and chambers of commerce to collaborate with park managers and examine how the benefits provided by PAs can be captured by the local community.

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Structural change The establishment of PAs on lands that were previously used for forestry or other forms of primary production generates demand for a different range of goods and services from those associated with the former primary industry (although some services, such as contract fencing and weed control, may be similar). This change can alter the structure of the local economy, with a growth in businesses serving tourism and recreation demand, and associated changes in the workforce composition and skill base. The speed at which local businesses are prepared to move factors of production into the supply of services for park management and park visitors influences the ability of the local economy to capture these consequential benefits and reduce the pressure on residents to leave the community to seek employment, thus reducing the propensity for rural depopulation and decline (Power and Barrett, 2001). Park managers need to be aware of, and sensitive to, the social and economic implications of such structural change and its effects on previously existing patterns of status and influence in the local communities around their PAs.6 Workforce and skills The extent to which local economies capture the economic benefits generated by park management and visitor expenditure also depends on the nature of their local labour force. There may be an insufficient supply of suitably skilled employees in some areas to take up the employment opportunities generated by park management and park visitation, or there may be a lack of interest in such employment. In addition, PAs located in regions experiencing relatively high levels of aged retirees and lifestyle immigrants, and/or emigration of young people, would be less likely to have a pool of available labour to take up employment opportunities fostered by PAs.

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Community attitudes Whatever the nature of the benefits that particular P As provide, park managers need to gain the support of influential groups in local communities. In some cases, park managers may need to decide whether to obtain services from larger regional centres, or to purchase their requirements from smaller local businesses. The required services may be more costly when provided by local businesses, but this approach may encourage community support for the presence of the PA. The process will be easier when there are positive community attitudes to change and development. Without an outward-looking, entrepreneurial culture in a local community there may a lack of awareness among community members and their representatives of the potential benefits of nearby PAs for local business activity. This in turn can lead to resentment and hostility towards park staff from community members. To some extent, well-conducted and publicized studies of the benefits of the PA for the vicinity can help park managers to counter negative community perceptions. Policy Principle: Managers need to promote the benefits of PAs to communities near PAs.

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Equity issues The social structure of communities in the local economy influences both the extent to which the potential benefits of PAs can be captured, and perceptions of the value of the PA. For example, increased visitation to an area as a result of the establishment of a PA may lead to a demand for part-time employment. These employment opportunities may attract people into the labour force who also carry out family duties; this is in addition to those engaged in full-time employment. The changing structure of the labour force in some communities from one predominantly made up of full-time workers to one composed of part-time and full-time workers may affect the social structure of the community (see Boroah, 2001). The benefits provided by PAs accrue to a wide range of individuals and businesses and to the broader community. Not all these groups will benefit equally from the presence of PAs, and certain management approaches may impose costs on particular individuals and groups. For example, upgrading park tracks may lead to conflicts between different users and unintentional displacement of one group by another. Park managers need to be aware of these potential impacts, and should aim to ensure that park management does not create benefits for some groups at the expense of others. Policy Principle: Park managers need to understand social and equity issues arising from park establishment and management. Other government objectives and programmes A final factor of relevance here will be the type of programmes being carried out in the region by other government agencies, and the extent to which the objectives of these programmes conflict with park management objectives and compromise the natural and Bushell, R., and P.F.J. Eagles. Tourism and Protected Areas : Benefits Beyond Boundaries, CABI, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central,

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cultural values of P As to which visitors are attracted. A reduction in the value of the private benefits visitors obtain from PAs will be likely to lead to reduced visitor numbers and in turn reduced local expenditure. Discussion and liaison with representatives of other government agencies can be helpful in identifying and achieving mutually compatible objectives. For example, where a range of tourist attractions exist in a particular area, PAs can promote tourism by acting as an additional visitor attraction, and by providing information on other venues to park visitors (as in the case of the NPWS Fitzroy Falls Visitor Centre, see National Parks and Wildlife Service, 2003). Park managers therefore need to be aware of how particular national parks may complement, and possibly add to, the attractiveness of certain areas for potential visitors. Coordinated interagency approaches7 help to demonstrate to politicians and the public that PAs contribute to the economic and social welfare of the community. This can generate valuable public support for PA agencies in seeking resources for conservation from funding agencies. .

Policy Principle: PA agencies need to coordinate PA planning and management with other government objectives and programmes.

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Conclusions PAs provide a significant contribution to economic welfare through direct and consequential private and public benefits, many of which are associated with visitation to specific parks and their surrounding regions and communities. However, the ability of PA managers to deliver, and of communities to obtain, these benefits is subject to a range of environmental, economic, social and institutional influences, many of which are beyond the control of park agencies. This chapter suggests a number of policy principles that can help park managers to deliver PA benefits. These principles are based on the experiences of National Parks and Wildlife Service staff in valuing the benefits of PAs. Successful park planning and management is likely to depend increasingly on an improved understanding of the needs and aspirations of local communities and the nature, pattern and number of visitors to PAs. Park-related tourism can provide a range of benefits to individuals, businesses, surrounding communities and regional economies; however, PA managers, tourism agencies and tourism operators need to be aware that the features of PAs to which visitors are attracted can easily be damaged by planning and management that ignores incompatibilities between natural and cultural heritage conservation and the desire of visitors to experience the product of such conservation.

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Glossary Community and communities - 'Communities' are generally thought of as groups of people who live and work together, which are dynamic and complex, and change as populations grow, age and migrate. 'Communities, no matter how they are defined in the Australian context, generally organize themselves to share resources, manage those resources and achieve common goals in relation to quality of life aspirations. This is true irrespective of whether they are business groups, church groups, sporting groups, or entire towns' (Bushell et al, 2002). Economic value of recreational use - The difference between what an individual is willing to pay to use an environmental resource for recreational purposes, and the amount that they actually have to pay. Gross Regional Output - A term used with reference to input-output analysis, to represent regional sales or revenue, that is, regional business turnover. Gross Regional Product (GRP) - A measure of value-added activity which excludes the value of intermediate inputs and imports used in the production process (these values are included in Gross Regional Output). GRP includes household income and Other Value Added (OVA) productivity and represents the returns to factors of production, including land, labour, capital and management. OVA represents gross operating surplus, net indirect taxes, depreciation and other returns to capital. Input—output analysis - A systematic method of describing the financial linkages which connect industries in a regional economy. It is also used to predict the effects of an impacting agent on specific indicators, including gross regional output, gross regional product, household income and employment. An impacting agent may be a change to a regional economy as a result of an economic stimulus, or it may be an existing activity within an economy. Protected area - This report uses the IUCN definition of a protected area as: 'an area of land and/or sea especially dedicated to the protection and maintenance of biological diversity, and of natural and associated cultural resources, and managed through legal or other effective means' (See Fig. 5). Region - A geographic area that is usually smaller than a State or Territory (Australia) but larger than a Local Government Area (LGA). Regions may be informally recognized, for example the Hunter Valley or the Eyre Peninsula. They may be administratively defined for particular purposes, such as regions of responsibility for government agencies, or they may represent a commonality of biophysical features (a bioregion) (Greening Australia, 1998).

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Regional development - Regional development can be generally defined as a process to increase the wealth, living standards and well-being of (specific) communities, through encouraging and expanding business activity, improving business performance, and maintaining and creating business and employment opportunities.

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Notes 1. In recent years, biodiversity and its conservation has gained a higher profile, particularly since the UN Conference on Environment and Development (the Earth Summit), Rio de Janeiro, 1992 and the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). The relationships between biodiversity and economy are beyond the scope of this work. However, much has been said and written about the fundamental connection between human health, for example via food and medicines, and biodiversity conservation. Useful sources of information include: http://lnwebl8.worldbank.org/ESSD/envext.nsf/48ByDocName/AboutUs and http://www.biodiv.org/programmes/outreach/awareness/biodiv-day-2003.asp 2. Now part of the New South Wales Department of Environment and Conservation. 3. For instance, some remote parks, such as Kakadu and Uluru-Kata Tjuta, despite being expensive to reach, are valued by tourists as outback destinations that are rugged and far from built-up areas. 4. See Chapter 20 on the issue of leakages from local to external/overseas economies associated with employment of non-local workers, failure to research and implement local economic management policies that promote benefits to host communities, investment in non-local companies and flow of tax revenue to higher tiers of government. 5. In terms of visitation, these forces may be as diverse as the Australian pilot strike (1990); the terrorist attacks in the USA (2001), Bali (2002) and Spain (2004); outbreaks of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) and more recently, Avian Bird Flu. Park managers also have to cope with natural forces such as flood and fire; and macroeconomic forces such as currency values, recession, employment levels and interest rates. 6. The Sydney-based Tourism and Transport Forum recently published data (The Sydney Morning Herald, 4th August, 2004: 5) on the proportion of tourism industry employees within certain electoral boundaries, an indication of the far-reaching implications of microeconomic structural change, and accompanying shifts in social and political power, particularly in formerly primary industry dependent areas. 7. Interagency approaches may form around a single issue, such as World Environment Day, or around a region, such as a music or arts festival that incorporates promotion of and/or themes inspired by the nearby protected area. On the other hand, 'interagency' may refer to administrative meetings, with local government, state and federal representatives such as regional development officers, private sector interests such as chambers of commerce and community-based organizations such as youth or aged care groups working together to create tourism and educational opportunities, for instance via group bookings or concessional arrangements.

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References Boroah, V.K. (2001) Globalisation, Barriers to Employment and Social Exclusion. Australasian Journal of Regional Studies 7(3): 285-308. Broken Hill Regional Tourist Association (1998) Broken Hill - The Accessible Outback 1998-2001 Marketing Plan. Broken Hill City Council, Broken Hill. Bushell, R., Staiff, R. and Conner, N. (2002) The Role of Nature-Based Tourism in the Contribution of Protected Areas to Quality of Life in Rural and Regional Communities in Australia. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 9(1): 24 - 36. Emerton, L. and Bos, E. (2004) Value - Counting Ecosystems as Water Infrastructure. IUCN - World Conservation Union, Gland, Switzerland. International Centre for Environmental Management (2003) Economic Valuation: its use in Protected Area Management-Lessons Learned From Global Experience. Review of Protected Areas and Development in the Lower Mekong River Region, Indooroopilly, Queensland. Greening Australia Ltd (1998) Submission to the Productivity Commission Inquiry into Ecologically Sustainable Development in Government Departments & Agencies (URL: www.pc.gov.au/inquiry/esd/subs/sub006.pdf)

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NIEIR (1999) The Western Division of NSW: its Human Geography and Economic Prospects. A report prepared by the National Institute for Economic and Industry Research for the Western Lands Review. Department of Land and Water Conservation, Sydney. NSW Environment Protection Authority (2001) En Value database. (URL: www2.epa.nsw.gov.au/envalue) NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service (1999) The Contribution of National Parks to Sustainable Rural and Regional Development. NPWS Environmental Economics Series, Hurstville, New South Wales. NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service (2000) The Contribution ofWarrumbungle National Park to Regional Economic Development. NPWS Environmental Economics Series, Hurstville, New South Wales. NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service (2001) The Contribution of Sturt National Park, Kinchega National Park andMutawintji National Park to Regional Economic Development. NPWS Environmental Economics Series, Hurstville, New South Wales. NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service (2002) The Economic Value of Recreational Use in Protected Areas — Collected Studies from New South Wales. NPWS Environmental Economics Series, Hurstville, New South Wales. NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service (2003) The Economic Contribution ofFitzroy Falls Visitor Centre. NPWS Conservation Economics Series. Hurstville, New South Wales. Power, T.M. and Barrett, R.N. (2001) Post-Cowboy Economics: Pay and Prosperity in the New American West. Washington, Island Press SUPER Group (2001) The Value of Public Open Space for Community Service Provision. Sydney Urban Parks Education and Research Group Technical Report Series, SUPER Group, Centennial Parklands, Sydney. World Commission for Protected Areas and the World Conservation Monitoring Centre (1994) Guidelines for Protected Areas Management Categories. IUCN - World Conservation Union, Gland, Switzerland.

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Chapter 15

Management Information Tools for Setting Visitor Fees Kreg Lindberg

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Introduction National parks and other public protected areas (hereafter referred to simply as parks) around the world face budget shortfalls and therefore lack the funding to effectively manage their natural and cultural resources. Entrance and other tourism-related fees (visitor fees) can be important sources of additional revenue. Many parks do not charge visitor fees, but a substantial, and apparently growing, number of areas charge visitors to enter. This chapter reviews economic issues affecting parks and the financial benefits that visitor fees can generate. It then focuses on how management information tools (referred to as research or research tools) can help park managers make effective decisions regarding types and levels of fees. Fee levels are often constrained by legal, political, or other considerations - and they should be framed within managerial objectives. However, within these constraints and objectives, research can help managers set fee levels. For example, research can assess how different fee levels affect visitor numbers, and thus revenue, thereby helping managers select optimal fee levels. Research can also provide guidance on how visitor responses vary by fee system, such as charging in the form of an annual pass versus a daily fee. Lastly, research can facilitate discussion with stakeholders who may be opposed to fee increases. For example, if research shows that a specific fee increase would not decrease visitor levels, it might reduce opposition from the tourism industry. As an illustration, consider a hypothetical park with no legislative constraint on charging fees. Assume that fees as high as US$10 per visitor would be acceptable politically and that the visitor fee revenue objective is 'cost recovery'. If the park currently receives 20,000 visitors per year and fees are implemented to cover the estimated US$100,000 annual cost of maintaining a visitor centre, it appears that a US$5 per visitor fee would be appropriate. However, this assumes the fee would not affect the number of visitors. Is that assumption accurate? If the fee would affect visitor numbers, how great would this effect be? These are the types of questions addressed by price-responsiveness research, which is the focus of this chapter. Answers to such questions are particularly important since typically it is difficult for PAs to change fees - unlike businesses, parks need to 'get it right' the first time since they often cannot adjust their fees if visitors respond more (or less) © CAB International 2007. Tourism and Protected Areas: Benefits

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dramatically than expected. Managers often rely on informed judgement, based on experience with fees at the target site or other sites, and knowledge of the origin, income, and other characteristics of visitors. Nonetheless, research can provide important information that complements and informs managerial judgement. Before turning to a review of relevant research tools, the economic context of charging visitor fees is discussed.

The Economics of Public Natural Areas Following Dixon and Sherman (1990:15-16), park benefits can be grouped as follows: Recreation and tourism. Watershed protection, including erosion control, local flood reduction, and regulation of stream flows. Ecological processes, including fixing and cycling of nutrients, soil formation, circulation and cleansing of air and water. Biodiversity, including gene resources, species protection, ecosystem diversity, and evolutionary processes. Education and research. Consumptive benefits. Non-consumptive benefits, including aesthetic, spiritual, cultural/historical, and existence value. Future values, including option and quasi-option value. Of course, there are also costs associated with natural areas, including:

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Direct costs for purchase and management of the area. Indirect costs, such as crop damage by wildlife wandering outside the park. Opportunity costs, such as foregone outputs (such as timber or medicines). Parks are protected based on the assumption, sometimes supported with formal evaluation, that the benefits of doing so outweigh the costs.1 However, the costs are often financial and/or spatially concentrated in nature, while the benefits are often non-financial and diffuse in space and time. Indeed, the benefits accrue outside the geographic boundary of the national or local region (and its government) that bears the costs. Although programmes such as the Global Environmental Facility (GEF) provide international mechanisms for 'gainers' to compensate 'losers' due to protection of natural areas,2 it is widely felt that funding of parks remains inadequate (James, 1999; James et al., 1999). In extreme, but not uncommon, cases, there is effectively no park management due to lack of funding. As noted by the World Wildlife Fund (WWF),3 most Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are: 'under-resourced and poorly managed, offering little in the way of real protection. Global estimates suggest that as many as 70-80% of the MPAs that have been established worldwide are protected in name only and are not actively managed at all.'

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Citing earlier studies, James et al. (1999) note that effective conservation in African protected areas is estimated to cost between US$200 and US$230 per km2, yet James (1999) reports the following agency budgets in US$per km2 for selected east and southern African countries:

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Angola Botswana Kenya Namibia South Africa Tanzania Uganda Zambia Zimbabwe