Tholos Tomb Gamma: A Prepalatial Tholos Tomb at Phouni, Archanes (Prehistory Monographs) [Illustrated] 1931534179, 9781931534178

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THOLOS TOMB GAMMA A Prepalatial Tholos Tomb at Phourni, Archanes

THOLOS TOMB GAMMA A Prepalatial Tholos Tomb at Phourni, Archanes

PREHISTORY MONOGRAPHS 17

THOLOS TOMB GAMMA A Prepalatial Tholos Tomb at Phourni, Archanes by Yiannis Papadatos with a contribution by Sevi Triantaphyllou

Published by INSTAP Academic Press Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 2005

Design and Production INSTAP Academic Press Printing CRWGraphics, Pennsauken, New Jersey Binding Hoster Bindery, Inc., Ivyland, Pennsylvania

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Papadatos, Giannes. Tholos tomb gamma : a prepalatial Tholos tomb at Phourni, Archanes / by Yiannis Papadatos ; with a contribution by Sevi Triantaphyllou. p. cm. -- (Prehistory monographs ; 17) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 1-931534-17-9 (hardcover : alk. paper) 1. Phourni Site (Greece) 2. Tombs--Greece--Phourni Site. 3. Minoans--Greece--Phourni Site. 4. Exacavations (Archaeology)--Greece--Archanes Region. 5. Archanes Region (Greece)--Antiquities. I. Triantaphyllou, Sevi. II. Title. III. Series. DF221.C8P36 2005 939'.18--dc22 2005030291

Copyright © 2005 INSTAP Academic Press Philadelphia, Pennsylvania All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America

To my parents

Table of Contents LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ix LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xi LIST OF PLATES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xiii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xv ABBREVIATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xvii 1. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 2. EXCAVATION AND STRATIGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3 History of Excavation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3 Stratigraphy of the Tholos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4 Stratigraphy of the Dromos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5 Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6 Location of the Finds inside the Tholos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7 Location of the Finds in the Dromos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12 3. POTTERY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13 Description of Wares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13 Stratigraphic Sequence and Parallels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15 Pottery Catalog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19 4. OTHER FINDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27 Burial Containers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27 Figurines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29 Copper Artifacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33 Silver and Lead Artifacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34 Pendants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35 Jewelry: Beads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38 Jewelry: Bands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39

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Seals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42 Bone Artifacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44 Ivory Artifacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45 Stone Artifacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46 Chipped Stone Artifacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46 5. DISCUSSION OF THE EXCAVATION EVIDENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49 Tholos, Stratum I: Destruction of Tholos Gamma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49 Tholos, Stratum II: Upper Burial Stratum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50 Tholos, Stratum III: Lower Burial Stratum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51 Dromos, Stratum I: Destruction of the Dromos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53 Dromos, Stratum IIA: Burial Stratum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54 Dromos, Stratum IIB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54 Dromos, Stratum III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54 6. MORTUARY PRACTICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55 Burial Facility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56 Primary Burial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56 Secondary Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58 7. CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63 APPENDIX: THE HUMAN REMAINS, Sevi Triantaphyllou . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67 Palaeodemography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68 Health Status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70 Analysis of the Bones Found inside the Larnakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72 Analysis of the Bones Collected outside the Larnakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74 Analysis of the Bones Collected from the Dromos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76 Cleaning of Tholos Gamma during Excavation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76 BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79 INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .85 TABLES FIGURES PLATES

List of Tables 1. Tholos Gamma interior, Stratum II. Burials and other finds from inside the larnakes and the pithos. 2. Tholos Gamma interior, Stratum II. Burials and other finds from outside and between the larnakes and pithos. 3. Tholos Gamma interior, Stratum III. Finds. 4. Number of pottery sherds per stratum, according to wares. 5. Amount of wares per stratum (in %). 6. Amount of wares per stratum, excluding the unidentified sherds (in %). 7. Clay vases. 8. Copper objects. 9. Figurines. 10. Jewelry. 11. Pendants. 12. Silver and lead objects. 13. Objects made of bone and hippopotamus ivory. 14. Seals. 15. Stone objects. 16. Chipped stone objects. 17. Bone material found inside the larnakes. 18. Bone material found outside the larnakes. 19. Age and sex distribution of the adult individuals.

List of Figures 1. Maps of Crete and the Archanes area. Plan of the Phourni cemetery (from Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, 152). 2. Plan of Tholos Gamma. 3A. Section of Tholos Gamma interior. 3B. Section of Tholos Gamma dromos. 4A. Stratigraphic section of Tholos Gamma interior. 4B. Stratigraphic section of Tholos Gamma dromos. 5A. Distribution of larnakes in Stratum II. 5B. Distribution of burials and finds in Stratum II. 6A. Distribution of finds in Stratum III. 6B. Distribution of copper and silver objects in Stratum III. 7A. Distribution of figurines in Stratum III. 7B. Distribution of beads in Stratum III. 8A. Distribution of gold bands in Stratum III. 8B. Distribution of clay vases, seals, and stone, bone, and ivory objects in Stratum III. 9A. Distribution of pendants in Stratum III. 9B. Distribution of obsidian objects in Stratum III. 10. Pottery from Stratum I, Layers 1–2. 11. Pottery from Stratum I, Layer 3. 12. Pottery from Stratum I, Layer 3. 13. Pottery from Stratum I, Layer 3. 14. Pottery from Stratum III. From dromos: pottery from Stratum I. 15. Clay vases from Strata I, II, and III. 16. From dromos: pottery and clay vases from Strata IIA and IIB.

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17.

Larnakes from Stratum II.

18.

Larnakes and pithos from Stratum II.

19.

Copper objects from Strata II and III.

20.

Figurines from Stratum III.

21.

Figurines from Stratum III.

22.

Figurines, lead, and silver objects from Strata II and III.

23.

Pendants, bone objects, and ivory objects from Strata II and III.

24.

Ivory handles from Stratum III.

25.

Jewelry from Stratum III. From dromos: jewelry from Strata IIA and III.

26.

Seals from Strata II and III.

27.

Stone objects and obsidian from Strata II and III.

28.

Obsidian from Stratum III. From dromos: obsidian from Stratum IIB.

29A. Bone representation of the postcranial skeleton. 29B. Prevalence of dental disease. 29C. Prevalence of dental disease by sex group.

List of Plates 1A. Tholos Gamma from the west with the Archanes valley in the background. 1B. Tholos Gamma interior from the west showing the entrance and window. 2A. Tholos Gamma interior walls from the west showing the entrance and window. 2B.

Tholos Gamma interior walls from the north.

3A. Tholos Gamma interior walls from the east. 3B. Tholos Gamma interior walls from the south. 4A. Tholos Gamma from the west at the beginning of the excavation. 4B. Tholos Gamma interior from the east. Stratum I, Layer 1. 5A. Tholos Gamma interior from the west. Stratum I, Layer 1. 5B. Tholos Gamma interior from the east. Stratum I, Layer 2. 6A. Tholos Gamma interior from the east. Stratum I, Layer 3. 6B. Tholos Gamma interior from the east. Stratum I, Layer 3. 7A. Tholos Gamma interior from the west. Stratum II. 7B. Tholos Gamma interior from the northeast. 8A. Tholos Gamma interior. Stratum II from the west. 8B. Tholos Gamma interior. Stratum II. Burials inside larnax L4 from the northwest. 9A. Tholos Gamma interior. Stratum II. Larnax L5. 9B. Tholos Gamma interior. Stratum II. Burial inside larnax L5. 10A. Tholos Gamma interior. Stratum II. Burials inside larnax L6 from the west. 10B. Tholos Gamma interior. Stratum II. Burials inside larnax L10 from the southwest. 11A. Tholos Gamma interior. Stratum II from the west. 11B. Tholos Gamma. Stratum II. Entrance from the west. 12A. Tholos Gamma interior. Stratum III. Area beneath larnax L7 from the east.

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12B. Tholos Gamma interior. Stratum III. Area beneath larnax L7 from the north. 13A. Tholos Gamma interior. Stratum III. Area beneath larnax L1 from the west. 13B. Tholos Gamma interior. Stratum III. Area beneath pithos L12 from the northwest. 14A. Tholos Gamma interior. Stratum III. Area beneath larnax L4 from the west. 14B. Tholos Gamma interior. Strata II and III, entrance from the west. 15A. Tholos Gamma dromos from the northeast. Stratum I. 15B. Tholos Gamma dromos from the east showing the window. 16A. Tholos Gamma dromos from the north. Stratum IIB showing cup V6. 16B. Tholos Gamma dromos from the north. Stratum IIB showing burial K42. 17.

Pottery, clay vases, pendants, copper daggers, and silver scraper from Strata I–III. From dromos: clay vases from Stratum IIB.

18.

Figurines from Stratum III.

19.

Figurines from Stratum III.

20.

Pendants, jewelry, obsidian, bone, ivory, and stone objects from Strata II and III.

21.

Human skeletal remains.

22.

Human skeletal remains.

Acknowledgments This book is largely based on the research for my Ph.D. dissertation, submitted to the University of Sheffield, in Sheffield, UK. It also resulted from a process longer than the period of the doctoral research. For this reason, I would like to thank several people involved in this process, although not always related directly to the preparation of this book. I am grateful to Prof. Yiannis Sakellarakis and Dr. Efi Sapouna-Sakellaraki for accepting me to the “University of Archanes” and entrusting me with the study of such an important and controversial assemblage as Tholos Gamma. They were always of great help by providing the excavation journals and photographs and discussing the excavation, material, and implications with me. Prof. Keith Branigan and Dr. Peter Day, my supervisors at the University of Sheffield, generously offered their guidance and encouragement during my postgraduate research. They represent two different generations of scholars in the study of the Prehistoric Aegean, and I had the opportunity to benefit from their combined experience, knowledge, and advice. To Prof. Christos Doumas and Prof. Eleni Mantzourani at the University of Athens, I owe my initiation into the knowledge and the problems of Cycladic and Minoan archaeology, which constitute the two major poles of this archaeological material. I wish also to thank Alexandra Karetsou, former director of the KG v Ephoreia in Herakleion, for permission to study the Tholos Gamma material. Special thanks also go to the personnel of the museums in Herakleion and Archanes for their valuable assistance during the study of this material. This work benefitted also from discussions with Christos Boulotis, Cyprian Broodbank, Tristan Carter, Christos Doumas, Theodoros Eliopoulos, Yiannis Georgiou, Paul Halstead, Valasia Isaakidou, Alexis Karytinos, Despina Katapoti, Michalis Katapotis, Carl Knappett, George Korres, Olga Krzyszkowska, Vaggelio Kyriatzi, Alexandros Lachanas, Christofilis Maggidis, Marissa Marthari, Panayiotis Moutzouridis, Kostas Nikoletzos, Eleni Nodarou, Diamantis Panagiotopoulos, Olia Peperaki, Maria Relaki, Vaggelis Saltos, Ilse Schoep, Sue Sherratt, Peter Tomkins, Sevi Triantaphyllou, Metaxia Tsipopoulou, Giorgos Vavouranakis, Andreas Vlachopoulos, Sofia Voutsaki, Peter Warren, Todd Whitelaw, and David Wilson. The INSTAP Study Center for East Crete provided the necessary facilities and the ideal atmosphere for studying during the final stages of the preparation of this book. I would like to thank the director, Dr. Tom Brogan, and the staff at the Center for their support.

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All the figures have been prepared by the author, except Figs. 2 and 3, which are by Giorgos Padermarakis, and Fig. 26 is by Douglas Faulmann. The photographs are courtesy of Yiannis Sakellarakis. Financial support for the doctoral research was provided by the Greek State Scholarship Foundation (IKY). Prof. George S. Korres is gratefully acknowledged for providing supervision on behalf of IKY. The preparation of the book was funded by the Institute for Aegean Prehistory (INSTAP).

Acknowledgments to the Appendix by Sevi Triantaphyllou I would like to warmly thank Prof. Yiannis Sakellarakis and Dr. Yiannis Papadatos who invited and entrusted me with the study of such an important prehistoric assemblage. Yiannis Papadatos introduced me to modern and Minoan Archanes some eight years ago and made my stay there particularly enjoyable. I am grateful to Prof. Keith Branigan, my internal examiner at the University of Sheffield, who suggested my work to Yiannis. They both gave me the opportunity to extend, for the first time, my study area to Crete. This contribution as well as any study I am currently performing on human bones in the prehistoric Aegean would be impossible without the generous funding from the Institute for Aegean Prehistory. Lastly, I thank the staff of INSTAP Academic Press who converted my text into readable English.

Abbreviations AM

Catalog number in the Archanes Archaeological Museum

c.

circa

CMS

h.

height

HM

Catalog number in the Herakleion Archaeological museum

Corpus der Minoischen und Mykenischen Siegel

int. d.

interior diameter

l.

length

d.

diameter

LM

Late Minoan period

d. base

diameter of base

m

meter

d. hole(s)

diameter of hole(s)

max.

maximum

d. neck

diameter of neck

max. d.

maximum dimension

d. rim

diameter of rim

max. pr. d. maximum preserved dimension

d. spout

diameter of spout

min.

minimum

EBA

Early Bronze Age

min. d.

minimum dimension

EC

Early Cycladic period

MM

Middle Minoan period

EM

Early Minoan period

pr.

preserved

ext. d.

exterior diameter

th.

thickness

FAFs

Folded Arm Figurines

w.

width

1

Introduction

One of the ideas concerning Prepalatial Crete that has gained broad acceptance and has been repeated in almost every study is that most of our knowledge derives from cemeteries and tombs. However, the common, frustrating conclusion is that, despite the adequate body of evidence, the reconstruction of the Prepalatial period faces serious problems. This situation is due to the quality of the evidence and the character of Prepalatial mortuary practices themselves (Branigan 1988; 1993; Soles 1992; Watrous 1994). The Prepalatial tombs were of collective character with continuous use for several centuries and for a large number of burials. This practice resulted in many periodical cleanings of the old burial remains, including the funerary goods, during the history of use of each tomb. Consequently, the picture emerging from many tombs is rather fragmentary; the burial remains are often very disturbed and the information poor. A large number of tombs, especially in southern Crete, have been looted in modern times, and the contents have been sold to private collections. These looting activities were sometimes extensive and well organized. They did not only break down the contextual link between the tombs and their contents, but they also disturbed the stratigraphy and sometimes demolished the tombs themselves.

The method of excavation of a large number of tombs and cemeteries has left something to be desired, and much information has not been recorded properly. Most of these tombs were excavated before World War II, and much information was not documented. Unfortunately, it is frustrating to note that, despite the developments in the discipline and methods of archaeology, this situation continued even as late as the 1970s, with only a few exceptions. A large number of Prepalatial tombs are not published. In most cases the excavation report may be little more than a few paragraphs, while pottery and finds may not have been studied and properly documented. With the above in mind, the study of Tholos Gamma in the cemetery of Phourni provides a real challenge and unique opportunity. The tomb was excavated in 1972 by Y. Sakellarakis. The detailed excavation diaries contained much information about the stratigraphy, the location of the finds, and the burials. Moreover, all the pottery and a large portion of the skeletal material were collected, unlike the case in many other Prepalatial tombs. All of this data, together with the drawings, photographs, and other recorded details provide useful information. The fact that it was possible to reconstruct and date the stratigraphy of the tomb in a different way

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than the initial suggestion (Sakellarakis 1972) clearly illustrates the effectiveness of the excavation system. Last, but not least, Tholos Gamma remained unlooted and almost undisturbed since the moment of the last interment, unlike most of the Prepalatial tombs. This publication includes a detailed discussion of the pottery, the finds and their parallels, and a reconstruction both of the excavation and of the

stratigraphy of Tholos Gamma. This evidence is used to date the tomb and give the “scenario,” that is, the historical outline of the tomb from its foundation in EM IIA until its excavation in 1972. At a second level, we discuss several problems concerning Prepalatial mortuary practices, with particular reference to the case of Tholos Gamma, and especially to the new evidence coming from the study of this funerary assemblage.

2

Excavation and Stratigraphy

History of Excavation Archanes is situated 23 km south of Herakleion and the north Cretan coast and 15 km south of Knossos (Fig. 1). The focal point of the area is the small valley in the center, which is the southernmost part of the larger Herakleion plain, consisting of rich, fertile, marl deposits. Until very recently the economy and organization of life of the local population depended largely on the agricultural production of the valley, mainly olive oil, grapes, and wine. The valley is surrounded by low and high hills and is relatively separated from other neighboring areas. One of the few natural passes is the gorge of the Myristis rivulet, which until some decades ago was the main road to Knossos and the north coast. The modern town of Archanes, of c. 4500 people, lies in the southern part of the valley, directly on top of the Minoan settlement. The latter appears to be founded in EM II (Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, 30, 381), and it continued almost until the end of the Late Bronze Age. The main periods of prosperity were the New and Post Palace periods, when the remains of the monumental palatial building of Tourkoyeitonia is dated. To the west of the valley, Mt. Juktas rises rather abruptly to the height of 811 m. Due to its height and length, Juktas actually dominates the landscape and the lives

of the Archaniots. The mountain is an important religious center for the modern inhabitants, as it was for the Minoans 4,000 years ago. Juktas was one of the most important peak sanctuaries on the entire island, not surprising considering that it served not only Archanes, but also all the neighboring sites including the palatial center of Knossos. The cemetery of the Minoan settlement lies on the low hill of Phourni, overlooking the valley and the settlement from the northwest (Fig. 1; Pl. 1A). The cemetery was discovered in 1964 and excavated by Yiannis Sakellarakis and Efi Sakellaraki almost continuously until 1989. It has been considered to be one of the most important cemeteries in the Aegean for its size, duration of use, preservation, unlooted character, number of tombs and burials, quantity and quality of the contained funerary goods, and wealth of mortuary evidence (Sakellarakis 1994; Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1991, 1997). The available evidence shows that the cemetery was founded in EM IIA, perhaps in the same period as the settlement, and it continued to be used until the end of the Late Bronze Age. The two tholos tombs (Tholoi Gamma and Epsilon), which were built in EM IIA, were accompanied by a large number of rectangular house tombs in the later

4

THOLOS TOMB GAMMA

Prepalatial periods of EM III and MM IA (Burial Buildings 5–9, 12, 16, 18, and 19). Toward the end of the Prepalatial period, the first elaborate tombs were built (Tholos B and Burial Building 3). It seems that in the Old Palace period, the cemetery becomes the burial place of the local elite, although it certainly received commoners’ burials in the old house tombs that continued in use from the previous period. The New Palace period is not well known because no burials have been revealed yet. However, the important Building 4 shows that the cemetery was the focus of rituals and activities related to the buried ancestors. In the Post Palace period, Phourni became the exclusive elite cemetery of the settlement because only important burials took place in a few tombs, such as Tholoi Alpha, Beta, and Delta, and the Mycenaean Grave Enclosure. Tholos Gamma lies in the central part of the cemetery (Figs. 1–3; Pls. 1–4) and was founded in EM IIA. Along with Tholos E, which lies further to the south, they were the first tombs erected in the area and served the burial needs of the first inhabitants of the Archanes settlement. Originally, the tomb was freestanding, but in later periods (EM III and MM

IA) it was surrounded by rectangular house tombs (Burial Buildings 5 and 9). Tholos tomb Gamma was excavated in July 1972, during the excavations of the Archaeological Society of Athens (En Aqhvnv ai~ Arcaiologikhv Etaireiva) in Phourni, under the direction of Yiannis Sakellarakis. The excavation was completed in July 1973 with the excavation of the entrance of the tomb and the area outside it (dromos). The excavation proceeded with the removal of horizontal layers of soil of various thickness. In the upper part of the fill, the tomb was excavated as a whole. When the larnakes of the burial stratum appeared, the tomb was divided into four quarters (Sectors A, B, C, and D), which were excavated separately. The pottery was collected in separate groups from each layer and section, and several times from smaller areas of the tomb. The find spot was recorded for all the finds, and the depths were recorded regularly. The detailed diaries accompanied by many drawings and photographs constitute an excellent documentation of the excavation. They allow the reconstruction of the excavation process and stratigraphy with a high level of precision.

Stratigraphy of the Tholos The soil fill of the tomb interior is divided into three separate strata (Strata I–III) on the basis of several criteria related to the texture of the soil, the number and the size of the stones, and the depth (Fig. 4A).

Stratum I The first, uppermost stratum can be divided into three separate layers (Layers 1–3). Layer 1: It is the surface filling of the tomb and consists of brown, soft soil with a large number of stones. These are mainly flat and had fallen from the vaulted roof into the tomb in a specific order. In the upper part of the soil fill, the stones were close to the tholos wall, they inclined inward, and it is clear that they were the last stones to fall from the upper part of the tholos wall toward the interior (Pl. 4B). Some of them had moved only very slightly from their original position, probably the result of modern

plowing. At a deeper level the stones continued to be inclined inward, but they were close to the center of the tholos (Pl. 5A). Large gaps with no soil were found between the stones, a typical characteristic of collapsed roofs. Layer 2: It consists of pure soil of the same nature, texture, and kind as Layer 1, but without stones (Pl. 5B). Layer 3: It consists of soil of the same texture, but, unlike Layer 2, it contains a large number of stones. They have also fallen from the tholos roof but are smaller than the stones of Layer 1 (Pl. 6A). Because the stones are at such a depth, just above the burial stratum of the tomb, they seem to have fallen from the central, upper part of the vaulted roof, in an earlier phase than the stones of Layer 1. During the excavation of this layer, the rims of the larnakes appeared (Pl. 6B), and the layer continues until the depth of c. 0.20 m below the rims.

EXCAVATION AND STRATIGRAPHY

Stratum II There is no significant change in the texture of the soil, but the stones fallen from the roof are fewer. Stratum II is the upper burial stratum of the tomb and contains all the burial containers and many bones (Fig. 5; Pls. 7–11). It starts c. 0.20 m below the rims and reaches the level of the bases of the burial containers.

5

and in several parts of the tomb it is nothing more than a shallow filling of the irregularities of the natural rock. The stratum was thinner in the west and north part of the tomb and thicker in the south and east part (Sakellarakis 1972, 333). During the excavation of Stratum III, the foundations of the tholos walls were revealed lying directly above the natural bedrock.

Entrance

Stratum III Stratum III lies between the bases of the larnakes and the natural rock. The texture is very different from the other strata because it is black, hard, and contains many small fragments of limestone and bones (Figs. 6–9; Pls. 12–14A). As will be discussed in the conclusions, this is the lower burial stratum of the tomb. Its thickness varies,

The same strata also occur in the tomb’s entrance, except that due to the small height of the entrance and the in situ preservation of the lintel, the first two layers of Stratum I were not present. Moreover, Strata II and III in the entrance are separated by a large flat stone that serves as a threshold (Pl. 14B). There are no finds from the area between the two doorjambs.

Stratigraphy of the Dromos In the area outside the entrance, the so-called “dromos,” the stratigraphy differs from the tholos interior and entrance because the area was filled with soil in different periods and in different ways (Fig. 4B). However, the two lower strata of the dromos (Strata IIB and III) correspond to Strata II and III of the tholos interior.

entrance as a projection of the lintel. In this stratum, the two walls defining the dromos were erected. It should be emphasized that the two dromos walls had been founded at a higher level than the natural bedrock and the foundations of the tholos wall.

Stratum I It is the uppermost destruction level of the dromos area. It consists of brown, soft soil with many large stones fallen from the nearby walls (Pl. 15A).

Although it displays no change in the texture of the soil, this stratum can be distinguished from the upper Stratum IIA because it is beneath the foundations of the two dromos walls, therefore it pre-dates them (Pl. 16).

Stratum IIA

Stratum III

With no change in the texture of the soil, Stratum IIA is distinguished from Stratum I by the lack of stones. It is also separated from Stratum I by a large capstone that was placed horizontally in front of the

Stratum III lies directly over the natural rock. It is hard with many small fragments of limestone, similar to the soil of Stratum III from the tholos interior.

Stratum IIB

6

THOLOS TOMB GAMMA

Architecture Tholos Gamma (Figs. 2–3; Pl. 1) is a typical tholos tomb, similar to those found in large numbers in southern Crete. Together with the neighboring Tholos Epsilon and 2 more tholoi in Krasi, they constitute the only secure examples of Prepalatial tholos tombs in northern Crete in EM II. In contrast, c. 80 such tombs have been discovered in southern Crete (Branigan 1970; 1993; Panagiotopoulos 2002, 168). The tomb is circular, with an internal diameter of 3.5 m, and it was built directly on the natural bedrock. Like all the other Prepalatial tholos tombs, it was not covered by soil, so it was totally visible above ground. The wall is built of large, irregular, unworked stones (Fig. 3A; Pls. 2–3). The entrance (Pls. 1B, 2A) is located on the east side as in almost all the tholos tombs of southern Crete (Branigan 1998, 19). It is very small and consists of three large stones (two doorjambs and the lintel) in the form of a trilithon, a feature seen mainly in the earlier tholos tombs dated to EM I or EM II (Branigan 1970, 34). A unique feature of Tholos Gamma is a small opening, like a window, just above and to the south of the entrance (Pls. 1B, 2A, 15B). It was created during the original building of the tomb, and its function remains unknown. It does not seem to be a relief opening for the lintel because it is not located immediately above the lintel, but to the south of it. The exceptionally well-preserved wall of Tholos Gamma that reaches a height between 2 and 2.20 m, together with the detailed observations made during the excavation of Stratum I about the collapse of the roof, offer valuable information about the form of the roof. Large, irregular, unworked stones were used for the lower part of the wall that was built in irregular courses (Fig. 3A; Pls. 2–3). The natural rock is irregular, but no effort had been made to level it before the erection of the tholos wall. The latter was entirely exposed above ground, while the walls of the attached Burial Buildings 9 and 5 functioned as buttresses. These walls were built much later, however, in EM III or MM IA. In contrast to the irregular stones of the lower part, the stones are large and flat in the upper preserved part of the wall (Pl. 1B) and, although unworked, they seem to have been selected deliberately for this part of the wall. These flat stones were placed with a slight overhang, clearly indicating the

start of a corbelled roof. The corbelled overhang is a maximum of 0.40 m at the height of 2–2.20 m, which gives a vertical deviation of 1:5.5. The diameter of the tomb is reduced from 3.5 m at the base to 3 m at the highest preserved point. This deviation is higher than some tombs, such as the example at Christos, but lower than others, such as those at Hagia Kyriaki and Trypiti (Branigan 1993, 48). Some of these stones, more specifically those from the upper preserved part of the tholos wall, were discovered fallen inside the tomb, in the upper part of the soil fill (Stratum I, Layer 1; Pls. 4B, 5A). Finally, the stones found deep inside the tomb during the excavation (Stratum I, Layer 3 and Stratum II) were also flat, yet significantly smaller (Pl. 6A). Again, they seem to have been deliberately selected for the uppermost part of the wall and the central part of the vaulted roof. They were found fallen from the roof in various directions and with a downward inclination. The difference in the stones used for the various heights of the tomb wall has been noticed also by Xanthoudides in the tomb at Christos (Xanthoudides 1924, 70), and it is typical in the modern mitata, or shepherds’ huts, on Mount Ida (Warren 1973) and in other modern corbelled huts in Crete (Branigan 1994). In all of these cases, the stones used in the lower part of the building were large, irregular, or rectangular, while in the upper part, where the corbelling starts, the stones always become flat. In the case of Tholos Gamma, it seems clear that the flat stones of the initial, lower courses of the corbelling were larger than those used for the top and center of the roof, probably to achieve better stability for the corbelled roof (Cavanagh and Laxton 1982). An interesting feature of Tholos Gamma is also the diameter to wall thickness ratio, which is 1:3, one of the lowest ratios among the 48 tholos tombs with such available evidence (Branigan 1993, 42–3). The above evidence indicates clearly that Tholos Gamma had a fully corbelled stone roof (Sakellarakis 1972). Branigan has already suggested that most of the tholos tombs could have a stone vaulted roof, with the possible exception of some large tombs with very thin walls (Branigan 1993, 55). The evidence from Tholos Gamma reinforces this idea.

EXCAVATION AND STRATIGRAPHY

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Location of the Finds inside the Tholos Stratum I Layers 1–2 Layers 1 and 2 contained only a few sherds (P1–P9; Fig. 10), fragments from larnakes, and some broken human bones. All these were found at least 0.30–0.50 m above the rims of the larnakes of the burial stratum (Stratum II), so they do not seem to relate to the burials.

Layer 3 The upper part of Layer 3, above the larnax rims, produced a few sherds (P10–P17; Fig. 11), fragments of larnakes, and some animal teeth. In the lower part of the fill, that is from the level of the larnax rims until 0.20 m below them, many more finds were collected. These finds come from either the upper part of the soil fill inside the larnakes or the area outside them. The latter was divided in four sectors (A, B, C, and D). Stones from the vaulted roof had fallen inside the larnakes in addition to fragments from the larnax walls and lids. In some cases, stones had fallen into the bottom of the larnakes (Pl. 8A), and it is clear that at the time of the roof collapse the larnakes had no soil fill. The following finds derive from the upper part of the fill of the larnakes (nothing was found inside larnakes L5, L6, L9–L11, and pithos L12). Larnax L1 contained 1 sherd of unknown date (P22). Larnax L2 yielded 4 sherds: 2 dated to LM III (P23–P24; Fig. 12; Pl. 17), 1 dated between EM III and MM II (P25; Fig. 12), and 1 of unknown date (P26). Larnax L3 held a leg from a MM IIB–IIIA tripod cooking pot (P27; Fig. 12). Larnax L4 contained a false spout and handles from a LM III stirrup jar (P30; Fig. 12). Larnax L7 yielded 5 sherds: 1 of unknown date (P31; Fig. 13), and 5 dated to LM III (P32–P35, P38; Fig. 13; Pl. 17). This larnax also contained some large sherds belonging to at least three Geometric pithoi. Larnax L8 held 2 LM III sherds (P28–P29; Fig. 13; Pl. 17) and the handle from a serpentinite vase (D2). There were also a few finds from the area outside the larnakes, all of them coming from the level of the rim of the larnakes.

Sector A is the northwest sector of the tomb. This region and especially the area south of larnakes L1, L2, and L11 was very disturbed as shown from the large number of stones fallen from the roof and the heavily damaged larnakes of this part (L1, L2, L7, L8, and L11). Two sherds were found in this sector: a fragment from a modern cup (P18) and a leg from a tripod cooking pot of unknown date (P19; Fig. 11), but certainly not earlier than the Old Palace period. Sector B is in the northeast part of the tomb. The disturbance was not significant, and larnakes L3, L5, and L10 were found almost intact. The only find was a leg from a MM IIB–IIIA tripod cooking pot (P20; Fig. 11). It belongs to the same cooking pot as P27, which was found inside L3. Sector C is the southwest part of the tomb. It was the most disturbed region as indicated by the large number of stones collapsed from the roof and the poor state of preservation of the west part of larnakes L2, L8, and the entire upper part of larnax L9. This picture is reinforced also by the sherds of the Geometric pithoi collected with larnax L7, mentioned above. The same disturbance was observed in the neighboring Sector A, and it seems that the whole west and southwest part of the tomb had been largely affected by the collapse of the roof. The only find from this sector was a handle from a bowl dated between EM III and MM II (P21; Fig. 11). Sector D is the southeast part of the tomb, which was not seriously disturbed by the roof collapse. The only finds come from the area in front of the entrance. One skull (K14) and an intact vase (V1; Fig. 15) were found in this area. They were both found just 0.20 m below the lintel, suggesting that they were placed there through the entrance after the collapse of the roof, when the tomb had been filled with soil and stones. Vase V1 is a one-handled bowl dated to MM IIB–IIIA. From an unknown area of this layer also come 3 sherds dated to LM III (P36–P37, P39; Fig. 13). Finally, inside the entrance were also found 13 sherds, of which only 6 are diagnostic: 5 dated between EM III and MM II (P67–P71; Fig. 11) and one, which cannot be dated precisely (P66; Fig. 11). The finds of Layer 3 do not seem to have any relation to the burials of the lower stratum (Stratum

8

THOLOS TOMB GAMMA

II), because they were found at least 0.30 m above them. This is reinforced by the observation that roof stones fell inside the larnakes in addition to larnax wall and lid fragments (Pls. 8A, 9A). Moreover, in some cases the stones had fallen onto the bottom of the larnakes. It seems clear that at the time of the roof collapse the larnakes had no soil fill. Therefore, the finds of Layer 3 could not fall on top of the larnakes before, but only during or after, the collapse of the roof. Of particular importance is the intact MM IIB–IIIA cup (V1; Fig. 15), which was found directly under the lintel of the entrance, because it provides a terminus ante quem for the collapse of the roof (see Chapter 5). A final point must be made concerning the disturbance of the tomb. The evidence suggests a higher degree of disturbance in the west part. Sectors A and C contained the largest number of stones from the collapsed roof. Moreover, all the larnakes of this part were partly (L1, L2, and L8) or entirely (L9 and L11) damaged (Pl. 7B). Pottery reinforces this picture because this part of the tomb yielded all the LM III sherds (P16, P23, P24, P28–P30, P33–P39; Figs. 11–13; Pl. 17), fragments from Geometric pithoi, and the fragment from a modern cup (P18). In contrast, the east part of the tomb (Sectors B and D) did not suffer to the same degree from the roof collapse. The fallen stones are fewer, and the larnakes (L3, L4, L6, and L10) are preserved almost intact.

Stratum II Stratum II constitutes the upper burial stratum of the tomb. Burial remains were found inside 11 larnakes (L1–L11; Figs. 17–18), one pithos (L12; Fig. 18) and in the spaces between them (Fig. 5). The larnakes had been placed without any particular orientation, although they surrounded the pithos, which was in the center of the circular tholos. During the removal of the soil from inside and between the larnakes several finds were revealed. All the burials and the objects of Stratum II (Tables 1, 2; Fig. 5) were found just above the level of the base of the larnakes and clearly beneath the stones of the destruction level that had fallen from the collapsed roof (Stratum I, Layer 3). Most of the burial containers had more than one burial (Table 1). Only one, or possibly two burials were articulated and partly in situ, while all

the others were very disturbed. In most cases only the skull, some teeth, and some long bones were preserved, while a few burials were identified solely on the basis of teeth. Generally speaking, the burials found inside the containers were better preserved than those outside, although this was not always the rule. Only a few funerary objects accompanied the burials of Stratum II, and surprisingly, these artifacts accompanied only burials found outside the larnakes and pithoi, not those found inside them (Table 2). If we exclude burial K14 found in Stratum I, Layer 3 and burial K9 found in Stratum III, then Stratum II contained all the rest. The burials identified during the excavation numbered 43 (18 inside and 25 outside the larnakes), while the osteological study by S. Triantaphyllou (Appendix) counted 44 individuals (20 inside and 24 outside the larnakes). It is also rather surprising that the pottery of Stratum II consists of only 2 intact vases (V2, V3; Fig. 15; Pl. 17). The other finds consist of 3 pendants (A4, A5, A22; Fig. 23; Pls. 17, 20), 6 seals (S1, S2, S5, S7–S9; Fig. 26), 3 copper artifacts (B1, B17, B18; Fig. 19), a lead object (C1; Fig. 22), a bone object (I5; Fig. 23), and an obsidian flake (O5; Fig. 27). Larnax L1 contained the burial of a prime adult of unidentified sex (K10.1). The burial was only partly in situ. Several long bones were found in the west part of the larnax while the skull was found in the northeast corner, facing to the southeast. Additionally, five teeth from a second, young adult were collected (K10.2). Larnax L2 contained the burial of a prime adult of unidentified sex (K12). The burial was not in situ. Several long bones were found in the western part of the larnax, while the skull was found in the east. The remains from another individual were also identified. Larnax L3 contained the burial of an adult male (K13). The burial was not in situ. Some long bones were found in the eastern part of the larnax, while the skull was found in the southwest corner. Larnax L4 contained the burial remains of 2 individuals (Pl. 8B). The first burial (K21) belonged to a prime adult female and the second (K22) to a mature/old adult male. Very few long bones were found in the west long side of the larnax, while both skulls were found in the northwest corner. Neither of the burials was in situ.

EXCAVATION AND STRATIGRAPHY

Larnax L5 contained the burial of a prime adult female (K1). Several long bones were found in the southern part of the larnax and the skull was in the northeast corner (Pl. 9). From the position of the long bones and the skull, it was probably a primary burial, which was preserved in situ and placed in a contracted position with the head pointing to the north and facing eastward. Larnax L6 contained the remains of 3 burials identified solely from the skulls (Pl. 10A). The skull of a mature adult male (K16) was found in the north side, another skull of a mature adult female was discovered in the middle of the west long side (K15), and a third example from a mature adult female (K17) was uncovered to the south. A few long bones were found scattered. Remains of an additional burial belonging to a child were identified. The burials were not in situ. Larnax L7 contained the remains of an adult female (K24.1). The skull was in the middle of the north long side and two long bones were in the southeast. The burial was not in situ. Additionally, some teeth and bone fragments were found and belong to at least one more adult (K24.2). Larnax L8 contained only 2 teeth and fragments from a long bone. The small quantity of skeletal remains is probably due to the poor state of preservation of the larnax. Larnax L9 contained only some teeth and a few fragments of bones. The small quantity of skeletal remains is probably due to the poor state of preservation of the larnax. Larnax L10 contained 3 burials (Pl. 10B). The first example (K18) came from the north part of the larnax and belonged to a mature adult male. In the opposite (southeast) part of the larnax, an adult female skull (K20) was found in addition to another specimen from an adult of unidentified sex (K19). Several long bones were found between the skulls. Additionally, remains of a child burial were also identified. No burial was in situ. Larnax L11 contained no burial remains, which was probably due to the damage caused by the collapsed roof. Pithos L12 contained the remains of at least 4 individuals: a mature adult female (K23.1), a prime adult male (K23.2), an adult male (K23.3), and a child (K23.4). The burials were mainly identified from the skulls, while very few other bones were found. No burial was in situ.

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Sector A, the northwest sector of the tomb, was heavily disturbed. This may explain why it contained no other burials except those made inside larnakes L1, L2, and L5. The only finds are 2 seals (S2 and S9; Fig. 26), an unidentified copper object (B17; Fig. 19), and an obsidian flake (O5; Fig. 27). Neither was associated with any burial. Sector B, the northeast sector of the tomb, contained four burials outside the burial containers. A skull (K11) was found outside the northeast corner of L5 and another one (K6) outside the southeast corner. Just a few bones accompanied these skulls, and no burial was in situ. Between the 2 skulls a seal (S1; Fig. 26) and a copper rivet (B1; Fig. 19) were found. In the area between L1, L5, L10, and L12 the remains of 3 burials were found; one belonged to a prime adult female (K8.1), and the other 2 were children (K8.2 and K8.3). A cylindrical bone pendant (A5; Fig. 23; Pl. 17) found in the same area was probably associated with one of the burials. Finally, in the area between L3 and the tholos wall, 2 more burials were discovered (K2.1 and K2.2). Both examples belonged to adults, and one of them was male (K2.1). Sector C, the southwest sector of the tomb, was the most disturbed. This explains the lack of identifiable burial remains in larnakes L8 and L9 and in the area around them. The only human remains found in this sector consist of a skull belonging to a young adult female (K4) found between L7 and L8. A fragment from a copper object, possibly a punch (B18; Fig. 19), was also found nearby. Sector D, the southeast sector of the tomb was the least disturbed, and, not surprisingly, in this area most of the burials and the finds of Stratum II were found. It should be emphasized that this sector is in front of the entrance, so it contained some of the last burials and artifacts placed in the tomb. Due to the large number of skeletal remains, the burials are presented in groups. Group 1 contained a skull (K35) that was found in the small triangular space between L4, L9, and the tholos wall. The skull was found together with a jug (V3; Fig. 15; Pl. 17), a seal (S5; Fig. 26), and a cylindrical bone pendant (A4; Fig. 23; Pl. 17). Group 2 yielded the remains of 5 burials between L6 and the tholos wall. Again, they were mainly identified from the skulls. The 2 burials in the north belonged to a mature adult male (K32) and an individual of unknown sex and age (K33). No other

10

THOLOS TOMB GAMMA

bones were found nearby. The 3 burials to the south belonged to an adult (K34.1), a child (K34.2), and an adult female (K36). Group 3 included the skulls of at least 4 individuals who were found outside the southeast corner of L10. The skulls formed a small heap. Two skulls on the top of the pile belonged to a male adult (K7.1) and a female mature adult (K7.2). The other 2 specimens (K37, K40) were of unknown sex and age, and they were found in a lower level that corresponded to the larnax base. A seal (S7; Fig. 26) was also uncovered nearby. Group 4 contained a large number of burial remains that were revealed between L4, L7, and L8. More specifically, the skulls and a few bones of 6 individuals formed a small heap of 3 layers in front of the east side of L8. The skull of an adult male (K3) came from the upper layer, in the middle were the remains of another burial of unidentified sex and age (K31), and the lower layer yielded the remains of 3 more burials. These 3 burials include a prime adult female (K38.1) and 2 neonates (K38.2 and K38.3). A lead discoid object (C1; Fig. 22) was also found with these burials. Group 5 included the remains of 5 adults that were found in the area between L4 and L7: 2 adult females (K25 and K26), a prime adult male (K30), and 2 adults of unidentified sex (K28 and K29). The skeletal remains consisted mainly of skull fragments. Group 6 comes from the last area with burials, which was located in front of the entrance and included the remains of 3 individuals. They were the last burials made in the tomb. They belonged to an adult male (K41) and to 2 individuals of unknown age and sex (K5 and K39). A jug (V2; Fig. 15; Pls. 11B, 17), a seal (S8; Fig. 26), a pendant of white paste (A22; Fig. 23; Pl. 20), and a bone pointed object (I5; Fig. 23) were found in the area, and they were possibly associated with these burials.

Stratum III In contrast to Stratum II, Stratum III held no identifiable burials, with the possible exception of a young adult female (K9). However, it was full of small fragments of human bones. It also contained most of the artifacts found in the tomb, and a relatively large quantity of pottery (P40–P55, P59– P65; Fig. 14). Some 239 sherds were collected from

the whole area of the tomb and there is no evidence for any particular concentrations with the exception of 76 sherds (P59; Fig. 14) found beneath L4. The majority of the pottery (P40–P48, P59–P63) is dated to EM IIA, while a few sherds (P49–P55, P64–P65) can be dated anywhere between EM III and MM II. The funerary objects were found not only beneath the burial containers, but dispersed throughout the entire tomb (Table 3; Figs. 6–9). They include 2 clay vases (V4, V5; Fig. 15; Pl. 17), 16 copper objects (B2–B16, B19; Fig. 19; Pl. 17), 10 figurines (F1– F15; Figs. 20–22; Pls. 18–19), 42 beads of gold, serpentinite, rock crystal, and bone (J1–J38, J59– J62; Fig. 25; Pl. 20), 14 gold objects (J39–J46, J49–J54; Fig. 25; Pl. 20), 19 pendants of bone, gold, and malachite (A1–A3, A6–A21; Fig. 23; Pls. 17, 20), 6 silver objects (C2–C7; Fig. 22; Pl. 17), 4 bone artifacts (I1–I4; Fig. 23; Pl. 20), 6 ivory objects (I7–I12; Figs. 23–24; Pl. 20), 4 stone artifacts (D1, D3–D5; Fig. 27; Pl. 20), 3 seals (S3, S4, S6; Fig. 26), 45 obsidian finds (O1–O4, O6–O43, O45– O47; Figs. 27–28; Pl. 20), and 2 chert (O44, O56) chipped stone objects. The finds will be presented in groups related to the sectors of the tomb (Sectors A, B, C, and D) and the areas beneath the larnakes (Table 3; Fig. 6A). However, this grouping is purely for description/practical reasons and, as will be shown, the objects found in the same sector or beneath the same larnax were not necessarily associated. Also, it is certain that these objects were not related to the burials made in the upper burial Stratum II (see Chapter 5). Beneath Larnax L1, a fragment from an object made of green chlorite schist (D3; Fig. 27; Pls. 13A, 20) was discovered. Beneath Larnax L3, a drop-shaped bone pendant (A10; Fig. 23; Pl. 17) and a gold band (J45; Fig. 25; Pl. 20) came to light. Beneath Larnax L4, 2 groups of objects were found. One group was discovered under the middle of the larnax, and the other group came from under the southwest corner. The first group includes 9 obsidian blades (O17, O22–O29; Figs. 27–28), a chert flake (O56), a gold bead, the head from a marble figurine (F2; Fig. 20; Pl. 18), fragments from a jug (V5; Fig. 15), a copper dagger (B12; Fig. 19; Pl. 17), a copper rivet (B14; Fig. 19), a copper fragment (B15; Fig. 19), a bone drop-shaped pendant (A18;

EXCAVATION AND STRATIGRAPHY

Fig. 23), an ivory figurine head (F15; Fig. 22), an ivory handle (I12; Fig. 24), an ivory object of unidentified character (I8; Fig. 23), and 10 rounded pebbles (D6). Under the southwest corner were found a copper dagger (B10; Fig. 19; Pl. 17), a copper rivet (B13; Fig. 19), and fragments from 16 obsidian blades (O8–O15, O32–O39; Figs. 27–28; Pl. 20). Finally, beneath L4 were also found 76 sherds (P59; Fig. 14), all dated to EM IIA, and two gold beads. Beneath Larnax L5, a copper rivet (B2; Fig. 19), a seal (S3; Fig. 26), a gold band (J44; Fig. 25; Pl. 20), and a silver cosmetic scraper (C2; Fig. 22; Pl. 17) were uncovered. Beneath Larnax L6, a seal (S6; Fig. 26), a tubular gold bead (e.g., J1–J14; Fig. 25), a biconical gold bead (e.g., J25–J37; Fig. 25), 3 bone pins (I1–I3; Fig. 23; Pl. 20), 3 bone drop-shaped pendants (A12–A13, A17; Fig. 23; Pl. 17), a bone forked pendant (A7; Fig. 23; Pl. 17), a fragment of gold sheet (J47), an L-shaped gold sheet (J39; Fig. 25; Pl. 20), an obsidian blade (O16; Fig. 27), an ivory handle (I10; Fig. 24; Pl. 20), the leg from a marble figurine (F4; Fig. 20; Pl. 18), a tiny schist figurine (F12; Fig. 22; Pl. 19), and a stone cylindrical object (D5; Fig. 27; Pl. 20) were collected. Beneath Larnax L7 (Pl. 12), 2 obsidian blades (O1–O2; Fig. 27), a bone figurine (F14; Fig. 22; Pl. 12B, 19), a gold tubular bead (e.g., J1–J14; Fig. 25), a copper dagger (B11; Fig. 19; Pl. 12, 17), and a bone drop-shaped pendant (A9; Fig. 23; Pl. 17) were revealed. Beneath Larnax L8, a copper pin (B9; Fig. 19) and a seal (S4; Fig. 26) came to light. Beneath Larnax L9, an obsidian blade (O7; Fig. 27), a silver awl (C4; Fig. 22), a gold band (J41; Fig. 25; Pl. 20), and a gold sheet (J48) were uncovered. Beneath Larnax L10, 2 groups of objects were found. The first group was located under the north part of the larnax and contained a silver pin (C3; Fig. 22) and 12 gold beads of tubular, barrel, ring, and biconical shape (e.g., J1–J7, J16–J17, J21– J24, J25–J37; Fig. 25). The second group was under the south part and contained 16 gold beads of the same shapes just mentioned in addition to 2 bone drop-shaped pendants (A11, A16; Fig. 23), 2 rock crystal beads (J59–J60; Fig. 25), and the head from a marble figurine (F1; Fig. 20; Pl. 18). Beneath pithos L12, a clay vase (V4; Fig. 15; Pl. 17), a copper cosmetic scraper (B8; Fig. 19), and 2

11

gold beads, one of them of tubular shape (e.g., J1–J14; Fig. 25; Pl. 20), were collected. Sector A yielded the only identifiable burial of Stratum III. Only part of the skull is preserved, and it belongs to a young adult female (K9). In the area close to the burial were found a marble bowl (D1; Fig. 27; Pl. 20) and 2 intact figurines (F9 and F10; Fig. 21; Pl. 19). The figurines were found practically lodged between two stones of the tholos wall. It is noteworthy that they were not discovered during the excavation of 1972, but 8 years later during the cleaning and restoration of the tholos wall (Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1980, 400–401; 1981, 215). Other finds from Sector A include a bone fishshaped pendant (A2; Fig. 23) and a worked piece of chert (O44). Sector B revealed a gold pendant (A20; Fig. 23; Pl. 20), a malachite pendant (A21; Fig. 23; Pl. 20), a fragment from a marble object (D7), 3 copper rivets (B3–B4 and B7; Fig. 19), a gold biconical bead (e.g., J25–J37), and a marble figurine (F11; Fig. 22; Pls.13B, 19). Sector C included 3 silver awls (C5–C7; Fig. 22) that were probably related to the identical silver awl C4 found nearby beneath L9, a gold band (J43; Fig. 25; Pl. 20), 3 obsidian blades (O3, O20–O21; Figs. 27–28), a bone fish-shaped pendant (A1; Fig. 23), and a stone object (D4; Fig. 27) of unidentified character. Sector D yielded most of the finds of Stratum III, which derive from the southeast sector of the tomb and especially the area of the entrance. This situation is probably due to the greater depth of Stratum III in this part of the tomb. The objects were found in 4 groups. The first group was located in the area between L4, L8, and L7 and includes 2 legs (F5, F7; Fig. 20; Pl. 18) and a head (F3; Fig. 20; Pl. 18) from at least 2, perhaps 3, different marble figurines; 3 obsidian blades (O40– O42; Fig. 28); 2 copper rivets (B5–B6; Fig. 19); 3 gold beads, one of which is of tubular shape (e.g., J1–J14; Fig. 25); 2 gold sheets (J40, J42; Fig. 25; Pl. 20); and a gold shield-shaped object (e.g., J49– J54; Fig. 25; Pl. 20). The second group of finds was in the area between L6, L7, and L10, and it included the leg from a marble figurine (F6; Fig. 20; Pl. 18), an ivory handle (I11; Fig. 24; Pl. 20), a forked bone pendant (A8; Fig. 23; Pl. 17), a copper fragment (B19; Fig. 19), a gold tubular bead (e.g., J1–J14; Fig. 25), and a gold band (J46; Fig. 25; Pl.

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THOLOS TOMB GAMMA

20). The third group was found between L4, L6, and L7, and it contained the leg from a marble figurine (F8; Fig. 20; Pl. 18), a gold ring-shaped bead (e.g., J21–J24; Fig. 25), a bone drop-shaped pendant (A19; Fig. 23), a bone bead (J62; Fig. 25), and a serpentinite bead (J61; Fig. 25). Finally, the

fourth group was directly in front of the entrance and contained an ivory object (I9; Fig. 23), a bone pendant (A6; Fig. 23), a bone pin (I4; Fig. 23; Pl. 20), a bone bird-shaped pendant (A3; Fig. 23; Pl. 20), and fragments from obsidian blades (O30– O31; Fig. 28).

Location of the Finds in the Dromos Stratum I The only finds from Stratum I were some pottery sherds (P72–P103; Fig. 14) that all dated between EM III and MM II.

Stratum IIA Stratum IIA contained the only larnax in the dromos. The base of the larnax was at the same level as the foundations of the dromos wall. The larnax occupied the entire width of the dromos and blocked the entrance, so it was almost impossible to make any more burials inside the tholos (Sakellarakis 1973, 180). For this reason, the placement of the larnax in the dromos constitutes a terminus ante quem for the end of the use of Tholos Gamma. The larnax was destroyed by the stones fallen from the nearby walls. A human long bone is all that remained from the burial(s) made inside the container. It was found together with some small animal bones. The only finds from the larnax interior were a gold ring (J55; Fig. 25) and 6 sherds; one fragment dated to EM IIA (P104), 4 pieces (P105– P108; Fig. 16) dated between EM III and MM II, and one more sherd (P124) from a modern bottle.

Stratum IIB In the west part of the dromos, beneath the south wall, and at the point where this wall joined with the doorjamb of the tomb, a skull was found (K42.1)

that belonged to a young adult female. A child’s tooth (K42.2) was collected with this skull. The space was very limited, and the skull was actually jammed beneath the wall (Pl. 16B). A footless EM III goblet (V6; Fig. 16; Pl. 17) was turned upsidedown near the skull (Pl. 16A), and several animal teeth were found below this vase. Finally, from the same area derives a single sherd (P109; Fig. 16), dated between EM III and MM II. At the opposite side of the dromos and beneath the foundation of the north wall was found half of an EM III–MM IA double vase in the shape of a jug (V7; Fig. 16; Pl. 17). Like the footless goblet, it was also turned upside-down, and it contained 80 shells. Both vases are significant not only because they date the burial, but also because they offer a terminus post quem for the erection of the dromos walls (Pl. 16). In the east part of the dromos, right below the base of the larnax, some sherds (P110–P123; Fig. 16) were collected, and all dated between EM III and MM II. Finally, beneath the larnax were found small fragments of human bones and some shells.

Stratum III From this stratum come 8 fragments of obsidian blades (O48–O55; Fig. 28), one chert flake (O57), and 3 fragments from gold bands (J56–J58; Fig. 25). It should be noted that all these were found in the west part of the dromos in front of the entrance, and not in the area beneath the larnax to the east.

3

Pottery Description of Wares The pottery of Tholos Gamma is small in quantity and in most cases very fragmented, worn, and non-diagnostic in terms of shape and decoration. For this reason, the distinction of wares on the basis of fabric and surface treatment is essential for dating most of the sherds. In many cases, however, wares cannot provide a precise date, especially when other data, such as shape and decoration, cannot be identified. That is why many sherds are dated to rather broad chronological horizons.

Dark-Gray Burnished Ware P40–P48, P59–P63, P104 This ware is characterized by a very distinctive fabric with reddish, brown, or gray biscuit. It is fine with a few white inclusions. The exterior is dark, ranging from black to gray or brown, due to firing in a reducing atmosphere in the last stages of firing. Most of the sherds are well burnished. In the case of open-shaped vases, the interior is dark and burnished similar to the exterior, whereas in the close-shaped vases it is red, unmodified, and quite rough. In one case (P59) there are traces of pattern-burnished decoration. Similar decoration possibly existed also on other sherds, but it is not preserved.

This ware belongs to the burnished tradition, which characterizes the early phases of the Prepalatial period, that is EM I and EM IIA. Unfortunately, the surface treatment alone is not a safe criterion, and the lack of identifiable shapes does not allow a more precise dating of the sherds of Tholos Gamma. This ware is quite common all over Crete (Betancourt 1985, 26–27). Very similar pottery to that of Tholos Gamma has been found in the West Court House at Knossos and was dated to EM IIA (Wilson 1985, 295). Also, identical pottery with the same state of preservation has been found elsewhere at Phourni, in the lower burial stratum of Tholos Epsilon that is dated to EM IIA (Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, 379; Panagiotopoulos 2002, 32–33), and in the Area of the Rocks (Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, 379). To this ware belong 146 sherds. All but one of these sherds were found in the lower burial stratum inside the tholos (Stratum III). The association of this ware with Stratum III is reinforced by the fact that 145 of the 154 (94%) diagnostic sherds of this stratum belong to Dark-Gray Burnished Ware (P40–P48, P59–P63; Tables 4–6). Although it is difficult to give a precise figure, the minimum number of Dark-Gray Burnished vases that these

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THOLOS TOMB GAMMA

145 sherds represent was certainly not less than eight. It should also be noted that all the 76 sherds found beneath larnax L4 belonged to this ware and could belong to the same vase. The only sherd not found in Stratum III is P104, which was found in Stratum IIA in the dromos.

Coarse Dark Burnished Ware P78 This is the coarse version of Dark-Gray Burnished Ware. The walls are thicker, and the biscuit is reddish brown with more inclusions. It is similar to the Coarse Dark Burnished Ware from the West Court House at Knossos and can be dated to EM IIA (Wilson 1985, 353). The only sherd of this ware (P78) was found in Stratum I of the dromos. This fabric was used at Knossos only for lids with a cylindrical knob handle (also referred to as fruitstands with a low foot). Although P78 is very fragmented and the shape cannot be identified, it possibly belonged to a similar vase.

Dark-on-Light Painted Ware P100 The fabric is orange and slightly gritty. The surface is covered with a yellow-buff slip that produces the light background onto which the decoration is applied with red to dark brown paint. This ware is dated to EM I or EM IIA, and the distinction between the two periods can be made on the basis of motif, shape, color of the paint, and sometimes fabric. It is very common all over Crete (Betancourt 1985, 29–31). The only sherd of this ware (P100) was found in Stratum I of the dromos and cannot be dated more precisely than EM I–IIA.

Red/Black Slipped Ware V1–V3, V6–V7, P1–P6, P10–P14, P21, P25–P26, P50–P54, P57, P65, P67–P70, P72–P76, P79–P99, P101–P103, P105–P122 The fabric has an orange to buff and sometimes brown biscuit with relatively few inclusions. It is similar to Momigliano’s Fabric I (Momigliano 1991,

245) and the Red or Black Slipped Ware from the South Front Early Houses at Knossos (Momigliano and Wilson 1996, 4). The sherds have black or red slip either on the external or on both the external and internal surfaces. Shapes identified among the Tholos Gamma ceramic material are footed and footless goblets, one-handled cups, and bridgespouted bowls. A few sherds have light painted decoration applied in a white-buff paint. Similar decoration might have also existed on more sherds, but it is not preserved. Two sherds (P73, P96) from the dromos have barbotine decoration. The black and red slip appeared on a similar fabric in the South Front Early Houses at Knossos as early as EM IIB (Momigliano and Wilson 1996, 32; Wilson and Day 1999) and continued well into the Old Palace period in deposits such as the Monolithic Pillar Basement (Momigliano 1991, 163–175). Sherds of this fabric and surface treatment cannot be dated more precisely without any additional data concerning the shape, decoration motifs, and method of manufacture (wheelmade or handmade). In Tholos Gamma, a large quantity of sherds belong to this ware (Tables 4–6). They are the majority in Stratum I: 6 sherds come from Layers 1–2 (P1–P6), and 12 from Layer 3 (P10–P14, P21, P25–P26, P67–P70). Also, 6 sherds (P50–P54, P65) come from the lower burial stratum (Stratum III), but they constitute a negligible percentage of the total (4.5%). In the dromos, 29 sherds were found in Stratum I (P72–P76, P79–P99, P101– P103), 4 in Stratum IIA (P105–P108), and 14 in Stratum IIB (P109–P122). To the above sherds, 5 intact vases can be added. Three vases were found inside the tholos (Table 7): V1 in Stratum I, Layer 3, and V2 and V3 in Stratum II. Finally, 2 vases were found in the dromos: V6 and V7 in Stratum IIB.

Yellow Soft Sandy Ware P49, P58, P64, P71 It is a very distinctive ware with a yellow-buff, homogenous, sandy, and very fine biscuit with almost no inclusions. The firing is moderate, and the fabric is quite soft. There is no burnishing, slip, painted decoration, or any other surface treatment apart from possible smoothing and washing of the surface. It cannot be dated precisely, and there are no published parallels. In Knossos, this ware appears

POTTERY

as early as EM III, but it was mainly in use in MM IA and continued in MM IB (P. Day and D. Wilson, personal communication). The only sherds of this ware are one from Stratum I, Layer 3 (P71), 2 from Stratum III (P49, P64), and one either from Stratum II or III (P58; Tables 4–6).

Late Minoan Dark-on-Light Ware P7, P9, P16, P23–P24, P32–P39, P56, P77 The fabric of this ware is hard, yellowish, and slightly gritty. The external surface usually has a thin wash of the same color as the clay. This produces a light surface onto which the dark decoration is applied with reddish brown to black paint. To this ware belong 2 sherds from Stratum I, Layers 1–2 (P7, P9), 14 sherds from Stratum I, Layer 3 (P16, P23–P24, P28–P30, P32–P39) and one sherd from either Stratum II or III (P56; Tables 4–6). Also, a sherd of this ware (P77) was found in the dromos in Stratum I. These sherds belong to at least 3 bowls, one stirrup jar, one open-shaped vase, and one large close-shaped vase. More specifically: a) Bowl 1 consists of 2 sherds from Stratum I, Layer 3: P28 from inside L8 and P32 from inside L7 (Fig. 13; Pl. 17). b) Bowl 2 consists of sherd P7 (Fig. 10) from Stratum I, Layers 1–2 and 3 sherds from Layer 3: P33 from inside L7 and P36–P37 from outside the larnakes (Fig. 13; Pl. 17). c) Bowl 3 consists of 2 sherds from Stratum I, Layer 3: P23 from inside L2 (Fig. 12) and P38 from L7 (Fig. 13; Pl. 17). d) The open-shaped vase consists of one sherd from Stratum I, Layer 3: P34 from inside L7 (Fig. 13; Pl. 17).

15

e) The stirrup jar consists of one sherd from Stratum I, Layer 3 (P30 [Fig. 12] from inside L4) and another sherd (P56) from Stratum II or III. f) The large close-shaped vase consists of one sherd (P9) inside the tholos in Stratum I, Layers 1–2 (Fig. 10) and one sherd (P77) found in the dromos in Stratum I. g) Finally, sherds P16, P24, P29, P33, P35, P37, and P39 could belong to any of the above vases or to other identified examples. The decoration of the bowls consists of horizontal bands below the rim and above the base that define the main decoration panel. The motifs consist of the argonaut and the wavy band. The argonaut is highly abstracted, and it has only one tentacle instead of the usual 3. Also, the front part has a spiral form. The conventionalization of this motif indicates a LM IIIA:2 or LM IIIB date (Furumark 1940, FM 22, fig. 50, nos. 10–14).

Cooking Pot Ware P15, P19–P20, P27, P31, P123 The fabric of this ware is hard, reddish to brown, and usually has a brown to black core due to uneven firing. There is no special surface treatment apart from a self-slipped surface on some specimens. All the sherds of this ware (P15, P19, P20, P27, P31, P123) were found inside the tholos, in Stratum I, Layer 3. They consist of legs from tripod cooking pots, except P31, which is the handle or the leg from a small brazier.

Stratigraphic Sequence and Parallels Tholos: Stratum I, Layers 1–2 P1–P9 Nine sherds were found in these layers (P1–P9; Fig. 10). Sherd P8 is made of coarse fabric and cannot be dated. Five feet that came from footed goblets (P1–P5) belong to the Red/Black Slipped Ware and have parallels from several Knossian EM III–MM

IA deposits (Momigliano and Wilson 1996, P172–P174; Momigliano 1991, fig. 1, nos. 1–5; fig. 5, nos. 1–3; fig. 20, nos. 1–5). A fragment from a jug spout (P6), which belongs to the Red/Black Slipped Ware, also is dated to EM III–MM I. Finally, there are fragments from 2 Dark-on-Light LM IIIA:2–B vases. One sherd (P7) belongs to the same fine bowl as sherds P33 and P36, which was

16

THOLOS TOMB GAMMA

found inside larnax L7 in Layer 3. On the other hand, a large base fragment (P9) joins a sherd found outside the east wall of the tomb (Stratum I of the dromos), so this vase consists of sherds found both inside and outside the tholos. The above evidence clearly indicates that Layers 1–2 constitute a surface fill formed after the collapse of the roof, at the top of the destroyed tomb, both inside and outside the collapsed tholos.

Tholos: Stratum I, Layer 3 V1, P10–P39 Of the 103 sherds in Layer 3 (Figs. 11–13, 15; Pl. 17), 61 are very fragmented, worn, and non-diagnostic, and they cannot be chronologically assigned. Of the remaining 42 sherds, 22 belong to the Red/Black Slipped Ware, 5 belong to the Cooking Pot Ware, 13 come from the LM III Dark-on-Light Ware, one is Yellow Soft Sandy Ware, and one is a modern cup. Additionally, several fragments from at least 3 Geometric pithoi were collected from the area around larnax L7. These pithoi have raised bands with stamped circles, a decoration typical among the Protogeometric and Geometric pottery of Knossos (Coldstream et al. 2001, 61). The sherds from the area of the entrance will be discussed separately. Of the 22 sherds of the Red/Black Slipped Ware (P10–14, P21, P25–P26), 12 cannot be dated more precisely than EM III–MM II. Of the rest, 6 sherds are handmade, but this is not sufficient to date them before MM IB. These handmade sherds include 2 bases from one-handled cups (P11, P14; Fig. 11) with parallels from EM III–MM IA Knossian deposits (Momigliano 1991, 250–251), 2 rims (P12– P13; Fig. 11) and a base fragment (P25; Fig. 12) from goblets dated to EM III–MM I (Momigliano 1991, fig. 30 types 1–4), as well as one fragment from a bridge-spouted vase (P10; Fig. 11). Two sherds are from wheelmade vases and can be dated to MM IB–II: a cup fragment (P26) and a spouted bowl handle (P21; Fig. 11). To the Red/Black Slipped Ware also belongs an intact clay vase. Vase V1 (Fig. 15) is a wheelmade hemispherical cup with curved walls, a rounded, everted rim, and a vertical strip handle. It can be dated to MM IIB–IIIA, with parallels from Anemospilia and Phourni (Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, 412, 418).

Four legs belonging to 3 tripod cooking pots belong to the Cooking Pot Ware (P15, P19, P20, P27; Figs. 11–12). Legs P20 and P27 belong to the same pot and they have a pellet on the upper preserved part. They have parallels to the cooking pots from Archanes Anemospilia (Y. Sakellarakis, personal communication), which have been dated to MM IIB–IIIA. One of the legs (P20) was found just above the rims of the larnakes, while the other leg (P27) came from inside larnax L3, in the upper part of its filling. This indicates that both legs had fallen from above and they had no relation with the burials deeper inside the larnax. To the above cooking pot legs could be added the leg or handle from a smaller vase, probably a brazier (P31; Fig. 13), which was found in the upper fill of larnax L7 and can be dated most probably to MM. All but 4 of the sherds of the LM III Dark-onLight Ware were found inside the larnakes in the upper part of their filling. Two fragments of bowls (P23, P24; Fig. 12) were found inside L2. Sherd P23 is decorated with a painted wavy band and belongs to the same bowl as P38, which was found inside the neighboring L7. Inside L8 were found 4 sherds belonging to at least 2 bowls (P28–P29; Fig. 13). Sherd P28 belongs to the same bowl as a large fragment found inside the neighboring larnax L7 (P32; Fig. 13). Inside L4, the false neck of a stirrup jar (P30; Fig. 12) was found. Five sherds were found inside larnax L7 (P32–P35, P38; Fig. 13). Sherd P32 belongs to the same bowl as P28, which was found in L8. Sherd P38 belongs to the same vase as P23, which was found in L2. Finally, P33 belongs to the same bowl as P7, which was found higher in Layers 1–2 (mentioned above). Inside L7 were found fragments from several incomplete LM IIIA:2–B open vases, while fragments from the same vases were also found inside neighboring larnakes (L2 and L8), at the same level outside the larnakes, and also at a higher level in Layers 1–2. The remaining 4 sherds (P33, P36–P37, P39; Fig. 13) were found outside the larnakes. Sherd P36 belongs to the same bowl as P33, which was found inside larnax L7, and the same may be true of P37. Finally, P39 probably belongs to one of the bowls found inside larnakes L2, L7, and L8, though it is not clear to which one. The dispersion of the LM III pottery clearly indicates that these sherds had fallen inside and outside the larnakes from above, and that they

POTTERY

were not related to the burials of Stratum II. Moreover, it suggests that Layer 3 is a fill formed after the collapse of the roof, at the top of the upper burial stratum (Stratum II). Another important sherd found in Layer 3 is the fragment from a modern cup (P18). It was found in the level just above the larnax rims in Sector A, that is, in the northwest part of the tomb. This sherd is indicative of the depth of the disturbance, especially in this part of the tomb.

Tholos: Stratum I, Layer 3, Entrance P66–P71 Of the 13 sherds found inside the entrance (Fig. 11), between the doorjambs, only 5 can be identified and chronologically assigned (P67–P71). They belong to the Red/Black Slipped Ware. One sherd (P67) is the base from a wheelmade cup dated to MM IB–II, while the others can be broadly dated between EM III and MM II.

Tholos: Stratum II V2–V3 It is rather surprising that no pottery was found in Stratum II (Fig. 15; Pl. 17) apart from 2 intact vases made of Red/Black Slipped Ware. Handmade jug V2 (Fig. 15; Pl. 17) is of the same fabric as the Red/Black Slipped Ware. It has parallels from Giophyrakia (Marinatos 1933–1935, 49, pl. 1, nos. 1, 2), the North Quarter of the town of Knossos (Momigliano 1991, 180, pl. 31, no. 27), and the Mesara (Momigliano 1991, 180). An identical jug has also been found at Phourni in the basal stratum of Burial Building 19 (Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1976, 383, fig. 15) and in the Area of the Rocks (Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pl. 342). Of the above parallels, the Knossos jug is of EM III/MM IA date, and the Giophyrakia and Phourni examples date to EM III (Lachanas 1994, 40; Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, 389–390). Vase V3 (Fig. 15; Pl. 17) is a handmade spherical jug made of Red/Black Slipped Ware with a cut-away spout and black slipped surface. No exact parallels have been identified, but on the basis of the ware and the shape, the most likely dating is EM III or MM IA (Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, 390).

17

Tholos: Stratum III V4–V5, P40–P55, P59–P65 The pottery from Stratum III (Fig. 14) can be divided into three different groups. The first group contains sherds found scattered all over the tomb. The second collection includes the sherds found beneath larnax L4. Finally, the third group consists of all the sherds collected during the final cleaning of Tholos Gamma, after the end of the excavation, and they come mainly from above the natural rock. The first group includes 148 sherds of which 76 cannot be identified in terms of shape or ware. Of the remaining 72 sherds, 65 sherds belong to DarkGray Burnished Ware (P40–P48) and can be dated between EM I and EM IIA. The remaining 8 sherds are of a later date. One sherd (P49) belongs to the Yellow Soft Sandy Ware and can be dated to EM III–MM I (P. Day and D. Wilson, personal communication). Five sherds (P50–P54) are of Red/Black Slipped Ware and can be dated between EM IIB and MM II. Two of these sherds can be dated more precisely to EM III because they have exact parallels from Knossos: P50 (Fig. 14), which belongs to the base of a handmade footed goblet (Momigliano and Wilson 1996, P188; Momigliano 1991, fig. 1, no. 2, fig. 5, no. 2, fig. 20, no. 4), and P54, which belongs to the flanged base of a one-handled cup (Momigliano 1991, 250–251 type 2). Sherd P55 cannot be chronologically assigned. The second group consists of sherds found beneath larnax L4. It contains 76 sherds (P59), all belonging to Dark-Gray Burnished Ware and dated to EM I or EM IIA. They could belong to the same vase, but this is not certain. One of the sherds has pattern-burnished decoration. Finally, the third group, pottery from cleaning Tholos Gamma and the natural rock, includes 19 sherds, of which only 6 can be identified in terms of shape and ware. Four sherds (P60– P63) belong to Dark-Gray Burnished Ware. Three of them (P60–P62) are coarser, with an irregular surface, and are slightly different from the rest of the DarkGray Burnished sherds. For this reason they may be dated earlier, possibly to the EM I period (P. Day and D. Wilson, personal communication). One sherd (P64) belongs to the Yellow Soft Sandy Ware and can be dated between EM III and MM I.

18

THOLOS TOMB GAMMA

Finally, sherd P65 is of the Red/Black Slipped Ware and can be dated anywhere between EM IIB and MM II. Stratum III also contained 2 intact vases. Vase V4 (Fig. 15; Pl. 17) is a tiny vase with a spherical body and vertical collared neck. It is made of a red semi-fine fabric, which is unique among the pottery of Tholos Gamma. The only parallel in terms of shape is a tiny vase from Myrtos, dated to EM IIB (Warren 1972a, 149, no. P647, fig. 84). Vase V5 (Fig. 15) is a spherical jug with a high beak-shaped spout that is poorly preserved. It is made of a fabric also unique among the pottery of Tholos Gamma because it is semi-fine and gray with several small white inclusions. It can possibly be dated to the EM I or EM IIA periods.

Tholos: Unstratified P56–P58 Three sherds (P56–P58) were collected from the area of the entrance and cannot be attributed to a specific stratum. Sherd P56 belongs to the same LM III:A2–B stirrup jar as P30, which was found inside larnax L4. Sherd P57 is a non-diagnostic sherd made of Red/Black Slipped Ware, and can be dated anywhere between EM IIB and MM II. Finally, P58 (Fig. 14) is of Yellow Soft Sandy Ware; it belongs to the rim of a goblet and is dated to EM III–MM I.

Dromos: Stratum I P72–P103 Of the 92 sherds found in Stratum I (Fig. 14), 37 cannot be identified and dated. Of the remaining 55 sherds, the majority belongs to the Red/Black Slipped Ware (P72–P76, P84–P99, P101–P103). They belong to various shapes including a bridge- or side-spouted jar (P72), cups with roll (P73, P75, P85) or strip handle (P91), goblets (P90, P101– P102), and a carinated cup (P86). Some vases are handmade, such as cups (P86, P89, P92, P98, P103) and footed goblets (P90, P101–P102), and can possibly be dated to EM III–MM I. On the other hand, 2 bases (P87–P88) and a strip handle (P91) from wheelmade cups can definitely be dated after MM IB. There is also a sherd (P96) from a barbotine jug dated between EM III and MM I, and a sherd (P99) from an eggshell cup dated to MM IIA.

The other sherds can be dated anywhere between EM III and MM II. Apart from the above Red/Black Slipped Ware sherds, 3 more sherds were found. One belongs to LM Dark-on-Light Ware (P77) and is of special significance because it joins with sherd P9 found inside the tholos in Stratum I, Layers 1–2. Another sherd (P78) belongs to the Coarse Dark Burnished Ware and can be dated to EM I or EM IIA. Finally, P100 is of Dark-on-Light Painted Ware and can be dated to EM I or EM IIA. A separate group of pottery, which also belongs to Stratum I, consists of the sherds found inside the “window”. All 5 sherds are made of the Red/ Black Slipped Ware (P79–P83). One specimen (P79) belongs to a wheelmade carinated cup with a strip handle dated to MM IB–IIA. The other sherds cannot be dated more precisely than EM III–MM II.

Dromos: Stratum IIA P104–P108, P124 The small amount of pottery from Stratum IIA (Fig. 16) includes fragments mainly from larnakes and only 6 sherds identifiable in terms of shape and ware. One of them (P124) belongs to a modern vase, indicating the depth of disturbance. The other 5 sherds were collected from the area above and inside the larnax of the dromos. One of them is of Dark-Gray Burnished Ware (P104) and is dated to EM IIA. The other 4 sherds (P105–P108) are of Red/Black Slipped Ware and can be dated anywhere between EM III and MM II.

Dromos: Stratum IIB V6–V7, P109–P123 There are two groups of pottery from this stratum (Fig. 16). The first collection was found beneath the larnax, in the east part of the dromos, and contains 54 sherds, of which 31 cannot be chronologically assigned. Twenty-two sherds are made of the Red/Black Slipped Ware (P110– P122) and cannot be dated more precisely than EM III–MM II, except for sherds P114–P116, which belong to a wheelmade bridge-spouted bowl dated to MM IB–IIA. Additionally, a sherd of Cooking Pot Ware (P123) cannot be dated precisely.

POTTERY

The second group of pottery was found in front of the entrance and near skull K42. It contains 5 sherds, but only one is identified and dated: an EM III–MM I roll handle of Red/Black Slipped Ware (P109). Stratum IIB also contained 2 intact vases, both found in front of the entrance. Vase V6 (Fig. 16; Pl. 17) is a rounded, footless goblet of Red/Black Slipped Ware with a hemispherical body. Goblets of this shape have been found at Knossos (Momigliano 1991, 247–248, type 4; Momigliano and Wilson 1996, 44, no. 159) and Giophyrakia (Marinatos 1933–1935, 51, pl. 4, no. 13), all dated to EM III.

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Vase V7 (Fig. 16; Pl. 17) is the jug-shaped front part of a double vase. It is made of Red/Black Slipped Ware and decorated with a black slipped surface and white bands painted over the dark background. Jugs of this elongated shape, although not very common, occur at Phourni during EM III (Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pls. 339, 391). It can also be dated to MM IA. In terms of decoration, the curved parallel bands in white paint also occur on EM III vases at Phourni (Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pl. 339) and other sites like Gournia, but they could also be dated as late as MM IA.

Catalog of Pottery Complete Vessels V1 (Fig. 15). Cup. H. 0.103; max. d. 0.136; d. rim 0.125; d. base 0.042; th. 0.004 m. Red/Black Slipped Ware; wheelmade, one-handled cup with curved walls and rounded, everted rim; vertical strip handle, 0.019 m wide and 0.007 m thick, starting from the rim, rising 0.005 m above it, and ending at the point of the largest diameter; central knob in the bottom and shallow grooves on the interior walls; traces of the cutting string on the base. Clay fine to semi-fine, yellowish, with a few inclusions. Black slip on the interior and exterior. Preserved intact. V2 (Fig. 15; Pl. 17). Jug. Pr. h. 0.065; max. d. 0.063; d. base 0.043; th. 0.005 m. Red/Black Slipped Ware (?); small handmade jug with squeezed spherical body, vertical collared neck, and high spout; vertical roll handle, 0.005 m in diameter, starting from the neck and ending at the belly, just above the point of the largest diameter; 5 knobs on the belly, projecting 0.002 m from the walls. Clay fine, pale brown, with a few inclusions; fabric similar to Red/Black Slipped Ware. Yellowish slip, of the same color as the clay on the exterior; black painted decoration over the slipped surface consisting of 5 bands starting from the base, going around the knobs, and ending again on the base; each band corresponds to one knob; traces of a painted disc on each knob. Preserved intact, apart from the missing spout. Sakellarakis 1972, pl. 290b, middle; Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pl. 341, right. V3 (Fig. 15; Pl. 17). Jug. H. 0.096; max. d. 0.097; d. base 0.048; d. spout 0.024; th. 0.004 m. Red/Black Slipped Ware; handmade jug with spherical body and vertical cut-away spout; vertical handle of rectangular section, 0.010 m wide and 0.007 m thick, starting from the back of the spout and ending on the shoulders above the point of the largest diameter. Clay fine, yellowish, with a few inclusions. Black slip on the exterior, except on the spout and the handle. Black slip also on the interior of the spout. Preserved almost intact. Sakellarakis 1972, pl. 290b, right; Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pl. 341, left.

V4 (Fig. 15; Pl. 17). Close-shaped vase. H. 0.027; max. d. 0.030; d. rim 0.009; d. base 0.009; th. 0.002 m. Tiny, handmade, handless, close-shaped vase with spherical body, ring base, and vertical collared neck; rounded, vertical rim. Clay fine to semi-fine, reddish, with a few inclusions. No slip or any other surface treatment. Preserved almost intact, apart from a small piece missing at the rim. Sakellarakis 1972, pl. 290b, left; Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pl. 341, middle. V5 (Fig. 15). Jug. Th. 0.003 m. Seventy-three sherds from small, handmade jug with curved walls and high spout; vertical handle with elliptical section, 0.009 m wide and 0.005 m thick, starting from the back of the spout and ending on the body; one of the sherds has 2 holes, 0.006 m in diameter, 0.014 m above the base. Clay semi-fine, brown to gray, with a few white inclusions. No surface treatment apart from several traces of wiping. Only part of the vase is preserved, while the fragments are heavily eroded. V6 (Fig. 16; Pl. 17). Cup. H. 0.055; max. d. 0.075; d. rim 0.070; d. base 0.043; th. 0.004 m. Red/Black Slipped Ware; handless, handmade cup, with slightly curved walls and inverted, rounded rim. Clay red, fine, with a few inclusions. Poor manufacture, with oblique rim and asymmetries. Surface wiped in various directions and covered by red slip. Preserved intact. Sakellarakis 1973, pl. 177b. V7 (Fig. 16; Pl. 17). Double vase. H. 0.118; max. d. 0.063; d. base 0.040; d. spout 0.025; th. 0.005 m. Red/ Black Slipped Ware; handmade half of double vase in the shape of jug; oblong body and beaked spout with upward inclination; the jug is joined to the missing half with a tube (ext. d. 0.025 m, int. d. 0.009 m) in the lower part of the body; vertical handle, starting from the base of the neck. Clay fine, orange-red, with a few inclusions. Black slip and white painted decoration on the exterior; the decoration consists of 4 broad horizontal bands on the neck and several parallel, oblique, curved lines, which run diagonally from neck to base. The second half of the double vase is missing. Sakellarakis 1973, pl. 179a.

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THOLOS TOMB GAMMA

Pottery Sherds P1 (Fig. 10). Foot from goblet. Pr. h. 0.025; d. 0.046 m. Red/Black Slipped Ware; handmade. Clay red-brown, very fine, without inclusions. Black slip only on the exterior, starting 0.004 m above the base. P2 (Fig. 10). Foot from goblet. Pr. h. 0.038; d. 0.048 m. Red/Black Slipped Ware; wheelmade; the edges of the foot are flattened and upturned. Clay as in P1. Black slip only on the exterior, starting 0.011 m above the base. P3 (Fig. 10). Foot from goblet. Pr. h. 0.054; d. 0.058 m. Red/Black Slipped Ware; handmade. Clay as in P1. Black slip on the interior and exterior, starting 0.013 m above the base. P4 (Fig. 10). Foot from goblet. Pr. h. 0.034 m. Red/Black Slipped Ware; handmade. Clay as in P1. Black slip only on the exterior, starting above the base. P5 (Fig. 10). Foot from goblet. Pr. h. 0.018; d. 0.056 m. Red/Black Slipped Ware; wheelmade. Clay as in P1. Black slip on the exterior, red on the interior, covering the entire foot. P6 (Fig. 10). Spout from jug. Pr. h. 0.040; th. 0.004 m. Red/Black Slipped Ware; beak-shaped spout from jug with relief eye. Clay fine, pink, with a few inclusions. Traces of black slip on the eye. P7 (Fig. 10). Body and rim fragment from LM III bowl. Pr. h. 0.082; d. rim c. 0.140-0.150; d. handle 0.010 m. Late Minoan Dark-on-Light Ware; slightly everted rim; horizontal, roll handle. Clay orange, very fine, with a few inclusions. Light polished slip with decoration consisting of red painted motifs. On the exterior: a band below the rim and two horizontal parallel bands on the lower part of the body define a panel within which the main decorative element was painted; only a curved strip is preserved from the main motif; also a painted band on the upper half of the handle. On the interior: dark brown slip covering the entire surface. P7 consists of 2 joined pieces. P8 (Fig. 10). Base fragment from jug or jar. Pr. h. 0.050; d. 0.050 m. Unidentified ware; handmade; closed vase, possibly a jug or a jar. Clay red, semi-coarse, with some inclusions and silver mica. No surface treatment. P9 (Fig. 10). Base fragment from LM III jar or jug. Pr. h. 0.088; d. 0.090; th. 0.008 m. Late Minoan Dark-onLight Ware; wheelmade; closed vase, possibly jar or jug. Clay orange, semi-coarse, with inclusions. Decoration painted directly on the surface, consisting of black curved bands starting from the base and going upward, possibly the stems of plant motifs. P9 consists of 5 joined sherds. P10 (Fig. 11). Spout fragment from bridge-spouted vase (?). Pr. h. 0.028; pr. w. 0.025; th. 0.006 m. Red/ Black Slipped Ware; handmade; spout from bridgespouted vase. Clay orange, fine, with a few inclusions. Black slip on the interior and exterior. P11 (Fig. 11). Base fragment from cup (?). Pr. h. 0.011; d. 0.039 m. Red/Black Slipped Ware; handmade;

raised base from small vase, possibly cup. Clay as in P10. Black slip on the interior and exterior. P12 (Fig. 11). Rim fragment from goblet. Pr. h. 0.036; d. 0.090; th. 0.005 m. Red/Black Slipped Ware; straight rim from goblet. Clay as in P10. Black slip on the interior and exterior. P13 (Fig. 11). Rim fragment. Pr. h. 0.027; th. 0.003 m. Red/Black Slipped Ware; unidentified shape, clay and surface treatment as in P12. P14 (Fig. 11). Base fragment from cup (?). Pr. h. 0.013; d. 0.036 m. Red/Black Slipped Ware; handmade; raised base from small vase, possibly cup. Clay and surface treatment as in P12. P15 (Fig. 11). Foot from cooking pot. Pr. h. 0.099; max. w. 0.051; max. th. 0.023 m. Cooking Pot Ware; foot from tripod cooking pot; elliptical section. Clay red, coarse, gritty. Slip of the same color as the clay. P16 (Fig. 11). Body fragment. Pr. h. 0.040; max. w. 0.031; th. 0.005 m. Late Minoan Dark-on-Light Ware; wheelmade; close-shaped vase with incurved walls. Clay orange, fine, with a few inclusions. Black painted decoration over the light surface, consisting of 2 parallel, horizontal bands. P17 (Fig. 11). Base fragment. Pr. h. 0.031; d. 0.035; th. 0.006 m. Unidentified ware; wheelmade; slightly flanged base from an open-shaped vase. Clay orange, fine, with a few inclusions. Brown slip on the interior and exterior. P18. Body fragment. Pr. h. 0.020; pr. w. 0.020; th. 0.003 m. Sherd from modern cup. P19 (Fig. 11). Foot from cooking pot. Pr. h. 0.105; max. w. 0.059; max. th. 0.025 m. Cooking Pot Ware; foot from tripod cooking pot; elliptical section. Clay red, coarse, gritty. Slip of the same color as the clay. P20 (Fig. 11). Foot from cooking pot. Pr. h. 0.105; max. w. 0.067; max. th. 0.030 m. Cooking Pot Ware; foot from tripod cooking pot; elliptical section; eye in the preserved top, just below the beginning of the body. Clay and surface treatment as in P19. P21 (Fig. 11). Handle fragment from bridge-spouted bowl (?). Pr. h. 0.017; th. 0.008 m. Red/Black Slipped Ware; horizontal handle with rectangular section and central groove on the external surface; possibly from bridge-spouted bowl. Clay orange, fine, with a few inclusions. Black slip all over the surface. P22. Body fragment. Pr. h. 0.029; pr. w. 0.021; th. 0.007 m. Unidentified ware. Clay red, coarse, with many inclusions. P23 (Fig. 12). Body and rim fragment from LM III bowl. Pr. h. 0.074; d. rim 0.090; th. 0.004 m. Late Minoan Dark-on-Light Ware; wheelmade; slightly everted rim from bowl. Clay yellowish, very fine, with a few inclusions. Light polished slip with decoration consisting of black painted motifs. On the exterior: a band below the rim and 2 horizontal parallel bands on the lower part of

POTTERY

the body define a panel, in which a wavy band is the main decorative element. On the interior: single horizontal band just below the rim. Sherd P23 consists of 2 joined pieces. P24 (Fig. 12; Pl. 17). Body fragment from LM III vase. Pr. h. 0.020; pr. w. 0.023; th. 0.005 m. Late Minoan Dark-on-Light Ware; unidentified shape. Clay as in P23. Painted decoration consisting of a single black band on the exterior. P25 (Fig. 12). Foot from goblet. Pr. h. 0.021; max. th. 0.005 m. Red/Black Slipped Ware; handmade. Clay orange, fine, with a few inclusions. Black slip on the interior and exterior except under the base. P26. Body fragment. Pr. h. 0.029; pr. w. 0.021; th. 0.007 m. Red/Black Slipped Ware; wheelmade; unidentified shape. Clay as in P25. Black slip on the interior and exterior. P27 (Fig. 12). Foot from cooking pot. Pr. h. 0.125; max. w. 0.068; max. th. 0.033 m. Cooking Pot Ware; foot from tripod cooking pot; elliptical section; eye on the preserved top, just below the beginning of the body. Clay red, coarse, gritty. Slip of the same color as the clay. P28 (Fig. 13; Pl. 17). Rim and body fragment from LM III bowl. Max. pr. h. 0.037; d. rim 0.130; th. 0.005 m. Late Minoan Dark-on-Light Ware; wheelmade; bowl with incurved walls and slightly everted rim. Clay buff, very fine, with a few inclusions. Light polished slip with decoration above it in black painted motifs. On the exterior: a band below the rim and 2 horizontal parallel bands on the lower part of the body define a zone for the main decorative element, an argonaut. On the interior: black to dark brown slip. P28 consists of 3 joined pieces. Sakellarakis 1972, pl. 291. P29 (Fig. 13; Pl. 17). Handle fragment from LM III bowl (?). H. 0.014; th. 0.008 m. Late Minoan Dark-onLight Ware; wheelmade; horizontal handle of rectangular section, from an open-shaped vase, probably a bowl. Clay as in P28. The handle is painted black; simple painted band on the body, just below the handle. The interior is unpainted, indicating that the handle probably belongs to the same bowl as P23. Sakellarakis 1972, pl. 291. P30 (Fig. 12). False spout and handles from stirrup jar. Pr. h. 0.073; pr. l. 0.135; max. w. spout 0.005 m. Late Minoan Dark-on-Light Ware; wheelmade; upper part of stirrup jar with false spout and strip handles. Clay yellowish, fine, with a few inclusions. Black painted decoration on the upper part of the false spout and the handle; horizontal painted band on the neck and another on the body, just below the handle. Sherd P30 consists of 13 joined sherds; 2 more sherds belong to the jar, but they do not join. P31 (Fig. 13). Handle or foot fragment. Pr. h. 0.039; max. pr. d. 0.019 m. Cooking Pot Ware; cylindrical stem with rounded end, either foot or handle from small brazier. Clay red, coarse, gritty. P32 (Fig. 13; Pl. 17). Body fragment from LM III bowl. Pr. h. 0.071; pr. w. 0.100; th. 0.005 m. Late Minoan

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Dark-on-Light Ware; wheelmade; large body fragment from bowl. Clay buff, very fine, with a few inclusions. On the exterior, black painted motifs including 2 parallel horizontal bands on the lower part and an argonaut emerging from the upper band. Black to brown slip all over the interior. P33 (Fig. 13; Pl. 17). Body fragment from LM III bowl. Pr. h. 0.048; pr. w. 0.038; th. 0.005 m. Late Minoan Dark-on-Light Ware; wheelmade; part from bowl. Clay as in P32. On the exterior, red painted motifs consisting of 2 parallel horizontal bands on the lower part and an argonaut emerging from the upper band. Brown slip all over the interior. Sakellarakis 1972, pl. 291. P34 (Fig. 13; Pl. 17). Base fragment from LM III vase. Pr. h. 0.049; pr. w. 0.061; d. base 0.055; th. 0.005 m. Late Minoan Dark-on-Light Ware; wheelmade; base from open-shaped vase. Clay reddish, fine, with a few inclusions. Decoration with black painted motifs; on the exterior: 2 parallel horizontal bands; on the interior: painted band marks the base. Sakellarakis 1972, pl. 291. P35 (Fig. 13). Body fragment from LM III vase. Pr. h. 0.037; max. pr. w. 0.047; th. 0.005 m. Late Minoan Darkon-Light Ware; wheelmade; body sherd from openshaped vase. Clay buff, fine, with a few inclusions. Brown slip only on the interior. P36 (Fig. 13; Pl. 17). Rim fragment from LM III bowl. Pr. h. 0.036; pr. w. 0.035; d. rim c. 0.140; th. 0.004 m. Late Minoan Dark-on-Light Ware; wheelmade; everted rim from bowl. Clay buff, very fine, with a few inclusions. Light polished slip and decoration above it with red painted motifs; on the exterior: a band below the rim and the upper preserved part of an argonaut; on the interior: dark brown slip. Sakellarakis 1972, pl. 291. P37 (Fig. 13; Pl. 17). Body fragment from LM III vase. Pr. h. 0.042; pr. w. 0.035; th. 0.005 m. Late Minoan Dark-on-Light Ware; wheelmade; body fragment possibly from bowl. Clay as in P36. Decoration with red painted motifs; on the exterior: 2 horizontal, parallel bands, from which the stem of an argonaut emerges, as in P32; on the interior: dark brown slip. Sakellarakis 1972, pl. 291. P38 (Fig. 13; Pl. 17). Rim and body fragment from LM III bowl. Pr. h. 0.072; pr. w. 0.040; th. 0.004 m. Late Minoan Dark-on-Light Ware; wheelmade; slightly everted rim from bowl. Clay yellowish, very fine, with a few inclusions. Polished slip and decoration above it with black painted motifs; on the exterior: a band below the rim and 2 horizontal parallel bands on the lower part of the body define a zone for the main decorative element, a wavy band; on the interior: horizontal band, just below the rim, while the rest has been left unpainted. P38 consists of 3 joined pieces. Sakellarakis 1972, pl. 291. P39 (Fig. 13; Pl. 17). Body fragment from LM III vase. Pr. h. 0.027; pr. w. 0.040; th. 0.004 m. Late Minoan Dark-on-Light Ware; wheelmade; body fragment. Clay as in P38. Decoration with black paint only on the exterior, consisting of horizontal, vertical, and curved bands. Sakellarakis 1972, pl. 291.

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THOLOS TOMB GAMMA

P40. Body fragment. Dark-Gray Burnished Ware; handmade; unidentified shape. Clay brown, semi-fine, with some inclusions. Burnished external surface. P41. Body fragment. Dark-Gray Burnished Ware; handmade; unidentified shape. Clay and surface treatment as in P40. P42. Body fragment. Dark-Gray Burnished Ware; handmade; unidentified shape. Clay and surface treatment as in P40. P43. Body fragment. Dark-Gray Burnished Ware; handmade; unidentified shape. Clay gray, semi-fine, with some inclusions. No surface treatment. P44. Body fragment. Dark-Gray Burnished Ware; handmade; unidentified shape. Clay as in P43. P45. Body fragment. Dark-Gray Burnished Ware; handmade; unidentified shape. Clay as in P43. P46 (Fig. 14). Fifty body and base fragments. Pr. h. 0.020–0.030; d. base c. 0.090–0.120; th. 0.003 m. Dark-Gray Burnished Ware; handmade; 50 sherds, possibly from the same vase: a small close-shaped vase with flanged base. Clay red, fine with a few inclusions. Black, well burnished exterior; red and rough surface on the interior. P47 (Fig. 14). Five body fragments. Pr. h. c. 0.020; th. 0.002–0.003 m. Dark-Gray Burnished Ware; handmade; 5 sherds from open-shaped (?) vase; one of the sherds has smooth carination. Clay as in P46. External and internal surfaces are black burnished. P48. Four body fragments. Pr. h. c. 0.020; th. 0.004–0.005 m. Dark-Gray Burnished Ware; handmade; 4 sherds from at least 2 vases of unknown shape. Clay as in P46. Black internal and external surfaces; no traces of burnishing. Similar to sherds P46 and P47, but thicker. P49 (Fig. 14). Spout fragment from jug. Pr. h. 0.035; pr. w. 0.030; th. 0.005 m. Yellow Soft Sandy Ware; everted rim from the spout of a jug. Clay yellowish, fine, without inclusions. No surface treatment. P50 (Fig. 14). Foot from goblet. Pr. h. 0.013; d. base 0.050 m. Red/Black Slipped Ware; handmade. Clay gray, fine with a few inclusions. No surface treatment. P51. Body fragment. Red/Black Slipped Ware; body fragment from open-shaped vase. Clay orange, fine, without inclusions. Black slipped exterior, unpainted interior. P52. Body fragment. Red/Black Slipped Ware; as in P51. P53. Body fragment. Red/Black Slipped Ware; as in P51. P54 (Fig. 14). Base fragment. Pr. h. 0.008 m. Red/Black Slipped Ware; flanged base from openshaped vase. Clay as in P51. P55 (Fig. 14). Body fragment. Pr. h. 0.036; pr. w. 0.030; th. 0.007 m. Unidentified ware; body fragment from open-shaped vase. Clay orange, semi-fine with some inclusions. On the exterior shallow grooves painted black. Black slipped interior.

P56. Body fragment. Pr. h. 0.012; pr. l. 0.017; th. 0.008 m. LM Dark-on-Light Ware; fragment from stirrup jar P30. Clay and surface treatment as P30. Traces of black painted decoration on the exterior. P57. Body fragment from cup (?). Pr. h. 0.031; pr. w. 0.020; th. 0.003 m. Red/Black Slipped Ware; fragment from open-shaped vase, possibly cup. Clay light brown, fine with a few inclusions. Black slip only on the exterior. P58 (Fig. 14). Rim fragment from goblet. Pr. h. 0.035; pr. w. 0.043; th. 0.005 m. Yellow Soft Sandy Ware; straight rim from goblet. Clay yellowish, fine, with a few inclusions. Plain surfaces, without treatment. P59 (Fig. 14). Seventy six body fragments. Pr. h. 0.010–0.040; th. 0.004 m. Dark-Gray Burnished Ware; 76 sherds, from the same or similar close-shaped vases. Clay red, fine, with a few inclusions, mainly white inclusions of limestone. Rough and unmodified interior; black burnished exterior. One sherd has traces of burnished decoration; the motif consists of thin parallel and converging lines creating a net of lozenges; the decoration is not well preserved, and it is possible that other sherds also had similar decoration, which is not preserved. P60. Body fragment. Th. 0.006 m. Dark-Gray Burnished Ware; body fragment from open shaped (?) vase. Clay brownish, semi-fine, with some inclusions. Dark brown burnished exterior; reddish unburnished interior. P61. Body fragment. Th. 0.009 m. Dark-Gray Burnished Ware; as in P60, except for the external surface, which is unburnished. P62. Body fragment. Th. 0.012 m. Dark-Gray Burnished Ware; as in P61. P63. Body fragment. Th. 0.002 m. Dark-Gray Burnished Ware; body fragment from close-shaped vase, perhaps the same as sherds P46. Clay red, fine with a few inclusions. Black, well burnished exterior; red, rough interior. P64. Body fragment. Th. 0.004 m. Yellow Soft Sandy Ware; unidentified shape. Clay yellowish, fine, with a few inclusions. Plain surfaces, without treatment. P65. Body fragment. Th. 0.008 m. Red/Black Slipped Ware; body fragment from open-shaped vase. Clay red, semi-fine, with some inclusions. Reddish slip on the exterior and interior. P66 (Fig. 11). Body fragment. Pr. h. 0.040; pr. w. 0.030; th. 0.004 m. Unidentified ware; handmade. Clay yellowish, fine, with a few inclusions. Painted decoration on the exterior, consisting of dark curved strips. P67 (Fig. 11). Base fragment from cup. Pr. h. 0.019; d. base 0.060; th. 0.035 m. Red/Black Slipped Ware; wheelmade; straight base from cup. Clay orange, semifine with some inclusions. Dark red slip on the exterior and interior.

POTTERY

P68. Body fragment. Pr. h. 0.034; pr. w. 0.027; th. 0.006 m. Red/Black Slipped Ware; body fragment from open-shaped vase. Clay brown, fine, with a few inclusions. Black slip on the interior and exterior. P69. Body fragment. Pr. h. 0.015; pr. w. 0.018; th. 0.006 m. Red/Black Slipped Ware; as in P68. Clay orange, fine, with a few inclusions. P70. Body fragment. Pr. h. 0.047; pr. w. 0.029; th. 0.007 m. Red/Black Slipped Ware; as in P68. Clay orange, semi-fine, with some inclusions. Black slip only on the exterior. P71 (Fig. 11). Base fragment from cup. Pr. h. 0.027; d. base 0.045; th. 0.005 m. Yellow Soft Sandy Ware; handmade; straight base from cup. Clay yellowish, fine, with a few inclusions. No surface treatment. P72 (Fig. 14). Handle fragment from bridge-spouted bowl. H. 0.015; th. 0.011 m. Red/Black Slipped Ware; horizontal handle of square section from open-shaped vase, possibly bridge-spouted (?) bowl. Clay orange, very fine, without inclusions. Black slip all over the handle and the exterior, not on the interior. P73. Rim fragment from cup. Pr. h. 0.024; pr. w. 0.028; th. 0.005 m. Red/Black Slipped Ware with barbotine decoration; rim from cup with vertical strip handle. Clay orange, fine, with few inclusions. Dark brown slip on the interior and exterior; relief knob below the rim, part of barbotine decoration. P74. Ten body fragments. Red/Black Slipped Ware; 10 sherds from open-shaped vases. Clay as in P73. Dark brown slip on the interior and exterior. P75. Handle fragment. Red/Black Slipped Ware; horizontal, roll handle from vase of unidentified shape. Clay as in P73. Dark brown slip all over the surface. P76. Six body fragments. Red/Black Slipped Ware; 6 sherds from close-shaped (?) vases. Clay as in P75. Dark brown slip only on the exterior. P77. Body fragment. Pr. h. 0.063; pr. w. 0.058; th. 0.008 m. Late Minoan Dark-on-Light Ware; wheelmade; body fragment from a large closed vase, possibly jar or jug. Clay orange, semi-coarse, with inclusions. Decoration painted directly on the surface consisting of a black curved band. P78. Body fragment. Pr. h. 0.041; pr. w. 0.023; th. 0.010 m. Coarse Dark Burnished Ware; unknown shape. Clay red, semi-coarse, with many inclusions. Black burnished surface on the interior and exterior. P79 (Fig. 14). Base fragment from cup. Pr. h. 0.031; d. base 0.055; th. 0.003–0.004 m. Red/Black Slipped Ware; wheelmade; straight base from cup with carinated body; traces of the string at the bottom; the beginning of a vertical strip handle is preserved just below the carination. Clay orange, semi-fine, with some inclusions. Redbrown slip on the interior, exterior, and on the base. P80 (Fig. 14). Rim fragment from bridge-spouted bowl (?). Pr. h. 0.022; th. 0.003–0.004 m. Red/Black

23

Slipped Ware; vertical, upturned rim from open-shaped vase, possibly bridge-spouted (?) bowl. Clay yellowish, fine, with a few inclusions. Black slip on the interior and exterior. P81. Body fragment. Red/Black Slipped Ware; unidentified shape. Clay yellow to orange, fine, with a few inclusions. Dark red slip on the interior and exterior. P82. Body fragment. Red/Black Slipped Ware; as in P81. P83. Body fragment. Red/Black Slipped Ware; as in P81. P84. Four body fragments. Red/Black Slipped Ware; 4 body fragments from vases of unidentified shape. Clay yellow to orange, fine, with a few inclusions. Black slip only on the exterior. P85. Handle fragment. Red/Black Slipped Ware; roll handle from a small vase of unidentified shape. Clay and surface treatment as in P84. P86 (Fig. 14). Body fragment from carinated cup. Pr. h. 0.042; pr. w. 0.035; th. 0.004 m. Red/Black Slipped Ware; handmade; fragment from carinated cup with a convex lower body and curved upper part of the body. Clay orange, semi-fine, with some inclusions. Brown slip on the exterior, red on the interior. P87 (Fig. 14). Base fragment from cup. Pr. h. 0.015; th. 0.004 m. Red/Black Slipped Ware; wheelmade; straight base from cup. Clay orange, fine, with a few inclusions. Black slip on the exterior, interior, and base. P88 (Fig. 14). Base fragment from cup. Pr. h. 0.011; th. 0.003 m. Red/Black Slipped Ware; wheelmade; straight base from cup. Clay as in P87. Brown slip on the exterior, interior, and base. P89 (Fig. 14). Base fragment from cup. Pr. h. 0.044; th. 0.004 m. Red/Black Slipped Ware; handmade; straight, slightly flanged base from cup. Clay as in P87. Black slip on the exterior, interior, and bottom; traces of white painted decoration on the exterior. P90 (Fig. 14). Rim fragment from goblet (?). Pr. h. 0.035; th. 0.003 m. Red/Black Slipped Ware; handmade; rim from goblet (?) with straight walls. Clay as in P87. Black slip on the interior and exterior. P91 (Fig. 14). Handle fragment from cup. Pr. l. 0.034; w. 0.018; th. 0.003 m. Red/Black Slipped Ware; vertical, strip handle from cup. Clay as in P87. Red slip all over the surface. P92 (Fig. 14). Base fragment from cup. Pr. h. 0.024; d. base 0.048; th. 0.002 m. Red/Black Slipped Ware; handmade; straight base from cup, possibly carinated. Clay brown, fine, with a few inclusions. Red slip on the interior, exterior, and bottom. P93. Body fragment. Pr. l. 0.025; pr. w. 0.021; th. 0.006 m. Red/Black Slipped Ware; unidentified shape. Clay orange, fine, with a few inclusions. Red slip on the interior and exterior; traces of white painted decoration on the exterior.

24

THOLOS TOMB GAMMA

P94. Three body fragments. Red/Black Slipped Ware; 3 sherds from open-shaped vases. Clay orange, fine, with a few inclusions. Black slip on the interior and exterior. P95. Body fragment. Pr. l. 0.022; pr. w. 0.022; th. 0.004 m. Red/Black Slipped Ware; unidentified shape. Clay red, semi-fine, with some inclusions. Smoothed exterior; many shallow incisions on the interior. P96 (Fig. 14). Body fragment from jug (?). Pr. l. 0.015; pr. w. 0.019; th. 0.002 m. Red/Black Slipped Ware with barbotine decoration; from a closed-shaped vase, possibly jug. Clay yellowish, fine, almost without inclusions. Two rows of small knobs on the exterior, 3 in each row. P97 (Fig. 14). Six body fragments. Th. 0.007–0.010 m. Red/Black Slipped Ware; 6 sherds from large closeshaped vases. Clay orange, fine, with a few inclusions. Black slip on the exterior; one sherd has painted decoration, consisting of a black painted band. P98 (Fig. 14). Body and handle fragment from cup. Pr. h. 0.042; pr. w. 0.046; th. 0.004; d. handle 0.009 m. Red/Black Slipped Ware; handmade; fragment of cup with straight walls, straight rim, and vertical, roll handle. Clay red, fine, with a few inclusions. No surface treatment. P99 (Fig. 14). Rim fragment from cup. Pr. h. 0.019; pr. w. 0.054; th. 0.002 m. Eggshell Polychrome Ware; wheelmade; everted rim from cup with incurved walls. Clay yellowish, fine, without inclusions. Painted decoration; on the exterior: black slip and traces of white painted decoration over it; on the interior: black painted band just below the rim and black painted floral motif below the band. P100 (Fig. 14). Body fragment from jug (?). Pr. h. 0.022; pr. w. 0.028; th. 0.005 m. Dark-on-Light Painted Ware; body fragment from close-shaped vase, possibly jug (?). Clay red, fine, with some inclusions; gray interior, due to incomplete firing. Yellowish slip on the exterior, and black painted decoration over it, consisting of 3 horizontal parallel bands. P101 (Fig. 14). Rim fragment from goblet. Pr. h. 0.057; pr. w. 0.045; th. 0.007 m. Red/Black Slipped Ware; handmade; straight rim from goblet. Clay orange, fine, with a few inclusions. Black slip on the interior and exterior. P102 (Fig. 14). Base fragment from goblet. Pr. h. 0.012; d. base 0.050; th. 0.005 m. Red/Black Slipped Ware; handmade; base from footed goblet. Clay as in P101. No surface treatment. P103. Body fragment from cup (?). Red/Black Slipped Ware; handmade; fragment from open-shaped vase, possibly cup (?). Clay yellowish, fine, with a few inclusions. Black slip on the interior and exterior. P104. Body fragment. Pr. h. 0.016; pr. w. 0.012; th. 0.003 m. Dark-Gray Burnished Ware; body fragment from closed-shaped vase. Clay red, fine, with a few

inclusions. Red and rough internal surface; black, wellburnished exterior. P105. Body fragment. Pr. h. 0.029; pr. w. 0.020; th. 0.005 m. Red/Black Slipped Ware; body fragment from open-shaped vase. Clay orange, fine, with a few inclusions. Black slip on the interior and exterior. P106. Body fragment. Pr. h. 0.019; pr. w. 0.014; th. 0.003 m. Red/Black Slipped Ware; as in P105. P107. Body fragment. Pr. h. 0.019; pr. w. 0.014; th. 0.003 m. Red/Black Slipped Ware; as in P105, except for the black slip, which is only on the exterior. P108 (Fig. 16). Base fragment. Pr. h. 0.018; d. base 0.080; th. 0.005 m. Red/Black Slipped Ware; handmade; straight base from close-shaped vase (?). Clay yellowish, fine, with a few inclusions. Black slip only on the exterior and the bottom. P109 (Fig. 16). Handle fragment. Pr. l. 0.025; d. handle 0.013–0.016 m. Red/Black Slipped Ware; vertical, roll handle of elliptical section. Clay orange, fine, with a few inclusions. Black slip all over the surface. P110 (Fig. 16). Base fragment from footed goblet (?). Pr. h. 0.018; d. base 0.050; th. 0.005 m. Base from footed goblet (?). Clay gray, fine, with a few inclusions. No surface treatment. P111. Body fragment. Pr. h. 0.023; pr. w. 0.023; th. 0.002 m. Red/Black Slipped Ware; possibly from an open-shaped vase. Clay yellowish, fine, with a few inclusions. Black slip on the interior and exterior. P112 (Fig. 16). Rim fragment from goblet. Pr. h. 0.028; th. 0.003 m. Red/Black Slipped Ware; handmade; straight rim from goblet. Clay yellowish, fine, with a few inclusions. Black slip on the interior and exterior. P113 (Fig. 16). Rim fragment from goblet or cup. Pr. h. 0.028; pr. w. 0.025; th. 0.003 m. Red/Black Slipped Ware; handmade; straight rim from goblet or cup. Clay orange, fine, with a few inclusions. Red burnished slip on the interior and exterior; white painted decoration; on the exterior: 2 horizontal, parallel bands right below the rim; on the interior: one horizontal band and parallel oblique lines above it. P114 (Fig. 16). Rim fragment from bridge-spouted bowl. Pr. h. 0.043; d. rim 0.105; th. 0.003 m. Red/Black Slipped Ware; wheelmade; flattened, everted rim from bridge-spouted bowl; opposite the spout is a double projection, serving as handle. Clay orange, very fine, without inclusions. Black slip on the interior and exterior; black slip on the interior does not continue below the neck. P115 (Fig. 16). Handle fragment from bridge-spouted bowl (?). D. section 0.010 m. Red/Black Slipped Ware; horizontal, roll handle possibly from bridge-spouted bowl, as the one above. Clay and surface treatment as in P114. It possibly belongs to the same bowl as P114. P116 (Fig. 16). Handle fragment from bridge-spouted bowl (?). D. section 0.009 m. Red/Black Slipped Ware;

POTTERY

horizontal, roll handle possibly from bridge-spouted bowl. Clay and surface treatment as in P114. P117 (Fig. 16). Rim fragment from cup. Pr. h. 0.020; pr. w. 0.018; th. 0.002 m. Red/Black Slipped Ware; straight rim from cup with straight walls. Clay yellowish, fine, with a few inclusions. Black slip on the interior and exterior. P118 (Fig. 16). Rim fragment. Pr. h. 0.018; pr. w. 0.022; th. 0.003 m. Red/Black Slipped Ware; as in P117. P119. Four body fragments. Red/Black Slipped Ware; 4 sherds from vases of unidentified shape. Clay orange, fine, with a few inclusions. Red slip on 2 sherds on the interior and exterior; on the other 2 sherds, slip only on the interior. P120. Seven body fragments. Red/Black Slipped Ware; 7 sherds from vases of unidentified shape. Clay as

25

in P119. Black slip on 5 sherds on the interior and exterior; on the other 2, slip only on the exterior. P121 (Fig. 16). Handle and body fragment from cup. Pr. h. 0.022; th. 0.005 m. Red/Black Slipped Ware; strip handle attached on the body fragment of cup. Clay orange, fine, with a few inclusions. No surface treatment. P122 (Fig. 16). Handle fragment from cup. Pr. h. 0.019; w. 0.010; th. 0.005 m. Red/Black Slipped Ware; strip handle from cup. Clay as in P121. Black slip all over the surface. P123 (Fig. 16). Rim fragment. Pr. h. 0.025; th. 0.006–0.007 m. Unidentified ware; externally thickened rim from bowl or cooking pot with incurved, inturned walls. Clay red, semi-fine, with some inclusions, similar to the cooking pot fabric. P124. Body fragment. Sherd from modern bottle.

4

Other Finds Burial Containers All the burial containers of the tomb, 11 larnakes (L1–L11) and one pithos (L12), come from Stratum II (Figs. 5A, 17–18). They are characterized by great variation in almost every aspect of their morphology: the shape of the sides, the dimensions, the number, form and arrangement of the handles, and the form of the rims. As a result, no larnax is similar to any other. The same diversity also occurs in the lids. The shape of the lids generally corresponds to the shape of the larnakes, although not always entirely. Both the larnakes and the lids are usually plain without decoration. Two larnakes (L2, L7) have a painted rim, one example (L10) is decorated with curvilinear painted motifs, a couple of larnakes (L4, L7) have relief decoration, and the pithos (L12) has a painted base. The burial containers of Prepalatial Crete have not been fully studied yet. The best source for parallels is Phourni cemetery itself, where similar larnakes have been found in Tholos Epsilon and in Burial Buildings 5, 6, 7, 9, 12, and 18. All these are dated to EM III and/or MM IA. Outside Phourni, the evidence is too fragmentary, and only the larnakes from Vorou Tholos A have been published. They are dated to EM III/MM IA and appear to be similar to the Tholos Gamma specimens (Marinatos 1931, 147, pl. 10). Despite some EM II examples

from the Pyrgos cave (Xanthoudides 1918, 140– 142) and Nopigeia in western Crete (Karantzali 1997, 67), it is generally accepted that the use of larnakes became widespread in EM III or MM IA (Branigan 1993, 141; Walberg 1987, 58). L1 (Fig. 17). Larnax and lid. Larnax: l. 0.900; w. 0.420; pr. h. 0.390; th. 0.022. Lid: l. 0.850; w. 0.400; h. 0.250; th. 0.016 m. Larnax: rectangular with roughly straight sides, slightly curved at the corners; angular corners; 3 vertical handles on each long side; two handles are of the roll type, 0.025 m in diameter, placed 0.040 m from the corners and 0.045 m below the rim; the third handle is of square section, 0.017 m wide and 0.010 m thick, placed in the middle; inverted rim with upward inclination and grooved upper surface. Clay red, coarse, with a more reddish core, full of black, rock inclusions. Yellowish slip both inside and outside. Very well preserved, but not intact. Lid: vaulted, following the shape of the larnax rim, but more rounded on the narrow sides and the corners; 2 vertical roll handles, 0.025 m in diameter, just above the edges, but not corresponding to the handles of the larnax; a ridge on the rim corresponds to the groove of the larnax rim. Clay, surface treatment and preservation as the larnax. L2 (Fig. 17). Larnax and lid. Larnax: l. 1.000; w. 0.420; pr. h. 0.230; th. 0.020. Lid: pr. l. 0.650; est. w. 0.440; th. 0.014 m. Larnax: rectangular with curved long and straight narrow sides; rounded corners; 2 horizontal roll handles on each long side, 0.034 m in diameter, placed 0.100 m from the corners and 0.040 m below the

28

THOLOS TOMB GAMMA

rim; inverted rim with upward inclination and flat upper surface. Clay red, coarse, with gray core in some parts, full of black stone inclusions. Yellowish slip both inside and outside. Black painted band on the upper surface of the larnax rim, extended below the rim, both inside and outside. Very well preserved, but not intact. Lid: vaulted, following the shape of the larnax rim; 2 vertical roll handles, 0.027 m in diameter, placed just above the edges, not corresponding to the handles of the larnax; rim with concave upper surface. Clay, surface treatment, and preservation as the larnax. No decoration. L3 (Fig. 17). Larnax and lid. Larnax: l. 0.850; w. 0.380; pr. h. 0.425; th. 0.018. Lid: l. 0.810; w. 0.340; th. 0.012 m. Larnax: rectangular with straight sides and angular corners; 4 roll handles on each long side; 2 horizontal, 0.020 m in diameter, placed 0.100 m above the base and near the corners; the other two handles vertical, 0.018 m in diameter, placed above the former, 0.020 m below the rim and 0.020 m from the corners; inverted rim with upward inclination and grooved upper surface. Conical knobs on the narrow sides; 2 knobs on one of the narrow sides, one knob on the other. Clay brown, coarse, full of red and black stone inclusions, and gray core. Yellowish slip on the interior and exterior. Well preserved, but not intact. Lid: slightly vaulted, following the shape of the larnax rim; 2 vertical roll handles on each long side, 0.014 m in diameter, placed 0.170 m from the corners, just above the edges, corresponding to the horizontal handles of the larnax; rim with concave upper surface. One conical knob on one narrow side, while the other is not preserved. Clay and preservation as the larnax. Black slip on the upper surface. L4 (Fig. 17). Larnax: l. 0.890; w. 0.450; h. 0.450; th. 0.022 m. Rectangular with straight long and curved narrow sides; rounded corners; 4 roll handles on each long side, 2 horizontal, 0.030 m in diameter, placed 0.170 m above the base and 0.110 m from the corners, and 2 vertical, 0.026 m in diameter, placed above the former, 0.020 m below the rim and 0.150 m from the corners; inverted rim with curved upper surface. Clay red, coarse, with gray core in some parts, full of red and black stone inclusions. Yellowish slip on the interior and exterior; relief decoration on the long sides, consisting of 2 strips running diagonally from rim to base and joined in the middle, creating a X-shaped pattern. Well preserved, but not intact; the corresponding lid has not been identified. L5 (Fig. 17). Larnax and lid. Larnax: l. 1.000; w. 0.500; pr. h. 0.420; th. 0.014. Lid: L. 1.030; w. 0.530; th. 0.014 m. Larnax: rectangular with straight long and curved narrow sides; angular corners; 2 roll handles on each long side, oblique, 0.028 m in diameter, and placed 0.025 m below the rim and 0.200 m from the corners; inverted rim with upward inclination and convex upper surface. Two conical knobs on the one narrow side, no knobs on the other. Clay red, coarse, with dark red core in some parts, full of black stone inclusions. Yellowish slip on the interior and exterior. Lid: vaulted, following the shape of the larnax rim; 2

oblique roll handles, corresponding exactly to the handles of the larnax, 0.025 m in diameter, placed 0.200 m from the corners, just above the edges of the rim; rim with flat upper surface, slightly concave. Two conical knobs on the one narrow side, no knobs on the other. Clay and surface treatment as the larnax. L6 (Fig. 17). Larnax and lid. Larnax: l. 0.820; w. 0.440; h. 0.510; th. 0.018. Lid: l. 0.820; w. 0.440; h. 0.080; th. 0.016 m. Larnax: rectangular with curved long and straight narrow sides; angular corners; 4 roll handles on each long side; 2 handles are horizontal, 0.020 m in diameter, placed 0.030 m below the rim and 0.070 m from the corners; the other 2 vertical, 0.030 m in diameter, placed below the former, 0.070 m above the base and 0.070 m from the corners; inverted rim, with flat upper surface. Two conical knobs on one of the narrow sides, one knob on the other. Clay red, coarse, full of red and black stone inclusions. Yellowish slip on the interior and exterior. Preserved almost intact. Lid: slightly vaulted, following the shape of the rim; 2 horizontal roll handles on each long side, 0.016 m in diameter, placed 0.060 m from the corners, just above the edges and corresponding to the horizontal handles of the larnax; rim with flat upper surface corresponding exactly to the rim of the larnax. Two knobs on one narrow side, the other is not preserved. Clay, surface treatment and preservation as the larnax. L7 (Fig. 18). Larnax and lid. Larnax: l. 0.940; w. 0.475; h. 0.425; th. 0.016. Lid: l. 0.820; w. 0.425; h. 0.095; th. 0.014 m. Larnax: rectangular with slightly curved long and straight narrow sides; rounded corners; the narrow sides have inward inclination; 2 horizontal roll handles in each long side, 0.024 m in diameter, placed 0.230 m from the corners and 0.030 m below the rim; inverted rim with upward inclination and groove at the edge. Clay red, coarse, full of black stone inclusions, and gray core. Reddish slip on the interior and exterior; rim decorated with a red painted band; also relief decoration, consisting of a rope-shaped band, around the body, 0.090 m below the rim. Only half is preserved. Lid: slightly vaulted, following the shape of the larnax rim, although not exactly on the narrow sides; 2 vertical roll handles on each long side, 0.020 m in diameter, placed 0.036 m above the edges, corresponding exactly to the handles of the larnax; rim with concave upper surface. Clay as the larnax. Reddish slip. Well preserved but not intact. L8 (Fig. 18). Larnax and lid. Larnax: l. 1.000; w. 0.425; pr. h. 0.370; th. 0.020. Lid: est. l. 1.000; est. w. 0.425; th. 0.016 m. Larnax: rectangular with straight sides and angular corners; 4 handles on each long side; 2 roll, horizontal handles, 0.024 m in diameter, placed 0.060 m above the base and 0.110 m from the corners; the other 2 vertical, strip handles, 0.042 m wide and 0.020 m thick, placed above the former, 0.010 m below the rim and 0.020 m from the corners; inverted rim with upward inclination and convex upper surface. Clay red, coarse, full of black stone inclusions, and gray core.

OTHER FINDS

Yellowish slip on the interior and exterior. Only half is preserved. Lid: slightly vaulted, following the shape of the rim; 2 horizontal roll handles on each long side, 0.016 m in diameter, placed just above the edges; rim with flat upper surface. Clay and surface treatment as the larnax. L9 (Fig. 18). Larnax: l. 1.130; w. 0.470; pr. h. 0.090; th. 0.012 m. Rectangular with slightly curved sides and rounded corners; 4 roll handles on each long side; 2 vertical, just above the base and two horizontal, placed 0.020 m below the rim and 0.100 m from the corners; inverted rim, straight with flat upper surface. Clay red, coarse, full of black stone inclusions and well fired. Probably slip on the interior and exterior, but nothing is preserved. The lid has not been identified. Heavily damaged and only partly preserved. L10 (Fig. 18). Larnax and lid. Larnax: l. 0.850; w. 0.380; pr. h. 0.425; th. 0.018. Lid: l. 0.810; w. 0.340; th. 0.012 m. Larnax: rectangular with straight sides and angular corners; 2 horizontal roll handles on each long side, 0.024 m in diameter, placed just below the rim and 0.150 m from the corners; on the middle of the long sides 2 D-shaped projections, with vertical perforation, placed right below the rim; inverted rim, with upward inclination and convex upper surface. One knob in the middle of the one narrow side, no knob on the other. Clay red, coarse, with gray core, full of black stone inclusions. Yellowish slip on the interior and exterior. Painted decoration consisting of a black solid disk in the middle of the larnax body; also traces of other curvilinear painted

29

motifs. Well preserved, but not intact. Lid: follows the rim of the larnax; 2 handles on each of the long sides, 0.016 in diameter, placed just above the edges of the rim and corresponding to the handles of the larnax; a conical knob on the middle of each long side corresponding exactly to the D-shaped projections of the larnax. Clay and preservation as the larnax. L11 (Fig. 18). Larnax: pr. l. 0.300; pr. h. 0.130 m. Elliptical with curved sides; only one horizontal roll handle is preserved, 0.026 m in diameter, placed 0.070 m below the rim; everted rim with convex upper surface. Clay red, coarse, full of black stone inclusions. Reddish slip on the interior and exterior. Heavily damaged. L12 (Fig. 18). Pithos and lid. Pithos: h. 0.385; max. d. 0.460; d. rim 0.320; th. 0.008. Lid: h. 0.070; d. 0.370; th. 0.008 m. Pithos: small, conical shape; curved sides with inclination inward; slightly concave base; 4 small horizontal roll handles, 0.015 m in diameter, on the upper part of the body, 0.300 m above the base; 2 larger horizontal handles, 0.020 m in diameter, 0.140 m above the base; straight rim with side projection for the better attachment of the lid. Clay of pink color, coarse, full of small stone inclusions. Yellowish slip on the interior and exterior; painted decoration, consisting of a red painted band on the base and the rim. Very well preserved and intact. Lid: discoid, with straight upper surface and vertical walls; 4 vertical roll handles on the periphery, 0.012 m in diameter; one larger roll handle in the center, 0.025 m in diameter. Clay, surface treatment and preservation as the pithos. No decoration.

Figurines All 10 figurines were found in Stratum III inside the tholos (Table 9; Fig. 7A). Eight are of Cycladic type (F1–F12, F14), while the others have no parallels from anywhere else (F13, F15). Despite the differences in details, heads F1, F2, and F3 (Fig. 20; Pl. 18) constitute a single group with strong affinities in specific and very significant ways. They are similar in material (high quality marble), dimensions (total estimated height of c. 0.260–0.300 m), and form (Spedos variety). Also, the mouth was rendered in relief, and they were found in the same area of the tomb (Fig. 7A). Despite the above similarities, however, figurine F3 can be distinguished from the others by its manufacture. This figurine has a thin narrow surface around the nose that is slightly raised from the rest of the face (Pl. 18). As argued elsewhere, this surface constitutes the remains of the initial, original face of the figurine (Papadatos 2003). The evidence strongly

suggests that the figurine had no mouth originally, but that it was created later in relief. The craftsman “shaved” the original surface of the face in order to artificially raise the lips of the mouth. He also engraved the space between the two lips in order to separate them, in addition to the engraving area between the nose and the upper lip. These 2 areas present the most traces of working in the form of small straight incisions going in various directions. The surface around the nose was not removed, probably in order to avoid the risk of breaking the nose. Legs F4–F8 (Fig. 20; Pl. 18) belong to 3 figurines, and they include 2 pairs, F4–F5 and F6–F7, while the other leg corresponding to F8 was not found in the tomb. These legs were found in the same part of the tomb as heads F1–F3 (Fig. 7A); they are made of the same kind of marble, and they belong to figurines of an estimated height of 0.260–0.300 m, exactly like the heads. Therefore, it

30

THOLOS TOMB GAMMA

seems rather reasonable to suggest that the legs are related to the heads. Unfortunately, the attribution of specific legs to heads is impossible. The heads and legs are fragments of 3 Cycladic figurines of the canonical type with folded arms (hereafter FAFs). They follow the strict Cycladic conventions of the canonical FAFs (Renfrew 1969, 9, 11), and can be attributed to the very broad Spedos variety (Renfrew 1969, 20; Sakellarakis 1977a, 150). However, they are very distinctive by having an indication of a mouth and separately worked legs, both features extremely rare among their canonical Cycladic counterparts. Figurines F9 and F10 (Fig. 21; Pl. 19) are the best preserved of Tholos Gamma because they were protected by the stones of the north wall of the tomb. For this reason, they were not found during the excavation, but later, during the cleaning and restoration of the tholos wall (Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1980, 400–401; 1981, 215). They are made of white marble of high quality. Typologically, they follow the strict conventions of the canonical FAFs. According to Renfrew’s classification, they can be attributed to the Koumasa variety (Renfrew 1969, 19). They are different from other figurines of this variety, however, because they are larger with a more complex profile, and have many incised and relief details. Also, these figures are elaborate pieces of sculpture, unlike the improvised figurines which are characteristic of this variety. Finally, it is noteworthy that both objects have an indication of a mouth, a rather peculiar feature for the Cycladic canonical FAFs. Figurine F11 (Fig. 22; Pl. 19) is entirely different. It is smaller, very thin, almost flat, and more schematic. It follows the conventions of the canonical Cycladic FAFs, and according to Renfrew’s typology, it is attributed to the Koumasa variety (Renfrew 1969, 19; Sakellarakis 1977b, 100). Close parallels have been found at Koumasa (Xanthoudides 1924, pl. 21, nos. 124, 125, 127), Lebena (Alexiou and Warren 2004, 52, no. 61, 128, no. 519, 187, no. 35; Renfrew 1969, 19, nos. IV.E.12–14), and Platanos (Xanthoudides 1924, pl. 15, no. 224). The study of the figurines from the Area of the Rocks revealed a head (Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pl. 316), which on the basis of dimensions, analogies, and material may be the missing head of F11 (Fig. 22). Unfortunately, the 2

pieces do not join, and the different state of preservation does not allow a secure reconstruction. Figurine F12 (Fig. 22; Pl. 19) is the smallest figurine of Cycladic type found in the Aegean (Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, 509). Despite the small dimensions, it follows the strict Cycladic conventions and belongs to the Koumasa variety (Renfrew 1969, 19). The closest parallel is a tiny double steatite figurine from Tekes (Marinatos 1933, 301, pl. 12), belonging to the Koumasa variety. The figurine is peculiar because it is made of schist, a material never used in the Cyclades for the manufacture of figurines. Finally, it has an incised indication of a mouth, a feature very rare in the Cycladic canonical FAFs, but quite common in the figurines of Tholos Gamma, as mentioned above. Figurine F14 (Fig. 22; Pl. 19) is made of bone, which is also a material never used in the Cyclades for the manufacture of figurines. It follows the Cycladic tradition, however, and belongs to the Spedos variety (Renfrew 1969, 20; Sakellarakis 1977a, 150). On the other hand, it has separately worked legs, which is a clear departure from the Cycladic sculptural tradition. This peculiar feature brings F14 close to the above mentioned figurines F1–F8, which also have separate legs. The chronology of the Cycladic figurines in Crete can be based on 2 kinds of evidence: indirect, which is related to the Cretan-Cycladic chronological correlations, and direct, which is provided by a few figurines found in securely dated Cretan contexts. All the Cycladic FAFs in the Cyclades are dated to EC II, and there is no evidence for continuation of their manufacture and use in the succeeding EC III period (Renfrew 1969). The chronological correlation of EC II is with EM II (Warren 1984; Warren and Hankey 1989, 17), and more precisely with EM IIA (Wilson 1994, 39–40). Such a dating is reinforced by a few figurines in Crete, which could be precisely dated from their context. The best case is a figurine from Vasiliki, which was found built inside a wall of EM IIB (Zois 1972, fig. 255), indicating the terminus ante quem for the date of this figurine. Also, the figurines from the Pyrgos and Platyvola Caves (Xanthoudides 1918, 164, fig. 14; Tzedakis 1967, 505, fig. 378b) have been found together with EM I–IIA material. In all the other cases, the figurines were found in mixed EM II–MM I deposits. From

OTHER FINDS

the above evidence, clearly the Cycladic figurines in Crete cannot be dated later than EM II, and perhaps not later than EM IIA (contra Branigan 1971, 62). Head F13 (Fig. 22) cannot be classified with any type of Cycladic or Minoan figurines (Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, 508). There is only a general resemblance to the Cycladic figurines attributed by Getz-Preziosi to the “Hunter/Warrior group” (GetzPreziosi 1979 and 1981). However, F13 cannot be regarded with certainty as a figurine of this or any other known Aegean type of figurine. Finally, head F15 (Fig. 22) is also a peculiar figurine, unique in the Early Bronze Age Aegean because it is an acrolithon (Sakellarakis 1977a, 151). The head was attached to a separately worked body made of another or the same material. It cannot be classified with any of the known types of Cycladic and Minoan figurines, and there are no parallels. F1 (Fig. 20; Pl. 18). Marble head. Pr. h. 0.089; max. w. 0.047 m. Head and neck of Cycladic-type figurine; neck of elliptical section, narrowing toward the head; chin indicated by slightly pronounced straight line, separating the head from the neck; head of trapezoidal shape with slightly curved sides and inclination backward; curved crown on the top of the head; nose indicated with high relief; the transition from the face to the nose is quite even and gradual; relief mouth, almond-shaped with horizontal incision in the middle to separate the two lips; lips joined at the ends. Estimated height of the entire figurine 0.290 m. Coarse-grained, white Cycladic marble of high quality. Highly polished surface. Sakellarakis 1972, pl. 285b; 1977a, fig. 142, left; 1977b, pl. 3; Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pl. 315, left. F2 (Fig. 20; Pl. 18). Marble head. Pr. h. 0.083; max. w. 0.045 m. Head and neck of Cycladic-type figurine; neck of elliptical section, separated from the head by slightly pronounced curved line in the front and an oblique thin incision in the back; head of rounded shape with backward inclination and curved crown on the top; nose indicated by high relief; the transition from the nose to the face is gradual; relief mouth, almond-shaped with central horizontal incision to separate the 2 lips; lips joined at the ends. Estimated height of the entire figurine 0.260 m. Coarse-grained, white Cycladic marble of high quality. Highly polished surface. Sakellarakis 1977a, fig. 142, right; 1977b, pl. 1; Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pl. 315, middle. F3 (Fig. 20; Pl. 18). Marble head. Pr. h. 0.089; max. w. 0.048 m. Head and neck of Cycladic-type figurine; neck of elliptical section, separated from the head by a slightly pronounced curved chin in the front, and by 2 oblique thin incisions in the back; head of trapezoidal shape with backward inclination and crown on the top; nose indicated by high relief, the transition from the face to the nose is abrupt and the sides of the nose are vertical; around the

31

nose there is a thin surface, slightly raised from the level of the face; relief mouth, consisting of 2 separate projections, indicating the upper and the lower lip; large space between the lips, which are not joined at the ends. Estimated height of the entire figurine 0.295 m. Coarsegrained, white Cycladic marble of high quality. Surface unpolished; clear traces of abrasion tools in some parts of the face, especially below the nose and between the lips. Sakellarakis 1977a, fig. 142, middle; 1977b, pl. 2; Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pl. 315, right. F4 (Fig. 20; Pl. 18). Marble leg. Pr. h. 0.086; max. w. 0.021 (leg), 0.016 (sole); max. th. 0.012 m. Part of the left leg of Cycladic-type figurine, preserved from the knee downwards; straight leg, not bent in the knees; sole with inclination downward, separated from the leg by straight incision, only on the external side of the foot; 4 deep and wide incisions indicate the toes; the toes project slightly downward, creating a ridge at the tip of the lower surface of the sole; in the inner side of the leg there is a long projection 0.006 m wide and 0.002 m thick; the projection is smooth and polished, without irregularities. Estimated height of the entire figurine c. 0.250–0.300 m. Coarsegrained, white Cycladic marble of high quality. Highly polished surface. Sakellarakis 1972, pl. 288b; 1977a, fig. 141; 1977b, pls. 5–6; Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pl. 303. F5 (Fig. 20; Pl. 18). Marble leg. Pr. h. 0.030; max. w. 0.017 (sole); max. th. 0.013 m. Part of the right leg of Cycladic-type figurine, preserved just above the ankle; sole with inclination downward, separated from the leg by straight incision, only on the external side of the foot; 4 deep incisions indicate the toes; smooth inner side, without irregularities. Estimated total height of the whole figurine c. 0.250–0.300 m. Coarse-grained, white Cycladic marble of high quality. Highly polished surface. Sakellarakis 1972, pl. 288b; 1977a, fig. 141; 1977b, pls. 5–6; Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pl. 303. F6 (Fig. 20; Pl. 18). Marble leg. Pr. h. 0.061; max. w. 0.010 (sole); th. 0.005 m (sole). Part of the right leg of Cycladic-type figurine, preserved from the calf downward; sole with inclination downward, separated from the leg by 2 small, horizontal incisions, one in the front, the other in the back; a single incision indicates the toes; smooth inner side, without irregularities. Estimated height of the entire figurine c. 0.250–0.300 m. Coarse-grained, white Cycladic marble of high quality. Polished surface. Sakellarakis 1972, pl. 288b; 1977a, fig. 141; 1977b, pls. 5–6; Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pl. 303. F7 (Fig. 20; Pl. 18). Marble leg. Pr. h. 0.037; max. w. 0.010 (sole); th. 0.004 m (sole). Part of the left leg of Cycladic-type figurine, preserved just above the ankle; sole with inclination downward, separated from the leg by 2 small horizontal incisions, one in the front, the other in the back; a single incision indicates the toes; smooth inner side, without irregularities. Estimated height of the entire figurine c. 0.250–0.300 m. Coarse-grained, white Cycladic marble of high quality. Polished surface.

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Sakellarakis 1972, pl. 288b; 1977a, fig. 141; 1977b, pls. 5–6; Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pl. 303. F8 (Fig. 20; Pl. 18). Marble leg. Pr. h. 0.068; max. w. 0.016 (sole); th. 0.005 m (sole). Part of the right leg of Cycladic type figurine, preserved from the knee downward; sole with inclination downward, separated from the leg by horizontal incision only in the outer side of the leg; 3 deep incisions indicate the toes; the inner side of the leg is smooth, apart from the upper preserved part, where there is an irregular projection and clear evidence for breaking. Estimated total height of the entire figurine c. 0.250–0.300 m. Coarse-grained, white Cycladic marble of high quality. Polished surface. Leg F8 consists of 2 fragments. Sakellarakis 1972, pl. 288b; 1977a, fig. 141; 1977b, pls. 5–6; Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pl. 303. F9 (Fig. 21; Pl. 19). Marble intact figurine. H. 0.218; max. w. 0.091; max. th. 0.011 m. Cycladic-type female figurine in upright position; trapezoidal head with curved sides; nose indicated by high relief, with vertical sides; the transition from the nose to the face is abrupt; mouth indicated by small, shallow, horizontal incision; head with backward inclination and crown on the top; transition from head to neck marked by curved incision in front, indicating the chin, and 2 oblique incisions in the back, creating a V; neck separated from the body by curved incision in front and 2 oblique incisions, creating a V in the back. Broad shoulders; breasts indicated by high relief; hands folded with the right above the left, and indicated by thin, straight incisions; no indication for the fingers; below the hands, an incised triangle indicates the pubic area. Legs separated by an incision starting from the point of the triangle and gradually becoming broader and deeper toward the soles; soles with downward inclination; toes indicated by 4 incisions. A shallow central incision in the back indicates the backbone. The profile of the figurine is flexed at 4 different points: head, waist, knees, and soles. Coarse-grained, white Cycladic marble of high quality. Highly polished surface. Almost intact, consisting of 2 pieces; only part of the right foot is missing. Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pl. 308. F10 (Fig. 21; Pl. 19). Marble intact figurine. H. 0.183; max. w. 0.065; max. th. 0.014 m. Cycladic-type female figurine in upright position; head of rounded shape; nose indicated by high relief with vertical sides; abrupt transition from nose to face; in the area of the mouth there is a small, circular, flat surface, slightly raised from the level of the face, perhaps the remaining traces of a relief mouth; head with inclination backward and crown on the top; curved incision in the front indicates the chin and separates the head from the neck; neck separated from the body by curved incision in the front and 2 oblique incisions, creating a V in the back. Rounded shoulders; breasts indicated by high relief; hands indicated by thin, straight incisions, folded with the right above the left; no indication of fingers; below the hands, an incised triangle indicates the pubic area. Legs separated by incision

starting from the point of the triangle and becoming broader and deeper toward the soles; soles with inclination downward; no indication of toes. A shallow central incision in the back indicates the backbone. The profile of the figurine is flexed at 4 different points: head, waist, knees, and soles. Coarse-grained, white Cycladic marble of high quality. Highly polished surface. Almost intact, consisting of 3 pieces; only part of the left foot is missing. Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pl. 308. F11 (Fig. 22; Pl. 19). Marble headless body. Pr. h. 0.072; max. w. 0.043; th. 0.005 m. Lower part of Cycladic-type female figurine in upright position; flat body without indication of breasts; rounded shoulders; hands folded with the right above the left, indicated by straight incisions; pubic triangle indicated by incisions. Legs separated by thin incision, which becomes slightly deeper and broader downward. Thin, flat profile without high projections and flexed only at the soles. Estimated height of the entire figurine c. 0.090–0.110 m. Whitish, fine-grained marble of low quality. Heavily eroded surface; head, right shoulder, and left sole are missing. Sakellarakis 1972, pl. 287; 1977a, fig. 136; 1977b, pl. 4; Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pl. 303. F12 (Fig. 22; Pl. 19). Intact schist figurine. H. 0.018; max. w. 0.007; max. th. 0.002 m. Tiny Cycladic-type female figurine in upright position; triangular head with crown on the top and inclination backward; nose indicated by low relief; eyebrows and mouth indicated by straight incisions; neck separated from the head by horizontal incision and from the body by 2 oblique incisions, creating a V both in front and back. No indication for breasts; hands indicated by incisions; horizontal incision also in the place of the pubic triangle; 2 horizontal incisions in the back define the waist. Legs separated by thin incision; the legs have curved outline, which emphasizes the thighs; 2 small incisions indicate the toes. Flat profile with only one flexed point in the back of the head. Green schist. Preserved intact. Sakellarakis 1972, pl. 284b; Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pl. 496. F13 (Fig. 22). Stone head. Pr. h. 0.015; pr. w. 0.009; pr. th. 0.009 m. Oval shaped head with pronounced chin and inclination backward; nose, eyes, and eyebrows indicated by low relief; incision in the area of the mouth, which seems to be rather fortuitous and not a deliberate rendering of the mouth; 6 straight, vertical incisions indicate the hair in the back; head separated from the neck by horizontal incision. Made of red stone. Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pl. 497. F14 (Fig. 22; Pl. 19). Intact bone figurine. H. 0.085; max. w. 0.020 (shoulders); max. th. 0.009 m (soles). Cycladic-type female figurine in upright position; lyreshaped head with inclination backward and crown on the top; nose indicated by relief; angular projecting chin; cylindrical neck narrowing downward. Narrow, horizontal, angular shoulders; no indication for breasts; hands folded with the right above the left and indicated by straight incisions; below the hands the pubic area is indicated with incision and relief; inside the pubic triangle

OTHER FINDS

are 16 tiny holes, 0.001 m in diameter, placed without any special arrangement. Legs separated by a deep, broad, vertical incision; below the knees, the legs separate; the profile of the legs is curved, emphasizing the thighs; soles straight and flat, without the usual inclination downward; 4 incisions indicate the toes. Complex 3dimensional profile with 3 flexed points: head, thighs, and soles. Polished surface; traces of working in various parts of the figurine in the form of small shallow incisions toward various directions. Whitish bone. Almost intact. Sakellarakis 1972, pl. 285a; 1977a, fig. 143; 1977b, pls. 16–18; Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pls. 813, 815.

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F15 (Fig. 22). Ivory head. H. 0.022; d. neck 0.006; max. w. 0.011; max. th. 0.008 m. Cylindrical neck, flat at the base; hole near the base 0.001 m in diameter with a vertical notch in each side; an oblique, slightly convex, elliptical surface on the top of the neck corresponds to the face of the figurine; no facial features are indicated; in the lower part of the face there is a square filling of the same kind of material, but of different color. Hippopotamus ivory of whitish color; traces of lamellae on the top of the head. Polished surface. Intact, except some chips missing from the periphery of the face. Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pls. 812, 814.

Copper Artifacts Stratum II in the tholos contained 3 artifacts made of copper (Table 8; Fig. 19). These are a rivet (B1), a punch (B18), and an unidentified fragment (B17). They cannot be securely dated. Stratum III in the tholos contained 16 copper objects (Table 8; Figs. 6B, 19): 3 daggers (B10– B12), one cosmetic scraper (B8), one pin (B9), 8 rivets (B2–B7, B11, B13–B14), and 3 unidentified fragments (B15–B16, B19). Daggers B10 and B11 belong to Branigan’s Type 8 (Branigan 1967, 220–222; Branigan 1974, 11) with high pronounced mid-rib and straight edges. Daggers of this type have been found in Galana Charakia, Koumasa Tholos B, Tekes, Trapeza, Psychro, Zinta, and Vasiliki (Branigan 1974, nos. 262–268, 271). To these 8 daggers, another 3 could be added: silver examples from Koumasa Gamma (Xanthoudides 1924, pl. 29, nos. 212, 213; Branigan 1967, 220) and another silver piece from Tekes (Marinatos 1933, 302, pl. 13). The date of these daggers is not clear. The dagger from Vasiliki is dated to EM IIA–III, the examples from Koumasa and Trapeza are attributed to EM I–MM I, and the object from Galana Charakia is dated to EM III–MM I. The daggers from Tekes and Zinta are museum purchases of unknown context. There is evidence that this type of Cretan dagger has strong Cycladic connections. Similar, though longer, daggers have been found in the Cyclades (Branigan 1974, 160, nos. 269–270, 479, 480, 484A; Marangou 1990, 164, no. 172). Moreover, 5 of the Minoan daggers are made of silver, a raw material of Cycladic origin that was commonly used

in the islands (Gale and Stos-Gale 1981). The Cycladic daggers of this type are dated to EC II, contemporary with EM II (Warren 1984; Warren and Hankey 1989, 17), and more precisely with EM IIA (Wilson 1994, 39–40). Dagger B12 is different from the other 2 examples. It is significantly smaller and thinner, and it has a slightly pronounced mid-ridge. It belongs to Branigan’s Type 3 (Branigan 1967, 214–216; Branigan 1974, 9). The closest parallels are 2 daggers from Salame, one from Koumasa, 2 from Krasi, and one from Palaikastro (Branigan 1974, 158, nos. 147, 148, 167, 186, 187, 224). Only the Salame and Krasi daggers can be dated precisely to EM I or EM II. Pin B9 does not have many Minoan parallels because pins are extremely rare in Prepalatial Crete (Sapouna-Sakellaraki 1994, 65), in contrast to the Cyclades and the northeast Aegean. In Crete there are only 2 pins from Koumasa, 2 from Platanos, and one from Porti (Branigan 1974, 178, nos. 1494– 1498). They cannot be dated precisely because they derive from mixed EM II–MM I deposits. Very similar to B9 are also 3 punches from the Pyrgos Cave (Branigan 1974, 172, nos. 1042–1044; Xanthoudides 1918, 165, fig. 15) dated to EM I–II. The Cycladic pins are dated to EC II, which, as mentioned above, is contemporary with EM IIA. Cosmetic scraper B8 has close parallels from Mochlos, Platanos, and Trapeza (Branigan 1974, 175–177, nos. 1394, 1395, 1396, 1440), which are dated between EM I and MM I. Finally, the 9 rivets discovered in the tholos tomb (B2–B7, B11, B13–B14) cannot be dated,

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THOLOS TOMB GAMMA

but they are significant because they indicate the existence of objects of unknown character and use that were made of perishable materials and were no longer preserved. B1 (Fig. 19). Copper rivet. L. 0.017; w. 0.002; th. 0.002 m. Roughly square section; flattened and widened at both ends. Preserved intact. B2 (Fig. 19). Copper rivet. L. 0.013; w. 0.002; th. 0.002 m. Roughly square section; slightly folded and twisted at one end. Preserved intact. B3 (Fig. 19). Copper rivet. L. 0.014; max. d. 0.003; min. d. 0.002 m. Roughly circular section; wider at the upper end, pointed at the lower; the pointed end is slightly folded. Preserved intact. B4 (Fig. 19). Copper rivet. L. 0.017; max. d. 0.002 m. Roughly circular section; wider at the upper end, pointed at the lower; the pointed end is slightly folded. Preserved intact. B5 (Fig. 19). Copper rivet. L. 0.015; d. 0.002 m. Circular section; wider at the upper end, pointed at the lower; bent in the middle. Preserved intact. B6 (Fig. 19). Copper rivet. Pr. l. 0.013; d. 0.002 m. Roughly circular section; pointed lower end; incurved body. Broken at the upper end. B7 (Fig. 19). Copper rivet. Pr. l. 0.011; d. 0.002 m. Roughly circular section; pointed lower end; incurved body. Broken at the upper end. B8 (Fig. 19). Copper cosmetic scraper. Pr. l. 0.027; max. w. 0.015; min. w. 0.009; th. 0.002 m. Part of cosmetic scraper; flat, with trapezoidal shape; possible hole in the upper broken end. Broken and heavily eroded in the narrow side. B9 (Fig. 19). Copper pin. L. 0.075; th. 0.002 m. Square section; straight sides; sharp, pointed end; flat, unmodified pinhead. Intact, but heavily eroded. B10 (Fig. 19; Pl. 17). Copper dagger. Pr. l. 0.197; max. w. (heel) 0.028; min. w. (point) 0.004; w. (mid-rib) 0.004–0.005; th. (blade) 0.001; th. (mid-rib) 0.003– 0.007 m. Long dagger with high pronounced mid-rib; the section of the mid-rib is trapezoidal in the upper part of the dagger and circular toward the pointed end. Two shafting holes in each side, 0.003 m in diameter; 2 of the holes are 0.011 m from the heel, and the surface of the

blade around them is regular; the other 2 holes are 0.015 m from the heel, and the surface of the blade around them is irregular. Two tiny holes, 0.001 m in diameter and 0.003 m deep, exist in the one side of the mid-rib. The dagger is very well preserved and almost intact. Sakellarakis 1977a, fig. 135, left; Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pl. 618, left. B11 (Fig. 19; Pl. 17). Copper dagger. Pr. l. 0.176; max. w. 0.017; w. (mid-rib) 0.002–0.005; max. th. 0.002– 0.007; th. (blade) 0.001; th. (mid-rib) 0.004–0.008 m. Long dagger with high pronounced mid-rib of circular section; rounded heel with 2 shafting holes, 0.003 m in diameter; rivets are preserved in situ; they are 0.017 m long and 0.002 m in diameter, with straight, flat end. The dagger is preserved almost intact, but heavily eroded. Sakellarakis 1977a, fig. 135, middle; Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pl. 618, middle. B12 (Fig. 19; Pl. 17). Copper dagger. Pr. l. 0.082; max. w. 0.013; max. th. 0.002 m. Long dagger with slightly pronounced mid-ridge; heel and shafting holes are not preserved. Sakellarakis 1977a, fig. 135, right; Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pl. 618, right. B13 (Fig. 19). Copper fragment. Pr. l. 0.009; th. 0.002 m. Small fragment of roughly square section. Broken at both ends. B14 (Fig. 19). Copper fragment. Pr. l. 0.009; th. 0.002 m. Small fragment of roughly square section. Broken at both ends. B15 (Fig. 19). Copper fragment. Pr. l. 0.006; th. 0.001 m. Tiny piece of roughly square section. Broken at both ends, with eroded surface. B16 (Fig. 19). Two copper fragments. Pr. l. 0.011 and 0.016; th. 0.002 m. Two fragments of elongated shape and square section. Broken at both ends; eroded surface. B17 (Fig. 19). Copper fragment. Pr. l. 0.002; th. 0.002 m. Elongated piece of square section and curved profile; the outer surface flat and regular; the inner surface irregular and broken. Broken at both ends. B18 (Fig. 19). Copper fragment. Pr. l. 0.026; th. 0.003 m. Elongated piece of square section. Broken at both ends. B19. Copper fragment. Pr. l. 0.007; th. 0.002 m. Tiny fragment.

Silver and Lead Artifacts Stratum II inside the tholos contained a lead discoid object (C1; Table 12; Fig. 22) of unknown character and use that only has one parallel from Phylakopi of unknown date (Renfrew 1967, pl. 2a). Lead discoid objects in prehistoric Aegean were generally used as weights (Petruso 1992), but these

are much larger and quite different from the Tholos Gamma specimen. All the silver objects from inside Tholos Gamma were found in Stratum III (Table 12; Figs. 6B, 22). They include a cosmetic scraper (C2), a pin (C3), and 4 awls (C4–C7). A few silver nails used for

OTHER FINDS

hafting were also found in situ, inside 3 ivory handles (I9, I10, and I12). Silver cosmetic scraper C2 has parallels from both Crete and the Cyclades (Branigan 1974, 33). It has a peculiar double spiral formation on the top, however, which is only paralleled on a scraper from Chalandriani (Tsountas 1899, pl. 10, 30). Such double or multiple spirals can also be seen on pins found in several parts of the Aegean, such as at Chalandriani (Tsountas 1899, pl. 10, nos. 15, 16, 18, 21), Naxos (Marangou 1990, 62), Poliochni, (Bernabò-Brea 1964, pl. 86e), and Troy (Branigan 1974, 181, nos. 2067–2068, 2070). Only the Chalandriani, Poliochni, and Troy examples can be dated precisely to EC II/EBA II. The strong affinities with the Cyclades and the northeast Aegean are reinforced also by the use of silver, a material more common in the Cyclades than in Crete. Pin C3 has a few parallels in Crete, where pins were extremely rare (Branigan 1974, nos. 1494–1498). In contrast, pins were very common in the Cyclades. They were mainly made of copper, but also of silver and bone. Minoan pins cannot be dated precisely, while the Cycladic pins are dated mostly to EC II. The 4 silver awls C4–C7 are different from the other silver objects of Tholos Gamma in terms of material. They are made of silver of lighter color and were found with a green overcoat. The color of the silver and the green overcoat is probably the result of alloying silver with copper (N. Gale, personal

35

communication). The same green overcoat has been observed in the silver daggers of Tekes, which were originally thought to be made of copper (Marinatos 1933, pls. 13–14; Alexiou 1975, 138, pl. 4). The awls have good parallels from both Crete and the Cyclades. In Crete there are only 7 examples from Koumasa and Platanos (Branigan 1974, 171–172, nos. 1036–1041). Many more have been found in the Cyclades, mainly on Naxos (Marangou 1990, 63, 78, 96) and at Chalandriani on Syros (Tsountas 1899, 102). The Cretan awls come from mixed EM II–MM I deposits, whereas the Cycladic awls can be dated to EC II. C1 (Fig. 22). Lead discoid object. L. 0.018; w. 0.016; th. 0.005 m. Tiny hole, 0.001 m in diameter and 0.001 m deep, opened in the periphery. Intact but much eroded. C2 (Fig. 22; Pl. 17). Silver cosmetic scraper. L. 0.060; w. 0.017 (upper part), 0.022 (lower part); th. 0.003 m. Trapezoidal shape; double spiral formation on top. Silver of dark gray color. Intact but heavily eroded. Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pl. 637. C3 (Fig. 22). Silver pin (?). Pr. l. 0.017; d. 0.002 m. Silver of dark gray color. Broken and heavily eroded; it consists of 3 smaller pieces. C4 (Fig. 22). Silver awl. L. 0.040; max. th. 0.002 m. Square section and 2 pointed ends. Silver of light gray color. Intact, very well preserved, no erosion. C5 (Fig. 22). Silver awl. L. 0.065; max. th. 0.003 m. Same as C4. It consists of 2 fragments. C6 (Fig. 22). Silver awl. L. 0.054; max. th. 0.002 m. Same as C4. C7 (Fig. 22). Silver awl. L. 0.041; max. th. 0.002 m. Same as C4.

Pendants Three pendants were found in Stratum II inside the tholos (Table 11; Fig. 23): 2 prismatic examples (A4–A5) and one conical object (A22). The 2 prismatic pendants A4–A5 are made of bone from the tibia of a sheep or goat. The bone was cut and only slightly modified. This is known because the bone retained its original shape and the natural central marrow cavity (Krzyszkowska 1990, 55). The marrow cavity was filled with a small piece of the same material, a common technique in bone and ivory working, and in the manufacture of some Prepalatial cylinder seals (Krzyszkowska 1989, 121; Platon

1962). The prismatic pendants of Tholos Gamma have numerous parallels from all over Crete dated from EM II to MM IA–B (Effinger 1996, 352). In Archanes, they constitute a very common burial offering, and they have been found in Tholos Epsilon and Burial Buildings 5, 9, 16, 18, and 19, dated from EM IIA to MM II (Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, 632). Conical pendant A22 bears many features regularly seen in seals, such as the conical shape, and the sophisticated suspension technique with 3 holes in a triangular arrangement (Yule 1980, 39–43).

36

THOLOS TOMB GAMMA

Moreover, A22 is made of white paste, a material which was used almost exclusively for seals (Pini 1990, 124). The lack of decoration on the base, however, indicates that A22 was not used as a seal. Of the 100 objects made of this material, only 2 are not seals, but beads (Pini 1990, 126; HughesBrock 1995, 106). Seals of this shape are not dated earlier than EM III and continue in MM IA and MM IB (Yule 1980, 39–43; Sbonias 1995, 72, tbl. III). Such a chronology is reinforced by the use of paste, which first appeared in MM IA (Pini 1990; Sbonias 1995, 69). Of the 22 pendants of Tholos Gamma, 19 were found in Stratum III inside the tomb (Table 11; Figs. 9A, 23). Two pendants (A1–A2) have the shape of a fish. They are unique, and have no parallels in Crete or elsewhere in the Aegean. Another pendant (A3) has the shape of a bird. Pendants of this form have been found in Crete, at Mochlos (Seager 1912, fig. 20, 7), Hagia Triada (Banti 1930–1931, fig. 58h), and Platanos (Xanthoudides 1924, pl. 15, 1146). At Archanes, bird-shaped pendants have been found in Burial Building 9 (Sakellarakis 1973, fig. 183a) and Burial Building 7 (Sakellarakis and Sakellarakis 1997, 636, pl. 692). Also, a gold sheet cut in the shape of a bird has been found in Archanes Burial Building 13. Finally, there are 3 bird-shaped seals from Hagios Onouphrios (CMS II.1, 113), Koumasa (CMS II.1, 133), and Trapeza (CMS II.1, 438). Of these parallels, the Mochlos pendant is dated to EM II or EM III, while the Hagia Triada and Platanos specimens date between EM II and MM I. Finally, the pendants from Archanes Burial Buildings 7 and 9 are dated to MM IA. The seals cannot be dated precisely. Bird-shaped pendants have been also found in the Cyclades at the cemeteries of Pyrgos and Zoumbari (Tsountas 1898, pl. 8, nos. 16, 17, 23). Finally, pinheads and figurines in the shape of a bird have been found at Chalandriani. They were made of bone and stone, respectively (Tsountas 1899, pl. 10, nos. 3, 27, 28). The Cycladic parallels are dated to EC II. Cylindrical pendant A6 is made of bone. It has numerous parallels from all over Crete dated from EM II to MM IA–B (Effinger 1996, 352). In Archanes, it constitutes a very common burial offering. Pendants were found in Tholos Epsilon and Burial Buildings 5, 9, 16, 18, and 19, and they were dated between EM II and MM IIA (Sakellarakis and Sakellarakis 1997, 632).

The 2 forked pendants A7–A8 are made of bone, and they are unique because they lack parallels in Crete and elsewhere in the Aegean. Most of the Tholos Gamma pendants are dropshaped (A9–A19) and made of bone. There are a large number of drop-shaped pendants in Crete (Effinger 1996, 351), but these are different from the Tholos Gamma examples made in the shape of a body and a head. The closest parallels are pendants from the Cyclades (Sapouna-Sakellaraki 1977, 128) found in the cemeteries of Kapros (Thimme 1977, 367, no. 443), Zoumbari (Tsountas 1898, pl. 8, no. 26), Krassades (Tsountas 1898, 161, pl. 8, nos. 39, 55), and Paros (Thimme 1977, 126, fig. 100). These pendants are very similar to the Tholos Gamma examples, but they are made of stone. They are dated to EC II. Vase-shaped pendant A20 is made of solid cast gold, something extremely rare in Prepalatial Crete, where most of the gold jewels were made of gold sheet (Branigan 1983, 15). Only 7 objects of solid gold (all beads), have been found at Kalathiana, Hagios Onouphrios (Branigan 1974, 192), Maronia (Platon 1954, 511), and Mochlos tomb 2 (Seager 1912, fig. 10, II.22). The Mochlos specimens are dated precisely to EM IIA (Soles 1992, 49), whereas the Maronia bead belongs to EM IIB or EM III. The closest parallels in terms of shape are seen in the Cyclades (Sapouna-Sakellaraki 1977, 123). One pinhead made of silver comes from Avdeli on Naxos, and 2 more are from an unknown site(s) on the same island (Marangou 1990, 62, 65). These pinheads are very similar to A20, and the only difference is that they are made of silver and that they were attached to pins as pinheads. Ring-shaped pendant A21 is made of malachite with veins of different shades of green that produce a special decorative effect. In terms of shape, the only parallels are 4 pendants from Hagios Onouphrios (Branigan 1974, 194, nos. 3141–3144). These pendants are similar to A21 in shape, but are made of copper and are coated with a sheet of gold. They cannot be dated precisely. Moreover, malachite was rarely used in the Aegean for the production of artifacts (Evans 1921–1936, I, 54–55; IV, 933). A1 (Fig. 23). Bone fish-shaped pendant. L. 0.034; max. w. 0.006; max. h. 0.007; d. holes 0.002 m. Possibly represents a dolphin; spindle-shaped body with triangular fin projecting from the upper side; very naturalistic with indication of nozzle in the front and tail in the back;

OTHER FINDS

2 holes opened through the width of the body, the first in the position of the eyes, the second in the center of the body. Smoothed and polished surface. Almost intact, only small parts from the tail and the lower surface are missing. Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pl. 690. A2 (Fig. 23). Bone fish-shaped pendant. Pr. l. 0.029; pr. max. w. 0.004; pr. max. h. 0.006; d. holes 0.002 m. Very similar to A1; description and features like A1; incomplete and heavily eroded. Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pl. 690. A3 (Fig. 23; Pl. 20). Bone bird-shaped pendant. L. 0.030; max. w. 0.008; max. h. 0.019; d. holes 0.002 m. Possibly represents a duck; spindle-shaped body; naturalistic indication of tail, neck, and head; 2 holes opened through the width, one in the position of the eyes, the other in the center of the body. Very well polished. Preserved intact and in excellent condition. Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pl. 690. A4 (Fig. 23; Pl. 17). Bone prismatic pendant. L. 0.019; w. 0.011; h. 0.015; d. suspension hole 0.003 m. Bone pendant of prismatic shape with large hole running lengthwise, 0.004–0.006 in diameter; the hole corresponds to the natural marrow cavity of the raw material, and it is filled artificially with a small piece of bone; the suspension hole is in the middle of the upper part and runs vertically to the marrow cavity. Made from a sheep or goat tibia. Polished surface. Intact, very well preserved. A5 (Fig. 23; Pl. 17). Bone prismatic pendant. Pr. l. 0.017; pr. w. 0.010; pr. h. 0.008; d. suspension hole 0.003 m. Small fragment of prismatic pendant, identical to A4 with same description and features. A6 (Fig. 23; Pl. 17). Bone cylindrical pendant. L. 0.021; d. 0.014; d. suspension holes 0.003 m. Fragment from bone cylindrical pendant; central natural marrow cavity running lengthwise, 0.007 m in diameter; 2 suspension holes, in vertical arrangement, opened in the middle of the pendant. Made from a sheep or goat tibia. Polished surface. More than half is missing. A7 (Fig. 23; Pl. 17). Bone bifurcated object. L. 0.075; ext. d. 0.011; int. d. 0.009; d. holes 0.002 m. Bone cylindrical object with forked end, possibly a pendant; a large hollow runs lengthwise corresponding to the natural, marrow cavity of the bone; one end is cut straight, the other forked with rounded tips; 2 pairs of suspension holes in vertical arrangement near the straight end. Made from a sheep metatarsal. Polished surface. Preserved almost intact, only one tip of the forked end is missing. Sakellarakis 1972, pl. 288, left; Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pl. 687, right. A8 (Fig. 23; Pl. 17). Bone bifurcated object. L. 0.093; ext. d. 0.012; int. d. 0.009; d. hole 0.002 m. Same as A7, with the exception that it has only one pair of suspension holes instead of 2. Preserved almost intact, only one tip of the forked end is missing. Sakellarakis 1972, pl. 288, right; Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pl. 687, left.

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A9 (Fig. 23; Pl. 17). Bone drop-shaped pendant. L. 0.018; max. d. 0.007 m. Suspension hole on top; pointed lower end; the largest diameter is below the middle of the body, and the head is of biconcave form. Well polished. Very well preserved and intact. Sakellarakis 1972, pl. 284; Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pl. 656. A10 (Fig. 23; Pl. 17). Bone drop-shaped pendant. L. 0.020; max. d. 0.008 m. Same as A9. Sakellarakis 1972, pl. 284; Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pl. 656. A11 (Fig. 23; Pl. 17). Bone spindle-shaped pendant. Pr. l. 0.024; max. d. 0.007 m. Suspension hole on top; pointed lower end; the largest diameter is in the middle; the head is not preserved, but it was probably spherical, like A13. Well polished. Very well preserved, but the head is missing. Sakellarakis 1972, pl. 284; Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pl. 656. A12 (Fig. 23; Pl. 17). Bone spindle-shaped pendant. L. 0.028; max. d. 0.010 m. Suspension hole on top; pointed lower end; the largest diameter is in the middle; the head is cylindrical. Well polished. Very well preserved, part of the head is missing. Sakellarakis 1972, pl. 284; Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pl. 656. A13 (Fig. 23; Pl. 17). Bone spindle-shaped pendant. Pr. l. 0.025; max. d. 0.008 m. Suspension hole on top; pointed lower end; the largest diameter is in the middle; the head is spherical. Well polished. Very well preserved, part of the head is missing. Sakellarakis 1972, pl. 284; Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pl. 656. A14 (Fig. 23; Pl. 17). Bone drop-shaped pendant. L. 0.020; max. d. 0.008 m. Suspension hole on top; pointed lower end; the largest diameter is below the middle of the body, and the head is of biconcave form. Well polished. Very well preserved, intact. Sakellarakis 1972, pl. 284; Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pl. 656. A15 (Fig. 23; Pl. 17). Bone drop-shaped pendant. L. 0.020; max. d. 0.008 m. Same as A14. Sakellarakis 1972, pl. 284; Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pl. 656. A16 (Fig. 23). Bone drop-shaped pendant. L. 0.020; max. d. 0.007 m. Same as A14. Sakellarakis 1972, pl. 284; Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pl. 656. A17 (Fig. 23). Bone drop-shaped pendant. L. 0.019; max. d. 0.006 m. Same as A14. Sakellarakis 1972, pl. 284; Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pl. 656. A18 (Fig. 23). Bone drop-shaped pendant. L. 0.020; max. d. 0.008 m. Same as A14. Sakellarakis 1972, pl. 284; Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pl. 656. A19 (Fig. 23). Bone drop-shaped pendant. L. 0.019; max. d. 0.006 m. Same as A14. Sakellarakis 1972, pl. 284; Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pl. 656. A20 (Fig. 23; Pl. 20). Gold vase-shaped pendant. H. 0.012; w. 0.012 m. Solid gold spherical body with two stems projecting in opposite directions and resembling the neck and foot of a vase; two D-shaped horizontal handles on the sides of the spherical body, resembling the handles of a vase. Made of cast gold of light yellow color. Sakellarakis 1972, pl. 284; Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pl. 700.

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THOLOS TOMB GAMMA

A21 (Fig. 23; Pl. 20). Malachite ring-shaped pendant. Ext. d. 0.017; int. d. 0.003; d. suspension hole 0.001 m. Biconical body with suspension hole opened in the periphery; 3 pairs of cylindrical shallow hollows, less than 0.001 m deep, in the periphery. Made of dark green malachite, with veins of lighter green color. Intact, very well preserved. Sakellarakis 1972, pl. 284; Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pls. 656, 697.

A22 (Fig. 23; Pl. 20). White paste bell-shaped pendant. H. 0.017; d. base 0.014; d. suspension hole 0.002 m. Suspension system consisting of 3 holes in triangular arrangement. Engraved decoration consisting of 10 vertical grooves and 11–13 smaller oblique grooves between them; deep horizontal groove separates the decorated area from the base. Intact. Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pls. 656, 697.

Jewelry: Beads All the jewelry from inside Tholos Gamma came from Stratum III and consists mainly of beads and bands (Table 10; Figs. 7B, 8A, 25; Pl. 20). Tholos Gamma contained 42 beads of 7 different shapes. Thirty-eight beads are made of gold, but there are also 2 carved from rock crystal, one cut from green serpentinite, and one made of bone. All the gold beads are made from gold sheet, except bead J38, which is made of solid cast gold. The 14 tubular beads (J1–J14) are unique in the Aegean and have no parallels outside Phourni. An identical bead was found in the Area of the Rocks (Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1978, 321, pl. 195d) in association with parts from 2 Cycladic figurines (Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1978, 320–321, pl. 195a, e) and pottery dated to EM IIA, EM III, and MM IA. This bead reinforces the close relationship between the assemblages of Tholos Gamma and the Area of the Rocks. All the tubular beads are similar to each other apart from J4, which is rather distinctive. In contrast to the other beads, it has relief instead of incised decoration, and the seam is almost invisible. Moreover, it is more elaborate, skillfully produced, perfectly executed, and finally, it is made of a lighter color of gold. For these reasons, it seems reasonable to suggest that J4 was made of a different gold alloy by different hands and probably in a different place and time than the rest of the 13 beads. The 4 ring-shaped beads (J21–J24) have parallels from the Thyreatis hoard (Reinholdt 1993) and Troy (Schmidt 1902, 236, no. 725; Antonova et al. 1996, nos. 78, 82, 86, 93–95, 101). The recent dating of the Troy treasure puts it at the end of Troy IIg, between 2500 and 2250 B.C., that is, broadly contemporary with EM II (Antonova et al. 1996, 229). All the ring-shaped beads are similar to each other apart from J24, which is manufactured in a very different and simpler way. It is made of thicker wire,

the suspension hole has been opened through the wire, and the gold is of a darker color. It is highly possible that beads J21–J23 were made of a different gold alloy, by different hands, and possibly in different place and time than J24. The 6 hollow barrel-shaped beads (J15–J20) have many parallels in Crete (Effinger 1996, 336). However, there are only 7 gold examples known, one in Lebena Tholos II (Effinger 1996, 238, LG1b), 4 in Mochlos tomb 23 (Seager 1912, figs. 20b and 36, I.0), and 3 at Platanos (Xanthoudides 1924, pl. 57, nos. 476, 477, 502). Only 2 beads from Platanos tomb A and one from Mochlos tomb 1 can be precisely dated to EM IIA. The others come from mixed EM I–MM I deposits. The same can be said for the solid barrel-shaped bead (J38), although it should be emphasized that objects made of solid gold were very rare in Prepalatial Crete (Branigan 1983, 15). The only solid beads from Crete are examples from Kalathiana, Hagios Onouphrios (Branigan 1974, 192), Maronia (Platon 1954, 511), and 4 from Mochlos tomb 2 (Seager 1912, fig. 10, II.22). Only the beads from Mochlos and Maronia can be precisely dated, the former to EM IIA (Soles 1992, 49), and the latter to EM IIB–III (CMS II.1, 498; Platon 1954, 511). The 13 grooved beads (J25–J37) have parallels from Hagios Onouphrios, Hagia Triada, Mochlos tomb 23, and Palaikastro (Effinger 1996, 324– 325). It is also a common type of bead found at many other sites, but they are usually made of stone. None of the parallels can be dated more precisely than EM II–MM I. The 3 discoid beads made of rock crystal (J59–J60) and green serpentinite (J61) have many parallels from all over Crete that are made of the same or other materials, mainly stone, and dated

OTHER FINDS

throughout the Bronze Age (Effinger 1996, 334–336). Finally, the shape of the bone bead J62 has parallels from Hagios Onouphrios (Evans 1895, 109, fig. 89b), Hagios Andonios (Hall 1914, 184, fig. 107), Archanes Burial Building 19 (Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1977, 481, fig. 240), Lebena Tholos II (Alexiou 1960, 227, fig. 17), Trypiti Tholos B (Vasilakis 1989, 56), Platanos (Xanthoudides 1924, pl. 58, nos. 1149, 1150), and Kalathiana (Xanthoudides 1924, pl. 43, no. 829), but they all are made of serpentinite. None can be dated precisely because they derive from mixed EM II–MM I deposits. Twenty-nine of the Tholos Gamma beads may be attributed to a particular necklace. They were found

39

beneath larnax L10, and it is highly possible that they belong to a single necklace (Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, 618, pl. 656, lower necklace), which contains 7 tubular, 4 ring-shaped, one solid barrel-shaped, 2 small hollow barrel-shaped, 13 spherical grooved, and 2 discoid rock crystal beads. The remaining beads were found scattered in the tomb. Thus, the existence of a second necklace as restored in the Herakleion Museum (Sakellarakis 1997, 618, pl. 656, upper necklace) is questionable because it contains beads that were found scattered all over the tomb, including pendant A22, which was found in Stratum II according to the stratigraphy.

Jewelry: Bands and Other Objects Six bands and 3 tiny pieces of gold sheet belonging to a band(s) were found in Tholos Gamma (J39, J41–J46; Fig. 25; Pl. 20). They were manufactured from a thin gold sheet and cut accordingly to produce the desired shape. Only one, J43, is thick enough to be used as a diadem tie like those found at Lebena (Alexiou and Warren 2004, 36) and Mochlos (Seager 1912, figs. 8–11; Davaras 1975, fig. 3). The others are very thin and too flexible for such use. Bands J41 and J42 have tiny holes at both ends, and they possibly were sewn onto a fabric, perhaps as garment decoration. Bands are quite common in Prepalatial funerary assemblages, and there are parallels from Lebena, Mochlos, Platanos, and Pyrgos (Branigan 1974, 38; Effinger 1996, 6). The specimens from Pyrgos and Mochlos are dated to EM II, while those from Lebena and Platanos date between EM II and MM I. During the excavation in the southern part of the Area of the Rocks in 1976, part of a band similar to J43 was discovered (Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1976, 393). The width and the color of the material is identical to J43 (Fig. 25). Although there is no clear join due to their thinness, the 2 bands seem to constitute a single item. This observation reiterates the relationship between Tholos Gamma and the Area of the Rocks. Other pieces of jewelry found in the tomb are 6 shield-shaped objects (J49–J54; Fig. 25; Pl. 20) and a piece of gold foil (J40), all made from thin gold sheet. Gold sheet J40 was used as a decorative

coating on another fabric. It has no exact parallel. The linear decoration was traced from the front—a very rare technique in Crete—where repoussé dots are the norm (Branigan 1983, 16). Such decoration could be seen on only 2 bands and 2 armlets from Mochlos (Seager 1912, fig. 10, II 20 and 21; fig. 43, 17a and 17b). The 6 shield-shaped objects J49–J54 have tiny holes on the periphery, and they were probably sewn onto another fabric, possibly a garment. They belong to Branigan’s “decorative bosses, types I (with border) and II (without border)” (Branigan 1974, 42–3). They have parallels from Kalathiana, Platanos, Malia, Lebena, and Mochlos (Branigan 1974, 186– 187), but also from Troy (Branigan 1974, 186–187) and Poliochni (Bernabò-Brea 1976, pl. 250, 1–16). The parallels from Mochlos are dated to EM II, those from Platanos to EM III, and those from Troy and Poliochni to EBA II. A gold ring (J55) was found in Stratum IIA of the dromos outside Tholos Gamma (Fig. 25). It has many parallels made either of bronze or gold. Similar gold rings have been found at Mochlos, Porti, Platanos, Koumasa, Sphoungaras, Malia, and Hagia Triada (Branigan 1974, 188–189; Effinger 1996, 316). The Platanos specimens can be dated to EM III–MM I, while the others have been found in mixed deposits of EM II–MM II (Porti, Koumasa, and Hagia Triada) or EM II–EM III (Mochlos and Sphoungaras). Stratum III in the dromos contained 2 gold bands (J56–J57; Table 10; Fig. 25) and 2 fragments of gold

40

THOLOS TOMB GAMMA

sheet (J58). Bands J56–J57 have one curved end, and J57 also has a perforation. They could be diadem ties (Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, 645, pl. 707, lower) with parallels from Mochlos, Porti, Platanos, and Pyrgos (Branigan 1974, 183–184), or they could be the end of diadems like the specimens found at Lebena (Alexiou and Warren 2004, 36). The parallels are dated to EM II (Mochlos and Pyrgos) and EM III–MM I (Platanos, Mochlos, and Porti). Most of them have repoussé decoration except for the Pyrgos specimens. The 55 gold objects make Tholos Gamma one of the richest tombs in Crete, fourth after Platanos, Hagia Triada, and Mochlos (Branigan 1983, 19, table 1). Such quantitative comparisons are not without problems, however, because of the extensive looting in many south Cretan tholoi and because of the lack of secure stratigraphical evidence in most of the Prepalatial tombs. This is clear in the case of Platanos, where almost all of the gold objects come from the upper stratum, dated after EM II. It is therefore better to examine and compare assemblages on a qualitative basis. The Tholos Gamma assemblage consists almost entirely of beads and bands, and the main characteristic is the absence of repoussé decoration. This was possibly a local north Cretan phenomenon because this type of decoration is lacking also from the Pyrgos bands (Xanthoudides 1918, 166, fig. 15), whereas it was frequently applied on bands and diadems of east and south Crete. According to the above, and despite the large quantity of gold artifacts, the level and the quality of the gold-working in Tholos Gamma is not high. J1 (Fig. 25; Pl. 20). Gold tubular bead. L. 0.022; d. 0.003 m. Made from a rectangular, thin sheet, rolled to make a hollow tube. Incised decoration consisting of one vertical incision near each end, and another running in a spiral form from one end to the other; the spiral line is continuous even in the seam of the bead, indicating that the incision was made after the rolling of the gold sheet. Gold of dark yellow to brownish color. Sakellarakis 1972, pl. 284; Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pl. 656. J2. Gold tubular bead. L. 0.021; d. 0.003 m. Same as J1. J3. Gold tubular bead. L. 0.026; d. 0.003 m. Same as J1. J4 (Fig. 25; Pl. 20). Gold tubular bead. L. 0.021; d. 0.003 m. Generally the same as J1, but different in some features: the spiral line is not incised but in relief, the seam is almost invisible, and the material is of lighter

color. Sakellarakis 1972, pl. 284; Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pl. 667. J5. Gold tubular bead. L. 0.024; d. 0.003 m. Same as J1. J6. Gold tubular bead. L. 0.027; d. 0.003 m. Same as J1. J7. Gold tubular bead. L. 0.023; d. 0.003 m. Same as J1. J8. Gold tubular bead. L. 0.023; d. 0.003 m. Same as J1. J9. Gold tubular bead. L. 0.026; d. 0.003 m. Same as J1. J10. Gold tubular bead. L. 0.025; d. 0.003 m. Same as J1. J11. Gold tubular bead. L. 0.028; d. 0.003 m. Same as J1. J12. Gold tubular bead. L. 0.022; d. 0.003 m. Same as J1. J13. Gold tubular bead. L. 0.019; d. 0.003 m. Same as J1. J14. Gold tubular bead. L. 0.021; d. 0.003 m. Same as J1. J15 (Fig. 25). Gold barrel-shaped bead. L. 0.005; h. 0.003; d. suspension hole 0.001 m. Small, gold, hollow barrel-shaped bead made from thin sheet. Gold of light yellow color. Intact, very well preserved. Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pl. 656. J16. Gold barrel-shaped bead. L. 0.005; h. 0.003; d. suspension hole 0.001 m. Same as J15. J17. Gold barrel-shaped bead. L. 0.005; h. 0.003; d. suspension hole 0.001 m. Same as J15. J18. Gold barrel-shaped bead. L. 0.008 m. Hollow, gold, barrel-shaped bead made from thin sheet. Gold of dark yellow color. Poor state of preservation. Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pl. 656. J19. Gold barrel-shaped bead. L. 0.008 m. Same as J18. J20. Gold barrel-shaped bead. L. 0.008 m. Same as J18. J21. (Fig. 25). Gold ring-shaped bead. Ext. d. 0.007; int. d. 0.005; d. suspension hole 0.001 m. Made from 2 or 3 joined wires creating 3 homocentric circles; suspension holes are opened in the periphery, and the strings pass through the interior of the circle. Gold of light yellow color. Excellent preservation. Sakellarakis 1972, pl. 284a; Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pls. 656, 666. J22. Gold ring-shaped bead. Ext. d. 0.008; int. d. 0.005; d. suspension hole 0.001 m. Same as J21. J23. Gold ring-shaped bead. Ext. d. 0.006; int. d. 0.004; d. suspension hole 0.001 m. Same as J21. J24 (Fig. 25). Gold ring-shaped bead. Ext. d. 0.007; int. d. 0.004; d. suspension hole 0.001 m. Generally the

OTHER FINDS

same as J21, but different in some features: it is made of thicker wire, the suspension hole has been opened through the wire, and the gold is of darker color. Sakellarakis 1972, pl. 284a; Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pls. 656, 666. J25 (Fig. 25). Gold biconical bead. L. 0.002; h. 0.003; d. suspension hole 0.001 m. Tiny, biconical, gold hollow bead made from gold sheet. Incised decoration consisting of 7 grooves perpendicular to the axis of the suspension hole. Gold of dark yellow color. Preserved intact. Sakellarakis 1972, pl. 284a; Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pl. 656. J26. Gold biconical bead. L. 0.002; h. 0.003; d. suspension hole 0.001 m. Same as J25. J27. Gold biconical bead. L. 0.002; h. 0.003; d. suspension hole 0.001 m. Same as J25. J28. Gold biconical bead. L. 0.002; h. 0.003; d. suspension hole 0.001 m. Same as J25. J29. Gold biconical bead. L. 0.002; h. 0.003; d. suspension hole 0.001 m. Same as J25. J30. Gold biconical bead. L. 0.002; h. 0.003; d. suspension hole 0.001 m. Same as J25. J31. Gold biconical bead. L. 0.002; h. 0.003; d. suspension hole 0.001 m. Same as J25. J32. Gold biconical bead. L. 0.002; h. 0.003; d. suspension hole 0.001 m. Same as J25.

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J41 (Fig. 25; Pl. 20). Gold band. L. 0.124; w. 0.012 m. Very thin and flexible gold band; rectangular, with straight edges, cut irregularly; one hole near each end, 0.001 m in diameter. Gold of dark yellow color. Almost intact. Sakellarakis 1972, pl. 289g; Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pl. 706. J42 (Fig. 25; Pl. 20). Gold band. L. 0.067; w. 0.009 m. Same as J41. J43 (Fig. 25; Pl. 20). Gold band. Pr. l. 0.053; w. 0.007 m. Thin gold band of rectangular shape with straight edges, cut irregularly. Gold of light yellow color. Very well preserved, but broken on one narrow side. Sakellarakis 1972, pl. 289g; Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pl. 706. J44 (Fig. 25; Pl. 20). Gold band. Pr. l. 0.048; max. w. 0.004; min. w. 0.003 m. Thin flexible gold band; broader in the middle and narrower at the ends; very regular outline. Gold of light yellow color. Very well preserved but broken at both ends. Sakellarakis 1972, pl. 289g; Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pl. 706. J45 (Fig. 25; Pl. 20). Gold band. Pr. l. 0.030; w. 0.003 m. Very thin and flexible gold band of rectangular shape; straight edges, cut irregularly. Gold of dark yellow color. Poor state of preservation, broken on one end. Sakellarakis 1972, pl. 289g; Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pl. 706.

J34. Gold biconical bead. L. 0.002; h. 0.003; d. suspension hole 0.001 m. Same as J25.

J46 (Fig. 25; Pl. 20). Gold band. Pr. l. 0.029; w. 0.003 m. Very thin and flexible rectangular gold band; straight edges, cut irregularly. Gold of dark yellow color. Poor state of preservation; broken on one end. Sakellarakis 1972, pl. 289g; Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pl. 706.

J35. Gold biconical bead. L. 0.002; h. 0.003; d. suspension hole 0.001 m. Same as J25.

J47. Gold sheet. Pr. l. 0.004; pr. w. 0.003 m. Small fragment of gold sheet. Wrinkled and broken.

J36. Gold biconical bead. L. 0.002; h. 0.003; d. suspension hole 0.001 m. Same as J25.

J48. Gold sheet. Pr. l. 0.007; pr. w. 0.003 m. Same as J41.

J37. Gold biconical bead. L. 0.002; h. 0.003; d. suspension hole 0.001 m. Same as J25.

J49 (Fig. 25; Pl. 20). Gold shield-shaped object. D. 0.009 m. Circular shield-shaped gold object; concave shape with central hollow and margin around; the latter has 2 holes, 0.006 m in diameter. Gold of dark yellow color. Very well preserved, intact. Sakellarakis 1972, pl. 289b; Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pl. 729.

J33. Gold biconical bead. L. 0.002; h. 0.003; d. suspension hole 0.001 m. Same as J25.

J38 (Fig. 25). Gold barrel-shaped bead. L. 0.009; h. 0.006; d. suspension hole 0.003 m. Large solid barrelshaped bead made of cast gold. Gold of light yellow color. Intact, very well preserved. Sakellarakis 1972, pl. 284a; Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pl. 656. J39 (Fig. 25; Pl. 20). Gold sheet. L. 0.014; h. 0.016 m. Thin L-shaped sheet of gold; one end curved, the other straight. Gold of dark yellow color. Broken on the straight end. Sakellarakis 1972, pl. 284b; Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pl. 731. J40 (Fig. 25). Gold sheet. L. 0.011; w. 0.004 m. Rectangular sheet of gold, used as a coating on a fabric; edges turned backward. Repoussé decoration consisting of 5 vertical incised lines and among them 6 oblique lines, each time with different direction. Gold of dark yellow color. Preserved almost intact. Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pl. 640.

J50 (Fig. 25; Pl. 20). Gold shield-shaped object. D. 0.008 m. Generally the same as J49, except for the margin, which has 4, instead of 2 holes. J51 (Fig. 25; Pl. 20). Gold shield-shaped object. D. 0.007 m. Same as J49. J52 (Fig. 25; Pl. 20). Gold shield-shaped object. D. 0.008 m. Same as J49. J53 (Fig. 25; Pl. 20). Gold shield-shaped object. D. 0.008 m. Same as J49. J54 (Fig. 25; Pl. 20). Gold shield-shaped object. D. 0.009 m. Generally the same as J49, except that there is no margin around the hollow.

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THOLOS TOMB GAMMA

J55 (Fig. 25). Gold ring. Ext. d. 0.014; int. d. 0.012; th. 0.001 m. Made from thin gold wire. Gold of dark yellow color. Intact, preserved in very good condition. Sakellarakis 1973, pl. 176b. J56 (Fig. 25). Gold band. Pr. l. 0.032; w. 0.006 m. Fragment of thin gold band with straight edges, cut irregularly; curved at one end, broken at the other. Gold of dark yellow color. Very well preserved, but broken. Sakellarakis 1973, pl. 176b. J57 (Fig. 25). Gold band. Pr. l. 0.055; w. 0.006 m. Part of relatively thick gold band; straight and parallel long edges, cut irregularly; curved at one end, broken at the other; tiny hole near the curved end, 0.001 m in diameter. Gold of dark yellow color. Very well preserved, but broken. Sakellarakis 1973, pl. 176b. J58. Gold sheet. Pr. l. 0.004; pr. w. 0.002 m. Two fragments of gold sheet. Poor state of preservation.

J59. Rock crystal discoid bead. D. 0.007; th. 0.002; d. suspension hole 0.001 m. Discoid bead with central suspension hole. Made of rock crystal. Intact. Sakellarakis 1972, pl. 284a; Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pl. 656. J60 (Fig. 25). Rock crystal discoid bead. D. 0.007; th. 0.002; d. suspension hole 0.001 m. Same as J59. J61 (Fig. 25). Serpentinite discoid bead. L. 0.012; w. 0.009; th. 0.002; d. suspension hole 0.001 m. Discoid bead of elliptical shape with central suspension hole. Made of green serpentinite. Only a small part is missing. J62 (Fig. 25). Bone bead. L. 0.008; d. 0.008; d. suspension hole 0.004 m. Small cylindrical bead with 4 ridges vertical to the axis of the suspension hole. Polished surface. Made of bone. Intact. Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pl. 656.

Seals Six seals (S1–S2, S5, S7–S9) were found in Stratum II inside the tholos (Table 14; Fig. 26). The seals are the only category of objects with more specimens in Stratum II than in Stratum III. Seal S1 is button-shaped and made of hippopotamus tooth. The sealing surface has an interlaced motif. The seals of this shape are dated mainly to EM III–MM I, although they continue as late as MM III (Yule 1980, 38; Sbonias 1995, 72). Seal S1 is quite similar to ivory seals from Platanos tomb A (CMS II.1, 245), Archanes 6 (CMS II.1, 380), and Gournia (CMS V supp. 1A, 51). Only the Archanes seal can be dated precisely to MM I (Karytinos 1997). The motif has no exact parallels. The most important features are the use of a double outline and the border around the main sealing motif, which are not seen in the Minoan seals before EM III. Seal S2 is a stamp cylinder made of hippopotamus tooth. It has one sealing surface that shows a rosette, and the seal on the other end shows 3 fish. There are numerous seals of this shape dated to EM III–MM IA (Yule 1980, 90; Sbonias 1995, 47, 72). The motif of the rosette can be classified under Yule’s broad category “Border/Leaf Complex” (Yule 1980, 209–210) and Sbonias’ “Löwen/Spiral Group” (Sbonias 1995, 89), both dated to EM III–MM IA. The motif with the fish parallels a stamp cylinder from Viannos dated to EM III (Yule 1980, 135; CMS II.1, 446).

Seal S5 is a gable with a geometric motif on the sealing face, and it is made of bone. The seals of this shape are dated by Yule to EM IIB–III or EM III–MM IA and by Sbonias to MM IA (Yule 1980, 57–58; Sbonias 1995, 72). Among the parallels, only a seal from Maronia (CMS II.1, 421) can be dated precisely, coming from an EM IIB–III deposit. The sealing motif belongs to Yule’s type “Cross with Zwickelfüllung” (Yule 1980, 150–151) and has several parallels, but again, only the motif of the Maronia seal can be dated more precisely. Seal S7 is button-shaped with a floral motif on the sealing surface, and it is made of bone. For the date of the shape see the discussion about S1. The sealing motif is a hatched rosette. It can be classified under Yule’s broad category “Leaves” (Yule 1980, 140–141), and it appears in EM III–MM IA (Sbonias 1995, 91, 100). Seal S8 is a stamp cylinder with a zigzag sealing motif, and it is made of bone. For the date of the shape see the discussion about S2. The zigzag motif is not frequent in Minoan seals (Yule 1980, 157), and the closest parallels are only a scarab from Aspri Petra (CMS II.1, 1) dated to EM III–MM IA (Yule 1983, 366 n. 22), a plano-convex seal from Lebena (CMS II.1, 173) dated to EM II–MM IA (Alexiou and Warren 2004, 37, no. 90), and a conoid seal, also from Lebena (CMS II.1, 207), dated to MM IA (Alexiou and Warren 2004, 154, no. 71).

OTHER FINDS

Seal S9 is prismatic with a linear motif on the sealing face, and it is made of bone. It cannot be classified under any shape category. Moreover, the sealing motif is rather simple, and the only parallels are from Trapeza (CMS II.1, 438), Marathokephalo (CMS II.1, 239), and Hagia Triada (CMS II.1, 12). Unfortunately, none of these can be dated more precisely than EM II–MM I. Only 3 seals have been found in Stratum III inside the tholos (Table 14; Figs. 8B, 26). Seal S3 has an elongated, flat, conoid shape with a geometric motif consisting of triangles on the sealing face. It is made of hippopotamus tooth. The closest parallels in terms of shape derive from Hagia Triada (CMS II.1, 67), Trapeza (CMS II.1, 440), and Archanes Tholos E, lower stratum (Panagiotopoulos 2002, 64; Sakellarakis 1981, 514, fig. 2, no. 8). Only the latter can be dated securely to EM IIA. Seal S4 is a stamp cylinder with 2 sealing faces that are both decorated with floral motives. It is made of hippopotamus tooth. There are numerous seals of this shape dated to EM III–MM IA (Yule 1980, 90; Sbonias 1995, 72). The motif of the rosette in the small sealing surface belongs to Yule’s “Border/Leaf Complex” (Yule 1980, 208) dated to EM III–MM IA. The other sealing surface is not well preserved, and the motif can be classified under the broad category of “Leaves” (Yule 1980, 140). Seal S6 is hemispherical with a cross-hatching motif on the sealing face. It is made of hippopotamus tooth. It can be classified under Yule’s and Sbonias’ “Massive Ring” type (Sbonias 1995, 55; Yule 1980, 76). The seals of this shape appeared in EM II and continued in EM III and MM IA. The motif of cross-hatching appeared as early as EM II and also continued in EM III and MM IA (Yule 1980, 147). S1 (Fig. 26). Hippopotamus ivory button-shaped seal. Pr. h. 0.011; max. d. 0.012; d. handle 0.005; d. suspension hole 0.002 m. Small button-shaped seal with cylindrical handle and circular sealing face; 3 suspension holes in triangular arrangement. Sealing motif consisting of a 6-petaled rosette with a double outline inside a hexagonal border; the rosette consists of 2 3-petaled blossoms, one over the other. Made of hippopotamus tooth. Part of the handle is missing; slight cracks and damages exist on the body and the sealing face. Sakellarakis 1981, fig. 5.2, pl. 169.2; Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pl. 745, left. S2 (Fig. 26). Hippopotamus ivory stamp cylinder seal. H. 0.017; d. large base 0.015; d. small base 0.013; min. d. 0.012 m. Two sealing faces of different sizes; the

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smallest diameter in the middle of the seal; triangular system of suspension holes in the middle of the body; suspension holes 0.002 m in diameter. On the large sealing face, the motif consists of a 4-petaled leaf inside a circular border; each petal has a central groove; in the small sealing face, 3 fish face to the right and are parallel with one above the other. Made of hippopotamus tooth. Very well preserved with only some cracks on the sealing faces and the body. Sakellarakis 1981, fig. 5.7, pl. 169.7; Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pl. 745, right, pl. 746, right. S3 (Fig. 26). Hippopotamus ivory triangular seal. H. 0.033; max. w. 0.015; min. w. 0.008; th. 0.005–0.006 m. Seal in the shape of a flat triangular plate with rounded corners; triangular system of suspension holes on top; suspension holes 0.002 and 0.003 m in diameter. The sealing face is divided by slanting, double lines in unequal triangles, which are filled with parallel, curved lines; there are 4 triangles of various shapes and dimensions. Made of hippopotamus tooth. Very well preserved with only some cracks on the sealing faces and the body. Sakellarakis 1981, fig. 5.6, pl. 169.6; Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pl. 744, middle. S4 (Fig. 26). Hippopotamus ivory stamp cylinder seal. H. 0.018; d. large base 0.017; d. small base 0.013; min. d. 0.012 m. Two sealing faces of different size, and the smallest diameter in the middle of the seal; triangular system of suspension holes in the middle of the body; holes 0.002 m and 0.005 m in diameter. On the large sealing face: 2 interlaced petals with stemmed ends, each engraved on a different level; on the small face: 4petaled leaf and 4 sets of tooth-like notches on the 4 fields among the petals at the periphery of the seal face. Made of hippopotamus tooth. Assembled from 4 pieces; a large piece of the large base and the side is missing. Sakellarakis 1981, fig. 5.8, pl. 169.8. S5 (Fig. 26). Bone gable-shaped seal. H. 0.097; max. d. 0.018; min. d. 0.016 m. Three-sided gable-shaped seal, with one roughly circular seal face and 2 other elliptical faces; all the sides are slightly convex. Large part of the 2 upper surfaces is missing and the string-hole is not preserved. The sealing face is divided into 4 quadrants by 2 perpendicular lines, and each quadrant is filled with 3, slightly parallel and converging lines; each group of lines has a different direction; the lines are not steady and sometimes they go outside the borders. Made of bone. Sakellarakis 1981, fig. 5.1, pl. 169.1; Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pl. 744, right. S6 (Fig. 26). Hippopotamus ivory hemispherical seal. H. 0.014; d. 0.016; d. suspension hole 0.003 m. Hemispherical seal with flat seal face and rounded upper surface; horizontal suspension hole on top; the sealing face is divided from the rest of the seal-body by a deep horizontal groove. Sealing motif consisting of cross-hatching that forms lozenges; very good, deep engraving. Made of hippopotamus tooth. Sakellarakis 1981, fig. 5.4, pl. 169.4; Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pl. 746, left.

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THOLOS TOMB GAMMA

S7 (Fig. 26). Bone button-shaped seal. H. 0.012; max. d. 0.018; d. suspension hole 0.002 m. Roughly circular sealing face and cylindrical handle; the main seal-body has a convex upper side with a handle emerging from the center; the handle has a whirl form with 2 curved relief bands on the base projecting from the seal-body; 2 parallel grooves on the convex, upper surface of the handle; horizontal suspension hole, just under the top of the handle. Sealing face with an 8petaled leaf pattern consisting of 4 large leaves on 2 vertical axes and 4 smaller ones in the fields created among them; the latter are of the papyrus form; the leaves are striped on the interior; 2 of the large leaves are divided by a projecting ridge in the middle, while the other 2 are bisected by a central incised line; around the seal face, a raised border has small dots between the leaves; another dot exists in the center; deep engraving, very well executed. Made of bone. Intact but with cracks on the sealing face. Sakellarakis 1981, fig. 5.3, pl. 169.3; Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pl. 746, middle.

S8 (Fig. 26). Bone cylindrical seal. 8a: h. 0.017; max. pr. w. 0.004 m. 8b: h. 0.017; max. pr. w. 0.008; min. pr. w. 0.006 m. Two small pieces from a cylindrical seal, with 2 sealing faces. On the first sealing face there are incised corners, one inside the other within a circular margin; on the other sealing face there are parts of curved lines, deeply engraved. Made of bone. Only small pieces are preserved. Sakellarakis 1981, fig. 5.9, pl. 169.9. S9 (Fig. 26). Bone prismatic seal. L. 0.017; max. w. 0.018; min. w. 0.016; h. 0.010; d. suspension holes 0.003, 0.002 and 0.002 m. Three-sided prismatic seal with rectangular, slightly convex sides and rounded corners; horizontal and vertical suspension hole in the shape of a trapezium on the side opposite the seal face. Sealing motif consists of vertical parallel lines, not deeply engraved. Made of bone. Intact but with cracks and damage on all sides. Sakellarakis 1981, fig. 5.5, pl. 169.5; Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pl. 744, left.

Bone Artifacts Apart from the bone pendants (discussed in the Pendant section of this chapter), Stratum II inside the tholos also contained a pointed bone artifact (I5) of unknown use (Table 13; Fig. 23; Pl. 20). Two similar objects, also made of bone, have been found at Malia (H. van Effentere and M. van Effentere 1976, 63, pl. 29, no. 129.1; Amouretti 1970, 68, pl. 9, no. 61 K 148), and they are dated to EM III–MM I. Of the 22 bone objects of Tholos Gamma, 19 were found in Stratum III inside the tholos (Table 13; Figs. 8B, 23; Pl. 20). They include a cylindrical pendant (A6), 2 forked pendants (A7–A8), 11 dropshaped pendants (A9–A19), one bead (J62), and 4 pins (I1–I4). The pendants and the bead are discussed in the Pendant and Jewelry sections of this chapter. The 4 pins I1–I4 are very similar, differing only in the shape of the head. They are very fragile, and it is probable that they were used for hair rather than clothes (Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, 667). As already discussed, pins are rare in Prepalatial Crete, and none of them is similar to the Tholos Gamma specimens (Branigan 1974, 178, nos. 1494–1498). On the contrary, pins were very common in the Cyclades (Sapouna-Sakellaraki 1977, 123–125), mainly on Naxos (Marangou 1990,

62–63), and at Chalandriani on Syros (Tsountas 1899, 101–102). All these pins are dated to EC II. I1 (Fig. 23; Pl. 20). Bone pin. Pr. l. 0.044; d. head 0.005 m. Upper part of bone pin of circular section; discoid head. Polished surface. Well preserved, the pointed end is missing. Sakellarakis 1972, pl. 284b; Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pl. 736. I2 (Fig. 23; Pl. 20). Bone pin. L. 0.070; d. head 0.004 m. Circular section; discoid head. Polished surface. Excellent preservation, intact. Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pl. 736. I3 (Fig. 23; Pl. 20). Bone pin. Pr. l. 0.057; d. head 0.004 m. Circular section; discoid head. Polished surface. Excellent preservation, the pointed end is missing. Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pl. 736. I4 (Fig. 23; Pl. 20). Bone pin. L. 0.070; max. d. 0.004; h. head 0.008 m. Circular section; head consisting of 2 parts: the lower discoid and the upper elliptical in shape. Polished surface. Excellent preservation, intact. Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pl. 736. I5 (Fig. 23; Pl. 20). Bone cylindrical object. L. 0.057; max. d. 0.010 m. Circular section; one pointed end, the other flat. Intact, heavily eroded. Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pl. 736. I6. Bone object. Small fragment of bone object; unknown shape, character, and use.

OTHER FINDS

45

Ivory Artifacts All the objects made of hippopotamus ivory (except the seals, discussed under the Seal section of this chapter) were found in Stratum III inside the tholos (Table 13; Figs. 8B, 23–24; Pl. 20). They include a figurine head (F15), 3 handles (I10–I12), and 3 objects of unknown use (I7–I9). The figurine (F15) is discussed in the Figurine section of this chapter. The 3 handles I10–I12 (Fig. 24) can be classified as 2 types. The first 2 examples (I10–I11) belong to handles made from 2 joined halves, of which only one half is preserved. The third piece (I12) belongs to a handle made from just one piece. There are only 3 parallels: 2 from Koumasa made of hippopotamus ivory (Xanthoudides 1924, 32, pl. 26, no. 139a; Krzyszkowska 1988, 228 n. 61) and one from Tekes made of limestone (Marinatos 1933, 302, pl. 9). Unfortunately, none of these can be dated precisely because the Koumasa handles come from a mixed EM I–MM I deposit, while the Tekes specimen is a museum purchase of unknown origin and context. Objects I7–I9 (Fig. 23) are of unknown use, although it seems probable that they were attached to other objects. The shape of these objects resembles the rounded tips of the handles discussed above, and they were possibly parts of such handles. No parallels were found. I7 (Fig. 23; Pl. 20). Hippopotamus ivory object, part of handle (?). L. 0.049; max. w. 0.014; max. pr. th. 0.005; d. holes 0.002 m. Unknown character and use, possibly part of a handle; triangular body with rounded tip and curved profile; the narrow side has a forked form; 2 holes are opened in one side, parallel to each other and vertical to the long axis; this suggests that the object was probably attached to another artifact. Hippopotamus tooth of brownish color; polished surface. The upper half is missing. I8 (Fig. 23). Hippopotamus ivory object, part of handle (?). L. 0.029; w. 0.014; h. 0.009; d. holes 0.003 m. Unknown character and use, possibly part of a handle. It consists of 2 parts: the front part has an elliptical section, rounded tip, and curved profile; the rear part has a forked form and a complex system of 4 holes, probably for shafting into another object. Hippopotamus tooth of whitish color. Only the surface of the front part has been polished, the rest was left unpolished. Well preserved, almost intact. I9 (Fig. 23). Hippopotamus ivory object, part of handle (?). L. 0.026; w. 0.011; h. 0.010; d. holes 0.002 m. Unknown character and use, possibly part of a handle. It consists of 2 parts: the front part has elliptical section, rounded tip, and curved profile; the rear part has the

form of a projection with a complex system of 6 holes, probably for shafting into another object. Hippopotamus tooth of whitish color. Only the surface of the front part is polished. Very well preserved, intact. I10 (Fig. 24; Pl. 20). Hippopotamus ivory handle. L. 0.105; max. th. 0.012; h. 0.021; d. holes 0.002 m. Crescent-shaped half of handle; convex external and straight internal surface. It has 4 holes: 2 holes are near the rounded ends and served to join with the other half; in one of them a silver rivet is preserved; 2 holes are in the center for hafting the object. A large notch exists in the inner side of the handle, 0.002–0.006 m deep, divided into two parts: the upper part has a large central hole, 0.003 m in diameter, and 10 smaller hollows; the lower part has 2 holes and a vertical fissure in the center; small pieces of copper rust can be seen in some parts of the notch. The copper rust suggests that the shafted object was made of copper; it is highly possible that the shafted object was a copper dagger, because the vertical central fissure probably corresponds to the central mid-ridge of a dagger. The handle is made of hippopotamus tooth of brownish color except a thin strip on the exterior, which is whitish; the latter constitutes the remains of the outer cortex (cementum or enamel) of the hippopotamus tooth that has not been entirely removed. Surface smoothed, but not polished. Well preserved, almost intact; only a small part of the notch on the inner side is missing. Sakellarakis 1972, pl. 284b. I11 (Fig. 24; Pl. 20). Hippopotamus ivory handle. L. 0.083; max. th. 0.009; h. 0.025; d. holes 0.003 m. Crescent-shaped half of handle; convex external surface, straight internal surface; triangular stem in the middle of the upper side. It has 5 holes: 3 holes for joining with the other half of the handle; 2 holes in the center for hafting the object; square-shaped notch in the middle of the interior. Hippopotamus tooth of yellowish color. Only the exterior is polished; the interior is smoothed, but left unpolished. Very well preserved, intact. I12 (Fig. 24). Hippopotamus ivory handle. L. 0.099; max. th. 0.027; max. h. 0.031; d. holes 0.004 m. Crescent-shaped handle of elliptical section with rounded tips; 2 holes in the middle for hafting, in which silver rivets are preserved; the rivets are of square section, whereas the holes are circular. Three cavities exist inside the handle; one shallow cavity is in the upper part of the handle, 0.052 m long and 0.003 m deep, wider in the middle (0.008 m) and narrow at the 2 ends (0.004 m); a second cavity is in the lower part of the handle, 0.056 m long and 0.020 m deep, also wider in the middle (0.006 m) and narrow at the ends (0.004 m); the third cavity has a circular shape (0.007 m in diameter) and is opened below one of the tips of the handle. Hippopotamus tooth of brownish color. Polished surface. Heavily eroded; large parts are missing.

46

THOLOS TOMB GAMMA

Stone Artifacts A handle (D2) was found in Stratum I, Layer 3 inside the tholos (Table 15; Fig. 27). It belongs to a bowl or a cup and cannot be securely dated (Warren 1969, 27, types 10, 17, or 38). Six stone objects were found in Stratum III inside the tholos (Table 15; Figs. 8B, 27; Pl. 20). Marble bowl D1 has numerous parallels in the Cyclades dated to EC II (Getz-Gentle 1996, 99). The material is white, coarse-grained marble of very good quality, similar to that used for the figurines (F1–F10), and it is probably of Cycladic origin. In Crete, 2 bowls made of Cycladic marble have been found at Knossos and Trapeza, and they are thought to be Cycladic imports (Warren 1969, 77). The bowl from Knossos was found with EM I–II pottery. Object D3 belongs to an unidentified artifact made of chlorite schist with incised decoration. On the basis of the material and decoration, D3 belongs to the large group of stone vases of the “Maronia pyxis type” that is dated to EM IIA (Warren 1965, 8; 1969, 80, 93). Several examples have been found at Maronia, Lebena, Platanos, Koumasa, Zakros (Warren 1965, 11–14), and also at Phourni in the Area of the Rocks (Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, 569–570). Artifact D5 is made of very hard and rough stone. Its use is unknown. Such objects are usually interpreted as pestles because they were used for the grinding of pigments inside bowls or small aryballoi. These objects were a very common funerary offering in the Cycladic tombs. In contrast, no pestles or pigments have been found in Cretan tombs. Rahmstorf (2003) has argued that artifacts of this shape are balance weights. It should be noted, however, that D5 has no traces of a polished surface, in contrast to other similar artifacts interpreted as weights (Rahmstorf 2003, 298–299). The rest of the stone objects include 2 fragments (D4 and D7) of unknown character and date and 2 pebbles (D6).

D1 (Fig. 27; Pl. 20). Marble bowl. H. 0.050; d. rim 0.110; d. base 0.025; th. 0.007 m. Small, relatively deep bowl of hemispherical shape with curved walls and squared rim; base rather curved; 3 holes in the upper part of the body; the first is 0.005 m below the rim, the other two 0.014 m; all the holes are 0.003 m in diameter. Coarse-grained, white Cycladic marble of high quality. Smoothed and polished surface. Eroded surface; preserved almost intact, apart from some missing parts of the rim. Sakellarakis 1977b, pl. 12; Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pl. 571. D2 (Fig. 27). Handle from stone vase. Max. l. 0.062; d. 0.018 m. Horizontal, with roughly circular section. Gray serpentine (?). Smoothed and polished surface. D3 (Fig. 27; Pl. 20). Chlorite schist object. Max. pr. l. 0.084; pr. w. 0.020; max. pr. th. 0.015; d. hole 0.005– 0.006 m. Fragment from object of unknown character and use. The lower long side is entirely broken; the upper side is finished and polished. There is a rectangular hollow in the middle of the body and a hole passing vertically through it, possibly for hafting. Relief decoration on one external side consisting of 2 sets of semicircles; each set consists of 7 semicircles, one inside the other, and around them a border defines the decoration panel. The 2 narrow sides also have relief decoration; one side has a motif similar to the above, consisting of several curvilinear incisions, one inside the other; the other narrow side has decoration consisting of 2 sets of parallel relief bands in vertical arrangement. Green chlorite schist. Smoothed and polished surface. Broken on 2 sides. Sakellarakis 1977b, pls. 13–14; Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pl. 570. D4 (Fig. 27). Stone object. Pr. l. 0.015; w. 0.011; h. 0.012 m. Stone object of unknown character with pyramidal shape. Black serpentine (?) with brown veins. Smoothed and highly polished surface. Broken on one side. D5 (Fig. 27; Pl. 20). Cylindrical object, pestle (?). H. 0.060; d. 0.039 m. Cylindrical object with convex upper and lower sides, possibly a pestle. Rough, unpolished surface. Unknown stone with long, white veins. Intact. Sakellarakis 1972, pl. 284b. D6. Two round pebbles. D7. Fragment of marble object.

Chipped Stone Artifacts An obsidian flake (O5) had been discovered in Stratum II inside the tholos tomb (Table 16; Fig. 27). It should be noted that this was the only obsidian

artifact from Tholos Gamma that had been utilized prior to its interment within the burial structure (T. Carter, personal communication).

OTHER FINDS

Of the 49 chipped stone artifacts found in Stratum III inside the tholos (Table 16; Figs. 9B, 27, 28; Pl. 20), 47 are made of Melian obsidian and 2 are chert (O44 and O56). Almost all (45 out of 49) are fine, prismatic, pressure blades. The only nonblade objects are 2 obsidian flakes (O17 and O43), a chert chip (O56), and a chert amorphous core (O44). Another interesting characteristic is that the Tholos Gamma blades are unused, as in all southern Aegean mortuary assemblages (Carter 1998, 63). The preponderance of blades makes the Tholos Gamma assemblage totally different from Prepalatial assemblages found in settlements such as Knossos (Warren 1972b, 393), Poros (Dimopoulou 1997, 433–434), and Malia (H. van Effenterre and M. van Effenterre 1969, 17–21), where the majority of the lithics are chips, cores, and flakes, which indicates obsidian working. On the other hand, obsidian blades were a relatively common burial good in many Cretan funerary assemblages (Carter 1994; 1998, 61). They have been found in at least one third of the Mesara tholoi, although the number is possibly larger (Branigan 1970, 66). It should be emphasized, though, that this practice had its origin in the Cyclades in the EC I period (Carter 1998, 61). The concentration of up to 25 obsidian blades beneath larnax L4 is noteworthy (Sakellarakis 1977b, pl. 11; Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, pl. 595). Most of them (20) are preserved intact. Moreover, some of them had been flaked off the same core (T. Carter, personal communication). This suggests that the blades were produced locally, deposited at the same time, and possibly accompanied a single burial. The large number of blades found in the tomb is closer to Minoan than to Cycladic assemblages because the number of blades per burial was significantly smaller in the islands (Carter 1994, 128; 1998, 67). The stronger affinities of the Tholos Gamma obsidian assemblage to the Minoan rather than the Cycladic assemblages can be reinforced also by the size of the blades. The largest blade from Tholos Gamma is 0.057 m long while the average length is 0.048 m. Both figures are significantly lower than those commonly found in the Cyclades (Carter 1998, tbl. 4.4). In contrast, blades with relatively small length are typical of the Mesara tombs (Carter 1998, 71). Nine chipped stone artifacts were found in the dromos, all in Stratum III (Table 16; Fig. 28). Most are made of Melian obsidian (O48–O55) apart

47

from O57, which is made of chert. Most pieces are blades, except for flake O52 and chip O57. O1 (Fig. 27). Obsidian blade. Pr. l. 0.028; max. w. 0.006; th. 0.002 m. Distal part of pressure blade with prismatic section; unused. O2 (Fig. 27). Obsidian blade. Pr. l. 0.018; max. w. 0.007; th. 0.002 m. Proximal part of pressure blade with prismatic section; unused. O3 (Fig. 27). Obsidian blade. Pr. l. 0.014; max. w. 0.007; th. 0.002 m. Medial part of pressure blade with prismatic section; unused. O4 (Fig. 27). Obsidian blade. Pr. l. 0.022; max. w. 0.008; th. 0.003 m. Proximal part of pressure blade with prismatic section; unused. O5 (Fig. 27). Obsidian flake. Pr. l. 0.013; max. w. 0.005; th. 0.002 m. Medial part of cortical secondary flake with triangular section; used. O6 (Fig. 27). Obsidian blade. Pr. l. 0.016; max. w. 0.007; th. 0.002 m. Distal part of pressure blade with prismatic section; unused. O7 (Fig. 27). Obsidian blade. Pr. l. 0.016; max. w. 0.010; th. 0.002 m. Medial part of pressure blade with prismatic section; unused. O8 (Fig. 27). Obsidian blade. L. 0.048; max. w. 0.005; th. 0.002 m. Intact pressure blade with prismatic section; unused. O9 (Fig. 27). Obsidian blade. Pr. l. 0.037; w. 0.005; th. 0.002 m. Proximal part of pressure blade with prismatic section; unused. O10 (Fig. 27). Obsidian blade. L. 0.047; max. w. 0.005; th. 0.002 m. Intact pressure blade with triangular section; unused. O11 (Fig. 27). Obsidian blade. L. 0.047; max. w. 0.007; th. 0.002 m. Intact pressure blade with prismatic section; unused. O12 (Fig. 27). Obsidian blade. L. 0.051; max. w. 0.009; th. 0.003 m. Same as O11. O13 (Fig. 27). Obsidian blade. L. 0.051; max. w. 0.006; th. 0.002 m. Same as O11. O14 (Fig. 27). Obsidian blade. L. 0.047; max. w. 0.007; th. 0.002 m. Same as O11. O15 (Fig. 27). Obsidian blade. Pr. l. 0.040; max. w. 0.007; th. 0.002 m. Almost intact pressure blade with prismatic section; small part of the distal end is missing; unused. O16 (Fig. 27). Obsidian blade. Pr. l. 0.042; max. w. 0.009; th. 0.002 m. Proximal part of a pressure blade with prismatic section; unused. O17 (Fig. 27). Obsidian flake. L. 0.016; max. w. 0.008; th. 0.002 m. Small flake. O18 (Fig. 27). Obsidian blade. Pr. l. 0.026; max. w. 0.007; th. 0.002 m. Proximal part of pressure blade with prismatic section; unused.

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O19 (Fig. 27). Obsidian blade. Pr. l. 0.010; max. w. 0.008; th. 0.002 m. Medial part of pressure blade with triangular section; unused. O20 (Fig. 28). Obsidian blade. Pr. l. 0.016; max. w. 0.008; th. 0.002 m. Distal part of pressure blade with triangular section; unused. O21 (Fig. 28). Obsidian blade. L. 0.044; max. w. 0.006; th. 0.002 m. Intact pressure blade with prismatic section; unused. O22 (Fig. 28). Obsidian blade. L. 0.048; max. w. 0.007; th. 0.002 m. Same as O21. O23 (Fig. 28). Obsidian blade. L. 0.047; max. w. 0.006; th. 0.002 m. Same as O21. O24 (Fig. 28). Obsidian blade. L. 0.048; max. w. 0.007; th. 0.002 m. Same as O21. O25 (Fig. 28). Obsidian blade. L. 0.050; max. w. 0.007; th. 0.002 m. Same as O21. O26 (Fig. 28). Obsidian blade. Pr. l. 0.036; max. w. 0.007; th. 0.002 m. Distal part of pressure blade with prismatic section; unused. O27 (Fig. 28). Obsidian blade. L. 0.053; max. w. 0.007; th. 0.002 m. Intact pressure blade with prismatic section; unused. O28 (Fig. 28). Obsidian blade. L. 0.046; max. w. 0.008; th. 0.002 m. Same as O27. O29 (Fig. 28). Obsidian blade. L. 0.042; max. w. 0.006; th. 0.002 m. Same as O27. O30a (Fig. 28). Obsidian blade. Pr. l. 0.017; max. w. 0.007; th. 0.002 m. Distal part of pressure blade with prismatic section; unused. O30b (Fig. 28). Obsidian blade. Pr. l. 0.012; max. w. 0.005; th. 0.001 m. Distal part of pressure blade with prismatic section; unused. O31 (Fig. 28). Obsidian blade. L. 0.051; max. w. 0.006; th. 0.002 m. Intact pressure blade with prismatic section; unused. O32 (Fig. 28). Obsidian blade. L. 0.057; max. w. 0.005; th. 0.002 m. Same as O31. O33 (Fig. 28). Obsidian blade. L. 0.051; max. w. 0.008; th. 0.002 m. Same as O31. O34 (Fig. 28). Obsidian blade. L. 0.046; max. w. 0.007; th. 0.002 m. Same as O31. O35 (Fig. 28). Obsidian blade. Pr. l. 0.020; max. w. 0.005; th. 0.002 m. Distal part of pressure blade with triangular section; unused. O36 (Fig. 28). Obsidian blade. Pr. l. 0.032; max. w. 0.007; th. 0.002 m. Proximal part of pressure blade with prismatic section; unused. O37 (Fig. 28). Obsidian blade. L. 0.050; max. w. 0.008; th. 0.002 m. Intact pressure blade with prismatic section; unused. O38 (Fig. 28). Obsidian blade. L. 0.046; max. w. 0.006; th. 0.002 m. Same as O37. O39 (Fig. 28). Obsidian blade. Pr. l. 0.029; max. w. 0.007; th. 0.002 m. Proximal part of pressure blade with prismatic section; unused.

O40 (Fig. 28). Obsidian blade. Pr. l. 0.022; max. w. 0.006; th. 0.002 m. Distal part of pressure blade with prismatic section; unused. O41 (Fig. 28). Obsidian blade. Pr. l. 0.022; max. w. 0.007; th. 0.002 m. Proximal part of pressure blade with prismatic section; unused. O42 (Fig. 28). Obsidian blade. Pr. l. 0.024; max. w. 0.007; th. 0.002 m. Proximal part of pressure blade with prismatic section; unused. O43 (Fig. 28). Obsidian flake. L. 0.012; max. w. 0.010; th. 0.002 m. Small flake. O44. Chert core. max. l. 0.027; max. w. 0.020; th. 0.014 m. Small amorphous core of blue-gray chert. O45 (Fig. 28). Obsidian blade. Pr. l. 0.037; max. w. 0.008; th. 0.002 m. Proximal part of pressure blade with prismatic section; unused. O46a (Fig. 28). Obsidian blade. Pr. l. 0.011; max. w. 0.005; th. 0.002 m. Distal part of pressure blade with prismatic section; unused. O46b (Fig. 28). Obsidian blade. Pr. l. 0.007; max. w. 0.006; th. 0.003 m. Distal part of pressure blade with prismatic section; unused. O47. Obsidian blade. Pr. l. 0.047; max. w. 0.008; th. 0.002 m. Almost intact pressure blade with prismatic section; small part of the distal end is missing; unused. O48 (Fig. 28). Obsidian blade. Pr. l. 0.016; max. w. 0.009; th. 0.002 m. Proximal part of pressure blade with prismatic section; unused. O49 (Fig. 28). Obsidian blade. Pr. l. 0.019; max. w. 0.008; th. 0.002 m. Medial part of pressure blade with prismatic section; unused. O50 (Fig. 28). Obsidian blade. Pr. l. 0.013; max. w. 0.005; th. 0.002 m. Medial part of pressure blade with polygonal section; unused. O51 (Fig. 28). Obsidian blade. Pr. l. 0.013; max. w. 0.007; th. 0.002 m. Medial part of pressure blade with prismatic section; unused. O52 (Fig. 28). Obsidian flake. Pr. l. 0.011; max. w. 0.005; th. 0.002 m. Small irregular flake with triangular section. O53 (Fig. 28). Obsidian blade. Pr. l. 0.012; max. w. 0.009; th. 0.002 m. Medial part of pressure blade with prismatic section; unused. O54 (Fig. 28). Obsidian blade. Pr. l. 0.015; max. w. 0.010; th. 0.002 m. Medial part of pressure blade with prismatic section; unused. O55 (Fig. 28). Obsidian blade. Pr. l. 0.010; max. w. 0.007; th. 0.002 m. Medial part of pressure blade with prismatic section; possibly used. O56. Chert chip. L. 0.013; w. 0.006; th. 0.006 m. Irregular chip of chert. O57. Chert chip. L. 0.016; w. 0.011; th. 0.005 m. Irregular chip of chert.

5

Discussion of the Excavation Evidence

Tholos, Stratum I: Destruction of Tholos Gamma The entire Stratum I is related to the destruction of the tomb, the collapse of the roof, and the sealing of the burial stratum (Stratum II) that lay underneath. The identification of 3 layers within Stratum I (Fig. 4A) is of special importance because it shows 3 different phases in the destruction of the tomb and the formation of the thick, 2.20 m deep soil fill inside and above it.

Layer 3 The first phase of the destruction was undoubtedly the collapse of the roof represented by the lowest layer, Layer 3. The large number of stones in this layer belonged to the roof, which had collapsed inside the tomb (Pl. 6A). These stones belonged to the central part of the vault, and they are of medium size and relatively flat shape. They were found in various positions, with various inclinations, and with gaps between them, all typical features of collapsed vaulted roofs. These stones destroyed the lids and the upper part of the larnakes of the burial stratum (Stratum II). Fragments of these larnakes were found at a large distance from their original positions, revealing the violence of the collapse and the effect it had on the burial stratum.

The stones fallen from the roof reached a level 0.20 m below the rims of the larnakes. In some cases, the stones were found directly on the bottom of the larnakes, thus they damaged not only the upper part, but also the burials inside them (Pls. 7, 8A). It is clear that the burials of the tomb had not been covered with soil before the collapse of the roof, and that the larnakes had no soil fill inside. The pottery from the destruction level (Layer 3) can be divided into 2 large groups: the sherds of Red/Black Slipped Ware, dated between EM III and MM II, and the sherds of LM Dark-on-Light Painted Ware, dated to LM IIIA:2–B. The sherds of the first group were found scattered inside the tomb and at various depths. In contrast, the LM sherds were found concentrated in the west part of the tomb (Sectors A and C). This part suffered the most from later disturbances, as indicated by the larnakes, which had been partly or entirely damaged (L1, L2, L7, L8, L9, and L11). Moreover, fragments of Geometric pithoi were collected with larnax L7, and a sherd from a modern teacup was found in the same area (P18). The case of sherds P7 (Fig. 10), P33, and P36 (Fig. 13) is also characteristic. They belong to the same LM III bowl, but the latter 2 sherds were found inside larnax L7, whereas the former was

50

THOLOS TOMB GAMMA

found in Layers 1–2, that is, in a significantly higher level. In contrast, the east part of the tomb (Sectors B and D) contained less pottery. The case of the 2 legs from the same cooking pot, P20 and P27 (Figs. 11–12), is very interesting because the latter fragment was found inside larnax L3, whereas the former was discovered in the area above this larnax. On the basis of the above evidence, the pottery of Layer 3 was related to the pottery of Layers 1–2. The pottery had fallen from above during or after the collapse of the roof, and it had no relationship with the larnakes and the burials of Stratum II found underneath. But which sherds date the collapse of the roof: the EM III–MM II pieces, the LM IIIA:2–B fragments, the Geometric sherds, or the modern teacup? Cup V1 (Fig. 15) is a key piece of evidence for the dating of this collapse. It is dated to MM IIB–IIIA and has parallels from Anemospilia. It was found well within Layer 3, near the upper south corner of the entrance, and in the open space just under the lintel (Pl. 11B). The fact that it was intact indicates that it is unlikely to have fallen there during or after the collapse of the roof. Moreover, it was found under the lintel, so it seems unlikely to have fallen from above. It was deliberately deposited in this place through the entrance. Whatever the case, this vase is important because it shows that by MM IIB–IIIA the entrance of the tomb had been filled with soil and stones almost up to the level of the lintel. On the basis of this evidence, it is suggested that cup V1 was a deliberate deposition after the collapse of the roof, perhaps not long after this event. The dating of this vase suggests that the collapse of the roof may be dated to MM IIB–IIIA. Perhaps it was caused by the earthquake that also destroyed the shrine at Anemospilia and other neighboring centers at the end of the Old Palace period. It is not yet clear whether other tombs of

Phourni were destroyed at the same period. Perhaps it is not just a coincidence, however, that the use of the cemetery appears to have ceased in the New Palace period. If the roof had indeed collapsed in the MM period, then the LM IIIA:2–B pottery, the fragments of Geometric pithoi, and the sherd from the modern teacup are later intrusions that represent disturbances or activities in the area long after the collapse of the roof. This is reinforced by the fragmentary state of all these vases. From this point of view, the LM III sherds cannot constitute ritual offerings that were made during this later period through the “window” as was originally suggested (Sakellarakis 1973).

Layers 1–2 The thick, 1 m deep Layer 2 found above the destruction Layer 3 could be identified as pure soil fill, which covered the tomb after the collapse of the roof (Pl. 5B). Finally, the large stones found in Layer 1 (Pls. 4B, 5A) above Layer 2, belonged to the upper preserved part of the tholos wall that fell inside the tomb much later, possibly due to ploughing, tree roots, and the use of the area in modern times. The character of Layers 1–2 is reinforced by the mixed pottery, dated to EM III–MM II and LM III. Moreover, sherds found in Layers 1–2 join with sherds found deeper in the tomb, as well as with sherds from outside the tholos. More specifically, sherd P7 belongs to the same LM III bowl as sherds found deeper in Layer 3 inside larnax L7 (P33 and P36). Also, sherd P9 (Fig. 10) comes from the same base as sherd P77, which was found outside the tomb one year after the excavation of the tholos. This evidence clearly indicates that Layers 1–2 constitute a surface fill formed gradually after the destruction of the roof, at the top of the destroyed tomb, both inside and outside the collapsed tholos.

Tholos, Stratum II: Upper Burial Stratum All the burial containers and most of the skeletal remains of the tomb were found in Stratum II. Skeletal remains were found both inside and outside the burial containers. The chronology of Stratum II

comes from 2 intact vases and a few other finds. Jug V2 (Fig. 15; Pl. 17) is dated to EM III, while jug V3 (Fig. 15; Pl. 17) can be dated either to EM III or MM IA. Jug V2 is of particular importance because

DISCUSSION OF THE EXCAVATION EVIDENCE

it was found directly in front of the entrance (Pl. 11B), and it seems to be one of the very last objects deposited in the tomb. Of the other finds, only the seals (Fig. 26) can provide relatively secure evidence for dating. The button-shaped (S1 and S7) and stamp cylinder seals (S2 and S8) can be dated to EM III–MM IA, and the gable seal (S5) dates to between EM IIB and MM I. Pendant A22 (Fig. 23; Pl. 20) is made of white paste, a material used mainly in MM IA. This pendant was also found in the area of the entrance, and it was one of the last objects deposited in the tomb together with jug V2. The same is true of bone object I5 (Fig. 23; Pl. 20), which was found inside the entrance; it has parallels dated between EM III and MM I. Finally, the larnakes can be dated

51

to EM III or MM IA. The other finds, that is the stone handle (D2) and the copper (B1, B17, and B18), lead (C1), and obsidian (O5) objects, cannot be dated precisely, but they are not in disagreement with the dating of the finds mentioned above. On the basis of the above evidence, the dating of Stratum II could be EM III or, at the latest, MM IA. The finds could be dated to either period, even though the only secure date is given by jug V2, which is assigned rather safely to EM III. The dating of pendant A22 in MM IA solely on the basis of the raw material cannot be regarded as safe because white paste is a material that was identified only very recently. Its dating is based on seal typology and contexts of uncertain date (Sbonias 1995; Pini 1990).

Tholos, Stratum III: Lower Burial Stratum In Stratum III beneath the larnakes, the texture of the soil changes drastically by becoming harder and darker with many small stones. Stratum III is relatively thin, no deeper than 0.20 m, while in some parts of the tomb it is nothing more than the filling of the irregularities of the natural rock. More specifically, in the north and west part of the tomb, where the bedrock is at a higher level, the thickness of the stratum is no more than a few centimeters. In contrast, in the east and south parts it is up to 0.20 m thick, because the natural rock is at a lower level. No identifiable burials were found in this stratum (with the possible exception of K9), but it was full of small fragments of bones and teeth spread all over the tomb, including the areas beneath the larnakes. Most of the artifacts of the tomb derive from this stratum, and, along with the large number of sherds, offer valuable chronological information. Of the 154 diagnostic sherds, 142 can be dated to EM IIA (Tables 4–6). Of the remaining 12 sherds, 3 may be dated to EM I and 9 are dated anywhere between EM IIB and MM II. The artifacts found in the tomb support the dating suggested by the pottery. A large number of finds have parallels or affinities with objects found in the Cyclades and dated to EC II, which is thought to be contemporary with EM II, more specifically EM IIA (Warren 1984; Wilson 1994). These objects include the Cycladic figurines

(F1–F12, F14; Figs. 20–22; Pls. 18–19), the marble bowl (D1; Fig. 27; Pl. 20), the gold vase-shaped pendant (A20; Fig. 23; Pl. 20), the silver objects (C2–C7; Fig. 22; Pl. 17), the bone drop-shaped pendants (A9–A19; Fig. 23; Pl. 17), and the bone pins (I1–I4; Fig. 23; Pl. 20). The ring-shaped gold beads (J21–J24; Fig. 25) have parallels from Troy IIg dated to EBA II, which is contemporary with EM II. Some gold items, such as the barrel-shaped beads (J15–J20; Fig. 25) and the shield-shaped objects (J49–J54; Fig. 25; Pl. 20), have parallels from Mochlos dated to EM IIA, although there are also parallels from the Mesara showing that such beads continued as late as EM III or MM I. The chlorite schist object with incised decoration (D3; Fig. 27; Pl. 20) has parallels from both Crete and the Cyclades dated to EM II and EC II. The rest of the finds from Stratum III have parallels from mixed EM II–MM I deposits from the Mesara and other Cretan areas. Where the seals are concerned (Fig. 26), S3 and S6 can be dated as early as EM II, but the dating of the stamp cylinder seal S4 presents a problem. This seal can hardly be accepted as belonging to the EM II period, and based on current seal chronology, it cannot be dated earlier than EM III. On the other hand, it is stylistically different from the EM III–MM IA seals with the same motif (rosette) found at Phourni, although it is not certain if this difference is of chronological significance.

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According to the above evidence, it can be suggested that Stratum III was different from the overlying Stratum II, not only in terms of soil texture, but also in terms of dating. It seems clear that Stratum III dates to EM IIA on the basis of the pottery and the parallels of most of the finds coming from Crete or the Cyclades. A few later sherds (6% of the total quantity of pottery) dated between EM IIB and MM II, and seal S4 (Fig. 26) dated to EM III–MM I are the only contradictions to this chronology. These later finds are only a minority, and we do not think that they constitute sufficient evidence to challenge the EM IIA dating of Stratum III. Moreover, their presence within Stratum III can be explained on the basis of later clearances and disturbances. This will be discussed in more detail below. It is important to mention the 3 possible EM I sherds (P60–P62) revealed during the final cleaning of the tomb. If the attribution is right, then they are the first EM I sherds identified at Phourni and may indicate activities (not necessarily funerary) in the area during a period earlier than EM IIA, when the first tombs were built. However, such a hypothesis needs further support by more future evidence. The character of Stratum III is not as obvious as that of Strata I and II. It was originally suggested that it was part of the single burial stratum of the tomb, dated to EM III, and that in this stratum were deposited the funerary offerings related to the burials made above, inside and outside the burial containers (Sakellarakis 1972; Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, 183). On the basis of our study, however, Stratum III is different from Stratum II in terms of soil texture as well as dating. Moreover, the connection of the burials of Stratum II with the finds of Stratum III faces many chronological, as well as practical problems related to the associated mortuary practices. The distribution of some finds from Stratum III in relation to the larnakes of Stratum II is informative. The heads and legs of the 3 marble figurines were found scattered beneath several larnakes or in the free areas among them in no specific pattern (Fig. 7A). The gold fragments J45–J46 (Fig. 25; Pl. 20), although they belonged to the same gold band, were found separately. The former was discovered beneath larnax L3, whereas the latter came from south of L10 (Fig. 8A). Gold bands J41–J42 (Fig. 25; Pl. 20), although typologically similar, were also found in different parts of the tomb: the former

came from beneath L9, whereas the latter was found north of L4 (Fig. 8A). According to our study of the mortuary practices of Tholos Gamma (discussed in Chapter 6), the larnakes were not removed, but once they were placed in the tomb, they were used continuously for more than one burial. If we connect the finds beneath the larnakes with the burials made inside them (as proposed originally), we have to assume either that the finds belonged only to the very first burial made inside every larnax, or that with each new burial, the larnax was lifted, the burial goods were deposited, and then the larnax was replaced. Both alternatives are highly unlikely. We suggest, therefore, that the finds beneath the larnakes have to be disconnected from the burials made inside them. In other words, Stratum III is not functionally related to Stratum II. This is also confirmed by the strong evidence indicating a rather different chronology for the 2 strata. On the other hand, if the strata are not related, then a new problem emerges about the character of Stratum III. Is it a lower burial stratum? How can we explain the small depth, the great disturbance, and the fragmentary condition of the finds? One of the most important features of Stratum III is the fragmentary condition of a large number of the finds, namely the marble figurines and the gold bands. Before examining this phenomenon further, we need to consider the relationship of Tholos Gamma with the Area of the Rocks, an area of the cemetery 10–15 m to the southeast of the tomb (Fig. 1). This area is characterized by deep natural fissures in the bedrock. It is highly probable that the head of figurine F11 (Fig. 22) and the missing part of gold band J43 (Fig. 25) have been found in the Area of the Rocks. Moreover, a gold tubular bead found in the Area of the Rocks (Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1978, 321, pl. 195d) is identical with beads J1–J14 (Fig. 25; Pl. 20) from Tholos Gamma. The close relationship beween the Area of the Rocks and Tholos Gamma is also reinforced by other pieces of evidence. The Area of the Rocks is the only place at Phourni, apart from Tholos Gamma, where Cycladic figurines have been found. Moreover, the preliminary study of the pottery from the Area of the Rocks revealed a good quantity of EM IIA pottery of the Dark-Gray Burnished Ware, similar to the pottery from Stratum III of Tholos Gamma. Finally, the study of c. 1000 fragments of obsidian from the Area of the Rocks reinforced the

DISCUSSION OF THE EXCAVATION EVIDENCE

picture of a close connection between these 2 assemblages (T. Carter, personal communication). The character of the Area of the Rocks was quite clear from the beginning of the excavations. It was not used for burials, but for the deposition of funerary material cleared from nearby tombs (Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, 232, 236). Although it is certain that the material from many tombs was deposited in the Area of the Rocks, the connection with Tholos Gamma is most pronounced. It seems reasonable, therefore, to suggest that the disturbance observed in Stratum III is related not to the collapse of the roof, but to cleaning operations inside the tholos. Such operations explain the disturbance, the scattering of several objects, the missing parts and their fragmentary condition, and the special relationship between Tholos Gamma and the Area of the Rocks, where the cleared funerary material was deposited. The cleaning operations were not selective in the sense of what was thrown out or what was left in the tomb. This is clearly indicated by the figurines and metal artifacts. In Tholos Gamma were found complete figurines as well as heads, legs, and a headless body, while from the Area of the Rocks come heads, headless bodies, legs, and other parts in very different states of preservation. Moreover, the existence of many gold, copper, and silver artifacts in Tholos Gamma indicates that the purpose of cleaning was not aimed at recyclable raw materials, which could be remelted and reused. To conclude, the whole operation seems to have been a random removal of the soil (together with the finds and the bones contained in it), rather than a selective clearance or looting of the tomb. It seems that the disturbance was only partial and that some areas of the tomb remained almost untouched, especially in the east part. Beneath larnax L4 a large number of obsidian blades were found intact (Fig. 9B; Pl. 20), indicating that this area was not disturbed during the cleaning operations. Some of these blades had been extracted from the same core (T. Carter, personal communication),

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and it is clear that they were deposited together and never disturbed or removed from their original position. Another similar case is the large number of gold beads found beneath larnax L10, undoubtedly belonging to the same necklace (Fig. 7B). Finally, perhaps it is not a coincidence that all the bone pins (Fig. 8B) were found beneath or around larnax L3. It is important to note that these “undisturbed” areas were in parts of the tomb where there existed large irregularities of the natural rock, and it is exactly in these areas where Stratum III had its greatest depth. This observation is very important because it explains the character of the cleaning operations inside Tholos Gamma. It seems clear that the main aim of these operations was not to remove soil, bones, or finds, but to level the irregular floor of the tomb. For this reason, the soil filling in the irregularities of the natural rock remained undisturbed and the artifacts contained within the soil were left almost untouched. Such an operation could probably be related to the introduction of the burial containers in EM III. It can be suggested that the leveling of the floor made for better stability of the burial containers. A final remark concerning the character of Stratum III is that it contained many small fragments of bones and teeth, despite the fact that no identifiable burial was found. Significantly, bones and teeth were found not only in the areas around the larnakes, but also beneath them. This shows that Stratum III included burials long before the introduction of the burial containers in EM III. On the basis of the above evidence, the character of Stratum III could be described as: a burial stratum, earlier than Stratum II, with burials made not in larnakes but directly on the floor, and dated to EM IIA. Only small fragments of bones and teeth remained from the original burials. This burial stratum suffered one or more cleaning operations before the introduction of the burial containers in EM III/MM IA.

Dromos, Stratum I: Destruction of the Dromos Stratum I of the dromos is related to the destruction of the area outside the east part of the tomb. Indeed, the stratum was full of large stones that had

fallen from the nearby walls. The pottery from this stratum can be dated anywhere between EM IIB and MM II, whereas sherd P77 is of LM III date. The

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THOLOS TOMB GAMMA

case of this sherd has been discussed above. The fact that it belongs to the same vase as sherd P9 found inside the tholos (Fig. 10) indicates that

Stratum I was formed after the collapse of the roof, as a single deposit above the collapsed tholos, both inside and outside it.

Dromos, Stratum IIA: Burial Stratum Stratum IIA starts from the same level as the foundations of the 2 dromos walls (Pl. 12B). This stratum also contained the only larnax of the dromos. The pottery can be dated anywhere between EM IIB and MM II. The dating of this stratum, however, depends on its relationship with the interior of Tholos Gamma. More specifically, the larnax occupied the entire width of the dromos, so its placement there could have been made only after the end of the use of the tholos interior. Because the tholos burial

stratum (Stratum II) is dated to EM III or at the latest to MM IA, this is the terminus post quem for the placement and use of the larnax in the dromos. This is also the terminus post quem for the erection of the dromos walls. On the basis of this evidence, the dating of Stratum IIA is between the end of the use of the tholos interior (EM III or MM IA) and the final destruction of the area (probably MM IIB–IIIA as in the case of the tholos).

Dromos, Stratum IIB This stratum is at the same depth as the upper burial stratum (Stratum II) of the tholos. It lies beneath the larnax and the foundations of the dromos walls, so it was formed earlier. The small amount of pottery provides some evidence for dating. The pottery found in the area below the larnax is dated to various periods, but the latest is MM IIA, indicating that the larnax was placed in the dromos at the earliest in MM IIA. In the west part of the dromos, right in front of the entrance were found 2 vases, which offer significant help in terms of dating. Goblet V6 (Fig. 16; Pl. 17) can be securely dated to EM III, and double vase V7 (Fig. 16; Pl. 17) should be assigned to EM III or MM IA. These

vases, together with skull K42, were found directly below the dromos walls (Pl. 16A). They seem to have been placed there just before the erection of these walls, and the people who built the dromos walls had knowledge of these items. This could imply that the skull and the cup constituted a foundation deposit. Whatever the case, it becomes apparent that although the larnax was placed in the dromos perhaps as late as MM IIA, the dromos walls were erected in EM III or MM IA. The latter date is more plausible because these walls are also part of Burial Building 9, which was built and used in MM IA (Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, 210).

Dromos, Stratum III Stratum III of the dromos corresponds to Stratum III of the tholos. They both consist of black and hard soil, full of small lumps of limestone. The finds, 2 gold bands and a few obsidian and chert chipped objects, resemble the material of Stratum III of the

tholos and perhaps constituted funerary offerings. The stratum cannot be dated securely due to the absence of pottery, but it is reasonable to assume that it is contemporary with the corresponding Stratum III of the tholos, that is EM IIA.

6

Mortuary Practices

The major problem besetting the study of Prepalatial mortuary practices is that the evidence derives from collective tombs that were used over long periods of time, cleared periodically, looted in modern times, not well excavated, and left unpublished or poorly documented. Thus, it is not surprising that many aspects of Prepalatial mortuary practices remain uncertain. According to the available evidence, one of the most important features of Prepalatial mortuary practices is that the tombs were of collective character (Branigan 1970, 1993; Pini 1968; Soles 1992). They received a large number of successive burials and were used for a prolonged period. It is also noteworthy that the tombs were above ground and that the burial itself was also made on top of the ground. This was the case not only for the burials made inside built tombs, such as tholoi and house tombs, but also for those made inside caves and rock crevices. In all the studies concerning Prepalatial mortuary practices, burial is regarded as a 2-stage process involving the primary burial of the corpse and the secondary treatment of the bones (Branigan 1970; 1993; Maggidis 1994; Murphy 1998; Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, 246–267; Soles 1992). Various offerings accompanied the deceased during the primary burial. The secondary treatment of the

corpse, after the decomposition of the flesh, was very frequent and could have taken many different forms. Usually, a large part of the burial remains, including bones and artifacts, were pushed away or cleared out of the tomb and carelessly disposed of in special areas. In a few cases, there is evidence for fumigation fires. Special treatment was applied only to the skulls and, sometimes, to a few selected bones. The skulls were sometimes accompanied by funerary gifts, but mainly offerings inside cups were offered. Apart from the rituals related to specific funeral ceremonies, it seems that cemeteries were the main foci of religious and other ritual activities. The evidence suggests that nonfunerary rituals, or at least rituals not related to specific funerals, took place in the cemeteries, in paved or enclosed areas occasionally equipped with fixed or mobile altars (Branigan 1970, 134–138; 1998, 19–23; Soles 1992). Tholos Gamma has some advantages over several other Prepalatial tombs because it remained unlooted in modern times, was preserved in very good condition, and was well excavated and documented. For this reason a detailed study of the Tholos Gamma mortuary evidence offers the opportunity to test hypotheses, shed new light, and fill some gaps in our knowledge of Prepalatial mortuary practices.

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Burial Facility Tholos Gamma is a circular tholos tomb similar to those found mainly in southern Crete in the areas of the Mesara plain and the Asterousia mountains (Branigan 1970; 1993). About 80 tombs have been discovered in these areas, and they usually occur in cemeteries of one, 2, or 3 tholoi. Like the southern Cretan tholoi, Tholos Gamma is of circular shape with a vaulted roof. The study of the tomb architecture and the evidence from the destruction level (Chapter 2) sheds new light on the problem of the tholos tomb construction and confirms previous suggestions that these circular tombs had a stone vaulted roof (Alexiou and Warren 2004, 15; Branigan 1993, 55). The tomb shares several other features with the southern Cretan tholoi, such as the small entrance to the east, the additional rooms in front of the entrance, the collective character of the burials,

and the prolonged use of the tomb for many successive burials. It should be noted that Tholos Gamma is one of only 7 certain tholos tombs discovered outside southern Crete. Four of these tholoi were built in the earlier Prepalatial period (EM I–II): Tholoi Gamma and Epsilon at Archanes and Tholoi A and B at Krasi. Three more tholoi were built in the later part of the Prepalatial and the beginning of the Protopalatial periods (EM III–MM I): Tholos Beta at Archanes, one tholos at Gypsades near Knossos, and one at Myrsini in eastern Crete. In contrast, in southern Crete, the great majority of the tholos tombs were erected in EM I or EM II, but their use continued, in most cases, until the end of the Prepalatial period. Very few tholoi were erected in EM III–MM I, and even fewer continued to be used after the end of the Prepalatial period.

Primary Burial The evidence for primary burials in Prepalatial tombs is rather scanty, but this is most probably due to the prolonged use of the tombs and the constant cleaning of the old burial remains. In Tholos Gamma, such direct evidence occurs only in the upper burial stratum.

Lower Burial Stratum (EM IIA) There is only limited evidence for the burials of the lower (EM IIA) burial stratum due to the extensive cleaning operations. The stratum was full of small, very fragmented bones and teeth that were scattered in the areas beneath and around the larnakes. No undisturbed identifiable burial was revealed, which is not surprising because the stratum was no more than 0.10–0.20 m thick. A similar picture is revealed in the neighboring and contemporary Tholos Epsilon (Panagiotopoulos 1996; 2002). The burials were made on a thin layer of small stones. No evidence for the use of clay burial containers exists, although the use of such containers made of other materials (e.g., wood) cannot be

excluded. The use of clay coffins did not become common in Crete until EM III (Branigan 1993, 65; Soles 1992, 244). The EM IIA burials were accompanied by a large number of funerary goods, such as figurines, jewelry, copper artifacts, seals, clay and stone vases, and obsidian blades. The prolonged use of the tomb, the lack of intact skeletal remains, and the disturbance caused by cleaning operations, makes it difficult, if not impossible, to identify groups of finds and associate them with specific burials. In some cases, objects of similar character were found closely together, such as 4 bone pins (I1–I4) beneath larnax L6, 4 silver awls (C4–C7) in the southwest sector of the tomb, 2 figurines (F9–F10) together with a marble bowl (D1) in the northwest, several beads beneath larnax L10, and many obsidian blades beneath larnax L4. It is highly probable that these groups were the result of a single burial episode. However, even in the case of these relatively undisturbed groups of finds, it is not possible to know how many individuals had been buried with them.

MORTUARY PRACTICES

Upper Burial Stratum (EM III) The significant change in the mortuary practices of EM III was the introduction of the clay coffins. In this period, Tholos Gamma received the bodies of at least 55 individuals inside 11 larnakes and one pithos, and in the spaces between them. The larnakes were placed without any particular orientation, and the free spaces between them were no wider than 0.30–0.40 m (Fig. 5; Pls. 7, 11A). Three larnakes (L8, L9, and L11) had no burial remains, but this is probably due to a later disturbance. Three larnakes contained the remains of one burial (L2, L5), 3 coffins had 2 burials (L1, L4, L7), one larnax had 3 burials (L6), and, finally, the pithos and one more larnax contained the remains of 4 individuals (P1, L10; Table 1). By this period, there is the first firm, though scarce, evidence for primary burials in Tholos Gamma. In larnax L5, the position of the skull and the still articulated lower limbs (Pl. 9B) clearly show that the deceased was placed inside the larnax in a contracted position on its left side with the head pointing to the north, opposite the entrance, and facing to the east. Some articulation could also be seen in the badly preserved skeleton of larnax L1, indicating the contracted position with the head to the north. This is the only direct evidence for primary burials. However, they are sufficient to reinforce the hypothesis that the larnakes were indeed used for primary burials and not as ossuaries for relocated bones. The dead had to be placed in a contracted position because the length of the larnakes did not exceed 1–1.20 m. The orientation of the burials was not according to the compass points, but to the tholos entrance. It appears that the dead were placed with the head pointing to the side opposite the entrance.

Discussion The evidence from Tholos Gamma reinforces the scanty evidence for primary burials in other Prepalatial collective tombs and cemeteries. Undisturbed articulated burials have been found in tholoi at Hagia Triada, Hagios Kyrillos, Apesokari, Vorou, Gypsades, and Lebena (Alexiou and Warren 2004, 191; Branigan 1970, 87), and in house tombs at Archanes, Malia, Palaikastro, and Zakros (Soles 1992, 244). There is no reason to believe

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that primary burials were not made in the tombs, or that the tombs were simply ossuaries where the burial remains were deposited after decomposition (Branigan 1970, 87; Soles 1992, 242). On the other hand, it cannot be excluded that in some tholos tombs the primary burial was made in the antechamber and not in the tholos itself (Branigan 1970, 87). The same is possible in the case of the multi-roomed house tombs of east Crete and Archanes, where one or more rooms could be used for the primary burial, while other rooms may have served as the ossuaries for the decayed skeletal remains (Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997; Soles 1992). By the later Prepalatial period (EM III–MM I), clay burial coffins (larnakes and pithoi) were introduced throughout the island (Branigan 1993, 141). They were used for burials above the ground inside tholos tombs, house tombs, and burial caves, and they were also used as single interments buried in the ground in large open-air cemeteries. The Tholos Gamma evidence is of particular importance because primary articulated burials have been attested in very few Minoan tombs with larnakes and pithoi (Archanes 5 and 18, and Zakros A and B; Soles 1992, 244). However, the use of containers for primary burials seems almost certain, especially in the cases where the tombs had been filled with such containers (Archanes Tholoi Gamma and Epsilon, Myrsini, Vorou A, Galana Charakia). In Tholos Gamma, the only space that is large enough to receive a primary burial, even in a contracted position, was inside the larnakes, and this may have been the case for many other tombs, too. Moreover, there is no reason to place a large number of larnakes or pithoi inside a tomb if they are only to be used as ossuaries. As in Tholos Gamma, in almost all cases, the primary burial was usually accompanied by funerary goods such as figurines, jewelry, copper daggers, toiletry implements, seals, pendants, and clay and stone vases (Branigan 1993, 67–75). Food and liquid offerings were perhaps contained in these vases, as indicated by a few cases in which such offerings have been preserved (Branigan 1993, 76–80; Maggidis 1994; Soles 1992, 246–249). It is noteworthy that in Tholos Gamma only a very small number of objects accompanied the burial remains of EM III, in contrast to the relative richness of the EM IIA burials.

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Secondary Treatment Because the Prepalatial tombs were collective and had prolonged and continuous use, it is not surprising that most of the evidence is related to the secondary treatment of the dead. The various modes of secondary treatment have been classified by Branigan: 1. Selective grouping of bones 2. Selective removal of bones 3. Breaking or chopping of bones 4. Clearance of the tomb 5. Fumigation of the tomb (Branigan 1987, 45) The above modes of treatment can be grouped in 2 larger categories. The first 3 modes can be seen as manipulating activities because they had no practical character and could have been due to ritual actions related to funerary beliefs. The other 2 modes are described as interference activities because they served practical reasons, which were connected to the continuous use of the tomb. Such a classification cannot be strict, however, because the grouping and removing of bones may have started as a practical device for economizing space, whereas some cleaning and fumigating activities could have acquired a ritual or spiritual character. It should be emphasized that the above practices occurred only in the tholos, house, and cave tombs and not in the open cemeteries consisting of pithos and larnax burials. In the latter case, burials were made in the ground and did not receive any secondary treatment. From the modes of secondary treatment mentioned above, Tholos Gamma provides important new evidence about clearance, selective grouping, and selective removal of bones.

Clearance Cleaning activities were very common practices due to the continuous use of Minoan tombs. Such operations have been attested in several tholos tombs in the Mesara (Branigan 1970, 107; 1987, 47). In Platanos A and Koumasa E, the clearance had a dramatic effect because a large part of the burial deposit was removed to the antechambers or moved toward the internal periphery of the tombs,

and then the floor of the tomb was covered by soil and new interments were made on top. In other tombs, the clearance was of smaller scale. The cleared material was removed either toward the periphery of the tholos interior (Kamilari, Koumasa E, Marathokephalo, Vorou A), to the outer chambers (Platanos, Apesokari, Hagia Kyriaki, Hagios Kyrillos, Hagia Triada), to walled trenches outside the tomb (Koumasa, Platanos, Porti), or to rock clefts in the neighboring area (Skotomenou Charakas A; Blackman and Branigan 1977, 51; Branigan 1993, 121–122). Except for Pseira (Betancourt 2003, 136), there is no evidence for cleaning out the house tombs of east Crete, where the evidence suggests small scale internal rearrangements of the bones at Zakros and Mochlos (Soles 1992, 145). It seems reasonable, however, that such operations would have taken place.

Lower Burial Stratum (EM IIA) As discussed in Chapter 5, Tholos Gamma received extensive cleaning operations, which disturbed the burial remains of EM IIA. This is indicated clearly by the fragmentary condition of the bones and many of the finds, as well as the dispersion of many similar objects and even fragments belonging to the same object. The cleared material was disposed in the fissures of the bedrock in the Area of the Rocks (Fig. 1; Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, 232). This is confirmed by the gold band, fragments of which were found inside the tholos and in the Area of the Rocks. It is also reinforced by many analogies between the material found in these 2 assemblages (Cycladic figurines, gold beads, obsidian blades, Dark-Gray Burnished pottery). From this point of view, Tholos Gamma provides the first direct and secure evidence for cleaning activities in a Prepalatial tomb. In all other cases (e.g. Platanos, Koumasa, etc.), the removal and disposal of burial material have been inferred on the basis of indirect evidence. In the case of Tholos Gamma, it is possible to know not only that cleaning operations took place, but also where exactly the cleared material was disposed. The Area of the Rocks was used for material also cleared from other tombs in the cemetery. This indicates that the cleaning operations in the tombs of Phourni were common and well

MORTUARY PRACTICES

organized, and that there was a particular place for disposal of this material. According to the evidence presented in Chapters 2 and 5, it appears that a major cleaning had taken place in Tholos Gamma in EM III by the time the burial containers were introduced. The main aim of this particular cleaning seems to have been the lowering and leveling of the floor for a better and more stable placement of the larnakes and the pithos. It cannot be excluded, however, that minor cleaning activities also took place periodically in earlier phases of the tomb.

Upper Burial Stratum (EM III) In this phase of use, there is evidence for the clearance of burial remains both outside the burial containers and outside the tomb itself. First, it is certain that the burial containers were cleared, at least partially, of their previous burial remains. This is indicated by several pieces of evidence. In most of the larnakes, the only parts of the skeleton to be found were the skull and a few long bones (Pls. 8B, 10), while in other larnakes (L1, L3, L7, and L10) some of the burials were represented by no more than a few teeth or bones. The clearance of the larnakes of the remains of the old burials was necessary for making space for the new ones. Second, all the skeletal remains found outside the larnakes belonged to relocated, secondary burials and not to primary burials as was originally suggested (Sakellarakis 1972; Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997). This is reinforced by the fact that very few bones were found—mainly the skull and, occasionally, some long bones. Moreover, the space between the larnakes was not large enough for a primary burial even in the contracted position. This clearly shows that the primary burials were made only inside the larnakes, and, after decay, some or all of the remains were removed and placed in the spaces available around them. According to this, it can be suggested that the skeletal material found near a larnax was most probably the remains of a primary burial(s) made inside this particular larnax. It is noteworthy that the funerary goods of this phase were found not inside the larnakes, but with the relocated burials outside of them. In 2 cases the association is clear. Skull K35 was accompanied by a bone pendant (A4), a seal (S5), and a jug (V3), and burial K42 was found with a clay cup (V6) in reversed position. This indicates that the

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funerary goods were cleared out of the larnakes together with the associated skeletal remains. It is also possible that at least some of the burial remains were cleared out of the tomb, although the evidence is not firm. Apart from the skulls and some other parts of the skeleton—usually the long bones—no other skeletal material was identified during the excavation. It is possible, therefore, that part of the skeletal material was cleared out of the tomb, as was in the case of the burials from the earlier phase (EM IIA). The majority of the pottery from the Area of the Rocks is dated to EM III, MM I, and MM II, which shows that this area received cleared tomb material in these periods, possibly from Tholos Gamma as well. However, the relation between Tholos Gamma and the Area of the Rocks cannot be established directly for EM III/MM IA, as it has been for EM IIA. On this basis, the cleaning of the EM III/MM IA burial remains out of the tomb cannot be regarded as certain, but it cannot be excluded either.

Skull Retention Tholos Gamma offers important new evidence concerning the retention and special treatment of the skull as opposed to other bones.

Lower Burial Stratum (EM IIA) In contrast to the careless cleaning and disposal of most of the burial material (bones and artifacts) in the Area of the Rocks, there is some evidence that the skulls received special treatment. In the Area of the Rocks, 3 skulls were found carefully placed inside a natural fissure of the bedrock (Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1976, 393). Near them was recovered the missing part of gold band J43 (Fig. 25), the rest of which was found inside Tholos Gamma. This indicates that the skulls belonged to primary burials originally made inside Tholos Gamma and that they were carefully deposited in the rock fissure after being removed from the tomb. A small quantity of EM IIA Dark-Gray Burnished pottery, similar to that from Tholos Gamma, was also found together with the skulls, suggesting a broad contemporaneity with the Tholos Gamma EM IIA burials. Although we cannot exclude the possibility that the skulls came from another tomb, and that the association of the skulls with the Tholos Gamma golden band is purely coincidental, it seems clear that the skulls

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received special treatment in contrast to the rest of the skeletal remains that were disposed without care in the Area of the Rocks.

Upper Burial Stratum (EM III) Evidence for special treatment of the skull also exists in the later phase of use of Tholos Gamma. Inside the larnakes, the only part of the skeleton found in most cases was the skull, which was occasionally accompanied by some long bones (Pls. 8B, 10) or other minor bones (Appendix). This evidence, along with the fact that most of the larnakes contained more than one burial, indicates that the larnakes were used not only as containers of primary burials, but also as ossuaries for the skulls and selected bones from the older burials that were originally made inside them. In this sense, the case of the pithos (L12) is quite exceptional. Despite its small size, the pithos contained 4 skulls, which belonged to 3 adults and one child (Table 1). Because the pithos is too small for an adult burial, even in a contracted position, it is certain that the primary burials of the 3 adults were not made inside the pithos, but in a nearby larnax. Only the remains of the child burial could be from the original, earliest burial inside the pithos. This case shows that possibly some burial containers were used as ossuaries for skulls belonging to burials made primarily inside them, in addition to storing the remains from secondary, relocated burials that were primarily made in another container. In this case, however, it seems more probable that the pithos was originally placed in the tomb to receive the primary burial of a child, and it became an ossuary in a later phase. Even when the burials were removed and placed outside the larnakes, the skull received special care. This is clear because virtually all the skeletal remains outside the larnakes consisted of skulls. In some cases 3, 4, or 5 skulls had been lodged between the larnakes and the tholos wall, and in some parts of the tomb they constituted small heaps near the larnakes. The rest of the skeletal remains that were found with the skulls are mainly small bones, suggesting that the removal of the burials from the larnakes may have occurred before the complete decomposition of the corpse (Appendix). Another interesting observation is that all the burial goods of Stratum II were found outside the larnakes together with the skulls. This suggests that special care was taken that the funerary goods

(at least some of them) accompany the skull, even when the skull was removed outside the burial container. Finally, the case of skull K42 that was found beneath the foundations of the south wall of the dromos is another characteristic case (Pl. 16). This skull was accompanied by a small cup that was placed upside down on the ground, a kind of offering seen very often in other cemeteries (Soles 1992, 248). As discussed in Chapter 2, it is probable that the skull and the cup constituted a foundation deposit, made just before the erection of the dromos walls. A double vase (V7) filled with shells, and found beneath the opposite (north) wall of the dromos, was perhaps an associated deposit of similar character. All these finds seem to be offerings related to the building program that took place outside of Tholos Gamma and that involved the construction of the dromos and the 3 rooms of Burial Building 9 some time in MM IA.

Discussion The special treatment of the skull in contrast to other parts of the skeleton seems to be a rather common practice all over Prepalatial Crete. In some cases the skulls have been placed, possibly for protection, inside small containers, as in Archanes 6 and 19 (Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, 250) and Vorou A (Marinatos 1931, 151). In many cases, the secondary deposition of the skull also involved ritual offerings made inside cups (Soles 1992, 248). Direct evidence for the association of skulls with cups comes from Archanes 7 and 19 (Maggidis 1994; Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, 208), Palaikastro (Soles 1992, 248), and Vorou A (Marinatos 1931). The large number of cups found in house (Soles 1992, 248) and tholos tombs (Branigan 1970, 98–100) possibly indicates that such offerings were common, but it is not certain whether all these cups were used exclusively during the secondary treatment of the skull, or in other stages of the burial process. An interesting feature is the frequent inversion of the cup, which may be explained in religious terms as a memorial of an act with ritual character. It has been suggested that by this ritual act, the offering—whether food or liquid—was fixed in the soil (Soles 1992, 249; Åström 1987, 13). Finally, it is important to add another striking piece of evidence coming not from a cemetery, but from the settlement of Myrtos Phournou Koriphi in

MORTUARY PRACTICES

southeast Crete. A skull was found in one of the rooms of the settlement, dated to EM IIB (Warren 1972, 83). It was not accompanied by any other bones and was found in front of a tripartite structure consisting of 2 benches and a hearth in the middle. This altar-shaped structure, together with the type of vases found in the room, suggest that offerings

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and libations may have taken place in the room, and the skull possibly had some function in these rites. Warren suggests human sacrifice and ancestor worship as 2 interpretations, but, on the basis of the evidence available from the cemeteries of this period, the latter seems more plausible.

7

Conclusions

The discussion of the character and dating of the tomb stratigraphy and mortuary practices allow the reconstruction of the history of activity in Tholos Gamma and the area surrounding it. Tholos Gamma was erected as a freestanding building as early as EM IIA. The 3 possible EM I sherds found inside the tholos cannot support a construction of the tomb at such an early period, but they may indicate some activity in the area as early as EM I, a hypothesis that needs further evidence. In EM IIA, the only other tomb used at Phourni was the neighboring Tholos Epsilon to the south, a similar and slightly larger tomb. Tholos Gamma was used in EM IIA as a typical collective tholos tomb for a large number of successive burials over a prolonged period. The burials were made directly on the floor of the tomb above a thin layer consisting of fragments of limestone that were used to fill the irregularities of the natural rock. These burials were accompanied by a large number of offerings including marble, gold, copper, silver, bone, and ivory objects. The evidence shows that the EM IIA burials and the associated material were disturbed by extensive cleaning operations, which included removal of soil, bones, and artifacts in a rather random, nonselective way. The cleared material was transported and dumped in the deep fissures of the so-called

Area of the Rocks. Such cleaning operations could have occurred just once or many times throughout the long period of use of the tomb. What seems certain is that, at least, one major operation of this kind was undertaken in EM III, just before the introduction of the first burial containers. During this operation, soil, finds, and bones were removed and deposited in the Area of the Rocks, and the floor of the tomb was leveled. These operations caused a great disturbance to both the finds and the burial remains of EM IIA. These cleaning operations in the lower burial stratum can be best explained if considered in relation to the introduction of clay coffins in EM III. First, because the entrance of the tomb is small, the floor probably had to be lowered. Also, the tomb floor had to be leveled to provide better stability for the burial containers. For this reason, the soil fill in the rock fissures inside the tomb remained relatively untouched as well as the finds contained in this filling. After these operations, a large flat stone was placed at the entrance as a threshold. There is no evidence that the tomb was used continuously from EM IIA to EM III. Tholos Gamma lacks any pottery or finds that could be dated to the intermediate EM IIB period. The same seems to be the case for the entire Phourni cemetery. Moreover, Tholos Epsilon, which seems to have an almost

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identical history of use, lacks any EM IIB material. It seems, therefore, safe to suggest that there is a gap in the use of Tholos Gamma and the Phourni cemetery during the EM IIB period, at least on the basis of the present evidence. When the tomb started to be used again in EM III, no special care was taken for covering and sealing the earlier (EM IIA) burial stratum. The larnakes were placed directly over it, and the EM III–MM IA burial activity undoubtedly caused even more disturbance to the earlier burial stratum (Stratum III). This is the case particularly for the area of the entrance, which was continuously disturbed due to the movement of people in and out of the tomb. This kind of disturbance can explain the small quantity of later sherds and the EM III/MM IA seal (S4; Fig. 26) found in the lower stratum. There is no evidence to suggest whether the larnakes were placed in the tomb all at once or over a considerable period of time. Whatever the case, it is certain that after the placement of the larnakes in the tomb, these clay coffins remained inside and received more burials until the end of the tomb’s use. The larnakes were placed in EM III or, at the latest, in MM IA, according to the dating of the objects found in front of the entrance. There is no evidence to suggest that the entrance was closed or blocked, but there is no object from Stratum II dated after EM III or MM IA. In MM IA, the rooms of Burial Building 9 were built in front of the Tholos Gamma entrance and almost blocked it. Burial Building 9 had a long period of use throughout MM IA, as can be attested by the large number of burials (Sakellarakis 1973; Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, 210–212). This reinforces the view that, if Tholos Gamma continued to be used in MM IA, this was only for a short period. The evidence confirms that the burial was a 2stage process involving the primary burial of the corpse inside the burial containers and a secondary treatment. Various offerings accompanied the deceased during the primary burial. The secondary treatment of the corpse, sometimes even before the complete decomposition of the flesh, happened very frequently and took on many different forms. Usually a large part of the burial remains, including bones and artifacts, were pushed away or cleared out of the burial container. Special treatment was applied only to the skulls.

The area outside the tomb followed the same history as the interior. There was a thin stratum (Stratum III) corresponding to the lower burial stratum of the tholos interior and, above this, another stratum (Stratum IIB) corresponding to the upper burial stratum of the tholos interior and dated to EM III. In EM III or MM IA, 2 walls were built outside the tomb as projections of the 2 doorjambs. These walls were built at a level higher than the larnakes of the tholos interior and overlaid 2 EM III/MM IA vases (V6–V7; Fig. 16; Pl. 17). These walls defined not only the dromos of Tholos Gamma, but also the rooms of Burial Building 9, which was erected at this time. Therefore, it seems plausible that the 2 walls were built after the end of the use of the tholos, and they can be seen as part of an extensive building program that also included the construction of Burial Building 9 outside the east part of Tholos Gamma in MM IA (Sakellarakis 1973; Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, 210–212). During MM IA, MM IB, and MM II, burials were made in the rectangular chambers of Burial Building 9, just northeast and southeast of the Tholos Gamma entrance. Tholos Gamma was not closed, but there is no evidence of burials or other activities in the interior during these periods. The area of the dromos was probably free, as indicated by a few MM IIA sherds. A larnax was placed at this time in the east part of the dromos. It probably received burial(s), but the poor state of preservation of this larnax makes this uncertain. The evidence suggests that the roof of the tomb collapsed in MM IIB–IIIA. It is possible that the collapse was caused by the intense seismic activity of the end of the Protopalatial period, which also caused major destruction in many other Cretan sites, including the neighboring shrine at Anemospilia. This collapse damaged the burials and larnakes of the upper burial stratum. The tomb was never restored, but a cup (V1; Fig. 15) of this date found intact at the upper part of the entrance was possibly the last deliberate deposition made by the people of Archanes in the already ancient tomb that had stood for more than 700 years in this part of the cemetery. After the roof collapse, the area above the interior and exterior of the tholos was filled naturally or artificially with soil. Some disturbance occurred much later, possibly in the Late Bronze Age and/or the Geometric period. It was concentrated in the west part of the tomb and its character remains

CONCLUSIONS

unknown. The west part of the tomb remained “open” and subject to disturbance until very recently, as indicated by a small fragment from a modern teacup. The latter was found at the level of

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the larnake rims, and had undoubtedly fallen to this depth through the holes and gaps between the stones and soil that covered the tomb until the excavation of 1972.

Appendix

The Human Remains by Sevi Triantaphyllou

Methodology The aim of the present study is to analyze the human skeletal remains from the upper stratum of the burial deposition in Tholos Gamma at Phourni, Archanes dating to EM III/MM I. The lower stratum, and thus the earlier phase of tomb use (EM IIA), only produced teeth, which have not been recorded. The sample consists mainly of cranial fragments, while the post-cranial skeleton is limited to a few fragments only sorted out during the cleaning of the human remains. Standards of recording have been defined by the fragmentary state of the skeletal remains. In particular, the remarkable absence of the post-cranial skeleton together with the fragmentary preservation of the skulls have set certain limitations on the methodology of sexing, ageing, and recording of pathological conditions, and making stature estimation completely impossible. Methods of sex determination were applied only to adults—individuals over 18 years of age—and were based only on cranial morphology due to the absence of os coxae (from the pelvic region). Cranial morphology is not considered the most reliable sex indicator especially when applied to

fragmentary material. The use of cranial features is largely complicated by age-related changes in dimorphism during adulthood. Both men and women tend to exhibit increasingly masculine cranial characteristics with age progress (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994). Estimation of age at death was based primarily on the teeth because they were the only available indicator, and also, secondarily (regarding the adults), on the ectocranial suture closure method (Meindl and Lovejoy 1985). Subadults were aged on the basis of dental development (Moorees et al. 1963a; 1963b). Adults were aged primarily according to dental attrition after Brothwell and Miles (Miles 1963, Brothwell 1965). Dental attrition is highly affected by dietary and environmental factors as well as masticatory forces. Additionally, the schemes used here were produced from AngloSaxon populations, so their reliability for Greek assemblages should be considered with caution. Based on criteria related to dental development and epiphyseal completion of long bones for subadults, and degenerative processes and degradation for adults, 8 broad age categories were defined:

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1. Neonate: birth to one year 2. Infant: 1 year to 6 years 3. Child: 6 to 12 years 4. Juvenile: 12 to 18 years

5. Young adult: 18 to 30 years 6. Prime adult: 30 to 40 years 7. Mature adult: 40 to 50 years 8. Old adult: 50+ years

Palaeodemography Palaeodemographic analysis will discuss 2 major issues: the minimum number of individuals and the distribution of the age and sex groups in the case study population. It is worth noting at this point that the systematic collection of the skeletal material, which has not been limited solely to the cranial skeleton as was often the case in the 1970s, also includes clusters of bone material found mostly outside the larnakes. Unfortunately, a notable number of plastic bags with skeletal remains are not available for study, that is, 15 out of 45 total bags (5 out of 19 bags for the larnakes and 10 out of 26 bags for the material outside the larnakes). This constitutes almost 1/3 of the total human bone material collected during excavation. Tables 17 and 18 describe in detail the minimum number of individuals estimated during excavation and during the osteological study, respectively. These data are based on the numbering given to the skulls or the heaps of bone material outside the larnakes (indicated as K). According to Table 17, the number of individuals placed in the larnakes were estimated during the excavation to be 18, whereas the osteological study yielded some 20 individuals. The minimum number of individuals originally identified from the human bone clusters collected outside the larnakes (Table 18) was estimated to be 26, but the osteological study counted some 24 individuals. Moreover, the human bone material collected from the dromos produced 2 individuals instead of the one originally estimated. The estimation of the minimum number of individuals in the course of the osteological study has taken into account the conclusions of the archaeological interpretation with regard to the manipulation of the deceased. The main idea regarding the disposal of the deceased based on the available evidence—the layout of the larnakes inside the tomb—suggests that the burials initially placed inside the larnakes were removed from them during

secondary treatment, which consisted of heaping bone material outside the larnakes. In other words, the bone material found inside and outside the larnakes could belong to the same individuals. For this reason, the estimation of the minimum number of individuals in the tomb was based only on sided identified skeletal elements from the cranial and post-cranial skeleton in terms of standard anatomical units set for disarticulated skeletal assemblages (Lyman 1994) analyzed on SPSS descriptive statistics. Considering the above key issues, the minimum number of individuals disposed in the tholos chamber and the dromos has been estimated to be 30 individuals (Tables 17 and 18). It is necessary to draw special attention to the post-cranial skeletal elements, which have been sorted during the osteological study. A total of 72 bone fragments have been grouped in broad bone categories (Fig. 29A): long bones (n = 8), small bones (hand and foot bones; n = 43), flat bones (pelvis and scapula segments; n = 7), and ribs and vertebrae (n = 14). The number produced from the post-cranial skeleton of 30 individuals seems extremely small. The expected skeletal representation of a complete skeleton would include a large number of small bones (n = 50), ribs and vertebrae (n = 53), a few long bones (n = 36), and to a lesser degree, some flat bones (n = 16). The number of expected skeletal elements in a complete adult skeleton refer to both sides of the skeleton as well as the proximal, mid, and distal thirds of the long bones and represent only an approximate picture (Triantaphyllou 2001). Of course, a number of factors contributing to bone fragmentation such as taphonomy and mortuary treatment need to be taken into account in archaeological assemblages. Out of 72 bone fragments, 23 come from the bone material recovered inside the larnakes and belong to all broad bone categories, although there is a predominance of long bone fragments (5 out of 8). The bone representation of the

THE HUMAN REMAINS

post-cranial skeleton, although extremely limited, does not give any clear evidence for a preferential deposition of certain bone categories from certain anatomical sides. There is however, an unusual prevalence of small bones and bones of the thorax (ribs and vertebrae) in contrast to the remarkable absence of long bones. The latter are usually expected to be present in disturbed assemblages, or in assemblages that have received some kind of secondary treatment, because they do not easily escape the attention of later intruders (Carr and Knüsel 1997). Moreover, if the material recovered outside the larnakes consists of the cleared remains of the larnakes, then the presence of small bones is worth stressing. Carpal and tarsal bones as well as sesamoids consist of skeletal elements usually missing from human bone assemblages that once received some kind of secondary treatment. The notable presence of this bone category, therefore, suggests that the deposition of these small bones in the tomb may have taken place before the complete decomposition of the corpses (when the tendons and flesh were still keeping the bones in articulated form). With regard to the sex and age groups (Table 19), 3 points should be noted: 1. Although both sexes are represented in the burial assemblage, females remarkably outnumber the males (13:8), but sex could not be assigned to 5 adults. This picture of the female predominance does not agree with the overall distribution of sexes obtained from the few published Minoan skeletal assemblages. With the only exception of MM I Kato Zakros (Becker 1975), men usually outnumber women (Hallager and McGeorge 1992). In general, it must be pointed out here that preservation bias usually favors male skeletons (Weiss 1972). Of course, the population sample here is too small to be tested statistically. Other prehistoric assemblages from northern Greece,

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however, have provided cases of a statistically significant predominance of women over men (Triantaphyllou 2001). This suggests that such a phenomenon is not unknown in skeletal assemblages of the prehistoric Aegean. 2. Whereas, overall, all age categories had access to the tholos tomb, the subadult age categories (under 18 years old) are significantly under-represented (26 adults, 4 subadults). The 4 subadults are 2 neonates (0–1 year; Pl. 21A) and 2 children (6–12 years). Remains of the 2 neonates were found outside the larnakes (K38.3 and K38.4), while remains of the 2 children were recovered outside the larnakes (K8.2, K8.3, and K34) as well as inside the larnakes—L6 and L10—and the pithos (K23). This suggests that there was indeed a lot of later disturbances in terms of the secondary treatment of the human skeletal remains initially deposited inside the tomb. Infants and juveniles (individuals between 1 to 6 and 12 to 18 years old) are completely missing from the assemblage. This picture would further suggest that the missing, as well as the under-represented age categories (namely the subadults), probably had no or very limited access to the tholos tomb. Considering, however, that only 2/3 of the collected bone material has been recovered for study, it is more plausible that the subadult segment of the population was more vulnerable to preservation factors and has been lost due to post-excavation disturbance. 3. Considering the adult age categories, it is of particular significance to note the overall tendency toward high mortality rates in the later (in prehistoric terms) age groups over 30. Women, however, tend to die in young adulthood probably due to the higher risks of pregnancy and lactation (Larsen 1997).

Health Status The bad state of preservation of the skeletal material limited the results of the palaeopathological study only to the cranial skeleton (in particular

to teeth), and to a few post-cranial elements. Moreover, the differential preservation of the material set the standards for estimating the pathological

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cases by skeletal element for the post-cranial skeleton and tooth count for dental disease. Two cases of osteoarthritis have been recognized in 2 different adult individuals, which is possibly associated with advanced age. Arthritic changes refer, in particular, to severe porosity and eburnation on one foot phalanx (1 out of 7 foot phalanges in total: 14%) and severe porosity on the costal facet of a first rib fragment (1 out of 10 rib fragments in total: 10%). There is some evidence of metabolic disorders in 2 different individuals: anemia manifested as healed porotic lesions on both orbital roofs of an adult male skull (K22; Pl. 21B), and enamel hypoplasia lines on a child’s mandibular second molar (K8.3). It is worth mentioning one individual’s severe manifestation of a typical maxillaris sinusitis, which has extensively affected the left maxillary sinus and hiatus (Pl. 21C), as well as the roof of the frontal sinus (Pl. 21E), and is also associated with a large abscess in the area of the molars (oro-antral fistula). The factors involved in maxillaris sinusitis are numerous and are usually associated with environmental conditions (e.g., air pollution, pollen, house dust, parasitic dust, animal hairs, and tobacco smoke; Wells 1977; Boocock, Roberts, and Manchester 1995; Lewis, Roberts, and Manchester 1995). This infection worthy of case study can possibly be associated with the large periapical abscess in the area of the upper molars, which connected the oral cavity to the sinus (Pl. 21C). Dental disease (Fig. 29B) has been systematically recorded for 137 identified permanent teeth. These diseases include dental caries (7%; Pl. 21F), calculus (26%), antemortem tooth loss (AMTL) (15%; Pl. 22A), periapical abscess (1%; Pl. 22B),

as well as some cases of heavy and unusually unequal wear and chipped teeth (3%; Pl. 22C–22D). The latter are not clear cases of pathological lesions because the teeth are also highly affected by external factors such as diet, masticatory factors, etc., but they have been counted to the total tooth frequencies, however, because they have been observed in a relatively large segment of the population. According to Fig. 29B, in contrast to the low prevalence of caries, there is a high frequency of calculus deposits (26%), which may have caused severe periodontitis, and lead to the relatively high frequency of antemortem tooth loss (15%). Similarly, there is a high occurrence of heavy and unequal wear and chipped teeth, especially on the posterior teeth. This is probably related to a hard, coarse type of diet. High rates of wear are not unknown in Minoan populations. Becker makes a special reference to the MM I Kato Zakros extensive wear that was possibly caused by a coarse milled cereal grain diet (Becker 1975). It is of particular interest to point out here that the highest frequencies of heavy wear and chipped teeth were recorded in men (Fig. 29C). Similarly, in men, there is a high prevalence of teeth that were lost antemortem, while there are no differences in the distribution of caries and calculus deposits between the 2 sexes. Considering that both sexes were represented in almost all adult age categories, the high frequency of heavy wear, as well as teeth lost antemortem, may indicate a tendency toward different types of diet for the 2 sex groups. The sample is too small, however, to statistically support this suggestion.

Discussion Although there is a remarkably large number of excavated EM I/MM I tholos tombs, strikingly, not one systematic work based on modern standards of recording and interpreting skeletal remains dating to this period has been published. Only a few of the published studies of skeletal material from prehistoric Crete refer to the Early/Middle (EM I–MM II Pseira: Arnott 2003; MM I Pezoules Kephala Kato Zakros: Becker 1975; MM III Knossos: Carr 1960) and Late Minoan periods (LM III Chania: Hallager

and McGeorge 1992). Most of the work done by McGeorge views the skeletal material within broader thematic units, such as the stature or the mean life expectancy of the Minoans (McGeorge 1988; 1989). Halstead (1977) reviewed Angel’s analysis of Lerna’s Middle Helladic material and Charles’ examination of prehistoric skeletal material from the Greek mainland and Crete. The lack of comparative material limits the potential for further discussion regarding the parameters examined in this case

THE HUMAN REMAINS

study population—demography, treatment of the deceased, and health status—compared with other EM I/MM I tholos tomb skeletal assemblages. The present study of the skeletal material from the EM/MM Tholos tomb Gamma at Phourni, Archanes gave sufficient evidence on 3 major issues: the mortuary treatment of the deceased, the palaeodemography, and to a lesser degree, the health status of the affected population. With regard to the mortuary treatment of the deceased, there is a relatively preferential exclusion of long bones, which are significantly under-represented. On the other hand, the clearance of the primary burials initially placed in the larnakes, at least in some cases, possibly occurred at an intermediary period when the corpse was not completely decomposed. Archaeological evidence suggests that the articulated corpse and the odor of the decayed body did not deter relatives from sweeping away earlier burials in order to deposit a new body or from performing ritual activities in memory of their ancestors. The demographic profile of the EM III/MM I population sample of Tholos Gamma does not differ significantly from the overall picture represented in the few Minoan case studies. According to the published work, average life expectancy was considered to be low, under 35 years for males (MM III Knossos: 35.39; LM III Armenoi: 30.67; LM III Chania: 34.14 years) and approximately 28 years for females (MM III Knossos: 28.28; LM III Armenoi: 27.32; LMIII Chania: 25.6 years). The higher mortality rates in women aged 20–25 have been associated with peak reproductive activity, which increases vulnerability to disease and poor diet (Halstead 1977, McGeorge 1989). Also, high child mortality rates (Armenoi: 45%; Chania: 31%) have been calculated from Late Minoan Armenoi and Chania (Hallager and McGeorge 1992). In MM I Kato Zakros, although the age categories are too wide to be comparable with the other populations, the representation of the subadults is significantly low (74 adults, 4 subadults; Becker 1975). Similarly, at Tholos Gamma, the subadults are highly under-represented, and the women were likely to die earlier than the men. The average age at death (over 30 years old) tends to be rather later in life, compared to the other prehistoric assemblages from Crete.

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Most of the published work makes special reference to the high incidence of dental caries (MM I Kato Zakros: 7%; MM III Knossos: 9%; LM III Armenoi 17.7%; LM III Chania: 36.9%) and teeth lost before death (MMI Kato Zakros: 37%; MM III Knossos: 13.7%; LM III Armenoi 28.6%; LM III Chania: 13.1%), suggesting a diet based on relatively high quantities of carbohydrates, soft foods, greater use of cereals, and possibly the use of finely milled flour (Carr 1960, Becker 1975, Hallager and McGeorge 1992). In Tholos Gamma, the frequency of caries is consistent with the picture represented by other Middle Minoan populations at Kato Zakros and Knossos. The rates of caries are rather low (7%) as opposed to the relatively high incidence of calculus deposits (26%) and the possibly related high antemortem tooth loss (15%). In the LM III Chania population, McGeorge points out a difference between the 2 sexes in terms of diet categories. There is a significantly higher rate of caries and tooth loss before death in women and higher rates of wear in men. This variation would further suggest a higher consumption of soft and starchy foods by women and more raw and unrefined foods by men (Hallager and McGeorge 1992). In Tholos Gamma, there is further evidence for different access to food categories by both sexes. The higher rates of antemortem teeth lost, as well as the incidence of unequal wear and chipped teeth only in men, indicates a harder, coarser diet. The health status of the EM III/MM I population of Tholos Gamma does not provide dramatic discrepancies in stress markers such as enamel hypoplasia, cribra orbitalia, and porotic hyperostosis. Also, the relatively late age at death (over 30 years old), as well as the low child mortality rates (although largely biased by post-excavation factors), suggests an advanced standard of living. The results of this analysis need to be treated with extreme caution due to the high preservation bias, which sets certain limitations on the study of palaeodemography and palaeopathology. The remarkable lack of comparative material from other tholos tomb skeletal assemblages, as well as the extremely limited knowledge from published works about prehistoric populations in Crete, strongly suggest the need for more thorough studies based on modern standards of recording and interpreting skeletal remains.

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The abbreviations for the following sections on the analysis of the human bones are as follows: AC: almost complete AMTL: antemortem tooth loss C: complete F: fragmentary L: left

MC: metacarpal MNI: minimum number of individuals MT: metatarsal R: right UB: unassociated bones UT: unassociated teeth

Analysis of the Bones Found inside the Larnakes Larnax 1

Larnax 4

MNI (during excavation): K10 identified as 1 individual. MNI (after study): 2.

MNI (during excavation): K21 and K22 identified as 2 individuals. MNI (after study): 2.

K10.1: cranial skeleton: miscellaneous cranial fragments (n = 10), F frontal, both parietal and temporal bones. Teeth: LM3, LM1, LP2, LI2, RC1, RP1, RP2, LM1, LP2, LP1, LC1, RC1, RP1, RM1. Post-cranial skeleton: AC L trapezium (carpal bone). Sex: unidentified. Age: prime adult (dental attrition: Brothwell: 25–35, Miles: 30). Dental disease: 1) AMTL: LM2: active resorption of the alveolar process; 2) calculus: LM1, LP2, LP1, LC1, RC1, RP1, RM1, LC1, RC1, RP1; 3) caries: LM3: medium lesion on the mesial surface, LM1: small lesion on the mesial surface; 4) chipped tooth: RM1: on the lingual aspect of the occlusal surface. K10.2: loose teeth: LM3, LM2, RM2, RM1, RC1. Sex: unidentified. Age: young adult (dental attrition: Brothwell: 17–25, Miles: 18).

K21: cranial skeleton: miscellaneous cranial fragments (n = 14), AC both parietal and temporal bones, F frontal and occipital bone. Teeth: LM2, LM1, RM1, RM2. Sex: possible female (cranial morphology). Age: prime adult (dental attrition: Brothwell: 25–35, Miles: 30). Dental disease: 1) calculus: LM2, LM1; 2) caries: RM2: small lesion on the distal surface. K22: cranial skeleton: miscellaneous cranial fragments (n = 11), C frontal and L temporal, AC occipital, F both parietal, nasal bones and maxillas, L zygomatic. Teeth: RI1, RI2, RC1, LM3, LM2, LM1, RI1, RC1, RP1, RM1. Sex: possible male (cranial morphology). Age: mature/old adult (suture closure: 43.15, dental attrition: Brothwell: 35–45, Miles: 42–58). Dental disease: 1) caries: RC1; 2) heavy and unequal wear: LM3, LM2, LM1, RM1; 3) chipped tooth: RI1, RP1. Metabolic disease: cribra orbitalia on both orbits (Pl. 21B). Osteoarthritis: porosity on mandibular fossa of L temporal (Pl. 22E).

Larnax 2 MNI (during excavation): K12 (bag was not recovered) identified as 1 individual.

Larnax 3 MNI (during excavation): K13 identified as 1 individual. MNI (after study): 1. K13: cranial skeleton: miscellaneous cranial fragments (n = 21), F both frontal and parietal bones, F occipital. Teeth: LI1. Post-cranial skeleton: 1 unsided metacarpal (hand bone), F R femur (head, AC diaphysis), F L tibia (mid 1/3). Sex: possible male (cranial morphology). Age: adult (bone morphology). Dental disease: calculus: LI1.

Larnax 5 MNI (during excavation): K1 identified as 1 individual. MNI (after study): 1. K1: cranial skeleton: AC occipital. Teeth: LM1, LI1, LM2, LP2, LP1, LC1, LI1, RI2, RC1, RP1, RP2, RM2. Sex: possible female (cranial morphology). Age: prime adult (dental attrition: Brothwell: 25–35, Miles: 30). Dental disease: caries: RP1: small lesion on the distal surface.

Larnax 6 MNI (during excavation): K15, K16, and K17 identified as 3 individuals. MNI (after study): 3.

THE HUMAN REMAINS

K15: cranial skeleton: miscellaneous cranial fragments (n = 5), AC L temporal and both nasal bones, F frontal, occipital and both parietals. Sex: possible female (cranial morphology). Age: mature adult (suture closure: 49.02). K16: cranial skeleton: C both maxillas and palatines and L zygomatic, AC frontal, both parietal, temporal and nasal bones, occipital. Teeth: LP2, LP1, RM2, RM3. Sex: possible male (cranial morphology). Age: mature adult (suture closure: 45.87). Dental disease: 1) AMTL: LM3, LM2, LM1, LI2, LI1, RI1, RP1, RP2 with active resorption 1 of the alveolar process; 2) caries: RM : small lesion on the mesial aspect; 3) heavy and unequal wear: LP1, LP2; 4) periapical abscess: abscess on the alveolar process of LM2 which caused possibly extended maxillaris sinusitis. Non specific infection: 1) frontal bone, L frontal sinus (Pl. 21E): extended mixed new bone formation resulting in thickening of the roof; 2) L. maxilla, maxillary hiatus and sinus: extended active lamellar bone formation (Pl. 21D) associated with a cloaca (oro-antral fistula) (d. 4 mm) located on the lingual aspect of the LM2 lost antemortem (abscess) (Pl. 21C). The infection has affected also the portion inferiorly to the orbital surface and posteriorly to the infratemporal surface manifested as deposits of lamellar bone merged into elevated spicules (unilateral maxillaris sinusitis). K17: cranial skeleton: miscellaneous cranial fragments (n = 11), F frontal, both parietal bones, occipital. Sex: possible female (cranial morphology). Age: mature adult (suture closure: 47.1). L6 cleaning: loose teeth: 28 permanent teeth, 1 deciduous tooth.

Larnax 7 MNI (during excavation): K24 identified as 1 individual. MNI (after study): 2. K24.1: cranial skeleton: miscellaneous cranial fragments (n = 10), C both temporal bones, AC frontal, both parietal bones, F both maxillas. Sex: possible female (cranial morphology). Age: adult (bone morphology). K24.2: cranial skeleton: F L temporal. Sex: unidentified. Age: adult (bone morphology). L7-UB: post-cranial skeleton: C LMT1, AC LMT5 (foot bones), AC LMC2 (hand bone), 2 hand phalanges, F L hamate (carpal bone), 1 neural arch of thoracic vertebra, unsided ribs, unsided fibula. L7-UT: Individual 1: teeth: LM3, LM2, LP1, LC1, LI2, RI2, RC1, RM2. Age: young adult (dental attrition: Brothwell: 17–25, Miles: 18–20). Dental disease: 1) AMTL: LM1: completely resorbed alveolar process; 2) 2 calculus: LM3, LC1, RC1; 3) caries: RM : large lesion on the mesial aspect of the cemento-enamel junction. Individual 2: teeth: LM1, LP2, LP1, LI2, RM2, LM3, LP1, LC1, RM1. Age: mature adult (dental attrition: Brothwell: 35–45, Miles: 18–20). Dental disease: 1) AMTL: RP1:

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completely resorbed alveolar process, RP2, RM1: active resorption of the alveolar process; 2) calculus: LC1; 3) heavy wear: RM1, LM1, RM2. L7 cleaning: loose teeth: 31 permanent teeth, 1 permanent incomplete tooth, 5 broken tooth roots. Post-cranial skeleton: C L trapezium (carpal bone).

Larnax 8 MNI (during excavation): 1 individual (bag was not recovered).

Larnax 9 MNI (during excavation): 1 individual (bag was not recovered).

Larnax 10 MNI (during excavation): K18, K19, and K20 identified as 3 individuals. MNI (after study): 3. K18/20.1 (K18 and K20 were collected in the same bag): cranial skeleton: AC mandible, both parietal bones, F both temporal bones, occipital. Sex: possible male (cranial morphology). Age: mature adult (suture closure: 43.5). K18/20.2: cranial skeleton: F R temporal. Post-cranial skeleton: F R ilium (sciatic notch). Sex: possible female (cranial morphology). Age: adult (bone morphology). L10-UB: cranial skeleton: miscellaneous cranial fragments (n = 26). Teeth: LM2, RM3. Post-cranial skeleton: F L 1st rib. Dental disease: 1) AMTL: LM3, LM2, LM1, LP2, LP1, RP1, RP2, RM1, RM2, RM3: active resorption of the alveolar process); 2) heavy and unequal wear: LM2, RM3. Osteoarthritis: 1) L 1st rib: costal facet with severe porosity. K19: cranial skeleton: miscellaneous cranial fragments (n = 11). Post-cranial skeleton: sacral fragments. Sex: unidentified. Age: adult (bone morphology). L10 cleaning: loose teeth: 47 permanent teeth, 8 deciduous teeth, 4 incomplete permanent teeth, 4 broken tooth roots. Post-cranial skeleton: 1 hand phalanx.

Larnax 11 MNI (during excavation): 1 individual (bag was not recovered).

Pithos (L12) MNI (during excavation): K23 and K27 (bag was not recovered) identified as 2 individuals. MNI (after study): 4.

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K23.1: cranial skeleton: AC R temporal, F mandible, maxilla, frontal, both parietal bones, occipital. Teeth: LM3, LM2, LM1, LP2, LP1, RP1, RP2, LM2, LP1, LC1, RC1, RP2. Post-cranial skeleton: F R radius (proximal end), F L femur (head). Sex: possible female (cranial morphology). Age: mature adult (suture closure: 40.65). Dental disease: 1) AMTL: LM1, LP2: completely resorbed alveolar process, RM1: active resorption; 2) calculus: LM2, RP2, LM3, LM1, LP1; 3) caries: LM2: large occlusal lesion resulting in complete loss of the crown, RP2: small lesion on the mesial surface of the cementoenamel junction; 4) periodontal disease: L maxilla: severe resorption of the posterior alveolar process. K23.2: cranial skeleton: AC mandible. Teeth: LM2, LP2, LC1, RM1, LM3, LM2, LM1, LI1, RC1, RP1, RM1, RM2, RM3. Sex: male (cranial morphology). Age: prime adult (dental attrition: Brothwell: 25–35, Miles: 36–40). Dental disease: 1) calculus: LP2, LC1, LM3, LM2, LM1,

LI1, RC1, RP1, RM1, RM2, RM3; 2) chipped tooth: LM1; 3) heavy wear: LM1, RM1. Non-metric traits: mandibular torus (mandible). K23.3: cranial skeleton: F mandible, maxilla. Teeth: RM1, RM2, RM3), LM3, LM1, RM1, RM2, RM3. Sex: possible male (cranial morphology). Age: prime/mature adult (dental attrition: Brothwell: 25–35, Miles: 36–40). Dental disease: 1) AMTL: RP1: active resorption of the alveolar process; 2) heavy and unequal wear: LM1, RM1; 3) periapical abscess: RM1. K23.4: cranial skeleton: AC R mandible. Teeth: LI1, RI1, RM1, rm2. Sex: unidentified subadult. Age: child (8 yrs; dental eruption and development). L12-UB: cranial skeleton: miscellaneous cranial fragments. Post-cranial skeleton: F R scapula, F L rib, F lumbar vertebra, F L ilium.

Analysis of the Bones Collected outside the Larnakes Sector A MNI (during excavation): K9 identified as 1 individual. MNI (after study): 1. K9: cranial skeleton: AC mandible. Teeth: LM2, LP2, LM1, LM2. Sex: possible female (cranial morphology). Age: young adult (dental attrition: Brothwell: 17–25, Miles: 18–20). Dental disease: 1) calculus: RP2; 2) caries: LM2: small lesion on the buccal surface of the cemento-enamel junction.

Sector B MNI (during excavation): K2, K6 (bag was not recovered), K8, K11 (bag was not recovered) identified as 4 individuals. MNI (after study): 5. K2.1: cranial skeleton: miscellaneous cranial fragments (n = 14), AC occipital, F frontal, both parietals, temporal bones. Post-cranial skeleton: F R ilium. Sex: possible male (cranial morphology). Age: adult (bone morphology). K2.2 (due to differential preservation): cranial skeleton: F frontal, both parietal bones. Sex: unidentified. Age: adult (bone morphology). K8.1: cranial skeleton: miscellaneous cranial fragments (n = 24), F mandible, both parietal bones, occipital. Teeth: LM3, LM2, LM1, LC1, RC1. Post-cranial skeleton: 1 hand phalanx, 1 foot phalanx. Sex: possible female (cranial morphology). Age: prime adult (dental attrition: Brothwell: 25–35, Miles: 32–36). Dental disease: 1) calculus: RC1, LM2; 2) caries: LC1: small lesion on the mesial surface; 3) heavy and unequal wear: LM1.

K8.2: cranial skeleton: miscellaneous cranial fragments (n = 7), F mandible, frontal, occipital, R temporal, both parietal bones. Teeth: LM1, li1, rm1, rm2. Sex: unidentified subadult. Age: child (8 yrs; dental eruption and development). K8.3: teeth: LM2, RI2. Sex: unidentified subadult. Age: child (10 yrs; dental development). Metabolic disease: Enamel hypoplasia: LM2. Sector B-UT: loose teeth: 26 permanent teeth.

Sector C MNI (during excavation): K4 identified as 1 individual. MNI (after study): 2. K4.1: cranial skeleton: miscellaneous cranial fragments (n = 14), fragments of frontal, both temporal bones, occipital. Teeth: LM3, LM1, LP2, LP1, LI2, LP2, LP1, RP2. Sex: possible female (cranial morphology). Age: young adult (dental attrition: Brothwell: 17–25, Miles: 18–20). K4.2: loose tooth: LI1. Sex: unidentified. Age: adult.

Sector D, Group 1 MNI (during excavation): K35 (bag was not recovered) identified as 1 individual.

Sector D, Group 2 MNI (during excavation): K32, K33 (bag was not recovered), K34, K36 identified as 4 individuals. MNI (after study): 4.

THE HUMAN REMAINS

K32: cranial skeleton: F L parietal, L temporal, L occipital. Teeth: RC1, RP1. Sex: possible male (cranial morphology). Age: mature adult (suture closure: 40.5). Dental disease: 1) caries: RP1: small lesion on the distal surface. K34.1: cranial skeleton: miscellaneous cranial fragments (n = 13), F frontal, F occipital. Sex: unidentified. Age: adult (bone morphology). K34.2: post-cranial skeleton: 1 hand phalanx, F L rib. Sex: unidentified subadult. Age: possible infant/ child (bone morphology). K36: cranial skeleton: miscellaneous cranial fragments (n = 10), F frontal, both parietal bones, occipital. Sex: possible female (cranial morphology). Age: Adult (bone morphology).

Sector D, Group 3 MNI (during excavation): K7, K37 (bags was not recovered), K40 (bag was not recovered) identified as 3 individuals. MNI (after study): 2. K7.1: cranial skeleton: F frontal, both temporal bones. Sex: possible male (cranial morphology). Age: adult (bone morphology). K7.2: cranial skeleton: F frontal, R zygomatic, both temporal bones, occipital. Sex: possible female (cranial morphology). Age: mature adult (suture closure: 46.8). Sector D, Group 3-UT: RM2, RM3.

Sector D, Group 4 MNI (during excavation): K3, K38, K31 (bag was not recovered) identified as 3 individuals. MNI (after study): 4. K3: cranial skeleton: AC frontal, both parietal bones, C L zygomatic, occipital. Post-cranial skeleton: F L ischium. Sex: possible male (cranial morphology). Age: adult (bone morphology). K38.1: cranial skeleton: miscellaneous cranial fragments (n = 19), AC R parietal, F R temporal. Teeth: LM3, LC1. Post-cranial skeleton: C R pisiform, 3 sesamoids (carpal bones), C LMC1, 3 unidentified MC’s, 10 hand phalanges, 4 unsided rib fragments, F L 2nd cuneiform (foot bone), F L MT1, F LMT2, 1 unidentified MT, 6 foot phalanges. Sex: possible female (cranial morphology). Age: prime adult (dental attrition: Brothwell: 17–25,

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Miles: 18). Dental disease: 1) heavy and unequal wear: LC1. Osteoarthritis: a) thumb phalanges, base: severe eburnation and porosity. K38.2/3: cranial skeleton: F R mandible, F petrous part of temporal bone, 2 basilar portions (max. l. 1: 15.6, max. l. 2: 16, max. w. 1: 16, max. w. 2: 15). Postcranial skeleton: F R clavicle, 5 unfused epiphyses from small bones (hand phalanges and metacarpals), 1 hand phalanx, F rib, F manubrium, 1 vertebral body, C L pubis, F unidentified long bone. Sex: unidentified subadults. Age: neonates.

Sector D, Group 5 MNI (during excavation): K25, K26, K28, K29, K30 identified as 5 individuals. MNI (after study): 5. K25: cranial skeleton: miscellaneous cranial bones (n = 9), AC R temporal, F both parietal bones, L temporal, occipital. Teeth: RP1. Post-cranial skeleton: F R humerus (distal end). Sex: Possible female (cranial morphology). Age: Adult (bone morphology). Dental disease: 1) Heavy wear: RP1. K26: cranial skeleton: miscellaneous cranial fragments (n = 18), AC occipital, F frontal, both parietal and temporal bones. Sex: possible female (cranial morphology). Age: adult (bone morphology). K28: cranial skeleton: miscellaneous cranial fragments (n = 14), AC R temporal, F L temporal. Post-cranial skeleton: F L ilium. Sex: unidentified. Age: adult (bone morphology). K29: cranial skeleton: miscellaneous cranial fragments (n = 13). Sex: unidentified. Age: adult (bone morphology). K30: cranial skeleton: AC parietal bones, F frontal, occipital. Sex: possible male (cranial morphology). Age: prime adult (suture closure: 35.24).

Sector D, Group 6 MNI (during excavation): K5 (bag was not recovered), K39 (bag was not recovered), K41 identified as 3 individuals. MNI (after study): 1. K41: cranial skeleton: miscellaneous cranial fragments (n = 35), F frontal and both parietal bones. Sex: possible male (cranial morphology). Age: adult (bone morphology). Non-metric traits: metopic suture.

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Analysis of the Bones Collected from the Dromos MNI (during excavation): K42 identified as 1 individual. MNI (after study): 2. K42.1: cranial skeleton: miscellaneous cranial fragments (n = 11), F frontal, both parietal and temporal bones. Teeth: LM3, LM2, LM1, LP2, LP1, LI2, RP1, RP2, RM2, RM3, LM1, RI2, RC1, RM1. Post-cranial skeleton: 1 unidentified MC, 1 unsided rib. Sex: possible female

(cranial morphology). Age: young adult (dental attrition: Brothwell: 17–25, Miles: 18–24). Dental disease: 1) AMTL: LM2, LP2: completely resorbed alveolar process; 2) calculus: RI2, RC1; 3) caries: LM1: small lesion on the distal surface; 4) chipped tooth: LM1. K42.2: teeth: LI2. Sex: unidentified subadult. Age: child.

Cleaning of Tholos Gamma during Excavation Post-cranial fragments: 1) F L humerus (adult); 2) F unsided ulna (adult); 3) F MT4 (adult); 4) 1 hand phalanx (adult); 5) F R femur (adult); 6) C MC1 (neonate/infant); 7) 2 foot phalanges (adult); 8) F L ischium (infant/child); 9) F rib; 10) C R trapezium (adult); 11) C R lunate (adult).

Loose teeth: 342 permanent teeth, 31 root fragments, 21 deciduous teeth, 28 incomplete permanent teeth, 5 maxillae with teeth (3 adult, 2 children).

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Brothwell, D.R. 1965. Digging up Bones, Ithaca. Buikstra, J., and D. Ubelaker, eds. 1994. Standards for Data Collection from Human Skeletal Remains (Arkansas Archaeological Survey Research Series 44), Arkansas. Carr, G., and C. Knüsel. 1997. “The Ritual Framework of Excarnation by Exposure as the Mortuary Practice of Early and Middle Iron Ages of Southern Britain,” in Reconstructing Iron Age Societies (Oxbow Monograph 71), A. Gwilt and C. Haselgrove, eds., Oxford, pp. 167–173. Carr, H.G. 1960. “Some Dental Characteristics of the Middle Minoans,” Man 156, pp. 119–122. Carter, T. 1994. “Southern Aegean Fashion Victims: an Overlooked Aspect of Early Bronze Age Burial Practices,” in Stories in Stone, N. Ashton and A. David, eds., London, pp. 127–144. ———. 1998. “Reverberations of the International Spirit: Thoughts upon ‘Cycladica’ in the Mesara,” in Cemetery and Society in the Aegean Bronze Age, K. Branigan, ed., Sheffield, pp. 59–77.

Getz-Preziosi, P. 1979. “The Hunter/Warrior Figure in Early Cycladic Marble Sculpture,” in Papers in Cycladic Prehistory (UCLA Institute of Archaeology Monograph 14), J.L. Davis and J.F. Cherry, eds., Los Angeles, pp. 87–94. ———. 1981. “The Male Figure in Cycladic Sculpture,” MMAJ 15, pp. 5–32. Hall, E.H. 1914. Excavations in Eastern Crete. Vrokastro (Anthropological Publications, University of Pennsylvania 3), Philadelphia. Hallager, B.P., and P.J.P. McGeorge, eds. 1992. Late Minoan III Burials at Khania: the Tombs, Finds and Deceased in Odos Palama (SIMA 43), Göteborg. Halstead, P. 1977. “The Bronze Age Demography of Crete and Greece—a Note,” BSA 72, pp. 107–111. Hughes-Brock, H. 1995. “Seals and Beads. Their Shapes and Materials Compared,” in CMS, Beiheft 5, Berlin, pp. 105–116. Karantzali, E. 1997. “Stoiceiva Prwtominwikhv~ katoivkhsh~ sta Nophvgeia Kissavmou,” ArchDelt 47–48, A, pp. 65–81.

Cavanagh, W.C., and R.R. Laxton. 1982. “Corbelled Vaulting in the Late Minoan Tholos Tombs of Crete,” BSA 77, pp. 65–77.

Karytinos, A. 1997. Minoan Prepalatial Sealstones in their Economic and Social Context. A Study Based on the New Material from Archanes-Phourni, Ph.D diss., University of Sheffield.

Coldstream, J.N., L.J. Eiring, and G. Forster. 2001. Knossos Pottery Handbook. Greek and Roman (British School at Athens Studies 7), London.

Krzyszkowska, O. 1988. “Ivory in the Aegean Bronze Age: Elephant Tusk or Hippopotamus Ivory?” BSA 83, pp. 209–234.

Davaras, K. 1975. “Early Minoan Jewellery from Mochlos,” BSA 70, pp. 101–115.

———. 1989. “Early Cretan Seals. New Evidence for the Use of the Bone, Ivory or Boar’s Tusk,” in CMS, Beiheft 3, pp. 111–126.

Dimopoulou, N. 1997. “Workshops and Craftsmen in the Harbour Town of Knossos at Poros-Katsambas,” in TEXNH: Craftsmen, Craftswomen and Craftmanship in the Aegean Bronze Age (Aegaeum 16), Liège, pp. 433–438.

Lachanas, A. 1994. “H prwvimh kerameikhv twn Arcanwvn,” Archaiologia 53, pp. 36–41.

Effinger, M. 1996. Minoischer Schmuck (BAR-IS 646), Oxford.

Larsen, C.S. 1997. Bioarchaeology: Interpreting Behaviour from the Human Skeleton, Cambridge.

Evans, A.J. 1895. Cretan Pictographs and Prae-Phoenician Script, with an Account of Sepulchral Deposit at Hagios Onouphrios, London. ———. 1921–1936. The Palace of Minos at Knossos, London.

Lewis, M., C.A. Roberts, and K. Manchester. 1995. “Comparative Study of the Prevalence of Maxillary Sinusitis in Later Medieval Urban and Rural Populations in Northern England,” American Journal of Physical Anthropology 98, pp. 497–506.

Furumark, A. 1940. The Mycenaean Pottery: Analysis and Classification, Stockholm.

Lyman, R.L. 1994. “Quantitative Units and Terminology in Zooarchaeology,” AmerAnt 59, pp. 36–71.

———. 1990. Ivory and Related Materials. An Illustrated Guide (BICS Supplement 59), London.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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———. 1899. “Kukladikav II,” ArchEph 1899, pp. 73–134.

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Index

Index Aegean, 3, 30–31, 33, 35–36, 38 altar, 55, 61 Apesokari, 57–58 Archaelogical Society of Athens, 4 Archanes, 3, 4, 35–36, 42, 57, 64, 67, 71 Anemospilia, 16, 50 Phourni, 1, 3–4, 13, 16, 19, 27, 38, 51–52, 58– 59, 63–64, 67, 71 Area of the Rocks, 13, 19, 30, 38–39, 46, 52–53, 58, 63 Burial Building 3, 4 Burial Building 4, 4 Burial Building 5, 4, 27, 35–36, 57 Burial Building 6, 4, 27, 42, 60 Burial Building 7, 4, 27, 36, 60 Burial Building 8, 4 Burial Building 9, 4, 27, 35–36, 54, 60, 64 Burial Building 12, 4, 27 Burial Building 13, 36 Burial Building 16, 4, 35–36 Burial Building 18, 4, 27, 35–36, 57 Burial Building 19, 27, 35–36, 39, 60 Mycenaean Grave Enclosure, 4 Tholos Alpha, 4 Tholos Beta 4, 56 Tholos Delta, 4 Tholos Epsilon, 3, 13, 27, 35–36, 43, 56–57, 63 Armenoi, 71 Aspri Petra, 42 Avdeli, 36 awl, 11, 34–35, 56 band, viii, xiii, 10–12, 15–16, 19–21, 23–24, 28–29, 38–42, 44, 46, 52, 54, 58 bead, viii, xiii, 10–12, 36, 38–42, 44, 51, 53, 56, 58 barrel-shaped, 38, 40–41, 51 biconical, 41

discoid, 38–39, 41–42 grooved, 38 ring-shaped, 38, 40, 51 tubular, 11, 38, 40, 52 bone, viii, ix, xii, xiv, 8–10, 35–37, 44, 51, 63 bead, 38–39, 42 figurine, 11, 30, 32 pendant, 9–12, 36–37, 44, 51, 59 pin, 11–12, 35, 44, 51, 53, 56 seal, 42–44 bowl, 7, 15–16, 20–21, 23–25, 46, 49–50 bridge-spouted, 14, 18, 20, 23–25 marble, 11, 46, 51, 56 one-handled, 7 spouted, 16 stone, 46 brazier, 15–16, 21 Chalandriani, 35–36, 44 Chania, 70–71 chert, 10–11, 47, 54 chip, 47–48 core, 47–48 flake, 10, 12 chlorite schist, 10, 46, 51 Christos, 6 Coarse Dark-Gray Burnished Ware, vii, 14, 18, 23 copper, viii, ix, xi, xii, 8–11, 33–36, 45, 51, 53, 56–57, 63 dagger, xiv, 10–11, 33–35, 45, 57 pin, 11, 33–34 rivet, 9–11, 33–34 scraper, 11, 33–34 cooking pot, 7, 16, 20–21, 25, 50 Cooking Pot Ware, vii, 15–16, 18, 20–21 corbelled roof. See vaulted roof Crete, xi, xvi, 1–2, 6, 13–14, 27, 30–31, 33, 35–36, 38–44, 46, 51–52, 60–61, 70–71

86

THOLOS TOMB GAMMA

cup, xiv, 7–8, 14, 16–20, 22–25, 49–50, 54–55, 59–60, 64–65 carinated, 18, 23 eggshell, 18 modern, 7–8, 12, 16–18, 20, 49–50, 65 one-handled, 14 stone, 46 Cyclades, 30, 33, 35–36, 44, 46–47, 51–52 dagger, xiv, 10–11, 33–35, 45, 57 Dark-Gray Burnished Ware, vii, 13–14, 17–18, 22, 24, 52, 58 Dark-on-Light Painted Ware, vii, 14, 18, 24 double vase, 12, 19, 54, 60 figurine, viii, ix, xi, xii, xiv, xvii, 10–12, 29–33, 36, 38, 45, 51–53, 56–58, Cycladic, 30–31, 38, 51–52, 58 FAFs, xvii, 30 Minoan, 31 funerary offerings/goods, 35–36, 46, 52, 54–55, 57, 60–61, 63–64 food, 57, 60, 71 liquid, 57, 60 funerary practices. See mortuary practices Galana Charakia, 33, 57 geometric, 7, 8, 16, 42–43, 49–50, 64 Giophyrakia, 17, 19 goblet, 16, 18, 20–24, 54 footed, 14–15, 17–18, 24 footless, 12, 14, 19 Gournia, 19, 42 Hagia Kyriaki, 6, 58 Hagia Triada, 36, 38–40, 43, 57–58 Hagios Andonios, 39 Hagios Kyrillos, 57–58 Hagios Onouphrios, 36, 38–39 Herakleion, 3 Herakleion Museum, 39 ivory, viii, ix, xi–xii, xiv, 10–12, 33, 35, 45, 63 figurine, 11, 33 handle, 11, 35, 45 seal, 42–43 jar, 20, 23 side-spouted, 18 stirrup, 7, 15–16, 18, 21–22 jug, 9–10, 12, 15, 17–20, 22–24, 50–51, 59 Kalathiana, 36, 38–39 Kamilari, 58

Kapros, 36 Kato Zakros. See Zakros Khania. See Chania Knossos, 3, 14, 16–17, 19, 46–47, 70–71 Gypsades, 56–57 Monolithic Pillar Basement, 14 North Quarter, 17 South Front Early Houses, 14 West Court House, 13–14 Koumasa, 30, 33, 35–36, 39, 45–46, 58 Krasi, 6, 33, 56 Krassades, 36 larnax, 4–5, 7–12, 14–18, 27–29, 39, 47, 49–54, 56– 60, 64–65, 68–69, 71–74 lid, 7–8, 14, 27–29, 49 Late Minoan Dark-on-Light Ware, vii, 15, 20–21, 23 lead, viii, ix, xii, 8, 10, 34–35, 51, 70, Lebena, 30, 38, 39, 40, 42, 46, 57 Lerna, 70 lid. See larnax looting, 1, 2, 40, 53, 55 malachite, 36 pendant, 10–11, 36, 38 Malia, 39, 44, 47, 57 Marathokephalo, 43, 58 marble, 11, 29–32, 46, 63 bowl, 11, 46, 51, 56 figurine, 10–12, 29–32, 52 Maronia, 36, 38, 42, 46 Mesara, 17, 47, 51, 56, 58 mitata, 6 Mochlos, 33, 36, 38–39, 40, 51, 58 mortuary practices, clearing/cleaning, 1, 11, 17, 30, 52–53, 56, 58–59, 63, 67, 71, 73, 76 fumigation, 55, 58 primary burial, viii, 9, 55–57, 59–60, 64, 71 secondary treatment/burial, viii, 55, 58–60, 64, 68–69 selective grouping, 58 selective removal, 58 skull retention, 59, 64 motifs, argonaut, 15, 21 wavy band, 15–16, 21 Mt. Asterousia, 56 Mt. Ida, 6 Mt. Juktas, 3 Myristis rivulet, 3 Myrsini, 56–57 Myrtos Phournou Koriphi, 18, 60

INDEX

Naxos, 35–36, 44 Nopigeia, 27 obsidian, xii–xiv, 10, 46–47, 51–52, 54 blade, 10–12, 47–48, 53, 56, 58 flake, 8–9, 46–48 ossuary, 57, 60 Palaikastro, 33, 38, 57, 60 Paros, 36 pendant, viii–ix, xi–xii, xiv, 8–12, 35–38, 44, 51, 57, 59 bird-shaped, 12, 36–37 conical, 35 cylindrical, 9, 36–37, 44 drop-shaped, 10–12, 36–37, 44, 51 fish-shaped, 11, 36–37 forked, 11, 36–37, 44 prismatic, 35, 37 ring-shaped, 36–37 vase-shaped, 36–37, 51 Phylakopi, 34 pin, 11–12, 33–36, 44, 51, 53, 56 pithos, 27, 30–31, 33, 35–36, 38–40, 44, 46, 51–52, 56–58, 60–61, 70–71 Platanos, 30, 33, 35–36, 38–39, 40, 42, 46, 58 Platyvola, 30 Poliochni, 35, 39 Poros, 47 Porti, 33, 39–40, 58 Pseira, 58, 70 Psychro, 33 Pyrgos (Crete), 27, 30, 33, 39–40 Pyrgos (Cyclades), 36 Red/Black Slipped Ware, vii, 14–25, 49 ritual 4, 55, 58, 60, 71 funerary, 55, 58 libation, 61 nonfunerary, 55 offerings, 50, 60–61 rivet, 9–11, 33–34, 45 rock crystal, 42 beads, 10–11, 38–39, 42 Salame, 33 schist, 30 figurine, 11, 30, 32

87

scraper, xiv, 11, 33–35 seal, viii–ix, xi–xii, 8–11, 35–36, 42–45, 51–52, 56–57, 59, 64 serpentinite, beads, 10, 12, 38–39, 42 vase, 7 sheet, 11, 36, 38–42 shells, 12, 60 silver, viii–ix, xi–xii, xiv, 10, 33–36, 51, 53, 63 awl, 11, 35, 56 dagger, 33, 35 mica, 20 nails, 34 pin, 11, 35 pinheads, 36 rivet, 45 scraper, 11, 34–35 Skotomenou Charakas, 58 skull, 7–12, 19, 54–55, 57, 59–61, 64, 67–68, 70 Spedos variety, 29–30 Sphoungaras, 39 Syros, 35, 44 Tekes, 30, 33, 35, 45 Thyreatis hoard, 38 Tourkoyeitonia, 3 Trapeza, 33, 36, 43, 46 trilithon, 6 tripod cooking pot, 7, 15–16, 20–21 Troy, 35, 38–39, 51 Trypiti, 6, 39 Vasiliki, 30, 33 vaulted roof, 4, 6–7, 49, 56 Viannos, 42 Vorou, 27, 57–58, 60 white paste, 36, 38, 51 pendant, 10, 36, 51 Xanthoudides, 6 Yellow Soft Sandy Ware, vii, 14, 16–18, 22–23 Zakros, 46, 57–58, 69, 70–71 Zinta, 33 Zoumbari, 36

Tables

TABLES 1 AND 2 Container

Burials

Finds

L1

1 prime adult, 1 young adult

-

L2

1 prime adult, 1 unidentified

-

L3

1 adult male

-

L4

1 prime adult female, 1 old adult male

-

L5

1 prime adult female

-

L6

1 mature adult male, 2 mature adult females, 1 child

-

L7

1 adult female, 1 adult

-

L8

1 unidentified

-

L9

1 unidentified

-

L10

1 adult male, 1 adult female, 1 adult

-

L11

-

-

L12

1 prime adult female, 1 prime adult male, 1 adult male, 1 child

-

Table 1. Tholos Gamma interior, Stratum II. Burials and other finds from inside the larnakes and the pithos.

Sector

Area

Burials

Finds

A

-

-

2 seals, 1 copper object, 1 obsidian

B

East of L5

2 unidentified

1 seal, 1 copper rivet

B

Between L1, L5, L10, L12

1 prime adult female, 2 children

1 pendant

B

East of L3

1 adult male, 1 adult

-

C

Between L7, L8

1 young adult female

1 copper punch

D

Group 1

1 unidentified

1 jug, 1 seal, 1 pendant

D

Group 2

1 mature adult male, 1 unidentified, 1 adult female, 1 adult, 1 child

-

D

Group 3

1 adult male, 1 mature adult female, 2 unidentified

1 seal

D

Group 4

1 adult male, 1 prime adult female, 2 neonates, 1 unidentified

1 lead object

D

Group 5

2 adult females, 1 prime adult male, 2 adults

-

D

Group 6

1 adult male, 2 unidentified

1 jug, 1 seal, 1 pendant, 1 bone object

Table 2. Tholos Gamma interior, Stratum II. Burials and other finds from outside and between the larnakes and pithos.

TABLES 3 AND 4 Area

Finds

Total

Under L1

1 stone object

1

Under L2

-

0

Under L3

1 bone pendant, 1 gold band

2

Under L4

2 figurines, 2 copper daggers, 3 copper objects, 3 gold beads, 2 ivory objects, 1 bone pendant, 25 obsidian blades, 1 chert flake, 1 clay jug, 76 sherds

40

Under L5

1 copper rivet, 1 seal, 1 gold band, 1 silver scraper

4

Under L6

2 figurines, 1 seal, 2 gold beads, 2 gold bands, 1 ivory handle, 3 bone pins, 4 bone pendants, 1 obsidian blade, 1 stone tool

17

Under L7

1 copper dagger, 1 bone pendant, 1 bone figurine, 1 gold bead, 2 obsidian blades

6

Under L8

1 copper pin, 1 seal

2

Under L9

1 silver awl, 2 gold bands, 1 obsidian blade

4

Under L10

1 figurine, 28 gold beads, 2 bone pendants, 2 rock crystal beads, 1 silver pin

34

Under L11

-

0

Under L12

1 copper scraper, 2 gold beads, 1 clay vase

4

Sector A

1 bone pendant, 1 chert core, 1 marble bowl

3

Sector B

1 figurine, 1 gold pendant, 1 gold bead, 3 copper rivets, 1 malachite pendant, 1 fragment of marble

8

Sector C

1 gold band, 3 silver awls, 3 obsidian blades, 1 bone pendant, 1 stone object

9

Sector D

5 figurine fragments, 5 gold beads, 3 gold bands, 1 gold object, 3 copper objects, 2 ivory objects, 4 bone pendants, 1 bone bead, 1 bone pin, 1 steatite bead, 5 obsidian blades

31

Table 3. Tholos Gamma interior, Stratum III. Finds.

Stratum

DGB

CDB

D-L

R/BS

YSS

LM

CP

Md

Un

Total

I, 1–2

-

-

-

6

-

2

-

-

1

9

I, 3

-

-

-

22

1

13

5

1

61

103

I, 3 (entr.)

-

-

-

5

-

-

-

-

8

13

II

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

III

145

-

-

7

2

-

-

-

89

243

I

-

1

1

52

-

1

-

-

37

92

IIA

1

-

-

4

-

-

-

1

6

12

IIB

-

-

-

23

-

-

1

-

35

59

III

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

146

1

1

119

3

16

6

2

237

531

Tholos

Dromos

TOTAL

Table 4. Number of pottery sherds per stratum, according to wares. DGB: Dark-Gray Burnished. CDB: Coarse Dark Burnished. D-L: Dark-on-Light. R/BS: Red/Black Slipped. YSS: Yellow Soft Sandy. LM: Late Minoan Dark-onLight. CP: Cooking Pot. Md: Modern. Un: Unidentified.

TABLES 5, 6, AND 7 Stratum

DGB

CDB

D-L

R/BS

YSS

LM

CP

Md

Un

Total

I, 1–2

-

-

-

66

-

22

-

-

12

100

I, 3

-

-

-

21

1

13

5

1

59

100

I, 3 (entr.)

-

-

-

38

-

-

-

-

62

100

II

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

III

60

-

-

3

1

-

-

-

36

100

I

-

1

1

57

-

-

-

-

41

100

IIA

8

-

-

34

-

-

-

8

50

100

IIB

-

-

-

39

-

-

2

-

59

100

III

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

Tholos

Dromos

Table 5. Amount of wares per stratum (in %). DGB: Dark-Gray Burnished. CDB: Coarse Dark Burnished. D-L: Darkon-Light. R/BS: Red/Black Slipped. YSS: Yellow Soft Sandy. LM: Late Minoan Dark-on-Light. CP: Cooking Pot. Md: Modern. Un: Unidentified.

Stratum

DGB

R/BS

LM

CP

Varia

Total

I, 1–2

-

75

25

-

-

100

I, 3

-

52

31

12

5

100

I, 3 (entr.)

-

100

-

-

-

100

Tholos

II

-

-

-

-

-

-

III

94

4.5

-

-

1.5

100

-

95

2

-

3

100

IIA

16

68

-

-

16

100

IIB

-

96

-

4

-

100

III

-

-

-

-

-

Dromos I

Table 6. Amount of wares per stratum, excluding the unidentified sherds (in %). DGB: Dark-Gray Burnished. R/BS: Red/Black Slipped. LM: Late Minoan Dark-on-Light. CP: Cooking Pot.

Catalog No.

Excavation No.

Museum No.

Description

V1

A.1

HM 20527

One-handled cup

V2

A.2

HM 20538

Pellet jug

V3

A.3

Stratum Tholos I, 3 Tholos II

Jug

Tholos II

Miniature vase

Tholos III

Jug

Tholos III

V6

Jug

Dromos IIB

V7

Double vase

Dromos IIB

V4

A.4

V5

A.5

Table 7. Clay vases.

HM 20568

TABLES 8 AND 9 Catalog No.

Excavation No.

B1

Museum No.

Description

Stratum

C.2

Rivet

Tholos II

B2

C.4b

Rivet

Tholos III

B3

C.9

Rivet

Tholos III

B4

C.11

Rivet

Tholos III

B5

C.16

Rivet

Tholos III

B6

C.18

Rivet

Tholos III

B7

C.8

Rivet

Tholos III

B8

C.12

HM 3114

Scraper

Tholos III

B9

C.5b

HM 3112

Pin

Tholos III

B10

C.14

HM 3108

Dagger

Tholos III

B11

C.4a

HM 3109

Dagger

Tholos III

B12

C.10

HM 3110

Rivet

Tholos III Tholos III

B13

C.14

Rivet

B14

C.5a

Rivet

Tholos III

B15

C.6

Fragment

Tholos III

B16

C.15

Fragment

Tholos III

B17

C.1

Fragment

Tholos II

B18

C.3

Punch

Tholos II

B19

C.13

Fragment

Tholos III

Table 8. Copper objects.

Catalog No. F1

Excavation No.

Museum No.

Description

Stratum

Eid.1

.HM 509

Head, marble

Tholos III

F2

Eid.5

.HM 510

Head, marble

Tholos III

F3

Eid.7

.HM 511

Head, marble

Tholos III

F4

Eid.3

.HM 512

Leg, marble

Tholos III

F5

Eid.9

.HM 517

Leg, marble

Tholos III

F6

Eid.6

.HM 514

Leg, marble

Tholos III

F7

Eid.8

.HM 516

Leg, marble

Tholos III

F8

Eid.10, 12

.HM 515

Leg, marble

Tholos III

F9

.HM 1065

Intact figurine, marble

Tholos III

F10

.HM 1063

Intact figurine, marble

Tholos III

F11

Eid.4

.HM 513

Headless figurine, marble

Tholos III

F12

Eid.2

.HM 519

Intact figurine, schist

Tholos III

F13

Eid.13

.HM 520

Figurine head, red pebble

Tholos III

F14

Eid.3

.HM 440

Intact figurine, bone

Tholos III

F15

Eid.25

.HM 441.

Head, hippopotamus ivory

Tholos III

Table 9. Figurines.

TABLE 10 Catalog No.

Excavation No.

Museum No.

Description

Stratum

J1–J7

.HM 1090

Gold tubular beads

Tholos III

J7–J14

.HM 1091

Gold tubular beads

Tholos III

J15

.HM 1091

Gold small barrel-shaped bead

Tholos III

J16–J17

.HM 1090

Gold small barrel-shaped beads

Tholos III

J18–J20

.HM 1091

Gold small barrel-shaped beads

Tholos III

J21–J24

.HM 1090

Gold ring-shaped beads

Tholos III

J25–J37

.HM 1090

Gold biconical beads

Tholos III

J38

.HM 1090

Gold solid barrel-shaped bead

Tholos III

J39

Cr.39

.HM 1100

Gold sheet fragment

Tholos III

J40

Cr.49

.HM 1103

Gold overcoat

Tholos III

J41

Cr.4

.HM 1094

Gold band

Tholos III

J42

Cr.51

.HM 1097

Gold band

Tholos III

J43

Cr.2

.HM 1096

Gold band

Tholos III

J44

Cr.3a

.HM 1095

Gold band

Tholos III

J45

Cr.3a

.HM 1098

Gold band

Tholos III

J46

Cr.43

.HM 1099

Gold band

Tholos III

J47

Cr.54

.HM 1568z

Gold band

Tholos III

J48

Cr.22

.HM 1568st

Gold band

Tholos III

.HM 1101

Gold shield-shaped objects

Tholos III

J49–J54 J55

Cr.1

.HM 1129

Gold ring

Dromos IIA

J56

Cr.2

.HM 1131

Gold band

Dromos III

J57

Cr.3

.HM 1135

Gold band

Dromos III

J58

Cr.4

.HM 1568b

Gold band

Dromos III

J59

Y.1

.HM 1090

Rock crystal discoid bead

Tholos III

J60

Y.2

.HM 1090

Rock crystal discoid bead

Tholos III

J61

Y.5

.HM 3329

Steatite discoid bead

Tholos III

J62

El.37

.HM 1091

Tubular bead, bone

Tholos III

Table 10. Jewelry.

TABLES 11 AND 12 Catalog No.

Excavation No.

Museum No.

Description

Stratum

A1

El.19

HM 442

Fish-shaped, bone

Tholos III

A2

El.33

HM 445

Fish-shaped, bone

Tholos III

A3

El.30

HM 444

Bird-shaped, bone

Tholos III

A4

El.6

HM 453

Prismatic, bone

Tholos II

A5

El.2

HM 451

Prismatic, bone

Tholos II

A6

El.26

HM 452

Drop-shaped, bone

Tholos III

A7

El.32

HM 446

Drop-shaped, bone

Tholos III

A8

El.21

HM 447

Drop-shaped, bone

Tholos III

A9

El.4, 5

HM 459

Drop-shaped, bone

Tholos III

A10

El.8

HM 459

Drop-shaped, bone

Tholos III

A11

El.9

HM 459

Drop-shaped, bone

Tholos III

A12

El.11

HM 459

Drop-shaped, bone

Tholos III

A13

El.31

HM 459

Drop-shaped, bone

Tholos III

A14

El.38

HM 459

Drop-shaped, bone

Tholos III

A15

El.39

HM 459

Drop-shaped, bone

Tholos III

A16

El.10

HM 1090

Drop-shaped, bone

Tholos III

A17

El.16

HM 1090

Drop-shaped, bone

Tholos III

A18

El.22

HM 1091

Drop-shaped, bone

Tholos III

A19

El.36

HM 1091

Drop-shaped, bone

Tholos III

A20

Cr.47

HM 1090

Vase-shaped, gold

Tholos III

A21

Y.3

HM 1090

Circular, malachite

Tholos III

A22

Fag.1

HM 1091

White paste conical

Tholos II

Museum No.

Description

Stratum

Table 11. Pendants.

Catalog No.

Excavation No.

C1

Mol.1

HM 136

Discoid object, lead

Tholos II

C2

Ar.1

HM 1105

Scraper, silver

Tholos III

C3

Ar.2

HM 1569a

Pin, silver

Tholos III

C4

C.7

HM 1106

Awl, silver

Tholos III

C5

C.19

Awl, silver

Tholos III

C6

C.20

Awl, silver

Tholos III

C7

C.21

Awl, silver

Tholos III

Table 12. Silver and lead objects.

TABLES 13, 14, AND 15 Catalog No.

Excavation No.

Museum No.

Description

Stratum

I1

El.12

HM 458

Pin, bone

Tholos III

I2

El.34

HM 456

Pin, bone

Tholos III

I3

El.35

HM 457

Pin, bone

Tholos III

I4

El.27

HM 461

Pin, bone

Tholos III

I5

El.40

HM 455

Cylindrical pointed object, bone

Tholos III

I6

El.17

Fragment, bone

Tholos III

I7

El.7

HM 460

Triangular object, ivory

Tholos III

I8

El.13, 14

HM 464

Pointed object, ivory

Tholos III

I9

El.23

HM 465

Pointed object, ivory

Tholos III

I10

El.15

HM 448

Crescent-shaped handle, ivory

Tholos III

I11

El.20

HM 449

Crescent-shaped handle, ivory

Tholos III

I12

El.17, 18

HM 466

Crescent-shaped handle, ivory

Tholos III

Table 13. Objects made of bone and hippopotamus ivory.

Catalog No. S1

Excavation No.

Museum No.

Description

Stratum

Sfr.1

HM 2489

Button-shaped, ivory

Tholos II

S2

Sfr.2

HM 2491

Stamp cylinder, ivory

Tholos II

S3

Sfr.3

HM 2488

Triangular plate, ivory

Tholos III

S4

Sfr.4

HM 2487

Stamp cylinder, ivory

Tholos III

S5

Sfr.5

HM 2486

Gable-shaped, bone

Tholos II

S6

Sfr.6

HM 2485

Hemispherical, ivory

Tholos III

S7

Sfr.7

HM 2484

Button-shaped, bone

Tholos II

S8

Sfr.8a, 8b

HM 2496

Stamp cylinder, bone

Tholos II

S9

Sfr.9El.1

HM 2490

Prismatic, bone

Tholos II

Catalog No.

Excavation No.

Museum No.

D1

L.1

HM 3315

Bowl, marble

Tholos III Tholos I, 3

Table 14. Seals.

Description

Stratum

D2

L.2

HM 3320

Handle from stone vase, serpentinite (?)

D3

L.3

HM 3322

Fragment, chlorite-schist

Tholos III

D4

L.4

Pyramidal object, serpentinite

Tholos III

Cylindrical object

Tholos III

Pebbles

Tholos III

Fragment, marble

Tholos III

D5

L.5

D6 D7

Table 15. Stone objects.

L.6

HM 3319

TABLE 16 Catalog No.

Excavation No.

O1

Museum No.

Description

Stratum

Oy.1

blade fragment

Tholos III

O2

Oy.2

blade fragment

Tholos III

O3

Oy.3

blade fragment

Tholos III

O4

Oy.4

blade fragment

Tholos III

O5

Oy.5

used flake

Tholos II

O6

Oy.6

blade fragment

Tholos III

O7

Oy.7

blade fragment

Tholos III

O8

Oy.8

intact blade

Tholos III

O9

Oy.9

blade fragment

Tholos III

O10

Oy.10

AM 286

intact blade

Tholos III

O11

Oy.11

AM 272

intact blade

Tholos III

O12

AM 289

Oy.12

AM 275

intact blade

Tholos III

O13

Oy.13

AM 290

intact blade

Tholos III

O14

Oy.14

AM 283

intact blade

Tholos III

O15

Oy.15

AM 291

intact blade

Tholos III

O16

Oy.16

blade fragment

Tholos III

O17

Oy.17

AM 295

flake

Tholos III

O18

Oy.18

AM 292

blade fragment

Tholos III

O19

Oy.19

blade fragment

Tholos III

O20

Oy.20

blade fragment

Tholos III

O21

Oy.21

intact blade

Tholos III

O22

Oy.22

AM 274

intact blade

Tholos III

O23

Oy.23

AM 270

intact blade

Tholos III

O24

Oy.24

AM 281

intact blade

Tholos III

O25

Oy.25

AM 276

intact blade

Tholos III

O26

Oy.26

AM 288

blade fragment

Tholos III

O27

Oy.27

AM 279

intact blade

Tholos III

O28

Oy.28

AM 280

intact blade

Tholos III

O29

Oy.29

AM 273

intact blade

Tholos III

Oy.30

two blade fragments

Tholos III

O31

Oy.31

intact blade

Tholos III

O32

Oy.32

AM 278

intact blade

Tholos III

O33

Oy.33

AM 271

intact blade

Tholos III

O34

Oy.34

AM 282

intact blade

Tholos III

O35

Oy.35

AM 294

blade fragment

Tholos III

O36

Oy.36

AM 287

blade fragment

Tholos III

O37

Oy.37

AM 284

intact blade

Tholos III

O38

Oy.38

AM 285

intact blade

Tholos III

O39

Oy.39

AM 293

blade fragment

Tholos III

O30

Table 16. Chipped stone objects

TABLES 16 AND 17 Catalog No.

Excavation No.

O40

Museum No.

Description

Stratum

Oy.40

blade fragment

Tholos III

O41

Oy.41

blade fragment

Tholos III

O42

Oy.42

blade fragment

Tholos III

O43

Oy.43

flake

Tholos III

O44

Oy.44

chert core

Tholos III

O45

Oy.45

blade fragment

Tholos III

O46

Oy.46

two blade fragments

Tholos III

O47

Oy.47

intact blade

Tholos III

O48

Oy.1

blade fragment

Dromos III

O49

AM 277

Oy.2

blade fragment

Dromos III

O50

Oy.3

blade fragment

Dromos III

O51

Oy.4

blade fragment

Dromos III

O52

Oy.5

blade fragment

Dromos III

O53

Oy.6

blade fragment

Dromos III

O54

Oy.7

blade fragment

Dromos III

O55

Oy.8

blade fragment

Dromos III

O56

Pur.1

chert chip

Tholos III

Pur.1

chert chip

Dromos III

O57

Table 16 cont. Chipped stone objects. Cranium No. (Cat. No.)

MNI 1

MNI 2

Sex

Age

Post-cranial

K1 (L5)

1

1

F?

PA

K10.1 (L1)

1

1 (A)

?

PA

K10.2 (L1)

-

1 (B)

?

Juvenile/YA

K12* (L2)

1

-

?

?

K13 (L3)

1

1

M?

Adult

K15 (L6)

1

1

F?

MatA

K16 (L6)

1

1

M?

MatA

K17 (L6)

1

1

F?

MatA

K18 and 20 (L10)

1

1

M?

MatA

K18 and 20 (L10)

1

1

F?

Adult

present

K19 (L10)

1

1

?

Adult

present

K21 (L4)

1

1

F?

PA

K22 (L4)

1

1

M?

Mat/OldA

K23.1 (L12)

1

1 (A)

F?

MatA

K23.2 (L12)

-

1 (B)

M

PA

K23.3 (L12)

-

1 (C)

M?

P/MatA

K23.4 (L12)

-

1 (D)

?

Child

present

present

present

Table 17. Bone material found inside the larnakes. MNI 1: estimated number of individuals during excavation. MNI 2: estimated number of individuals after the study of the human remains. (*) indicates plastic bags which have not been recovered. YA: young adult. PA: prime adult. MatA: mature adult. OldA: old adult.

TABLES 17 AND 18 Cranium No. (Cat. No.)

MNI 1

MNI 2

Sex

Age

Post-cranial

K24.1 (L7)

1

1 (A)

F?

Adult

present

K24.2 (L7)

-

1 (B)

?

Adult

present

K27* (L12)

1

-

(L8)*

1

-

(L9)*

1

-

(L11)*

1

-

Extra individual from L6

-

1

?

Child

Extra individual from L10

-

1

?

Child

18

20

Total

Table 17 cont. Bone material found inside the larnakes. MNI 1: estimated number of individuals during excavation. MNI 2: estimated number of individuals after the study of the human remains. (*) indicates plastic bags which have not been recovered.

Cranium No. K2.1

MNI 1

MNI 2

Sex

Age

Post-cranial

1

1 (A)

M?

Adult

present

1 (B)

?

Adult Adult

K2.2 K3

1

1

M?

K4.1

1

1 (A)

F?

YA

K4.2

-

1 (B)

?

Adult

K5*

1

-

K6*

1

-

K7.1

1

1 (A)

M?

Adult

1 (B)

F?

MatA

1 (A)

M?

PA

1 (B)

?

Child

K7.2 K8.1

1

K8.2 K8.3

1 (C)

?

Child

K9

1

1

F?

YA

K11*

1

-

K14*

1

-

K25

1

1

F?

Adult

K26

1

1

F?

Adult

K28

1

1

?

Adult

K29

1

1

?

Adult

K30

1

1

M?

PA

K31*

1

-

K32

1

1

M?

Adult

K33*

1

-

K34.1

1

1 (A)

?

Adult

present

present

present

Table 18. Bone material found outside the larnakes. MNI 1: estimated number of individuals during excavation. MNI 2: estimated number of individuals after the study of the human remains. (*) indicates plastic bags which have not been recovered. YA: young adult. PA: prime adult. MatA: mature adult.

TABLES 18 AND 19 Cranium No.

MNI 1

K34.2

MNI 2

Sex

Age

Post-cranial

1 (B)

?

Infant/Child

present

F?

Adult

K35*

1

-

K36

1

1

K37*

1

-

K38.1

1

1 (A)

F?

PA

present

K38.2

1 (B)

?

Neonate

present

K38.3

1 (C)

?

Neonate

present

K39*

1

-

K40*

1

-

K41

1

1

M?

Adult

K42 (Dromos)

1

1 (A)

F?

YA

1 (B)

?

Child

K42 (Dromos) Total

27

present

26

Table 18 cont. Bone material found outside the larnakes. MNI 1: estimated number of individuals during excavation. MNI 2: estimated number of individuals after the study of the human remains. (*) indicates plastic bags which have not been recovered. YA: young adult. PA: prime adult.

Young Adult (18–30)

Prime Adult (30–40)

Mature Adult (40–50)

Old Adult (50+)

Adult

Male (n=8)

0

1

3

1

3

Female (n=13)

3

2

4

0

4

Nonsexed (n=5)

2

Sex/Age Groups

Table 19. Age and Sex distribution of the adult individuals.

1

2

Figures

FIGURE 1

Maps of Crete and the Archanes area. Plan of the Phourni cemetery in the Prepalatial and Old Palace periods (from Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, 152).

Plan of Tholos Gamma.

FIGURE 2

FIGURE 3

A. Section of Tholos Gamma interior.

B. Section of Tholos Gamma dromos.

FIGURE 4

A. Stratigraphic section of Tholos Gamma interior.

B. Stratigraphic section of Tholos Gamma dromos.

FIGURE 5

A. Distribution of larnakes in Stratum II.

B. Distribution of burials and finds in Stratum II.

FIGURE 6

A. Distribution of finds in Stratum III.

B. Distribution of copper and silver objects in Stratum III.

FIGURE 7

A. Distribution of figurines in Stratum III.

B. Distribution of beads in Stratum III.

FIGURE 8

A. Distribution of gold bands in Stratum III.

B. Distribution of clay vases, seals, and stone, bone, and ivory objects in Stratum III.

FIGURE 9

A. Distribution of pendants in Stratum III.

B. Distribution of obsidian objects in Stratum III.

FIGURE 10

Pottery from Stratum I, Layers 1–2. Scale 1:2.

FIGURE 11

Pottery from Stratum I, Layer 3. Scale 1:2.

FIGURE 12

Pottery from Stratum I, Layer 3. Scale 1:2.

FIGURE 13

Pottery from Stratum I, Layer 3. Scale 1:2.

FIGURE 14

Pottery from Stratum III (P46–P47, P49–P50, P54–P55, P58–P59). From dromos: pottery from Stratum I (P72, P79–P80, P86–P92, P96–P102). Scale 1:2.

FIGURE 15

Clay vases from Strata I (V1), II (V2–V3), and III (V4–V5). Scale 1:2.

FIGURE 16

From dromos: pottery and clay vases from Strata IIA (P108) and IIB (P109–P110, P112–P118, P121–P123, V6–V7). Scale 1:2.

FIGURE 17

Larnakes from Stratum II. Scale 1:20 for the larnakes and the lids and 1:8 for the section of the rims.

FIGURE 18

Larnakes and pithos from Stratum II. Scale 1:20 for larnakes, pithos, and lids and 1:8 for the section of the rims.

FIGURE 19

Copper objects from Strata II (B1, B17–B18) and III (B2–B16). Scale 1:2.

FIGURE 20

Figurines from Stratum III. Scale 1:2.

FIGURE 21

Figurines from Stratum III. Scale 1:2.

FIGURE 22

Head from the Area of the Rocks

Figurines from Stratum III (F11–F15), lead objects from Stratum II (C1), and silver objects from Stratum III (C2–C7). Scale 1:2, except 2:1 for F12–F13.

FIGURE 23

Pendants from Stratum II (A4–A5) and Stratum III (A1–A3, A6–A22), bone objects from Stratum II (I5) and Stratum III (I1–I4), and ivory objects from Stratum III (I7–I9). Scale 1:2, except 1:1 for A20.

FIGURE 24

Ivory handles from Stratum III. Scale 1:2.

FIGURE 25

Jewelry from Stratum III (J1, J4, J15, J21, J24–J25, J38–J46, J49–J54, J60–J62). From dromos: jewelry from Strata IIA (J55) and III (J56–J57). Scale 1:2, except 1:1 for J1, J4, J15, J38, J40, and 2:1 for J21, J24–J25.

FIGURE 26

S1

S2

S3

S4

S5

S6

S7

S8

S9

Seals from Stratum II (S1–S2, S5, S7–S9) and Stratum III (S3–S4, S6). Scale 1:1.

FIGURE 27

Stone objects from Stratum II (D2) and Stratum III (D1, D3–D5) and obsidian from Stratum II (O5) and Stratum III (O1–O4, O6–O19). Scale 1:2.

FIGURE 28

Obsidian from Stratum III (O20–O43, O45–O46). From dromos: obsidian from Stratum IIB (O48–O55). Scale 1:2.

FIGURE 29 50 45

No. of Occurences

40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Long Bones

Small Bones

Flat Bones

Ribs and Vertebrae

Anatomical Unit

A. Bone representation of the postcranial skeleton. 30

% Prevalence

25 20 15 10 5 0 Caries

Calculus

AMTL

Abscess

Tooth Wear

Chipped

Dental Disease

B. Prevalence of dental disease. 20

Male

18

Female

% Prevalence

16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 Caries

Calculus

AMTL

Abscess

Dental Disease

C. Prevalence of dental disease by sex group.

Tooth Wear

Chipped

Plates

PLATE 1

A. Tholos Gamma from the west with the Archanes valley in the background.

B. Tholos Gamma interior from the west showing the entrance and window.

PLATE 2

A. Tholos Gamma interior walls from the west showing the entrance and window.

B. Tholos Gamma interior walls from the north.

PLATE 3

A. Tholos Gamma interior walls from the east.

B. Tholos Gamma interior walls from the south.

PLATE 4

A. Tholos Gamma from the west at the beginning of the excavation.

B. Tholos Gamma interior from the east. Stratum I, Layer 1. Stones from the collapsed roof.

PLATE 5

A. Tholos Gamma interior from the west. Stratum I, Layer 1. Stones from the collapsed roof.

B. Tholos Gamma interior from the east. Stratum I, Layer 2.

PLATE 6

A. Tholos Gamma interior from the east. Stratum I, Layer 3. Stones from the collapsed roof.

B. Tholos Gamma interior from the east. Stratum I, Layer 3 revealing the larnax rims (L1, L2).

PLATE 7

A. Tholos Gamma interior from the west. Stratum II. Larnakes L2–L4, L6–L10, and pithos L12.

B. Tholos Gamma interior from the northeast. The disturbed southwest part of Stratum II. Destroyed larnakes L1, L2, L8, L9, and L11.

PLATE 8

A. Tholos Gamma interior. Stratum II from the west. Larnakes L1, L2, and L5.

B. Tholos Gamma interior. Stratum II. Burials K21–K22 inside larnax L4 from the northwest.

PLATE 9

A. Tholos Gamma interior. Stratum II. Larnax L5 with fragments of its walls fallen inside.

B. Tholos Gamma interior. Stratum II. Burial K1 inside larnax L5.

PLATE 10

A. Tholos Gamma interior. Stratum II. Burials K15–K17 inside larnax L6 from the west.

B. Tholos Gamma interior. Stratum II. Burials K18–K20 inside larnax L10 from the southwest.

PLATE 11

A. Tholos Gamma interior. Stratum II from the west. Larnakes L2–L4, L6–L10 after removal of the burials.

B. Tholos Gamma. Stratum II. Entrance from the west. Jug V2 in situ.

PLATE 12

A. Tholos Gamma interior. Stratum III. Area beneath larnax L7 showing dagger B11, from the east.

B. Tholos Gamma interior. Stratum III. Area beneath larnax L7 showing dagger B11 and figurine F14 from the north.

PLATE 13

A. Tholos Gamma interior. Stratum III. Area beneath larnax L1 showing stone object D3, from the west.

B. Tholos Gamma interior. Stratum III. Area beneath pithos L12 showing figurine F11, from the northwest.

PLATE 14

A. Tholos Gamma interior. Stratum III. Area beneath larnax L4 showing figurine F2 and dagger B12, from the west.

B. Tholos Gamma interior. Strata II and III, showing entrance from the west.

PLATE 15

A. Tholos Gamma dromos from the northeast. Stratum I. Stones fallen from the nearby walls.

B. Tholos Gamma dromos from the east showing the window.

PLATE 16

A. Tholos Gamma dromos from the north. Stratum IIB. Cup V6 found next to burial K42.

B. Tholos Gamma dromos from the north. Stratum IIB. Burial K42 found beneath the south wall of the dromos.

PLATE 17

Pottery from Stratum I, Layer 3 (P24, P28–P29, P32–P34, P36–P39); clay vases (V2–V3) and pendants (A4–A5) from Stratum II; clay vase (V4), pendants (A6–A15), copper daggers (B10–B12), and a silver scraper (C2) from Stratum III. From dromos: clay vases from Stratum IIB (V6–V7). Not to scale.

PLATE 18

Figurines from Stratum III. Not to scale.

PLATE 19

Figurines from Stratum III. Not to scale.

PLATE 20

Bone object (I5) and pendant (A22) from Stratum II; pendants (A3, A20–A21), bone objects (I1–I4), ivory objects (I7, I10–I11), stone objects (D1, D3, D5), obsidian blades, and jewelry (J1, J4, J39, J41–J46, J49–J54) from Stratum III. Not to scale.

PLATE 21

B. K22, cibra or pitalia on both orbital roofs. Not to scale.

A. K38.2/3, shows cranial and post-cranial bones of the 2 neonates. Not to scale.

D. K16, shows evidence of periosteal reaction on maxilla (maxillaris sinusitis). Not to scale.

C. K16, periapical abscess on the second left maxillary molar possibly caused extended periosteal reaction on maxilla (maxillaris sinusitis). Not to scale.

E. K16, evidence of new bone formation on frontal sinus. Not to scale.

F. K23.1, shows large occlusal carious lesion on the left maxillary molar caused complete loss of the crown. Not to scale.

PLATE 22

A. K18/20, shows a complete loss of teeth before death (AMTL) and resorption of the mandibular alveolar process. Not to scale.

B. K23.3, shows a large periapical abscess on the right maxillary first molar. Not to scale.

C. K22, shows severe and unequal wear on the posterior maxillary teeth. Not to scale.

D. K18/20, shows severe and unequal wear on the posterior maxillary teeth. Not to scale.

E. K22, shows porosity on the mandibular fossa of the left temporal bone. Not to scale.