Through the Prism of Wisdom: Elijah the Prophet as a Bearer of Wisdom in Rabbinic Literature 9781463241315

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Through the Prism of Wisdom

Elijah the Prophet as a Bearer of Wisdom in Rabbinic Literature

Hilla N. Alouf-Aboody

gp 2020

Judaism in Context

23 Series Editors Rivka Ulmer Phillip Ackerman-Lieberman Elisheva Carlebach Jonathan Jacobs Naomi Koltun-Fromm David Nelson Lieve Teugels

Judaism in Context provides a platform for scholarly research focusing on the relations between Jews, Judaism, and Jewish culture and other peoples, religions, and cultures among whom Jews have lived and flourished, from ancient times through the 21st century. The series includes monographs as well as edited collections.

Gorgias Press LLC, 954 River Road, Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA www.gorgiaspress.com Copyright © 2020 by Gorgias Press LLC

All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright Conventions. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise without the prior written permission of Gorgias Press LLC.

‫ܘ‬

1

2020

ISBN 978-1-4632-0742-7

ISSN 1935-6978

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A Cataloging-in-Publication Record is available from the Library of Congress. Printed in the United States of America

‫יהם וַ יַּ ַﬠל‬ ֶ ֵ‫סוּסי ֵאשׁ וַ יַּ ְפ ִרדוּ ֵבּין ְשׁנ‬ ֵ ְ‫וַ יְ ִהי ֵה ָמּה ה ְֹל ִכים ָהלוֹ� וְ ַד ֵבּר וְ ִהנֵּ ה ֶר ֶכב־ ֵאשׁ ו‬

:‫ֵא ִליָּ הוּ ַבּ ֳס ָﬠ ָרה ַה ָשּׁ ָמיִ ם‬ “As they kept walking and talking, a fiery chariot with fiery horses suddenly appeared and separated one from the other; and Elijah went up to heaven in a whirlwind.” 2 Kgs 2:11

TABLE OF CONTENTS Table of Contents.............................................................................................................. v Acknowledgements .......................................................................................................... ix Abbreviations ................................................................................................................... xi Part I. Introduction and Methodology ............................................................................. 1 Chapter One. Introduction, Background and Methodology ......................................... 3 Past Scholarship ........................................................................................................ 5 Methodology........................................................................................................... 28 Tracing Second Temple Traditions into the Rabbinic Period ....................... 29 Sources: Method and Dating ............................................................................. 31 Summary ................................................................................................................. 44 Chapter Two. Defining Wisdom, Apocalytpicism, and Messianism: Methodological Concerns ...................................................................................... 47 Genre Theory and Defining Wisdom.................................................................... 47 Biblical Wisdom ...................................................................................................... 56 Rabbinic Wisdom ................................................................................................... 70 Rabbinic Attitudes Towards Wisdom .................................................................. 72 Apocalypticism ........................................................................................................ 81 Messianism .............................................................................................................. 84 Summary ................................................................................................................. 85 Part II. Second Temple Background .............................................................................. 87 Chapter Three. Second Temple Background: Wisdom and Apocalyptic .................... 89 Wisdom and Women............................................................................................... 91 Torah and Wisdom................................................................................................. 94 The Merging of Apocalyptic and Wisdom Traditions ................................... 99 Pietists, Prayers, Psalms and Wisdom .................................................................... 111 Apocalyptic and Wisdom in Psalms and Prayers ................................................. 129 Summary ................................................................................................................ 137 Chapter Four. The Second Temple Period and the Spirit-Centered Wisdom Tradition ................................................................................................................ 141 Wisdom and Spirit ................................................................................................. 141 Spirit in the Bible ................................................................................................... 142 The Second Temple Milieu: Transformation of Prophecy ................................. 145 Spirit in Greek Philosophy ................................................................................... 146 v

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Philo of Alexandria ................................................................................................148 The Spirit in the Dead Sea Scrolls ......................................................................... 156 The Anointed of ‘spirit’—The Messianic Element.............................................. 161 Summary ................................................................................................................ 177 Part III. Palestinian Sources and the Development of Elijah ....................................... 179 Chapter Five. Elijah as Bearer of Wisdom in Tannaitic Sources .................................. 181 Elijah and The Torah-Centered Nomistic Wisdom Tradition............................ 182 Elijah as Priest ................................................................................................... 182 Elijah: A Prophet Like Moses ................................................................................ 191 A Wisdom Trope- Measure for Measure..............................................................194 Elijah and the Spirit-Centered Wisdom Traditions ............................................. 198 Elijah and the Apocalyptic Wisdom Tradition ................................................... 220 Summary ............................................................................................................... 227 Chapter Six. Elijah and the Torah-Centered and Apocalyptic Wisdom Traditions in Palestinian Amoraic and Post-Amoraic Sources ............................................. 229 The Torah-Centered Wisdom Tradition ............................................................. 231 The Apocalyptic-Centered Wisdom Tradition ................................................... 243 Destruction Motifs ......................................................................................... 245 Theodicy/Justice ............................................................................................. 254 Esoteric Wisdom ............................................................................................. 260 End of Days/ Messianic Traditions:............................................................... 267 Summary ............................................................................................................... 280 Chapter Seven. Elijah, the Ḥasidim, and the Spirit-Centered Wisdom Tradition in Palestinian Amoraic and Post-Amoraic Sources ..................................................283 The Ḥasidim ......................................................................................................... 284 The Ḥasid and the Holy Man in Late Antiquity................................................ 290 Ḥasidim and the Spirit-Centered Wisdom Tradition ..........................................295 Elijah and the Ḥasid Stories: ................................................................................ 307 Elijah, Rainfall and Resurrection .......................................................................... 332 Summary ............................................................................................................... 342 Part IV. The Babylonian Talmud and the Development of Elijah ..............................345 Chapter Eight. Elijah in the Torah-Centered and Apocalyptic Wisdom Traditions of the Babylonian Talmud ................................................................................... 347 The Nomistic/Torah-Centered Wisdom Tradition ........................................... 348 Apocalyptic Centered Traditions.......................................................................... 381 Visions of the Heavenly Realms .......................................................................... 386 Reward and Punishment ....................................................................................... 391 Messianism ............................................................................................................. 395 Summary .............................................................................................................. 406 Chapter Nine. Elijah and the Ḥasidim: The Remnants of the Spirit-Centered Wisdom Tradition in the Babylonian Talmud ...................................................409 Remnants of Ruaḥ and Wisdom ......................................................................... 410 Elijah and the Ḥasidim ..........................................................................................418

TABLE OF CONTENTS

vii

Elijah, Ḥasidim, and Prayer ............................................................................ 459 Elijah as Healer ................................................................................................ 473 Justice and Protection for the Pious ............................................................... 474 Torah Study vs. Work and Acts of Kindness................................................. 485 Summary ............................................................................................................... 488 Chapter Ten. Conclusions and Observations ...............................................................491 Bibliography .................................................................................................................. 499 Index ...............................................................................................................................543

:‫ְבּ ֶד ֶר� ָח ְכ ָמה ה ֵֹר ִתי� ִה ְד ַר ְכ ִתּי� ְבּ ַמ ְﬠגְּ ֵלי י ֶֹשׁר‬ “I instruct you in the way of wisdom; I guide you in straight courses.” Prov 4:11 This work is dedicated to my dear parents Rabbi Shimon Hai and Ilana Alouf

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS There are so many who have assisted me on this long journey whom without their help and assistance this work would not have come to fruition. I would like to thank New York University for the MacCracken Fellowship without which this entire endeavor would not have been possible. I cannot overstate the debt of gratitude I owe to Professor Lawrence Schiffman who has guided me from the very start of my graduate studies at NYU, in classes, seminars, as well as independent studies and has been a source of much wisdom. His erudition and insights have truly been a great asset that has transformed this work. His ability to help me clarify and organize my thoughts and ideas have been indispensable and I am grateful for the time and effort he provided in order to assist me throughout this long process. I would also like to thank Professor Jeffrey Rubenstein who has assisted me throughout the process of the completion of my degree, and met with me on numerous occasions to make sure that I was able to complete all my requirements. I am truly grateful for his time and assistance. Furthermore, his insightful comments on my work allowed me to continue to sharpen my ideas and motivated me to clarify questionable points. I would also like to thank all those on the committee, Professor Alex Jassen, Professor Daniel Fleming and Professor Robert Chazan for their time effort and assistance on this work. Their insightful comments and observations have greatly enriched this work. In transforming this work I really owe much to Kristen Lindbeck who took the time to read over the manuscript in great detail and provide many insightful comments. I have tried to utilize her insights to transform this work and strengthen my ideas and am truly thankful for her time and effort. I would also like to thank Rabbi Abraham Lieberman, who was the first to spark my deep love for Jewish History which has only grown stronger with time. He was generous enough to read through this work and whose comments and insights have been truly helpful. Of course all errors that remain are my own. I would like to thank Gorgias Press for believing in the value of my work and publishing this version of my work. I would also like to thank Albert and Milane Aboody, my father and mother inlaw, who have been a continued source of support and encouragement throughout this long journey. They are like second parents who have helped me and my family in so many ways and without them this project could not have been completed. I am also grateful for their assistance in reading over a number of chapters of this work. I am also deeply indebted to my dear parents, Rabbi Shimon Hai and Ilana, they serve as ix

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the greatest parents and role models that a daughter could wish for. They have always impressed upon me the thirst and quest for knowledge in all areas, and especially in studying and constantly learning from the wisdom of our Jewish tradition. Their continued interest in this work and their insightful comments have been truly helpful. My mother has truly been an inspiration, as by example she has shown me that it is possible to achieve your dreams as long as you try your hardest in pursuing them. I am forever indebted for their love and constant support. Last but certainly not least, I would like to thank my dear husband, Joshua, and children, Eliyahu, Abe, Eva and Lea. My dear husband Joshua who has been my rock throughout this long process, who has encouraged me at every stage and without whose support I would not be where I am today. He also assisted in the editing of many chapters and whose tremendous skills have helped me clarify and elucidate many of my points throughout this work. My dear children, who have been a source of such tremendous joy and nahat have continued to inspire me to be a role model for them and to hopefully inspire them to achieve their dreams as well. I would also like to express gratitude to the Almighty for He is the source of all wisdom and His guiding hand has made this achievement possible.

ABBREVIATIONS ABD AJS Review AnBib ANRW BAR BETL Bib BiKi BRLJ BTB BZNW CR:BS CBR CBQ DCLY DSD EJ EJJS HS HSS HUCA IDBSup IEJ JAOS JBL JECS JHS JJS

Anchor Bible Dictionary Association for Jewish Studies Review Analecta Biblica Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt Biblical Archaeology Review Bibliotheca Ephemeridum Theologicarum Lovaniensium Biblica Bibel und Kirche. Organ des katholischen Bibel-Werkes. Stuttgart Brill Reference Library of Judaism Biblical Theology Bulletin Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft Currents in Research: Biblical Studies Currents in Biblical Research Catholic Biblical Quarterly Deuterocanonical and Cognate Literature Yearbook Dead Sea Discoveries Encyclopaedia Judaica European Journal of Jewish Studies Hebrew Studies Harvard Semitic Studies Hebrew Union College Annual Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible: Supplementary Volume Israel Exploration Journal Journal of the American Oriental Society Journal of Biblical Literature Journal of Earl Christian Studies Journal of the History of Sexuality Journal of Jewish Studies xi

xii JJTP JNSL JQR JR JSIJ JSJ JSJSup JSOT JSOTSup JSQ JSNT JSNTSup JTS LCL LHBOTS NTS OTE OTL PWCJS RHPR REJ RevQ RRJ SBLEJL SBLSP SH SJOT SR STDJ STJHC TB TSAJ USQR VT WUJS

THROUGH THE PRISM OF WISDOM Journal of Jewish Thought and Philosophy Journal of Northwest Semitic Languages Jewish Quarterly Review Journal of Religion Jewish Studies, an Internet Journal Journal for the Study of Judaism in the Persian, Hellenistic and Roman Periods Supplements to the Journal for the Study of Judaism Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Supplement Series Jewish Studies Quarterly Journal for the Study of the New Testament Journal for the Study of the New Testament: Supplement Series Journal of Theological Study Loeb Classical Library The Library of Hebrew Bible/Old Testament Studies New Testament Studies Old Testament Essays Old Testament Library Proceedings of the World Congress of Jewish Studies Revue d’histoire et de philsophie religieuses Revue des études juives Revue de Qumran Review of Rabbinic Judaism Society of Biblical Literature Early Judaism and Its Literature Society of Biblical Literature Seminar Papers Scripta Hierosolymitana Scandinavian Journal of the Old Testament Studies in Religion Studies on the Texts of the Desert of Judah Studies and Texts in Jewish History and Culture Tyndale Bulletin Texts and Studies in Ancient Judaism Union Seminary Quarterly Review Vetus Testamentum World Union of Jewish Studies

ABBREVIATIONS WUNT

Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament

xiii

CHAPTER ONE.

INTRODUCTION, BACKGROUND AND METHODOLOGY The role of Elijah the prophet within rabbinic literature is a variegated one and has generated much scholarly attention. There have been mainly two areas on which the studies have focused: (1) The ‘messianic Elijah traditions’ relating to Elijah’s eschatological role. (2) The ‘legendary Elijah’ regarding Elijah’s appearances in rabbinic legends unrelated to his messianic role. This study concentrates on the connection between these two aspects of Elijah’s role in rabbinic literature. Recent developments in the study of wisdom literature, as well as the phenomenon of the merging of Apocalyptic and wisdom traditions in the Second Temple Era, necessitate a reevaluation of the Elijah material. This study will attempt to apply these new developments to Elijah’s role in rabbinic literature and will highlight the manner in which both Elijah’s eschatological and ‘legendary’ roles were influenced by the wisdom tradition. It is the contention of this work that the wisdom tradition acted as a strong influence on the depiction of Elijah’s eschatological role, which in turn influenced the development of the ‘legendary’ traditions regarding Elijah. This work will analyze the Elijah traditions in rabbinic literature through the lens of different strands of the wisdom tradition as enumerated by Cornelis Bennema: the Torah-Centered, Apocalyptic-Centered, and Spirit-Centered wisdom traditions, which will be discussed in depth in Chapter Two. 1 This work will therefore focus on the elements of the rabbinic tradition which depict Elijah’s eschatological and ‘legendary’ roles as teacher of halakhah and Torah (Torah-Centered wisdom), his appearances to different figures to impart wisdom (Apocalyptic-Centered wisdom), as well as his connection to ruaḥ ha-qodesh and its association with pietists, ‫חסידים‬, (SpiritCentered wisdom). The first part of this work will deal with past scholarship on Elijah the prophet and with framing the thesis of this study. The methodological issues that arise in studying rabbinic texts will be discussed, as well as the challenge of tracing the develop-

1

Cornelis Bennema, “The Strands of Wisdom Tradition in Intertestamental Judaism: Origins, Developments and Characteristics.” TB 52, 1 (2001): 61–82.

3

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ment of ideas from the Second Temple era through rabbinic literature. 2 In the second chapter, the issues of genre in relation to wisdom will be discussed, as well as defining the terms apocalyptic and messianism. The place of the wisdom tradition in rabbinic literature will be explored as well, in order to better understand rabbinic attitudes towards wisdom. The third and fourth chapters will trace the development of biblical conceptions of wisdom in Second Temple times, as well as the manner in which wisdom evolved from its biblical conception. The merging of wisdom and apocalyptic ideas will be discussed, as well as the manner in which this development transformed both the wisdom tradition and eschatological expectations. Most significant to this study are the expectations of an Eschatological Prophet, Teacher of Righteousness, and Priestly Messiah, which form the background for the development of Elijah’s role in rabbinic literature. ‘Wisdom psalms’ and their connection with pietistic circles also serve as an essential element in understanding how wisdom and apocalyptic ideas merged in the Second Temple era. The development of the Spirit-Centered wisdom tradition and its connection with pietistic circles will also be discussed. This study will attempt to show that it was through these pietistic circles that wisdom elements were retained in the rabbinic corpus. Chapters five through nine will follow a chronological framework, first analyzing Tannaitic material, followed by Palestinian Amoraic and Post-Amoraic sources, and then the Babylonian Talmud. Each chapter will delineate different aspects of the wisdom tradition and the way the Elijah legends are connected to concepts central to the strands of wisdom discussed above. By demonstrating the influence of the wisdom tradition on both the ‘messianic Elijah’ as well as the ‘legendary Elijah’, this work hopes to show that Elijah’s connection to both halakhic and eso-

2 All translations of biblical verses are taken from The

New JPS Translation (Philadelphia: The Jewish Publication Society, 1985) unless otherwise indicated. Translation of Ben Sira and Wisdom of Solomon in this work is from The New Oxford Annotated Bible with Apocrypha New Revised Standard Version (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010). Translations from the Dead Sea Scrolls are from Donald W. Parry and Emanuel Tov, The Dead Sea Scroll Reader (Leiden; Boston: Brill, 2004) unless otherwise indicated. The translations for the Psalms of Solomon are from Kenneth Atkinson, A New English Translation of the Septuagint (New York; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009). Translation of Philo of Alexandria’s works is from Philo Vol. I and II, trans. F. H. Colson and G. H. Whitaker, LCL (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1929). The translation of the Mishnah and Halakhic Midrashim are my own. Translation for most of the Aggadic Midrashim is my own, except where otherwise indicated. Translation of Pesiqta de-Rav Kahana is from William G. Braude, and Israel J. Kapstein, Pesiqta de-Rav Kahana: R. Kahana’s Compilation of Discourses for Sabbaths and Festal Days, 2nd ed. (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2002). The translation of the Palestinian Talmud is from Jacob Neusner, The Jerusalem Talmud: A Translation and Commentary (Peabody: Hendrickson Publishers, 2009) unless otherwise indicated. The translation of the Babylonian Talmud is from the Soncino Babylonian Talmud (London: The Soncino Press, 1948).

1. INTRODUCTION

5

teric knowledge in the messianic era contributed to his role as a bearer of wisdom in many rabbinic traditions.

PAST SCHOLARSHIP From its inception in the book of Kings, Elijah’s role as a prophet was unique. Besides acting as a messenger of God serving to transmit the divine word to the people, Elijah also acted as a miracle worker. 3 In his tenure as prophet, he performed numerous miraculous feats, and his departure from this earth in a fiery chariot was a perfect depiction of his unique character. His distinctive character held the imagination of the Jewish tradition and manifested itself in his appearance in the prophecy of Malachi regarding the “great and terrible day of the Lord” (Mal 3:23–24). This short prophecy opened the door to the development of Elijah’s role in the messianic era, which sees its full expression in rabbinic literature. Aside from Elijah’s role in the messianic era, he also appears in many rabbinic legends, many of which are not connected to his messianic role. In these legends, Elijah appears to different people, rabbinic and non-rabbinic alike. These legends have sparked the Jewish imagination and continued developing in the middle ages, and even into the modern era. The development of Elijah’s role in the messianic era, as well as his appearance in many rabbinic legends, has drawn the attention of many scholars from the early 20th century until today. Scholarship on Elijah the prophet and his role in rabbinic literature started in the early 1900s with an attempt to collect the many legends and traditions about Elijah. Meir Friedman pioneered this area of study with his introduction to the edition of Tanna de-be Eliyahu. 4 This midrash, which was compiled sometime after the Babylonian Talmud—although possibly containing earlier material 5—deals with topics including creation, reward and punishment, the Messiah, and the division of history. In 3

Elijah was not the only prophet to perform miracles, as Moses performed miracles as well. However, compared to the classical prophets, Elijah and Elisha stand out in their performance of miraculous feats such as the appearance of food for the Tzerafite widow, as well as resurrection of the dead, among numerous other feats. This shared characteristic with Moses indeed led to the association of Elijah with Moses in a number of rabbinic traditions, see pp. 238–9 of this work. On Elijah’s miracle working see, Nachman Levine, “Twice as Much of Your Spirit: Pattern, Parallel and Paronomasia in the Miracles of Elijah and Elisha,” JSOT 85 (1999): 24–46. Jacques Vermeylen, “Les miracles d’Elie au temps de la grande sécheresse (1 Rois 17–18),” in Elie le prophète– Bible, tradition, iconographie; Colloques des 10 et 11 novembre 1985, Bruxelles, ed. Gerard F. Willems (Leuven: Peeters, 1988), 11–37. 4 Meir Friedman, “Introduction,” Seder Eliyahu Rabbah and Seder Eliyahu Zuta (Tanna debe Eliyahu) (Jerusalem: Bamberger and Wharman, 1960). 5 See Herman Leberecht Strack and Günter Stemberger, Introduction to the Talmud and Midrash (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1991), 12–14, as well as Max Kadushin, The Theology of Seder Eliyahu: A Study in Organic Thinking (Binghamton: Global Publications, 2001), 14–16.

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the introduction to this work, Friedman lays out the role of Elijah in rabbinic literature, which he divides into four different categories: (1) Elijah’s biblical persona, (2) Elijah’s departure from this world as described in 2 Kgs 2:1 and the nature of Elijah after his ascent, (3) Elijah’s mission, which mainly deals with the Mishnah at the end of ‘Eduyot that discusses Elijah’s purpose and role in the messianic era, and (4) Elijah’s revelation to certain individuals in the rabbinic era. Throughout all these sections, Friedman gleans a significant amount of information from multiple sources spanning from Tannaitic to Medieval times. His breadth of knowledge is clear; however he makes no distinction between time periods, nor does he attempt to delineate how these aspects of Elijah developed. This is mainly due to the perspective of the time, which viewed rabbinic literature—on some level— as a reflection of a unified tradition. Scholars focused less on the variegated nature of the traditions and the impact that different geographical areas and time periods may have had on the development of the traditions within the different rabbinic works, both halakhic and aggadic. 6 However, what Friedman’s work does reflect is the vast number of traditions and sources that deal with Elijah in rabbinic literature. He also makes an attempt to show a connection between Elijah’s biblical role, ascent, and messianic aspirations. Louis Ginzberg, in his Legends of the Jews, which was first published in 1909, embarked on a similar endeavor. 7 In this work Ginzberg compiles the different sources that discuss and develop biblical characters, and he places them into a narrative form. What distinguishes Ginzberg’s work is that he not only gleans from traditional rabbinic sources, but also from non-canonical works, such as the Apocrypha, Pseudepigrapha, and other ancient texts, which he believed contributed to the development of rabbinic legends. 8 Indeed, this concept is essential to our analysis, since one of our contentions is that the Elijah traditions in rabbinic literature were influenced by ideas that flourished in the Second Temple era. However, Ginzberg does not distinguish between the geographical areas or time periods of his sources, mostly because his goal was to form a holistic portrait of Elijah from all the different sources that illuminate his role. Ginzberg’s vast knowledge of rabbinic and non-rabbinic sources make his work very valuable to anyone studying the legends of different biblical figures and how they developed and were enriched. Nev6

See Isaiah Gafni, “The Modern Study of Rabbinics and Historical Questions: The Tale of the Text,” in The New Testament and Rabbinic Literature, ed. Reimund Bieringer, Florentino García Martínez, Didier Pollefeyt and Peter J. Tomson (Leiden; Boston: Brill, 2010), 43–62, as well as Günter Stemberger, “Dating Rabbinic Traditions,” in Reimund Bieringer et. al., The New Testament and Rabbinic Literature, 63–96. 7 Louis Ginzberg, The Legends of the Jews, Vol. 2 (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1909–38, 2nd ed., 2003). 8 David Stern, “Introduction,” in Legends of the Jews, by Louis Ginzberg (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2003), 1.xvii.

1. INTRODUCTION

7

ertheless, due to the broad scope of topics concerning Elijah, the connection between these different aspects is difficult to grasp. Paul Billerbeck also dealt with Elijah in two essays spanning the years 1914–1916, one titled, “Der Prophet Elias nach seiner Entrükung aus dem Diesseits. Altjudische Legenden und Spekulationen,” and the other, “Der wiederkehrende Elias,” reprinted in his Kommentar zum Neuen Testament aus Talmud und Midrasch. 9 In each of these articles, Billerbeck collects the sources depicting both Elijah’s ‘legendary’ as well as ‘messianic’ roles, while treating them separately. Billerbeck divides the role of Elijah in the rabbinic material into the following categories: The Elijah of the Present, which deals with Elijah’s whereabouts, whether in heaven or hidden away, and Elijah’s role in the heavenly realm as well as the earthly one. For each of these categories he briefly discuses the various traditions that describe Elijah’s role, and then provides excerpts of the sources. He then moves on to Elijah’s role in the messianic age. He identifies three different roles that Elijah embodies: as a forerunner of God, a forerunner of the Messiah, and as the High Priest of the messianic era. He views the depiction of Elijah as the High Priest of the messianic era as highly pervasive throughout rabbinic literature. Billerbeck’s focus on this aspect of Elijah’s role as priest will be further developed in this work, and the way his priestly role is connected to wisdom will be discussed. He discusses the Apocryphal, Pseudepigraphical, as well as New Testament sources that illuminate the rabbinic description and development of the messianic Elijah. He mentions that overall in the Pseudepigrapha, Elijah’s role as redeemer generally recedes, and the role of savior is relegated to other characters. However, in rabbinic literature it is clear that Elijah plays a prominent role. In many cases the roles given to other messianic figures are attributed to Elijah. For example, the role of the heavenly scribe in Enoch, as well as Melchizedek’s role in exacting judgment in the End of Days, are both roles that Elijah is described as carrying out. 10 This connection to earlier Second Temple traditions and their development will be further fleshed out in this work. The Dead Sea Scrolls, which were not yet discovered in Billerbeck’s time, provide an even greater array of sources that further illuminate the messianic development of Elijah in rabbinic literature. The next scholar to treat the Elijah traditions in rabbinic literature was Samuel Segal, who collected all the rabbinic references to Elijah from the Tannaitic and Amoraic periods. His work, published in 1935, is another demonstration of how variegated a role Elijah plays in rabbinic literature. As a result, Segal has trouble identifying any 9

Paul Billerbeck, “Der Prophet Elias nach seiner Entrükung aus dem Diesseits. Altjüdische Legenden und Spekulationen,” Nathanael 30 (1914): 43–114, also appeared in Paul Billerbeck and Herman Leberecht Strack, Kommentar zum Neuen Testament aus Talmud und Midrasch (Munich: Beck, 1928), 4.1 764–98, and “Der wiederkehrende Elias. Altjüdische Legenden und Spekulationen,” Nathanael 31, 1 (1915): 18–29; 32 (1916): 33–50. 10 Billerbeck and Strack, Kommentar zum Neuen Testament aus Talmud und Midrasch, 781, 790–91.

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coherent connection between these different portrayals. 11 Segal points out the disparity between the biblical Elijah, the rabbinic portrayal, and later development of his character, and describes the observations of some scholars who view these Elijah depictions as reflecting two completely different characters. Although Segal maintains that this is not a viable contention, his answer to the problem does not seem to be sufficient. He states: In fact, there is so deep a rift between the Elijah of the Bible as described by the rabbis, and the Elijah of rabbinic legend, independent of the rabbinic narrative [of Elijah’s biblical role], that there are some who maintain that the two are entirely different characters, confused merely by the unfortunate application of the same name to both of them. This thesis is difficult to maintain, however. The folk mind is often confused, it is true, but in the long run it sloughs off drastic errors. The folk mind would not have made Elijah the prophet, the Tishbite, the man from Gilead, out of a person who had no germane connection with the Biblical character. It is far easier to account for the strident differences in the Biblical and post-Biblical picture of Elijah by merely taking account of the drastic changes in the circumstances of the people of Israel. Then, too, it must be remembered that the writers of the canon were a select group. They were the aristocrats of culture. They would naturally describe a figure in the dignified and classic manner in which they were disciplined. The writers of the midrashim were simple people, undistinguished from the great mass of Jews. Their picture of Elijah would naturally be in terms familiar to them. 12

He affirms that the differences in the character of Elijah in the Bible and in Midrash is due to the changing circumstances of the people of Israel, and the different groups that composed each work, the Bible and the Midrash respectively. He differentiates the writers of the Canon from the authors of the Midrash by labeling one the “aristocrats of culture”, and the other, “simple people.” As we will see, the midrashim are far from simplistic portrayals of Elijah, and this study hopes to show that they in fact reflect a connection to the values of the wisdom and apocalyptic traditions. Furthermore, a greater understanding of folklore is necessary, as much has developed in the field that has a significant impact on the study of Rabbinic aggadah. Yosef Amorʾai, in an article published in 1973, discusses the contrast between the biblical prophet Elijah and his role in rabbinic literature. 13 The biblical Elijah is perceived as zealous, strict, uncompromising, and at times, even cruel. However, after his ascension, his character transforms into one who will restore the hearts of the sons to Samuel Segal, Elijah: A Study in Jewish Folklore (New York: Behrman’s Jewish Book House, 1935), 5. 12 Segal, Elijah: A Study in Jewish Folklore, 5. 13 Yosef Amor’ai, “Le-dmuto shel ’eliyahu bamidrash uba’agadah,” in Ve-hineh ’en Yosef: qovetz le-zikhro shel Yosef Amor’ai (Tel Aviv: Be-hotza’at ha-mishpaḥah ve-ḥaverim, 1973), 175–82. 11

1. INTRODUCTION

9

their fathers as is depicted in Mal 3:23. Amorʾai points to a number of defining characteristics of the rabbinic Elijah. He is constantly active and mobile in this world; instead of cruelty, he exemplifies compassion and love for the people of Israel, and is portrayed as one who seeks to make peace between different rabbis. Amorʾai does not differentiate between the various times and places of the midrashim, and quotes a variety of midrashim from different time periods that elucidate the overall contrast between the rabbinic portrayal of Elijah and his biblical persona. Although the contrast between the biblical Elijah and the rabbinic one is illuminating, it is not complete, since there are instances where Elijah is depicted as severe, which Amorʾai himself alludes to, as well as a number of parallels between his biblical character and his rabbinic one, such as his role in performing miraculous feats. Overall, there are significant developments in the depictions of Elijah in rabbinic literature, although the reasons for these developments are not broached in his work. Gerard F. Willems, in his “Quelques textes rabbiniques anciens à propos du prophète Elie,” published in 1988, does not purport to present an exhaustive list of traditions on Elijah, but rather presents a selected number of traditions mostly focused on the earliest stratum of rabbinic literature, the Tannaitic sources. 14 He may be the first to divide the Elijah material by time period, focusing solely on the earlier material. He discusses many of the texts that will be explored in Chapter five of this work, and sheds light on a number of significant facets in the development of Elijah in rabbinic literature. One of his most relevant statements is that Elijah, as depicted in Tannaitic texts, represents the Eschatological Priest of the End of Days. He proves this through the numerous sources that depict Elijah as dealing with cases of purity and impurity, revealing the Jar of Manna, anointing oil, and niddah waters, as well as Elijah’s association with Phineḥas. This connection of Elijah with Phineḥas has been discussed by numerous scholars, such as Victor Apowitzer, A.S. Van der Woude, Martin Hengel, Robert Hayward, Benjamin Ze’ev Benedikt, Baruch Ephrati, Jeffrey Cohen, Rachel Adelman, and Oded Yisraeli. 15 Willems also discusses at some length the connection Gerard F. Willems, “Quelques textes rabbiniques anciens à propos du prophète Elie,” in Elie le prophète: Bible, tradition, iconographie: Colloque des 10 et 11 Novembre 1985, Bruxelles, ed. Gerard F. Willems (Leuven: Peeters, 1988), 91–114. 15 There are numerous studies which discuss the connection between Elijah and Phineḥas and the development of this tradition. Victor Aptowitzer, Parteipolitik der hasmonaerzeit im rabbinischen und pseudoepigraphischen schrifttum (Vienna: Kohut Foundation, 1927), 95, views the origins of this tradition as dating from as early as the Hasmonean period, and contends that they developed to legitimate the rule of the Hasmonean family as High Priests by connecting their lineage to Phineḥas and associating him with Elijah, who was the expected Priestly Messiah. Adam Simon van der Woude, Die messianischen Vorstellungen der Gemeinde von Qumran (Studia Semitica Neerlandica 3, Assen: Van Gorcum, 1957), 43–61. There are those who argue against the Hasmonean dating of the tradition, see Martin Hengel, The Zealots: Investigations into the Jewish Freedom Movement in the Period from Herod I Until 70 A.D (Edinburgh: Clark, 1961; reprint, 1989), 149–77, who posited a date of the first century CE, originating in 14

10

THROUGH THE PRISM OF WISDOM

between Elijah, resurrection, and the Holy Spirit, a connection that is central to one of the arguments in this work: Elijah’s connection with ‘spirit’ and its association with prophecy and divine wisdom. He states the following regarding Elijah and his connection with the term ‘spirit’, both in relation to the ‘Holy Spirit’ of prophecy and the spirit of resurrection: Revenant à l’échelle de Rabbi Pinehas ben Yair on pourrait préciser ainsi la pensèe: l’Esprit Saint a deux fonctions! D’abord il est l’Esprit des prophètes, qui redeviendra abondant avec le retour d’Elie. Ensuite il est l’Esprit de la résurrection, et cette résurrection interviendra par ce meme retour d’Elie. 16

Willems’s analysis reflects the connection between Elijah and the eschatological priesthood, as well as his association with the Holy Spirit, an idea that will be further developed in this work. Kristen Lindbeck in her work, Elijah and the Rabbis: Story and Theology, published in 2010, explores folklore studies to grasp the significance of the various depictions of Elijah in rabbinic literature. 17 Lindbeck utilizes Axel Olrik’s term of ‘higher folklore’ in order to better understand rabbinic legends. 18 Olrik expresses that ‘higher folklore’ reflects the product of the age in which it was produced, ‘characterized by the intellectual traits of the age’ and is considered to be the folklore of the elite. Thereby, Lindbeck defines rabbinic legends as part of this higher folklore of the rabbis, which may have been gleaned from popular legends to which the rabbis added their own dimension. This understanding of folklore is very different from Segal’s depiction of it

zealot circles. Robert Hayward, “Phineḥas–The Same is Elijah: The Origins of a Rabbinic Tradition,” JJS 29, 1 (1978): 22–34, attempts to clarify Aptowitzer and van der Woude’s hypothesis, and also views it as a Hasmonean development. For a discussion of the rabbinic development of the idea see Baruch Ephrati, “Eliyahu zeh Phineḥas,” Shma‘atin 156 (2004): 38–44; Jeffrey M. Cohen, “Phineḥas, Elijah and Circumcision,” JBQ 41, 1 (2013): 14–18; Benjamin Ze’ev Benedikt “Eliyahu ha-navi: Navi ha-shalom,” Asupat ma’amarim (Jerusalem: Mosad Harav Kook, 1994), 35–46; Rachel Adelman, “Can We Apply the Term ‘Rewritten Bible’ to Midrash? The Case of ‘Pirqe de-Rabbi Eliezer’,” in ‘Rewritten Bible’ After Fifty Years: Texts, Terms or Techniques? ed. József Zsengellér (Leiden: Brill, 2014), 295–317; as well as The Return of the Repressed: Pirqe de-Rabbi Eliezer and the Pseudepigrapha (Leiden; Boston: Brill, 2009), 185– 209. For the Zohar’s usage of this connection see Oded Yisraeli, Temple Portals: Studies in Aggadah and Midrash in the Zohar, trans. Liat Keren (Berlin: de Gruyter, 2016), 243–60. What is essential in all these studies is the early origins of the concept of Elijah as priest and specifically his association with the Eschatological priest. 16 Willems, “Quelques textes rabbiniques anciens à propos du prophète Elie,” 105. 17 Kristen Lindbeck, Elijah and the Rabbis: Story and Theology (New York: Columbia University Press, 2010), 39–42. 18 Axel Olrik, Principles for Oral Narrative Research, trans. Kirsten Wolf and Jody Jensen (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1992).

1. INTRODUCTION

11

in 1930. 19 Clearly, the idea that folklore represents some simplistic product of the masses is not the case. The idea that every group, whether the masses or the elites, had their own folklore and perhaps may have shared some motifs with one another has been stressed in folklore studies. The Elijah stories, as “higher folklore,” represent the “intellectual traits of the age,” which this study will demonstrate were in part influenced by values and themes that were present in the wisdom and Apocalyptic traditions. Kristen Lindbeck sheds light on the folkloristic aspects of the Elijah traditions and their significance in understanding rabbinic culture. She is able to make some order of the different aspects of Elijah by dividing them according to common phrases found in each of the stories. Influenced by oral-formulaic studies, form criticism, and folklore studies, she utilizes the concept of metonymy to find coherence between different Elijah stories, as well as to compare them to different legends that share similar ideas and words within rabbinic literature and outside of it. Through her study, she expresses the unique character of Elijah in comparison to other supernatural figures/phenomena such as angels, the Bat Qol, and the Angel of Death. Elijah stands out in the ways he relates to individuals, as a trickster who questions authority, a protector of the poor and downtrodden, appearing in disguise, as a source of wise teaching, who shows elements of free will and may act unpredictably. She relegates the Elijah legends into three main types. In the first group, Elijah appears as a savior in times of distress, and occasionally appears in disguise. In the second category, Elijah presents himself to individual rabbis and converses with them. The third group are stories which reflect Elijah abstaining from appearing to certain individuals as a result of improper action. Her insightful research has greatly shed light on the variegated nature of Elijah’s character, and enables for a classification of typological stories as well as the nuances in the different depictions of Elijah. Her analysis allows one to see what makes Elijah’s character unique, and points to possible parallels with the surrounding culture. These elements have added much to understanding the different roles of Elijah in rabbinic literature. Although Lindbeck’s analysis clarifies a significant portion of the depiction of Elijah in rabbinic literature, it mostly focuses on the Babylonian Talmud and does not treat other rabbinic sources in depth. Further, Lindbeck clearly states that there is little if any connection between the ‘messianic’ Elijah and the ‘legendary’ one. She states, “…[W]hen the Rabbis of Talmudic times speak of Elijah as historical prophet or messianic herald, they continue to interpret biblical traditions. On the other hand, when they tell stories about Elijah as a supernatural but human figure who helps and advises rabbis of previous generations, they are expressing a new creation, a uniquely rabbinic Elijah.” 20 She also states, “The ‘legendary Elijah’ who appears to the rabbis differs in actions and character from both the Elijah of Midrash and the Elijah who will be the Dan Ben Amos, “Jewish Folklore Studies,” Modern Judaism 11 (1991): 17–66, especially pp. 22–6. 20 Lindbeck, Elijah and the Rabbis, xii. 19

12

THROUGH THE PRISM OF WISDOM

messianic herald.” 21 Although she does discuss certain stories that deal with the messianic element of Elijah’s character, the messianic element is not dealt with in depth. 22 As a result, she does not draw connections between Elijah’s messianic nature and his other portrayals in rabbinic literature. Her categorization of the ‘messianic’ Elijah as “impersonal and awesome” is stated without providing any sources or analysis that leads to this conclusion. 23 Therefore, one of the elements of this study is a reassessment of Elijah’s messianic role and its characteristics, so that we can determine whether there was a major distinction between those two aspects of Elijah’s depiction in rabbinic literature. Additionally, Lindbeck states that the ‘legendary’ Elijah inspires remarkably little awe, although in some of the stories that she analyzes the opposite is seen, even if they are relatively few. 24 The idea of Elijah’s eschatological involvement is a biblical concept found in Mal 3:23–24. How did this idea sprout and develop into the Elijah of rabbinic legends? Are they completely disconnected? If there is a correlation between the Elijah legends and the wisdom tradition, it can shed further light on our understanding of how the ‘legendary’ Elijah developed, and the connection to his messianic origin. Developments during the Second Temple period in the areas of wisdom, apocalypticism, and messianism will provide the background for the connections that were made between these different modes of thought and ideas. Beate Ego, in her essay, “Elia Im Judentum,” published in 2013, discusses the development of Elijah in rabbinic literature. She prefaces with the historical context of two failed revolts, the Jewish War and the Bar-Kochba uprising, as having a significant impact on rabbinic attitudes towards political uprisings and zealousness. 25 The rabbis dealt with such issues cautiously, and instead focused mainly on the study of Torah and following the commandments as the essential part of Judaism. Ego first discusses the rabbinic material which depicts Elijah’s biblical role, and then she discusses his legendary role. In certain traditions, Elijah’s actions, which seem harsh in their biblical manifestation, such as the drought he induced, are described as being rooted in Elijah’s love for the people of Israel. 26 Furthermore, there are rabbinic texts that chide Elijah for being overly zealous for God and not exhibiting the same emotion for His people. Elijah’s role in resurrection, his connection to prayer, as well as his association with 21 Lindbeck, Elijah

and the Rabbis, 1. and the Rabbis,124–126. 23 Lindbeck, Elijah and the Rabbis, 1. 24 See her analysis of the story with Rav Anan in bKetub. 105b–6a; Elijah refuses to visit Rav Anan after he caused another judge to be partial in his judgment. Once Elijah returns, Rav Anan sits in a box in fear of him. See Lindbeck, Elijah and the Rabbis, 100–103. 25 Beate Ego, “Elia Im Judentum,” in Elia und andere Propheten in Judentum, Christentum und Islam, ed. Christfried Böttrich, Beate Ego, Friedmann Eißler (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2013), 10–71. 26 Ego, “Elia Im Judentum,” 35. 22 Lindbeck, Elijah

1. INTRODUCTION

13

esoteric wisdom are elements that are highlighted in the rabbinic description of Elijah’s biblical persona. As Ego states: Wenn mit den “Tröstungen Jerusalems” auf die Zeit der eschatologischen Erlösung Israel verwiesen wird, so kommt deutlich zum Ausdruck, dass Elia wie auch sein Schüler Elisa sowohl mit den Geheimnissen der himmlischen Welt als auch denen der Geschichte im weitesten Sinne bestens vertraut sind. Somit werden diese nicht nur als ”gewöhnliche” Rabbinen dargestellt, sondern vielmehr als solche, die einen besonderen Status haben. 27

Ego’s description of Elijah as not being an “ordinary rabbi,” but rather one of “special status” intimates at this idea of Elijah being connected with a group that were not typical rabbinic figures. The elements of resurrection, prayer, and esoteric knowledge will be highlighted in this work as instrumental in the development of Elijah’s messianic role, as well as his connection with wisdom and pietistic circles. Ego discusses Elijah’s role in the messianic era as well as in the rabbis' present day through his appearances to different figures. She begins by assessing the material chronologically and discusses the Tannaitic material, which is mostly focused on Elijah’s role in the messianic era. She points to Elijah’s connection with the Holy Spirit and resurrection, as well as Elijah’s role in resolving controversies in the End of Days. Ego then discusses Elijah in rabbinic legends, following the categorization of Lindbeck with regard to the different types of Elijah stories. She discusses the legends that relay a message of anti-martyrology and non-violent messianism, as well as those depicting Elijah as one who studies halakhah and Scripture. These messages are viewed by Ego as a criticism of the extremist worldview that attempted to forcefully herald in the messianic era, and instead they stress the importance of ethical integrity and correct actions. Furthermore, Elijah’s presence in some of the rabbinic texts reflects the idea that although divine salvation may seem unavailable, through Elijah one can experience divine intervention. She views the development of Elijah’s return in the End of Days as directly influencing his role in rabbinic legends. She states: Wenn Elia so gewissermaßen eine Figur darstellt, die nicht nur für die Vergangenheit relevant ist, so scheint dies eine Veränderung seines Charakters und eine Integration in das rabbinische Wertesystem geradezu provoziert zu haben. Dabei spielen mehrere Faktoren eine Rolle: Zum einen stellt für die rabbinische Weltsicht die Vorstellung vom Ende der Prophetie ein wichtiges Motiv dar, das dazu führte, dass man den Propheten Elia, wollte er weiter wirksam sein, umgestalten musste. 28

Ego makes a direct connection between the expectation of Elijah’s in the End of Days and his involvement in the rabbinic present. She alludes to this connection through the idea of the ‘end of prophecy’ as being an important factor in the development of 27 Ego, “Elia Im Judentum,” 39. 28 Ego, “Elia Im Judentum,” 55.

14

THROUGH THE PRISM OF WISDOM

Elijah’s character. This connection is only intimated by Ego, and this work will shed further light on the connection between Elijah’s messianic role and the development of his ‘legendary’ character. Brenda Shaver delves into the role of Elijah in biblical and Second Temple literature. 29 Most important is her discussion of Elijah’s role in Ben Sira, in which she analyzes the depiction of Elijah’s biblical as well as messianic roles. Some of her most significant insights that are relevant to this study are her focus on fire in the depiction of Elijah and its correlation to wisdom, the introduction of Elijah’s role in “returning the tribes of Israel,” and his role in resurrection in the End of Days. She also discusses the messianic development of the Qumran sect and Elijah’s role in the Dead Sea Scrolls. The possible connection between the ‘Prophet of the End of Days’ as well as the ‘Messiah of Aaron’ and Elijah is discussed. Through detailed analysis of the scrolls, Shaver expresses that Elijah’s return was a commonly held belief, although the exact definition of his role was more fluid. 30 This work will build on Shaver’s conclusions, although it will delve deeper into the influence of the wisdom tradition on the eschatological beliefs of the sect, and how they relate to the development of Elijah’s eschatological character in rabbinic literature. Many articles have been written dealing with a particular Elijah legend, and the discussion of those articles will be divided into five groups: Elijah in non-messianic contexts, Elijah’s connection to ḥasidim and his revelation to individuals, and Elijah’s messianic role. Pinhas Peli, in his essay, “Elijah in the Bet Midrash of the Sages,” discusses certain legends of Elijah as found in the Bavli. 31 He mostly analyzes individual stories and focuses on the humor of some of the texts, as well as the literary devices that are used in some of the stories. He does not discuss the historicity of the texts, but rather focuses on their literary and rhetorical purpose. Peli points to a number of functions that the introduction of Elijah in a story may serve: to reflect irony or humor in the story, to clear up doubts and declare the truth, as well as to bring about an alternative meta-narrative, without reflecting an anti-nomistic position. This last point is the most relevant to our discussion. He describes the introduction of Elijah in many contexts as reflecting the concept of “pluralistic hermeneutics” most reflected by the statement, ‫אלו ואלו דברי אלוקים חיים‬, “both of these are the words of the living God.” 32 Elijah is utilized in some cases to reflect an outside opinion, and in some cases this is reflected as ‫משנת חסידים‬, ‘a teaching of the pietists’. This connection of Elijah

29

Brenda Shaver, “The Prophet Elijah in the Literature of the Second Temple Period: The Growth of a Tradition” (PhD diss., University of Chicago, 2001). 30 Shaver, “The Prophet Elijah,” 180–97. 31 Pinhas Peli, “Eliyahu ha-navi be-bet midrasham shel ḥazal,” in On the Path of Scholarship: Studies in the Culture of Israel, Presented to Aaron Mirsky on the Occasion of his Seventieth Birthday, ed. Zvi Malachi (Israel: Haberman Institute of Literary Studies, 1986), 140–68. 32 Peli, “Eliyahu ha-navi be-bet midrasham shel ḥazal,” 155–6.

1. INTRODUCTION

15

with the pietists as well with an opinion outside the typical rabbinic one, will inform this work as well. Aryeh Cohen in his article, “Why Textual ‘Reasoning’?” from 2002, discusses the rhetorical and literary role of Elijah in one rabbinic sugya. 33 He views the Elijah narrative as an exercise in stepping outside of the theoretical study of the law and understanding its practical implications. In many ways this reflects one of the key elements of the teaching of wisdom, which is the practical day-to-day knowledge that one needs in order to succeed and thrive in this world. Therefore, the presence of Elijah narratives that cause the reader to step outside of the theoretical-halakhic framework and ask a different set of questions may reflect the attempt at inserting wisdom within the rabbinic texts, as this work will attempt to show. Cohen also discusses the role of Elijah in another sugya in his work, “The Sage and the Other Woman: A Rabbinic Tragedy” in 2009. 34 In an aggadah in bYevam. 63b he discusses a story in which Elijah is asked to explain the death of young Torah Scholar to the bereaved widow. Cohen views this story as indicative of the tension between love for women and love for the Torah. The apprehension of improper sexual conduct is highlighted in this story, and is a theme that Elijah is connected with in other traditions which will be explored in this work. Karin Hedner-Zetterholm, in a number of her essays, utilizes the method of viewing the Elijah stories as a reflection of rabbinic thought, and takes a diachronic approach to rabbinic statements on Elijah in order to track changes through time. 35 She differentiates between statements in the Mishnah and Tosefta and later reworkings of these statements, as well as other statements in the Babylonian and Palestinian Talmuds. This is a significant shift from earlier scholars, where this distinction was not given as much attention. She concludes that the main differentiation between Tannaitic and Amoraic texts is the focus on the miraculous nature of Elijah; The Tannaitic sources tend to shy away from discussing the miraculous nature of Elijah, while Amoraic sources engage and develop Elijah’s miraculous nature. Hedner-Zetterholm believes that the changes attest to a struggle for rabbinic authority and the different strategies that the rabbis utilized to bolster that authority. 36 She explains that these Aryeh Cohen, “Why Textual ‘Reasoning’?” Journal of Textual Reasoning 1,1 (2002) http://jtr.shanti.virginia.edu/volume-1-number-1/cohen-why-textual-reasoning/ 34 Aryeh Cohen, “The Sage and the Other Woman: A Rabbinic Tragedy,” in The Passionate Torah, ed. Danya Ruttenberg (New York: New York University Press, 2009), 58–72. 35 Karin Hedner-Zetterholm, “Elijah and the Books of Kings in Rabbinic Literature,” in The Books of Kings, eds. André Lemaire and Baruch Halpern (Leiden: Brill, 2010), 585–60; “Elijah and the Messiah as Spokesmen of Rabbinic Ideology,” in The Messiah in Early Judaism and Christianity, ed. Magnus Zetterhholm (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2007), 57–78; “Elijah’s Different Roles: A Reflection of the Rabbinic Struggle for Authority,” JSQ 16, 2 (2009): 163– 82. 36 See as well, Kristen Lindbeck, Elijah and the Rabbis, 127–128. 33

16

THROUGH THE PRISM OF WISDOM

changes result from the transformation of leadership at the end of the Second Temple period. The Tannaitic texts hint at an interest in disqualifying miracle workers—or rabbinizing them—while the Amoraic texts display greater comfort with the supernatural nature of these miracle workers. Since in Tannaitic times the group of ‘holy men’ or miracle workers were perceived as a threat, Elijah’s miraculous nature is minimized in the texts. However, in the Amoraic texts there is a greater comfort with these individuals, and thereby the miraculous nature of Elijah flourishes. HednerZetterholm’s conclusions about the significance of this shift can be contended with, as other factors may have played a role in the rabbis’ discomfort with supernatural and miraculous acts, such as the influence of Christianity and its focus on miracle workers, or perhaps the greater overall comfort with magic and the supernatural in Sassanid Babylonia. Regardless, the overall change between Tannaitic and Amoraic texts in itself is indeed an interesting one. The connection of Elijah with a miraculous nature, and his association with miracle workers or ‘holy men’, are elements that will be further developed in this work. Inbar Raveh discusses the role that intertextuality plays in the biographical sugyot of the rabbis. 37 She analyzes the collection of stories regarding Rabbi Eliezer b. Hyrcanus and the utilization of themes from the Elijah biblical narrative. She demonstrates that Rabbi Eliezer’s character is depicted as mirroring that of Elijah. Both were charismatic figures with a direct connection to God, and shared the same zeal for God. They were both perceived as having a minimum amount of social connection, suffered from being ostracized, and were afflicted by depression as a result. These associations show that the influence of Elijah in rabbinic texts is not only present when Elijah is mentioned directly, but is also perceptible through a careful intertextual reading of the text as Raveh has done. This method is also implemented by Gad Sarfatti, 38 who points to direct parallels in the description of pietists, such as Ḥoni ha-Ma‘agel and Ḥaninah b. Dosa with Elijah. He enumerates their power of prayer, healing of the sick, as well as their ability to summon rain as elements that tie the figures together. Further, Sarfatti describes the similarity in the language with which they depict themselves as being the servant/son of God. One of the most striking resemblances is in the story of Rabbi Yoḥanan b. Zakkai, who laments that his prayers cannot be answered like Ḥaninah b. Dosa. 39 He attempts to pray in the same manner as Ḥaninah by placing his head in between his knees and kneeling in prayer. This mode of prayer mimics the exact manner in which Elijah prayed for rain in 1 Kgs 18:42. The usage of Elijah motifs and allusions in the description of pietistic figures reveals the strong connection between pietists and Elijah. It is this connection that will be further explored in this work. 37

Inbar Raveh, “’Avi ’Avi: Hahebet habin-teqstuali be-sugyot ha-biografia shel ḥakhamim,” Haḥiukh ve-svivo 29 (2007): 333–42. 38 Gad Ben Ami Sarfatti, “Ḥasidim, ve-’anshe ma‘aseh ve-hanivi’im harishonim,” Tarbiẕ 26 (1957): 126–53. 39 bBer. 34b.

1. INTRODUCTION

17

Chana Safrai in her article, “Arom beyir’ah: Ben samkhut le-hanhagah” published in 1997, discusses a late midrash in Tanna de-be Eliyahu Zuta. She views this midrash as an attempt at balancing rabbinic ideals with the teachings of pietists by retaining elements from both of these traditions. 40 She points to themes such as ‫יראה‬, ‘Fear of God’, God’s love for mankind, the importance of humility, and the tension between study and good deeds as reflecting pietistic themes. She analyzes one midrash that relates to Elijah and his biblical role, and points to the pietistic elements in the text. She begins by first looking at the surrounding context of the midrash, and points out the pietistic themes in the surrounding context as well. Throughout our work a similar method will be used, in which the broader context of individual traditions will be studied in order to ascertain the significance of the placement of the tradition within the larger framework. 41 Not only will the direct tradition be evaluated for both pietistic and wisdom elements, but the manner in which these wisdom and pietistic themes are present in the broader context of the sugya will also be explored. One of C. Safrai’s important statements reflects the existence of pietistic traditions in the rabbinic corpus. She states: 40F

‫אחת התופעות החשובות בידיעות שנשתמרו לנו אודות החסידים היא העובדה שכל‬ .‫הספרות החסידית נשתמרה דווקא בתוך הספרות התלמודית וכחלק אינטגרלי שלה‬ ‫חכמים לא השמידו את דבריהם של אנשים שעוררו מחלוקת או שטענו לתורה בה‬ ‫ שימרו לדורות סיפורים גם על‬,‫ אלא למדו ולימדו אותם‬.‫המעשה קודם לתלמוד תורה‬ 42

.‫ביקורת שמשמיעים חכמים אך גם את עמדותיהם ונוהגיהם של החסידים‬

C. Safrai identifies an important idea. Embedded within rabbinic texts are traditions of pietists that at times stand in stark contrast to certain rabbinic ideals, for example, the primacy of Torah study. In many instances, as will be shown in this work, Elijah appears in these pietistic traditions. Furthermore, a number of pietistic traditions also reflect a connection to wisdom. 43 This phenomenon of pietistic and rabbinic ideals 40

Chana Safrai, “‘Arom beyir’ah: ben samkhut le-hanhagah: ’Eliyahu ha-navi lo niḥan b‘ormah shbeyir’ah,” in Ben samkhut le-otonomiyah be-masoret Yisra’el, ed. Avi Sagi and Ze‘ev Safrai (Tel Aviv: ha-Kibutz ha-Meuḥad, 1997), 482–92. 41 The fact that many stories in the Bavli appear in collections has been pointed out and discussed in depth by Eli Yassif, “Maḥzor ha-sipurim be-’agadot Ḥazal,” Jerusalem Studies in Hebrew Literature 12 (1990): 103–45. 42 C. Safrai, “‘Arom beyir’ah: Ben samkhut le-hanhagah,” 490–91. 43 Interestingly enough, the tradition quoted by C. Safrai from Tanna de-be Eliyahu Zuta 15 fits in both content and form with wisdom traditions, although it clearly has rabbinic influences. It is quoted as a saying of Elijah the prophet and discusses the importance of always being knowledgeable in Torah, but fearful of God, to speak with softness in one’s voice and not out of anger, to increase peace between his parents as well as his teacher and friends, and even in the marketplace with the Gentile, in order that he should find favor both God’s eyes as well as man’s. (ed. Friedman, 167).

18

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being interwoven in the same text is one example of what I call the multi-vocal nature of rabbinic texts, and will be highlighted throughout this work. Hermann Lichtenberger also discusses the connection of Elijah to pietists in his article, “Elia-Traditionen bei vor- bzw. frührabbinischen Wundertätern.” 44 Similarly to Sarfatti, Lichtenberger discusses the parallels between Ḥoni ha-Ma‘agel and Elijah, but also points to similarities in Josephus’s retelling of the Ḥoni story. He addresses similarities such as the potency of prayer, the successful plea for rain, the conflict with authority, as well as the experience of persecution. He analyzes the Mishnah and Tosefta versions of the story, and views them as two separate traditions. While the Mishnah’s depiction of Ḥoni seems conflicted, reflecting both positive and negative elements in the story, the Tosefta reflects a more positive view. Although in the Tosefta, the protagonist is not named, only described as ‘a ḥasid’, a pietist. Compared with Josephus’s depiction of Ḥoni, which merely intimates a connection to Elijah, in the Mishnah and Tosefta the association is expanded and sees its full expression in the Yerushalmi and Bavli. A similar association can be seen between Ḥaninah b. Dosa and Elijah, as both have power to heal through prayer, are sustained through miraculous means, and pray in a similar manner as discussed above. Lichtenberger views this development in light of similar depictions of Jesus and John the Baptist that use Elijah imagery, perhaps indicating a common association between miracle workers and Elijah the prophet. Much has been written regarding Elijah’s role in the New Testament and the expectation of the return of Elijah in the End of Days as stated in the Gospels. 45 Due to 44

Hermann Lichtenberger, “Elia-Traditionen bei vor-bzw. frührabbinischen Wundertätern,” DCLY (2009), 547–63. 45 The explicit comment in Matt 11:14 which states regarding John the Baptist “he is Elijah, the one who is coming,” is the clearest expression of Elijah’s connection with John the Baptist. At the same time, there are also numerous comparisons made between Elijah and John the Baptist as well as Jesus (Matt 11:7–14; 16:13–17; 17:3–4, 10–13; 27:46–49; Mark 1:8; 6:14–16; 8:27–30; 9:4–5, 9–13; 15:34–36; John 1:21, 25; Romans 11:2–5, Jas 5:17), there is also an expectation of his return prior to the resurrection of the dead, see Mark 9:10. See H. Pidyarto Gunawan, “Jesus the New Elijah” (PhD diss., Pontificia Studiorum Universitas a S. Thoma Aq. in Urbe, 1990). M. Stowasser, Johannes der Täufer (Klosterneuburg: Verlag Österreichisches Katholisches Bibelwerk, 1992), 150–1, 243; See R. E. Murphy, “The Figure Elias in the Old Testament,” Carmelus 15 (1968): 236; J. Nützel, “Elijaund Elischa-Traditionen im Neuen Testament,” BiKi 41 (1986): 160–171; P. Dabeck, “Siehe, es erschienen Moses und Elias,” Bib 23 (1942): 175–89; Marie-Émile Boismard, “Élie dans le Nouveau Testament,” in Élie le prophète: I. Selon les Écritures et les traditions chrétiennes, ed. A. Guillaumont (Bruges: Études Carmélitaines, 1956), 116–128; Markus Öhler, Elia im Neuen Testament. Untersuchungen zur Bedeutung des alttestamentlichen Propheten im frühen Christentum, BZNW 88 (Berlin: de Gruyter, 1997); J. Severino Croatto, “Jesus, Prophet like Elijah, and Prophet-Teacher like Moses in Luke-Acts,” JBL 124, 3 (2005): 451–65; David M. Miller, “The Messenger, the Lord, and the Coming Judgement in the Reception History of Malachi 3,” NTS 53 (2007): 1–16; Rindoš Jaroslav, He of Whom it

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the limited scope of this work, I will not delve into the developments of Elijah in Christianity as intensely, but the Christian background is important as it serves as one of the backdrops in which rabbinic ideas developed. The most significant debate relates to the belief that Elijah will herald the Messiah. Morris Faierstein, through his analysis of the rabbinic texts, views the belief in Elijah’s appearance prior to the arrival of the Messiah as a Christian development, which was later adopted by the Jewish tradition. 46 According to his analysis, the early Jewish texts reflect an expectation of Elijah’s arrival prior to the Day of the Lord, but do not state specifically that the Messiah is expected on the Day of the Lord. Chaim Milikowsky argues against Faierstein’s analysis, stating that there are early sources which express the notion of Elijah as precursor to the Messiah, such as in Seder Olam Rabbah, although the dating of the text is highly contested. More significantly, the blessings for the Torah reading state in sequence the hope for Elijah’s arrival and the arrival of the Messiah. 47 The sequence of events seems to have been clearly understood and did not need to be depicted specifically. The presence of the tradition of expectation of Elijah as a ‘belief of the scribes’ in Matt 17:10 indicates that it may have earlier origins. Nevertheless, Faierstein views that statement as an attempt to lend credence to a new development. Markus Öhler also follows Faierstein’s analysis of Elijah expectation and attempts to clarify the different is Written: John the Baptist and Elijah in Luke (Österreichische Biblische Studien; Frankfurt am Main; New York: P. Lang, 2010); John S. Kloppenborg and Joseph Verheyden eds. The Elijah-Elisha Narrative in the Composition of Luke (London: Bloomsbury, 2014). 46 Morris M. Faierstein, “Why Do the Scribes Say Elijah Must Come First,” JBL 100, 1 (1981): 75–86. This topic is debated by numerous scholars. For the view of Elijah as a forerunner of the messiah, see George Foot Moore, Judaism in the First Centuries of the Christian Era: The Age of the Tannaim, 2 vols. (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1927–1930), 2:357; J. Jerimias, “Elias,” TDNT 2.938–41; Joseph Klausner, The Messianic Idea in Israel (New York: Macmillan, 1955), 258; S. Mowinckel, He That Cometh (New York: Abingdon, 1954); Louis Ginzberg An Unknown Jewish Sect (New York: Jewish Theological Seminary, 1976), 209–56. Joseph Fitzmyer continued to doubt the Jewish origin of this concept as well, see Joseph A. Fitzmyer, The One Who is to Come (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2007), 54–56. Milikowsky argues against Faierstein stating Seder Olam and the prayers prior to the Haftarah reading, dated by some as early as the Second Temple period, see Joseph Heinemann, Ha-tefilah be-tequfat ha-tan'aim ve-ha-a’amor’aim (Jerusalem: Magnes Press, 1968), 143–44, as indications of an assumption that Elijah will return prior to the arrival of the Messiah. Furthermore, in my opinion a tradition found in the Mekh. R. Ish. Vayassa, 5 (ed. Horovitz-Rabin, 172) regarding Elijah revealing the jar of manna, purification waters, and the jar of anointing oil, may indicate his arrival prior to the Messiah, since if the Messiah that is expected is the King Messiah ‘son of David’, he would need to be anointed with the oil that only Elijah is said to reveal. This tradition may also presume the arrival of Elijah prior to the messianic king. See G. F. Moore, Judaism, 2.359. 47 Chaim Milikowsky, “Trajectories of Return, Restoration and Redemption in Rabbinic Judaism: Elijah, the Messiah, the War of Gog and the World to Come,” in Restoration: Old Testament, Jewish and Christian Perspectives, ed. James M. Scott (Leiden: Brill, 2001), 265–80.

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statements regarding John the Baptist’s role as Elijah. 48 According to Öhler, the original understanding of John the Baptist’s role was that of the eschatological prophet, Elijah redivivus. This figure’s role was restoring the people’s devotion to God and warning of the destruction that will come in the End of Days. Jesus himself also accepted this portrayal of John the Baptist, and therefore believed that since Elijah redivivus had arrived, the Kingdom of God was imminent. Jesus did not view John’s mission as a forerunner to the Messiah, but rather as announcing the Kingdom of God. It is the later reworking of these traditions that portrays John as a forerunner of the Messiah in order to place the eschatological function with Jesus and not with John. Rivka Nir adopts Faierstein’s position in her work, “The Identity of John the Baptist as Elijah: Aspects of a Christian Tradition,” where she discusses the role of John the Baptist and his association with Elijah. 49 She concludes that regardless of the specific belief of whether Elijah was expected before the day of the Lord, or before the Messiah, it is clear that Elijah played an important role in the eschatological expectations of the end of the Second Temple era, being compared to both Jesus and John the Baptist. Rainer Albertz in his, “Elia, der biblische Prophet. in Die Verheißung des Neuen Bundes; wie alttestamentliche Texte im Neuen Testament fortwirken,” published in 2010, gives an overview of the role of Elijah in the New Testament. He states that Elijah’s role in the gospels circled around the question, was John the Baptist Elijah redivivus, or did Jesus fulfill that role? In regard to John, his association with Elijah is expressed in the affirmative, but with regard to Jesus it is not stated clearly. It seems that the association is made through similar descriptions and actions between the two, without explicitly stating the connection, similar to description of pietists in rabbinic literature. It seems that in Matthew 17:13 the association of John the Baptist with Elijah is clearly stated and is alluded to in Mark 9:12–13, while in John 1:21, 25 the association is denied. Albertz views this as a result of a probable dispute between the disciples of John and the community of the Gospels in regard to the salvation role of John the Baptist and how that related to Jesus’s role. Only once Jesus’s role as savior and Messiah is clarified is there less tension between the two figures. Chris Stevens, in his “Paul, the Expected Eschatological Phineḥas-Elijah Prophet Law-Giver,” 50 also discusses the influence of Elijah expectations on Paul and his own self-perception as a “key agent in the progress of salvation history.” 51 Stevens incorporates the variegated and developing messianic beliefs of the Second Temple era in his analysis of Paul’s role. He defines that role as that of a Prophet Law-giver modeled Markus Öhler, “The Expectation of Elijah and the Presence of the Kingdom of God,” JBL 118, 3 (1999): 461–76. 49 Rivka Nir, “Yoḥanan ha-matbil ben dmuto shel Eliyahu: Le-hebeteha shel masoret notzrit,” Cathedra 139 (2011): 55–78. 50 Chris Stevens, “Paul, the Expected Eschatological Phinhas-Elijah Prophet Law-Giver,” in Paul and Gnosis, ed. Stanley E. Porter and David I. Yoon (Leiden: Brill, 2016), 80–104. 51 F. F. Bruce, Paul: Apostle of the Free Spirit (Milton Keynes: Paternoster, 1980), 146. 48

1. INTRODUCTION

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after the expectation of a Phineḥas-Elijah figure. The important distinction is that Paul did not view himself as the eschatological prophet Elijah, but rather, that he was specifically fulfilling to role of Law-giver, analogous to that of Elisha taking the place of Elijah after his departure. Stevens first demonstrates that Paul perceived himself to be a prophet as he fulfilled functions such as proclaiming God’s message publicly, predicting future events, and being endowed with the Holy Spirit. He then defines the specific type of Elijah expectation that Paul perceived himself to be fulfilling. The important aspect of this work is the idea that the Elijah expectation was a variegated one, in which he was perceived as an eschatological priest and a prophet, who may arrive prior to the arrival of the Messiah, be a messianic figure, or follow the Messiah and assist him. The different roles that Elijah was expected to fulfill will play a central role in understanding the development of Elijah in rabbinic literature. It is clear from the study of the New Testament texts that the expectation of Elijah’s return in the messianic era was a common belief that influenced the eschatological beliefs of the early church. Another facet of Elijah’s character that is discussed in scholarly literature is Elijah’s revelation as being a reflection of mystical and apocalyptic ideas. Aharon Wiener analyzes the Elijah narratives using a “depth psychological” perspective, influenced by modern thinkers like Carl Jung, to analyze the Elijah texts. Although his methods are more influenced by psychology and therefore less interested in the historical context of Elijah, or changes within time and place between the different sources, he does have some interesting insights. His overall conclusion regarding the ‘rabbinic Elijah’ is that Elijah represents the importance of the individual and his relationship with other people, as well as with God. In many, although not all of the rabbinic legends, Elijah is directly interacting with the individual and thereby represents the spiritual experiences of individuals. 52 Jacob Cohn in his “Mystic Experience and Elijah-Revelations in Talmudic Times,” describes a number of the Elijah experiences as mystical ones. 53 Although some scholars may disagree regarding the usage of the term ‘mystical’ to depict the Elijah revelations, 54 it indeed reflects an influence of apocalyptic thought where an angelic being reveals wisdom through a vision or dream. This is also reflected in the work of Abraham Amir, in his analysis of the Rabbi Yehoshua b. Levi and Rabbi Shimon b. Yoḥai stories. 55 He views Elijah’s role in those stories as one who acts as a Aharon Wiener, The Prophet Elijah in the Development of Judaism: A Depth-Psychological Study 2nd ed. (London; Boston: Routledge & K. Paul, 1978), 54–9. 53 Jacob Cohn, “Mystic Experience and Elijah-Revelations in Talmudic Times,” in Meyer Waxman Jubilee on the Occasion of His Seventy-Fifth Birthday, ed. Judah Rosenthal, et al. (Chicago; Jerusalem: College of Jewish Studies Press, 1966), 34–44 54 Pinhas Peli expresses the inability to assess whether these depictions reflect actual mystical experiences or not, although he does not completely discount the possibility, see “Eliyahu hanavi be-bet midrasham shel ḥazal,” 145–49. 55 Abraham Amir, “Rabbi Yehoshua ben Levi u-qesharav ‘im Eliyahu ha-Navi, Rabbi Shimon 52

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mediator, a friend, a teacher and a herald of the redemption. Eric Ottenheijm discusses the same traditions in bSanh. 98a and comes to similar conclusions. 56 He points to three major topics in the text that are also attested in Christian messianic discourse: one’s personal fate (as Rabbi Joshua b. Levi asks about his place in the World to Come), the signs of the Messiah, and the question of his arrival. This leads Ottenheijm to view this tradition as influenced by an old apocalyptic type of messianism. He notes that Elijah’s depiction in this tradition is rabbinic on one side, as he interprets scripture to decode the words of the Messiah, but also as being privy to esoteric information. This, in his opinion, allows for the rabbis to claim some knowledge of the messianic reality. He states, “Elijah represents the authority for conveying eschatological reality by evoking and canalizing apocalyptic notions.” 57 Therefore, it is clear that some of the Elijah narratives reflect a connection with Apocalyptic wisdom. These legends and others will be analyzed through the lens of the Apocalyptic wisdom tradition, in order to shed further light on the connection between Elijah’s messianic role as a ‘herald of the redemption’ as well as the role of teacher. The following studies engage Elijah’s messianic role in rabbinic literature. Ulrich Kellerman in his “Elia Redivivus und die heilszeitliche Auferweckung der Toten: Erwägungen zur ältesten Bezeugung einer Erwartung,” published in 1995, traces the development of Elijah’s role in resurrecting the dead in the messianic era. 58 He discusses mSotah 9:15, which enumerates the different steps that one must achieve in order to be privy to the ‘Holy Spirit’ and the resurrection. Kellerman posits that the relationship between Elijah and resurrection is a causal one, and not necessarily chronological. He traces the development of this idea throughout rabbinic literature and into the medieval period. David Banon, in his “Elie, héraut du Messie,” discusses the Mishnah in ‘Eduyot, which outlines the different expectations that Elijah is to fulfill in the End of Days. 59 He views the different descriptions of Elijah, such as determining the purity of the tribe of Levi or of all Israelites, resolving controversies, and bringing peace to the world, as roles that evolved one from the other. He also points to the contrast between the zealousness of the biblical Elijah and his portrayal in m‘Ed. 8:7. He views this shift as a reflection of the rabbinic understanding of Elijah as being censured by bar Yoḥai, ve-mal’akh hamavet,” Proceedings of the World Congress of Jewish Studies, Divison C, Vol. 1: Jewish Thought and Literature (1989), 141–46. 56 Eric Ottenheijm, “Elijah and the Messiah (b.Sanh. 98a),” in Prophecy and Prophets in Stories: Papers Read at the Fifth Meeting of the Edinburgh Prophecy Network, Utrecht, October 2013, ed. Bob Becking, Hans M. Barstad (Leiden; Boston: Brill, 2015), 195–213. 57 Ottenheijm, “Elijah and the Messiah,” 213. 58 Ulrich Kellerman, “Elia Redivivus und die heilszeitliche Auferweckung der Toten: Erwägungen zur ältesten Bezeugung einer Erwartung,” in Was suchst du hier, Elia? Ein hermeneutisches Arbeitsbuch, ed. Klaus Grüwaldt and Harald Schroeter (Hermeneutica 4; Rheinbach-Merzbach: CMZ-Verlag, 1995), 72–84. 59 David Banon, “Elie, héraut du Messie,” Pardès 24 (1998): 139–48.

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God in 1 Kgs 19:12 by means of the still and silent sound through which God reveals himself to Elijah. It is through a more quiet but inspiring path that the people of Israel will be brought closer to God, and not through the zealous and unforgiving manner of Elijah as he is depicted in Kings. Therefore, the rabbinic Elijah reflects that transformation, and the Elijah of the messianic era is described as bringing Israel and the world together through peaceful means to purify Israel without the use of force. Hedner-Zetterholm discusses Elijah’s messianic role as depicted in rabbinic literature, taking a diachronic approach. She distinguishes between the hesitation to discuss messianic ideas in the Mishnah and a more open and elaborate discussion found in the Talmud. The important contribution of her works is that there does seem to be significant development and change in the interpretation and use of Elijah. She analyzes the sources in the Mishnah, and describes Elijah’s role as present but largely muted, as a result of the Tannaitic desire to suppress apocalyptic and revolutionary tendencies in order to assert their own authority instead. By highlighting Elijah’s non-militaristic roles, Elijah could represent a messianic role that conforms to the rabbinic ideal of fidelity to the Torah. This is why Elijah is portrayed as resolving controversies and purifying the nation. She also discusses the important debate regarding Elijah as a precursor of the Messiah. She posits a number of important points to support the simultaneous development of Elijah as precursor to the Messiah in both Jewish and Christian texts. She mentions Elijah’s presence at the Passover Seder, reflecting the belief that Israel will be redeemed during the holiday that commemorates their original redemption from Egypt. 60 In her view, Elijah’s presence is expected prior to the arrival of the Messiah. Hedner-Zetterholm then discusses the development of Elijah in the Babylonian Talmud and enumerates a number of traditions which connect Elijah with knowledge of the Messiah’s whereabouts, as well as with the manner in which one may be able to hasten the arrival of the Messiah. There are two main issues with Hedner-Zetterholm’s work. First is her definition of ‘messianism’ and what is considered ‘messianic thought’, and second, her overall conclusions regarding the significance of the changes found in the text. She states: Messianism, when it is mentioned in classic rabbinic literature, is essentially a thisworldly political process where the miraculous and supernatural are downplayed…the Messiah as an apocalyptic figure coming to save Israel at the end of time plays a negligible role… Although the rabbinic attitude toward this inheritance (messianic speculation from the Second Temple period) was initially negative, the folk tradition proved too strong and by the late Amoraic period, the rabbis were beginning to integrate into their worldview messianic elements in a rabbinic form. This messianism was reshaped so that it served the larger purpose of the Talmud,

60

It is important to note that the presence of Elijah at the Seder is post-rabbinic, as Lindbeck discusses in Elijah and the Rabbis, 162–165.

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THROUGH THE PRISM OF WISDOM reinforcing the central idea of rabbinic Judaism, namely the observance of the Torah as it was understood by the rabbis. 61

Hedner-Zetterholm draws a few conclusions that are questionable. First, she concludes that the initial rabbinic attitude towards messianism was negative. She draws from scholars such as Neusner and his definition of the Mishnah as “essentially nonmessianic,” and as a result interprets the Elijah messianic texts in such a light. 62 There has been much criticism of Neusner’s analysis of the messianic view of the Mishnah, particularly in his definition of the Mishnah as mostly a philosophy, and thereby the significance of the relatively sparse references to the Messiah. However, as Sanders has pointed out, the Mishnah is a legal text, and is not a philosophy that represents the rabbis’ complete worldview. 63 Therefore one cannot draw such drastic conclusions from the number of references to the Messiah, since as a legal text it was not relevant to the purpose and goal of the redactors. The assumption regarding the nature of the Mishnah as a philosophy leads Neusner to dismiss the messianic statements of the Mishnah as remnants of a heritage of a messianic past, and to claim that it plays no part in the Mishnaic view of Judaism. Craig Evans criticizes Neusner’s attempt to set up a dichotomy between Mishnah and Messiah, which views those interested in following the law as anti-messianic, while those who were messianic as not interested in the law. 64 Secondly, Zetterholm seems to define the only significant messianic belief as purely an apocalyptic one that comes through great turmoil and change, brought by some kind of supernatural agent. However, the concept that the messianic age reflects a political process and will come to fruition through the observance of the Law is not a rabbinic innovation. 65 The role of fidelity to the law as a means by which salvation will 61 Hedner-Zetterholm, “Elijah and the Messiah as Spokesmen of Rabbinic Ideology,” 58–9.

Jacob Neusner, Messiah in Context: Israel’s History and Destiny in Formative Judaism (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1984), ix, 25–30, 229. See critique of Neusner in Craig A. Evans, “Mishnah and Messiah ‘In Context’ Some Comments on Jacob Neusner’s Proposals,” in Jesus in Context: Temple, Purity, and Restoration, ed. Bruce Chilton (Leiden; New York: Brill, 1997), 267–89. 63 For Mishnah as philosophy see Jacob Neusner, Judaism: The Evidence of the Mishnah (Chicago and London: University of Chicago, 1981) as well as Judaism as Philosophy: The Method and Message of the Mishnah (Columbia: University of South Carolina, 1991). See the critique of E.P. Sanders, Jewish Law from Jesus to the Mishnah (London: SCM; Philadelphia: Trinity Press International, 1990), 309–31. 64 “Mishnah and Messiah ‘In Context,’” 125. 65 See G.G. Scholem, The Messianic Idea in Judaism and Other Essays on Jewish Spirituality (New York: Schocken, 1971); S. Talmon, “Types of Messianic Expectation at the Turn of the Era,” in King, Cult and Calendar in Ancient Israel (Jerusalem: Magnes Press, 1986), 202–24. Where two trends have simultaneously existed in Jewish messianism, a ‘restorative/naturalistic’ trend, and the second, a ‘catastrophic/utopian’ trend as Lawrence Schiffman summarizes it, see Lawrence H. Schiffman, “Second Temple Literature and Rabbinic Judaism,” in The Dead Sea 62

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be achieved is one of a number of eschatological beliefs that circulated in the Second Temple period. The idea that through repentance salvation will come is present in many biblical sources, such as Jer 16:19, certain Psalms, such as Ps 27, 51, and 85, as well as a number of Dead Sea Scrolls. 66 Therefore, her narrow interpretation of messianism leads her to conclude that the initial rabbinic attitude towards messianism is negative, although it seems that the rabbinic attitude towards messianism is, in actuality, more complex. 67 Therefore, Zetterholm’s statements claiming that the messianic idea was reshaped to serve the larger purpose of the Talmud and the observance of the Law is questionable since Tannaitic texts also discuss similar concepts. This is not to say that there was no stress on maintaining a particular kind of messianic belief in rabbinic thought. However, the idea that the connection between salvation and adherence to the law developed in the rabbinic era is a problematic contention. Furthermore, although the Tannaim may have had a different view of the messianic process, it does not mean that they did not believe in the Messiah as a central idea and important expectation in Judaism. It is clear that messianic speculation varied greatly within Jewish thought, including rabbinic thought as well. To present the case through this binary opposition, between ‘apocalyptic’ messianism and a more political and practical messianism, does not do justice to the complex development of messianic ideas in Judaism. 68

Scrolls in Context; Integrated the Dead Sea Scrolls in the Study of Ancient Texts, Languages and Cultures II, ed. Armin Lange, Emanuel Tov, and Matthias Weigold: in association with Bennie H. Reynolds III (Leiden: Brill, 2011), 613. 66 Qumran’s eschatological understanding was deeply affected by the idea of the law and adherence to it, both as a mechanism to bring forth the ‘End of Days’ as well as the ideal existence once the eschatological age arrives, see Lawrence H. Schiffman, The Eschatological Community of the Dead Sea Scrolls: A Study of the Rule of the Congregation. (Atlanta, Ga: Scholars Press, 1989). See as well Pesher Habakkuk (1QpHab VIII, 1–3). For a discussion on the concepts of salvation and soteriology see Daniel M. Gurtner ed., This World and the World to Come: Soteriology in Early Judaism (London; New York: T&T Clark, 2011). 67 Hedner-Zetterholm, “Elijah and the Messiah as Spokesmen of Rabbinic Ideology,” 58–59. 68 Seth Schwartz, “How Many Judaisms Were There? A Critique on Neusner and Smith on Definition and Mason and Boyarin on Categorization,” in Journal of Ancient Judaism 2, 2 (2011): 208–38. Seth Schwartz discusses the trend toward binary opposition, utilized by Cohen, Boyarin, and others, in order to explain development of ideas in Judaism. Schwartz speaks of binary opposition in the case of Judaism as an ethnicity vs. religion, in which scholars speak of direct opposites and in which there were moments when everything changed from one pole of the binary system to the other. Schwartz believes that the evolution of ideas is much more complex. I believe this observation is applicable to messianic thought in rabbinic literature as well.

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Adiel Kadari discusses an Elijah tradition in the Mekhilta 69 depicting Elijah’s respect towards King Ahab, and traces its development throughout rabbinic tradition. 70 He points out that the individuals utilized as examples for respecting royalty are biblical characters that were perceived as heroes by zealous factions in the Second Temple period. He draws on the speech of Mattathias in 1 Macc. 2:49–64, which highlights figures such as Mishael, Hananiah, Azariah, Daniel, and Elijah. 71 He contends that the Mekhilta is attempting to respond to the glorification of zealousness, and tempering it by using the same characters and portraying them as deferential to royalty. Kadari views this Mekhilta in light of the general tendency of the Mekhilta to downplay proactive messianic fervor. 72 Kadari expresses that the lack of mention of the Messiah in Elijah messianic traditions, specifically in m‘Ed. 8:7, is quite telling and may reflect the Tannaim’s apprehension toward messianic revolutions and their attempt at stressing interpretations which promote a sense of respect for the government. The manner in which he discusses the absence of the expected Messiah within the Mishnah is more nuanced than Hedner-Zetterholm’s, and reflects a hope not for rabbis to maintain their power, but rather to maintain a peaceful status quo and quell any activemessianic fervor. He states: I wish to raise a hypothesis that is connected to the relationship between the eschatological expectations from Elijah and the general messianic vision of the Tannaim. The view that Elijah’s role will be to herald the advent of the Messiah is strikingly absent from m. ʿEd., which, as we have seen, brings various opinions regarding Elijah’s anticipated return. The scholarly discussion of whether the connection between Elijah and the Messiah is fundamentally Christian or Jewish is based on the claim voiced in the New Testament by Jewish “scribes” that it is inconceivable that Jesus is the Messiah, since Elijah’s advent is to precede the coming of the Messiah, and Elijah had not yet returned. Whatever the source of this notion, the absence of any mention of the Messiah from the Mishnaic discussion of the eschatological hopes for Elijah’s return is a textual fact that conforms to the prevalent tendency of 69 Mekh. R. Ish. Bo, Pisḥa 13 (ed. Horovitz-Rabin, 45).

70 Adiel Kadari, “Did Elijah Show Respect to Royalty?” JSJ 71 Kadari, “Did Elijah Show Respect to Royalty?” 415. 72 For

46, 3 (2015): 403–29.

the muting of messianic fervor in the Mekhilta de-Rabbi Ishmael see, Gerald J. Blidstein, “’Actorin: ‘al ’alimut ve-ḥerut,” Newsletter of the Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities 30 (2008): 2–5; Blidstein, “Prayer, Rescue and Redemption in the Mekhilta,” JSJ 39 (2008): 68–87; Menahem Kister, “Be’urim be-’agadot ha-ḥurban be-’Avot de-Rabbi Nathan,” Tarbiẕ 67 (1998): 483–529, esp. 525 n. 237. Adiel Schremer also discusses the Mekhilta’s stance on messianism and stresses that there is an element of revenge against the Gentiles in the future redemption. He does view this concept of vengeance as restrained on some level due to its relegation to the messianic era, as well as the fact that it will be carried out by God, see Adiel Schremer, “Midrash ve-historia: Koaḥ ha-’El ve-tiqvat ge’ulah be-‘olamam shel ha-Tanna’im betzel ha-’imperiah ha-Romit,” Zion 72 (2007): 5–36.

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the Mishnah not to engage in messianism. It would be difficult to draw unequivocal conclusions from this absence, but we might surmise that the redactors of the Mishnah sought to offer a sort of messianism without a Messiah, with Elijah himself playing a quasi-messianic role, and functioning in the (both national and universal) political sphere, not as the king-Messiah, but as one who brings peace and unity. 73

Kadari views the evolving role of Elijah in the Tannaitic sources as a reflection of the greater tendency to neutralize the harshness and zealousness of certain biblical characters and to refashion them so that they reflect a message of coexistence between the community and the Roman government. The question remains if this neutralizing tendency is carried through into Amoraic sources or not. By reassessing the material, I wish to determine if there is a significant shift between Palestinian and Babylonian sources, or earlier and later sources. If there is a shift, what historical, cultural, as well as geographical factors serve as catalysts in transforming the attitude towards the concepts of wisdom, the Holy Spirit, the supernatural, and the apocalyptic imagination as reflected in the way that Elijah is portrayed? Furthermore, some of the Elijah texts, particularly the messianic ones, can be better explained in light of rabbinic attempts to understand the esoteric, the unknown, and the elements that they had little control over, which is partially the concern of the wisdom tradition. It seems that Elijah plays a role in providing the rabbis with answers to esoteric questions, among them those of the Messiah and his coming. Viewing the Elijah passages through the prism of wisdom as an attempt to answer the pressing questions of the rabbinic time period can shed light on the different nuances and variegated nature of the Elijah traditions. In past study, scholars have attempted to glean the different legends, to group them into different categories, and to gain a better understanding of their meaning. Recently, folklore studies as well as oral-formulaic studies have been employed in understanding these legends and their unique characteristics and development. The majority of past research, however, draws a clear line of demarcation between Elijah’s role in the messianic era, and his role in rabbinic legends. The two elements are seen as only connected by the fact that Elijah appears in them, and other than the shared protagonist, the traditions are not in any way connected or influenced by one another. The goal of this work is to attempt to decipher the connection between these two elements of the Elijah tradition. Is it merely a coincidence that Elijah, who develops into a key figure in the messianic era, also appears in so many legends? Is there no crossover between the Elijah legends and his messianic role in the End of Days? The contention of this study is that the appearance of Elijah in certain legends and midrashic pericopes reflects a continuation of the wisdom traditions of Second Temple times. Although the genres of the collections in which these legends are 73 Adiel Kadari, “Did Elijah Show Respect to Royalty?” 427–8.

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found, the Talmuds and Midrash, legalistic and exegetical texts respectively, are very different from the wisdom literature of Second Temple times, these Elijah legends reflect one aspect of how wisdom traditions were utilized and developed into the rabbinic era. This challenges past approaches, which have contended that the ‘wisdom tradition’ was all but extinct in the rabbinic period. 74 This study also explores the connection between these remnants of wisdom tradition and the eschatological traditions that developed around Elijah’s ‘messianic’ role. The connection between wisdom literature and apocalyptic literature has been explored and discussed regarding Second Temple literature, specifically by John Collins, Lawrence Wills, and Benjamin Wright, among others. 75 George Nickelsburg expresses this interrelationship as follows: [T]he entities usually defined as Sapiential and apocalyptic often cannot be cleanly separated from one another because both are the products of wisdom circles that are becoming increasingly diverse in the Greco-Roman period. Thus, apocalyptic texts contain elements that are at home in wisdom literature, and wisdom texts reflect growing interest in eschatology. 76

Utilizing this understanding of the intersection of wisdom with apocalyptic and eschatological speculation, it may be possible to bridge the gap between the two elements of Elijah’s evolution in rabbinic literature. By analyzing the different Elijah traditions, it will be demonstrated how they engage with issues that were central to the wisdom tradition, which will be enumerated in the following chapter. It will be shown that Elijah’s messianic role, influenced by wisdom and apocalyptic traditions, played a part in the development of Elijah’s legendary role. This connection may shed light on the manner in which these two modes of thought, wisdom and apocalyptic, intersect in rabbinic thought.

METHODOLOGY There are a number of methodological concerns that will be dealt with in these introductory chapters. The methodological issues related to tracing ideas from the Second Temple era into the rabbinic time period will be discussed, as the Elijah traditions seem to be influenced by Second Temple developments in wisdom and apocalyptic 74

See for example, Jack T. Sanders, “Wisdom, Theodicy, Death and the Evolution of Intellectual Traditions,” JSJ 36 (2006): 263–77. 75 John J. Collins, “Wisdom, Apocalypticism, and Generic Compatibility,” in In Search of Wisdom: Essays in Memory of John G. Gammie, ed. L. G. Perdue et al. (Philadelphia: Westminster John Knox, 1993), 165–85 as well as Lawrence M. Wills and Benjamin G. Wright, eds., Conflicted Boundaries in Wisdom and Apocalypticism (Atlanta, GA: Society of Biblical Literature, 2005), specifically 17–68. 76 George Nickelsburg, “Wisdom and Apocalypticism in Early Judaism: Some Points for Discussion,” in Lawrence M. Wills and Benjamin G. Wright, Conflicted Boundaries, 20.

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thought. Following will be a discussion of the challenge of dating the sources, and the method used in analyzing them. A further chapter will focus on defining the terms wisdom, apocalypticism and messianism, and the different methodological concerns in connection to these terms. Tracing Second Temple Traditions into the Rabbinic Period One of the assertions of this work is that traditions stemming from the Second Temple period influenced rabbinic ideas. The developments in wisdom, apocalypticism, and messianism that occurred in the Second Temple times were not discarded by rabbinic Judaism; rather, they played an essential role in the development of rabbinic thought. The question is whether this assertion is valid, and if so, how does one tackle tracing these ideas with a critical approach and avoid the danger of ‘parallelomania’? 77 The main problem in making such an assertion is the great chronological divide between the texts of these two time periods. This is true for many Second Temple texts, as well as specifically the Dead Sea Scrolls corpus. The latest Qumran texts date to the first half of the first century CE, while the earliest rabbinic corpora date to the early third century CE. Furthermore, the fact that no literary connection can be made between the Second Temple literature and rabbinic literature further complicates the issue. 78 Yet, despite this divide, there seem to be a number of areas in which commonalities can be found, especially when comparing the Dead Sea Scrolls with early rabbinic literature. Such commonalities are reflected in scriptural commentary and interpretation, religious law, communal structures, prayer, ritualized study, and common language and terminology in Hebrew and Aramaic. 79 Most relevant to this study is Lawrence H. Schiffman’s discussion of the shared eschatological and messianic traditions. Schiffman discusses two aspects of messianic thought: the nature of the messianic figure or figures, and the nature of the messianic expectation. In Second Temple literature, different messianic views were espoused which were quite fluid. These different views and their fluid nature influenced the development of the messianic idea in rabbinic Judaism. For example, regarding the debate over a “restorative/naturalistic” messianic process, as opposed to a “utopian/catastrophic” process, Schiffman states: “This dispute regarding the messianic era 77

For the definition and problem of Parallelomania, see Samuel Sandmel, “Parallelomania,” JBL 18, 1 (1962): 1–13. He states the definition on Page 1, “We might for our purposes define Parallelomania as that extravagance among scholars which first overdoes the supposed similarity in passages and then proceeds to describe source and derivation as if implying literary connection flowing in an inevitable or predetermined direction.” 78 Schiffman, “Second Temple Literature and Rabbinic Judaism,” 597–617. 79 Steven D. Fraade coins these categories in “The Dead Sea Scrolls and Rabbinic Judaism After Sixty (Plus) Years: Retrospect and Prospect,” in Legal Fictions; Studies of Law and Narrative in the Discursive Worlds of Ancient Jewish Sectarians and Sages (Leiden: Brill, 2011), 109–24. Schiffman discusses these concepts as well, but not necessarily under those titles.

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was part of the common Judaism of the Greco-Roman Period and accordingly passed, with no literary framework necessary, into the thought of the rabbis.” 80 This influence of Second Temple ideas will be discussed in detail in the second and third chapters of this work. Steven Fraade outlines the different approaches that have been taken in studying the Dead Sea Scrolls and rabbinic literature, and the necessary caution one must apply when using these approaches. Fraade distinguishes three different approaches that he terms, “shared traditions,” “polemical alternatives,” and “chronological progressions.” 81 The approach he terms ‘shared traditions’ relates to the view that there was a shared source of traditions from which both the Dead Sea Scrolls and rabbinic literature drew. As Fraade poetically describes it, “a subterranean fount of Jewish tradition both legal and narrative, which irrigated both corpora (among others), irregardless of chronological and cultural divides.” 82 Schiffman relates this to the existence of a common Judaism, 83 meaning a group of traditions and ideas that were shared by the different sectarian groups of the Second Temple period, as coined by E. P. Sanders. His approach believes that uncovering as many parallels as possible will strengthen this position and give these parallels more “benefit of the doubt,” meaning that although there is a chronological divide, the extent of the parallels supports the idea of a shared tradition. The second approach, “polemical alternatives,” is directly related to the legal/halakhic debates between Sadducean and Pharisaic law. It is less relevant to this work, although it serves as a point of comparison and parallel between the Dead Sea Scrolls and rabbinic literature. The third approach, “chronological progression,” utilizes the Dead Sea Scrolls as a missing link between the biblical era and rabbinic Judaism. This view sees the differences in traditions or rhetorical strategies as reflective of developmental progression. The appearance of these ideas in rabbinic literature is therefore indicative of the “maturation” of ideas originally found in Second Temple literature. Fraade, however, points out some issues with these approaches, indicating that although they do not need to be abandoned, they need to be used cautiously with the following caveats in mind. The first is to bring a sense of “intellectual agnosticism” with regard to what we really know about Second Temple Judaism. Although the Dead Sea Scrolls have illuminated much of Second Temple Judaism, for the most part 80 Schiffman, “Second Temple Literature and Rabbinic Judaism,” 613.

81 Fraade, “The Dead Sea Scrolls and Rabbinic Judaism after Sixty,” 119–21.

Fraade, “The Dead Sea Scrolls and Rabbinic Judaism after Sixty,” 119. A proponent of this view is James Kugel, In Potiphar’s House: The Interpretive Life of Biblical Texts (San Francisco: Harper Collins, 1990). 83 Schiffman, “Second Temple Literature and Rabbinic Judaism,” 616. This term is borrowed from E.P. Sanders, Judaism: Practice and Belief, 63 BCE– 66 CE (London: SCM Press, 1992), 45–7. 82

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the “missing links” are still missing, as Fraade puts it. The second is the danger in searching for similarities or differences only. Many scholars searching for similarities will find them, and those searching for differences will find them as well. The more difficult task is to account for both the similarities and differences, and at the same time not to fall prey to the attempt at weighing one against the other to determine which is greater, the similarities or the differences. This leads to the third caveat, which is having an understanding of the complex and dynamic nature of the development of traditions and ideas within Judaism. They are not linear, where one idea flows directly into another, but rather dialectical and reinterpretive, and contain contentions and contradictions. It is these inner developments, changes, and reinterpretations that should be compared and contrasted. 84 It is the complex and dialectical nature of wisdom, apocalypticism, and messianism in rabbinic literature that this study wishes to explore through the lens of traditions about Elijah within rabbinic literature. Sources: Method and Dating Any serious study of rabbinic literature must deal with the many methodological issues that arise from the use of the rabbinic corpus. With regard to this specific study, the most pressing issue is that of the dating of texts, and the question of the ability to establish a diachronic development of ideas. The following section will deal with the issues of establishing the correct text and the study of variants, the study of parallels, the dating of the texts and their evolution, and the challenges of tracing the development of ideas within rabbinic literature. The rabbinic corpus is comprised of many different works, each of which has a literary history of its own and multiple manuscript traditions. For some of these works critical editions have been made, but others are lacking. Regardless, whenever studying any rabbinic text one must be cautious to look at the variants within the different manuscripts in order to assess if all versions have the same text, or if differences exist between the various manuscripts. Giuseppe Veltri puts it simply: “text editing is a necessary hermeneutic tool for student and scholars of Jewish studies. Every student should be introduced to the world of text-critical analysis and avoid considering any edition as a revelation from Sinai.” 85 Therefore, even when utilizing critical editions, one needs to be aware of the variants within the manuscripts and be able to apply the significance of those variants when necessary. Today’s scholarship has moved away from the 19th century endeavor of finding the “perfect edition” of different rabbinic works, or the 20th century endeavor of finding the “original text.” These concepts are now understood to be unachievable due to the manner in which the material was passed down, as well as the multiplicity of traditions that may have been circulating simultaneously, thereby at times one may not be 84 Fraade, “The Dead Sea Scrolls and Rabbinic Judaism after Sixty,” 121–3.

85 Giuseppe Veltri, “From the Best Text to the Pragmatic Edition: On Editing Rabbinic Texts,”

in Reimund Bieringer et. al., The New Testament and Rabbinic Literature, 63–79, here 77.

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able to say whether one version of a tradition is more original than another. 86 However, this complete abandonment of attempting to trace the development of the texts has also been challenged. Milikowsky stresses the importance of tracing families of manuscripts that are more or less the same, and in critical editions, of having a synoptic edition with a list of variants for each of the “families.” 87 This important part of critical text analysis will be the first step in studying the texts, and once one can determine which variants within the manuscripts are consequential, one will be able to proceed in the analysis of the text. Especially important is the presence of Elijah within these versions, since the connection to Elijah is essential to the discussion. The addition or removal of Elijah from the text would be an interesting element for discussion in such cases. This leads us to the next methodological issue, which is the dating of the text. This means both the larger literary works as well as the dating of different traditions within those texts. There are some texts with greater scholarly consensus as to their dates, while others are still a matter of debate. For the most part, the Mishnah, Tosefta, and Halakhic Midrashim, (Mekhilta, Sifra, Sifre [Bemidbar and Devarim]) are considered Tannaitic texts. 88 The redaction of the Mishnah is given the approximate date of 200 CE, while the Tosefta and Halakhic Midrashim fall somewhere after the redaction of the Mishnah and before the redaction of the Palestinian Talmud/Yerushalmi in around 400 CE. 89 The Babylonian Talmud (Bavli) and its redaction is more complicated, with opinions spanning from 500 CE to somewhere after the Islamic conquest in the 8th century. This mainly is due to the work of Shamma 86 Veltri, “From the Best Text,” 71. 87

Peter Schäfer, “Research into Rabbinic Literature: An Attempt to Define the Status Quaestionis,” JJS 37, 2 (1986): 139–52. Chaim Milikowsky, “The Status Quaestionis in Rabbinic Literature,” JJS 39 (1989): 201–11. See as well their updates on this discussion, Peter Schäfer and Chaim Milikowsky, “Current Views on the Editing of the Rabbinic Texts of Late Antiquity: Reflections on a Debate after Twenty Years,” in Rabbinic Texts and the History of LateRoman Palestine, ed. Martin Goodman and Philip Alexander (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), 79–88. 88 On the Halakhic Midrashim see Menahem Kahana, “The Halakhic Midrashim,” in Literature of the Sages, ed. Shmuel Safrai et al. (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 2006), 2.3–105. 89 However, even this assumption of Tosefta and some Halakhic Midrashim as post-mishnaic has been reassessed, and has led to theories about the proto-texts of Tannaitic works predating the final version of the Mishnah. On the Tosefta, see Shamma Friedman, “The Primacy of Tosefta to Mishnah in Synoptic Parallels,” in Introducing Tosefta: Textual, Intratextual and Intertextual Studies, ed. Harry Fox, and Tirzah Meacham (Hoboken: Ktav, 1999), 99–121; Alberdina Houtman, Mishnah and Tosefta: A Synoptic Comparison of Tractates Berakhot and Shebiit (Tübingen: J.C.B. Mohr, 1997). On Sifra see, Günter Stemberger, “The Redaction and Transmission of Sifra,” in Melekhet Mahshevet: Studies in the Redaction and Development of Talmudic Literature, ed. Aaron Amit, Aharon Shemesh (Ramat Gan: Bar Ilan University Press: 2011), 51–67.

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Friedman and David Weiss Halivni on the anonymous layer of the Talmud, for which Halivni has coined the term “Stammaitic” layer. Halivni originally proposed a date for the redaction of the Bavli from the time of Rav Ashi until the end of the 5th century, however he has more recently moved the Stammaitic period to date from the mid 6th century, spanning about 200 years until the mid 8th century. 90 Regarding the Aggadic Midrashim, which are considered to be mostly of Palestinian origin, 91 some texts are considered to date to the early Amoraic period, while others to the later Amoraic period, and still others into the medieval period. It is important to distinguish between these different groups. The early Amoraic Midrashim are considered: Midrash Rabbah on Genesis and Leviticus and Lamentations, also known as Bereshit Rabbah, Vayikra Rabbah, Eichah Rabbah, and Pesiqta de Rav Kahanah, which dates to the 5th century. The other midrashim fit in the bracket of 400– 600 CE and include Ruth Rabbah, Esther Rabbah, and Songs Rabbah. The Late Midrashim dating from 700–900 CE are Midrash Tanḥuma, Seder Eliyahu and Pirqei de-R. Eliezer. Also included are Ecclesiastes Rabbah, Midrash Mishlei to Proverbs and Mishnat R. Eliezer, Exodus Rabbah, and Numbers Rabbah. However, Myron Bialik Lerner writes that in light of the Tanḥuma including traditions from a broad span of time, those who label it as belonging exclusively to a later era fail to accurately describe its earlier origins from the interim period. 92 Seder Olam Rabbah presents a challenge since there is much scholarly debate as to its dating. Chaim Milokowsky is of the opinion that it is a Tannaitic text, which he concludes due to the following points: 1) It is written in Mishnaic Hebrew without Aramaic admixtures common to post-rabbinic midrash collections, 2) Tannaitic sages are cited by name nineteen times, 3) close to 100 passages in SOR are paralleled by similar passages in works such as the Mishnah, Tosefta, Halakhic Midrashim, and Talmud. 93 However, there are other scholars that place this Midrash in the late period. 94

90

Shamma Friedman, “Pereq ha’ishah rabbah ba-Bavli, be-tziruf m’avo klali ‘al derekh ḥeqer hasugiyah,” in Meḥqarim u-Meqorot 1, ed. Hayim Zalman Dimitrovsky (New York: JTS, 1978), 275–441; David Halivni, “Aspects of the Formation of the Talmud,” in Creation and Composition: The Contribution of the Bavli Redactors (Stammaim) to the Aggadah, ed. Jeffrey L. Rubenstein (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2005), 339–60. This shift can be most clearly seen when reading the collection of his methodological introductions in D. Halivni. Mevoʼot limeqorot u-masorot: ʻiyunim be-hithavut ha-Talmud (Yerushalayim: Hotzaʼat sefarim ʻa. sh. Y.L. Magnes, ha-Universiṭah ha-ʻIvrit, 2009). 91 Myron Bialik Lerner, “The Works of Aggadic Midrashim and Esther Midrashim,” in Literature of the Sages, ed. S. Safrai et al. (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 2006), 2.133–229. Marc Hirshman, “Aggadic Midrashim,” in Literature of the Sages, 2.107–32. 92 Moshe David Herr, “Midrash,” EJ, ed. Michael Berenbaum and Fred Skolnik, 2nd ed. Vol. 14. (Detroit: Macmillan Reference, 2007), 182–5. 93 Chaim Milokowsky, “Seder Olam,” in Literature of the Sages, 2.231–7. 94 Strack and Stemberger, Introduction, 326–27.

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The dating of these different texts provides a terminus ante quem, a latest possible date, for dating the traditions found within them. However, the nature of rabbinic literature is that it is anthological and aggregates different traditions spanning long periods of time. 95 As a result, there may be elements within the material that originated earlier than others. How does one go about dating these different traditions? This has been mostly discussed in relation to the Babylonian Talmud, which presents this difficulty to the largest extent due to its long redactional process, but is also relevant to many of the Midrashim. The Babylonian Talmud as it exists today is the outcome of a long period of compilation and redaction. The past few decades have brought new developments in the study of the Bavli and its redaction. Scholars such as Shamma Friedman and David Weiss Halivni delved into the manner in which the Bavli took shape and concluded that it was the result of a very long process of editing. Halivni posits that the Amoraic period lasted from the 3rd to the 5th century CE, and then went through a long redactional period, perhaps until the 8th century. 96 This redactional period is divided into two phases, the Stammaitic period which lasted for approximately 200 years into the middle of the 7th century CE, and the Saboraic period which was a brief period that completed the Talmud and coincided with the early Gaonic period. The Stammaitic and Saboraic additions are isolated from the greater Talmudic text through a process of deconstruction based on language and stylistic-formal differences. 97 Halivni’s studies focus on the halakhic portions of the Bavli, and have transformed the manner in which scholars analyze and study the Bavli. However, regarding aggadah, it is unclear if the exact same rules apply. Jeffrey Rubenstein has focused a great deal on the role of the Stammaim in the aggadic portions of the Bavli. 98 His work delineates important 95

Regarding the anthological nature of rabbinic literature see Martin S. Jaffee, “Rabbinic Authorship as a Collective Enterprise,” in The Cambridge Companion to the Talmud and Rabbinic Literature, ed. Charlotte E. Fonrobert and Martin S. Jaffee. 1st ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 17–37. 96 Most of the in-depth studies of Friedman and Halivni are in Hebrew, presented in analysis of large sections of Talmud. See David Weiss Halivni, Meqorot u-masorot: Be’urim baTalmud: Masekhet Bava Batra (Jerusalem: Hebrew University Magnes Press, 2007). (Volumes also on many other tractates such as Seder Nashim, Moed, and tractates Bava Qama, Eruvin and Pesaḥim). Further a recent translation of Halivni’s work by Rubenstein and his comments allow for greater accessibility to his work, see Jeffrey Rubenstein and David Weiss Halivni, The Formation of the Babylonian Talmud (Oxford; London; New York: Oxford University Press, 2013). Shamma Friedman views the Stammaitic layer as a literary stratum and does not posit as to the time frame of those who are responsible for the anonymous statements in the Bavli. See “Pereq ha’isha rabba ba-Bavli,” 281–321. 97 David Weiss Halivni, “Aspects of the Formation of the Talmud,” in Jeffrey L. Rubenstein, Creation and Composition, 339–60. 98 Jeffrey Rubenstein, Talmudic Stories: Narrative, Art, Composition, and Culture (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999); The Culture of the Babylonian Talmud (Baltimore:

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tools that can be applied from the conclusions of Friedman and Halivni’s analysis of halakhic portions into aggadic portions. He discusses the question of whether the Stammaim were engaged in producing aggadah as opposed to merely collecting and compiling it. He states, “To the extent that the Stammaim were active and creative in the realm of halakhah, we should expect the same of aggadah. Indeed, since aggadah has less authority than halakhah, we should expect the Stammaim to have been more active in the production of aggadah.” 99 The development of the Stammaitic theory by David Weiss Halivni and Shamma Friedman has transformed the manner in which the Bavli is studied. Yaakov Sussman discusses the ramifications for the study of Jewish History in his “Ve-Shuv LeYerushalmi Neziqin.” 100 He writes that although one must separate the editorial layers from the Tannaitic and Amoraic dicta in the Bavli, it is impossible to completely separate the two because the Amoraic dicta in the Bavli were significantly altered by the hand of the redactors, and may have taken on new meaning. The result is an almost impossible endeavor of detecting the earlier formulations of those dicta. The question of the extent of editorial reformulation of statements is one that is debated. At first, Halivni states that the redactional activity consisted mostly of expansions but not reformulations; 101 however, it seems Halivni altered his position and agrees that some reformulations were indeed part of the editorial process, similar to the position of Friedman. 102 The question remains if Amoraic statements were reformulated, then to what extent can we rely on those statements to reconstruct the development of rabbinic ideas Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003) and Stories of the Babylonian Talmud (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2010). Rubenstein discusses his utilization of literary criticism, as well as source criticism, form criticism and redaction criticism, tools which will also be utilized in this study. The role of the Stammaim particularly as involved in the formation of some of the Babylonian stories has been debated by Richard Kalmin, see his comments in “The Formation and Character of the Babylonian Talmud,” The Cambridge History of Judaism, vol. 4, The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period, ed. Steven T. Katz (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 846. As well as Friedman, who considers the authorship of these stories as ‘baalei ha’aggada’, distinguishing them from the Stammaim, see “A Good Story Deserves Retelling,” in Jeffrey L. Rubenstein, Creation and Composition, 73–7. Ishay Rosen-Zvi agrees that many of the long Bavli stories are post-Amoraic, but he is not sure if they should be identified with the Stammaim as well, see “Yetzer ha-ra‘ besifrut ha’amorait: Beḥinah me-ḥadash,” Tarbiẕ 77 (2007): 100–2. 99 Jeffrey L. Rubenstein, “Criteria of Stammaitic Intervention in Aggadah,” in Jeffrey L. Rubenstein, Creation and Composition, 417–40. 100 Y. Sussman, “Ve-shuv le-Yerushalmi Neziqin,” Meḥqere Talmud 1 (1990): 108–111 101 Halivni, “Introduction,” in Meqorot u-masorot: Masekhet Shabbat (Jerusalem: The Jewish Theological Seminary, 1982), 6–9. 102 Halivni, Meqorot u-masorot: Baba Kama (Jerusalem: Magnes Press, 1993), 18–19. Friedman, “Pereq ha’isha rabba ba-Bavli,” 309.

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and history. 103 Adiel Schremer attempts to find an approach which is sensitive to the problems that the redactional activity of the Bavli pose for the historian, and formulates the challenge concisely: I wish to follow this view of the process of editing and transmission of the Talmud, according to which early sources were not only compiled, but also interpreted, augmented and reformulated. This, obviously, raises the question whether we should treat sources found in the Bavli as Tannaitic and Amoraic, or whether in their present forms we should assign them to the Stammaim and consequently date them to the late fifth or early sixth century and view them as revealing Stammaitic interests and concerns. 104

Schremer lists a number of studies that relied too heavily on Babylonian sources to reconstruct events, and as a result led to incorrect conclusions. 105 He identifies the main culprit as these studies’ reliance exclusively or almost exclusively upon Babylonian traditions about the Tannaitic and early Amoraic periods in order to reconstruct past events. Gafni is aware of the pitfalls that may result from utilizing Babylonian sources in order to retell the history of the early rabbinic period in Palestine. He also notes multiple studies that relied too heavily on Babylonian sources which led to false conclusions, such as examinations of the tension between the rabbis and the am ha’aretz, analysis of the removal of Rabban Gamliel from his position in Yavneh, and several others. However, with a careful regard for source criticism, he believes that rabbinic sources can be effectively utilized. When using Babylonian sources which depict events in Palestine, the use of parallels found in the Yerushalmi and Midrashim can be an important tool to mitigate misconceptions arising from their disparate geographical and temporal contexts. 106 It is worthwhile to make a few points on the importance of parallels and what can be achieved through their study. Catherine Hezser writes, “By studying the parallels it may allow us to distinguish between tradition and redaction and to determine

103 It is

important to note, as does Adiel Schremer, that there are Amoraic dicta in the Bavli that appear identical to those in the Yerushalmi, demonstrating that there are cases in which Amoraic dicta were not altered in the Babylonian recension. However, the extent of these exact parallels has not been studied systematically as of yet, see Adiel Schremer, “Stammaitic Historiography,” in Creation and Composition, 222 n. 16. 104 Schremer, “Stammaitic Historiography,” 222–23. 105 See his list of studies, Schremer, “Stammaitic Historiography,” 223–226 106 Interestingly, Schremer points to past scholars' preference for Bavli traditions of Palestinian Tannaim and Amoraim over late Midrashic parallels, and sees it a ‘naive’ position. Based on what we know now, it seems that the usage of the late Palestinian Midrashim may contain more reliable renditions of certain traditions, or at least a source that can be utilized to compare with the Bavli that has not been influenced by the Bavli redactors. See “Stammaitic Historiography,” 230 n.39.

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37

the form of a tradition before its inclusion into the broader redactional context.” 107 Meaning, if there were significant changes in the text in order for the tradition to fit into a new context, this shift may help illuminate the state of the tradition before it was incorporated into the larger context in which it is found. However Hezser stresses that the goal of synoptic comparisons is not to detect an “Urtext,” an original, true text of the tradition. Such an “Urtext” is out of reach, if it existed at all. 108 Additionally, the main purpose of studying parallels is to determine which elements are shared and which remain distinct. In order to assess whether these changes were editorial (and can perhaps be dated later if included in a text from a later period), Hezser points to the following criteria that may indicate an editorial process: if the changes “fit or even replicate the subject matter, formulation, structure, ideology of the surrounding context into which the tradition was integrated.” 109 If one can show that the differences between the parallels are directly connected to the overall context in the surrounding text, then one can identify an evolution in the text with greater confidence. Another methodological challenge is dating the traditions found in composite texts such as the Yerushalmi, Bavli, and Midrashim. Gafni believes that it is possible to date different traditions within the overall work. He writes, “…I am not willing to submit to the extreme view that considers the hand of late redactors to have been so heavy, that they succeeded in eradicating any hope of accessing and dating information.” 110 Gafni’s statements may refer to scholars such as Sussman and Neusner, who question the ability to isolate early traditions from the completely edited and redacted works in which they are found. 111 He bases his assessment on work that has been done in the field by him, as well as David Goodblatt and Richard Kalmin. 112 Kalmin reached similar conclusions and saw both geographic and chronological consistency between different rabbis in the Amoraic period. Pumbedithians speak to their own peers and not to Surans, and while rabbis from the same generation speak to one another, they do not speak to those who were not their contemporaries. Further, Kalmin points to an introduction of Palestinian attitudes by Babylonian Amoraim in the 4th century. 113 Gafni writes, “Our conclusions relate both to Tannaitic as well as 107

Catherine Hezser, “Form-Criticism of Rabbinic Literature,” in Reimund Bieringer et al., The New Testament and Rabbinic Literature, 97–110. 108 Hezser, “Form-Criticism,” 105 109 Hezser, “Form-Criticism,” 105. 110 Isaiah Gafni, “The Modern Study of Rabbinics and Historical Questions: The Tale of the Text,” 43–61, here 58. 111 J. Neusner, Making the Classics in Judaism: The Three Stages of Literary Formation (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1989), 11. 112 D.M. Goodblatt, Rabbinic Instruction in Sasanian Babylonia (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1975). Richard Kalmin, Sages, Stories, Authors and Editors in Rabbinic Babylonia (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1994). 113 Richard Kalmin, Jewish Babylonia between Persia and Roman Palestine (New York: Oxford

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Amoraic texts, and we have consistently found that, late redactions notwithstanding, a clear stratification of material permeates much of the rabbinic corpus.” 114 The challenge lies in determining how one dates these isolated traditions independently from the larger corpus. Although they are mostly related to the Mishnah, Stemberger attempts to enumerate some elements that can be employed in other texts as well. 115 He lists three important elements that can be of use: stylistic differences, contents and linguistic differences, and the use of attributions. Each of these elements poses problems of their own, and must be used cautiously. First, with regard to stylistic differences, one needs to ask, do stylistic difference necessarily mean chronological priority, or perhaps a different school of thought? With regard to certain contents dating from an earlier period, such theories were proposed regarding temple-centered texts in the Mishnah, and although they are indeed true for some texts, it does not necessarily apply to all. If there is outside evidence to strengthen the claim, such as parallels in non-rabbinic sources, it could bolster those assertions. Linguistic differences are indeed an important indicator for isolating elements in a text, and are particularly useful in the Babylonian Talmud, as one can usually distinguish the different strata through their usage of Aramaic and Hebrew. Furthermore, paying attention to the anonymous sayings and their role in the sugya, almost always in Aramaic, is helpful in analyzing the text. The methods of isolating Stammaitic material, as enumerated by Halivni, Friedman and Rubenstein, will be important to this study. 116 An indication of Stammaitic provenance can be discerned in stories of the latest Amoraim, anonymous stories, and transfer of lengthy passages into new contexts. Source and form criticism are also important tools in analyzing sugyot. Source criticism compares Bavli traditions to parallels in the Yerushalmi and Midrashim in order to isolate the additions and changes within the Bavli. Form criticism relates to identifying specific forms that can show connection to the Stammaitic layer. Friedman, in his focus on form criticism, lists a number of these forms. Rubenstein adopts these criteria for aggadah as well, and condenses Friedman’s fourteen criteria into seven categories: (a) Vocabulary and Gaonic forms—words that are utilized mostly in Stammaitic strata that point to a late influence in the text such as the use of the term ‫ולא היא‬, in order to disagree with an element in an original story; (b) Hebrew vs. Aramaic; (c) Kernel and explanatory, dependent clause, where the kernel is usually Amoraic while the dependent clause Stammaitic; (d) Reference to material further on in the sugya; (e) Significant textual variations; (f) Where removing the text produces a smoother reading, and (g) Excessive length. Rubenstein adds a criterion that appears University Press, 2006), 3–10. 114 Gafni, “The Modern Study of Rabbinics,” 58. 115 Günter Stemberger, “Dating Rabbinic Traditions,” in Reimund Bieringer et. al., The New Testament and Rabbinic Literature, 79–96. 116 Halivni, “Aspects of the Formation of the Talmud,” 339–60. Friedman “Pereq ha’isha rabba ba-Bavli,” 281–321. Rubenstein, “Criteria of Stammaitic Intervention in Aggadah,” 417–40.

1. INTRODUCTION

39

to be unique to aggadic portions of the Bavli, namely, the “recycling of material within a story, which often produces a type of doubling.”All these criteria will be utilized to analyze the Elijah traditions, which are found in both halakhic and aggadic portions of the Bavli. Additionally, a number of scholars such as Shamma Friedman, Daniel Boyarin and Devora Steinmetz emphasize the importance of intertextuality in reading aggadah. 117 The study of how other sources discussing similar ideas and forms influenced the way these traditions were understood is an essential point in the analysis of the Elijah traditions. Boyarin argues against the view that rabbinic works can only be studied as complete works, as Neusner has proposed. 118 Rather, Boyarin views the atomization of different traditions within the sources as essential in studying rabbinic texts. As he states, “The best way to do cultural history, then, is to investigate such moments within and between the texts of rabbinic literature, not to gloss them over by the assumption of a wholly coherent, self consistent “authorship” identical with the final editors of the document at hand. In short, intertextuality produces more differences, not less, within and between texts.” 119 Intertextual reading of rabbinic texts is essential to my analysis, as the Elijah traditions in many cases reflect a multi-layered message composed out of competing ideas. The manner in which these contradictions are navigated is essential in understanding the significance of the Elijah material and much is to be gained by analyzing the different texts and traditions influencing the composition of the Elijah material. Furthermore, the surrounding context of the aggadah plays an important role in understanding the aggadah itself and may shed light on a further level of understanding of the text. Steinmetz states: First, unlike a poem, short story, or novel, an agada does not have a clearly demarcated boundary. While one can (often, though not always) say where the agada begins and ends, the agada is nevertheless part of a continuous text; it is situated within multiple, nested contexts—in the Bavli, for example, within the sugya, chapter, masekhet, seder, and the Bavli as a whole. Second, rabbinic texts have continuities both with other texts and with traditions that may not have come down to us in textual form. While post-modern literary theorists may emphasize this intertextual 117

Shamma Friedman, “La-’agada ha-historit be-talmud ha-Bavli,” in Saul Lieberman Memorial Volume, ed. Shamma Friedman and Louis Finkelstein (New York: JTS, 1993), 119–64. Daniel Boyarin, “Literary Fat Rabbis: On the Historical Origin of the Grotesque Body,” JHS 1, 4 (1991): 551–584. Devora Steinmetz, “Agada Unbound—Inter-Agadic Characterizations of Sages in the Bavli and Implications for Reading Agada,” in Creation and Composition: The Contribution of the Bavli Redactors (Stammaim) to the Aggadah, 293–337. 118 Neusner discusses this concept in numerous works, see for example The Integrity of Leviticus Rabbah: The Problem of the Autonomy of the Rabbinic Document, Chico 1985. 119 Daniel Boyarin, “On the Status of the Tannaitic Midrashim,” JAOS 112, 3 (1992): 455–65 especially 456,

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THROUGH THE PRISM OF WISDOM aspect of all texts, it is especially significant in rabbinic texts, in which ties to other texts and traditions are foregrounded as a critical feature of the textuality of the rabbinic text itself. 120

Her analysis stresses the importance of reading different aggadot in light of one another, specifically focusing on the use of certain rabbinic figures that in some cases present a consistency of message and worldview. Her analysis of the usage of characters such as Rabbi Eliezer, Rabbi Yehoshua, and Rabban Gamliel in different aggadot and the manner in which their characters represent certain consistent viewpoints sheds light as to the intertextuality present in the Bavli aggadot. She states: My goal is to show that the Bavli assigns to certain sages specific tendencies which are constructed and conveyed through the interrelationship of a range of passages. The Bavli does not invent these elements of characterization whole-cloth, but neither does it simply reiterate earlier traditions about these sages. 121

This concept of intertextuality and the characterization of certain rabbinic figures will be seen throughout our analysis, specifically relating to the different rabbinic figures that interact with Elijah. 122 Steinmetz’s conclusions are relevant to the manner in which the Elijah texts are analyzed as well. Further, this characterization may apply not only to rabbinic figures, but also to Elijah himself. Steinmetz, however, is not willing to pinpoint specifically to which redactional layer these changes can be attributed. Indeed it is a complex evolution and relates to the manner in which aggadah was passed down from one generation to the next, and the way it was fused into the halakhic discussions of the Bavli. She writes: Should we see the Bavli redactors—if I may draw an anachronistic caricature—as sitting at a desk with two works-in-progress before them...and as scouring traditional material that can be imported into each new work, simultaneously to advance the themes of each work and to link the two works with each other?...or is it more reasonable to assume that within the tradition of the Bavli’s redactors the Yadaim traditions had already gradually developed significance as representing issues such as exclusiveness/inclusiveness and tradition/chidush as well as the contrasting stances of figures such as Rabban Gamliel, Rabbi Eliezer and Rabbi Yehoshua? Perhaps in the cultural world of the Bavli redactors these sources already mean Steinmetz, “Agada Unbound,” 294. Jeffrey Rubenstein makes this point as well, Talmudic Stories: Narrative Art, Composition, and Culture (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999), 10–15. For intertextuality see Daniel Boyarin, Carnal Israel: Reading Sex in Talmudic Culture (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), 26. 121 Steinmetz, “Agada Unbound,” 295. 122 See Kristen Lindbeck’s analysis of formulae used in interactions between Elijah and the rabbis is also an important indication of the importance of intertextuality, see Elijah and the Rabbis,62–66. 120

1. INTRODUCTION

41

some of the things that I have argued they express through their citation and contextualization in the Bavli passages, and it is these meanings that make these sources available for incorporation in the Bavli aggadot. We might still attribute the citation of these source traditions to the Bavli’s redactors and…the contextualization of these source traditions within the Bavli aggadot solidifies and adds resonances that remain as a part of the accruing traditional dimensions of significance of these sources. But this is very different from attributing to the redactors the creation of these ranges of meanings in the traditional material in the first place. 123

The answer to these issues is still unknown and is regularly debated. However, analyzing the Elijah texts may shed further light on the connection between some of these aggadot and the role that the Amoraim and the Stammaim played in their creation and transmission. Hopefully by utilizing Halivni, Friedman, and Rubenstein’s criteria, the Amoraic and Stammaitic influence on the Elijah texts can be discerned. Another important aspect of studying rabbinic aggadah is the fact that a significant number of rabbinic stories are found in clusters. Eli Yassif calls these clusters “story chains” and discusses the different artistic and ideological factors driving the formation of these collections. 124 Yassif discusses the importance of studying the individual stories in light of the greater collection in which they are found, and believes that when read as a complete collection, the individual stories receive added nuance and meaning that are not present when they appear in isolation. Yassif has two important points which are relevant to this study. First, he stresses the importance of the associative element as the organizing factor in many of these collections. This is connected with the idea that stories are linked together by a similar word or phrase that appears in the different stories, even when they differ in topic, framework, or genre. S. T. Coleridge defined the concept of association as follows, “Ideas by having been together acquire a power of recalling each other; or every partial representation awakes the total representation of which it had been a part.” 125 In a number of cases, the Elijah stories appear in such collections, and therefore the contextual framework will be discussed in order to assess its influence on the way Elijah’s role was understood in these stories. Second, Yassif discusses the ḥasidim, who play an important role in the Elijah stories in his analysis of the collection of stories in bTa’an 23a–25b, which discuss rainmaking and other stories related by association. 126 The role of the ḥasidim in these stories will shed light on the ideological factors that may have influenced the collection of these “story chains.” The role the editorial hand may have had in incorporating outside stories into the rabbinic corpus, and perhaps changing them, will also inform our discussion when analyzing these collections. 123 Steinmetz, “Agada Unbound,” 334–5.

124 Eli Yassif, “Maḥzor ha-sipurim be-’agadot Ḥazal,” 103–45. 125

Samuel Taylor Coleridge, “On the Law of Association: Its History Traced from Aristotle to Hartly,” Biographia Literaria (Princeton, 1983), 1.102–3. 126 Yassif, “Maḥzor ha-sipurim be-’agadot Ḥazal,” 115–16.

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Another methodological issue is the use of attributions, which has been a debated topic for the past few decades. Neusner in his early work questioned whether it was methodologically sound to assume that specific tradents said the words that were attributed to them. 127 He questioned the methods of past scholarship, which took for granted the authenticity of attributions. This discussion has propelled many scholars to study the consistency of attributions in order to establish the reasonability of utilizing attributions to at least show that these can be attributed as knowledge of the time period of the sage quoted. As discussed above, the work of Gafni, Kalmin, and Goodblatt, among others, has shown that there is a consistency within generations and geographical areas in which the rabbis lived, which establishes a sense of reliability to the quotations. However, there are still issues of pseudepigraphy, which usually appear in a saying of a prominent rabbinic figure when the temporal distance between the rabbi and the document in which the tradition first appears is very great. 128 There are also mistakes in transmission of the documents, such as the names Eleazar and Eliezer, which are many times confused with one another. Stemberger, however, says that this issue is somewhat exaggerated and that the manuscripts are much more consistent than often asserted. Stemberger questions the usage of baraitot, which are the non-Mishnaic traditions that are presented by Amoraic sages as Tannaitic. 129 At times they do reflect 127

Jacob Neusner, “Evaluating the Attributions of Sayings to Named Sages in Rabbinic Literature,” JSJ 26, 1 (1995): 93–111, also see David Kraemer, “On the Reliability of Attributions in the Babylonian Talmud,” HUCA 60 (1989): 175–90, and Sacha Stern, “Attribution and Authorship in the Babylonian Talmud,” JJS 45, 1 (1994): 28–51. 128 Stemberger, “Dating Rabbinic Texts,” 129 Isaac Halevy, Dorot ha-rishonim, vol. 5 (Berlin: Nezah, 1933), 126, 129, 131, 142; Zacharias Frankel, Darkhei ha-Mishnah, ha-Tosefta, Mekhilta, Sifra ṿe-Sifre: ʻIm nosafot u-mafteaḥ leDarkhei ha-Mishnah ṿe-hosafot ḥadashot she-nimzaʾu ba-ketuvim be-ginze ha-Rav (Tel Aviv: Sinai, 1959), 331; Hanokh Albeck, Meḥqarim ba-baraita ve-tosefta ve-yaḥasan la-Talmud (Jerusalem: Mosad Harav Kook, 1969), 15; Albeck, Mavo la-Talmudim, 28; Louis Jacob, “Are There Fictitious Baraitot in the Babylonian Talmud?” HUCA 42 (1971): 185–96; Abraham Goldberg, “The Babylonian Talmud,” in The Literature of the Sages, Vol. 1, Oral Torah, Halakhah, Mishnah, Tosefta, Talmud, External Tractates, ed. Ze’ev Safrai, Joshua Schwartz, and Peter Tomson (Assen: Van Gorcum, 1987), 335; Yaakov Elman, Authority and Tradition: Toseftan Baraitot in Talmudic Babylonia (New York: Yeshiva University Press, 1994), 48–52; Elman, “Orality and the Transmission of Tosefta Pisḥa in Talmudic Literature,” in Introducing Tosefta: Textual, Intratextual and Intertextual Studies, ed. Harry Fox (Hoboken: Ktav, 1999), 128–29; David Weiss Halivni, Mevo’ot le-meqorot u-mesorot: ‘Iyunyim be-hithavut ha-Talmud; Shamma Friedman, “Ha-baraitot ba-Talmud ha-Bavli ve-yaḥasan le-maqbilotehen she-batosefta,” in ‘Atarah le-Ḥayim—Meḥqarim be-sifrut ha-talmudit ve-ha-rabanit li-khvod Professor Ḥayim Zalman Dimitrovsky, ed. Daniel Boyarin, et al. (Jerusalem: Magnes, 2000), 195–96; S. Friedman, Sugyot be-ḥeqer ha-Talmud ha-Bavli: ’Asufot meḥqarim be-ʿinyanei mivneh, herkev ve-nusaḥ (New York: Jewish Theological Seminary, 2010), 42–3 n. 38; Friedman, Le-

1. INTRODUCTION

43

earlier material, but at other times their early provenance cannot be established, and should therefore be used cautiously. With all these issues in mind, one can isolate different traditions from within the larger context and perhaps date them to a specific generation. This may help in tracing the development of ideas within the larger works of rabbinic literature—one of the main goals of the historian of rabbinic literature. As Gafni notes: My point in all this is that we will have to mine the rabbinic corpus for a different type of history. We may be hard-pressed to talk about specific events, but we most certainly can note attitudinal changes and developments, and these must be contextualized into the political, social and cultural contexts surrounding the rabbinic world. 130

This leads us to the final methodological concern of balancing the significance of internal motivations and external factors to the developments within rabbinic thought. To what extent do internal motivations—such as religious, textual or interpretive concerns—play a role in the development of ideas, and to what extent do external factors, including social, political, or cultural influences have an impact on the development of ideas. If one can trace significant changes in ideas or modes of thought, they need to be contextualized, as Gafni states. These contexts themselves change depending on the time period in question, as well as the geographical location of the sources. Saul Lieberman, in his seminal work Hellenism in Jewish Palestine and Greek in Jewish Palestine, paved the way for understanding the complex manner in which the rabbinic world was influenced either directly or indirectly by the world around them. 131 Many important studies stressing this intersection have been recently published, whether continuing along the Hellenistic and Roman context, 132 dealing with toratam shel Tanna’im: ’Asufat meḥqarim ‘iyyniyim u-metodologiyim (Jerusalem: Mosad Bialik, 2013), 272–73; Barak Shlomo Cohen, “‘Amoraic Baraitot’ Reconsidered: The Case of Tannei Tanna Kameh,” AJS Review 39, 1 (2015): 93–120. Stemberger, “Dating Rabbinic Texts,” 90–2. 130 Gafni, “The Modern Study of Rabbinics,” 60. 131 Saul Lieberman, Hellenism in Jewish Palestine; Studies in the Literary Transmission, Beliefs and Manners of Palestine in the I Century BCE–4th Century CE (New York: Jewish Theological Seminary, 1962) as well as Greek in Jewish Palestine: Studies in the Life and Manners of Jewish Palestine in the II–IV Centuries CE (New York: Feldheim, 1965). 132 Catherine Hezser, “Roman Law and Rabbinic Legal Composition,” in The Cambridge Companion to the Talmud and Rabbinic Literature, ed. Charlotte E. Fonrobert and Martin S. Jaffee (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 144–64. As to the complexity of tracing these connections see Seth Schwartz, “The Political Geography of Rabbinic Texts,” in The Cambridge Companion to the Talmud and Rabbinic Literature, ed. Charlotte E. Fonrobert and Martin S. Jaffee (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 75–96. Daniel Boyarin, “Hellenism in Jewish Babylonia,” in The Cambridge Companion to the Talmud and Rabbinic Literature, ed. Charlotte E. Fonrobert and Martin S. Jaffee (Cambridge: Cambridge University

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the influence of Christianity, 133 placing the Babylonian Talmud in its Iranian context, 134 as well as the Nestorian and Christian Monastic Literature, and their potential influence on the Babylonian Talmud. 135 These are just a few of the many studies that illuminate the contexts in which ideas developed and changed within rabbinic literature. I utilize these studies and others to enrich my understanding of the developments within rabbinic literature as a combination of an internal process of scriptural exegesis and interpretation, and a dialogue with ideas from the surrounding environment.

SUMMARY This chapter dealt with a number of essential elements that will serve as the foundation for this study. First, it is my contention that Elijah’s messianic role, which developed in part as a teacher of wisdom, influenced the development of Elijah’s role in rabbinic legends. The role of the wisdom tradition as the connecting element between the two seemingly disparate portrayals of Elijah will be demonstrated through an analysis of the texts. This study differs from past scholarship in that it analyzes the Elijah traditions in light of wisdom, and further documents a connection between the development of Elijah’s role in the messianic era and his evolution in rabbinic legends. Past scholarship on Elijah has seen a movement from an anthological description of Elijah’s role in rabbinic literature to one that focuses more on the progression of the Elijah traditions through time. Utilizing the method of a diachronic approach to the study of the texts will hopefully illuminate the development of the Elijah traditions. Central to the thesis of this book is the significance of Second Temple developments and the impact that these ideas had on rabbinic literature. Therefore the methodological issues in drawing parallels between the Second Temple and rabbinic time Press, 2007), 336–64. 133 Daniel Boyarin, Border Lines: The Partition of Judeao-Christianity (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004). 134 Yaakov Elman, “Middle Persian Culture and Babylonian Sages: Accommodation and Resistance in the Shaping of Rabbinic Legal Tradition,” in The Cambridge Companion to the Talmud and Rabbinic Literature, ed. Charlotte E. Fonrobert and Martin S. Jaffee, 1st ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 165–97. Yaakov Elman, “Acculturation to Elite Persian Norms and Modes of Thought in the Babylonian Jewish Community of Late Antiquity,” in Neti’ot le-David: Jubilee Volume for David Weiss Halivni, ed. Yaakov Elman, Ephraim Bezalel Halivni, Zvi Arie Steinfeld (Jerusalem: Orhot, 2004), 31–56. 135 Isaiah Gafni “Ḥiburim nestori’aniyim ke-meqor le-toldot yeshivot be-Bavel,” Tarbiẕ 51 (1981): 567–76; Jeffrey Rubenstein, “A Rabbinic Translation of Relics,” in Crossing Boundaries in Early Judaism and Christianity: Ambiguities, Complexities and Half Forgotten Adversaries: Essays in Honor of Alan F. Segal, ed. Kimberly B. Stratton and Andrea Lieber (Leiden; Boston: Brill, 2016), 314–32. Michal Bar-Asher Siegal, Early Christian Monastic Literature and the Babylonian Talmud (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2013).

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periods was discussed. As Fraade points out, when tracing developments from different time periods, it is important to stress both similarities and differences, as well as to understand the complex and dynamic nature of the development of traditions and ideas within Judaism. It is the complex and dialectical nature of wisdom, apocalypticism, and messianism, both in Second Temple texts and in rabbinic literature that this study wishes to explore through the lens of the Elijah traditions. The challenge of dating rabbinic sources was also discussed. Acknowledging the complexity of dating rabbinic texts is essential to understanding the limitations of the endeavor, as well as the method used in order to utilize the sources to the best of our ability. The following chapter will discuss the definition of the terms wisdom, apocalypticism and messianism, and the methodological concerns that accompany the usage of those terms.

CHAPTER TWO. DEFINING WISDOM, APOCALYPTICISM, AND MESSIANISM: METHODOLOGICAL CONCERNS Before beginning our discussion of Elijah as a bearer of wisdom and his development in rabbinic literature, it is important to deal with a few more methodological issues. The following section will discuss genre theory and its application in defining wisdom literature. This will lead to a discussion regarding the attitude of rabbinic literature to wisdom and the challenges of tracing wisdom in non-wisdom sources. This chapter will also define the terms ‘apocalypse’, ‘apocalypticism’, and ‘messianism’ in order to delineate the aspects of each of these categories. 1

GENRE THEORY AND DEFINING WISDOM Past scholarship, in an attempt to create a more cohesive understanding of wisdom, strove to clearly define the genre ‘Wisdom’ and the biblical works that could be incorporated into it. The attempt to define wisdom by studying its prototypical examples of Proverbs and Ecclesiastes mostly followed Herman Gunkel’s method of formcritical analysis. Its goal was to study the forms of texts in order to both define genres and to place other works within those groups. 2 This method of study is most strongly demonstrated by the SBL conferences, which produced the Semeia volumes providing 1

It is important to note that these terms deal with different kinds of categories. Wisdom is a category that arose from analysis of biblical texts which highlighted the importance of ḥokhma, ‘wisdom’. Apocalypse refers to a genre of literature describing heavenly ascents, and apocalypticism refers to the ideas that stemmed from these works. Messianism refers to ideas pertaining to the expectation of redeeming figures in the End of Days. This chapter will discuss all of these categories in detail. 2 Herman Gunkel, The Folktale in the Old Testament, trans. M.D. Rutter (Sheffield: Almond Press, 1987) and see critique of his methods, Kenton L. Sparks, Ancient Texts for the Study of the Hebrew Bible: A Guide to the Background Literature (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2005), 5–21.

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cohesive definitions for different biblical genres. 3 These scholars worked under the assumption that genres are fixed and static, so either a work belongs to a certain genre or functions outside of it. Works that stand on the periphery of these genres serve to complicate the attempt at creating a set of defining characteristics of the genres. This complexity has plagued the study of wisdom literature, resulting in a multitude of definitions as to what does or does not belong within the wisdom corpus. Crenshaw describes wisdom in general as, “the reasoned search for specific ways to ensure personal well-being in everyday life, to make sense of extreme adversity and vexing anomalies, and to transmit this hard-earned knowledge so that successive generations will embody it.” 4 Crenshaw makes a distinction between form and content. He expresses that the style and form of wisdom is seen through “proverbial sentence or instruction, debate, intellectual reflection” and its content is represented through themes such as “self-evident intuitions about mastering life for human betterment, gropings after life’s secrets with regard to innocent suffering, grappling with finitude, and quest for truth concealed in the created order and manifested in Dame Wisdom.” 5 Crenshaw explains that when there is a combination of form and content there is wisdom literature, but lacking the form, texts can be understood as participating in these wisdom traditions to a greater or lesser extent. Recently, scholars have questioned the rigidity of Crenshaw’s definition of wisdom as a combination of form and content. For example, one of the major challenges to the static definition of wisdom is that it views wisdom literature as only including works utilizing the type of wisdom forms present in the biblical works of Proverbs and Ecclesiastes, and finds works that veer from those prototypes problematic. Scholars such as Stuart Weeks and Mark Sneed have questioned whether the wisdom tradition indeed has one form, since Job itself stands outside the form found in Proverbs and Ecclesiastes, while sharing many of the concerns of those wisdom texts. 6 The role of the Psalms in the wisdom tradition is also a contentious topic amongst scholars of biblical wisdom, since the Psalms do not fit the form of the wisdom works, yet do reflect wisdom concepts. 7 Weeks and Sneed contend that wisdom can be found in nuSee Semeia 11 Early Christian Miracle Stories (1978); Semeia 20 Pronouncement Stories (1981); Semeia 29 Kingdom and Children: Aphorism, Chreia, Structure (1983); Semeia 36 Early Christian Apocalypticism: Genre and Social Setting (1986). 4 James L. Crenshaw, Old Testament Wisdom: An Introduction (Atlanta: John Knox Press, 1981), 4. 5 Crenshaw, Old Testament Wisdom: An Introduction, 19. 6 Stuart Weeks, “Wisdom, Form and Genre,” in Was There a Wisdom Tradition? New Prospects in Israelite Wisdom Studies ed. Mark Sneed (Atlanta: SBL Press, 2015), 161–77; Stuart Weeks, “The Place and Limits of Wisdom Revisited,” in Perspectives on Israelite Wisdom: Proceedings of the Oxford Old Testament Seminar, ed. John Jarick (Bloomsbury T&T Clark, 2015), 3–23; Mark Sneed, “‘Grasping After the Wind’ The Elusive Attempt to Define and Delimit Wisdom,” in Mark Sneed, Was There a Wisdom Tradition? 39–67. 7 Regarding the category of wisdom psalms, see James L. Crenshaw, “Wisdom Psalms?” CR:BS 3

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merous works throughout the Bible, and a text’s form should not disqualify it from being considered part of the wisdom tradition. Furthermore, as a result of the unique nature of Proverbs and Ecclesiastes in the Bible, some scholars concluded that the genre of wisdom reflects a complete worldview that sets it apart from other biblical works. They concluded that wisdom’s unique quality represents the work of sages who stood in opposition to priests and prophets. 8 The defining characteristics that set wisdom apart from other biblical works are its stress on the human-mind in attaining wisdom, a lack of interest in revelatory mediums like prophecy, and a universalistic worldview shown by a lack of interest in the particularistic historical narrative of Israel. These assumptions led certain scholars to downplay any deviations from this worldview that appear in the biblical wisdom works, and to view them as later interpolations. Furthermore, there was apprehension in extending the wisdom tradition to other biblical texts, since according to this theory, wisdom stands in opposition to the central themes of many biblical works. Therefore, there was a rejection of attempts to identify wisdom themes in some psalms and in biblical narratives. 9 For example, Crenshaw rejects the concept of wisdom psalms, as he states: My own research in the Psalter leads me to question the very category of wisdom psalms… True, a few psalms treat the same topics that invigorate the author of the book of Job (Ps 37, 49 and 73) and reflect on life’s brevity like Ecclesiastes (Ps 39), but these subjects probably exercised the minds of all thoughtful people. I do not see any profit in attributing such psalms to the sages when we know so little about the authors and their social contexts. Perhaps we should limit ourselves to what can definitely be affirmed: some psalms resemble wisdom literature in stressing the importance of learning, struggling to ascertain life’s meaning, and employing proverbial lore. Their authorship and provenance matter less than the accuracy and profundity of what they say. 10

Crenshaw’s conclusions are based on assumptions regarding the polarity between wisdom and other biblical works. According to Crenshaw, wisdom was viewed negatively by other biblical traditions, and therefore it is very unlikely that those traditions would also stem from wisdom circles. Therefore any reflection of wisdom from other 8 (2000): 9–17; Kenneth J. Kuntz, “Reclaiming Biblical Wisdom Psalms: A Response to Crenshaw,” CBR 1 (2003): 145–54; James Crenshaw, “Gold Dust or Nuggets? A Brief Response to J. Kenneth Kuntz,” CBR 1, 2 (2003): 155–58; Katherine Dell, “‘I Will Solve My Riddle to the Music of the Lyre’ (Psalm LXIX 4 [5]); A Cultic Setting for Wisdom Psalms?” VT 54 (2004): 445– 58. 8 Crenshaw, Old Testament Wisdom: An Introduction, 243–47. 9 James Crenshaw, “Method in Determining Wisdom Influence Upon ‘Historical’ Literature,” JBL 88, 2 (1969): 129–42. 10 Crenshaw, “Wisdom Psalms?” 15.

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texts cannot be a result of ‘wisdom sages’. However, Sneed questions the demarcation between sages of wisdom and other scribes, prophets, or priests. 11 As he states, “He [Crenshaw] believes that this group [the sages] and its literature reflect a ‘unified world view’ or ‘particular attitude toward reality’ different from those of priest and prophet.” 12 The idea that these groups were mutually exclusive is false, according to Sneed. If one views the role of the sages as being involved in all the different biblical genres, it is much more likely that ideas present in one genre will also be present in the other genres as well. Furthermore, Sneed believes that the idea of a genre reflecting a complete worldview is incorrect and can be misleading. 13 Additionally, with the appearance of revelatory and particularistic elements in Ben Sira, Wisdom of Solomon and the Dead Sea Scrolls, the central role of wisdom as diametrically opposed to those elements is put substantially into question. Douglas Miller also points out that in ancient Mesopotamia there was no clear line of division between human wisdom and its divine source. Rather, the religious nature of all forms of wisdom and connection to the gods in both Egyptian and Mesopotamian texts reflects a more complex interaction between wisdom and the divine. Miller states: It is important to recognize, however, that wisdom-like writings elsewhere in the Ancient Near East likewise reflect an openness to divine interruption and to knowledge obtained not strictly through ordinary experience with the five senses. Only rarely, however, do we find explicit claims to a divine source in such wisdom. On the other hand, a lack of reference to the divine does not necessarily imply a non-theological understanding of wisdom. In Prov 2:1–8, for example, both aspects of this paradoxical, or perhaps synergistic, understanding are manifest together in the same wisdom poem (to paraphrase): “if you make wisdom a high priority and seek it with all your being, you will find it … because the Lord gives wisdom.” 14

Therefore, the reemergence of the theme of God as the source of wisdom, as well as the particularistic element, in works such as Ben Sira and Wisdom of Solomon in the Second Temple period, may not reflect a major shift in the theology of the wisdom tradition, but rather a move from an implicit connection with these aspects of the Jewish tradition to an explicit mention of these ideals within the body of wisdom literature. Sneed most strongly contends that even within earlier wisdom literature there are Mark Sneed, “Is the ‘Wisdom Tradition’ a Tradition,” CBQ 73, 1 (2011): 50–3. The demarcation of these different groups is expressed by Herman Gunkel, “The Literature of Ancient Israel,” in Relating to the Text: Interdisciplinary and Form-Critical Insights on the Bible, ed. Timothy J. Sandoval, Carleen Mandolfo, and Martin J. Buss, JSOTSup 384 (London; New York: T&T Clark, 2003), 26–83. 12 Sneed, “Is the ‘Wisdom Tradition’ a Tradition?” 50. 13 Sneed, “Is the ‘Wisdom Tradition’ a Tradition?” 59–64. 14 Douglas B. Miller, “Wisdom in the Canon: Discerning the Early Intuition,” in Mark Sneed, Was There a Wisdom Tradition? 105, n.42. 11

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elements of particularism and revelatory elements that should not be dismissed as aberrations. 15 Sneed believes that a genre may reflect conventions of writings but cannot define the entire worldview of the author. For example, as wisdom texts are usually didactic in nature and deal with an individual’s proper behavior in society, they do not focus on the national-historical narrative of Israel. However, this lack of focus does not necessarily indicate a rejection of these concepts or an expression of their nonimportance. Therefore one should not be shocked to find wisdom elements in prophetic and priestly works, since these traditions are not mutually exclusive. Different scribal classes, prophetic and priestly groups, all share in these traditions. A prime example is the book of Ezekiel, which seems to be influenced by all these elements simultaneously. 16 According to Sneed, arguments excluding works from the wisdom tradition are fueled by circularity since they are based on an artificial scholarly construct of the “worldview of wisdom.” Meaning, Crenshaw’s assumption that wisdom literature developed within a confined group that held a specific worldview which rejected elements of covenant and revelation, created the framework by which Crenshaw dismisses the role of wisdom in other texts. Crenshaw’s assumptions are based on Gunkel’s connection between genre and worldview, as Sparks explains: “Gunkel presumed that each piece of literature belonged to only one genre, that each genre stemmed from one unique Sitz im Leben, and that the relationship between form and context was essentially inflexible.” 17 Sneed dismisses these assumptions and states that the lack of mention of certain elements within biblical wisdom works does not reflect the complete worldview of the author, but rather the nature of the genre, and its attempts at a universalistic tone. 18 Recently, scholars such as Carol Newsom, Kenton Sparks, Stuart Weeks, Mark Sneed, and others have applied the concepts of genre theory to the analysis of different biblical genres such as ‘apocalypse’ and wisdom, as well as others. 19 Although these 15 Mark Sneed, “Introduction,” in Mark Sneed, Was

There a Wisdom Tradition? 1–8. Mark Hamilton, “Riddles and Parables, Traditions and Texts: Ezekielian Perspectives on Israelite Wisdom Traditions,” in Mark Sneed, Was There a Wisdom Tradition? 241–62. 17 Kenton L. Sparks, Ancient Texts for the Study of the Hebrew Bible: A Guide to the Background Literature (Massachusetts: Hendrikson Publishers, 2005), 6. 18 Sneed, “Is the ‘Wisdom Tradition’ a Tradition?” 68–71. 19 For works on genre theory and biblical studies, see Brent D. Sandy and Ronald L. Giese Jr., eds. Cracking Old Testament Codes: A Guide to Interpreting Literary Genres of the Old Testament (Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1995); Kenton Sparks, Ancient Texts for the Study of the Hebrew Bible: 6–21; Stuart Weeks, “Wisdom, Form, and Genre,” in Mark Sneed, Was There a Wisdom Tradition? 161–78; Carol Newsom, “Spying Out the Land: A Report from Genology,” in Bakhtin and Genre Theory in Biblical Studies, ed. Roland Boer (Atlanta: SBL Press, 2007), 19–30; Martin J. Buss, “Dialogue in and Among Genres,” in Bakhtin and Genre Theory In Biblical Studies, 9–18; Mark Sneed, “‘Grasping After the Wind’: The Elusive Attempt to Define and Delimit Wisdom,” in Mark Sneed, Was There a Wisdom Tradition? 39– 16

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developments in genre theory date back to the 1980s, they had not been applied to biblical literature until recently. Indeed, many of the questions and debates within genre theory are similar to those within the study of biblical literature in their attempt to classify different works. 20 The contribution of modern genre theory is that it does not view genres as static classes but rather as dynamic and constantly changing. 21 Alastair Fowler, one of the proponents of the dynamic nature of genre, states that genre is more like a ‘type’ and less of a ‘class’ in regard to classification. He states: “When we assign a work to a generic type, we do not suppose that all its characteristic traits need be shared by every other embodiment of the type… In this way a literary genre changes with time, so that its boundaries cannot be defined by any single set of characteristics such as would determine a class.” 22 Therefore, viewing genre as a ‘type’ enables room for variety within a genre as well as for change and development. Furthermore, Fowler contends that each work that engages the genre both challenges its boundaries as well as redefines them. Newsom points out that this idea is similar to the Bakhtin concept of “texts as utterances in dialogical relationship to one another.” 23 Not only is every utterance unique but also must be conceived of as a reply to what has gone before. Thus every instance of a genre can be understood as a reply to other instances of that genre and as a reply to other genres, whether or not selfconsciously conceived of as such. The dialogical relationship carries forward the ever changing configuration of the genre. 24

The understanding of genre as a dynamic category may help explain the evolution of wisdom within Second Temple texts. The changes that occur in Second Temple wisdom texts can be viewed as not necessarily a break from biblical wisdom but rather as a natural progression of the genre. Certain important aspects of wisdom are retained, while other ideas and concepts are integrated into these new wisdom works. Fowler discusses a development within genres in which the ‘kind’ (genre) reaches a certain fixed state that creates its end, called ‘automazation’ or ‘habitualization’. This is defined as “The process whereby literary devices or entire genres lose their potency and 68. 20 On the history of the study of genre, see John Swales, Genre Analysis: English in Academic and Research Settings (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 33–61; David Duff, “Introduction,” in Modern Genre Theory, ed. David Duff (New York: Longman, 2000), 1–24. 21 Alastair Fowler, Kinds of Literature: An Introduction to the Theory of Genres and Modes. (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1982); John Frow, Genre. New Critical Idiom. (London: Routledge, 2005). For a summary of genre theory see Sneed, The Social World of the Sages, 183–5. 22 Fowler, Kinds of Literature: An Introduction to the Theory of Genres and Modes, 38. 23 Mikhail Bakhtin, The Dialogic Imagination, trans., Caryl Emerson and Michael Holquist (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1981), 28. 24 Newsom, “Spying Out the Land: A Report from Genology,” 28.

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cease to be perceived as artistic entities as a result of formulaic repetition and over familiarity.” 25 However, Fowler explains that ‘automazation’ does not necessarily connote the end of the influence of the ‘kind’ on literary works, rather the kind transforms into ‘modes’ of literature as opposed to a ‘kind’ or ‘genre’. Modes are less constricted by form than genres, for which form is an essential element. A modal term is usually adjectival in that it describes a type of genre, as in the term ‘comic novel’. The work is not a comedy, it is a novel, but its mode is a comical one. Mark Sneed identifies wisdom as a mode as opposed to a genre, 26 however, more subtly it seems that wisdom began as a genre, since it is modeled by typical forms found in ancient Egyptian and Mesopotamian texts. The specific form of wisdom began to shift, transforming its influence in Second Temple literature from a genre to a mode. Modern genre theory is influenced—amongst a number of things—by Wittgenstein’s discussion of categories and ‘family resemblance’. Wittgenstein points out with respect to categorization that there can be many different elements that comprise a group of things. With regard to ‘games’ for example, there are board games, card games, Olympic games, ball games, and so on. When viewing games together, one may not find something common to all of them, despite certain similarities and relationships with one another. As Wittgenstein states, “We see a complex network of similarities overlapping and criss-crossing: sometimes overall similarities, sometimes similarities of detail. And I shall say: ‘games’ form a family.” 27 Fowler adopts this concept in thinking about genre as a way of distinguishing what belongs together and what does not. This perceptual process allows for the inclusion of works that are on the periphery of certain genres, unlike in classical classification, where these works pose a challenge to the set definition. Fowler, on the other hand, sees these peripheral works as essential to understanding the manner in which the genre functions. Similarly, in the study of biblical wisdom, viewing wisdom works as belonging to a certain family, without the necessity for them to share the same characteristics with all the texts in the group, is very helpful. Thereby, the presence of Job does not challenge the understanding of wisdom, but rather reflects an element of its evolution from instructional form to poem and prose. Furthermore, the existence of wisdom Psalms also reflects the ability of wisdom to be expressed in poetic form. However, there has been criticism of the model of ‘family resemblance’, as expressed by John Swales, who states that “family resemblance theory can make anything resemble anything.” 28 This indeed reflects the fear of many wisdom scholars who warn against the ‘pan-sapientializing’ of biblical and other works. 29 Therefore it is 25 David Duff, “Key Concepts in Modern Genre Theory,” in Modern 26 Sneed, “Is the ‘Wisdom Tradition’ a Tradition?” 50–7. 27 Ludwig Wittgenstein, Philosophical

Genre Theory, x.

Investigations (Oxford: Blackwell, 1958), 32. Analysis: English in Academic and Research Setting, 51. 29 Crenshaw expresses this fear, “Method in Determining Wisdom Influence upon ‘Historical’ Literature,” 129–42; Will Kynes, “The Modern Scholarly Wisdom Tradition and the Threat of 28 John Swales, Genre

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important to clarify how one can form a constructive usage of family resemblance within the wisdom tradition without falling prey to the criticisms of those such as Swales. Katherine Dell attempts such a course through focusing on the books of Proverbs and Ecclesiastes as forming the “core of wisdom.” These works form the expectations of the genre through their form, content, and context, yet the genre is not limited to exact replications of each of these categories. Dell highlights the work of Cheung in delineating what relates to wisdom, beyond form and content, as tools with which to identify what belongs within the family of wisdom. Cheung’s contribution to the study of the wisdom psalms will be discussed further below. 30 This method in many ways corresponds to developments in cognitive theory discussed by Newsom that can be helpful in understanding the classification of biblical works. 31 She explains that cognitive theory is useful since genres are categories of speech or literature, and they function in a similar way to other mental categories. Cognitive theory states that conceptual categories are defined by a recognition of prototypical examples by which all other examples are judged, as opposed to finding distinctive features that every member of the group possesses. For example, Elanor Rosch, in her study on the categorization of birds, observes that people tend to treat robins and sparrows as typical members of the category of birds, while ostriches and penguins are perceived as atypical, but still categorized as birds. This theory is called prototype theory, and is advocated strongly by Michal Sinding. This theory utilizes an ‘idealized cognitive model’ or Gestalt structure, which enables one to organize members of the category along a spectrum spanning from the prototypical cases to those that are atypical. He states, “Categories are thus structured with central and peripheral members. Indeed membership in a category may be a matter of degree.” 32 The placement of Proverbs and Ecclesiastes as the prototypical cases to which other wisdom works should be compared is indeed important. One must also understand that despite other works differing in certain aspects, they still may be considered within the category of wisdom. Each work that engages the wisdom tradition adopts certain elements of the genre, but also adds and alters certain aspects as a manner of communicating something important to the reader. The significance of genre and its slight shifts and changes is discussed by Fowler. He does not view genre as a merely taxonomic construct produced by scholars, but rather a means by which the author communicates with the reader. He states regarding genre, “It is an instrument not of classification or prescription, but of meaning.” 33 When the author chooses to utilize a Pan-Sapientialism: A Case Report,” in Mark Sneed, Was There a Wisdom Tradition? 11–38. 30 Shimon Chi-Chung, Cheung, Wisdom Intoned: A Reappraisal of Classifying Wisdom Psalms (London: Bloomsbury, 2015). 31 Newsom, “Spying Out the Land: A Report from Genology,”19–30. 32 Michael Sinding, “After Definitions: Genre, Categories, and Cognitive Science,” Genre 35, 2 (2002): 186. 33 Fowler, Kinds of Literature: An Introduction to the Theory of Genres and Modes, 22.

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certain genre s/he is attempting to communicate something to the reader. 34 By utilizing a specific genre, certain expectations are formed by the reader and thus the work will be judged in that light. Therefore, the utilization of wisdom elements within a text is relevant, as it places the reader in a specific frame of mind, and the adoption and integration of other elements in the text affect the message communicated to the reader. Thus, it is not necessary to completely disregard the unique manner in which wisdom texts deal with certain fundamental issues and their influence upon other biblical works. Many scholars maintain that there are still unique elements comprising the wisdom tradition, even though there are wisdom texts that espouse and integrate some elements from other traditions. 35 There are many unique aspects of the wisdom works that do constitute a tradition, and these elements continued to develop within the wisdom tradition itself through interaction with other modes of thought from within and from without the biblical tradition. The movement away from pigeonholing wisdom into one form and allowing for its usage and influence on different biblical works such as Psalms, Ezekiel, and Daniel allows for a greater understanding of the convergence of different genres and modes of thought that are so prevalent in Second Temple literature. 36 This development informs the fusion of the wisdom and apocalyptic traditions in many Second Temple works that has dumfounded many scholars, since the two genres were understood to have such disparate worldviews. Genre theory clarifies how these changes are essential to the way genres work. The blending of genres is an essen34 The criticism of Kenton Sparks and Mark Sneed is in the limited definition of the ideological

message of wisdom. Fowler believes that genre is an important tool which the author utilizes to communicate to its readers. Therefore, the fact that a work utilizes wisdom is relevant to what the author is attempting to communicate to the reader. What exactly that specific message is may be different from what earlier scholars posed regarding the preference of human discernment vs. revelation, or universalistic vs. particularistic outlook, which is what Sneed and Weeks express a rejection of. 35 See, Michael V. Fox, “Three Theses on Wisdom,” in Mark Sneed, Was There a Wisdom Tradition? 69–86; Miller, “Wisdom in the Canon: Discerning the Early Intuition,” 87–114; Annete Schellenberg, “Don’t Throw the Baby Out with the Bathwater: On the Distinctness of the Sapiential Understanding of the World,” in Mark Sneed, Was There a Wisdom Tradition, 115–44. 36 For the influence in Ezekiel see Mark Hamilton, “Riddles and Parables, Traditions and Texts: Ezekielian Perspectives on Israelite Wisdom Traditions,” in Mark Sneed, Was There a Wisdom Tradition? 241–62; Jonathan Stokl, “‘A Youth Without Blemish, Handsome, Proficient in all Wisdom, Knowledgeable and Intelligent’: Ezekiel’s access to Babylonian Culture,” in Exile and Return: The Babylonian Context, ed. Jonathan Stökl and Caroline Waerzeggers (Boston; Berlin: de Gruyter, 2015), 223–52. He draws a connection between Ezekiel and the scribal class in Babylonia, although he does not directly allude to wisdom. In light of the connection of wisdom within these scribal groups, it seems relevant to the discussion.

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tial part of their evolution and function as an indication to the reader of essential messages the author is trying to convey. This merging of different genres can also be informed by ‘conceptual blending’ as proposed by cognitive theory. 37 Carol Newsom expresses that conceptual blending may also be used as a tool in understanding the manner in which two or more mental schemata are integrated to form new concepts. 38 This blending is highlighted in the merging of the apocalyptic and wisdom traditions, and can perhaps inform the manner in which such ideas are understood. Another factor in understanding the transformation of wisdom is through the process of modal transformation. Fowler points to a transformation within genres, in which aspects of the genre are adopted within other genres and utilized to create new forms. This transformation is very useful in understanding the influences of Apocalypses on other kinds of works, such as rabbinic traditions, which are not apocalypses but utilized apocalyptic ideas. The term apocalyptic and its appearance in nonapocalypses is a perfect reflection of the modal transformation of apocalypse from a genre to a mode. This transformation can also be applied to wisdom and will be further discussed in Chapter Three, which will delve into the Second Temple background of wisdom. First, however, it is important to understand the nature of wisdom as it developed in the biblical period.

BIBLICAL WISDOM It is important to understand the nature of biblical wisdom so that it may serve as a template for understanding future changes in the wisdom tradition. Sneed discusses the different types of wisdom and the circles in which wisdom developed. He mentions seven different kinds of wisdom: Amateur Wisdom, Divine Wisdom, Royal Wisdom, Professional/Technical Wisdom, Mantic Wisdom and Magic, Rhetorical Wisdom, and Literary/Aesthetic wisdom. 39 Each of these different types of wisdom are on some level discussed and mentioned in the biblical corpus. The usage of the root ‫ חכם‬to indicate cleverness and cunning is seen in 2 Sam 20:15–22. The connection of wisdom with the Divine is seen in Prov 2:6–7. In Exod 31:1–6, wisdom is associated with the professional/technical wisdom of Bezalel in crafting the vessels for the tabernacle. The role of Royal Wisdom is clearly portrayed through Solomon and his connection with the biblical wisdom books, as well as his quest for knowledge in 1 Kings 3. The role of Mantic Wisdom is perceived in the Joseph story, as well as in the book of Gilles Fauconnier and Mark Turner, The Way We Think: Conceptual Blending and the Mind’s Hidden Complexities (New York: Basic Books, 2002). 38 Newsom, “Spying Out the Land: A Report from Genology,” 29. Michael Sinding applies this theory to literature. See, “Conceptual Blending and the Origins of Genres,” (paper presented at the Cognitive Approaches to Literature Session of the Modern Language Association Convention Philadelphia, 28 December 2004). 39 Mark R. Sneed, The Social World of the Sages: An Introduction to Israelite and Jewish Wisdom Literature (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2015), 15–6. 37

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Daniel. The importance of Rhetorical and Literary Wisdom is seen in Proverbs with its aphorisms that highlight the importance of eloquent speech and the quest for meaning, which is at times presented in riddle form. 40 The different circles or types of sages associated with the wisdom tradition varied over time as well. The role of wisdom in different social settings contributed to its eclectic nature and, as a result, the concept of ‘sages’ and ‘wise ones’ varied. 41 According to Sneed, the scribal influence on the biblical wisdom tradition is the most significant element. The focus on wisdom as one of the skills that the scribe must attain is clearly expressed in Ben Sira: The wisdom of the scribe depends on the opportunity of leisure, only the one who has little business can become wise. How different the one who devotes himself to the study of the law of the Most High! He seeks out the wisdom of all the ancients, and is concerned with prophecies; he preserves the saying of the famous and penetrates the subtleties of parables; he seeks out the hidden meaning of proverbs and is at home with the obscurities of parables. He serves among the great and appears before rulers; he travels in foreign lands and learns what is good and evil in the human lot (38:24, 38:34–39:4; NRSV) 42

The wisdom tradition in Jewish thought is epitomized by the biblical wisdom works Proverbs, Job, Ecclesiastes, and according to some scholars, “Wisdom Psalms.” The development of these works was complex and is debated by biblical scholars. 43 It is clear though that the biblical wisdom works present a close affinity to the wisdom traditions in Egypt and Mesopotamia, such as the “Instruction of Amenhotep,” “Instruction of Ptahhotep,” the “Instruction of Papyrus Insinger,” as well as Mesopotami40 Sneed, The

Social World of the Sages, 16. Social World of the Sages, 21–2. 42 Sneed, The Social World of the Sages, p. 29, Only the first portion of this quote is preserved in the Hebrew manuscript, Geniza MS B– ‫חכמת סופר תרבה חכמה וחסר עסק הוא יתחכם‬. 43 Crenshaw, Old Testament Wisdom: An Introduction 3rd ed. (Louisville: John Knox, 2010); Roland E. Murphy, The Tree of Life: An Exploration of Biblical Wisdom Literature (New York: Doubleday, 1990); Anthony R. Ceresko, Introduction to Old Testament Wisdom: A Spirituality for Liberation (New York: Orbis, 1999); Leo G. Perdue, The Sword and the Stylus: An Introduction to Wisdom in the Age of Empires (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2008); Stuart Weeks, An Introduction to the Study of Wisdom Literature (London: T&T Clark 2010). As for the place of some psalms within the wisdom tradition, see Herman Gunkel, The Psalms, Trans., Thomas M. Horner, Facet Books: Biblical Series 19 (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1967) and with regard to wisdom psalms see pp. 38–9; James Crenshaw, The Psalms: An Introduction (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2001), 94. Regarding the debate of some psalms as wisdom see Crenshaw, “Wisdom Psalms?” 9–17; Kuntz, “Reclaiming Biblical Wisdom Psalms: A Response to Crenshaw,” 145–54; Crenshaw, “Gold Dust or Nuggets? A Brief Response to J. Kenneth Kuntz,” 155–8; Dell, “‘I Will Solve My Riddle to the Music of the Lyre’ (Psalm LXIX 4 [5]); A Cultic Setting for Wisdom Psalms?” 445–58. 41 Sneed, The

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an works such as Ludlul bēl nēmeqi, “Let me Praise the Lord of Wisdom,” a poem to Marduk. 44 Furthermore, the epic of Gilgamesh with its theme of the search for wisdom, and the ultimate knowledge of humanity’s mortality, relates to wisdom-like themes. These wisdom traditions mostly flourished among the scribal class, and many of the texts produced were used as their study material. 45 Scholars see the development of wisdom within the Israelite tradition as parallel to developments in both Egypt and Mesopotamia. The classification of wisdom literature began most clearly with the identification of the importance of the root ‫חכמ‬, and its parallels, ‫בינה‬, and ‫ שכל‬within the Book of Proverbs. With the first publication of the manuscript of the Egyptian work Instruction of Amenhotep in the year 1922, its many similarities with Proverbs and the universal nature of these wisdom works was highlighted. 46 A few distinguishable characteristics of the book of Proverbs from other biblical works are seen in Proverbs’ form, such as its didactic sayings, experiential sayings, admonitions, and encomiums. Furthermore, Proverbs provided the sapiential vocabulary for future wisdom works, as Harrington points out. 47 Another contribution of Proverbs to the study of wisdom is the centrality of the theme of God’s justice and affirmation of belief in the doctrine of retribution. Proverbs views the idea of reward and punishment as direct results of one’s actions. The wise/righteous will prosper while the foolish/wicked will meet their downfall. Proverbs further discusses important topics dealing with one’s place in society, honesty in business, proper behavior within one’s family, as well as attitudes towards women. One of the central discussions is the theme of ‘Lady Wisdom’ and ‘Lady Folly’, which stand as a metaphor of correct wisdom as opposed to other temptations that may lure one away from achieving wisdom and righteousness (Prov 1–9, especially 5– 7). This introduction of personified wisdom will have a great influence on further works, and Lady Wisdom’s connection with creation will have a strong influence on wisdom’s association with cosmology and cosmogony as expressed in Prov 3:19 and 8:22–31. The role of wisdom as an all-pervasive force will be further developed in Second Temple texts and will be discussed in the following chapter. 180F

18F

44

Nili Shupak, “The Contribution of Egyptian Wisdom to the Study of Biblical Wisdom Literature,” in Mark Sneed, Was There a Wisdom Tradition? 265–304; John Day, “Foreign Semitic Influence on the Wisdom of Israel and its Appropriation in the Book of Proverbs,” in Wisdom in Ancient Israel: Essays in Honour of J. A. Emerton, ed. John Day et al. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 55–70; Richard, J. Clifford, Wisdom Literature in Mesopotamia and Israel (Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2007). 45 Sneed, The Social World of the Sages, 147–82. 46 E. A. Wallis Budge, Teaching of Amen-Em-Apt, Son of Kanekht (London, 1924; repr. Kessinger Publishing, 2003); J. A. Emerton, “The Teaching of Amenemope and Proverbs XXII 17–XXIV 22: Further Reflections on a Longstanding Problem,” VT 51 (2001): 431–65. 47 Daniel J. Harrington, Wisdom Texts at Qumran (London: Routledge, 1996), 8.

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There are four female characters described in Proverbs: the Strange Woman (‫)אשה זרה‬, Woman Wisdom (‫)חכמה‬, Woman Folly (‫)אשת כסילות‬, and Woman of Substance (‫)אשת חיל‬, as Matthew Goff describes them. 48 Goff explains that Proverbs associates two with wisdom, and antithetical to them are the two figures of folly. Each set represents one actual figure and one allegorical representation of wisdom. As he states, “If Woman Wisdom constitutes an abstract allegory for the wisdom that one should acquire, the Woman of Substance represents wisdom in praxis, the concrete application of wisdom to ordinary life.” 49 The same applies for the negative female characters, the Strange Woman and Woman Folly. One represents an actual figure, while the other is the abstract allegory of foolishness and wickedness. As Goff explains, “…[The Strange Woman] represents a type of woman the intended audience could encounter in daily life—women who are disloyal to their husbands, promiscuous and ultimately dangerous.” 50 The significance of the interpretation of the Strange Woman as an actual seductress is that it reflects the first reference to the dangers of sexual promiscuity and the importance of its avoidance within the literature of the wisdom tradition. This theme occurs in a number of the Elijah narratives, specifically in Amoraic and Post-Amoraic sources, and is one of the aspects that link Elijah’s persona with wisdom. One example is found in bYoma 19b–20a, where Elijah reveals that the Messiah has not arrived because of sexual promiscuity. This and others will be discussed in future chapters. Lady Wisdom is also depicted as a female calling out in the streets to all those interested in heeding her words, which suggests wisdom’s accessibility. The idea that wisdom is attainable is another element of the unique view of Proverbs. In contrast, Ecclesiastes and Job represent a different approach which views wisdom of God’s ways as ultimately unattainable. These two works typify what scholars denote as ‘skeptical wisdom’. These works begin to question the doctrine of retribution that views God’s justice as comprehensible, as good actions beget reward and evil deeds beget punishment. Job and Ecclesiastes do not deny the doctrine of retribution, but rather modify it. Job examines the question of the suffering of the righteous, and since Job himself experiences great suffering while maintaining his righteousness, he ultimately questions, “Where shall wisdom be found?” 51 182F

183F

184F

Matthew Goff, “The Personification of Wisdom and Folly as Women,” in Ancient Judaism, Deuterocanonical and Cognate Literature Studies, Volume 28: Religion and Female Body in Ancient Judaism and Its Environments, ed. Geza G. Xeravits (Berlin; Boston: de Gruyter, 2015), 129–30. 49 Matthew Goff, “The Personification of Wisdom,” 131. 50 Mathew Goff, “The Personification of Wisdom,” 133. Goff goes on at length differentiating between the Strange Woman and Woman Folly, he views Woman Folly as an actual figure, while the Strange Woman is an abstract understanding of the values which she personifies. 51 Mark Sneed, The Social World of the Sages, 325–28. 48

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Ecclesiastes portrays this skeptical wisdom by questioning the axioms of wisdom as represented by Proverbs. He states that there are times when the righteous die in their righteousness, while the wicked prosper in their evil ways. As A. Schoors expresses it, “…Qohelet tests wisdom tenets against the realities of life and finds that act and result are often incongruous.” 52 At the same time, Ecclesiastes clearly affirms God’s control over nature and the world. God’s greatness is what makes His actions ultimately unfathomable to humanity. Schoors brings examples from Ecclesiastes that highlight this concept, as he states: God has put the sense of eternity in the human heart and, nevertheless, man is not able to find out what God does, to grasp the totality of God’s work ‘from beginning to end’ (3:10–11). However much as man exerts himself, he ‘cannot grasp anything that God makes happen’ (8:17; cf. 11:5). ‘God is in heaven and you are on earth’, as it is said in 5:1. God makes happen everything, he has total control, but humans have no rational access to this divine work. 53

The element of skepticism and the questioning of the doctrine of retribution add an element of the unknown with respect to God’s actions in this world. The rabbinic works relay both of these views in their understanding of God’s justice. On some level, rabbinic works evince a belief in the doctrine of retribution. At the same time, they are aware of the questions raised by Ecclesiastes, and are in a constant dialectic with these two ideas of divine retribution and humanity’s limitations in understanding God’s justice. 54 Job also deals with this conflict, in his own unique manner. The book of Job does not take the distinctive form of the earlier wisdom works, Proverbs and Ecclesiastes, but rather presents itself in prose and poetry throughout the work. This change in form has caused some scholars to question the classification of Job as wisdom. 55 However, with the fluidity of genre theory and the classification of genre into families, it seems clear that Job is, if not a parent of the genre, a close relative. The content of Job reflects ideas like those that stem from Proverbs and Ecclesiastes. Therefore, even within biblical literature, a shift is already underway, moving from didactic sayings towards other forms. The pressing question of theodicy and the ability to discern God’s justice is a central concern of Job and reinforces its strong ties to wisdom. Job’s overall question relates to why God caused his suffering despite his righteousness. Job’s friends each try Antoon Schoors, “Theodicy in Qohelet,” in Theodicy in the World of the Bible, ed. Annti Laato and Johannes Cornelis de Moor (Leiden: Brill, 2003), 406. 53 Schoors, “Theodicy in Qohelet,” 407. 54 Harrington, Wisdom Texts at Qumran, 13. 55 Curt Kuhl, “Neuere Literarkritik des Buches Hiob,” Theologische Rundschau 21 (1953): 311–12, as well as its characterization as a lament see, Claus Westerman, The Structure of the Book of Job: A Form-Critical Analysis (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1981), 1–15. 52

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to console him by attempting to maintain the traditional doctrine of retribution. The friends contend that no man is completely righteous, and thus God’s actions are always just. However, it seems that their attempts to cling to the doctrine of retribution do not satisfy Job, who ultimately maintains that God’s ways are unknowable. As he retorts to his friends: “Can you uncover the mystery of God? Can you attain the perfection of God’s knowledge?” (Job 11:7). Job awaits a future time when God will reveal His ways to him, as in 16:19–21. This method of dealing with the question of theodicy is closest to what Ronald M. Green coined, ‘deferred theodicy’, referring to a future revelation of God’s justice. 56 According to Harrington, questioning the accessibility of wisdom through natural human means gave rise to the view that only through divine revelation can humanity access God’s wisdom, an essential aspect of apocalypticism. 57 Perhaps this can explain the coalescence of revelation with wisdom forms and traditions as seen in some of the Dead Sea Scrolls. The idea that God’s ways are ultimately unknowable is also expressed in God’s answer to Job, presented in a poetic form, which states that God’s work in creation and His ways are ultimately a mystery to mankind (Job 38–41). The hymns that appear dispersed throughout the work resemble certain psalms that have been characterized by some as ‘wisdom psalms’. 58 Perdue classifies the different wisdom Psalms, as Torah psalms (1, 19, 119), Instruction psalms (32, 34, 37), Proverb psalms (112, 127), Reflective (Joban) psalms (49, 73), and a psalm of creation (111). 59 The category of wisdom psalms, as mentioned briefly above, is a matter of scholarly debate, and reflects the overall disagreement regarding the parameters of wisdom literature. 60 However, scholarship has moved towards a stronger connection between wisdom circles and certain psalms. Although scholars debate exactly which psalms should fall under the category of wisdom, almost all agree that there are psalms that reflect a connection with the wisdom tradition. 61 Scholars such as Cheung move away from formal categories or stock phrases as indicators of psalms’ classification as wisdom. Instead, Cheung highlights what he refers to as “salient wisdom features” of psalms. These include a “ruling wisdom thrust,” meaning an overwhelming focus of wisdom related themes within the content of a single work, and an “intellectual tone,” 56 Ronald M. Green, “Theodicy,” Encyclopedia

of Religion 14: 430–41. Texts at Qumran, 13. 58 Sneed, The Social World of the Sages, 379. 59 Perdue, The Sword and the Stylus: An Introduction to Wisdom in the Age of Empires, 2008, 165. There are numerous opinions regarding which psalms should be categorized as wisdom psalms, see the discussion in Diane Jacobson, “Wisdom Language in the Psalms,” in The Oxford Handbook of the Psalms, ed. William P. Brown (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014), 148–57. 60 For a thorough discussion of this debate, see Shimon Chi-Chung Cheung, Wisdom Intoned: A Reappraisal of Classifying Wisdom Psalms, 1–19. 61 cf. note. 43. 57 Harrington, Wisdom

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an aura that pervades the work, usually expressed through stylistic devices such as a method of solving problems through human reason. Lastly Cheung describes “the dominant use of reason to persuade” 62 and “didactic speech intention,” of wisdom Psalms, meaning a focus on teaching and giving over knowledge. 63 This broader understanding of how wisdom manifests itself expands the corpus of wisdom texts, while also highlighting important elements that define wisdom. Thus in the past decade, the understanding of wisdom and its manifestations has changed tremendously, and scholars now view certain hymns and poems as part of the wisdom tradition. The essential implication of this argument to our study is that it makes sense to view other biblical works as being influenced by or being a part of the wisdom tradition, most importantly hymns and psalms. As will be demonstrated throughout this work one of the ways in which the Elijah texts are associated with wisdom is Elijah’s connection with prayers and hymns. The connection of hymns and prayers to wisdom blossomed in the Second Temple era, as seen in the wisdom poems in Ben Sira as well as in certain texts of the Dead Sea Scrolls, such as the Thanksgiving Hymns, Beatitudes 4Q525, Apocryphal Psalms, and the Hymn of Praise of the Community Rule. This evolution plays an important role in understanding the nature of wisdom in the rabbinic material and in a number of the Elijah texts. Therefore it is essential to discuss the development of wisdom within certain prayers and psalms in Second Temple Literature which will be explored in Chapter Three. Another important element introduced by the inclusion of certain biblical psalms into the wisdom tradition is the place of “Torah Psalms” as part of the development of wisdom. These Psalms, 1, 19 and 119, praise the Torah and the Law as a source of wisdom, and shed light on the development of Torah as wisdom found in Ben Sira. For example, Psalm 1 contrasts the way of the wicked with that of the righteous, and points to the study of the Torah as the defining characteristic of the righteous. Psalm 19 begins with a description of God’s work in nature and its declaration of His greatness. It then continues speaking of the wisdom of God’s laws that make the simpleton wise, and the Law’s value as being greater than gold. These ideas resemble the description of wisdom found in Proverbs as being greater than riches, and in Psalm 19 the description is applied directly to the Law and God’s Torah. Psalm 119 is also a continued praise of the Law as wisdom. This element of wisdom continues into the Late Second Temple period and influences rabbinic understanding of wisdom as well. This association of the Law with wisdom is essential to understanding the rabbinic view of halakhah as wisdom and illuminates the role of Elijah as a teacher of the law as one of the facets of his role as a bearer of wisdom. Another important contribution of the wisdom psalms to this study is their connection with pietists. Stephen Geller discusses the connection between certain wisdom psalms and the concept of piety. This linkage is essential in understanding the rela62 Cheung, Wisdom 63 Cheung, Wisdom

Intoned, 31. Intoned, 28–49.

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tionship between the wisdom found in psalms and pietistic circles. It is the contention of this study that circles that were influenced by these pietistic/wisdom traditions were the conduit through which wisdom was retained in the rabbinic material, specifically in the development of the Elijah traditions. Stephen Geller discusses the connection between the concept of piety and what he terms the “old wisdom” tradition. 64 Geller points to the development in Israelite wisdom when the “old wisdom” tradition comes into contact with a “new wisdom.” The “old wisdom” tradition was closer to the universal wisdom traditions of the ancient Near East, where “Nature” served as the main focal point of wisdom and the order of creation was seen as the ultimate truth. In Israelite tradition, this ultimate truth expressed through Nature is referred to as tzedeq and emet. He writes: The order of creation, referred to in Egypt as “truth” (maªat), in Mesopotamia as “right” (measure) and in Israel by such terms as “justice” (tzedeq) and “truth, stability” (émet), manifested itself in the essential unity of natural and moral realms, including the working of the state and the legal system. Creation formed a seamless whole, constantly menaced by the chastised but still lurking forces of chaos that manifested themselves as disorder, societal upheaval, natural disasters like plagues, droughts and famines, and, not least, the disruptive power of sin. 65

It was the job of societies to maintain stability in such chaos through the implementation of just laws, providing for the needs of the cult, remedying the negative consequences of sin, and relaying the correct doctrines to younger generations. The “new wisdom” tradition, on the other hand, perceived the Torah and God’s revelation as the root of all wisdom. The movement away from the universal Nature as a source of wisdom to the more particular Torah created a shift within wisdom circles. There were those who reacted through complete accommodation, which manifested itself in complete devotion to Torah and viewed Nature skeptically as a source of potential idol worship. Such complete accommodation is seen in Psalm 119, which expresses one’s total commitment to God’s Laws as the source of the tzedeq that provides for one’s protection. A second reaction was to remain faithful to Nature, as expressed in Ecclesiastes. The third was an intermediate reaction which combined both ideas of Nature and Torah, or as Geller expressed it, “covenant wisdom.” 66 According to Geller this integrative wisdom is reflected in Psalms 8, 19, 139, and in Job, through their utilization of nature motifs as an expression of God’s greatness.

Stephen A. Geller, “Wisdom, Nature, and Piety in Some Biblical Psalms,” in Riches Hidden in Secret Places: Ancient Near Eastern Studies in Memory of Thorkild Jacobsen, ed. Tzvi I. Abusch (Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 2002), 101–21. 65 Geller, “Wisdom, Nature, and Piety,” 102. 66 Stephen A. Geller, “Fiery Wisdom: Logos and Lexis in Deuteronomy 4,” Prooftexts 14, 2 (1994): 123. 64

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Geller quotes from Psalm 19 which discusses the glory of God and states, “The heavens declare the glory of God the sky proclaims His handiwork… There is no speech, there are no words, Inaudible is their voice.” 67 Geller regards this as the quintessential expression of the integration. He states, “Nothing could make the point more clearly: It is the mere existence of the heavenly bodies… that attests to God’s glory.” 68 This silent sound, Geller points out, is similar to the “still and silent voice” of 1 Kgs 19:12, where God reveals himself to Elijah. 69 It is interesting that this unique expression of God’s greatness is found in the story of Elijah in Kings. Is there perhaps a reflection of such an integrative wisdom tradition in Kings? It remains unclear. However, it would not be surprising if those within the integrative wisdom tradition drew inspiration and utilized these verses to reflect God’s greatness through silence. Geller, through his analysis of Psalm 19, sees the rise of the pious from the circles of this integrative wisdom tradition. The psalm begins with solar imagery that is filled with joy: “He placed in them a tent for the sun, who is like a groom coming forth from the chamber, like a hero, eager to run his course.” The psalm then moves from this description of nature to the greatness of God’s decrees and teachings. This leads to verse 13, “Who can be aware of errors? Clear me of unperceived guilt.” This is a clear reflection of the apprehension of the new Torah piety: the possibility of a sin that was committed unknowingly, which may bring forth dire consequences. This belief in the strict cause-effect doctrine, in which any form of sin would bring about punishment, was the driving force behind the development of the pious man, who attempted to the best of his ability to avoid all sin. Geller states, “The necessity of inwardness and constant demand for self-searching, what might be termed, accurately if anachronistically, the puritan heart of Torah piety, were magnified by the wisdom traditions of the hybrid wisdom piety.” 70 Another interesting element of this extreme piety is the intense zeal that the pious had for God’s law. This is seen in Psalm 139 where the psalm begins with a description of God’s omniscience and omnipotence. God’s greatness is reflected in the wonder of His works, as stated in verses 13–14: “It was You who created my conscience; You fashioned me in my mother’s womb. I praise You, for I am awesomely, wondrously made; Your work is wonderful; I know it very well.” The psalm ends with a completely different tone, one of zeal for God and for the punishment of the wicked. Verses 19–21 state, “O God, if You would slay the wicked—you murderers, away from me! Who invoke You for intrigue, Your enemies who swear by you falsely. O Lord, You know I hate those who hate You, and loathe Your adversaries.” This intense hatred towards the wicked is also reminiscent of Elijah, who says, “I am moved by zeal for the Lord, the God of Hosts, for the Israelites have forsaken Your 67 Ps 19:2–4.

68 Geller, “Wisdom, Nature and Piety,” 112.

69 Geller, “Wisdom, Nature, and Piety,” 114.

70 Geller, “Wisdom, Nature, and Piety,” 114.

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covenant, torn down Your altars, and put Your prophets to the sword” (1 Kgs 19:10). Elijah is only comforted by God when He states that only those who have not worshiped Baal will survive the coming wars. 71 It is this zeal for which the Mekhilta criticizes Elijah, where he is described as defending the honor of God but not of His children. 72 This zealousness seems to contradict the perception of Elijah’s piety, as reflected in the criticism of the Mekhilta. The Mekhilta’s discomfort with Elijah’s zealousness reflects the larger trend of piety’s movement away from zealousness and instead focusing on compassion and acts of kindness. It is clear that zealousness is a characteristic of the pious as described in Psalms, and is reflected in Elijah’s character in Kings. This zealousness can also be seen in regard to the ḥasidim that arise in the Maccabean period, discussed elsewhere. 73 However, it is clear that by the rabbinic period, the ḥasid is perceived more as one who has sympathy and compassion for the downtrodden, the poor, and even the heretics as exemplified by Rabbi Joshua b. Levi. 74 Jesus is also characterized by this more peaceful depiction of piety and is seen by several scholars to be connected to pietistic circles as well. 75 This may explain the stark shift seen in Elijah’s character from the biblical zealot to the intercessor of the people in rabbinic texts. To sum up, Geller describes a development within the wisdom tradition where a universal wisdom focused on Nature as the source of knowledge is in tension with a new wisdom, where the Torah represents the true source of wisdom. This tension led to the rise of an integrative wisdom tradition which applied elements of both of these worldviews. It is this integrative tradition which gives birth to the pietistic set of beliefs defined by the attempt to attain complete perfection. This is done in order to maintain a balance within the natural and moral worlds, leading to a sharp disdain for the wicked and a hope for their ultimate destruction. This tradition continues into the Second Temple period and is reflected in the different prayers and hymns of the time, as well as the philosophical works of Philo which will be discussed in depth in Chapters 3 and 4. Cornelis Bennema discusses the developments in the wisdom tradition as well, dividing wisdom into three different strands in the biblical sources, which then fur71 1 Kgs 19:18.

72 Mekh. R. Ish. Βo, de-Pisḥa 1 (ed. Horovitz-Rabin, 4).

The description of the ḥasidim as ‘mighty warriors of Israel’ is seen in 1 Macc. 2:42; 7:13, 2 Macc. 14:6. 74 Shmuel Safrai, “Ḥasidim ve-’anshe ma‘aseh,” Zion 50 (1985): 137. 75 David Rokeach, “Am Ha-’aretz, the Early Pietists (Ḥasidim), Jesus and the Christians,” in Aux origines juives du christianisme, ed. François Blanchetière, Moshe David Herr (Jerusalem: Diffusion Peeters, 1993), 159–73; Shmuel Safrai, “Jesus and the Ḥasidim,” Jerusalem Perspectives 42–44 (1994): 3–22; Alan J. Avery-Peck, “The Galilean Charismatic and Rabbinic Piety: The Holy Man in the Talmudic Literature,” in The Historical Jesus in Context, ed. Amy-Jill Levine, Dale C. Allison Jr., and John Dominic Crossan (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2006), 149–65. 73

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ther evolved in the Second Temple period into four strands. 76 Before enumerating these strands, Bennema makes clear that they are not necessarily mutually exclusive, and the different strands themselves perhaps were influenced by each other. He states: In fact, the four strands of wisdom tradition are more similar than different, and should be seen as four threads twisted around each other to make up the one string or rope of wisdom tradition; i.e. we would better speak of four varieties of one wisdom tradition. 77

The currents he identifies in the biblical sources are: Torah-Centered, Spirit-Centered, and Apocalyptic-Centered wisdom traditions. In each of these currents, charismatic exegesis is the hermeneutical tool through which exchange is mediated between the Divine and the individual. Within the Torah-Centered strand, wisdom is mediated through God himself, as reflected in the usage of His name to the scribe and/or priest. In the Spirit-Centered strand, wisdom is mediated to the sage through the “Spirit,” and in the Apocalyptic strand, to the seer through the angelus interpres—the mediating angel. These three currents are further developed in the later Second Temple Period. Bennema sees the works of Ben Sira, the wisdom poem in Baruch 3:9–4:4, Rabbinic Literature, 4 Maccabees, and Josephus as a continuation of the Torah-Centered wisdom tradition. Bennema characterizes this wisdom as “nomistic,” meaning that there is an emphasis on Wisdom as the law that is expressed in the Torah. In this strand, the emphasis on Torah as wisdom is clearly stated in Sir 24:23, as well as in other places: 78 76

Cornelis Bennema, “The Strands of Wisdom Tradition in Intertestamental Judaism: Origins, Developments, and Characteristics,” TB 52, 1 (2001): 61–82. 77 Bennema, “Strands of Wisdom,” 67. 78 The exact correlation between Torah and wisdom in Ben Sira is a debated topic amongst scholars, some highlighting the importance of wisdom and the inclusion of the Torah in the framework of wisdom, while others highlight the importance of the Torah, with wisdom falling under its overarching framework. For the former view universalizing the Torah, see Gerhard von Rad, Wisdom in Israel (London: SCM Press Ltd/Trinity Press International, 1972), 245; John J. Collins, Jewish Wisdom in the Hellenistic Age, OTL (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1997), 42–61. For the latter view of the pre-eminence of the Torah see, Martin Hengel, Judaism and Hellenism: Studies in Their Encounter in Palestine During the Early Hellenistic Period, trans. John Bowden, 2 vols. (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1974), 1:160–61; E.P. Sanders, Paul and Palestinian Judaism (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1977), 331; Otto Kaiser, “Covenant and Law in Ben Sira,” in Covenant as Context: Essays in Honour of E.W. Nocholson, ed. A.D.H. Mayes and R. B. Salters (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), 237; E.J. Schnabel, Law and Wisdom from Ben Sira to Paul: A Tradition Historical Enquiry into the Relation of Law, Wisdom, and Ethics, WUNT 2.16 (Tübingen: Mohr, 1985), 69–79. See a discussion of this tension between the particularism of the Torah and the universalism of the wisdom tradition in Greg Schmidt Goering, Wisdom’s Root Revealed: Ben Sira and the Election of Israel (Leiden: Brill, 2009), 6–9. For an in-depth discussion of the development of this concept see,

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“All this [i.e., Wisdom] is the book of the covenant of the Most High God, the Law that Moses commanded us as an inheritance of the congregations of Jacob.” Statements in Pirqe Avot express similar concepts, although the connection is more implicit than that of Ben Sira. Bennema brings many different rabbinic sources as proof for this correlation, which relay that through the study of Torah, and obedience and devotion to the Law, one will achieve wisdom and its many benefits. 79 Bernd U. Schipper and D. Andrew Teeter, Wisdom and Torah: The Reception of ‘Torah’ in the Wisdom Literature of the Second Temple Period (Leiden: Brill, 2013). The identification of wisdom with the Law is seen in seven passages, 15:1; 17:11; 19:20; 21:11; 24:23; 34:8; 45:5, where it is explicitly stated. There are further implicit identifications as well, see R. E. Murphy, “Israel’s Wisdom: Dialogue Between the Sages,” in Light In a Spotless Mirror, ed. James H. Charlesworth and Michael A. Diase (Harrisburg: Trinity Press, 2003), 7–25. 79 Bennema, “Strands of Wisdom,” 69–70, points to numerous traditions as found in Avot, and also some found in Mekhilta, Leviticus Rabbah and Numbers Rabbah, thereby dealing with both Tannaitic and Amoraic texts. One of many examples is Avot 6:1: ‫ ולא עוד אלא שכל העולם‬,‫ כל העוסק בתורה לשמה זוכה לדברים הרבה‬,‫רבי מאיר אומר‬ ,‫ משמח את המקום‬,‫ אוהב את הבריות‬,‫ אוהב את המקום‬,‫ נקרא ריע אהוב‬.‫כלו כדי הוא לו‬ ,‫ וישר ונאמן‬,‫ ומכשרתו להיות צדיק וחסיד‬,‫ ומלבשתו ענוה ויראה‬.‫משמח את הבריות‬ ,‫ שנאמר‬,‫ ונהנין ממנה עצה ותושיה בינה וגבורה‬.‫ומרחקתו מן החטא ומקרבתו לידי זכות‬ ‫ ומגלין לו רזי‬,‫ וחקור דין‬,‫' ונותנת לו מלכות וממשלה‬.‫‘לי עצה ותושיה אני בינה לי גבורה‬ ,‫ ומוחל על עלבונו‬,‫ וארך רוח‬,‫ והוי צנוע‬,‫ וכנהר שאינו פוסק‬,‫ ונעשה כמעין המתגבר‬,‫תורה‬ :‫ומגדלתו ומרוממתו על כל המעשים‬ Rabbi Meir says, anyone who involves himself with Torah for its own sake is rewarded with many things, for the entire world is indebted to it [the Torah]. He [the devotee] is called “a beloved friend,” one who loves the Place [God], one who loves the people, one who makes the Place [God] happy, and makes the people happy. And it will adorn him with humility and fear, and enables him to become righteous and pious, upright and loyal, and distances him from sin and brings him closer to merit. And one gains from it the benefit of advice, resourcefulness, understanding, and strength. For it says, “I am understanding; I have strength” (Prov 8:14) and it gives him kingship and rule, and the investigation of law, and reveals to him the hidden secrets of the Torah, and he becomes like an overflowing spring, and like a never ending river, and he should be humble, and of even temper, forgiving of offenses, and it makes him great and elevates him over all beings. (Translation is my own) Although this is a later, most likely medieval addition to the tractate found in the prayerbook manuscripts, it encapsulates the idea that through the study and practice of the Torah one will gain wisdom as well as the refinement of one’s character. This wisdom is defined as the ability to judge correctly, and knowledge of hidden secrets. Further, the term of friendship with God as a result of the study of Torah/wisdom is reminiscent of language in Wisdom of Solomon, see Bennema “Strands of Wisdom,” 72. For the later dating of this chapter of Avot, See Shimon Sharvit, Nusḥa’oteha uleshona shel masekhet Avot (Ramat Gan: Bar Ilan University Press, 1976), 320–326, as well as M.B. Lerner, “The Tractate Avot,” in The Literature of the Sages Part 1, ed. Shmuel Safrai and Peter J. Tomson (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1987), 273–75.

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Bennema then proceeds to discuss the Spirit-Centered strand and its strongest representations in Wisdom of Solomon and Philo. What distinguishes this strand is a personification/hypostatization of wisdom, which is given as a gift through the Spirit. The connection between wisdom and the Law/Torah is not as direct as in the TorahCentered strand of wisdom. David Winston similarly holds that in Wisdom of Solomon there seems to be no direct link between Torah and Wisdom, but rather more of a focus on the “divine word” and wisdom. 80 However, as Bennema states, Philo does connect Torah and Wisdom, as he maintains the idea that the Torah is the “most important locus of wisdom.” 81 Philo asserts that the goal of life is to envision God, which leads to eternal life. However, due to God’s transcendence and immanence, He can only be known through the aspects of his Being: λόγος Logos/Word, σοφία Sophia/Wisdom, πνεῦμα Pneuma/Spirit. The mediation of wisdom is through the Spirit, as Bennema states, “Philo even calls the divine πνεῦμα ‘the spirit of wisdom,’ (Gig. 24, 27, 47) denoting that the πνεῦμα gives or mediates wisdom.” 82 The third strand is the Apocalyptic wisdom tradition, and it is seen mostly in Palestinian literature such as 1 Enoch and 4 Ezra. In these texts, the unique manifestation of wisdom is that the seer is privy to the heavenly secrets through visions or dreams whose meaning is imparted by a mediating angel. The Torah and its laws are also central to this strand in that the Law is considered the source of life and of wisdom, and disobedience is the source of punishment. 83 Within the later Second Temple period a fourth current developed, according to Bennema, which he coins the “Qumranian Wisdom Tradition.” This tradition seems to glean concepts from all three of the earlier currents and combines them into one. Therefore, one sees the centrality of the Torah, Spirit, and Apocalyptic wisdom together. This matrix is described by Bennema: In sum, the Spirit mediates esoteric wisdom to the community through revelation in order to reveal the true meaning of the Torah, i.e. in order to disclose the wisdom hidden in the Torah. Moreover, also in the Qumran community charismatic exegesis—the Spirit-inspired interpretation of the true meaning of the Torah—is the hermeneutical key to reveal this saving wisdom. Consequently, charismatic exegesis, based on the illumination of the Spirit, is then the means to salvation. Nevertheless, salvation within the Qumran community is, as in the Torah-Centered wisdom tra-

David Winston, The Wisdom of Solomon: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary (Garden City: Doubleday, 1979), 38, 317. 81 Bennema, “Strands of Wisdom,” 73; J.A. Davis, Wisdom and Spirit: An Investigation of 1 Corinthians 1:18 Against the Background of Jewish Sapiential Traditions in the Greco-Roman Period (Lanham: University Press of America, 1984), 52–3. 82 Bennema, “Strands of Wisdom,” 73. 83 Bennema, “Strands of Wisdom,” 75. 80

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dition, also based on human effort: one needs to study and observe the Torah (1QS V, 7–10), and to observe the disciplines of the community (1QS 5–7). 84

The different strands of wisdom have in a way coalesced to form an understanding that the means to attain wisdom are the study of the texts and practice of the Law. This study of the Law is mediated by a “spirit inspired interpretation,” and esoteric wisdom through angelic mediation. Knowledge of both is the means to ultimate salvation. This transformation of wisdom during the Second Temple era lays the foundation for the type of wisdom that is retained within rabbinic works. Although Bennema states that rabbinic literature should be considered part of the nomistic wisdom tradition, this study will show that rabbinic literature engaged in all these different strands of wisdom. I will be utilizing both Bennema’s division of the wisdom tradition, as well as the dynamic nature of genre detailed through genre theory, to analyze rabbinic traditions on Elijah. It will be demonstrated that the Elijah texts display a strong connection to each of these strands of wisdom, portraying a more complex picture of rabbinic literature and its connection to wisdom. Although the TorahCentered strand may be the dominant one in rabbinic literature, the variegated nature of rabbinic literature compels one to see that a simplistic understanding of rabbinic wisdom is not sufficient. 85 While rabbinic works do not share the form of “classical wisdom,” many traditions do retain a wisdom mode. It is those elements that this work believes are highlighted in many of the Elijah traditions. Therefore, by utilizing the dynamism of genre introduced by modern genre theory, the rabbinic traditions analyzed in this work will be viewed as functioning in many ways within the world of wisdom, even though the 84 Bennema, “Strands of Wisdom,” 79. 85 Bennema

states that ‘there is, however, no place for the Spirit in rabbinic charismatic exegesis in “Strands of Wisdom,” 70 fn. 38, relying on J. Neusner, “What ‘The Rabbis’ Thought: A Method and a Result: One Statement on Prophecy in Rabbinic Judaism,” in Pursuing the Text: Studies in Honor of Ben Zion Wacholder on the Occasion of his Seventieth Birthday, ed. J.C. Reeves and J. Kampen, JSOTSup 184 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 1994), 318. This seems to be a bit too extreme of a position, as the role of the Spirit, ‫ רוח הקודש‬as it was known in rabbinic terminology, is a complex one. See Julie Hilton-Danan, “The Divine Voice in Scripture: Ruaḥ ha-Kodesh in Rabbinic Literature” (PhD diss., University of Texas at Austin, 2009). Further Neusner’s conclusions are based on analyzing the sources as complete works, whose parts cannot be isolated through the atomization of the different traditions found in the sources. This reflects a larger debate on the manner in which one should study rabbinic literature. See specifically Daniel Boyarin, “On the Status of the Tannaitic Midrashim,” JAOS 112, 3 (1992): 455–65 especially 456, Boyarin’s method seems to reflect the more accurate manner in which to study the different traditions that are found within the larger corpus, by understanding the process through which individual traditions became part of the whole work, and can at times contradict the ‘overarching framework’ that Neusner found in each of the rabbinic works.

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form and perhaps even the interpretation of certain ideas have shifted from the original prototypical template found in Proverbs and Ecclesiastes. Derrida’s discussion of texts and their genre reflects the manner in which rabbinic literature should be viewed, since it itself is composed of many different genres. He states, “a text cannot belong to no genre...rather one could speak of participation without belonging—a taking part in without being part of, without having membership in a set.” 86 This is precisely the way rabbinic literature engages with wisdom without necessarily being tied down to many of its constrictions.

RABBINIC WISDOM Günter Stemberger, in dealing with the general concept of wisdom in rabbinic literature, attempts to find a definition of ‘wisdom literature’ that would be helpful in exploring the concept of wisdom in rabbinic works. 87 He states that rabbinic teachers considered themselves to be ‘sages’, ḥakhamim; thereby, one could broadly say that all of rabbinic literature is considered to be ‘wisdom literature’. However, clearly that is too broad a definition to be helpful. On the other hand, past scholars have focused mainly on one rabbinic work, Mishnah Avot, which resembles wisdom literature in genre and style. 88 Jack Sanders states this narrow view of wisdom as one that must resemble biblical wisdom in both form and content. He explains, “The rabbis were not, however, engaged in the same enterprise in which Ben Sira was engaged. So what happened to the wisdom tradition? Some species, Alas! cannot survive in new environments and die out.” 89 Sanders’ view is that the wisdom tradition did not survive within rabbinic literature, since the rabbis were not “purveyors of knowledge and advice encapsulated in proverbs.” 90 The narrowing of wisdom to a specific form such as proverbs does not reflect the true nature of wisdom as a genre, nor the evolution of genres into modes, per current genre theory. Stemberger’s conclusions complement the scheme of genre theory, as he notes that limiting wisdom to proverbial sentences is too narrow a definition, since it does not consider other rabbinic texts that are related in some way to earlier wisdom literature. In his study, Stemberger enumerates a long list of texts in which wisdom themes are embedded within the rabbinic corpus. Therefore, this middle-ground approach needs to be taken, where one concentrates on texts and passages of rabbinic literature that deal with the same concerns as earlier Jewish 86 Jacques Derrida, “The Law of Genre,” in David Duff ed., Modern

Genre Theory, 224, 230. Günter Stemberger, “Scribes, Sages, and Seers in Rabbinic Literature,” in Scribes, Sages, and Seers: The Sage in the Eastern Mediterranean World, ed. Leo. G. Perdue (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2008), 295–319. 88 Jack T. Sanders, “Wisdom, Theodicy, Death, and the Evolution of Intellectual Traditions,” JSJ 36 (2006): 263–77. 89 Sanders, “Wisdom, Theodicy, Death, and The Evolution of Intellectual Traditions,” 276– 77. 90 Sanders, “Wisdom, Theodicy, Death,” 276. 87

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wisdom literature. I agree with Stemberger’s approach of going beyond genre and style and searching for concepts found in wisdom traditions in rabbinic literature. I propose that the Elijah texts were one medium through which wisdom traditions were embedded into the rabbinic corpus. The greatest opponent of a dynamic approach to the definition of wisdom, as we discussed, is Crenshaw, who is skeptical regarding the appearance of wisdom in other biblical texts. In his attempt to narrow the phenomenon of ‘pan-sapientializing,’ where wisdom is seen everywhere, Crenshaw proposes a number of methodological considerations. Although this study will view wisdom in a more fluid and dynamic manner, influenced by the developments in genre theory, Crenshaw’s methodological questions will still be addressed and brought to bear on rabbinic literature. First, Crenshaw discusses the importance of an accurate definition of wisdom that is neither too broad nor too narrow, and inclusive as well as exclusive. Crenshaw defines wisdom as, “the quest for self-understanding in terms of relationships with things, people and the Creator.” 91 This search for meaning is reflected on three levels: nature wisdom, juridical/practical wisdom (Erfahrungsweisheit), and theological wisdom. Nature wisdom is described by Crenshaw as an attempt to master things for the purpose of human survival and well-being, and the study of natural phenomena and their relation to man and the universe. Juridical wisdom focuses on proper human behavior, and human relationships in an ordered society. Theological wisdom reflects on the questions of theodicy, meaning the attempt at understanding the existence of evil in tandem with the existence of a just and omnipotent God. These more specific definitions of the different types of wisdom are important in understanding wisdom as it is reflected in the prototypical wisdom works, Proverbs and Ecclesiastes, as well as Job. They serve as the template by which to determine which texts in rabbinic literature deal with these same themes. A second methodological consideration is Crenshaw’s rejection of the method of word tabulation as an indication of wisdom influence. He contends that even though wisdom language may be used in a certain text, it is the overall context of the text that will indicate whether the word is used in a manner that reflects the worldview of the wisdom tradition. According to Crenshaw, in searching for wisdom influence, a search for common words found in wisdom texts is not sufficient, but rather the similar vocabulary must reflect the stylistic and ideological peculiarities found primarily in wisdom literature. This idea emerges from Crenshaw’s assumptions regarding the ideological peculiarity of wisdom literature, which he views as anti-revelatory and universalistic. However, as discussed above, these assumptions regarding the ‘worldview’ of wisdom literature have been put into question. Therefore in this study, a text’s reliance on revelation as an essential element of wisdom, for example, is not a cause for rejecting its place in the wisdom tradition.

91 Crenshaw, “Method in Determining Wisdom Influence upon ‘Historical’ Literature,” 132.

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This leads to the third element, which is the importance of explaining the differences in nuance. Crenshaw explains, “Whenever a wisdom phrase or motif is found outside of wisdom literature, the scholar must determine whether or not the meaning has changed.” 92 The significance of Crenshaw’s position shifts when applying the perspective of modern genre theory. As discussed above, genre theory does not view the changes within meaning and usage as an element which would place a work outside of the genre, but rather as a natural process in the evolution of genres. Therefore, although we may detect words and themes of the wisdom tradition utilized differently than their biblical usage, this should not reflect a rejection of wisdom, but rather a natural development within the genre of wisdom. The fourth methodological consideration that Crenshaw poses is directly related to the relationship of other biblical texts to wisdom. He states that it is important to keep in mind the generally negative attitude towards wisdom in the Bible, and given such attitudes, evaluate if it is possible that certain texts would be influenced by wisdom. The assumption that the biblical wisdom tradition was viewed negatively by other biblical texts has been greatly put into question by Sneed, Weeks, and others as discussed above, and therefore this element of methodological consideration regarding biblical texts is on weaker ground. 93 However, applying this methodological consideration to rabbinic literature and assessing the overall attitude toward wisdom in rabbinic works is essential. The question is what is the attitude of rabbinic literature towards wisdom? Is it possible to speak of a ‘general’ approach towards wisdom in rabbinic literature? Is that approach a negative one? Do different sources have different approaches? These are some of the questions that will be tackled in the following section.

RABBINIC ATTITUDES TOWARDS WISDOM As mentioned above, one of the important methodological concerns Crenshaw poses is determining the general attitude towards wisdom in the non-wisdom texts that are studied. If texts have an overall negative attitude towards wisdom, then indeed it would be more complicated to present certain interpretations as influenced by wisdom. The complexity of rabbinic literature, due to its development in two different geographical areas, as well as across the span of approximately six centuries, and the fact that these works are a compilation of the opinions of hundreds of different individuals, make it difficult to determine if there is a general attitude that can be gleaned from the texts. However, an attempt can be made to view the attitude towards wis-

92 Crenshaw, “Method in Determining Wisdom Influence upon ‘Historical’ Literature,” 133.

Michael Fox questions the assumption that every Gattung has it Sitz im Leben, as seen in his “Three Theses on Wisdom,” in Mark Sneed, Was There a Wisdom Tradition? 69–86. As well as Stuart Weeks and Mark Sneed, “Introduction,” in Mark Sneed, Was There a Wisdom Tradition, 1–8; Weeks, “The Place and Limits of Wisdom Revisited,” 3–23. 93

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dom throughout rabbinic literature, and to assess if different texts or rabbis had different positions regarding wisdom. There are a few ways to tackle this question. One can look at the usage of traditional wisdom texts in rabbinic literature and further delve into how they are utilized. One can study statements made about wisdom within rabbinic literature, and observe if genres and styles of wisdom exist within rabbinic literature. This is indeed an immense challenge. Therefore, at this point, a cursory glance at all of these issues will hopefully be enough to yield a sufficient answer to the question of rabbinic attitudes towards wisdom. The following chart depicts the number of times various wisdom works are mentioned/quoted in central Tannaitic and Amoraic rabbinic texts: Mishnah

Tosefta

Mekhilta

Sifra

Proverbs

19

23

21

1

Ecclesiastes

5

8

6

0

Job

4

10

17

0

Ben Sira

0

1

0

0

Sifre 9– Bem (B) 31–Dev (D) 2–B 17–D 9–B 16–D 0

Yerushalmi

Bavli

81

378– Torah or

47

127

60

197

6

8

A few conclusions can be drawn from this chart: 94 1) The usage of wisdom literature seems to be consistent within each work. Works that do utilize wisdom literature utilize several different works, and those that limit usage of wisdom works, usually show that limitation in their quotation of all the wisdom works. 2) There are some works that had a greater affinity towards one book of wisdom over the other. The Mishnah quotes more from Proverbs than any of the other works, and Tosefta quotes more from Job and Ecclesiastes than the Mishnah does. The Mekhilta utilizes Proverbs and Job, and the Sifre to Devarim shows a greater usage of Wisdom works than the Sifre Bemidbar. 3) Ecclesiastes seems to be utilized the least of them all.

94

These numbers were concluded from a database search of the Bar-Ilan Responsa Project, of titles of the works, as well as the name Solomon. There may be some quotes that do not fall into these search words and are therefore not included in this chart. Furthermore, it is important to note that the Yerushalmi and Bavli are the largest works compared to the Tannaitic texts, and therefore the large number of appearances is a reflection of their size. Therefore the size of each of these works should be taken into consideration in this chart. What can be gleaned from this chart is the extent the different biblical works were utilized in each rabbinic work, and the general usage of wisdom works in rabbinic literature.

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The Book of Proverbs is quoted most frequently in Tannaitic as well as Amoraic literature, and its place in rabbinic literature culminates in the ninth-century work of Midrash Mishlei. The book of Proverbs is well represented in rabbinic literature. Although it is not exhibited as extensively in all of the Tannaitic works, it does appear in some, such as the Mishnah, Tosefta, Mekhilta, and Sifre Devarim more frequently than the others. A more thorough study of the usage of these quotations is needed, but it is beyond the scope of this study. What we can see is that the book of Proverbs was accepted as a source for rabbinic exegesis. The reception of Ecclesiastes does not seem to have been as great as that of Proverbs. In all the sources, Ecclesiastes is the least cited work compared to the other biblical wisdom texts (excluding Ben Sira, which is referenced the least). Job seems to be more popular in Mekhilta and Sifre Devarim (which in general utilizes the wisdom works more than Sifre Bemidbar). 95 So although this tabulation does not tell us about the content of these quotations, we can still observe certain patterns. The second method by which we can determine rabbinic attitudes towards wisdom is by looking into the usage of these works. Marc Hirshman discusses the reception and interpretation of Ecclesiastes in early rabbinic literature, and draws the following conclusions: Due to Ecclesiastes being on the fringe of the biblical experience, specifically with its view of a menacing God, it can only be understood through radical interpretation. 96 The general usage of Ecclesiastes within early rabbinic literature follows the trajectory of reinterpretation; however it seems that the sayings attributed to Rabbi Ishmael reflect an affinity towards Ecclesiastes as it was. Rabbi Ishmael does not shy away from the skeptical approach of Ecclesiastes, and utilizes it in his interpretation of biblical verses. Therefore, although the usual attitude towards Ecclesiastes was one of reinterpretation, there were still some within the rabbinic world that found the wisdom of Ecclesiastes “as it was,” to be a source of inspiration. 97 95

Regarding the biblical manuscripts at Qumran, there is only sparse evidence of the biblical wisdom works. There are two manuscripts of Proverbs, two manuscripts of Ecclesiastes, four manuscripts of Hebrew fragments of Job and two manuscripts of the Targum of Job. See D.D. Swanson, “Dead Sea Scrolls,” The Dictionary of the Old Testament: Wisdom, Poetry and Writings: A Compendium of Contemporary Biblical Scholarship, ed. Tremper Longman III and Peter Enns (Nottingham: Inter-Varsity Press, 2008), 93–5. And two manuscripts of Ben Sira, see Emile Puech, “Ben Sira and Qumran,” in The Wisdom of Ben Sira: Studies on Tradition, Redaction and Theology, ed. Angelo Passaro, and Giuseppe Belliab (Berlin: de Gruyter, 2008), 79–118. 96 One example of this reinterpretation is seen in the later work of the Targum on Ecclesiastes. See Paul V.M. Flescher, “The Wisdom of the Sages: Rabbinic Rewriting of Qohelet,” in Aramaic in Postbiblical Judaism and Early Christianity: Papers from the 2004 National Endowment for the Humanities Summer Seminar at Duke University, ed. Eric M. Meyers, Paul Flesher, and Virgil McCracken (Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 2010), 269–79. 97 Marc Hirshman, “Qohelet’s Reception and Interpretation in Early Rabbinic Literature,” in Studies in Ancient Midrash, ed. James L. Kugel (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2001),

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75

The Book of Job is utilized in rabbinic literature, and unlike Ecclesiastes and Song of Songs, its canonical status was not questioned. 98 Furthermore, Job is cited in many instances, most specifically in cases dealing with questions of theodicy. 99 However, the portrayal of Job’s character in rabbinic literature is a complex one. 100 In mSotah 5:5 there is a debate whether the nature of Job’s relationship with God was of love or fear. It is unclear if this indicates a directly negative view, since the exact essence of each mode is not explicit. Later traditions in the Palestinian and Babylonian Talmud continue to debate the character of Job along these lines, and seem to view worshipping God out of fear as inferior to worshipping out of love. 101 The debate regarding Job’s character is usually framed through a comparison to Abraham, first discussed in tSotah 6:1, and also present in Second Temple literature. 102 Some rabbis give Job the upper hand, while other traditions argue that Abraham is superior. Many view this debate as a response to the more positive view of Job that is espoused in Christian literature. 103 These examples demonstrate that the usage and portrayal of Job is complex: Job is described in both flattering as well as negative terms, and the Book of Job is utilized, among other things, in dealing with the issue of theodicy. As for the Book of Ben Sira, the saying in tYad. 2:13 includes the Book of Ben Sira in the Mishnaic statement regarding works that are not considered holy, and therefore do not render the hands impure, which reflects Ben Sira’s non-canonical status. 104 This Tosefta is often cited as support for finding a negative attitude towards wisdom in the 87–99. 98 tYad. 7:14 states that Song of Songs renders the hands impure, but not Ecclesiastes since the former was said with ‘the Divine Spirit’ while the latter was “from the wisdom of Solomon,” meaning his own musings. See the discussion in tShab. 13:4, in discussion regarding the Targum of Job and the manner in which it is treated. See also Joanna Weinberg, “Job Versus Abraham: The Quest for the Perfect God-Fearer in Rabbinic Tradition,” in The Book of Job, ed. W.A.M. Beuken (Leuven: University Press, 1994), 281–96. 99 For a list of citations see N.N. Glatzer, The Dimensions of Job (New York: Schocken, 1969), 16–18. Further, Weinberg disagrees with the view of R. Gordis that the rabbis overlooked the concerns of theodicy that are present in Job; see R. Gordis, The Book of God and Man: A Study of Job (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965), 22. Weinberg views the rabbinic usage of Job as “unflinching” in the “manner which the Rabbis confronted the major question as to why the ‘righteous suffer and the wicked prosper’” see Weinberg, “Job Versus Abraham,” 282–5. 100 On the complex nature and lack of consensus on Job in rabbinic literature see Judith R. Baskin, “Rabbinic Interpretations of Job,” in The Voice from the Whirlwind: Interpreting the Book of Job, eds. Leo G. Perdue and W. Clark Gilpin (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1992), 101–10. 101 See Weinberg, “Job Versus Abraham,” 287–90. 102 tSotah 6:1 (ed. Lieberman, 182–3). 103 Judith R. Baskin, “Rabbinic Interpretations of Job,” 107–9. 104 tYad. 2:13 (ed. Zuckermandle, 683).

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rabbinic worldview. 105 Yet this stands in contrast to the existence of quotations from Ben Sira found throughout rabbinic literature. S. Schechter and M. Segal have collected these sayings, some directly attributed to Ben Sira, while others are quoted without acknowledgment of the source of the saying. 106 Jenny Labendz focuses on the attributed sayings in order to concentrate on rabbinic attitudes towards the work of Ben Sira, and not necessarily loose oral traditions that may have circulated without knowledge of their source. 107 She demonstrates how Ben Sira is utilized in both the Palestinian and Babylonian sources. In Palestinian sources, it is quoted mostly in early Amoraic statements, and only once in the Tannaitic material, although it is quoted accurately. The sayings are usually prefaced with the phrase, “Ben Sira said,” similar to the way the words of rabbis are introduced. In Babylonian sources, it seems that Ben Sira is quoted from the 4th century onwards, and not before that. Furthermore, the quotations are not as accurate as the Palestinian ones, and are mostly used by a few select rabbis. The phrases are typically introduced by quoting from the “Book of Ben Sira” rather than directly quoting him, as they appear in Palestinian sources. Labendz reaches a few interesting conclusions with regard to these differences, and believes they stem from the continuous availability of the text of Ben Sira in Palestine as opposed to its disappearance from Babylonian access, where it only reemerges in the 4th century. Another method of discerning rabbinic attitudes towards wisdom is to look at the usage of the term ‫חכמה‬, ḥokhmah, in rabbinic works. There are several different terms that correspond to knowledge and wisdom used throughout rabbinic literature, such as ‫בינה‬, binah ‫דעת‬, da‘at, and ‫השכל‬, haskel. However, since a full study of this issue is beyond the scope of this work, the term ḥokhmah in some Tannaitic texts will be focused on, especially since it is the term rabbinic literature uses to describe the works attributed to Solomon, specifically Ecclesiastes, which reflects ‘traditional’ wisdom. In discussing the status of Song of Songs and Ecclesiastes in tYad. 2:14, Rabbi Shimon states that works such as Ecclesiastes (and maybe only Ecclesiastes) are a product of human creativity, rather than of divine inspiration. The term used for this hu105

See Flescher, “The Wisdom of the Sages: Rabbinic Rewriting of Qohelet,” 269–79. He states his case for the negative attitude of the rabbis towards wisdom without either bringing any evidence or quoting any sources. His article on the reinterpretation of Ecclesiastes in the Targum of Ecclesiastes is indeed interesting and has many important observations. However, a reinterpretation of Ecclesiastes does not reflect a negative attitude towards wisdom, since as we mentioned above there are many different manifestations of wisdom and thereby a need to reinterpret one kind of wisdom does not render the attitude of the rabbis to all wisdom as negative. 106 Solomon Schechter, “The Quotations from Ecclesiasticus in Rabbinic Literature,” JQR 3, 4 (1891): 682–706; Moses Segal, Sefer Ben Sira ha-shalem (Jerusalem: Mossad Bialik, 1953). 107 Jenny R. Labendz, “The Book of Ben Sira in Rabbinic Literature,” AJS Review 30, 2 (2006): 347–92.

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man creativity is ‫חכמתו‬. The term ḥokhmah in this case is utilized to refer to a nondivine source of human wisdom. However, there are other instances which describe ḥokhmah as stemming from God. This is expressed in the Mekhilta where it discusses praising God for his wisdom. 108 The midrash provides five prooftexts to state this idea. The first three are from biblical wisdom literature, Proverbs and Job, and the others from Daniel and Jeremiah. This connotes the midrash’s view that traditional wisdom itself perceived its own source to be divine. Therefore, one can surmise that the understanding of ‘wisdom’/ḥokhmah is complex, sometimes describing human intellect, while in other sources evincing a divine source. This leads to a third understanding of ḥokhmah, which equates wisdom with Torah. One example in which this is seen is Mekhilta Yitro: 109 In this pericope, Rabbi Shimon b. Yoḥai speaks of the Torah as being acquired through tribulations, and the first prooftext is taken from Prov 1:2, ‫לדעת חכמה ומוסר להבין אמרי בינה‬, “to know wisdom and instruction; to perceive the words of understanding.” It seems that this prooftext connects the words ‘tribulation’, ‫ יסורים‬with ‫מוסר‬, ‘instruction’. The Torah is thereby equated with ḥokhmah, and tribulations are perceived as the manner by which one acquires wisdom and instruction. The idea of equating wisdom with Torah is already found in Ben Sira. 110 The parallel between wisdom and Torah further leads to the understanding of wisdom as inclusive of the study of halakhah. For example, in 24F

24F

108 Mekh. R. Ish. Beshalaḥ, de-Shira, 1 (ed. Horovitz-Rabin, 119):

'‫ ואומר כי ה‬,‫ ואומר עמו חכמה וגבורה‬,‫אשירה לה' שהוא חכם שנ' ה' בחכמה יסד ארץ‬ ‫יתן חכמה מפיו דעת ותבונה‬ I praise God for he is wise, as it says, “With wisdom he established the earth,” and I say, “With Him is wisdom and strength,” (Job 12:13) and I say, “For God gives wisdom from His mouth, knowledge and understanding,” (Prov 2:6) and I say “He gives wisdom to the wise and knowledge to the ones who know understanding,” (Dan 2:21). 109 Mekh. R. Ish. Yitro, de-Baḥodesh, 10 (ed. Horovitz-Rabin, 240) ‫ ששלש מתנות טובות נתנו לישראל ואומות‬,‫ חביבים יסורים‬,‫ר' שמעון בן יוחאי אומר‬ ‫ תורה וארץ ישראל והעולם‬,‫ ואלו הן‬.‫ ולא נתנו להם אלא בייסורין‬,‫העולם מתאוין להם‬ ‫ ואומר אשרי הגבר אשר‬,‫ דכתיב לדעת חכמה ומוסר להבין אמרי בינה‬,‫ תורה מנין‬.‫הבא‬ .‫תיסרנו יה ומתורתך תלמדנו‬ Rabbi Shimon b. Yoḥai says, beloved are tribulations, three great gifts were given to Israel and the nations of the world desired them, but they were only given through tribulations, and they are: Torah, the Land of Israel, and the World to Come. The Torah from whence (do we know), for it is written, “to know wisdom and instruction; to perceive the words of understanding,” (Prov 1:2) and I say, “Fortunate is the man who you God, put through tribulations and from your Torah you teach him” (Ps 94:12). (My translation) 110 On Ben Sira’s connection between Torah and wisdom see Peter Schäfer, “Wisdom Finds a Home: Torah as Wisdom,” in In a Spotless Mirror, eds. James H. Charlesworth and Michael A. Daise (Harrisburg: Trinity Press International, 2003), 26–44.

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Tosefta Horayot, the term ḥokhmah appears in a discussion about the sequence one must follow when saving individuals from captivity: oneself, his rabbi, his father, and his mother above all. 111 In this context it is asked, who is considered a ‘rabbi’? The definition of the term ‫ רבו‬is explained as specifically relating to a teacher who teaches ‘wisdom’, ḥokhmah, but not a trade, ‫אומנות‬. Rabbi Yehudah elucidates the term ḥokhmah further by explaining that “most of his learning/‫ תלמוד‬is from him,” and Rabbi Yose states, “any that have opened his eyes to his teaching/his mishnah.” Whether these two terms, talmud and mishnah, actually denote different kinds of teaching is a complex topic, and it is important not to affix late understandings of these words to earlier usages in Tannaitic works. What is significant, though, is that these are two rabbinic terms relating to the study of rabbinic legal traditions. Thereby we see a development of the usage of the term ḥokhmah to denote the study not just of the Bible, but of legal traditions as well. Through this cursory study of Tannaitic texts and their usage of the term ḥokhmah, we see that it has several different meanings. It refers to human knowledge, not necessarily inspired by ‘the Divine Spirit’, yet some rabbis do not accept that definition and view wisdom’s source as completely divine. The term ḥokhmah utilized as possibly distinctive from Torah, is seen in Lamentations Rabbah, where it states, “If one finds wisdom among the nations, believe it, but if one finds Torah among the nations, do not believe it.” 112 A clear distinction is made between ‫חכמה‬, and ‫תורה‬, noting that the nations can be known for their wisdom. The second view is expressed by traditions that depict God as the root of all wisdom, as well as equating wisdom with Torah, and even further as ‘mishnah’ and ‘talmud’ as discussed above. Although the term ḥokhmah develops and evolves to include rabbinic understandings of what ‘wisdom’ entailed and was not identical to the biblical understanding of wisdom, it is not due to a rejection of ‘traditional wisdom,’ but rather a reflection of its evolution in rabbinic literature. The rabbinic perception of wisdom is fairly positive, as seen through the utilization of wisdom texts to express their understanding of the divine origins of wisdom, as well as the halakhah. These kinds of manifestations of wisdom are already present in Second Temple texts such as Ben Sira, and therefore reflect a

111 tHor. 2:5 (ed. Zuckermandle, 476):

.‫ ואיזה זה? זה שפתח בו תחילה‬.‫ ולא רבו שלימדו אומנות‬,‫איזהו רבו? רבו שלימדו חכמה‬ ‫ כל שרוב‬,'‫ ור' יהודה אומ‬.‫ רבו שלימדו חכמה ולא רבו שלימדו אומנות‬,'‫ר' מאיר אומ‬ .‫ ור' יוסי או' כל שהאיר עיניו במשנתו‬.‫תלמודו הימנו‬ Who is called a master? A master who has taught him wisdom, and not a master that taught him a trade. And who is this? The one that he began with, Rabbi Meir says, His master who taught him wisdom, and not a master who has taught him a trade. Rabbi Judah says, the one who he has learned most of his talmud from. And Rabbi Yose states, whoever has illuminated his eyes with his mishnah. 112 LamR 2:13.

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natural process of the evolution of wisdom and not a rejection of the wisdom tradition. This will be discussed in further detail in the following chapter. Stemberger delves into the appearance of different kinds of wisdom in rabbinic literature and paints a compelling portrait showing that wisdom was present and utilized in rabbinic literature. He first discusses works that exemplify some of the elements of wisdom literature. He points to the Mishnah, which although primarily a halakhic work, is also philosophical in nature. The Mishnah has correlations to the wisdom tradition through two main attributes which permeate the work: organization into lists, and a view of social, political, and economic wisdom. 113 Further, there are individual sayings that reflect a similar style to traditional wisdom, such as those found regarding women in mSotah 3:4 and mKetub. 5:4, as well as the trade versus study debate in mQid. 4:14. Both of these topics are commonly found in wisdom works. Stemberger further discusses works such as Tractate Avot, Avot de-Rabbi Nathan, Derekh Eretz Literature (Rabbah and Zuta), and the Alphabet of Ben Sira. Although most of these works are considered late, with the exception of Avot, their style resembles that of wisdom literature. Avot is most similar to Proverbs, although instead of binary parallelisms, there are often tripartite wisdom sentences. Some of the material in Avot is similar to the Greek chreia, which is a witty saying preceded by a brief narrative context. One of the wisdom elements in Avot de-Rabbi Nathan is the presence of many lists, which is an old device of wisdom traditions. 114 Aside from these works, which can to a considerable extent be considered wisdom literature, there are also smaller units of wisdom traditions and literary genres scattered throughout rabbinic literature, and even inserted in greater contexts not necessarily directly related to wisdom. 115 Stemberger divides these according to their literary style: proverbs, gnomic sayings, wisdom sayings, parables fables and riddles, rabbinic sages in dispute with the wise men of the nations, medical knowledge and magic, and interpretation of dreams. For each of these groups he provides a selection of texts that fall into these categories and demonstrates a strong influence of wisdom on these texts. It will be important to observe if the Elijah traditions fall into some of these categories. Stemberger’s analysis of wisdom in rabbinic literature contributes to the idea that the rabbis did not have a negative view of wisdom, and many of wisdom’s styles and themes are incorporated into rabbinic texts. It is clear through this limited analysis that there are examples of wisdom within rabbinic literature, although much research needs to be done in assessing its usage and 113

Stemberger, “Sages, Scribes, and Seers in Rabbinic Judaism,” 297. For a further breakdown of wisdom influences in the Mishnah see Eckhard J. Schnabel, “Law and Wisdom in the Mishnaic System,” BT 17, 3 (1987): 104–11. 114 Anthony Saldarini, Scholastic Rabbanism: A Literary Study of the Fathers According to Rabbi Nathan (Chico CA: Scholars Press, 1982). 115 Stemberger, “Scribes, Sages, and Seers,” 307.

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development. However, overall one can say that wisdom traditions were still present and developing within rabbinic literature and the rabbinic attitude towards wisdom was mostly a positive one. Stemberger states: There are many more aspects of wisdom traditions in rabbinic literature. They have never been collected and analyzed in a systematic way, differentiating between the biblical heritage and its transformations and other, non biblical, traditions. It would also be necessary to highlight the special contribution of the Babylonian Talmud, which certainly not by chance for many aspects offers the best examples. There is a wide field for further studies in wisdom. 116

Therefore studying the Elijah texts in such a manner will hopefully further illuminate the usage of wisdom in rabbinic literature. The various themes and aspects of wisdom discussed by Crenshaw and Stemberger will be dealt with when analyzing the Elijah material. Through looking at key aspects of wisdom and focusing on key words, I hope to demonstrate how wisdom aspects and language are carried over into rabbinic thought, and how they evolved and transformed to fit the rabbinic perspective. The elements of wisdom that will be focused on in this study relate to the following categories: ‘advice’, ‘questions regarding pressing problems’, ‘existential observations’, and ‘praise of wisdom’. With regard to the category of ‘advice’, topics such as proper behavior and familial relationships will be addressed. ‘Pressing problems’ relates to questions regarding suffering, life’s meaning, secrets and mysteries of life, and the quest for truth. As for ‘existential observations’, elements such as observation of the natural world and medicine will be discussed. With regard to ‘praise of wisdom’, this category will include praise of Torah and proper adherence to the Law/halakhah. Henry Fischel in his discussion on wisdom and rabbinic literature explores the centrality of the debate regarding the role of the craft in attaining wisdom as one of the themes present in wisdom texts. This debate revolves around the tension between needing a craft to earn a living, yet distracting oneself with such mundane matters ultimately detracts from attaining wisdom. The discussion surrounding the place of the craft also exists in rabbinic literature, and within some of the Elijah narratives. It is usually framed with the question of the primacy of Torah over derekh eretz. The term derekh eretz connotes proper behavior as well as the basic needs of mankind such as earning a living. 117 Therefore the debate that is found in rabbinic literature is not only limited to the place of craft within the attainment of wisdom, but also the place of acts of kindness and proper behavior within the framework of attaining wisdom through the study of Torah. Shmuel Safrai analyzes the different meanings of the term, and points out that derekh eretz is mostly found in aggadah, and less in halakhic works, and I will add a significant portion of those instances are found in works that are connected with wisdom. For example, Safrai states that there are nine cases of the term 116 Stemberger, “Scribes, Sages, and Seers,” 314.

117 Moshe Beer, “Torah ‘im Derekh Eretz,” Bar

Ilan 2 (1964): 134–162.

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derekh eretz in the Mishnah, eight of which are found in Avot, a work that is most closely associated with wisdom in the rabbinic tradition. He also points to the very high concentration of the term in Seder Eliyahu Rabbah, which is filled with life advice, and I believe strongly influenced by wisdom themes. 118 Safrai connects this term with pietists, and it is fascinating that the topics which deal with derekh eretz are in many ways synonymous with the proper behavior and advice for life found in the wisdom tradition. Elijah’s role within these debates regarding the place of work, kind acts and proper behavior and study, suggests his link with this wisdom theme, and will be discussed throughout this book. Fischel also describes the Sage as having certain qualities. 119 He describes the sage as humble, living a life of asceticism and adhering to an anti-materialistic lifestyle, as well as being one who learns from all. In many of the legends, Elijah embodies these ‘sage-like’ qualities. Lindbeck makes this point in her work, Elijah and the Rabbis, and points to his Sage like qualities in a significant portion of the Elijah stories. 120 Therefore, this study will hopefully demonstrate that not only do the Elijah texts fit into the categories and topics of the wisdom tradition, but that Elijah himself is depicted as a Sage as well.

APOCALYPTICISM Elijah’s portrayal in some rabbinic traditions describes him as an angelic being, appearing to certain rabbinic figures, not unlike angelic revelations portrayed in apocalyptic literature. His role may therefore be influenced by the development of apocalyptic traditions that circulated in the Second Temple era. The terms ‘apocalypse’ and ‘apocalyptic’ have been subject to much debate. 121 Some definitions of ‘apocalypse’ have been considered too broad—such as Sanders’ view that the term refers to any work focused on revelation and reversal—or too narrow, limited only to those works con118 Shmuel Safrai, “The Term Derekh Eretz,” Tarbiz (1991): 147–162.

Henry Fischel, “Transformation of Wisdom in the World of Midrash,” in Aspects of Wisdom in Judaism and Early Christianity, ed. Robert L. Wilken (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1975), 67–101. See specifically p. 84. 120 Lindbeck, Elijah and the Rabbis, 140–143. 121 On the definition of Apocalypse and Apocalyptic, see Klaus Koch, The Rediscovery of Apocalyptic (Naperville: Allenson, 1972); Michael E. Stone, “Lists of Revealed Things in the Apocalyptic Literature,” in Magnalia Dei: The Mighty Acts of God: Essays on the Bible and Archaeology in Memory of G. Ernest Wright, ed. F. M. Cross, Werner E. Lemke, and Patrick D. Miller (New York: Doubleday, 1976), 439–44; Paul D. Hanson, “Apocalypse, genre,” and “Apocalypticism,” in Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible: Supplement, ed. Keith Grim (Nashville: Abingdon, 1976), 27–34; Paul D. Hanson, ed. Old Testament Apocalyptic (Nashville: Abingdon, 1987); John J. Collins, ed. Apocalypse: The Morphology of a Genre, Semeia 14 (Missoula: Scholars Press, 1979); J. J. Collins, The Apocalyptic Imagination: An Introduction to Jewish Apocalyptic Literature (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998); 119

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taining ‘apocalypse’ in their title. 122 The definition reached by the scholars at the Society of Biblical Literature/Semeia conference is as follows: [A] genre of revelatory literature with a narrative framework, in which a revelation is mediated by an otherworldly being to a human recipient disclosing a transcendent reality which is both temporal, insofar as it envisages eschatological salvation, and spatial insofar as it involves another, supernatural world. 123

Collins distinguishes between two types of apocalypses, the historical and the mystical. Although they cannot be completely separated, the historical can be identified by its focus on the periodization of history and the role of eschatological salvation in the scheme of history, while the mystical focuses on the heavenly sphere and cosmic speculation. These two trends have common themes that have become indicative of apocalyptic influences in other works that are not ‘apocalypses’ per se, as they may not involve a revelation through a heavenly mediator in a journey to a supernatural world. According to Collins, works that do not fall under the definition of ‘apocalypse’ are instead considered apocalyptic. He states, “A movement might reasonably be called apocalyptic if it shared the conceptual framework of the genre, endorsing a worldview in which supernatural revelation, the heavenly world, and eschatological judgment played essential parts.” 124 This definition of apocalyptic will inform the analysis of the Elijah traditions in this work. Genre theory can also illuminate our understanding of the terms apocalypse and apocalyptic. It is clear that the Semeia definition has a very specific list of characteristics which must be present in order for a work to be considered an ‘apocalypse’. However, with the usage of genre theory, as discussed above, works should be looked at through a spectrum, as well as through ‘family resemblance’. The works do not have to share all of the qualities listed, but rather there are degrees by which these different works relate to one another, though they may differ in the types of elements that they share. This is significant in that it does not limit the works that are considered apocalypses to one specific feature. Carol Newsom points out that the Semeia conference’s attempt to find a cogent definition for ‘apocalypse’ in many ways resembles the prototype theory. 125 Through analyzing the different kinds of apocalypses, scholars identified the typical ‘apocalypse’ and highlighted its features. However, it is important to note that ‘apocalypse’ as a genre changed and shifted over time. At times it included heavenly mediation, while at others it may not have. Utilizing the model of ‘family resemblance’, these other traditions need not share all the characteristics of ‘apoca122 E.P. Sanders, “The Genre of Palestinian Jewish Apocalypses,” in Apocalypticism

in the Mediterranean World and the Near East: Proceedings of the International Colloquium on Apocalypticism, Uppsala, August 12–17, 1979, ed. David Hellholm (Tübingen: Mohr, 1989), 447–59. 123 Collins, The Apocalyptic Imagination, 5. 124 Collins, The Apocalyptic Imagination, 13. 125 Newsom, “Spying Out the Land: A Report from Genology,” 24.

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lypse’ as enumerated by the Semeia definition in order to be included in the category. It is important to stress that the definitions proposed by scholars are essential to understanding the ‘prototype’ of the genre, but should not be limited to them. In many ways, Collins’ distinction between ‘apocalypse’ and apocalyptic reflects the progression discussed by Fowler of a genre’s evolution from ‘kind’ to ‘mode’. Collins notes the impact that ‘apocalypses’ had on several genres, which in turn influenced the ‘apocalypses’ themselves and transformed the genre. It is important to note that the changes within the genre of ‘apocalypse’ need to be embraced, as these changes influenced the modal transformation of the genre ‘apocalypse’ into apocalyptic. It is in precisely this state that rabbinic literature adopts many apocalyptic ideas. Although there are very few and only late rabbinic ‘apocalypses’, 126 it is clear that by utilizing the apocalyptic ‘mode’, rabbinic literature continued to engage in and was influenced by, apocalyptic ideas. Therefore, while Elijah’s appearance itself can be viewed as apocalyptic, it is important not to focus exclusively on the element of a heavenly mediator, but to also consider other apocalyptic themes. Anthony Saldarini delineates several apocalyptic themes that are present in early rabbinic literature. 127 These include descriptions of reward for the righteous, the lot of the wicked, questions of theodicy, resurrection, the days of the Messiah, historical framework, and the ‘future to come’. 128 This work will attempt to examine the influence of these ideas on the Elijah traditions by focusing on Elijah’s role as heavenly mediator, his role in imparting wisdom regarding the End of Days and the eschatological salvation, as well as his knowledge of the heavenly sphere. Elijah’s role in these apocalyptic texts is not surprising as he is given an eschatological role at the end of Malachi. Further he is compared to angelic beings and acts in similar ways to them in rabbinic literature, and closely resembles the Enochic character of apocalyptic works. Kristen Lindbeck discusses both of these aspects of Elijah, and highlights the similarities and differences of Elijah with angelic beings. 129 She also points to the many ways in many of the roles of Enoch in apocalyptic literature are given to Elijah in rabbinic literature. 130 These aspects of Elijah’s character lends further credence to Elijah’s association with apocalyptic traditions. This study will view the stories of Elijah’s appearance to 126

For late rabbinic ‘apocalypse’ see Eyal Ben-Eliyahu, Yehudah Cohn, and Fergus Millar, “Apocalyptic,” in Handbook of Jewish Literature from Late Antiquity, 135–700 CE (Oxford: British Academy, 2013) British Academy Scholarship Online, 2014. As well as John C. Reeves, Trajectories in Near Eastern Apocalyptic: A Postrabbinic Apocalypse Reader (Leiden: Brill, 2006), 31–39. 127 A. Salidarini, “The Uses of Apocalyptic in the Mishnah and Tosepta,” CBQ 39, 3 (1977): 396–409. 128 See his detailed list, Salidarini, “The Uses of Apocalyptic,” 406. 129 Lindbeck, Elijah and the Rabbis, 48–54. 130 Kristen Lindbeck, SBL Seminar Papers, (1994) 113th Annual Meeting, as well as Elijah and the Rabbis, 47–58, 83.

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individuals as being influenced by the apocalyptic tradition, which highlights the need for heavenly mediation in order to gain insight into aspects of both the historical and mystical apocalyptic traditions.

MESSIANISM Elijah is associated with the messianic era in a number of ways. Firstly, in Malachi he is to return on the “great and awesome day of the Lord”, which is the starting point of speculation on Elijah’s role in the end of days. There are also many rabbinic traditions in which Elijah possesses secret information regarding the Messiah and messianic era, which will be discussed in future chapters. Therefore it is important to define the term messianism. The term Messiah stems from the root ‫משח‬, which is translated as ‘anoint’. In most biblical usages of the term, it is directly connected to an anointed figure, such as a king or priest and sometimes a prophet. 131 However, the term at some point came to denote a redeeming figure of the present day, and later to a redeeming figure that may or may not be anointed, and who is expected in the End of Days. Therefore, the accepted definition of messianism is “the belief in a redeeming figure or figures directly related to the End of Days.” Klausner discusses the difference between messianic expectations and a belief in a Messiah. He contends that there was a belief in the expectation of a utopian era when there would be “political freedom, moral perfection, and earthly bliss for the people of Israel in its own land, and also for the entire human race,” 132 although not necessarily through a redeeming figure. This aspect of messianism is probably more accurately described as belief in an eschatological age. The belief in a Messiah, on the other hand, is the explicit belief in a redeeming figure that will bring about this utopian age. The messianic idea was largely developed in the late Second Temple period, and studies of Second Temple literature, especially the Dead Sea Scrolls, demonstrate a growing and fluid tradition of redeeming figures in the End of Days. 133 It is important 265F

26F

131 For priest just a few examples Exod 28:41, 29:7, 35:25, for kings I Sam 24:6, 10 and many other

instances, for prophet see Isaiah 61:1. J. Klausner, The Messianic Idea in Israel from its Beginning to the Completion of the Mishnah, trans., W.F. Stinespring (New York: Macmillan, 1955), 10. The debate regarding the essential ‘anointing’ element of the Messiah is stressed by Fitzmyer who tends towards a narrow definition of Messiah. See J. Fitzmyer, The One Who is to Come (Grand Rapids Michigan: Eerdmans, 2007) as opposed to Werblowsky’s very broad definition of messianism as he writes, “[it] is used in a broad and at times very loose sense to refer to beliefs or theories regarding an eschatological (concerning the last times) improvement of the state of man or the world, and a final consummation of history.” See “Messiah and Messianic Movements,” The New Encyclopaedia Britannica (Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britianica, 1976), Macropedia 11:1017. This indeed is conflating two distinct ideas: the belief in redemption that can occur without a redeeming figure, and the belief in the idea of a redeeming figure in the End of Days. 133 J. J. Collins, The Scepter and the Star: Messianism in Light of the Dead Sea Scrolls (Grand 132

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to note that any attempt at forming a cohesive view of the Messiah in Second Temple thought is futile. The traditions were many and constantly changing. There are attestations to a restoration without a messianic figure, there is the emphasis on a Davidic/King Messiah, as well as other texts that focus on two Messiahs: a Priestly Messiah, as well as a “Messiah of Israel.” Further, there are other redeeming figures that are not described as Messiahs per se, but play important roles in the eschaton. It is precisely this fluidity that the rabbinic tradition inherited, and it is reflected in the myriad portrayals of Elijah’s role in the End of Days. Elijah was not a prominent figure in Second Temple messianic speculation, and it is therefore interesting to observe the important place that Elijah comes to occupy in rabbinic messianic thought. Although Elijah is not designated as a Messiah per se in rabbinic literature, he does inhabit some of the characteristics associated with the Messiahs and redeeming figures in Second Temple literature, which will be discussed later in this work.

SUMMARY This chapter utilized genre theory and applied its observations to the genres of wisdom and ‘apocalypse.’ The application of genre theory has allowed for an expansion of wisdom in two ways. First, it highlights the dynamic nature of wisdom through its presence in a range of texts beyond only those categorized as ‘wisdom’ in both form and content. Second, genre theory enables the inclusion of certain biblical psalms more firmly into the wisdom corpus. This has allowed for a greater understanding of the association of Torah and wisdom, as reflected in certain wisdom psalms and highlights the significant role that psalms, hymns, and prayers played in the wisdom corpus. The inclusion of some biblical psalms as part of the wisdom tradition opens up a new window to understanding the manner in which wisdom developed in Second Temple texts and in non-biblical psalms, which will be examined in the following chapter. Furthermore, the connection between some of these psalms with pietistic circles is an important element that has been pointed out by Geller, who links the concept of piety with the wisdom tradition. The connection between pietists, wisdom, and psalms continues to develop into the Second Temple era. It is these pietistic circles that very likely played a central role in the dissemination of wisdom into the Second Temple era and into the rabbinic period. Genre theory has also illuminated our understanding of the way genres develop and change with time, providing an explanation for the merging of apocalyptic and wisdom in the Second Temple period. The interplay between wisdom and apocalyptic tradition is but one facet of the multi-layered nature of wisdom. Bennema’s division of wisdom into three different strands, the Torah, Apocalyptic, and Spirit-Centered traditions, demonstrates the different types of wisdom and their unique characterisRapids: Eerdmans, 2010). See also, Jacob Neusner et al., Judaisms and their Messiahs at the Turn of the Christian Era (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988).

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tics. The coalescence of these different strands into a complete worldview is evident in the Dead Sea Scrolls. It is this description of wisdom that I will utilize in analyzing the rabbinic traditions regarding Elijah and his connection to wisdom. The attitude of rabbinic literature towards wisdom was also discussed, and reflected a mostly positive view of wisdom in the rabbinic corpus. Therefore the assumption that certain Elijah traditions may have been influenced by the wisdom tradition is methodologically sound. This chapter also dealt with the definitions of ‘apocalypse’, apocalyptic, and messianism in order to clearly identify the issues that are connected with these terms. The following chapter will trace the development of the wisdom tradition into the Second Temple period, as well as the merging of the apocalyptic and wisdom traditions. The merging of these ideas also influenced the messianic beliefs of the time, and these developments will be discussed in detail in the following chapter. These ideas served as the fountain from which rabbinic tradition drew its inspiration, and will illuminate the connection between the Elijah traditions and wisdom.

CHAPTER THREE. SECOND TEMPLE BACKGROUND: WISDOM AND APOCALYPTIC This chapter will focus on the Second Temple background of the wisdom tradition, as well as the development of apocalyptic thought and the eventual merging of these two worlds. Many of the ideas and developments present in Second Temple literature are part of the rich repertoire from which the rabbinic corpus gleaned its eclectic traditions. Rabbinic literature is influenced by the dynamic evolutions that occurred in Late Antiquity, in both the realm of wisdom and apocalyptic thought. Although rabbinic material at times presents itself as halakhic discourse or biblical interpretation, contained within these generic frameworks is a wide range of influences and eclectic genres, many of which flourished in Second Temple times. There are a number of themes and concepts that appear in both wisdom and apocalyptic texts that are present in the Elijah material. In order to understand the wisdom connection of these themes that appear in the Elijah material, it is important to study the evolution of these ideas in late Second Temple literature. Therefore this chapter will focus on specific themes present in the wisdom and apocalyptic tradition that are found in the Elijah material. There are a number of Elijah stories that will deal with the idea of sexual promiscuity or improper sexual behavior. This theme is found throughout the biblical wisdom material, and continues into the late Second Temple period. Therefore it is important to highlight this theme as central to wisdom literature and view its evolution in late Second Temple texts. Once we establish the centrality of this theme within the continued wisdom tradition of the Second Temple period, Elijah’s presence in stories that have a connection with proper sexual conduct can be viewed through the lens of wisdom. A second theme that carries through from Second Temple literature into rabbinic literature is the concept of theodicy and the overall tension between knowledge of God’s perfection and the apparent injustice that exists in the world. As I will demonstrate in further chapters, many of the Elijah narratives deal with the issue of theodicy and the suffering of the righteous. Understanding the centrality of this debate in wisdom literature is essential to seeing the wisdom nature of the Elijah traditions. Therefore this chapter will delve into the manner in which wisdom literature grapples with this issue. The development of ‘skeptical wisdom’ is seen in the works of Ecclesiastes 89

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and Job, and their responses to the question of theodicy play an important role in Second Temple wisdom texts and in rabbinic discussions of the issue. Furthermore, the role of apocalyptic thought in resolving these questions will be discussed, specifically the idea of reward and punishment at the End of Days as a reflection of ‘deferred theodicy’. Elijah’s presence in some of the traditions that deal with the concept of theodicy in rabbinic literature, and with his knowledge of reward in the End of Days, points to the influence of wisdom and apocalyptic traditions on the Elijah texts. The background for these discussions is present in biblical and Second Temple literature, and their analysis is essential to understanding future manifestations of these concepts. A third avenue of discussion in this chapter will be the association of Wisdom with the law. This development is extremely important in understanding Elijah’s role as a teacher of wisdom. Elijah’s messianic role, as well as his role in the rabbinic present, in many cases revolves around his teaching of the law. The clear association of Wisdom with the law is seen in the Dead Sea Scrolls where these different genres merge with one another. This chapter will present this development in order to understand the foundation for the rabbinic view of associating halakhah with wisdom. Furthermore the integration of law in works that are clearly part of the wisdom genre, reflect the extent to which the law and wisdom became integrated in Second Temple texts. This integration serves as the background for the rabbinic understanding of the law and halakhah as a form of wisdom. These developments reflect a changing understanding in the Torah-Centered tradition, which will have a tremendous impact on the Elijah traditions. Therefore the connection between the Torah, the law, and wisdom within Second Temple literature will be dealt with in some detail. A focus on the influence of wisdom and apocalyptic traditions will follow. The integration of concepts such as the ‘secret that is to be/come’, ‫רז נהיה‬, with classical wisdom advice, and the discussion of the final judgment in the End of Days in these same wisdom texts, indicates the merging of wisdom and apocalyptic traditions. Elijah’s role in rabbinic literature in many instances focuses on the elements of revealing secrets of the future, knowledge of creation and the ‫מרכבה‬, merkavah, and dealing with reward and punishment in the End of Days. This reflects his association with these developments within the Apocalyptic-Centered wisdom tradition. Through the analysis of the apocalyptic elements in the wisdom traditions of Second Temple literature, the connection of Elijah with apocalyptic and wisdom traditions can be better understood. This coalescence of wisdom and apocalyptic traditions is also seen in psalms and prayers from the Second Temple period which will be discussed in depth, and the connection of these works to pietistic circles, also known as ḥasidim, will be treated. The connection of Elijah both to prayers and blessings, as well as to pietistic circles in rabbinic literature, forms another element through which the Elijah traditions are connected to both wisdom and apocalyptic. This is an expansion on the idea articulated by Stephen Geller in the introduction, which connects certain biblical ‘wisdom psalms’ with the development of a ‘new covenantal piety’. Through an analysis of the different Apocryphal psalms, as well as other hymns and prayers, a strong connection to both wisdom and apocalyptic traditions emerges. The connection of many of these

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texts with pietistic circles is seen through their sharing of a number of characteristics: the appearance of the term ‫צדיק‬/‫חסיד‬, the concept of accepting punishment as God’s discipline, the importance of correct speech/truthfulness, a strong commitment to the Law, the dangers of improper sexual conduct, highlighting the role of the Davidic Messiah, and a belief in resurrection. The presence of these characteristics in different psalms and prayers from the Second Temple era lends to a shared tradition perhaps stemming from pietistic circles. Therefore an analysis of the development of the hymns, psalms and prayers of the Second Temple era is essential to understanding the background for the connection between wisdom and piety in a significant portion of the Elijah traditions.

WISDOM AND WOMEN One of the themes carried from biblical wisdom literature into Second Temple literature is the attitude towards women. As discussed in the introduction, the role of women is treated in works such as Proverbs and Ecclesiastes which express a complex attitude towards women, seeing in them the greatest of all vices, but viewing them as potentially the source of companionship and happiness, as well as Wisdom personified. The four female personas discussed in the introduction are the Strange Woman (‫)אשה זרה‬, Woman Wisdom (‫)חכמה‬, Woman Folly (‫)אשת כסילות‬, and Woman of Substance (‫)אשת חיל‬. Second Temple texts continue to engage in the discussion regarding the relationship of men and women, and discuss the ideas of the Woman of Folly, as the woman who will cause one to sin, as well as the traits of a good wife, who represents the continuation of the portrayal of the Woman of Substance in Proverbs. Furthermore, the personification of Wisdom as a woman is continued, although it exhibits slight changes in different sources. Ben Sira is famously (or infamously) known for his discussion of women, and a complex portrait is drawn of his attitude towards them. 1 However, this complexity is a manifestation of the duality already present in biblical wisdom’s attitude towards women. It is therefore not surprising to see that Ben Sira writes in 25:24, 2 ‫מאשה תחלת‬ ‫עון ובגללה גוענו יחד‬, “From a woman sin had its beginning, and because of her we all die,” and simultaneously holds a good wife in the highest esteem, as he states in 36:29, 3 270F

1

Regarding the complex portrayal of women in Ben Sira see Ibolya Balla, “‘Pillars of Gold on a Silver Base’: Female Beauty as the Cause of Anxiety and Praise in the Book of Ben Sira,” in Religion and Female Body in Ancient Judaism and Its Environments, ed. Géza G. Xeravits (Boston: de Gruyter, 2015), 155–72. Regarding the Strange Woman see the debate between Michael Fox and Claudia V. Camp; Michael V. Fox, “The Strange Woman in Septuagint and Proverbs,” Journal of North Semitic Languages 22, 2 (1996): 31–44. Claudia V. Camp, “What’s so Strange About the Strange Woman?” in The Bible and the Politics of Exegesis: Essays in Honor of Norman K. Gottwald, ed. Dave Jobling et al. (Cleveland: Pilgrim Press, 1991), 17–31. 2 Hebrew is present in Sir MS C VIIv. 3 Hebrew is present in Sir MSS B VIIr, C VIIIv, D IIr.

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‫ עזר ומבצר עיר מבצר ועמוד ומשען‬,‫קנה קונה אישה ראשית קנין‬, “He who acquires a wife gets his best possession, a helper fit for him and a pillar of support.” It seems that when discussing women in general and not in regard to one’s own wife, Ben Sira is highly critical. However when he speaks of those who are married, he praises the righteous women, while expressing disdain for an evil wife who is characterized as either being a drunkard, promiscuous, gregarious and loud, or jealous. 4 One may say that women—like men—are seen as righteous when possessing good qualities, but when exhibiting negative traits are viewed as the source of despair. 5 It seems that the additional element of the seducing force of sexuality contributes to the more perilous nature of the relationship with an evil woman. There are numerous verses expressing the dangers of women, whether they are single, married, or one’s own wife. Regarding single women, specifically one’s daughter, Ben Sira states in Sir 42:12, “Do not let her parade her beauty before any man, or spend her time among married women.” The fear that Ben Sira has regarding the sexual promiscuity of daughters is great, and he continues to stress the point of protecting one’s daughter from negative influences. 6 Furthermore, with regard to married women, he states in Sir 9:9, “Never dine with another man’s wife, or revel with her at wine; or your heart may turn aside to her, and in blood you may be plunged into destruction.” Here he warns against the danger of mingling with married women, for it may lead to improper sexual conduct. Ben Sira also speaks out against mingling with ‘loose women’ and prostitutes in Sir 9:3, and 26:22. Therefore it seems clear Ben Sira considers improper sexual conduct a matter of grave concern, and an essential part of the wisdom tradition to impart to the next generation. The focus on improper sexual conduct and its dangers is one of the themes that manifest in a number of Elijah traditions in rabbinic literature, and reflects a connection between wisdom and Elijah. Tal Ilan discusses the reception of Ben Sira’s attitude towards women in the Babylonian Talmud (Bavli). She points out that of the authentic Ben Sira citations in the Bavli, 60 percent relate to advice regarding women. 7 Therefore it seems reasonable to assume that the rabbis themselves view the dangers of women and the peril of improper sexual conduct as a topic of interest and relevance to 4

For verses expressing a positive view of the wife see Sir 7:19,26; 25.:1,8; 26:1–3, 14–16; 36:29–30; 40:19; 40:23. For verses discussing a negative view of the improper wife see, Sir 9:9; 25:20, 22– 23, 25; 26:6–9, 27; 42:6. 5 Ben Sira as giving guidance regarding relationships in his description of proper and improper relationships with women is stated by Phillipus Jacobus Botha, “‘Through the Figure of Woman Many Have Perished’: Ben Sira’s View of Women,” OTE 9, 1 (1996): 20–34. 6 Pancratius Cornelis Beentjes, “Daughters and Their Father(s) in the Book of Ben Sira,” in DCLY: Family and Kinship in the Deuterocanonical and Cognate Literature, ed. Angelo Passaro (Berlin: de Gruyter, 2014), 183–201. 7 Tal Ilan, “Yaḥso shel Ben Sira le-nashim ve-qabalato ba-talmud ha-Bavli,” Madda‘e haYahadut 40 (2000): 103–11.

3. SECOND TEMPLE BACKGROUND

93

their lives. It will be shown that these ideas are also expressed in the legends of Elijah and perhaps serve as an educational tool for the rabbis to teach about the dangers of sexual impropriety. The theme of the Strange Woman also appears in the Dead Sea Scrolls, most prominently in 4QWiles of the Wicked Woman, where the theme of a seductress who attempts to entrap the righteous is discussed. 8 In Frag 1 13–16 the snare that the wicked woman sets is described: ‫] [עיניה הנה והנה ישכילו ועפעפיה בפחז תרים לראו]ת לא[יש‬... ‫צדיק תשיגהו ואיש] ע[צום ותכשילהו ישרים להטות דרך ולבחורי צדק‬ ‫להביל בפחז והולכי ישר להשנות ח]וק[ להפשיע‬..[ ]..‫מנצור מצוה סמוכי‬ ....‫ענוים מאל ולהטות פעמיהם מדרכי צדק להביא זד]ו[ן‬ Her eyes glance keenly hither and thither, and she wantonly raises her eyelids to seek out a righteous man and lead him astray, and a perfect man to make him stumble; upright men to divert (their) path, and those chosen for righteousness from keeping the commandments; those sustained with[ ]to make fools of them with wantonness, and those who walk uprightly to the st[atue]; to make the humble rebel from God, and to turn their steps from the ways of righteousness; to bring presumptuousness… 9

Scott Jones points to the different pedagogical modes that are used in Proverbs and 4Q184 in their usage of the Strange Woman/Wicked Woman. He writes that Proverbs utilizes indeterminacy as a pedagogical tool more than 4Q184, which attempts to clarify the metaphor behind the Strange Woman. The alluring language present in Proverbs is diminished in 4Q184, and the Strange Woman does not speak as she does in Proverbs where she verbally entices men. Furthermore, 4Q184 moves the significance of falling into the traps of the Wicked Woman to a cosmological level, describing her 8

For the significance of this text and its representation of the sect’s view on women, see Magen Broshi, “Beware the Wiles of the Wanton Woman: Dead Sea Scroll Fragment [4Q184] Reflects Essene Fear of, and Contempt for, Women,” BAR 9, 4 (1983): 54–6; Joseph M. Baumgarten, “On the Nature of the Seductress in 4Q184,” RevQ 15, 1–2 (1991): 133–43; Melissa Aubin, “‘she is the Beginning of all the Ways of Perversity’: Femininity and Metaphor in 4Q184,” Women in Judaism 2, 2 (2001): 1–23 http://wjudaism.library.utoronto.ca/index.php/wjudaism/ article/view/182/257; Matthew, Goff, “Hellish Females: The Strange Woman of Septuagint Proverbs and 4QWiles of the Wicked Woman (4Q184),” JSJ 39, 1 (2008): 20–45; Ida Fröhlich, “Women as Strangers in Ancient Judaism: The Harlot in 4Q184,” in The Stranger in Ancient and Mediaeval Jewish Tradition, ed. Géza Xeravits and Jan G.Dušek (Berlin: de Gruyter, 2010), 139–59. 9 Translation J. M. Allegro and N. Gordon, in The Dead Sea Scroll Reader: Calendrical and Sapiential Texts, ed. Donald W. Parry and Emanuel Tov (Leiden; Boston: Brill, 2004), 285. All translations from the Dead Sea Scrolls are taken from Donald W. Parry and Emanuel Tov, The Dead Sea Scroll Reader (Leiden; Boston: Brill, 2004) unless otherwise indicated.

94

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ways as signifying evil in a greater way than in Proverbs. 10 This change shows the more deterministic and severe place of evil within the mindset of the author of 4Q418, which does not allow for any misunderstanding with regard to the role of the Wicked Woman. In contrast, the father in Proverbs chooses to couch the words of the Strange Woman with more alluring language to represent the ambiguous nature of the world and its challenges. 11 Although there are changes in the manner in which the Strange Woman is utilized to communicate the message of the dangers of sexual promiscuity, the centrality of this issue within the wisdom tradition continues, and plays a role in the Elijah texts in rabbinic literature.

TORAH AND WISDOM As discussed in the introduction, the biblical wisdom tradition already begins to develop an association between Torah and Wisdom. Stephen Geller’s discussion of the ‘new wisdom’ tradition, which associates wisdom with Torah, is best represented in Psalms 1, 19, and 119. In many ways, these psalms are the precursors of the clear association of Wisdom and Torah expressed in Ben Sira. 12 The phrase in Ps 19:10, '‫יראת ה‬ ‫טהורה עומדת לעד משפטי ה' אמת צדקו יחדיו‬, “The fear of the Lord is pure, abiding forever; the judgments of the Lord are true, righteous together,” expresses a parallelism between ‘Fear of the Lord’ and ‘God’s Laws’/'‫משפטי ה‬, which are said to make “the simple wise” (Ps 19:8). The connection of ‘fear of the Lord’/‫ יראת ה‬with the Law and wisdom is also expressed in Ben Sira, as he states: “All wisdom is fear of the Lord, and in all wisdom there is doing of the Law” (Sir 19:20). 13 Furthermore, the connection between the Torah and observations of the natural order as a source of wisdom is expressed in Psalm 19, and these also seem to be the source of wisdom for Ben Sira. As Benjamin Wright states: “When we examine Ben Sira’s teaching in toto, we see that our sage draws on three foundational sources of wisdom in order to craft his own instruction: (1) the sapiential tradition as it is transmitted through the sages; (2) the observation of the created order; and (3) the Torah.” 14 280F

281F

Scott C. Jones “Wisdom’s Pedagogy: A Comparison of Proverbs VII and 4Q184,” VT 53, 1 (2003): 65–80 esp. p. 78. Further Eibert Tigchelaar by comparing 4Q184 to parallel fragments of 4Q525 reveals a strong mythological description of the netherworld in the text, see his “Lady Folly and Her House in Three Qumran Manuscripts: On the Relation Between 4Q525 15, 5Q16, and 4Q184 1,” RevQ 23, 3 (2008): 378. 11 Scott Jones, “Wisdom’s Pedagogy,” 79. 12 Anja Klien, “Half Way Between Psalm 119 and Ben Sira: Wisdom and Torah in Psalm 19,” in Bernd U. Schipper and D. Andrew Teeter, Wisdom and Torah (Leiden: Brill, 2013), 137–56. 13 Patrick Skehan, and Alexander A. Di Lella, Wisdom of Ben Sira: A New Translation with Notes (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007), 75–6. This passage was not salvaged in the manuscript traditions. 14 Benjamin G. Wright, “Torah and Sapiential Pedagogy in the Book of Ben Sira,” in Bernd U. Schipper and D. Andrew Teeter, Wisdom and Torah, 169. 10

3. SECOND TEMPLE BACKGROUND

95

The description of wisdom’s journey in Sir 24:4–23 is another example where the connection between wisdom and Torah is clearly expressed. Wisdom is described as descending from on high, taking her place amongst Israel, and eventually being recorded in the Law. One of the important developments of the association of Torah and Wisdom is the particularistic nature of this idea. Ben Sira seamlessly integrates both the basic structure and the forms of wisdom with elements of the historical-national narrative of Israel and its particularistic narrative. Therefore this is another example where wisdom and Israelite-particularism are seen as not being mutually exclusive. Since this element of particularism is already evident in the wisdom-Torah Psalms, they seem to be the bridge between the subtle and implicit connections found in Proverbs to the more explicit connection between Torah and Wisdom found in Ben Sira. 15 Furthermore, in Ben Sira’s discussions of ‘traditional’ sapiential themes, such as honoring one’s parents and the dangers of adultery, there are allusions to the biblical verses connected with these themes, linking the sapiential teachings with their expression in the Pentateuch. 16 The connection of wisdom to Torah is also an association with the Law. As Alexander Di Lella summarizes regarding Ben Sira’s fundamental thesis, “…wisdom, which is identified with the Law, can be acquired only by one who fears God and keeps the commandments.” 17 This connection between the Torah/Law and wisdom continues and develops throughout the Second Temple Period and is evident in the Dead Sea Scrolls. This expression is seen in two ways: the identification of wisdom with the Law, as well as the incorporation of biblical laws within the wisdom corpus. An example of the identification of wisdom with the Law is seen in 4Q525/4QBeatitudes, a work praising wisdom. In the beginning of the work, it states that the words spoken are spoken with a God-given wisdom, utilizing terms familiar to the wisdom tradition: wisdom, discipline and understanding, [‫לדע[ת חוכמה ומו]סר‬ ‫להשכיל‬, “to know wisdom and discipline, to understand” (4Q525 I, 2). The usage of these terms clearly reveals the wisdom tone of this work. In frg. 3 ii line 1 it states: ‫אשרי‬ ‫תומכי חוקיה ולוא יתמוכו בדרכי עולה‬, “Blessed are those who hold fast to its statutes, and do not hold fast to the ways of injustice.” It is then written in line 3, ‫אשרי אדם‬ ‫השיג חוכמה ויתהלך בתורת עליון ויכן לדרכיה לבו‬, “Blessed is the man who attains wisdom, vacat and walks in the Law of the Most High: establishes his heart in its ways.” These lines clearly express the connection between wisdom and following the ‘Law of the Most High.’ The use of the words ‫ תומכי חוקיה‬as a description for the wise, while 15

For the exact nature of that Torah and what it meant for Ben Sira see Benjamin G. Wright, “Torah and Sapiential Pedagogy in the Book of Ben Sira,” in Bernd U. Schipper and D. Andrew Teeter, Wisdom and Torah, 165–86. 16 Ben Sira’s discussion of adultery is found in 23:16–26, and respect for one’s parents in 3:1–16. It is clear that the overall form and content is that of ‘traditional wisdom’ sources, however the allusions to the Pentateuch are present. Wright, “Torah and Sapiential Pedagogy,” 173–5. 17 Alexander A. Di Lella, “Wisdom of Ben Sira,” ABD 940.

96

THROUGH THE PRISM OF WISDOM

also depicting the ‘one who follows the path of the Law of the Most High’ as the one who has attained wisdom, ‫השיג חכמה‬, demonstrates the connection between the Law and wisdom. The second indication of the link between wisdom and Law is seen in the presence of biblical law in wisdom texts. One of the sources that demonstrate this connection is Sapiential Work A/ 4Q416–4Q418. In this work there is a combination of wisdom instruction, apocalyptic thought, and Law. The author calls his readers to meditate on the ‫רז נהיה‬/‘the mystery that is to be/come’, an enigmatic phrase that has elicited much scholarly debate. 18 Whether this refers to a specific work, biblical or nonbiblical, specifically sectarian or not, is discussed by scholars. According to Daniel J. Harrington, through his analysis of the text, a number of aspects are connected with ‘the mystery that is to be’: creation and the cosmos, moral behavior and ethics, God/theology and eschatology. 19 These aspects are associated with both wisdom and apocalyptic traditions, and will be discussed further on in this chapter. In this section the focus will be on the expression of the Law and Wisdom within 4Q416–18. 4Q416–18, also known as 4QInstruction, incorporates biblical legal material within wisdom instruction almost seamlessly. 20 In a section giving advice regarding 285F

286F

18

The translation of this term has been attempted by many scholars referring to different temporal states, For future: André Caqot, “Les Textes de Sagesse de Qoumrån (Aperçu préliminaire),” RHPR 76 (1996): 9; Helmer Ringgren, Faith of Qumran: Theology of the Dead Sea Scrolls (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1963), 21; Daniel Harrington, Wisdom Texts of Qumran (London: Routledge, 1996), 49; J.J. Collins “Wisdom Reconsidered, in Light of the Scrolls,” DSD 4 (1997): 272. For an ambiguous temporal state, such as ‘the mystery that was coming into being,’ see Lawrence H. Schiffman, “4QMysteries: A Preliminary Edition and Translation,” in Solving Riddles and Untying Knots: Biblical, Epigraphic and Semitic Studies in Honor of Jonas C. Greenfield, ed. Z. Zevit (Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1995), 210; Stressing that it does not exclusively have a future meaning, see Torleif Elgvin, “An Analysis of 4QInstruction,” 78; Charlotte Hempel, “The Qumran Sapiential Texts and the Rule Books,” in The Wisdom Texts from Qumran and the Development of Sapiential Thought, ed. C. Hempel, A. Lange and H. Lichtenberger, BETL 159 (Leuven: Leuven University Press; Peeters, 2002), 284, translates the phrase as “the mystery to be,” as well as Daryl F. Jefferies, Wisdom at Qumran: A Form-Critical Analysis of the Admonitions in 4QInstruction (Piscataway: Gorgias Press, 2004), 65; John Collins, Jewish Wisdom in the Hellenistic Age, OTL (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1997), 121–25; Daniel J. Harrington, Wisdom Texts at Qumran, 41; Matthew Goff, The Worldly and Heavenly Wisdom of 4QInstruction, STDJ 50 (Leiden: Brill, 2003), 33 prefers “the mystery that is to be” hopefully conveying the all encompassing temporal sense of the word. 19 Harrington, Wisdom Texts at Qumran, 55. 20 For a discussion of halakhah in the wisdom texts see Lawrence H. Schiffman, “Halakhic Elements in the Sapiential Texts from Qumran,” in John. J. Collins, Gregory E. Sterling and Ruth A. Clements, Sapiential Perspectives, 89–100. He also brings examples from more fragmentary texts such as 4Q423 which discuss the law of first-born animals. There has also been discussion regarding the text 4QWays of Righteousness (4Q421), which according to Tig-

3. SECOND TEMPLE BACKGROUND

97

relationships, it discusses the relationship between husband and wife and the husband’s authority to annul his wife’s vows. In a description of the wife’s role vis a vis her husband, it quotes the verse in Genesis describing man leaving his home and cleaving to his wife, although the description here focuses on the wife leaving the authority of her parent’s home and being under her husband’s authority. Echoing the biblical legislation, it states in 4QInstruction, 4Q416 2 iv, 8–9: [‫וכל שבועת אסרה לנדר נד]ר‬... [

]‫הפר על מוצא פיכה וברצונכה הניא]ה [ל‬

And every binding oath to confirm a vo[w,] annul (it) by an utterance of your mouth and at your pleasure nullify [it ...] 21

Here an admonition is given regarding a husband’s responsibility over his wife’s actions, in particular her vows, echoing the verses in Num 30:11–16. A similar admonition regarding vows is seen in Prov 20:25, where it states, ‫מוקש אדם ילע קדש ואחר‬ ‫נדרים לבקר‬, “It is a snare for a man to pledge a sacred gift rashly, and to give thought to his vows only after they have been made.” It also echoes Ecc 5:3–5, where it states the importance of keeping one’s oath. In Proverbs and Ecclesiastes, discussions of vows present themselves either as experiential sayings, or admonitions that demonstrate the thoughtfulness one must use before making a vow. This does not directly reflect the biblical verses in Numbers. However, in 4Q416 the biblical verses seem to have a greater influence on the text, as shown by the introduction of the case of the husband’s role in annulling his wife’s vows. 22 Furthermore the language of 4Q416 289F

chelaar incorporated three different fragments, one a community instruction, the second descriptive wisdom and sayings on the righteous individual, and the third a halakhic treatise on the Sabbath see, Eibert Tigchelaar, “Sabbath Halakha and Worship in 4QWays of Righteousness: 4Q421 11 and 13+2+8 par 4Q264a 1–2,” RevQ, 8 (1998): 359–72. However, Elisha Qimron and Vered Noam in “A Qumran Composition of Sabbath Laws and its Contribution to the Study of Early Halakha,” DSD 16, 1 (2009): 55–96, question the halakhic portion’s connection to the earlier sections, see p. 56 n. 6. They point to a few factors and not only the different genre of the works, such as different orthography as well as the defective spelling of the ‫ כל‬only in the halakhic fragment and the difference in the width of the columns of the two works. The consensus is that the halakhic portions were not part of this scroll and therefore it is not brought as an example of the incorporation of halakhah as wisdom. 21 Text and translation of 4QInstruction taken from Matthew Goff, 4QInstruction (Atlanta: SBL Press, 2013), 119–20. 22 The biblical verse specifies the case to relate to a vow that is viewed as problematic by the father or husband and only if they immediately disavow the woman’s vow is she exempt from keeping it. If, however, they deem the vow acceptable, then she is obligated to keep the vow just as a man is. This distinction is not made in 4Q416 and seems to say that all of one’s wife’s vows should be annulled. However, other texts from Qumran do seem to express this differentiation, see Lawrence H. Schiffman, “The Law of Vows and Oaths (NUM 30: 3–16) In the

98

THROUGH THE PRISM OF WISDOM

clearly echoes the biblical verse by utilizing the term ‫ שבועת אסרה‬in line 8, echoing the verse in Num 30:14: ‫כל נדר וכל שבעת אסר לענת נפש אישה יקימנו ואישה יפרנו‬: “Every vow and every sworn obligation of self-denial may be upheld by her husband or annulled by her husband.” Therefore although 4QInstruction deals with issues discussed in Proverbs and Ecclesiastes with regard to acting cautiously with vows, it seems that the text is also greatly influenced by the biblical prescriptions regarding vows and incorporates them into its admonitions, linking wisdom with biblical prescriptions. Another example of the incorporation of biblical law is seen in 4Q418 103 ii 6–9. In the context of agricultural advice, it utilizes the law of ‘mixed species’ ‫כלאים‬. It states: [

‫ב[מחסורכה אל תערוב אשר] לרעכה‬

[‫למה יהיה כלאים כפרד והייתה כלוב]ש שעטנז [בצמר ובבפשים ועבודתכה כחור]ש‬ ‫בשור ובח]מו[ר ]י[חד]ו [ וגם תבואתכה תה]היה לכה כ[זורע כלאים אשר השרע‬ [‫ומלאה ותבוא]ת‬ ... your merchandise do not mix [with] that which [belongs to your neighbor,] lest it be of diverse kinds like a mule, and you be like one who wea[rs sha‘atṇ ez],with wool together with flax, and your work like one who plo[ws] with an ox and a do[nk]ey [to]geth[er]. And also your produce will bec[ome for you like] one who sows diverse kinds, who forfe[its together] the seed, the ripe fruit, and the produce [of] the [vineyard]. 23

This text is an admonition against one who mixes his cargo with that of his associates, drawing a comparison between such a mixture and other types of mixtures forbidden in the Torah. This passage relates it to a number of different mixtures; the mixbreeding of animals such as a mule, the wearing of sha‘atnez, a garment of flax and wool, plowing one’s field with an ox and a donkey, as well as crossbreeding seeds. These prohibitions are expressed in Lev 19:19, where it discusses the inbreeding of cattle, crossbreeding of seeds, as well as the mixture of certain cloths. In Deut 22:9–11 it adds the elements of crossbreeding a vineyard, as well as the prohibition of plowing an ox and an ass together. The text in 4Q418 combines these two different sources by mentioning the inbreeding of animals (Leviticus) as well as the plowing of the ox and the ass (Deuteronomy). The mention of all these different laws together clearly shows the influence of Zadokite Fragments and the Temple Scroll,” in Studies on the Texts of the Desert of Judah, Volume 75; Courtyards of the House of the Lord: Studies in the Temple Scroll, ed. Florentino Garcia Martinez (Leiden: Brill, 2007), 557–72. 23 Text and translation of 4QInstruction taken from Matthew Goff, 4QInstruction (Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2013), 263–64.

3. SECOND TEMPLE BACKGROUND

99

the biblical law on this passage in 4Q418, and furthermore highlights the integration of biblical law into wisdom instruction. This integration expresses the problematic nature of mixing different kinds of species according to the biblical commandments and connects that prohibition to the advice of not mixing one’s cargo with the cargo of his associates. 24 This incorporation of biblical law within the wisdom text implies a greater connection between the Law and wisdom. While Ben Sira generally states the idea of obedience to the Law as a key to wisdom and achieving it, here specific examples of biblical prescriptions are incorporated as admonitions in a wisdom text. This integration of the Law and wisdom is the precursor to the rabbinic understanding of knowledge and the study of halakhah as wisdom. This transformation of wisdom and its association with the Law will be demonstrated throughout this work, as Elijah plays an integral role in answering halakhic controversies, reinforcing his persona’s connection with wisdom. The Merging of Apocalyptic and Wisdom Traditions The Dead Sea Scrolls provide a tremendous trove of information that sheds light on the development of ideas in the Second Temple Period. Prior to the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls, Ben Sira was the only known Hebrew, non-biblical wisdom composition of the Second Temple era. However with the discovery of the scrolls, a number of new wisdom texts can be added to the repertoire. The main wisdom works found among the Dead Sea Scrolls are 4QInstruction, The Book of Mysteries, 4QWiles of the Wicked Woman, 4QSapiential Work, 4QWords of the Maskil, 4QWays of Righteousness, 4QInstruction-like Composition B, and 4QBeatitudes. Some of these texts more closely resemble biblical wisdom (4Q424, 4Q184, 4Q525, 4Q420–421), while others demonstrate influences of both apocalyptic and Torah themes, highlighting the fluid nature of wisdom in the Second Temple era (4QInstruction, 4QMysteries). 25 As mentioned above, 4QInstruction not only connects wisdom and Law, but also incorporates apocalyptic elements in the text. The connection between wisdom and apocalyptic was first introduced by Gerhard von Rad, who posits that the apocalyptic tradition is an offshoot of the wisdom tradition. 26 His theory is mostly rejected by scholars today due to the discovery of early manuscripts of apocalyptic works amongst the Dead Sea Scrolls, such as part of the Enochic works the Book of the Watchers and the Astronomical Book of Enoch, which are dated to the third century BCE. This clearly proves an early date of non-biblical apocalyptic works. Regardless of the exact development of the apocalyptic and wisdom traditions, von Rad’s analysis has led scholars to look more deeply into the similarities between apocalyptic and wisdom traditions that led von Rad to his conclusions. 24 The laws of ‫ כלאים‬are also discussed in 4QMMT B 76–78, as well as 4Q269 (Dd)IX, 2‒3. 25 For the most extensive analysis of these wisdom texts see Matthew Goff, Discerning

The Sapiential Literature of the Dead Sea Scrolls (Leiden: Brill, 2007). 26 von Rad, Wisdom in Israel, 268–82.

Wisdom:

100

THROUGH THE PRISM OF WISDOM

Matthew Goff describes the similarities between the two genres as both being a product of learned men who saw themselves as transmitters of wisdom, and the emphasis placed on the importance of knowledge and the search for wisdom. 27 However, one of the major differences between biblical wisdom and the apocalyptic tradition is wisdom’s source. Biblical wisdom mostly stresses the human experiential element in the quest and acquisition of wisdom, even if at its source wisdom is traced back to the divine. On the other hand, the apocalyptic tradition views wisdom as acquired through revelation, whether through ‘mantic wisdom’, such as dream interpretation, or through angelic mediation. In the late Second Temple period a conflation of these very different genres seems to emerge. Wisdom texts begin to exhibit apocalyptic features, and apocalyptic texts display wisdom elements. As John Collins expresses regarding Crenshaw’s definition of wisdom, the “marriage between form and content” seems to end in divorce. He explains that there are texts which do not reflect the form of wisdom, but rather wisdom elements, such as the Treatise of the Two Spirits in the Community Rule, while there are those that maintain the form of wisdom texts, such as 4QInstruction, and at the same time clearly display an apocalyptic worldview. 28 The apocalyptic element of 4QInstruction is present in the framework of the text at the beginning and end of the composition. The usage of the enigmatic phrase ‫ רז נהיה‬dispersed throughout the work, as well as the added element of the future reward and punishment in the End of Days, are examples of this apocalyptic element. In 4Q417 1 i 1–7 it states: [

‫הבט ]ו[ברזי פלא]י אל הנוראים תשכיל ראש‬

[

]‫ו[אתה מב]י[ן‬

‫והבט ]ברז נהיה ומעשי קדם למה נהיה ומה נהיה ]הויא ולאמה‬ ‫יומם ולילה הגה ברז נ[היה }ו{דורש תמיד ואז תדע אמת ועול‬

... [ ]...[

]

‫נהיה במה‬ ‫חכמה‬

‫ מעש]ה [בכול דרכיהם עם פקודתם לכול קצי עולם ופקודת‬...[ ]‫]ואול[ת ת‬ ‫עד ואז תדע בין ]טו[ב ל]רע כ[מעשיהם כיא אל הדעות סוד אמת ברז נהיה‬ And] thou, O underst[a]nding one [ ] gaze thou on, [And] on the wondrous myster[ies of the God of the Awesome Ones thou shalt ponder. The beginnings of ] [ ][ ] And gaze[ on the mystery that is to come, And the deeds of old, On what is to be, And what is to be] [in what ]for ev[er] [is, And to what is to be in what] in every[ ]act and a[ct ] [And by day and by night meditate upon the mystery that is to] come, And study (it) continually. And then thou shalt know truth and iniquity, Matthew Goff, “Wisdom and Apocalypticism,” in Oxford Handbook of Apocalyptic Literature, ed. J.J. Collins (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014), 53–68. 28 John J. Collins, “Wisdom Reconsidered in the Light of the Scrolls,” 265–81, esp. 280. See as well Armin Lange, “Wisdom and Predestination in the Dead Sea Scrolls,” DSD 2, 3 (1995): 340–54 and his analysis of the wisdom elements in the sectarian and non-sectarian texts. 27

3. SECOND TEMPLE BACKGROUND

101

wisdom [and foolish]ness thou shalt [recognize], every ac[t ]in all their ways, Together with their punishment(s) in all ages everlasting, And the punishment of eternity. Then thou shalt discern between the [goo]d and [evil according to their] deeds. For the God of knowledge is the foundation of truth. And by/on the mystery that is to come/be 29

The text states that by discerning the punishment of transgressors, one can discern the truth. It exhorts the student to follow the ways of truth and wisdom and shun the ways of falsehood and folly. The usage of the phrase, ‫עם פקודתם לכול קצי עולם‬, “together with their punishment(s) in all ages everlasting,” references apocalyptic language referring to the division of times. As Elgvin states, “Similar to sectarian writing the text refers to preordained periods of the end time…” 30 This element of preordained time periods is seen in works such as Enoch and Jubilees, both of which receive their knowledge from heavenly mediators or angels. Although 4QInstruction does not refer to an angelic mediator as relaying knowledge, and may not technically be an ‘apocalypse’ as defined at the Semia conference, 31 it utilizes a framework that stems from apocalyptic literature. This fragment speaks to the reader as the ‫מבין‬, referring to a wise person of understanding, imploring him to delve into the “wondrous mysteries of God.” Delving into the raz nihyeh, the mystery that is to come/to be, refers to observing all that was, is, and will be. The raz nihyeh deals with the secrets of creation (the past), proper ethical behavior (the present), and the judgment in the End of Days (the future). 32 All 297F

298F

29F

Text and Translation J. M. Allegro and N. Gordon, in The Dead Sea Scroll Reader: Calendrical and Sapiential Texts, 103–4. 30 Torleif Elgvin, “Wisdom With and Without Apocalyptic,” in Sapiential, Liturgical and Poetical Texts from Qumran: Proceedings of the Third Meeting of the International Organization for Qumran Studies, Oslo, 1998 Published in Memory of Maurice Baillet, ed. Daniel K. Falk, Florentino Garcia Martinez, Eileen Schuller (Leiden: Brill, 2000), 24. 31 Both the utility and limitations of defining a genre were discussed in Chapter Two. Specifically with regard to apocalypticism, it is important to note that the genre may have developed in a manner that did not require a heavenly mediator as part of its definition. The fluidity of genre may indeed also influence our understanding of the role of apocalyptic elements in works such as 4QInstruction. 32 Lawrence H. Schiffman, “4QMysteriesb: A Preliminary Edition,” RevQ 16 (1993): 202–23. J. J. Collins, Jewish Wisdom, 122. Harrington, Wisdom Texts, 49. Matthew Goff, The Worldly and Heavenly Wisdom, 33–5, for a comprehensive list of scholars who discuss the meaning of this phrase, see Goff, Worldly and Heavenly Wisdom, 34 n. 14. The connection between knowledge of creation, wisdom, and eschatology is one that scholars have commented on, see John J. Collins, “The Mysteries of God, Creation and Eschatology in 4QInstruction and the Wisdom of Solomon,” in Wisdom and Apocalypticism in the Dead Sea Scrolls and in the Biblical Tradition, 287–306. R.A. Argall, 1 Enoch and Sirach: A Comparative Literary and Conceptual Analysis of the Themes of Revelation Creation and Judgement, SBLEJL 8 (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1995). Andrei A. Orlov, “Secrets of Creation in 2 (Slavonic) Enoch,” Henoch 22, 29

102

THROUGH THE PRISM OF WISDOM

three of these elements seem to be intertwined in the author’s understanding of the ‘secret that is to come/be.’ By delving into the secrets of creation, one can better understand the ways of God and the manner in which he determined the future of the world through creation. What is fascinating is that Elijah is connected with these forms of wisdom in the rabbinic material. As will be discussed in future chapters, Elijah is described as engaging in the discussion of ‫ מעשה בראשית‬with his pupil Elisha before he ascends to the heavens in a fiery chariot. 33 Elijah also engages in the discussion of proper ethical behavior, for example in his chastisement of a Hasid when erecting a gate at the entrance of his home. 34 Elijah is also connected with knowledge of the end of days, and plays a role of adjudicating the law, and declaring families pure and impure. 35 Therefore understanding the role of wisdom and apocalyptic thought as represented by the term ‫ רז נהיה‬is essential in understanding the intersection between wisdom and apocalyptic in both Second Temple texts, and the later manifestations of this development in rabbinic literature. The knowledge of creation as the source for the great secrets of the world is seen in different ‘apocalypses’, such as the Apocalypse of Weeks 93:10, where it states that the chosen righteous will receive “sevenfold teaching concerning his whole creation.” 36 In 1 Enoch and 2 Enoch, the secrets of creation are revealed to Enoch and are connected to ethics and proper behavior as is seen in the Epistle of Enoch (1 En 100–102) and 2 En 44:1; 52:6 and 60:1. 37 Collins states the centrality of creation in the apocalyptic wisdom tradition: 30F

301F

302F

30F

304F

The wisdom of Enoch is apocalyptic wisdom, which posits a supernatural revelation not normally accessible to humanity. It shares with the Jewish wisdom tradition the conviction that right conduct depends on right understanding. For right understanding, however, it is necessary to go beyond the bounds of normal human experience to discover the order of creation, the geography of the heavens and the nature of the final judgment…Enoch goes to the source of creation. 38 1 (2000): 45–62. Norman Cohn, Cosmos, Chaos, and the World to Come: The Ancient Roots of Apocalyptic Faith (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001). 33 See yBer 5:1, 8d and my analysis in Chapter Six of this work. 34 See bB. Bat. 7b and the discussion of that text in Chapter Nine of this work. 35 m‘Ed. 8:7 and the discussion in Chapter Five. 36 John J. Collins, The Apocalyptic Imagination: An Introduction to Jewish Apocalyptic Literature (Michigan: Eerdmans, 1998), 71. 37 See R. A. Argall, 1 Enoch and Sirach: A Comparative Literary and Conceptual Analysis of the Themes of Revelation, Creation and Judgement, SBLEJL 8 (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1995), 99–164. He views the role of ethics as learned from creation to be expressed in Epistle of Enoch (1 En 100–102) as well as the Astronomical Book (1 En 80–82). Collins, The Apocalyptic Imagination, 245. Collins states that ethics of behavior towards mankind stem from the understanding of God’s creation of mankind in His image, see 2 Enoch 44:1, 52:6 and 60:1. 38 Collins, Apocalyptic Imagination, 246.

3. SECOND TEMPLE BACKGROUND

103

A similar conception of wisdom is expressed in 4QInstruction where creation is central in relaying esoteric knowledge and is the source that guides one to correct action. The role of creation in relaying secret knowledge and correct behavior is stated in 4Q417 1 i 8–10: ‫ואז תדע בין ]טו[ב ל]רע כ[מעשיהם [ כיא אל הדעות סוד אמת וברז נהיה פרש את‬ ...‫]לכל חכ[מה ולכל] ע[רמה יצרה וממשלת מעשיה לכול‬...‫אושה ומעשיה‬ Then thou shalt discern between the [goo]d and [evil according to their] deeds. For the God of knowledge is the foundation of truth and by/on the mystery that is to come He laid out its foundation, and its deeds [He has prepared with all wis]dom and with all [c]unning has He fashioned it. 39

This section states that differentiating between good and evil is directly linked to studying the ‘mystery’, for that very ‘mystery that is to come/be’ is the foundation of all truth. This seems to imply that God utilized this mystery in the creation of the world. As Elgvin states, “... [the] text presents raz nihyeh as God’s agent in creation and plan for world history...We have therefore suggested that raz nihyeh is an apocalyptic reinterpretation of the biblical and early Jewish concept of the ‘Wisdom of God’, which stresses the esoteric nature of divine revelation.” 40 This connection between the ‘Wisdom of God’ utilized in the creation of the world with the ‫רז נהיה‬, a term colored by apocalyptic thought, reflects the product of borrowing from wisdom and merging it with apocalyptic ideas. The knowledge of the ‫ רז נהיה‬also enlightens man to the proper behavior with which he must conduct himself in order to be privy to the salvation of the End of Days, as stated in 4Q417 1 i 10–13: ‫[ ריה וכושר‬

]..‫פרש למ]ב[ינתם לכול מ]עשי[ה להתהלך ב]יצר [מבינתם ויפרש לא‬

‫מבינות נוד]עו נס[תר מחשבתו עם התהלכו ] ת[מים] בכול מ[עשיו אלה שחר תמיד‬ ‫והתבונן ] בכו[ל תוצאותמה ואז תדע כבוד ע]וזו ע[ם רזי פלאו וגבורת מעשיו‬ He [expounded] for their un[der]standing every d[ee]d/cr[eatu]re So that man could walk in the [fashion (inclination)] of their/his understanding, And He will/did expound for m[an ] and in abundance/property/purity of understanding were made kn[own the se]crets of his (?man’s) plan, together with how he should walk [p]erfec[t in all] his [ac]tions. These things investigate/seek clearly and continually, and gain understanding [about a]ll their outcomes. And then thou shalt

J. M. Allegro and N. Gordon, trans., The Dead Sea Scroll Reader: Calendrical and Sapiential Texts, 104–5. 40 Torleif Elgvin, “Wisdom With and Without Apocalyptic,” 24–5. 39

104

THROUGH THE PRISM OF WISDOM know about the glory of [His] m[ight, Toge]ther with His marvelous mysteries and the mighty acts He has wrought. 41

The phrase, ‫“ התהלכו תמים בכול מעשיו‬walk perfect in all his actions,” seems to refer to following the prescriptions of the Torah. The proper contemplation of past events will be made clear to those who have ‘understanding’, and the ability to discern God’s greatness in the past and the future will serve as a reward to those who adhere to God’s laws. The text continues to stress the idea of ‫שמרי דברו‬, those who “safeguard His words,” 42 and speaks of them being engraved in the book of memorial, ‫ספר הזכרון‬, which is also called the ‫חזון ההגוי לספר הזכרון‬. The meaning of ‘vision of hagu’ has been debated by many scholars. 43 Whether a reference to an actual work, such as the Pentateuch, the first part of the book of Enoch, or describing some esoteric meditation, in this context it seems to be connected to the book of memorial. 44 Elgvin sees a resemblance to the heavenly tablets mentioned in Jubilees. He states: 310F

31F

When the apocalyptists describe history as divinely ordained from the beginning, they often turn to the ancient image of the heavenly tablets. The idea of the heavenly book or tablets where God has recorded the preordained history of the world (or the names of the righteous) is an old Sumerian theme which is adopted in Biblical and Jewish tradition. The passage just quoted merges this idea with the concept of the heavenly book of knowledge which is revealed only to a restricted circle, an idea found in 1 Enoch and Jubilees. 45

Cana Werman, on the other hand, sees a connection between the ‫ חזון ההגוי‬and the ‫ ספר ההגוי‬that is mentioned in sectarian writing such as Damascus Document and Rule of the Congregation. Werman suggests that the term ‫ חזון ההגוי‬was the precursor for the conception of the ‫ ספר ההגוי‬as described in later works. Werman explains that the word ‫ חזון‬connotes reflection through meditation, and not the biblical usage of ‘revelation’. 46 The author of 4QInstruction believes that the key to deciphering the 31F

J. M. Allegro and N. Gordon, trans., The Dead Sea Scroll Reader: Calendrical and Sapiential Texts, 104–5. 42 Note the use of the third person without the ‫י‬, in the word ‫ דברו‬instead of ‫דבריו‬. 43 As a reference for the Torah see Isaac Rabinowitz, “The Qumran Author’s spr hhgw/y,” JNES 20 (1961): 109–14. Devora Steinmetz, “Sefer HeHago: The Community and the Book,” JJS 52 (2001): 40–58; Charllotte Hempel, “The Qumran Sapiential Texts and the Rule Books,” in C. Hempel, A. Lange and H. Lichtenberger, The Wisdom Texts From Qumran, 277–95, esp. 285–6; Cana Werman, “What is the Book of Hagu?” in J. Collins, G. Sterling and R. Clements, Sapiential Perspectives, 125–40; Matthew Goff, Discerning Wisdom, 29–36. 44 See Alex P. Jassen, Mediating the Divine Prophecy and Revelation in the Dead Sea Scrolls and in Second Temple Judaism (Leiden: Brill, 2006), 325–8. See an extensive review of the topic by Matthew Goff, The Worldly and Heavenly Wisdom of 4QInstruction, 80–99. 45 Elgvin, “Wisdom With and Without Apocalyptic,” 25. 46 Cana Werman, “What is the ‘Book of Hagu’?” 138. 41

3. SECOND TEMPLE BACKGROUND

105

proper actions and correct manner to live one’s life is through meditating on past events in history. Werman brings many examples in which this exercise of meditating on past history is utilized in highlighting proper behavior. This meditation with the mind’s eye is expressed in the words ‫חזון ההגוי‬, and that meditation reveals the ‫רז נהיה‬, the ‘mystery that is to be/come’. 47 One of the objects of this meditation is described as the ‫ספר הזכרון‬, which Werman understands as the course of predestined history. The term ‫ ספר הזכרון‬may be alluding to Mal 3 where a heavenly book of remembrance is discussed. The concept of the righteous being recorded for their good deeds in a heavenly book, and the importance of meditating on this idea, may be hinted in the usage of the term ‫ספר זכרון‬. It is noteworthy that in some later rabbinic traditions, Elijah is connected with the recording of the righteous in the heavens, and this motif seems to stem from the verse in Mal 3:16, which is later connected with Elijah. Therefore, usage of the terms ‫ רז נהיה‬and ‫ חזון ההגוי‬indicates the merging between apocalyptic themes and wisdom. Although Werman prefers to see the role of revelation as minimal in relation to the term ‫ חזון ההגוי‬in 4QInstruction, the constant usage of the term ‫ רז נהיה‬and its link with apocalyptic works such as Daniel where the ‫רז‬, ‘secret’, is directly connected with Divine revelation (Dan 2:19–23). Therefore, the element of revelation cannot be discounted, nor can the significant influence of apocalyptic ideas on the text. As Matthew Goff states: “4Qinstruction should be considered a wisdom text because it draws on traditional wisdom in terms of form and content. Yet its appeals to revelation distinguish it from older wisdom...The addressee of 4Qinstruction, however, learns about the world through the contemplation of revealed knowledge.” 48 The influence of apocalyptic in 4QInstruction, a wisdom text in form and content, is also seen in the description of the final judgment of both the righteous and wicked. In 4Q418 69 ii 6–8 there is a clear demonstration of this worldview: 315F

[‫אתם]שאו[ל נוצרתם ולשחת עולם תשובתכם כי תקיץ ות]ראה ב[חטאכמה ]ויושבי‬ ‫מחשכיה] [יצרחו על ריבכם וכול נהיה עולם דורשי אמת יעורו למשפטכ]ם ואז [ ישמדו‬ ‫כול אוילי לב ובני עולה לוא ימצאו עוד] וכ[ול מחזיקי רשעה יבש]ו ואז‬ You [ for She ]ol were fashioned, and to the eternal pit is your return. For it will awake and re[ veal ] your sin, [ and the inhabitants of ] its dark regions will shout out regarding your case. And all who exist forever, the seekers of truth, will awaken for yo[ ur ] judgment. [ And then ] all the foolish of heart will be destroyed, the 47

Judith Newman agrees for the most part with Werman’s conclusion, however believes that the vocal/aural association of the verb should not be discounted, and the complete focus on the cognitive dimension of hagu may be incorrect. See Judith H. Newman, “Priestly Prophets at Qumran: Summoning Sinai through the Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice,” in The Significance of Sinai: Traditions About Sinai and Divine Revelation in Judaism and Christianity, ed. George J. Brooke and Hindy Najman (Leiden:Brill, 2007), 56. 48 Matthew Goff, The Worldly and Heavenly Wisdom, 40–1.

106

THROUGH THE PRISM OF WISDOM sons of iniquity will be found no more, [ and a ]ll those who cling to wickedness will wither aw[ ay. And then ] 49

This text clearly expresses the fate of the wicked who will return to the eternal pit, restored by Goff as Sheol. It also speaks of ‫וכול נהיה עולם דורשי אמת‬, “the one’s who exist forever, the speakers of truth,” who are said to ‘awaken’ for judgment. This phrase, ‫ וכול נהיה עולם‬is debated by scholars. Elgvin and Fletcher-Louis argue that it refers to the righteous in the End of Days and their resurrection for the final judgment. 50 However, Tigchelaar, Collins, and Goff prefer to understand this enigmatic phrase, ‫נהיה עולם‬, as referring to the angels who live eternally and awaken for the judgment, just as in the phrase before, where it states that all ‘the inhabitants of the dark regions’ in Sheol will call out against the wicked. 51 The wicked, called here ‫אוילי‬ ‫ לב‬and ‫בני אולה‬, clearly mirrors the language found in biblical wisdom denoting the wicked as fools with the usage of the word ‫אויל‬, although the full term does not occur in other biblical texts. 52 Thereby we have both wisdom and apocalyptic tones within this text. The apocalyptic tones in this section are undeniable; both the discussion of the wicked’s destruction in the ‘eternal pit,’ as well as the possible reference to resur319F

Text and translation taken from Matthew Goff, 4QInstruction (Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2013). 50 Torleif Elgvin, “Early Essene Eschatology: Judgment and Salvation according to Sapiential Work A,” in Current Research and Technological Development on the Dead Sea Scrolls: Conference on the Texts from the Judean Desert, Jerusalem, 30 April 1995,ed. D. W. Parry and S. D. Ricks. STDJ 20 (Leiden: Brill, 1996), 143–4. Emile Puech in numerous places, “Apports des textes apocalyptiques et sapientiels de Qumrân à l’eschatologie du judaïsme ancien,” in Wisdom and Apocalypticism in the Dead Sea Scrolls and in the Biblical Tradition, ed. Florentino García Martínez, BETL 168 (Leuven: Leuven University Press 2003), 143; “Les Identités en présence dans les scènes du jugement dernier de 4QInstruction (4Q416 1 et 4Q418 69 ii),” in Defining Identities: We, You, and the Other in the Dead Sea Scrolls: Proceedings of the Fifth Meeting of the IOQS in Groningen, ed. by Florentino García Martínez and Mladen Popović, STDJ 70 (Leiden: Brill, 2008), 159; “Apports des manuscrits de Qoumrân à la croyance à la resurrection dans le judaïsme ancien,” in Qoumrân et le judaïsme du tournant de notre ère. Actes de la Table Ronde, Collège de France, 16 novembre 2004, ed. A. Lemaire and S. C. Mimouni (Leuven: Peeters, 2006), 90–2; Crispin Fletcher-Louis, All the Glory of Adam: Liturgical Anthropology in the Dead Sea Scrolls, STDJ 42 (Leiden: Brill, 2002), 118–21. 51 J.J. Collins, “The Eschatologizing of Wisdom in the Dead Sea Scrolls,” in J. J. Collins, Gregory E. Sterling, and Ruth A. Clements, Sapiential Perspectives, 56–7; Eibert Tigchelaar, To Increase Learning for the Understanding Ones: Reading and Reconstructing the Fragmentary Early Jewish Sapiential Text 4QInstruction, STDJ 44 (Leiden: Brill, 2001), 211; Matthew Goff, 4QInstruction, 233, as well as Goff, “The Mystery of Creation in 4QInstruction,” DSD 10 (2003): 176–9. 52 Prov 10:21 ‫ אוילים בחסר לב ימותו‬is the most similar phrase to the message above. See Goff, 4QInstruction, 228 n. 11. 49

3. SECOND TEMPLE BACKGROUND

107

rection of the righteous in the final judgment or the appearance of angels, exhibit the strong connection with the apocalyptic in this text. This same connection between apocalyptic and sapiential modes is seen in 4QMysteries (1Q27, 4Q299–301), where words such as ‘knowledge’, ‘understanding’, ‘know’, ‘discernment,’ and ‘intelligence,’ point to the wisdom influences of the text. One of the key elements of the text is its description of the creation and the importance of the natural order as a source of divine wisdom. The connection that 4QInstruction makes between the secrets of the natural order and proper ethical behavior is similarly expressed in 4QMysteries. As Goff expresses: “…these texts display a connection between ethics and creation, an understanding that accurate perception of the natural order, and God’s role in its guidance, should foster righteous conduct.” 53 Therefore it is not surprising to see discussions of property, farming (4Q299, 6) and the impropriety of bearing a grudge (4Q299, 7) in a text that discusses delving into the secrets of the natural order. Furthermore, like 4QInstruction, there is a strong eschatological element in the text shown in the description of the final judgment. In 1Q27 1 i there is an explicit association between the ‫ רז נהיה‬and the eschatological judgment. It states: ‫] ולוא ידעו רז נהיה ובקדמניות לוא התבוננו ולוא ידעו מה אשר יבוא עליהמה‬... ‫ונפשמה לוא מלטו מרז נהיה וזה לכם האות בהסגר]כי יהיה[ מולדי עולה וגלה הרשע מפני‬ ...‫הצדק כגלות ]ח[ושך מפני אור‬ [ ] but they did not know the secret of the way things are nor did they understand the things of old and they did not know what would come upon them, so they did not rescue themselves by means of the secret of the way things are. This shall be the sign [that this shall come to pass:] when the times of evil are shut up and wickedness is banished in the presence of righteousness, as darkness in the presence of light... 54

The ultimate triumph of righteousness over evil and the dualistic worldview of light against darkness are elements that are influenced by apocalyptic thought. 55 The text Matthew Goff, “Trends in the Study of Early Jewish Wisdom Literature,” CBR 7, 3 (2009): 382. 54 Translation M. Wise, M. Abegg, and E. Cook with N. Gordon in The Dead Sea Scroll Reader: Calendrical and Sapiential Texts, 198–9. 55 For the biblical development see Eric M. Meyers, “From Myth to Apocalyptic: Dualism in the Hebrew Bible,” in Light Against Darkness: Dualism in Ancient Mediterranean Religion and the Contemporary World, ed. Eric M. Meyers, Bennie H. Reynolds III and Randall Styers (Göttingen: Vandernhoeck & Ruprecht, 2011), 92–106. The dualistic mindset of the Qumran Sect is seen in a number of texts, see Loren T. Stuckenbruck, “The Interiorization of Dualism Within the Human Being in Second Temple Judaism: The Treatise of the Two Spirits (1QS III: 13–IV: 26) in its Tradition-Historical Context,” in Armin Lange et al., Light Against Darkness, 145–68. The apocalyptic elements are most prominent in the War Scroll. See David 53

108

THROUGH THE PRISM OF WISDOM

connects the knowledge of the ‫ רז נהיה‬as the conduit through which one may seek salvation, if one possesses the ability to discern its truth. However, it is clear that the wicked are unable to discern this truth and continue in their evil ways, which ultimately leads to their destruction. Therefore 4QMysteries, like 4QInstruction, represents the amalgamation of wisdom with apocalyptic. 4QMysteries seems to have a stronger stress on the apocalyptic element than wisdom, while 4QInstruction seems to have a greater affinity for the form of wisdom literature, although influenced by apocalyptic ideas. Another manner in which apocalyptic and wisdom intermingle is in the texts associated with merkavah speculation. In later rabbinic texts, Elijah is associated with this esoteric knowledge, and therefore the connection between merkavah and wisdom in Qumran texts is important to discuss. Speculation about the merkavah, also known as the ‘Chariot of God’ or ‘Throne of God’, stems from the study of the theophany described in Ezekiel 1 and 10. Ezekiel’s revelation of God’s throne is described in esoteric terms that necessitate interpretation. Such interpretation is already present in Dan 7:9, Book of Watchers 8–25, and is also found in the Qumran Scrolls. Texts such as Second Ezekiel (4Q385 4), 56 and 4QShirot Olat ha-Shabbat (4Q400–407)/Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice, are the most prominent. The Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice most likely describe the heavenly realm and the angels who stand in praise of God. 57 The songs are divided into thirteen parts, each relegated to specific Sabbaths when they were sung. In songs 10–13 it seems to describe the heavenly throne, the embroidered veil, streams of fire, and the merkavah, indicating interpretation of the Ezekiel text. The text also exhibits wisdom tones by their recitation by the ‘maskil’, the ‘wise one’, and there are references to ‫שכל‬, ‫דעת‬, and ‫בינה‬. 58 For example, in the song for the fifth Sabbath, it describes God’s act of creation: 59 325F

326F

Flusser, “Apocalyptic Elements in the War Scroll,” in Judaism of the Second Temple Period I, trans. Azzan Yadin (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2007), 140–58; Philip R. Davies, “Dualism and Eschatology in the War Scroll,” VT 28, 1 (1978): 28–36. 56 Devora Dimant and John Strugnell, “The Merkabah Vision in Second Ezekiel (4Q385 4),” RevQ 13 (1988): 331–48. 57 See the debate regarding the participation and ecstatic element of the text vs. it being a description of the heavenly sphere without direct participation. Crispin Fletcher-Louis argues that the Qumran sect saw themselves as capable of participating in the heavenly realm and that these prayers were the conduit through which this could be achieved, see Crispin FletcherLouis, All the Glory of Adam: Liturgical Anthropology in the Dead Sea Scrolls, STDJ 42 (Leiden: Brill, 2002), 135; Carol A. Newsom, Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice: A Critical Edition, HSS 27 (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1985); Devorah Dimant, “Men as Angels: The Self-Image of the Qumran Community,” in Religion and Politics in the Ancient Near East, STJHC (Bethesda: University Press of Maryland, 1996), 93–103. 58 A few examples are: 4Q400 1 i 6, 17; 4Q400 2, i 9, 15; 4Q402 4 ii 17, 21, 27; 4Q402 4 ii 12; 4Q403 1 i 4, 9. 59 Most of the text is taken from the Masada Manuscript, MasSirSabb I 1–6, paralleled with

3. SECOND TEMPLE BACKGROUND

109

‫דעת נהיו כול הוי עד ומדעתו‬...‫מעשי חדשות פלא כול אלה[ עשה פלא בנס]תרו[ת וכל‬ ‫היו כול תעודות עולמים עושה ראישונות לתעודו[תיהם ואחרונות למועדיהם ואין‬... ‫מה יזום כיא ממעשי‬....‫בידעים נגלי ]פלא[להבין לפני עשותו ובעשות לא ישכילו כול‬ ‫כבודו הם לפני היותם‬ ...wondrous new works. All this] He has done wondrously in his eternally hidden ways (or: in his hidden ways). And not...in all the words of knowledge came into being everything which exists forever. And from His knowledge and [and from] His [purposes] have come into existence all things which were eternally appointed. He makes the former things [in] their [seasons] and the latter things in their due time. And there are none among those who have knowledge who can discern [His wondrous] revelations before He makes them. And when He acts all [those who do righteousn]ess cannot comprehend that which He purposes. For they are part of His glorious works; before even they existed. 60

God is described as creating the world through knowledge which is hidden from mankind. In many ways this is reminiscent of the ‫רז נהיה‬, although ‫ רז נהיה‬is the revealed secret. In the Shirot it is clear that the ‫ נסתרות‬are hidden from mankind, and no one can discern God’s wisdom. The centrality of creation in Qumran wisdom theology has been discussed above and continues to be reflected in this text as well. The apocalyptic element of the text is also observed in the description of the heavenly sphere. Throughout the songs, there is reference to the silence and stillness of the angels. In eight passages the root ‘‫’דממ‬, meaning ‘silent’ or ‘still’ is present, usually in its description of the angels. 61 The term seems to reference 1 Kgs 19:12 where God appears to Elijah in the desert. 62 It is clear that the description of God’s presence not in earthquakes or thunder, but rather in a still, silent voice, impacts those engaged in merkavah speculation. 63 It is unclear to what extent Elijah’s association with this prophecy influences the scribes of these texts, but it is clear that the description of the angels as singing in a still and silent voice continues to have an influence on later Hek328F

329F

30F

4Q402. 60 Text and translation from Carol Newsom and Yigael Yadin, “The Masada Fragment of the Qumran Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice,” IEJ 34, 2/3 (1984): 78–80. 61 4Q400 I, 2; 4Q401 XVI, 2; 4Q402 IX, 3; 4Q405 XVIII, 3; 4Q405 XVIII, 5; 4Q405 IXX ABCD, 7; 4Q405, 20–21–22 ii 7–8; 4Q405 20–21–22 ii 12–13. 62 On the word ‫ דממה‬and its etymology see Eric D. Reymond, “The Hebrew Word ‫ דממה‬and the Root d-m-m I (“To Be Silent”),” Bib 90, 3 (2009): 374–88. 63 Dale C. Allison, “The Silence of the Angels,” RevQ 13 (1988): 189–197. Lawrence H. Schiffman, “‘Merkavah’ Speculation at Qumran: The 4QSerekh Shirot ‘Olat ha-Shabbat,” in Mystics, Philosophers, and Politicians: Essays in Jewish Intellectual History in Honor of Alexander Altmann, ed. J. Reinharz et al. (Durham: Duke University Press, 1983), 15–47.

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halot literature. 64 Furthermore, Elijah’s role in rabbinic mystical traditions also continues to expand with time. 65 The utilization of the theophany in 1 Kgs 19:12, and its continued usage throughout the Songs of The Sabbath Sacrifices, is perhaps the first indication of the connection of the Elijah biblical narrative with merkavah speculation. It is clear that this connection became stronger over time, and if anything is only intimated in these early texts. In Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice there is a clear influence of both wisdom and apocalyptic elements through the usage of wisdom terms in the description of speculation into the heavenly realm. Elijah’s connection is only minor in this case, but forms perhaps the basis for the future development of Elijah and his connection with merkavah speculation which will be discussed in further chapters. What is essential is the link that exists between apocalyptic thought, speculation of secret knowledge and wisdom that developed in the Second Temple Period. These developments clearly influenced rabbinic understanding of wisdom, as well as Elijah’s role as a purveyor of that wisdom. Overall, the elements of wisdom and apocalyptic begin to have a strong influence on one another within some texts of the Second Temple period. This influence is seen most significantly in the works 4QInstruction and 4QMysteries. The term ‫רז נהיה‬ implies the wisdom concept of the ‘Wisdom of God’ in creation, yet adds elements of apocalyptic thought in connection with the secrets of the future. Furthermore, the term ‫ רז נהיה‬is influenced by the concepts of secret and esoteric knowledge at home in the apocalyptic tradition and borrowed from Daniel. 66 The acquisition of this 3F

64

On the similarities and differences between the Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifices and later Hekhalot mysticism see Gershom Scholem, Jewish Gnosticism, Merkabah Mysticism, and the Talmudic Tradition (New York: Jewish Theological Seminary, 1960), 29; Lawrence H. Schiffman, “Sifrut ha-hekhalot ve-kitve Qumran,” Jerusalem Studies in Jewish Thought 6, 1/2 (1987): 121–38; Carol A. Newsom, “Merkabah Exegesis in the Qumran Sabbath Shirot,” JJS 38,1 (1987): 11–30; Joseph M. Baumgarten, “The Qumran Sabbath Shirot and Rabbinic Merkabah Traditions,” RevQ 13, 1–4 (1988): 199–213, Schiffman, “‘Merkavah’ Speculation at Qumran,” 15–47. 65 The concept of ‫ גילוי אליהו‬is an example of the manifestation of Elijah. He is said to reveal himself to certain mystics and impart secret knowledge. See Lawrence Fine, Physician of the Soul, Healer of the Cosmos: Isaac Luria and His Kabbalistic Fellowship, SSJHC (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2003), 97–99, 103–10; Oded Israeli, “‘Aliyatam shel Ḥanokh ve’Eliyahu be-Qabalat ha-me’ah ha-shlosh ‘esereh,” Pe‘amim, 110 (2007): 31–54; Martha Himmelfarb, “Revelation and Rabbinization in ‘sefer Zurbbabel’ and ‘sefer Eliyahu’,” in Revelation, Literature, and Community in Late Antiquity, ed. Philippa Townsend and Moulie Vidas (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2011), 217–36. 66 The terms ‫רזא‬, ‫רז‬, or ‫( רזין‬singular and plural) appear in Dan 2:18, 19, 27, 28, 30, 47; 4:6. On the Mesopotamian background of Daniel’s usage of the word ‫רז‬, see Jack N. Lawson, “‘The God Who Reveals Secrets’: The Mesopotamian Background to Daniel 2:47,” JSOT 74 (1997): 61–76. Daniel J. Harrington, “The ‘Raz Nihyeh’ in a Qumran Wisdom Text (1Q26, 4Q415– 418, 423),” RevQ 17, 1–4 (1996): 549–53.

3. SECOND TEMPLE BACKGROUND

111

knowledge is to some extent a result of human efforts of searching and meditation, but there is an element of predestination in which only the righteous are privy to this knowledge. Furthermore, the wisdom terms of the ‫חכם‬, ‘wise’, and ‫אויל‬, ‘foolish’, begin to merge with concepts of righteousness and wickedness and their lot in final salvation in the End of Days. The wise actions of the righteous are connected with following God’s commandments and proper ethical behavior, while the foolishness of the wicked is evidenced by their clinging to improper behaviors as well as rejecting the secret knowledge of the ‫רז נהיה‬. The ultimate reward of the wise/righteous and the punishment of the foolish/wicked in the End of Days is an attempt at solving the problem of theodicy through an expectation of a final judgment in the End of Days. These are a few of the elements that elucidate a merging between the wisdom and apocalyptic traditions in these Second Temple texts. It is this merging of wisdom and apocalyptic that is also perceived in the Elijah traditions in rabbinic literature. These developments in Second Temple thought have an impact on rabbinic literature, and can be perceived in the appearances of Elijah as a bearer of wisdom who relays information reminiscent of apocalyptic themes such as the messianic age, reward of the righteous at the End of Days, and esoteric knowledge of creation and the merkavah, which will be explored in this work.

PIETISTS, PRAYERS, PSALMS AND WISDOM In many of the rabbinic traditions Elijah is connected with pietists, and further seems to advocate for a strict observance of the law described as Mishnat Ḥasidim, ‘Teachings of the Pious. 67 In order to understand the significance of Elijah’s connection with pietists, this section will delve into the emergence of pietists and their link to wisdom and apocalyptic thought. This coalescence of wisdom and apocalyptic thought with pietistic ideas is seen in prayers and psalms of the Second Temple Period. It is the contention of this study that individuals influenced by pietistic ideas continued to exist into the rabbinic period and it is through them that many wisdom and apocalyptic traditions infiltrated the rabbinic corpus. Therefore, it is essential to delve into the usage of the term ‫ חסיד‬and its variations in Second Temple psalms and prayers. As discussed in the introduction, Stephen Geller connects the development of certain biblical wisdom psalms with a ‘hybrid wisdom-covenantal piety’ which combined the old and new wisdom traditions. This adaptation borrows elements from both the ‘old wisdom’ tradition, which looks at nature as the source of wisdom, as well as the ‘new wisdom’ tradition, which views the Torah as wisdom’s ultimate source. The element of piety is a defining characteristic of these psalms, and a focus on perfecting one’s observance of the Law is of paramount importance. 68 Therefore, the 67 See yTer. 8:4, 46b and the discussion in Chapter Seven.

Stephen A. Geller, “Wisdom, Nature, and Piety in Some Biblical Psalms,” in Riches Hidden in Secret Places: Ancient Near Eastern Studies in Memory of Thorkild Jacobsen, ed. Tzvi I. Abusch (Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 2002), 101–21.

68

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THROUGH THE PRISM OF WISDOM

term ‫ חסיד‬is highlighted, and signifies the connection between pietistic circles and these wisdom psalms. It is important to understand the nature of these pietists and to trace the development of these ideas in Late Second Temple texts as well. The existence of a coherent group called ‘pietists’, or ‫חסידים‬, is debated by scholars. Some scholars argue that such pietists existed as a coherent group, while others view the term as an adjective to describe pious individuals. 69 Davies, for example, questions the existence of such a distinct and defined group as the Hasideans. 70 He examines the description of the ‘pious’ in 1 and 2 Maccabees specifically in their description as a συναγωγὴ Ασιδαίων (1 Macc 2:42). Davies prefers to view this as referencing a general collection of pious people similar to those described in Ps 149:1, ‫קהל‬ Max Weber, Hans H. Gerth and Don Martindale trans., Ancient Judaism, V. 2 (New York: The Free Press, 1952); Anthony Saldarini, Pharisees, Scribes, and Sadducees in Palestinian Society (Wilmington: Michael Glazier, 1998), 251–3; Philip R. Davies, “Ḥasidim in the Maccabean Period,” JJS 28 (1977): 127–40, is the strongest voice against the theory of the Ḥasidim as a group. Most scholars question his skepticism and attempt to reconstruct the group, although they differ as to what can be gleaned from the information available about the group. See John Kampen, The Hasideans and the Origin of Pharisaism: A Study in 1 and 2 Maccabees, SBL, Septuagint and Cognate Studies Series (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1988); Russel Gmirkin, “The War Scroll, The Ḥasidim, and the Maccabean Conflict,” in The Dead Sea Scrolls Fifty Years after Their Discovery, ed. Lawrence Schiffman, Emanuel Tov, and James C. Vanderkam (Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society, 2000), 486–96; Stephen Hultgren, “4Q521, The Second Benediction of the ‘Tefilla’, the Ḥasidim and the Development of Royal Messianism,” RevQ 23, 3 (2008): 313–40 . 70 Philip R. Davies, “Ḥasidim in the Maccabean Period,”. Although his arguments against the “Ḥasidim Theory” proposed by Hengel, Plöger and others which equates the ḥasidim with the Essenes and the apocalyptic movement expressed in Daniel is noteworthy. His questioning the existence of such a group is not as compelling. He states, “If 2 Maccabees represents the Ḥasidim as comprising the resistance, this can only mean that for the author these represent those Jews antagonistic to Hellenism at least in its encroachments on their religion, and determined to preserve the Law” (p. 19). This means that ḥasidim is a term which defines those who oppose Hellenism, but does not constitute a unique group with a specific set of beliefs. However, Davies does not consider the relevance of the verse in 2 Maccabees as spoken by Alcimus describing the situation in Judea to king Demetrius. It is in Alcimus’s interest to describe the situation as a result of a general group of people called ḥasidim and their chief, Judah. If the situation is expressed as more complex, as bands of different Jews uniting to fight a common enemy, the situation may seem more severe, and the Greek king would be less inclined to believe that Alcimus can set things straight. Therefore, the evidence of 2 Maccabees is not strong enough to disregard the evidence of 1 Maccabees which supports a stronger understanding of the ḥasidim as a separate group, through its description as a ‘group of Hasideans’ as a proper noun. Further, Davies does not deal at all with the mishnaic discussion of the ḥasidim harishonim or Yitzhak Baer’s discussion of this group. See Davies, Sects and Scrolls: Essays on Qumran and Related Topics (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1996) 5–21, esp. 19–21. See discussion of this issue in Chapter Three, pp. 111–37. 69

3. SECOND TEMPLE BACKGROUND

113

‫חסידים‬, “a congregation of pious.” Kampen however points to the significance of the word Ασιδαίων—Asidaion, to describe the pious, as opposed to όσίων which is the more general term for pious. He states that the usage of a transliteration of the Hebrew ḥasidim into Greek reflects a description of a group that was known by the name ḥasidim, and was not only describing the pious nature of some people. Therefore, many scholars do believe that the evidence points to the existence of such a group. The exact manner in which the ḥasidim fit into the sectarian milieu, whether they were proto-Essenes, proto-Pharisees or both, is debatable and unclear. 71 Kampen posits that they were a distinct group, and were probably proto-Pharisaic, although there are scholars who question the strength of his argument. 72 Stephen Hultgren makes a good case for the ḥasidim being a distinct group, although he does not believe they were their own sect, but rather they may have influenced several different sects that existed at the time. 73 In this vein, what is essential is not necessarily to equate the ḥasidim with one sectarian group or another, but to point to the distinct features of such ḥasidim. One manner in which to trace the development of the ḥasidim is through analyzing the occurrences of the term in biblical and Second Temple texts, and to trace the commonalities they share and thus the development of the term. It is clear that these ḥasidim were influenced by the biblical book of Psalms. The term ‫ חסיד‬and its variations appear twelve times in the Psalms, while only three times in the rest of the Bible. 74 The term ‫צדיקים‬, on the other hand, appears frequently throughout the Bible, and in Psalms it is used synonymously with ‫חסידים‬. The term ‫ חסיד‬in Psalms sometimes is used to describe God, and other times to a pious individual whose prayers are heeded by God. For example, in regard to God, Ps 145:17 states The list of scholars who discuss the origins of the ḥasidim is quite large. A small sample is as follows: For those who identify the ḥasidim with a proto-pharisaic group, Heinrich Graetz, History of the Jews, Vol II (New York: George Dobsevage, 1933), 24; Leo Baeck, The Pharisees and Other Essays (New York: Schocken Books, 1947), 11; Julius Wellhausen, The Pharisees and the Sadducees: An Examination of Internal Jewish History, trans. Mark E. Biddle (Macon, Georgia: Mercer University Press, 2001), 68; R. T. Beckwith, “The Pre-History and Relationships of Pharisees, Sadducees and Essenes: A Tentative Reconstruction,” RevQ 11, 41 (1982): 41; Günter Stemberger, Jewish Contemporaries of Jesus: Pharisees, Sadducees, Essenes, trans. Allan W. Mahnke (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1995), 97; Geza Vermes, An Introduction to the Complete Dead Sea Scrolls (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1999), 130. For those who identify the ḥasidim as a proto-Essene group see, James C. VanderKam, The Dead Sea Scrolls Today (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1994), 71–98; Philip R. Callaway, The History of the Qumran Community: An Investigation (Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1988), 83–85. For a more comprehensive list see Kampen, The Hasdieans, 38. 72 Daniel Schwartz, “Kampen’s the Hasideans,” JQR 80, 1/2 (1989): 187–9. 73 Hultgren, “4Q521, The Second Benediction of the ‘Tefilla’, the Ḥasidim,” 332. 74 The three instances not in Psalms are: 2 Sam 22:26 (although it appears in a poem inserted in the narrative parallel to Ps 18:26), Jer 3:12 in reference to God, and Mic 7:2 in a lament on the destruction and the loss of ‘righteous ones’ in the land. 71

114

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that God is ‘faithful in all his works’, ‫וחסיד בכל מעשיו‬. In most other cases, ‫ חסיד‬refers to a pious individual whom God will save from distress, 75 such as in Ps 32:6: ‫על זאת‬ ‫יתפלל כל חסיד‬, “Therefore let every faithful man pray to You upon discovering his sin.” It is clear that in these cases the term ‫ חסיד‬refers to one who is righteous, whether referring to God or to an individual. The connection between the references to ‫חסיד‬ and references to prayer is significant, because this is one of the characteristics that pietistic circles throughout the Second Temple and rabbinic period had in common. The term ‫ חסיד‬does not only appear in the singular form, which indeed may indicate a pious individual without any connection to a larger group, but also appears in the plural. In Psalm 149:1, 6–7 the term ‫ חסידים‬appears in the plural twice, where it describes those who praise God as well as those who battle for the Almighty. 76 In these verses, the ‘congregation of the faithful’, ‫קהל חסידים‬, are described as singing to God, and also as defenders of God, ‫ לעשות נקמה‬.‫ וחרב פיפיות בידם‬,‫רוממות אל בגרונם‬ ‫בגוים‬, “With paeans to God in their throats, and two-edged swords in their hands. To impose retribution upon the peoples.” It seems that these groups of ‘pious ones’ not only praise God, but are also those who will fight against God’s enemies. This militaristic description seems at odds with the general perception of the pious as those who follow God’s ways. The idea that pietistic individuals could not be militaristic is a misconception that has plagued scholarship with regard to the ‫חסידים‬. 77 It is important to analyze the nature of the pietists based on the sources that describe them, as opposed to preconceived ideas regarding what it means to be a pietist. The concept of piety may have developed over time to prefer non-violence, but this preference does not seem to be expressed in the description of the pious in Psalm 149. 34F

75

The term and its variations also appear in Ps 4:4; 12:2; 16:10; 18:26; 30:5; 31:24; 32.:6; 43:1; 50:5; 79:2; 86:2; 97:10. 76 Collins states that the mention of ‘assembly of pious’, ‫קהל חסידים‬, in Psalm 149, and the Qumran Psalm Scroll (11QPsa 154, 155) and in the Psalms of Solomon (4:1; 17:16) cannot be taken as evidence of such a party of ḥasidim. However, he does not give reasons for this assessment. See Collins, The Apocalyptic Imagination, 92; John Collins, The Apocalyptic Vision of the Book of Daniel, HSM 16 (Missoula, Montana: Scholars Press, 1977), 201–5. Rainer Albertz makes a strong case for the connection of the ḥasidim with the Book of Daniel and proposes a possible split within the group with regard to the necessity of militaristic intervention. The faction supporting militaristic intervention is represented in the group described in 1 Macc 2:42, while the non-militaristic group is represented by the Book of Daniel. This is the manner in which he counters Collins’s arguments against associating Daniel with the ḥasidim. See John Collins, Daniel: With an Introduction to Apocalyptic Literature, 36–7, 101. 77 See Otto Plöger, Theocracy and Eschatology, S. Rudman trans. (Richmond: John Knox Press, 1968), 8–9. Martin Hengel, Judaism and Hellenism, trans. John Bowden (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1974), 177. This is also seen in the reluctance to viewing the Qumran community as being militaristic, as they have been associated with the Essenes or other sectarian groups who practiced extreme forms of piety.

3. SECOND TEMPLE BACKGROUND

115

A reference to a group of ‘pious ones’ is also expressed in 1 and 2 Maccabees. Most telling is 1 Macc 2:42 which uses the term ‘synagoga’, a very apt translation for the word ‫ קהל‬as is used in Psalm 149. 78 The ḥasidim are described in 1 Macc 2:42 as a ‘company of Hasideans’ as well as ‘mighty warriors of Israel’. 79 It seems that this psalm, which depicts the righteous as battling in defense of the Lord, heavily informs the self-understanding of those involved in the uprising, at least as expressed in 1 and 2 Maccabees. For example, in the description of the final battle in 2 Macc 15:26–27, Judas and his army are described as battling with the enemy while praying to God. Schwartz in his commentary points to the connection of this statement to the verses in Psalm 149. 80 The exact connection between the group of ḥasidim described in Psalm 149 and the ḥasidim as described in 1 and 2 Maccabees is unclear, but it would not be surprising that the depiction of ‘pious ones’ in Psalm 149 plays an important role in the self-perception of the ḥasidim in 1 and 2 Maccabees. 81 Regardless, it seems clear that by the Maccabean period, there is a group that is known by the title of ḥasidim, 345F

346F

347F

348F

78

Kampen makes a strong case for the usage of the word as a translation of ‫קהל חסידים‬. See Kampen, The Hasideans, 85. Daniel Schwartz, on the other hand, questions the reading of Asidaion in the text at all, since a majority of the manuscript editions read Ioudaion, which would just mean a congregation/group of Jews, not Hasideans. This change could be explained through replacing the confusing word of ‘Hasideans’ with the more common form of Ioudaion. Kampen states that it is unlikely that the text originally stated Ioudaion, and then changed to the more enigmatic Asidion. The presence of a group of ḥasidim is still evident in 1 Macc 7:13 and 2 Macc 14:6, therefore even if this reading is questionable, it still does not invalidate the presence of a group called ḥasidim. The extent of their militant nature may be less clear from the text, but still intimated in 2 Macc 14:6, depending on if one would take Alcimus for his word, see Daniel R. Schwartz, “Ḥasidim in I Maccabees 2:42?” SCI 13 (1994): 7–18. 79 Kampen points to the alternate definition of ίσχυροί δυνάμει as ‘man of importance’ or distinguished person, thereby questioning the inherent militaristic nature of these ḥasidim. See Kampen, The Hasideans, 99–100. 80 Daniel R. Schwartz, 2 Maccabees (Berlin; New York: de Gruyter, 2008), 507. This does not seem to be a coincidence, although Schwartz does not see the presence of ḥasidim in 1 Macc 2:42–45, see Schwartz, “Ḥasidim in 1 Maccabees 2:42?” 7–18. 81 Therefore it is not surprising that the description of the ḥasidim in 1 Macc as ‘men of valor’ is expressed. The connection between the ḥasidim described in 1 Macc and these ḥasidim in Psalms is unclear. However, it is clear that the descriptions in Psalms greatly affected the development of groups of pious individuals who were ready to take up arms to defend God’s honor. The militaristic side of the ḥasidim may also be alluded to in Dan 11:14 according to Arie van der Kooij, “Groups and Parties in Early Judaism: Daniel 11:14 and the Hasideans,” Semitica et Classica 8 (2015): 45–51. He discusses the possible connection of 2 Maccabees with ḥasidim through the positive view of the ḥasidim expressed within the work and the perception of Judas as a potential royal redeemer. The centrality of the royal messianic figure in the Psalms of Solomon and the mention of the ḥasidim throughout the work connects these ideas and seems to strengthen van der Kooij’s hypothesis connecting these ‘violent men’ with the ḥasidim.

116

THROUGH THE PRISM OF WISDOM

and is described as being committed to the Law, willing to take up arms to defend it, and also connected with prayer. It is important to stress that these pietists are not necessarily a direct continuation of the same group, but rather that throughout the Second Temple era, and perhaps earlier, there are groups of people who relate to the concept of piety and draw their inspiration from both the biblical psalms as well as other sources from the wisdom and apocalyptic traditions. This is very much in line with Rainer Albertz’s discussion of the ḥasidim as a coherent group, in which he states that although they were not an ‘unchangeable unity,’ the term ḥasidim is not an ‘umbrella-term’ covering a wide range of different pious groups. He states, “There was a common social and religious root, as well as a common responsibility for the whole people which united all the Ḥasidim.” 82 The purpose of our discussion is to look into texts that reference ḥasidim and trace this ‘common social and religious root’ of the ḥasidim. For example, the study of the Apocryphal Psalms at Qumran and the Psalms of Solomon not only reference ḥasidim/pious, but also underline the existence of common themes and ideas present in these different works. This collection of common themes lends greater credence to the association of these texts with a certain group, most likely ḥasidim. The texts that will be analyzed below point to a number of shared characteristics with the ‫ חסיד‬as described in Psalms; a connection to prayer, zealousness with regard to honoring God’s laws, and the destruction of the wicked. Important themes of piety as expressed in Second Temple sources are: accepting punishment as God’s discipline, focusing on the importance of correct speech/truthfulness, a strong commitment to the Law, and abhorrence of improper sexual conduct. A number of these elements are also at home in the wisdom tradition, specifically careful speech and the dangers of improper sexual conduct. Furthermore, pietists seem to also be influenced by apocalyptic ideas, most specifically in regard to their focus on a Davidic Messiah as well as a belief in resurrection in the End of Days. These ideas are present in the Psalms of Solomon, the Dead Sea Scroll 4Q521 and the Amidah and will be discussed in depth in this chapter. 83 Two extremely important sources of the non-Masoretic psalms are the psalms found at Qumran, as well as the Psalms of Solomon (Pss. Sol.). Of the Apocryphal 350F

Rainer Albertz, “The Social Setting of the Aramaic and Hebrew Book of Daniel,” in The Book of Daniel, Composition and Reception Vol. 1, ed. John J. Collins and Peter W. Flint (Leiden: Brill, 2001), 202. 83 202, See As for a connection between the Psalms of Solomon and ḥasidim see Adolf Büchler, Types of Jewish-Palestinian Piety from 70 BCE to 70 CE: The Ancient Pious Men (New York: Ktav Publishing, 1968), 128–95; Jerry O’Dell, “The Religious Background of the Psalms of Solomon (Re-evaluated in the Light of the Qumran Texts),” 241–57. Robert R. Hann, “The Community of the Pious: The Social Setting of the Psalms of Solomon,” SR 17 (1988): 169–89. Stephen Hultgren, “4Q521 the Second Benediction of the Tefilla, The Ḥasidim and the Development of Royal Messianism,” 313–40. 82

3. SECOND TEMPLE BACKGROUND

117

Psalms of Qumran, some but not all have parallels in the Greek and Syriac Psalm collections, while the Psalms of Solomon only appear in Greek and Syriac. There is no extant Hebrew manuscript of the Psalms of Solomon in existence, although most scholars believe that it was originally composed in Hebrew in around 100 BCE–63 BCE. These texts will be analyzed in the section below highlighting their connection to wisdom and apocalyptic themes, and their strong association with pietists and pietistic ideas. These developments are significant to our study as they represent a link in the chain of the evolution of pietistic ideas as they developed into the rabbinic period and are essential in understanding the Elijah texts and their connection to wisdom. In a number of the Apocryphal Psalms at Qumran there is a strong connection with wisdom. For example, in 11QPsa, the Psalms Scroll found in Qumran Cave 11, in Psalm 154, the author expresses the importance of praising the Almighty. He connects the ability to praise God with those who have wisdom. He states in line 5: '‫כי להודיע כבוד ה‬ ‫נתנה חוכמה‬ Lo, for declaring the glory of the Lord Wisdom is given; 84

Here the text directly links the praising of God with the presence of wisdom. It seems that Wisdom is essential to the ability to praise God. The text goes on to implore its readers to teach of God’s greatness to people who lack wisdom. Thereby the author perceives himself and his readers as teachers to those who are more simple minded, utilizing terms prevalent in biblical wisdom such as ‫פתאים‬, for the simple minded and ‫להשכיל‬, to teach, as expressed in Line 7: ‫להודיע לפותאים עוזו‬ ‫להשכיל לחסרי לבב גדולתו‬ for declaring to simple (people) his strength, for teaching mindless (people) his greatness

The text further connects this wisdom and praise of God with Torah, and compares such praise of God to one who offers sacrifices, lines 10–14: ‫ואדם מפאר עליון‬ ‫ירצה כמגיש מנחה‬ ‫כמקריב עתודים ובני בקר‬ ‫כמדשן מזבח ברוב עולות‬ All text and translation of the Non-Masoretic Poems are taken from Eric D. Reymond, New Idioms within Old: Poetry and Parallelism in the Non-Masoretic Poems of 11Q5 (= 11QPsa) (Atlanta: SBL, 2011). 84

118

THROUGH THE PRISM OF WISDOM ‫כקטורת ניחוח מיד צדיקים‬ ‫מפתחי צדיקים נשמע קולה‬ ‫ומקהל חסידים זמרתה‬ ‫על אוכלם בשבע נאמרה‬ ‫ועל שתותמה בחבר יחדיו‬ ‫שיחתם בתורת עליון‬ ‫אמריהמה להודיע עוזו‬ And a person who glorifies the Most High he accepts as one who brings near an offering, as one who offers he-goats and calves, as one who enriches (lit., “fattens”) the altar with many burnt offerings, like soothing incense from the hand of righteous ones. From the gates of righteous (people) her voice is heard, and from the congregation of pious (people) her song. While they eat in satiety, she is spoken of, while they drink in community together. Their meditation is in the Torah of the Most High, their words are for declaring his strength.

In this section, the psalm continues to extol the value of prayer and praise of the Lord. The author equates the one who ‘glorifies the most high’, ‫מפאר עליו‬, with those who bring the Temple sacrifices, and perform other forms of Temple ritual. The text then describes a group of people who praise God as ‫ צדיקים‬and ‫קהל חסידים‬, and it is from their gates that such praise is heard. Furthermore, their meals, which seem to be eaten together, ‫בחבר יחדיו‬, are where they meditate, discuss the words of the Torah, and express the glory and strength of God. So here the psalm moves from praise and prayer to meditation and discussion of Torah, ‫עליון‬, ‫ שיחתם בתורת‬which is also perceived to be declaring God’s strength. The psalm ends with a description of the wicked as the antithesis of the righteous and pious. The author exhorts the Almighty to rescue the righteous during wicked times, and expresses the centrality of Jerusalem, which seems to indicate that the author lived in a time where Jerusalem was under distress. In this psalm there are a number of important elements. First is the connection of praising God as a form of wisdom, and further connecting wisdom with the study of Torah. This group, who praise God through hymns as well as Torah learning during their meals, are described as ‫ צדיקים‬and ‫חסידים‬, ‘pious and righteous’. The usage of these terms may indicate a connection to certain pietistic circles, which is strengthened by the usage of the term ‫קהל חסידים‬, which is seen in Psalm 149, and possibly in 1 Macc 2:42. The significance of the phrase ‫ החבירו יחד‬,‫ בחבר יחדיו‬is that it refers to these ‘pious ones’ as a group. It is unclear if it has any connections to the ‫ חברים‬men-

3. SECOND TEMPLE BACKGROUND

119

tioned in the Mishnah, 85 or to the term later used for the Qumran community, ‫יחד‬. 86 However, the idea of a group of people who partake in communal meals and Torah study is commensurate with the existence of such groups during the Second Temple era, such as the ‘ḥaverim’, and the Qumran sect. This description of communal meals and study suggests the existence of a coherent group. This group is described as glorifying and praising God through song, as well as through their study of Torah. These descriptions of the ḥasid are essential in viewing the ḥasidim as a coherent group that most likely propagated a type of Judaism that focused on specific elements that will be central to the Elijah traditions in rabbinic literature. As will be discussed throughout this chapter, the pietists’ connection to prayer, wisdom and apocalyptic ideas present a compelling avenue through which the Elijah traditions were collected and placed within the rabbinic tradition. In a psalm found at Qumran, the Apostrophe to Zion, the ‫ חסידים‬are mentioned. The author praises Jerusalem and yearns for her to return to her former glory. The psalm speaks of remembering Zion, and those who yearn for Zion’s salvation are the generations of ‫חסידים‬: 35F

‫גדולה תקותך ציון‬ ‫ושלום ותוחלת ישועתך לבוא‬ ‫דור ודור ידורו בך‬ ‫ודורות חסידים תפארתך‬ ‫המתאוים ליום ישעך‬ ‫וישישו ברוב כבודך‬ What you hope for, O Zion, (is) great, that peace, the deliverance you long for (lit., the expectation of your deliverance), will come. Generation after generation will dwell in you, faithful generations (in) your wonder.

For the term ḥeber, see also J. Hoftijzer and K. Jongeling, Dictionary of the North-West Semitic Inscriptions, HdO, 1. Abt., Bd. 21 (Leiden: Brill, 1995), 1.347 (“community, kind of collegium or senate”). J. Neusner, “The Fellowship in the Second Jewish Commonwealth,” HTR 23, 2 (1960): 125–42; Solomon J. Spiro, “Who was the Ḥaber?: A New Approach to an Ancient Institution,” JSJ 11, 2 (1980): 186–216. 86 Shemaryahu Talmon, “The Sectarian ‫—יחד‬A Biblical Noun,” VT 3 (1953): 133–40; Eyal Regev, “What Kind of Sect was the Yahad?: A Comparative Approach,” in The Dead Sea Scrolls and Contemporary Culture Proceedings of the International Conference Held at the Israel Museum, Jerusalem (July 6–8, 2008) ed. Adolfo D. Roitman, Lawrence H. Schiffman, and Shani Tzoref (Leiden: Brill, 2011), 41–58; Arie van der Kooij, “The Yahad: What is in a Name?” DSD 18, 2 (2011): 109–128. 85

120

THROUGH THE PRISM OF WISDOM Those who desire the day of your salvation will rejoice in your great glory.

The greater context of this Psalm focuses on the sacrifices, Temple ritual, and Zion, similar to Apocryphal Psalm 154, in which prayers are equated with sacrifices. Yet, it seems that the group can no longer take an active part in those rituals and through prayer they lament their yearning to return to Zion. The text continues, and calls for the purging of evil and slander from within the midst of the city, perhaps intimating the idea of combating evildoers. In line 7 it states: ‫ שקר ועול נכרתו‬,‫טהר חמס מגוך‬ ‫ממך‬, “Purge violence from your midst, falsehood and injustice will be cut from you.” This focus on slander is a theme that will be expressed in other works related to the ‫חסידים‬. The text also lauds the prophets and their faithful acts, which perhaps indicates a connection to the prophetic class. It speaks of the prophets twice and their connection to Zion. 87 It describes them in language reminiscent of the wisdom tradition through the personification of Zion as a female who suckles those who wait for the return of her glory, named in the text as the ‫חסידים‬. The similar trope of a female’s nourishment and its connection to wisdom is seen in Proverbs. 88 Therefore, although the psalm focuses more on the prophets and the righteous ones, one can still see an influence of the wisdom tradition through a similar personification of the city. Perhaps the suckling at the breast is intended to express the giving of sustenance and wisdom. Furthermore, the mention of dreams may indicate the importance of mantic wisdom, specifically dream interpretation, and the mention of prophets a connection with the prophetic class. A third psalm that mentions the ‫ חסידים‬at Qumran is the psalm named Plea for Deliverance. This psalm contains wisdom and pietistic elements, such as the word ‫תשכילם‬, ‘bestow wisdom upon them,’ and describes God teaching his righteousness to the people. God is described as righteous and just, and the author is constantly using the words ‫ צדק‬and ‫ חסד‬throughout the work. The text also describes a group called ‫חסידיו‬, ‘his righteous ones’. Lines 4–8 states: ‫שמע ה' בקול אוהבי שמו ולוא עזב‬ ‫ ברוך ה' עושה צדקות מעטר חסידיו חסד ורחמים‬,‫חסדו מהמה‬, “The Lord hears the voice of those who love His name, and His mercy does not depart from them. Blessed is the Lord, doer of righteous acts, the one crowning His pious ones (with) mercy and compassion.” These ‘pious ones’ are privy to God’s protection as he listens to their call, most likely meaning prayers. The last line which states '‫ ברוך ה‬is reminiscent of the rabbinic formula of prayers. 89 This element will be discussed further on in this chapter and is important to note here. 35F

356F

87 11QPsa XXII, lines 6, 17.

88 See Prov 9:1–6, where Wisdom prepares a meal and states, line 5–6,

‫לכו לחמו בלחמי ושתו ביין‬ ‫ עזבו פתאים וחיו ואשרו בדרך בינה‬:‫מסכתי‬: “Come, eat my food and drink the wine that I have mixed; Give up simpleness and live, Walk in the way of understanding.” 89 Which at least once has the term ‫עשה‬, as in the blessing ‫עשה מעשה בראשית‬.

3. SECOND TEMPLE BACKGROUND

121

The end of the psalm also displays an influence of wisdom, as the author asks God to bestow a ‘spirit of trust and wisdom’ upon him which can only be achieved through God’s forgiveness and purification of sins: ‫סלחה ה' לחטאתי וטהרני מעווני‬ ‫רוח אמונה ודעת חונני אל אתקלה בעויה‬, “Forgive, O Lord, my sin and purify me from my iniquity. Be gracious to me (in giving me) a spirit of truth and knowledge, do not let me stumble in iniquity.” This statement clearly fuses the world of the pietist with that of wisdom, with a prayer for purification from sin, asking God to bestow wisdom upon him. The text ends with a prayer for protection from the Satan. This has led scholars such as David Flusser and Esther Eshel to describe this text as an apotropaic prayer, which is defined as a prayer that beseeches God to protect one from evil spirits. 90 An important aspect of these prayers is that evil spirits were viewed as the cause of physical ailments as well as sinful thoughts and behaviors. These prayers were utilized to heal from physical ailments, bring forgiveness for sin and attain a state of righteousness and purification. The reference to ‫ חסידיו‬in this prayer may indicate the connection of these righteous individuals with the ability to heal both physical and spiritual ailments through prayer. The concept of the healing power of the ḥasidim is expressed as well in rabbinic traditions of certain pietists, which will be discussed in Parts III and IV of this work. Furthermore, healing ailments is one of the roles of the ‘holy man’ in Late Antiquity and present parallels to some of the pietists discussed in rabbinic literature. This prayer may already make the connection between pietistic circles and their ability to heal from both physical and spiritual ailments through prayer. The connection of these pietistic circles with the ‘holy men’ of Late Antiquity is an avenue that will be explored. The important element to stress here is the connection of these prayers to the wisdom tradition. According to Flusser, a key element of the apotropaic prayers is their reference to wisdom through beseeching God for knowledge of His ways and of the Law. 91 Wisdom is perceived to be intertwined with prayer, whether utilized for apotropaic purposes or not. The connection between wisdom and psalms is also demonstrated by the wisdom tone of the Apocryphal psalms discussed above. Furthermore, the connection of these psalms with ‘pious ones’ is indeed striking and points to an association with a distinct group called the ‫חסידים‬.

David Flusser, “Qumran and Jewish Apotropaic Prayers,” IEJ 16 (1966): 194–205. E. Eshel, “Apotropaic Prayers in the Second Temple Period,” in Liturgical Perspectives Prayer and Poetry in Light of the Dead Sea Scrolls: Proceedings of the Fifth International Symposium of the Orion Center for the Study of the Dead Sea Scrolls and Associated Literature, 19–23 January, 2000, ed. Esther G. Chazon, Ruth Clements, Avital Pinnick (Leiden: Brill, 2003) 69–88, esp. 75–7. 91 Flusser, “Qumran and Jewish Apotropaic Prayers,” 196. 90

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THROUGH THE PRISM OF WISDOM

This connection between psalms, ḥasidim, and wisdom is also seen in the Psalms of Solomon, and is one of the important sources that link pietists with both wisdom and apocalyptic thought. The Psalms of Solomon, which only survive in the Greek and Syriac translations of a likely Hebrew original, have been linked to the Pharisees by scholars such as Mikael Winninge. However, other scholars point to connections with the Essenes, while others point to the ḥasidim. 92 There is no clear textual evidence for a connection with the community at Qumran, since not one of the Psalms of Solomon has been found amongst the Qumran Scrolls. 93 Regarding the dating of the Psalms of Solomon, they were not all written in the exact same period, and seem to span from the first century BCE to the first century CE. This is indicated by the likely references to Pompey in Pss. Sol. 8, as well as his death in Egypt in Pss. Sol. 2, and Herod in Pss. Sol. 17. 94 There are eighteen psalms in the collection, with fifteen of them invoking words such ‘righteous’, ‘righteousness’, ‘devout ones’, ‘holy ones’ and ‘pious’, probably translations of the Hebrew words with the roots ‫ חסד‬,‫צדק‬. 95 There are a number of important topics broached in these psalms, and the overarching theme seems to be God’s righteousness in judgment, specifically relating to the turbulent events of the end of the Second Temple period. The authors view the destruction and pain that 362F

Mikael Winninge, Sinners and the Righteous: A Comparative Study of the Psalms of Solomon and Paul’s Letters, ConBnT 26 (Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1995) who points to a Pharisaic origin of the Psalms of Solomon. For an argument against his conclusions, see Joseph L. Trafton, “Review of Mikael Winninge, Sinners and the Righteous: A Comparative Study of the Psalms of Solomon and Paul’s Letters,” RBL 11 (2009). Kenneth Atkinson, I Cried to the Lord: A Study of the Psalms of Solomon’s Historical Background and Social Setting, JSJSup 84 (Leiden: Brill, 2004). For the connection to the ḥasidim see O'Dell, “The Religious Background of the Psalms of Solomon (Re-evaluated in the Light of the Qumran Texts),” 241–57; Robert R. Hann, “The Community of the Pious: The Social Setting of the Psalms of Solomon,” 169–89; Stephen Hultgren, “4Q521 the Second Benediction of the Tefilla, The Ḥasidim and the Development of Royal Messianism,” 313–40. Rodney A. Werline, “The Psalms of Solomon and the Ideology of Rule,” in Conflicted Boundaries in Wisdom and Apocalypticism, ed. Lawrence Mitchell Wills, Benjamin G. Wright (Atlanta: SBL Press, 2005), 69–88, where he discusses the possibility of the psalms stemming from ‘dissident scribes,’ and discusses their focus on a Davidic Messiah, as well as a stress on piety and righteousness. 93 Joseph L. Trafton, “The Bible, The Psalms of Solomon, and Qumran,” in The Bible and the Dead Sea Scrolls, ed. James H. Charlesworth (Waco: Baylor University Press, 2006), 427–46. Reymond, New Idioms Within Old: Poetry and Parallelism 94 David Flusser, Psalms, Hymns and Prayers, 559; Benedikt Eckhardt, “The Psalms of Solomon as a Historical Source for the Late Hasmonean Period,” in The Psalms of Solomon: Language, History, Theology, ed. Eberhard Bons and Patrick Pouchelle (Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2015), 7–30. 95 Corresponding to the Greek; δικαιων, Δίκαιοι– righteous, δικαιοσύνης– righteousness, ὄσιον– devout, ἄγιος– holy. συναγωγὰςόσίων– assemblies of the pious, perhaps connected to ‫ – קהל חסידים‬Compare to 1 Macc 2:42: συναγωγὴΑσιδαίων– a congregation of Hasideans. 92

3. SECOND TEMPLE BACKGROUND

123

Israel faces as a direct result of their sinful ways. It seems that the authors of these psalms espouse the belief that the doctrine of retribution is sufficient in explaining God’s actions in this world. There is also hope for a Davidic Messiah in two of the psalms, and criticism of the Hasmonean kings with reference to their ultimate downfall. There is a common thread interwoven throughout these different themes, and that is the piety and righteousness of those who adhere to God’s laws, in contrast with the wickedness of evil-doers. Two important aspects of the Psalms of Solomon will be stressed. First is their connection to pietistic circles, and second, their connection to the wisdom tradition. The theme of righteousness and piety is a common theme discussed throughout the different psalms. For example, Pss. Sol. 3 describes the righteous (lines 3–4): The righteous remember the Lord at all times, with confession and justification, the Lord’s judgments. The righteous does not despise being disciplined by the Lord; his good will is always before the Lord.

Here the righteous acknowledge that they may receive discipline from the Lord, but they accept it and repent their sins. The psalm goes on to describe their manner of repentance (line 8): He made atonement for sins of ignorance by fasting and humiliation of his soul, and the Lord cleanses every devout man and his house

Here, a description of atonement through fasting and ‘humiliation of his soul’ probably refers to some sort of affliction of the body. 96 And as a result of these fasts, it states that the ‘devout man’ possibly ‫איש חסיד‬, is cleansed from his sins and those of his household. Furthermore, the psalm goes on to discuss the reward of the righteous, intimating the resurrection of the dead (line 12): but those who fear the Lord shall rise to everlasting life, and their life is in the light of the Lord and shall never end.

This text is extremely significant because it demonstrates several important elements that will be relevant with regard to the pietistic circles of the rabbinic period. First is the idea of repenting and continuously working on one’s character, which is similar to one of the traditions retained in rabbinic literature in connection with achieving a level of ‘piety’, ‫חסידות‬, and will be discussed in Chapter Five. Second is the concept of fasting and afflicting one’s soul in order to repent, which is also central in a number of rabbinic stories that are told about certain pietists and rabbinic figures. Third is the importance of resurrection as the reward of the righteous, which is also present in certain pietistic traditions. 96

This term probably harks back to the words in Lev 23:27, ‫ועניתם את נפשתיכם‬, “you shall practice self-denial” or literally “you shall inflict your soul,” regarding the Day of Atonement.

124

THROUGH THE PRISM OF WISDOM

Not only does the Psalms of Solomon show signs of being influenced by pietistic circles, it also shares elements with the wisdom tradition. This connection to wisdom is seen through the depiction of the Messiah as wise, the use of nature as a source of discipline and knowledge, the presence of beatitudes’, a common wisdom form, and presence of the theme of the dangers of sexual impropriety. Each of these elements will be analyzed below. The mention of the terms ‘wisdom’ and ‘wise’ appear almost exclusively in reference to the Davidic Messiah. 97 In the hope for a Davidic Messiah, wisdom is expressed as an important attribute the Messiah will possess, in Pss. Sol. 17 it states: He shall judge peoples and nations in the wisdom of his righteousness (line 29) For he shall strike the earth with the word of his mouth forever; he shall bless the people of the Lord in wisdom with joy… And he shall not weaken in his days, relying on his God; for God has made him strong in the holy spirit 98 and wise in the counsel of understanding with strength and righteousness (37–38)

Wisdom and righteousness play an essential part in the description of the Messiah’s character and actions. The Messiah’s words are described as “more refined than costly gold,” which may reference Psalm 19:1 ‫“ הנחמדים מזהב ומפז רב‬more desirable than gold, than much fine gold;” and Prov 20:15 ‫יש זהב ורב־פנינים וכלי יקר שפתי דעת‬: “Gold is plentiful, jewels abundant, But wise speech is a precious object.” This comparison between wisdom and jewels is seen in a number of places throughout wisdom literature, and seems to be hinted at here as well. 99 Furthermore, in the context of describing the Davidic Messiah in Psalms of Solomon 18, the psalm evokes the wonder of creation to extol God and pronounce his greatness, lines 10–12 state: 36F

The Greek term, σοψία– sophia, ‘wisdom’ is coupled with διχαιοσύνης– dikaiosune, ‘righteousness’ in the description of the Messiah in Pss. Sol. 17:23, 29, 35; 18:7. 98 In Pss. Sol. 18 which also discusses the Davidic Messiah, he is described as: anointed in fear of his God, in wisdom of spirit and of righteousness and strength, The mention of ‘wisdom of spirit’, as well as God making him strong in ‘the holy spirit’ in Pss. Sol. 17 may indicate a connection to the Spirit-Centered wisdom traditions which are influenced by Greek thought, and will be discussed in depth in the following section of this chapter. 99 See Prov 2:4–6; 3:13–16; 8:11. See as well, Phillippus Jacous Botha, “‘Wealth and Riches are in his House’ (Ps 112:3): Acrostic Wisdom Psalms and the Development of Antimaterialism,” in The Shape and Shaping of the Book of Psalms: The Current State of Scholarship, ed. Nancy L. deClaisse-Walford (Atlanta: SBL Press, 2014), 105–28. Benjamin G. Wright, “‘Who has Been Tested by Gold and Found Perfect?’ Ben Sira Discourse of Riches and Poverty,” Henoch 23, 2– 3 (2001): 153–74. 97

3. SECOND TEMPLE BACKGROUND

125

Great is our God, and glorious, dwelling in the highest, who appointed the lights in their course for the determining of seasons from day to day, and they did not turn aside from the path you commanded them. Their path each day is in the fear of God, from the day God created them and forever. And they have not wandered since the day he created them; since the generations of old they have not turned aside from their paths,

The text goes on to explain that just as these lights remain loyal and faithful to God, so too must mankind be obedient and follow God’s law. The idea that the steadiness of the constellations should inform one’s behavior towards God is an element found in both 1 Enoch and Ben Sira. Argal discusses this common element shared by these two seemingly very different sources. 1 Enoch stems from the apocalyptic tradition, while Ben Sira from the wisdom tradition, yet the texts connote a similar message. As Argal states, “... the conceptual framework for treating creation is remarkably similar in 1 Enoch and Sirach. God’s works through creation whether observable or hidden, teach the importance of obedience...” 100 Therefore, the idea of observing God’s creation in order to inform man’s behavior invokes both wisdom and apocalyptic literature of the Second Temple era as discussed earlier in this chapter. It is clear that Psalms of Solomon is drawing from both of these traditions. This reflection on creation is also discussed in Pss. Sol 5, which beseeches God for sustenance. Lines 8–10 state: For if I hunger, I will cry to you, O God, and you will give to me. You feed the birds and the fish, when you give rain to wildernesses that green grass may spring up. You have provided fodder in the wilderness for every living thing, and if they hunger, they will lift their face to you.

The study of God’s ways in creation and their implications for human behavior evinces the influence of what Geller terms the ‘hybrid wisdom-covenantal piety’. 101 As mentioned in the introduction, Geller posits that the rise of the ‘pious’ stems from an integrative wisdom tradition, which combines wisdom acquired from observing nature with the wisdom of the Law. It is this same element of wisdom that influences the Psalms of Solomon, which stresses the importance of following God’s law, as well as observing God’s ways in the natural world as an essential source of wisdom. The presence of this concept in the Psalms of Solomon strengthens its connection to the pious and the wisdom tradition. A third element that indicates wisdom influence is the phrase ‘Happy is the man’, probably for the Hebrew ‫אשרי האיש‬, found in Psalms 1 and 112 of the biblical Psalms. While the phrase ‘Happy is...’ is found four times in Proverbs, it is mentioned

100 Argal, 1Enoch

and Sirach, 164.

101 Geller, “Wisdom, Nature, and Piety in Some Biblical Psalms,” 101–121.

126

THROUGH THE PRISM OF WISDOM

over twenty five times in Psalms. 102 This form has been termed ‘beatitude’, or ‘macarism’, by scholars of wisdom literature, and is seen as part of the wisdom tradition, but not exclusive to it. 103 This phraseology is also found in the Dead Sea Scrolls, for example in 4QBeatitudes (4Q525), a pedagogical text imploring the student to follow the laws of God and to discern wisdom. There are a number of elements in the text that mirror the message given in the Psalms of Solomon. One of the significant portions of 4Q525 is the list of beatitudes found in frag. 2, ii +3, lines 1–6, which states: ‫אשרי תומכי חוקיה ולוא יתמוכו‬vacat ‫[בלב טהור ולוא רגל על לשונו‬....] ‫אשרי דורשיה בבור‬vacat ‫אש]רי[ הגלים בה ולוא יביעו בדרכי אולת‬vacat ‫בדרכי עולה‬ ‫ויתהלך בתורת‬vacat ‫אשרי אדם השיג חוכמה‬vacat ‫כפים ולוא ישחרנה בלב מרמה‬ ‫ויתאפק ביסוריה ובנגועיה ירצה תמ]י[ד ולוא יטושנה בעוני‬vacat ‫עליון יוכן לדרכיה לבו‬ ‫מצר]יו\פו[ ובעת צוקה לוא יעוזבנה ולוא ישכחנה ]בימי\ יום[פחד ובענות נפשו לוא‬ ‫יגעל]נה‬ [Happy is he who speaks truth] with a pure heart and does not slander with his tongue. Happy are those who cling to her statutes and do not cling to the ways of iniquity. Hap[py] are those who rejoice in her and do not burst out upon the ways of folly. Happy are those who seek her with pure hands and do not search for her with a deceitful heart. Happy is the man who has obtained wisdom, follows the Torah of the Most High set his heart towards her ways, controls himself with her disciplines and takes pleasure alw[ays[ in her chastisements; who does not forsake her in the affliction of [his] trouble[s], does not abandon her in the time of anguish, does not forget her [in the days of] dread and who does not reject [her] with the humility of his soul. 104

There are a number of affinities between this text and the Psalms of Solomon which may point to them being influenced by similar circles. Both texts utilize the ‘beati102 The chapters of Psalms in which the term is found are, 1, 2, 17, 32, 33, 34,40, 41, 65, 84, 89, 94,

106, 112, 119, 127, 128, 137, 144, 146. Proverbs; 3:13; 8:34; 20:7; 28:14. The word ‫ אשרי‬also appears in 1 Kgs 10:8, a statement made by the Queen of Sheba to Solomon referencing those who are fortunate to listen to Solomon’s wisdom. This is indeed quite fascinating as the element of Egyptian influence on the Israelite wisdom tradition is well attested. It is interesting to find this phrase in a text describing the interaction between Queen of Sheba and Solomon specifically in reference to wisdom. In Isa 30:18 and 56:2, the term is used in reference to those who will be saved by God, as well as those who keep the Sabbath and do good deeds. Job 5:17, Dan 12:12, 2 Chr 9:7— also in the Queen of Sheba’s speech parallel to 2 Kings. 103 Matthew Goff, Discerning Wisdom, 203. This form also appears in Christian texts such as Matthew, Luke, Romans, Revelations and many others. For a comprehensive bibliography see Goff’s, Discerning Wisdom, 203 n. 20. The presence of this wisdom theme in other literature may indicate a need to study the influences of wisdom on these texts as well. 104 Translation taken from Matthew Goff, Discerning Wisdom, 201.

3. SECOND TEMPLE BACKGROUND

127

tude’, stress the importance of following the Law, remaining loyal to the commandments even while enduring affliction and suffering, and speaking the truth. The Psalms of Solomon utilize the ‘beatitude’ form six times, in psalms 4, 5, 6, 10, 17, and 18. In four of the cases the ‘happy man’ is being saved by God from deceitful men and sinners, or it involves the righteous and their salvation in the future, an element not as strongly present in 4Q525. 105 Pss. Sol. 10:1–2 reflects the idea of one who is content with God’s discipline: Happy is the man whom the Lord remembers with reproving and who is fenced from the evil road by a whip, that he may be cleansed from sin, that it may not increase. He who prepares his back for lashes shall be cleansed, for the Lord is kind to those who endure discipline.

This idea of accepting the discipline of the Lord may be related to the chastisement and discipline material in 4Q525, although the subject in the latter may be wisdom/Torah, while in Pss. Sol. the discipline is directly coming from God. The overall message is similar in both sources; although one may dedicate himself to God’s laws and to the study of Torah, he may still endure hardships which are seen as chastisements and discipline from God. This relates to the question of theodicy dealt with by the wisdom tradition. The righteous may still suffer even though they adhere to God’s laws. Suffering and pain is understood in these sources to be God’s discipline, which is a tool to refine the righteous and reveal their unwavering dedication. This is expressed in many places in Psalms of Solomon such as, Pss. Sol. 3:3–4; 6:9; 12:7–11; 16:13; 17:42; 18:4; 14:1–2. It is therefore clear that the theme of righteous suffering and understanding its purpose is a grave concern of the authors of both Psalms of Solomon and 4Q525. The message that one must remain steadfast in observance of the Law, especially in times of suffering, is stressed in both of these texts. This conception of the suffering of the righteous will inform the readings of several of the Elijah legends in rabbinic literature which display Elijah’s connection with questions of theodicy and the affliction of the righteous. It is true that these ideas are present throughout rabbinic literature and not limited to the Elijah traditions, however I would like to focus on the significance of their presence in the Elijah traditions as another aspect of Elijah’s association with the wisdom tradition. Another element shared with 4Q525 is the importance of speaking the truth, as it states, “[Happy is he who speaks truth] with a pure heart and does not slander with his tongue” (4Q525 2 ii, 1). Pss. Sol. 16:10–11 also expresses the importance of speaking the truth:

105

This element of future reward for the righteous, and punishment of the wicked may be intimated in the work, but due to its fragmentary nature it is unclear to what extent these ideas were present in the text, see Elisa Uusimäki, Turning Proverbs Toward the Torah: An Analysis of 4Q525 (Leiden: Brill, 2016), 181–3.

128

THROUGH THE PRISM OF WISDOM Protect my tongue and my lips with words of truth; anger and unreasoning wrath put far from me. Grumbling and faint-heartedness in affliction keep far from me,

The importance of speaking the truth and avoiding slander is expressed throughout wisdom literature, and is shared as well in the Psalms of Solomon. Psalms of Solomon stresses this element through its depiction of the wicked. One characterization of the wicked is as a slanderous and deceitful person, as stated in Pss. Sol. 12:1, “deliver my soul...from the tongue that transgresses the Law and is slanderous and that speaks lies and deceits.” The antithesis of the righteous man is the wicked, and while the righteous speak the truth, the wicked are filled with lies and deceit. The focus on proper speech is therefore a significant element in both the Psalms of Solomon as well as 4Q525, and is also seen in the classical wisdom works of Proverbs, Ecclesiastes and Ben Sira. 106 The similarities and connections between these texts do not seem to be coincidental, but rather point to a shared set of values and a connection to the wisdom tradition. Although 4Q525’s form seems to be closer to that of Proverbs and Ben Sira, and the Psalms of Solomon to hymns and prayers, it is clear that they share a common worldview. A fourth element that connects Psalms of Solomon with the wisdom tradition is the frequent appearance of exhortations against sexual promiscuity throughout the psalms. Whether discussing the character of the ‘wicked man’, the people of Israel’s sins, or the pious man’s fear of sin, all are connected to improper sexual conduct. For example, when speaking of the punishment of Israel it states: “They set the sons of Jerusalem to be mocked because of the prostitutes in her” (Pss. Sol. 2:11) as well as Pss. Sol 8:8–10: In secret places under the earth were their transgressions of the Law in provocation; they committed incest, son with mother and father with daughter. They committed adultery, every man with his neighbor’s wife.

When speaking of the wicked man it states in Pss. Sol 4:4–5: His eyes are upon every woman without distinction; his tongue is false when he makes a contract with an oath. At night and in secret he sins as though unseen; with his eyes he speaks to every woman in evil assignation;

Furthermore, in the pious man’s plea to be protected from sin he states: “Hold me back, O God, from every evil woman who causes the foolish to stumble, and let not the beauty of a woman who transgress the Law deceive me...” (Pss. Sol. 16:7–8). This fear of the ‘evil woman’ is reminiscent of the ‘Woman of Folly’ of Proverbs, as well as 106

The importance of proper speech, truthfulness and the dangers of slander are expressed in Prov 10:18–19; 16:27–28; 17:4; 18:8; 20:19; 25:9–10; 26:20–27; Ecc 7:21; Sir 1:24; 4:25; 4:28; 6:1; 19:7–9; 28:15.

3. SECOND TEMPLE BACKGROUND

129

Ben Sira’s fear of the wayward woman. It is clear that the dangers of sexual promiscuity weigh heavily on the scribes who penned these psalms. The fear of improper sexual conduct is also a characteristic of the pious, and this further supports the idea that these psalmists are strongly connected with pietistic circles. The similarity in these traditions to the manner in which the wisdom tradition portrays the dangers of sexual promiscuity is indeed striking. As mentioned earlier in this chapter, this finds expression in the Dead Sea Scrolls as well, such as in Wiles of the Wicked Woman. It is important to highlight that the dangers of sexual promiscuity are also an important theme in a number of the Elijah legends and serves as one of the links to the wisdom tradition, as will be discussed in future chapters.

APOCALYPTIC AND WISDOM IN PSALMS AND PRAYERS The psalms and prayers of the Second Temple era are essential in understanding the merging of apocalyptic themes and wisdom. One area in which this coalescence is reflected is in the descriptions of messianic figures in the Second Temple era. The Psalms of Solomon and the Apocryphal Psalms for example, display eschatological hopes and describe the Davidic Messiah as one who is imbued with divine wisdom. In the Psalms of Solomon, the expectation for a messianic King is expressed in Pss. Sol. 17 and 18. Prior to discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls, the anticipation of a Royal Messiah was considered the messianic expectation of the day. With discovery of the Scrolls, a much more complex eschatological tradition emerges. The discussion of multiple messianic figures in some scrolls lead to the understanding that a Royal Messiah, a descendant of the house of David, is only one of a number of different messianic redeemers to be expected in the End of Days. The Scrolls speak of a Priestly Messiah as well as Teacher and Prophet, as seen in the Damascus Document and are described as teachers who impart wisdom. Elijah embodies these messianic roles in rabbinic literature and therefore it is essential to study the precursors for many aspects of his role. The significance of wisdom’s role in descriptions of messianic figures can be better understood when viewing the long history of the connection between apocalyptic ideas and wisdom in psalms and prayers. The Psalms of Solomon focus on a Davidic Messiah who is depicted in a militaristic fashion. However, the Davidic Messiah’s role as expressed in Psalms of Solomon is not only militaristic but can be categorized as fulfilling three different functions: militaristic, judicial, and ritualistic/relating to purification. His militaristic role is described in Pss. Sol. 17:22, 24, amongst others, where the redeemer is expected to “shatter in pieces unrighteous rulers” and “by his threat, nations flee from his presence.” His judicial role is expressed in Pss. Sol. 17:26–38, and 43, where he is described as one who will “judge the tribes of the people,” who “will not allow injustice to lodge in their midst,” and will “judge peoples and nations in the wisdom of his righteousness.” This category highlights the role of wisdom in the description of the Royal Messiah as one who will be wise in counsel. The Messiah’s role in purification is seen in three ways: Purification from sin, purifying the nation from foreigners, and purification of Jerusalem, perhaps indicating ritual purification of the Temple. These elements are stated throughout Pss. Sol.

130

THROUGH THE PRISM OF WISDOM

17. With regard to purification from sin, the redeemer is described as one who will “drive out sinners from the inheritance,” (line 23) and assure that “nor shall there dwell with them any person who knows evil” (line27). With regard to the removal of foreigners from the land, it states “and he shall distribute them according to their tribes upon the land, and no resident alien and alien shall sojourn among them any longer” (line 28). The purification of Jerusalem is mentioned as well in lines 22 and 30, where it states, “he shall purify Jerusalem in holiness as it was at the beginning.” It seems that this image of the Davidic Messiah combines the different roles of the other messianic figures mentioned in the scrolls, such as the priestly Messiah, who perhaps would deal with the purification of the Temple, as well as the Teacher who would presumably teach and counsel the people in his wisdom. 107 This does not necessarily mean a rejection of the other roles, but rather an understanding of the overall importance of the Davidic Messiah and a borrowing from the different messianic expectations of the time. The prominence of the Davidic Messiah in the Psalms of Solomon and the work’s connection to the ‘devout’ or ‘pious ones’, ‫חסידים‬, has lead Stephen Hultrgren to compare these ideas with similar ones found in the Tefillah, also known as the 18 Benedictions or Amidah, as well as the Dead Sea Scroll, 4Q521. 108 The significance of this comparison is that it connects all these texts to pietistic circles through the presence of common themes from both the wisdom and apocalyptic traditions with a focus on the pious. The Second Temple texts and the Amidah share a hope for a Royal Messiah, reference ‫חסידים‬, speak of the resurrection, and highlight the importance of wisdom. It is these same themes that appear in the Elijah texts connected with pietists. Hultgren points out that the Amidah evokes certain pietistic elements that are parallel to those found in the Psalms of Solomon. For example, in the twelfth benediction it speaks against the slanderers, which is also an element found in Pss. Sol. 12:4 and 2:35. A second commonality is seen in the thirteenth benediction, which speaks of the compassion God has for the righteous ones: ‫על הצדיקים ועל החסידים‬. The third element which ties the Amidah with the ḥasidim is the prayer for the return of the

107

This combination of many of the different aspects of the redeeming figures into one figure is also see in the New Testament and its different depictions of Jesus. See J. Severino Croatto, “Jesus, Prophet like Elijah, and Prophet-Teacher like Moses in Luke-Acts,” JBL 124, 3 (2005): 451–65; Michael Patrick Barber, “Jesus as the Davidic Temple Builder and Peter’s Priestly Role in Matthew 16:16–19,” JBL 132, 4 (2013): 935–53; Deborah W. Rooke, “Jesus as Royal Priest: Reflections on the Interpretation of the Melchizedek Tradition in Heb 7,” Bib 81, 1 (2000): 81– 94; John Paul Heil, “Jesus as the Unique High Priest in the Gospel of John,” CBQ 57, 4 (1995): 729–45; Yigal Levin, “Jesus, ‘son of God’ and ‘son of David’: The ‘Adoption’ of Jesus Into the Davidic Line,” JSNT 128, 4 (2006): 415–42. 108 Hultgren, “4Q521 the Second Benediction of the Tefilla, The Ḥasidim and the Development of Royal Messianism,” 313–40.

3. SECOND TEMPLE BACKGROUND

131

Davidic Messiah, which is reminiscent of the hope for such a redeemer as found in Pss. Sol. 17 and 18. 109 Hultgren also points to the similarities between the second benediction of the Amidah and 4Q521, and states that they are due to a shared tradition possibly stemming from pietistic circles. He first analyzes the language in 4Q521 Frgs. 2 Col. ii, which appears to paraphrase lines from Psalms and Isaiah, in line 8: ‫מתיר אסורים פוקח‬ ‫]עורים זוקף כפ]ופים‬, “setting prisoners free, opening the eyes of the blind, raising up those who are bo[wed down]” (cf. Ps 146:7–8), as well as lines 12–13, ‫כי ירפא חללים‬ ‫ומתים יחיה ענוים יבשר ו]דלי[ם ישב]יע[ נתושים ינהל ורעבים יעשר‬, “For He shall heal the critically wounded, He shall revive the dead, He shall send good news to the afflicted,” (Isa 61:1). The second benediction of the Amidah shares similar language and ideas with 4Q521, as it states: ‫ ומתיר‬,‫ ורופא חולים‬,‫ סומך נופלים‬,‫ מחיה מתים ברחמים רבים‬,‫מכלכל חיים בחסד‬ ‫ מלך ממית‬,‫ מי כמוך בעל גבורות ומי דומה לך‬.‫ ומקים אמונתו לישני עפר‬,‫אסורים‬ ,‫ומחיה ומצמיח ישועה‬ Who sustains the living in mercy, who gives life to the dead with abundant compassion, who supports those who fall, who heals the sick, who releases the captives and who keeps his faith with those who sleep in the dust. Who is like you, O master of mighty deeds, and who is comparable to you, O King who makes alive and who makes salvation to sprout. 110

The exact parallels are clear enough to discern, and stem from Ps 146:7–8 which states that God “sets prisoners free, opens the eyes of the blind, and raises up those who are bowed down” ‫ פוקח עורים זוקף כפופים‬,‫מתיר אסורים‬. The texts both mention God’s healing powers, as well as his sustenance, although they use different terminology. Reference to the raising of the dead is also an important element shared by both texts. The element of resurrection is mentioned again in Frgs 7 col ii line 7, where it contrasts those who bless God with those who curse him. Those who bless God will be privy to the resurrection: ‫כ[ל]כם [העושים את הטוב לפני אדנ]י[ ]מברכים ולו[א כאלה מקלל]ים[ ולמות‬

]

‫יהי]ו כאשר[ ]יקי[ם המחיה את מתי עמו‬

For the connection between the Tefillah and the ḥasidim see, K. Kohler, “The Origin and Composition of the Eighteen Benedictions with a Translation of the Corresponding Essene Prayers in the Apostolic Constitutions,” HUCA 1 (1924): 389. John Kampen, The Hasideans and the Origin of Pharisaism: A Study in 1 and 2 Maccabees (Atlanta: Georgia, 1988), 193–4. 110 Translation from S. Singer, The Authorized Daily Prayer Book, 9th American ed. (New York: Hebrew Publishing Co., 1931), 44–5. 109

132

THROUGH THE PRISM OF WISDOM [ a]l[l of you] who do good before the Lord[d] shall bless and not as these who curse. They shall b[e] destined to die, [when]the One who revives [rai]ses the dead of His people.

The resurrection of the dead as a central theme in the End of Days is also mentioned in the Psalms of Solomon. In Pss. Sol. 3:10–12 it contrasts the ends of life for a sinner and for the righteous: 111 He has added sin upon sin in his lifetime; he fell, because his fall is evil, and he shall not rise up. The destruction of the sinner is forever, and he will not be remembered, when he visits the righteous. This is the portion of sinners forever, but those who fear the Lord shall rise to everlasting life, and their life is in the light of the Lord and shall never end.

The presence of the resurrection in Psalms of Solomon, 4Q521, and the second benediction of the Amidah points to the central role of the resurrection in the view of the composers of these works. The pietistic element of these texts is evident in the role of the ‫ חסידים‬or pious/righteous ones throughout the texts. The presence of the ‫חסידים‬ and their influence on the Tefillah, as well as the Psalms of Solomon was discussed above, and is also present in 4Q521. The term ‫ חסידים‬appears a number of times, most prominently in frag. 2 ii, 5–7: ‫כי אדני חסידים יבקר וצדיקים בשם יקרא‬ ‫ועל ענוים רוחו תרחף ואמונים יחליף בכוחו‬ ‫כי יכבד את חסידים על כסא מלכות עד‬ For the Lord seeks the pious and calls the righteous by name. Over the humble His spirit hovers, and he renews the faithful in His strength For He will honor the pious upon the th[ro]ne of His eternal kingdom,

It does not seem coincidental that these texts share similar language, as well as ideas like resurrection and the role of the righteous. It seems that there is a link to pietistic circles in these texts, and they appear to show an affinity with prayers, hymns and psalms. Both the connection between pietists with prayers and hymns, and the belief in resurrection are elements also present in some of the Elijah traditions. The shared traditions between the Second Temple texts evoking the pious and the pietistic traditions of the rabbinic period point to a defined worldview of those who associate themselves with the pietistic way of life, whom we can call ḥasidim. It is therefore extremely relevant that many of the Elijah traditions in rabbinic literature connect him with prayer, and in many cases with pietists. The elements of both wisdom and apocalyptic

111

It is also hinted at in Pss. Sol. 13:11, where the focus is on everlasting life for the righteous and that the sinners will be destroyed and their memorial shall never be found.

3. SECOND TEMPLE BACKGROUND

133

in these texts which describe the pious strengthen the connection between pietists and the wisdom tradition. Stefan Reif discusses the presence of wisdom in different rabbinic prayers. He points to wisdom themes present in the morning benedictions, the benedictions preceding the Shema, the Passover Haggadah, the ‘Alenu’ prayer, as well as the Amidah. 112 The elements of praising God’s work in nature and one’s place in the world, the importance of Torah, appeals for God to grant knowledge, as well as elements of esoteric knowledge such as angelology and future redemption, point to wisdom influences in these prayers. In regard to the Amidah, Reif points to the second and forth benediction as displaying the strongest wisdom elements. 113 The second benediction discussed above deals with God’s role in nature and his power over mankind, referencing the resurrection of the dead. The fourth benediction clearly beseeches God for wisdom. 114 It states: '‫ ברוך אתה ה‬.‫ וחננו מאתך חכמה בינה ודעת‬.‫אתה חונן לאדם דעת ומלמד לאנוש בינה‬ .‫חונן הדעת‬

Stefan C. Reif, “Wisdom Traditions in Some Early Rabbinic Prayers,” in Weisheit als Lebensgrundlage; Festschrift für Friedrich V. Reiterer zum 65, ed. Geburtstag Herausgegeben von Renate Egger-Wenzel, Karin Schöpflin und Johannes Friedrich Diehl (Berlin: de Gruyter, 2013), 225–47. 113 For an in-depth discussion of the Amidah and its history, see Ezra Fleischer, “Tefilat shemoneh ‘esre: ‘Iyunim be-’ofyah, sdarah, tokhnah, u-megamoteha,” in Likkutei Tarbiẕ VI Studies in Jewish Liturgy, ed. Hananel Mack (Jerusalem: Magnes Press, 2003), 179–223; Moshe Weinfeld, “Ha-baqashot le-da‘at, teshuvah ve-seliḥah betifilat shemoneh ‘esre: ’Ofyan shel habaqashot, maqbilotehen be-Qumran ve-shorashan ba-mikra’,” Tarbiẕ 48 (1979): 186–200; Reuven Kimelman, “The Penitential Part of the Amidah and Personal Redemption,” in Seeking the Favor of God Vol. 3: The Impact of Penitential Prayer Beyond Second Temple Judaism, ed. Mark Boda, Daniel Falk and Rodney Werline (Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2008), 71–84; Joseph Tabory, “Prayers and Berakhot,” in The Literature of the Sages, ed. Shmuel Safrai, Ze’ev Safrai, Joshua Schwartz, and Peter Tomson (Amsterdam: Royal Van Gorcum Fortress Press), 2.308–11; Lee Levine, The Ancient Synagogue: The First Thousand Years (New Haven; London: Yale University Press, 2005), 540–50. 114 The current version in prayerbooks does not mention Torah specifically, which is quite surprising, but rather speaks of wisdom generally. However in bBer. 29a it speaks of knowledge of God’s ways. Some Palestinian versions of the benediction also highlight knowledge of Torah and keeping of the commandments, see Weinfeld p. 186. See as well Uri Ehrlich, Tefilat haʻamidah shel yemot ha-ḥol: nusḥe ha-sidurim ba-genizah ha-Ḳahirit – shorshehem ṿetoldotehem (Jerusalem: Yad Yitzḥaq Ben-Tzvi, 2013), 79–88. He views the addition of the term ‫ תורתך‬in some of the versions stemming from Land of Israel as later additions to qualify the general supplication for wisdom, see 82–3. 112

134

THROUGH THE PRISM OF WISDOM Thou favorest man with knowledge, and teachest mortals understanding. O favor us with knowledge, understanding and discernment from thee. Blessed art thou, O Lord, gracious Giver of knowledge. 115

The supplication of God for knowledge is a clear expression of the importance of wisdom in this prayer. Weinfeld discusses the antiquity of the tradition of beseeching God for wisdom, and actually views the three benedictions for wisdom, repentance, and forgiveness as an ancient form that is also present in the Dead Sea Scrolls. He points to this sequence in the Testament of Levi, where Levi asks for ‫רוח הקודש‬, and ‫חכמה ומנדע וגבורה‬, ‘wisdom, knowledge, and strength’ to follow the will of God. Levi then begs God for the ability serve Him, and asks of God to forgive his sins. Weinfeld sees similarity in the language of the fifth benediction, in which the supplicants implore God to bring them close to his service, ‫ קרבנו מלכנו לעבודתך‬and then ask God for forgiveness, ‫סלח לנו אבינו‬. Weinfeld notes these themes being present in many of the Hodayot found at Qumran. 116 The process of requesting for the gift of knowledge, asking for the ability to approach God as His servant, and then begging for forgiveness, is rooted in biblical expressions of these ideas found in Psalms and prophetic works such as Hosea, Jeremiah and Ezekiel. 117 Therefore, the similarities perceived in the psalms/ prayers of the Second Temple era and rabbinic prayers are indeed rooted in a similar tradition. This tradition is connected to wisdom as has been shown above and, therefore, Elijah’s connection to prayer in the rabbinic tradition and its association with wisdom will be explored throughout this work. The eschatological element is another significant element that is shared by the Psalms of Solomon, 4Q521, and the Amidah. The expectation of a Davidic Messiah in the Psalms of Solomon and the prayer for the return of the House of David in the Amidah clearly demonstrate the eschatological themes in both of these texts. 4Q521 is also categorized as an eschatological text, and has garnered a significant amount of scholarly attention for its messianic element. 118 In the fragment above, the ‫ חסידים‬are rewarded by being honored on the ‘throne of His eternal kingdom’, clearly referencing 38F

384F

Translation from Rev. S. Singer, The Standard Prayer Book (New York: Bloch Publishing Company, 1958), 56. 116 Weinfeld, “The Prayers for Knowledge, Repentance and Forgiveness,” 190–91. 117 Weinfeld, “The Prayers for Knowledge, Repentance and Forgiveness,” 196–200. 118 J.J. Collins, “The Works of the Messiah [4Q521],” DSD 1, 1 (1994): 98–112. Lidija Navakovic, “4Q521: The Works of the Messiah or the Signs of the Messianic Times?” Qumran Studies: New Approaches, New Questions, ed. Michal Thomas Davis and Brent A. Strawn (Michigan: W.B. Eerdmans, 2007), 208–31; Emile Peuch, “Some Remarks on 4Q246 and 4Q521 and Qumran Messianism,” in The Provo International Conference on the Dead Sea Scrolls, Volume 30, ed. Donald W. Parry, Eugene Ulrich (Leiden; Boston: Brill, 1999), 545–75; Hultgren, “4Q521 the Second Benediction of the Tefilla, The Ḥasidim and the Development of Royal Messianism,” 336–38. 115

3. SECOND TEMPLE BACKGROUND

135

the Davidic kingdom. The text also speaks about an ‘anointed’ figure. The fragment that has garnered the most attention is frg 2 col. ii: ‫]כי הש[מים והארץ ישמעו למשיחו ]וכל א[שר בם לוא יסוג ממצות קדושים התאמצו‬

vacat ‫מבקשי אדני בעבדתו‬ [For the hea]vens and earth shall listen to His Messiah [and all w]hich is in them shall not turn away from the commandments of the holy ones. Strengthen yourselves, O you who seek the Lord, in His service. vacat

In this text the “Messiah whom heaven and earth shall obey” is mentioned, and seems to refer to a Royal Messiah, due to the fact that later lines state: ‫כי יכבד חסידים על‬ ‫כסא מלכות עד‬, “For He will honor the pious upon the throne of His eternal Kingdom.” This seems to be influenced by 1 Sam 2:8, the Song of Ḥannah, which in many ways echoes the themes of the power of God, God’s ability to strike down and raise up, and to take and give life. 119 The phrase ‫ וְ ִכ ֵסּא ָכבוֹד יַ נְ ִח ֵלם‬is echoed in the words ‫כי‬ ‫יכבד חסידים על כסא מלכות‬, which is perhaps an interpretation of what ‘seats of honor’ refers to. 4Q521 interprets the reward of the righteous as being honored with the seat of the eternal kingdom. The text also speaks, as mentioned above, about the great acts God’s will presumably perform in the messianic era. In frg 2 col. ii it states: ‫ונכ}ב{דות שלוא היו יעשה אדני כאשר ד]בר[ כי ירפא חללים ומתים יחיה ענוים יבשר‬ and the Lord shall do glorious things which have not been done, just as He s[aid] For he shall heal the critically wounded, He shall revive the dead, ‘He has sent me as a herald of joy to the humble,’ (Isa 61:1)

Here the text describes God’s great acts of healing the wounded and reviving the dead. The mention of one who will ‘herald’ may signify that the great acts described will be carried out through a messenger, perhaps one similar to the messenger described in Isa 61:1, who is described as healing the wounded, just as God is described in 4Q521. Interestingly, this figure is considered to be ‘anointed’, ‫משוח‬, by God. The concept of a messenger who comes to declare peace is also expressed in Isa 52:7 as well as Nah 2:1. This ‘herald’ seems to also be based on in Mal 3:1, where it describes the messenger that will be sent before God’s arrival. The messenger is described not as a healer, but as one who purges sin and impurity from amongst the people, specifically, the descendants of Levi. David Bannon discusses this text and draws a parallel between the messenger in Mal 3:1 and Elijah, who is also mentioned as the one who will be sent before the ‘awesome, fearful day of the Lord’ at the end of the chapter (Mal 3:24). 120 He notes that in 387F

119

Hultgren, “4Q521 the Second Benediction of the Tefilla, The Ḥasidim and the Development of Royal Messianism,” 334. 120 David Banon, “Elie, heraut du Messie,” Pardes 24 (1998): 139–48.

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THROUGH THE PRISM OF WISDOM

rabbinic texts these two messengers are equated with Elijah. Therefore, it is significant that the text in 4Q521 also makes an allusion to the prophecy at the end of Malachi in col. iii line 2 it states: 121 ‫נכון באים אבות על בנים‬ fathers are coming upon (or going for) their sons

This text refers to the arrival of Elijah the prophet on the ‘awesome, fearful day of the Lord’ when Elijah “shall reconcile the parents with their children and children with their parents,” ‫והשיב לב אבות על בנים ולב בנים על אבותם‬, (Mal 3:24). The text in 4Q521 continues with a description of the abundance in the messianic era, the resurrection for the righteous, and the punishment of the wicked. In an even more fragmentary part of the scroll, (frg.8) the words ‫וכל משיחיה‬, ‘and all the anointed ones’ appear, indicating more than one ‘anointed’ figure, perhaps messianic. 122 Further, the context seems to be connected with a description of the Temple and the holy vessels, and discusses priests as well. Overall, the eschatological element in this text is clear, and it refers to a Royal messianic figure, and alludes to Elijah the prophet’s role as a messenger. The role of the messianic figures as messengers of God’s great acts of healing and resurrection is extracted from the different fragments, however their fragmentary nature inhibits greater elucidation of the role of these ‘anointed’/messianic figures. What is essential is that this text, as well as the Psalms of Solomon and the Amidah, share common themes connected by the centrality of ‘piety’, and eschatological hopes which are expressed through prayers and hymns. Furthermore, the text in 4Q521 stands out from Psalms of Solomon and the Amidah in that it sheds light on the messianic expectations beyond a Royal Messiah, as it references other messianic figures, as well as traditions regarding Elijah’s return at the End of Days. This may be the first connection of Elijah with a source that shows pietistic influences. It will be demonstrated that the connection between Elijah and pietistic circles only grows stronger with time, as is reflected in the rabbinic sources. Through our analysis we have highlighted that these texts, which display a significant pietistic element, not only engage in eschatological speculation but also share wisdom elements. 389F

121

Elijah is also mentioned in a very fragmented text in 4Q588, an Aramaic eschatological text, frg. 54 col. ii: ‫] *תמיניא לבחיר והא א‬ ‫לכן אשלח לאליה קש]יטא‬ ‫תו]ס[ף }*{ברקא וזי]קיא‬ The eighth to the chosen and behold [ to you I will send Elijah [the] righ[teous you/she/it will add lightning and me[teors 122 It is important to also stress that prophetic figures were also described as anointed see 1 Kngs 19:16, See John J. Collins, “‘He Shall Not Judge by What His Eyes See’: Messianic Authority in the Dead Sea Scrolls.” Dead Sea Discoveries 2, 2 (1995): 145–164.

3. SECOND TEMPLE BACKGROUND

137

This discussion has dealt with texts that highlight the wisdom elements within the Apocryphal Psalms and Hymns dating from the Second Temple era. Observed in these texts is a very strong connection to pietistic circles, expressed through usage of the term ‫ חסידים‬and its synonyms throughout these psalms. The connection of these ‫ חסידים‬with those mentioned in the books of Maccabees cannot be discounted. It is clear that the existence of these pietistic texts in the Qumran library, as well as the infiltration of their ideas into sectarian texts, points to the influence of these pietistic texts on the Qumran Sect. Further, the discussion of the ‫ חסידים ראשונים‬in rabbinic literature and their impact on rabbinic prayers expresses their strong influence on pharisaic traditions and customs. 123 It is these pietistic circles that are essential to understanding the role of the Elijah traditions in rabbinic texts and their connection to the wisdom tradition. Therefore, it is important to highlight both the wisdom and eschatological elements within these pietistic texts, as well their shared themes. Some of these shared themes are fear of sexual impropriety and sin, abhorrence of slander, acceptance of God’s discipline, a focus on the resurrection of the dead, and reward of the righteous in the End of Days. These elements all play an important role in characterizing many of the Elijah traditions found in rabbinic texts. 390F

SUMMARY This chapter dealt with the Second Temple background of the wisdom tradition and the manner in which it engaged with themes from the biblical tradition. Ideas that strongly influenced the wisdom tradition in Second Temple literature as well as the rabbinic tradition were highlighted. For example, the personification of Wisdom as female, as well as the dangers of Dame Folly, continued to have a strong influence in Second Temple wisdom traditions. Preoccupation with the dangers of improper sexual encounters was expressed in Ben Sira as well as the Wiles of the Wicked Woman, which evidences the concern of the wisdom tradition with this topic. Elijah is linked to traditions that deal with these same tensions, and this displays a connection with the wisdom tradition. Furthermore, the place of the doctrine of retribution as a sufficient response to the question of theodicy is also present in Second Temple texts. The discussion of the reward of the righteous and the punishment of the wicked in the End of Days was another response to the question of divine justice. This focus on the End of Days is one area where the wisdom and apocalyptic traditions are seen to merge and influence one another. Elijah’s connection with questions of theodicy and judgment in the End of Days further connects his persona with the wisdom tradition. Additionally, the wisdom tradition began to associate the Torah with wisdom. This illustrated a more explicit expression of the particularistic element of Israelite wisdom, which also presented itself through the insertion of national and historical narratives into wisdom works of the Second Temple era. This aspect is found in Ben 123 See mBer. 5:1; mSuk. 5:4.

138

THROUGH THE PRISM OF WISDOM

Sira, specifically in his ‘Praise of the Fathers’ and generally in Ben Sira’s association of wisdom with Torah. In the Dead Sea Scrolls, specifically in 4QInstruction, there is a unique merging of specific biblical laws with didactic and exhortative wisdom elements side by side. The connection between wisdom and Torah, and then the usage of biblical law in wisdom works, represents the transitional stage of the rabbinic understanding of Torah and halakhah as the ultimate wisdom. Furthermore, wisdom’s divine source was also more explicitly stated, departing from a more experiential perspective present in some of the biblical wisdom works. This move was perhaps influenced by the crisis in the wisdom tradition, which questioned the traditional view of the doctrine of retribution. The reality that the righteous do not always receive their just reward, and might suffer, may have led to the uncertainty of man’s capacity to understand God’s justice. The experience of a lack of perceived justice led to a reliance on God as the ultimate bearer of wisdom. This enabled the apocalyptic mode of thought to infiltrate the wisdom tradition by positing that only through divine revelation can the pressing questions of the time be answered. This development of the influence of apocalyptic thought on wisdom, and vice versa, enabled sages to rely on delayed retribution as a method of solving crises of theodicy that may have become more apparent in the Second Temple era. The role of the afterlife combined with retribution against the wicked in the End of Days provided a mechanism by which questions on divine judgment and justice could be answered. This led to the confluence of the apocalyptic and wisdom traditions, which is seen most dramatically in the Dead Sea Scrolls. There are texts such as 4QInstruction which present themselves as wisdom texts in their form and message, but also add apocalyptic elements in utilizing concepts such as the ‫רז נהיה‬, ‘the mystery that is to be/come’, as a guide to proper behavior. Further, there are apocalyptic texts, such as 4Q521, which also contain wisdom elements. This connection between apocalyptic and wisdom is also demonstrated in the development of messianic figures. Most important for this discussion are the eschatological prophet and priest. The role of instruction and wisdom within the description of these figures clearly affected the development of Elijah the prophet’s role both in his eschatological capacity as well as outside of it within the rabbinic tradition. This chapter also discussed the role of hymns, prayers and psalms within the wisdom tradition and their place in the Dead Sea scrolls as well as in rabbinic tradition. The connection between wisdom elements in these texts with the ‘pious’ or ‫חסידים‬, is an essential point of this work. The shared themes between these different works that discuss the pious suggest a cohesive worldview shared by those who strove to live a ‘pietistic’ life. It seems that one of their central expressions was through the hymns, prayers, and psalms. The prevalence of the term ‫ חסידים‬found in some of the biblical Psalms, the Apocryphal psalms found at Qumran, as well as the Psalms of Solomon points to this strong connection. Furthermore in rabbinic texts, the ḥasidim are also associated with prayer. This group’s development and connection with wisdom is essential to the discussion, since Elijah exhibits many of these pietistic ideas; he is associated with prayer, answers questions of theodicy, relays secrets of the End of Days, and

3. SECOND TEMPLE BACKGROUND

139

discusses the reward of the righteous. Elijah also appears to pietistic figures of the rabbinic period in a significant number of traditions. The following chapter will discuss the development of wisdom in Second Temple texts and its connection to ‘spirit’. The perception of wisdom as being bestowed by God himself was a reflection of the transformation of prophecy into a divinely inspired wisdom tradition. The association of ruaḥ/spirit with the concepts of both prophecy and wisdom in the biblical record provide the link for the place of ruaḥ in the wisdom tradition. The centrality of spirit in the acquisition of wisdom is most clearly expressed in the Jewish-Hellenistic works of Philo and Wisdom of Solomon, but was not limited to works directly influenced by Greek thought. The following chapter will explore the development of wisdom and ruaḥ/spirit in the Second Temple period as background in understanding the role of the spirit in the Elijah texts.

CHAPTER FOUR. THE SECOND TEMPLE PERIOD AND THE SPIRITCENTERED WISDOM TRADITION WISDOM AND SPIRIT Cornelies Bennema divided the types of wisdom that developed in the late Second Temple period into three strands of wisdom: Torah-Centered, Apocalyptic-Centered, and Spirit-Centered wisdom traditions, as discussed in Chapter Two. The merging of the Torah-Centered tradition and apocalyptic thought with classical wisdom creates an entire new set of wisdom texts, which connect wisdom with the interpretation of the Law, as well as with the theme of reward and punishment in the End of Days, as discussed in the previous chapter. This chapter will focus on texts that reflect the Spirit-Centered traditions and their connection with the other strands of wisdom. In order to grasp the influence of the Spirit-Centered tradition on the Elijah texts in rabbinic literature, it is essential to study the manner in which wisdom and spirit were connected with one another in the Late Second Temple period. Therefore the writings of Philo of Alexandria, Wisdom of Solomon, and certain texts found in the Dead Sea Scrolls that connect spirit and wisdom will be discussed. Some of the questions that I hope to answer are; what were the influencing elements in the development of the Spirit-Centered wisdom tradition? Are there significant similarities between Spirit-Centered wisdom texts that can indicate a shared common tradition? How did the development of these ideas impact the evolution of Elijah in rabbinic traditions? There are three avenues of influence in the development of wisdom and spirit; the biblical background of ruaḥ, the Second Temple religious milieu, and the Greek influence on the role of spirit in attaining wisdom. In order to understand the many usages of ruaḥ in Second Temple texts, it is important to grasp the manner in which ruaḥ appears in the biblical record. The role of ruaḥ, ‘spirit’, as a medium of prophetic activity as well as a source of divine wisdom is described throughout the Bible. Therefore I will briefly trace the evolution and usage of ruaḥ in the biblical record in order to grasp its multivalent usage. The second aspect in the development of Spirit-Centered wisdom is understanding the intellectual and religious milieu of the Late Second Temple period and its impact on the place of spirit in the attainment of wisdom. Essential to this discussion will be the intersection between prophecy and wisdom and the place of prophecy in the 141

142

THROUGH THE PRISM OF WISDOM

Second Temple period. As will be discussed, ‘inspired exegesis’ and ‘sapiential revelation’ become the new forms of divine revelation and play an important role in defining divinely inspired wisdom in the Second Temple era. Both of these forms of divine revelation will appear in the Spirit-Centered wisdom texts, and are very similar to the type of wisdom that Elijah is portrayed as possessing in rabbinic texts. A third element is the role that Greek philosophy played in the rise of the centrality of spirit in Jewish Hellenistic wisdom texts. It is important to get a sense of the role of spirit in Greek philosophical works, and understand the Greek influence on Philo and Wisdom of Solomon and how it impacted their understanding of the role of spirit in divine revelation. It is therefore fascinating to see the dialogue of Jewish Hellenistic writers with both the ideas of pneuma and ruaḥ. It is clear that the use of spirit in Jewish Hellenistic texts like in the works of Philo and Wisdom of Solomon were responding to Greek conceptions of pneuma, however, the extent of Greek influence on other Second Temple texts is unclear. There is though a definite increase in the usage and place of ruaḥ in Second Temple texts, which may be explained by a common language utilized by those who viewed the spirit as an essential element in divine revelation and wisdom. These developments are part of the ‘common Judaism’ from which rabbinic conceptions of ruaḥ drew from. It is my contention that Elijah served as one of the conduits for divine wisdom in rabbinic literature through his connection with ruaḥ haqodesh, and his role as a teacher in the messianic era in the Tannaitic material. Both of these developments can be traced to ideas that are found in the Spirit-Centered wisdom traditions. The first is the prominent place given to the spirit in attaining wisdom, and the second is the role that spirit and wisdom played in the depiction of messianic figures in the Second Temple period. The Second Temple texts that lay the foundation for these ideas will be explored in this chapter. Another significant aspect of the Spirit-Centered wisdom tradition is the place of piety in connection with the spirit. This chapter will provide further background for the connection between pietistic ideas and wisdom. As I will demonstrate there is a strong connection between piety and the achievement of divine wisdom in the Spirit-Centered wisdom texts of the Second Temple era. As will be enumerated in further chapters the connection between Elijah and pietists in rabbinic literature is pervasive. Therefore, studying the connection between piety and the revelation of wisdom through the ‘spirit’ provides a glimpse into the shared tradition which influenced pietistic thought in its different manifestations and at different points in time. This sheds light on the significance of Elijah’s revelation of wisdom to pietists, found mostly in the Amoraic material.

SPIRIT IN THE BIBLE The place of ruaḥ/spirit within the prophetic tradition is a central one that is found in a number of places throughout the Bible. The role of God’s spirit in prophecy is evi-

4. THE SPIRIT-CENTERED WISDOM TRADITION

143

dent in the appearance of the term ruaḥ, or when it is accompanied by God’s name, '‫ רוח ה‬or ‫רוח אלוקים‬, during the process of prophecy. 1 However, it is important to note that the place of ruaḥ in regards to prophecy was not linear, but rather experienced ebbs and flows. Mowinckel describes the prevalence of ruaḥ in the early ‘nebhi'ism’ represented by prophets such as Elijah and Elisha. 2 However the reforming prophets such as Jeremiah, Amos, Zephaniah, Habakkuk among others do not reference ruaḥ as the inspiring element in prophecy. Mowinckel describes a rejection of ruaḥ as it became associated with ecstatic experiences of false prophets in the time of the reforming prophets. They therefore rejected the centrality of ruaḥ and instead use the term devar, ‘the word’ of God to represent their prophetic experience. It is important to note that the reforming prophets’ rejection of ruaḥ is in itself an indication of its place in prophetic inspiration in those who they deemed false prophets, and the people who took their prophecies seriously. The reclaiming of ruaḥ as an essential element of prophecy is seen in Ezekiel. The term ruaḥ is used in three different ways in Ezek 37:1–14. It is utilized to describe the prophetic state that transposes Ezekiel to the valley of bones: ‫היתה עלי יד ה' ויוצאני‬ ‫ברוח ה‬, “The hand of the Lord came upon me. He took me out by the spirit of the Lord.” It is used to also describe the spirit within a person that gives him/her life: ‫ונתתי עליכם גדים והעלתי עליכם בשר וקרמתי עליכם עור ונתתי בכם רוח וחייתם‬, “I will lay sinews upon you, and cover you with flesh, and form skin over you. And I will put breath into you, and you shall live again.” It also serves as a description of the ‘four winds’ of the earth from which this spirit is to come: ‫מארבע רוחות באי הרוח ופחי‬ ‫בהרוגם האלה ויחיו‬, “...from the four winds, and breathe into these slain, that they may live again.” The repeated usage of the term ruaḥ stresses the centrality of this concept to both the prophetic state of Ezekiel as well as to the process of resurrection. 3 Ruaḥ’s association with prophecy, resurrection, as well as with meteorological phenomena all co-exist within this prophecy. The centrality of ruaḥ in Ezekiel’s prophecy is undeniable and it is the multiple usage of ruaḥ that may be the background for future association of the ‘prophetic spirit’ with the resurrection of the spirit. Eibert Tigchelaar discusses the importance of focusing on all the usages of ruaḥ and not merely '‫ רוח ה‬as essential in understanding the role of the ‘spirit’ in general. 4 For example, in the Elijah-Elisha narratives, usage of ruaḥ connotes the prophetic ele391F

392F

39F

394F

1 The ‘spirit of God’ appears in: 1 Sam 10:3, 16:13; 1 Kgs 22.:24; Ezek 11:5; Mic 3:8; 2 Chr 20:14. 2

Sigmund Mowinckel, “‘The Spirit’ and the ‘Word’ in the Pre-Exilic Reforming Prophets,” JBL 53, 3 (1934): 199–227. 3 See as well Gerard Willems who makes a similar connection between Phineḥas b. Yair’s statement and the description of resurrection in Ezekiel, see Willems, “Quelques textes rabbiniques anciens à propos du prophète Elie,” 105. 4 Eibert Tigchelaar, “Historical Origins of the Early Christian Concept of the Holy Spirit: Perspectives from the Dead Sea Scrolls,” in Jorg Frey and John R. Levison, The Holy Spirit, Inspiration and the Culture of Antiquity, 69–70.

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ment, while the usage of ‫ רוח אלוקים‬indicates a heavenly wind that transports Elijah, as stated by the fifty prophets to Elisha. 5 Furthermore, the term '‫ רוח ה‬is used not only to describe prophecy, but also in regard to success in warfare, physical strength, wisdom, prayer, the negative spirit that consumed Saul, and a physical wind. Therefore, even when ruaḥ is combined with God’s name, it still has a variety of meanings. What remains clear is that the term ruaḥ is intrinsically connected with the divine, whether reflected as wisdom or prophecy. The role of the ‘Divine Spirit’ in wisdom stems from the idea that wisdom is attained through one’s ability to tap into a ‘divinely inspired’ perception akin to—but not synonymous with—prophecy. The place of ruaḥ/spirit within the prophetic tradition is a central one that is found in a number of places throughout the Bible. This is expressed via the manner in which ‫רוח‬ ‫ אלוקים‬and '‫ רוח ה‬are utilized, and its clearest manifestation is found in the description of a future Davidic King found in Isa 11:1–2: 6 There it states that the ‘shoot that shall grow out’ will be bestowed with ‫ רוח בינה רוח עצה וגבורה רוח‬,‫ רוח חכמה‬,'‫רוח ה‬ ‫דעת ויראת ה‬, “The spirit of the Lord, a spirit of wisdom and insight, a spirit of counsel and valor, a spirit of devotion and reverence for the Lord.” The connection between ‘‫ רוח ה‬/‫ רוח אלוקים‬and wisdom is also drawn in association with Joseph and his ability to interpret Pharaoh’s dream in Gen 41:38–39, as well as Bezalel and his ability to craft vessels for the tabernacle in Exod 31:3. Furthermore, there are references to a ‘spirit of wisdom’, ‫רוח חכמה‬, once in discussion of those able to fashion the High Priests' garments, in Exod 28:3, once with regard to Joshua and his wisdom in Deut 34:9, which was a result of Moses spreading his hands over him and blessing him, as well as in reference to the ‘shoot of David’ quoted in Isa 11:1–2. It therefore seems that there is a strong link between ruaḥ and the prophetic experience as well as with wisdom. As is demonstrated the term ruaḥ is used in many different contexts, and has a variety of meanings, as scholars such as Zimmerli, Block and Hosch express. Usage of the term is divided into “meteorological, anthropological, theological and eschatological aspects.” 7 These aspects are reflected in the usage of ruaḥ as ‘wind,’ ‘breath of life,’ The use of ruaḥ with regard to Elijah’s prophetic ability is stated in 2 Kgs 2:9, 15. While the usage of '‫ רוח ה‬is expressed in 2 Kgs 2:16. The 50 prophets call themselves ‫בני חיל‬, which is the term used to describe the Hasideans in Maccabees. It may just be a coincidence, but seems a very interesting connection to the Elijah narratives and the element of divine inspiration. 6 The connection between '‫ רוח ה‬and wisdom is also expressed in Isa 40:13, and connected again with a redeemer in 59:19–21, although not directly connected with wisdom in that case. 7 Harold E. Hosch, “Ruaḥ in the Book of Ezekiel,” JOTT 14 (2002): 83; James Robson, Word and Spirit in Ezekiel, LHBOTS 447 (New York: T&T Clark, 2006), 12–17; Daniel Block, “The Prophet of the Spirit: The Use of RWH in the Book of Ezekiel,” JETS 32 (1989): 28; See Beate Ego, “Ruaḥ and Beholding of God– From Ezekiel’s Vision of the Divine Chariot to Merkaba Mysticism,” in The Holy Spirit, Inspiration and the Culture of Antiquity, ed. Jorg Frey and John R. Levison (Berlin: de Gruyter, 2014), 59 n. 451. 5

4. THE SPIRIT-CENTERED WISDOM TRADITION

145

‘the world of the divine,’ and ‘prophetic experience.’ 8 Recently, scholars have focused on a common definition for ruaḥ that encompasses its many facets. Hermann Schmitz and Guido Rappe suggest that ruaḥ represents “an experience of the force or power of the atmosphere.” 9 This definition attempts to connect the different elements of ruaḥ as things related to ‘power, dynamics.’ 10 The significance of this definition is that it does not separate the meteorological aspects from theological ones, since all the conceptions of ruaḥ are connected to a religious element. The many different facets of ruaḥ serve as the backdrop for the continued development of ruaḥ in Second Temple texts. It is not surprising therefore that ruaḥ plays an essential role in the attainment of wisdom, as it already is connected to wisdom in the biblical record.

THE SECOND TEMPLE MILIEU: TRANSFORMATION OF PROPHECY Earlier Scholars characterized the Second Temple period as one that wrestled with the reality of the ‘cessation of prophecy’. Kaufmann among others clearly delineates a severe break between the prophetic era of pre-exilic Israel and the Second Temple period. This conclusion was based on the fact that most Second Temple evidence suggested that prophecy was nowhere near as common as it was in the Biblical period. When it does appear, it is very different from biblical prophecy. Second, a number of documents of the Second Temple period indicate that prophecy has ceased, such as 1 Maccabees, 11 Josephus, 12 Baruch 1:21, 2 Bar. 85:1 among others. 13 Yet, simultaneously there are sources that express a belief in the continuity of prophecy and prophetic phenomenon. Alex Jassen posits that there were probably multiple opinions within Second Temple Judaism as to what extent prophecy was still functioning in their day. For example, Josephus himself indicates that there was some prophetic activity in the Second Temple period. However Josephus clearly distinguishes between the biblical prophet by using the term, πρτης, ‘prophet’ while contemporary prophets are given the title μντις, ‘mantic’. 14 Therefore, Jassen prefers to view the Second Temple period as being characterized not by a cessation of prophecy but rather by its transformation. He states: Such a conclusion is consistent with biblical scholarship that recognizes that prophecy as it was performed and perceived in the pre-exilic period had come to an end at some point in the early post-exilic period. At the same time, new ‘prophetic’ models 8 Walther Zimmerli, Ezekiel

2 (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1979), 566–68.

9 Ego, “Ruaḥ and Beholding of God,” 157.

10 Ego, “Ruaḥ and Beholding of God,” 50 see n. 454. 11 1 Mac 9:27; 4:46; 14:41 12 Ag. Ap. 1:41 13

Some scholars such as Frederick E. Greenspahn propose that these different verses do not indicate a belief in the end of prophecy. (See Jassen p.16, note 39) 14 Jassen, Mediating the Divine, 14–15.

146

THROUGH THE PRISM OF WISDOM emerged that performed similar mediating functions, though they were distinguished from earlier prophecy. 15

Divine communication was still present, but it was no longer found in the earlier forms displayed in the biblical record. Alex Jassen analyzes this development in the Dead Sea Scrolls, and his analysis has greater implications for Judaism beyond the sectarian community. He points to both the re-presentation of biblical prophets as an indication of this transformation of prophecy, as well as the descriptions of divine inspiration by individual’s associated with the community such as the Teacher of Righteousness. He points to two important new models of revelation, ‘revelatory exegesis’ and ‘sapiential revelation’. The first, revelatory exegesis refers to inspired interpretation of Scripture, which can already be perceived in later biblical works such as Ezra and Daniel, where ‘inspired exegesis’ plays important roles. In apocryphal and pseudo epigraphical works depicting biblical prophets, among traditional prophetic roles, ancient prophets are also depicted as engaging in inspired exegesis as well as receiving sapiential revelation as part of their prophetic role. Sapiential revelation refers to the “cultivation of divine wisdom” 16 which generally relates to the divine order of the universe and God’s sovereignty over the world, according to Jassen. This sapiential revelation can occur through a mediating angel as well as directly from God to the individual. It is clear that this model was clearly influenced by the wisdom tradition, but also adopted much from the apocalyptic tradition. The merging between wisdom and apocalyptic was an important development in the Second Temple era that clearly influenced the view of prophecy and revelation. Sapiential revelation will be the most significant influence on the Elijah texts in Rabbinic literature, as Elijah appears to take the place of the mediating angel, or the ‘divine spirit’ who imparts wisdom to the righteous. Similarly to the re-presentation of biblical prophets in the Dead Sea Scrolls, Elijah in rabbinic literature evolves to express halakhic information as well as divine wisdom.

SPIRIT IN GREEK PHILOSOPHY The multivalent usages of ruaḥ in the biblical passages above are similar to the many functions of pneuma in Greek thought. To what extent did Greek conceptions of spirit influence Jewish wisdom traditions? During the Second Temple Era, Greek wisdom traditions begin to exert an influence on Jewish wisdom. Some of these influences have already been discussed above, such as in Ben Sira and others. The pervasiveness of Hellenistic ideas in the ancient world impacts all sects and groups within Second Temple Judaism, and many of the texts discussed above are affected on some level by the new flow of ideas brought on by the Hellenistic period. 17 However, many scholars 15 Jassen, Mediating

the Divine, 15. the Divine, 20. 17 Martin Hengel, Judaism and Hellenism: Studies in their Encounter in Palestine During the 16 Jassen, Mediating

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disagree about the extent of Greek influence on some of these texts, such as Ben Sira, since the degree of influence varies in all cases. 18 Yet there are also texts in which there is an undeniable influence of Greek wisdom, specifically the manner in which Greek conceptions of wisdom and spirit, pneuma, converge with concepts of divine inspiration in the Jewish tradition. Works such as those of Philo of Alexandria and Wisdom of Solomon represent the product of Israel’s wisdom tradition and Greek philosophy. It is clear that pneuma held an important place in Greek conceptions of wisdom and philosophy, and therefore not surprising that both Philo and Wisdom of Solomon are in dialogue with both Greek and Jewish concepts of the spirit. However, not only works clearly influenced by Greek philosophy place an important stress on spirit as a conduit to wisdom. Texts from the Dead Sea Scrolls also accentuate this connection. This may be due to a direct influence of Greek ideas, or more likely reflects a renewed interest in spirit as a result of its usage in Jewish-Hellenistic works. Before we delve into the expression of wisdom in these works, it is important to stress that the ideas of spirit and wisdom have long histories in both traditions, and the convergence of these ideas in the Hellenistic milieu allow for new developments in the understanding of wisdom and spirit. As Hengel expresses in his Judaism and Hellenism, it can be difficult at times to identify the direct influence of one set of ideas on another, but one can indeed point to the confluence of ideas. 19 The Greek understanding of the word pneuma similarly reflects the multiple meanings behind the concept of ruaḥ, ‘wind/air’. Pneuma can mean wind, breath, spirit, and is also used in many wisdom contexts. Different ancient philosophers view the role of pneuma in different ways; some regard it as essential to biological functions, while some simultaneously associate it with an immaterial soul. 20 The Stoics have the most expansive understanding of pneuma, as a ‘hot air’ that pervades the cosmos and everything in it. This may inform the idea in Stoic philosophy of the interconnectedness of ethics and physics, as the ‘good life’ is understood as “living in consistency with nature.” Early Hellenistic Period (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1981). 18 For Greek influence on Ben Sira see David Winston, “Theodicy in Ben Sira and Stoic Philosophy,” in Of Scholars, Savants and Their Texts, ed. R. Link-Salinger (New York: Lang, 1989), 241–3. Richard Clifford, Wisdom. New Collegeville Bible Commentary 20 (Collegeville: Liturgical Press, 2013). David A. Skelton, “Ben Sira’s Imaginative Theodicy: Reflections on the Aaronide Priesthood under Gentile Rule,” Restoration Quarterly 51 (2009): 1–12. However, questioning the extent of this influence, see Sharon Lea Matila, “Ben Sira and the Stoics: A Reexamination of the Evidence,” JBL 119, 3 (2000): 473–501. Matila rather sees an influence from local scribal and priestly officials from the places to which Ben Sira traveled, likely Alexandria (Sir 34:11–12; 39:4c–d), such as the Demotic Sages, who were influenced by Greek gnomic wisdom. However, she does not believe that there is a direct Stoic influence on Ben sira, see esp. 498–501. 19 Hengel, Judaism and Hellenisim: Studies in their Encounter, 1.251. 20 Sylvia Berryman, “Pneuma,” Encyclopedia of Philosophy 7.649–50.

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PHILO OF ALEXANDRIA In light of the above discussion on the rich history of spirit in both the biblical record and Greek philosophical thought it is interesting to see the manner in which Philo, an Alexandrian Jew living in the first century CE, navigates the ideas regarding inspiration, wisdom and spirit as they appear in Greco-Roman works and the Bible. Levison, based on his study of Philo’s apologetics, exegetical, and autobiographical works, concludes that there exists a dialogue between Greek conceptions of divine inspiration and the biblical tradition. In many instances Philo is influenced by Greek conceptions of inspiration, while in other cases he only partially accepts certain ideas, and transforms them into his own by adding his own nuances. 21 Most relevant to this discussion is Philo’s description of his own experiences with divine inspiration, specifically in his ability to interpret biblical texts, and the parallels with his account of the prophetic experience. Philo’s use of ‘Divine Spirit’ was diverse and was utilized to describe the prophetic spirit, human transformation in its allegorical sense, an angelic being which replaces reason, and a cosmic force similar to that of pneuma of Stoicism, but distinct from it as well. 22 Levison enumerates three different types of inspirational experiences within Philo’s works: ecstatic inspiration, ascent of the rational mind, and divine prompting of the rational mind. In all these experiences the ‘Divine Spirit’ is involved. The first type, ecstatic inspiration, involves the individual being taken over by the ‘Divine Spirit’, which allows him to be imbued with knowledge. The description of this experience shares certain elements which Philo utilized in his depiction of prophecy such as, “loss of consciousness, suddenness and light.” 23 The loss of consciousness is similar to the ‘corybantic frenzy’ mentioned in Plato. 24 Similarly, the description of poetic inspiration found in the works of Plato is similar to Philo’s explanation of both the prophetic experience as well as his own experience of inspiration. As Levison states, The shared perspectives of Plutarch and Philo on inspiration, both poetic and prophetic, suggest that Philo has shaped the experiences of inspiration along the lines of Greco-Roman perspectives rooted in Plato—with the significant difference that the external divine afflatus is the divine spirit of the Bible. 25

21

Carlos Levy, “Philo of Alexandria”, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, (Spring 2018 Edition), Edward N. Salta (ed.), https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/philo/#PhilPhilScho 22 John Levison, “Inspiration and the Divine Spirit in the Writings of Philo Judaeus,” JJS 26, 3 (1995): 280. For his comprehensive study on ‘spirit’ see, The Spirit in First Century Judaism (Leiden: Brill, 1997). 23 Mig. 34–35 in his allegorical interpretation of Abraham’s removal of himself from the land of the Chaldeans, Harran. 24 I. M. Linforth, “The Corybantic Rites in Plato,” University of California Publications in Classical Philology 13 (1945): 121–62. 25 John Levison, “Inspiration and the Divine Spirit,” 288.

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There are some aspects that mirror the inspiration described in Greco-Roman literature, yet Philo adds elements of divine inspiration that are informed by his reading of the Bible, as well as his own personal experience. Another element in which Philo differs from Greco-Roman thought is that unlike Stoicism, Philo contends that the cosmic pneuma only temporarily inspires and imparts wisdom when it descends on man. However, Stoics believed that every human soul is inspired based on the virtue of its character as pneuma, and thereby inspiration is a constant state. 26 The second type of experience of divine inspiration as described by Philo is the ‘ascent of the rational mind’. This is different from ecstatic inspiration in that there is no loss of consciousness involved in the experience, but rather an elevation of the mind. This element of inspiration is derived through removing oneself from both the worries of the world and the entrapments of pleasure. This connection between Spirit-Centered wisdom and self-improvement is essential in its similarity to pietistic ideals of working on one’s character in order to be privy to divine wisdom. This is discussed in Plant. 23–25 where Philo notes the importance of working on one’s character and having a strong passion for pursuing knowledge and wisdom. This idea is also expressed in Philo’s description of ascent, based on his own personal experience described in Spec. Leg. 3.1–2: There was a time when I had leisure for philosophy and for the contemplation of the universe and its contents, when I made its spirit my own in all its beauty and loveliness and true blessedness, when my constant companions were divine themes and verities, wherein I rejoiced with a joy that never cloyed or sated. I had no base or abject thoughts nor groveled in search of reputation or of wealth or bodily comforts, but seemed always to be borne aloft into the heights with a soul possessed by some God-sent inspiration, a fellow-traveler with the sun and moon and the whole heaven and universe. Ah then I gazed down from the upper air, and straining the mind’s eye beheld, as from some commanding peak, the multitudinous world-wide spectacles of earthly things, and blessed my lot in that I had escaped by main force from the plagues of mortal life.

This striving for virtue and wisdom is what enables one to tap into the divine logos. As Levison states, “In Plant. 18– 26, Philo establishes the affinity of the mind with the divine logos. In particular, the ‘Divine Spirit’ causes the mind of the philosopher to ascend.” 27 Philo combines the Platonic conception of the ascent of the mind with a Jewish concept of the ‘Divine Spirit’. However, Philo’s description of inspiration departs from Plato in that it explicitly attributes his ascent to the ‘Divine Spirit’. This conception of the ‘Divine Spirit’ and its relation to refining one’s character in order to achieve this state is reminiscent of the statement of Rabbi Phineḥas b. Yair regarding the attainment of ruaḥ ha-qodesh. The connection of this statement with pietists and 26 Levison, “Inspiration and the Divine Spirit,” 279.

27 Levison, “Inspiration and the Divine Spirit,” 290.

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Elijah will be discussed in depth in the following chapters. I am not arguing for direct causation between these ideas, and this is not to say that there is a direct correlation between Hellenistic ideas and Rabbi Phineḥas b. Yair’s statement. Rather what I would like to point out is that the intersection between refining one’s character and the attainment of wisdom is found in both of these sources that associate wisdom with the spirit. In Philo the spirit of wisdom is described as pneuma, and in rabbinic sources is associated with ruaḥ ha-qodesh, the holy spirit. Belief in the ability to attain a certain divine inspiration is also related with Philo’s ability to interpret the biblical text, specifically in an allegorical fashion. This aspect relates to the third type of inspirational experience, the ‘divine prompting of the rational mind’. In this experience, the ‘Divine Spirit’ is perceived as an inner-voice and teacher. Philo describes such an experience in his Cher. 9: But there is a higher thought than these. It comes from a voice in my own soul, which oftentimes is god-possessed and divines where it does not know. This thought I will record in words if I can.

Philo goes on to explain the allegorical meaning behind the Cherubim as representing God’s two supreme and primary powers, goodness and authority. There are few other instances in which Philo speaks of his inspiration as an external divine aid to solving exegetical problems (Somn. 2.252, Fug. 54, and Spec. Leg. 1.164). In Fug. 54 he describes the element of inspiration as Consideration, a female ‘teacher’ who illuminates the exegetical difficulties that Philo presents in the text. Levison concludes that Philo’s unique contributions to the understanding of inspiration are exhibited in several manners: his spiritualization of the concept of pneuma, his expression that virtue is a necessary basis for true prophecy and inspiration, and his description of prophecy as influenced by the Greco-Roman view of inspiration such as that found in Plutarch. He also associates the philosophical ascent of the mind with the ‘Divine Spirit’, and connects rational ascent with allegorical interpretation. Overall, Philo represents the merging of Greek philosophical ideas and concepts with biblical and Judaic traditions and incorporates them into his unique understanding of wisdom and divine inspiration. The central role of the ‘Divine Spirit’ and pneuma within his works represents this Spirit-Centered wisdom that views the importance of a divinely inspiring force as the conduit through which one can attain wisdom, and in Philo’s case also the ability to interpret biblical texts. This development and usage of the ‘spirit’ in Philo is akin to ‘inspired exegesis’ and is reflective of the transformation of prophecy in the Second Temple period as discussed above. The ability to interpret texts is more than just an intellectual exercise but rather reflects a form of divine inspiration that Philo himself attests to. The connection between the spirit and wisdom is also found in the Wisdom of Solomon. The Wisdom of Solomon (Wis) was also written by one or more Alexandrian Jews who were aware of Greek philosophical thought and at the same time were devoted to Jewish historical narrative and traditions. The work is an attempt to convince its readers to pursue wisdom through an allegiance to Jewish traditions and Law. This pursuit of wisdom is depicted as the key to achieving salvation and attaining

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eternal life. Wisdom of Solomon’s awareness and usage of Greek philosophical ideas has been well attested by many scholars. 28 However, the work is not completely indebted to Greek conceptions, rather it combines different Greek ideas into its understanding of the Jewish tradition and its view on wisdom. For example, Wisdom of Solomon utilizes the Stoic concept of pneuma as an all pervading spirit/air that is all things, although neutralizes its materialistic element as per the Stoic usage of the concept, and combines it instead with the Platonic concept of transcendence. 29 In Wis 7:22–25 the author describes the all pervasive quality of wisdom and its connection with spirit/pneuma: for wisdom, the fashioner of all things, taught me. There is in her a spirit that is intelligent, holy, unique, manifold, subtle, mobile, clear, unpolluted, distinct, invulnerable, loving the good, keen, irresistible, beneficent, humane, steadfast, sure, free from anxiety, all-powerful, overseeing all, and penetrating through all spirits that are intelligent and pure and altogether subtle. For wisdom is more mobile than any motion; because of her pureness she pervades and penetrates all things. For she is a breath of the power of God, and a pure emanation of the glory of the Almighty; therefore nothing defiled gains entrance into her. 30

Here wisdom is connected with creation and seen as the tool with which God ‘fashioned’ all things, as in Proverbs. The spirit of wisdom also has the pervasive quality of the ‘air’ in Stoic thought, is connected to the power of God, and is a pure emanation from him. Wisdom of Solomon’s strong reliance on Greek conceptions is apparent, however the text departs significantly from Greek philosophy in its understanding of God’s role in bestowing knowledge upon those who seek and love wisdom. As stated in Wis 7:15 the author referencing 1Kings 3, beseeches God to grant him wisdom: May God grant me to speak with judgment and to have thoughts worthy of what I have received; for he is the guide even of wisdom and the corrector of the wise.

This is expressed as well in Wis 8:21

J.M. Reese, Hellenistic Influence on the Book of Wisdom and its Consequences, AnBib 43 (Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute, 1970). J.J. Collins, Jewish Wisdom in the Hellenistic Age (Louisville: WJK Press, 1997). 29 David Winston, “A Century of Research on the Book of Wisdom,” in The Book of Wisdom in Modern Research: Studies on Tradition, Redaction, and Theology, ed. G. Bellia and A. Passaro, DCLY (Berlin: de Gruyter, 2005), 9; Luca Mazzinghi, “Law of Nature and Light of the Law in the Book of Wisdom,” in Supplements to the Journal for the Study of Judaism: Studies in the Book of Wisdom, ed. Géza G. Xeravits and József Zsengellér (Leiden: Brill, 2010), 37–59. 30 Translation from The New Oxford Annotated Bible with Apocrypha New Revised Standard Version (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010). 28

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THROUGH THE PRISM OF WISDOM But I perceived that I would not possess wisdom unless God gave her to me—and it was a mark of insight to know whose gift she was—so I appealed to the Lord and implored him,

and Wis 9:17: Who has learned your counsel, unless you have given wisdom and sent your holy spirit from on high?

As mentioned regarding Philo, the idea that God is actively bestowing wisdom on mankind and that wisdom is not naturally bestowed upon man as a result of the ‘spirit’ within him is an important departure from Stoic thought. Further, in Wis 9:17 the bestowing of the ‘holy spirit’ and its connection to wisdom is clearly expressed. The connection between this term and ruaḥ ha-qodesh cannot be denied. Furthermore, Wis 8:21 introduces a Hymn in praise of wisdom which declares that beseeching God through prayer is one method in attaining wisdom. This is explicitly stated in Wis 7:7: Therefore I prayed, and understanding was given me; I called upon God, and the spirit of wisdom came to me.

As expressed in the chapter above regarding hymns and prayers, it is clear that there is a strong connection between the mode of expression of prayer and wisdom circles. It seems that prayers were perceived as an expression of wisdom, as well as a tool for asking God for wisdom. Therefore, this continues to support the idea that prayers and hymns are a crucial part of the development of wisdom in the Second Temple era. This relationship is seen within the Dead Sea Scrolls, especially the Hodayot, 31 and in the rabbinic tradition, most strongly expressed in the Amidah, which has been shown in the previous chapter to have connections to wisdom as well as pietistic circles. This connection with prayer will also be expressed in certain Elijah traditions in rabbinic literature, and is therefore an important element of the wisdom tradition that is necessary to stress. Wisdom of Solomon also suggests a broad range of what constitutes wisdom. In Wis 7:17–20, the author states that the knowledge bestowed to him by God includes the way the world functions, the nature of living creatures, herbology, cosmology, and psychology: For it is he who gave me unerring knowledge of what exists, to know the structure of the world and the activity of the elements; the beginning and end and middle of times, the alternations of the solstices and the changes of the seasons, Matthew Goff, “Reading Wisdom at Qumran: 4QInstruction and the Hodayot,” DSD 11, 3 (2004): 263–88.

31

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the cycles of the year and the constellations of the stars, the natures of animals and the tempers of wild animals, the powers of spirits and the thoughts of human beings the varieties of plants and the virtues of roots;

Clearly this conception of knowledge includes many different areas of study, and this extensive range of topics is in many ways connected with the Elijah traditions found within rabbinic traditions. Most specifically the medicinal use of plants and roots, reflect the influence of the Greek developments in medicine. Ben Sira does briefly tackle the source of the physician’s knowledge, and views divine wisdom as its source. 32 Ben Sira is one of the first sources that contend with the usage of medicine and points to its source as divine. Mathew Goff discusses the manner in which medicinal qualities of plants and roots serve as part of wisdom’s understanding of the utility of the world and creation. Goff points to the influence of the Hellenistic age on the development of these ideas in Ben Sira, and can be equally contended with regard to Wisdom of Solomon. 33 Elijah in the rabbinic material engages in discussions that involve this type of wisdom. The seemingly random traditions in which Elijah engages in conversations regarding medicine and other natural phenomenon can be better understood in light of these developments in Second Temple wisdom traditions. One of the most interesting elements of wisdom in the above quotation is the knowledge of the ‘beginning, and end and middle of times.’ This seems to refer to knowledge of events from the past, present and future. This resembles the concept of the raz nihyeh as discussed regarding 4QInstruction’s conception of wisdom. The raz nihyeh seems to refer to the secrets of the past, present, and future as Goff and others have discerned. 34 This connection to the ‘mysteries’ is also expressed in Wis 2:21–24 Thus they reasoned, but they were led astray, for their wickedness blinded them, and they did not know the secret purposes of God (mysteries of God) 35 nor hope for the wages of holiness, nor discern the prize for blameless souls; for God created man for incorruption, and made him in the image of his own eternity, but through Wisdom of Ben Sira (New American Bible translation), 38:1–4, “...From God the doctor has his wisdom, and the king proves for his sustenance. His knowledge makes the doctor distinguished, and gives him access to those in authority. God makes the earth yield healing herbs which the prudent man should not neglect.” See as well, Daniel P. Sulmasy, “The Covenant Within the Covenant: Doctors and Patients in Sirach 38: 1–15,” The Linacre Quarterly 55,4 (1988): 14–24. 33 Matthew J. Goff, “Hellenistic Instruction in Palestine and Egypt: Ben Sira and Payprus Insinger,” Journal for the Study of Judaism in the Persian, Hellenistic, and Roman Period, 36, 2 (2005): 147–172. 34 See Chapter Three of this work, pp. 103–107. 35 John Collins, “The Mysteries of God: Creation and Eschatology in 4QInstruction and the Wisdom of Solomon,” in Wisdom and Apocalypticism in the Dead Sea Scrolls and in the Biblical Tradition, ed. F. García Martínez (Leuven: Leuven University Press; Peeters, 2003), 287. 32

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THROUGH THE PRISM OF WISDOM the devil’s envy, death entered the world, and those who belong to his party experience it.

Collins discusses the many similarities between Wisdom of Solomon and 4QInstruction, such as their exegetical traditions regarding the creation of man in Gen 1 and Gen 2, their understanding of the immortality of the soul with less reliance on resurrection, and most importantly the concept of mystery. 36 It is clear that they also differ in the manner in which they understand these concepts, as Wisdom of Solomon has a much stronger influence of Greek philosophy which is lacking in 4QInstruction. The sources for certain concepts in Wisdom of Solomon seemed unclear prior to the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls. However, according to Collins, the shared conceptions found in 4QInstruction and Wisdom of Solomon point to the wisdom texts in the Scrolls as the bridge between biblical wisdom works and the wisdom works influenced by Greek philosophy. 37 The focus on the immortality of the soul as opposed to a focus on resurrection is one example of a shared theme which Collins views as divergent from more commonly held views of the reward of the righteous. Furthermore, the element of mystery does not usually play a prominent role in wisdom texts, but does have a significant place in the Wisdom of Solomon. Many of these elements result from the apocalyptic influence on the wisdom tradition. This is another example of wisdom and apocalyptic influencing one another, even within texts that are influenced by Greek thought. This is also evidenced in Wisdom of Solomon’s focus on the importance of the role of virtue and improving one’s character as necessary in order to be privy to the ‘Divine Spirit’. Wisdom is bestowed upon the righteous and continues to provide good virtues to the wise. The work begins with an exhortation to ‘Love righteousness... and seek Him with sincerity of heart” and states in Wis 1:4–5: because wisdom will not enter a deceitful soul, or dwell in a body enslaved to sin. For a holy and disciplined spirit will flee from deceit, and will leave foolish thoughts behind, and will be ashamed at the approach of unrighteousness.

Similar to this passage in Wisdom of Solomon, virtuous behavior such as refraining from slander is also stated in the Psalms of Solomon and in some of the Apocryphal Psalms, which are perhaps connected to pietistic circles. The author also admonishes those who wish to focus exclusively on this-worldly pleasures, in many ways criticizing the Epicurean philosophy of “eat drink and be merry.” This is stated in Wis 2, in its description of those who despise the righteous and choose a life of ephemeral pleasures. This connection between working on one’s character and receiving wisdom is a common thread seen throughout the different strands of wisdom and is present in

36 Collins, “The Mysteries of God: Creation and Eschatology,” 287–305. 37 Collins, “The Mysteries of God: Creation and Eschatology,” 304.

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both Greek and Jewish sources. 38 The necessity of improving one’s character as a prerequisite to receiving the ‘holy spirit’ has been demonstrated throughout this chapter and is an essential part of the wisdom tradition. This concept of righteousness is associated as well with pietistic ideals, which I contend is the main avenue through which these wisdom concepts influenced rabbinic literature and specifically the Elijah material. Focus on the final reward of the righteous and the punishment of the wicked is a central theme within apocalyptic thought, and is also central in wisdom works of the Second Temple period. In Wisdom of Solomon the role of wisdom is seen as central to the success of mankind in this world, and is viewed as the source of mankind’s salvation. There is an element of influence from the apocalyptic within the work, as it stresses the ultimate reward of eternal life for the righteous, while the sinners are punished with a ‘final death.’ Wis 1:16, 2:22--24 states: But the ungodly by their words and deeds summoned death; considering him a friend, they pined away and made a covenant with him, because they are fit to belong to his company…they were ignorant of God’s mysteries; they entertained no hope that holiness would have its reward, and passed up the prize of unblemished souls. But God created man for immortality, and made him an image of his own proper being; it was through the devil’s envy that Death entered in the cosmic order, and they who are his own experience him.

Wisdom of Solomon expresses that death is the work of the devil, and was never God’s intention when the world was created. Therefore those who cling to God’s ways will merit immortality, but those who cling to the ways of evil will experience death. The concept of ultimate reward and punishment is used as a tool for dealing with the questions of theodicy. The strong focus on the afterlife as a response to the ultimate question of God’s justice in this world is one of the striking differences between the biblical wisdom traditions and the wisdom of Second Temple literature. The reward of the righteous in the End of Days continues to play an important role in rabbinic traditions, as it frequently draws on apocalyptic traditions of Second Temple times, as well as biblical wisdom traditions, in an attempt to deal with the question of theodicy. The Elijah traditions on some level are also reflective of the question of theodicy, and in this way are connected with the apocalyptic and wisdom traditions, as will be shown. In the works of Philo and Wisdom of Solomon, the role of Greek philosophical thought within the Jewish wisdom tradition is seen. The strong convergence of ideas 38

Woodruff, Paul, “Plato’s Shorter Ethical Works”, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2018 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL= . J.M. Cooper, “Moral Theory and Moral Improvement: Marcus Aurelius,” in J. Cooper, Knowledge, Nature and the Good, Princeton: Princeton University Press (2004): 335–368.

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and terminology between these two worlds represents the ultimate example of the Hellenistic idea in which varying traditions are combined together and influence one another. The role of the ‘Divine Spirit’/ ruaḥ ha-qodesh is an example of this dynamic; similar ideas in both traditions are utilized to illuminate one another. This role of ruaḥ ha-qodesh and its connection to wisdom continues to influence Jewish traditions into the rabbinic period, even when the term is used with less frequency, possibly due to its adoption by Christianity. 39 Another important element in the study of these works is that the influence of apocalyptic ideas, even in texts that are more influenced by Greek philosophy, reflects the degree to which the apocalyptic and wisdom traditions merge, and are in many ways at home with the terminology and traditions found within each of these circles of thought. Furthermore, the role of the spirit in the attainment of wisdom as it is clearly expressed in these texts allows one to delve into the usage of the spirit in earlier texts of the Second Temple and discern if these ideas are used in analogous ways.

THE SPIRIT IN THE DEAD SEA SCROLLS The role of the holy spirit as the conduit through which wisdom is given over to mankind is a concept that is not only seen in works that have been clearly influenced by Greek thought. This view of the holy spirit’s role in inspiration is found in other texts of the Second Temple era as well. Eibert Tigechlaar explores the usage of the term ruaḥ ha-qodesh within the Dead Sea Scroll corpus. 40 He points out that in the Bible, the term ruaḥ ha-qodesh only appears three times, while the terms '‫ רוח ה‬appears twenty-six times, and ‫ רוח אלוקים‬sixteen times. Conversely, in the Scrolls,'‫ רוח ה‬and ‫ רוח אלוקים‬appear two or possibly three times and only in the context of biblical quotations, while, the term ‫ רוח קודש‬appears more than thirty times. Furthermore, the term ruaḥ is also used many times in combination with other words to form different phrases. An important point that Tigechlaar expresses is that the term ruaḥ, and ruaḥ ha-qodesh specifically, can have more than one meaning, especially as it appears in many different texts. It is important to judge each text’s usage of the phrase in order to get a clearer understanding of the manner in which the term ruaḥ ha-qodesh is understood by each. 41 In this analysis, there will be a focus mostly on the texts that speak 431F

39

Julie Hilton-Danan, “The Divine Voice in Scripture: Ruaḥ ha-Kodesh in Rabbinic Literature” (PhD diss., University of Texas at Austin, 2009), 240–43. See as well Daniel Boyarin, Border Lines: The Partition of Judaeo-Christianity (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004), 128–47 in his discussion of the Rabbinic rejection of “Logos Theology.” See as well William David Davies, “Reflections on the Spirit in the Mekilta: A Suggestion,” World Congress of Jewish Studies 6, 3 (1973): 159–73. Joshua Abelson, The Immanence of God in Rabbinical Literature (New York: Hermon Press, 1969), 379. 40 Eibert J. C. Tigchelaar, “Historical Origins of the Early Christian Concept of the Holy Spirit – Perspectives from the Dead Sea Scrolls,” 66–134. 41 Tigchelaar discusses the ambiguity of the usage of the phrase in the Rule of the Community

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about ruaḥ ha-qodesh and in which it is connected with wisdom. One of the usages of ruaḥ reflects certain dispositions and behavior, both positive and negative. Such usage is seen in the Covenant Renewal Ceremony of 1QS III, 6–9: ‫כיא ברוח עצת אמת אל דרכי איש יכופרו כול עוונותו להביט באור חיים‬ ‫וברוח קדושה ליחד באמתו יטהר מכול עוונותו‬ ‫וברוח יושר וענוה תכופר חט)א(תו‬ ‫ובענות נפשו לכול חוקי אל יטהר בשרו להזות במי נדה ולהתקדש במי דוכי‬ For it is through a spirit of true counsel with regard to the ways of man that all his iniquities shall be atoned so that he may look on the light of life. It is through a spirit of holiness uniting him to his truth that he shall be purified from all his iniquities. It is through a spirit of uprightness and modesty that his sin shall be wiped out. It is through submitting himself to all the statutes of God that his flesh shall be purified, by being sprinkled with waters for purification and made holy by waters for cleansing. 42

This text describes a process of purification that demands action on the part of the participant in order for them to be able to achieve a level of purity that is accompanied by an attainment of knowledge. The reference to this path of purification that enables access to higher wisdom is expressed in the words, ‫ להביט באור‬,‫״יכופרו כול עוונותו‬ ‫“ חיים״‬...all his iniquities shall be atoned so that he may look on the light of life.” The term, ‫אור חיים‬, ‘light of life’ may reference Proverbs 6:23, ‫כי נר מצוה ותורה אור ודרך‬ ‫חיים תוכחות מוסר‬, “For the commandment is a lamp, the Torah is a light, and the way to life is the rebuke that disciplines.” These words are also used in Psalms 36:10, ‫״כי‬ ‫עמך מקור חיים באורך נראה אור״‬, “With you is the fountain of life; by your light do we see light,” clearly referencing divine wisdom. Furthermore the term ‫להביט‬, in its biblical context is used to reflect a heavenly source of gazing 43 and in contexts of prophecy and divine revelation. 44 Most striking is God’s description of Moses’ level of 43F

43F

which led some scholars to understand it as a ‘spirit of God’, and others as a ‘sanctified human disposition.’ Tighchelaar discusses the issue with attempting to fit the biblical definitions of spirit into the usages of the Dead Sea Scrolls, and expresses the importance of tracing change and development of ideas. Furthermore cf. Emile Puech’s study on the topic, “L’Esprit saint ‘a Qumrån,” Liber Annuus 49 (1999): 283–98. Puech looked at the understanding of the Holy Spirit even when the phrase was not precisely indicated, thereby significantly increasing the understanding of the Holy Spirit and its usage. However, Tigchelaar points out that one deficiency in Puech’s work was in neglecting to acknowledge possible variant conceptions of the holy spirit in different texts. See Tigchelaar’s discussion, “Historical Origins,” 67–8. 42 Translation of 1QS taken from Tigchelaar, “Historical Origins,” 73. 43 Num 23:21, Psalms 33:13, Psalms 102:20, Psalms 142:5 Lam 5:1, (an exception is Habakkuk 2:15 which does not have this connotation). 44 Gen 15:5, Num 12:8, Exod 3:6, Jonah 2:5, Job 35:5

158

THROUGH THE PRISM OF WISDOM

prophecy, ‫״‬...‫״פה אל פה אדבר בו ומראה ולא בחידת ומתנת ה׳ יביט‬, “With him I speak mouth to mouth, plainly and not in riddles, and he beholds the likeness of the Lord...” (Num 12:8). The text also expresses that ‫וברוח קדושה‬, “through the spirit of holiness,” one unites with “(H)his truth,” which results in one’s sins being purified. This term is used in parallel with other phrases of ruaḥ in this passage: ‫רוח עצת אמת‬, ‘spirit of true counsel’, ‫רוח יושר וענוה‬, ‘spirit of uprightness and modesty’. It seems that these phrases reflect characteristics of the individual, and when individuals attain these qualities they may be purified from sin and attain divine knowledge and truth. In this context, ‫ רוח קדושה‬seems to connote a quality or disposition of holiness that one must achieve. As a result of this analysis, Tigchelaar sees a very strong parallel to the statement of Rabbi Phineḥas b. Yair, the Saint’s Progress 45 which states: 435F

‫ר' פנחס בן יאיר אומר זריזות מביאה לידי נקיות ונקיות מביאה לידי טהרה וטהרה‬ ‫מביאה לידי פרישות ופרישות מביאה לידי קדושה וקדושה מביאה לידי ענוה וענוה‬ ‫מביאה לידי יראת חטא ויראת חטא מביאה לידי חסידות וחסידות מביאה לידי רוח‬ ‫הקדש ורוח הקדש מביאה לידי תחיית המתים ותחיית המתים בא על ידי אליהו זכור‬ ‫לטוב‬ Rabbi Phineḥas son of Yair says: Steadfastness leads to cleanliness, cleanliness to purity, purity to asceticism, asceticism to holiness, holiness to humility, humility to fear of sin, fear of sin to piety, piety to (receiving) the ‘holy spirit’, and (reaching) ‘the holy spirit’ leads to the resurrection of the dead, which is to come through the hands of Elijah who shall be remembered for good.

Rabbi Phineḥas b. Yair outlines the process by which one can achieve ruaḥ ha-qodesh and thereby merit resurrection. The similarities between the characteristics of ‫קדושה‬ and ‫ ענוה‬are interesting to note. In the case of the passage in 1QS, it appears that the goal to attain is purification from sin, and the text does not directly speak of receiving the ‘holy spirit’ as a result of this purification process, but does reference the enigmatic term of ‘light of life’, which we have shown has a strong association with divine wisdom and revelation. Regardless, the language and process of refining one’s character to achieve divine wisdom are important elements that they share. The spirit as something that is bestowed by God as well as its connection to wisdom is seen in 1QS IV, 22:

45

This term is used in the Soncino Talmud, b‘Avod. Zar. 20b n.10 based on Adolf Büchler, Types of Jewish-Palestinian Piety from 70 BCE to 70 CE: The Ancient Pious Men (New York: Ktav Publishing, 1968), 62 where he states, “In the absence of earlier parallels, it appears that the originality of Rabbi Phineḥas lay in the systematic gradation of the various moral qualities to lead up the pious, by a natural progress in self education, to the highest perfection, the possession of the holy spirit.”

4. THE SPIRIT-CENTERED WISDOM TRADITION

159

‫ולטהרו ברוח קודש מכול עלילות רשעה‬ ‫ויז עליו רוח אמת כמי נדה מכול תועבות שקר והתגולל ברוח נדה‬ ‫להבין ישרים בדעת עלוין וחכמת בני שמים להשכיל תמימי דרך‬ and purifying him by a spirit of holiness from every wicked action. He will sprinkle upon him a spirit of truth like waters to purify all the abominations of falsehood (in which) he has defiled himself through a spirit of impurity, so that the upright may have understanding in the knowledge of the Most High and the perfect way of insight into the wisdom of the sons of heaven. 46

The usage of ‫ רוח קודש‬in this text seems to indicate that it is bestowed by God and that this spirit of holiness will purify him from the negative influences of the wicked. The spirit of holiness is again associated with truth, and the text states that by being given the spirit of holiness and truth, one is now privy to the knowledge of God and the angels. The terms ‫ דעת‬and ‫ חכמה‬connect the concept of ‫ רוח קודש‬and ‫רוח אמת‬ with wisdom. What is striking is that this knowledge is considered to be divine knowledge that is also shared with the angels. Therefore the idea that angels and angelic like beings possess true knowledge that can only stem from the divine is a product of the apocalyptic tradition which focused on angelic beings as the mediators of heavenly wisdom. A central feature of the Elijah traditions is that he acts in many ways as a semi-angelic figure, and as a mediator of divine wisdom in rabbinic texts. The roots of this idea is found in these Second Temple texts which struggled with the loss of direct prophecy, but found the mediation of angels as one manner in which divine wisdom could be accessed. This idea of being bestowed with a ‘Divine Spirit’ is also expressed in the Rule of Benedictions (1QSb) where the Maskil blesses the congregation, priests or High priest; 47 In 1QSb I, 4 it states: ‫יחונכה ברוח קודש וחסד‬, “he shall bestow upon you a spirit of holiness and kindness.” It is clear that this blessing is based on the formula of the priestly blessing, understanding the word ‫ ויחונכה‬as relating to bestowing the ‘holy spirit.’ The root ‫ חנן‬is also utilized in the blessing for wisdom in the Amidah, which is then followed by two blessings asking God for forgiveness from sin. As Flusser points out, and was discussed in the previous chapter, the combination of beseeching for wisdom and forgiveness seems to have been a set form in prayers. This concept may also be apparent in these Dead Sea Scroll texts as well, where the request for ‘a spirit of holiness’ is followed by an appeal for purification from sin.

46 Translation of 1QS taken from Tigchelaar, “Historical Origins,” 77.

Jacob Licht, Rule Scroll (Jerusalem: Mosad Bialik,1965), 273–89. J. T. Milik, DJD I, 118–130. Martin Abegg, “1QSb and the Elusive High Priest,” in Emanuel: Studies in the Hebrew Bible, Septuagint, and the Dead Sea Scrolls ed. Shalom M. Paul, et al. (Leiden: Brill, 2006), 3–16. Wayne Baxter, “1QSb Old Divisions Made New,” RevQ 21, 4 (2004): 615–29. 47

160

THROUGH THE PRISM OF WISDOM

1QSb is also connected to wisdom through the title of the leader, the ‫משכיל‬, or Maskil. The term Maskil refers to the teacher of the sectarian group described in these texts. In many ways, it seems that he led the community in a religious sense, by leading them in prayer as well as instructing them in the proper laws. The root of the term ‫ משכיל‬is ‫שכל‬, ‘to understand,’ and indicates the centrality of the leader’s wisdom and the group’s expectations from its leader. Reference to the Maskil is also found in the Hodayot prayers, where the role of the spirit is prominent, connecting the wisdom of the Maskil with the Spirit-Centered wisdom tradition. 48 The connection between ruaḥ ha-qodesh and wisdom is expressed in a number of places in the Hodayot as enumerated by Tigchelaar. 49 In some cases, ‫ רוח קודשכה‬is mentioned in connection to wisdom. One example is seen in 1QHa XX, 14–16 where it states: 438F

439F

‫ואני משכיל ידעתיכה אלי ברוח אשר נתתה בי‬ ‫ונאמנה שמעתי לסוד פלאכה‬ [‫ברוח קודשכה ]פ[תחתה לתוכי דעת ברז שכלכה ומעין גבורת]כה‬ And I, the instructor, I know you, my God, by the spirit that you have placed in me. Faithfully have I heeded your wondrous secret counsel. By your holy spirit you have opened up knowledge within me through the mystery of your wisdom and the fountainhead of your power.

In this excerpt, the Maskil speaks directly about the spirit which God has placed in him which enables him to ‘know God.’ Furthermore, he declares his faithfulness to God’s ‘wondrous secret counsel,’ and again states that through God’s ‘holy spirit’ he has become privy to the ‫רז‬, ‘mystery’, of God’s wisdom. This connection to wisdom and mystery is expressed in 4QInstruction as well as in Wisdom of Solomon, two very different texts which seem to share certain traditions regarding wisdom and mystery. 50 Therefore, it is important to note that in some texts of likely sectarian origins, the connection of the holy spirit with wisdom is also expressed. As I have demonstrated the usage of ruaḥ and its connection to wisdom spans different Second Temple texts, and not only works that are seen to have had clear contact with Greek philosophical works like Philo and Wisdom of Solomon. The extent of the influence of Hellenistic 40F

Carol Newsom, “Flesh, Spirit and the Indigenous Psychology of the Hodayot,” in Prayer and Poetry in the Dead Sea Scrolls and Related Literature; Essays in Honor of Eileen Schuller on the Occasion of her 65th Birthday, ed. Jeremy Penner, Ken M. Penner and Cecilia Wassen (Leiden: Brill, 2012), 339–54. 49 1QHa 6 23–24, 36–37; 1QHa 8 18, 20–32; 1QHa 12 31–34 and many other examples, see Tigchelaar, “Historical Origins,” 81. It is important to note that ‫ רוחות‬are also used to describe both positive and negative spirits, see Tigchelaar, “Historical Origins,” 83. 50 Collins, “The Mysteries of God: Creation and Eschatology in 4QInstruction and Wisdom of Solomon,” 287–305. 48

4. THE SPIRIT-CENTERED WISDOM TRADITION

161

ideas on these developments is unclear, but it is evident that the term ‫ רוח קודש‬and its equivalents gain much prominence in Second Temple literature as compared to the term ‫ רוח אלוקים‬as found in the Bible. The central role that the ‘spirit’ plays in Greek philosophical thought and its connection to wisdom may have influenced the growing usage of ruaḥ and ruaḥ ha-qodesh in the attainment of wisdom in Second Temple texts. This increased focus on the spirit and its connection to wisdom may reflect the flow of ideas that was quite prevalent in the Hellenistic milieu. The rise of pneuma and spirit in Hellenistic Jewish works, such as Philo and Wisdom of Solomon, may help explain the refocus on the place of spirit in the attainment of wisdom in the Second Temple period. The role that the spirit plays in wisdom also influences rabbinic wisdom traditions. It is therefore important to see the connection of Elijah with ruaḥ and wisdom as possibly influenced by the development of these ideas in Second Temple times.

THE ANOINTED OF ‘SPIRIT’—THE MESSIANIC ELEMENT Elijah’s connection with the spirit can also be perceived through the connection of ruaḥ with messianic figures in the Dead Sea Scrolls. The main figures that bear a connection with the concept of ruaḥ are the eschatological prophet and the priestly Messiah. The existence of numerous messianic or redeeming figures is a direct result of the many different traditions expressed in the prophetic material, specifically with regard to the role of the ‘messenger’ or ‘herald’ who is to appear before the ‘great and terrible day’ or who will declare the arrival of the redemptive era. The role of this messenger as a prophet, and Elijah’s description as such a messenger in Malachi, strengthens the connection between Elijah and an eschatological prophetic figure. It seems that the associations of Elijah as a prophet as well as a priest are two very different traditions that developed simultaneously and influence the understanding of Elijah’s role in the End of Days. Therefore, it is not surprising to see hints of Elijah in the description of the eschatological figures of both the Prophet and Priest in Second Temple texts. Most significantly for the purpose of this work is the role of teaching wisdom, as it is understood in the Dead Sea Scrolls as encompassing both the law and mysteries. The role of Elijah in rabbinic messianic belief encompasses many of the characteristics of both the priestly and prophetic redeemer. Therefore, a discussion of the development of these eschatological figures and their connection to ruaḥ and wisdom is essential to understanding the evolution of these ideas in the common Judaism that formed the environment of rabbinic thought. The role of the spirit and wisdom is expressed in connection to the anointed ones, in some cases this refers to past prophets, as stated in the Damascus Document, 4Q266 2 ii, 12–13: 51 [‫ויו[דיע]ם ביד משיחי רוח קדשו וחוזי אמת‬ 51 Parallel in CD i 21– iii 3.

162

THROUGH THE PRISM OF WISDOM ‫בפרוש שמותי]הם ואת א[שר ]שנה התעה‬ ...[And he ma]de known [to them through those anointed in his holy spirit and beholders of truth] the details of [their] names. But those w[hom he hated he caused to stray]

The ‘anointed with His holy spirit’ and ‘seers of truth’, in this context refers to the prophets of old, who were privy to secret knowledge regarding the righteous who are the remnant in each generation. This description of prophetic figures as ‘anointed with His holy spirit’ is most likely connected to Isa 61:1–3 where the prophet describes himself as one, “who has the spirit of God descend upon him, for God has anointed him.” The place of ‘spirit’ in the attainment of wisdom is clearly expressed here, and is central to the development of the messianic prophet/priest, who is the anointed of spirit-‫ משיח רוח‬in the Dead Sea Scrolls. This prophetic epithet, ‫משיחי רוח‬, is utilized for future redeeming figures as is stated in 11QMelch (11Q13) 2, 18: ‫והמבשר הו]אה [משיח הרו]ח[ כאשר אמר דנ]יאל עליו‬, “And the messenger is the ‘anointed of the spirit’ of [whom] Dan[iel spoke...” This passage seems to depict an eschatological prophetic figure, which can be deduced from a number of observations. First, as mentioned above in 4Q266, the term ‫ משיח רוח‬is used to describe prophetic figures. Second, the eschatological character of this figure is seen in the usage of the word ‫מבשר‬, which has messianic connotations due to the word’s use throughout the Prophets to represent a figure expected in the End of Days. 52 11QMelch combines different verses in Isaiah to describe the role of the messenger and the place of Isa 61:1–2, is essential in its description of the ‘messenger,’ as it states, ‫״‬...‫״רוח ה׳ עלי יען משח ה׳ אותי לבשר ענוים‬, “The spirit of the Lord God is upon me, Because the Lord has anointed me; He has sent me as a herald of joy to the humble...” 53 It is clear that 11QMelch is a thematic pesher on the End of Days, and in the above excerpt, a messenger is expected. This messenger is described as proclaiming peace and is distinct from the prophets of old who are represented in IIQMelch as the “mountains” upon which the messenger is standing as described in Isa 52:7. This imagery may indicate that the messenger is fulfilling the role that the prophets set out for him in their prophecy. This messenger is also distinct from ‫מלכי צדק‬, the protagonist

52

The term is used twice in Isaiah, in Isa 41:27, Isa 52:7, as well as in Nah 2:1, as one who will declare peace and comfort the people. The action of ‘proclaiming’, ‫לבשר‬, also appears in Isa 61:1–2 in the same passage mentioned above describing God anointing the prophet through His spirit, ‫רוח ה' עלי יען משח ה' אותי‬, “The spirit of the Lord God is upon me, Because the Lord has anointed me.” 53 One of the roles described in Isa 61, ‫ לקרא לשבויים דרור‬is interpreted as relating to ‫מלכי צדק‬ in that he is to forgive them all their sins: col. ii 5–6, the freeing from bondage is understood metaphorically here as reference to sin. This seems to be one of the roles that ‫ מלכי צדק‬is to play.

4. THE SPIRIT-CENTERED WISDOM TRADITION

163

of 11QMelch, who seems to be an angelic figure who leads the righteous ones against the forces of Belial, the leader of the angelic forces of darkness. 54 The text goes on to explain the role of this messenger by referencing Isa 61:1–3 as well as 52:7. It states that the messenger is the ‘anointed of His holy spirit’ as referenced in Daniel. 55 11QMelch continues to describe the declaration of peace that this messenger will proclaim. It interprets the words ‫לנחם אבלים‬, ‘to comfort the afflicted,’ from Isa 52, ‫לנחם האבלים פשרו להשכילמה בכול קצי העולם‬, “To comfo[rt] the [afflicted, (Isa 61:2) its interpretation:] to [in]struct them in all the ages of the w[orld.”(11QMelch 1, ii, 20). A very important point to stress is that the usage of the word ‫ להשכלמה‬reflects a theme of instruction, a clear wisdom element of teaching in the portrayal of the messenger. It is brought in relation to ‘the ages of the world’, ‫קצי‬ ‫העולם‬, which reflects the apocalyptic idea of the division of history into ages. Knowledge of this division is considered part of the mysteries of God that are revealed only to the privileged few. This idea is expressed in Dan 12:1–4 in its description of the final judgment: ‫ובעת ההיא יעמד מיכאל השר הגדול העמד על בני עמך והיתה עת צרה אשר לא נהיתה‬ ‫ ורבים מישני‬:‫ ובעת ההיא ימלט עמך כל הנמצא כתוב בספר‬,‫מהיות גוי עד העת ההיא‬ ‫ והמשכילים יזהרו כזהר‬:‫אדמת–עפר יקיצו אלה לחיי עולם ואלה לחרפות לדראון עולם‬ ‫ ואתה דניאל סתם הדברים וחתם הספר עד‬:‫הרקיע ומצדיקי הרבים ככוכבים לעולם ועד‬ :‫עת קץ ישטטו רבים ותרבה הדעת‬ At that time, the great prince, Michael, who stands beside the sons of your people, will appear. It will be a time of trouble, the like of which has never been since the nation came into being. At that time, your people will be rescued, all who are 54

It is unclear if ‫ מלכי צדק‬references an actual human King/Priest figure, or refers to an angelic being. Scholars disagree, see David Flusser, “Melchizedek and the Son of Man,” in Judaism and the Origins of Christianity (Jerusalem: Magness Press, 1988), 186–92; Paul J. Kobelski, Melchizedek and Melchiresa (Washington D.C.: Catholic Biblical Association of America, 1981); Eric F. Mason, “Melchizedek Traditions in Second Temple Judaism,” in New Perspectives on 2 Enoch: No Longer Slavonic Only, ed. Andrei Orlov and Gabriele Boccaccini (Leiden: Brill, 2012), 343–60. And Devorah Dimant’s response in the same volume, 361–67. 55 The text is fragmented and therefore it is unclear to which specific verse it is referring. It is possible that this references Dan 9:25, where it speaks of a ‫משיח נגיד‬, an anointed who will arrive but then vanish. It is unclear how this is connected with the ‫ מבשר‬since it seems that according to Daniel, there will be continued destruction after this figure appears. The tradition expressed in Seder Olam Rabbah where Elijah is expected to appear twice, prior to the battle against Gog and Magog, and afterwards to declare peace, may be rooted in such a tradition which connects this messenger of peace with the ‫ משיח נגיד‬in Daniel. See Chaim Milikowsky, “Trajectories of Return, Restoration, and Redemption in Rabbinic Judaism: Elijah, The Messiah, The War of Gog and the World to Come,” in Restoration: Old Testament, Jewish and Christian Perspectives, ed. James M. Scott (Leiden: Brill, 2001), 265–80.

164

THROUGH THE PRISM OF WISDOM found inscribed in the book. Many of those that sleep in the dust of the earth will awake, some to eternal life, others to reproaches, to everlasting abhorrence. And the knowledgeable will be radiant like the bright expanse of sky, and those who lead the many to righteousness will be like the stars forever and ever. But you Daniel, keep the words secret, and seal the book until the time of the end. Many will range far and wide and knowledge will increase.

This Daniel passage is central to the development of the messianic beliefs found in 11QMelch and is reflected in the parallels between the texts. First, the presence of an angelic figure, the arch-angel Michael is mentioned, and described as one “who stands besides the sons of your people.” Michael and Melchizedek are also linked through their identification as the Prince of Light in the sectarian scrolls. 56 It seems that this connection is present in 11QMelch as well, since Melchizedek serves a similar role to Michael as described in col ii, 5–6: [‫והמה נחל]ת מלכי צ[דק אשר ישיבמה אליהמה וקרא להמה דרור לעזוב להמה ]משא‬ ‫כול עוונותיהמה‬ and they are the inheritan[ce of Melchize]dek who will make them return. And liberty shall be proclaimed to them, to free them from [the debt of] all their iniquities.

Here the righteous are called the ‘inheritance of Melchizedek,’ while in Daniel, Michael is called the one, “who stands beside the sons of your people.” Both of these figures are seen to be the protectors of Israel, or the righteous in Israel. Furthermore, in Daniel, the ones who will be saved from the tribulations of the End of Days are also called ‫ משכילים‬who will shine like the ‘bright expanse of the sky.’ The use of the term ‫ להשכלמה‬in 11QMelch references the wisdom which will be taught to this group of wise ones who will be privy to eternal life. This further highlights the place of wisdom within the apocalyptic viewpoint of the author. Furthermore, the secrets to be revealed by the messenger are described as ‫בכול קצי העולם‬, probably referring to all the ‘ages’ and time periods, related to the term ‫ קץ‬in Daniel. Knowledge of the ‫‘ קץ‬the end,’ refers to knowledge that shall be hidden until the proper time, and will be revealed by the messenger in 11QMelch. This secret of ‫ בכול קצי העולם‬also includes the End of Days, for it is the knowledge of the eternal reward of the righteous that will ‘comfort the mourners’, ‫לנחם אבלים‬, as the pesher interprets the verse in Isa 62:2. Perhaps this explains the text’s interpretation of Daniel 9 regarding the ‫ משיח נגיד‬who will arrive and then disappear. It is possible that the messenger will reveal the secret knowledge which serves to comfort the righteous prior to the difficult times that will follow his arrival. This is intimated in Dan 12:10 where it states: ‫יתבררו ויתלבנו ויצרפו‬ ‫רבים והרשיעו רשעים ולא יבינו כל רשעים והמשכלים יבינו‬, “Many will be purified and purged and refined; the wicked will act wickedly and none of the wicked will under56 Kobelski, Melchizedek

and Melchiresa, 36.

4. THE SPIRIT-CENTERED WISDOM TRADITION

165

stand; but the maskilim, will understand.” This role of the messenger highlights the wisdom element of this messianic figure and the place of reward and punishment in the end of days as an important facet of the wisdom that will be shared with the righteous. These descriptions of the ‫ מבשר‬are also paralleled in the description of another eschatological figure described as ‘one who will proclaim,’ ‫יבשר‬, in 4Q521. This text describes the one who ‘heaven and earth shall obey,’ a figure which has elicited much scholarly debate regarding whether it references a Royal, Priestly or Prophetic Messiah. The many parallels between the verses in Isaiah, Daniel, 11QMelch and 4Q521 may point to a connection between the messenger and this eschatological figure. The most relevant lines are col ii 8–14: [ ]‫מתיר אסורים פוקח עורים זוקף כפ]ופים[ ול]ע[לם אדבק ]במ[יחלים ובחסדו י‬ [‫ופר]י מעש[ה טוב לאיש לוא יתאחר ונכבדות שלוא היו יעשה אדני כאשר ד]בר‬ ‫כי ירפא חללים ומתים יחיה ענוים יבשר ו]דלי[ם ישב]יע [נתושים ינהל ורעבים יעשר‬ [? ‫[ וכלם כקד]ושים‬

?

‫ונב]ונים‬

“setting prisoners free, opening the eyes of the blind, raising up those who are bowed down” (Ps 146:7–8) And for[ev]er I shall hold fast [to] the hopeful and pious A man’s rewa[rd for] good works shall not be delayed and the Lord shall do glorious things which have not been done, just as He s[aid.] For he shall heal the critically wounded, He shall revive the dead, ‘He shall send good news to the afflicted' (Isa 61:1) He shall sati[sfy] the [poo]r, He shall lead the uprooted and the hungry He shall enrich. The wi[se ?]and all of them like hol[y ones ?]

The text states that God will carry out His promise however, it is unclear whether God will directly perform these miracles or if they will be carried out by a mediator. Collins points to the action of ‘proclaiming’, ‫יבשר‬, expressed in line 12, as a role that God is not described as fulfilling. 57 Therefore, the different miraculous actions described here may relate to God but can also refer to an eschatological figure. It states that the critically wounded will be healed, which may parallel the “healing of the wounded of heart” in Isa 61:1: ‫לחבש לנשברי לב‬. The “sending of good news to the afflicted,” ‫ענוים‬ ‫יבשר‬, clearly parallels the almost exact phrase ‫ ְל ַב ֵשּר ֲﬠנָ וִ ים‬in Isa 61:1. Added to this list is also the resurrection of the dead, an element not present in Isaiah, but is clearly expressed in Dan 12:2 as discussed above. These descriptions of the messenger and his different roles are related to Elijah in rabbinic literature, where he is described as one who will reconcile families, declare pure and impure, bring peace to the world, and is 57

J.J. Collins, “A Herald of Good Tidings: Isaiah 61:1–3 and its Actualization in the Dead Sea Scrolls,” in The Quest for Context and Meaning: Studies in Biblical Intertextuality in Honor of James A. Sanders, ed. Craig A. Evans and Shemaryahu Talmon (Leiden: Brill, 1997), 225–40.

166

THROUGH THE PRISM OF WISDOM

connected with the resurrection of the dead. Elijah’s semi-angelic nature and his role as a prophet who will return made him the natural candidate to assume many of these roles in rabbinic literature. The association of the messenger with wisdom as has been stressed above is one of many avenues through which Elijah becomes associated with wisdom. This connection to Elijah is also present in 4Q521 where it continues and states in a fragmented text in col iii, ‫נכון באים אבות על בנים‬, “It is true, the fathers are coming upon their sons,” a phrase that is clearly referencing Mal 3:23–24 regarding Elijah the prophet. Even though it does not use the word ‫מבשר‬, the figure of Elijah is said to come before the ‘awesome, fearful day of the Lord’ where he will bring some kind of reconciliation between fathers and sons, before God arrives and inflicts great destruction on the earth. This places the arrival of this figure prior to the great devastation that will accompany the final judgment. David Banon explains that this expression of Elijah’s return is perhaps an interpretation of the ‘Angel’ described in the beginning of the chapter of Mal 3:1–3: ‫הנני שלח מלאכי ופנה דרך לפני ופתאם יבוא אל היכלו האדון אשר אתם מבקשים‬ ‫ ומי מכלכל את יום בואו ומי‬:‫ומלאך הברית אשר אתם חפצים הנה בא אמר ה' צבאות‬ ‫ וישב מצרף ומטהר כסף וטהר את‬:‫העמד בהראותו כי הוא כאש מצרף וכברית מכבסים‬ .‫בני לוי וזקק אתם כזהב וככסף והיו לה' מגישי מנחה בצדקה‬ Behold, I am sending My messenger to clear the way before Me, and the Lord whom you seek shall come to His Temple suddenly. As for the angel of the covenant that you desire, he is already coming. But who can endure the day of his coming, and who can hold out when he appears? For he is like a smelter’s fire and like a fuller’s lye. He shall act like a smelter and purger of silver; and he shall purify the descendants of Levi and refine them like gold and silver, so that they shall present offerings in righteousness.

Both Mal 3:1 and 3:23 utilize the words “‫ ”הנני שלח‬and perhaps may indicate a connection between Elijah and this angelic figure. According to Banon it seems clear that later exegetes read these verses as illuminating one another. This ‘angelic' figure is said to clear the way for God as He returns to His sanctuary in the Temple. 58 This figure is also called ‘the angel of the covenant’, ‫מלאך הברית‬, who is Israel’s designated angel, similar to Michael as expressed in Daniel and Melchizedek in 11QMelch. The role of this angelic figure is to purify the sons of Levi so that they may serve in the Temple in ‘righteousness.’ The language of smelting and purging is expressed in the text; it is this exact language which is also used in Dan 12:10 as discussed above. The root ‫ צרף‬and the concept of smelting are shared, which reflects the manner of differentiating the righteous from the wicked. This process of purifying is understood in different ways in these texts. Daniel understands it as purging the evil ones from the righteous few 58 David Banon, “Elie, héraut du Messie,” Pardès

24 (1998): 141–43.

4. THE SPIRIT-CENTERED WISDOM TRADITION

167

who are the ‘understanding ones,’ while Malachi specifically deals with the purity of lineage of the Levites so that they are able to perform their tasks at the Temple. 11QMelch views the smelting process to be carried out by ‫ מלכי צדק‬who will purge the righteous people’s sins. This demonstrates how similar usages of these shared traditions can at the same time lead to different understandings of the role of the messenger. It is therefore not surprising that the description of this messenger in 4Q521 also hints at the influence of the Malachi text, and perhaps the understanding of Elijah as playing a role in this eschatological scene. As discussed above, the importance of these texts is that they reflect the element of wisdom in the messenger’s role, and possibly portray him as a prophet. The role of wisdom in 11QMelch is a combination of Daniel’s view of the End of Days as reward for the ‘wise ones’ and the Isaianic description of the ‫מבשר‬, as being anointed with the ‘spirit of God.’ A similar conception of an eschatological figure, who will proclaim peace to the afflicted, ‫ענוים יבשר‬, may also heal the wounded and raise the dead in 4Q521, actions taken from both Isaiah and Daniel. In 11QMelch, the influence of wisdom is also seen in the role of the ‫ מבשר‬who will instruct the people with regard to the ‘times of all the ages.’ The usage of the term ‫ להשכלמה‬is similar to the language used in Daniel to describe those who are privy to the knowledge of the End of Days, the ‫משכילים‬. The influence of wisdom in 4Q521 is not as pronounced in the role of the messenger himself, but is rather reflected in the tone of the text. Geza Xeravits points to a number of these wisdom elements; first is 4Q521’s exhortative style and the manner in which it implores its adherents to follow the correct path, seen with the use of words such as ‫ שמעתם‬and the phrase, ‫התאמצו מבקשי אדני‬ ‫בעבדתו‬, “Strengthen yourselves, O you who seek the Lord” (4Q521 2 ii 3). Second, the text utilizes metaphors from the natural world and tells its readers to observe the earth and sea in order to perceive God’s goodness and how He will provide for the righteous (4Q521 7 ii 1–3). The contemplation of nature is a significant aspect of the wisdom tradition, and is present in a number of wisdom psalms, as Stephen Geller points out. 59 Another element which can be perceived in the text that references wisdom and apocalyptic ideas is the concern about the righteous receiving their just reward and answering the question of theodicy, specifically regarding the reward of the righteous in perilous times when they are suffering. It is clear that the author understands the difficulty that the righteous experience, demonstrated by his need to encourage them through the use of the word ‫התאמצו‬, ‘strengthen yourselves,’ (4Q521 2 ii 3). Further, in the same fragment, the author expresses ‫ופרי מעשה טוב לאיש לוא יתאחר‬, “a man’s reward for good works shall not be delayed” (4Q521 2 ii 10), highlighting the reward that is soon to arrive. There is also a possible restoration by Puech of the word ‫נבונים‬, 49F

Stephen A. Geller, “Wisdom, Nature, and Piety in Some Biblical Psalms,” in Riches Hidden in Secret Places: Ancient Near Eastern Studies in Memory of Thorkild Jacobsen, ed. Tzvi I. Abusch (Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 2002), 101–21.

59

168

THROUGH THE PRISM OF WISDOM

‘the wise’ in line 14, stressing that wisdom is an essential characteristic of the remnant who will be saved. Therefore, although there is not a direct link made in the description of the messenger as a teacher, the text itself is influenced by wisdom elements. Both Collins and Xeravits point to this connection between the wisdom and apocalyptic traditions in 4Q521 and 11QMelch, and the influence of the wisdom tradition on the portrayal of these messianic figures. Collins clearly sees an allusion to Elijah in 4Q521, while Xeravits sees the figure in 11QMelch as a Moses redivivus. 60 This is one example of the scholarly debate regarding whether the eschatological prophet is viewed as an Elijah or Moses redivivus. John C. Poirier attempts to make a case for the expected return of both figures. 61 He points to the expectation of three redeeming figures in the eschatological thought within Qumran: a Prophet, a Priest, and a Prince (or King). 62 This is stated most explicitly in 1QS IX, 8–11: 63 ‫אל יתערב הונם עם הון אנשי הרמיה אשר לוא הזכו דרכם להבדל מעול וללכת בתמים‬... ‫דרכ ומכול עצת התורה לוא יצא ללכת בכל שררירות לבם ונשפטו במשפטים הרשונים‬ ‫אשר החלו אנשי היחד לתיסר בם עד בוא נ}ב{יא ומשיחי אהרון וישראל‬ Their wealth is not to be admixed with that of rebellious men, who have failed to cleanse their path by separating from perversity and walking blamelessly. They shall deviate from none of the teachings of the Law, whereby they would walk in their willful heart completely. They shall govern themselves using the original precepts by which the men of the Yahad began to be instructed, doing so until there comes the Prophet and the Messiahs of Aaron and Israel.

These figures are also known by other titles. The ‘messianic King,’ ‫משיח ישראל‬, is also called the ‘Prince of the Congregation,’ ‫נשיא כל העדה‬. 64 The priest, ‫ משיח אהרון‬is also known as the ‘interpreter of the Law,’ ‫דורש התורה‬. 65 According to Poirier, the 45F

60

J.J. Collins, “A Herald of Good Tidings,” 235; Geza Xeravits, “Wisdom Traits in the Qumranic Presentation of the Eschatological Prophet,” in Wisdom and Apocalypticism in the Dead Sea Scrolls and in the Biblical Tradition, ed. F. Garcia Martinez (Leuven: Leuven University Press, 2003), 189. 61 John C. Poirier, “The Endtime Return of Moses and Elijah at Qumran,” DSD 10, 2 (2003): 221–42. 62 Poirier discusses the potential for development within the messianic expectations of the sect, and discusses the possible reading of ‫ משיח אהרון וישראל‬referring to one figure although the plural form ‫ משיחי אהרון וישראל‬appears in the plural in 1QS IX, 11; Poirier, “The Endtime Return,” 224. See his extensive bibliography regarding the development of the messianic expectation in n. 9 and n. 10 p. 224. 63 These three figures are also alluded to by the prooftexts brought in 4QTestemonia, See F. Garcia Martinez and J. Trebolle Barrera, The People of the Dead Sea Scrolls: Their Writings, Beliefs and Practices (Leiden: Brill, 1995), 186. 64 CD VII, 20; 4Q285 V, 5; VI, 2–10; 1QM V, 1; 4QpIsaa II, 15; 1QSb V, 21. 65 CD VII, 18; 4QFlor 1 i 11.

4. THE SPIRIT-CENTERED WISDOM TRADITION

169

‘anointed of the spirit,’ ‫משיח הרוח‬, as mentioned in 11QMelch II, 18, references the eschatological prophet in order to distinguish him from the King and the Priest who are anointed with oil. 66 Poirier points out that although they seem to be distinct messianic figures, in many cases their roles overlap, especially those of the eschatological Prophet and Priest. It is important therefore to discuss the descriptions of both the eschatological Prophet and Priest, and the different titles that are given to these figures. It is important to note that at times it is not clear to whom specifically these titles are referring, as they are not explicitly stated in the text. One of the titles given to the redeeming figure, possibly the Priest, which is most relevant to this discussion, is the title ‫דורש התורה‬, ‘the Interpreter of the Law’, which appears in the Damascus Document (4Q266 3 ii 14). The centrality of teaching and imparting wisdom in the description of the historical figure of the sect highlights the place of wisdom within the sectarian worldview in the present and future. As will be discussed below, the role of the historical teacher mirrored expectations that existed regarding future redeeming figures. The title ‫ דורש התורה‬seems to reference a historical figure of the sectarian movement, although the text also references ‫יורה הצדק‬ ‫באחרית הימים‬, “the Teacher of Righteousness in the End of Days” in line 17. It appears that the group had been guided by a leader who was the Interpreter of the Law, and expects another future redeemer of the End of Days called the Teacher of Righteousness. This section relays the parallels and differences between the two figures (3 ii 7–19): 67 456F

457F

‫]ובקץ חרבן הארץ ע[מדו מסגי גבול ]ותיעו את ישראל ותשם הארץ כי דברו עצה סרה‬ ‫על[ מצוות אל ביד ]מושה וגם במשיחי הקודש וינבאו שקר להשיב[ את ישראל‬ ‫]מ[אחרי ]אל ויזכר אל ברית רישונים ויקם מאהרון ומישראל ]ח[כמים וישמ]יעם‬ ‫ויחפורו את הבאר[ נבונים אשר אמר מוש]ה באר חפרוה שרים כרוה נדיבי העם‬ ‫במחו[קק הבאר היא הת]ורה וחופריה המה שבי ישראל היוצאים מ[ארץ יהודה ויגור‬ ‫]והמחוקק הוא דורש התורה אשר אמר ישעויה מוציא כלי למעשיהו‬...[‫]בארץ דמשק‬ ‫ונדיבי העם המה הבאים בכרות את הבאר במחוקקות אשר חקק המחוקק להתהלך‬ ‫במה בכול קץ הרשע וזולתם לא ישיגו עד עמוד יורה הצדק באחרית הימים ו[כול אשר‬ ‫הובא ]בברי[ת לבל]תי בוא אל המקדש להאיר מזבחו הוא מסגר הדלת ]א[שר אמר‬ ‫]אל מי בכם יסגור דלתי ולא תאי[רו מזבחי חנם‬ ...[And at the time of the destruction of the land,] trespassers arose [and led] Israel astray and the land became desolate, for they spoke defiantly against] the commandments of God (given) through [Moses, and also against the anointed holy ones. And they prophesied falsely so as to cause] Israel [to turn] away from [God. And God recalled the covenant with the first ones, and he raised up] men of under66 With regard to the anointing of the priest, see 4Q375 1 i 9.

67 Parallels in CD V 13– VI 20 and 4Q267 used to fill in the fragmentary text.

170

THROUGH THE PRISM OF WISDOM standing [from Aaron] and wise men from Israel, and he caused them to hear. [And they dug the well] of which Moses said, [the well was dug by princes and excavated by the nobles of the people, with a r]uler’ (Num 21:18) — the ‘well’ is the L[aw, and those who ‘dig’ it these are the penitent of Israel who depart from the] land of Judah and dwelled [in the land of Damascus. God called them all ‘princes’ for th]ey a[ll sought him,] and [their glory was not rejected by anyone’s mouth. And the ‘ruler’ is the Interpreter of the Law, of whom Isaiah said, ‘He takes out a tool for his work’ (Isa 54:16). And the ‘nobles of the people’ are those who come to excavate the well with the laws which were ordained by the ruler to be followed during the entire epoch of evil, and will perceive no others until the rise of the Teacher of Righteousness in the End of Days.] And anyone who was brought into the covenant] not to [enter the Temple to light his altar] is a ‘locker of the door,’ of whom [God said, ‘who of you will lock his door and not lig]ht my altar in vain?’ (Mal 1:10)

In this passage there is a reference to two figures, the ‫דורש התורה‬, ‘Interpreter of the Law,’ and ‫יורה הצדק‬, ‘the one who will teach righteousness’ in the messianic era. The ‫ דורש התורה‬is described as one who instructed the people in the correct path during the ‘epoch of evil,’ ‫קץ הרשע‬. The role of the ‫ יורה הצדק‬is not described at all, but his title as ‘teacher’ indicates his role as an instructor, and his pairing with the ‫דורש התורה‬ indicates a connection between the two figures. The prooftext utilized to describe the role of the Interpreter of the Law is Num 21:18, the “Song of the Well.” The text interprets these verses as a metaphor for the Teacher of Righteousness as the ‘stave’, ‫מחוקק‬, and the ‘well’ as the Torah. The commonality of the term ‫מחוקק‬, ‘stave’, with ‫חוק‬, ‘law’, is apparent in the interpretation, and places the centrality of the teaching of Law in the hands of the Teacher of Righteousness. This idea is stressed throughout the Damascus Document where it references the importance of listening to the correct laws and not veering after those who wish to mislead the people. 68 Another significant element is the reference to Damascus as the place where the teacher will lead the remnant of Israel who follow in Gods ways. The reference to Damascus is most likely symbolic and does not indicate that they actually settled in Damascus. The usage of the word ‫ דמשק‬is a reference to Amos 5, where God expresses that he will exile his people to Damascus. Although at first glance Amos seems to bear a negative connotation, its usage in the scrolls may indicate that these few will be saved from the wrath of God on the Day of the Lord as Amos 5:26–27 is quoted in CD VII, 13, which expresses the element of salvation. Another reference to Damascus appears in 1Kings in connection with Elijah who is told by God, ‫לך שוב לדרכך מדברה דמשק‬, “Go back by the way you came and on to 458F

Steven D. Fraade, “Law History and Narrative in the Damascus Document,” in Meghillot: Studies in the Dead Sea Scrolls V–VI, ed. Moshe Bar Asher and Emanuel Tov (Haifa: University of Haifa, 2007), 35–55. 68

4. THE SPIRIT-CENTERED WISDOM TRADITION

171

the wilderness of Damascus,” (1 Kgs 19:15) which in later rabbinic traditions is interpreted in a messianic context. 69 Perhaps the description of Damascus as a ‫מדברה‬, wilderness/desert in 1Kings, was relatable to the sect who removed themselves from society and settled in the deserts at Qumran. Furthermore, Elijah is told to go to the ‘wilderness of Damascus’ right after he expresses his disdain for the sinfulness of the people in 1 Kings 19:14, “...I have been very zealous for the Lord God of hosts; because the people of Israel have forsaken your covenenant.” In the text above, and in its parallel in CD V:20–VI:2, right before the allusion to Damascus, it similarly describes Israel straying from God’s commandments. As it states, ‫ובקץ חרבן הארץ עמדו מסיגי הגבול‬ ‫וינבאו שקר להשיב את ישראל מאחורי אל‬....‫ ויתעו את ישראל‬, “Now during the epoch of the desolation of the land the Shifters of the Boundary arose and misled Israel...And they have prophesied falsehood to make Israel turn away from God...” The text continues with the interpretation of the digging of the well followed by the description of the loyal from Israel leaving Judah and settling in the land of Damascus, ‫״המה עמי‬ ‫“ ישראל היוצאים מארץ יהודה ויגורו בארץ דמשק״‬the penitent of Israel who will exit from the land of Judah and dwell in the land of Damascus”. It is clear that the text in 1Kings plays an important role in the characterization of the sect and their zealousness for God’s law. The connection between Elijah’s sojourn and the sects’ own self-perception is another association between Elijah’s own journey and the redemption. These leaders who are perhaps associated with Elijah’s sojourn in CD are described as filled with wisdom, it states in CD VI:2–3: ‫ויקם מאהרון נבונים ומישראל חכמים‬, “God...will raise up from Aaron men of understanding and from Israel wise men.” The description of the leaders, both priestly and laymen of Israel as ‫ נבונים‬and ‫חכמים‬, clearly expresses a connection to wisdom themes. What impact this may have had on Elijah’s connection with wisdom in the sectarian worldview is unclear, but it does seem probable if the sect drew inspiration from Elijah’s sojourn with the sects’ own migration to Damascus. It is this context where the ‫ דורש התורה‬is also mentioned, for he represents the ‫מחוקק‬, the stave/ Lawgiver. A second prooftext used to describe the Interpreter of the Law is Isa 54:16, “It is I who created the smith to fan the charcoal fire and produce the tools for his work; So it is I who create the instruments of havoc.” The tool fashioned for his work is understood to be synonymous with the ‫מחוקק‬, the ‘stave’, which represents the Interpreter of Law. The usage of this verse in Isaiah is a little curious, since it references God’s protection of his people from the harm of instruments of war. It is clear that the interpretation completely removes the verse from its immediate context, although may be reading the verse in light of the broader context of the chapter itself which speaks of the restoration of Israel. Kelli O’Brien points to the interpretation of these verses of Isaiah in 4QpIsad (4Q164) as perhaps shedding light on the reason the ‘tool’ in Isa 54:16 is interpreted as 69 Midr. Tan. Deut. 11, and Pesiq. Zut. Song. 7.

172

THROUGH THE PRISM OF WISDOM

the Interpreter of the Law. 70 In 4QpIsad, interpreting Isa 54:12, it states that the sapphires which God will make as a foundation relate to the Council of the community, depicting the leaders of the community as somehow related to the Urim veThummim. The text is fragmentary and so it is unclear if members of the council are metaphorically connected with the Urim ve-Thummim, possibly as representatives of the twelve tribes, or serve as a replacement for knowledge of God’s will just as the usage of the Urim in oracular activity. The text frg. 1, 1–7 states: ‫פשרו אש[ר יסדו את עצת היחד‬ ‫ושמתי‬

‫[ך כול ישראל כפיך בעוך ויסדתיך בספירים‬

]‫[ עדת בחירו כאבן הספיר בתוך האבנים‬

]

‫]ה[כוהנים והע]ם‬ [‫כדכד‬

‫[ מאירים כמשפט האורים‬

]‫כול שמשותיך פשרו על שנים עשר‬

] ‫[ הנעדרות מהמה כשמש בכול אורו וכ‬ [

]‫והתומים‬

‫[ פשרו על ראשי שבטי ישראל לא]חרית הימים‬

[ ] all Israel sought thee according to thy word. ‘And I shall lay your foundations in lapis [lazuli.’ (54:11) Its interpretation is th]at they have founded the Council of the Community, [the] priests and the peo[ple ] a congregation of his elect, like a stone of lapis lazuli among the stones [ ‘And I will make as a gate all thy pinnacles.’ (54:12) Its interpretation concerns the twelve [ ] giving light in accordance with the Urim and Thummim [ ] that are lacking from them, like the sun in all its light. And [ ] Its interpretation concerns the heads of the tribes of Israel at the [End of Days ]

This pesher thereby views the ‫כדכד‬, ‘precious stones’, as relating to the leaders of the community who are the foundation for the future redemption of the people of Israel. Their council is somehow connected to the Urim ve-Thummim, most likely because the Urim were comprised of these precious stones. Perhaps they are likened to them, or maybe they utilize the Urim ve-Thummim to interpret God’s will. The text also references both priestly members of this council, as well as non-priestly members of the ‘nation’, ‫הכוהנים והעם‬, as interpreters of the law. This addition of both priestly and non-priestly figures is also stated in 4Q266, where it seems to be added to the text in line 10, “he raised up] men of understanding [from Aaron] and wise men from Israel.” The references to the Urim ve-Thummim may also indicate a connection between the priests and teaching of the Law, as is reflected in Ez 2:63, ‫עד שיבוא כהן‬ ‫לאורים ותומים‬, which describes the hope for the return of the Priest with Urim veThummim to adjudicate the proper ruling. Therefore, the usage of Isa 54:12 in its overall context to describe the ‘Council of the Community’ as purveyors of knowledge Kelli S. O’Brien, “Runner, Staff, and Star: Interpreting the Teacher of Righteousness,” in A Teacher for All Generations; Essays in Honor of James C. VanderKam I, ed. Eric F. Mason et al. (Leiden: Brill, 2012), 437–39. 70

4. THE SPIRIT-CENTERED WISDOM TRADITION

173

and the Law, may have led Isa 54:16 to be understood in a similar light. Therefore in the description of the Interpreter of the Law as a ‫מחוקק‬, which plays on the double meaning of ‫חוק‬, both as a stave and as the law, the verse in Isa 54:16 where God describes the “tool that he has fashioned,” ‫מוציא כלי למעשיהו‬, is understood as the same ‘stave’, and used to reference the ‫מחוקק‬, the Interpreter of the Law. The essential element in this text is the connection of a future eschatological figure with the teaching of the Law. This figure in many ways mirrors the former leader of the group who is called ‫מורה הצדק‬. The role of eschatological figures as teachers, whether prophets or priests, so clearly highlighted in the Damascus Document, is one of the influences on the development of Elijah as a teacher of the Law. 71 The term ‫דורש התורה‬, ‘Interpreter of the Law,’ is not only used to describe the historical teacher, but is also referenced in an eschatological sense further on in the 4Q266, (3 iii 19): 461F

‫]והכוכב[ הוא דור]ש ה[תורה‬... [‫]הבא אל[ דמשק }כאשר{ ]כאש[ר כתוב דרך ]כוכב מיעקוב‬ ‫]וקם שב[ט מישראל השבט ה]וא נ[שי ]כו[ל ]העדה ובעומדו‬ ...‫]וקרקר א[ת כול בני שת‬ ...[And the ‘star’] is the Interpret[er of the] Law [who comes to] Damascus, as it is written: [‘A star] stepped forth [out of Jacob] [and a staff arose] out of Israel:’ (Num 24:17a) the ‘staff’ is the Prince of all [the Congregation, and when he arises] [‘he will destroy] all the sons of Seth.’ (Num 24:17b) vacat

This text is an interpretation of Num 24:17a of Balaam’s oracle, which has a long tradition of reflecting eschatological speculations. Here it is clear that the star is a reference to the ‫ דורש התורה‬who will come to Damascus, while the ‫ שבט מישראל‬is the ‘Prince of the Congregation,’ ‫ נשי כול העדה‬who is said to destroy all the sons of Seth (Num 24:17b). This reflects the view of a more militant Royal Messiah. It is unclear if the ‫ דורש התורה‬is a priestly figure, as there is no direct indication of such in these verses, only that he is paired with the Royal Messiah. 72 What is clear is that a figure whose 462F

71

For the role of the prophets in teaching the Law as an element stressed within the Qumran sect see, Alex P. Jassen, “The Presentation of the Ancient Prophets as Lawgivers at Qumran,” JBL 127, 2 (2008): 307–37. 72 In the text in Frg. 3 Col. ii line 10, it speaks of God remembering the people and raising from them men of understanding from Aaron and wise men from Israel, who are the ones who ‘dug the well’ quoting from Num 21:18. The ruler of this group who are following God’s laws is the Interpreter of the Law, ‫דורש התורה‬. The inclusion of the phrase, ‘and wise ones from Israel’, reflects perhaps that it was not solely a Priestly figure that the ‫ דורש‬could originate from, but rather also from the wise men of Israel. Thereby Poirier’s association of the ‫ דורש התורה‬with the Priest is not so simple, as it seems a much more amorphous issue. The connection between

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THROUGH THE PRISM OF WISDOM

role is to teach is described in the text. The reference to Damascus harks back to the usage of the term ‫ דורש התורה‬in 4Q266 3 ii 14. The scroll is interpreting a group that separated from Judah and went to Damascus in line 11–12: [‫]חפרוה שרים כרוה נדיבי העם במחו[קק הבאר היא הת]ורה וחופריה‬ ...[‫]המה שבי ישראל היוצאים מ[ארץ יהודה ויגור ]בארץ דמשק‬ [was dug by princes and excavated by the nobles of the people, with a r]uler’ (Num 21:18– the ‘well’ is the L[aw, and those who ‘dig’ it] [these are the penitent of Israel who depart from the] land of Judah and dwelled [in the land of Damascus.]

It seems that in the scroll’s view, there is a certain parallel between this group’s own experience in its self-induced exile in ‘Damascus’, 73 with the future expectation of the End of Days. Thereby the figure of the ‫דורש התורה‬, a historical figure, suggests an expectation of a similar eschatological figure in the End of Days. As O'Brien states: “What is clear is that the community believed that the functions of the historical Teacher would be matched by a future, eschatological teacher, and the beliefs about both are in some ways intertwined.” 74 The historical teacher mirrors the hope for the future teacher. In Pesher Habakkuk (1QpHab) it describes the role of the teacher as revealing to the people what Habakkuk himself did not know, col. VIII, 1–6: 46F

‫וידבר אל אל חבקוק לכתוב את הבאות על }על{ על הדור האחרון את גמר הקץ לוא‬ ‫ואשר אמר למען ירוץ הקורא בו פשרו על מורה הצדק אשר הודיעו אל את‬vacat ‫הודעו‬

vacat ‫כול רזי דברי עבדיו הנביאים כיא עוד חזון למועד יפיח לקץ ולוא יכזב‬ Then God told Habakkuk to write down what is going to happen to {to} the generation to come; but when that period would be complete, He did not make known to him. vacat When it says, ‘so that with ease someone can read it,’ this refers to the Teacher of Righteousness to whom God made known all the mysterious revelations of his servants the prophets. ‘For a prophecy testifies of a specific period: it speaks of that time and does not deceive’ (Hab 2:3a) vacat

The pesher here speaks of the Teacher of Righteousness as the one who is privy to the secret knowledge given through the prophets, but as yet undeciphered. The reference the Priestly figure and the Teacher of Righteousness is clearly expressed in 4Q171 III, 14–17 and references the historical Teacher. The question is if the historical teacher and the eschatological teacher are necessarily perceived in the same light. 73 See O’Brien, “Runner, Staff, and Star: Interpreting the Teacher of Righteousness,” 440–42 which discusses the difference between Amos and the interpretation in CD. She explains the significance of the usage of this verse and its importance to the author of the text by looking at the greater context: criticism of the Temple ritual by God and a call for the people to repent. 74 O’Brien, “Runner, Staff, and Star: Interpreting the Teacher of Righteousness through Scripture,” 1.430.

4. THE SPIRIT-CENTERED WISDOM TRADITION

175

to ‫קץ‬, regarding the end of times, is reminiscent as well of the role of the ‫ מבשר‬in 11QMelch. Not only is the Teacher someone who is versed in Torah, and the study of the Law as a ‫מחוקק‬, he is also privy to the esoteric knowledge of the End of Days. There are many indications that the Teacher is connected with a priestly figure, for example with regard to the historical Teacher, he is called a priest in 4Q171 III, 14– 17. However there are some sources which connect the Teacher with the role of the eschatological prophet as mentioned above with the parallel to 11QMelch. Interestingly enough in the Qumran material, Elijah the prophet is seen as related to both of these figures, the Eschatological Prophet as well as the Eschatological Priest. John C. Poirier attempts to draw a clear distinction between the Eschatological Priest and the Eschatological Prophet as Elijah redivivus and Moses redivivus respectively. Although it is natural to assume that the eschatological Prophet would be Elijah, as he was a prophet himself, Poirier attempts to show that Elijah was already perceived as a priest. He brings many compelling points that do point to a strong connection. 75 Such a connection is intimated at in Pseudo-Philo, and the Targum Pseudo-Jonathan, where Elijah is referenced in the blessing of Phineḥas in Num 25:6–13. The remnants of these traditions are also expressed in rabbinic literature where Elijah is perceived as a priestly figure as well as his connection with Phineḥas. Some of these traditions will be further discussed in this work. It is important to note that Elijah is connected to these traditions regarding the Eschatological priest, and most important is his role as a teacher of both the Law and of mysteries. By associating Elijah with the messianic Priest, Poirier thereby connects the Eschatological Prophet with Moses. Ultimately, the greatest difference between the two figures is in regard to Temple ritual, to which the prophet was not privy. However, with regard to the role as a teacher, both the prophet and the priest are described as fulfilling that role. Regardless of whether Elijah is a priestly or prophetic figure, it seems that his return was expected in the End of Days. These roles are very much associated with teaching as well as with mysteries. There are also possible hints, in 4Q521 of miracle-working actions like raising the dead, although they may be referencing God and not the messianic figure. Some scholars would like to draw fine lines around the messianic expectations at Qumran. However, it is clear that the development of these eschatological expectations is a result of interpretation of numerous scriptural texts that are understood in multiple ways in different compositions that span many years. It is therefore more important to view the overall description of these messianic roles than to try and link them as representations of one specific figure and no other.

75

As D.G. Clark stated as well in his 1975 dissertation, “Elijah as Eschatological High Priest: An Examination of the Elijah Tradition in Mal 3:23–24” (PhD diss., University of Notre Dame, 1975). Robert Hayward, “Phineḥas—the Same is Elijah: The Origins of a Rabbinic Tradition,” JJS 29 (1978): 22–34. For further research on this topic see p. 11 n. 15 of this work.

176

THROUGH THE PRISM OF WISDOM

The difficulty that arises when attempting to label certain eschatological actions as either Elijah-like or Mosaic perhaps is a result of the connection that is made between these two figures. This connection between Moses and Elijah is an aspect in the development of Elijah’s role as a teacher of the law. It indeed seems odd that the role of eschatological teacher would be given to Elijah, if Moses could potentially be a figure that would return in the End of Days. Therefore, it is very probable that conflation of the two figures occurred at some point. 76 It is indeed complex, but it seems that Elijah’s association with Phineḥas and his zealousness led Elijah to be perceived as a priest, while simultaneously being connected with Moses led him to be perceived as a law giver and a teacher. The association of Elijah as a priest, and in many ways comparable to Moses, is seen throughout rabbinic literature and these traditions seem to stem from the Second Temple development of the different messianic personas. The eclectic and rich repertoire of biblical texts that served as an inspiration for messianic ideas in Second Temple Judaism resulted in the development of numerous messianic or redeeming figures. We have discussed the role of the messenger or herald of Isaiah and Nahum as essential in the development of the messianic prophet in 4Q266 and 11QMelch. Elijah’s description as such a messenger in Malachi, strengthens the connection between Elijah and an eschatological prophetic figure, and references to Elijah’s role as uniting fathers and sons, “It is true, the fathers are coming upon their sons,” (Mal 3:23–24) in 4Q521 reflect the influence of this biblical text on the development of the prophetic messiah. The priestly messiah is mentioned in 1QS, where it references ‫משיחי אהרון‬ ‫וישראל‬, “the messiahs of Aaron and Israel,” clearly referencing multiple messianic figures. As was discussed the role of the priestly messiah was centered on his role as a teacher and interpreter of the law, ‫דורש התורה‬. This development resulted from the central role of the law in the sectarian worldview, and is mirrored the character of their former leader ‫מורה הצדק‬, as referenced in 1QS and CD. 77 There is a reference to Damascus which may indicate a parallel to Elijah’s own sojourn to Damascus right after he expresses critique for Israel’s sinful ways. Since it is a reference to Damascus with no direct mention of Elijah it is unclear if there was a direct association of Elijah with the ‫דורש התורה‬, who also seems to be a priestly figure, but it is undeniable that wisdom played a central role in the description of the priestly messiah, as well as his role as an 76 Garcia Martinez, The

People of the Dead Sea Scrolls (Leiden: Brill, 1995), 186–89.

77 According to Ben Zion Wacholder the references to the Teacher of Righteousness or the Just

Teacher as he calls him is actually to a future figure and not to a past figure. See his “The Teacher of Righteousness is Alive, Awaiting the Messiah: ‫ האם‬in CD as Allusion to the Siniatic and Damascus Covenants,” HUCA 70–71 (1999–2000): 75–93. For the association of the ‫ דורשהתורה‬with the ‫מורה הצדק‬, see Ben Zion Wacholder, The New Damascus Document: The Midrash on the Eschatological Torah of the Dead Sea Scrolls- Reconstruction, Translation and Commentary. Brill, 2006, p. 116. ProQuest Ebook Central, https://ebookcentral-proquestcom.proxy.library.nyu.edu/lib/nyulibrary-ebooks/detail.action?docID=468494.

4. THE SPIRIT-CENTERED WISDOM TRADITION

177

interpreter of the law. The associations of Elijah as a prophet as well as a priest are two very different traditions that develop simultaneously and influence the understanding of Elijah’s role in the End of Days. Therefore, it is not surprising to see hints of Elijah in the description of the eschatological figures of both the Prophet and Priest. Most significantly for the purpose of this work is the role of teaching wisdom, as it is understood in the Dead Sea Scrolls as encompassing both the law and mysteries. It is this exact role of Elijah as an interpreter of the Law and halakhah in rabbinic literature that is the most novel with respect to the biblical tradition of Elijah’s return. This development is clearly a result of the Second Temple messianic ideas which placed the law and teaching of the law as central to its messianic figures, both prophetic and priestly. Figures such as the Teacher of Righteousness, who is linked to the Interpreter of the Law, as well as the ‫מבשר‬, who is connected with the Prophetic messiah are both associated with teaching of the law and imparting wisdom. Furthermore, it seems that the Prophetic Messiah is described as ‫משיח הרוח‬, the anointed of spirit, clearly viewing the role of spirit as essential in the acquisition of wisdom. The central role that the Law plays within the Dead Sea sect, and the importance of following the correct laws as prescribed in the Torah, most likely contributed to the development of the expectation of such figures. The role of a teacher of the Law, and the role of wisdom in the redemption of the End of Days are a product of the fusion of the apocalyptic and wisdom traditions in Second Temple times. It is the central role of the messianic figure’s teaching of the Law and mysteries as presented in the Dead Sea Scrolls that serves as the foundation for the development of Elijah’s messianic and ‘legendary’ role within the rabbinic corpus.

SUMMARY This chapter discussed the role of ‘spirit’ within the wisdom tradition and its development in the Second Temple Era, most apparent in texts directly influenced by Greek philosophical traditions such as Philo and Wisdom of Solomon. These texts were influenced by Greek philosophical thought, yet at the same time interpreted the conception of the spirit in light of the biblical traditions of ruaḥ. The biblical usage of ‫ רוח‬in connection to prophesy was not linear and a dwindling of its usage occurs in the later prophets, only to reemerge in the works of Ezekiel. Therefore the centrality of spirit in prophecy and other forms of divine wisdom within the Jewish tradition is not self-evident, and its re-emergence in both classically Hellenistic Jewish texts such as Philo and Wisdom of Solomon, as well as the Dead Sea Scrolls may be a response to the centrality of ‘spirit’ in Greek philosophy. The usage of the spirit in the description of wisdom was also impacted by the Second Temple milieu which witnessed the transformation of prophecy. The variegated use of spirit within the biblical tradition allowed for its use in the description of different forms of divine revelation, and not only in reference to direct prophecy. As Alex Jassen points out the new forms of the prophetic are expressed in ‘inspired exegesis’ and ‘sapiential revelation’. The interpretation of the law in the Torah, as well as imparting wisdom become viewed as divinely inspired actions that stem from the outpouring of the spirit in the Spirit-Centered wisdom tradition. Understanding this de-

178

THROUGH THE PRISM OF WISDOM

velopment illuminates the growing place of spirit in the texts that discuss the interpretation of the law and in sapiential/wisdom texts. The role of ruaḥ ha-qodesh in the revelation of wisdom did not merely affect the works of Philo and Wisdom of Solomon, both Diaspora Jews of Alexandria who were immersed in Greek philosophy and thought, but also seems to have trickled into the Dead Sea Scrolls where prophetic ability and divine wisdom are bridged together. The role of ruaḥ in the description of messianic figures and their connection to wisdom is an essential development within the Dead Sea Scrolls. The centrality of messianism in the apocalyptic worldview and the strong wisdom elements in the description of messianic figures at Qumran indicates another point of convergence between wisdom and apocalyptic thought. The similarities in description and function of some of these messianic figures to Elijah the prophet form the background for the role of Elijah in rabbinic literature. Therefore, the connection between Elijah and ruaḥ ha-qodesh will be understood with this context in mind, and his messianic role as a teacher of the Law is also placed in this context. Furthermore, the role of ruaḥ haqodesh in rabbinic literature, specifically in connection with pietistic circles, further draws parallels between pietists, the wisdom tradition, and Elijah, which will be discussed throughout this work. Overall this chapter discussed the development of the Spirit-Centered wisdom tradition, and many aspects of this tradition will become relevant in the discussion of Elijah’s role as a bearer of wisdom within rabbinic literature. Many of the aspects discussed in this chapter will appear throughout the following chapters, such as the importance of ruaḥ ha-qodesh in attaining divine wisdom, the improvement of one’s character as the process by which ruaḥ ha-qodesh is attained, and the role of wisdom and teaching of the law as central to the messianic figures of the Second Temple era. Although a direct influence of ideas is almost impossible to determine, there is no question that the developments that occurred during the Second Temple era were fundamental to the formation of ideas that occurred within the rabbinic tradition.

CHAPTER FIVE. ELIJAH AS BEARER OF WISDOM IN TANNAITIC SOURCES This chapter will attempt to trace the idea of Elijah the prophet as a bearer of wisdom within Tannaitic sources. In order to achieve this goal, one must first understand how wisdom in the Tannaitic worldview changed and evolved from biblical as well as Second Temple conceptions of wisdom. The rabbinic view of wisdom was discussed in the methodological portion of this work in Chapter Two, which demonstrated that the rabbis utilized wisdom literature, adopted its forms in works such as Pirqe ’Avot, as well as incorporated many wisdom themes in different rabbinic traditions. These wisdom themes will be highlighted within the Elijah texts in this chapter. Many of these themes reflect the influence of Second Temple wisdom and the unique developments that occurred in that era. The characteristics and evolution of biblical as well as Second Temple wisdom literature was discussed at length in the previous chapters and ideas expressed in depth there will be brought to bear in the following discussion. As we have seen, wisdom itself was a complex intellectual phenomenon that drew its inspiration from many sources, and significant variances exist within the biblical corpus itself. James Crenshaw identifies the importance of understanding these developments, as they reflect the idea that wisdom was not a monochromatic worldview that always produced a similar result, but rather was itself utilized by different social groups, and produced different intellectual currents. 1 Cornelis Bennema divides these currents into three different types in the biblical sources, which then further developed in the Second Temple period into four different currents as discussed in Chapter Two: Torah-Centered wisdom, Spirit-Centered wisdom, ApocalypticCentered wisdom, and a fourth, Qumranian Wisdom Tradition, which combined these traditions. 2 This chapter will attempt to use these designations of the different currents/strands of wisdom as a lens through which to analyze the Elijah references in 1

James L. Crenshaw, “Method in Determining Wisdom Influences upon ‘Historical’ Literature,” JBL 88, 2 (1969): 130–31. 2 Cornelis Bennema, “The Strands of Wisdom Tradition in Intertestamental Judaism: Origins, Developments, and Characteristics,” TB 52, 1 (2001): 61–82.

181

182

THROUGH THE PRISM OF WISDOM

Tannaitic literature. Through analyzing the Elijah texts within Tannaitic literature, we seek to demonstrate that the Tannaitic wisdom tradition was influenced by all of these different strands. This chapter therefore hopes to delineate two points: first, that the Elijah texts were influenced by the wisdom tradition, and second, that they were influenced by the different strands of wisdom from the Second Temple period and not just by one strand or current. The influence of the Torah-Centered wisdom tradition is reflected in Elijah’s description as a teacher of the law through his association with both priest and prophet. The simultaneous development of these two avenues of wisdom will be explored as they relate to Elijah and his role as a conduit of nomistic wisdom. Elijah is also connected to the Spirit-Centered wisdom tradition through his association with ‫רוח‬ ‫הקודש‬, “the Holy Spirit”. Elijah’s connection with ‫ רוח הקודש‬in Tannaitic sources will be explored as another channel through which Elijah became associated with wisdom. The appearance of pietistic ideas and traditions in connection with ‫רוח הקודש‬ will also be delved into as it serves as the foundation for Elijah’s connection with pietistic wisdom in Amoraic texts. Elijah is also connected with certain apocalyptic themes such as theodicy, reward and punishment. Although the ApocalypticCentered traditions are minimal, their presence sheds light on an important development found in the Amoraic texts, Elijah’s appearances after his translation to the heavens. This development will be discussed in depth as the precursor to Elijah’s role as a heavenly mediator of wisdom, a key component in the Apocalyptic-Centered wisdom tradition.

ELIJAH AND THE TORAH-CENTERED NOMISTIC WISDOM TRADITION Elijah as Priest Elijah’s role in Tannaitic literature is most famously known in connection to his role in the messianic era. It is precisely this role which affects the understanding of Elijah as a bearer of wisdom, in most cases, wisdom regarding halakhah. An in depth study of the sources describing Elijah’s role in the End of Days relays a portrait of Elijah as a priestly figure. The centrality of the priestly class as teachers in texts such as Malachi and Ben Sira lend to Elijah, when he is described as a priest, an aura of wisdom and it is this connection that will be studied presently. A common phrase found in Tannaitic literature is the phrase, ‫יהיה מונח עד שיבוא אליהו‬, meaning “it should be set aside until Elijah shall come.” 3 The fact that this phrase was considered to be common knowledge is seen in the statement in tSotah 13:2: 4 470F

471F

3

In Tannaitic material the term appears in mSheq. 2:5; mB. Mes. 1:8, 2:8, 3:4–5; tB. Mes. 3:6; tSheq. 1:12. 4 tSotah 13:2 (ed. Lieberman, 230–31), see as well Lieberman’s comments on ‫ערי מגרש‬, in Tosefta ki-feshutah, 8.735–36, the connection between the Urim ve-Thummim and the Levite cities was that the cities were allotted through a lottery that may have involved the Urim ve-

5. ELIJAH AS BEARER OF WISDOM IN TANNAITIC SOURCES

183

‫ ופסקו ערי‬,‫ ובטלו אורים ותומים‬,‫משחרב בית המקדש הראשון בטלה מלוכה מבית דוד‬ ‫ כאדם שאומ' לחבירו‬,‫מגרש שנ' ויאמר התרשתה להם אשר לא יאכלו מקדש הקדשים‬ .‫עד שיחיו מתים או עד שיבא אליהו‬ From the time that the First Temple was destroyed, Kingship was nullified from the house of David, and the Urim ve-Thummim were nullified, and the Levite Cities/Cities of Refuge were no longer, for it says ‘And the Governor said to them that they should not eat of the most holy food, [until a priest shall arise with Urim veThummim]’ (Ezra 2:63). It is like when a person says to his friend, “until the dead shall arise, or until Elijah shall come.”

In this statement it is assumed that ‫ עד שיבוא אליהו‬is a well known phrase and is used to explain the prooftext from Ezra 2:63, “Until a priest shall arise with Urim veThummim,” which highlights that the Urim ve-Thummim were no longer in use after the destruction of the First Temple. What is signified by the last expression in this statement is that the tradition regarding the return of the priest with the Urim veThummim has a similar connotation to the commonly held conception of awaiting for the time of the resurrection of the dead and for Elijah’s return. Here we also see a shift from ‘a soon awaited time,’ to an understanding that this will only occur in the very far (perhaps eschatological) future. Whether the ideas of resurrection of the dead and the coming of Elijah are synonymous in this statement is unclear, although Elijah’s connection with resurrection is seen in mSotah 9:15, which will be discussed below. The equating of the Priest who shall arise with Elijah is one of the keys to understanding the role of Elijah in rabbinic literature and Elijah’s connection to wisdom. This statement found in Ezra 2:63, ‫עד שיבוא כהן לאורים ותומים‬, is similar to statements found in two places in the book of 1 Maccabees. The first instance appears in 1 Macc 4:42–46, where it is unclear what should be done with the defiled stones of the altar of a burnt offering: And they thought it best to tear it down, lest it bring reproach upon them, for the Gentiles had defiled it. So they tore down the altar, and stored the stones in a convenient place on the temple hill until there should come a prophet to tell what to do with them.

The second instance appears with regard to the legitimacy of Simon’s rule as High Priest, 1 Macc 14:41: And the Jews and their priests decided that Shimon should be their leader and high priest forever, until a trustworthy prophet should arise.

Thummim. He also discusses the parallels to the loss of the Urim ve-Thummim and its significance.

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THROUGH THE PRISM OF WISDOM

The connection between Elijah and this prophetic figure who is expected to determine the status of the stones from the altar is expressed in Megilat Ta‘anit. 5 It records the celebration of this day in its calendar and explains its meaning: ‫ מפני שבנו שם גוים מקום והעמידו‬.‫בעשרין ותלתא למרחשון אסתתר סוריגא מן עזרתא‬ ‫ ומצאו שם אבנים‬,6 ‫ וכשתקפה יד בית חשמונאי נטלוהו מהן וסתרוהו‬,‫עליו את הזונות‬ ‫טובות ונמנו עליהן וגנזו אותן והן מנחות עד היום הזה עד שיבוא אליהו ויעיד עליהן אם‬ .‫ יום שסתרוהו עשאוהו יום טוב‬.‫טמאות הן אם טהורות‬ On the 23 of MarChesvan the wall was destroyed in the Azarah. 7 Because the gentiles built an area where they would place prostitutes, and when the house of the The text is from the Parma MS. see Vered Noam, Megilat Ta‘anit: ha-nusaḥim, pishram, toledotehem, be-tzeruf mahadurah biqqortit (Jerusalem: Yad Yitzḥaq Ben-Tzvi, 2003), 95–6. The bold face text represents the Megillah, which is the list of dates that were compiled whose origins date to the Second Temple era and is of Pharisaic provenance see pp. 20–22. The regular font represents the Scholion, which is the later attempt at explaining the list of dates and the events that they described. There are two parallel traditions represented by the Parma MS. and the Oxford MS. which have at times completely different explanations for the events behind the dates listed in the Megillah. The printed edition represents the manuscripts which combined the two separate traditions of Parma and Oxford. The dating of the Scholia is complex, since it has a combination of Mishnaic Hebrew with Babylonian Aramaic dispersed throughout the work. Scholars therefore disagree on the historical accuracy of the descriptions of the Scholion. Some scholars viewed the Scholion as dating from the end of the Tannaitic period into the Amoraic period, while others saw it as a late composition dating from the Middle Ages. Noam seems to indicate that it was probably a combination. There seems to be an original core of the Scholion that was already known to the Amoraim, the dates whose explanations were not preserved may have been explained later on, in the late Amoraic and Gaonic periods. She proposes that the Megillah was preserved in written form, while the Scholia circulated orally, and perhaps may explain the fluid nature of the text, see pp. 23–27. 6 The Oxford MS. has a shortened version of the text that only states that they removed the stones from the area when the Hasmoneans gained control of the Temple. See as well Noam’s commentary pp. 239–42. 7 Scholars disagree as to the historical event described by the Megillah and whether the Scholion correctly described the event. L. Herzfeld, Geschicte des Volkes Israel (Braunschweig: Westermann, 1847–63), 1.419, views this as describing Alcimus’s destruction of the inner wall of the Temple court, although does not correlate it with this event as a celebration. It seems rather to indicate the destruction of some wall or gate that existed on the Temple Mount, and as explained in Parma, which belonged to a structure that housed prostitutes on the Temple Mount. This portion of the Scholion was missing from the printed editions, and therefore many scholars attempted to make sense of the corrupted text which only included parts of the Parma MS. Noam explains that the events described most correlate with those mentioned in 1 Macc 42–44. However in 1 Macc 42–22 there is no mention of a brothel on the Temple Mount. However in 2 Macc 6:4–5, there is mention of prostitution in relation to the Temple, 5

5. ELIJAH AS BEARER OF WISDOM IN TANNAITIC SOURCES

185

Hasmoneans attacked them, they took it from them and destroyed the altar, and they found good stones among them and they put them aside and they are lying there until today, until Elijah shall come and testify over them if they are pure or impure. The day that they destroyed the wall they made into a holiday.

Here we see a later rabbinic understanding of this tradition, in which the prophet alluded to in Maccabees, is understood to be Elijah. However, an important shift is seen; the figure to be awaited is a prophet and not a priest. 8 Whether there is any significance to the shift from the term priest to prophet in 1 Maccabees is unclear. That this reflects any antagonism towards the priestly role is unlikely, since in the verse in 1 Macc 14:41 regarding Shimon the High priest’s authority it also mentions the role of the prophet in determining the validity of his leadership. The author of 1 Maccabees was supportive of the priestly class, as the work promotes the Hasmonean priesthood. What it may signify is that although the Hasmoneans had taken over the role of the High Priest, a move which was indeed controversial and contested, only a true prophet could determine its validity, which was seen as something to be awaited and not currently present. The focus here is perhaps that the prophet was the decider and not another priestly figure, since the controversy over the Hasmonean priesthood arose from other priestly circles. The similar language used for both priest and prophet, and the conflation of the role of these two figures, is seen throughout Second Temple sources, as well as in the rabbinic understanding of Elijah’s role. 9 What we see from Ezra and the book of 1 see H. Lichtenstein, “Die Fastenrolle: Eine Untersuchung zur jüdisch-hellenistishen Geschichte,” HUCA 8–9 (1931–32): 273–75. Somehow these two events, the destruction of the altar and the tearing down of a wall on the Temple Mount, were combined in the Parma MS. Scholion. As Noam states, there is still much to be researched on the evolution of this tradition, see Megilat Ta‘anit, 242. 8 See Benedikt Eckhardt, “The Hasmoneans and Their Rivals in Seleucid and Post-Seleucid Judea,” JSJ 47,1 (2016): 58–61. See as well the interpretation of the Wicked Priest in Pesher Habakuk and Pesher Psalms and its association with the Hasmoneans, James C. VanderKam, “The Wicked Priest Revisited,” in The “Other” in Second Temple Judaism: Essays in Honor of John J. Collins, ed. Daniel C. Harlow et al. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2011), 350–67. 9 There seems to be a conflation of the role of prophet and priest specifically in their role as teacher, or specifically in having secret/heavenly information regarding certain questions. What was previously revealed through the Urim ve-Thummim, in the time of Ezra, was transferred to a prophetic figure that even without the Urim ve-Thummim was able to answer difficult cultic questions. The association of the knowledge of the ‘teachers’ or leaders of the community with the Urim ve-Thummim is also expressed in 4QpIsad (4Q164) I, 1–7, as discussed in Chapter Four, p. 172. The basic question is if there was a defined role for each of these positions in Second Temple Judaism. Was the priest or the prophet seen as exclusive in his possession of knowledge, whether regarding the law, esoteric knowledge, or wisdom in general? It seems that the priests played a strong part in relaying knowledge, or as keepers of wisdom, as seen through Ben Sira as well as apocalyptic texts and some of the Dead Sea Scrolls. See Martha

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Maccabees is the usage of the phrases ‫עד שיבוא כהן‬, ‘until a priest shall come’, and ‫עד‬ ‫שיבוא נביא‬, ‘until a prophet shall come’, denotes the expectation of a priestly/prophetic persona who will have the ability to answer the pressing questions of the time. At some point, this idea moves from an expectation in the present to an expectation at a later, perhaps eschatological age. This anticipation of an individual who will provide guidance and wisdom in the End of Days is seen in the Dead Sea Scrolls as well, as discussed in depth in Chapter Four. 10 It is Elijah to whom these roles are transferred to. In some cases, Elijah is seen as embodying the priestly role, while in others he is seen to subsume the prophetic role. The question is what is the connection of these priestly and prophetic roles to the wisdom tradition? It is therefore important to determine the tasks of both the prophet and the priest and their connection to Elijah and wisdom. In Ezra, the context in which this priestly figure is mentioned relates to the questionable priestly lineage and Israelite lineage. Certain families could not be verified as having Israelite or priestly lineage, and therefore had a questionable status. The answer regarding their status could only be given by the High Priest and the Urim veThummim, according to the verse in Ezra. What is significant about this context is that this is precisely the role that Elijah plays in the End of Days according to the Tosefta Sotah. It seems very probable that the Tosefta is in fact equating Elijah with this awaited priestly figure. A similar idea is expressed in m‘Ed. 8:7: 47F

‫ ורבו מרבו הלכה למשה‬,‫ ששמע מרבו‬,‫ מקובל אני מרבן יוחנן בן זכאי‬,‫אמר רבי יהושע‬ Himmelfarb, “Wisdom of the Scribe, Wisdom of the Priest, and Wisdom of the King,” in For A Later Generation: The Transformation of Tradition in Israel, Early Judaism and Early Christianity, ed. R.A. Argall, B.A. Bow, and R.A. Werline (Harrisburg: Trinity Press International, 2000), 89–99. For the biblical background see Lester L. Grabbe, “Prophets, Priests, Diviners, and Sages in Ancient Israel,” in Of Prophets' Visions and the Wisdom of Sages: Essays in Honor of R. Norman Whybray, ed. Heather A. Mckay and David J.A. Clines (Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1993), 43–62. With the decline of prophecy one would imagine that the view of the prophets as teachers would decline. However, the exact nature of the understanding of the decline of prophecy is complex, see Stephen L. Cook, On the Question of the “Cessation of Prophecy” in Ancient Judaism (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2012), specifically on Maccabees see pp. 66–74. Through this shift in understanding regarding prophecy, the quasi-prophetic teachers and interpreters of scripture also began to impart knowledge and wisdom through some kind of divine inspiration. This development spills over into the concept of the eschatological prophet as seen in full force in the Dead Sea Scrolls such as 1QS, 4Q175, 4Q558, 4Q521 see G.G. Xeravits, “Wisdom Traits in the Qumranic Presentation of the Eschatological Prophet,” in Wisdom and Apocalypticism in the Dead Sea Scrolls and in the Biblical Tradition, ed. Florentino Garcia Martinez (Peeters: Leuven University Press, 2003), 183–92. See as well, Alex P. Jassen, Mediating the Divine: Prophecy and Revelation in the Dead Sea Scrolls and in Second Temple Judaism (Leiden: Brill, 2006). 10 See pages 215–23 of this work and John C. Poirier, “The Endtime Return of Elijah and Moses at Qumran,” DSD 10, 2 (2003): 221–42.

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187

‫ לרחק המקורבין בזרוע ולקרב‬,‫ אלא‬,‫ שאין אליהו בא לטמא ולטהר לרחק ולקרב‬,‫מסיני‬ ‫ ועוד‬,‫ משפחת בית צריפה היתה בעבר הירדן ורחקה בן ציון בזרוע‬.‫המרוחקין בזרוע‬ .‫ כגון אלו אליהו בא לטמא ולטהר לרחק ולקרב‬.‫אחרת היתה שם וקרבה בן ציון בזרוע‬ ‫ וחכמים‬.‫ להשוות המחלוקת‬,‫ רבי שמעון אומר‬.‫ לקרב אבל לא לרחק‬,‫רבי יהודה אומר‬ ‫ הנני שולח לכם את‬,‫ שנאמר‬.‫ אלא לעשות שלום בעולם‬,‫אומרים לא לרחק ולא לקרב‬ :‫אליה הנביא וגומר והשיב לב אבות על בנים ולב בנים על אבותם‬ Rabbi Yehoshua says, I have received from Rabban Yoḥanan Ben Zakkai, who heard from his master, and his master from his master a halakhah from Moses at Sinai, that Elijah does not come to declare impure or pure, to push away or bring close, rather to push away those who were brought close through force, and to bring close those who were pushed away by force, the family of Bet Tzerifa that lived in the east Jordan and pushed away the Ben Tzion family by force, and another family (not named) which was there, that Ben Tzion brought close. Like these [families] Elijah comes to declare pure and impure to push away and bring back. Rabbi Judah says to bring close, but not to push away. Rabbi Shimon says: To resolve the controversies. The Rabbis say: not to push away and not to bring close, but rather to make peace in the world, as it says, “Behold I send to you Elijah the prophet and he shall return the hearts of the fathers unto the sons and the hearts of the sons unto the fathers” (Mal 3:23).

This mishnah breaks down the various traditions regarding Elijah’s role in the End of Days. It discusses whether Elijah will be the overall decisor regarding who is or is not part of the nation of Israel, who is or is not a priest, or whether Elijah’s role is to adjudicate the status of only specific cases. 11 Rabbi Judah’s opinion is that Elijah’s role is to bring close those who have been pushed away, but not to reject those who were included under false pretenses. Rabbi Shimon sees the role of Elijah in a more general fashion of resolving controversies, an aspect that we will delve into further in this chapter. The rabbis take his position even further and describe Elijah’s role as bringing overall peace to the world. 12 The question dealt with in this mishnah is how to interpret the verse in Malachi regarding Elijah’s role. One of these traditions understands the phrase “to return the hearts of the fathers unto the sons and the hearts of the sons unto the fathers” as indicating a reunification of the Israelite/Priestly lineage. This connection is made through an understanding of earlier verses in Mal 3:1–3, regarding the ‘messenger of the covenant’:

11

See the Rambam’s commentary on the Mishnah where he gives both options of Elijah deterring both the status of priestly and non-priestly families. 12 On the nature of Elijah as a prophet of peace, see Binyamin Ze’ev Benedikt, “Eliyahu ha-navi: Navi ha-shalom,” in Asupat ma’amarim (Jerusalem: Mosad ha-Rav Quq, 1994), 35–46.

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THROUGH THE PRISM OF WISDOM ‫הנני שלח מלאכי ופנה דרך לפני ופתאם יבוא אל היכלו האדון אשר אתם מבקשים‬ ‫ ומי מכלכל את יום בואו ומי‬:‫ומלאך הברית אשר אתם חפצים הנה בא אמר ה' צבאות‬ ‫ וישב מצרף ומטהר כסף וטהר את‬:‫העמד בהראותו כי הוא כאש מצרף וכברית מכבסים‬ .‫בני לוי וזקק אתם כזהב וככסף והיו לה' מגישי מנחה בצדקה‬ Behold, I am sending My messenger to clear the way before Me, and the Lord whom you seek shall come to His Temple suddenly. As for the angel of the covenant that you desire, he is already coming. But who can endure the day of his coming, and who can hold out when he appears? For he is like a smelter’s fire and like a fuller’s lye. He shall act like a smelter and purger of silver; and he shall purify the descendants of Levi and refine them like gold and silver, so that they shall present offerings in righteousness.

The similar language of ‫ הנה אנוכי שלח את אליה הנביא‬and ‫ הנני שלח מלאכי‬serves as the catalyst for further speculation regarding Elijah’s role in the End of Days. It is clear from these verses in Malachi that the smelting process of the sons of Levi is a purification process, and relates to the determination of the appropriate levitical/priestly status of certain families, which is clearly expressed in the Mishnah. 13 Therefore, here Elijah assumes a role that was earlier described in Ezra as belonging to the High Priest. Elijah is clearly considered a priest according to these traditions. The development of this idea is also evident in the association of Elijah with Phineḥas. Phineḥas, the priest who killed Zimri due to Zimri’s violation of the commandment against having sexual intercourse with a Midianite woman, was promised an ‘eternal covenant’ and appears in different traditions associated with Elijah. 14 The ‘zealousness’ of Phineḥas and Elijah serves as a link between the two figures. Further, Phineḥas’s act of killing Zimri and 480F

481F

Gerard F. Willems, “Quelques textes rabbiniques anciens à propos du prophète Elie,” in Elie le prophète: Bible, tradition, iconographie: Colloque des 10 et 11 Novembre 1985, Bruxelles, ed. Gerard F. Willems (Leuven: Peeters, 1988), 91–2, for Elijah as priest see pp. 98–101. David Banon, “Elie, heraut du Messie,” Pardes 24 (1998): 139–148. 14 See the extensive note in Ginzberg, Legends of the Jews, 99 n. 3. There Ginzberg discusses Elijah as being considered a priest in some sources, and specifically as Phineḥas in others. The earliest source is Ps. Philo 48:48, 1–2, and this idea is found in later midrashim, See Pirqei deRabbi Eliezer, ch. 47; Tg. Ps. J. on Exod 6:18 and Num 25:2, Deut 30:4. This idea is also found in several church fathers, Aphraates, 314, Epiphanius Haereses, 55.3, and others. It is important to note that rabbinic sources also maintain traditions regarding Elijah’s origins as being from the tribe of Gad and Binyamin (Gen. Rab. 71:9 (ed. Theodor-Albeck, 833–34); Song. Rab. 40:4; S. Eli. Rab. 18, 97; S. Eli. Zut. 15, 199.) See as well, Robert Hayward, “Phineḥas—The Same is Elijah: The Origins of a Rabbinic Tradition,” JJS 29, 1 (1978): 22–34. Baruch Ephrati, “Eliyahu zeh Phineḥas,” Shma‘atin 156 (2004): 38–44; Jeffrey M. Cohen, “Phineḥas, Elijah, and Circumcision,” JBQ 41, 1 (2013): 14–18; Benedikt “Eliyahu ha-Navi: Navi ha-shalom,” 35– 46. 13

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189

the Midianite woman is related to the idea of maintaining the purity of lineage of the Israelite people, which is a similar role ascribed to Elijah in the Mishnah. It is essential to explore whether Elijah’s portrayal as a priest in any way contributes to his role as a bearer of wisdom, and perhaps is one of the influencing factors for Rabbi Shimon’s opinion regarding Elijah’s role in expounding on different legal questions, in m‘Ed. 8:7. The connection between wisdom and priests stems from the characterization of their duties in Deuteronomy, in which beyond their cultic roles they are also described as teachers of the Law, as well as being involved in the judiciary system (Deut 17:8–13, 33:10). The book of Malachi is another example where this concept appears. Although Malachi is very critical of the priestly class, his description of the priestly class and their responsibilities go beyond Temple ritual, extending to teaching of the Law and being bearers of knowledge. The verse in Mal 2:7 states: ‫כי שפתי כהן‬ ‫ישמרו דעת ותורה יבקשו מפיהו כי מלאך ה' צבאות הוא‬, “For the lips of a priest should guard knowledge, and people should seek instruction from his mouth, for he is the messenger of the Lord of hosts.” The emphasis of the priest as ‘guarding knowledge’ is a clear indication of this wisdom element, and the significance of wisdom’s association with Torah in this verse serves to strengthen the idea of wisdom and the law being synonymous, as it equates the two. This same work anticipates Elijah’s return on ‘the great and terrible day of the Lord,’ and also describes another messenger who will purify the priestly class, equated in rabbinic tradition with Elijah. Ben Sira, a source from the late Second Temple era also highlights the role of priests as wisdom teachers. Martha Himmelfarb discusses the unique role of the priests in Ben Sira and the importance they held as wisdom teachers. 15 For Ben Sira, the connection between the priestly class and wisdom is evident from his description of the scribe as connected with the Jerusalem Temple. 16 It is the scribe who is characterized as one who “devotes himself to the study of the law of the Most High, will seek out the wisdom of all the ancients and will be concerned with prophecies” (Sir 39:1–2). According to Himmelfarb, Ben Sira equates the role of the priest with that of the wise man and scribe, and moves away from the association of wisdom with kings, seen most strongly in Ben Sira’s rebuke of King Solomon’s sins. This falls in line with the general worldview of Ben Sira which exalts the role of the priest over the monarch. 17 Ben Sira therefore reflects another source which equates priests with wisdom, and it is clear that these ideas influenced the rabbinic understanding of Elijah’s role as a priestly figure. It is significant that Elijah is equated with a priestly figure, because this draws a direct line to traditions regarding Elijah as a bearer of wisdom. This association is directly seen through the Tosefta which equates the ‘Priest who shall come with Urim 15

Martha Himmelfarb, “The Wisdom of the Scribe, the Wisdom of the Priest, and Wisdom of the King according to Ben Sira,” 89–99. 16 Himmelfarb, “The Wisdom of the Scribe,” 92. 17 Himmelfarb, “The Wisdom of the Scribe,” 94–9.

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ve-Thummim’ with Elijah, and the traditions which state, ‘it shall be set aside until Elijah shall come’. This association is directly connected to determining the lineage of Israelite or priestly families. However, we see that the knowledge Elijah will reveal moves beyond just the specific case of lineage and involves imparting knowledge in all areas, as seen by Rabbi Shimon’s understanding of Elijah’s role as ‘resolving all controversies’. The conception of Elijah as resolver of controversies continues to be expressed through the many halakhic problems which Elijah is anticipated to solve at some future date. This is seen in the usage of the phrase, ‫יהא מונח עד שיבוא אליהו‬, ‘it shall be set aside until Elijah shall come,’ which is found in eighteen places throughout rabbinic literature. 18 Most of them originate in the Mishnah and Tosefta, and their explanations in Bavli and Yerushalmi. 19 There is no mention of this phrase in the Tannaitic or Amoraic Midrashim, and it appears only once in the Yalqut Shimoni. It seems clear that this phrase was utilized in a specifically halakhic setting and relates to specific unknown resolutions to certain questions. The cases in which this phrase is applied include loans, contracts, collateral, inheritance, and oaths regarding temple donations. Besides the statement discussing an oath to donate a certain vessel to the temple, all the other cases are directly related to civil monetary cases. It seems that this understanding of Elijah as one who will resolve controversies in the messianic age continued to develop within the judicial class of scholars. 20 This knowledge of the correct law, and the 485F

486F

487F

18

The phrase, “‫ ”יהא מונח עד שיבא אליהו‬appears in the following sources, and may be stated more than once within each source: The Tannaitic material, mSheq. 2:5; mB. Mes. 1:8; 2:8; 3:4– 5; tB. Mes. 3:6; tSheq. 1:12. The Yerushalmi: ySheq. 2:5, 10b; yB. Mes. 1:8, 5b; yB. Mes. 2:9, 9a; yB. Mes. 3:3, 11a; yYevam. 15:9, 81a. The Bavli: bB. Mes. 3a; bB. Mes. 20a; bB. Mes. 37a; bB. Bat. 94b; bSanh. 48a; bMenaḥ. 63a. (bB. Mes. 29a; bB. Mes. 30a, The phrase ‫לא יגע בהן עד שיבוא‬ ‫ אליהו‬appears, which is not exactly the same, but resembles a similar concept). 19 The traditions regarding the terms ‫ תיקו‬and ‫ ההואסבא‬as relating to Elijah are later developments, and may have not been originally intended in the Bavli and Yerushalmi. See, Louis Jacobs, Teyku: The Unsolved Problem in the Babylonian Talmud: A Study in Literary Analysis and Form of the Talmudic Argument (London: Cornwall Books, 1981), as well as Harel Shapirah, “Le-zihuyo shel ‘ha-hu sava’,” Sha’anan 18 (1993): 151–71, where he provides a lengthy discussion regarding the different opinions and ultimately refutes the usage of ‫ ההואסבא‬as a reference to Elijah. It is important to point out the presence of the term ‘an old man said’ in early Christian monastic literature such as the Apophthegmata Patrum and its similarity to the term ‘ha-hu sava’ is curious. Due to some other connections between the Elijah narratives and early Christian monastic literature which will be discussed in the later chapters, this similarity may be more than just a coincidence. 20 For the scope of the rabbinic influence as judges, see Lee I. Levine, The Rabbinic Class of Roman Palestine in Late Antiquity (Jerusalem: Yad Yitzḥaq Ben-Tzvi, 1985), 128 n. 3. Catherine Hezser, The Social Structure of the Rabbinic Movement in Roman Palestine (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1997), 186–94, 475–79; Seth Schwartz, Imperialism and Jewish Palestine 200 BCE–640 CE (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001), 103–28; Hayim Lapin, “The Rab-

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191

ability to adjudicate fairly, is also part of the wisdom tradition, and Elijah’s association with this knowledge may have continued to affect the future understanding of Elijah as bearer of wisdom. The association of Elijah as having knowledge in these matters can also stem from his identification as a priest, as we have shown the conflation of the priestly role with the judicial role. It is important to note that traditions regarding Elijah’s origins are not limited to his being of priestly lineage, but include traditions that he is a descendent of the tribes of Gad or Binyamin as well. This does not, however, negate his role as a bearer of wisdom, because as we have discussed, Elijah’s prophetic role is another avenue through which he is depicted as a bearer of wisdom. Elijah’s role in 1–2 Kings is clearly a prophetic one, as he is specifically designated as a prophet (1 Kgs 18:36; Mal 3:23). Furthermore, as we have mentioned above, the tradition found in 1 Macc 4:42–46 regarding a prophet who shall arise is connected in rabbinic tradition to Elijah through interpretation of the event in Megilat Ta‘anit. The prophets also play a part in the development of the wisdom traditions, and are perceived as bearers of wisdom. This connection with prophets and wisdom, and especially the eschatological prophet expected at the End of Days, is seen in the Dead Sea Scrolls as discussed earlier in this work. G.G. Xeravits points to such scrolls as 4Q521 and 11Q13, which describe the eschatological prophet as a wisdom instructor. 21 As discussed in Chapters 3 and 4, these texts incorporate wisdom and apocalyptic elements side by side and reflect the influence of these two modes on one another. As discussed in Chapter Four, there is a debate among scholars if the prophetic figure described in these texts is Moses redivivus or Elijah redivivus. 22 It is unclear however if it is possible to clearly demarcate messianic roles as being a direct reflection of one biblical character as many of the functions of the different messianic figures seem to overlap and also drew inspiration from many different biblical texts and traditions. It is very likely that eschatological traditions took qualities from both Moses and Elijah to shed light on the role of the eschatological prophet.

ELIJAH: A PROPHET LIKE MOSES The association of Moses with Elijah is seen in a number of Tannaitic texts as well, and some of these traditions also contain wisdom undercurrents, perhaps connecting the traditions associating Moses and Elijah with circles influenced by the wisdom tradition. Therefore this section will analyze the texts that link Moses and Elijah, and will also point out wisdom elements in the text, such as the concept of ‘measure for measbinic Class Revisited: Rabbis as Judges in Later Roman Palestine,” in “Follow the Wise”: Studies in Jewish History and Culture in Honor of Lee I. Levine, ed. Ze’ev Weiss, Oded Irshai, Jodi Magness and Seth Schwartz (Indiana: Eisenbrauns, 2010), 255–73. 21 G. G. Xeravits, “Wisdom Traits in the Qumranic Presentation of the Eschatological Prophet,” 183–92. 22 John C. Poirier, “The Endtime Return of Elijah and Moses at Qumran,” 221–42.

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ure’. One text in which the Moses-Elijah connection is seen is in the t‘Ed. 3:4 which supplements the Mishnaic tradition quoted above regarding Elijah’s role in the End of Days. The Tosefta has a longer version of the tradition regarding Elijah’s role in determining the legitimacy of certain Israelite and priestly families: ,‫ לקרב אבל לא לרחק‬,'‫ ר' מאיר אומ‬.‫ לקרב ולרחק‬,‫כגון אילו אליהו בא לטמא ולטהר‬ ‫ ויצא בן אשה‬,'‫ הרי הוא אומ‬,'‫ חנניא בן עדיי אומ‬.‫ור' יהודה אומ' חילוף הדברים‬ ‫ישראלית והוא בן איש מצרי בתוך בני ישראל ויניצו במחנה בן הישראלית ואיש‬ ‫ ומה משה שהוא רבו של אליהו לא רצה לגלות‬,'‫ והרי דברים קל וחומ‬.‫הישראלי‬ ‫ אליהו תלמידו של משה על אחת כמה וכמה שלא יגלה את‬,‫הממזרים עד שנתגלו מעצמן‬ .‫הממזרים עד שיתגלו מעצמן‬ Like these Elijah comes to declare impure or to purify, to bring close and to push away. Rabbi Meir says, to bring close but not to push away, Rabbi Judah says the opposite, Ḥananiah son of Adiyah says, for it states “and the son of the Israelite woman, who was the son of an Egyptian man, from within the midst of the sons of Israel, and they fought within the camp, the son of the Israelite woman, and the Israelite man” (Lev 24:10). For it is a fortiori, just as Moses, who is the teacher of Elijah, did not want to reveal the illegitimate children until they would be revealed themselves, how much more so, Elijah, the student of Moses, will not reveal the illegitimate children until they will reveal themselves. 23

Here we have a direct comparison between Moses’s actions and Elijah’s. This tradition explains the role of Elijah in the End of Days, regarding whether he will declare all individuals fit or unfit, or if he will rule only in specific cases that are brought to him. Rabbi Ḥananiah brings the prooftext regarding the son of the Israelite woman and the Egyptian man to illuminate the role of Elijah in the End of Days. The phrase, “For Elijah was the student of Moses, and Moses was Elijah’s master” is stated in several places in Tannaitic literature, 24 which demonstrates a clear connection between Moses and Elijah and forms an even stronger correlation of Elijah as a teacher of wisdom, specifically of the Law. 23

Regarding the illegitimate nature of the son of the Israelite woman, see the Commentary of the Ramban on the verse in Lev 24:10. 24 This phrase is used in: tSotah 4:7 (ed. Lieberman, 171–72), and t‘Ed. 3.4. This phrase reflects the association of Moses and Elijah which is seen in Mekh R. Ish. de–Vayeḥi Petḥitah (ed. Horovitz-Rabin, 78); Mekh. R. Ish. de-Pisḥa 1 (ed. Horovitz-Rabin, 5–6); Mekh. R. Ish. de-Vayisa 5 (ed. Horovitz-Rabin, 171); Mekh. R. Ish. de-Baḥodesh 4 (ed. Horovitz-Rabin, 217); Sifre Deut. Pisqa 353 (ed. Friedman, 142); Mid. Tan. Deut. 5.14 (ed. Hoffman, 22). For a few of the later midrashim that continue to develop this idea, see Pesiq. Rab. 4 (ed. Friedman, 13), which enumerate the parallels between Moses redemption of Israel from Egypt, and Elijah’s redemption of Israel in the End of Days. For other Moses-Elijah traditions, Exod. Rab. 4; Deut. Rab. ‘Eqev 3; Lam. Rab. 1; Pesiq. Rab. Kah. 1.

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The connection between Moses and Elijah is also seen in number of other texts. The Mekhilta draws parallels between Elijah and Moses and their prophetic experience, pointing out that both Elijah and Moses resided in the same cave that was created at twilight before the Sabbath. 25 In the Mekhilta of Rabbi Yishmael it states: ‫ לא עלה משה‬,‫ הרי הוא אומר השמים שמים לה' והארץ נתן לבני אדם‬,‫רבי יוסי אומר‬ ‫ שאמר המקום למשה הריני קורא לך‬,‫ אלא מלמד‬.‫ואליהו למעלה ולא ירד הכבוד למטה‬ . ‫ שנאמר ויקרא ה' למשה‬,‫מראש ההר ואתה עולה‬ Rabbi Yose states, for it is written (Ps 115:16) “The heavens belong to the Lord, but the earth He gave over to man.” Moses and Elijah did not ascend upward, and the Kavod did not descend below, rather it teaches us that the Lord said to Moses, I will call you from on top of the mountain and you shall ascend, therefore it states, ‘and the Lord called to Moses’.

In this midrash the ascension of Moses and Elijah is brought back to earth in asserting that they did not ascend up to the heavens, since the heavens are the sole domain of God. The fact that Elijah is equated with Moses, even in a tradition that minimizes the heavenly role of their encounters, expresses the association made between these two figures and their prophetic experience. Another tradition in the Mekhilta of Rabbi Yishmael equates the cave in which Moses and Elijah dwelled in as being created during twilight of the sixth day of creation. Equating the two further lends credence to the association of Moses and Elijah and strengthens the connection of Elijah as a teacher of the law, like Moses. The cave of Moses most likely relates to Exodus 32:21– 23 where Moses is directed by God to shield himself in a ‫צור‬, a “rock,” as God passes over him. These verses describe the closest revelation of God’s essence to mankind, and thereby it is extremely significant in the portrayal of divine revelation and divine 25

Mekh. R. Ish. de-Baḥodesh, 4 (ed. Horovitz-Rabin, 217) where it equates Moses and Elijah’s epiphanies. The connection of Moses and Elijah is also seen in Mekh. R. Ish. de-Vayisah, 5 (ed. Horovitz-Rabin, 171): ‫וזה אחד מעשרה דברים שנבראו בערב שבת בין השמשות אלו הן הקשת והמן והמטה‬ ‫והכתב והשמיר והלוחות ופתיחת פי הארץ לבלוע הרשעים ופתיחת פי האתון וקברו של‬ ‫משה ומערה שעמד בה משה ואליהו ויש אומרים אף בגדיו של אדם הראשון ומקלו של‬ . ‫אהרן שקדיו ופרחיו‬ “And this is one of ten things that were created in the eve of the Sabbath during twilight and they are: The rainbow, the manna, the staff, and the alphabet, the shamir, and the tablets, the opening of the earth to swallow the wicked, and the opening of the donkey’s mouth, and Moses’s burial place, and the cave that Moses and Elijah stood in. And some say Adam’s clothes and Aaron staff with its decorations.” This tradition maintains that the caves Moses and Elijah dwelt in are identical. The parallels are similar, but with different items in the list of things created in the twilight before the Sabbath, although they all equate the cave of Moses with that of Elijah. Paralleled is Mekh. R. Shim. b. Yoḥ., 16:32 (ed. Epstein-Melamed, 115); Sifre Deut. Zot ha-Berakhah Pisqa 355.

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wisdom. Elijah’s cave most likely refers to 1 Kings 19:9–12, in which Elijah travels for 40 days and nights without food or drink until he reaches ‫ הר חורב‬,‫הר האלוהים‬, “The mountain of God at Horeb,” and that is where the revelation of God in a “soft murmuring sound” occurs. The significance of the cave as a place where divine revelation occurs is important as it appears in future revelations connected with Elijah in certain aggadot in Amoraic literature. For example, Elijah reveals the interpretation of a kind of stone to Rabbi Joshua b. Levi in a cave in Pesiqta de-Rav Kahana 18:5, and appears to R. Joshua b. Levi outside the cave of R. Shimon b. Yohai in bSanh. 98a. These and other examples will be discussed in future chapters, but it is clear that caves continue to serve as a symbol of divine revelation, and Elijah is associated with a number of these traditions. All these Tannaitic traditions serve to strengthen the association between Moses and Elijah, which reinforces the depiction of Elijah as a unique prophet and teacher, who in some ways is similar to Moses.

A WISDOM TROPE- MEASURE FOR MEASURE Moses and Elijah are equated to one another in tSotah 4:7 as well. The significance of this example lays in the wisdom undercurrents that are present in the greater context of the tradition. This is important because it not only equates Elijah and Moses but further links it to wisdom themes, specifically with the concept of Measure for Measure. Therefore an in-depth look at the broader context of this Tosefta is necessary in order to appreciate the wisdom tone of the pericope. The earlier halakhot in this chapter of Sotah discuss the idea of ‫במידה שאדם‬ ‫מודד בה מודדין לו‬, “by the measure that a man measures (out), so too will it be measured (out to him).” This means that the manner in which a person behaves, and treats others, is the manner in which he will be treated, also known as ‘measure for measure.’ 26 This phrase is reminiscent of wisdom forms, as it possesses the quality of brevity, yet relays within it a deeper message. It deals with the manner in which one should conduct oneself, and further explains the consequences of both positive and negative behavior. The usage of this concept is also present in Wisdom of Solomon as discussed by Yehoshua Amir, pointing strongly to this phrase’s connection with the wisdom tradition. 27 Furthermore, the utilization of this term to reveal the hidden ways of providence is expressed by Heinemann’s Darkhe Ha’agada, 28 and is seen throughout the usage of this term in Tannaitic literature. Ishay Rosen-Zvi states regarding the us493F

49F

495F

26

For a lengthy discussion on this concept and its importance in justifying the rabbinic understanding of the Sotah ritual, see Ishay Rosen-Zvi, “Measure for Measure as a Hermeneutical Tool in Early Rabbinic Literature: The Case of Tosefta Sotah,” JJS 57, 2 (2006): 269–86. This concept is also mentioned in Matthew 7:1–2. 27 Yehoshua Amir, “Measure for Measure in Talmudic Literature and in the Wisdom of Solomon,” in Justice and Righteousness: Biblical Themes and Their Influence, ed. Henning Graf Reventlow and Yair Hoffman (Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1992), 29–46. 28 I. Heinemann, Darkhe Ha’aggadah (Tel Aviv: Devir, 1974), 64–70.

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195

age of this trope, “This connection—apart from displaying the homilist’s virtuosity in connecting different parts of the scripture—uncovers the power of divine justice, as working in the service of the Israelites in defeating their enemies.” 29 Therefore, this phrase embodies a few of the underpinnings of wisdom: succinct phraseology, directing of behavior, and reflecting an understanding of divine judgment. The Mishnah and Tosefta utilize the concept of ‘measure for measure,’ middah she-bo moded, 30 in order to understand the punishment of the ‘wayward woman, the sotah. 31 The Mishnah in mSotah 1:7–9 discusses this aspect for both negative and positive behaviors in characters such as the sotah, Samson, Abraham and Absalom regarding negative behaviors, and for positive actions, Miriam, Joseph and Moses. The Tosefta greatly expands on this concept and it is discussed in Tosefta Sotah 3 as well as Tosefta Sotah 4. The Tosefta not only enumerates more examples of how the sotah’s punishment is a direct result of her actions, but also provides many more examples regarding biblical events and characters that exemplify this concept. What is striking is that there seems to be an entire collection of texts discussing the concept of ‘measure for measure.’ The fact that this collection appears in the context of the sotah, the quintessential example of the ‘the woman of folly,’ further links this collection with wisdom concerns. As discussed in Chapter Three, improper sexual conduct is one of the themes of great interest in wisdom circles and is found throughout wisdom literature. Therefore, it is highly likely this entire collection is strongly influenced by the wisdom tradition. The Tosefta links the different elements in this collection using the phrase ‫מידה שבו מודד בו מודדים לו‬, and it is in this context that the Moses and Elijah connection is made: 32 49F

29 Rosen-Zvi, “Measure for Measure as a Hermeneutical Tool,” 281. 30

Regarding the development of this idea, and its differences from other understandings of divine justice, as well as ‫מידה כנגד מידה‬, see Yael Shemesh, “Measure for Measure in Biblical Narrative,” Beit Miqra 44 (1999): 261–77. K. L. Wong, The Idea of Retribution in the Book of Ezekiel (Leiden: Brill, 2001), 197–200. Furthermore the usage of this understanding of divine justice is also seen in Wisdom of Solomon, see Yehoshua Amir, “Measure for Measure,”. 31 See Ishay Rosen-Zvi, The Mishnaic Sotah Ritual: Temple, Gender, and Midrash (Leiden: Brill, 2012). He discusses the presentation of the sotah ritual at great length and the usage of ‫במידה שאדם מודד בה מודדין לו‬, in order highlight the element of justice in what seems to be a public shaming ritual. By highlighting her seductive actions, and crafting each part of the ritual as a parallel to her sins, both the elements of justice in punishment, as well as the rabbinic apprehension about female seduction are underscored. 32 tSotah 4:7 (ed. Lieberman, 170–71). See Lieberman’s discussion of Moses throwing a branch into the Nile in order to conjure up Joseph’s casket. Parallels in Mekh. R. Shim. b. Yoḥ. 46; bRosh. Hash. 13a; Pesiq. R. Kah., be-Shalaḥ, 187, which has Moses calling out to Joseph’s coffin without any action. In Mekh. R. Ish. Petiḥtah, 87 (ed. Horovitz-Rabin, 87) it states ‫נטל צרור‬ ‫וזרק לתוכו‬, “he took a pebble and threw it into it (the Nile),” reflects the development that is seen in the Tosefta here as well. Lieberman states that this addition was clearly placed in the midrash in order to equate it with Elisha’s actions. See, Lieberman, Tosefta ki-feshutah, 8.649

196

THROUGH THE PRISM OF WISDOM ‫יוסף זכה בעצמות אביו אף הוא לא נתעסק בו אלא משה שנ' ויקח משה את עצמות יוסף‬ ‫צף‬...‫וגו' מלמד שכל העם היו עסוקין בביזה והוא עוסק במצוה שנ' חכם לבב יקח מצות‬ ‫ארונו של יוסף ונטלו משה ובא לו ואל תתמה שהרי הוא אומ' ויהי האחד מפיל את‬ ‫הקורה ואת הברזל נפל וגו' ויאמר איש האלים אנה נפל ויראהו את המקום ויקצב עץ‬ ‫וישלך שמה ויצף הברזל והלא דברים קל וחומר ומה אלישע תלמידו של אליהו תלמידו‬ ‫של משה כך משה רבו של אליהו רבו של אלישע על אחת כמה וכמה‬ Joseph had the privilege of caring for his father’s remains, and therefore he did not have to worry about his own burial, rather Moses did. For it says, “And Moses took the bones of Joseph,” (Exod 13:19) to teach that the entire nation was busy with the spoils of war and he was busy with a positive commandment, as it states, “The wise of heart takes commandment.” (Prov 10:8)...and the coffin of Joseph floated and Moses took it, and do not be in wonder, for it states, “But as one was felling a log, the ax head fell to the water; and he cried, and said, Alas, master! for it was borrowed. And the man of God said, Where did it fall? And he showed him the place. And he cut down a stick, and threw it in there; and made the iron float.” (2 Kgs 6:6) And this is an example of a fortiori, just as Elisha is the student of Elijah and Elijah the student of Moses, so too Moses is Elijah’s master, and Elijah is the master of Elisha, how much more so [would he be capable of making iron float].

Besides being a prooftext from within the larger wisdom tradition regarding middah she’adam moded, this tradition presents a few more traces of wisdom influence. It uses a verse in Prov 10:8 to describe Moses as a wise man, ‫חכם לב יקח מצות ואויל שפתים‬ ‫ילבט‬, “He whose heart is wise accepts commands, But he whose speech is foolish comes to grief,” thereby stressing Moses as the quintessential wise man who involves himself with the commandments of the Law. It is in this context that Moses’s actions are compared to Elijah’s student, Elisha, when he miraculously makes iron float. What is interesting is that the tradition does not connect Elisha and Moses directly, but utilizes Elijah as the connecting link between the two prophets. This tying of Moses and Elijah is therefore not arbitrary, and is not used for all prophets, for if that were so it would have been sufficient to state that Elisha was the student of Moses and not utilize Elijah as the link between the two. The connection of Moses and Elijah is also seen in Sifre Devarim, Zot haBerakhah Pisqa 342: 33 ‫ אלא מה‬,‫ וכי עלתה על דעתך שלאחר מיתה היה משה מברך את ישראל‬,‫לפני מותו‬ ‫ כיוצא בו אתה אומר הנה אנכי שולח לכם את‬.‫ סמוך למיתתו‬,‫תלמוד לומר לפני מותו‬ ‫ וכי עלתה בדעתך‬,‫אליהו הנביא לפני בוא יום ה' הגדול והנורא והשיב לב אבות על בנים‬ .‫ סמוך לביאה‬,'‫ לפני בא יום ה‬,‫ מה תלמוד לומר‬,‫שלאחר ביאה אליהו מתנבא להם‬ 33 Sifre Devarim Zot

ha-Berakhah Pisqa 342 (ed. Friedman, 142).

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197

“Prior to his death” (Deut 33:1). And would one think that Moses would bless Israel after his death? Rather, it is written ‘before his death,’ meaning in close proximity to his death. Just as it says, “Behold, I will send to you Elijah the prophet before the awesome and fearful day of the Lord” (Mal 3:23). And would one think that it would be after the arrival [of the Day of the Lord], Elijah would prophesy to them? Rather it is written, “before the awesome and fearful day of the Lord,” (Mal 3:23), in close proximity to the arrival [of that day].

This midrash utilizes the term ‫לפני‬, ‘before,’ in two different verses to express that Moses’s speech occurred in immediate proximity to his death, which is why the term ‘‫ ’לפני‬is significant as it expresses that it occurred right ‘before’ his death. There are myriad different verses that could have been selected to express that ‘‫ ’לפני‬means in ‘close proximity to’, yet the midrash chooses to highlight the verse describing Elijah’s return at the End of Days. The fact that the Elijah prooftext is brought is intended to highlight the connection between these two events. The verse in Deut 33:1 is the introduction to the blessings that Moses bestows upon the tribes prior to his death, which in many ways is a poem of hope and blessings for the future. It is possible that Moses’s blessing is in some ways seen as similar to Elijah’s prophecy at the End of Days, perhaps as proclaiming the success and triumph of Israel over its enemies as is stated in Deut 33:28–29. It is clear to this midrashist that the description of a utopian state of Israel was not yet realized, and so the focus of the blessing as referencing a future time may be what is intimated in the parallel drawn between Moses and Elijah and their respective prophecies. This midrash thereby provides another linkage between Moses and Elijah with regard to their prophecies, their roles, and as messengers of hope for a better future. To summarize, Elijah the prophet in the above traditions is presented as a priestly and/or prophetic figure. His role is to impart wisdom on halakhic matters and on issues regarding priestly lineage and temple practice. This view regarding Elijah’s role in the End of Days as imparting wisdom is an evolution of his role as described in Malachi, as one who will reconcile fathers with their sons. The development that occurred during the Second Temple period in which a Teacher of the Law is expected to return is most likely the strongest influence on this change as discussed in Chapter Four. This development stems from conceptions of an awaited prophet who would relay the correct law and teach the people. Thereby, the role of a future priest and a future prophet, both messianic figures, became associated with Elijah. In these traditions Elijah is seen as a prophetic and priestly figure with characteristics of both melding into one another. Elijah’s association with the High Priest, as well as with Moses, is indicative of this development. In both these traditions Elijah is a bearer of wisdom, highly similar to the role of the Maskil, found within the Qumran scrolls and discussed in previous chapters. This connection to priestly and prophetic circles, and the focus on the following of the law and halakhic interpretation, is in line with the Nomistic Torah-Centered wisdom tradition as described by Bennema. This tradition views the Torah as the focal point of wisdom, and through the keeping of the commandments and studying of the Torah, true wisdom will be achieved. The

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THROUGH THE PRISM OF WISDOM

circles that influence the Torah-Centered wisdom tradition are the scribal, priestly and prophetic classes, as enumerated by Bennema. 34 Through the above analysis it is clear that the rabbinic class also adopted this understanding of wisdom, and they maintain the undercurrents of both the priestly as well as prophetic connections within the Torah-Centered wisdom tradition. This is demonstrated by the understanding of Elijah as a priest and/or prophet and his connection with teaching of the Law, as represented in the traditions about Elijah in the End of Days, as well as the development of the form ‫יהא מונח עד שיבוא אליהו‬, “it shall be set aside until Elijah shall arrive.” This progression is in many ways an outgrowth of the evolution of the wisdom tradition in the Second Temple era, where the role of the teacher of the Law is associated with wisdom, as discussed in Chapters Three and Four.

ELIJAH AND THE SPIRIT-CENTERED WISDOM TRADITIONS One of the focal points of the Spirit-Centered wisdom tradition is the centrality of the Divine Spirit in imparting knowledge to mankind. This section will explore Elijah’s connection with the spirit through his association with ruaḥ ha-qodesh. The connection between spirit and pietists will also be explored as it serves the basis for understanding future Elijah revelations to pietists in the Amoraic material. Throughout this section the connection between Elijah, the spirit, pietists, and wisdom will be made. First I will demonstrate that ruaḥ ha-qodesh was not only associated with prophecy in Tannaitic texts, but also with wisdom. With this understanding Elijah’s association with ruaḥ ha-qodesh can be perceived as not only relating to his prophetic ability but also his ability to impart wisdom. The Divine Spirit in rabbinic texts is the ruaḥ ha-qodesh, and this term is utilized in different ways, similarly to its multiple meanings in biblical and Second Temple literature. Milikowsky discusses this multiple usage and shows that it can denote God’s presence as well as the manner through which God communicates to mankind. 35 This communication, though, varied and included both direct prophecy and other forms of divine inspiration. This will be discussed further along in this section. 36 Julie Hilton-Danan thoroughly discusses the development of ruaḥ ha-qodesh in rabbinic literature and points to two main uses for the term. The first is a God-given 34

Bennema, “The Strands of the Wisdom Tradition,” 64–7 see n. 9 and n. 24, Bennema points to the scribe as the source of wisdom within the Torah-Centered strand of wisdom. In his note, however, he stresses the importance of the prophetic class as well as the priesthood within this strand of wisdom as well, pointing to Ezra as a priestly ‘scribe.’ Furthermore, as we mentioned, the association of the scribe with the Priestly cult in Ben Sira is another reflection of this connection. 35 Chaim Milikowsky, “Sof ha-nevu’ah ve-sof ha-Miqra be-‘eyne Seder Olam, sifrut Ḥazal vehasifrut shemesaviv lah,” Sidra 10 (1994): 83–94. 36 L. Stephen Cook, On the Question of the “Cessation of Prophecy” in Ancient Judaism, TSAJ 145 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2011).

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power that enables prophecy, and the second is its development into a metonym for God, used in a manner that represents the “Divine voice of Scripture.” 37 HiltonDanan’s analysis demonstrates that ruaḥ ha-qodesh, more than other metonyms, speaks through scripture and not only talks but makes “ironic statements, cries out, responds, and proclaims.” 38 In this aspect, ruaḥ ha-qodesh represents God’s voice in scripture, and His continued presence through the interpretation of scripture. An interesting point that Hilton-Danan makes is the linking of ruaḥ ha-qodesh as divine inspiration for interpreting scripture sharing similar conceptions of ‘spirit’ within Jewish Hellenistic writings, which will be delved into further in this section. An example that draws this connection between prophecy, ruaḥ ha-qodesh, and wisdom is expressed in Mekhilta Rabbi Ishmael in its discussion of Miriam’s prophetic abilities: 39 ‫ וכי היכן מצינו שנביאה היתה מרים אלא שאמרה לאביה סופך‬,‫ותקח מרים הנביאה‬ ‫אתה מוליד בן שמושיע את ישראל מיד מצרים מיד וילך איש מבית לוי ויקח וגו' )שמות‬ ‫ נזף בה אביה אמ' לה בתי היכן נבואותיך‬.‫ב א( ותהר ותלד בן וגו' ולא יכלה עוד הצפינו‬ ‫ועודה מחזקת בנבואתה שנ' ותתיצב אחותו מרחוק לדעה מה יעשה לו ואין יציבה אלא‬ ‫נבואה שנ' ראיתי את ה' נצב על המזבח )עמוס ט א( ואומר ויבא ה' ויתיצב )שמואל א' ג‬ ‫י( ואומר קרא את יהושע והתיצבו וגו' וילך משה ויהושע ויתיצבו באהל מועד )דברים לא‬ ‫ מרחוק אין מרחוק בכל מקום אלא רוח הקדש שנאמר מרחוק ה' נראה לי )ירמיה‬:(‫יד‬ ‫ לדעה אין דעה אלא רוח הקדש שנ' כי מלאה הארץ דעה את ה' וגו' )ישעיה יא‬:(‫לא ב‬ ‫ מה‬:[(‫ט( ]ואומר כי תמלא הארץ לדעת את כבוד ה' כמים יכסו על ים )חבקוק ב יד‬ :(‫יעשה לו אין עשייה אלא רוח הקדש שנ' כי לא יעשה ה' אלהים דבר וגו' )עמוס ג ז‬ And Miriam the prophetess...took. But where do we find that Miriam prophesied: It is merely this: Miriam had said to her father: “You are destined to beget a son who will arise and save Israel from the hands of the Egyptians.” Immediately, “There went a man of the house of Levi and took a wife...and the woman bore a son...And when she could no longer hide him,” etc. (Exod 2:1–3). Then her father reproached her. He said to her: “Miriam! What of your prediction?” But she still held on to her prophecy, as it is said: “And his sister stood afar off, to know what would be done to him” (Exod 2:4). For the expression “standing” (yetzivah) suggests the presence of the Holy Spirit (ruaḥ ha-qodesh,) as in the passage: “I saw the Lord standing beside the altar” (Amos 9:1). And it also says: “And the Lord came and stood” (1 Sam 3:10). And it also says: “Call Joshua and stand,” etc. (Deut 31:14).

37

Julie Hilton-Danan, “The Divine Voice in Scripture: Ruaḥ ha-Kodesh in Rabbinic Literature” (PhD diss., University of Texas at Austin, 2009). 38 Hilton-Danan, “The Divine Voice,” 163. 39 Mekh. R. Ish., de-Shira, 10 (ed. Horovitz-Rabin, 151).

200

THROUGH THE PRISM OF WISDOM Afar off. The expression: “afar off” (meraḥok) everywhere suggests the presence of the Holy Spirit (ruaḥ ha-qodesh), as in the passage: “From afar (meraḥok) the Lord appeared to me” (Jer 31:2). To know. “Knowledge” (de‘ah) everywhere suggests the presence of the Holy Spirit (ruaḥ ha- qodesh,) as in the passage: “For the earth shall be full of the knowledge of the Lord” (Isa 11:10). And it also says: “For the earth shall be filled with the knowledge of the Lord, as the waters cover the sea” (Hab 2:14). What would be done to him. The expression “doing” (‘asiyah) suggests the presence of the Holy Spirit (ruaḥ ha-qodesh), as it is said: “For the Lord will do nothing, unless He reveals His counsel to His servants the prophets” (Amos 3:7). 40

This midrash expresses the idea that Miriam was a prophetess. Here, the verse describing Miriam waiting on her brother Moses is used to prove that she possessed ruaḥ haqodesh and thereby prophesied. The word ‘to know’, ‫דעה‬, is used as an expression of ruaḥ ha-qodesh, which in turn is seen to demonstrate the presence of prophecy, as the word de‘ah is used in Isaiah and Habakkuk as examples of prophetic activity. Knowledge and prophecy are clearly linked within this text, bolstering the connection between wisdom and ruaḥ ha-qodesh. There is even a further association with wisdom in a different version of this midrash as found in bSotah 11a. In the Bavli however, Shekhinah is substituted for ruaḥ ha-qodesh, a common and systematic occurrence in the Bavli according to Hilton-Danan. 41 The version in the Bavli adds another prooftext to the collection, by expounding on the words, ‘his sister’, ‫אחותו‬, with a verse from Proverbs, ‫אמר לחכמה אחתי את ומדע לבינה תקרא‬, “Say to Wisdom, ‘you are my sister,’ and call Understanding a kinswoman” (Prov 7:4). By utilizing this prooftext, a direct link is made between prophecy and ruaḥ ha-qodesh and their association with ‘wisdom’, ‫חכמה‬. This verse also adds the element of the personification of wisdom as feminine and its relation to ruaḥ ha-qodesh/Shekhinah. Therefore, even if the term de‘ah may not be an explicit enough connection to wisdom, in the Bavli’s further reading and interpretation of this tradition, the element of wisdom is strengthened. Through adding another prooftext from a biblical wisdom source, as well as utilizing the term ḥokhma, we see that the element of wisdom is clearly understood as being directly connected to ruaḥ ha-qodesh and prophecy. 42 509F

Translation taken from Jacob Z. Lauterbach, Mekhilta de-Rabbi Ishmael: A Critical Edition, 2nd ed., 3 vols. (Philadelphia, Jewish Publication Society, 2004). 41 Hilton-Danan, “The Divine Voice of Scripture” 238–44. 42 The significance of this change is discussed in Julie Hilton-Danan, and she disagrees with Peter Schäfer in his assessment that the version in the Bavli reflects the rabbinic attempt to ‘hide' the prooftext to wisdom in its list. Hilton-Danan states that it is unlikely that the Bavli was attempting to hide wisdom elements, when the Bavli version actually added the prooftext to Proverbs in the first place. See Peter Schäfer’s discussion in Mirror of His Beauty: Feminine Images of God from the Bible to the Early Kabbalah (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 40

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One of the ways in which prophecy was transformed in the Second Temple era was through ‘inspired exegesis’. 43 This idea is expressed in the Dead Sea Scrolls as well as in Philo, and is directly associated with the attainment of spirit as discussed in Chapter Four. The connection of divine inspiration with the spirit is reflected in the role of the Maskil. In both his interpretation of scripture and in his teaching of the different codes of Law, the Maskil asks God to bestow wisdom upon him utilizing the term ‫רוח קודשו‬. 44 The role of Elijah as an interpreter of scripture is seen only in Amoraic texts; however, the groundwork for connecting Elijah with ruaḥ ha-qodesh, beyond the fact that he was a prophet, is found in the Tannaitic material. The most famous instance linking Elijah with the divine spirit is found in mSotah 9:15, also known as the Saint’s Progress: 45 51F

512F

‫ וטהרה‬,‫ ונקיות מביאה לידי טהרה‬,‫ זריזות מביאה לידי נקיות‬,‫ר' פנחס בן יאיר אומר‬ ‫ וענוה‬,‫ וקדושה מביאה לידי ענוה‬,‫ ופרישות מביאה לידי קדושה‬,‫מביאה לידי פרישות‬ ‫ וחסידות מביאה לידי רוח‬,‫ ויראת חטא מביאה לידי חסידות‬,‫מביאה לידי יראת חטא‬ ‫ ותחיית המתים בא על ידי אליהו זכור‬,‫ ורוח הקדש מביאה לידי תחיית המתים‬,‫הקדש‬ .‫לטוב‬ Rabbi Phineḥas b. Yair says: Steadfastness leads to cleanliness, cleanliness to purity, purity to asceticism, asceticism to holiness, holiness to humility, humility to fear of sin, fear of sin to piety, piety to (receiving) the ‘holy spirit’, and (reaching) ‘the holy spirit’ leads to the resurrection of the dead, which is to come through the hands of Elijah who shall be remembered for good.

This saying of Rabbi Phineḥas b. Yair, a fifth generation Tanna, appears after a list of laments regarding the loss of different forms of greatness with the passing of certain Tannaitic figures. This tradition seems to indicate a potential path to receiving ruaḥ ha-qodesh and ultimately leading to the resurrection through Elijah the Prophet who, according to this tradition, is to bring about the resurrection of the dead. 46 The stage 2004), 93. And Hilton-Danan “The Divine Voice of Scripture” 174. 43 For an in depth discussion of this process see Jassen, Mediating the Divine: Prophecy and Revelation in the Dead Sea Scrolls and in Second Temple Judaism. 44 As discussed in Chapter Four, pp. 164–65 the usage of the word maskilim in Dan 12:3 seems to express the idea of being privy to knowledge, and clearly the usage of this term in 11QMelch fr.1, II, 20 expresses a similar concept, see G.G. Xeravits, “Wisdom Traits in the Qumranic Presentation of the Eschatological Prophet,” 190–92. 45 On this term see p. 156, n.41. 46 This tradition is found in a number of other sources, with slight variations. It seems that there are two traditions, one with the mention of Elijah and one without. The sources with the mention of Elijah are: mSotah 9:15 (in the Kaufmann manuscript, but not in the Parma manuscript, where the entire tradition is not present at all), yShab. 1:3, 3c; ySheq. 3:3, 47c; Mid. Tan. Deut. Perek 24:15, Midr. Mishle (Buber) Parasha 15:33. One that does not mention Elijah is the

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to be attained prior to the reception of ruaḥ ha-qodesh is ‫חסידות‬, ‘piety’. The significance of this statement is that it is viewed as one of the traditions of the ‘pietists’, ‫חסידים‬. Phineḥas b. Yair himself is depicted in rabbinic traditions as a pietist, which lends more credence to the connection of this tradition with pietistic circles. 47 The ḥasidim and the centrality of resurrection as reward for the pious, are two aspects which are connected to the Spirit-Centered wisdom tradition as discussed at length in the previous chapters. The similarities between the Tannaitic text and Second Temple texts reflect a link between these different pietistic traditions. For example, the Psalms of Solomon discusses the righteous and their striving for divine knowledge. In Psalm 3, it references the ‘devout man’ probably referencing the term ‫איש חסיד‬, and then states, “but those who fear the Lord shall rise to everlasting life...” connecting piety with resurrection. The centrality of wisdom was also seen in the Psalms of Solomon’s description of the Messiah as one who was “anointed in fear of his God, in wisdom of spirit and of righteousness and strength.” The concept of wisdom and discipline is also expressed in 4Q525, which states, “Happy is the man who obtained wisdom, follows the Torah...controls himself with her disciplines.” In 1QS for example, the attainment of divine wisdom was predicated on a refinement of one’s character. The characteristics described were the spirit of truth, spirit of uprightness and modesty, and spirit of holiness, ‫רוח קדושה‬. The attainment of wisdom was described as being able to ‘gaze at the light of life’, ‫להביט באור חיים‬, as discussed in chapter 4. Therefore the significance of this tradition is that it ties together these different aspects by stating that the attainment of ‘piety’, ḥasidut, is rewarded with ruaḥ haqodesh as well as with the resurrection of the dead. This belief echoes the Second Temple hymns and psalms which highlight resurrection as the reward for the righteous. Furthermore, the descriptions of the righteous in these psalms are intertwined with wisdom, just as ruaḥ ha-qodesh, as demonstrated above, is associated with ḥokhma and da‘at. Elijah’s link to this entire process shows him as the mediator of the reward for the righteous. Therefore, the placement of piety and its connection to ruaḥ ha-qodesh and Elijah is an important example in which Elijah is connected to wisdom as well as pietistic traditions. In later rabbinic traditions, Elijah is associated with pietists and appears to them to impart wisdom, as will be discussed in further chapters. The seeds of this development are seen in the juxtaposition of Elijah with ruaḥ haqodesh, which is one of the goals of the pietists according to Rabbi Phineḥas’s tradition. The connection between those who possess the quality of piety and ruaḥ hab‘Avod. Zar. 20b, although interestingly enough the manuscripts to the Bavli completely omit the words from ‫ רוח הקודש‬up to Elijah. This may be another instance where the Bavli moves away from mention of ‫רוח הקודש‬, as Julie Hilton-Danan mentioned in her dissertation, “The Divine Voice in Scripture” 174–77. The omission of Elijah is also seen in Kallah Rab. 2:6. 47 See the comprehensive study on the ‘early Ḥasidim’ ‫ חסידיםראשונים‬and the discussion of Rabbi Phineḥas b. Yair in Menahem Ben Shalom, Ḥasidut ve-Ḥasidim be-tequfat Bayit Sheni u-be-tequfat ha-Mishnah (Tel Aviv: Hakibbutz Hameuhad, 2008), 431–47.

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203

qodesh is attested to in tSotah 13:3, where it discusses those who could have merited receiving ruaḥ ha-qodesh had their generation been worthy: ‫ ואע"פ כן היו‬.‫ חגי זכריה ומלאכי פסקה רוח הקודש מישראל‬,‫משמתו נביאים האחרונים‬ ‫ מעשה שנתכנסו חכמים לעליית בית גוריה ביריחו ויצתה בת‬.‫משמיעין להן על בת קול‬ ‫ נתנו‬.‫ יש כן אדם ביניכם שראוי לרוח הקדש אלא שאין דורו זכיי לכך‬,‫קול ואמרה להן‬ .‫עיניהם בהלל הזקן וכשמת אמרו עליו הא עניו הא חסיד תלמידו של עזרא‬ From the time when the last prophets, Haggai, Zechariah and Malachi died, ruaḥ ha-qodesh ceased from Israel. Yet they were able to hear the Bat Qol. A story that occurred when the sages gathered in the attic of Bet Guriya in Jericho 48 and a Bat Qol emerged and said to them, “There is a man among you who is worthy to receive ruaḥ ha-qodesh although his generation is not worthy.” They all turned their eyes upon Hillel the elder, and when he died they said about him, “Lo! what a humble man! Lo what a pious man! The student of Ezra!”

This text describes the end of prophecy and the lack of ruaḥ ha-qodesh that ensued. It states that although prophecy had ceased, Israel was still privy to the Bat Qol, the divine echo, which is considered a mode of divine communication. Regarding Hillel the elder, a Bat Qol pronounced that he would have merited receiving ruaḥ ha-qodesh if his generation had been worthy. When he was eulogized he was described as a humble and pious man, utilizing the word ḥasid. This connection to the quality of ḥasidut and ruaḥ ha-qodesh is expressed as well in tSotah 13:4 regarding the sage Shmuel haQattan, who was also eulogized as humble and pious and deemed worthy of receiving ruaḥ ha-qodesh. 49 Therefore, the concept of ruaḥ ha-qodesh and piety is stated in different Tannaitic sources, and it is unsurprising that Rabbi Phineḥas b. Yair delineates that the quality one must attain prior to receiving ruaḥ ha-qodesh is that of piety. 50 In Rabbi Phineḥas b. Yair’s statement, we see a direct correlation between the attainment of ruaḥ ha-qodesh and resurrection that will come through Elijah. This is indeed significant because it further connects Elijah to ruaḥ ha-qodesh, and to pietistic circles. This relates to the wisdom tradition on two levels, first as was explained above, ruaḥ ha-qodesh in some rabbinic sources is associated with da‘at and ḥokhma, two terms connected with the wisdom tradition. Second, the connection of pietistic circles with both wisdom and apocalyptic elements, as discussed in depth in Chapters 3 and 4, strengthens the plausibility of the Elijah traditions being a significant conduit See Lieberman, Tosefta ki-feshutah, 8.736–37 where it discusses the different variations of the name of the family in Jericho and the parallels to this statement. 49 Menahem Hirshman, “Le-demuto shel Shmuel ha-Qattan,” in Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple, Mishnah and Talmud, eds. Aaron Oppenhiemer, Isaiah Gafni, and Menahem Stern (Jerusalem: Yad Yitzḥaq Ben-Tzvi, 1993), 165–72. 50 See Büchler, Types of Jewish-Palestinian Piety, where he discusses both the piety of Hillel the elder and its connection to Rabbi Phineḥas b. Yair’s statement, 25–64. 48

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through which wisdom traditions may have been carried through into rabbinic literature. This connection between Elijah and pietists will grow with time, and in the Bavli, the Elijah stories are evidence of the remnants of the Spirit-Centered tradition in rabbinic literature. This development occurs just as the centrality of ruaḥ ha-qodesh as an attainable goal dissipates, and the revelation of Elijah becomes the new manifestation through which one may achieve access to heavenly wisdom. This development will be discussed throughout the following chapters. What still needs to be determined based on mSotah 9:15, is what is the correlation between the attainment of ruaḥ ha-qodesh, the resurrection of the dead, and the significance of Elijah’s role? In order to understand the significance of Elijah’s role it is important to lay out the intricate matrix of ideas that will be discussed. The central aspect of the Spirit-Centered wisdom tradition is the role of the spirit in the attainment of wisdom. The source of this connection is the usage of spirit in the biblical material, which associated ruaḥ with prophecy and wisdom. As discussed in the chapter on Second Temple sources, the texts that discuss these ideas also place a significant emphasis on piety as a necessary prerequisite to receive divine wisdom through the spirit. Therefore pietistic ideas appear frequently in the Spirit-Centered wisdom tradition. The texts that highlight the importance of the spirit in attaining wisdom, also discuss the reward of resurrection for those who have attained the level of piety that makes divine wisdom accessible. It is this precise sequence of ideas that is reflected in the rabbinic tradition called the ‘Saint’s Progress’. It is therefore extremely significant that Elijah is connected with this tradition as he is the one who will resurrect the dead in the messianic era. In the ‘Saint’s Progress’ Elijah becomes inextricably linked to pietistic circles and their ultimate reward of resurrection. It is my contention that the link of Elijah with ruaḥ ha-qodesh as well as the messianic teacher of the end of days lent to his association not only with resurrection in the ‘Saint’s Progress’ but also with the step prior to resurrection, the attainment of ruaḥ ha-qodesh. Before dealing with Elijah’s connection with ruaḥ, we will first look into the connection between spirit, resurrection and the messianic times in the biblical material. Ezekiel’s prophecy of the dry bones, the Book of Daniel’s description of the rewards of the righteous in the end of days, as well as the Qumran material associated with these prophecies will shed light on the connection between spirit, resurrection, prophecy and wisdom. This background will be essential in understanding how Elijah became connected with these different concepts and how they influence later portrayals of Elijah in the rabbinic material. The connection between ‘spirit’, ruaḥ, and the resurrection of the dead is seen in Ezekiel’s prophecy of the ‘dry bones’, Ezek 37:1–14. The term ruaḥ is used in three different ways in these verses. It is utilized to describe the prophetic state that transposes Ezekiel to the valley of bones: ‘‫היתה עלי יד ה' ויוצאני ברוח ה‬, “The hand of the Lord came upon me. He took me out by the spirit of the Lord.” It is used to also describe the spirit within a person that gives him/her life: ‫ונתתי עליכם גדים והעלתי עליכם בשר‬ ‫וקרמתי עליכם עור ונתתי בכם רוח וחייתם‬, “I will lay sinews upon you, and cover you with flesh, and form skin over you. And I will put breath into you, and you shall live again.” It also serves as a description of the ‘four winds’ of the earth from which this

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205

spirit is to come: ‫מארבע רוחות באי הרוח ופחי בהרוגם האלה ויחיו‬, “...from the four winds, and breathe into these slain, that they may live again.” The repeated usage of the term ruaḥ stresses the centrality of this concept to both the prophetic state of Ezekiel as well as to the process of resurrection. 51 The multivalent usages of ruaḥ in these passages are similar to the many functions of the pneuma in Greek thought, as discussed in Chapter Four. Ruaḥ’s association with prophecy, with resurrection, as well as with meteorological phenomena all co-exist within this prophecy and may have influenced the development of the connection between the ‘prophetic spirit’ and the resurrection of the spirit. Juxtaposed with this prophecy in Ezekiel 37 is the prophecy of the restoration of Israel and the reestablishment of the Davidic dynasty. This proximity may have contributed to the development of the concept of resurrection as part of the eschatological expectations in Judaism. 52 In mSotah 9:15 it clearly expresses that those who attain this lofty level of ‘piety’ will be worthy of both ruaḥ ha-qodesh and the resurrection. It is clear that resurrection is the reward of the righteous. The resurrection as reward for the righteous is seen as well in the Pseudo-Ezekiel texts found at Qumran (4Q385, 4Q386, 4Q388). Anja Klein points to the significant changes in the text when compared to the biblical version of Ezekiel as indicative of the shift from resurrection for all, to resurrection as reward for the pious. 53 As she states: “There is unanimous consent among Qumran scholars that the main exegetical interest of Pseudo-Ezekiel lays in depicting the bodily resurrection as reward for the pious within Israel. 54 Most telling is the usage of the term ‫רבים מישראל‬, ‘many of Israel’, in Pseudo-Ezekiel (4Q385 II, 2–3), which is reminiscent of the term in Dan 12:2, ‫רבים מישני אדמת עפר‬, “many of those that sleep in the dust of the earth.” The verses in Dan 12:1–3 describe the resurrection of the dead during a time of great distress, when those who will be “inscribed in the book,” ‫כל הנמצא כתוב בספר‬, will be rescued. This reflects the idea that only a select group will be saved from destruction. Dan 12:2 then speaks of “many of those that sleep in the dust of the earth” will wake to eternal life, while others ‫לחרפות ולדראון עולם‬, “to reproaches, to everlast518F

51

See as well Gerard Willems who makes a similar connection between Phineḥas b. Yair’s statement and the description of resurrection in Ezekiel, see Willems, “Quelques textes rabbiniques anciens à propos du prophète Elie,” 105. 52 Sources which connect the messianic era and the resurrection are Sifre Deut. 34 (ed. Finkelstein, 62); Gen. Rab. 74:1 (ed. Theodor-Albeck, 857–8) and yKil. 9:4, 32b. 53 Anja Klein, “Resurrection as Reward for the Righteous: The Vision of the Dry Bones in Pseudo-Ezekiel as External Continuation of the Biblical Vision in Ezekiel 37:1–14,” in I Lifted My Eyes and Saw: Reading Dream and Vision Reports in the Hebrew Bible, ed. Elizabeth R. Hayes and Lena-Sofia Tiemeyer (London: Bloomsbury, 2014), 198–220. See Albert L.A. Hogeterp, “Belief in Resurrection and its Religious Settings in Qumran and the New Testament,” in Studies on the Texts of the Desert of Judah, Volume 85: Echoes from the Caves: Qumran and the New Testament, ed. Florentino García Martínez (Boston: Brill, 2009), 299–300. 54 Klein, “Resurrection as Reward,” 215.

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ing abhorrence.” It is the level of one’s righteousness that determines whether one will wake to ‘everlasting life’ as opposed to waking to ‘everlasting abhorrence’. The final verse is even more descriptive of the righteous who will merit the resurrection of ‘everlasting life,’ calling them ‘the knowledgeable,’ ‫משכילים‬, the term adapted at Qumran for the teachers of the community, with wisdom undertones. 55 In the interpretation of Pseudo-Ezekiel, which links the resurrection in Ezek 37:1–14 with the description in Dan 12:1–3, we see a direct link between the resurrection, the pious and wisdom. Therefore not only is the resurrection seen as a specific reward for the pious but it is also couched in wisdom language, the three ideas that are also present in the tradition in mSotah 9:15, the ‘Saint’s Progress’. Interestingly enough, the interpretation of the ‘Saint’s Progress’ in the Yerushalmi further highlights a correlation between the attainment of ruaḥ haqodesh, resurrection, and wisdom. For each level of virtue the saint must progress, the Yerushalmi Sheqalim brings a prooftext to support the idea. In the Leiden manuscript, the prooftext for Elijah’s resurrecting the dead is a verse from Prov 2:5, 56 ‫אז תבין‬ ‫יראת ה' ודעת אלוקים תמצא‬, “Then you will understand the fear of the Lord, and attain knowledge of God.” It is clear that this prooftext expresses the importance of wisdom, as is further stressed by its source being from Proverbs, a wisdom text. The question is how is this verse a prooftext for Elijah’s resurrection of the dead? It seems that this verse is meant to reflect the concept behind the entire chapter of Proverbs 2, and might hint at the reward of resurrection and eternal life, according to rabbinic interpretation. 57 Proverbs 2 states that that those who seek wisdom and those who “accept 52F

524F

55

There are a few Qumran texts which express this connection, see Dwight D. Swanson, “4QCrypa Words of the Maskil to All Sons of Dawn: The Path of the Virtuous Life,” in Sapiential, Liturgical and Poetical Texts from Qumran: Proceedings of the Third Meeting of the International Organization for Qumran Studies, Oslo, 1998 Published in Memory of Maurice Baillet, ed. Daniel K. Falk (Leiden: Brill, 2000), 49–61, see especially pp. 52–56. See also Carol Ann Newsom, “The Sage in the Literature of Qumran: The Functions of the ‘Maskil’,” in The Sage in Israel and the Ancient Near East, ed. John G. Gammie and Leo G. Perdue (Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1990), 373–82 where she stresses the role of the Maskil as teacher, and one who had a liturgical role as well. She points out the presence of wisdom-like language and traditional wisdom concerns, however she stresses that “All of it, though, has undergone change through its context in a sectarian community.” (p. 382). See also Mark Leuchter, “From Levite to Maskil in the Persian and Hellenistic Eras,” in Levites and Priests in Biblical History and Tradition, ed. Mark A. Leuchter and Jeremy M. Hutton (Leiden: Brill, 2012), 215–32, for the significance of the introduction of the Maskil as teacher and interpreter of sacred texts. And Charlotte Hempel, “‘Maskil(im)’ and ‘Rabbim’ from Daniel to Qumran,” in Biblical Traditions in Transmission: Essays in Honor of Michel A. Knibb, ed. Charlotte Hempel and Judith M. Lieu (Leiden: Brill, 2006), 133–56. 56 This prooftext is also present in Song. Rab. 1:9 which will be discussed at length in the chapter on the developments in the Amoraic time period. 57 The importance of intertextual reading and studying the greater context beyond just the

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207

my words and treasure my commandments,” will receive the protection of God. In contrast, the chapter continues to describe what occurs to those who do not follow this path of righteousness. It states regarding the ‘forbidden/strange woman’, ‫אישה‬ ‫זרה‬, in verses 16–19, “Her house sinks down to Death, and her course leads to the shades. All who go to her cannot return, and find again the paths of life,” ‫כל באיה לא‬ ‫ישובון ולא ישיגו ארחות חיים‬. It seems that the expression of a ‘return’ and ‘finding again’ a path of life is understood by the Yerushalmi as hinting at the resurrection. 58 Therefore, the entire chapter reflects the idea that the righteous are rewarded with resurrection while the evildoers are punished. The insertion of the prooftext of Prov 2:5, at the end of the version in Yerushalmi Sheqalim, is brought to reflect the greater 52F

verse quoted in the rabbinic text is discussed in Daniel Boyarin, Intertextuality and the Reading of Midrash (Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1994). Boyarin stresses the importance of the hermeneutical element of midrash, and that it was not only a method for reflecting values and ideas: “I am asserting that we will not read midrash well and richly unless we understand it first and foremost as reading, as hermeneutic, as generated by the interaction of rabbinic readers with a heterogeneous and difficult text, which was for them both normative and divine in origin” (p. 5). 58 This idea can be seen in Ḥupat Eliyahu, a late midrashic collection, compiled in the modern era by J.D. Eisenstein Otzar ha-Midrashim (New York: E. Grossman, 1956), 178. It states the following: ‫ מה"מ ממית ואח"כ בא האדם לעוה"ב אבל‬,‫בא וראה כמה קשה אשה רעה ממלאך המות‬ ‘,‫האישה ’כל באיה לא ישובון ולא ישיגו ארחות חיים‬ Come and see how an evil woman is more dangerous than the Angel of Death. The Angel of Death kills a person, and then the person enters the World to Come, but an evil woman, “All who go to her cannot return, and find again the paths of life” (Prov 2:19). This midrash draws a comparison between the Angel of Death and an evil woman. It states that the Angel of Death, who may kill man, still does not prevent man from entering the ‘World to Come’. The evil woman, on the other hand, will lead to man’s downfall which will cause his death and will also prevent him from entering the ‘World to Come’. The midrash uses the same verse in Prov 2:19 to express this idea, and interprets the words, ‫לא ישובון ולא‬ ‫ ישיגו ארחות חיים‬as referencing both the resurrection and the World to Come. ‫לא ישובון‬, ‘they will not return,’ reflects the resurrection, and the words ‫ ארחותחיים‬represent the ‘World to Come’. This midrash would follow the opinion that the resurrection precedes the World to Come, see Chaim Milikowsky, “Trajectories of Return, Restoration, and Redemption in Rabbinic Judaism: Elijah, the Messiah, The War of Gog and the World to Come,” in Restoration: Old Testament, Jewish and Christian Perspectives, ed. James M. Scott (Leiden: Brill, 2001), 265–80. This idea is expressed as well in Kallah Rab. 3:8, citing this prooftext from Prov 2:19 as well. However Prov 2:19 in b‘Avod. Zar. 17a does not seem to interpret the verse in that manner, although other sources, mSanh. 10:1 and bSanh. 90a, state that those who deny the resurrection and the divine origin of the Torah do not merit the World to Come, which is similar to the idea expressed in the later Otzar ha-Midrashim, since the ‘strange woman’ is seen as a metaphor for heresy. For this metaphor see ’Avot R. Nat. 1:2; Kallah Rab. 3:8; bSanh. 90a.

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message of the chapter, and therefore further joins the pursuit of righteousness, wisdom, and the resurrection of the dead. Now that we have discussed the correlation between spirit, resurrection and wisdom, the question remains, how is this connected with Elijah? How did the tradition develop that Elijah is to resurrect the dead at the End of Days? Although the tradition of Rabbi Phineḥas b. Yair is found in a number of rabbinic texts, stating Elijah’s expectation to resurrect the dead, there are very few other rabbinic traditions that explicitly state this idea. However we do see echoes of this idea in Ben Sira, the Dead Sea Scrolls, and in the New Testament. 59 Ben Sira, in his depiction and praise of Elijah states, ‫המקים גוע ממות ומשאול ברצון יי‬, “You raised a corpse from death, from Sheol according to the will of God,” which apparently refers to his actions in 1 Kgs 17:17–24, where Elijah resurrects the son of the Tzerafite widow. In a fragmentary text of the manuscripts of Sir 48:11, when compared to the Greek and Syriac version, Ben Sira seems to indicate a future resurrection of the dead by Elijah as well. The English translation of the Syriac reads, “Blessed is he who saw you and died, however he is not dead, but vivifying he will cause life.” Puech is a strong proponent of such an interpretation, although he limits the belief to the resurrection to only the righteous who repent with the coming of Elijah. 60 Brenda Shaver, however, proposes that the reference to a future resurrection was added at a later date, more likely influenced by the development of the idea of resurrection as reward in apocalyptic texts such as the Book of Watchers and The Epistle of Enoch. 61 Either way, it is an early attestation, dating to around 200– 175 BCE, and the translation to 132 BCE, in which Elijah is associated with resurrection in the messianic age. In 4Q521, “The Messianic Apocalypse,” it speaks about a ‘Messiah whom heaven and earth shall obey,’ and in the description of the events following this Messiah it describes God’s power to heal the sick and resurrect the dead amongst other miraculous deeds, as discussed in Chapter Four. This text alludes to Elijah in its statement, in 4Q521 2 iii 2, ‫נכון באים אבות אל בנים‬, “it is su[re:] The fathers will return towards the sons,” which is very similar to the task of Elijah as expressed in Mal 3:23, ‫והשיב לב‬ ‫“ אבות על בנים‬And he will return the hearts of the fathers unto the sons.” Therefore, 527F

528F

See John J. Collins, “The Works of the Messiah,” DSD 1 (1994): 98–112. For the Figure of Elijah in the NT, see John C. Poirier, “Jesus as an Elijianic Figure in Luke 4:16–30,” CBQ 71, 2 (2009): 349–63. Christopher Tuckett, Q and the History of Early Christianity (London: T&T Clark, 1996), 222–23, as well as Eric Eve, The Jewish Context of Jesus' Miracles, JSNTSup 231 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2002), 189–96. 60 Emile Puech, “Ben Sira 48:11 et la Resurrection,” in Of Scribes and Scrolls: Studies on the Hebrew Bible, Intertestamental Judaism and Christian Origins, eds. H.W. Attridge, J.J. Collins and T.H. Tobins (Lanham: The College Theology Society, University Press of America, 1990), 86–7. 61 Brenda Shaver, “The Prophet Elijah in the literature of the Second Temple Period: The Growth of a Tradition” (PhD diss., University of Chicago, 2001), 153–59. 59

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we may have a tradition here that interprets the words of Malachi as referencing the resurrection. Perhaps the verse in Malachi is understood literally that fathers and sons will be reunited through the resurrection of the dead. This may explain the meaning behind the prooftext given in the later renditions of the ‘Saint’s Progress.’ In most of the sources, the prooftext for the idea that Elijah will bring about the resurrection of the dead is supported by the verse in Mal 3:23, ‫והשיב לב אבות על בנים‬. It seems that this verse is understood as describing the resurrection in the Yerushalmi, and perhaps in 4Q521 as well. Another source that intimates the connection between Elijah and resurrection is the Tosefta, discussed in the earlier section of this chapter, which equates the sayings “until Elijah shall come” with “until the dead shall arise.” 62 Although it does not explicitly state that the two statements are equivalent, the fact that they came to denote a similar eschatological time may have led them to be linked. Furthermore, a connection between Elijah and resurrection was most probably drawn from his acts in 1 Kings, in which he resurrects the son of the Widow of Tzarefat. The later midrashim, in a few places, state that the manner in which one can defend the idea of resurrection of the dead is through drawing from the example of Elijah. 63 However, there are few places where it is intimated that Elijah will be the one to resurrect the dead in the End of Days, although most sources express God’s direct role, and at times His exclusive role in resurrection. 64 One example that points to the direct role of Elijah (and his pupil Elisha) in the resurrection is found in bPesaḥ. 68a. This Amoraic tradition discusses the role of the righteous not only in being privy to the resurrection but in carrying it out as well. It states that both Elijah and Elisha play a role in the resurrection. 65 Therefore, it is clear that the idea that Elijah will play a role in the resurrection of the dead already has precedent in the Second Temple era, and is understood during this time period as a possible meaning behind the verse in Malachi describing Elijah’s role in the End of Days. It is also clear that a strong set of traditions, perhaps emanating from pietistic circles, highlight the resurrection as a reward for the righteous. Therefore we see that Elijah’s link to resurrection has deep roots stemming from the interpretation 62 tSotah 13:4 (ed. Lieberman, 231). 63

Lev. Rab. Emor, 27:4; Ecc. Rab. (Vilna) 3:15; Later Midrashim state this idea: Midrash Aggadah (Buber) Genesis, 30:22; Pirqe R. El. Ḥoreb, 32. 64 The three keys held exclusively by God, bTa‛an. 2b; Gen. Rab. 73:4 (ed. Theodor-Albeck, 848), although some sources say that Elijah/Elisha possessed some of these keys yBer. 5:2, 9a-b paralleled in yTa‛an. 1:1, 63c; bSanh. 113a; Deut. Rab. 7:6; Pesiq. Rab. 42. 65 This tradition will be discussed in greater detail in Chapter Eight. It is important to note even though Elijah and the resurrection are not mentioned in the Bavli’s version of Rabbi Phineḥas b. Yair’s saying, it does not necessarily indicate a rejection of Elijah’s role in the resurrection, rather, perhaps the omission was a result of limiting the usage of ‫רוח הקודש‬, which was part of the statement connecting Elijah and resurrection. The statement in bPesaḥ. 68a discussing Elijah’s role in resurrection by Rav Ḥannanel in the name of Rav clearly reflects that this idea was not rejected in toto by the Babylonian Amoraim.

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of his biblical role as well as Second Temple developments in the role of messianic figures. It is clear that the same circles that focused on resurrection also held many pietistic viewpoints which were influenced by both wisdom and apocalyptic traditions. Therefore Elijah’s link with resurrection in a pietistic text such as the ‘Saint’s progress,’ which also reference the ‘holy spirit’ should be viewed as extremely important in understanding the future link between Elijah, pietists and his role as a bearer of wisdom. What still needs to be answered is what is the connection of Elijah with ruaḥ haqodesh as well as ruaḥ ha-qodesh’s connection with wisdom? Elijah’s connection to ruaḥ ha-qodesh is obviously first connected to his role as a prophet which was linked with the inspiration through ruaḥ ha-qodesh. A source which further connects Elijah to ruaḥ ha-qodesh is found in tSotah 12:5 which states that in Elijah’s lifetime, ruaḥ ha-qodesh was abundant, and that after his departure it dissipated. 66 This strong connection between Elijah as a source of the accessibility of the Holy Spirit for the people of his time may indicate that there was something unique about Elijah’s presence, enabling a greater reception of ruaḥ ha-qodesh by the 66 tSotah 12:5 (ed. Lieberman, 227):

‫ שנ' ויאמר אליהו אל אלישע שב‬,‫ היתה רוח הקדש מרובה בישראל‬,‫עד שלא נגנז אליהו‬ '‫מהו אומ‬...'‫ מהו אומ' ויצאו בני הנביאים אשר בבית אל וגומ‬.‫נא פה כי ה' שלחני בית אל‬ ‫וחמשים איש מבני הנביאים הלכו ויעמדו מנגד מר' ושני' עמ' על הירדן יכול מפני שהן‬ ‫מועטין ת"ל וחמשים איש יכול מפני שהן קטני' ת"ל ויאמרו אליו הידעת כי היום ה' לקח‬ ‫את אדוניך אדונינו לא אמרו אלא אדוניך מלמד שכולם חביריו של אליהו היו והיו שקולין‬ ‫כנגד אליהו ומניין שנסתלקה מהן רוח הקדש שנ' ויאמרו אליו הנא נא יש את עבדך חמשה‬ ‫אנשים בני חיל וגו' איפשר לבני אדם אמש הוא אומ' הידעת כי היום ה' לקח את אדוניך‬ ‫ועכשיו אומר ילכו ויבקשו את אדוניך אלא מגיד שנסתלקה מהן רוח הקודש‬ Prior to the time when Elijah was hidden away, prophecy was abundant in Israel for it is written, “Elijah said to Elisha, ‘stay here, for the Lord has sent me on to Bethel.’” (2 Kgs 2:2), And what else is written, “Disciples of the prophets at Bethel came out etc.” (2 Kgs 2:3) ...What is written, “Fifty men of the disciples of the prophets followed and stood by at a distance as the two of them stopped at the Jordan.” (2 Kgs 2:7) Is it because there were a small number of them? It is written, “And fifty men,” (2 Kgs 2:7) Is it because they were lesser [in stature]? It is written, “And they said to him, ‘do you know that the Lord will take your master,’” (2 Kgs 2:3) They did not say ‘our master’ rather, ‘your master’ to teach you that they were all his peers and were considered Elijah’s equal. And from where do we know that ruaḥ ha-qodesh was expelled from them, for it is written, “They said to him, ‘Your servants have fifty able men with them. [Let them go and look for your master’]” (2 Kgs 2:16). Is it possible that the day before these people said, ‘Did you know that the Lord will take your master today?’ And now they say ‘Let them go and search for your master.’ This tells you that ruaḥ ha-qodesh was expelled from them. Another example of the connection between Elijah and ruaḥ ha-qodesh is found in Mekh. R. Ish. de-Pisḥa, 1 (ed. Horovitz-Rabin, 5–6). It describes Elijah giving over ruaḥ ha-qodesh to his student Elisha and is compared to the transfer of ruaḥ ha-qodesh from Moses to Joshua and also serves as another example of the parallel drawn between Elijah and Moses.

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people surrounding him. It is clear that this tradition’s understanding of ruaḥ haqodesh is in the prophetic sense. The idea of Elijah’s presence being a conduit for access to ruaḥ ha-qodesh may have contributed to the development of Elijah as a conduit to wisdom. This is better understood in light of the development of ruaḥ ha-qodesh within rabbinic ideology. Although the rabbis clearly understand that ruaḥ ha-qodesh as prophecy no longer exists, as many statements and traditions indicate, there are also traditions which presume the existence of ruaḥ ha-qodesh in rabbinic times, although in an altered state. 67 Stephen Cook states, [R]abbinic literature uses the term “Holy Spirit” in multiple senses. The term signifies the Shekhinah in the traditions about the loss of the Holy Spirit when the First Temple was destroyed; it refers to prophecy in the traditions about the deaths of the last prophets; and in the case of later rabbis, it alludes to the special presence of God with worthy individuals. 68

How precisely to define this “special presence of God” is an important question, which may shed light on the connection between ruaḥ ha-qodesh and wisdom. Julie Hilton-Danan delves into the development of the idea of ruaḥ ha-qodesh and its complex character, and points to a few elements in which ruaḥ ha-qodesh intersects with wisdom. First, the personification of ruaḥ ha-qodesh as the divine voice in scripture, which speaks within scripture and midrash to express and explain certain aspects in the text, is reminiscent of the idea of Wisdom personified as expressed in biblical wisdom literature. As Hilton-Danan states; Many uses of Ruaḥ ha-kodesh offering irony, moral lessons, or just the “bigger picture” in Scripture may reconnect it with the Wisdom tradition of Proverbs. Ruaḥ See Cook, On the Question of the Cessation of Prophecy in Ancient Judaism where he discusses the rabbinic approach, as well as biblical and Second Temple approaches to the concept of the end of prophecy. His detailed analysis expresses the overall understanding that prophecy ceased in the Persian period, mostly using the term ruaḥ ha-qodesh to denote that. He further elaborates on the rabbinic sources that speak of the existence of ruaḥ ha-qodesh in their own time, despite the understanding of the end of prophecy, such as, tPesaḥ. 2:15; y‘Avod. Zar. 1:9, 40a; bEruv. 64b; Lev. Rab. 37:3; Gen. Rab. 79:6 (ed. Theodor-Albeck, 944–45); Ecc. Rab. 10:8; yShevi. 9:1, 38d; ySotah 1:4, 16d; Lev. Rab. 9:9; Lev. Rab. 21:8; bGit. 56a; tSotah 13:4; bSanh. 68a, among many others, see 149–73, especially 166–68. See as well, Ephraim E. Urbach, The Sages: Their Concepts and Beliefs, trans. Israel Abrahams (London: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 577–79; Milikowsky, “Sof ha-nevu’ah ve-sof ha-Miqra,” 83–94; Jon Levinson, “Did the Spirit Withdraw from Israel?: An Evaluation of the Earliest Jewish Data,” NTS 43, 1 (1997): 35–57. See Cook’s arguments against his analysis, although not disagreeing with the continued existence of ruaḥ ha-qodesh, although in a lessened capacity, see Cook, Cessation of Prophecy, 162–64. 68 Cook, On the Question of the Cessation of Prophecy, 173. 67

212

THROUGH THE PRISM OF WISDOM ha-kodesh is not the fully developed feminine figure of the Kabbalistic Shekhinah, but she nonetheless presents the divine feminine in an active role, an echo of biblical Wisdom, communicating with the Sages and evoking their responses. 69

This idea seems to be highly connected to Jewish Hellenistic ideas regarding the ‘Holy Spirit’, as the force that enables wisdom to interpret biblical texts and access divine knowledge which are found in the Wisdom of Solomon as well as the works of Philo. Ideas of the Holy Spirit also developed within Christianity, and in many instances are seen to connect with wisdom as well, although they also developed further as a hypostasis of God. 70 John Levison discusses Philo’s understanding of the Holy Spirit (πνευμαθεῖον, ὑπὸκατοχῆςἐνθέου) 71 as the conduit through which one achieves wisdom and knowledge of God. He states, Philo proffers a definitive identification of the Divine Spirit: “But as it is, the spirit which is on him is the wise, the divine, the excellent spirit, susceptible of neither severance nor division, diffused in its fullness everywhere and through all things, the spirit which helps, but suffers no hurt, which though it be shared with others or added to others suffers no diminution in understanding and knowledge and wisdom.” 72

Furthermore, Philo’s autobiographical accounts of his encounters with the Holy Spirit connect his experience with the revelation of wisdom. Levison states, “Philo colors his experience of inspiration...to descend from above and impart, above all wisdom...Philo’s vision is a vision of divine wisdom, for ‘Wisdom is God’s archetypal luminary and the sun is a copy and image of it.’” 73 Philo describes the Divine Spirit descending upon him (ὑπὸ κατοχῆς ἐνθέου) and imparting wisdom as part of the process 69 Hilton-Danan, “The Divine Voice in Scripture” 248. 70 For

wisdom and the Holy Spirit in Philo see, Jon Levison, “Inspiration and the Divine Spirit in the Writings of Philo Judaeus,” JSJ 26, 3 (1995): 271–323. As for the usage of the Holy Spirit in the NT and its connection to wisdom see, J.A. Kirk, “The Meaning of Wisdom in James: Examination of a Hypothesis,” NTS 16, 1 (1969): 24–38; Jack Levison, “A Theology of the Spirit in the Letter to the Hebrews,” CBQ 78, 1 (2016): 90–110; Andrew W. Pitts and Seth Pollinger, “The Spirit in Second Temple Jewish Monotheism and the Origins of Early Christology,” in Christian Origins and Hellenistic Judaism: Social and Literary Contexts for the New Testament, ed. Stanley E. Porter, Andrew W. Pitts (Leiden: Brill, 2013), 135–76; Jörg Frey, “Paul’s View of the Spirit in the Light of Qumran,” in The Dead Sea Scrolls and Pauline Literature, ed. Jean-Sébastien Rey, STDJ (Leiden: Brill 2014), 237–60. On the further development of these ideas into the 3rd century CE, see Susan E. Myers, “Antecedents of the Feminine Imagery of Spirit in the ‘Acts of Thomas’,” Apocrypha 26 (2015): 103–18. 71 Gig. 19, Mig. 34–35; Spec. Leg. 4.49; Vit. Mos. 1.277. 72 Levison, “Inspiration and the Divine Spirit in the Writings of Philo Judaeus,” 278. 73 Levison, “Inspiration and the Divine Spirit,” 284.

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of his scriptural exegesis. 74 His description of the Holy Spirit in many instances is similar to his depiction of the prophetic state, 75 which is indeed interesting as the connection between these two aspects is seen in Tannaitic literature as well, specifically in the Mekhilta quoted above, with regard to Miriam’s prophecy. 76 As Herbert Parzen states in his analysis of ruaḥ ha-qodesh in Tannaitic texts, “An immediate corollary of the concept that the effect of the ruaḥ ha-qodesh is prophecy is the observation that its effect may also result in Wisdom, in its classic meaning of learning and knowledge.” 77 Furthermore, Philo’s description of his role as interpreter is also associated with his ascent experience. Levison states, “The correlation between ascent and interpretation, then, reveals that Philo places his role as interpreter on a plateau parallel to his experience as a philosopher whose mind ascends to the upper regions of the cosmos.” 78 This kind of ascent is the description which Philo gives for the revelation of the ‘Divine spirit of wisdom.’ This connection between the Holy Spirit/Divine Spirit and wisdom, as well as interpretation of scripture, is an extremely important connection that is also seen in the Dead Sea Scrolls, as well as in Tannaitic literature. The connection between interpretation of scripture and wisdom in Tannaitic texts can be seen in the use of the terms ha-katuv and torah as they are used in rabbinic exegesis. Azzan Yadin discusses the role of the terms ha-katuv and torah in the Rabbi Ishmael midrashim, Mekhilta, and Sifre. He states with regard to the Rabbi Ishmael midrashim: ...the Rabbi Ishmael midrashim figure Scripture, HA-KATUV, as an active, intentional teacher that comes to clarify potentially misunderstood biblical passages, as well as instruct regarding proper modes of interpretation. This portrait of Scripture

74 Mig. 34–35.

75 Levison, “Inspiration and the Divine Spirit,” 282. 76

However, this idea was not shared by all, as Rabbi Shimon b. Menasya (a fourth generation Tanna) expresses in tYad. 2:14, the book of Ecclesiastes does not render the hands impure, since it is not inspired by ‫רוח הקודש‬, unlike the book Song of Songs, which does render the hands impure. According to Rabbi Shimon b. Menasya there is a clear difference between ruaḥ haqodesh and ‘wisdom’, as he states, ‫ר' שמעון בן מנסיא אומר שיר השירים מטמא את הידים מפני‬ ‫שנאמרה ברוח הקדש קהלת אינה מטמא את הידים מפני שהיא מחכמתו של שלמה‬. “Rabbi Shimon b. Menasya says, the Song of Song renders the hands impure because it was said with the ‘Divine Spirit’. Ecclesiastes does not render the hands impure because it is from the wisdom of Solomon.” However, it does seem that the trend connecting wisdom and ruaḥ ha-qodesh was moving in the other direction. 77 Herbert Parzen, “The Ruaḥ Hakodesh in Tannaitic Literature,” JQR 20, 1 (1929): 68–9. This is seen through the connection of ruaḥ ha-qodesh with the writing of the traditional biblical wisdom work Ecclesiastes, see tYad. 2:14. 78 Levison, “Inspiration and the Divine Spirit,” 295.

214

THROUGH THE PRISM OF WISDOM is unique to the Rabbi Ishmael midrashim and suggests an affinity between Torah and the personified teacher par excellence, Wisdom. 79

The portrayal of scripture as an active voice in interpretation is also applied to the usages of ruaḥ ha-qodesh by Hilton-Danan, who also stresses its affinity to wisdom. She states, From the time of the Apocryphal Wisdom books and throughout Rabbinic literature, Wisdom and Torah are inextricably linked, and this is very important to the development of the Rabbinic Ruaḥ ha-kodesh as the divine voice, the voice of wisdom speaking in the Torah/scriptures. 80

As mentioned above, the traditions which highlight the connection of Elijah with the profuseness of ruaḥ ha-qodesh in his time seem to conceive of him as the natural conduit for wisdom as the terms begin to be associated with one another. This development is informed by Martin Jaffe’s description of the ‘oral Torah’ as a ‘textinterpretive tradition,’ which he defines as, “a body of interpretive understandings that arise from multiple performances of a text (written or oral).” 81 He is saying that when the text is performed, it holds self-evident meanings which are understood by its performers and its audience. These meanings continue to influence the tradition and bring about further manifestations of these ideas within the tradition. Therefore, Elijah’s strong association with ruaḥ ha-qodesh, as highlighted by the traditions in the Tosefta and Mekhilta, gain greater nuance with the continual development of the understanding of ruaḥ ha-qodesh as a conduit to wisdom. The interpretive tradition that begins to associate wisdom and ruaḥ ha-qodesh enables new traditions to develop connecting Elijah with wisdom. This is seen most clearly within Amoraic texts and will Azzan Yadin, Scripture as Logos: Rabbi Ishmael and the Origins of Midrash (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004), 163. Yadin discusses Prov 8 as the biblical locus classicus of the concept of wisdom personified as teacher. 80 Hilton-Danan, “The Divine Voice in Scripture” 95. The extent that this metonym, ruaḥ haqodesh, is a separate entity from God or a reflection of his essence is debated by scholars. Hilton-Danan discusses different viewpoints; E. Urbach contends that the metonyms for God were metaphorical and did not represent a hypostasis of God, E. Urbach, The Sages Their Views and Beliefs, 37–65, as well as G. Foot Moore, Judaism in the First Centuries of the Christian Era (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1927, 1970), 437. However, other scholars believe that these metonyms held greater mythic content then the Gaonic and medieval tradition appreciated, see Michael Fishbane, The Exegetical Imagination on Jewish Thought and Theology (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1998) and Biblical Myth and Rabbinic Mythmaking (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003). As well as Daniel Boyarin in his discussion of the Memra, “Word” also identified with Sophia/Wisdom, in Borderlines Borderlines The Partition of Judaeo-Christianity (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004), 112–27 which Hilton-Danan associates with ruaḥ ha-qodesh. 81 Martin Jaffe, Torah in the Mouth: Writing and Oral Tradition in Palestinian Judaism, 200 BCE–400CE (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), 8. 79

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be discussed in the following chapters. However, traces of the connection between Elijah and wisdom can also be gleaned from a number of Tannaitic sources. The idea that Elijah and ruaḥ ha-qodesh are connected, with the presence of wisdom undertones, is seen in a tradition found in the Midrash Tannaim to Devarim, also known as the Mekhilta on Deuteronomy. 82 In a tradition regarding the importance of the Sabbath, it states that the Sabbath’s prominence is evident from the cessation of work on that day, for work is considered beloved by God. There is a list of traditions that state why work/labor is considered beloved by God. It states in this context: 83 .‫חביבה היא המלאכה שלא שרת רוח הקדש על אלישע בן שפט אלא מתוך המלאכה‬ ‫ ומה אליהו אומר לו? לך שוב כי מה‬.‫שנ' וילך וימצא את אלישע בן שפט והוא חורש‬ .‫עשיתי לך‬ Beloved is labor, for ruaḥ ha-qodesh was only bestowed upon Elisha son of Shafat in a state of labor, for it says, “And he went and found Elisha son of Shafat and he was plowing,” (1 Kgs 19:19) and what did Elijah say to him, “Go return, for what have I done for you!” (1 Kgs 19:20).

The context of this tradition deals with a debate found within the wisdom tradition, regarding the value of labor and work in connection with study and wisdom. 84 Clearly this is a tradition that sees value in labor as it maintains that within a state of labor Elisha received ruaḥ ha-qodesh from his master Elijah. There is clearly tension within 82

Midrash Tannaim/Mekhilta Devarim is a Midrash that was collected by Hoffman from a later medieval text, although Hoffman has convincingly shown that some of the sources were Tannaitic. It is seen as a work from the school of Rabbi Ishmael, which is significant in light of Azzan Yadin’s research. It is seen to have fewer ties to the Mishnah as compared to the Rabbi Aqiva midrashim, see Menahem Kahana, “The Halakhic Midrashim,” in The Literature of the Sages, Part II, ed. Shmuel Safrai (Assen: Fortress Press, 2006), 3–106, esp. 95–103. 83 Mid. Tann. Deut. 5:14 (ed. Hoffman, 22). 84 For the presence of this debate within the wisdom tradition see Henry Fischel, “Transformation of Wisdom,” in Aspects of Wisdom in Judaism and Early Christianity, ed. Robert L. Wilken (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1975), 83 and for this debate as it appears in Philo, see Levison, “Inspiration and the Divine Spirit,” 292–93, as well as Ben Sira 38:24–39:11. Ben Sira discusses the effect that labor has on limiting one’s ability to study wisdom. See Richard A. Horsely, “Ben Sira and the Sociology of the Second Temple,” in Second Temple Studies III: Studies in Politics, Class and Material Culture, ed. Phillip R. Davies and John M. Halligan (London: Sheffield Academic Press, 2002), 74–107, esp. pp. 86–88. See as well, Maria Carmela Palmisano, “‘Perform Your Work Promptly, and, in his Time, he will Give you Your Reward’ (SirG 51:30): Some Observations of the Use of εργoν/‫ מעשה‬in the Book of Ben Sira,” in Wisdom for Life: Essays Offered to Honor Prof. Maurice Gilbert, on the Occasion of His Eightieth Birthday, ed. Nuria Calduch-Benges (Berlin: de Gruyter, 2014), 218– 33, for the usage of the term ‘work’ and Ben Sira’s attitude towards labor.

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the rabbinic tradition regarding the place of work and labor as opposed to study. This tradition clearly states the importance of labor as is expressed through the string of traditions discussing why ‘beloved is labor,’ ‫חביבה היא המלאכה‬. The importance of this tradition in our discussion is that it depicts Elijah’s role in giving over ruaḥ haqodesh, within a group of traditions that clearly possess traces of wisdom interests. The connection between these wisdom-like traditions and the appearance of Elijah as representing their view on these issues is noteworthy. The association between Elijah and the importance of study vs. labor is not only seen in the midrash above, but is also found in the Mekhilta of Rabbi Shimon b. Yoḥai. In interpreting the verse in Exod 16:33 where Moses tells Aharon to take a vessel and place the manna inside it as a remembrance for all generations, it states: '‫ ר' יוסי אומ‬,‫ ר' אלעזר המודעי אומ' לדורות‬,‫והנח ]אותו לפני ייי ר'[ יהושע אומ' לאבות‬ ‫ לפי שהיה ירמיה אומ' להן ליש' ה>ת