Themed issue - environment 2010 9781845444037, 9780861769186

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Volume 15 Number 1 2004

ISBN 0-86176-918-X

ISSN 1477-7835

Management of Environmental Quality An International Journal Formerly Environmental Management & Health Themed issue: Environment 2010

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Management of Environmental Quality:

ISSN 1477-7835 Volume 15 Number 1 2004

An International Journal Themed issue: Environment 2010 Editor Professor Walter Leal Filho

Access this journal online __________________________

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Editorial advisory board ___________________________

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Abstracts and keywords ___________________________

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Editorial __________________________________________

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The potential of advanced treatment methods for sewage sludge Elisabeth Neyens, Jan Baeyens, Bart De heyder and Marjoleine Weemaes __

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Towards sustainable water resources management: a case study from Saxony-Anhalt, Germany Volker Lu¨deritz _________________________________________________

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Basis and tools for a sustainable development of estuaries and coastal areas: a case study from Cullera Bay M. Mestres, A. Sa´nchez-Arcilla, J.P. Sierra, C. Mo¨sso, J. Gonza´lez del Rı´o and M. Rodilla _________________________________________________

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The eco-efficiency of regions – case Kymenlaakso: ECOREG project 2002-2004 Matti Melanen, Sirkka Koskela, Ilmo Ma¨enpa¨a¨, Marja-Riitta Hiltunen and Mika Toikka ___________________________________________________

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CONTENTS

CONTENTS continued

Exploitation of renewable energy sources and sustainable management of the territory: wind farms in Regione Liguria Paola Solari and Gabriella Minervini________________________________

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The protection of landscape as a resource: case study – Monte da Guia protected area (Faial-Azores) Lara Bulca˜o, Luis Ribeiro, Pedro Arse´nio and Maria Manuela Abreu _____

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Sustainable reclamation of landfill sites Tjasˇa Bulc, Nevenka Ferfila and Danijel Vrhovsˇek_____________________

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Environmental aspects of using detached breakwaters for coastal protection purposes Francisco Taveira Pinto and Ana Cristina Valente Neves _______________

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News from the Net_________________________________

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News _____________________________________________

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Books and resources _______________________________

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Diary _____________________________________________

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Features __________________________________________

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Note from the publisher ____________________________

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MEQ 15,1

EDITORIAL REVIEW BOARD Dr Joseph D. Beasley Institute of Health Policy & Practice, Amityville, New York, USA Dr Alan Bernstein University of Toronto, Canada

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Professor Luca Bonomo Polytechnic of Milan, Italy

Professor F. Brian Pyatt Nottingham Trent University, UK Professor William J. Rea MD Environmental Health Centre, Dallas, USA

Professor D. Bryce-Smith University of Reading, UK

Mervyn Richardson BASIC, Rickmansworth, UK

Ray Clarke Nabarro Nathanson, Doncaster, UK Professor Bo R. Do¨o¨s Environment Programme, Austria

Professor M. Sˇaric´ MD Institute for Medical Research and Occupational Health, Zagreb, Croatia

Dr David Elliott Open University, Walton Hall, Milton Keynes, UK

Dr P.K. Suma’mur Industrial Relations and Labour Standards Institute, Jakarta, Indonesia

Professor Lars Friberg The Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden

Professor Sun Honglie Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China

Professor Robert J. Levine MD Yale University, USA

Professor Gerald Vinten Head of Business, European Business School, London, UK

Professor Dominique Lison Universite Catholique de Louvain, Belgium Professor Takao Ohkubo Nihon University, Japan Ian Pettman The Institute for Fresh Water Ecology, Ambleside, UK Professor Wai-on Phoon University of Sydney, Australia

Management of Environmental Quality: An International Journal Vol. 15 No. 1, 2004 p. 4. # Emerald Group Publishing Limited 1477-7835

Professor Robert E. Pollack Columbia University, New York, USA

Sir Frederick Warner University of Essex, UK Dr J. Warford Environment Department, The World Bank Washington, USA Professor Myron Winick MD President, University of Health Sciences, The Chicago Medical School, 3333 Green Bay Road, North Chicago, Illinois 60064-3095 USA

The potential of advanced treatment methods for sewage sludge Elisabeth Neyens, Jan Baeyens, Bart De heyder and Marjoleine Weemaes Keywords Sewage, Water, Heavy metals, Pathogens, Thermochemistry Excess sludge is an inevitable drawback of the waste-activated sludge process. Both the reduction of the amount of sludge produced and improving its dewaterability are of paramount importance. With more stringent environmental and legislative constraints, increasing sludge production and limited disposal options, new reduction alternatives have to be found. This paper presents different advanced sludge treatment (AST) processes, i.e. thermal hydrolysis (neutral, acid, alkaline) and chemical oxidation using H2O2. Semi-pilot and pilot-scale experiments are conducted in order to achieve optimum treatment conditions (T, pH, concentration of reagent, catalyst, etc.) with respect to sludge dewaterability. Additional targets are the removal of heavy metals and pathogens from the sludge so that the residual filter cake can be used for land application. Although all methods are promising, peroxidation gave the best results with respect to improving sludge dewaterability and product quality of the residual filter cake. The amount of dry solids per equivalent-inhabitant per day (DS/IE.d) was reduced from 60g DS/IE.d to 33g DS/IE.d and the percentage DS of the sludge cake was 47 per cent, which is a significant improvement of traditional sludge dewatering yields. This results in a significantly reduced energy for subsequent drying (94kJ/IE.d compared to 437kJ/IE.d for the traditional treatment).

Towards sustainable water resources management: a case study from Saxony-Anhalt, Germany Volker Lu¨deritz Keywords Water, Ecology, Case studies, Germany The European Water Framework Directive is the basis of sustainable water resources

management in the European Union. The required “good status” of waterbodies can be achieved only by encouraging the application of natural renewable-energy-driven ecological engineering. Ecotechnological methods in wastewater treatment (e.g. constructed wetlands) can remove more than 90 per cent of total N and P, and organic load. These methods also save up to 80 per cent of the cost and energy compared with central technical systems. Because ecomorphology in around 80 per cent of German streams and rivers is disturbed to a high degree, increased efforts for renaturalization are necessary. Successful control concerning first initiated measures shows that improvement of stream morphology has a remarkable positive influence on water ecology.

Basis and tools for a sustainable development of estuaries and coastal areas: a case study from Cullera Bay M. Mestres and A. Sa´nchez-Arcilla J.P. Sierra, C. Mo¨sso, J. Gonza´lez del Rı´o and M. Rodilla Keywords Sustainable development, Environmental management, Modelling, Spain The Bay of Cullera is an example of a multi-source polluted coastal environment. As a result of the combined discharge from the Ju´car River and the sewage from a marine outfall, the Cullera coastal area presents occasionally severe water quality problems. The enhanced knowledge obtained for the most relevant processes affecting the quality of coastal and estuarine waters will lead to the production of suitable strategies and criteria for a sustainable development of these areas. This, together with the generation of a set of scientifically supported alternative policies directed to improve coastal water management, is the main goal of this paper and of the ECOSUD European research project.

Abstracts and keywords

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Management of Environmental Quality: An International Journal Vol. 15 No. 1, Abstracts and keywords q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 1477-7835

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The eco-efficiency of regions – case Kymenlaakso: ECOREG project 2002-2004 Matti Melanen, Sirkka Koskela, Ilmo Ma¨enpa¨a¨, Marja-Riitta Hiltunen and Mika Toikka Keywords Ecology, Public opinion, Public interest, Environmental management, Finland The ECOREG project, which is funded by the Life-Environment programme, aims to demonstrate the concept and implementation of eco-efficiency, using the Finnish Kymenlaakso region as a case study. Indicators for regional eco-efficiency, combining the ecological, economic, social and cultural aspects of development, will be designed and quantified for the year 2000. A long-term (2005, 2010, . . .) mechanism will also be prepared for evaluating progress made in regional eco-efficiency in Kymenlaakso and for prioritizing actions needed for further improvement.

Exploitation of renewable energy sources and sustainable management of the territory wind farms in Regione Liguria Paola SolariGabriella Minervini Keywords Wind power, Birds, Maps, Geographic information systems, Italy The need to enhance the exploitation of renewable energy resources marked the starting point in the development of wind farms, also in Regione Liguria. However, the Ligurian sites that are suitable from an anemometric point of view are very exposed and are also of outstanding natural value. In order to simplify procedures and to apply high environmental protection levels, some project requirements and requested mitigation and compensation actions were fixed. Some criteria were stated to identify the areas that are unsuitable to wind installations because of their landscape or wildlife characteristics. By using the GIS of the Regione Liguria, a dedicated information system describing the unsuitable areas was produced; the system is made by a synoptic layer that merges all the

areas where at least one of the penalising factors is fulfilled, in addition to single layers that keep their own information content. The map is available on the Internet (www.regione.liguria.it), and it represents an essential reference for any upcoming measures in the field of wind energy exploitation.

The protection of landscape as a resource case study – Monte da Guia protected area (Faial-Azores) Lara Bulca˜o Luı´s Ribeiro Pedro Arse´nioMaria Manuela Abreu Keywords Biophysics, Environmental management, Resources, Portugal The evolution of the concept of landscape to incorporate components like cultural and socio-economic factors, in addition to the natural and aesthetic features, influenced the perception of landscape as a resource. On the other hand, the relationships between territorial features as well as the understanding of their temporal dynamics determine the significance of these features for the quality of a landscape and, consequently, for its conservation. This implies that all components – natural and physical, but also cultural and visual – upon which landscape quality is assessed, ought to be considered and studied globally. Natural resources and cultural heritage, however, are usually considered independently when developing protected areas management plans. Here, we present a methodology developed for the Monte da Guia management plan, which allows the interrelated analysis of landscape factors such as geology, geomorphology, pedology, flora and vegetation cover as well as the cultural and visual characters. Using the concepts of biophysical sensitivity and visual quality, we evaluated the relevance of these various factors for the determination of the state of equilibrium/degradation of a landscape, and hence for its conservation value. This methodology may contribute to the development of improved zoning maps and management guidelines determining land

use and management strategies for the conservation of individual resources that, together, determine landscape quality.

hydrological and pollution cycle, the impact on the environment and especially the risk of water contamination will be reduced.

Sustainable reclamation of landfill sites Tjasˇa BulcNevenka FerfilaDanijel Vrhovsˇek Keywords Waste management, Landfill reclamation, Water, Recycling, Slovenia The most common form of municipal waste disposal in the EU continues to be landfilling, from which leachate could seriously contaminate ground water aquifers that serve as drinking water sources. Constructed wetland is considered as a sustainable option as it facilitates water recycling in landfill sites using closed loop technology. In Slovenia constructed wetlands have been successfully developed and there are already 6 landfills that have been remediated using this technique. An innovative co-natural approach that has been applied on the landfill site at Ormoz (1.5ha), allows a landfill site to become a bioreactor by permitting controlled infiltration. Leachate is purified using a constructed wetland covering 1,000m2. The average hydraulic load is 12m3/d. Purified water will then be recycled through an underground irrigation system to fast growing trees. We assume that this solution will allow rapid stabilisation of the landfill site as the infiltrated water in the landfill site stimulates microbes to mineralise organic waste. There is no risk of leaks as the root systems of trees follow the non-uniform settling of waste. Owing to the closed

Environmental aspects of using detached breakwaters for coastal protection purposes Francisco Taveira Pinto Ana Cristina Valente Neves Keywords Environmental management, Coastal regions, Portugal The aggravation of erosion, with the consequent reduction and, at the limit, disappearance of beaches has great impact in the environment of the area, in tourism and economy of regions affected by this problem. Submerged breakwaters are one possible solution from a wide variety of coastal structures to combat this problem, with reduced environmental and visual impacts than in similar defence structures. However, this solution has also some disadvantages that will be described. This paper intends to present some environmental aspects related with the hydrodynamic phenomena of detached breakwaters (submerged or not) and some of the main advantages and disadvantages of this type of coastal protection solution. The performance of this kind of solution in other countries (such as Italy, Japan, Spain, etc.) has been mostly successful but its use on the Portuguese coast is still a possibility, needing further investigation, due to the high energetic wave levels observed. Some of the main difficulties on its application will also be described.

Abstracts and keywords

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Management of Environmental Quality: An International Journal Vol. 15 No. 1, 2004 p. 8 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 1477-7835

Editorial This special issue of MEQ has been prepared in the context of the conference “Environment 2010” held in Oporto, Portugal in May 2003. The meeting was chaired by Professor Mario Neves, from the University of Oporto and congregated over 100 scientists from all over Europe. The first paper, titled “The potential of advanced treatment methods for sewage sludge” written by Neyens, Baeyens, de Heyder and Weemaes, suggests an approach that may be useful in attempts to treat sewage sludge. It is followed by a paper by Volker Lu¨deritz on sustainable water resources management in the state of Saxony-Anhalt in Germany. The third paper in this special issue is titled “Basis and tools for a sustainable development of estuaries and coastal areas: a case study from Cullera Bay“ being prepared by Mestres, Sa´nchez-Arcilla, Sierra, Mo¨sso, Gonza´lez del Rı´o and Rodilla, with an interesting perspective deriving from the experiences gathered at Cullera Bay in Spain. Paper four deals with the subject matter of eco-efficiency in regions describing the experiences which have been originated from the ECOREG Project in Finland, authored by Matti Melanen, Sirkka Koskela, Ilmo Ma¨enpa¨a¨, Marja-Riitta Hiltunen and Mika Toikka. It is followed by a paper focusing on the exploitation of renewable energy sources in the region of Liguria, Italy, authored by Paola Solari and Gabriella Minervini. Paper six describes the protection of landscapes as resources using the experiences from a protected area in Monte da Guia, in the region of Faial-Azores in Portugal, prepared by Bulca˜o, Ribeiro, Arse´nio and Abreu. The subject of sustainable reclamation of landfill sites is addressed by paper seven, written by a team from Slovenia composed by Bulc, Ferfila and Vrhovtˇek. Finally, paper eight describes the environmental aspects of using detached breakwaters for coastal protection purposes written by Taveira Pinto and Valente Neves. The papers presented by the authors reflect the diversity of environment research being done in Europe today and show the high quality of various research and problem-solving projects being undertaken all over the continent. In this special issue thanks are due to Professor Mario Neves and his team for the excellent work performed. It is hoped that this special issue, with the conference “Environment 2010” as the main topic, will encourage further research and further projects which will ultimately lead to an improvement in the quality of Europe’s environment. Happy reading! Walter Leal Filho

The Emerald Research Register for this journal is available at www.emeraldinsight.com/researchregister

The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at www.emeraldinsight.com/1477-7835.htm

The potential of advanced treatment methods for sewage sludge

Sewage sludge

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Elisabeth Neyens Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Leuven, Belgium

Jan Baeyens University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium

Bart De heyder and Marjoleine Weemaes Aquafin n.v., Aartselaar, Belgium Keywords Sewage, Water, Heavy metals, Pathogens, Thermochemistry Abstract Excess sludge is an inevitable drawback of the waste-activated sludge process. Both the reduction of the amount of sludge produced and improving its dewaterability are of paramount importance. With more stringent environmental and legislative constraints, increasing sludge production and limited disposal options, new reduction alternatives have to be found. This paper presents different advanced sludge treatment (AST) processes, i.e. thermal hydrolysis (neutral, acid, alkaline) and chemical oxidation using H2O2. Semi-pilot and pilot-scale experiments are conducted in order to achieve optimum treatment conditions (T, pH, concentration of reagent, catalyst, etc.) with respect to sludge dewaterability. Additional targets are the removal of heavy metals and pathogens from the sludge so that the residual filter cake can be used for land application. Although all methods are promising, peroxidation gave the best results with respect to improving sludge dewaterability and product quality of the residual filter cake. The amount of dry solids per equivalent-inhabitant per day (DS/IE.d) was reduced from 60g DS/IE.d to 33g DS/IE.d and the percentage DS of the sludge cake was 47 per cent, which is a significant improvement of traditional sludge dewatering yields. This results in a significantly reduced energy for subsequent drying (94kJ/IE.d compared to 437kJ/IE.d for the traditional treatment).

Introduction and objectives Biological processes (waste-activated sludge (WAS) processes) are key technologies to treat wastewater since their effluents can meet stringent discharge standards. Biological processes inherently produce huge amounts of WAS (biosolids) to be disposed off. Sludge management has evolved over the past 50 years from an approach that could probably be best described as an “afterthought” to a priority issue that represents up to 50 per cent of the total wastewater treatment cost and is in many ways a far more sensitive issue with the general public than the waste water treatment itself. The growing production of waste in general and sludge in particular, is one of the most difficult issues for the EU environmental policy. The objectives of EU environmental policy have been presented in successive action programs since 1973 (1st Environmental Action Program). The environmental strategy has evolved from remediation actions to a quite

Management of Environmental Quality: An International Journal Vol. 15 No. 1, 2004 pp. 9-16 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 1477-7835 DOI 10.1108/14777830410513559

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different approach focused on preventive action. The 5th Environment Action Programme (1992-2000) is based upon “the precautionary principle” (Art 174.2 of the Treaty), in the frame of “sustainable development”. Waste is one of the priority areas of the 6th EU Programme entitled “Environment 2010: Our Future, Our Choice” (1600/2002/EC). The quantity of sludge has considerably increased in Europe after the implementation of Council Directive 91/271/EEC on urban wastewater treatment due to the increased levels of treatment necessary to meet discharge standards, whilst reducing the ways in which that disposal can be carried out. The EU strategy for waste management (July, 1996) confirms the hierarchy of principles established in 1989, considering the following order of priority: (1) prevention both of the generation of wastes and of its hazardousness; (2) reuse, recovery of materials and energy recovery; (3) disposal. In the case of wastewater sludge (biosolids) the waste hierarchy cannot be observed because the prevention is impossible. The first principle supposes for all EU members to use their best endeavour to reduce the waste generation applying the best available technologies. After prevention, the second step is the reuse and the recycling of waste. The first disposition in this sense is the Directive 86/278/EEC on the protection of the environment, and in particular the soil, when sewage sludge is used in agriculture. Its objective is to prevent harmful effects in plants, soils, animal and human beings as well as promoting sludge reuse in a safe manner: sewage sludge must be treated before its agricultural use. It sets limits for heavy metal concentrations in soil; in sewage sludge destined for agricultural use; and for annual amounts of heavy metals added to soils, based upon a ten year average. The European Commission is presently working on a new text of that regulation (third draft, April 27, 2000). The future sludge directive will introduce stricter limits for heavy metals, new requirements for several groups of organic substances (PCBs, PAHs, Dioxins, etc.) and pathogen reduction. Possibilities of valorisation of organic wastes are offered by its incineration or combustion with energy recovery (Baeyens and Vanpuyvelde, 1994), or by anaerobic digestion with energy recovery from the methane produced in that process. Both are sources of renewable energy. In the field of waste incineration, the EU has approved several Directives. The Directive 2000/76/EC on the incineration of waste has simultaneously regulated the incineration of municipal and hazardous waste. At the moment, the EU Commission is working on a Proposal for a Directive on the promotion of electricity from renewable energy sources in the internal electricity market (COM, 2000; 279 final). The adoption of this draft Directive is an important part of the EU strategy to further expand the generation of

electricity from renewable energy sources in the EU and hence an important step towards the EU’s Kyoto commitments. In accordance with the waste hierarchy, landfill is the last option for organic waste. The recent 1999/31/EC Directive on Landfill of Waste, determines stringent operational and technical requirements for waste landfill. In this global context, the objectives of the present study are to achieve the following targets: . Volume reduction becomes important as a prerequisite to any resource recovery initiative: there is a need for reducing the amount of dewatered sludge to be disposed off. A first possibility is to minimise the production of dry solids, but meeting quality criteria required by the considered disposal route (e.g. caloric value). A second possibility for decreasing the amount of dewatered sludge is to minimise the amount of water in the dewatered sludge, i.e. obtain a drier filter cake. This volume reduction requires advanced technologies and the different potential processes have been studied. . At present, sludge management methods end with land application, landfilling and incineration or other thermal techniques. Compared to landfilling and incineration, utilisation of sludge as organic fertiliser is a more sustainable disposal method because it recycles both nutrients and organic matter. Hence, indirect targets of this study on applying advanced sludge treatments (ASTs) are: a removal of MDS and heavy metals from the residual DS; and a reduction of pathogens. AST methods are assessed on their ability to remove heavy metals from the sludge and to achieve sludge hygienisation, rendering it suitable for unrestricted use in agriculture. AST processes of thermal hydrolysis (neutral, acid, alkaline) or chemical oxidation using H2O2/Fe2+ (Fenton) are proposed for use on thickened sludge, prior to its mechanical dewatering. Materials and methods Sludge samples were obtained from the thickener underflow (approximately 6 per cent DS) of a municipal sewage treatment plant in Kessel-Lo (Belgium). The MDS-content was approx. 33 per cent. Experimental set-up and procedures Hydrolysis (neutral, acid or alkaline) of sludge implies a treatment at moderate to high temperature. Neutral thermal hydrolysis does not necessitate the addition of chemicals. Acid thermal hydrolysis requires sulphuric acid (from a solution containing 1,750g H2SO4/l solution) to lower the pH, whereas alkaline thermal hydrolysis takes place at high pH, obtained by adding Ca(OH)2. The experiments were carried out in a reactor, constructed as a pressure vessel with a electrically heated shell. The temperature of the sludge mix was kept constant by setting the voltage. Samples of 10 l of sludge were batch-treated at different but fixed operating conditions.

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In the case of peroxidation the reactor is constructed as a multitank of 1m3 equipped with a mixer of variable rotational speed (25 to 250rpm). The treatment consisted in firstly adding Fe2+(FeSO4) at the given concentration, then adding H2SO4 (from a solution containing 1,750g H2SO4/l solution) to adjust the pH to 3 and adding the required amount of H2O2 (from a solution containing 390g H2O2/l solution). The oxidation releases reaction gases (CO2) and the time of reaction was considered as the time when the gas production stopped. This time varies between 60 and 90 minutes for the conditions studied in this paper. After reaction, the sludge mixture is neutralized with Ca(OH)2. Samples of 1m3 sludge were batch-treated at different but fixed operating conditions. Conditioning Cationic polymers were used for conditioning and dewatering the thickened sludge from the reactor. Cibaw ZETAG 7878 FS40 was used for conditioning the hydrolysed sludge. Degussa Stockhausenw K 111 L was used for conditioning the thickened peroxidized sludge. The optimum dosage was considered as the dose that resulted in the minimum capillary suction time (CST) (Vesilind and Davis, 1988). CST-measurements on treated sludge revealed that the required optimal PE-dosage is 6.7kg PE-product/ton DS for the peroxidized sludge (using the K 111 L) and 8kg PE-product/ton DS for the hydrolysed sludge (using the ZETAG 7878 FS 40). Dewatering In the case of hydrolysis, the sludge was dewatered by using a vacuum-assisted Buchner filtration at a vacuum pressure of 38cm mercury, and assessed for a 100ml sample during a set time of 10 minutes. In the case of peroxidation the reactor is coupled to a pilot-scale filter press. The resulting filter cake was used to determine both the approximate cake volume and the (O)DS-content of the cake. Relevant properties The “blanco” reference sludge sample contains suspended and dissolved matter of organic and mineral nature. Total dry solids are measured after evaporation of H2O (1058C). Further calcination at 6058C drives off the organic matter (ODS) and the mineral content (MDS) is weighed as residual ash. The same procedure applies to determine the DS/ODS/MDS-content of mechanically dewatered sludge (filter cake). Heavy metals were measured by AAS and ICP-MS. The concentrations of faecal coliforms and faecal streptoccocci were determined according to Standard Methods (APHA, 1995). Each experiment was repeated three times and average values of the results are given in the text. Results were within ^10 per cent of the average value,

and experimental results should therefore be considered within a 10 per cent range of the indicated average value (e.g. percentage DS in the cake is 47 ^ 4:7 per cent). Results Dewatering As a result of the semi-pilot-scale experiments (hydrolysis) and pilot-scale experiments (peroxidation), it can be concluded that thermal and thermochemical treatment and chemical oxidation using Fenton reagent (H2O2/Fe2+) are efficient in enhancing the dewaterability. Lab-scale results are confirmed (Neyens et al., 2002, 2003a, b). The results of the analysis concerning optimum treatment conditions are summarized in Table I. Based on the experimental results it can be concluded that all four AST methods improve the dewaterability of the tested sludges, yielding: . an increased rate of filtration, as measured from CST-values; . a reduced amount of DS to be dewatered ranging from a 42 per cent reduction of the weight of the residual sludge in the case of neutral hydrolysis to a 58 per cent reduction for peroxidation; . a 20 per cent increase of the percentage DS in the filter cake for thermo-chemical treatment and peroxidation when compared with the blanco untreated sludge sample;

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Alkaline Acid Neutral thermal thermal thermal hydrolysis hydrolysis hydrolysis Peroxidation Reagent Optimum conditions T (8C) pH Oxidant (g/kg DS) Fe2+ (g/kg DS) Time of reaction (min) Reduction of DS and ODS during peroxidation (%) Rate of mechanical dewatering after neutralisation Amount of DS to be dewatered as a fraction of the initial untreated amount (%) Percentage DS in filter cake (percentage DS initial untreated)

–

H2SO4

Ca(OH)2

H2O2

120 7 – – 60

120 3 – – 60

100 10 – – 60

Ta 3 25 1.67 60-90

–

–

–

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Increased

Increased

Increased

Increased

58

45

62

42

44 (30)

45 (25)

48 (28)

47 (27)

Table I. Comparison between neutral, acid and alkaline thermal hydrolysis, peroxidation

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Figure 1. Heavy metal content in the filter cake for the untreated sludge, acid thermal hydrolysed sludge (pH 3, 1208C) and alkaline thermal hydrolysed sludge (pH 10, 1008C) compared with the legal standards

Figure 2. Heavy metal content in the filter cake for the untreated sludge and H2O2-treated sludge (pH 3, 1.67 g FeSO4 / kg DS, 25 g H2O2 / kg DS, Ta, Pa) compared with the legal standards

.

a considerable reduction of DS and ODS in the filter cake of over 20 per cent in the case of peroxidation.

Heavy metals Figures 1 and 2 present the heavy metal content in mg/kg DS of the filter cakes of the untreated, thermochemically treated and chemically oxidated sludge samples and compares these fractions with the legal standards. When comparing the residual concentrations of heavy metals in the filter cake with the legal standards, it is clear that AST-peroxidation can meet the

requirements (with the exception of copper in the tested sludge sample). Although reducing the heavy metal content in the filter cake, the hydrolysis AST-methods do not fully comply with the legal standards of the Flemish Vlarea-reglementation (Vlarea, 2002). As a result of the different treatments, it is most likely that the residual cake can be used for land application if mixed with other biosolids (e.g. compost).

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Pathogens To allow the reuse of sludge, it is desirable to use technologies that minimise the removal of nutrients yet reliably remove the high pathogen concentrations. Table II shows the results of the enumeration of faecal coliform and faecal streptococci for the sludge samples treated with the AST methods under the conditions proposed in Table I. Microbial counts of indicator bacteria (coliform and streptococci) were used as indication for pathogen content (MPN: most probable number). According to Strauch (1998), destruction of pathogens can be achieved by bringing the sludge at 708C, during 30 minutes. Therefore, as shown in Table II, the thermal and thermochemical pre-treatment methods cause a complete destruction of pathogens. Peroxidation does not result in the elimination of all pathogens but the results in Table II show that only 10 per cent do survive the treatment. Conclusion Based on the defined optimum conditions (Table I), mass and energy balances of a wastewater treatment implementing the AST techniques can be adopted for the case of a daily sludge production of 60g DS/IE.d. These balances clearly illustrated the benefits of integrating the AST in a traditional sludge treatment facility. Peroxidation gave the best results with respect to reducing the amounts of sludge and improving the dewaterability and product quality of the residual filter cake. The amount DS/IE.day was reduced from 60g DS/IE.d to 33g DS/IE.d; the percentage DS of the sludge cake was 47 per cent, which is high compared to the 27 per cent DS obtained in a traditional sludge treatment facility. This results in a significantly reduced energy for subsequent drying (94kJ/IE.d compared to 437kJ/IE.d for the traditional treatment).

Blanco Neutral thermal hydrolysis Acid thermal hydrolysis Alkaline thermal hydrolysis Peroxidation

Faecal coliform (MPN/g DS)

Faecal streptoccocci (MPN/g DS)

6.1·105 0 0 0 4.0·104

3.1·105 0 0 0 2.0·104

Table II. Results of microbial counts of indicator bacteria present in AST-treated sludge samples

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Moreover, when comparing the residual concentrations of heavy metals and pathogens in the filter cake with the legal standards, it is clear that peroxidation can meet the requirements for unrestricted use in agriculture. References APHA (1995), Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 19th ed., APHA, Washington, DC. Baeyens, J. and Vanpuyvelde, F. (1994), “Fluidized-bed incineration of sewage sludge – a strategy for the design of the incinerator and the future for incinerator ash utilization”, J. Hazard. Mater., Vol. 37 No. 1, pp. 179-90. Neyens, E., Baeyens, J., Weemaes, M. and De heyder, B. (2002), “Advanced biosolids treatment using H2O2-oxidation”, Environ. Eng. Sci., Vol. 19 No. 1, pp. 27-35. Neyens, E., Baeyens, J. and Creemers, C. (2003a), “Alkaline thermal sludge hydrolysis”, J. of Hazard. Mater., Vol. 97 Nos 1-3, pp. 295-314. Neyens, E., Baeyens, J., Weemaes, M. and De heyder, B. (2003b), “Hot acid hydrolysis as a potential treatment of thickened sewage sludge”, J. of Hazard. Mater., Vol. 98 Nos 1-3, pp. 275-93. Strauch, D. (1998), “Pathogenic micro-organisms in sludge: anaerobic digestion and desinfection methods to make sludge usable as a fertiliser”, European Water Management, Vol. 1 No. 2, pp. 12-26. Vesilind, P.A. and Davis, A.H. (1988), “Using the capillary suction time device for characterizing sludge dewaterability”, Wat. Sci. Tech., Vol. 20 No. 1, pp. 203-5. Vlarea (2002), Vlaams Reglement voor Afvalvoorkoming en -beheer (Flemish Regulations Concerning Waste), Vlarea, Brussels.

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Towards sustainable water resources management A case study from Saxony-Anhalt, Germany

Saxony-Anhalt case study

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Volker Lu¨deritz University of Applied Sciences Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany Keywords Water, Ecology, Case studies, Germany Abstract The European Water Framework Directive is the basis of sustainable water resources management in the European Union. The required “good status” of waterbodies can be achieved only by encouraging the application of natural renewable-energy-driven ecological engineering. Ecotechnological methods in wastewater treatment (e.g. constructed wetlands) can remove more than 90 per cent of total N and P, and organic load. These methods also save up to 80 per cent of the cost and energy compared with central technical systems. Because ecomorphology in around 80 per cent of German streams and rivers is disturbed to a high degree, increased efforts for renaturalization are necessary. Successful control concerning first initiated measures shows that improvement of stream morphology has a remarkable positive influence on water ecology.

Introduction Guidelines of the European Water Framework Directive Water is not a common merchandise but an inherited resource which must be protected, defended, and managed sustainably (European Water Framework Directive (EU-WFD)).

In accordance with the EU-WFD, over recent years the legal framework for sustainable management of water resources in Germany has been improved at federal and state levels. This improved framework offers a better basis for the implementation of integrated strategies for protecting waterbodies which take into account the complexity of anthropogenic influences and derive quantitative environmental quality standards (Overmann, 2003). Main elements and aims of the EU-WFD are: . a holistic view to groundwater and surface water; . “good status” of all waterbodies by the year 2015; . transboundary coordinated management of waterbodies in their catchment areas; . combined use of emission and immission approaches in assessment of disturbations; and . transparent plans, measures, and costs. Situation in the new federal states of Germany The demands of the EU-WFD met the new federal states of Germany, including Saxony-Anhalt, after a phase of surmounting environmental problems such as

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extremely high air, groundwater, and surface water pollution caused by inefficiencies in the former planned economy. Today, further improvement of environmental quality can be reached only through preventative measures. End-of-the-pipe technologies powered by fossil energy will not achieve further significant effects and become increasingly difficult to fund under the specific conditions of the east German federal states such as: . weak economies, low incomes, and high unemployment rates; . retreat of intensive agriculture from soils with lower fertility; and . above-average decrease in population. On the other hand, also: . largely unspoiled landscapes with greater biodiversity than western Germany; and . research institutes and environmental organizations which accept the challenges as chances for a sustainable development, mainly through ecological engineering. Potential for ecological engineering Ecological engineering is environmental manipulation using small amounts of supplementary energy to control systems in which main energy drives are still coming from natural sources (Odum, 1983) respectively the design of sustainable ecosystems that integrate human society with its natural enviroment to the benefit of both (Mitsch and Jorgensen, 1989). Potential applications include: . the design of ecological systems (ecotechnology) as an alternative to manmade and energy-intensive systems to meet various human needs; . the restoration of damaged ecosystems and the mitigation of development activities; . the management, utilization, and conservation of natural resources; and . the integration of society and ecosystems in built environments. The following sections are examples for the application of ecological engineering in different fields of water resources management. Use of ecotechnology in wastewater treatment Sewage disposal Through advanced purification technologies, the quality of surface waters increased markedly during the last decades. Presently, about 80 per cent of rivers and streams show only a moderate or lesser organic load, fulfilling the demands of “good status” concerning this parameter. On the other hand, plant nutrient loads (nitrogen, phosphorus) remain too high, despite significant decreases, keeping waterbodies in a eutrophic status (Table I).

It is clear that: . the majority of nitrogen comes from non-point sources (agriculture, drainage) and additional efforts for N elimination in sewage treatment have only a limited effect; and . better removal of plant nutrients can be achieved only by using advanced technologies in smaller systems.

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Until recently in Germany there were no special demands for P and N removal in systems designed for less than 5,000 population equivalences (PE). No doubt such demands are needed to reach “good status” of waterbodies, but fulfilling these demands are expensive. Fehr (2003) estimates an additional financial need of e100 billion for sewage treatment in the next 20 years. Under eastern German conditions (eastern Europe is largely comparable) it is important to use all possibilities to lower costs while maintaining high purification performances. Unfortunately, at the beginning of the last decade many mistakes were made in wastewater treatment including, mismanagement, inadequate planning, and financial policies that were not always ecologically orientated, bringing wastewater companies into an economically complicated situation. Since 1994 steps for sustainable wastewater policy have been undertaken. Despite the lack of consequence, these measures have had some effects. Among law changes, management support for companies and new guidelines for promotion, especially decentralization has achieved a significant exoneration (Lu¨deritz et al., 1999). Until recently, 60 per cent of all expenses for wastewater disposal were spent on the 30 per cent of the population who live in rural areas. This unhealthy rate can be lowered only by further decentralization. Studies have shown (e.g. Lu¨deritz et al., 2001; Schumann, 2001) that decentralized and semicentralized systems can save up to 80 per cent of money and energy compared with centralized systems. Purification performances of constructed wetlands Constructed wetlands are one system good for decentralized use. In the last years, many studies (e.g. Lu¨deritz et al., 2001; Steer et al., 2002; Lu¨deritz and Gerlach, 2002; Fehr, 2003) have shown high purification performances in constructed wetlands, reaching sustainably high removal rates concerning organic load and plant nutrients (Table II).

Phosphorus P from sewage treatment Nitrogen N from sewage treatment Source: Fehr (2003)

1985 (kt/a)

1995 (kt/a)

Percentage decrease

70 39 637 212

40 10 481 149

43 74 25 30

Table I. Input of P and N into waterbodies in the Northern Sea catchment area (German part)

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It is clear that such high performances can only be steadily achieved by an advanced system of quality management in construction and operation (Geller and Ho¨ner, 2003). According to experience, quality management must include the following prerequisites for high removal capacity: . An effective precleaning phase is necessary; aerobic pretreatment in rot tanks is more effective than an anaerobic digester (Lu¨deritz et al., 2001). . Specific treatment areas must be large enough (.50m2/m3 per day). . To reach high N removal, advantages of vertical flow wetlands (nitrification) and horizontal flow wetlands (denitrification) should be combined, eventually in a sloped wetland (Lu¨deritz et al., 2001). Furthermore, reed beds should be loaded intermittently (oscillation of aerobic and anaerobic conditions) and long flowing distances and contact times should be assured. . For effective P elimination, the addition of metal iron to the substrate at pH values between 4.6 and 4.9 is most effective (Lu¨deritz and Gerlach, 2002). Considering these experiences, the use of constructed wetlands in Saxony-Anhalt was promoted from 800PE in 1995 to about 10,000PE in 2002. The ultimate aim is to enhance this number by a factor of ten during this decade. A further application of constructed wetlands is the improvement of existing aerated and unaerated sewage treatment ponds. The efficiency of such ponds is low in most cases but new results show that an additional treatment step with a vertical flow wetland can enhance the removal rate for ammonium and CSB by a factor of 4 although the hydraulic load of the reed bed is relatively high at 100L/m2 per day. Stream renaturalization Status of streams and rivers There is no doubt that only waterbodies with a more or less natural ecomorphology can fulfil their ecological functions (Gunkel, 1996). Effective measures of renaturalization and revitalization enhance species diversity, conservation value, and self-purification (Lu¨deritz and Hentschel, 1999; Heidenwag et al., 2001). At present the ecomorphological status of most flowing Parameter

Table II. Purification performances of advanced constructed wetlands

COD BOD5 NH+4 -N Total N Total P

Percentage removal rate

Effluent concentration (mg/l)

93 95 95 90 97

25 10 5 10 0.5

waterbodies in Germany is poor. Of the around 600,000 kilometers of rivers and streams existing some 80 per cent of structures are clearly, noticeably, heavily, or excessively disturbed. Braukmann et al. (2000) drew the conclusion that deficiencies in morphology became the most important load for flowing waterbodies. Factors promoting and hampering renaturalization In overcoming these deficiencies, water ecologists are supported by several laws, rules, and policies: . The EU-WFD demands good ecological status of waterbodies by 2015. This aim can not only be reached by sewage treatment but preferably by improving morphological structures. . Since 1997 the State Act on Water in Saxony-Anhalt contains rules for renaturalization. . Human demands to waterbodies are changing in such a way which supports efforts in renaturalization. . The term “renaturalization” has a positive image in public discussion. . Extensive and detailed professional plans have been developed for renaturalization. . Water ecology and renaturalization is an important part of curriculum in university courses on water management. Unfortunately, there are also some serious factors that hamper efforts to improve ecomorphology: . Unlike wastewater treatment, renaturalization is a voluntary task for local communities. In times of narrow public budgets, such tasks are often neglected. . The ratio of public expenses for wastewater treatment and renaturalization is about 100:1. It does not correspond to the real importance of the problem, but “wastewater lobby” is strong. . Authorities often do not use the given scope to approve measures and are still very bureaucratic. Authorities are often unable or reluctant to have a holistic and ecological view of waterbodies. . Lining and straightening counteract efforts in improving waterbody ecology. . Most renaturalization measures do not earn this name. In about 80 per cent of cases, prognosticated improvements are reached only to a low degree or not at all (Gunkel, 1996). Only a small portion of the advanced stream program of Saxony-Anhalt, which contains a detailed plan for flowing distances of 1,300km, has been realized. Continuing at this rate, it would take more than 1,000 years for completion.

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Therefore, non-governmental organizations like the BUND (German Association of Environmental and Nature Conservation), environmental authorities, and research institutes such as the Institute of Water Management and Ecotechnology have been created.

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Activities to overcome these difficulties Activities to overcome these difficulties include: . Because public budgets will remain narrow, additional sources of money (EU-programmes, public and private foundations, private donations) are required. Until now, several important measures, especially in large protected areas were realized with such support. . Meanwhile, revitalization measures, by means of traditional hydraulic engineering, cost about e500/m, enforced application of ecological engineering with use of self-dynamic waterbodies can save up to 90 per cent of these expenses. . Joint implementation of the EU-WFD and the EU-Habitats Directive (EU-HD) brings synergetic effects because natural streams and rivers are the most important elements of European-level habitat connectivity demanded by EU-HD. . n the framework of the project “from death stripe to life line“ (Gru¨nes Band), BUND has undertaken many activities to improve the ecology of streams. . Ecological engineers are trained in special courses such as those available at the University of Applied Sciences Magdeburg and the Technical University of Munich. . A system of quality assessment and success control has been developed. Quality assessment and success control in renaturalization – an example Our methods are based on three columns: (1) The AQEM-method of integrated assessment systems for the ecological quality of streams and rivers throughout Europe using benthic invertebrates (Pauls et al., 2002) is good for general evaluation of morphological and biological grades. (2) A specific “Leitbild” (reference conditions) is defined for macroinvertebrate settlement by sampling undisturbed streams in the same landscape unit and by use of historical literature. The success of a measure is evaluated by the degree of correspondence between occurence of “reference species” (Leitarten) in the renaturalized reach and in reference reaches generally. Because of species redundancy, a correspondence of more than 50 per cent is very good.

(3) Detailed ecomorphological mapping of 6 main parameters and 27 single parameters (Lu¨deritz et al., 1996) shows concrete deficiencies in stream morphology. Our example concerns a formerly lined and straightened reach of small lowland river Ihle whose course was moved back to the middle of its valley over a distance of 1,600m with the aim of further natural development. But some mistakes were made which reduce the value of revitalization measures. In some reaches, stream course development was too monotonous, depth of profile was too high, and ecological permeability was reduced to a steep bottom ramp that caused heavy backwater. Holistic success control clearly showed the effects of morphological deficiencies to macroinvertebrate biocoenoses (Table III). Compared with the old stream course, in renaturalized reach settlements reference macroinvertebrate species correspond directly with natural conditions. This relationship is caused not only by high current and substrate diversity but also by the influence of natural reaches upstream. It should be noted that fauna and multimetric indexes as indicators of general habitat quality stay relatively low because of the occurrence of many limnophilic species in reaches with unnaturally high depth and low current.

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Large protected areas as refuges and model regions Large protected areas like National Parks, Biosphere Reserves, and Nature Parks are used for the joined implementation of EU-WFD and EU-HD. For

Stream reach Reach with high depth of profile Rapids Bottom ramp Backwater upstreams ramp Whole flowing distance (1,600m) Old stream course

Fauna-index FFG 0.339 0.462 0.441 20.236 0.302 0.019

Assessment method Ecomorphological Degree of MMI grade correspondence (%)

3 0.539 (moderate) 0.585 4 (good) 0.406 4 (good)

3.2 2.5 –

– – –

0.618

4.3

–

3.3

45

4.0

17

2 (poor) 3 0.605 (moderate) 3 0.598 (moderate)

Notes: MMI: multimetric index; reference conditions ¼ 5 (very good). FFG: functional feeding groups; reference conditions ¼ 0.85 (dominance of shredders and scrapers). Fauna-index: reference conditions ¼ +1 (dominance of ecomorphologically demanding organisms). Ecomorphological grade: reference conditions ¼ 1 (natural status). Degree of correspondence with macroinvertebrate biocoenoses in natural streams of same landscape units: very good status .50 per cent

Table III. Evaluation of Ihle renaturalization by means of AQEM-procedure, comparison with reference conditions, and ecomorphological assessment

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instance, in the Elbe Riverscape Biosphere Reserve, a program for the revitalization of oxbow lakes, is in realization. Restoration towards an ecologically optimal status is achieved by removal of mud and intensive agriculture from surroundings. Previous measures were very successful, water quality increased markedly and enhanced biotope quality allowed the resettlement of endangered species so that all revitalized oxbow lakes now have a conservation value of national importance (Langheinrich et al., 2002). References Braukmann, U., Biss, R., Ku¨bler, P. and Pinter, I. (2000), “O¨kologische Fliebgewa¨sserbewertung”, Deutsche Gesellschaft fu¨r Limnologie (DGL), Tagungsbericht 2000 (Magdeburg), pp. 24-53. Fehr, G. (2003), “Leistungsfa¨higkeit und Wirtschaftlichkeit naturnaher Lo¨sungen”, Verbundprojekt Bewachsene Bodenfilter, Abschlussbericht, Deutsche Bundesstiftung Umwelt, Osnabru¨ck, pp. 23-9. Geller, G. and Ho¨ner, G. (2003), “Qualita¨tsmanagement im Ingenieurwesen am Beispiel Bewachsene Bodenfilter”, Wasser & Boden, Vol. 55 No. 3, pp. 11-15. Gunkel, G. (1996), Renaturierung kleiner Fliebgewa¨sser, Fischer-Verlag, Jena. Heidenwag, I., Langheinrich, U. and Lu¨deritz, V. (2001), “Self-purification in upland and lowland streams”, Acta Hydrochim. Hydrobiol., Vol. 29 No. 1, pp. 22-33. Langheinrich, U., Dorow, S. and Lu¨deritz, V. (2002), “Schutz- und Pflegestrategien fu¨r Auenoberfla¨chengewa¨sser des Biospha¨renreservates Mittlere Elbe”, Hercynia, Vol. 35, pp. 17-35. Lu¨deritz, V. and Gerlach, F. (2002), “Phosphorus removal in different constructed wetlands”, Acta Biotechnol., Vol. 22 No. 1-2, pp. 91-9. ¨ Luderitz, V. and Hentschel, P. (1999), “Umgestaltung des Landeskulturgrabens bei Dessau”, Naturschutz und Landschaftsplanung, Vol. 31 No. 1, pp. 18-22. Lu¨deritz, V., Gla¨ser, J., Kieschnik, A. and Do¨rge, E. (1996), “Anwendung und Weiterentwicklung o¨komorphologischer Kartierungs- und Bewertungsverfahren an der Selke und ihren Nebengewa¨ssern (Sachsen-Anhalt)”, Arch. Naturschutz u. Landschaftsforschung, Vol. 35, pp. 15-31. Lu¨deritz, V., Eckert, E., Lange-Weber, M., Lange, A. and Gersberg, R.M. (2001), “Nutrient removal efficiency and resource economics of vertical flow and horizontal flow constructed wetlands”, Ecological Engineering, Vol. 18, pp. 157-71. Mitsch, W.J. and Jorgensen, S.E. (1989), Ecological Engineering: An Introduction to Ecotechnology, Wiley, New York, NY. ¨ kologie, Thieme-Verlag, Stuttgart. Odum, E.P. (1983), Grundlagen der O Overmann, K. (2003), “Zwei Jahre Wasserrahmenrichtlinie – wie geht es weiter?”, Korrespondenz Abwasser, Vol. 50 No. 1, pp. 22-4. Pauls, S., Feld, C.K., Sommerha¨user, M. and Hering, D. (2002), “Neue Konzepte zur Bewertung von Tieflandba¨chen und -flu¨ssen nach Vorgaben der EU-Wasserrahmenrichtlinie”, Wasser & Boden, Vol. 54 No. 7-8, pp. 70-7. Schumann, K. (2001), “Mo¨glichkeiten dezentraler Abwasserbehandlung in Gebieten mit hohen Grundwassersta¨nden”, Diplomarbeit, Hochschule Magdeburg-Stendal. Steer, D., Fraser, L., Boddy, J. and Seibert, B. (2002), “Efficiency of small constructed wetlands for subsurface treatment of single-family domestic effluent”, Ecological Engineering, Vol. 18, pp. 429-40.

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Basis and tools for a sustainable development of estuaries and coastal areas

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A case study from Cullera Bay M. Mestres, A. Sa´nchez-Arcilla, J.P. Sierra and C. Mo¨sso Laboratori d’Enginyeria Marı´tima, Universitat Polite`cnica de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain

J. Gonza´lez del Rı´o and M. Rodilla Laboratorio de Tecnologı´as del Medio Ambiente, Universidad Polite´cnica de Valencia, Valencia, Spain Keywords Sustainable development, Environmental management, Modelling, Spain Abstract The Bay of Cullera is an example of a multi-source polluted coastal environment. As a result of the combined discharge from the Ju´car River and the sewage from a marine outfall, the Cullera coastal area presents occasionally severe water quality problems. The enhanced knowledge obtained for the most relevant processes affecting the quality of coastal and estuarine waters will lead to the production of suitable strategies and criteria for a sustainable development of these areas. This, together with the generation of a set of scientifically supported alternative policies directed to improve coastal water management, is the main goal of this paper and of the ECOSUD European research project.

Introduction The economic relevance of coastal and estuarine regions is unquestionable in today’s world. Important economic activities such as fisheries, tourism, industry or agriculture (which account for a high percentage of the income of many countries), depend on the quality of estuarine and coastal waters. Additionally, these areas provide the environment in which a wide range of valuable natural functions take place. However, the growth of human-related activity in coastal and estuarine zones has led to a progressive degradation of these environments. The practice of intensive agriculture in river basins, and the proliferation of marine outfalls and sewage disposal systems discharging into rivers, represents a dramatic increase in the volume of nutrients dumped into the sea. Simultaneously, the increase in human population complicates and hinders the development and management of coastal resources on a sustainable basis. The final result is a polluted and eutrophised waterbody, whose poor quality poses almost insurmountable threats on the local ecological and economic equilibrium. The authors acknowledge the support given by the European Union to this work, through the ECOSUD Research Project (Contract no. IC4-CT-2001-10020) from the INCO-DC Programme.

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Within this framework, the aim of the ECOSUD research project (Mo¨sso et al., 2002), funded by the European Union, is to provide answers to this problem based on three main objectives. The first one is to improve the existing knowledge on the processes controlling coastal water quality. This will allow to increase the reliability of predictive tools, and to derive a set of indicators to monitor the waterbodies’s “state of health”. The second objective is to produce a set of strategies and criteria that can be used for the sustainable planning and development of estuarine and coastal areas. The third aim is to provide a series of scientifically supported alternative policy interventions to improve coastal water management. This will lead to an alternative use and development of coastal resources maintaining a social, economic and ecological equilibrium. The project starts with a series of field campaigns for the two study sites (Cullera Bay, on the Spanish Mediterranean coast, and Patos Lagoon, in Southern Brazil). These campaigns will allow a characterisation of physico-chemical processes and the calibration of a suite of numerical models to simulate hydrodynamics and pollutant dispersion. This will lead to the development of a set of physical, biological and geochemical “sustainability” or “health” indicators. Study area Cullera bay is located on the Spanish Mediterranean coast (Figure 1). The Ju´car river, whose flow rate presents a typical Mediterranean seasonal pattern, discharges into the bay, and represents the main source of nutrients into the

Figure 1. Cullera Bay: measuring and sampling stations

domain. A secondary source of nutrients is a nearby marine outfall, which occasionally discharges untreated wastewater directly into the sea. Because of its shape and hydrodynamics, the bay presents serious environmental problems that are aggravated during the summer season, when the Cullera population rises by an order of magnitude (to about 250,000 inhabitants), and the prevailing winds blow from the East-Southeast. This forcing drives pollutants from the river and marine outfall discharges to the northern part of the bay. Field campaigns Measurements A total of nine field campaigns (of which five have already been done) will be carried out throughout the year (three in summer, and two during each of the other seasons) to characterise the physical and bio-geochemical state of the estuary and bay. Five different types of measurements were obtained: (1) CTD profiles: salinity, temperature, water depth, pH, redox potential and DO at were recorded at different sampling stations using a Seabird 25 CTD and a Hydrolab Surveyor 3 multi-parametric probe. (2) Water samples: salinity, chloride, suspended solids, chlorophyll a, ammonium, nitrate, nitrite, SRP, TDP, TP and silicate were analysed in the laboratory. In some samples, BOD and bacterial pathogens (total and faecal coliforms and faecal streptococcus) were also analysed. (3) Sediment samples: SOD, organic matter, TN and TP were analysed. (4) Currentmeters: current fields were measured at two locations (stations M1 and M2 in Figure 1). These data are used as boundary conditions for numerical models. (5) Wind characteristics: wind speed and direction. Meteorological forcing is the main driving agent for local hydrodynamics. Preliminary results The data obtained from the two first campaigns, carried out during June and July, 2002, reveal that important variations in water salinity, correlated with the magnitude of the river output flow, are observed in the neighbourhood of the river mouth. Moreover, the gradients of all sampled water quality parameters are primarily controlled by local winds. The main factors affecting nutrient and salinity gradients in the bay are, in this order, river discharge, wind speed and direction, and nearshore hydrodynamics. On the other hand, the vertical salinity gradients are driven mainly by these nearshore hydrodynamics, while the evaporation-rainfall relationship is of little importance (Soler et al., 1988). The river freshwater is mixed with the bay’s seawater by the wind and wavefield in summer (low mixing intensity) and by

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more energetic wave and wind storms in autumn and winter. The maximum values of salinity inside the bay correspond, thus, to these latter seasons. The highest nutrient concentration can be found in the region near the river mouth and outfall. There is a clear gradient between the highly eutrophised waters from the Ju´car River, and the cleaner waters from outside the bay. The concentration and distribution of nutrients within the bay present a seasonal behaviour, depending on the input volume and the magnitude of the mixing processes described above. In summer the nutrient input is larger, and the mixing smaller, which implies that during this season the concentration of nutrients will be highest, as confirmed by the recurrent phytoplankton blooms that occur in the bay. In the past twenty years, the original oligotrophic benthic-based ecosystem of the bay has been transformed into a eutrophic plankton-based system (by the intense industrialisation of the area, the dramatic increase in local population, and intense overfishing by trawling). The result has been a drop in marine diversity, a drastic decrease in the number of benthic and demersal species, and a fall in the economic profitability of the bay’s resources. Numerical modelling Two different models have been used to predict the behaviour of the river and outfall plumes in Cullera Bay. Both models are briefly described below. Numerical models The well-known COHERENS model (Luyten, 1999) has been used to simulate the hydrodynamic field induced by the wind and the river discharges in Cullera Bay. The model solves the continuity, momentum, temperature and salinity balance equations, assuming vertical hydrostatic equilibrium, in a (x, y, s) reference system. The mathematical model is discretised using conservative finite differences. In the horizontal plane, an Arakawa “C” grid is chosen, staggering currents and pressure/elevation nodes. The use of the s coordinate allows an accurate representation of surface and bottom boundary processes. A “mode-splitting” technique is used to solve the momentum equations, whereby the depth-integrated continuity and momentum laws are solved for the barotropic mode using a small timestep, while the 3D momentum equations are solved for the baroclinic mode using a larger timestep. A predictor-corrector step is applied to the horizontal momentum equations to guarantee that the depth-integrated currents obtained from the 2D and the 3D mode equations are identical. COHERENS also includes the possibility of using different numerical schemes (upwind, Lax-Wendroff, TVD) for the advection of momentum and horizontal diffusion. On the other hand, the transport model LIMMIX (Mestres, 2002; Sa´nchez-Arcilla et al., 1998) used to simulate the behaviour of the river and outfall plumes is based on a Lagrangian particle approach to solve the 3D

convection-diffusion equation. This type of formulation is particularly suitable because the freshwater plumes will occupy only a fractional part of the computational domain. Moreover, the behaviour of pollutants is best simulated with such a particle by particle “control” in which the mass conservation is “automatically” satisfied within the computational scheme. The numerical code solves the following set of equations, which are a discretisation of the 3D Fokker-Planck equation (Tompson and Gelhar, 1990): xin ¼ xin
1 þ uin
1 Dt

i ¼ 1; 2; 3;

ð1Þ

where xim is the xi coordinate of each particle at timestep m, and u jn2 1 ( j ¼ 1; 2) and u 3n2 1 are the horizontal and vertical components of the “net velocities” responsible for particle transport. A detailed description of the LIMMIX model and algorithms used to map particle positions into concentration distributions can be found in Mestres (2002). Simulated cases: preliminary results The case selected to analyse pollutant dynamics in Cullera Bay corresponds to summer conditions. During this season the river flow is (because of climatic conditions) at a minimum and the outfall discharge is (because of touristic pressure) at a maximum. The wastewater effluent discharge is, therefore, the main source of pollution under these conditions. Two different situations have been modelled: case J1, corresponding to the June 2002 campaign, and case J2, using data from the September 2002 field campaign. This covers the typical and exceptional summer behaviour of the bay, since the late summer of 2002 was, climatologically speaking, an “abnormal” period. During the first campaign, the prevailing wind blew from the East, slowly changing to the Southeast throughout the day, with speeds ranging from about 2m/s (in the morning) to 3.5m/s in the afternoon. The hydrodynamic surface circulation patterns obtained from COHERENS at three different times, using the observed wind field, are depicted below (Figure 2). The recirculation pattern and associated stagnant areas are due to the barrier effect exerted by the northern cape. The lower part of Figure 2 shows the outfall plumes supplied by LIMMIX. The trapping effect is also apparent. The wind parameters observed during the third campaign (September 2002) differed from previous conditions both in direction and speed. In the morning, the prevailing wind was from the Northwest, with typical speeds of about 3.5m/s. Around midday, the wind changed drastically, blowing from the East with speeds up to 9m/s. This “abnormal” driving is perceived in both the circulation and outfall plume numerically obtained. The simulated results for different times also show the variability of the wind field (see Figure 3). As it is apparent from both simulations, the behaviour of the effluent plume is fully controlled by the existing wind field. This is particularly evident in the simulations corresponding to case J2, in which drastic variations of the wind

Cullera Bay case study

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Figure 2. Surface hydrodynamic fields (above) and associated outfall plumes (below) corresponding to 18 June 2002 at: 10:30 (left); 14:30 (centre); and 16:30 (right)

field are rapidly followed by changes in the direction of plume propagation. In both cases, the effluent plume affects the beaches closest to the outfall, although the estimated “effluent” concentrations at the coast are relatively low. However, the considered simulation conditions correspond to the summer season, when the beaches are expected to be crowded with tourists, and the hazardous effects of even such concentrations should be considered. Conclusions The water quality in Cullera Bay is mainly controlled by the nutrient-rich freshwater discharge from the Ju´car River and the wastewater effluent from the local marine outfall. Nevertheless, other natural factors, such as the shape of the bay, its shallowness, and the prevailing wind pattern contribute significantly to determine the quality of the bay’s waters. The combination of all these elements leads to frequent eutrophication events within the bay, provoking a series of undesired consequences (uncontrollable proliferation of

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Figure 3. Surface hydrodynamic fields (above) and associated outfall plumes (below) corresponding to 5 September 2002 at: 12:15 (left); 14:15 (centre); and 16:15 (right)

opportunistic species, appearance of algal and jellyfish blooms and regression of autochthonous sea grass) which negatively affect both the local economy and the ecological balance in the area. Field campaigns undertaken in the bay have revealed that the observed high nutrient concentration levels result from the river and outfall discharges, defining a clear gradient between the river mouth and the cleaner waters outside the bay. High values of nutrient concentrations are found in the northern part of the bay, due to the complex wind-induced circulation and also, to a lesser degree, to the seeping of continental waters. Numerical simulation of currents and dispersion of the wastewater effluent confirm that the northern section of the bay acts as a trap for water-borne substances under typical wind conditions. The simulations show that the dynamics of the effluent plume are mainly driven by the local wind, whereas the forcing due to the general circulation pattern and existing wave field appears to play a secondary role. The same applies to the river hydraulic discharge which needs only be considered (as a “driver” for the circulation

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field) for the southern part of the bay and for relatively large freshwater discharges occurring typically from the end of autumn to the beginning of spring. The wave field plays an important role for the circulation pattern in the nearshore zone and is also a significant mixing mechanism throughout the domain. Its effects are, therefore, relevant for the water quality inside the bay and, particularly, in the bathing zone closest to the shoreline. References Luyten, P.J. (Ed.) (1999), “COHERENS – dissemination and exploitation of a coupled hydrodynamical-ecological model for regional and shelf seas”, MAS3-CT97-0088, final report, MUMM Internal Report, Management Unit of the Mathematical Models, 76 pp. Mestres, M. (2002), “Three-dimensional simulation of pollutant dispersion in coastal waters”, PhD thesis, Technical University of Catalonia, Barcelona, 376 pp. Mo¨sso, C., Sa´nchez-Arcilla, A., Sierra, J.P., Mestres, M., Gonza´lez, D. and Gonza´lez del Rı´o, J. (2002), “Tools for a sustainable development of estuaries and coastal areas”, International MEDCOAST Workshop on Beaches of the Mediterranean and the Black Sea: Dynamics, Regeneration, Ecology and Management, Dalaman, 24-27 October. Sa´nchez-Arcilla, A., Rodriguez, A. and Mestres, M. (1998), “A three-dimensional simulation of pollutant dispersion for the near- and far-field in coastal waters”, Journal of Marine and Environmental Enginering, Vol. 4, pp. 217-43. Soler, E., Gonza´lez del Rı´o, J. and Diez, J. (1988), “Study on the variations of an eutrophic ecosystem from the Spanish Mediterranean littoral: data to have in mind in the nutrient dumping to the sea”, International Conference on Coastal Engineering, chapter 194, pp. 2615-25. Tompson, A. and Gelhar, L. (1990), “Numerical simulation of solute transport in three dimensional, randomly heterogeneous porous media”, Water Resources Research, Vol. 26 No. 10, pp. 2541-62.

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The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at www.emeraldinsight.com/1477-7835.htm

The eco-efficiency of regions – case Kymenlaakso ECOREG project 2002-2004

ECOREG project 2002-2004

33

Matti Melanen and Sirkka Koskela Finnish Environment Institute, Helsinki, Finland

Ilmo Ma¨enpa¨a¨ Thule Institute, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland

Marja-Riitta Hiltunen Finnish Environment Institute, Helsinki, Finland

Mika Toikka Southeast Finland Regional Environment Centre, Kouvola, Finland Keywords Ecology, Public opinion, Public interest, Environmental management, Finland Abstract The ECOREG project, which is funded by the Life-Environment programme, aims to demonstrate the concept and implementation of eco-efficiency, using the Finnish Kymenlaakso region as a case study. Indicators for regional eco-efficiency, combining the ecological, economic, social and cultural aspects of development, will be designed and quantified for the year 2000. A long-term (2005, 2010, . . .) mechanism will also be prepared for evaluating progress made in regional eco-efficiency in Kymenlaakso and for prioritizing actions needed for further improvement.

Introduction “Eco-efficiency is reached by the delivery of competitively priced goods and services that satisfy human needs and bring quality of life, while progressively reducing ecological impacts and resource intensity throughout the life cycle, to a level at least in line with the earth’s estimated carrying capacity” (Lehni, 1998). In this definition, eco-efficiency is considered to encompass all the three dimensions (ecological, economic, social and cultural) of sustainable development. Eco-efficiency can be viewed from many perspectives. These include the macro-economic level (the national economy), the meso-economic level (the region) and the micro-economic level (the company). In concrete terms, the following developments are characteristic while companies and other institutions strive to improve eco-efficiency by decreasing material flows and, at the same time, adding more value: reducing the materials and energy intensity of goods and services; reducing toxic dispersion; enhancing material recyclability; maximising (sustainable) use of renewable resources; extending product durability; and increasing the service intensity of goods (e.g. Ytterhus, 1997). The support given by the LIFE financial instrument of the European Community and the Finnish Ministry of the Environment for the ECOREG project is gratefully acknowledged.

Management of Environmental Quality: An International Journal Vol. 15 No. 1, 2004 pp. 33-40 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 1477-7835 DOI 10.1108/14777830410513586

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Recently, a growing interest has focused on regional eco-efficiency, which is based on developing the eco-efficiency potential of individual regions (e.g. Hinterberger et al., 2000). In Finland, an ongoing (2002-2004) Life-Environment project “The eco-efficiency of regions – case Kymenlaakso (ECOREG)” aims to demonstrate the practical implementation of eco-efficiency at the regional level using the Finnish Kymenlaakso region (Figure 1) as a case study. In this capacity, the ECOREG project contributes to the achievement of the goals of the Sixth Community Environment Action Programme 2001-2010, the Green Paper on Integrated Product Policy, and the IPPC Directive.

The ECOREG project in a nutshell Aims and study region As a demonstration project, ECOREG includes the following main actions: . designing indicators for regional eco-efficiency and quantifying them for Kymenlaakso for the year 2000; . using the indicators for evaluating policies and designing future priorities in Kymenlaakso; . preparing a long-term (2005, 2010, . . .) mechanism for evaluating progress made in regional eco-efficiency in Kymenlaakso and for prioritizing actions needed for further improvement; . generalizing the mechanism for use in other regions of Finland and the EU; and . arranging workshops in Kymenlaakso for disseminating the project results and discussing them with the regional actors. The Kymenlaakso region offers a versatile starting point for the demonstration of the diverse aspects of regional eco-efficiency:

Figure 1. The Kymenlaakso region, Finland

.

.

.

Its nature is vulnerable to environmental pressure. As an example, the ECOREG project region is adjacent to the eastern Gulf of Finland, a sea area suffering from 2002-2004 severe eutrophication. Heavy process industry – mainly forest industry – dominates the industrial structure. The environmental risks of transportation are significant, especially due to road, train and ship traffic through the 35 region, and due to two big seaports (Kotka and Hamina) by the Gulf of Finland. The superior economic performance in recent years, especially in the local industry, has not fully been reflected in the regional economy. In terms of population, Kymenlaakso is slowly declining.

Organisation The ECOREG project is carried out by two research institutions, the Finnish Environment Institute (coordinator) and the University of Oulu, Thule Institute, as well as two key actors in the case region, the Southeast Finland Regional Environment Centre and the Regional Council of Kymenlaakso. The project has a homepage at: www.ymparisto.fi/eng/research/euproj/ ecoreg/ecoreg.htm Methodology and work packages The innovative feature of the ECOREG project lies in: . combining the newest methodologies, such as life cycle assessment (LCA) and material flow analysis (MFA), statistical data generally available in the EU member states, and diverse indicators to construct measures of progress made in regional eco-efficiency; . involving regional actors (economic actors, municipalities, authorities, NGOs) in assessing the indicators and in agreeing on a long-term evaluation and prioritization mechanism in pursuit of increased eco-efficiency. Seven interrelated work packages will be carried out (Figure 2). First, ecological, economic and social and cultural indicators for regional development will be designed. The ecological indicators will be based on an environmental analysis of the major activity sectors (industry, forestry, transportation, etc.) of Kymenlaakso using the principles and techniques of LCA. Regional accounts and industrial statistics will serve as a basis for computing monetary input-output tables that describe the interconnections between the economic sectors. Physical input-output tables will also be compiled, which depict the flow of materials through the regional economy. Finland’s national indicators for sustainable development will provide the point of departure in the design of social and cultural indicators.

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Figure 2. The work packages of the ECOREG project

The indicators constructed in the first three work packages will be merged into indicators for regional eco-efficiency in the fourth one. Simultaneously, a mechanism for updated evaluation will be established. Selected indicators will be quantified for Kymenlaakso for the year 2000, and to the extent possible their historical development since the mid-1990s will also be examined, in order to assess the direction of development already during the project. The Finnish Environment Institute (SYKE) and the Thule Institute have in recent years been active in developing methodologies, the use of which the ECOREG project strives to demonstrate with a focus on regional eco-efficiency. SYKE has elaborated methods for life cycle impact assessment, based on the use of a decision analysis framework and the inclusion of site-specific aspects (e.g. Seppa¨la¨ et al., 2002a, b). The methodology has been applied in Finland to several product-oriented and sector-oriented, and also region-oriented, assessments (e.g. Seppa¨la¨ et al., 2002b; Tenhunen and Seppa¨la¨, 2000). SYKE was also the national focal point in the design of Finland’s indicators for sustainable development (Rosenstro¨m and Palosaari, 2000). The Thule Institute is the leading Finnish institution in the assessment of physical and monetary product and material flows on a national scale within the input-output framework (e.g. Ma¨enpa¨a¨, 2002a, b). Preliminary results Due to the early stage of the project (started in September 2002), only a few characterising factors and tentative findings are presented here. The economic characteristics of the Kymenlaakso region The level of economic activity in Kymenlaakso, measured per capita, is slightly higher than the average in Finland or in the EU-15 (Figure 1). The region is highly industrialized: the share of secondary production of value added was 42 per cent in the year 2000.

In the second half of the 1990s, however, the growth rate of total production ECOREG project in Kymenlaakso was only two-thirds of the average in Finland (Figure 3). The 2002-2004 Kymenlaakso region lacks an intensive ICT sector, which served as the growth engine of the Finnish economy in the late 1990s. The forest industry accounts for 26 per cent of the total value added and over 60 per cent of the secondary production in Kymenlaakso (Table I). 37 Transport is also important, mainly due to the seaports of Kotka and Hamina. Their share of the total cargo transported via the ports of Finland was 7 per cent of imports and 21 per cent of exports in 2000. The Kotka and Hamina ports handle 75 per cent of the total transit cargo through Finland to and from Russia (Finnish Maritime Administration, 2002).

Figure 3. Average annual growth rates of production in Kymenlaakso and Finland 1995-2000

Activity sector Agriculture, hunting and fishing Forestry, logging and related service activities Mining and quarrying Manufacture of food products, beverages and tobacco Forest industry Other industries Electricity, gas and water supply Construction Trade, hotels and restaurants Transport, storage and communication Letting and operation of dwellings Other services Total

Kymenlaakso 1995 2000

Finland 2000

1.8 2.1 0.2

1.1 2.2 0.1

1.3 2.4 0.2

2.3 26.4 9.2 1.5 3.5 7.5 12.2 8.3 25.1 100.0

1.7 25.7 7.8 1.2 5.6 6.3 17.1 8.6 22.6 100.0

1.6 7.4 17.5 1.7 5.8 11.3 10.6 9.1 31.1 100.0

Source: Statistics Finland, Regional and National Accounts 1993-2001, available at: www.stat.fi

Table I. The shares (per cent) of various activity sectors of the total value added in Kymenlaakso 1995 and 2000 and in Finland 2000

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Statistics Finland has compiled regional input-output tables of Finland for the year 1995. On the basis of these tables, the aggregate supply and use balance of product flows in Kymenlaakso in the mid-1990s can be calculated (Figure 4). More than half of the value of the products was generated in the region itself, one-third was imported from the other regions of Finland and 15 per cent from abroad. On the use side, only 45 per cent of the value was left for consumption and investments in Kymenlaakso, while 19 per cent of the product flow was directed to other parts of Finland, and 36 per cent to foreign countries. The imports of the forest industry covered 40 per cent of the region’s imports from Finland and about one-third of the foreign imports. On the export side, the forest industry accounted for one-third of the exports to Finland and for 77 per cent of the foreign exports. Key factors in the material flows Kymenlaakso is a centre of the forest industry, the material flows of which mainly originate from natural resources (wood, filling minerals, energy carriers) extracted outside the region. The location of the forest industry in the region is essentially based on the export possibilities offered by the Kotka and Hamina seaports. Thus, augmented by the transit transports, the material throughput of the economy is high. In the ECOREG project, the monetary input-output (i/o) table of Kymenlaakso will be updated for the year 2000 and an analogous physical input-output table will be estimated. By means of the i/o tables, the following questions can be addressed. What are the direct and indirect shares of the region’s own final use and exports of the total material input to the economy? How is the future growth prospect of the economy mirrored in the total material input? How would possible material savings in specific parts of the economy affect the total material flows?

Figure 4. Supply and use balance of product flows in the economy of Kymenlaakso 1995

Activity sector Agriculture Forestry Fish farming Extraction of peat Extraction of gravel, sand and rock Manufacturing Municipalities Energy generation Landfills Wastewaters Transportation Road Rail Ship

CO2

Emissions to air (tonnes/a) NOx N2O SO2 CH4

126,000 9,310

398 117

453 3.9

1,710

24

0.7

9,251 1,850,000

50 5,350

327

7 2,310

8 5,180

674,000

1,390

488

1,200

11 3,490

438,000 401,000 9,420 26,900

4,170 3,490 81 599

40.6 40.6

27 10 1.9

274 10.4 11.7 252

2,430 1.4 0.09

63 63

HC 53 70 3.5

Emissions to waters (tonnes/a) P N 196 6.6 3.3 0.3

1,110 66.8 27.1 9.6

43

410

15

555

1,300 1,280 7.3 17.7

The environment and environmental pressure Almost 70 per cent of the total area of Kymenlaakso is covered by forests and 16 per cent by arable land. Lakes and rivers account for 9 per cent of the total area. The coastline of the Gulf of Finland is 100 kilometres long. In the region, there are 12 municipalities, seven of which can be characterized as rural. In the regional environmental analysis, the first step is an inventory for assessing emissions and other interventions caused by the various activity sectors. Next, an environmental impact assessment, applying LCA techniques, will be carried out on the basis of the inventory analysis. For the inventory analysis, a massive set of regional data will be compiled and processed. The data will be provided by, inter alia, Statistics Finland, the Finnish Environment Institute and the VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland. In Table II, some tentative estimates of emissions are presented. References Finnish Maritime Administration (2002), Statistics on Shipping Between Finland and Foreign Countries, Finnish Maritime Statistics 2002:4, Finnish Maritime Administration, Helsinki. Hinterberger, F., Bamberger, K., Manstein, C., Schepelmann, P., Schneider, F. and Psangerberg, J. (2000), Eco-efficiency of Regions: How to Improve Competitiveness and Create Jobs by Reducing Environmental Pressure, Government of Carinthia, Austrian Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, Environment and Water, SERI, Vienna. Lehni, M. (1998), State-of-play Report, WBCSD project on eco-efficiency metrics & reporting, World Business Council for Sustainable Development, Conches-Geneva.

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Table II. Emissions to air and waters from selected sectors in the Kymenlaakso region in 2000

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Ma¨enpa¨a¨, I. (2002a), “Physical input-output tables of Finland 1995 – solutions to some basic methodological problems”, paper presented at the 14th International Conference on Input-Output Techniques, 10-15 October, Montre´al, available at: http://io2002conference. uqam.ca/english/frameset/fs_conf_papers.html ¨ Maenpa¨a¨, I. and Juutinen, A. (2002b), “Materials flows in Finland: resource use in a small open economy”, Journal of Industrial Ecology, Vol. 5 No. 3, pp. 33-48. Rosenstro¨m, U. and Palosaari, M. (Eds) (2000), Signs of Sustainability – Finland’s Indicators for Sustainable Development 2000, The Finnish Environment 404, Finnish Environment Institute, Helsinki, available at: www.ymparisto.fi/palvelut/julkaisu/elektro/sy404/ sy404.htm (in Finnish). Seppa¨la¨, J., Basson, L. and Norris, G.A. (2002a), “Decision analysis frameworks for life-cycle impact assessment”, Journal of Industrial Ecology, Vol. 5 No. 4, pp. 45-68. Seppa¨la¨, J., Koskela, S., Melanen, M. and Palperi, M. (2002b), “The Finnish metals industry and the environment”, Resources, Conservation and Recycling, Vol. 35 No. 1-2, pp. 61-76. Tenhunen, J. and Seppa¨la¨, J. (Eds) (2000), Regional Environmental Analysis: Case of the Etela¨-Savo Region, Finland, Finnish Environment Institute, Helsinki (in Finnish). Ytterhus, B.E. (1997), The Greening of Industry with Focus on Eco-efficiency: The Concept, a Case and Some Evidence, Discussion Paper 12, NSM (BI), Oslo.

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Exploitation of renewable energy sources and sustainable management of the territory

Wind farms in Regione Liguria

41

Wind farms in Regione Liguria Paola Solari and Gabriella Minervini EIA Office, Regione Liguria, Genova, Italy Keywords Wind power, Birds, Maps, Geographic information systems, Italy Abstract The need to enhance the exploitation of renewable energy resources marked the starting point in the development of wind farms, also in Regione Liguria. However, the Ligurian sites that are suitable from an anemometric point of view are very exposed and are also of outstanding natural value. In order to simplify procedures and to apply high environmental protection levels, some project requirements and requested mitigation and compensation actions were fixed. Some criteria were stated to identify the areas that are unsuitable to wind installations because of their landscape or wildlife characteristics. By using the GIS of the Regione Liguria, a dedicated information system describing the unsuitable areas was produced; the system is made by a synoptic layer that merges all the areas where at least one of the penalising factors is fulfilled, in addition to single layers that keep their own information content. The map is available on the Internet (www.regione.liguria.it), and it represents an essential reference for any upcoming measures in the field of wind energy exploitation.

Introduction Awareness on the part of the international community of sustainable development, and the need to enhance the exploitation of renewable rather than non-renewable resources is increasing. The phenomenon is particularly marked in the field of energy generation, where the aim is not only to favour the use of alternative fuels, but also to improve technology and to develop new ways of energy production with low greenhouse gas emissions. Developments at the international and European level have been tracked by Italian legislation, which in liberalising the energy market requires energy producers to utilise a stated share of renewable sources. Exploitation of wind energy would seem to be the answer to sustainable development demands; however, the installations impact heavily on the environment. The locating of wind resources areas and design of wind plants must take territorial features into consideration, in order to balance the benefits of “clean” technology with related environmental costs. The authors would like to thank Barbara Pettinari and Marzia Riminucci for their help in elaborating the map, and Fulvio Morlacchini and Alberto Alloisio for data processing assistance.

Management of Environmental Quality: An International Journal Vol. 15 No. 1, 2004 pp. 41-47 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 1477-7835 DOI 10.1108/14777830410513595

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The regional context: energy planning and EIA procedures Energy planning in the Regione Liguria fixes the targets for the exploitation of renewable sources over the next few years, including wind, biomass, sun and water. Renewable sources account for 7 per cent of total regional energy production. In achieving its aims, the Energy Plan must take into account the environmental insertion of energy plants in the territory, the quality of the project and expected mitigation and compensation actions. This is also true for wind plants. The Plan does not locate the wind resource areas; in order to define the environmental performance of each project, it refers to the Regional Authority dealing with environmental impact assessment (EIA). The Regional Law n. 38/98, concerning EIA, subjects wind farm projects to the “screening” procedure. Both the literature and experience show that the environmental areas mainly affected are landscape and bird life. Environmental impact of wind farms Wind turbine design has progressed and brought with it improvements in the environmental performance of installations in recent years, thanks to useful suggestions coming from environmental evaluation. For instance, the size (Strickland et al., 1998), the tubular shape of the support, the low speed of the blades have also been conceived in order to prevent birds from nesting on the pylons and to reduce the risk of collision (Osborn et al., 2001; Orloff and Flannery, 1996). Some precautions have been proposed to make the wind turbines more easily visible to birds (McIsaac, 2000; Hodos et al., 2000). However, the need to make the structure more visible to animals is at odds with the need to minimise the impact on the landscape. Birds of prey are most affected by wind energy plants, mainly because they use the wind for hunting and their sight while hunting is so concentrated on the prey that they loose the capability of perceiving the blades (Erickson et al., 1999; Anderson et al., 1998). Several collisions were reported for bats, too (Strickland et al., 1998). Risks for bird life go beyond actual harm posed through physical impact, such as against the blades, and can result in loss of habitat (Magrini, 2001) and in behavioural alterations. Changes may arise due to a direct cause, for instance the barrier effect of wind farms on migration routes (Dirksen et al., 1998), or may result from indirect causes such as the change in habits of the prey (Smallwood et al., 2000; Leddy et al., 1997). The risk of collision is not only associated with the turbines, but also with connected electric lines (Orloff and Flannery, 1992). Sustainable management of wind energy exploitation in the Ligurian territory The Ligurian territory has a good wind potential; historical series of data available for some monitoring stations show good levels in wind speed and

quite regular distribution of direction. But the sites with the best anemometric characteristics, and most suitable for wind installations because of their morphology, are often of outstanding natural and landscape value. In fact they mainly coincide with highly exposed ridge zones which are used as hunting or nesting areas or migration corridors by birds that are protected by the European Union Directives. The need to simplify EIA procedures, to make them clearer, and to establish a reference context for planning, led us to fix some criteria that allow for the identification of areas that, due to their high landscape and natural importance, are considered unsuitable for wind plants. In line with the Regional Energy Plan, specific project requirements were also identified as were other guiding principles such as minimum distance (between single turbines and from the electricity system) and ease of access to wind resource areas. Mitigations like hiding, filling in of connections to electricity system, restoration of vegetation, etc., have also been identified (see the list below). Moreover, priority has been assigned to the placing of wind plants in environmentally compromised areas, and great importance has been given to compensation actions, such as like the burying of sections of existing electricity lines, or the replacement of existing pylons, even when used for different purposes (repeaters, aerials, etc.). Finally, guidelines for the compilation of documents suitable for developing the environmental impact assessment procedure (screening) were drawn up. The project requirements and documents for EIA procedures contents (DGR n. 966/02) are: (1) Project requirements: . tubular pylons; . blades with low speed of rotation; . precautions for making the turbines visible to birds, consistently with the need of their insertion in the landscape; . burying of electricity lines; . minimum distance from the electricity system; . hiding of electric boxes; . minimum distance between two pylons: at least five diameters of the rotors in the main direction of the wind and at least three in the direction orthogonal to the main direction; in any case the “barrier” or “forest” effect must be avoided; . reuse of existing road networks; . placing in environmentally compromised areas; . suitable compensation actions (replacing of old plants, trellis, aerial electric lines, etc.);

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restoration of vegetation cover; anticipation of final restoration of the site, at the end of the plant life. (2) Documents required for EIA procedures: . project, with alternatives about location and technology; . analyses of anemometric features and assessment of productivity of the plant; . geologic analyses and precautions to avoid local erosion phenomena; . acoustic impact assessment; . bionaturalistic analyses, concerning also electric line, the requested infrastructures and the building phase; . landscape impact assessment, by identifying significant architectural or historical sites from where the turbines are visible. . .

.

Criteria for the definition of “unsuitable” areas for wind plants The criteria were fixed in accordance with the indications coming from the Environment Ministry and the Landscape and Artistic Heritage Ministry. They led us to identify the following areas: . protected areas and sites of significant importance due to the presence of birds species identified in the “Birds” European Directive – Annex I[1]; . migration routes; . nest-building and hunting areas of birds of prey or rare birds in general; . areas close to caves that are habitat for bats; . conservation areas according to landscape planning (CE of PTCP – regional landscape planning); . areas included in the visual field of architectural and historical significant sites (ME of PTCP). The aim is to protect the most sensitive environmental elements in the above-stated areas. A high level of environmental protection is applied. Specific analyses must then be targeted to investigate the significance of the presence of priority habitats or species and to estimate their impact exposure resulting from wind plant installations. These analyses will be carried out at the level required for a comprehensive environmental impact assessment procedure. As far as the landscape is concerned, together with the inadmissibility of installations in some areas due to law enforcement (CE areas of PTCP), specific studies must also define the quality and extent of the interference with significant historical and architectural elements. Because of the importance of the above-mentioned areas, negative interference and residual impacts that cannot be mitigated are considered inadmissible.

The map of non-suitable areas The Geographical Information System of Regione Liguria gave us the possibility, via Geomedia, to design a dedicated information system. The first step was the building, through some specific queries, of the following layers: . Wind map: yearly average speed and direction of wind are available for the whole Liguria. The map was built by interpolating some existing data and taking into account the complex morphology of the territory. The map is a product of the Physics Department of the University of Genoa. It is a preliminary datum, since a comprehensive anemometric characterisation is needed to understand the suitability of a site. . Areas to be preserved according to landscape regional planning (CE zones of PTCP). . Sites with architectural and historical significance (ME of PTCP). . Sites of Community importance (“Habitat” Directive[2]) because of the significant presence of bird life that is protected by the “Birds” European Directive – Annex I[1]. . Protected areas (national, regional and natural parks). Some new layers were created regarding: . Existing plants: the three existing wind resources areas were located on the map. At present, the total installed power is of 2.8MW, divided into three sites (two turbines in Varese Ligure, one in Bormida Osiglia and one in Calice Ligure). Four more turbines will be added in Varese Ligure and two more in Calice Ligure. Several requests were formulated for the carrying out of new projects. . Bird life: data concerning the passageways of migrators, or the presence of protected birds of prey or rare birds in general, were collected from studies carried out by the Department of Biological Sciences of the University of Genoa and by protectionist associations, and from the preparatory studies carried out by the provinces to design faunal and hunting plans. . Bats: using the existing map of registered caves, the knowledge of some speleological groups, and the above-mentioned sources, it was possible to organise some information about significant chiropteran populations. Further bio-natural information is essential in order to identify, within those areas classified as “sites of community importance” (SCI), the elements that are to be protected. In fact, SCIs were created by the European Union in order to protect habitats and species that are considered of importance due to their rarity or vulnerability. They hold information regarding complex natural systems and often include several of these habitats and species; the knowledge

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of the location of species that can be affected by wind energy plants can be useful for planners and designers, as well as serving as a guideline for impact investigations. The final product and its performance The final product is made up by all the mentioned layers and information, and is equipped with a synoptic layer that merges all the areas where at least one of the penalising factors is fulfilled. The synoptic layer allows those consulting the system to have a prompt graphic display of non-suitable areas, in order to understand immediately what the choice of a site implies. Each layer of the system can also be consulted independently and maintains its information content. The information system will be available to everybody on the Internet, since its rationale is to communicate regional environmental policy in the field of wind energy exploitation, and also to simplify possible enterprises in the wind energy field. Conclusions Clear and objective criteria for designing and locating wind plants in the Regione Liguria have twin benefits: first, they aim to guarantee a high level of environmental protection; second, they offer planners and designers clear directions. Resulting procedural simplifications represent positive externalities for public administration and business alike. The cartography of the criteria and the map of non-suitable areas, obtained by using modern data processing tools, and available to everybody through the Internet, allow for even more effective communication. The testing of the criteria and of the map will give some useful suggestions for their implementation and possible revision and improvement. It is work in progress: the next step will be the definition of the essential requirements of the analyses that have to be carried out on the bio-naturalistic components, and that are necessary in the context of EIA procedures in order to exclude irreversible environmental impacts. Notes 1. Council Directive 79/409/EEC of 2 April 1979 on the conservation of wild birds, http:// europa.eu.int/eur-lex/ 2. Council Directive 92/43/EEC of 21 May 1992 on the conservation of natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora, http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/ References Anderson, R., Erickson, W., Strickland, D., Tom, J. and Neumann, N. (1998), “Avian monitoring and risk assessment at Tehachapi Pass and S. Gorgonio Pass wind resources areas, California: phase 1, preliminary results”, Proceedings of National Avian-wind Power Planning Meeting III, May, San Diego, CA.

Dirksen, S.J., Spaans, A.L. and Van der Winden, J. (1998), “Nocturnal collision risk of birds with wind turbines in tidal and semi-off shore areas”, in Ratto, C.F. and Solari, G. (Eds), Wind Energy and Landscape – Proceedings of the International Workshop on Wind Energy and Landscape, A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp. 99-108. Erickson, W.P., Johnson, G.D., Strickland, M.D., Kronner, K., Becker, P.S. and Orloff, S. (1999), “Baseline avian use and behaviour at the CARES wind plant site, Klickitata County, Washington”, final report to National Renewable Energy Laboratory, by Western Ecosystem Technology Inc., Cheyenne, WY, and IBIS Environmental Services, San Rafael, CA. Hodos, W., Potocki, A., Storm, T. and Gaffney, M. (2000), “Reduction of motion smear to reduce avian collision with wind turbines”, Proceedings of National Avian-wind Power Planning Meeting IV, May, Carmel, CA. Leddy, K.L., Higgins, K.F. and Naugle, D.E. (1997), “Effects of wind turbines on upland nesting birds in conservation reserve program Grassland”, Wilson Bulletin, Vol. 111 No. 1, pp. 100-4. McIsaac, H.P. (2000), “Raptor acuity and wind turbine blade conspicuity”, Proceedings of National Avian-wind Power Planning Meeting IV, May, Carmel, CA. Magrini, M. (2001), “Considerazioni sull’importanza delle praterie montane dell’Umbria per l’avifauna e prima analisi bibliografica sull’impatto degli impianti eolici”, OIKOS Studio Naturalistico. Orloff, S. and Flannery, A. (1992), “Wind turbine effects on avian activity, habitat use, and mortality in Altamont Pass and Solano County wind resources areas”, paper prepared by Biosystems Analisys Inc. for the California Energy Commission, Sacramento, CA. Orloff, S. and Flannery, A. (1996), “A continued examination of avian mortality in the Altamont Pass wind resource area”, paper prepared by Biosystems Analisys Inc. for the California Energy Commission, Sacramento, CA. Osborn, R.G., Dieter, C.D., Higgins, K.F. and Usgaard, R.E. (2001), “Bird flight characteristics near wind turbines in Minnesota”, American Midland Naturalist, Vol. 139, pp. 29-38. Smallwood, K.S., Rugge, L., Hoover, S., Morrison, M.L. and Thelander, C.G. (2000), “Intra- and inter-turbine string comparison of fatalities to animal burrow densities at Altamont Pass”, Proceedings of National Avian-Wind Power Planning Meeting IV, May, Carmel, CA. Strickland, M.D., Johnson, G.D., Erickson, W.P., Sarappo, S.A. and Halet, R.M. (1998), “Avian use, flight behaviour and mortality on Buffalo ridge, Minnesota, wind resources area”, Proceedings of National Avian-wind Power Planning Meeting III, May, San Diego, CA. Further reading Protocollo di Intesa fra il Ministero dell’Ambiente e il Ministero dei Beni e le Attivita` Culturali, stipulato in data 7 giugno 2000 per favorire la diffusione delle fonti rinnovabili nella salvaguardia dei beni storici, artistici, architettonici, archeologici, paesaggistici ed ambientali, www.minambiente.it

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The protection of landscape as a resource Case study – Monte da Guia protected area (Faial-Azores) Lara Bulca˜o, Luı´s Ribeiro and Pedro Arse´nio Secc¸a˜o Auto´noma de Arquitectura Paisagista, Instituto Superior de Agronomia – Universidade Te´cnica de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal

Maria Manuela Abreu Departamento de Cieˆncias do Ambiente, Instituto Superior de Agronomia – Universidade Te´cnica de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal Keywords Biophysics, Environmental management, Resources, Portugal Abstract The evolution of the concept of landscape to incorporate components like cultural and socio-economic factors, in addition to the natural and aesthetic features, influenced the perception of landscape as a resource. On the other hand, the relationships between territorial features as well as the understanding of their temporal dynamics determine the significance of these features for the quality of a landscape and, consequently, for its conservation. This implies that all components – natural and physical, but also cultural and visual – upon which landscape quality is assessed, ought to be considered and studied globally. Natural resources and cultural heritage, however, are usually considered independently when developing protected areas management plans. Here, we present a methodology developed for the Monte da Guia management plan, which allows the interrelated analysis of landscape factors such as geology, geomorphology, pedology, flora and vegetation cover as well as the cultural and visual characters. Using the concepts of biophysical sensitivity and visual quality, we evaluated the relevance of these various factors for the determination of the state of equilibrium/degradation of a landscape, and hence for its conservation value. This methodology may contribute to the development of improved zoning maps and management guidelines determining land use and management strategies for the conservation of individual resources that, together, determine landscape quality.

Management of Environmental Quality: An International Journal Vol. 15 No. 1, 2004 pp. 48-54 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 1477-7835 DOI 10.1108/14777830410513603

Introduction The European Landscape Convention[1] conceives landscape as “an area, as perceived by people, whose character is the result of the action and interaction of natural and/or human factors”. This definition reflects the notion of evolution through time and reinforces the idea of landscape as a whole, where natural and cultural components are indissociable. Accordingly, landscape should be understood as a resource composed of the assembly of natural, physical, cultural, economic and visual components, and not only as their sum (Figure 1). From a sustainable development perspective, the protection of this resource requires actions “to ensure the upkeep of the totality of characteristic features of a landscape justified by its heritage value derived from its natural configuration and/or human activity” (European Landscape Convention.

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Figure 1. Conceptual diagram of landscape resource

Protected areas management plans (PAMP), as a type of landscape planning, aim to produce technical reports and zoning maps with guidelines and strategies to ensure the preservation of the characteristics that determine the quality and/or uniqueness of a landscape, through assigning land uses to the most suitable places (Turner, 1995; Marsh, 1991; McHarg, 1969). Generally, these plans are drawn upon methodologies in which natural and physical components are studied and assessed as separate entities, despite their interconnectivity. On the other hand, the cultural character of a landscape expresses the interaction of man with the territory. As such, this interaction is a display of socio-cultural influence and allows the acknowledgment of the connection between specific site features and the history of a society, thereby contributing to the uniqueness and identity of a landscape. Furthermore, landscape quality today is endowed with economic value (e.g. for tourism). Elements like historical, cultural, economic or aesthetic factors thus demand a joined and interrelated approach in which the relationships between them and with the physical and biological factors would be considered among the assessment criteria, because nature conservation together with the preservation of the cultural heritage of a territory values the landscape (McHarg, 1969; Lyle, 1985). In the present case study, Monte da Guia protected area, the methodological approach was based on the analysis of natural, physical, visual and cultural components, with emphasis on the dynamic relations established between them. This holistic evaluation allowed the establishment of a zoning map and the definition of protection measures.

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Development of the Monte da Guia management plan The methodology developed for the management plan of the Monte da Guia protected area (Faial Island, Azores Archipelago, Portugal) refers to a holistic concept of landscape as a resource, in which the various components like geology, geomorphology, pedology, relief, flora, vegetation cover and cultural heritage are analysed and evaluated assuming their inter-relations and dynamic equilibrium. It is based on the relevance of natural components, the constraints indicated in territorial plans and management servitudes (Guerra, 2000) and the cultural and visual character of the landscape (McHarg, 1969; Zube et al., 1975; Ribeiro et al., 2002). The interdisciplinary and parametric methodology was structured in three phases: (1) landscape analysis; (2) synthesis (biophysical sensitivity and visual quality); and (3) management plan (zoning map and guidelines), as shown in Figure 2. In the first phase, a series of landscape components were identified and characterized, namely relief features, geology-pedology, geomorphic dynamics, flora, vegetation cover and historical-cultural heritage. The latter component, which is rarely assessed in PAMP, is important as patrimonial character that needs to be protected, but also as a mean to understand how man’s presence shaped the territory through various actions and activities (e.g. agriculture, religion, recreation) and influenced the evolution of the landscape. The cultural component was assessed through its historical-cultural significance and integrity, that is, the capacity that features have to reflect past periods and events, on the basis of the physical remains and their relation with the surrounding landscape (McClelland et al., 1991). For this purpose, the history

Figure 2. Monte da Guia management plan methodology

(social, cultural, religious, economical and political aspects) of the location was studied to identify and characterize all features with respect to their antiquity, state of conservation, relevance to the understanding of the territory’s occupation, actual use and importance to the maintenance of the character of the landscape. Urban plans and administrative servitudes were also analysed and taken into consideration. The objective of phase 2, the synthesis phase, was to diagnose the conjoint importance of the characterised features for landscape quality and to evaluate its susceptibility to degradation, in order to delineate areas with special value for conservation. Here, the concepts of biophysical sensitivity and visual quality were devised in order to classify the territory in sub-areas, and assign a value to them. The delineation was based on the geographic co-occurrence of significant ecological, natural, historical-cultural and recreation resources (Lewis, 1964; Dawson, 1995; Fabos, 1996). Based in landscape sensitivity concept (Marsh, 1991; McHarg, 1969; Caˆmara, 1983), biophysical sensitivity allows assessing the degree of vulnerability of those components of the landscape with respect to impacts of natural origin and pressures of human nature (Ribeiro et al., 2002). The parameters used in the evaluation, geomorphology-pedology, geomorphic dynamics, vegetation cover and habitats, were assessed for their conservation value in an insular or Azorean context (e.g. the presence of endemic plants) and for their fragility and/or instability resulting from natural or human activities (e.g. trampling, marine erosion). Visual quality “is an evaluation method that intends to synthesize the scenic value and the cultural character of a landscape as well as their sensitivity to human activities” (Ribeiro et al., 2002; Shannon et al., 1995; Bureau of Land Management, 1975). Landscapes with high visual quality are usually more sensitive and, therefore, more prone to degradation (Caˆmara, 1983). The following parameters were considered: ridgelines, slope, aspect, cultural character, geomorphology-pedology, geomorphic dynamics, vegetation cover and habitats. These components were analysed for their relevance to the visibility of an area (e.g. diversity, contrast) and their aesthetic value, a subjective measurement that relies on the professional experience and judgment of the observer. Biophysical sensitivity and visual quality evaluations were obtained through the weighed combination of the specified parameters previously ordered according to their significance. The observation of the biophysical sensitivity map (Figure 3) allows the conclusion that the majority of the Monte da Guia territory is highly sensitive due to the presence of regional endemic plants (e.g. Erica scoparia ssp. azorica) and of vast areas submitted to intense morphogenesis processes. This evaluation is crucial for the establishment of a management plan because it indicates the existence of various zones with high susceptibility to start or increase degradation dynamics leading to the loss of natural resources. Similarly, the knowledge of the spatial distribution of the most significant visual areas is necessary to the guidance of human presence and interventions

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Figure 3. Biophysical sensitivity map of Monte da Guia

inside the studied site in order to ensure its conservation. The visual quality map (Figure 4) shows the predominance of high quality locations in the Monte da Guia protected area, as a result of the combined presence of features of high visual richness. The analysis of cultural heritage and its historical significance played an important role in the assessment of visual quality as it earmarked some areas that, otherwise, would not be highlighted for preservation. Indeed, these areas are located in disturbed zones displaying no stable geological condition or relevant vegetation cover, which are features that are usually compulsory for an area to be valorised in protection plans. The synthesis phase also took into consideration the evaluation of the planning tools with respect to potential opportunities (e.g. legal protection acts that prohibit construction) and threats (e.g. mobile phones antennas), and their impact on the establishment of the plan’s main objective – conciliation of nature conservation and human presence without disrupting landscape quality. These data were particularly relevant for the proposal of guidelines measures. In the last phase of Monte da Guia PAMP development, a zoning map was established where the different areas were ranked according to their natural

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Figure 4. Visual quality map of Monte da Guia

and cultural value as well as their integrity, allowing the definition of management strategies for conservation, rehabilitation and human use. The Plan, which is currently under public reviewing, will be made available after completion of the procedure. Conclusion The aim of Monte da Guia management plan was to achieve an effective and coherent management zoning taking into account the dynamic evolution of a landscape as well as its cultural and visual aspects, in order to ensure the conciliation of nature conservation and the presence of man. The study was made possible through a methodological approach based on the concept of landscape as a resource, which enabled classification of the territory according to a hierarchical system with respect to its susceptibility to natural and human degradation. Recognising the importance of dynamic processes and inter-relations between components for the interpretation of the genesis and evolution of the landscape was crucial to understanding how the territory would react in different situations and to help decide on appropriate ways to intervene. The approach also allowed incorporating historical-cultural

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testimonies of human occupation of the territory as earmarks of the landscape, which, similar to the natural features, deserves protection. The Monte da Guia case study demonstrated the feasibility and relevance of a methodology that could be applied systematically for the development of management plans for protected areas where natural and non-natural features are valuable. It can therefore be expected that understanding landscape as a resource and its integration in methodological approaches for the development of PAMPs and other kinds of landscape planning will lead to improved preservation and management policies. Note 1. European Landscape Convention, available at: www.nature.coe.int/english/main/landscape/ conv.htm References Bureau of Land Management (1975), Visual Resource Management Program, Government Printing Office, Washington, DC. Caˆmara, M.S. (1983), Implantac¸a˜o alternativa de uma Central de Carva˜o em Leirosa (Figueira da Foz) ou em Amorosa (Viana do Castelo), ana´lise de impacte visual, EGF, EDP. Dawson, K. (1995), “A comprehensive conservation strategy for Georgia’s greenway”, Landscape and Urban Planning, Vol. 33, pp. 27-43. Fabos, J.G. (1996), “The greenway movement: uses and potentialities of greenway”, in Fabos, J. and Ahern, J. (Eds), Greenways: The Beginning of an International Movement, Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 1-13. ´ reas Protegidas”, personal Guerra, C. (2000), “Metodologia para os Planos de Ordenamento das A comunication. Lewis, P.H. (1964), “Quality corridors for Wisconsin”, Landscape Architecture, pp. 101-7. Lyle, J.T. (1985), Design for Human Ecosystems, Van Nostrand Reynhold Company, New York, NY. McClelland, L.F., Keller, J.T., Keller, G.P. and Melnick, R.Z. (1991), Guidelines for Evaluating and Documenting Rural Historic Landscape, Department of Interior Bulletin #30, Washington, DC. McHarg, I. (1969), Design with Nature, Natural History Press, New York, NY. Marsh, W. (1991), Landscape Planning: Environmental Application, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, NY. Ribeiro, L., Abreu, M.M., Bulca˜o, L.E., Arse´nio, P., Espirito-Santo, D. and Costa, J. (2002), Plano de ´ rea de Paisagem Protegida do Monte da Guia, Secc¸a˜o Auto´noma de Ordenamento da A Arquitectura Paisagista, Instituto Superior de Agronomia, Lisboa. Shannon, S., Smardon, R. and Knudson, M. (1995), “Using visual assessment as a foundation for greenway planning in the St Lawrence River Valley”, Landscape and Regional Planning, Vol. 33, pp. 357-71. Turner, T. (1995), “Greenways, blueways, skyways and other ways to better London”, Landscape and Urban Planning, Vol. 33, pp. 269-82. Zube, E., Pitt, D. and Anderson, A. (1975), “Perception and prediction of scenic resource values on the northeast”, in Zube, E., Brush, R.O. and Fabos, J. (Eds), Landscape Assessment, Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross, Inc., Stroudsburg, PA, pp. 151-67.

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Sustainable reclamation of landfill sites Tjasˇa Bulc Researcher, Water Ecology Group, Limnos d.o.o., Ljubljana, Slovenia

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Nevenka Ferfila Teaching Assistant, Researcher, University of Ljubljana, College of Health Studies, Department of Sanitary Engineering, Ljubljana, Slovenia, and

Danijel Vrhovsˇek Project Manager, Private Researcher, Brezovica pri Ljubljani, Slovenia Keywords Waste management, Landfill reclamation, Water, Recycling, Slovenia Abstract The most common form of municipal waste disposal in the EU continues to be landfilling, from which leachate could seriously contaminate ground water aquifers that serve as drinking water sources. Constructed wetland is considered as a sustainable option as it facilitates water recycling in landfill sites using closed loop technology. In Slovenia constructed wetlands have been successfully developed and there are already 6 landfills that have been remediated using this technique. An innovative co-natural approach that has been applied on the landfill site at Ormoz (1.5ha), allows a landfill site to become a bioreactor by permitting controlled infiltration. Leachate is purified using a constructed wetland covering 1,000m2. The average hydraulic load is 12m3/d. Purified water will then be recycled through an underground irrigation system to fast growing trees. We assume that this solution will allow rapid stabilisation of the landfill site as the infiltrated water in the landfill site stimulates microbes to mineralise organic waste. There is no risk of leaks as the root systems of trees follow the non-uniform settling of waste. Owing to the closed hydrological and pollution cycle, the impact on the environment and especially the risk of water contamination will be reduced.

Introduction As the European Union prepares to expand its boundaries the 6th Environmental Action Programme not only identifies priority areas of action, but also looks for new ideas and concepts and calls for the active involvement of all stakeholders in both member and accession countries. Management of wastes continues to be one of those priority actions where sustainability plays an important role. The most common form of waste disposal, especially in Central and Eastern European countries but also in EU countries, continues to be landfilling, from which leachate could seriously contaminate ground water aquifers that serve as drinking water sources. Therefore, any innovative solutions that significantly reduce the risk of water contamination, and shorten the long-term impact on the environment, are of high interest. Constructed wetland (CW) is considered as closed loop technology as it facilitates water recycling in industrial sites (e.g. waste water with high organic content) and also as an option for landfill site reclamation.

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Landfill leachate characteristics and treatment Leachate is a liquid waste produced at every landfill site from liquid-waste disposal, waste moisture content and precipitation (i.e. rainfall). Leachate poses a number of environmental problems. This is due primarily to the extreme variability of sources of this material, and, therefore, the heterogeneity of its composition (Chu et al., 1994; Johnson et al., 1997). Operating and closed landfills generate leachate whose quality and quantity depend on how the landfill site was constructed, operated and ultimately closed, and on its size (Zolten, 1991; Johnson et al., 1997). The quantity and characteristics of leachate generated at a given landfill site are therefore extremely site specific (Zolten, 1991). Leachate is characterised by a very complex composition including high concentrations of several parameters, such as COD, BOD5, organic carbon, ammonia nitrogen, chlorides, iron, manganese, phenols, and AOX, but little or no phosphorus. Leachate is generally anoxic and may also have high concentrations of heavy metals, pesticides and other toxic components (Staubitz et al., 1989; Carville and Robinson, 1995; Martienssen and Scho¨ps, 1997). Therefore, these high variations in landfill leachate compositions require regular sampling in order to characterise the leachate. CWs for leachate treatment As a result of this inherent variability in landfill leachate composition, no two landfill sites produce the same quality of leachate. This variability presents landfill managers with the problem of providing cost effective, reliable, flexible, on-site technologies for leachate treatment (Johnson et al., 1997). Traditional approaches (on-site treatment or transport to off-site facilities, usually municipal sewage treatment plants) are undesirable because: . on-site plant operation and maintenance is costly and entails labour and services after landfill site closure; . transport of concentrated leachate on public roads is costly and dangerous; and . the addition of leachate to municipal sewage disrupts the normal biological processes upon which treatment depends (Surface et al., 1993). Therefore, a method of on-site treatment is needed that is effective, inexpensive, and requires little maintenance or power after landfill site closure (Dornbush, 1989; Surface et al., 1993). One low cost method now widely used throughout the world is on-site treatment and disposal using CWs (Vrhovsˇek et al., 1996; Johnson et al., 1997). CW is, however, a relatively new approach to eliminating environmental pollution, based on purification of waste waters with halophytes planted in an artificial wetland and employing the self-cleaning ability of ecosystems for its biological treatment process. The CW with a subsurface flow of waste water is composed of one or more waterproof beds, filled with substrate, enabling the

growth of selected plant species. The waste water is purified by flowing through the substrate where it comes into contact with the substrate and the root zone, the vital area of aerobic and anaerobic bacteria, protozoa and other organisms. The carefully selected plants, substrata and micro-organisms replace expensive machinery which significantly reduces the required maintenance and practically eliminates the need for external energy sources. At present some hundred CWs are in operation in Europe, especially in England, Germany, Denmark, UK, Austria, Switzerland, Slovenia as well as in the USA, Australia, South Africa, New Zealand and elsewhere (Bulc et al., 1998). CWs also have several characteristics that are beneficial for leacahte treatment, including high vegetation biomass, large adsorptive surfaces on sediments and plants, aerobic-anaerobic interfaces, and diverse, active microbial populations. The design and operating limits for treatment of landfill leachate, however, are not well documented, although promising results have been published world-wide (Kadlec, 1997, Maehlum, 1997). Therefore, the correct pollution and hydraulic loads must be defined for optimal removal efficiency. Sustainable reclamation of landfill site at Ormoz In Slovenia there are 192 municipalities and over half of the Slovenian population (66 per cent) lives in the 127 municipalities with less than 7,500 inhabitants (Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia, 2002). Settlement patterns are therefore highly dispersed and consist mainly of individual households and smaller communities. These usually have lower financial resources and are therefore unable to develop their infrastructure for municipal waste treatment (Dermelj et al., 2000). In addition, currently 8 per cent of total Slovenian territory has the status of a protected area and according to the National Environmental Action Programme this number should gradually increase over the coming years up to 30 per cent of the total territory (Ministry of Environment and Spatial Planning, 1998). These areas have high value and are in most cases very vulnerable (e.g. Karst or Alpine areas). At present 93 per cent of the country’s population is included in an organised waste collection system. The majority of municipal waste still ends up unsorted on a local registered landfill or even on illegal dumpsites. There are 51 active landfills in Slovenia, receiving approximately 850,000t communal wastes per year (Ministry of Environment and Spatial Planning, 2003). It is planned that the majority of the sites will be closed and rehabilitated by 2008, either because their capacities will be filled up or because they do not comply with the requirements for operation. According to official estimation Slovenia has also 60,000 illegal dumpsites (Ministry of Environment and Spatial Planning, 2003). Most of the registered landfill sites and all illegal ones have no landfill leachate treatment. Therefore, when planning waste water management scheme for a landfill all local economic, social, technological and spatial circumstances and particularities should be taken into consideration. Due to this specific

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configuration of the terrain and population density the technology of CWs in combination with woodland establishment should be considered as an option for the purification of leachate from landfill sites. Landfill site at Ormoz The landfill site at Ormoz is situated in a shallow hollow and occupies 1.5ha of territory between the Lesnica creek and the local road. The capacity of the landfill has been filled up and rehabilitation has become urgent owing to the fact that untreated leachate flows directly to the Lesnica creek and seriously contaminates groundwater. The main objectives of the rehabilitation plan were: insulation of the landfill bed and transposition of deposited wastes, construction of a leachate drainage system, landfill leacahte treatment and recycling of purified water through underground irrigation system to fast growing trees (Figure 1). The reclamation plan for the landfill was designed on the basis of hydraulic and pollution loads, average precipitation, configuration of the terrain and Slovenian regulations concerning the discharging of effluent into the receiving waters (Official Gazette of the Republic of Slovenia, 1996, 2003). Hydraulic and pollution fluctuations depend on the quantity and type of rainfall and length of drought periods. The average hydraulic load is 12m3/d. The pollution loads are presented in Table I. The CW at the landfill site was constructed as part of an integrated system. Leachate flows from the drainage system through the collection canal to the compensation basin and then into four interconnected beds of CW with vertical and horizontal stages. The CW covered 1,000m2 with an intermittent hydraulic load. The bottom of the beds was fortified with a clay layer upon which a 2mm thick HDPE foil was placed to ensure impermeability. Beds are planted with Phragmites australis. The plants were transferred from a nearby natural habitat. The purified water is collected in a sump with an outflow into an assembly basin from which it will be recycled by an irrigation system back onto the landfill site which is densely covered with fast growing hybrid poplar trees (Populus deltoides, Populus euamericana). Discussion In Slovenia CWs have been successfully developed and applied. Prototypes of a co-natural rehabilitation of landfill sites with the described method have been established at two locations in Slovenia (Ljubljana and Ormoz). In the case of the landfill site at Ormoz high concentrations of certain parameters at the leachate inflow were recorded, especially insoluble matter, deposited matter, COD, BOD5 and iron (Table I). According to the results obtained at other locations, the following reduction of pollution loads of the leachate at the landfill site Ormoz is expected: removal efficiency for COD 60-70 per cent, for BOD5 60-70 per cent, for ammonia nitrogen 60-80 per cent, for phosphorous 70-80 per cent and for iron 70-80 per cent.

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Figure 1. Co-natural landfill site reclamation

Parameter

Unit

Concentration

pH 7.1 Insoluble matters mg/l 8,652 Deposited matters ml/l 55 COD mg/l 1,770 BOD5 mg/l 520 Ammonia N mg/l 15.0 Nitrite mg/l 0.024 Nitrate mg/l 2.8 Phosphorous mg/l 30 Chloride mg/l 79 Zinc mg/l 5.5 Chrome mg/l 2.05 Nickel mg/l 0.1 Lead mg/l 0.4 Iron mg/l 890 TOC mg/l 50.4 Toxicity test – fleas Positive Source: a Official Gazette of the Republic of Slovenia (1996, 2003)

Max. allowed concentrationa 6.5-9 80 0.5 120 25 10 1 2 707 2 0.5 0.5 0.5 2 20

It is planned that sampling will be carried out at the inflow into the CW and at the outlet sump, according to the retention time. Spot samples will be taken monthly according to standard methods (APHA, 1998). Woodland establishment will be monitored monthly by biomass growth and nutrient uptake. Performance efficiency of the system will be evaluated according to the records of physical, chemical and microbiological parameters, and some adaptation of the system will be made if needed. The first results of the monitoring will be available in June 2003.

Table I. Composition of leachate – landfill site at Ormoz

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Conclusions and basis for further research Traditional approaches to leachate treatment are undesirable since the costs of operation and maintenance are high, and labour and services are required even after landfill site closure. Especially in the areas with dispersed settlement pattern or in vulnerable areas, local type specific solutions could be more cost-effective and could lower the negative impact on the environment. In addition, municipalities in general have small budgets and they normally face a lack of adequately trained staff. Investment into sustainable reclamation of landfill sites could be more favourable and justifiable from an economic, environmental and also human-resources point of view. The practice of landfill site rehabilitation usually involves containment of waste by sealing the site with low permeability materials, which act as a “raincoat” barrier and stimulate waste mummification. In contrast, the innovative co-natural approach that is applied on the landfill site at Ormoz, allows a landfill site to become a bioreactor by permitting controlled infiltration. We assume that this solution will allow fast stabilisation of the landfill site as the infiltrated water in the site stimulates microbes to mineralise organic waste. There is no risk of leaks as the root systems of trees follow the non-uniform settling of waste. The applied system is expected to be highly efficient since the hydrological and pollution cycle will be closed. As a consequence the impact on the environment and especially the risk of water contamination will be reduced. The follow up of the work presented here will be accurate monitoring with the objective to provide reliable data on which the decision for investments in similar remediation systems could be made. References APHA (1998), Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 20th ed., American Public Health Association/American Water Works Association/Water Environment Federation, Washington, DC. Bulc, T., Vrhovsˇek, D. and Zupancˇicˇ, M. (1998), “The use of constructed wetland for wastewater treatment in the Mediterranean area: integrated coastal area management for sustainable development”, Public Enterprise, Vol. 16 No. 3/4, pp. 311-8. Carville, M.S. and Robinson, H.D. (1995), “Leachate treatment systems”, NATO Advanced Research Workshop on Remediation of Soil and Groundwater as a Technical, Institutional and Socio-Economic Problem: Opportunities in Eastern Europe, pp. 18-23. Chu, L.M., Cheung, K.C. and Wong, M.H. (1994), “Variations in the chemical properties of landfill leachate”, Environmental Management, Vol. 18 No. 1, pp. 105-17.

Dermelj, M., Ferfila, N. and Burja, A. (2000), “Possible incentives for investments in wastewater treatment facilities in smaller communities in Slovenia”, International Congress Energy and Environment, pp. 225-33. Dornbush, J.N. (1989), “Natural renovation of leachate – degraded groundwater in excavated ponds at a refuse landfill”, in Hammer, D.A. (Ed.), Constructed Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment, Lewis Publishers, Inc., Boston, MA, pp. 743-52. Johnson, K.D., Martin, C.D., Moshiri, G.A. and McCrory, W. (1997), “Performance of constructed wetland leachate treatment system at the Chunchula landfill, Mobile County, Alabama”, in Mulamoottil, G., McBean, E.A. and Rovers, F. (Eds), Constructed Wetlands for the Treatment of Landfill Leachates, CRC Lewis Publishers, New York, NY, pp. 57-70. Kadlec, R.H. (1997), “Constructed wetlands for treating of landfill leachate”, in Mulamoottil, G., McBean, E.A. and Rovers, F. (Eds), Constructed Wetlands for the Treatment of Landfill Leachates, CRC Lewis Publishers, New York, NY, pp. 17-31. Maehlum, T. (1997), “Wetlands for treatment of landfill leachates in cold climates”, in Mulamoottil, G., McBean, E.A. and Rovers, F. (Eds), Constructed Wetlands for the Treatment of Landfill Leachates, CRC Lewis Publishers, New York, NY, pp. 33-46. Martienssen, M. and Scho¨ps, R. (1997), “Biological treatment of leachate from solid waste landfill sites – alterations in the bacterial community during the denitrification process”, Water Research, Vol. 31 No. 5, pp. 1164-70. Ministry of Environment and Spatial Planning (1998), National Environmental Action Plan, Ministry of Environment and Spatial Planning, Ljubljana. Ministry of Environment and Spatial Planning (2003), Environmental Report 2001/02, Ministry of Environment and Spatial Planning, Ljubljana. Official Gazette of the Republic of Slovenia (1996), “Decree on the emission of substances and heat in the drainage of wastewater from pollution sources”, Official Gazette of the Republic of Slovenia, No. 35/1996. Official Gazette of the Republic of Slovenia (2003), “Decree on the emission of substances and heat in the drainage of wastewater from pollution sources (amended)”, Official Gazette of the Republic of Slovenia, No. 21/2003. Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia (2002), Statistical Yearbook 2002, Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia, Ljubljana. Staubitz, W.W., Surface, J.M., Steenhuis, T.S., Peverly, J.H., Lavine, M.J., Weeks, N.C., Sanford, W.E. and Kopka, R.J. (1989), “Potential use of constructed wetlands to treat landfill leachate”, in Hammer, D.A. (Ed.), Constructed Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment, Lewis Publishers, Inc., Boston, MA, pp. 735-42. Surface, J.M., Peverly, J.H., Steenhuis, T.S. and Sanford, W.E. (1993), “Effect of season, substrate composition, and plant growth on landfill leachate treatment in a constructed wetland”, in Moshiri, G.A. (Ed.), Constructed Wetlands for Water Quality Improvement, Lewis Publishers, Inc., Boca Raton, FL, pp. 461-72. Vrhovsˇek, D., Kukanja, V. and Bulc, T. (1996), “Constructed wetland (CW) for industrial waste water treatment”, Water Research, Vol. 30 No. 10, pp. 2287-92. Zolten, N.G. (1991), “Leachate treatment in landfills”, Water Environment & Technology, Vol. 3 No. 5, pp. 63-6.

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Environmental aspects of using detached breakwaters for coastal protection purposes Francisco Taveira Pinto and Ana Cristina Valente Neves Institute of Hydraulics and Water Resources, Faculty of Engineering of the University of Porto, Porto, Portugal Keywords Environmental management, Coastal regions, Portugal Abstract The aggravation of erosion, with the consequent reduction and, at the limit, disappearance of beaches has great impact in the environment of the area, in tourism and economy of regions affected by this problem. Submerged breakwaters are one possible solution from a wide variety of coastal structures to combat this problem, with reduced environmental and visual impacts than in similar defence structures. However, this solution has also some disadvantages that will be described. This paper intends to present some environmental aspects related with the hydrodynamic phenomena of detached breakwaters (submerged or not) and some of the main advantages and disadvantages of this type of coastal protection solution. The performance of this kind of solution in other countries (such as Italy, Japan, Spain, etc.) has been mostly successful but its use on the Portuguese coast is still a possibility, needing further investigation, due to the high energetic wave levels observed. Some of the main difficulties on its application will also be described.

Management of Environmental Quality: An International Journal Vol. 15 No. 1, 2004 pp. 62-71 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 1477-7835 DOI 10.1108/14777830410513621

Introduction Much attention has been paid in the last years mainly to beach erosion that is becoming a serious problem almost all over the world, particularly in more vulnerable environments, like sandy coasts for example. Causes of erosion include both natural processes and mankind interventions. Many different solutions can be used to reduce or to control coastal erosion, such as adherent works, transversal works, beach nourishment and sand bypassing and the current research goals pass through creating innovative and alternative breakwaters designs and, specially, “environmental-friendly” structures. Figure 1 illustrates an example of a risk area in the Portuguese west coast, due to the increment of coastal erosion in the last years and some of the coastal protection works existent in that area. The examples illustrate that the area is hardly defended by groins, not being however enough to protect the zone against flood events. As one can see, the urban areas are too close to the sea and the beaches are still very narrow. These areas are not only vulnerable and at risk but have also a dangerous environment. Detached breakwaters are another example of coastal defence structures and can be, according to their position concerning the mean water level, emerged or submerged. Both constitute an obstacle to the normal wave propagation, permitting the dissipation of the incident wave energy and providing a “filter” shelter for the coast at their lee side. The case of submerged breakwaters is also

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63 Figure 1. Representation of two Portuguese coastal stretches, in the centre region

a particularly attractive solution for the creation and preservation of beaches, due to its low environmental and visual impact. This paper will focus on the basics of detached (submerged or not) breakwaters characteristics, their environmental impacts and on their possible practical application in the Portuguese coast. Detached breakwater’s role in beach protection Detached breakwaters could be constructed by several reasons, being the most common purposes the following: . beach protection caused by the wave dissipation/attenuation “shelter” effect; . creation of a calmer zone in an harbour, protecting them or preventing siltation in port access ways; . protection of a main structure by reducing the intensity of wave action on the main coastal defence or port structure; . redistribution of sediment transport patterns, to create desirable beach features or changing of the sediment deposition area in a navigation channel entrance. Figure 2 and Plate 1 schematise the purpose of a submerged breakwater. Its capability for retaining or permitting sediment accumulation (if there is shore sediment transport) at its backward side is responsible for its important role in

Figure 2. Effect of a submerged breakwater in the wave propagation, Olympic Port, Barcelona, Spain

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Plate 1. Formation of a tombolo in the leeward side of the structure due to the diffraction currents

Figure 3. Schematics of current patterns generated near a submerged breakwater

beach protection. This is due to the attenuation of the wave height, caused by the energy dissipation and the formation of diffraction currents at the ends of the structure. Figure 3 illustrates the diffraction currents formed in the extremities of the breakwater. Their role is very important, even if the long shore transport is not significant, which justifies their use when this transport is reduced. This importance is not only related with the sediment accumulation but also with the bathing water quality in the area and its re-circulation. Much research has been done to better understand the variables and processes involved, but there are still some outstanding questions. Many variables could influence the efficiency of the breakwater: bathymetry, wave climate, sedimentation, implantation depth, length, distance to the coast, gaps between structures, crest height and length and submerged breakwaters structural configuration. For these reasons, submerged breakwaters are object of many studies and works and some related with their performance in coastal protection will be referred. Most of the studies and works about submerged breakwaters (Lamberti and Mancinelli, 1996; Tomasicchio, 1996; Drei et al., 2001), based on field measurements, point out the advantages of these kind of structures, focusing its reduced visual, environmental and healthiness benefits related to the traditional “hard” structures. The importance of a careful design (transmission coefficient, crest submergence, crest height and width, sufficient distance from the shoreline, etc.) is also focused. There are,

however, some studies that refer the failure of these structures (Browder et al., 1996). Some numerical approaches on submerged breakwaters are also known (Mancinelli et al., 2001; Yamashiro et al., 2000; Chen and Chen, 2001). They found that as the length of breakwater increases, so does the reducing effect on wave height. It was also verified that the wave height near the breakwater increased as the height of the submerged structure increased; when waves passed the breakwater, the wave height decreased as the height of the submerged breakwater increased. Studies based on experimental results, for a better understanding of the physical effects on the submerged breakwater surrounding area, were and are also being carried out, such as Taveira-Pinto et al. (2000, 2001), Taveira-Pinto (2002), Shin (2001), Gironella and Sa´nchez-Arcilla (2000), Browder et al. (1996), Groenewoud et al. (1996) and Choi et al. (2001). Most of them focus the processes involved in the wave-structure interaction, like transmission, reflection, dissipation, giving special relevance to its coefficients, crest height and width, the ratio “freeboard over wave-length”, sediment transport, turbulence, consequences of possible gaps and its consequent scouring, etc. Since there are many unknown processes and variables involved, the study of these kind of structures is more complex than studying emerged breakwaters. Benefits of submerged structures Detached breakwaters (emerged type) are designed to attenuate the whole wave action and are submitted to the direct impact of wave breaking, resulting in larger structures that often eliminate water circulation at the lee side (protected area). Consequently, degradation of water quality and of natural habitats in the lee side is a frequent phenomenon. The environmental result is obviously not highly appreciated, due to its big visual impact, together with the strong erosion phenomena noticed at the gaps between barriers. Plate 2 represents one example of a detached and emerged breakwater. Submerged breakwaters, however, as these structures are constructed below a specified design water level, some overtopping is permitted, allowing the circulation along the shoreline zone. It might be assumed, although there aren’t clear-cut demarcation lines, that submerged breakwaters have a height of more than 40-50 per cent of the water depth. The sufficient water exchange is, then, permitted, preserving the healthiness and the bathing use of the water in the protected area and resulting in a natural and low price stable beach, as it is usually referred. Inherent to the improvement of water quality, maintenance of fish habitats (due to its lower impact of coastal development on aquatic habitat) and a better integration of the coastal defence structure in the shore zone, are examples of the advantages of submerged breakwaters over the conventional structures. They are less subjected to wave action (since they have lower height) and the required volume of material is smaller than in similar emerged structures.

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Plate 2. Example of a detached breakwater, Tenerife, Spain

Besides that, many authors consider them as a very good option for coastal protection because of their low visual (they do not spoil the aesthetic aspect of the beach) and environmental impact, namely when a natural or sensitive solution is required. Adding to their important role in beach protection, environmental reasons, one of the major engineering priorities at the moment, are mainly responsible for the increasing use of this kind of structures. On the other hand, their design/project is generally more sophisticated and an adequate buoy/marker system to avoid navigation hazards (as their crest is low) should be considered. From the construction point of view, this kind of structures needs the employment of floating equipment and more delicate constructive techniques, being not convenient in high energetic sea states. In terms of costs, a submerged breakwater might be cheaper than a typical breakwater, requiring lower capital investments, once they require lower volumes of material (they are not exposed to severe wave breaking). It is convenient to remember that submerged breakwaters have, obviously, a lower level of protection, since its efficiency in the formation of tombolos is lower. In some cases, however, it was concluded that the submerged structures dissipated wave energy more efficiently than the emerged ones. They are often used to protect the main structure, as preliminary defence structures, bringing wave attenuation through selective breaking of the highest waves. There are some examples of submerged breakwaters that have been unsuccessful (Browder et al., 1996). Results of field measurements of three-year monitoring of a submerged breakwater placed along shore in Palm Beach, Florida, built with the purpose of defending the coast against storm waves and to create a wider beach in the lee of the reef, showed that the reef modified both the incident wave climate (5-15 per cent reduction in incident heights) and the near-shore current patterns. After two years, erosion throughout the project area (primarily in the lee of the reef) was detected and the structure was found

to have increased the long shore currents via ponding water trapped behind the breakwater, which was then diverted along shore, so it was removed after one year. Monitoring data suggested that waves pumped water over the reef, creating a ponding situation in which the ponded water was prevented from returning offshore in the normal return flow fashion and was instead redirected along shore. With very little sediment supplying, the reef caused in the area behind, a pumping out of sediment. Laboratory experiments were then conducted in order to investigate this phenomenon and it was concluded that for normal incident waves (in which there was no predominant wave or tidal generated long shore current), the presence of the structure generated a long shore current from the centreline of the structure in the lee of the breakwater and toward the open ends, where the current was reduced through expansion, suggesting that the “ponding and pumping” mechanism does in fact exist, like Figure 3, mentioned before, suggests. Its results made evident that a simple reef couldn’t defend the beach by waves and also, breaking did not reduce significantly the energy of the waves passing in the area, increasing the erosion in both sides, leading to a situation that, at the limit, could be more dangerous than useful. Another disadvantage of emerged breakwaters, in terms of environment, is the necessity of gaps between the barriers that often give rise to rip currents, bed irregularities and tombolos (Pilarczyk and Zeidler, 1996). Submerged breakwaters do not offer this inconvenient, as they can be constructed in the form of long continuous structures without gaps. As for lower waves, these submerged structures are much more permeable, they do not need gaps for the necessary continuous water exchange to and from the internal area, like in their emerging counterparts. Submerged breakwaters offer, therefore, big benefits, and are often pointed out very suitable for shoreline stabilization because of their increased tolerance to wave transmission and reduced quantities of material necessary for construction. Some aspects are, however indispensable to consider, such as a careful structural design, focusing on the stability of the rubble mound, the transmission coefficient (related to the crest width, its submergence and wave climate) and the verification that the residual wave energy is not able to erode further the beach. The transmission coefficient has an undoubted importance in the design of submerged breakwaters (if we control this parameter, we can reduce the turbulence in the water landside). Reduced crest submergence, a sufficient height and width to reduce incident waves and a sufficient distance of the barrier from the shoreline to reduce the turbulence in the inner beach have an important role in the reduction of the wave transmitted inshore. The dissipation of energy when waves encounter the rough slope causes the attenuation of the wave height at the lee side and consequently, the reduction of the solid transport capacity. This reduction is responsible for the retention or accumulation of sand (when there is long shore sand transport) in the backward side that, with the diffraction currents formed in the extremities of the structure (leading to the reduction of the water velocity), causes the formation of a

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Figure 4. Study taken to determine the best location for a submerged breakwater in Matosinhos beach

tombolo. Its function is, so, accomplished through entrapment of suspended sediment travelling off shore with the return flow and overtopping the breakwater in the onshore phase of wave motion (Pilarczyk and Zeidler, 1996). The possible application in high energetic coasts According to Taveira-Pinto et al. (2000), the construction of submerged breakwaters is not so recommended in some cases, like when there are high energetic wave levels. In these cases, where wave heights are so severe, the structure could not protect the shoreline and attenuate efficiently the incident waves. For an efficient behaviour, the structure should be constructed in a relative protected area and take in consideration any possible diffraction currents. Figure 4 illustrates one study taken to determine the best location for a submerged breakwater, in Matosinhos beach, Portugal, in a area with those characteristics, namely the fact that the structures are located in a potentially protected area, but with erosion problems. They could not also be very efficient when there are, for example, large tide amplitudes, since a great part of the reminiscent energy can alter the sediment deposition behind the structure, not allowing its good performance and some waves, particularly the lower ones, cannot be attenuated. There are not many experiences with detached breakwaters in the Portuguese coast but we can refer four cases, where these structures were used: in Leixo˜es harbour as a submerged breakwater (protecting the head of the main breakwater), in Caxinas-Vila do Conde beach (for beach improvement), near Neiva’s river mouth and in Aguda beach (both for protecting a small fisherman community). Some of them have developed the tombolo effect, even though this was not exactly the purpose of, at least, the two last examples. The Neiva’s detached breakwater is represented in the Plate 3.

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Plate 3. Neiva’s river mouth detached breakwater

A simple analysis of its applicability in the Portuguese coast, without regarding the structural behaviour and maintenance of the detached structure and based on the percentage of wave heights registered near the shore (see Table I), for the most frequent periods, is presented in Tables II and III.

0-0.5

0.5-1.5

Per cent 0 30 Source: Barata et al. (1996)

1.5-2.5 40

Wave height (m) 2.5-3.5 3.5-4.5 4.5-5.5 19

7

2

5.5-6.5

6.5-7.5

2

0

Table I. Frequency of occurrence 7.5-8.5 (per cent) of significant wave heights for a peak 0 period between 11 and 12s, in Portugal

Wave height (m) Crest level (m) 0-0.5 0.5-1.5 1.5-2.5 2.5-3.5 3.5-4.5 4.5-5.5 5.5-6.5 6.5-7.5 7.5-8.5 Total 0 1 2 3 4

(d (d (d (d (d

¼ 2m) ¼ 1m) ¼ 0m) ¼ 21m) ¼ 22m)

0 0 0 0 0

0 22 30 30 30

38 40 40 40 40

19 19 19 19 19

7 7 7 7 7

2 2 2 2 2

2 2 2 2 2

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

68 92 100 100 100

Table II. Frequency of breaking occurrence (per cent), for MWL equal to 2.0m

Wave height (m) Crest level (m) 0-0.5 0.5-1.5 1.5-2.5 2.5-3.5 3.5-4.5 4.5-5.5 5.5-6.5 6.5-7.5 7.5-8.5 Total 0 1 2 3 4

(d (d (d (d (d

¼ 4m) ¼ 3m) ¼ 2m) ¼ 1m) ¼ 0m)

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 22 30

0 7 38 40 40

12 19 19 19 19

7 7 7 7 7

2 2 2 2 2

2 2 2 2 2

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

23 37 68 92 100

Table III. Frequency of breaking occurrence (per cent) for MWL equal to 4.0m

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According to the usual breaking criteria (H ¼ 0:78d) it is possible to verify the percentage of waves that break over the detached breakwater crest, for two mean tide water levels (+2.0 and +4.0). One can see that for certain levels, during an important percentage of the year and even for some high wave heights, the breaking effect is positive.

70 Final remarks Coastal erosion is a problem affecting many coasts and finding measures to combat it is an actual object of research. Current coastal defence structures (groins, emerged breakwaters, etc) offer aesthetic problems and can be, in some cases, inefficient. The need of new solutions, environmentally not so aggressive, especially in vulnerable and risk areas, is a very important subject nowadays. The use of submerged breakwaters is a good example, often permitting the achievement of a better level of protection with lower environmental impacts (visual impact, water circulation, etc) and the formation of wider beaches. Its applicability, according to the analysis presented, is significant in terms of mean sea conditions. Further investigation is needed to verify the behaviour for extreme values.

References Barata, A.G.O., Teles, M.J.B.S. and Vieira, J.A.R. (1996), “Representative wave height selection for littoral transport evaluation in Aveiro coast”, APRH Magazine, Vol. 17 No. 1, pp. 49 (in Portuguese). Browder, A.E., Dean, R.G. and Chen, R. (1996), “Performance of a submerged breakwater for shore protection”, Proceedings of the 25th International Conference Coastal Engineering 1996, ASCE, Orlando, FL, Vol. 2, pp. 2312-23. Chen, B.F. and Chen, P.H. (2001), “Fully nonlinear waves past submerged and floating breakwater”, Proceedings of the XXIX IAHR Congress, Beijing. Choi, H.J., Cox, D.T., Kim, M.H. and Ryu, S. (2001), “Laboratory investigation of non-linear irregular wave kinematics”, Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium Waves 2001, ASCE, California, Vol. II, pp. 1685-94. Drei, E., Turchetto, A., Archetti, R. and Lamberti, A. (2001), “Current-field measurement around low-crested structures”, Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium Waves 2001, ASCE, California, Vol. I, pp. 115-24. Gironella, X. and Sa´nchez-Arcilla, A. (2000), “Hydrodynamic behaviour of submerged breakwaters: some remarks based on experimental results”, in Losado, I.J. (Ed.), Coastal Structures ’99, Balkema, Santander, pp. 891-6. Groenewoud, M., van de Graaff, J., Claessen, E. and van der Biezen, S. (1996), “Effect of submerged breakwater on profile development”, Proceedings of the 25th International Conference Coastal Engineering 1996, ASCE, Orlando, FL, Vol. 2, pp. 2428-41. Lamberti, A. and Mancinelli, A. (1996), “Italian experience on submerged barriers as beach defence structures”, Proceedings of the 25th International Conference Coastal Engineering 1996, ASCE, Orlando, FL, Vol. 2, pp. 2352-65.

Mancinelli, A., Soldini, L., Brocchini, M., Bernetti, R. and Scalas, P. (2001), “Modelling the effects of structures on nearshore flows”, Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium Waves 2001, ASCE, California, Vol. II, pp. 1715-24. Pais Barbosa, J.L. (2003), “Application of geographical information systems in coastal zones”, MSc thesis, Faculty of Engineering of University of Porto, Porto (in Portuguese). Pilarczyk, A. and Zeidler, R. (1996), Offshore Breakwaters and Shore Evolution Control, A.A. Balkema Publishers, Rotterdam. Shin, C.Y. (2001), “Wave-induced vortices around a submerged breakwater by FLDV and PIV”, Proceedings of the XXIX IAHR Congress, Beijing. Tomasicchio, U. (1996), “Submerged breakwaters for the defence of the shoreline of Ostia – field experiences, comparison”, Proceedings of the 25th International Conference Coastal Engineering 1996, ASCE, Orlando, FL, Vol. 2, pp. 2404-17. Taveira-Pinto, F. (2002), “Oscillations and velocity field analysis near submerged breakwaters under the wave action”, PhD thesis, Faculty of Engineering of University of Porto, Porto (in Portuguese). Taveira-Pinto, F., Proenc¸a, M.F. and Veloso-Gomes, F. (2000), “Experimental analysis of the behaviour of submerged breakwaters”, Proceedings of 1st Jornadas Portuguesas de Engenharia Costeira e Portua´ria 1999, AIPCN/PIANC, Porto, pp. 71-90 (in Portuguese). Taveira-Pinto, F., Proenc¸a, M.F. and Veloso-Gomes, F. (2001), “Spatial regular wave velocity field. measurements near submerged breakwaters”, Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium Waves 2001, ASCE, Vol. II, pp. 1136-49 Yamashiro, M., Yoshida, A. and Irie, I. (2000), “Experimental study on wave field behind a submerged breakwater”, in Losada, I.J. (Ed.), Coastal Structures ’99, Balkema, Santander, pp. 675-82.

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News from the Net MIT course ware The world famous Massachusetts Institute of Technology has launched an ambitious programme to publish all it’s course literature on the Net for public use for free. This is quite an amazing offer and will be very useful if you want to increase your own knowledge in any particular area, or just gain excellent teaching material. This is a ten-year plan and we are now in phase two with the complete course literature from 500 courses being available. This does not mean that MIT are now in the correspondence course business. Find it at: http://ocw.mit.edu/index.html Google – by location Google is arguably the best search engine on the Net, at least in my own opinion. It is in the process of getting better by restricting your search results by the area you define. This will be useful if you are travelling or need a service near to you. This is only in the development stage at the present and is restricted to the USA. Find it at: http://labs.google.com/location Indiatech Environmental news, views and links from the Indian sub continent. There is a wealth of practical information on environmental issues for browsers of this site plus information on government and international initiatives. Find it at: www.cleantechindia.com/eicnew/index.htm Water Desalination International A commercial site from a company that, allegedly, has produced an amazingly efficient, cheap distillation based de-salination plant. Find out more here: www.waterdesalination.com/ Danvest has also produced a more traditional de-salination system, what makes their system different is that it comes packaged with a wind generating system to produce the electricity to run it. www.danvest.com/ will get you there.

Management of Environmental Quality: An International Journal Vol. 15 No. 1, 2004 pp. 72-75 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 1477-7835

Ministry of the Environment: Japan This site gives the browser insight in to the Japanese environmental management policies. One area of this site aims gives the state of their natural resources at a glance. This looked interesting until I noted that the most up to date data I could find was 1999. There is a good section on Japanese Environmental law and there are many reports to be downloaded in pdf format in a number of key areas. Find it at: www.env.go.jp/en/

Thailand Environment Institute Available in English or Thai this is an authoritative site from a non-governmental organisation. It aims to provide up to date data and information as well as promoting partnership working. As an organisation it has taken part in many research projects listed in their “news and info” section. However, there is only the briefest of a summary for each project, although there are a couple of email contacts as well if you would like to talk to someone about a project. If you have an interest in the environment of this fast changing country then this site will be of interest. Find it at: www.tei.or.th/

Cites The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora to give it its full title provides a framework that controls the international trade in endangered species. On this site there is plenty of information should you be wanting to move species around the world. There is the full text of the convention, a searchable database of the included species and much more. Find the site at: www.cites.org/index.html

Discern This site grew out of a research project at The University of Oxford in the UK. Discern is a tool to enable you, as a consumer or publisher of health information, to assess just how good that publication is. It does not try to establish if the information is the best around. But how effectively that information is being communicated to the consumer. This has to be the difficult part of publishing any document. This site tells you all about Discern and there is a full instruction booklet. The tool is aimed at information in the field of public health but surely the lessons taught on this site are valuable to any publisher of information. This intriguing site is at: www.discern.org.uk/

Yale’s Forestry Institute From Yale University this site aims to be the world leader in education and research about the forests of the world. The site features their courses and some research documents. These research documents are published and bound and have to be bought, although PowerPoint overviews are available for free. If this area is of interest go there: http://research.yale.edu/gisf/

Nitrogen and the rain forest Here is a research document on the effects of nitrogen saturation on the forest ecosystem. It originates from Duke University in the USA and is obviously a

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learned article. It dates from around 1999. There is no published author although it is a well-researched piece of work, probably a postgraduate piece? It is well worth a look if forests are your bag. Find it at: www.duke.edu/ ,mdw7/nitrogen/index.html

Rain forest report card If you are really interested in rainforests and want to know how long your career will last before the rain forests are extinct, then this site is for you. The originators of this site are very coy as they do not appear to publish who they are. Although the site is aimed a younger students there is a wealth of statistics and information suitable for any researcher. There is also a very good links page. Find the site at: www.bsrsi.msu.edu/rfrc/home.html

National Round Table on the Environment and Economy This Canadian site is available in French and English. It aims to provide un-biased information for decision makers and members of the public on numerous environmental issues affecting Canada. The government appoints the members of this body. This site has plenty of examples of how they are working at a national level. There is a small links page and a free newsletter. Find the site at: www.nrtee-trnee.ca/

Environment and history I suppose there is no such thing as original sin, it has all been done before. In terms of environmental degradation, nothing today may be original but we are doing damage more efficiently and faster and maybe lessons can be learnt from the past. This journal aims to highlights past and continuing environmental stories. Full indexes and synopses are published of previous articles that can all be ordered. A fairly basic site but an interesting idea. The site is at: www.erica.demon.co.uk/EH.html

Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, London This site caters for all, there is the tourist front end with pretty pictures but burrow deeper and there is a wealth of resources, There are any number of research resources, for example there is a PowerPoint presentation on the Convention on Biological Diversity complete with the presentation and speakers notes in English, French and Spanish all this is available for free download. As befits a world heritage site, this Web site is impressive and well worth the time to rummage through the site to unearth the hidden gems. Find it at: www.rbgkew.org.uk/

Cyburbia: the urban planning portal For me this site did not start well. The opening page is full of US newspaper stories about property. However, do persevere, if only to click on the link on the left hand side of the page labelled “Planning resource directory”. This opens up a very large links page with many hundreds of resources linked by topic. This area alone earns this site the title of portal. There is quite an extensive photo gallery as well as discussion forums. If planning of the urban environment is of interest, check this excellent, extensive site out at: www.cyburbia.org/ All the links in this article were correct and working at the time of writing. However, the Internet is a fast moving place and URLs change. My apologies if links are out of date. If any reader has any site they wish to have reviewed, to be included in future articles, or any comments please feel free to contact me at: [email protected]

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News Baltic 21 Report 2000-2002: towards sustainable development in the Baltic Sea region The Web version of the Baltic 21 Report, lunched in June 2003, is now available. This version of the report is more comprehensive and takes a deeper look at the Baltic Sea region by means of ca. 100 Baltic 21 indicators (each of them presented as a graph and an MS Excel table). On top of that, a more detailed description of the progress made by the Baltic 21 sectors (agriculture, education, energy, fisheries, forests, industry, tourism, transport), spatial planning and selected joint actions in the implementation of the action programme is provided. To obtain further information or download the report, please visit the Baltic 21 Web site at: www.baltic21.org New corporation sustainability ranking The latest annual league table of most sustainable large companies, globally and in Europe, has been released by index makers Dow Jones, Stoxx and Sam. The partners claim that over e2.2 billion in funds and other “sustainability-driven” financial products are now influenced by the indexes. Dow Jones’ world sustainability index was launched in 1999 and comprises over 300 firms, rated the most sustainable 10 per cent of the world’s largest 2,500 corporations. Its European sibling first appeared in 2001 and comprises 178 companies, rated the most sustainable 20 per cent of the continent’s 600 largest companies. In the most recent world sustainability index, Toyota of Japan displaces Volkswagen of Germany as the leading – or most sustainable – firm in the automotive sector. Ireland-based CRH takes over from Lafarge of France as construction sector leader. Philips Electronics replaces Teijin of Japan in cyclical goods, BP replaces Royal Dutch Shell in energy and British Land replaces Lend Lease of Australia. In the European index there are new sector leaders in seven out of 18 categories. In banking ABN Amro has displaced UBS, while DSM has replaced Degussa in chemicals, Nokia has replaced Siemens in technology and Sainsbury has replaced Henkel in non-cyclical goods and services. CRH has replaced Lafarge in construction, BP has replaced Shell in energy and British Land has replaced Land Securities in financial services. Firms newly added to the European index include Fortum of Finland, Aventis of France, Norsk Hydro of Norway, Holcim of Switzerland and Reckitt Benckiser of the UK. Deletions include Agfa Gevaert of Belgium, Alstom of France, DaimlerChrysler of Germany, Unicredito Italiano of Italy, Heineken of the Netherlands, Ciba Speciality Chemicals of Switzerland and Smiths Industries of Britain.

New EU standards for emissions by heavy vehicles The European Commission has proposed minimum EU performance standards for emission-reducing equipment fitted to heavy-goods vehicles. The proposals also include a recast of EU lorry and bus emission limits. These consolidate 1998 laws into a single text and introduce new decision-making procedures for future changes. The performance requirements relate to exhaust recirculaters, catalytic converters and particulate filters. All are technologies expected to be required to enable vehicles to meet Euro 3, 4 and 5 emission standards being progressively implemented from 2005 to 2009. Equipment will have to pass durability tests, framed as minimum useful life expressed in either years or kilometres of service, whichever is sooner. Depending on vehicle category, emission-control units will have to last at least five to seven years or 100,000 to 500,000 kilometres. Longer lifetime requirements could have been proposed, the Commission says, but might “compromise the feasibility” of the standards and inhibit the development of new aftertreatment technologies. There are separate requirements for on-board diagnostic systems (OBD) to ensure equipment is functioning properly during use. Anti-pollution equipment performance standards were envisaged by the 1999 directive which set the Euro emission standards. Though this law also called for limits on new pollutants emerging because of the increased use of alternative fuels, the Commission says that not enough vehicles are burning the fuels for it to make proposals in this area. The changes will now be sent for approval through codecision by the European parliament and council of ministers. Future technical updates to the law should be made through “comitology” procedure, the Commission says. But any changes which “directly affect emissions” would remain as co-decision matters.

Tourism to earth’s most threatened areas surges by more than 100 percent in last decade Tourism has increased by more than 100 percent between 1990 and 2000 in the world’s biodiversity hotspots, regions richest in species and facing extreme threats, according to a report released by Conservation International (CI) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). “Tourism and biodiversity: mapping tourism’s global footprint” is the most comprehensive study of its kind focusing on the impacts of tourism on biological diversity. Biodiversity hotspots have seen tourism increase by over 100 percent between 1990 and 2000. In particular, In certain areas the growth has been staggering. Over the past decade, tourism has increased by more than 2000 percent in both Laos and Cambodia, nearly 500 percent in South Africa,

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over 300 percent in the countries of Brazil, Nicaragua and El Salvador, and 128 percent in the Dominican Republic. Tourism generates 11 percent of global gross domestic product (GDP), employs 200 million people and transports nearly 700 million international travellers per year, a figure that is expected to double by 2020. It is considered one of the largest, if not the largest, industries on the planet. With nature and adventure travel one of the fastest-growing segments within the tourism industry, the Earth’s most fragile, high biodiversity areas are where most of that expansion will likely take place. While tourism has the potential to provide opportunities for conserving nature, tourism development, when done improperly, can be a major threat to biodiversity. “Tourism and biodiversity: mapping tourism’s global footprint” includes maps that chart tourism’s growth across the planet’s most biodiversity rich environments and provides guidelines for governments, private businesses, donor organizations and local communities for supporting more sustainable tourism development. Further information on the report can be obtained from UNEP at: www.unep.org

Books and resources Approaches to Handling Environmental Problems in Mining and Metallurgical Regions Edited by Walter Leal Filho and Irina Butorina Kluwer Academic Publishers Dordecht 296 pp. ISBN 1-4020-1322 (paperback) 1-4020-1323 (hard cover) Keywords Mining, Metallurgy, Universities

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The book Approaches to Handling Environmental Problems in Mining and Metallurgical Regions is the outcome of an advanced research workshop held in Mariupol, Ukraine in September 2002. It presents a comprehensive description of trends, problems and perspectives related to the handling of environmental problems related to mining, also showing what many universities in the world are doing to address the sustainability issues related to it. Further details and information on how to place online orders are available at: www.wkap.nl/

Making Waves: Integrating Coastal Conservation and Development W. Neil Adger, Katrina Brown and Emma L. Tompkins Earthscan London 2002 176 pp. ISBN 1853839124 £17.95 Keywords Conservation, Ecology, Economic growth Coastal zones are critical multiple-use resources, under pressure from constant demands from different sources – conservation, economic growth and social welfare. This book is a publication that identifies the dilemmas of managing conservation and development in coastal areas. The authors provide an interesting analysis of the human dimension of coastal ecosystem management and convincingly illustrate through numerous examples that sustainable coastal management indeed requires an integrated social-ecological approach. The book is packed with important and timely information and tools for the management, conservation and assessment of social implications of coastal resource use. The authors present a variety of methods and techniques that can be used to highlight the trade-offs and promote sustainable decisions among diverse users. Their interdisciplinary analysis draws upon the latest scientific

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knowledge as well as social science insights on property rights and governance, with cases from the developed and developing world. Further details and information on online orders are available at: www.earthscan.co.uk/asp/bookdetails.asp?key ¼ 3797

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Industry Genius – Inventions and People Protecting the Climate and Fragile Ozone Layer Stephen O. Andersen and Durwood Zaelke Greenleaf Sheffield July 2003 192 pp. ISBN 1874719683 £14.95/US$22.50 Keywords Engineering, Entrepreneurs, Environment This book presents the inventive genius behind technological breakthroughs by ten global companies. Readers will gain understanding and insight into how cutting-edge technology is helping protect the climate and/or the ozone layer, while contributing to the company’s bottom line. Each chapter chronicles the challenge and triumph of invention, introduces the engineers and executives who overcome conventional wisdom to achieve huge breakthroughs, and demonstrates the contribution these companies are making to environmental protection. In full colour and packed with graphics to illustrate the creative process of technological breakthroughs, the book is accessible and informative. The genius of these ten companies may inspire engineers, policy makers, students, environmentalists, CEOs, and investors alike. Further details and information on online orders are available at: www.greenleaf-publishing.com/catalogue/genius.htm

Future Nature: A Vision for Conservation William M. Adams Earthscan London May 2003 296 pp. ISBN 1853839981 £13.46 Keywords Conservation, Economics The countryside is changing faster than ever. A total of 50 years of conservation achievements in the UK are now being confronted by a new complexion of economic forces that are driving change in the countryside. At

the same time, new ideas in conservation are altering the role that conservation is being asked to play in negotiating the transition from past to future. This revised edition of Bill Adams classic work tackles the new challenges in the countryside and wildlife conservation head-on through a new “Introduction” and “Postscript” with updated arguments about naturalness and our social engagement with nature, and complemented by a new “Foreword” by Adrian Phillips. Further details and information on online orders are available at: www.earthscan.co.uk/asp/bookdetails.asp?key ¼ 1725

Decolonizing Nature: Strategies for Conservation in a Post-colonial Era William M. Adams and Martin Mulligan Earthscan London 2002 304 pp. ISBN 1853837490 £17.95 Keywords Conservation, Politics, Culture William M. Adams and Martin Mulligan explore the influence of the colonial legacy on contemporary conservation and on ideas about the relationships between people, polities and nature in countries and cultures that were once part of the British Empire. It locates the historical development of the theory and practice of conservation in the UK, Australia and Africa firmly within the context of this legacy, and considers its significance today. It also highlights the present and future challenges to conservationists of contemporary global neo-colonialism. The contributors to this volume include both academics and conservation practitioners. They provide wide-ranging and insightful perspectives on the need for, and practical ways to achieve new forms of informed ethical engagement between people and nature. For more information visit: www.earthscan.co.uk/asp/bookdetails.asp?key ¼ 3841

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Diary Eco-Efficiency for Sustainability: Quantified Methods for Decision Making 1-3 April 2004, Leiden, The Netherlands The aim of this conference is to road the application of the eco-efficiency concept and tools in business can actively be developed, closely linked to consistent and transparent application in public policy. The focus of the conference will be on operational methods for quantified eco-efficiency analysis which can guide decision making towards societal eco-efficiency, contributing to sustainability. The conference will bring together scientists and practitioners concerned about our common future, focusing on eco-efficiency as a central element in moving towards sustainability. By indicating the cost per unit of environmental improvement, or equivalently the value creation as related to environmental costs, one may discern between more and less eco-efficient forms of economic growth and environmental improvement. The conference aims to clarify and further develop the theoretical framework and operational methods for quantified and integrated eco-efficiency analysis, focused at practical application for decision making by firms, governments and NGOs. It combines different subject areas, from economics, environmental science, social choice theory, and evaluation and decision theory, and from applications involving sustainability decision makers in research and development, eco-design, business, and politics. For further information please visit the conference Web site: www.eco-efficiency-conf.org/

International Environmental Modelling and Software Society Conference – Special Session on “Evolutionary Computing Methods for Environmental Modelling and Software Development” 14-17 June 2004, Osnabru¨ck, Germany Scientists working with environmental modelling are invited to submit papers for the Special Session on “Evolutionary Computing Methods for Environmental Modelling and Software Development”, at the International Environmental Modelling and Software Society Conference, to be held on 14-17 June 2004 at the University of Osnabru¨ck, in Germany. The description of the session is as follows. Recent advances in information technology have provided the software tools and the environment to study, analyse, and better understand complex systems. Environmental systems are such complex systems where modelling

and software tools are needed to provide decision support capabilities and eventually improve decision-making. Evolutionary computing techniques, of which genetic algorithms are the best-known example, have a relatively short but spectacular history. These simplified models of Darwinian evolution “evolve” optimal or near-optimal solutions to complex decision-making problems that would otherwise have escaped even experienced analysts. In other words, these techniques are capable of solving global optimization and search problems with robust performance. The advances in evolutionary computation techniques are making them more popular in solving complex, nonlinear, nonconvex and dynamically interactive problems. Evolutionary computation has been successfully applied in many areas of decision-making and the impact of this technology is now being felt in the environmental modelling field. The objective of this special session is to bring together research and development of evolutionary computation in environmental modelling and software development areas. The session aims to provide a platform for researchers to present and discuss recent breakthroughs in this area. Further details are available at: www.iemss.org/iemss2004/ or by contacting the session’s convenor: Dragan Savic (University of Exeter, Exeter, UK. E-mail: [email protected]).

6th Annual Symposium on Water Distribution Systems Analysis 27 June-1 July 2004, Salt Lake City, Utah, USA The 6th Annual Symposium on Water Distribution Systems Analysis (WDSA), to be held in conjunction with the ASCE World Water & Environmental Resources Congress, will take place in Salt Lake City, Utah from 27 June to 1 July, 2004. High quality papers dealing with basic research and practical applications in all areas of WDSA are being sought, particularly the following topics: . network calibration; . hydraulic and water quality modeling/control/management; . demand simulation; . system vulnerability; . chemical and microbial risk assessment; . early warning systems; . system optimization for design/operations; . controlled pilot- and field-scale studies. Further information may be obtained directly through the conference Web site at: www.asce.org/conferences/ewri2004/ew04_wsdaabstracts.cfm

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International Conference on the Monitoring, Simulation and Remediation of the Geological Environment 5-7 July 2004, Segovia, Spain The event aims to attract a multi-disciplinary audience of researchers, practitioners and government employees interested in the geological environment from diverse backgrounds, such as geologists, civil engineers, forest and agricultural engineers, geographers, biologists, ecologists and hydrologists. Papers are particularly being encouraged under the following topics: . sustainable exploitation of natural resources; . renewable energy; . surface/groundwater resources; . soil and rock properties; . mineral resources; . geo-chemistry; . earth’s dynamic systems modelling and monitoring; . natural hazards and risks – assessment and mitigation; . oceans and coasts; . flow processes; . geo-indicators; . environmental impact assessment (EIA); . environmental planning and management; . geo-ecology and ecological surveys; . geo-technical and geo-environmental engineering; . scenery assessments and landscaping; . urban and regional planning issues; . geological and geomorphological heritage (geo-sites); . environmental and ecological restoration of derelict areas; . waste management, treatment and disposal; . remediation and contaminated sites; . remote sensing and GIS; . digital terrain models; . geo-statistics; . geo-databases. Full conference details are available at: www.wessex.ac.uk/conferences/2004/ geoenvironment04/index.html

ICECFOP – International Conference on Environmentally-Compatible Forest Products 22-24 September 2004, Oporto, Portugal ICECFOP, the International Conference on Environmentally-Compatible Forest Products will be held in Oporto, Portugal from 22-24 September 2004. It is hosted by Fernando Pessoa University (UFP), Oporto, Portugal. The event aims to bring together scientists and Industrialists working with forest products and environmental areas, so that they can present the latest research and innovation on wood products with low environmental impacts, possible environmental benefits to be derived from new technologies and the role of the so-called clean technologies. ICECFOP is being organised by CEMAS, the Centre for Modelling Studies and Environmental Systems Analysis, based at the Faculty of Science and Technology at Fernando Pessoa University. The co-organising institutions are the Ecole Supe´rieure du Bois, Nantes, France and Geonu´cleo, Fernando Pessoa University. Topics for communications include: . reduction of VOC emissions from wood processing operations; . adhesives from renewable resources; . new environment-friendly preservatives; . environmental impact of traditional preservatives; . innovative non-conventional methods for wood protection (chemical modification, biological methods, trapping, etc.); . recycling of wood in general and recycling of preservative-treated wood; . life-cycle assessment of wood products; . products from non-wood plant fibre resources; . application of forest residues on the treatment of effluents; . environmental conditions in workplace; . new environment friendly wood coatings and finishing processes; . new products and processes with low environmental impact; and . other related areas. For further information, online registration, and other details please visit the site: www.ufp.pt and look for “Eventos” (bottom centre) and click on “ICECFOP” or go directly to www.ufp.pt/events.php?intId ¼ 10038 For any specific information may contact the Conference Secretariat: Mrs Paula Dias, GCI – Gabinete de Comunicac¸a˜o e Imagem, Universidade Fernando Pessoa, Prac¸a 9 de Abril, 349, 4249-004 Porto, Portugal. Tel: +351 225 071 300; Fax +351 225 508 269; e-mail: [email protected]

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Features 7th International Congress on the History of Oceanography, held at the Museum of the World Ocean in Kaliningrad, Russia on September 8-13, 2003 If the hammer and sickle emblem at the airport and the statue of Lenin downtown still greet the visitor arriving in Kaliningrad, all other aspects of the central economy system have faded away, albeit that some gems of Stalin architecture and many a scar of bombings yet dot the landscape. Some 200 scientists, experts and interested parties from the host country and 22 foreign countries participated in the event. They included oceanographers, students of local lore, polar scientists and captains and descendants of famous researchers. The conference addressed the theme of “international collaboration in the research of the world ocean”. The plenary sessions related great historical events and results of research, but it focussed also on the problems and achievements of international collaboration in investigations and the conservation of biological marine biological resources. Regular sessions covered development of oceanography, exploration and investigations of Polar regions, international collaboration in research activities and the history of marine organizations, scientific fleets, contributions of navies, national contributions, and biographical cameos of leaders and founders of oceanography. The congress did not shy away from the “Cold War” and oceanography; oceanographic education and history of oceanography in museum collections and expositions had their place. From an environmental point of view, oral and poster presentations illustrated coastal zone problems, biological investigations, fisheries and related technical equipment through history and at present. The congress the dissipated the sometimes held belief that the history of oceanography is perhaps a dilettante’s avocation without concrete fallout, then when it enhances knowledge and promotes better planning of new research. Being held in Russia, the congress’ participants could get better acquainted with lesser-known Russian achievements in exploration and investigation of the world ocean. Russians lay for instance claim that in 1819-1821, their compatriots F.F. Bellingzhausen and M.P. Lazarev discovered Antarctica, the sixth continent. A total of 30 years of investigations (1960-1990) of the Arctic Ocean with drifting ice-island stations resumed in 2003; the wish was expressed for a new international project to be organized at the “North Pole-32” station. Russians reported that the ocean contains, a.o, far greater quantities of oil, coal, iron, poly-metallic formations, and such precious metals as gold, than has been generally estimated.

Besides shining buildings, the famed Vytyaz that plowed the seas between 1949 and 1979 is a permanent part of the Museum exhibit, as are a decommissioned floating submarine and a space-research support vessel Cosmonaut Victor Patsaev. Many delegates reminded audience and authority of the worsening condition of scientific fleets nearly everywhere: ships are old yet no be units are built to replace them. At the session on “oceanographic education” speakers opined that the programs should be both improved and renovated. A call was placed for participants to address their respective governments and request support for new research ships and increased attention for education. Marine fauna suffers significant degradation, due to still worsening pollution of the most productive ocean zone, thence the need for greater attention to ecology problems; investigations of oceans and seas should be more inter-disciplinary, and marine ecosystems studies broadened to include development of mariculture; artificial reefs ought to be created and other non-traditional uses of biological resources encouraged. To several speakers the global network of sea-level observations does not meet requirements of contemporary sciences. An international comprehensive program aimed at reconstruction of the global network of sea-level observatories with improved technical means was recommended. The 150th anniversary of the 1853 Brussels meteorological and ocean conference – at the basis of the systematic study of the ocean – got its special symposium while papers dealing with international collaboration in the Mediterranean, Black and Caspian seas, and the Austral Ocean aroused major interest. The need to strengthen international collaboration, to exchange ocean data and to launch a “united” world-wide base of oceanographic information was stressed. If the twentieth century opened up outer space, the twenty-first century be that of active investigation of the world ocean, and contribute to humanity’s welfare and harmonious development. The low registration fee of $120 (£75, e110) or $150 for late-comers, covered all meals, three receptions, a concert; two shows and a thirteen hour excursion to the Baltic shores and the world’s largest amber extraction operation! If weaknesses must be mentioned, then let these be a too skewed Russian participation, lack of questions asking time, and round-tables that were rather additional paper presentations. The congress was well organized and warm hospitality extended: One may hope that The Museum which put out a 400 pages book of abstracts, will get adequate help in publishing the congress’ Proceedings. The Governor of the Kaliningrad Region, V.G. Egorov, the Kaliningrad city administration and its mayor Yu. A. Savenko, and Svetlogorsk mayor V.L. Alekseev deserve a word of thanks for their active assistance and for providing the opportunity to visit Curonian Spit National Park. The excursion acquainted coastal specialists with current shoreline erosion problems of the Baltic littoral.

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The suggestion that the Museum of the World Ocean become an international information center on the history of oceanography an archive for art works and a specialized library of pertinent literature was endorsed. And why not a depository, for unpublished documents; copies and original manuscripts from past outstanding oceanographers. The 8th International Congress on the History of Oceanography will be held in 2008; it could perhaps focus on sustainability in past, present and future. Roger H. Charlier Free University of Brussels (VU/B), Brussels, Belgium

Note from the publisher During 2003 Emerald developed its corporate publishing philosophy. We did this through discussion with readers, contributors and editors and we would like to share it with you. We believe that our approach to quality makes us different and unique amongst scholarly publishers. It is based on six core principles, which together form our distinctive philosophy: (1) We put quality at the centre of our approach to scholarly publishing. All papers published by Emerald go through a quality-assured peer review system; in all but a few practitioner-focused journals, this takes the form of double-blind peer review. All papers published by Emerald are expected to make, in some way, an explicit original contribution to the existing body of knowledge. All papers published by Emerald are accessible to a wide range of students, scholars and practitioners in the fields in which we publish. All papers published by Emerald are beneficial in some way; to researchers; practitioners, or both: . In 2001 we were audited and certified as “Committed to Excellence” following a European Foundation for Quality Management self-assessment exercise. . We retained our status as an ISO 9000 certified organisation, and our Investors in People (IIP) certification. . More than 30 Emerald journals are listed in the ISI Citation Index. (2) Continuous improvement of reader, author and customer experience. We continue to invest in enabling technology to increase efficiency and effectiveness in content provision, customer service and management. We benchmark against others and against our own standards. We are as clear as possible in our policies, measures, targets and achievements and we do not hide shortfalls, but confront and learn from them: . Emerald papers go through a further post-publication “review” which assesses them on readability, originality, implications for further research and practice. We publish this information, and it can be used as search criterion, on the Emerald database. . In 2002 we were judged as providing Best Customer Support by the scholarly library publication The Charleston Advisor. . We provide high levels of dissemination of our authors’ work – nearly 1 million papers per month are downloaded and read by subscribers to the Emerald on-line portfolio.

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In 2004 we will be introducing an on-line submission and peer review system which will speed up the publication process. Internationality. We operate in a trans-national world of scholarly ideas and we believe that this should be reflected within our publications. Working with our authors, we set targets for international representation of authors and editorial team members, and measure against them: . In the past six months we have published more than 50 themed issues with a specific international focus. . In the first half of 2003, papers from 60 different countries were published. An interdisciplinary approach. We set targets, and ask for, papers and special issues on interdisciplinary approaches, and new/emergent themes. This gives us better, stronger, and more vibrant journals, and a clear leadership position in our industry: . In the first half of 2003 we published more than 20 themed issues dealing with interdisciplinary approaches to a subject or industry. . We encourage themed issues on leading edge and innovative research topics, and in the past six months published 35 such issues. Supporting scholarly research: The Literati Club. We help remove the barriers to publication. We conduct workshops for researchers on publishing issues. We provide help and advice to new researchers. We offer a service for authors whose first language is not English. Our staff regularly present papers at conferences on scholarly publishing themes: . Our scholarly community Web site, the Literati Club, disseminates information about how to write for publication more successfully – we seek to make the process more transparent. . The Emerald Research Register, an online forum for the circulation of pre-publication information is designed to help researchers gain advanced recognition among their peers by publicising their research at the earliest opportunity. . Each year, we distribute grants to researchers working on improving the scholarly publishing dissemination process, and to encouraging scholarship in the developing world. . We conducted research workshops at 11 universities and conferences, had papers accepted at nine academic and other conferences, and supported six academic conferences worldwide. Integration of theory and practice. We ask editors and review board members to focus where applicable on application, and beneficial implication for practice. We do so because this gives a clear message to .

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our core supplier and consumer markets – the applied researcher, the reflective practitioner, the students of business and their teachers, the business and management school: . All of our journals will publish a majority of papers that have a direct application to the world of work. . More than 1,000 university libraries worldwide subscribe to the Emerald portfolio, including 97 per cent of the Financial Times Top 100 Business Schools. John Peters Director of Author Relations Emerald – October 2003

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