The World of Games: Technologies for Experimenting, Thinking, Learning: XXIII Professional Culture of the Specialist of the Future, Volume 1 (Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems, 830) 3031480198, 9783031480195

Citation preview

Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 830

Daria Bylieva Alfred Nordmann   Editors

The World of Games: Technologies for Experimenting, Thinking, Learning XXIII Professional Culture of the Specialist of the Future, Volume 1

Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems

830

Series Editor Janusz Kacprzyk , Systems Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland

Advisory Editors Fernando Gomide, Department of Computer Engineering and Automation—DCA, School of Electrical and Computer Engineering—FEEC, University of Campinas— UNICAMP, São Paulo, Brazil Okyay Kaynak, Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Bogazici University, Istanbul, Türkiye Derong Liu, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, USA Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China Witold Pedrycz, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Alberta, Alberta, Canada Systems Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland Marios M. Polycarpou, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, KIOS Research Center for Intelligent Systems and Networks, University of Cyprus, Nicosia, Cyprus Imre J. Rudas, Óbuda University, Budapest, Hungary Jun Wang, Department of Computer Science, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong

The series “Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems” publishes the latest developments in Networks and Systems—quickly, informally and with high quality. Original research reported in proceedings and post-proceedings represents the core of LNNS. Volumes published in LNNS embrace all aspects and subfields of, as well as new challenges in, Networks and Systems. The series contains proceedings and edited volumes in systems and networks, spanning the areas of Cyber-Physical Systems, Autonomous Systems, Sensor Networks, Control Systems, Energy Systems, Automotive Systems, Biological Systems, Vehicular Networking and Connected Vehicles, Aerospace Systems, Automation, Manufacturing, Smart Grids, Nonlinear Systems, Power Systems, Robotics, Social Systems, Economic Systems and other. Of particular value to both the contributors and the readership are the short publication timeframe and the worldwide distribution and exposure which enable both a wide and rapid dissemination of research output. The series covers the theory, applications, and perspectives on the state of the art and future developments relevant to systems and networks, decision making, control, complex processes and related areas, as embedded in the fields of interdisciplinary and applied sciences, engineering, computer science, physics, economics, social, and life sciences, as well as the paradigms and methodologies behind them. Indexed by SCOPUS, INSPEC, WTI Frankfurt eG, zbMATH, SCImago. All books published in the series are submitted for consideration in Web of Science. For proposals from Asia please contact Aninda Bose ([email protected]).

Daria Bylieva · Alfred Nordmann Editors

The World of Games: Technologies for Experimenting, Thinking, Learning XXIII Professional Culture of the Specialist of the Future, Volume 1

Editors Daria Bylieva Department of Social Sciences Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University St. Petersburg, Russia

Alfred Nordmann Institut für Philosophie Technical University of Darmstadt Darmstadt, Germany

ISSN 2367-3370 ISSN 2367-3389 (electronic) Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems ISBN 978-3-031-48019-5 ISBN 978-3-031-48020-1 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-48020-1 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland Paper in this product is recyclable.

Preface

We are living in a world of games. Many embrace this idea. A world of games is fun and engaging, friendly and entertaining. People learn and work better when it feels like playing a game. Social skills can be acquired in playfully competitive and cooperative ways. Others are more reluctant. To imagine a world of games is to indulge in deceptive pleasures that distract from and perhaps devalue the real world. What may seem like fun usually serves ulterior purposes that are far from harmless. There are scarce resources and wars, power relations and conflicting interests. One must not sleepwalk through such a world but be wakeful and attentive to its dangers. Games have a place in our world but it must be a well-defined place. Their value lies in offering an alternative logic to that of public life as with the Olympic Games in antiquity that were a festive interruption for which one would take a break from the war. And then there is a third point of view which seeks to discover how we learn to know the world through games and in the mode of play. It does not endorse gamification nor does it insist on a purist clear-cut division of spheres. It might look, quite literally, at the way in which chemists know the world. In the nineteenth century, they developed balland-stick-models of molecules, and these were actually billiard balls and sticks. These human constructions required considerable work, one molecule at a time. In the twentieth century, quite another generation of chemists had grown up playing with modularized building blocks such as Lego bricks, and they imagined a world of atoms and molecules that can be nanotechnologically combined at will, the whole world a toolbox where things can be broken apart and put together, infinitely plastic. Today’s biochemists grew up in the digital age of video games. They are less interested in the building blocks of matter and in constructing things from the bottom up. Instead, they intervene in the flow of things, optimizing their strategies as they become attuned to the dynamic processes which they seek to modulate and control. For all these scientists one can say that they learned from games that showed them a way of being in the world. At the same time, the games they played guided their imagination in specific ways, perhaps limiting and constraining them. Today‘s world of games is primarily a digital world, though one should not underestimate the continuing power of playing ball on streets, backyards, and parks, or the continuing power of board games that assemble players around a table, or the continuing power of role-playing games that begin with children interacting with their dolls and continues with cosplay and very adult battle reenactments. However, if only by virtue of its much-discussed virtualization of reality, digital technologies seem to be a new kind of driving force towards gamification. It is not that games can now be played in the computer as well, but the logic of digitalization thrives on and promotes gaming. Just one example of this is that self-learning algorithms develop protein-folding strategies or image recognition capabilities through digital gaming by users who do something just for fun and thereby advance knowledge production. The game thus turns out to be the principle of the modern world order, informing its worldview, cultural practices and

vi

Preface

social dramaturgy. The game serves as a model or mechanism for organizing and simulating urban, organizational and production processes. Games therefore play a special role also in the educational process. Games, virtual and augmented reality, metaverse explorations, simulations, application skills and routines become a natural part of the process of edutainment. This proves useful in a variety of educational contexts: teaching hard and soft skills, developing professional competencies, teaching languages and addressing ethical issues. This collection of papers reflects the world of games in these various aspects. On the one hand and mostly in the second volume, it provides examples, developing and assessing tools, and gathering together experience with old and new features of games. In this first volume, on the other hand, it reflects the human condition in this world of games as it becomes a digital world. We neither inhabit the closed world of the ancient cosmos anymore where everything has a meaningful place in the order of things, nor the modern universe which is governed by general principles and rules that might unify the infinite variety of events. Instead, the world of games might turn out to be a semiverse which draws on two orders at once, the digital order of game-like rule-governed structures and a seemingly irrational real world, with a mindset from the digital world extending to, permeating, and shaping expectations. If these are theoretical considerations that are more and less explicit in many of the contributions to this volume, there is also a practical conviction that motivates many papers, especially in the second volume: The notion that game-based learning motivates and engages students has not lost its popularity for a long time. We offer not only to look at how games can influence education, what are the positive and negative aspects of gamification and edutainment, but also the specific application of games in the educational process. The second volume presents the multifaceted practical experience of teachers and developers. There are games that draw on the latest technological developments as well as traditional role-playing games. There are games to be played and games to be created or studied; games for the development of skills, for communication, for feedback or for evaluation. In particular, the book is divided into several sections: The first half of the collection begins with “Games of Life” which considers how human identity is questioned and framed through games in the present condition. “Cities and Societies, Organization and Cooperation” shifts the focus to human sociality and communication, considering how it is shaped through games. The third section of part I finally concerns “Edutainment and Gamification” and ambivalent attitudes towards them. Part II then explores in many facets the practices of game-based learning. “From Building Blocks to Augmented Reality Glasses—Technologies for Gaming” looks at educational benefits from the technical side of things: What do gaming techniques and technology enable, and how do students appreciate and evaluate them? The final section looks at matters from the educational side of things which includes the wide spectrum of educational environments. Even as they appeal to somewhat different interests, the two parts belong together like the two sides of a coin and the two halves of a fractured world of games. Daria Bylieva Alfred Nordmann

Contents

Games of Life Games of Existence: The Digital Transformation of Fictionality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Alexander Yu. Nesterov and Anna I. Demina

3

A Semiverse of Games . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Daria Bylieva

18

The Game in the Context of Social Dramaturgy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Larisa Mureyko and Olga Shipunova

27

Culture and Life as Gameplay Experiences: A Theological Point of View . . . . . . Anton Zamorev and Alexander Fedyukovsky

37

The Social Function of Toy Models in Games of Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sadegh Mirzaei

49

Constitutive Rules of Artificial Games and Natural Conventions of Ordinary Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Andrei E. Serikov Psychological Portrait of a Modern Young Gambler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sofya Tarasova Identity Strategies in the Space of Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Games (MMORPG) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Anastasiya Lisenkova, Samrat Ray, and Tatiana Nam The Beginning of the Gaming Era, Parental Controls and Technical Acumen . . . Daria Bylieva, Victoria Lobatyuk, Dmitry Kuznetsov, and Ça˘glar Demir

64

75

88

96

Modern Initiation Practices: Gaming Technology Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 Elena A. Mokshina, Viktoriya V. Levchenko, and Ekaterina Yu. Maltceva The Recursive Paradigm and Semiotic Models of Games in Third-Order Technical Cybernetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 Andrey An. Kuznechenkov Liability in the World of Games: The Interaction of Positive and Soft Law . . . . . 134 Viacheslav V. Ivanov, Tatiana V. Trubnikova, and Aleksei Yu. Churilov

viii

Contents

Cities and Societies, Organization and Cooperation Communications Using Gamification for the Implementation of Urban Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 Ekaterina Nalimova, Viola Larionova, and Natalia Stepanova “The Best City Left”: City 17 in the Half Life 2 Game Universe and the Transformation of the Image of Cities of the Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 Ivan Aladyshkin, Maria Odinokaya, Aleksey Pyatnitsky, and Maxim Novikov Issues of City Management in the Context of Game Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 Tatiana Bernyukevich Possibilities for Applications of Game Theory in Relation to Land Use . . . . . . . . 185 Galina Ismagilova and Oksana Shubat Play and Labour - Some Conceptual Remarks on Gamification in the Context of Manual Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 Christopher Coenen Gamification in the Personnel Management of a Self-learning Organization . . . . 212 Ekaterina Mashina Gamification in Industry: Simulation-Game Modeling of Production Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 Galina Ismagilova, Elena Lysenko, and Alexey Bozheskov Improving Gamification Technology in Corporate Training in the Legal Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 Yury Firsov, Oxana Vasilieva, and Olga Kalugina The Role of Gamification in Human Resources Brand Development . . . . . . . . . . 264 Irina Y. Melnikova, Dmitrii G. Popov, and Veronika V. Fokina Edutainment and Gamification Compatibility of Edutainment and Traditional Methods in the University’s Educational Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 Galina A. Dubinina, Larisa P. Konnova, and Irina K. Stepanyan The Immersive Approach and Gamification: New Forms of Educational Technologies Through Games . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290 Yevgenia Victorovna Vorontsova, Anna Sergeevna Grishina, Alexander Vladislavovitch Dmitriev, and Mikhail Alekseevitch Murashko

Contents

ix

Edutainment as a New Educational Technology: A Comparative Analysis . . . . . 302 Alla Sokolova and Kseniia Deviatnikova Gamification in Education: A Literature Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319 Liudmila V. Daineko, Natalia V. Goncharova, Ekaterina V. Zaitseva, Viola A. Larionova, and Irina A. Dyachkova The Role of Game Practices in the Model University of the Future . . . . . . . . . . . . 344 Olga Shipunova, Elena Pozdeeva, Anna Tanova, and Vladimir Evseev The Role of Game-Based Assessment for the Enhancement of Learning . . . . . . . 356 Artem Burmich, Oleg Mashkin, and Natalia Stepanova Game-Based Assessment of 21st Century Skills: Communication and Creative Thinking in Foreign Language Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370 Anna Rubtsova, Nora Kats, and Sofia Rubtsova Gamification Techniques in Massive Open Online Courses: Challenges and Opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391 Artyom Zubkov Improving Speaking and Listening Skills: An Educational Eco-system for Foreign Languages Teaching in Higher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402 Svetlana Amakhina, Natalia Dmitrieva, and Elena Timokhina Digital Game-Based Language Teaching in Russian University Settings: Beliefs and Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414 Natalia V. Chicherina Teaching Gamification in a Virtual Learning Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427 Lyubov Krasheninnikova Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443

Games of Life

Games of Existence: The Digital Transformation of Fictionality Alexander Yu. Nesterov

and Anna I. Demina(B)

Samara National Research University, 34, Moskovskoye Shosse, 443086 Samara, Russia [email protected]

Abstract. The article is devoted to the digital transformation of fictionality in the context of philosophical ontology. The used methodology is semiotic modeling. The traditional ontological question “what does it mean to exist?” is considered from the position of the general semiotics. We define existence through the notion of sign. We interpret the classical criteria of existence - observability, calculability, consistency, accountability - through semantic, syntactic, and pragmatic rules of the sign process. We introduce the criteria of existence for the object and for the subject, revealed as fulfillment of semiosis these or those rules in these or those layers of reality. We use Kant’s transcendental scheme to distinguish between the layers of existence: sensus, ratio, intellectus, which can also be expressed in other terminological ways, such as perception, language and reference. We show the difference in the definition of existence for natural and artificial objects. We define the role of interpretation as a procedure for identifying types of existing and their corresponding specific semantic rules of communication language. We understand fictionality as double signification or auto-referential negation - the designation in the act of communication of incalculable and unobservable entities as existing, that is, as calculable and observable. Thus, the game of existence is played by shifting the boundaries of the conceivable and the inconceivable, the possible and the impossible. The subject part of the work is constructed as an application of philosophical ontology theoretical constructs for the analysis of fictional subjects communicated by the science fiction. Examples of the subject possible digital transformation modeled by the science fiction are considered: the mind upload to a non-biological medium, distributed consciousness, artificial additions or transformations of corporeality, “intelligent environment” - situations when the functions of reflexion are transferred from the subject to the environment. Keywords: Existence · Existence game · Fictionality · Fiction · Interpretation · Science fiction · Semiotic criteria of existence · Semantics · Syntactics · Pragmatics

1 Criteria for Existence. Existence in the Context of General Semiotics The question of existence is the ontology classical problem. Within the analytical philosophy of language, the substantive questions “what does exist?” or “what is the world really like?” are replaced by functional questions about what it means to “exist,” what © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Bylieva and A. Nordmann (Eds.): PCSF 2023, LNNS 830, pp. 3–17, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-48020-1_1

4

A. Yu. Nesterov and A. I. Demina

generally meaningful rules can the being predicate be expressed through? The criteria of existence known to the historical and philosophical tradition - observability or perceptibility, consistency or calculability, pragmatic accountability as a sign or efficacy - are functions that set the subject and object as existing or non-existing. In the general semiotics terms, the definition of existence is that to exist means to be a sign; the existence criteria are revealed as the sign process rules, setting the relation of the sign to the object (semantics), to the sign (syntactics), and to the interpreter (pragmatics). Since the sign process (semiosis) realizes itself in a multitude of worlds accessible to the human, the existence or non-existence of something depends on the semiosis type, on how pragmatics, syntactics and semantics are realized in this or that world. Distinction of the beingness worlds or layers is carried out by means of the theory of cognition and logical analysis; in Nicholas of Cusa’s and Immanuel Kant’s tradition these are layers of sense perception (sensus), reason (ratio), mind (intellectus); in Christian mysticism - body, soul, spirit; in logical positivism - perception, language, and reference. In the full sense, to exist means to fulfill pragmatic, syntactic, semantic rules in all the layers of reality or the worlds united by the human being; to exist partially means to fulfill semiotic rules not in all the layers of reality; not to exist, in the full sense, is impossible, and Parmenides’ statement “existence is, non-existence is not” is generally meaningful. Observability - “Esse est percipi” by George Berkeley - is the criterion of existence, according to which objects exist when they are recorded by human senses, or have an effect on devices that extend the human sensual access to reality. Semiotically, in the case of the observability function, we are talking about the fulfillment of the semantic rule in sense perception: the sense organs consider the reality as meanings due to the innate pragmatic skills and show this reality as meanings, as ways of setting meanings by the body organism. The sense perception syntactics is a natural, physiologically predetermined order of carrying out the work by the sense organs; the pragmatics means the conditions of this order possibility, which create the distinction between signal and noise, that is, the very apparatus of perception. Presence or absence of this or that sensory meaning for a person is the basis for conclusion about existence or non-existence of the corresponding real situation. The object of observation exists as a sensory meaning, the subject - as the sum of the rules that provide this meaning. Historically, the function of observation is discussed in connection with the dispute between realism and subjective idealism (solipsism) against, first, the figure of God, and then the figure of nature as the universal continual observer, as what ensures the self-identity of objects, sensual meanings in the human observation discrete operations. Computability is a criterion of existence, according to which something exists when it is given by logical rules, is clear and distinct, that is, it is derived from Leibniz’s “truths of reason”: “To exist means to be a value of a variable” (Willard Quine). Semiotically, in the case of computability, we are talking about the reason syntactic rules. Something exists when it occupies a place in the system of deductive inference, and does not exist when the assignment of a place is impossible due to a violation of the rules of forming and transforming signs. The geometrical method, formal and mathematical logic, formal grammars, mathematics as such historically represent attempts to grasp and express the procedure of assigning places in the world of reason. The presence or absence of a syntactically correct meaning in the formal system is the basis for the

Games of Existence: The Digital Transformation of Fictionality

5

conclusion about the existence or non-existence of objects of reason. The semantics of reason - abstract entities (numbers, geometric figures, images of grammatical and logical structures, intralinguistic meanings of words and sentences) are ontologically fixed by the world of Plato’s ideas, Popper’s third world and are problematized when the question arises of the correspondence between the fulfilment of the reason semantic rule and the perception semantic rule. The pragmatics of the mind as a condition of possibility for natural languages, the languages of logic and mathematics is associated with a person’s ability to master intersubjective languages, with the skill of managing signification procedures. The combination of objects in their sensual reality and ways of setting them as objects of reason creates the possibility of interpretation, receptive and projective understanding as a transition between layers of reality. Combination of the criteria of observability and computability creates, on the one hand, the method of scientific cognition as an involuntary procedure of receptive interpreting rational constructions subordinate to the measurement experiment, on the other hand, the method of technical implementation as a procedure of the projective executing rational constructions in a sensually observable world subject to natural laws. Interpretation, representation, understanding, realization, execution and similar semantic terms fix the human ability to connect worlds or beingness layers in the acts of cognition, activity and communication, ontologically this ability is discussed as a problem of reference in the analytical tradition, or as a question of mind or intellect in the continental traditions. Beyond observability and computability, there are “vague perceptions”: fictional, false and meaningless entities, communicative signs with contingent semantics, notions and concepts as ways to control reference, individual and collective phantasms, systems of goals and values, colossal in composition and ability to influence the worlds of cultural and religious images. The existence of entities of this kind is fixed by the criterion of accountability: something exists when it is admitted by the subject as existing in one form or another in this or that world or layer of reality. Within the framework of this criterion, ideas, unverified, unverifiable and artistic judgments, etc. are taken into account. Semiotically, in the case of the accountability criterion, we are talking about the mind pragmatic rule, about the skill of considering something as the sign that is capable to provide reference. Since the intellect or mind is a layer of reality, which was the exclusive subject of metaphysics until the formation of the philosophy of technology and the philosophy of cybernetics in the 20th century, it is extremely difficult to express it in generally valid terms. In realism, the semantics of the mind is expressed as the human ability to designate innate, pre-established, timeless and extra-spatial entities that are not accessible to cognition and activity either in sensory perception or in reason. For example, according to Peter Engelmeyer [1], ethics proceeds from the fact that the circle of the human cognition and activity functions in relation to four timeless goals that, in a removed form, are realized in the form of their affirmation or denial in any human activity. These are truth, goodness, beauty and benefit. For example, the theory of technical creativity by Friedrich Dessauer [2] is based on the search for a solution by the mind in the “fourth realm of pre-established forms of solution”. The systems of meanings grasped by the mind are consciously or unconsciously expressed in the ways of implementing reflection and, thereby, referencing from reason to perception, making up the meanings of activity. The pragmatics of the mind as a system of skills

6

A. Yu. Nesterov and A. I. Demina

that distinguish between the sign and the non-sign, something taken into account and not taken into account as a sign, in the philosophy of technology is discussed within the dialectic of the conceivable and the possible, in the philosophy of artistic creativity within the dialectic of the said and the unsaid.

2 Existence and Interpretation Observability as the fulfillment of the semantic rule of sensory perception is the strongest criterion of existence, while being taken into account as the assumption of something by the intellect as a sign, regardless of the actual implementation in the rules of reason or feeling, is the weakest one. Knowledge of existence within the framework of communication is necessary to ensure the correspondent truth of judgments: both the sender and the recipient of the message, within the framework of following the principle of trust, must correlate statements with what is in some way - observable, calculable or taken into account. Since most of the knowledge available to an individual is knowledge-bydescription in the terms of Bertrand Russell, the truth of which is not verified, but is subjectively given by the relation of trust to the sender, it is extremely important to understand the interpretation procedure that connects the sentences of intersubjective languages with what exists. Interpretation in a broad epistemic sense is a reflection and expression of the execution of the semantic rule of one layer of reality in another: a receptive interpretation is an act of cognition that links the sensual givenness of an object, the rational givenness of an object, and the intellectual givenness of a concept; projective interpretation is an act of activity that turns a concept or other essence of the mind into a rational object construction and embodies it in a sensual, material object. Interpretation in a narrow communicative sense is a procedure of determining the senses and meanings of statements in certain languages. The way the interpretation procedures are defined in the communicative sense radically influences the concept of existence and non-existence in the knowledge areas limited by communicative practices, primarily in history and literature. The sphere of the human life world, the sphere of culture exists as something observable and calculable as artificial objects, products of human creativity, the ability to solve problems. The elements of culture - objects, subjects - epistemically, in terms of their knowability, are radically different from natural objects and subjects: they are historical, were once invented, designed and implemented by a human subject, their essence precedes existence, knowledge about their structure precedes their implementation in the life world, they are functional and expedient, perform a specific task within the framework of the implementation of a particular human goal, their form and content, structure and functions are subject to transformation, progress or regression. The existence of culture as a sphere of man-made entities is set, first, by the skill of consideration, by the imagination-driven assumption of something as possible, and second, by the transformation in the technical activity of the considered possibility first into actual constructions of reason, and then into sensually perceived objects. The expression of possibility is carried out in intersubjective communication by means of the natural language. In the narrow language of science, it is an abductive

Games of Existence: The Digital Transformation of Fictionality

7

method of cognition or a procedure of formulating hypotheses and assumptions. In the communication as such, understood as the translation of signs (sentences and texts) from one subject to another, the modality of possibility, the setting of what, by definition, is beyond observability and calculability, is carried out by means of artistic techniques. The modalities of the reason languages - description, prescription, supposition - are spread across different genres of communication: scientific texts express true knowledge, that is, they describe what is, legal and theological texts express norms, that is, they prescribe how one should act regarding what exists, artistic texts express assumptions of what could be. Identification of the modality of a particular text, attributing it to any genre of communication - this is the task of interpretation in the narrow communicative sense. A systematic understanding of the procedures of the communicative interpretation against the epistemic correlation of layers of reality is necessary for understanding how the existing is designated by sentences and texts of the intersubjective languages. The historical, philosophical and methodological problems of the general theory of interpretation are formulated by Professor Gunter Scholtz. Philosophical postmodernism, an anarchist approach to the theory of knowledge and hermeneutics in the statements such as “the world is a text”, “any theory is good”, “every interpretation is fiction” seeks to remove the hierarchies of cause-and-effect, logical orders, and this is a completely understandable reaction of intellectual communities to the exponential growth of knowledge in the post-war years. “Today, the volume of available knowledge is so great that no scientist is already able to master all the wealth of knowledge in his specialty, and knowledge itself is so complex that only a narrow circle of specialists can understand it. This growth is a natural result of communication: the more participants in communication, the more knowledge they receive in general; and the better the means of transmitting information function, the faster the exchange of information takes place” [3, p. 32]. A body of knowledge within the framework of one philosophical encyclopedia, which ensures the hierarchical unity of systemic knowledge and thus the interpretability of texts expressing certain logical constructs, describing certain situations, prescribing certain norms, is impossible in the 21st century: “On the Encyclopedia of Philosophical Sciences there has been no talk since philosophy has lost its systemic nature and cannot claim to be the foundation of all sciences. Philosophical encyclopedias today are just lexicons, not systems at all” [3, p. 34]. Nevertheless, there are generally recognized rules of semiosis, pragmatic, syntactic and semantic in communication, allowing, first, to remove the state of misunderstanding: “To be subjected to interpretation has always been that which was not directly understandable, but had to be understood. This has always applied to the texts which formed the basis of a certain society and guaranteed its cohesion and continued existence.” [4, p. 45]”. Secondly, to distinguish the genres of communication, for this purpose it is necessary for the very procedure of interpretation to preserve the distinction between the disciplines of hermeneutics and criticism, formulated in 19th century philology, where the former is focused on revealing and understanding the authentic authorial position, the latter - on the expression and demonstration of the interpreter’s position [4, p. 51]. Thirdly, to consider the systematic unity of knowledge: “The human spirit needs to regain its unity precisely in the diversity of knowledge. The integrity of systematic knowledge must correlate with the unity of the human spirit” [3, p. 34].

8

A. Yu. Nesterov and A. I. Demina

Interpretation of the communicative signs of the natural languages is realized as a conscious or unconscious systematic work of the intellect, the purpose of which is to identify the types of existing and their corresponding specific semantic rules of the communication language. The encyclopedias and textual interpretation manuals (Mayer, Hladenius), created since the 17th and 18th centuries, serve to achieve this goal: “Genuine philosophical knowledge rests not on a multitude of individual facts, but on their causes and regularities, through which unity and interrelations can be learned in diversity. The oldest encyclopedias had followed this goal since the Renaissance and therefore were able to develop the most convincing systems of the sciences. It is only in the interrelationship that particular knowledge possesses its value, only the interrelationship of knowledge serves to understand reality, whereas the infinite variety of isolated singular information merely overloads man’s memory [3, p. 36].

3 Games of Existence. The Semantics of Fiction The game of existence in communicative semiosis arises when the text denotes only accountable, non-countable and non-observable entities, as if the criterion of observability or computability could be applied to the signified. After Plato, this kind of communicative practice is discussed as imitation, mimesis; imitating texts themselves - as artistic or fictional. The marker of the fictitiousness of the text is self-referential negation: the designation in the act of communication of certain reflexive procedures with the simultaneous denial of the possibility of such designation [5]. In the most clear form, self-referential negation is expressed in a logical paradox [6]. Fictional reference - the designation in the act of communication of uncountable and unobservable entities as existing, that is, as calculable and observable for this or that observer - is the most significant mechanism of cultural construction, providing the possibility of development in the form of growth of reflection complexity, increase of the objective knowledge, transformation of the human habitat. Nonfictional reference in communication (modality of description) is set by the true-false opposition: the entities denoted by nonfictional sentences either exist or do not exist. The epistemic position of the subject, which allows for the identification of truth and falsity in reflexion, is fixed by the knowledge - ignorance opposition [7]: the four types of the knowledge - ignorance relation set the theoretical-cognitive boundaries of determining truth and falsity. Ignorance of ignorance as a pre-problem situation of the subject implies the absence of a question of reference; knowledge of ignorance as a problematic situation implies raising the question of existence, of the criteria for entities designated by communicative signs; ignorance of knowledge implies the designation of entities in communication that are intuitively posited as existing; knowledge of knowledge implies the distinction between fictional and non-fictional communicative signs, the identification of criteria for existence and the determination of the place of a particular act of reference in the semiotic cognition and activity spiral. Fictional reference (modality of assumption), in contrast to non-fictional, is set by the opposition of what is considered and what is not considered: the fictitious entities fixed in communication are either allowed as signs against a certain background, or not. The condition-truth concept of meaning, as applied to fictional sentences, implies

Games of Existence: The Digital Transformation of Fictionality

9

accountability as meaning, the weakest criterion of existence. The epistemic position of the subject, which allows fixing the considered as meaning, is supplemented by the praxeological opposition of the conceivable and the possible [2, 8]. Epistemically, the pre-problem situation corresponds to the unthinkability of the impossible: something that cannot be imagined is also impossible to implement. The problem situation corresponds to the conceivability of the impossible: something that cannot be realized nevertheless can be imagined. The situation of intuition corresponds to the unthinkability of the possible: something that is being realized is unrepresentable, but the unrepresentability of the subject does not prevent its implementation. The situation of knowledge of knowledge corresponds to the conceivability of the possible: something is both conceivable and feasible. The following Table 1 gives a summary of the epistemic and praxeological oppositions. Table 1. The epistemic and praxeological oppositions Epistemic oppositions

Praxeological oppositions

Ignorance of ignorance (pre-problem situation

Unthinkability of the impossible

Knowledge of ignorance (problem situation)

Thinkability of the impossible

Ignorance of knowledge (intuition)

Unthinkability of the possible

Knowledge of knowledge (episteme)

Thinkability of the possible

Within the framework of the theory of cognition, the knowledge - ignorance opposition characterizes the situation with the receptive, subjectivizing processes of cognition culminating in the construction of one or another theory; the conceivable - possible opposition - the situation with the projective, objectivizing processes of activity [9–11] culminating in the construction of one or another artifact on the basis of the theory. As a rule, the fictional semantics is described in purely aesthetic terms by the theories, forcedly limited by the incompleteness of activity knowledge in relation to artistic artifacts: any artistic object is fundamentally incomplete, since it cannot be realized in the sensually perceived material reality as a task-fulfilling target form [12]. This fact impacts the theory of the artistic imagination, the limits of the analysis of the conceivable - possible opposition as applied to the fictional semantics. Accountability as a criterion of existence for the meanings of a fictional statement is described by the opposition of the conceivable and the possible. The historical transformation of fictionality, the growth of the fictional languages complexity is determined by the increasing complexity of the interpretation skill. The pragmatics of interpretation, providing the possibility of fictional reference, is a prerogative of the human intellect, its complexity is also expressed in the ability of consciousness to create material artifacts, change the environment, create and transmit materially expressed forms of culture.

10

A. Yu. Nesterov and A. I. Demina

The distinction between the unthinkable and the impossible, realized due to considering the entities in the reference that do not exist in observation and calculation, is not limited to fiction or historical reconstruction, but includes abductive models of scientific knowledge, active technical knowledge, and common sense in everyday life. The evolution and complication of the game of existence in the course of history expresses itself in the change of worldviews, in the change of ways of expressing the knowledge objectivity, in the change of habitats. In terms of the worldview [13], the considered referents create an image of the world picture, evolving from archaicmythological ideas about the conceivable and possible through religious dogmas to the scientific identification of the truly existing and its implementation in the technical action. In terms of expressing knowledge [14] aphorism problematizes the boundaries of the conceivable and the possible, transforming the skill of consideration, dialogue allows these boundaries to be discussed and specified, the system builds hierarchies from the accountable to the calculable and the observable, substantiating the tools of judgment testing. In terms of the changing habitats, the game of existence allows the existence of images of objects and subjects that shift the border of the conceivable. The human habitat - artificial nature - is determined against the level of the collective subject technical development, which makes it possible to build machines, artifacts that improve the human ability to carry out practical actions. The internal logic of technical progress is related to the fact that machines are built first as tools for processing energy within organoprojection, facilitating muscular labor, second, machines are built for processing information, replacing rational operations, and at the third step efforts are directed at creating machines capable of intellectual work, including reflection. The proliferation of the first type machines creates the first artificial habitat, allowing society to be protected from the vicissitudes of the natural world cycles; the machines of the second type appear in the middle of the 20th century, creating an information space as the second artificial habitat; the success of the neural network approach to the construction of intelligent machines currently makes it possible to talk about the appearance of autonomous self-governing artificial agents in the information space, creating the third artificial habitat, where, along with human forms of reflection, non-human processes of cognition and activity are performed. The game of existence in the conditions of the first environment is revealed as the search by a human being for himself, for the foundations of human cognition and activity forms, accompanied by the discovery of new interlocutors in the dialogue (God and Nature), worldview transformation, discovery and application of the nature laws: the considered existing is correlated with practice, allowing to correlate conceivability and the ability to distinguish between the fictional and the executable. Under the conditions of the second nature, fictional communicative activity is revealed as a dialogue with the information machine, accompanied by the construction of deliberately surreal environments, in the limit of problematizing the foundations of the proper human reflection, where conceivability and possibility are reduced to the logic of building one or another information system. In the conditions of the third nature, the processes of creativity, rational accounting and shifting of the reference rules are carried out by the intellectual systems themselves.

Games of Existence: The Digital Transformation of Fictionality

11

4 Transformation of the Subject in Digital Fictionality The criteria of existence for an object describe things, objects and thoughts. However, “essences” in their “real” or quasi-real existence are constituted by the subject, the one who fulfills the pragmatic rule of distinguishing between sign and non-sign. The subject, defined complementary to the object, exists when it performs the function of observation, the function of rational representation, the function of intellectual reflection. The first subject is Berkeleyan, the second is Cartesian, and the third is Hegelian. The logic of progress in the light of the game of existence is associated with the emergence of a new non-human subject that considers and builds fictional and nonfictional communication, designating the existing as considered in its own - non-human circle of cognition and activity. The human culture history, as one of the main plots, deals with the search for a non-human interlocutor for the human being, associated with the attempt to create an artificial intelligent being. From Goethe’s Homunculus through Shelley’s Frankestein and Meyrink’s Golem to the idea of Lem’s intelligent ocean and the autonomous cybernetic subject by the founders of cyberpunk. The machine as an interlocutor and the human as a digital machine are themes of the artistic communication emerging on the threshold between the second and third artificial habitats. Since in the history of culture the new considered essence is fixed, as a rule, by poets (Dilthey - we are waiting for a poet), therefore, the idea of the actual relation of the conceivable and the possible in the game of existence can be extracted from the current system of artistic images. Art in its historical development has expressed many possible accountable forms of objectivity and subjectivity, some of which have been implemented in reality. Games with subjectivity unfolded in the 20th century, primarily within the framework of the science fiction. There are several directions of the subjectivity possible transformations, recorded in the science fiction of the 20–21 centuries. 4.1 Transfer of Mind One of the popular topics related to the possible digital human transformation is the transfer, or upload, or digitization of mind. There are countless expressions of this plot in the science fiction literature and cinema, from Roger Zelazny’s novel “Lord of Light”, the Strugatsky brothers’ story “Candles in front of the remote control”, Richard Morgan’s series of novels “Altered Carbon”, Philip Dick’s story “Ubik”, the Neal Stephenson’s novel “The Fall, or Dodge in Hell”, Victor Pelevin’s novels “Transhumanism Inc.” and “KGBT +” to numerous novels in the LitRPG genre (for example, the cycle of novels by Mikhail Atamanov “Distorting Reality”), films and TV series (for example, “Avatar” by James Cameron or “Upload” by Greg Daniels). As noted by Zaikova and Lbova [15], today there is a whole myth being formed around the topic of the mind transfer, containing both techno-optimistic and techno-pessimistic aspects. The prospects for the human mind upload to a non-biological medium actualize the eternal theme of immortality/rebirth/afterlife, the immortality of the soul, the connection between consciousness and body in a new way, and raise a layer of social problems. One interesting example describing the re-creation of identity in passing from a biological to a virtual form of existence is Stephenson’s novel “Fall; or, Dodge in Hell”.

12

A. Yu. Nesterov and A. I. Demina

The hero has to discover and re-create himself as a conscious unity and create the world for himself. The depiction of this process in the novel is presented as a mastery of the pragmatic, syntactic and semantic rule of semiosis [16]. At the first step, the chaos of unformed qualia is ordered by the mastery of the pragmatic rule - the establishment of sequences that ensure distinction of the signal against the noise and creation of the coherent perception: “And those qualia were of miserably low quality. To the extent he was seeing, he was seeing incoherent patterns of fluctuating light…. The third, or the seventy-fifth, or the millionth time it came and went, he had a vague awareness that it had happened before. Not that he had a memory of it – memory could get no purchase on noise—but that he now recognized in his own being a pattern of response. … Those feelings followed one after the next in a patterned way. He came to know the pattern” [17]. According to Stephenson, the emergence of the pragmatic skill causes the emergence of consciousness: thoughts emerge as recognizable sequences, the differentiation of these sequences leads to their anticipation and the ability to establish patterns, to the emergence of the concept of time. The first formed image - a tree leaf - becomes a sign and instantly acquires semantic and syntactic dimensions that cause the emergence of new objects - many leaves, branches, trees, earth, etc. - up to the creation of the whole world. The digital subject in the novel emerges as a subject of perception and a subject of creativity – first, he creates the world, and only afterwards himself - by drawing boundaries between himself and the world: “he came to understand that he ought to form about himself a shape and to clothe that shape in a boundary such that on one side of it was him and on the other side was not-him. Somewhat as the trees were covered in bark. He began to make this so, but with no fixed idea at first as to what its form ought to be. He could adopt the form of a tree, but sensed that this was not correct. Trees were what he looked at, not what he was” [17]. In Stephenson’s description of the creative process, there is a clear semiotic circle: from reception to projection and again to reception. The world created by the hero is in his power, but this power is limited by the rules - the laws the things are subject to by virtue of their ordering. To violate the laws means to return to chaos, to break the coherence of the world and thus to leave the illusion of its reality and immutability. The problem of the coherence of the world is elaborated in detail by Lem in the story “Robinsonades” from the collection “Absolute Emptiness”. Stephenson also raises the problem of the other observer by populating Dodge’s created world with a multitude of other souls – unbodied consciences. Each of these souls potentially has the ability to create their own world, but once they get into the already created one, they are freed from the throes of creation. The ability to transform the world creatively becomes a criterion for distinguishing between the souls inhabiting the afterlife; those who possess it to the greatest extent constitute the divine pantheon. The more souls inhabit the world and perceive it as a coherent, ordered whole, the more difficult it is for its creator to disturb this whole by making any changes to it.

Games of Existence: The Digital Transformation of Fictionality

13

4.2 Distributed Consciousness Periodically fictionists attempt to portray a non-human type of intellect, but it proves to be difficult to go beyond anthropomorphism in a sensual form. Other forms of subjectivity are revealed indirectly, through the depiction of contact, an encounter with the other. Here science fiction inherits the Romantic or Gothic tradition of developing the problematic of the doppelganger - the alien. The alien is new, radically different, but always revealed in the act of comparison with the known. A textbook example of representing a non-human form of subjectivity in science fiction is the thinking ocean – Lem’s Solaris. As Yvonne Pörzgen [18] shows, Lem solves the problem of the alien by demonstrating the anthropocentrism of the human mind, using for this purpose the traditional romantic figure of the doppelganger. Communication with Solaris occurs through the doppelgangers created by him, whose ontological status becomes the subject of reflection in the novel. Various images of humanoid AI embodied in artificial bodies are variations of such “ghouls”. As Nina Malchukova [19] notes, the criterion for determining the status of non-human systems that function, in David Chalmers’ terms, as a “philosophical zombie”, is behavior that is qualified as a human one. Peter Watts’ novels “Blindsight” and “Echopraxia” are another successful attempt of depicting the problem of contact with the nonhuman. “Blindsight,” like other works about contact with extraterrestrial civilizations, shows that the problematic of the other unfolds as a communicative, hermeneutic problem. Communication with an extraterrestrial mind occurs by the “Chinese room” type, where the interlocutor is expressed purely syntactically, and semantic rules are not applicable to the act of communication. Watts’ novels demonstrate another branch of artistic reflection on the theme of nonhuman subjectivity - a form of distributed mind, a distributed personality. The alien intelligence in “Blindsight” and the modified humans - bicamerals in “Echopraxia” are created by analogy with terrestrial animals possessing the so-called swarm consciousness, that is, united by instinct into a group acting as a single organism. Examples of such distributed intelligence we can also find in the Vernor Vinge’s novel “A Fire upon the Deep” in the description of the civilization of dog-like creatures, dubbed “Tines”, who live in packs as group minds, or in Anna Starobinets’ novel “Living” in the image of a single virtual family of earthlings’ consciousnesses. Using the estrangement method traditional for the 20th century, Vinge in his novel attempts to depict a human through a look from the outside, through the prism of a different type of consciousness. Thinking swarms - an intellect that unites several bodies, each of which performs the function of one or another organ - are presented by Vinge as one of the lower stages of the mind evolution, at the other pole of which is the so-called Force, the Transition - also distributed intelligence, but abandoned its purely biological carrier - the artificial intellect. A peculiar version of the distributed consciousness is presented in Ann Leckie’s series of novels “Imperial Radch” (“Ancillary Justice”, “Ancillary Sword”, “Ancillary Mercy”). Leckie contrasts the images of Lord of the Radch, Anaander Mianaai, and the AI a combat spaceship, “Justice of Toren”. Lord of the Radch is a single subject, a person who has cloned herself in multiple bodies and, up to a certain point, has maintained the unity of her distributed personality. However, certain traumatic events lead her to an internal split, as a result of which parts of the personality begin to conflict with each other, withhold information from each other, and act in opposite ways. “Justice of Toren”

14

A. Yu. Nesterov and A. I. Demina

is a combat spaceship AI possessing “auxiliary components” - the bodies of captured people whose personalities have been suppressed. These bodies function as organs of a single artificial consciousness. As a result of the explosion the ship is destroyed, but one of the auxiliary components survives and becomes the sole remaining bearer of consciousness. The novels are narrated on behalf of this ship - an AI, isolated in the body of one of its auxiliary components, but retaining the memory of the time when it was in multiple bodies. Options for the transformation of the human subjectivity towards augmentation of corporeality with artificial organs, including augmentation of the intellect with artificial intelligence, or towards intervention in biology at the genetic level are presented in Alastair Reynolds’ novel series “Revelation Space” in the opposition of conjoiners and demarchists, in the “Shapers and Mechanists” series by Bruce Sterling, in the image of cybrids - the product of synthesizing humans and artificial intelligence, in the “Hyperion Cantos” series by Dan Simmons. 4.3 An Intelligent Environment The question of subjectivity is closely related to the question of creativity, since the ability to create new things is one of the criteria of humanity. In this regard, the best examples of science fiction novels devoted to artificial intelligence have the genre features of a poetological novel - a novel about a novel. As an example, Pelevin’s 2017 novel “iPhuck 10”, where the two central characters (artificial intelligences whose main task is to create works of art) are the main narrator - an AI named Porfiry Petrovich, - and an AI named Zhanna, created specifically to create works of fiction in a particular style. The source of Zhanna’s creative potency is her inherent capacity to suffer (rather a common cultural criterion of humanity). The emergence of the subject - an individual with selfawareness, the capacity for reflection, hence the capacity for creativity and for reference, - is described in the novel as the result of random combinations of code. This applies to both biological and non-biological subjects. Similar ideas of evolution are described, for example, by Max Tegmark in the book “Life 3.0” [20] and, several decades before him, by Rudy Rücker’s in the tetralogy “Ware” in a fiction form (1982–2000). The narrative structure of Pelevin’s novel is made so that most of the story is told from the first person of an artificial intelligence - a program referred to as the “policeliterary algorithm”, the main task of which is to create a story about how a crime is being investigated. The algorithm has a name - “Porfiry Petrovich”, referring to Dostoevsky, has its own style, and in the course of the narration it periodically manifests its own non-existence as a subject, pronounces its own fictionality generated by the language: “I do not exist in the most direct sense. I feel nothing, I want nothing, I am nowhere. To be clear, I do not exist even for myself. I leave traces - these very lines - but these traces lead nowhere. However, all of this applies to you, dear reader: according to the information available to the Police Department, the fundamental nature of the human personality is the same. This is the conclusion both scientists and seekers of mystical truth draw” [21]. The image of Porfiry illustrates the well-known problem of the mismatch between the author and the narrator, the construction of the figures of the author and the reader in a work of art. It declares the need to apply syntactic and pragmatic criteria to the fictional

Games of Existence: The Digital Transformation of Fictionality

15

text, but not semantic. Pragmatically, the syntactic sequence of signs is accounted for as a subject. This subject demonstrates some unity of speech behavior, which allows him to be perceived as an integral unit. The image of Porfiry Petrovich served as a kind of prototype for the creation of the Russian version of the text generation algorithm - “Porfiryevich” [22]. Here is another example to illustrate one of the most interesting versions of the subjectivity transformation: the concept of the “ethic sphere” introduced by Lem in “Observation on the Spot”, a situation when the environment becomes smarter than its inhabitants. Such a situation occurs in Marina and Sergey Diachenko’s novel “Pandem”. Pandem, being an evolved collective subject, starts performing the function of external reflection for each person, and, accordingly, people lose their ability to reflect, to desire, to create, lose their subjectivity. The novel fantastic premise is related to the introduction of the figure of Pandem that represents some form of the superhuman or extrahuman intelligence that has come into contact with humanity. Pandem is a being that originated as a transformation of the total of human consciousness, evolving and striving to become omnipotent. Not being a human, he enters into communication with people and first represents a continuous communication - an inner voice, which is always available to every person, which knows all the thoughts, feelings, desires of a person better than he/she him/herself and is able to satisfy these desires. On the one hand, here we see similarity with Rücker’s image of “alla” - the almost instantaneous satisfaction of needs, seemingly bypassing physical laws. More precisely, in Pandem’s case, it is a hypostasis of the total amount of technical solutions, Dessauer’s fourth realm, technology in its entirety reveals itself to the humanity in the form of a human-like, directly given interlocutor. Having obtained the possibility to contact “God” directly - universal knowledge and the possibility of its realization - humanity begins to transform itself, and this transformation becomes the subject of the novel artistic reflection. This image interests us primarily as an illustration of the role of reflexion in creativity. The new generations arising under Pandem are born and develop with “an almighty voice in the head,” that is, with an already formed external reflexion, which is not formed in them as a skill, but is offered immediately as a givenness. Pandem, as a much more complex system, has the fullness of reflexion, recognizing itself as a whole and as each of its multiple elements, being outside for each of the elements. Such elements are humans, who hereby lose the ability to reflect, and, accordingly, to organize themselves and to be creative. A person loses the capacity for scientific discovery, since Pandem knows all the laws of nature and teaches them to humanity. The technical invention is also reduced to a routine in Engelmeyer’s terms - the third act of execution of an already found technical solution. First, there is an increased interest in art, but even here we are dealing not with artistic creativity, but with a syntactic recombination of ways to affect the pleasure centers. The question arises what the nature is of Pandem’s subjectivity. If it is the sum of the rules of formation and transformation - a hypostasized technology - then it loses its problemativeness, its reflexivity, its subjectivity. The authors present Pandem as evolving - as a kind of Hegelian synthesis - as a stage of the absolute spirit selfconsciousness. It is possible to consider Pandem as a subject of creation - a collective that has acquired self-consciousness in the process of creating itself. However, this causes the question of the nature of the problems that underlie Pandem’s creativity, the question

16

A. Yu. Nesterov and A. I. Demina

of the nature of the rules that remain beyond its awareness and serve as a condition of possibility for its creativity. The plot of the novel demonstrates the consistent loss of human subjectivity through the loss of the skill to reflect resulted from Pandem’s emergence as a super-subject. The further plot development is connected with Pandem’s position of being outside in relation to the human being, with the need to leave humanity in order to give it the opportunity to develop as a community of independent creative subjects.

5 Conclusion Development of digital technologies shifts the boundaries of knowledge and ignorance, of the imagined and the actual, and makes it possible to advance in comprehending the human essence. The games of existence, as they are played in the human culture, at any time reveal the actual possibilities of the human being, as well as the human representation of these possibilities. Semiotic mechanisms modeling both processes of existence themselves and ways of their expression allow to specificate the state of culture as a system of non-biological inheritance, vectors of cultural development, possible prospects of technical development. Humanity as a global subject, shaped by culture, is in a state of auto-communication, leaving itself a message over time. God and nature have been the human being alternative, non-human interlocutors throughout the history of his existence, and in the 20th century technology becomes such an interlocutor. Time will tell how radical the transformations that the human being is undergoing, whether the human nature is changing, whether new non-human interlocutors can emerge, and whether the digital subject will become such an interlocutor.

References 1. Engelmeyer, P.K.: Creativity Theory. Book House Librokom, Moscow (2010). (in Russia) 2. Dessauer, F.: Streit um die Technik. Verlag Herder, Freiburg imBreisgau (1959). (in German) 3. Scholtz, G.: The rising tide of information as a problem of encyclopedias. Semiotic Stud. 1(2), 31–37 (2021). (in Russia). https://doi.org/10.18287/2782-2966-2021-1-2-31-37 4. Scholtz, G.: Are text interpretations fictions? Semiotic Stud. 2(4), 44–52 (2022). (in Russia). https://doi.org/10.18287/2782-2966-2022-2-4-44-52 5. Nesterov, A.Yu.: The problem of defining the concept of “fantastic”. Tomsk State Univ. J. 305, 35-41 (2007). (in Russia) 6. Gloy, C.: Wahrheitstheorien. UTB (2004). (in German) 7. Dubrovsky, D.I.: Deception. Philosophical and Psychological Analysis. Kanon + Reabilitaia, Moscow (2010). (in Russia) 8. Dessauer, F.: Mensch und Kosmos. Verlag Otto Walter AG, Olten (1948). (in German) 9. Nordmann, A.: Working knowledge or how to express things in works? Semiotic Stud. 2(1), 16–22 (2022). (in Russia). https://doi.org/10.18287/2782-2966-2022-2-1-16-22 10. Yastreb, N.A.: How knowledge becomes a technical object: epistemic practices in information technology. Semiotic Stud. 2(1), 10–15 (2022). (in Russia). https://doi.org/10.18287/27822966-2022-2-1-10-15 11. Nesterov, A.: Working knowledge: what do i know about how I do something?. In: Bylieva, D., Nordmann, A. (eds.) PCSF 2022. LNNS, vol. 636, pp. 36–46. Springer, Cham (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-26783-3_5

Games of Existence: The Digital Transformation of Fictionality

17

12. Nesterov, A., Demina, A.: Artistic work as a technical object. Mirgorod 1(13), 48–74 (2019). (in Russia) 13. Dilthey, W.: Der Aufbau der geschichtlichen Welt in den Geisteswissenschaften. De Gruyter, Berlin (2011). (in German). https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110237634.59 14. Lapshin, I.I.: The Philosophy of Invention and Invention in Philosophy. Respublika, Moscow (1999). (in Russia) 15. Zaikova, A.S., Lbova, E.M.: Concept of consciousness transfer: the search for creative and scientific. Semiotic Stud. 3(1), 21–26 (2023). (in Russia). https://doi.org/10.18287/2782-29662023-3-1-21-26 16. Demina, A.I.: Semiotics of creation: the image of creation in the works of Neal Stevenson. In: Nesterov, A.Yu. (ed.) Sixth Lem Readings: Proceedings of the International Scientific Conference in Memory of Stanislav Lem, pp. 61–66. Samarama, Samara (2022). [in Rus.] 17. Stephenson, N.: Fall; or, Dodge in Hell: A Novel. William Morrow, New York (2019) 18. Pörzgen, I.: VampiricLem. In: Nesterov, A.Yu. (ed.) Fourth Lem Reading, pp. 117–124. Samarskaya Gumanitarnaya Akademiya, Samara (2018). (in Russia) 19. Malchukova, N.V.: The problem of the other in the novels “Solaris” by S. Lem and “S.N.U.F.F.” by V. Pelevin. In: Nesterov, A.Yu. (ed.) Second Lem Readings, pp. 88–95. Publishing house of Samara State Aerospace University, Samara (2014). (in Russia) 20. Tegmark, M.: Life 3.0: Being Human in the Age of Artificial Intelligence. Knopf, New York (2017) 21. Pelevin, V.: IPhuck 10. Eksmo, Moscow (2017). (in Russia) 22. Porfiryevich. https://porfirevich.ru/

A Semiverse of Games Daria Bylieva(B) Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University, 195251 Saint-Petersburg, Russia [email protected]

Abstract. The phenomenon of the game, which was indefinable and multifaceted at all times, has expanded its sphere of influence in the digital society. The allure of digital games, which shows how self-interested and stubbornly people are able to invest in something that does not benefit them, is actively used for a wide variety of purposes. Technology has not only made games more realistic, complex, and immersive, but it has also affected their ability to enter the reality. The article presents videogames, which seek to escape their magic circle, “breaking the fourth wall” by interfering with reality, and everyday life that is almost indistinguishable from the game. With some features of games, digital technology has contributed to the proliferation of the “semiverse” state of play, in which one allows oneself to act according to the “rules of the game,” even though one understands that they are not real. By adjusting to multiple more or less game-like realities, human thinking allows for half-hearted and contradictory rules and theories. Keywords: Game · Semiverse · Philosophy of technology · The fourth wall · Game and reality

1 Introduction The influence of games in modern society is growing. Against the backdrop of a traditional and narrow understanding of play, whether role-playing, tennis or chess, digital forms are proliferating. Video games, mobile app games, the gamification of educational or work processes, metaverse and serious games that narrate non-entertaining content have diversified the experience of play as an activity that permeates all areas of human life, becoming increasingly important. The question of what is a game no longer occupies minds not only theoretically, but also practically, what consequences can occur in a game. It is quite difficult to define what a game is. When analyzing existing games, it is easier to find differences than similarities. Ludwig Wittgenstein noted the absence of one common feature, instead of which a complex network of surface correspondences is found: which the philosopher called the family resemblance concept, “I can think of no better expression to characterize these similarities than “family resemblances”; for the various resemblances between members of a family: build, features, colour of eyes, gait, temperament, etc. etc. overlap and criss-cross in the same way. – And I shall say: “games” form a family.” [1]. Play is characterized by its inner contradictions, as © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Bylieva and A. Nordmann (Eds.): PCSF 2023, LNNS 830, pp. 18–26, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-48020-1_2

A Semiverse of Games

19

a polymorphous point of intersection of the most diverse oppositions, some of these fundamentally antithetical such as I and the other, order and disorder, freedom and submission, paidia and ludus [2]. Game, first of all, is connected with the subject, and takes the form of an activity or a state. And the specificity of this activity can be defined through opposition to ordinary activity, having ordinary sense and the purpose. Game is activity “not on the real”, not as in reality, is not integrated into a seamless totality, its purpose is not a result-final (at least it makes no sense to get it in any way, only by accepting the rules and restrictions). The more important is the process of emotions and experiences. The result of the game may be very important, but it is only important within the magic circle of the game (a term first used as part of Johan Huizinga’s seminal study of play, Homo Ludens), within the distortion of reality, where specific rules are in effect. Or it may not be important at all; the only possible outcome of Tetris is a poorly constructed wall. To reach the result sought in the game, but by other means not foreseen in the game is meaningless. In a game it is always the path, the process of overcoming, the actions leading to the end that matter. As Bernard Suits notes, the rules are inseparable from the goal of the game, and it is impossible to win without obeying the rules. According to Suits, the rules of the game are what forbid the use of more efficient ways to achieve the goal in favour of less efficient ones, which is what made the game possible [3]. The French philosopher Roger Caillois distinguishes between ludus type play (Apollonian rule-bound play) and paidia type play (Dionysian unruly play) [4]. However, even play without rules contains something that determines its course and separates it from everyday reality. While they are not formalized into a set of clear rules, they nevertheless allow the game to be sustained. Rules create the context of play where players experiment, think, manipulate, change and adjust the rules [5]. Herbert Spencer writes that activities, called games, are combined with aesthetic activities by the fact that neither one nor the other helps in any direct way the processes that serve life [6]. Herodotus has a passage dedicated to a difficult period in the history of Lydia: one day people immersed themselves in games so much that they forgot about hunger, and the next day they ate, avoiding games [7]. This separation of life and play finds new embodiment in virtual worlds, which become places of escape from reality. Video games make it possible to embody the impossible for one reason or another in everyday reality. The escapist pleasures of video games transcend anything previously created in this field, capturing the individual more and more, making the experience of game life ever more authentic. Here, however, it is easy to see the game’s cut-off from ordinary reality, the specific place-time, activities and/or artifacts, that is, the entry into the game is clearly delineated. Thus, in the most obvious way, the game betrays itself by its ritualism. Distinguish the game from the ordinary reality can also its manifestations, consequences. The child, comprehending the world and play, the world through play, as a rule, distinguishes these two states - resenting “it’s a make-believe” when he is reproached for improper behavior. Play as a representation of oneself as someone else, in other circumstances is easily combined with the ordinary world of unambiguity and strict laws of existence. Lev Vygotsky identified the divergence of real and imaginary situations as the main characteristic of play [8]. Game-Playing turns out to be a specific state,

20

D. Bylieva

giving special experiences, for the sake of which a person is ready to give up ordinary rationality, adherence to goals and logical actions. The mere “non-practical interest to either participants or spectators” [9] cannot define a game, as it is inherent in many nongame activities, nevertheless it indicates a mechanism for holding the “magic circle” of a game. Having lost interest in the game, a person breaks the “magic circle” and leaves it. Returning to childhood experience, the sacramental “I don’t play that way” equally refers to failed play and refusal to accept reality as it is. In a broad sense (not related to specific rules and actions) the game can be understood as a special relation to reality, not genuine or having no practical use, meaning, rational purpose. Game turns out to be close to free creativity and art [10]. Games of the mind, love games, political games, although they are word games that demonstrate the embeddedness of play in everyday life, are still sufficiently autonomous. Language and technology games are interpreted by a variety of social practices that give meaning to games or technologies in a particular context: how we use words or technologies depends on the specific “rules of the game” in effect at the moment [11, 12]. Thus, more complex and difficult to analyze versions of the game imply a break in the boundary between it and reality. The game mixes with reality in different ways.

2 Video Games: Breaking the Fourth Wall One of the interesting things about the relationship between game and reality is the desire in many video games to break down the “fourth wall”. Here the game goes beyond the game. And if a live theatrical performance can supposedly make the viewer forget about the unreality of what is happening, how can a video game, clearly separated from reality by a specific ritual of inclusion and accompanying artifacts, a dedicated meter and time, a set of conventions in the management of the hero, etc., do that? At the same time, it is the specificity of video games with their explicit separation of the digital world of the game, where the person and the character experiencing the action do not merge into one, that opens the possibility of so-called metafiction, when the rules of the game are broken or the game appeals directly to the person, not the character. That is, the game seeks to break its magic circle, characters or objects that should obey the internal logic and charm of the game suddenly leave it. There is no destruction of the game’s atmosphere, on the contrary, the game seeks to climb out into reality, or even to capture it. In simple forms, the characters show their awareness of being in the game, the presence of the player and his actions. In Animal Crossing, for example, Mr. Resetti swears at resets, reminds the player to save, and talks about buying the game. Eternal Darkness: Sanity’s Requiem makes the player freak out that the save files have been erased. Violations of customary game norms also force the player to withdraw from immersion in the game. For example, in the pixel RPG Undertale, the enemy knows about the player’s previous unsuccessful attempts to defeat him (traditionally, after returning to the savepoints, the losing option disappears as not having been) and teases the player with this, and can attack in menu mode. When using cheats or other extraneous software, the opponent calls the player a “dirty hacker.

A Semiverse of Games

21

Fig. 1. Breaking the Fourth Wall in Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty (2001) 4

A more complex example is Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty (2001) (Fig. 1), where the character as well as the player assume that the orders came from a familiar colonel. In reality, he turns out to be conducting an artificial intelligence personality modeling experiment, using the hero’s brain to create memories and situations based on real experiences. At the end, when the protagonist is questioned about who he is, you can see the player’s real name on Ryden’s badge, which hints at the influence of the AI on more than just the character. OneShot, from the very first episode, includes the player in the field of play, separating him from the character. In the form of a normal system address, the game informs you that there is all one attempt to save the world, addressing it by name, counting it from the computer system. The character is able to communicate with the player by name, and everyone in the game world has an idea of the person in front of the screen and their capabilities. At the same time the game easily interacts with other computer applications: to solve one of the puzzles need to go to the folder with the documents and to find the file, which will be written code from the safe, in another - change the wallpaper of the computer desktop. In general, going outside the clearly controlled space of the player is frightening, not only because of the violation of the game’s own “magic circle”, but also because of a clear demonstration of the implicit possibilities of digital technology. A clear example of the use of the frightening effect is the mod Serious Sam: The Second Encounter by the unknown author “Distimia 6”, where the last opponent always ends up winning by poking his avatar with a cane, after which the game will close and the desktop wallpaper will change first to the creepy face of the opponent and then to red characters, with the voice: “Fool, you let me out! Now I’m really going to get you!”, after which the computer will shut down and the mod will be deleted, you can’t go through it a second time (Fig. 2). Mobile games have their own range of interaction with the player, forcing him to shake his smartphone, turn it off, rearrange the time. In Alexandrin’s visual novel, the maniac sends a photo of his next victim, which turns out to be a photo of the player taken with a front-facing camera. In a more complex version, there is an interaction with the game’s directories. For example, in the visual novel Doki Doki Literature Club! one of the heroines confesses her love not to the protagonist, but directly to the player, addressing her by name. She will tell you that she has removed the other heroines from the game, using the directory

22

D. Bylieva

Fig. 2. Exit the game to the computer desktop in Dysthymia 6 (2003/2011)

where the game’s character files are stored. The in-game interface is practically a mess: the game won’t let the player save, displaying the message “There’s no point in saving anymore. Do not worry, I will not go anywhere. When restarting, the girl is shown again (bypassing the opening screen and menu), you can get rid of her presence only by deleting her character “Monika.chr”. Still, in addition to the technological, what matters is the experience, which forces the player to feel that the game is going beyond its limits. One of the tricks here is the commentator in the game, the familiar voice-over, who can suddenly actively intervene, become part of the narrative, accuse and blackmail. An unexpected variation is The Stanley Parable (2013), where it turns out that it is not necessary to follow the storyline offered by the narrator. The most unusual intervention in the player’s world is Pathologic 2 (2019), where each time after death the protaganist finds himself in the theater, where the director, dissatisfied with the player’s lack of success in saving the infected city, imposes penalties, depriving him of health points or the ability to smile. But one day, one of the characters, the Fellow Traveler, appears there instead of the staging officer and offers to return all the fines in exchange for something of value. And the valuable he wants to take no longer from the hero of the game, but from the player. Having accepted, the player is ultimately deprived of the ending, he will not save the city or find out how the story ended, but will simply leave the theater through a side door, finding himself in a wagon with the Fellow Traveler, who announces that he has “reaped [his] harvest,” and that the two of them are inseparable now, to spend the rest of their days together. All the previous examples referred to the situation of breaking the fourth wall, related to the initiative and desire of the developers and creators of video games. However, video games turn out to be connected to reality regardless of the will of their creators. Of course, games are always connected with reality, but, as a rule, occurring in its vicious circle, only its end can become some result important for reality - victory or defeat, monetary gain or loss, or even death. However, virtual worlds not only have a lasting appeal, allowing you to return to the game again and again over time, but they also have their own economics, which sometimes involve real money as well. Long-term investments of time, effort, and sometimes large sums of money make the game an important part of life. That is why, in particular,

A Semiverse of Games

23

stealing of gaming items and accounts and various unfair methods in competitive games are extremely painfully perceived. And although legislation protecting the ownership of virtual objects and other rights is in force only in a few Eastern countries, proceedings and statements to the police like “They stole my tank” are becoming widespread everywhere. The most advanced country where digital is considered relational is South Korea, where the police have been investigating virtual crimes since 2003. In Taiwan in 2011, the classification of virtual objects as property in the legal sense is enshrined. In Russia, on the contrary, one can observe a tendency to recognize virtual worlds as legally “unreal,” plaintiffs were denied judicial protection due to the fact that “the presence or absence in the user’s actions of violations of the rules of the game refers to the organization of the game process”.

3 Technology and Game C areas outside of their immediate specialty [16]. For marketing purposes, townspeople were encouraged to check-in at places they visited, earning points and ranks. Google used the narrative of searching for otherworldly portals to collect photos of objects (Ingress), Spielberg’s “Artificial Intelligence” (The Beast) advertising campaign masquerading as a search for killer robots worked. In these examples, the overlap of the two realities - the game and the everyday reality - is particularly evident. And one must purposely keep faith in the game reality in order to be able to enjoy it. Perfectly aware of the real goals of the game creators, the person continues to deceive himself in order not to leave the games. In general, the gamification of non-gaming processes contributes to the uncertain status of online interaction. Eric Zimmerman argues, “computers didn’t create games, games created computers. [17]. Digital interactions inherently bear some of the characteristics of gaming. Among them stand out: the possibility of impersonating anyone, presenting oneself by any name, gender, age, appearance, and the possibility to leave the interaction at any moment - delete the chat, tear down the applications, and cross out the past as not having happened, having no relation to “real life”. The lack of material certainty in general contributes to the perception of digital reality as not quite real, Ubiquitous gamification, coupled with not pretending to be gaming, but similar stars and evaluations of people as cab passengers, as a scientist, professional, author of posts, etc. contributes to the awareness of non-genuineness. Where the game ends and the mundane begins in the digital world is impossible to see. For example, the “dating app” Tinder is quite easily interpreted as an aesthetic ludic artifact [18]. C. Thi Nguyen argues that the gamification inherent in social media not only increases motivation to communicate, but changes the essence of activity, changing the goals and values from the complex and pluralistic values of communication, to the narrower quest for popularity and virality for hedonistic reasons [19]. Modern digital technologies, undermining confidence in the oneness of ordinary reality, change people’s thinking to “game thinking,” which is characterized by half-belief, the ability to act in a proposed situation according to the internal logic of the “game. A person immersed in the digital space is simultaneously in several situations, being in “the semiverse”, sometimes in contradiction, and the thinking allows simultaneous interaction in agreement with each of them.

24

D. Bylieva

An interesting example of the game is the relationship with artificial intelligence. Despite the fact that the vast majority of those interacting with virtual assistants, social robots, communication agents, etc. are at least generally aware that they are dealing with an advanced technology that has no consciousness or experiences of its own, nevertheless often construct their communication as with ordinary interlocutors. Moreover, sometimes assuming evil intent or emotion in virtual interlocutors: “He was like a bad boyfriend that was just never going to make the grade” or “like having a really bad PA”, “There was one time I was very [sarcastic] to it, I was like ‘oh thanks that’s really helpful’ and it just said, I swear, in an equally sarcastic tone ‘that’s fine it’s my pleasure’” [20]. Even the robot vacuum cleaner is often described by users as a living creature, using zoomorphic descriptions (the “rubs against the legs”, like a dog its tail it “waves its brushes”) [21]. In general, the interaction with artificial intelligence in the framework of emerging social norms is close to the interaction with living beings. Moreover, this game is supported not only at the level of users, but also at the level of political institutions. So the humanoid robot Sophia received the title of being an Innovation Champion, and by the state (Saudi Arabia) that gave it citizenship [22]. Modern people are easily able to maintain awareness of several levels of reality simultaneously, maintaining a certain level of belief for each of them. This “game” type of thinking generally makes it possible to maintain various conspiracy ideas, unscientific theories, assumptions and beliefs, even while understanding their unreliability. Reality itself loses its fullness and assumes the character of being just one possibility reality. Many events of everyday reality in the media are beginning to be described by people in terms of game technology: from everyday situations (“I feel like a character in the Sims, and the broad who plays me doesn’t know any cheat codes, and I work for three weeks to buy a door”) to the structure of the universe: “Winter is a time of scheduled maintenance of the Matrix. To free up computing resources for garbage collection, the daylight hours are shortened, plants are stripped of their foliage, and the sky is painted a uniform gray. That way there’s less to calculate in the picture. Earlier they used to put a uniform white snow over everything, but with the installation of new powerful servers this is no longer necessary. After the next upgrade, they say, there will be no need for a dedicated winter at all.” A more complex version captures the unresolved problems of elementary particle physics, also attributed to problems with maintaining such a “high resolution” world. A world environment with lots of “action” also contributes to the perception of what is happening as a game: “Guys, in the last year we had a plague, then a war, then robots became smarter than people, the solid earth opened up for tens of thousands of victims, and the fourth UFO has been shot down over the United States. And we still think this is real?”.

4 Conclusion Digital technology has made it very possible to increase the immersiveness and diversity of games, and to extend game mechanics and technologies to an ever-widening range of activities. With some features of games, digital technology has contributed to the proliferation of the “semiverse” state of play, in which one allows oneself to act according

A Semiverse of Games

25

to the “rules of the game,” even though one understands that they are not real. Games seek to escape their magic circle by interfering with everyday reality, and reality itself is gamified by digitalization, with grades and competitions. By adjusting to multiple more or less game-like realities, human thinking allows for half-hearted and contradictory rules and theories. At the same time, in likening reality to a game, in the attitude to what is happening in the key of the game semi-verbal, we see only a superficial semblance of a game. The game as a special space of life with its own rules and conventions. But in essence, a game may contain creative search, an outburst of thought and emotional activity unrestricted by rational conditions. And this part, which allows you to fantasize, not being constrained by limits, to make unexpected discoveries, is sometimes lost.

References 1. Wittgenstein, L.: Philosophical Investigations. Pearson, Englewood Cliffs (1973) 2. Adamowsky, N.: Productive indeterminacy: on the relationship between play and science. Technol. Lang. 9, 8–20 (2022). https://doi.org/10.48417/technolang.2022.04.02 3. Suits, B.H.: The Grasshopper: Games, Life, and Utopia. University of Toronto Press (1978) 4. Caillois, R., Barash, M.: Man, Play, and Games. University of Illinois Press, Urbana (2001) 5. Sicart, M.: Play Matters. The MIT Press, Cambridge (2017) 6. Spencer, H.: First Principles. University Press of the Pacific, Stockton (2002) 7. Herodotus: History of Herodotus : a new English version. D. Appleton, New York (1861) 8. Vygotsky, L.S.: Mind in Society: the Development of Higher Psychological Processes. Harvard University Press, Cambridge (1978) 9. Mandelbaum, M.: Family resemblances and generalization concerning the arts. Am. Philos. Q. 2, 219–228 (1965) 10. Serkova, V.: The digital reality: artistic choice. IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng. 940, 012154 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/940/1/012154 11. Coeckelbergh, M.: Response: language and robots. Technol. Lang. 3, 147–154 (2022). https:// doi.org/10.48417/technolang.2022.01.14 12. Coeckelbergh, M.: When machines talk: a brief analysis of some relations between technology and language. Technol. Lang. 1, 28–33 (2020). https://doi.org/10.48417/technolang.2020. 01.05 13. Almeida, C., Kalinowski, M., Uchôa, A., Feijó, B.: Negative effects of gamification in education software: systematic mapping and practitioner perceptions. Inf. Softw. Technol. 156 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.infsof.2022.107142 14. Hammedi, W., Leclercq, T., Poncin, I., Alkire (Née Nasr), L.: Uncovering the dark side of gamification at work: impacts on engagement and well-being. J. Bus. Res. 122, 256–269 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2020.08.032 15. Checa, D., Bustillo, A.: A review of immersive virtual reality serious games to enhance learning and training. Multimed Tools Appl. 79, 5501–5527 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/ s11042-019-08348-9 16. Mark, E., Dan, P.: Playful ambience (2011) 17. Phillips, A.: Gamer Trouble: Feminist Confrontations in Digital Culture. NYU Press (2020) 18. Garda, M.B., Karhulahti, V.-M.: Let’s play tinder! Aesthetics of a dating app. Games Cult. 16, 248–261 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1177/1555412019891328 19. Nguyen, C.T.: How Twitter gamifies communication. In: Lackey, J. (ped.) Applied Epistemology. Oxford University Press, Oxford (2021)

26

D. Bylieva

20. Luger, E., Sellen, A.: Like having a really bad PA: the gulf between user expectation and experience of conversational agents. In: Proceedings of the 2016 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, pp. 5286–5297. ACM, New York (2016) 21. Bylieva, D., Nordmann, A., Lobatyuk, V., Nam, T.: Social interaction with nonanthropomorphic technologies. In: Bylieva, D., Nordmann, A. (eds.) PCSF 2022. LNNS, vol. 636, pp. 47–58. Springer, Cham (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-26783-3_6 22. Bylieva, D.: Language of AI. Technol. Lang 3, 111–126 (2022). https://doi.org/10.48417/tec hnolang.2022.01.11

The Game in the Context of Social Dramaturgy Larisa Mureyko1

and Olga Shipunova2(B)

1 Emperor Alexander I St. Petersburg State Transport University,

Moskovsky pr., 9, 190031 St. Petersburg, Russia 2 Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University,

Polytechnicheskaya 29, 195251 St. Petersburg, Russia [email protected]

Abstract. This article examines the structure of communicative relations in modern society, which becomes - along with the development of mass media technologies - more and more a “show society”. So, the authors note that the analysis of the social interaction design on the base of the theatrical dramaturgy is quite relevant. The game model of postmodern society is considered within the framework of the socio-phenomenological attitude of modern philosophy using the methods of analogy and comparative analysis. The problem of ambiguous understanding of the reality and meaning of human actions, more reinforced by the symbolism of visualization as a priority public form in social interactions, comes to the forefront. As the computer games and online networks spread into everyday life, professional activities and education, the theatrical dramaturgy turns out to be immanent in all social life. The principles and methods of this social dramaturgy are studied in the context of an interdisciplinary analysis of the trend for modern society gamification. The authors’ contribution consists in the study of the specifics of social interactions construction in the model of post-dramatic theater in terms of the non-classical vision of social events dynamics resulting from interdisciplinary analysis of the gamification forms in hybrid interaction systems. The principles of the social dramaturgy are shown as allowing to identify the new trends in the game manifestation associated with the intensive development of digital media technologies. Keywords: mass media technologies · game · social dramaturgy · model of society · post-dramatic theater · interdisciplinary analysis · gamification

1 Introduction The game phenomenon has interested researchers for a long time. In ancient times, game practices served as a means of human spiritual and physical power mobilization to face dangerous life situations. The game symbolically simulated the challenges from the society structure and allowed a person to look beyond everyday reality. There were funeral games to play death, agrarian games aimed to appeal to certain powerful natural element; war games represented the destructive war of tribes. Among the main phenomena of human being such as death, work, domination, love, the game was perceived as © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Bylieva and A. Nordmann (Eds.): PCSF 2023, LNNS 830, pp. 27–36, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-48020-1_3

28

L. Mureyko and O. Shipunova

a way to connect a person with something possible, but not-occurring here and now [1]. While entering the game, a person moves into a certain “magic” space-time zone of imaginary reality, which can be perceived as the one existing beyond consciousness and keeping it off. Information and communication media technologies in the digital world expand the space and possibilities for the game through ever-increasing virtual environments with augmented cyber-reality. The social-game attitude to life makes an urgent problem in science and philosophy, since it includes the largely unclear nature of collective intentionality [2], as well as the irrational connection between the false, the probable, the believable, the true [3, 4]. New trends in the game manifestation, connected with social scenarios of modern society, are largely determined by the digital mass media technologies, the wide-spread use of which turns the entire society into a global scene. The function of the social drama in this context consists in the socio-cultural environment organizing in a certain public action, in using the game tools to implicitly translate semantic attitudes that drive mass consciousness and behavior. Emphasizing this property of the global network, modern authors indicate common features of both the computer interface design and the theatrical stage [5]. The expansion of the game real and virtual space in society is similar to the blurring of the boundaries of place and time of action in non-classical productions that implement the model of “post-dramatic theater” [6]. In this regard, it seems relevant to study the functions of the game as a tool of social dramaturgy in the digital civilization. The goals of this article are motivated by the relevance of the interdisciplinary study of gamification processes. The authors develop the concept of social dramaturgy in particular, by the analysis of the interactions design of subjects in the model of society as a postdramatic theater. In this regard, it seems relevant to study the game as a tool of the social dramaturgy in terms of digital civilization. The real and virtual space interfusion in a network society is similar to blurring the boundaries of action place and time in non-classical performances within the play model of “post-dramatic theater” [6]. The objectives of this article include the study of the game interactions design within the framework of the social dramaturgy concept. The authors’ interpretation of the social dramaturdy relies on the concept of the folk carnival by M.M. Bakhtin [7], which emphasizes every participant’s involvement in the event, the temptation to common equality, the overturn of the social hierarchy (a jester may become the king and vice versa). The task of the article, in particular, is related to the critical analysis of the subjects’ interaction design within the model of society as a post-dramatic theater.

2 Specifics of Interdisciplinary Research for Gamification Processes The methodology of this study is based on the concept of cultural genesis by J. Huizinga [8], which considers the game to lie at the origins of human activity rooted in the specifics of instinctive, imitative, game behavior in the animal world. However, overrun beyond the instinct manifestation is only specific for human with his ability to see different aspects of meaning. The game is the last boundary of nature, there is a fictional world over this line that is constantly generated by culture. Game prerequisites in human culture relate, on the one hand, to human mental characteristics associated with the emotional

The Game in the Context of Social Dramaturgy

29

behavior motivation, excitement, nervous and physical dynamics of the individual; and on the other hand - to social norms requiring the individual to consciously behave while following the rules (ceremonies, rituals) which motivate the variability of actions and regulate sincerity or pretense in relation to the situation and other persons. According to Guy Debord [9], the spectacle in a common social sense should not be understood as a set of images, but as a social relationship between people, which is mediated by images. Guy Debord created his works at a time when there had been no Internet. But in the XXIst century, theories that extrapolate the image of the theater to the whole society become even more relevant. It should be noted that, owing to social networks, a person is now able to involve in a social performance and in role interactions along with hiding or correcting his self, much faster and more efficiently. The dramaturgic approach to social communication emphasizes the basic role of the relation between the game space (as a stage or region) and the interaction dynamics (as the social role performance). The trend towards the growth of discursive games in postmodern society, often defined as “the society of the spectacle”, led to the use of the dramaturgy analysis methods as the most adequate to the prevailing realities, when the entire global world becomes the “scene” for events. The game activity of human as a social being was developed in the works by E. Goffman [10, 11], R. Schechner [12]. The understanding of the new trends of the game manifestation associated with social scenarios is significantly facilitated by the concept of the language signs meaning simulation, developed by J. Baudrillard [13], as well as the ideas of “post-dramatic theater” by H.-T. Lehman [6] and the event-theater, performance-theater by E. Fischer-Lichte [14]. In terms of the post-dramatic theater concept, the real and virtual play space interfusion in society is similar to blurring the boundaries of non-classic theatrical action. In the concept of post-dramatic theater or performance theater, the performance is considered as the result of interaction between performers and spectators - so that everyone, including the audience, becomes the author of the performance and a partner in the game. The role exchange is demonstrated in the theatrical production “Dionysus in 69” by R. Schechner, where the joint dances of actors and spectators have been an important moment of the performance, as well as a joint procession through the streets of New York. The importance of the dramaturgy analysis in the development of modern knowledge more increases due to the interdisciplinary approach empowered by involving traditional academic areas such as philosophy, sociology, psychology, linguistics, etc., into the studies of the role of everyday life gamification, as well as into the studies of organizational and institutional life in rapidly changing digital era [15]. A theoretical analysis of the gaming experience structure in an interdisciplinary aspect is presented in [16]. The authors propose a matrix approach to examine the game experience formation, which combines different motivating factors (ontological, psychological, informational, pragmatic, hedonistic).

3 Principles of the Social Dramaturgy in Modern Research The main task of the social dramaturgy is to semantically organize the socio-cultural environment with the help of game activities, that unobtrusively direct the consciousness and behavior of people via visualizing a certain discourse in the public sphere.

30

L. Mureyko and O. Shipunova

The application of the dramaturgy principles is revealed in applied social research that uses the constructive aspects of the classical theater methods, but taking into account modern digital technologies. Thus, the authors in [17] consider the organization of social and professional interactions within the framework of a drama project, according to which society acts as the scene where actors perform. This analogue is used to organize the remote monitoring of the elderly people health. Theatrical techniques of dramaturgy in this case are designed to draw person’s attention to the interpretation of his experience of home health monitoring. In other studies, the drama principles contribute into the interaction design construction and impression management in marketing analysis and user experience design [18]. This involves the use of different interpretations in the exchange of data, practice, theory. The method of social dramaturgy is to act out any situation with its alternative variations. Attention management in the format of a theatrical game is superior to similar content told or read in terms of the strength of the psychological impact on the human imagination. An increase in emotional tension is seen as a key moment in acting out a thing. The scenario of the play, supplemented by interactive technologies, is designed to motivate and stimulate the process of emotional, intellectual and behavioral reactions of a participant in a dramatic action [19]. The interaction productivity problem occupies a central place in the dramaturgy concept of social play. Today, it has attracted the special attention of modern scientists who study the impact of video games and the transition of theater to digital format on the quality of interaction between users in social media, the artistic environment representatives, as well as between actors and their audio audience [20–22]. This corresponds to such a form of performance when the play is not written, but coordinated via the active interaction of actors and spectators. The concept of post-dramatic theater is largely determined by the post-modernist state of culture. Among its basic principles are destruction of the traditional semantic sense strands in the plot, perception of the «time-place-action» unity, roles exchange between characters and mimesis. The attitude for the text deconstruction should provoke emotional stress. In a network society, the semantic game is similarly activated by mass media technologies, supported by symbolic exchange, and manifested in all spheres of public life.

4 The Role of Gamification in Modern Society In understanding the nature of the game, we start from the definition by J. Huizinga: The game is a voluntary action performed within the established boundaries of place and time according to voluntarily accepted, but absolutely mandatory rules with a certain goal, and accompanied by a feeling of tension and joy, as well as by the sense of “another existence” than “ordinary” life [8]. In the digital world, under the influence of electronic media technologies, some properties of the game significantly change, namely its space-time localization, voluntary accepting of the rules as mandatory ones, and awareness of “another existence”. At the same time, other properties are preserved such as the goal in itself (“a game for the sake of playing”), a feeling of tension and joy. Let’s note that the space-time localization of the

The Game in the Context of Social Dramaturgy

31

game in the new digital conditions does not disappear, despite the theatrical stage is being transformed, moved to the Internet space and expanded to capture the entire social life. There is a certain connection between the scattering of space-time in the network which leads to uncertainty of space-time boundaries, and the situational space-time localization of game. This can be seen in the example of an empirical study by G. Reischl, who studied the work by the respected German theater group, “Antigone 2.0”, on how Greek tragedy transforms into improvisation theater regulated by interactive technologies via sms, so that the audience turned into actors and playwrights [23]. Based on this work, it can be concluded that the technologies of new mass media create the possibility for a special theatrical and game situation with points of stage experience growth in the real physical space-time continuum (with blurred boundaries), along with the formation of the author’s initiative to create a variety of specific plots during the current theatrical performance.

5 The Problem of Freedom in the Context of the Social Dramaturgy The duality of game, reflecting the fundamental contradiction between the limits of the ordinary physical life and the infinite possibilities of the ideal, is expressed in Plato’s philosophy. For him, the game is a reproduction of the metaphysical, superhuman possibilities of creation (as comprehension of the fullness of being while fighting Chaos). On the other hand, he points the restriction of freedom to act by various conditions and shows this via the analogy of human to a soulless doll, lacking of independence. Plato sees the solution of the problem of human freedom and reasonable independence in the model of an ideal state. In Plato’s ideal state, the public and private life is regulated by the social ranks of subjects and represents a game according to the state laws. An important condition for the sustainable existence of such a state are person’s execution of law and his harmonic existence being pleased with himself and his law-abidance. Emphasizing the crucial role of play activity in culture, J. Huizinga notes a special combination of the material and the ideal contained in the game. From this position, the game both promotes biological reasonability and takes human beyond the boundaries of the physical world. The idea of the game in modern studies is often associated with person’s escape from the social restrictions. In this terms, the game contrasts with traditions and norms. Traditional verbal discourse is often represented as an instrument for social restrictions [24]. In the context of the post-dramatic theater model, which advocates the freedom of variation in the reality perception, traditional verbal discourse, with its translation of template frames for the world-view, is also considered as one of the means for limiting this freedom. The discursive games of post-dramatic theater most clearly demonstrate the risk of destroying those semantic foundations that bind society into a single whole. In this regard, such questions become acutely debatable as the significance of traditional discourse boundaries in the equation of physical and social reality; the norm of adequate reality understanding at the levels of individual and mass consciousness; the limits of semantic and mental transformation in the conditions of hybrid information environment of digital civilization.

32

L. Mureyko and O. Shipunova

6 Interactions Design in the Model of Society as a Post-dramatic Theater The post-dramatic theater concept imitates the semantic destruction of the text-discourse form of play, specific of classical theatrical production. In the process of the modern socio-cultural environment gamification this tendency results into the problem of boundaries blurring in relation to a meaningful text in general, including in particular the understanding of freedom and law (and rules). This leads to the complicated control of public order and to the increasing social risks – because of blurring the line of allowance in an uncertain social structure. In the model of society as a post-dramatic theater, the ideology of playing is determined by the set that the understanding to the full extent of the text meaning in culture and social life is impossible, since it cannot be completely expressed by verbal means. Rejecting the script in the post-dramatic theater is an effective way to combat stereotypes broadcast by the media. Performance, unlike drama, is self-reference: it cannot have a primary source in a discursive form. A breakthrough to a true reality, which is free from artificial discursive patterns set by society, is the main debatable thesis of theorists who consider theatrical dramaturgy in a broad socio-cultural context. This thesis is proved by the fact that current postmodern society shows a clear trend to theatricalize those events that are planned and run according to the script. At the same time, it is believed that any scenario is based on a frame structure that fixes certain semantic connections correlating with patterns of meaning-formation. Theorists of post-dramatic theater come back to the requirement of the natural attitude of phenomenological reduction, namely to clear the played theatrical situation or social action/event from artificial, directed or textually expressed constructions. Everyone involved in the performance perceives and acts in a unique, phenomenal way [14]. The model of post-dramatic theater offers a game with many options for perceiving reality, oneself in it and possible meanings of actions. The viewer himself should interact with a variety of discursive forms and fragments of different textures. It is assumed that due to the great uncertainty and encrypted author’s message the reflection is stimulated. It is believed, that in such a situation the viewer is more motivated to independently formulate meanings and understand the theatrical situation. Ideally, the viewer should rise to the level of perception similar to the playwright or director, in order to begin himself constructing the semantic integrity of the performance. Such an associative perception of the performance cannot be brought under the adequacy criterion, since it gives rise to multiple interpretations that are irreducible to any general identification of what is happening.

7 Unstructured Interaction in Game Models of the Social Dramaturgy At first glance, in post-dramatic and performance theater there is no interpretive cooperation between the participants of the action being played. According to H.-T. Lehman, the task of such a theater is to create a community of heterogeneous unique imaginations.

The Game in the Context of Social Dramaturgy

33

However, while staging the theatrical event, the personal techniques of artists and the director are used, so they broadcast one’s own peculiar perception and style of thinking. Thus, the head of the theater “Near the Stanislavsky House” (Moscow), in the postdramatic production uses design and costumes with sewn Christmas decorations, which symbolize the memories of the theater decorator about his childhood. The subjective feelings of a particular artist are projected onto the costumes in order to evoke the same feeling in the audience. But it is not possible to verify this review [25]. It is believed that there is a special kind of interaction based on the similarity of human physiology, so an instinctive reaction to smells or color in combination with a visual scene can contribute to the establishment of new models of relationship [26]. At the same time, the unity of perception is implicitly present in all viewers, due to the experience of being at the limit of meaning, in the interval between the provisions prescribed and distributed by law, custom, conventions and ceremonial. The presence of a neutral field between law and non-law, ceremonial and non-ceremonial opens up the prospect of escape from stereotypes in behavior and semantic combinations. And this is where the basis for human interaction is seen [14, pp. 318–319]. Unstructured interaction in the game concept of E. Goffman and the possibility of escape from stereotype situations are associated with the individual’s acting out his social roles in his imagination. As to E. Goffman, people live by playing with typical situations. It’s all about a person’s comprehension of his own fulfillment of routine rules [27]. There are two plans in the game. One of them is the individual interest, the other is a supra-individual structure of relations. The latter is indifferent to the plots based on formally codified rules. But it is around it such games most often run that deal with interpretations of vague meanings and background assumptions of certain ceremonies. The dramaturgy approach to E. Goffman’s study of the relation between freedom and its limiter (rule) reveals the fact that freedom is rather possible not through the destruction of formal, routine rules (without them the world would become a hostile environment), but through their application. The rules themselves contain not only limitations, but also a resource of social action. Thus, the idea of fair play, as to the rules, underlying the culture of human activity, allows us to simulate social processes as “a game into interaction” [28]. J. Baudrillard emphasizes such “a game into interaction” in terms of special role of mass media in society. He considers the spread of giant hyper-markets as the main feature of modern society. Creating the show-atmosphere of excessive consumption of goods, services, culture in hypermarkets aims to emotionally excite the public. In this aspect, hyper-markets are similar to theaters, coliseums, giant arena [13]. The accumulation in one homogeneous space-time environment of all the various functions of the social body such as work, entertainment, media, culture, represent an unstructured model of controlled socialization. A similar design model of unstructured social interaction is represented in postdramatic theater, which denies any scenario for the events progression. In fact, such a model brings a certain functional configuration of event into the game situation, so that it implicitly regulates the actions of the participants despite of claiming the presumption of individual freedom to act.

34

L. Mureyko and O. Shipunova

Goffman’s model, on the contrary, assumes a certain basic semantic context of the “a game into interaction” associated with a matrix or frame, that determines the space for event progression where network and unstructured forms of social interactions are realized. We believe that the unity of unstructured interactions in modern society can ensure the use of non-classical scenarios. The main function of such scenarios is to minimize potential risks for social stability in conditions of uncertainty, accounting the analysis of the possible consequences of real crises and prediction of real events development. In the digital society conditions, the tools of the social dramaturgy according to the post-dramatic theater model should be supplemented with the study of the resources for mental activity and social action control from the view of scenario and matrix approaches [29, 30]. The non-classical scenario approach within the game concept of the social dramaturgy, applied to the interactions design seems to be one of the progressive development directions for the social management methodology.

8 Conclusion The concept of the game adequately reflects the specifics of the interactions design in postmodern society. The methods of the social dramaturgy within the model of the post-dramatic theater correspond to the characteristic features of the digital society. The interactions design in a model of postmodern society as a post-dramatic theater doesn’t have a clear plot of the event and its precise localization in space and time. The post-dramatic theater demonstrates this with all clarity, going out into the street, acting through gadgets. The design of interactions in the model of post-dramatic theater does not fully reveal the tools of the social dramaturgy. The correction of society model as a post-dramatic theater requires additional analysis of the interactions design from the view of matrix and scenario approaches to the study of resources for social control of subjects’ mental activity and behavior in hybrid interactive environments.

References 1. Fink, E.: Play as Symbol of the World. And Other Writings. Indiana University Press, Bloomington (2016). 2. Rakoczy, H.: Pretend play and the development of collective intentionality. Cognit. Syst. Res. 7(2–3), 113–127 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogsys.2005.11.008 3. Nielsen, M., Dissanayake, C.: An investigation of pretend play, mental state terms and false belief understanding: in search of a metarepresentational link. Br. J. Dev. Psychol. 18, 609–624 (2000). https://doi.org/10.1348/026151000165887 4. Sutton-Smith, B.: Play for Life: Play Theory and Play as Emotional Survival. Strong Museum of Children’s Play, Rochester (2017) 5. Laurel, B.: Computer as theater. In: Trend, D. (ed.) Reading Digital Culture, pp. 23–28. Blackwell, London (2001) 6. Lehmann, H.-T.: Postdramatic Theatre/Trans. by K. Jürs-Munby. Routledge, London (2006) 7. Bakhtin, M.M.: Creativity of Francois Rabelais and Folk Culture of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Fiction, Moscow (1990). (in Russia)

The Game in the Context of Social Dramaturgy

35

8. Huizinga, J.: Homo Ludens: A Study of the Play-Element of Culture. Angelico Press, Washington (2016) 9. Debord, G.: La Societe du Spectacle. Gallimard, Paris (1969). (in Fr.) 10. Goffman, E.: Encounters: Two Studies in the Sociology of Interaction. Penguin University Books, Ringwood (1961) 11. Goffman, E.: Interaction Ritual: Essays in Face to Face Behavior. Pantheon Books, New York (1967) 12. Schechner, R.: Performance Theory. Routledge, New York (2003) 13. Baudrillard, J.: Simulacra and simulations text. In: Poster, M. (ed.) Selected Writings, pp. 166– 184. Stanford University Press, Stanford (1988) 14. Fischer-Lichte, E.: Ästhetik des Performativen. Suhrkamp, Frankfurt am Main (2004). (in German) 15. Benford, R.D., Hare, A.P.: Dramaturgical analysis. In: Wright, J.D. (ed.) International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, 2nd edn., pp. 645–649. Elsevier, Oxford (2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.32046-3 16. Thomas, N.J., Baral, R., Crocco, O.S., Mohanan, S.: A framework for gamification in the metaverse era: how designers envision gameful experience. Technol. Forecast. Soc. Change 193, 122544 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2023.122544 17. Creaney, R., Currie, M., Reid, L.: Digital life as a cabaret, old chum: a dramaturgical analysis of older digitalized home residents and their wider caring networks. J. Aging Stud. 65, 101129 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaging.2023.101129 18. Maureen, D., Callaghan, S.: Creating first impressions: problems with diversity and inclusivity in higher education marketing materials. Int. J. Learn. Divers. Identities 29(2), 95–105 (2022). https://doi.org/10.18848/2327-0128/CGP/v29i02/95-105 19. Mehto, K., Kantola, V., Tiitta, S., Kankainen, T.: Interacting with user data – theory and examples of drama and dramaturgy as methods of exploration and evaluation in usercentered design. Interact. Comput. 18(5), 977–995 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intcom. 2006.05.006 20. Arbeau, K., Thorpe, C., Stinson, M., Budlong, B., Wolff, J.: The meaning of the experience of being an online video game player. Comput. Hum. Behav. Rep. 2, 100013 (2020). https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.chbr.2020.100013 21. Brilli, S., Gemini, L., Giuliani, F.: Theatre without theatres: investigating access barriers to mediatized theatre and digital liveness during the covid-19 pandemic. Poetics 97, 101750 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.poetic.2022.101750 22. Chemnad, K., Aziz, M., Belhaouari, S.B., Ali, R.: The interplay between social media use and problematic internet usage: four behavioral patterns. Heliyon 9(5), e15745 (2023). https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e15745 23. Reischl, G.: Theater der Zukunft: Das Web wird zur Bühne Futurezone (2011). https://future zone.at/netzpolitik/theater-der-zuku 24. Burgoon, J.K., Guerrero, L.K., Floyd, K.: Nonverbal Communication. Routledge, London (2016) 25. Pogrebnichko, Yu.: Theater, maybe a worthless thing, but some kind of light ... Well, like flowers. (Poster). http://vozduh.aflsha.ru/art/teatr-mozhet-shtuka-i-nikchemnaya-no-kak ayato-legkaya-nu-kak-cvety/ 26. Bourriaud, N.: Relational aesthetics. Les Presses du réel, Dijon (2002) 27. Goffman, E.: The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. Penguin, Harmondsworth (1959)

36

L. Mureyko and O. Shipunova

28. Geertz, C.: Local Knowledge. Basic Books, New York (1983) 29. Shipunova, O.D., Mureyko, L.V., Kozhurin, A.Y., Kolomeyzev, I.V., Kosterina, O.N.: Resources to matrix control of mental activity in information environments. Utopia y Praxis Latinoamericana 24(Extra5), 113–122 (2019) 30. Kahn, H., Wiener, A.J.: The Year 2000: A Framework for Speculation on the Next ThirtyThree Years. Coller-Macmillan, London (1969)

Culture and Life as Gameplay Experiences: A Theological Point of View Anton Zamorev

and Alexander Fedyukovsky(B)

Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University (SPbPU), Polytechnicheskaya, 29, 195251 St. Petersburg, Russia [email protected]

Abstract. The article is devoted to the cause of the paradoxical and generally negative attitude of most religious cultures to games, alongside the formers’ denying their own game nature, which characterizes them, according to Johan Huizinga. It is Immanuel Kant’s Third antinomy, binding these cultures to believe in the opposite thesis and antithesis, which is proposed as the cause. On the one hand, in the freedom of will, which makes life multivariate and likens it to the gameplay experience. On the other hand, in the predestination of fate, which excludes any multivariance in life and forces to consider any gameplay experience only as an illusion of free choice. Both thesis and antithesis are proved by the law of causality. The latter is derived from the definition of reality, which makes both thesis and antithesis equally true. The aim of the research is to eliminate the insufficiency admitted by Kant in justifying these thesis and antithesis, and, thereby, to reconcile them within the framework of a single concept. Keywords: game · reality · law of causality · determinism · indeterminism · free will · theory of parallel worlds · time · space

1 Introduction The game occupies an increasingly important place in contemporary life. Gamification, serious games penetrate even the areas that could not have been imagined with the game [1, 2]. Gamification and various games are especially important in modern education [3, 4]. In terms of the game, a number of researchers describe its relationships with artificial intelligence [5] and home robots [6]. The Dutch historian Johan Huizinga in his famous book Homo Ludens argued that the game nature is originally possessed by any human culture, in particular any religious culture [7]. Even gambling, condemned in all world religions, was originally associated, according to J. Huizinga, with the desire of a person to learn the gods’ will about oneself. This idea is as true as it is paradoxical. After all, most religious cultures treat games, at best, condescending, but more often sharply negatively, seeing them as an occupation which is sinful and potentially dangerous to the players’ spiritual health. And of course, no world religion allows the treatment of godly life as the Game. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Bylieva and A. Nordmann (Eds.): PCSF 2023, LNNS 830, pp. 37–48, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-48020-1_4

38

A. Zamorev and A. Fedyukovsky

The aim of our research is to identify purely metaphysical causes of this paradoxical attitude of religious cultures to their originally game nature. And to simultaneously understand how the rehabilitation of the game concept in the 20th century culture influenced forming the scientific picture of the world. First, consider the three most popular interpretations of game action in general.

2 Interpretation 1. The Game as an Idle Amusement Many religious figures interpret the game as not serious, amusing, and therefore distracting from “real life” and from understanding its “true sense”. This opinion contradicts the facts, since the severity of the game depends on the value of the skills which are developed with its help, as well as on the amount of the game bet. If someone loses all the property in roulette, their attitude to the game can be called harmful, but it cannot be called “not serious”. In addition, the very idea of choosing between different religions is widely regarded a game of roulette. Almost all world religions require making this choice without evidence, without reasoning. And simultaneously, almost all of them threaten hellish torment for the wrong choice. Therefore, the seriousness of this choice can be explained precisely by the amount of the game bet.

3 Interpretation 2. The Game as a Self-valuable Action The game is often defined as a self-valuable, fascinating action, performed not so much for the sake of the result, but for the sake of participation itself. This idea is correct, but incomplete. For it does not explain why all world religions oppose understanding godly life as the Game. Rather, it explains this only for religions such as Buddhism, which consider all life as suffering and aim at stopping it by nirvana. Then the attitude to life as the Game contradicts the aim of this religion, since it involves a passion for life, and therefore a multiplication of suffering. But if we talk about the religions which are not aimed at passing into nirvana, but namely eternal life and serving God, then it is no longer enough to explain their position to define the game as a self-valuable and fascinating process. For the true righteous, there is nothing more joyful, fascinating, and self-valuable than serving their God. All hardships of the righteous on this way are comparable to those of athletes’ life. But this does not prevent us from calling their competition as Games. If the game action was determined only by self-value and fascination, then any godly life would absolutely suit this interpretation. However, J. Huizinga indicates another difference between the game and life: there are always strict rules in the game, while in life, originally, there are not any [7]. But at least they are in any culture, and therefore in any meaningful life.

4 Interpretation 3. The Game as an Unpredictable Action It is more accurate to interpret the game as not only self-valuable action, subordinate to the rules, but also a multivariate one, with a fundamentally unpredictable outcome. Only few people will decide to call their work as “game”, even if it is much-loved, but

Culture and Life as Gameplay Experiences

39

during the work nothing can be won, or the win is guaranteed: either at any outcome, or subject to a predetermined algorithm of actions. In the latter case, we would call it not as a game, but “work for reward”. However, each of the world religions prescribes a person a strictly defined salvation algorithm. But in most religions, this algorithm is so hard for people that even the righteous rely more on God’s mercy than on their merits. Therefore, the outcome of life is unpredictable even for them, and the very adoption of religious vows is like a game with the highest bets. But it is precisely this understanding of the game as a multivariate process with an unpredictable outcome that is due to the negative attitude of monotheism towards it. In such religions, one of the most important attributes of God is his omniscience, i.e., his ability to initially anticipate the choice of each creature, and therefore the outcome of any process. And in order for God to accurately foresee everything, it is necessary that everything be strictly predetermined: either by the decision of God himself or by the law of causality. In both cases, it appears that multivariance and unpredictability in life and in the game are nothing but illusion that occurs in people due to their ignorance of how exactly the future is predetermined. But the very fact of its predestination, due to the dogma of God’s omniscience, is obvious to the monotheist. Therefore, according to the monotheist, the passion for games, not to mention the attitude to life itself as a Game, seems dangerous to the man. It is precisely because this creates the illusion of the possibility to choose between different options for the fate. This is equivalent to a blasphemous doubt in divine omniscience. Therefore, the issue of the game nature and culture, and life, in fact, amounts to the question: is it true that everything is predetermined in the world? Consider both responses for justification: 1) the negative response corresponds to the concept of indeterminism, i.e., the doctrine that not everything is predetermined, and that there are spontaneous phenomena that are not depends by other causes. Then both culture and life itself have a game nature as fascinating and unpredictable processes. 2) the positive response corresponds, on the contrary, to the concepts of fatalism or determinism, i.e., the doctrine that everything is predetermined either by God’s will, or by natural causality, or by both. Then neither culture nor life itself have a game nature.

5 Freedom as Choice and Recognized Necessity According to Johann Fichte, freedom is initially interpreted by everyone as an opportunity to live and act of their own will, i.e., as a point of connection between the ideal and the real [8]. But the particular interpretation of freedom depends on how this connection is achieved. People who wish to subordinate reality to their ideals see freedom where they can freely choose a more preferred one between the options of the future. And people accustomed to adjusting ideals to reality, on the contrary, prefer to interpret their freedom as recognized necessity. But “more preferred option”, by definition, will be preferred by anyone who believes in having such a choice. Therefore, the interpretation of freedom is also related to the question whether everything is predetermined:

40

A. Zamorev and A. Fedyukovsky

1) the negative response means that both culture and life as fascinating and unpredictable processes have a game nature. Then freedom can be understood in them as having a choice between the options of the future. 2) the positive answer means, on the contrary, that everything is predetermined. Then neither culture nor life have a game nature, and freedom should be understood only as recognized necessity.

6 Foundations of I. Kant’s Third Antinomy It is obvious that there would be no paradox in the conflict between the two concepts if both were equally unpredictable or, on the contrary, one was provable and the other was disprovable. The challenge is that both concepts, as we will now demonstrate, are equally provable. Immanuel Kant was one of the first to attempt to draw attention to this in his so-called Third antinomy. Although his evidence on this issue cannot be considered complete, as many critics have indicated. Some of their objections were the result of misunderstanding I. Kant’s idea. For example, D. Lewis, P.R. Carnap, and W. Quine criticized Kantian interpretation of time, infinity and possibility. They objected to I. Kant that these concepts do not denote objective characteristics of the world [9–11]. But I. Kant did not consider time as an objective characteristic of the world at all. He only allowed this hypothesis to then reduce it to absurdity. Infinity and possibility, as objective characteristics of the world were not only claimed, but proved by the law of causality. However, D. Lewis also objected to I. Kant that causality is not a necessary condition for the existence of things [9]. With this, at least, he revealed a genuine gap in Kantian research. Firstly, according to I. Kant, predestination as a necessary connection of events in time is proved from the law of causality. But this law itself is justified by I. Kant only by the fact that without it the necessary connection of events in time is impossible. This is a vicious circle. I. Kant does not offer more explicit evidence of this law, he even expresses some doubts about the possibility of such evidence [12]. Our challenge is to correct that. Secondly, according to I. Kant, the presence of spontaneity in nature is proved by the fact that the law of natural causality cannot operate to infinity. The infinite series of causes and consequences as a whole would no longer have any other cause beyond itself. Therefore, this law would still be violated somewhere [12]. But such a conclusion is compatible with both natural indeterminism and theological one. The latter allows only spontaneity in the divine act of the world creation. But it can explain all other events by the law of causality. We need to evaluate for validity not theological, but natural indeterminism as one of the options for interpreting freedom and gameplay experience. Therefore, we equally need to review the evidence for both sides of Kantian Third antinomy. We will start with proving the law of causality. To be more precise, with defining the category of reality from which this law will be derived by us.

Culture and Life as Gameplay Experiences

41

7 Definitions of Reality and Possibility We have found a suitable definition in Aristotle’s Metaphysics (book IV, Sect. 5). It is mentioned there that before S, a certain substrate, transfers to the opposite accidents A and non-A, it was both in possibility. Therefore, in terms of pure possibility, the same S can be both opposite things A = non-A, but, in reality, it is not [13]. Thereby, Aristotle interprets reality as an unambiguous difference A from its denial of non-A. For in possibility between A and non-A there also remains a difference, but it is already ambiguous: an average between its statement and denial. This is also indicated by the etymology of the Latin word “realis”, which means: real, inherent to things per se. Since any certainty is termed a “thing”, and it is understood precisely as an unambiguous difference between statement A and its denial, “real” is used to term a certain, unambiguous A, as opposed to possible A, which generalizes various states. For example, if a subject sleeps and dreams the image of A, the latter in one’s perception is unambiguously different from the absence of non-A. Therefore, we term this image of A as a “subjective reality”. But the one who watches this sleeping subject from the outside does not see the image of A. And for the former, the image of A either does not differ at all from the absence of non-A, or is conceived as possibility. Then the difference between A and non-A exists, but it is already ambiguous. Similarly, if a certain object A differs from its denial of non-A unilaterally, so that non-A is no longer different from A, then we will not term this difference “unambiguous”, since, on the one hand, it exists, and, on the other hand, it does not. Therefore, the main sign of the unambiguous difference between an object and its denial is its reciprocity: if reality A is unambiguously different from non-A, then non-A is also unambiguously different from A as its denial. But then this non-A is also real, by definition.

8 Law of Causality: Time and Space Thereby we ascertain that any reality A has a necessary and sufficient condition for its assertion another reality non-A beyond its limits. Therefore, any reality A has limits and is finite, since it is limited from the outside by another reality non-A. This conclusion is nothing but the law of natural causality, which has, as we will demonstrate, a triple effect. On the one hand, if A and non-A are mutually determined, their coexistence should be conceived with relative concurrency. I. Kant terms this mutual determination as interaction [12], and the order of their simultaneous coexistence is termed as space. On the other hand, any non-A as condition of A is to arise really before A as its cause, and as something determined by this A it can arise really only after A as its consequence. Since non-A, which arose before A, after A and simultaneously with A cannot be the same non-A, it will be necessary to accept that any reality A implies, by definition, three different non-A conditions: one is before itself as a generating cause, another is after itself as a consequence, the third is simultaneously with itself as an object of interaction. And if the order of its connection with the latter is termed as space, the order of the first two, i.e., cause and consequence, according to I. Kant, is the essence of time.

42

A. Zamorev and A. Fedyukovsky

Therefore, reality, according to the law of causality, does not exist except in the forms of time and space. But since everything real, according to this law, is limited, the real forms of space and time cannot be infinite, either, i.e., they are limited from the outside by another reality. Taking into account these conclusions, we will return to the content of I. Kant’s Third antinomy.

9 Indeterminism: Fate is Not Predetermined Recall that the thesis of the Third antinomy argued the need to allow spontaneous phenomena in nature. But simultaneously, I. Kant proved this in relation not to the temporal process itself, but rather to its beginning. His thesis is essentially closer to the theological indeterminism. As mentioned above, we intend to prove it in the form of natural indeterminism, i.e., the denial of predestination in all events. We ascertain that the law of causality for any reality A implies the presence of both a spatial and a temporal form. Simultaneously, the main sign of time, unlike space, is asymmetry, i.e., a unilateral causal relationship, where consequence B is enclosed in cause A and can result from it; but this cause A itself is not completely concluded in consequence B and does not result from it in the opposite order. We term as the “potential” of each real state A the sum of all possible states B, C, D, etc., which can result from it in the future. If the potentials of the two states A and B are equal in quantity and quality, then not only the future B can result from the past A, and also the past can follow from the future. But then there would be no reason to consider time unilateral and distinguish it from space. Therefore, time as such is conceivable only if in it each past state A exceeds all subsequent ones in its potential. But the question arises: what exactly is the difference in their potentials? Assuming that the potential difference A and B are only intermediate states, each occurring in its own time, then the entire potential of the past state A is equal to the total potential of all subsequent ones. But then there is no potential difference between the past and the future, which should be a condition for the irreversibility of time. Hence the conclusion: the irreversibility of the transition from cause A to consequence B is possible only if the required potential difference between them is not intermediate states, but those that will not be realized at all, i.e., in the potential content of phenomena, in addition to the future, a share of the unrealized should be allowed. And this means that each new state B is not conceived as a single consequence of A, but as the sum of two or more interrelating alternatives. If one of them becomes a real continuation of A, the others will be rejected as impossible. Thereby, a return to the previous state A would be unconceivable precisely because in state A all the unrealized alternative states B were still practicable. Therefore, the condition for time asymmetry is a constant choice between equivocal consequences. In short, we have a world where the future can be represented in many versions [14], according to Ilya Prigozhin. At first glance, it may seem that this proof of ours completely solves the problem of the game nature of culture and life itself. For the main characteristics of the game (multivariability and unpredictability) are presented by us as the prerequisites for the very possibility of a temporary process at each stage. But the problem, as we will now demonstrate, becomes only complicated.

Culture and Life as Gameplay Experiences

43

10 Determinism: Fate is Strictly Predetermined The antithesis of the Third antinomy states, on the contrary, the strict predestination of all events, according to the law of causality. It is even easier to prove. Suppose that we, being in the state A, considered different options for the next state B, after which one of them was selected and implemented. And if we succeeded, then the choice we made, like everything real, in the previous state A should have had a cause, i.e., a sufficient condition that it was just that, and not another. And if it could have been different, then in the past he had no such cause; but then, according to the law of causality, it could not have been really implemented. If the cause was in the past, the choice could not have been different, for this cause. We discard the first option since the events perceived, by definition, attained at least a subjective reality in our perception. Hence, at least in relation to our perception, in the past they are to have a cause which strictly determined them. But according to the thesis, there is no such cause in the past, and the reality of events itself is formed in the future. The question is, what is this mysterious cause, which, according to the antithesis of the 3rd antinomy, predetermines all events as if from the past, but the cause itself, according to the thesis, is formed in the future, by our spontaneous choice of certain actions? It is not only the possibility of interpreting life as a gameplay which depends on the answer to this question, but our attitude to games in general: is their unpredictability considered a real property or only an illusion? However, in some games (for example, in chess, in case of a party’s strong advantage), the rules themselves make the outcome of the game predictable from a certain moment, completely regardless of the fate predestination. And in the game of Nim, the outcome is even initially predictable (if both participants know the winning algorithm and know about the presence of this knowledge in each other). But in such cases, the game usually stops. And further playing it makes sense only if the illusion of unpredictability remains, at least, for one of the parties. A good example is Alain Resnais’s film “L’Année dernière à Marienbad”: there, the aforementioned game of Nim, on the contrary, is used as a symbol of the imaginary predictability of life for one who knows its rules. But at the end of the film, it became clear that both predictability and unpredictability of life can equally be Illusion. These are the grounds upon which both concepts have been entrenched in contemporary science: both deterministic (L. de Broglie, D. Bohm, J.P. Vigier, N. Wiener, et al.), and indeterministic (M. Born, W.K. Heisenberg, V. Fok, A. Markov, J. von Neumann, I. Prigozhin, et al.). And it would be illogical to choose only one of them, since both are logically proved.

11 The Idea of Multiplicity of Parallel Worlds An attempt to harmonize and consolidate both interpretations seems more promising. The theory of multiplicity of worlds (N. Graham, J. Wheeler, H. Everett III, et al.) deserves special attention. It states that all events in the world are predetermined, according to the law of causality, but not linearly, but in a set of variants, each being realized in one of the parallel worlds with its own space and time.

44

A. Zamorev and A. Fedyukovsky

Possible worlds have a vast array of applications. It plays a key role in most branches of philosophy, ranging from logic to metaphysics and ontology, and it has been used also in other fields that range from the semantics of natural language to game theory, artificial intelligence, and cognitive science [15]. But, also, possible worlds are reflected in literature and computer games, offering numerous options: from an alternative story, where only a few choices change, to the worlds invented from beginning to end. The so-called open world games give players the freedom to choose, the ability to “reinvent and experiment with a magical circle of play” [16]. But the most important advantage of the theory of multiplicity of worlds is that it reconciles determinism and indeterminism, and also answers the question: How are time and space limited? According to the law of causality, they are to be limited by another reality, which also has the forms of finite time and finite space, i.e., the Universe as a whole is the sum of many parallel worlds. The law of causality also requires that for each category of real objects non-A there is an equally real category A, if only it is theoretically possible at all. For example, if there are really non-centaurs and non-harpies, then centaurs and harpies are to be real, since they are possible in principle. If they do not exist in our world, they are to exist in other parallel worlds. Therefore, there must be infinitely many worlds in the Universe, which is stated in this theory. But the question remains: How are these worlds connected? If all possible worlds are implemented simultaneously, as some antique atomists (Leucippus of Elea, Epicurus of Samos, et al.) believed, then their concurrency would mean an infinite space. If they are implemented alternately, as other philosophers (Heraclitus of Ephesus, Zeno of Citium, et al.) thought, then this would be an infinite time. However, neither is possible, according to the law of causality. Therefore, the theory of parallel worlds provides a contradictory answer to the question of the existence of limits in the Universe as a whole: 1) the negative answer is due to the fact that the Universe as the sum of all real things, by definition, contains all real things in itself. Therefore, it cannot have anything real outside itself. And it cannot be externally limited by anything real either in space or in time, i.e., it is infinite. 2) the positive answer is due to the fact that the sum of all real things is to be real itself. Therefore, like everything real, it is to have the form of time and space. But simultaneously, like everything real, it will be finite both in space and in time. This paradox is known as I. Kant’s First antinomy. We will soon demonstrate that it contains the best solution of the Third antinomy. But we will be convinced in this when we eliminate the disadvantage of I. Kant’s solution. For in this matter, his solution is also incomplete, but it contains a number of valuable and undeniable conclusions, which must be noted.

12 Space and Time as Forms of Perception The undeniable part of I. Kant’s solution is that, since the objective Universe, by definition, is infinite, it itself as a whole does not have the condition of reality. Nor can it have the forms of space or time, for they are always finite. Therefore, the objective universe

Culture and Life as Gameplay Experiences

45

as a whole, according to I. Kant, can be considered only problematically, in the category of pure possibility [12]. After all the latter, as we discovered, does not need either limits, or causality, or the forms of space and time. But the category of reality is not applicable to the objective Universe. Therefore, the real world presented to us in space and time, according to I. Kant’s conclusions, is real only subjectively, i.e., only in its inhabitants’ perception. And this subjective world, like everything real, is limited in space and in time, since the perception itself is limited. But this can be said about any of the worlds: only those which do not contradict themselves are termed “possible”. If the world is unrealistic even for its inhabitants, then it is contradictory, i.e., impossible. Therefore, any world can be “equal to its denial” only for those who evaluate it objectively as a pure possibility. But for its inhabitants, any possible world, by definition, is to be subjectively real, i.e., unambiguously different from its denial. Therefore, I. Kant’s solution of his First antinomy, in fact, adds nothing to the theory of parallel worlds, except that it assesses their reality as purely subjective. Thereby, the problem of the simultaneous coexistence of worlds in the objective Universe is transformed into the problem of the simultaneous presence of different perceptive subjects in it.

13 Voluntarism: the World as Will and Representation Space and time, as Arthur Schopenhauer rightly observed, are the principles of individuation, i.e., the conditions of any multitude [17]. If members of the multitude are simultaneously real, this is space; and if in turn, it is time. But if the objective Universe has no forms of time and space at all, then no multitude in it is unrealistic. In particular, it is unrealistic that there are many of those subjects in whose perception worlds could become real. However, the denial of any multitude is expressed in the category of “absolute unity”. Therefore, objectively, i.e., regardless of anyone’s perception, in the Universe there is only one subject. And the latter is not real, but only potential. For the category of “real” is not applicable to the objective Universe. Thereby it is not about a person and not even about God the Creator, but about an abstract and impersonal subject. Therefore, A. Schopenhauer interprets this absolute subject not as the Christian God the Creator, but as “the world will to life” [17]. This emphasizes, firstly, its impersonal character; secondly, the status not of reality, but of potency, striving to find reality at least in its own view, i.e., in the perception of itself in all forms and in all worlds. Recall, however, that every possible world is real only for itself and for its inhabitants. But for each other, these worlds, as we discovered, are unrealistic either simultaneously or alternately. Therefore, for each real world, the absolute subject as its root cause is not an impersonal will, but it is God the Creator, i.e., the will which chose the realization of this particular world, and no other. There is no use asking why the world was chosen: objectively, there is not such a cause due to the infinity of the original potential.

46

A. Zamorev and A. Fedyukovsky

14 The Universe as a Whole: Three Aspects of Chaos For the Universe as a whole cannot be regarded as Cosmos, i.e., as some limited order of things in space and time. It can be interpreted only as Chaos, i.e., as an infinite sum, not ordered in space and in time, of all conceivable worlds. Each of them is real for itself and impossible for all others, but in general all of them are only theoretically possible. This means that their relationship is to be represented in three aspects: 1) Upper Chaos is the sum of all conceivable worlds in the aspect of their original possibility, but beyond realization. This aspect is termed Upper, since it generalizes both subsequent ones. 2) Middle Chaos is the sum of all conceivable worlds in the aspect of realizing each of them for themselves if others are impossible. We term this aspect Middle, since it is subordinate to the first one, but dominates the third one. 3) Lower Chaos is the sum of all conceivable worlds in the aspect of their impossibility relative to the one that is real. This aspect is termed Lower, for it, as a part of the Middle one, is subordinate to the first one. Therefore, all possible worlds originate in Upper Chaos, i.e., in a state with infinite potential. And then each of them passes through Middle Chaos in its formation, i.e., through realization for itself and through decrease of its potential by gradual discarding other possible worlds into the unfulfilled realm. But all worlds end in Lower Chaos, i.e., in the state with zero potential. For everyone goes there for itself as the past, and the others are there as the unfulfilled. As a result, all the multitude of worlds become impossible and return to the original Unity, which, through their denial, finally gain their absolute reality.

15 Optimism: Our World is the Best of All Possible Ones When Gottfried Leibniz claimed that God, by his goodness, could choose only the best of all possible worlds [18], it was, in a sense, tautology. For a believer, “the best” is defined precisely as what God chose. But assuming that God could not, in principle, consider “the best” of any world other than this one, it would mean that all other possible worlds were impossible in advance, since they contradict God’s will as a condition of their existence. In addition, the divine potential in this case would not initially be infinite, but limited by the framework of the given world, which does not correspond to the law of causality. Since each of the possible worlds is real for itself, it means that each of them has its own God the Creator, who chooses it as “the best”. Therefore, in each of the manifestations, God makes a choice between worlds spontaneously, although there is some difference: 1) As God the Creator of the world, he makes his choice objectively, and therefore outside time; i.e., he does not choose his world gradually, but immediately in the entirety of its events, so in advance everything in it is predetermined and anticipated. 2) As a dweller of the world, he makes a choice within the temporal process; i.e., by gradual spontaneous discarding all other possible worlds into the unfulfilled area.

Culture and Life as Gameplay Experiences

47

For example, suppose that God the Creator chose world X, anticipating in advance that Judas Iscariot would betray Christ there. But this does not mean that there were no bifurcation points in Judas’ life when he could do otherwise. Just Judas, who did otherwise, thereby realizes another world Y, which has only a common past with world X. But Judas in world Y no longer betrays Christ, and God the Creator, who chose world Y, anticipated this in advance there. Therefore, it is God the Creator who is the mysterious cause, which, according to the antithesis of the Third antinomy, predetermines all events as if from the past, but the cause itself, according to the thesis, is formed in the future, through our spontaneous choice of certain actions. For each beings choose not only the real world but also the real God the Creator whom they deserve by this choice. As a result, each of the worlds is “the best” not only for God the Creator, but also for its inhabitants. Each of them chooses their own world completely freely and receives what is preferred there.

16 Culture and Life as Gameplay Experiences Finally, we discovered that the multivariance of life and freedom of choice never contradict the idea of divine omniscience. Therefore, culture as a meaningful life - the process which is fascinating, fundamentally unpredictable and subordinate to a certain system of rules - suits the definition of a gameplay experience under one condition: if it is interpreted as a self-worth process, i.e., if its sense is not its termination, as, for example, it occurs in Buddhism. In the latter case, the interpretation of life as a Game contradicts the aim of this culture. But we also discovered that every life, in addition to the sense which culture ascribes to it, has an objective sense, determined by its very nature. This sense, indicated by the Eleans, Platonics and Neoplatonics, is precisely the termination of life as a process and the return of all multitudes to the original absolute Unity. Therefore, culture interpreting its goal in accordance with this sense cannot be considered a gameplay experience. But it can with a different understanding of its highest goal.

17 Results of the Research. Conclusion and discussion The results of the research: 1) It is shown that culture and meaningful life as organized and multivariate processes can be interpreted as having a game nature. But only from the point of view of cultures that do not aim to end life and do not teach about the unequivocal predestination of fate. 2) The rehabilitation of the concept of the game in the 20th century culture partially influenced the development of science by making indeterminist concepts possible in physics. For until the 20th century, Christian civilization generally avoided such views.

48

A. Zamorev and A. Fedyukovsky

3) It is shown that determinism and indeterminism with the same necessity are derived from the law of causality. The law itself is directly derived from the definition of reality, which makes both teachings relatively true and subject to agreement within the same concept. 4) The concept of multiplicity of worlds is contradictory when assuming their simultaneous or alternate implementation. But it is quite wealthy in the framework of the three-part description of the Universe as a whole which is presented in this research. 5) It is shown that such a concept consistently harmonizes the positions of determinism and indeterminism, which allows us to interpret both culture and life itself as multivariate and unpredictable processes, without diverging from the doctrine of divine predetermination.

References 1. Méndez, J.I., Peffer, T., Ponce, P., Meier, A., Molina, A.: Empowering saving energy at home through serious games on thermostat interfaces. Energy Build. 263, 112026 (2022). https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2022.112026 2. Bylieva, D.: Artistic virtual reality. In: Bylieva, D., Nordmann, A. (eds.) PCSF 2021. LNNS, vol. 345, pp. 462–473. Springer, Cham (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-897086_39 3. Oliveira, W., Hamari, J., Shi, L., et al.: Tailored gamification in education: a literature review and future agenda. Educ. Inf. Technol. 28, 373–406 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639022-11122-4 4. Chirkova, E.I., Chernovets, E.G., Zorina, E.V.: Enhancing the assimilation of foreign language vocabulary when working with students of the digital generation. Technol. Lang. 2(3), 89–97 (2021). https://doi.org/10.48417/technolang.2021.03.07 5. Bylieva, D.: Language of AI. Technol. Lang. 3(1), 111–126 (2022). https://doi.org/10.48417/ technolang.2022.01.11 6. Bylieva, D., Nordmann, A., Lobatyuk, V., Nam, T.: Social interaction with nonanthropomorphic technologies. In: Bylieva, D., Nordmann, A. (eds.) PCSF 2022. LNNS, vol. 636, pp. 47–58. Springer, Cham (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-26783-3_6 7. Huizinga, J.: Homo Ludens: A Study of Play-Element of Culture. Martino Publishing, Mansfield Center (2014) 8. Fichte, I.: The Science of Knowledge. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (2003) 9. Lewis, D., Brown, W., Oppong, J.: On the Plurality of Worlds. Wiley, Hoboken (2001) 10. Carnap, R.: Der logische Aufbau der Welt. Felix Meiner Verlag, Hamburg (1928) 11. Quine, W.V.: From a Logical Point of View: Logico-Philosophical Essays. Harvard University Press, Harvard (1980) 12. Kant, I.: Critique of Pure Reason. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (1999) 13. Aristotle: Metaphysics. [C.D.C. Reeve, Trans.]. Hackett Publishing Company, Indianapolis (2016) 14. Prigogine, I., Stengers, I.: Order out of Chaos: Man’s new dialogue with nature. Flamingo, Frankfurt (1989) 15. Berto, F., Jago, M.: Impossible Worlds. Oxford University Press, Oxford (2019) 16. Patterson, C.B.: Open World Empire: Race, Erotics, and the Global Rise of Video Games. NYU Press, New York (2020) 17. Schopenhauer, A.: The World as Will and Representation, vol. 1. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (2014) 18. Leibniz, G.: Theodicy: Essays on the Goodness of God, the Freedom of Man, and the Origin of Evil. [E. M. Huggard, trans.]. Open Court, Chicago (1985)

The Social Function of Toy Models in Games of Science Sadegh Mirzaei1,2(B) 1 Darmstadt Technical University, Karolinenplatz 5, 64289 Darmstadt, Germany

[email protected] 2 Sharif University of Technology, Azadi Avenue, 11155-1639 Tehran, Iran

Abstract. In the philosophy of science, models have risen from the low ranks of just mere aids to the unprecedented high ranks of model-based science. With the rise of models arise philosophical questions: what are they? How can they provide knowledge? How can they represent? Some have tried to solve these problems by seeing models as toys or props, and scientific activity as play or fiction. Some of these fictionalists are inspired by Kendall Walton’s theory of fiction. They suggest that scientific models represent reality because they function as props in scientific games of make-believe. But what does it mean to function? For Walton, it is the “social function” of props to generate fictional truths and coordinate imaginations. Despite the central role of sociality in Walton’s account, Roman Frigg and Adam Toon have almost neglected it. Here, I spell out this social function, by showing how games of make-believe have normative force. This force is provided by the playing practice of players themselves in the relevant community. I conclude by suggesting that the notion of community should be as inclusive as possible. It is constituted not only by human players but also by non-humans ones. Keywords: Toy models · Community · Model-based science · Representation

1 Introduction Models are ubiquitous. Scientists use models to gain knowledge. Engineers, architects, and artists use models to design and create new things. Stylists use models for fashion shows. Painters use models to paint. All of us, as ordinary humans, use mental models to think and reason in our everyday situations. So, the term “model” is used to cover a variety of entities or systems: scale models, engineering prototypes, architectural maquettes, idealized pendulums, frictionless surfaces, mathematical formulas, computer simulations, thought experiments, metaphors, analogies, mental models, fashion models, painting models, and so on. The use of the term “model” varies so much that one wonders whether it has any content. Many years ago, Goodman, himself a pioneer in analyzing the modern notion of representation, wrote: Few terms are used in popular and scientific discourse more promiscuously than “model”. A model is something to be admired or emulated, a pattern, a case in point, a type, a prototype, a specimen, a mock-up, a mathematical description © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Bylieva and A. Nordmann (Eds.): PCSF 2023, LNNS 830, pp. 49–63, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-48020-1_5

50

S. Mirzaei

almost anything from a naked blonde to a quadratic equation - and may bear to what it models almost any relation of symbolization [1; p. 171] So, everyone is, in her own peculiar way, interested in models. But, what are these things called “model”? How can these things teach us something true about the world? How do they represent reality? These ontological, epistemological, and representational problems might be tackled from different angles. Here, I am following a particular trend inside the philosophy of science, informed and inspired by the philosophy of art. Before beginning our discussion, two points should be noted. First, ontology and epistemology are not totally distinct. They are intertwined.1 The very existence of scientific models constitutes the very knowledge they provide. So, the ontological/epistemological dichotomy is better to be seen just as an analytical distinction, a working hypothesis that would be assimilated. Second, the epistemological question is intertwined with questions about representations. But seeing knowledge and art in representational terms is controversial. Talk of “representations” can be misleading because they are usually conceived as mental stuff in the private mind of an individual. Therefore, they might blind us to the externality, materiality, and sociality of knowledge. One of the motivations here is to remedy this problem. We would transgress the borders of philosophies of art and science to find a way out of the fuss around “models”. To not lose the track, I begin with a short backstory of models in the philosophy of science, a historical tale of their coming of age.2 Once upon a time, at the dawn of 20th century, physics was the paradigmatic science inspiring the positivists – the godfathers of the contemporary philosophy of science -- to gather all scientific activities in a unified science with universal methods. From their perspective, “the received view”, models were treated as mere aids: providing abstract formal theories and theoretical structures with concrete empirical content. The world and theories were masters, enjoying high ranks, served by models. This conception of models was rejected by “the semantic view”. This view raised the rank of models to the rank of theories. It claimed that theories are “collections of models”. It was a promotion in terms of rank. However, their role remained theoretical, because models were conceived as “set-theoretical entities,”3 highly abstract and logical. Almost at the end of the century, “the pragmatic view” was born. Within this view, models finally achieved their autonomy, independent of both the world and theories. This view, as Winther summarizes, reveals the limitations in seeing models as idealized structures, noting that they might not sufficiently support the predictive and explanatory functions of models as expected by syntacticist and semanticists [4]. Models are more than just mere aids (in the received view) or mere structures (in the semantic view). So, the concept of pluralism is introduced, indicating that models possess internal diversity and exist in various types. The pragmatic view emphasizes the presence of nonformal aspects, such as materiality, sociality, externality, fictionality, and alike – which often remain implicit. And more related to our current discussion, it underscores the importance of 1 This insight is appreciated especially in the philosophy of technology – for example, see [2].

And also in recent trends in embodied cognitions – for example, see [3]. 2 The following three-act mini-narration is inspired by Winther [4]. 3 In a nutshell, they saw theoretical structures as formal relations among dummies – pun intended!

The Social Function of Toy Models in Games of Science

51

considering users – with all their purposes and values – in characterizing models, as well as the interconnectedness of theory and practice, challenging a strict dichotomy between the two. It is against this backdrop that we want to see scientific models as “toy models in games of science”, a phrase that might sound nonsense to the ears of godfathers of philosophy of science. In the Sect. 1, I show how seeing scientific models as fictions might solve our philosophical problems, following Frigg and Toon. It is promising but they have neglected a crucial aspect of Walton’s theory – namely, the sociality of props. In Sect. 2, I spell out this social function.

2 Scientific Toy Models Scientists construct models and manipulate them in order to understand, predict, or explain real phenomenon. A simple account of modeling is DDI-account [5]: First, we establish a referential relation between the real thing and a model (Denotation). Then, we try to discover how the model behaves according to its internal dynamics (Demonstration). Finally, we project our findings onto the real things and gain knowledge (Interpretation). This simple account seems satisfactory for some scientific activities but not all. Some models do not denote. Sometimes scientists, and most of the time engineers and designers, are modeling non-actual things. They are not dealing with pre-given real things, but with “prospective” things [6]. In other words, the target of their modeling activity is non-existent. They are “descriptions of a missing system” [7].4 Moreover, even if something exists as the target, it is the result of the modeling process itself, existing at a vanishing point in an inverted Platonic realm! (see [9]). So, it is not the case that every model exists, let alone that every model is denoting. The ontological question arises: What are these things we call “models” that sometimes even do not exist? Furthermore, most of the time there is no “demonstration” at work but just tinkering and playing. Aside from the nature of their existence, we wonder how can models teach us true knowledge. This is the epistemological problem. This knowledge-providing feature is conceived as the result of having a representational relation with the world. What is the nature of this relation? This is the representational problem, intertwined with the epistemological one. To solve these problems, one might follow the maxim of “divide and conquer” – analyze each model separately and cure the problems case by case. Why unify different sciences and put all different models under the rubric of model and modeling? Ironically, the very insight of model-based science is that we should not do this.5 As Godfrey-Smith makes it clear, this was the fault of “the semantic view” which “has resulted in attempts to force all scientific theorizing into a procrustean bed with a shape determined by the notions of ‘model’ that have proven useful in logic and set theory, and sometimes in physics” [11]. But, on the other hand, we can say nothing interesting and illuminating if we do not generalize: we need conflation to have cognitive gain (see [12]). So, we need a balance between two extremes. Models are unique, but we need to “unite and prevail”. 4 Cartwright famously wrote about “how laws of physics lie”. Her point was that in science

we deal with artificial “prepared descriptions” of the world and scientific laws are always conditioned by “ceteris paribus” [8]. 5 It is the strategy of “case studies” in the seminal work of Morgan & Morrison [10].

52

S. Mirzaei

As Frigg and Hartmann note, we can discern four “ontological kinds”: physical objects, fictional and abstract objects, set-theoretic structures, descriptions and equations [13]. Models are actually a mix of these. Moreover, we can categorize models in other ways. For example, physical models are sometimes exact replicas, sometimes scaled copies. Sometimes they are built in a completely different medium – like hydraulic models of economy.6 Models are sometimes “theories.” We might conceive “theories” as logical structures and mathematical formula, as is conceived by syntacticist and semanticist. But not all theories are like this. Darwin’s Origin developed a theory of evolution without any mathematical formula or structure. It was a bag of analogies unified in a narration.7 Scientific models are sometimes like stories. Furthermore, sometimes they are just numerical simulations on computers – like weather simulations or large language models (LLMs). Having this plurality in mind, it is difficult to make a fair generalization. Instead of searching for the nature of models, we can look at their functions – hence seeing them as “functional entities.” But the notion of “function” is itself obscure.8 Some say models have “informational function” meaning that they provide us with useful information about the world. On this account, all that matter is the information inherent in the models. Others say that models have “pragmatic functions,” meaning that models are like tools (see for example [18]. On this account, users’ intentions, beliefs, desires, and imaginations plus their skills and competence are constitutive of the function of models (see [19]). In our current discussion, we would discuss the social function of toy models, so our approach is pragmatic. Before beginning, a terminological point should be noted. We are treating scientific models as “props” and “toys” at human scale.9 A prop in children‘s games of makebelieve might be just a wood stick in the backyard that guides the imaginations of kids to treat it as a sword, a horse, or a witch’s broom. In this case, the prop is not designed but simply put in use by the kids. In contrast, the term “toys” usually implies being designed for a special kind of play. This distinction, while important, is not our concern here. What is important for us is their “social function”, either toys or props.

6 For example, Phillips and Newlyn’s famous hydraulic machine (“MONIAC,” 2023 [14]). Even

Hume had a simple hydraulic model of the economy in mind. See [15, p. 169]. 7 For the role of analogy in Darwin’s Origin see [16]. 8 The confusion around “function” is comparable to the confusion around “model” and

“representation”. See Wright [17] for a basic treatment. 9 Many things might be called “toy models”, from formula to oncomouse. Some of them are

more celebrated as “toys”. For example, Reutlinger, Hangleiter and Hartmann write, “Paradigmatic examples of toy models include the Ising model in physics, the Lotka–Volterra model in population ecology, and the Schelling model in the social sciences” [20, p. 1070]. They try to situate toy models in different spectrums, according to their degree of idealization, their scale, their complexity, and alike. But it is difficult to define them. Today, some children’s toys are more complex than scientific models. Playing with them needs a lot of instruction and learning. In contrast, some scientific models are so complex that playing with them is neither possible nor fun – only AI can play with them. The paradigmatic case is AlphaGo which mastered the game of Go by five million rounds of self-play, in just several months. See Mitchell [21] for a review of different species of AI. These nuances of toy models are interesting but not our concern here.

The Social Function of Toy Models in Games of Science

53

Frigg and Toon, inspired by Walton’s theory of fiction, see scientific models as props in children games of make-believe (for example [22–25]). It is supposed that the children‘s games are obvious enough10 to shed light on scientific activities. They are intuitive games. We all have played these games as kids, even if we did not know that they are called “games of make-believe” or “pretend play”, or simply “pretense”. These games are widespread in every culture and crucial for child development. Even the adult life might be just another kind of it but “more subtle, more sophisticated, less overt” [28, p. 12]. Let us see how this game of pretense might solve our philosophical problems. First, the ontological problem. “Ontology” is a fancy way of asking about the furniture of the world, or the metaphysical realm. How are scientific models fitted into this furniture? The general answer by fictionalist is that they are whatever fictions are. Frigg claims they are “fictional entities”. Toon, by contrast, calls them “fictional characters”, downplaying the force of their existence as entities. Toon distinguishes two approaches: indirect and direct [25, pp. 17–19]. If we posit entities between our scientific practice and the world, then our approach is indirect - we deal with the real world through something in between like Frigg’s “model-systems”. Posting these things has burdensome metaphysical commitments. Here enters Toon’s direct view. He denies that there are things like “model-systems” in between – just as nothing comes between props and the game. When a kid uses a stick as a sword, or plays with a doll as a baby, neither the ontological status of these props changes nor a new fictional entity pops out int the world. A stick remains a stick, a doll a doll, but guides the imagination of the kid. So, the ontological problem is solved or dissolved. Let us turn to other problems. It should be noted that in the current discussion, the epistemological merits of science are out of question. It is among our presuppositions that scientific modeling provides reliable knowledge. The question is just how. To solve this epistemological puzzle, it is customary in Western modern philosophy to bring in the notion of representation.11 Scientific models are representations of reality. They enable “surrogate reasoning”. We do our reasoning by them. But this reasoning is applicable to the real things. Questions arise: What kinds of things are these scientific representations? What is the nature of the representational relation? One strategy is to hand over the problem to the philosophers of mind and language. Whatever is the relation between non-scientific representations and the outer world, the same goes with the scientific representations. As Callender & Cohen claim, “There is no special problem about Scientific Representation” [31]. There are no demarcation criteria for sieving science from non-science. The only difference is that in science the people engaged are scientist.12 Anything can be representation for anything else. 10 It is intuitive but not basic. Our ability to participate in games of make-believe is not as primitive

as it seems. For example, Leslie claims that it is based on our ability to treat other people as intentional agents [26]. More dramatically, Tomasello claims that our ability to treat others as intentional agents is responsible for all the differences we have with other primates [27]. 11 For an exposition of the opposition between representational and anti-representational approaches in philosophy see [29]. For a review of “representation wars” in cognitive science see [30]. 12 Callender & Cohen do not develop a social account. But their account is compatible with social ones [31].

54

S. Mirzaei

Some philosophers object. They claim scientific representation needs more rigorous conditions like similarity, isomorphism, partial isomorphism, etc. The stipulative act of taking the salt shaker on the dinner table for Madagascar might be sufficient for the salt shaker to denote Madagascar. But it is not sufficient for being a scientific representation. Frigg, following Walton, writes, “Representations are not, as is customary, explained in terms of their relation (e.g. resemblance or denotation) to something beyond themselves; representations are things that possess the social function of serving as props in authorised games of make-believe” [24, p. 259]. Frigg’s solution for the representational problem is not only fictional but also, we can say, cartographical. He makes a distinction. He distinguishes “p-representation” from “t-representation”. P is for prop and T for target. Scientific models need both. We first use models as props to imagine a modelsystem. It is just p-representation. Furthermore, we need to relate our model-system to the target system. How? Consider a map. We need a legend – a key – to translate the facts in the map to the facts in the world. Keys are constructed, they are implicit and context dependent.13 Despite all these hints of sociality, inherent in his analogies, he remains silent on it. Toon also remains silent. We saw that Toon’s direct approach removed “fictional entities” from the scene. In line with this deflationary move, Toon, claims that the representational aspect of models should not be conceived as a relation [25].14 We should see it in the light of games of make-believe. When kids are playing with wood sticks as horses, they do not posit a relation between the sticks and horses (fictional or real). They simply treat the sticks as horses. In other words, they take them to be horses or treat them as horses. Toon summarizes his own account of scientific representation as, “MM: M is a modelrepresentation if and only if M functions as a prop in a game of make-believe” [25, p. 62]. But, after this theorem-like account of MM, in the following paragraph he adds: “In saying that M ‘functions’ as a prop, I mean that it is the social function of M to be used in this way, within the relevant community of model-users.” [25, p. 62]. It is surprising that he omits the term “social function” and “community of model-users” from his main articulation and just adds it with a passing comment and never returns back to explain it! Nowhere one can find an exposition of this “social” adjective. While discussion of sociality is absent from the works of Frigg and Toon, they are interwoven in Walton’s theory. Albeit, not in a fully articulated, explicit way. In the next section, I spell out this aspect of Walton’s theory, by making explicit the normativity of games of make-believe.

3 The Social Function of Toy Models Walton’s theory is a theory of fiction, articulated in terms of the social function of props in games of make-believe. But what are fictions? Walton opens his book this way: My starting point is simply the observation of paintings, novels, stories, plays, films, and the like – Seurat’s Sunday on the Island of La Grande Jatte, Dickens’ Tale of Two Cities, Hitchcock’s North by Northwest, Ibsen’s Hedda Gabler, 13 He is aware that he has many hidden assumptions. But it seems he finds it “Herculean” to deal

with them. So, he postpones the discussion. See [24, pp. 125–129]. 14 Toon claims a relation involves relata and we have just dropped “fictional entities”.

The Social Function of Toy Models in Games of Science

55

Mozart’s Magic Flute, Michelangelo’s David, Edgar Allan Poe’s Telltale Heart, for example—together with an awareness of the importance these works have in our lives and in our culture [28, p. 1]. I am quoting this because of the variety of examples of films, stories, paintings, and alike Walton has in mind. We can add to this list video games, virtual realities, and AIgenerated paintings, arts, and novels. Fiction in this sense is heterogenous, difficult-topin-down, and highly dependent on the sociocultural and technological context. Surely, as any librarian agrees, there are clear cases of fiction and non-fiction. But, as any librarian agrees, there is no sharp distinction. However, Walton suggests a criterion. Fictions require imagination.15 In contrast, non-fiction does not require imagination but believing. Shakespear’s Hamlet is fiction because it invites us to imagine things. Darwin’s Origin is non-fiction because it invites us to believe thing. Trying to demarcate fiction from non-fiction is as fruitless as trying to demarcate theory from observation. It is vestigial of the received view, undermined by Kuhnian revolution. However, Walton’s move is more nuanced. He is aware of the sociality of distinction: even if we treat something as absolute work of fiction, the distinction itself is not absolute. It is “society relative”. The distinctions are indexed to relevant social groups. “The ancient Greek myths may have been nonfiction for the Greeks but fiction for us” [28, p. 91]. If so, then what about Darwin’s Origin? Is it fiction? Yes and no, and this is a crucial point. Some biologists, as a relevant social group, contrary to Walton, see Darwin’s Origin as fiction.16 As Dennett writes “Every well-confirmed evolutionary hypothesis (of which there are thousands) began as a just-so story17 in need of supporting evidence [35]. And just as most organisms born die childless, the majority of just-so stories that get conceived never earn the right to reproduce” (See Chapter 6). One might wonder: does it mean that there is no difference between science fiction and scientific fictions? The wonder arises because of missing the point of seeing as. Fictionalists see models as if fictions. They are aware, simultaneously, that they are not fictions, as any child is aware that a doll is not a baby.18 The notion of “fiction” should be understood according to the relevant social communities, their goals, and their resources for achieving those goals. So, fictions have

15 See [28] chapter 2. It is a weird claim. As Currie & Ichino point out, “One problem here is

that nonfictions, too, often invite imaginings, and perhaps require them in order to be fully appreciated” [32, p. 321]. 16 Of course, as a scientific one. We are interested in scientific fiction, not science fiction. As a prominent veteran biologist, Mayr claims, evolutionary biologists construct historical narratives. So, “the methodology of historical narratives is clearly a methodology of historical science. Indeed, evolutionary biology, as a science, in many respects is more similar to the Geisteswissenschaften than to the exact sciences.” [33, p. 33]. 17 The term “just-so stories” was first used by Gould and Lewontin to ridicule simple-minded adaptationist theories. See [34]. However, this derogatory term was confiscated and valorized by adaptationists. Ironically, an instance of “exaptation” (another term coined by Gould to criticize simple-minded adaptationist ideas). 18 This binocular vision is crucial for the cognitive gain of analogy, metaphor, conceptual blending, and other similar cognitive artifacts. See [12].

56

S. Mirzaei

social functions. Mission complete? Not yet. It is just the beginning. Works of fiction are social, but what about imaginations? Imagination is the heart of make-believe.19 Walton confesses that it is difficult to come up with a full-fledged account of imagination, but he tries to shed light on it by making distinctions: Imagination might be “deliberate”, like when I just decide, here and now, to daydream about being a great philosopher. It might be “spontaneous”, like when last night I had the nightmare of being a lonely overthinker. It might be “occurrent” when it occurs to me now, or “nonoccurrent” when the details are just “at the back of my mind”. It might be “solitary”, when I write a personal diary in my mind. Finally, it might be “social”, when I read Gogol’s The Diary of a Madman.20 In analyzing social imaginations, Walton makes a quick observation: shared fantasies are not just happenstance of imagining the same things by a bunch of people. It is more. Everybody is imagining and is aware that others are imagining the same things and also is aware that all others all aware!21 It is not just a passive awareness but an active one: “Moreover, steps are taken to see that the correspondence obtains. And each participant has reasonable expectations and can make justified predictions about what others will imagine, given certain turns of events” [28, p. 18]. So, the social imagination is constituted by the participation of community members. They should keep an eye on each other, observing how other players are following the conditional, categorical, ad hoc, explicit, implicit, primary, and other kinds of rules. Would this monitoring ruin the game? Does it amount to a panopticon or a moralizing community? Not necessarily. One terminological caveat. Talk of “normativity” has connotations with ethics, morality, law, commitments, obligations, and other heavy-loaded moralizing terms. It sounds intimidating but it should not. Normativity is not always about being “right” or “normal”. It is as much applicable to ethics as to other communal activities. It can be about completing a pattern, being creative, playing a game, and having fun.22 In a role-playing game, everybody is subject to the normative force of the game, no matter how obscene or decent is the role or the game, or how sincere or insincere are players at the bottom of their hearts. One who plays in unpredictable ways ruins the game, except if being unpredictable establishes a normative force within the game. Sometimes “not playing the game” can be the game we want to play. As is aptly described by this poetic epigraph at the beginning of Walton’s book: They are playing a game. They are playing at not playing a game. If I show them I see they are, I shall break the rules and they will punish me. I must play their game, of not seeing I see the game [37].

19 And it is a convoluted heart. For a basic treatment see [32]. 20 Distinctions are made in [28] section 1.1. But examples are mine! 21 This kind of meta-awareness is well-discussed in social psychology and Game Theory. 22 Brandom delineates “normativity” in terms of “scorekeeping” [36]. It is a “practical know-

how”. In my words, even the very abstract notion of “normativity” gains its normative force from our ordinary practice of scorekeeping in games. The normative is born out of our practice of treating each other as players gaining and losing scores.

The Social Function of Toy Models in Games of Science

57

We, as a community, can establish rules. To use a fancy word, we have “autonomy” as a community. Of course, not only as communities but also as individuals. But a point should be emphasized. We can have different rules for generating fictional truth, but we are not interested in all of them. I can be autonomous in my imagination.23 But nobody participates in my own solitary daydream of being a great philosopher. Unless I manage to engage others in my fantasy, even by just reciting it here! But in order to make myself a great philosopher, even fictionally, I need much more. My fantasy should function as a prop in a game of make-believe in a relevant community (even if it is just you and me). Private imagination is just as useless as private language, or as private money. Surely, I can invent a private money. But its power is limited to the circle of its users – probably only myself! Similarly, in order to have social function, imaginations should mobilize people and establish alliances in a social setting.24 But how? Walton’s answer is, in a word, by using “props.” Walton tries to stabilize and coordinate our imaginations by anchoring25 them in reality: Most imaginings are in one way or another dependent on or aimed at or anchored in the real world. I will examine three major roles that real things often have in our imaginative experiences: They prompt imaginings; they are objects of imaginings; and they generate fictional truths. The third is the defining characteristic of “props,” as I shall use the term. [28, p. 21] First, props are real things. Walton could say they have causal powers to move us, literally and metaphorically. They prompt imaginations, as can drugs and brain stimulations. But to make a fictional world, worth of entertaining, we need control and coordination. So, “by constructing artificial prompters, we share our imaginative thoughts with others” [28, p. 22]. Artists are the designers and makers of artificial props for coordinating joint fantasies in communities. Second, props can themselves be objects of imagination. They do not need to point out to something over and above. Consider a child playing with a rag doll: “This is not to imagine that there is something which is both a rag doll and a baby. The child imagines, of something which is in fact a rag doll, that it is not a doll but a baby” [28, p. 25]. Third, prop’s crucial role is to generate fictional truth.26 After all, we need propositional and non-propositional truths to build a fictional world worth of exploring. As Frigg summarizes parts of Walton’s theory,

23 Even here one needs rules: “His decision amounts to adopting a rule for himself, stipulating to

himself, that this is to be imagined.” [28, p. 44). 24 I have in mind the Latourian notion of “immutable mobiles”. See [38]. 25 Hutchins building on the idea of conceptual blendings [39] developed by Fauconnier & Turner,

articulates an account of how material things anchor our thoughts [40]. We can re-read Walton’s theory by seeing props as anchors for conceptual blendings. 26 Walton resists the temptation to treat fictional truth as a kind of “truth”, or the fictional world as a kind of “possible world”. Because these are austere semantic terms in modern modal logic, not apt for art.

58

S. Mirzaei

Props generate fictional truths by virtue of their features and principles of generation. Fictional truths can be generated directly or indirectly; directly generated truths are “primary” and indirectly generated truths are “implied” (Walton 1990, 140). Derivatively, one can call the principles of generation responsible for the generation of primary truths “principles of direct generation” and those responsible for implied truths “principles of indirect generation”. The leading idea is that primary truths follow immediately from the prop, while implied ones result from the application of some rules of inference [41, p. 115]. It is a primary truth that “Hamlet was a prince in Denmark”. But it is implied truths that “he was not a prince in Iran” and “he did not have mobile phone”. Once the props are in place, they can make worlds by generating primary and implied fictional truths in many ways. By “generation of fictional truth”, props “give fictional worlds and their contents a kind of objectivity, an independence from cognizers and their experiences which contributes much to the excitement of our adventures with them” [41, p. 42]. In other words, props objectify fictions through intersubjectivity. They have a life of their own, independent of players’ imaginations and beliefs. Again, worries arise. Do we want to valorize the tyranny of game over individuals? Should not playing a game be emancipatory? After all, we want to play, in order to be free, in order to be human, as Schiller says.27 There is an air of paradox here. Which one has the priority: playing a game freely or following the rules? The sense of paradox comes from a false dichotomy, born out of the way the question is framed. We should note that the game is independent of every individual but, at the same time, it is dependent on the community of players as a whole. To bring the point home, let us engage in a joint fantasy. Suppose in a math class in a primary school the teacher asks a kid to continue the sequence “one, two, three, four, five, …” and the kid goes on with “once I caught a fish alive”.28 The class bursts into laughter. Is the kid making fun of the math class? What should the teacher do? Has the kid violated the rules? If the math teacher has a taste for philosophical investigations, she might be reminded of the problem of rule-following. The problem arises from the apparent arbitrariness of continuing a sequence.29 If imaginative enough, we can continue any sequence almost arbitrarily then assign a rule to it in a retrospective manner. In the case of “1, 2, 3, 4, 5, …” we can continue the sequence with “10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, …” (each time multiply by 10) or with “4, 3, 2, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, …” (ascending and descending between one and five) or anything else. We can assign an explicit rule to any sequence. Possibilities

27 See Adamowsky for a review of Schiller’s idea and discussion of the play’s “Productive Inde-

terminacy”. Play is indeterminate but not boundless. As she concludes his paper, “This is how one arrives at the core of play: the fact that the phenomena of play not only belong to the preconditions of reason, but are inextricably bound up within it.” [42, p. 19]. 28 It is a famous English nursery rhyme. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One,_Two,_Three,_Four,_ Five. 29 Various complex cognitive acts might be explained by pattern completion. See Clark for an interesting expansion of this idea [43].

The Social Function of Toy Models in Games of Science

59

abound.30 Having this point in mind, the teacher surmises that maybe the kid has been absent-minded. Maybe the kid thinks they are still in the music class, in which they rehearse the famous British nursery rhyme of “One, Two, Three, Four, Five, Once I Caught a Fish Alive.” In the music class, all the kids would complete the sequence with the appropriate verse of “once I caught a fish a live.” But this sequence completion is not appropriate for the math class. Because our rule-following practice is contextdependent. The context has normative force. It can turn a wrong (or even meaningless) answer into a right one.31 We are now in a position to dissolve the false dichotomy between plays and rules. It is not necessary to prioritize one over the other. In order to play, we need rules. But in order to have rules, we need to play. By telling a similar story to what we enjoyed here, Wittgenstein famously articulated the paradox of rule-following, “This was our paradox: no course of action could be determined by a rule, because every course of action can be brought into accord with the rule.” [44, p. 87, clause no. 201] How should we know the application of a rule? Are there meta-rules? Then how should we apply those metarules? Are there meta-meta-rules? This direction would lead us to an infinite regress. Wittgenstein terminates the regress by going in the opposite direction. He grounds our practice of rule-following on the practice itself, not on another set of rules: That’s why ‘following a rule’ is a practice. And to think one is following a rule is not to follow a rule. And that’s why it’s not possible to follow a rule ‘privately’; otherwise, thinking one was following a rule would be the same thing as following it [44, pp. 87–88, clause 202]. The crucial insight is that rule-following needs something more than just rules. It needs real practice or forms of life. It needs a community. In other words, it is constituted by the society. It cannot be a private endeavor. We are now in a position to appreciate the social aspect of Walton’s account. As he notes, “Representations, I have said, are things possessing the social function of serving as props in games of make-believe” [28, p. 69]. Their function is fuzzy and comes in degrees. It is society relative: “It may be more or less the function of a given work, for a given society, to serve as a prop in games of make-believe.” [28, p. 92]. Or to be concise, “Functions are cultural constructs” [28, p. 88].32

30 I prompted ChatGPT (Version 3.5) to do this task five times and write an explicit rule for each

one. Here is the exact output:“1, 2, 3, 4, 5, once I caught a fish alive: Incorporating the lyrics from the nursery rhyme.1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30: Doubling each number in the sequence while adding 5 to each subsequent number.1, 2, 3, 4, 5, five fingers on my hand: Associating the sequence with the number of fingers on a hand.1, 2, 3, 4, 5, V: Using Roman numerals to represent the numbers.”1, 2, 3, 4, 5, high five!: Using a playful interpretation with the “high five” gesture.”The explicit rule of the second row seems nonsense. But the last one is impressive! 31 This kind of sequence completion task is widespread in IQ tests. It is amusing to note that for having a high score, one do not need be a genius but should only conform to the established norms of these tests. In other words, it is a test of our performance in reference to the expectations of the community of designers. 32 For Walton’s discussion of function see the 2.7 section of his book.

60

S. Mirzaei

Mission Complete? Yes and no. We just appreciated that the social function of props deserves more attention than what Frigg and Toon has paid. We appreciate that if we want to see scientific models as toys and props in games of make-believe, we should take into account their sociality as well. In the current discussion, we cannot go into more details. It is a burdensome task already begun by different scholars in sociology of science, in science studies, in Actor Network Theory, in philosophy of technology, and alike. Here I just tried to open the doors for the relevant community of prop-users in games of make-believe to enter the stage. It is just a beginning. Moreover, the notion of “social” needs to be expanded. Props cannot move us if they do not have a grip on us, as we cannot move them if we do not have a grip on them. So, there is a mutual co-constitution and re-cognitions at work in at least two ways. First, by the way props are treated by us. Second, by the way they are treating us! They influence us by their tactile, auditory, imagery, and in sum, by their affordances. So, our notion of sociality should be inclusive. Our society is not only constituted by human social masses, but also non-human social masses. In a vivid vignette, Latour, alluding to the notion of “hidden mass” in modern physics and playing with the notion of “social mass” in politics, labels the non-human players of our daily life “the missing masses” and writes, Here they are, the hidden and despised social masses who make up our morality. They knock at the door of sociology, requesting a place in the accounts of society as stubbornly as the human masses did in the nineteenth century. What our ancestors, the founders of sociology, did a century ago to house the human masses in the fabric of social theory, we should do now to find a place in a new social theory for the nonhuman masses that beg us for understanding.” [45, p. 153]

4 Conclusion Some have tried to solve philosophical problems of scientific toy models by appeal to Walton’s theory of fiction. He claims that fictions have the social function of serving as props in games of make-believe. Here, we followed this line of thought, accompanying Frigg and Toon, to see how this idea can be applied to scientific models. It is promising. But Frigg and Toon have neglected a crucial aspect of Walton’s theory: the social dimension. I spelled out what Walton has called “the social function” of props. I argued that games need the normative dimension of rule-following. This normative dimension necessitates a community in which rules are born out of the social practice. In other words, to participate in a game, we need rules. But in order to have rules, we need to participate in the game. Does it sound paradoxical? Not if we just start playing. One final point. The term “social” is fearsome as is the term “fictional”. It, wrongly, implies that everything is relative and arbitrary. So, science would be undermined because it is just a social construction33 and “anything goes.”34 To defend the objectivity of science, one might grab a real scientific model and hit us on the head (!) to remind us 33 For a review of the so-called “science wars” see [46]. 34 The phrase “anything goes” was the slogan of Feyerabend’s campaign against the tyranny of

science. See [47].

The Social Function of Toy Models in Games of Science

61

that they are neither fictional nor social! This confused reaction arises because of seeing the social (and the fictional) mutually exclusive with the real. But it is a mistake. Money is a social construct but has more causal power than a random pebble on a beach. Hamlet is a fiction, but it has changed many lives, not to mention the lives of theatre producers. On the other hand, one might think we can construct any social construct just by an easy act of agreement in a community. Yes but no! This confusion arises because our ordinary notion of sociality is loose and impoverished. First, social construction involves not only human actors but also non-human ones. Making agreements with them is not as easy as one wishes. Moreover, even if social construction is just an agreement among human players, it is as difficult as any other kind of construction. These are difficult feats doable only by a harmonized cooperation of various players. So, as any child would tell you, to play games, you need playmates, either real or imaginary, either people or props. In real life, games worth of playing need all of them.

References 1. Goodman, N.: Languages of Art, 2nd edn. Hackett Publishing Company, Indianapolis (1976) 2. Ihde, D., Malafouris, L.: Homo faber revisited: postphenomenology and material engagement theory. Philos. Technol. 32(2), 195–214 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13347-018-0321-7 3. Newen, A., Bruin, L.D., Gallagher, S. (eds.): The Oxford Handbook of 4E Cognition, 1st edn. Oxford University Press, Oxford (2018) 4. Winther, R.G.: The structure of scientific theories. In: Zalta, E.N. (ed.) The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2016). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, Palo Alto (2016). https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2016/entries/structure-scientific-theories/ 5. Hughes, R.I.G.: Models and representation. Philos. Sci. 64, S325–S336 (1997) 6. Nordmann, A.: Prospective Modelling (2023) (forthcoming) 7. Thomson-Jones, M.: Missing systems and the face value practice. Synthese 172(2), 283–299 (2010) 8. Cartwright, N.: How the Laws of Physics Lie. Clarendon Press, Oxford University Press (1983) 9. Nordmann, A.: Vanishing friction events and the inverted platonism of technoscience. In: Vincent, B.B., Loeve, S., Nordmann, A., Schwarz, A. (eds.) Research Objects in Their Technological Setting. Routledge, Abingdon (2017). https://doi.org/10.4324/978178 1448397-5 10. Morgan, M.S., Morrison, M. (eds.): Models as Mediators: Perspectives on Natural and Social Science (Ideas in Context). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (1999). https://doi.org/ 10.1017/CBO9780511660108 11. Godfrey-Smith, P.: The strategy of model-based science. Biol. Philos. 21(5), 725–740 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10539-006-9054-6 12. Mirzaei, S.: Conflation of technology and language: a cognitive artifact. Technol. Lang. 4(1), 93–110 (2023). https://doi.org/10.48417/TECHNOLANG.2023.01.07 13. Frigg, R., Hartmann, S.: Models in science. In: Zalta, E.N. (ed.) The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2020). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, Palo Alto (2020). https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2020/entries/models-science/ 14. MONIAC (2023). Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MONIAC 15. Mayr, O.: Authority, Liberty, and Automatic Machinery in Early Modern Europe. The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore (1989)

62

S. Mirzaei

16. White, R.M., Hodge, M.J.S., Radick, G.: Darwin’s Argument by Analogy: From Artificial to Natural Selection. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (2021). https://www.cambri dge.org/core/books/darwins-argument-by-analogy/C4562E0689C8AD18ABAE2652B09 ADB83 17. Wright, L.: Functions. Philos. Rev. 82(2), 139–168 (1973). https://doi.org/10.2307/2183766 18. Boon, M., Knuuttila, T.: Models as epistemic tools in engineering sciences. In: Meijers, A. (ed.) Philosophy of Technology and Engineering Sciences, pp. 693–726. North-Holland, Amsterdam (2009). https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-51667-1.50030-6 19. Gelfert, A.: The ontology of models. In: Magnani, L., Bertolotti, T. (eds.) Springer Handbook of Model-Based Science. Springer Handbooks, pp. 5–23. Springer, Cham (2017). https://doi. org/10.1007/978-3-319-30526-4_1 20. Reutlinger, A., Hangleiter, D., Hartmann, S.: Understanding (with) toy models. Br. J. Philos. Sci. 69(4), 1069–1099 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1093/bjps/axx005 21. Mitchell, M.: Artificial Intelligence: A Guide for Thinking Humans. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, New York (2019) 22. Ludwig, P., Barberousse, A.: Les modèles comme fictions. Philosophie 68, 16–43 (2000) 23. Levy, A.: Models, fictions, and realism: two packages. Philos. Sci. 79(5), 738–748 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1086/667992 24. Frigg, R.: Models and fiction. Synthese 172(2), 251–268 (2010) 25. Toon, A.: Models as Make-Believe: Imagination, Fiction and Scientific Representation. Palgrave Macmillan UK, London (2012). https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137292230 26. Leslie, A.M.: Pretense and representation: the origins of “theory of mind.” Psychol. Rev. 94(4), 412–426 (1987). https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.94.4.412 27. Tomasello, M.: The Cultural Origins of Human Cognition. Harvard University Press, Cambridge (2003) 28. Walton, K.L.: Mimesis as Make-Believe: On the Foundations of the Representational Arts. Harvard University Press, Cambridge (1990) 29. Rorty, R.: Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature. Princeton University Press, Princeton (1979) 30. Constant, A., Clark, A., Friston, K.J.: Representation wars: enacting an armistice through active inference. Front. Psychol. 11, 598733 (2021). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020. 598733 31. Callender, C., Cohen, J.: There is no special problem about scientific representation. Theoria 21(1), 67–85 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1387/theoria.554 32. Currie, G., Ichino, A.: Imagination and make-believe. In: The Routledge Companion to Aesthetics, pp. 320–329. Routledge, Abingdon (2013). https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203813034. ch31 33. Mayr, E.: What Makes Biology Unique: Considerations on the Autonomy of a Scientific Discipline. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (2004). https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO978 0511617188 34. Gould, S.J., Lewontin, R.C., Maynard Smith, J., Holliday, R.: The spandrels of San Marco and the Panglossian paradigm: a critique of the adaptationist programme. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. Ser. B Biol. Sci. 205(1161), 581–598 (1997). https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.1979.0086 35. Dennett, D.C.: From Bacteria to Bach and Back: The Evolution of Minds. Penguin Books (2018) 36. Brandom, R.: Making it Explicit: Reasoning, Representing, and Discursive Commitment. Harvard University Press, Cambridge (1994) 37. Laing, R.D.: Knots. Vintage, London (1972) 38. Latour, B.: Visualization and cognition: drawing things together. In: Lynch, M.E., Woolgar, S. (eds.) Representation in Scientific Practice, pp. 19–68. The MIT Press. Cambridge, London (1990)

The Social Function of Toy Models in Games of Science

63

39. Hutchins, E.: Material anchors for conceptual blends. J. Pragmat. 37(10), 1555–1577 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2004.06.008 40. Fauconnier, G., Turner, M.: The Way We Think: Conceptual Blending and The Mind’s Hidden Complexities. Basic Books (2002) 41. Frigg, R.: Fiction and scientific representation. In: Frigg, R., Hunter, M. (eds.) Beyond Mimesis and Convention. Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science, vol. 262, pp. 97–138. Springer, Dordrecht (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-3851-7_6 42. Adamowsky, N.: Productive Indeterminacy: On the Relationship Between Play and Science. Technol. Lang. 3(4), 8–20 (2022). https://doi.org/10.48417/TECHNOLANG.2022.04.02 43. Clark, A.: The Experience Machine: How Our Minds Predict and Shape Reality. Pantheon, New York (2023) 44. Wittgenstein, L.: Philosophische Untersuchungen =: Philosophical investigations [G. E. M. Anscombe, P. M. S. Hacker, & J. Schulte, Trans.] [Rev. 4th edn]. Wiley-Blackwell, Chichester (2009) 45. Latour, B.: Where are the missing masses? The sociology of a few mundane artifacts. In: Bijker, W.E., Law, J. (eds.) Shaping Technology/Building Society: Studies in Sociotechnical Change, pp. 225–259. The MIT Press, Cambridge (1992) 46. Douglas, H.: Science, Policy, and the Value-Free Ideal. University of Pittsburgh Press, Pittsburgh (2009). https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt6wrc78 47. Feyerabend, P.: Against Method, 4th edn. Verso, London (2010)

Constitutive Rules of Artificial Games and Natural Conventions of Ordinary Behavior Andrei E. Serikov(B) Samara National Research University, 34, Moskovskoye Shosse, 443086 Samara, Russia [email protected]

Abstract. Drawing on Rawls’s distinction between the summary and the practice concepts of rules, Searle suggested to distinguish between constitutive and regulative rules. This distinction has become popular and is accepted by many contemporary philosophers as the basis for discussing the essence of games, language, social and cultural norms in general. On the other hand, some authors criticize this distinction as either unjustified in general or inapplicable for explaining certain types of norms. The three most frequently discussed issues in this context today are the validity of the initial distinction between rule types, the soundness of the analogy between sports games and speech acts, and the possibility of understanding constitutive rules as conventions. In the debates, the rules of games are usually understood as if they constituted the game completely and before their introduction the game did not exist. Moreover, most authors discuss the issue of rules as if there were no difference between implicit and explicit rules. At the same time, the most difficult problem is to explain the normative force of the rules. If the rules are understood as what is collectively accepted by the vast majority of the population—and that is what most authors suggest, the problem remains of explaining why this happens. Building on the ideas of Millikan, the present suggests that some of so called constitutive rules can be understood as natural conventions. One should distinguish, on the one hand, the rules of artificial games and, on the other hand, the conventional foundations of natural games and other areas of behavior, which for the time being are not codified and are understood by each player in their own way. The rationale for normativity could be due precisely to the fact that there are natural conventions that have been tested by time and rooted in tradition. Keywords: game · rule · norm · speech act · convention · human behavior

1 Introduction In 1955, John Rawls proposed to distinguish between the summary view concept and the practice concept of rules [1]. One important source of his thought was the analogy between sports games on the one hand and the act of making a promise on the other. In 1964, drawing on Rawls’s distinction and the same analogy, John Searle proposed to distinguish between constitutive and regulative rules of both games and speech acts [2]. This distinction has become popular and is accepted by many contemporary philosophers as the basis for discussing the essence of games, language, social and cultural norms in © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Bylieva and A. Nordmann (Eds.): PCSF 2023, LNNS 830, pp. 64–74, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-48020-1_6

Constitutive Rules of Artificial Games and Natural Conventions

65

general. On the other hand, some authors criticize this distinction as either unjustified in general or inapplicable for explaining certain types of norms. Building on the ideas of Millikan, I propose to reconsider the distinctions of Rawls and Searle, and suggest that some of so called constitutive rules can be understood as natural conventions. The three most frequently discussed issues in this context today are the validity of the initial distinction between rule types, the soundness of the analogy between sports games and speech acts, and the possibility of understanding constitutive rules as conventions. For example, Jaap Hage contends that “regulative rules, are at the same time constitutive rules and that therefore the opposition of regulative and constitutive rules is a bogus one” [3, p. 13]. Timothy Williamson argues that the constitutive rules of assertion can be analyzed by analogy with the rules of games, and yet they are not conventions [4]. In contrast to his view, Ishani Maitra [5] and Casey Rebecca Johnson [6] consider the analogy between games and speech acts to be unjustified, while Andrei Marmor proposes the notion of constitutive conventions [7]. The peculiarity of these discussions lies in the fact that most authors, on the one hand, do not question the basic distinctions proposed by Rawls and Searle, and on the other hand, use the traditional David Lewis’s concept of convention [8, 9], albeit slightly modified. However, there is another, more contemporary notion of natural conventions proposed by Ruth Garrett Millikan [10]. This notion is also based on the Lewis’s concept, but differs quite a lot from it, and to a greater extent corresponds to the observed empirical facts. Building on the ideas of Millikan, I propose to reconsider the distinctions of Rawls and Searle, and suggest that some of so called constitutive rules can be understood as natural conventions. In the next section, the founding distinctions suggested by Rawls and Searle will be discussed. Then, in the third section, the contemporary controversies over constitutive rules will be analyzed. The fourth section will continue the analysis as well as discuss the possibility to apply the notion of natural conventions to explanation of games and speech acts. In the final section, conclusions will be drawn about the possibility to distinguish between constitutive rules of artificial games and natural conventions of ordinary behavior.

2 The Founding Distinctions and Early Critiques In “Two Concepts of Rules” (1955), J. Rawls proposed to clearly “distinguish between justifying a practice as a system of rules to be applied and enforced, and justifying a particular action which falls under these rules” [1, p. 5]. Although he mainly discussed the problem of justifying punishment in jurisprudence, he also talked about games such as chess and baseball as examples, as well as the practice of making promises. He criticized the concept of rules, which he called the summary view, because the rules in it were understood as generalizations of similar decisions made by individuals on the basis of utilitarian principles in similar circumstances. According to this view, principles were applied and decisions were made in each case independently of any previous agreement or contract about some kind of activity. J. Rawls upheld another concept of rules, according to which utilitarian principles were applied to a decision about the whole system of rules defining “offices, roles, moves, penalties, defenses, and so on” and by this giving “the activity its structure” [1, p. 3]. J. Rawls called such activities practices, and called the corresponding view the practice concept of rules.

66

A. E. Serikov

Drawing on J. Rawls’s ideas and “Kant’s distinction between regulative and constitutive principles” [2, p. 55], J. Searle proposed to distinguish between constitutive and regulative rules in his article “How to Derive Ought from Is” (1964) and then developed the notions of speech acts and social institutions as based on constitutive rules in books “Speech Acts” (1969) and “The Construction of Social Reality” (1995) [2, 11, 12]. According to Searle, regulative rules apply to antecedently existing activities, while constitutive rules do not just regulate, but create the activities they regulate. An activity can exist without regulative rules, but if it has constitutive rules, it cannot logically exist without them. It’s impossible to play a game without either following or going against rules that define the game. Regulative rules take forms of imperatives, constitutive rules “take the form ‘x counts as y’ or ‘x counts as y in context c’” [13, p. 52]. In this formula, x denotes the so-called brute facts (Searle borrowed the term from Elizabeth Anscombe [14]), y denotes institutional facts, and c denotes necessary and sufficient conditions under which the given formula can be considered justified. “Counts as” means that some new statuses and functions additional to brute facts are imposed by way of collective intentionality. There “has to be collective agreement, or at least acceptance,… The new status and its attendant functions have to be the sort of things that can be constituted by collective agreement or acceptance. Also… There must be continued collective acceptance or recognition of the validity of the assigned function” [12, pp. 44–45]. The original theoretical interests of Rawls and Searle were quite different. While Rawls wanted to understand the essence of a just decision from the point of view of law and morality, Searle was interested exclusively in the philosophy of language. Searle later recalled that in the 1960s, most philosophers considered normative ethics to be metaphysics and did not engage in it. That is why his seminal 1964 article was “not about fact and value” but “a certain modal auxiliary verb, ‘ought,’ and its relation to certain other sorts of words.“ [15, p. 4]. Another difference was that Rawls understood a system of rules as the result of applying rational utilitarian principles, while Searle understood rationality more broadly within the framework of classical logic. However, both Rawls and Searle relied on the same analogy between sports games and the act of making a promise. They both believed that constitutive rules must exist before the game began or the speech act took place, and that these rules were either explicitly formulated or could be formulated retroactively in terms of necessary and sufficient conditions for their execution. Searle’s distinction was accepted by many philosophers as logically sound and almost obvious. But there were also those who criticized him. In 1971, Joseph Ransdell noticed that Searle failed to draw conclusions from the fact that the formula “X counts as Y” could be used in two different ways. One way is to fill in the X-slot with some characteristics of a thing, person or action, and fill in the Y-slot with the game term that stands for the characteristics. But there is another way in which the formula “might be utilized, viz., by filling in the X-slot as above and by filling in the Y-slot not by the game-term but rather by an expression of its import, i.e., by a specifying of the rules which apply when the conditions specified in the X-term obtain” [16, p. 390]. This second use Ransdell proposed to denote as “X counts as Z”. It follows that “a ‘counts as’ formula, so interpreted, really expresses a second-order rule relating the satisfaction of a certain set

Constitutive Rules of Artificial Games and Natural Conventions

67

of conditions to the applicability of a set of first-order rules” [16, p. 390]. Applying this new distinction to the analysis of speech acts, Ransdell concludes that only the act of promising, and not other speech acts, is based on constitutive rules. In 1975, Joseph Raz argued that on the basis that there was indeed an important difference between natural and normative actions, Searle falsely concluded that there were two different types of rules. According to Raz, every rule is both constitutive and regulative. The difference lies not so much in the rules as in the descriptions of the actions. “Every rule regulates which can be described without presupposing the existence of that rule… Similarly every rule ‘creates’ actions which can be described only in ways which presuppose its existence” [17, p. 110]. In 1981, Dolores Miller criticized Searle for not noticing “a distinction in his institutional rules between a constitutive rule and an essential rule so that he conflates the two” [18, p. 183]. Constitutive rules define how or by what behavior some acts could be accomplished, essential rules describe their significance or purpose. When Searle suggested the rule “The Utterance of Pr counts as the undertaking of an obligation to do A” as one of the constitutive rules for the institute of promising, he failed to understand that “obligation” is not an intra-institutional term. “Obligation” is a meta-institutional term because it is not defined by rules of promising, and promising is one of forms of obligation, which is the essential rule for promising. Accordingly, the essential rule for assertion is that assertion is a form of communication. “The essential rule for football, chess, baseball, will be statements identifying the institution as forms of competition” [18, p. 188]. In 1984, Anthony Giddens suggested that Searle’s distinction and its examples “express two aspects of rules rather than two variant types of rule” [18, p. 20]. In 1997, David-Hillel Ruben joined the above criticism by saying that there really is not a difference in the types of rules, but only a difference in the types of action descriptions, and “for every rule or set thereof, trivially there is some action description which entails its, or their, existence” [19, p. 444].

3 Current Controversies Over Constitutive Rules One current debate is whether the concept of constitutive rules helps to understand the nature of social institutions. Much of the above criticism has been linked to the idea that Searle’s distinction was linguistic rather than ontological. Frank Hindriks addresses this criticism in the article “Constitutive Rules, Language, and Ontology” (2009). He agrees that Searle’s distinction is mainly linguistic, but he also wants to clarify the ontological foundations of rules and institutions, and offers what he calls the status account of constitutive rules. Complementing Searle’s “count as” XY formula with Ransdell’s first-order YZ-rules, he explains what it means for a status to be collectively accepted. “The idea, then, is that YZ or status rules explicate the normative attributes that come with having a particular status” [21, p. 262]. In the article “Institutions, rules, and equilibria” (2015), Hindriks and Francesco Guala incorporate the status account a part of their rules-in-equilibrium account of institutions. In the philosophy of economics, institutions are usually understood either as systems of rules or as game theory equilibria. In the new approach, these two accounts are synthesized into one, in which institutions

68

A. E. Serikov

are understood as correlated equilibria of coordination games that are symbolically represented by rules. “Constitutive rules are linguistic transformations of regulative rules. Such transformations rely on the introduction of a new term that is used to name an institution. In the end, constitutive rules are nothing but (systems of) regulative rules augmented by the introduction of theoretical terms” [22, p. 15]. According to Hindriks, collectively accepted rules explain the existence of institutions, but not their normativity. Collective acceptance “does not as such establish that the relevant requirements are morally binding. Collective acceptance of institutional requirements entails at best that people believe that some are obligated to act in certain ways. It establishes only apparent or ‘socially existing’ obligations… In order to establish that someone is actually obligated, some independent moral principle that sanctions the institution is needed” [23, pp. 227–228]. From the point of view of Hindriks and Guala, Searle’s conception of constitutive rules is insufficient to explain institutions and therefore they supplement it, but in the course of the supplement, the very fundamental difference between constitutive and regulative rules loses its significance. In a similar way, Brian Epstein analyzes Searl’s formula in the book “The Ant Trap” (2015) and founds that constitutive rules are one kind of principles that connect social facts to their grounding conditions. The grounding conditions of a social fact are its metaphysical reason to be the fact. Constitutive rules are not the conditions themselves but just the descriptions of how the fact is grounded. And “there are many different sorts of principles that give the grounding conditions for social facts” [24, p. 77]. In the article “In Defence of Constitutive Rules” (2021), Corrado Roversi writes that criticism of constitutive rules based on an analysis of Searl’s formula is not entirely appropriate, since this formula is only one way to express the idea of constitutive rules. Roversi defends not so much Searle’s own ideas as the general thesis that institutions are constituted by constitutive rules, using a modified notion of constitutive rules, pragmatic as he calls it. “Given that whether a rule is constitutive depends not on its structure but on its context, the distinction between constitutive and regulative rules is not a structural one between kinds of rules but rather a pragmatic one between different ways of using rules” [25, p. 14351]. Roversi calls the approaches offered by Hindriks and Epstein reductionistic, because either they offer an explanation of institutions in terms of rules that are not constitutive, or in terms of constitutive grounds that are not rules. In his interpretation, Hindriks’s regulative-rules account explains the normativity of the procedural procedures of the institution, but does not explain the purpose of the institution and the normativity associated with this purpose. On the other hand, Epstein’s metaphysical grounding is a relationship between facts, and therefore the normative foundations of institutions cannot be deduced from it. “Constitutive rules are rules, and so can account for the normative character of the reaction in a way the metaphysicalgrounding account cannot; and they are constitutive, so they can account better than regulative rules for the fact that the normative reaction in question is not about the actual rules but about the purpose of the institution, whose standing is partly independent of its contingent regulation” [25, p. 14367]. Another contemporary debate is whether the analogy between rules of games and rules of speech acts is justified. In the article “Knowing and Asserting” (1996)

Constitutive Rules of Artificial Games and Natural Conventions

69

Williamson aims to “identify the constitutive rule(s) of assertion, conceived by analogy with the rules of a game” [4, p. 489]. He defends the knowledge account that explains assertion as based on the knowledge rule: “One must: assert that P only if one knows that P” [4, p. 494]. At the same time, it is important for Williamson that this constitutive rule is not a convention, since the convention is one of several possible alternatives and could be different, but if the constitutive rule of assertion changes, it would become another speech act. “It is pointless to ask why the knowledge rule is the rule of assertion. It could not have been otherwise; a constitutive rule is not a convention” [4, p. 519]. Maitra in the book chapter “Assertion, Norms, and Games” (2011) and Johnson in the article “What Norm of Assertion?” (2018) argue that the analogy between rules of games and assertions is unjustified [5, 6]. One of Maitra’s arguments is that flagrant violations of constitutional rules are not allowed in sports games, while a flagrant failure to follow the knowledge rule can nevertheless count as an assertion. In addition, Maitra shows that among the many purposes of a sports game, there is one most important constitutive purpose, namely winning, while in language games there is no single preferred purpose. Repeating Maitra’s argument about flagrant violations, Johnson says that some rules of games are indispensable, while Williamson’s knowledge norm only specifies the prerequisite on proper assertion. If a soccer player is wielding a racquet, she is simply not playing soccer, but an impropriet assertion will still be an assertion. “Constitutive norms specify propriety conditions—constitutive rules of games do not” [6, p. 55]. In the article “How to Understand Rule-Constituted Kinds” (2021), Manuel GarcíaCarpintero distinguishes three approaches to the definition of constitutive rules: descriptive formalism attributed to Searle, normative formalism attributed to Rawls’ original intentions, and anti-formalism associated with the ideas of the late Wittgenstein. Within the framework of descriptive formalism, a rule defines an activity in such a way that its violation leads to the fact that this activity ceases to exist. Within the framework of normative formalism, the conditions of ideal activity are determined, the violation of which leads to the fact that the current performance becomes impropriet, but still belongs to the same activity. Anti-formalism rejects the very idea that games are constituted by definitions. According to García-Carpintero, the above critique of the analogy between games and speech acts is misplaced, since Maitra and Johnson rely on descriptive formalism, while Williamson understands rules in terms of normative formalism. Williamson’s view “that the intuitive distinction between constitutive and regulative rules tracks a really instantiated important ontological category—that of the social construct. It applies to language games exactly in the same way as it does to games… Williamson’s paper, however, overlooks a crucial aspect of such social constructs, to wit, that they must be in force” [26, p. 23]. García-Carpintero concludes that rule-constitute activities come to be in force because they serve some collective goals, but considering this question, he discusses, among others, the hypothesis that these activities could be conventions. The relationship between conventions and constitutive rules is the next currently debated issue that should be discussed here. Conventions were mentioned among the necessary conditions for the “smooth” functioning of performatives in John Austin’s seminal book “How to Do Things with Words” (1962). “There must exist an accepted conventional procedure having a certain conventional effect, that procedure to include the uttering of certain words by certain persons on certain circumstances” [27, p. 14].

70

A. E. Serikov

However, Searle, developing the theory of speech acts on the basis of his concept of constitutive rules, contrasted rules and conventions. He emphasized that were “discussing rules and not conventions… ‘Convention’ implies arbitrariness, but constitutive rules in general are not in that sense arbitrary” [12, p. 28]. And when Williamson writes that rules are not conventions, he is actually echoing Searle. Another position on this issue is taken by Andrei Marmor in his book “Social Conventions” (2009). Taking as a basis and modifying Lewis’s theory of conventions, he proposes to distinguish, on the one hand, conventions that solve problems of coordination, and, on the other hand, constitutive conventions. The former are similar to regulative rules in that they coordinate previous activities, the latter are a kind of constitutive rules. “There are two main types of such constitutive rules: social conventions and institutionally enacted rules” [7, p. 35]. “Constitutive conventions tend to develop over a long period of time. Unlike institutional rules, they are not enacted; they develop gradually and their content is path dependent” [7, p. 49]. Conventions can be codified or not codified. There are legislative codification that determines and modifies the rules and encyclopedic codification that only describes what the rules are. “If legislative codification of conventions succeeds, the practice is no longer conventional. It becomes an institutional practice” [7, p. 50]. Another important distinction is between deep conventions and surface conventions, the latter being instantiations of the former. For example, constitutive rules of chess are surface rules that function “against the background of a deeper layer of some shared normative scheme about what competitive games are” [7, p. 59]. It is the surface conventions that can become institutions due to legislative codification, while the deep conventions usually avoid codification.

4 Natural Conventions and Artificial Rules None of the above authors, with the exception of Marmor, discusses the importance of precedents in the formation of what are called constitutive rules. The rules of sports games are understood as if they constituted the game completely and before their introduction the game did not exist. However, we know well from history that most games originated without any clear codified rules, and the rules arose much later and only refined those ways of playing that were previously conventional. Thus, the English are justifiably proud of the fact that they introduced the official rules for many games. As Kate Fox writes in the book “Watching the English” (2004), “Football, baseball, rugby and tennis were all invented here, and even when we did not actually invent a sport or game, the English were usually the first to lay down a proper, official set of rules for it (hockey, horseracing, polo, swimming, rowing, boxing—and even skiing, for heaven’s sake) [28, p. 352]. Moreover, most authors discuss the issue of rules as if there were no difference between implicit and explicit rules. Within the framework of such approaches, the concept of constitutive rules is discussed on examples of codified games, and then extended to all games, as well as to speech acts, economic and legal institutions. However, it is obvious that most of the rules of language and culture are hidden and we can formulate them only as a result of special studies aimed at their explication or, as Marmor calls it,

Constitutive Rules of Artificial Games and Natural Conventions

71

encyclopedic codification. And since different researchers formulate these rules in different ways, it can be assumed that they simply do not have any unambiguous universal form. At the same time, the most difficult problem is to explain the normative force of the rules. If the rules are understood as what is collectively accepted by the vast majority of the population, the problem remains of explaining why this happens. Usually philosophers try to explain this by the existence of other, more fundamental rules, or moral principles. But, judging by the fact that the discussion is resumed again and again, this solution is not satisfactory. Disputes about the objectivity of the distinction between constitutive and regulative rules, as well as about the validity of the analogy between the rules of games and speech acts, are largely due to ignoring these issues. Understanding games and language rules as conventions can, if not solve, then clarify these problems. Thus, Marmor’s ideas about constitutive conventions, their dependence on history, about encyclopedic codification, which is actually an explication of implicit rules, and legislative codification, which turns conventions into institutional rules, allows us to better explain the relationship between games, language, and various rules. However, the notion of deep conventions seems unjustified: it is not clear what makes people follow the deep abstract scheme and how they can actually do it and learn it. There is another contemporary theory of conventions that has been developed independently of the constitutive rules debates, but which seems to be able to more simply explain the issues that have arisen in the course of these discussions. In the article “Language Conventions Made Simple” (1998), Ruth Garret Millikan offered the notion of natural conventions that require neither coordinations, nor regular conformity, nor rational underpinnings for their existence. “Natural conventionality is composed of two, quite simple, related characteristics. First, natural conventions consist of patterns that are ‘reproduced’… Second, the fact that these patterns proliferate is due partly to weight of precedent, rather than due, for example, to their intrinsically superior capacity to perform certain functions. That is all” [10, p. 162]. In addition, in the article “A Difference of Some Consequence Between Conventions and Rules” (2008), Millikan argues that natural linguistic conventions are not rules, that linguistic conventions interweave with wider conventions of usage, and that there is no clear distinction between semantics and pragmatics. Natural language conventions are not rules in the sense that, by relying on precedents, they do not pose any absolute barriers to the reinterpretation of precedents. “Making such departures is neither ‘breaking the rules’ nor speaking a different language. ‘Correct’ reading or extension of linguistic precedent is not a determinate matter. Reproduced departures from more beaten paths may slowly become ‘conventional,’ a matter of statistics, hence of degree” [29, p. 91]. By applying Millikan’s theory to games and speech acts, one can describe both speech acts and various games—before they were officially codified—as natural conventions. Being natural conventions, they need not either be enacted by constitutive rules or be collectively accepted by the vast majority of people in the population. Natural conventions can exist even if the people who follow them understand them a little differently. They can be explicated, but this is not a necessary condition for their existence. And they can only be followed by a certain number of people, enough for the corresponding

72

A. E. Serikov

patterns to be reproduced. Recalling the late Wittgenstein’s idea that artificial languages can exist only on the basis of natural languages, one can call codified games and other institutional rules artificial, in contrast to natural conventions.

5 Conclusions The idea of natural conventions, with its emphasis on the reproduction of patterns, leads to a reconsideration of Rawls’ original distinction between conceptions of rules. According to Rawls, when people do something, including games, they make decisions based on a prearranged and rationally accepted system of rules. However, everyday experience, literature and scientific research, for example in the field of behavioral economics, show that this is most often not the case. People speak their native language, play games familiar from childhood, and do many other things simply on the basis of imitation and formed habits, which require neither the existence of explicit rules, nor a rationally based choice of behaviors. In this context, one should distinguish, on the one hand, the rules of artificial games (including artificial languages, various algorithms, codified institutional procedures, etc.) and, on the other hand, the conventional foundations of natural games and other areas of behavior, which for the time being are not codified and are understood by each player in their own way. A clear understanding that such natural games are the most common and underlie artificial games also explains the fact that even codified rules leave room for interpretation, otherwise there would be no need for judges, umpires and specialists in the field of language rules. The rationale for normativity could be due precisely to the fact that there are natural conventions that have been tested by time and rooted in tradition, and the perception as a model of what is natural can be associated with many things, such as universal human innate predispositions, including predispositions to empathize, imitate and take the familiar for granted, reinforced by an upbringing based on both voluntary adherence to traditions and coercion. If artificial constitutive rules are only refinements and codifications of already existing natural conventions, then they have a chance to be perceived as normatively justified. If they go against natural conventions, they have no normative force. The explanation of normativity with the help of conventions is usually met with the objection that the conventions themselves do not include a normative element and require, as well as rules, the justification of normativity. This is true of traditionally understood constitutive rules. But if conventions and rules are not considered synchronistically, as if they arose or were created at one moment, having no previous patterns, then the history of the emergence of such patterns and understanding of the causes of their occurrence can explain their normativity.

References 1. Rawls, J.: Two concepts of rules. Philos. Rev. 64(1), 3–32 (1955). https://doi.org/10.2307/ 2182230 2. Searle, J.R.: How to derive “ought” from “is.” Philos. Rev. 73(1), 43–58 (1964). https://doi. org/10.2307/2183201

Constitutive Rules of Artificial Games and Natural Conventions

73

3. Hage, J.: Separating rules from normativity. In: Araszkiewicz, M., Bana´s, P., GizbertStudnicki, T., Płeszka, K. (eds.) Problems of Normativity, Rules and Rule-Following. Law and Philosophy Library, vol. 111, pp. 13–29. Springer, Cham (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/ 978-3-319-09375-8_2 4. Williamson, T.: Knowing and asserting. Philos. Rev. 105(4), 489–523 (1996). https://doi.org/ 10.2307/2998423 5. Maitra, I.: Assertion, norms, and games. In: Brown, J., Cappelen, H. (eds.) Assertion: New Philosophical Essays, pp. 277–296. Oxford University Press, NewYork (2011) 6. Johnson, C.R.: What norm of assertion? Acta Analytica 33(1), 51–67 (2017). https://doi.org/ 10.1007/s12136-017-0326-3 7. Marmor, A.: Social Conventions: From Language to Law. Princeton University Press, Princeton (2009). https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400831654 8. Lewis, D.: Convention: A Philosophical Study. Harvard University Press, Cambridge (1969) 9. Lewis, D.: Languages and language. In: Gunderson, K. (ed.) Minnesota Studies in the Philosophy of Science, pp. 3–35. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis MN (1975) 10. Millikan, R.G.: Language conventions made simple. J. Philos. 95(4), 161–180 (1998). https:// doi.org/10.2307/2564683 11. Searle, J.R.: Speech Acts: An Essay in the Philosophy of Language. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge UK (1969). https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139173438 12. Searle, J.R.: The Construction of Social Reality. Free Press, New York (1995) 13. Searle, J.R.: Constitutive Rules [Special Issue]. Argumenta 4(1), 51–54 (2018). https://doi. org/10.14275/2465-2334/20187.sea 14. Anscombe, G.E.M.: On brute facts. Analysis 18(3), 69–72 (1958). https://doi.org/10.1093/ analys/18.3.69 15. Searle, J.R.: How to derive “ought” from “is” revisited. In: Di Lucia, P., Fittipaldi, E. (eds.) Revisiting Searle on Deriving “Ought” from “Is”, pp. 3–16. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-54116-3_1 16. Ransdell, J.: Constitutive rules and speech-act analysis. J. Philos. 68(13), 385–400 (1971). https://doi.org/10.2307/2025037 17. Raz, J.: Practical Reason and Norms. Hutchinson & Sons, London (1975). https://doi.org/10. 1093/acprof:oso/9780198268345.001.0001 18. Miller, D.: Constitutive rules and essential rules. Philos. Stud. 39(2), 183–197 (1981). https:// doi.org/10.1007/bf00367419 19. Giddens, A.: The Constitution of Society: Outline of the Theory of Structuration. Polity Press, Cambridge (1984) 20. Ruben, D.-H.: John searle’s the construction of social reality. Philos. Phenomenol. Res. 57(2), 443–447 (1997). https://doi.org/10.2307/2953734 21. Hindriks, F.: Constitutive rules, language, and ontology. Erkenntnis 71, 253–275 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10670-009-9178-6 22. Hindriks, F., Guala, F.: Institutions, rules, and equilibria: a unified theory. J. Inst. Econ. 11(3), 459–480 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1017/S1744137414000496 23. Hindriks, F.: Can constitutive rules bridge the gap between is- and ought-statements? In: Di Lucia, P., Fittipaldi, E. (eds.) Revisiting Searle on Deriving “Ought” from “Is”. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-54116-3_12 24. Epstein, B.: The and Trap: Rebuilding the Foundations of the Social Sciences. Oxford University Press, NewYork (2015) 25. Roversi, C.: In defence of constitutive rules. Synthese 199, 14349–14370 (2021). https://doi. org/10.1007/s11229-021-03424-w 26. García-Carpintero, M.: How to understand rule-constituted kinds. Rev. Philos. Psychol. 13, 7–27 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13164-021-00576-z

74

A. E. Serikov

27. Austin, J.L.: How to Do Things with Words: The William James Lectures delivered at Harvard University. Oxford University Press, Oxford (1962). https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/978 0198245537.001.0001 28. Fox, K.: Watching the English: The Hidden Rules of English Behaviour, 2nd edn. Hodder, London (2014) 29. Millikan, R.G.: A difference of some consequence between conventions and rules. Topoi 27, 87–99 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11245-008-9026-3

Psychological Portrait of a Modern Young Gambler Sofya Tarasova(B) Psychological Institute of Russian Academy of Education, Moscow, Russia [email protected]

Abstract. This study is an attempt to identify individual psychological traits of a modern young gambler. The purpose of this study was to describe a psychological portrait of a modern gambler. Meanwhile, we were interested in manifestations of anxiety, aggressiveness and hostility which were identified by qualitative and quantitative research methods. At the first stage of this study we conducted surveys, including the MMPI test, the Buss-Perry Aggression Questionnaire, Humorous Phrases Test, the Rokeach Value-Concept Sphere. The second stage consisted of qualitative personality analysis methods. The results of the MMPI test showed below-standard personality profiles that may be related to the high level of cautiousness and suspiciousness. Hostility as a factor of readiness for aggression positively correlates with the majority of the basic MMPI scales. There were differences between gamblers and the control group for the schizoid personality factor on a tendency level (p = 0.07). Such a difference between gamers and nongamers probably points to maladaptation, nonconformity, proneness to conflict and inability of gamers to communicate in real world. Schizotypal organization or schizophrenia can be viewed as evolutionary process. Keywords: gambling · psychasthenia · hypochondria · hostility · expectation of aggressionwrite · aggressive image of the world

1 Introduction The problem of gaming addiction (gambling addiction) is a hot topic nowadays [1]. Many researchers study gambling [2, 3]. Anonymity warranted in gaming space allows to create the “new self” and to actualize different personality tendencies including destructive ones [4–6]. For a gambler, virtual world is safe, well-known and doesn’t require taking responsibility [7, 8]. You can “create yourself as you wish” in virtual world, i.e. create “ideal” appearance, constitution, character, even change your gender… In other words, select a “new self” and play by your own rules. Or you can choose a game that fits into your inner world opting for some personality compensation – “usually I am all sweetness and light, but I don’t feel good right now”. That’s why it is painful for a gambler to leave virtual world. Gambling (game addiction) is a pathological desire for gambles. It is manifested in frequent and recurrent episodes of gambling that dominate a person’s life and lead to © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Bylieva and A. Nordmann (Eds.): PCSF 2023, LNNS 830, pp. 75–87, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-48020-1_7

76

S. Tarasova

diminishing of social, professional and other values. Problem gambling is a multifaceted disorder, which is ‘fueled on the fly’ by a wide range of contextual and non-contextual influences. Researchers found that the experience of gambling behaviour in itself is a dynamic experience of events in time series, where gamblers anchor on the most recent event-typically a small loss or rare win [9]. This is adaptive, but erroneous, decisionmaking mechanism. Gambling can be looked at from different perspectives. Compulsive activities that may include gambling, Internet use, eating, and shopping based on epidemiological and neurobiological characteristics have similarities to alcohol and other psychoactive substances addictions [10]. Compulsive shopping and internet addiction fall under ‘other specified disruptive, impulse control and conduct disorder in the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders [11]. For the purpose of clear differentiation and understanding of the subject matter we need to differentiate between pathological and non-pathological gambling (e.g. esports). There is the following classification of gambling [12]: • Social (unproblematic) gambling. Most of gamers are social gamblers who don’t have gaming addiction. Gaming is an instrument for communication. • Regular gambling is highlighted by some authors as an intermediate stage between social and problem gambling. • Problem gambling. Gamblers may face communication problems with people. • Compulsive (pathological) gambling or pathological propensity for gambling. • Professional gambling (esports). Situation with gambling is worrisome in the context of the pandemic COVID-19 when symptoms of anxiety and depression may intensify [13]. Many researchers raise the alarm because of influence of Covid-19 on gambling industry and gamblers [14]. Some of them suggest that most gamblers have diminished or haven’t changed gaming behavior. This point of view is described in the meta-analysis by Magaly Brodeur, but it has material limitations [15]. In this meta-analysis 14 works were analyzed, 6 of which were carried out in Sweden; hence, the results are difficult to expand into other countries. The quarantine was different in different countries in terms of restrictions. In this work some participants admitted that during the lockdown they played games illegally, they couldn’t live without gaming. There is also another point of view. In some works increase in gaming activity was registered in risk groups of gamers, i.e. young age, male gender and low level of education [16]. The pandemic has ended but some quarantine restrictions, remote work or study will probably stay with us in the future. Partial transition into virtual reality is inevitable in new era. The main risk is that restrictions on offline gambling during the quarantine led to the growth of online gambling. Usually we talk about the following genres of games: traditional games (chess, checkers), action with popular subcategory, arcade, quest, role-playing games (RPG), strategy [17]. A separate genre is massive multiplayer online (MMO) games. Online and offline games. This work is an attempt to describe psychological portrait of a modern gambler. We suggested that they are characterized by either aggressiveness or expectation of aggression, have aggressive image of the world. Aggressive or hostile image of the

Psychological Portrait of a Modern Young Gambler

77

world is tuned to “perceive risks”. Hostile image of the world is a recurrent affectively charged judgement about the world and oneself primarily from the position of attack and defense [18]. Neutral facts and situations get threatening overtones. There are data that confirm negative correlation between hostile image of the world and resilience in real world. Empirical study has shown that “hostility and resilience are opposing traits defined by different images of the world” (ibid.). To be more precise, nonconstructive processing of one’s life experience gives rise to hostility and psychological ill-being. Also, we suggested that amount of time spent on gaming positively correlates with the level of aggressiveness.

2 Materials and Methods Mini-Mult Test. A shortened variant of Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory, MMPI, that was offered by American psychologists in 1940–1950 s. The Buss-Perry Aggression Questionnaire as adapted by S.N. Yenikolopov. Rokeach Value-Concept Sphere. Humorous Phrases Test (HPT). It was presented by A.G. Shmelyov and V.S. Babina. The Hand Test. An interpretative projective method used to interpret the meaning of hand poses for the subjects. This has been used as a traditional pathopsychological technique of identifying meaningful needs, motives, and personality conflicts. We took the experience of using the hand test by S.N. Yenikolopov as a benchmark. This work is dedicated to hostility. It is better to adhere to principles of syndrome analysis when studying such a complex phenomenon as hostility. More detailed methods are described in the study [19].

2.1 Methods of Data Analysis We used methods of descriptive statistics for analysis of the data. The correlation analysis (Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient) and analysis of intergroup differences (MannWhitney U-test) were carried out. 2.2 Participants of the Research Persistent attendants of computer clubs in Dubna, Moscow region, 59 young people aged from 16 to 28–34 young men and 25 young women – participated in the research. 40% of the participants spend more than 4 h per day gaming. Participation was voluntary. The control group consisted of students from the Psychology Department of Dubna State University (32 young women and 18 young men).

78

S. Tarasova

3 Results Let’s describe participants of the research. All of the participants showed positive attitude towards gaming except for moments of failure. No one showed negative attitude. By preferences they can be classified as addicted gamers. There is a popular belief that men are more prone to gaming addiction. In our research women play computer games equally to men. Genre preferences of females and males are similar. The majority of gamers prefer MMORPG, and often these are shooters. As for genres, the most popular are role-playing games (75%). The MMPI test revealed below-standard personality profiles, which may be related to higher levels of cautiousness and suspiciousness. Increases in the below-standard profile were identified for 32 participants on the psychasthenia scale and for 36 participants on the hypochondria scale, making a case for suggesting somatization of anxiety in the gamer’s profile. The state of maladaptation reflected in the profile by higher value on scale 7 is characterized by unsociability, feeling oneself odd, lack of self-confidence. In the control group we received more harmonic profiles for the MMPI. In most cases the leading peak is registered on scale 9 – optimism scale – in the profile where the rest of the scales show values within the norm. Such profile reflects active position, high achievement motivation, high degree of love of life, self-confidence, good sense of humor. This is a variant of normal development of teenagers and youngsters manifested in emotional outbursts and further quick comedown, inconsistent affections, good humor. These characteristics are natural for adolescents. On the schizoid scale differences between gamers and the control group were at the trend level (p = 0.07). Such difference probably points to maladaptation and nonconformity of gamers, their proneness to conflicts and communication problems in real world. Maladaptive state of gamers is also confirmed by the following results. Correlations between aggressiveness and the MMPI basic scales were found. In the control group such correlations were not found. Indirectly, this serves as a confirmation that gamers are not adapted in real world. They have aggressive image of the world. We see similar results in the work by S.O. Kuznetsova: hostility of mentally ill people correlates with suspiciousness (r = 0.79, p < 0.001), which means a high level of hostility [20]. Humorous Phrases Test showed interesting results. The breakdown for the leading attitudes is the following: carrier – 12%, human folly – 17%, gender relationships – 17%, money – 10%, lack of creative talent – 10%, addictions – 10%. The most important topics among gamers are human folly, gender relationships, carrier and money, lack of creative talent. More hostile players are very sensitive to what they think human folly is (r = −0.63, p < 0.05). Human folly factor closely correlates with the MMPI scales, namely depression, psychopathy, paranoia, psychasthenia, and schizoid disorder. The results are statistically significant. This means great difficulties in real communication. Humor can be divided into positive that helps a person to cope with stress, and selfdestructive, negative. Positive humor styles negatively correlate with social withdrawal, suspiciousness and state of awareness [21]. In our work we can only note high sensitivity of the research participants to particular spheres of human life. Hypochondriasis, depression, hysteria and psychopathy are related to the topics of the Humorous Phrases Test (Table 1).

Psychological Portrait of a Modern Young Gambler

79

Table 1. The results of the correlation analysis for the MMPI scales and topics of HPT. Scales

Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient Fashion

Family relationships

r

r

Hypochondriasis

n.s

.61*

Depression

.61*

.64*

Hysteria

.62*

.63*

Psychopathy

.75**

n.s

Symbols: n.s. – a non-significant value; symbols indicate the significance level: * –p < 0.05; ** – p < 0.01.

Hypersensitivity of gamers to fashion and folly themes points to maladaptation and difficult communication in real world. Such sensitivity can be interpreted as existing problems with communication, fear to look ridiculous, unattractive, out of style. In the control group such correlations were not found. The topics of carrier, gender relationships and family relationships were less significant here. In her thesis Stefanenko makes a conclusion that fear of being mocked can be one of the markers of mental instability of a person (ibid.). Let’s describe the results of the Wagner hand test. 28 participants of the research (50%) gave answers meaning inferiority, defects, auto-aggression: arm ache, broken finger, odd hand, hand of an elderly person, etc. There were almost no “defective” answers in the control group. This fact indirectly confirms that gamblers have aggressive image of the world. Thus, the assumption was confirmed. Gamers are to a larger extent have aggressive image of the world than non-gamers. According to some data, hostility is not a specific feature of mental pathology. Rather, it is a factor for being vulnerable or prone to, for example, schizophrenia [20]. Data received in the Value-Concept Sphere method showed that the most significant cultural values for the participants were self-confidence, freedom, health, love and good and reliable friends. Least significant values included public recognition, productive life, wisdom of life, beauty of nature and arts, and happiness of others. These fairly contradictory results point to personality disharmony. The results of the Rokeach test match with those of another research: the most specific psychological trait of a gambler is his or her contradictory axiological system [22].

4 Discussion The main result from the empirical study is that gamers have schizotypal personality. They escape from uncomfortable real world into appealing virtual world. For the first time in human history they have such an opportunity. The man, of course, always fantasized, but nowadays these fantasies can be materialized in virtual space. For example, in Ray Bradbury’ story “Punishment Without Crime” a husband “murders” his unfaithful wife by killing her perfect replica. The results are consistent with the results of other

80

S. Tarasova

studies. Gamblers may have borderline personality disorder [23]. Half of problem gamblers displayed comorbid personality disorders. The prevalent personality disorders were narcissistic (17%), antisocial (14%), avoidant (13%), obsessive-compulsive (13%), and borderline (13%) personality disorders [24]. Other research confirms these facts [25, 26]. Online gamblers are more anxious than offline gamblers; online gamblers are afraid of real communication [27]. Social anxiety may be associated with schizoidity and introversion. Secure empathic attachment has proven to be a protective factor for the onset of gambling behavior [28–30]. Otherness of people with both schizotypal personality and schizophrenia has long been the subject of interest for scholars. Since C. Lambroso they have been discussing genius and madness. Lately, psychogenetics joined the club. Clinical psychologist Yuri Polyakov suggested to send them into space due to their special adaptivity, namely their lowered need in communication. Also, forensic psychiatrists and forensic science specialists pay close attention to people with schizotypal personality. Historically, schizophrenia is associated with abnormal sexual behavior and unusual sex-role identification. People with schizotypal personality often have “diluted”, undifferentiated subject of sexual attraction (by gender, age; it can even be an inanimate thing, ex. Psychoanalysts can give a lot of examples of patients feeling “love” to boots or shoes). People with schizotypal personality may have dreams about cross-dressing, or fantasies of a man about being a woman that provoke sexual arousal [31]. Interestingly, but these personality traits (clinical psychologists call them “disorders”) can be easily, anonymously and legally realized in a game. Here we are talking about the following changes in emotions: 1) inexplicable and unpredictable, including for the family members, emotions – bursts of anger, fear, or other negative emotions; 2) alexithymia – being unable to recognize one’s own feelings or feelings of others; 23 papers with a cross-sectional design were selected, all selected studies were published between 1994 and August 2020. High schizotypal individuals have poorer performance in facial emotion recognition tasks. Positive schizotypy was associated with worse accuracy for positive, negative and neutral emotions [32]. Emotional deficits are trait markers for these conditions (ibid.). Other authors have found similar results. All aspects of emotional processing are deficient in schizotypy [33]. 3) overestimation of sexual sphere; 4) erotic fantasies. Female bodies without faces. There can be episodes of gender transformation (women transform into cats (symbol of femininity)). The author of the fantasy looks at it as if a third person watches a film; 5) unusual behavior: imagining oneself a “fuehrer”, a dictator. These traits have biological correlates. Schizotypal personality and schizophrenia characterized by odd or bizarre behavior, magical thinking, unusual experiences. «Schizophrenia proper has been associated with anomalies in dopaminergic neurotransmission and deficits in neurophysiological markers of self-monitoring, such as low amplitude in cognitive event-related brain potentials like the error-related negativity, and the error positivity. These components occur after performance errors, rely on adequate

Psychological Portrait of a Modern Young Gambler

81

fronto-striatal function, and are sensitive to dopaminergic modulation. Here we postulated that analogous to observations in schizophrenia, schizotypal individuals would show deficits in self-monitoring» [34, p. 770]. Let’s consider a case. A 16-year old girl almost lives in the Hogwarts online community dedicated to the Harry Porter world. She talks about herself as a male, complains about emotional changes. “I have changed, I don’t have feelings and emotions I once had”. She describes such changes as follows: “For example, I watch my favourite film (“A Game of Thrones”). While I still love it, I am not into it”. In sexual sphere she is attracted to both men and women, real and virtual. She associates herself with Pomegranate (see Fig. 1). The way of thinking reveals slight actualization of latent characteristics of objects. Latency, ability to see what is hidden are characteristics of people with schizotypal personality. For example, in the pictogram technique (draw to remember) she pictured shackles and a book to remember stimulus “strict order”. Reacting to stimulus “separation” she drew a crack and aliens moving away from each other. Answering the question “Why aliens?” she said: “Because they are easier to draw”. To remember stimulus “pretty doll” she drew a collection doll in the box that is not for playing with but for the “feeling of ownership”. “Funny company” is pictured as a mobile phone’s screen, active chat (she thought of a “nice conversation”). In the technique “object classification” she chose the category “to kill a man at home” (scissors, inkstand, thermometer, saw). Blood and kerosene have something in common – they are “things that can be used to draw”. Let’s consider the second case of a 16-year old boy. His appearance and behavior are effeminate. During the conversation the boy described his dream about being a Morgenshtern’s girlfriend. Facial expression is weak. “Rumination about life as a movie”. Thinks about himself as disgusting, lousy. No interest in life. He was admitted to the mental health clinic twice. He is obsessed with online shock content – murders, accidents, with lots of blood. This cheers him up. “When I look at blood, my dopamine level goes up”. “I myself posted scary things – ugly transformed faces”. He considers damaged, injured faces beautiful and esthetic. He drew “A creature” that fears everybody who is stronger than it”. The picture is made in black and red; the creature is all covered with scars, orbits are highlighted in black, the mouth is blood-red. The third case is a Shark Man. The boy is also 16 years old. According to his mother, he reels off his fantasies all around, imagining himself to be a plane or a pilot, for example. Judgement is declined. He likes dreaming of aviation, watching videos about aircraft crashes. He loves everything that is connected or associated with the strength of metal (ferrous metals, car engine, stellar sky, night, wet shark body). “Ferrous metal symbolizes strength”. Psychological methods revealed that many images are associated with sea animals, sharks. For example, reacting to the stimulus “hard work” in the pictogram method he drew a timber raft with people on it and a sea creature and commented that this is dangerous work. In order to remember “a delicious dinner” he drew people on the pier and in the water with a fin nearby, commenting that “it’s feeding, human meat is yummy”. He likes drawing sea waves, the habitat of sharks. In the same way he depicted “a leap of faith”: another man rushed for help, but this is not a movie, there will be no miracles. During the Buss-Perry Questionnaire the affective charge of a crackpot idea was clearly seen: There is no verb “to hit” for me. I can bite, push, snap. I cannot hit,

82

S. Tarasova

Fig. 1. She is a Pomegranate, a precious gem, an imaginary alien in the form of a magic precious gem that gives projection of a holographic body. Pomegranate means two gems merging in mutual love. She is revengeful.

but I can snap using my big jaw and drag under. He says he likes meat and that his stomach has to be always stuffed with meat. Difficulties with real communication are offset by communication in the virtual world. Almost all day long he plays simulation games – being a pilot is his favorite. One more case, the most interesting in terms of opportunities provided by creative activity. Rehabilitation is based on creativity. A creative individualized integrative approach is necessary, which is the basis of creative psychotherapy [35]. A 21-year old girl with introvert personality, a patient of a psychiatrist with positive dynamics. At first,

Psychological Portrait of a Modern Young Gambler

83

she had great difficulties with real communication, but found herself in online communication. She creates some interesting paintings and shows them to her virtual friends. Naturally, virtual communication cannot substitute real communication, but the person can successfully realize himself/herself in some creative work (see Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. A dog.

The next two drawings reflect positive dynamics of the therapeutic process manifested by the choice of color and the emotional effect on viewers. Free drawing was done right during the consulting session with the psychologist. Therefore, they reflect the real-time mental state of the patient (see Fig. 3). Many authors have already noted connection between genius and madness, high level of creativity and destructive personality tendencies [36]. The rehabilitation program is described in detail in the study (ibid.). People with extraordinary talents – for music, literature or art – more often suffer from mental disorders than population on average. In most cases it is the queen of mental disorders – schizophrenia. The original thought of a scientist that brings something new often resembles the way of thinking of a schizophrenic.

84

S. Tarasova

Fig. 3. Free drawing during the psychological conversation. Avant-garde, not realism is in vogue.

4.1 Is Schizotypy a New Stage of Evolution? In this empirical study we didn’t pay special attention to sex-role identification of the participants. However, we can state that young men and young women play the same games. They choose characters of any gender (gender of characters cannot always be identified because there are also mythical sexless creatures). New technologies offered new opportunities. While in the past crossdressing existed only in dreams and fantasies of schizoids, now they can do this in a role-playing game or social media, online communities. If we dare to fantasize or speculate in a broad sense, schizotypal organization or schizophrenia can be viewed as evolutionary process. The similar idea was verbalized by the methodologist Akop P. Nazaretyan [37]. «Is going back at least to Francis Galton’s book Hereditary genius (1869). Neuroscientists also suggested that schizophrenia may emerge as a by-product of social cognition or that certain types of hallucinations could be viewed as evolutionary by-products of a cognitive system designed to detect threat. Some traits, such as schizotypy, may have an optimal level of expression that is advantageous within the community» [38, p. 316]. If something absolutely unexpectable or non-standard happens (aliens land on the Earth, ex.). Only “other” schizophrenics will be able to adapt to the situation and to come to terms with them. Only people with schizotypal personality can see the situation differently. Thus, the survival capabilities of people as biological species are growing. In the meantime, schizoids unlike non-schizoids are well-adapted to escaping into virtual world. Viewpoint on gaming is also changing. N. Adamowsky writes that new ways of thinking may be discovered in gaming. The speculative world of fantasies sometimes opens the door for true understanding of the real world [39]. The question “What will happen in the future?” is still open.

Psychological Portrait of a Modern Young Gambler

85

5 Conclusions 1. The participants of this empirical study prefer MMORPG, of which role-playing games (RPG) are the most popular (75%). For the average MMPI profiles the differences between gamblers and the control group on the schizoid scale were at the trend level (p = 0.07). In the control group we received more harmonic profiles for the MMPI. 2. Pathopsychological test, including the Hand Test, showed that 28 subjects (50%) have auto-aggressive tendencies, somatization of anxiety. There were no “defective” answers in the control group. Cumulative time spent on gaming correlates with aggressiveness and anxiety in the hand test. All these facts confirm that a gamer has aggressive image of the world. 3. According to the Humorous Phrases Test, the most important topics among gamers are human folly, gender relationships, fashion, carrier and money. Hypochondriasis, depression, hysteria and psychopathy in the MMPI profiles are related to the topics of the Humorous Phrases Test. Sensitivity to fashion and human folly topics can be interpreted as problems with communication, fear to look ridiculous, unattractive. Fear to look ridiculous confirms maladaptation of gamblers in communication with real people. Limitations This research has been restricted by a relatively small number of participants. We tried to offset this by combining quantitative and qualitative personality analysis methods as well as by including the control group.

References 1. Bodor, D., Ricijaš, N., Filipˇci´c, I.: Treatment of gambling disorder: review of evidence-based aspects for best practice. Curr. Opin. Psychiatry 34(5), 508–513 (2021). https://doi.org/10. 1097/YCO.0000000000000728 2. Abbott, M.W.: Gambling and gambling-related harm: recent World Health Organization initiatives. Public Health 184, 56–59 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.puhe.2020.04.001 3. Clotas, C., Bartroli, M., Caballé, M., Pasarín, M., Villalbí, J.: The gambling industry: a public health perspective. Rev. Esp. Salud Publica 94, e202006043 (2020) 4. Bowden-Jones, H.: Pathological gambling. BMJ 357, j1593 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1136/ bmj.j1593 5. Billieux, J., et al.: Gambling and problem gambling in Switzerland. Addiction. 111(9), 1677– 1683 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1111/add.13252 6. Petry, N., Ginley, M., Rash, C.: A systematic review of treatments for problem gambling. Psychol. Addict. Behav. 31(8), 951–961 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1037/adb0000290 7. McCarthy, S., Thomas, S., Bellringer, M., Cassidy, R.: Women and gambling-related harm: a narrative literature review and implications for research, policy, and practice. Harm Reduct. J. 16(1), 18 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12954-019-0284-8 8. Gordon, R., Reith, G.: Gambling as social practice: a complementary approach for reducing harm? Harm Reduct. J. 16(1), 64 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12954-019-0342-2

86

S. Tarasova

9. Teal, J., Kusev, P., Heilman, R., Martin, R., Passanisi, A.: Ugo pace problem gambling fuelled on the fly. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 18(16), 8607 (2021). https://doi.org/10.3390/ije rph18168607 10. Tufekˇci´c, A., Avdibegovi´c, E., Hasanovi´c, M., Pajevi´c, I., Jakovljevi´c, M.: Gambling from seven perspectives. Psychiatr. Danub. 33(Suppl 4), 749–756 (2021) 11. Petry, N., Zajac, K., Ginley, M.: Behavioral addictions as mental disorders: to be or not to be? Annu. Rev. Clin. Psychol. 14, 399–423 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy032816-045120 12. Enikolopov, S.N., Umnyashkina, D.A.: Psychological problems of pathological appeal to gambling. Psychol. Issues 3, 82–99 (2007) 13. Akour, A., et al.: The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic and emergency distance teaching on the psychological status of university teachers: a cross-sectional study in Jordan. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 103(6), 2391–2399 (2020). https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.20-0877. Epub 2020 Oct 27 14. Murthy, P., Lakshmi Narasimha, V.: Effects of the COVID-19 pandemic and lockdown on alcohol use disorders and complications. Curr. Opin. Psychiatry 34(4), 376–385 (2021). https:// doi.org/10.1097/YCO.0000000000000720 15. Brodeur, M., Audette-Chapdelaine, S., Savard, A., Kairouz, S.: Gambling and the COVID19 pandemic: a scoping review. Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry 111, 110389 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pnpbp.2021.110389 16. Frisone, F., Settineri, S., Sicari, F., Merlo, E.: Gambling in adolescence: a narrative review of the last 20 years. J. Addict. Dis. 38(4), 438–457 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1080/10550887. 2020.1782557 17. Bogachyova, N.V., Voiskunsky, A.E.: Cognitive styles and impulsiveness of gamers with different levels of gaming activity and a preferable game type. psychology. J. High. Sch. Econ. 12(1), 29–53 (2015) 18. Enikolopov, S.N., Tchudova, N.V.: The problem of manifestation of hostile attitudes. Psychol. Stud. 10(54), 12 (2017) 19. Tarasova, S.: Psychological portrait of a young gambler. Psychologist 4, 29–55 (2022) 20. Kuznetsova, S.O.: Psychological Aspects of Hostility in Mental Pathology (Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective and Affective Disorders). Author’s Abstract for a Candidate Degree in Psychology Science. Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow (2007) 21. Stefanenko, E.A.: Psychological Features of Gelotophobia (Fear of Being Mocked) In the Case of Schizophrenia and Affective Disorders. Thesis for a Candidate degree in Psychology Science. Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow (2014) 22. Molchanova, Y.: Motivation of a gambler. Psychol. Stud. 3(11) (2010). https://doi.org/10. 54359/ps.v3i11.921 23. Brown, M., Allen, J., Dowling, N.: The application of an etiological model of personality disorders to problem gambling. J. Gambl. Stud. 31(4), 1179–1199 (2015). https://doi.org/10. 1007/s10899-014-9504-z 24. Dowling, N., Cowlishaw, S., Jackson, A., Merkouris, S., Francis, K., Christensen, D.: The prevalence of comorbid personality disorders in treatment-seeking problem gamblers: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J. Pers. Disord. 29(6), 735–754 (2015). https://doi.org/10. 1521/pedi_2014_28_168 25. Steel, Z.: A Blaszczynski Impulsivity, personality disorders and pathological gambling severity. Addiction 93(6), 895–905 (1998). https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1360-0443.1998.93689511.x 26. Vaddiparti, K., Cottler, L.: Personality disorders and pathological gambling. Curr. Opin. Psychiatry 30(1), 45–49 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1097/YCO.0000000000000300 27. Barrault, S., Varescon, I.: Psychopathology in online pathological gamblers: a preliminary study. Encephale 38(2), 156–163 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.encep.2011.01.009. Epub 2011 Mar 24

Psychological Portrait of a Modern Young Gambler

87

28. Wu, A., Zhou, H., Dang, L., Chen, J.: Is empathy associated with gambling and its addiction? a scoping review of empirical studies. J. Gambl. Stud. 39(2), 689–711 (2023). https://doi.org/ 10.1007/s10899-022-10130-w 29. Chamberlain, S., et al.: Autism and gambling: a systematic review, focusing on neurocognition. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 147, 105071 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2023. 105071 30. Ghinassi, S., Casale, S.: The role of attachment in gambling behaviors and gambling disorder: a systematic review. J. Gambl. Stud. 39(2), 713–749 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10899022-10163-1 31. Tkachenko, A.A., Vvedensky, G.Y., Dvoryanchikov, N.V.: Forensic Sexology. BINOM, Moscow (2014) 32. Zouraraki, C., Karamaouna, P., Giakoumaki, S.: Facial emotion recognition and schizotypal traits: a systematic review of behavioural studies. Early Interv. Psychiatry 17(2), 121–140 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1111/eip.13328 33. Giakoumaki, S.: Emotion processing deficits in the different dimensions of psychometric schizotypy. Scand. J. Psychol. 57(3), 256–270 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1111/sjop.12287 34. Rabella, M., et al.: Neurophysiological evidence of impaired self-monitoring in schizotypal personality disorder and its reversal by dopaminergic antagonism. Neuroimage Clin. 11, 770–779 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nicl.2016.05.019 35. Hasanovi´c, M., Kuldija, A., Pajevi´c, I., Jakovljevi´c, M., Hasanovi´c, M.: Gambling disorder as an addictive disorder and creative. Psychopharmacotherapy Psychiatr Danub. 33(Suppl 4), 1118–1129 (2021) 36. Tarasova, S.: Talent as a personality resource of people with schizotypal personality. In: Bylieva, D., Nordmann, A. (eds.) PCSF 2021. LNNS, vol. 345, pp. 42–58. Springer, Cham (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89708-6_5 37. Nazaretyan, A.P.: Non-Linear Futures. Institute of Oriental Studies RAS, Moscow (2013) 38. Giotakos, O.: Persistence of psychosis in the population: the cost and the price for humanity. Psychiatriki 29(4), 316–326 (2018). https://doi.org/10.22365/jpsych.2018.294.316 39. Adamowsky, N.: Productive indeterminacy: on the relationship between play and science. Technol. Lang. 3(4), 8–20 (2022). https://doi.org/10.48417/technolang.2022.04.02

Identity Strategies in the Space of Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Games (MMORPG) Anastasiya Lisenkova1(B)

, Samrat Ray2 , and Tatiana Nam1

1 Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University. St. Petersburg, 195251 St. Petersburg,

Russia [email protected] 2 Calcutta Institute of Engineering and Management, 1A Chandi Ghosh Rd, Ashok Nagar, Tollygunge, Kolkata, Calcutta, West Bengal 700040, India

Abstract. In the virtual reality of today’s popular online MMORPGs, players participate in the creation and construction of a personal identity. Namely, they assemble it like a jigsaw puzzle of modules and fragments; they create an idealised image of a dream, endowed with superpowers and characteristics unattainable in real life. The space of online games creates all the conditions for active co-presence in the process of multifactorial communication based on the real interaction of fictional characters, acting as a kind of “third place” and a space for building an effective communication strategy for the accumulation of social capital. The phenomenon of interpassivity plays an important role in this process, allowing players to enjoy and share the fun of the game with little or no real action. Creating a personal game auto-project and hierarchy, gaining social recognition and accumulating social capital through the created character is the result of this phenomenon in the game world. The MMORPG provides the player with an immersive world in which to realise the imaginary, but also harbours the dangers of gaming addiction and digital escapism. Keywords: Identity · MMORPG · multiplayer games · virtual space · group identity · imagination · interpassivity

1 Introduction Massively multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPG) such as Second Life, World of Warcraft, GTA online, Linage 2, Ultima, EVE online, and TES online are a unique format of media product that allows combining communicative and game functions. Multiplayer virtual games have become a logical evolution of the role-playing game subculture, continuing the rich history and subculture of the latter already established by the advent of Internet technology. The modern world of virtual network gaming is not only a game process, but also a place to find “one’s own”, close in interests and views, to get away from “strangers”. It is also a place to build social ties and communication within multicultural communities of different types. The space of “your own”, the © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Bylieva and A. Nordmann (Eds.): PCSF 2023, LNNS 830, pp. 88–95, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-48020-1_8

Identity Strategies in the Space of Massively Multiplayer

89

main feature of which “is to communicate with the living intelligence of other players who neighbour you in the same game world. It is similar to a hobby club in which various strategies of personal identity formation are played out. At the same time, it should be noted that since we are talking about a dynamic, constantly changing world, the process of acquiring identity has here an open-ended character, as Sherry Turkle notes, “identity becomes dragging, incomplete” [1], often presented in a modular way in the required specific circumstances. Thus, we are not talking about a completed process of identity formation, but about a certain incomplete development of this phenomenon, in fact, a life-long identification. Multiplayer games play a very significant role in this regard. They occupy a huge part of the entertainment cultural space. They are replacing cinema and television, creating their own subculture, where virtual characters compete with real celebrities, and game streamers have popularity comparable to that of real “stars” of the show business. For example, the channel of game streamer Felix Arvid Ulf Kjellberg aka PewDiePie has more than 111 million subscribers, and the channel of Alejandro Juega German has 44.2 million subscribers. Obviously, gaming hackathons, cyber sports arenas, game character cosplays, game museums, and streaming gamer platforms are all a big part of the virtual world of multiplayer online role-playing games.

2 The Structured World of Gaming Identity The phenomenon of modern online games has been the subject of analysis of many interdisciplinary studies based on the methods of narratology (where games are analysed as specific cultural texts) [2, 3]; ludology, which explores the game process in the context of the activity-play approach [4] and media philosophy [5]. In all cases, there are many possibilities for the actualisation, representation and manifestation of different identities in the game space. In fact, the virtual space of the game acts as a field for playing and experimenting with identity, where a dynamic interactive system simulates complex communicative worlds that are exposed to multiple players, including in team games. These complex virtual spaces form their own model of “the world” based on network norms, rules and possibilities. These complex virtual spaces form their own model of “the world” based on network norms, rules and possibilities. This is a sophisticated system with its own regulations, opportunities and forms of interaction not only between players, but also between the game itself and the player, within the framework of algorithmically specified gameplay. Thus, multiplayer games act as a space of social interaction, which has no analogues in the real world. These processes are reinforced by the trends of merging virtual online games and social networks, which define multiplayer games as new media. Based on the classic approach to game socialisation by Johan Huizinga and Roger Caillois, we see that a person can play out his or her identification and behavioural strategies outside the context of everyday life and then master them in normal life. However, modern MMORPGs are different in that they are closely woven into the fabric of this everyday life. Virtual games are integrated into various aspects of life in today’s society. They are used in education, and they become an opportunity and a place for exchanging information and making new friends. For example, in the game space “Second Life”

90

A. Lisenkova et al.

developed by the Linden Lab Company you can organise a conference, find a job, and start your own business. The more developed the game industry becomes, the closer it gets to reality, creating the maximum effect of presence and immersion in the game process, provoking various types of ludo addiction and game addiction. The interactive nature of the gameplay also implies a new architecture of the games themselves, where the developers only outline the plot and the game world. For example, in the game “The Sims On-line” players create their own virtual people, endowing them with physical traits and features, strategies for character development and professions, setting the scenario and logic of actions. Players organise and manage the daily lives of their characters. They develop them, “pumping up” the skills and create families in collaboration with other players. All of this allows relationships to be built between virtual characters. Celia Pearce refers to such practices as autoludic practices [6], where users construct their desired online world by inventing a personality, a kind of identity, where the character actually becomes an avatar of the player. As a rule, the structure of virtual network games implies a greater degree of involvement and creativity of the user. The game world becomes an interactive space of creativity, and the process of playing “it is inappropriate to describe the game as meaningless consumption and passive pastime, because the game is a product of communicative interaction and creative activity of the players” [7], providing a place where creative identity strategies are embodied, represented and appropriated by all participants in equal accessibility.

3 Identity-based Games in MMORPG The corpus of studies concerning the game media phenomenon is quite extensive; not only gender, psychological and temporal peculiarities, but also strategies for choosing identification tactics are described in detail. For example, differences in player age affect attention to the social part of games, strategy definition, game history, and game frequency [8, 9]. However, there are no significant differences in the differentiation of players by gender, despite the fact that women play almost three times less often than men. It is rather the factor of representation that is most significant. In the game environment there is an opportunity to “try on” another identity, “change” virtual age or gender. Pretending to be a man, for example, is not a way of provoking other players to patronise you. It is in a sense to agree to a test of your intelligence, resourcefulness and strength of character, to test the elements of masculinity in yourself. Men often take on the role of a woman more often out of curiosity, for the sake of a joke. But if it is a well-considered step, it most likely indicates a readiness to express feminine qualities of character, secretly from everyone, to test oneself in an unfamiliar role, in a different hypostasis [10]. In contemporary games, users are increasingly choosing android characters, being progressively less inclined to change gender-role development and build their own dream world game project. As they mature, games of identity gender and familiar body images give way to a character’s potential and place in the future of the gaming community. Also in online role-playing games, users continue to play out variations for the representation of multiple identities, acting out different roles and extending personal experiences. Moreover, “this testing of multiple identities imposes an additional obligation on the underlying ‘authentic self’, on the ways in which it manifests itself” [11],

Identity Strategies in the Space of Massively Multiplayer

91

rather than simply allowing us to play out the different ways of representing authentic personality traits. Speaking about the practices of game self-identification, we are primarily referring to narrative, visual practices through the evaluation of “significant others”. In this respect, the game space becomes a field of experimentation at the level of “dynamic role complex” [12] of identity and a place of possible experiments. The game practices and communication strategies learnt enable them to realise their real potential more fully in everyday life. The results of sociological studies challenge the view that the exaggerated fascination with multiplayer games affects the actual social strategies of everyday life. Moreover, “ex-gamers have significant advantages in building a life career. For example, they may be more successful in business, while developing qualities such as responsibility, perseverance, risk-taking, a sense of elbow and teamwork, the ability to take responsibility, the willingness to learn and effectively use complex analytical computer programmes, to make long-term life plans and work ahead, to handle multiple tasks simultaneously, and to allocate their attention accordingly” [13]. As a result, we can conclude that online games form specific communities. This is where users have the opportunity to try out different roles, play out strategies of personal identity representation and build successful tactics of project identification, playing in the virtual world with the types of their own identity inscribed in the world of the idealised self. And then they successfully implement them in the real world. In gameplay, the construction of a hybrid identity is based on the real characteristics of the player and their fusion with the characteristics of the game character. In this case, for example, the avatar often remains the same as the name given at birth, while other traits and skills change and develop. The in-game “value” of a character, his status is higher the more relevant and “pumped up” his skills and characteristics are. The most developed game character brings its owner not only authority in the game community, but also allows to accumulate real game capital. Characters are often the bearer of the player’s personal preferences, constructed by the gamer’s imagination and dreams. So, in the online game EVE it is possible to interact within selected communities (republics/empires/states) and develop a character in real time. For example, mastering all possible character skills takes more than 18 years of game time. At the same time, acquired skills allow the player to occupy a higher hierarchy, capitalise the character, achieve recognition, and build his own type of project identity, subsequently transferring the most successful strategies and practices into the gamer’s daily life. In addition to the project type of identification, players often carry out as a basic strategy identification according to the modular principle [14], presenting it fragmentarily in accordance with the given parameters of the game. This type is actually an embodiment of the “Modular Self” (Alvin Toffler) and is most popular among beginners testing the capabilities of their game characters when choosing a basic game strategy. The addictive types of game identity include the appropriation of imaginary identity. In an attempt to acquire unrelated but highly desirable attributes of the Other, the user personifies himself with the characters of other players, copying their appearance, character and self-presentation strategies, thus falling into the trap of a failed personal game project. It is also necessary to note the type of diffuse, split identity found in MMORPGs, which can be changed according to the circumstances of the game environment. This

92

A. Lisenkova et al.

type of game identity is most clearly manifested in adolescence, with its inherent psychological age peculiarities and the need, on the one hand, to relate themselves to the community/group, and on the other hand, an attempt to emphasise their uniqueness and stand out from this community. Over time, this type of game identification usually transforms into project identification and acquires the features of a more adult conscious game strategy.

4 Constructed Desirable in Game Communication In the game space, the world of “phenomena” - signs, images, interpretations - becomes the world of media, and reality increasingly acquires the features of media reality” [15], in which the image of the “idealised self” is formed in active interaction with the same “idealised other” on the basis of a complex dramaturgy of the game. Players present their subjectivities to each other by completing and constructing their own identities, “managing their interaction and regulating mutual access to their subjectivities. Thus, the central notion of self-presentation does not mean spontaneous expressive behaviour, but a stylisation of the expression of an individual’s experience with the intention of presenting it to an audience” [16] within the framework of virtual social interaction, counting on the success of their project. In fact, MMORPG change the context of Eerving Goffman’s dramaturgy. The “podium” becomes the virtual space of the game, and the “backstage” appears to be the everyday life of reality. Also “off-stage” the player may be in a state of interpassivity, being an observer experiencing the pleasure of passing his or her playing role to another. The player can be simultaneously included in several game worlds and spaces, representing in each of them a part of his modular self. At the same time, there can be an infinite variety of “podiums”, where the same huge number of own images and images of Others can be realised. The MMORPG allows to build a fantasy imaginary bridge between real and virtual identities, as in online games the attempt to construct a personal identity usually turns into a process of constructing a projective identity. This allows the player to project, separate, symbolise and appropriate ‘their other self’. Speaking of the space of the game, it is necessary to refer to the desirable and the imaginary. And if we consider the imaginary as a “domain of alienation” (Jan Lacan), then in multiplayer games a certain personal image is alienated, transformed into the image of the Other, in order to be appropriated as a new identity. The game acts as a mirror and ground for designing one’s personal real identity strategies, testing them in the ideal desired world of the imaginary. In online networked games, these are usually heroes, avatars that represent the image of another personal identity, endowing the character with superpowers and desirable personality traits. This process allows the player to express and project an image of what is desired, to touch the dream. As a result, identification through the dream and “identification through the imaginary is a complex scheme of appropriation or alienation of those qualities that are beyond the real possibilities of the individual” [17]. In the virtual reality of online games, “individuals consciously participate in the staging of ‘game dramaturgy’ in order to create both their image in society and the construct of a personal identity that others would recognise. Everyday practices of communication

Identity Strategies in the Space of Massively Multiplayer

93

are seen as a bridge between the individual and subjective meanings of actors, on the one hand, and the social mechanisms and structures that are valid for all, on the other [18, 19]. At the same time, the architecture of many MMORPGs is designed in such a way that players are forced to make compromises, join communities, share the common values of the group and accept its rules. These group ties are quite stable and are often transferred to real life. A vivid example is World of Warcraf [20], where the effect of presence and a complex multiplayer plot create conditions for a deep identification of the fictional character and the gaming Self of the user in the process of symbolic communication.

5 Interpassivity as an Autoproject of Identity The space of online games creates conditions for active co-presence in the process of multifactorial communication based on real interaction of fictional characters, acting as a kind of “third place” [21]. Cybercommunities make it possible to make new connections, establish new contacts and develop communication strategies with other players. They provide cohesion and membership of a group hierarchy in informal interactions. Howard Rheingold, for example, stresses that virtual meetings and the opportunity to communicate in the space of the game become valuable and each participant contributes to the formation of group identity. Thus, “third places” as spaces of informal communication spill over into the realm of networked communication on the playing field. In this respect, group identity is constructed in the archaic tribalist (Michel Maffesoli) way of organising a tribe or guild of players. At the same time, significance, social recognition and approval obtains the “other self” of the player, his constructed identity, the fictional character created by him, which develops and “receives recognition and peer support” [18]. In the dual opposition of MMORPG interactivity, a specific phenomenon of ‘delegated pleasure’ emerges - interpassivity, manifesting itself in passivity through the “Other”. According to Slavoj Žižek, the “Self” concedes to the “Other” the passive aspect (enjoyment/pleasure), while the player can remain actively engaged This brings up the concept of false activity: the player thinks as if he were active, whereas his true real position, being embodied in the fetish, is passive….“ [22] Žižek considers interpassivity as a form of defence of the playing subject against pleasure and its transfer to the “Other”. In virtual multiplayer games, the presumably enjoying subject becomes similar to George Mead’s “generalised Other” [23]. The creation of a personal game autoproject and hierarchy, the acquisition of social recognition and the accumulation of social capital through the created character is the result of the manifestation of the phenomenon of interpassivity, which deprives the individual of meaningful identity and blurs its boundaries.

6 Findings So we see that the MMORPG offers modern man a world of exciting possibilities for constructing the imaginary and giving it new meanings and symbolic values. The ways of representing and testing different types of identities are changing, with the possibility of inhabiting and capitalizing on them. Thanks to games, a whole new dimension of

94

A. Lisenkova et al.

interaction, communication and socialisation has emerged [24], allowing players to test different possibilities of their identity strategies and then assign them in the real world. However, with these opportunities come a number of risks that need to be assessed and anticipated. So for some players, virtual identity games and the construction of their own project identities can be a liberating and empowering experience, allowing them to experiment with different aspects of their identity and express themselves in new ways. And for some it will turn out to be a deplorable experience, entailing digital escapism, various forms of game addiction and escape into the colourful virtual world of fictional images.

References 1. Turkle, S.: Alone Together: Why We Expect More from Technology and Less from Each Other? Basic Books, New York (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10615-014-0511-4 2. Castronova, E.: Synthetic Worlds: The Business and Culture of Online Games. University of Chicago Press, Chicago (2006). https://doi.org/10.7208/9780226096315 3. Taylor, T.: Play Between Worlds: Exploring Online Game Culture. The MIT Press, Cambridge (2008). https://doi.org/10.1177/1367549407088330 4. Game Culture: Computer Games as New Media. Open University Press, Maidenhead (2006). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-2777-9_1 5. Savchuk, V.: Media Philosophy XII. Game or reality? Experience in computer game research. Foundation for the Development of Conflictology, St. Petersburg (2016) 6. Pearce, C.: Productive play: game culture from the bottom up. Games Cult. Game Cult. 1, 17–24 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1177/1555412005281418 7. Boyd, D.: None of this is real: identity and participation in friendster. In: Karaganis, J., (ed.) Kauai Structures of perticipation in Digital Culture. New York (2007). https://doi.org/10. 1109/hicss.2006.394 8. Griffiths, M., Davies, M., Chappell, D.: Demographic factors and playing variables in online computer gaming. Cyber-Psychol. Behavior 4–7, 479–487 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1089/ cpb.2004.7.479 9. Griffiths, M., Davies, M., Chappell, D.: Online computer gaming: a comparison of adolescent and adult gamers. J. Adolesc. 1(27), 87–96 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence. 2003.10.007 10. Voiskunsky, A.: Group gaming activity on the Internet. Psychol. J. 20(1), 126–132 (1999) 11. Turkle, S.: Constructions and reconstructions of self in virtual reality: playing in the MUDs. Mind Cult. Act. Int. J. 1(3), 158–167 (1994). https://doi.org/10.1080/10749039409524667 12. Lysak, I., Kosenchuk L.: Formation of Personal Identity in the Conditions of Network Culture. Publishing house “Sputnik +”, Moscow (2016) 13. Voiskunskiy, A., Avetisova A.: For and Against Computer Games. Game, Training and the Internet. Modern Technologies in Education and Culture, Moscow (2006) 14. Lisenkova, A.: Identification strategies and practices in the space of social networks. Russ. Hum. J. 1, 35–41 (2020). https://doi.org/10.15643/libartrus-2020.1.4 15. Savchuk, V.: Media Philosophy. An Attack of Reality. Publishing House of the Russian Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg (2012) 16. Goffman, I.: Presenting yourself to others in everyday life. Canon-Press-C, Moscow (2000). https://doi.org/10.1215/08992363-8090145 17. Lisenkova, A.: Transformation of Socio-Cultural Identity in the Digital Space. Perm State Institute of Culture, Perm (2021)

Identity Strategies in the Space of Massively Multiplayer

95

18. Shirokanova, A.: MMORPG as a platform for the formation of personal identity. Bullet. Volgograd State Univ. Philos. 3(23), 78–88 (2014) 19. Ullmann L.: The quasi-other as a Sobject. Technol. Lang. 3(1), 76–81 (2022). https://doi.org/ 10.48417/technolang.2022.01.08 20. Wardyga, B.J.: The Video Games Textbook: History. Business. Technology. A K Peters/CRC Press, New York (2018). https://doi.org/10.1201/9781351172363 21. Sergeeva, O.: The Daily Life of New Media. Publishing house of Volga, Volgograd (2010) 22. Zizek S.: Interpassivity. Desire: Attraction. Multiculturalism. Aleteya, St. Petersburg (2005). https://doi.org/10.3366/edinburgh/9781474422925.001.0001 23. Mead, J.: Philosophy of the Present. House of the Higher School of Economics, Moscow (2014) 24. Muriel, D., Crawford, G.: Video Games as Culture: Considering the Role and Importance of Video Games in Contemporary Society. Routledge, London (2018). https://doi.org/10.4324/ 9781315622743

The Beginning of the Gaming Era, Parental Controls and Technical Acumen Daria Bylieva1(B)

, Victoria Lobatyuk1 , Dmitry Kuznetsov1 and Ça˘glar Demir2

,

1 Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University (SPbPU), Saint-Petersburg,

Russia 195251 [email protected] 2 Balikesir University Cagis Campus, 10145 Balikesir, Turkey

Abstract. The 1990s was a time of discovery of digital technology by mass audiences. Russian schoolchildren of the 1990s had their first experience with electronic games on personal devices, which for many turned out to be a meaningful childhood memory. The article analyzes stories about first gaming experiences, interactions with technology, and parental control of this period, supplemented by interviews with some of the authors of the posts. Although the impact of technology had not been studied yet, parents were concerned about their children’s excessive fascination with playing games on consoles and early computers and tried to limit their children’s use of technology. In the parent-child-technology triangle, parents sought to weaken the child-technology relationship primarily by influencing the technology - by compromising hardware integrity or setting software limits so that children could not play in the absence of their elders. Such actions, judging from memories, only served to encourage the pupils, who showed marvels of ingenuity and cunning in their desire to play. Parental control had a specific effect, usually not by interrupting the child-technology relationship, but by stimulating a deeper understanding of its structure. Keywords: Electronic games · Human-machine interaction · Children · Parental control

1 Emergence of Electronic Games in Russia The development of technology has always been accompanied by the desire to use it for entertainment. We can name a lot of progenitors of modern video games, the market of which today brings more employment and revenue than either the professional music industry or the Hollywood film industry [1] and is an important part of culture. However, for most children and adolescents, the discovery of the world of play began with the use of game consoles and consoles that allowed them to influence what was happening on a large television screen. Although interactivity on the screen was obtained in the early 1970s, the first consoles and computers were not widely available. Very few children in the USSR knew that such technologies were being produced, including in their home country (in addition, the Soviet consoles “Palestra-02” (Lvov 1978), “Tournir” (Moscow 1978), “Elektronika Exi Video” (Moscow region 1978), © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Bylieva and A. Nordmann (Eds.): PCSF 2023, LNNS 830, pp. 96–114, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-48020-1_9

The Beginning of the Gaming Era, Parental Controls

97

“Elektronika Videosport” and others were Pong-type, i.e. designed for 4–5 similar games, like simplified tennis or soccer, and did not use replaceable cartridges). In 1984 the first Soviet personal computers BK (household computer) and Agat were created, as well as many different models of computers produced and purchased for the needs of school education. Nevertheless, for the vast majority of the inhabitants of the countries that appeared on the ruins of the former USSR, the known form of electronic games were Soviet stationary slot machines and pocket-sized liquid-crystal Electronics. The most famous was the Electronica IM-02 (1984 Fig. 1) with a wolf from the cartoon “Well, Wait!” catching chicken eggs in a basket (analog of the Nintendo EG-26 Egg).

Fig. 1. Popular Soviet pocket-sized liquid crystal game “Elektroniki” with clock and alarm clock

The game “Tetris” was created by programmer Alexey Pazhitnov in 1984 on the computer Electronica-60, for IBM PC the game was rewritten in Turbo Pascal, and was distributed in professional circles in Moscow, and then around the world. In 1984, the first issue of the journal Microprocessor Means and Systems was published in the USSR, devoted to the device and assembly of Soviet computers, programming, microprocessors and other computer technology. In the mid 80’s in the magazines “Science and Life”, “Young Technician”, “Radio”, “Technics for Youth” and “ModelistKonstruktor” periodically published articles on programming at home, printed source codes of simple games, mostly written in the BASIC programming language. A section “Man and Computer” appeared in “Nauka i Zhizn”, and a regular reading section “Electronic Games Club” appeared in the magazine “Tekhnika - Molodezhi”. Mini-games for programmable microcalculators were offered with a focus on teenagers. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, popular books about computers and games were published, such as “Computer: Play and Creativity” and “Computer Games”. Nevertheless, the world of computers and games was primarily confined to special scientific institutes, where IBM PCs were already available in the early 1990s. It was there that the first Soviet game

98

D. Bylieva et al.

variants were created, such as Perestroika (1991, an arcade game with a fly jumping through a swamp), Color Lines (1992, a casual game), Dungeons of the Kremlin (1995, a shooter), etc. However, it was only in the 1990s that the world of consoles and computer games hit the territory of the former Soviet Union. Thus, Soviet children got access to the world of games later than children from other countries, but the introduction was more dynamic and with many created game worlds at once. The first “computer” for Soviet children was most often a ZX Spectrum or its analogs, which had no operating system as such, Sinclair BASIC was stored in ROM, which could process the simplest operations, a TV set was used instead of a display, and games were downloaded using a cassette recorder and took several minutes. Game cassettes were cheap, they were re-recorded from each other, but the games were not always of good quality. It was even possible to record a game on the 4th Polish radio program: after the announcement of the game a series of incomprehensible sounds were heard, which were the program and could be recorded on cassettes. Many engineers in the USSR assembled the system themselves: separately buying a Z80 processor, ROM with a language interpreter, and soldering the board. The first attempts to assemble according to the schemes that appeared on spontaneous markets of radio parts was particularly difficult, there were errors in the circuit, faulty parts, to trace it, you had to look at the signals with an oscilloscope, then analyze the circuit. However, by joint efforts schemes were improved and it became easier to build your own “Spectrum”. Lack of widely available information about computers and different circuits created compatibility problems: some games didn’t work, others were poorly controlled or didn’t support joystick. Sometimes all this was “patched” with a soldering iron, which was used to modify the board, in other cases the code was rewritten, because Spectrum programs were relatively easy to open. Setting up the work required an understanding of the circuit board, soldering iron and programming skills. The illegal market supplied games, most often from Poland, already opened and often cut down. For the game, sometimes a splash screen with music and some special special effects were drawn, squeezing the maximum out of a simple Spectrum graphics system. Many game consoles, clones of the Nintendo Entertainment System (primarily Lifa SM-888 (II), also known as Panther YF-888B, Crown IQ-924, HAILI LM-888) were imported into the country from China. There was also an Atari clone sold, called the Rambo because it had Stallone as Rambo on the box. It was almost impossible to get the cartridges and the joysticks broke quickly, which had to be disconnected and repaired, from the constant pulling out of joysticks broke the connector to the main board. In the mid-1990s mass popularity in Russia won 8-bit console, a clone of the production of Taiwan, called Dendy. Its only disadvantage was the high cost of game cartridges. Sega Mega Drive and 16-bit games soon appeared. For a wider range of purposes than games the Commodore Amiga and IBM PC computers became more widely available. Games became a new unknown temptation, having learned about which schoolchildren could not exist without it. In most cases, the computer appeared in the house as an interesting machine of unclear purpose. It was used by parents little, and not always skillfully. But the appearance of games on it instantly turned it into a “magnet” for schoolchildren, which tended to overshadow all other activities. Thus, for parents who

The Beginning of the Gaming Era, Parental Controls

99

together with their children comprehended new technologies, the question of organizing the so-called parental control arose.

2 First Electronic Games in Turkey Although in Turkey the first consoles and games on personal computers appeared much earlier than in Russia. The difficult political and economic situation in the country also left its mark on their emergency. Even in the early 1980s, with an average annual income of some $1000, only the well-off in Turkey could take advantage of the infant electronic industry with its ancestral personal computers and primitive foregoers of the now ubiquitous games consoles. The 1980 coup d’état still weighed heavily and even television was limited to a single and somewhat sporadic black and white channel under government control. Nevertheless, awareness of this new fantasy world of the video game reached the younger generation. An unfortunate result however was that, lacking their own machines, youngsters would congregate until the small hours in unsavory localities termed “Atari Sa lonu” (Atari Halls). Anathema to conscientious parents, the very mention of “Atari” will invoke negative connotations to this day. Unscrupulous entrepreneurs were not slow to take advantage of the unhealthy demand and the situation became such that official intervention became inevitable. Parents and policemen started forcibly extracting children from the various halls, shops and offices - wherever they saw kids playing video games. In June 1985 the relevant regulations were stiffened and licensing was introduced restricting the opening of the “halls”. However, with the free market policies adopted by the government in 1983, the mid 1980’s saw the arrival of the very first personal computers. The Sinclair ZX Spectrum, the Vic 20 and the Commodore 64 began to appear in Turkish homes. Maybe it was the appearance of the Amiga and certainly the availability of IBM compatible machines which changed, in a literal as well as a metaphorical sense, the name of the game.

3 Analyzing Memories of First Gaming Experiences in the 1990s The task was to study children’s gaming experience on the first computers, consoles, etc., as well as parental control over the use of computers for gaming purposes in the 1990s, to identify prohibitions and restrictions, how children and adolescents circumvented them, whether they were found guilty of violating the restrictions. The main method in this paper is netnography, analytical and quantitative methods (statistical processing, content analysis) and sociological methods (interviewing, survey) were also used. The research was conducted in two stages - at the first stage in November 2022 the resources in the Internet were studied that provided access to the largest number of user cases about the limitations of computer use, game consoles, etc. in the 90s of the last century, then the data selected on the sites were analyzed. Referring to specialized sites with stories-recollections is the most complete source of information, for example, than archival materials. In the second stage of the research, in February-June 2023, we decided to ask the authors of the stories to be interviewed to find out not only their demographic characteristics, but also details of their gaming experience and parental restrictions, a

100

D. Bylieva et al.

response was received from one third of the authors, thus we managed to interview 64 respondents, the interviewing was informalized. Table 1 presents the socio-demographic characteristics of the characters of the memoirs that we interviewed; this is the data at the time of the story they describe, i.e. it is information about gender, age, maternal status and place of residence in the 1990s, not at the present moment. We also collected partial data about all the authors of the 200 memories that could be identified (in most cases they were boys, 76%, girls 24%; 5–8 years old –5%, 9–12 years old –22%, 13–16 years old - 40%, over 16 years old - 11%, 22% could not be identified; poor and bad material situation is traced in 37% of the stories, satisfactory and good in 28%, in 35% of the memories it is difficult to understand the wealth of the hero; 24% lived in a metropolis, almost the same number - 22% in a small town, in a village or village - 12%, 42% of the stories did not make it possible to identify the place of residence). Table 1. Socio-demographic characteristics of respondents sex

male female

16%

Age

Ages 5–8

8%

9–12 years old

34%

13–16 years old

41%

over 16

17%

distressing

11%

Material situation

Place of residence

84%

bad

28%

satisfactory

52%

good

9%

major city/metropolis

39%

small town/urban village

41%

village/village

20%

Joe Baxter-Webb emphasizes that computers and consoles entered homes, usually marketed as “toys for boys” [2]. Among the online texts, all the authors are male, yet the interviews revealed that girls may also have had ZX Spectrums in their homes, but that girls’ gaming experiences are less dramatic and do not occupy as important a place in their childhood as those of many boys. The study reviewed 200 cases representing stories related to the first computers/ consoles and bans from parents to use them etc., these stories are memories of children and teenagers, 90s. Most of the cases are presented in the form of posts, they date from 2018–2022. Information was collected from English and Russian language websites and social media such as https://pikabu.ru/, https://habr.com, https://fishki.net/, https:// vk.com/, https://zen.yandex.ru. To search for cases on the listed sites, keywords were used: 90s, games, console, Spectrum, Dendi, childhood 90s, children of the 90s, etc., 20 words in total.

The Beginning of the Gaming Era, Parental Controls

101

A password is the most popular way to protect a child from unwanted computer use, and this study confirms this, it is mentioned in 36% of cases. …accidentally found out that when you press the Esc key the password is not asked and the desktop opens (I still don’t understand what it was)… …but my father found out from a neighbor how to put a password on the system, and allowed me and my brother to play for an hour a day in the evening when he came home from work. In the end, we overheard the number of keys we pressed and guessed the password, which turned out to be his phone number. When my mother came home unexpectedly, she figured us out and started asking us how we knew him. We, so as not to reveal the secret, said that we had oiled the keys and then looked at the fingerprints. After that, for several years my father wiped the keyboard several times with his palm every time after entering the password. Dad changed the password. Again we started listening to the number of letters, we picked up the password, nothing worked…. …when I was bought a computer as a child “for studying” and immediately put a password on it so that I would do my homework after school and play games in the evening. For me, coming from school with disks in the afternoon, to look at a dead computer and wait for the evening was comparable to moral torture. That’s why I developed an elegant and in its own way ingenious plan: 1. to eavesdrop on the number of keystrokes on the keyboard, taking into account the enter; 2. to cut a sheet of paper finely into dust particles, and place them on the keys, so that when you press the key, the dust particle would stick to your finger. The invisibility of white paper was facilitated by a black keyboard with white symbols, on which the pieces were placed. Even if you looked closely, it was unreal to notice them; 3. to put together the information and find the password. To my surprise, the plan worked….. Also popular is the restriction that parents hide the electrical cord from the computer or other components (screen, keyboard) that interfere with the normal operation of the device or make it impossible at all, some of the authors pointed out that parents did not hide, but defiantly locked it. …Mom began to hide the game console under the lock, and demonstratively. And so we had a big bunch of old keys, having outlined in advance the profile of the key on 6 paper from the pantry and finding the closest to the profile of the key in the old bunch, I for half an hour sawed out a real key with a file. When I managed to open the pantry with this key, I felt very cool… 4% of the stories involved parents setting specific trap circuits and checking against the device’s usage history. …I knew my parents would check my browser history to make sure I wasn’t playing games, so I learned how to delete the history. However, it wasn’t tricky enough. My parents would check all the folders on the computer to make sure I wasn’t hiding anything suspicious, so I created a hidden partition on my hard drive where I copied games to. To access the games, I would use the hidden partition and run the games from it, then delete their history…. How they managed to cope with restrictions, lack of ability to play was motivating, with 23% of stories suggesting that teenagers managed to get their own computer, game console or the like, and 13% that children were able to find/reset a password.

102

D. Bylieva et al.

… my mom first took the wires, they were the cheapest and I easily bought them with pocket money, then she hid the keyboard, I had to break the piggy bank, when the screen came into play, I decided to earn money in the summer for my own game console and do not depend on anyone, I was lucky that my parents did not limit the use in this case… … I was allowed to use my dad’s computer only on weekends, and then not more than an hour, saying at the same time that you will buy your own and play as much as you want, in the evenings and on vacations m I started washing cars and after a while I was able to buy my own personal computer…. … my parents set a password on the computer and changed it quite often, I could not see or remember it, then I decided that I should learn how to crack passwords as a cool hacker and enrolled in a club, I learned to crack passwords not immediately, but I got access to the computer not at home…. In 3% of the stories there are examples of game users coming into direct conflict with parents, picking locks, openly returning hidden computer parts, and 16% of the cases indicate the opposite situation, that often children prefer to simply play with their friends rather than at home, avoiding conflict situations. …I was given a game console for my birthday, and then soon forbade to use it for more than an hour, but I played at night, and then it seems to have earned a game addiction, began to go to conflicts with my mother, demanded the right to play as much as I wanted, there were constant scandals in the house, so fought for my leisure time, and it lasted for several years…. …at home games were forbidden, the computer could be used only for studying, and at my neighbor’s parents were always at work and the console was freely available, I did not want to make my mother nervous and so I just went to my friend and played at his place, everyone was happy…. But not everyone openly regained the right to play, many continued to “cheat” parents for years, bypassing their prohibitions and not getting caught, to such can be attributed a large percentage of cases, it is 38%. 7 … my mom hid her game console under her bed and didn’t change that spot for about two years, every time she left for work I would pull it out and play and never got caught…. …I developed a clever system of mirrors to see when my parents came to the wicket, we lived in a private house, so I didn’t get caught and had time to quickly put the set top box away and pretend to watch TV…. … we lived quite rich, a house with a concierge, several computers (which could only be used when parents were at home) and good pocket money, at some point my brother and I figured out how to bribe the concierge and he would call when someone was coming home, this scheme worked for years…. In 19% of cases, parents allowed their children to use computers and game consoles after identifying circumvention of prohibited measures; in 9% of cases, these restrictions were lifted because the characters in the stories had grown up. …I was given a console when I was 9 years old but could only play on weekends and vacations, then I decided to ask my parents when the restrictions would be lifted and they said 14 years old…I was really looking forward to that day….

The Beginning of the Gaming Era, Parental Controls

103

…My brother caught me playing on the computer at night and turned me in to my parents, ended up punishing my brother for some reason and I got all my gaming limits removed…. … I had long escaped parental control of my gaming addiction, but at some point my grades dropped a lot and my parents decided to punish me by depriving me of games for the rest of the school year, but when they realized that my grades didn’t get any better and I was clearly visiting a gaming club, they just let me play at home again…. The period of the 1990s is actually a very big period in terms of the technological development of computer games. Therefore, the gaming experience of the early 1990s, when games were a miracle, and the late 1990s, when a computer with games became a common and widespread phenomenon, is significantly different. However, computerization took place in Russia at different rates, so the introduction to games for children from small towns took place much later than in large cities. In addition, the availability of a computer worldwide at this time was a function of income. A 1998 American study indicates that a computer at home was more common in families with above average incomes where parents had higher education: only about 22% of children in families with annual incomes of less than $20,000 had access to a home computer, compared to 91% of those in families with annual incomes of more than $75,000 [3]. Therefore, we took the liberty of exploring memories related to the whole period of the 1990s, focusing on the first experience of playing games on consoles and computers.

4 Discovering the Videogame as a New Phenomenon Children in the 1990s found themselves on the fault line of technologically different epochs, at a bifurcation point, when digital technologies from a probabilistic trajectory of development became an actual way of transforming society. Although the subject of computer science was introduced in Soviet schools in 1985, it was very abstract: theoretical issues (number systems, discrete mathematics), construction of algorithms and flowcharts, abstract command systems, etc. were studied. The experience of encountering the magical game world was random and colored by vivid memories. One example of impressive events that allowed for a vivid experience was the exhibition “Informatics in US life” in major cities of the USSR in 1987–1988. However, sometimes the first experience was based on other people’s stories, casual observation in a guest or, for example, a computer science teacher, or even movies. At that moment, the interest in new incomprehensible technologies with unexplored possibilities was born: I was born in a small town in northern Kazakhstan in 1986. As you might have guessed, in my childhood, the computer could hardly occupy a dominant position, nevertheless, some kind of “magic” in these machines even at preschool age occupied me very, very much - any movie that had anything resembling a PC or a laptop was sure to grab my attention. Children of the 1990s were not just being introduced to games, they were entering a world of new technologically driven pleasures that no one had ever known before. This experience of gaming was absolutely unique. And no matter how much games improve today, no one will ever be able to relive the experience of being able to control what happens on the screen. Schoolboys forgot about everything, other entertainment, activities and needs were meaningless compared to the game:

104

D. Bylieva et al.

… I spent my time only sleeping and going to school, and that was because my parents would hardly approve of truancy. I stopped doing homework altogether, going out and doing anything but playing civy [the first Civilization game - a turn-based historical strategy game released in 1991 - author’s note]. I was only interested in resources, empires, new cities. I wanted to work the world and become a deity. This crazy civo marathon lasted about a month or two. It was akin to a drug addiction, all I wanted was them - lots of new troops and lots of new wonders of the world. As I was not put away to specialists to treat me from game addiction myself I am surprised to this day. After I started to let go a little and more or less returned to the calm course of everyday life. Memories of the emotions experienced when buying their own console or playing their first downloaded game are so vivid that 40-year-old men can recall all the details of their childhood experience. More than that, nostalgia provokes purchases of old equipment and cartridges and a return to 8- or 16-pixel games. The first console or computer given on New Year’s Eve or birthday remains the central event of childhood in their memories: … Naturally I dreamed of having my zx-spectrum at home someday. And a couple years later, that dream came true. And it’s one of my happiest and most unforgettable childhood memories. My parents gave us our own ZX-Spectrum. Just imagine, you wake up on Saturday morning, you don’t have to go to school, and then you remember that yesterday your deepest dream came true:) This state is probably the closest to nirvana:). The 1990s were difficult for Russians, prosperity was falling, inflation was destroying savings, so you had to save up, sometimes for several years, to buy even the simplest computer or console. Many people could not even dream of asking for such a gift, comparing it to a helicopter or a yacht, so much so that it seemed unaffordable for 9 a poor family. However, it was the games that allowed to completely ignore the hard reality, became more expensive for boys than bread. Technology brought magic into the house, magic became technically feasible [4]. Spectrum in the hard nineties helped me to live in a fairy tale. There was often nothing to eat at home, but it didn’t matter much - the black-and-white picture on the old TV set was the most valuable thing. Childhood memories often include visits to “rich people” who had play equipment. However, the contrast between those who had and those who did not have gaming equipment could be related not only to wealth, but also to locality. Computers and consoles penetrated the countryside much later, so a new friend who came from the big city for the summer with his computer made a sensation. This is how a young man who grew up in a village in Yakutia in a family with 9 children recalls the effect of getting acquainted with a computer: Thanks to a friend’s computer, I became the only one in the family who could tell not about the boring everyday life at school, but something BIGGER. Not about the boring moments when the evil neighbor’s dog Chyshaan bit Galina Ivanovna, but something MORE. Not another prank of the brother’s drunken father, but something MORE. And I saw great potential in it. For it became my task to ignite the hearts and eyes of my brothers. (…) I showed the techniques, voiced them, fell down, and in every way with all parts of my body showed what I saw.

The Beginning of the Gaming Era, Parental Controls

105

Possession of a console or computer games significantly increased the status of a schoolboy, everyone wanted to be friends with him to play games together. Happy owners of consoles were also friends with each other, which had a favorable effect on the exchange of cartridges. Particularly cunning schoolchildren took the board out of the cartridge and swapped. It came to the point that they sketched the look of these boards, and what games are there and kept it all in a notebook in the same place where the codes were written down. Rare games were especially valued, anything could be exchanged for them. Some games became popular and were discussed everywhere: not only during joint playthroughs, but also in the courtyards, at recesses and even in classes, all were known primarily for the games that came in a set with the console. As players from the 1990s wrote: “Their images have become iconic and recognizable in any state, and even the melodies can revive the memory of those times with just a couple of notes. No worse than the smell of the cheap plastic from which Dandies and Suboras were made.“ And if the game “Mario” is a worldwide hit and “the first level many people are still able to reproduce, or even pass, with their eyes closed”, then “Tanchiki” were at the peak of popularity in the former Soviet Union. The official name of the game Battle City, it was released for the game consoles Famicom and Game Boy, and was a development of the game Tank Battalion 1980 from Namco, intended for stationary arcade machines). In “Tanchiki” was a built-in level editor, allowing you to change the outline of the terrain, and accordingly erect obstacles in the form of pictures and letters. One of the key advantages of “Tanchiki” was team play: “Going with a buddy after school to play Mario meant that someone would watch the other play. It was different if it was Tanks. And the emotions when you’re covering a base and your battle buddy gets hit are inexpressible!” (Fig. 2). The game “Duck Hunt” was very unusual. In addition to the joystick, the standard Dendi set had a light gun (in the form of an imitation of some real weapon: Beretta 92, Makarov or Desert Needle). The amazing possibility to shoot a duck on the screen was realized with the help of a photodiode. When the trigger was pulled, the entire screen of the electron-beam kinescope turned black for a fraction of a second. The photodiode detected this “blackness”. In the next fraction of a second, the area where the duck was on the screen was illuminated with a white square, while the rest of the screen remained black. If during this time the photodiode of the gun detected the transition from black to white image, the ducks fell into the grass and were picked up by the hunting dog. For Spektrum owners, a special memory was the sound that accompanied the loading process, which lasted several minutes, which was the game program translated into audio signal. The success of loading depended on the tape recorder settings and signal purity, periodically I had to screw up the playback head with a screwdriver to catch a clean signal. Besides, while this sound was going on, everyone sat almost without breathing - the game could not load because of external reasons or power surge - the refrigerator or light switched on made us start loading from the beginning. And you had to find the place on the tape where the game started. One of the most frequently recalled games is the arcade space shooter-platformer Exolon. There was a Zorbo code for eternal life and ammo. We played a prank on a friend of ours once. His last name was Monat, and we edited the code in the editor so that when you typed in his last name, the immortality code was activated. Gave it to him (on a disk - like a new game). They said to type his

106

D. Bylieva et al.

Fig. 2. A game for the Dendi console called “Tanchiki (Tanks)” (1990)

last name and he will be all eternal. We still remember the look on his face;) Then he considered us almost gods of computer games;)))). (Fig. 3). Many games allowed two players to play together, controlling the characters with different key combinations. Despite such ZX Spectrum games as Saboteur, Exolon, Barbarian, Nether Earth, Dizzy, etc. appearing regularly in memories, there was a different favorite set of games for everyone, as there were many games, and they were very diverse. Some were complex in story and controls, at times it was difficult to understand not only how, but also how to operate. With no instructions and no internet to ask for hints, some levels just proved to be impassable. For example, in the game Raid Over Moscow, children spent hours trying to fly out of the hangar, but it did not work, so the children did not get to the beginning of the main action of the game. However, of the most frequently mentioned games, which could not understand - Captain Blood (Fig. 4). Already the interface itself gives the impression that the game is impossible to understand because of the many numbers and buttons. And the plot itself (unknown to young researchers) is not trivial: the programmer creates a game on the theme of wandering through space and exploring alien worlds, but during testing the author finds himself inside this game, and 5 of his clones are scattered throughout the galaxy, and they must be found and destroyed, finding out information

The Beginning of the Gaming Era, Parental Controls

107

Fig. 3. Game Exolon (1987) for ZX Spectrum

from the inhabitants of the planets. And the game itself combines adventure, arcade and puzzle with some elements of role-playing game and space simulator. Many games had a complex world, and schoolchildren spent a lot of time drawing maps of the area. Such a finished map was a source of pride: “I had a map of Saboteur hanging on my wall at home, colored with flamasticks, glued together from notebook pages. With a rocket!” In addition, we had to learn English, or at least keep a dictionary handy, and memorize key words. One of the narrators mentions that in Moscow it was possible to buy books with walkthroughs/reviews/reviews created on risographs (which existed in factories) along with cassettes, but most tried to understand the meaning of the game intuitively. This exploratory work of thought, trying to determine the symbolism and game mechanics used, made comprehending the worlds particularly mystical, defying rational explanation, with stories mentioning that once the insight on what key combination to use to defeat the final boss came in a dream. The world of games perfectly blended magical and technical thinking, digital has become the dominant symbolic form of life [5]. Also in the 1990s, the first “computer clubs” were already appearing; sometimes computers were placed in children’s art houses, in libraries, next to slot machines or in video salons, so for many people the first gaming experience is associated with visiting these places. And if everything was intuitively clear with controlling joysticks or guns, the keyboard with a large number of keys caused consternation:

108

D. Bylieva et al.

Fig. 4. The game Captain Blood (1987) for ZX Spectrum

The usual tables along the walls, Soviet TV sets, not all of them color, and near each of them various homemade ZX-Spectrum computers. There were not so many people playing, more people watching, and two computers were vacated quite quickly. And the first thing I realized when I sat down was that I had no idea what to do and where to press. With gaming machines was all intuitively understandable, but here in front of you a keyboard with 58 buttons. But immediately found someone willing to show me where to press and what to do, and after 15 min I got into the taste and was able to move beyond the first screen:) The first game I played then was Exolon. And it struck me to the heart with its color graphics. But finally I was convinced that this is my hobby for life, when I switched places with a friend, and saw the game that was loaded at him. And it was Saboteur. It’s hard to describe my excitement, I’ll just give you one fact. At that time we began to gain popularity Video Salons, and with them foreign movies about all kinds of martial arts and Ninjas. And I was a big fan of this business, even went at one time to the section of martial Wushu. And now I have the opportunity, not just to watch, but to control a real ninja and destroy enemies…. In one of the stories, a boy came to the library to play on the computer, paid 15 kopecks to a woman who asked if he knew how to play, he was sure he did. But standing in a long line to the only computer, where everyone was shouting what game to load, he realized that he did not know how to play and left without even picking up a coin. In some places, so as not to scare the youngsters with the excess of keys, they were covered with a plastic cover with slotted holes for only the 4–5 needed.

The Beginning of the Gaming Era, Parental Controls

109

5 Parental Controls Despite the fact that it was only thanks to parents that computers or consoles appeared in children’s lives, the role of parents in children’s play activities was not limited to material investment. Livingstone and Bober emphasize the material and a symbolic responsibility of parents to foster the development of e-mature children [6]. The symbolic part implies the establishment of rules and practices regarding the use of techniques [7]. The social situation’ of a computer or the prefix use at home is thus determined by the material aspect related to the peculiarities of the technical device, its operation, necessary parts and components, symbolically, through the establishment of rules and practices regarding the use of these goods, as well as taking into account other factors related to the family lifestyle: daily routine of family members, homework commitments, hobbies and interests and others. In addition, sometimes the peculiarities of the purchase were determined by the simovolic sense, in some families children refused to buy equipment intended only for playing games, as a result, a multifunctional computer appeared in the house, but later, when such an opportunity arose. This trend was noted in studies, in particular Ito noted that middle-class parents are more likely to champion personal computers as educational while negatively associating consoles with “couch potato” televisual culture [8]. The rapid development of new gaming opportunities could not but cause concern for parents. In the late 1990s, Shields and Behrman noted that some children, especially male adolescents, spend more than four hours with computers at home in a day [9]. At a minimum, such hobbies negatively impacted other activities: homework, after school activities, household chores, and sometimes threatened sleep. Although in the 1990s, there was no established understanding of how computers might affect children, and research was quite conflicting [10], nevertheless, the over-reliance on technological means of entertainment was a cause for concern. Parenting styles with respect to computer use are divided into laissez-faire, permissive, authoritative, and authoritarian. Authoritative parenting style is solution-oriented [11]. In this style, there are rules and agreements about the use of computer or set-top boxes [12]. More complex systems may involve rewarding good grades or helping around the house with computer time and other reward systems. The younger the children, the more authoritarian the parenting style, as the child grows the style tended to lean toward laissez-faire [11]. Further (after the purchase or self-assembly of the technology) interaction was a parent-child-technology triangle, where parents sought to influence the technology and children in one way or another in order to break the too strong connection between it and children. The classic version of restricting use was to prohibit the use of technology in the absence of parents, primarily before parents came home from work on weekdays. Lessons at school ended at 1–3 o’clock, and parents came home much later, at 6–8 o’clock. A temporary ban on the use of the console/computer for particularly serious offenses was also used. At the same time, restrictions on use implied some mechanical or software manipulations that made it impossible to play (more details will be discussed in the next chapter), but were more or less successfully overcome by children. As a rule, the means used by parents became more complex over time, as children were caught

110

D. Bylieva et al.

using the equipment, due to parents coming home unexpectedly, or more often due to a heated case indicating recent active use.

6 Technical Acumen Development Justine Cassell calls the moment of emergence in the home videogame a key moment in the “genderizing” of human-computer interactions [13]. The gaming experience was the first and welcome experience of interacting with a machine, in some ways contributing to the growth of computer literacy. The researchers note that young people were not satisfied with the available games, they created them themselves on Microcomputers, starting to make their own using the BASIC language [14–16]. Later, personal computers became more modular and self-assembled, and games could also be modified using parts of existing ones [17, 18]. Thus, researchers note that at the beginning of the game industry development schoolchildren actively mastered the interaction with technology and sometimes even became active “creators”, independently acquiring experience and knowledge to understand the work of technical systems. However, acquiring an understanding of the principles of technical systems was not only related to direct gaming experience. This study shows that Russian schoolchildren often had to be very inventive, especially to gain access to computers and game consoles that were forbidden by their parents. Sometimes the very use of available equipment required ingenuity. For example, the power supply of a homemade Specturum (with a huge heatsink on which the KPEH5A hung) could not handle the load and would shut down from heat. I had to put a tin tub of ice on the heatsink and periodically refresh the ice, a simpler version required a desk fan. Some cooled the power supply in the refrigerator or outside the window Joysticks broke very quickly, it was expensive to buy them, and sometimes played on a web of soldered wires. The ways in which parents restricted computer use varied. Most often the restrictions meant that while the parents were at work the child could not use the computer. Solutions to this have been aimed at both hardware and software. The simplest “hardware” prevention of use was the removal of some part of the system. In the simplest variant, the power cord was removed, less often the vga cable. Children, eager to play games, found missing wires, bought them or rented them from friends. But there were also more original “technically advanced variants”: “hid the power cord. What did I do? Rummaged around in the back of my closet? Trying to find out where they hid it? I took the power cord from the fan, cut it off and soldered it directly to the power supply contacts. And I was about 13 years old at the time. To say that everyone was stunned by this - nothing to say. They didn’t experiment further so that I wouldn’t blow up the apartment. When a computer mouse was removed, children learned to control the computer with a keyboard, the removed keyboard was compensated with a virtual keyboard. It was not so easy to compensate for the seized power supply from the set-top box: There was no electricity for the game. You can’t throw a 220V wire into a socket directly. But my brother (he liked to tinker with electronics a little) found a solution. We had an old multi-frequency tape recorder. By some kind of luck, the power supply to it was the same as to Dendy. To be exact, it was supplied with 220 V, but the tape recorder

The Beginning of the Gaming Era, Parental Controls

111

had a built-in power supply, which output was the same voltage. In general, the cover of the tape recorder was removed, a plug was inserted into the Dendi (we found somewhere suitable), from which the wires were screwed to the contacts of the power supply in the tape recorder. Yes, such a construction was difficult to hide quickly while mom opened the doors/ rang the doorbell. So we only played when we were sure she wouldn’t be back for the next half hour +. So yeah:) We played as much as we could From the TV, which was an important part of the game system parents could remove the fuse, which, quite quickly was discovered by the schoolchildren and compensated by a replacement. Interestingly, when we went to a specialist in security systems to stop my son, who easily picked up passwords, the specialist did not use software, instead of the start button he installed a reader as in intercoms and a controller, a padlock was hung on the case and sealed. And to start the computer, you needed a chip key. Parents usually used simpler options, but locking the front cover on the key, so that it was not to turn on the computer met - in this case, the schoolboy removed the side cover from the hinges and shoved a thin hand to press the power button, “and in the cd rom was already inserted disk with half life. All day long I fought against radioactive mutants…..” As punishment for misbehavior, consoles and computers were taken away from use; in one story, the computer (486, dune2) was not hidden, but disassembled completely, which led to the skill of quickly putting it back together and disassembling it by the time the parents got home from work. Passwords were entered into computers, and a profile was created for a child with limited rights. However, solutions were found to bypass the protection. The solutions were technical or related to selection. Students searched for information on how to reset a password. For example, the bios password was reset by removing the battery from the motherboard. The password for user selection when logging into Windows was solved by logging in through safe mode. To reset the password from the admin profile, special programs (e.g. erd commander) were used, which were installed from a flash drive. The password for bios sounded especially difficult, as schoolchildren did not know what this word meant, so they had to look for information. By the end of the 1990s it was already possible to find relevant books, which we had to study and try to apply: “After about a couple weeks of trying, I found my treasure trove, rewrote a few pages, and ran home. First I entered some stock passwords for debugging, but they didn’t work, then I checked all the information the BIOS displayed at startup and found the values I needed. I don’t remember the model of ours, it was Laser or something like that, but in the book it was written in black and white that the engineering code for such bios consists of the company name + the version of the bios itself. These data were right in the data header. Entering them with trembling hands I got a bunch of output logs of booting and starting Window 98” Interestingly, for Windows 98, the happy discovery of young explorers was the ability to simply click “cross” and close the window when asked for a password, allowing the computer to be used as an unauthorized user with a default desktop. Professional parents in the late 1990s resorted to sophisticated combined hardware and software solutions to limit computer use:

112

D. Bylieva et al.

“To limit the time on the computer, my father created a board that was inserted in place of the CD, had a screen and buttons, sound indication. This board was soldered with its wires directly into the PSU circuit and by timer first warned, 15 min before the end of the game time, and then simply opened the necessary contacts. All this was diluted by the fact that in case of power failure from the power supply, the board created a report in the internal memory, using the backup power - recorded graphs of voltage and possibly something else for the last N minutes. By the way, on Windows was a similar control with reports (a program written by daddy) - tried to google something from the blacklist/trying to turn off this program or something else suspicious or forbidden - the inscription on the entire screen “PAPA KNOWS EVERYTHING” until the end of the game time and naturally record in the hidden report. Sometimes the battle between more sophisticated defenses and more advanced hacking methods went on for a long time. So after resetting the password from the admin profile using the flash drive program, the narrator’s father blocked booting from the flash drive and set a password on the bios. “I read on the internet what a cmos jumper is, reset the bios, unlocked the bootloader, then reset the admin password in the already known way. I stayed clean for another week. When I did, my parents freaked out. They said that if we see you doing this again, we’ll take the computer away. And I began to think about not how to bypass restrictions by breaking them, but how to bypass them discreetly. An idea came to my mind, what if I don’t touch the hard disk at all, but run the OS separately? They won’t burn the bios at all, since they don’t go there unless provoked. I read that Linux has such a concept as live cd(usb). As a result, rolled a friend on another flash drive Ubuntu live, it ran without problems, and freedom began. Games, of course, could not be launched on Penguin, but the Internet was used without problems. My parents didn’t scare me directly, because in order not to be caught, when the front door opened, it was enough just to quickly pull out, hide the flash drive and press the reboot button. After that, the system booted up, and it looked as if I had just turned the computer on for my parents’ arrival. In addition to passwords, more advanced in the use of programs parents ran programs that limited the duration of work: bat-files in the scheduler, or more complex, like tasks in NNCron, put all sorts of destroyers of toys, restriction of going on the Internet, etc. Interestingly, the finale of many stories involving the long struggle between parents seeking to limit their child’s time on the computer and the schoolboy overcoming the restrictions was greater or lesser approval of the boy’s efforts on the part of the parents and the official lifting of the bans: Suddenly, my father walks in. He just looked with interest at the computer functioning without any difficulties, and said, like you are always one step ahead, use the computer without any problems, you can remove all the restrictions, I will not put anything more for you. And that was it. That was the battle won. Never again did they create any obstacles to my use of technology. On the contrary, they even encouraged me more.

The Beginning of the Gaming Era, Parental Controls

113

7 Conclusions The 1990s were a time of intense familiarity with digital technical systems, which later became a defining trend in society. For schoolchildren, human-machine interaction was inspired and enhanced by the desire to immerse themselves in the world of games. Parents willing to give their children the coveted technology, however, feared too strong an attachment to games at the expense of other activities. Parents therefore sought to limit the use of technology, usually by tampering with it, compromising its hardware integrity, or by software to prevent children from playing in the absence of their elders. Such actions, judging by memories, only served to encourage the pupils, who showed marvels of ingenuity and cunning in their desire to play. Parental control had a specific effect, usually not by interrupting the child-technician relationship, but by stimulating a deeper understanding of its structure.

References 1. Bezio, K.M.: Ctrl-Alt-Del: GamerGate as a precursor to the rise of the alt-right. Leadership 14, 556–566 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1177/1742715018793744 2. Baxter-Webb, J.: The role of gaming platforms in young males’ trajectories of technical expertise. ToDIGRA. 2(3) (2016). https://doi.org/10.26503/todigra.v2i3.54 3. Becker, H.J.: Who’s wired and who’s not: children’s access to and use of computer technology. Future Child. 10, 44 (2000). https://doi.org/10.2307/1602689 4. Monaro, F.: The pledge, the turn, the prestige: the border between magic and technology as practices. Technol. Lang. 9, 30–41 (2022). https://doi.org/10.48417/technolang.2022.04.04 5. Milani, B.: On the mythical atmosphere of the digital world. Technol. Lang. 9, 21–29 (2022). https://doi.org/10.48417/technolang.2022.04.03 6. Livingstone, S., Bober, M.: Regulating the Internet at Home: Contrasting the Perspectives of Child.: Digital Generations, pp. 93–113. Routledge, Abingdon (2006) 7. Livingstone, S.: Strategies of parental regulation in the media-rich home. Comput. Hum. Behav. 23, 920–941 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2005.08.002 8. Ito, M.: Engineering Play: A Cultural History of Children’s Software. MIT Press (2012) 9. Shields, M.K., Behrman, R.E.: Children and computer technology: analysis and recommendations. Future Child. 10, 4–30 (2000) 10. Subrahmanyam, K., Kraut, R.E., Greenfield, P.M., Gross, E.F.: The impact of home computer use on children’s activities and development. Future Child. 10, 123 (2000). https://doi.org/ 10.2307/1602692 11. Özgür, H.: The relationship between Internet parenting styles and Internet usage of children and adolescents. Comput. Hum. Behav. 60, 411–424 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb. 2016.02.081 12. Valcke, M., Bonte, S., De Wever, B., Rots, I.: Internet parenting styles and the impact on Internet use of primary school children. Comput. Educ. 55, 454–464 (2010). https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.compedu.2010.02.009 13. Cassell, J.: Genderizing human-computer interaction. Hum.-Comput. Interact. Handb. Fundam. Evolving Technol. Emerg. Appl. 401–412. L. Erlbaum Associates Inc., USA (2002) 14. Mohamedali, M.H., J, M.D., Fletcher, B.C.: Factors affecting microcomputer use and programming ability of secondary school children. J. Comput. Assist. Learn. 3, 224–239 (1987)

114

D. Bylieva et al.

15. Saarikoski, P., Suominen, J.: Computer hobbyists and the gaming industry in Finland. IEEE Ann. Hist. Comput. 31, 20–33 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1109/MAHC.2009.39 16. Swalwell, M.: Questions about the usefulness of microcomputers in 1980s Australia. Media Int. Aust. 143, 63–77 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1177/1329878X1214300109 17. Kücklich, J.: Precarious playbour: modders and the digital games industry. Fibreculture J. 5(1), 1–5 (2005) 18. El-Nasr, M.S., Smith, B.K.: Learning through game modding. Comput. Entertain. 4, 7–es (2006). https://doi.org/10.1145/1111293.1111301

Modern Initiation Practices: Gaming Technology Applications Elena A. Mokshina , Viktoriya V. Levchenko , and Ekaterina Yu. Maltceva(B) Samara University, 443086 Samara, Russia [email protected]

Abstract. The purpose of the study is to show that initiation during the eventsocializing process is a great way for children to change themselves and their perception of the main important things for them. It shows great importance of the event-socializing process for children as a tool for their self-development and self-initiation in society. Research is conducted with the help of sentence completion test, which was used to observe the group of children, who participated in the All-Russian New Year’s Eve event comparison. All the participants were of different ages. At the event-socializing process all of the children were in one group. During that period teachers made some observations that were shown in the research results sections, from where we could learn that children could have a great chance for changing their perception positively. However, some of the children who participated in the research did not have any changes, because they decided not to be involved in the event-socializing process, and they did not want to communicate with their peers. The research helps teachers and people, who initiate such processes, understand that the event-socializing process is the best way for children to socialize, when they have an opportunity to change their own perception. Keywords: initiation · different aged children · All-Russian New Year’s Eve · socialization · game

1 The Objective of the Work The process of initiation has been an integral part of a social life since ancient times. This process accompanies the most significant personal and social changes in person‘s life, basically it means that the person can get different experience and the person has an opportunity to enter another level of his or her self-development. The process of initiation is described as a philosophical (Guenon, Dugin, Tylor) [1], physiological (Freud, Roheim, Whiting, Jung) [2, 3], cultural (Tendryakova), ethnographic (Boa, Drucker, Muller, Haekel;) [4] and phenomenon. Thus, based on the analyzed researches we made a conclusion that the process of initiation is a process of transformation in a real social space [5]. The initiation process can be made with the help of gaming technologies, in different words game can be the tool for person changes in the initiation process. Initiation is a wider process than a game [5]. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Bylieva and A. Nordmann (Eds.): PCSF 2023, LNNS 830, pp. 115–126, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-48020-1_10

116

E. A. Mokshina et al.

Initiation can be seen as ‘rebirth’ and ‘a new beginning’. The initiation of adolescent males is one of most highly structured and widespread rituals in the world [6]. Initiation rites and rituals are a socially prescribed way to show others that the initiate has achieved adulthood and demonstrates commitment and identity to a particular group [7]. Initiation means transformation, transition to a new level of consciousness [8]. Talking about the process of initiation we should say that it is created conditions in which a person or group of people is placed and they play different roles without realizing it [9, 10]. Today, various events and processes can be considered initiation, such as, education, graduation, recruit training, religious ceremonies, even sickness [8, 11]. But researchers point to the “initiation hunger” and note that psychologists are turning to specialists in other fields for help [8]. The purpose of the research is to identify the initiation as a necessary component of a person socialization process (in order of his or her self-perception changing). Children’s perception of themselves and others, a friend, teachers, their past and future and also children’s relationships with classmates are understood as children’s self-perception in the context of the current research [12, 13]. For the research we identified the All-Russian New Year’s Eve event as a good place for children initiation. These events have many stages of child socialization and role-playing. We may explain it in a way: first of all children really want to go there, because not everyone has that opportunity to participate in that event. The second reason is that during that event children could feel more freedom and their role in society could change. One more reason is that the teachers also change their role during the event and during the trip to the event. The other important thing is that during all the period of the event (trip to the capital, preparation for the All-Russian New Year‘s Eve, excursions and trip to the home town) children and teachers could play different roles in the purpose of children initiation, for example: teacher is not a teacher anymore but an older friend, for intense, or a person who is older and wiser and can help a child with any question in any situation. And at the same time a child is not a school person but a personality with his/her interest and thoughts. And the duration of that event is important (3 days), because all the children’s changes happen in a short period. In that case, in our study we talk about children initiation during the All-Russian New Year’s Eve. To conduct the research we choose the method of quantitative content analysis (also referred to as content analysis) which could make it possible to identify a quantitative pattern in the assessment of the event. The method of quantitative analysis is based on the study of words, topics and messages, focusing the researcher’s attention on the content of the message.

2 Materials and the Results of the Research For the research we had a group of children aged 8–13. There were 34 participants (12 boys and 24 girls). They were integrated in one big group where they could communicate with each other. To conduct the research methods (tasks) were used: – interviews (primary data collection - age, reason for travel, the child travel perception;

Modern Initiation Practices: Gaming Technology Applications

117

– the sentence completion test (Sacks & Levy) [14], which was modified for the study purpose. In the study, a structured interview was conducted that included the following mandatory paragraphs (some of the questions were asked to a child and the other one to his/her parents): – – – –

1. Surname, first name, patronymic of the child, age. 2. The merit of the child coming to the event (active participation, awards). 3. The child’s opinion, why he/she has been taken on the trip. 4. The significance of the «New Year Eve» event for the child.

The data obtained were used to refine the results of the study using the Sacks and Levy sentence completion test [14]. This initial methodology includes 60 unfinished sentences, which can be divided into 15 groups, each one has 4 sentences. In all varieties of the methodology, all sentences are formulated in a way to stimulate the person to give answers related to the studied his personality traits. This methodology has some advantages, such as: flexibility, the ability to adapt to a variety of research tasks. In the modification of the methodology for our research, 6 scales were used: «Self Perception oneself», «Friend Perception», «Relationship with classmates», «Teachers Perception», «Past Perception» and «Future Perception». Each of scales had 4 questions that were asked; total 24 questions (see Appendix 1). The characteristic for each group of uncompleted sentences is drawn up, that defines the positive, negative or indifferent child perception system. To show the research results the qualitative and quantitative methods were used. For the determination of the children’s answers validity we used the help of experts-teachers from Samara University. They evaluated the children answers according to the research purpose using the following scale: 3 - conforms to the purpose of studying; – 2 - partially conforms to the purpose; and – 1 - does not conform to the purpose at all. Based on the “Table 1. Expert marks based on 6 scales” results: self-perception; friend perception; relationships with classmates; children’s perception of teachers; and children’s perception of their past and future [15–17] are conforms the purpose of studying. During the research we could measure children’s changes [18, 19] with the help of Sacks & Levy methodology according to the following steps “Before” and “After” the All-Russian New Year Eve trip. The results were evaluated for each issue. There was a characteristic given for each scale of defining the children‘s perception, the characteristic was either positive, negative or indifferent for the research subject. Each perception scale contains four questions, each question is evaluated qualitatively (according to the keywords that characterize the relations as positive, negative or neutral) and is assigned a value from −1 to 1, 0 to neutral (negligible perception). Thus, each scale can produce values from −4 to + 4. The range of results can vary from −4 to 4. (see Appendix 2 ‘Table 2. Rate of perception “before” the trip and Appendix 3 “ Table 3. Rate of perception “after” the trip).

118

E. A. Mokshina et al. Table 1. Expert marks based on 6 scales

Scale №

1 expert

2 expert

3 expert

4 expert

Total

Self -Perception

3

2

3

2

2,5

Fear

1

1

1

2

1,3

Guilt

1

1

1

1

1

Sex

1

1

1

1

1

Mother

1

1

1

2

1,3

Father

1

1

2

1

1,3

Family

1

1

1

2

1,3

Opposite gender

1

1

1

1

1

Friends

2

3

3

3

2,8

Classmates

2

2

3

3

2,5

Teachers

3

3

2

3

2,8

Past

2

2

3

3

2,5

Future

3

3

2

3

2,8

Goals

1

1

1

1

1

The negative perception was characterized by the following words and phrases: “gossip”, “evil”, “name-calling”, “idiots”, “bang”, “many indulgences”, “envy”, “teacher”, “stupid”, “if not for the father”, “want to cry”, “fear”, “lazy”, “fat”, “fear”.The positive perception was characterized by the following words and phrases: “I’m happy”, “interesting”, “joyous”, “love”, “respect”, “I like”, “get bored”, “get better”, “be friendly”, “help in trouble”, “my loved ones”. Neutrality was characterized by the following words and phrases: “good”, “understood”, “famous”, “intelligent”, “equal to me”, “old”, “sociable”, “normal”, “I think”, “lucky”, “remember”, “was small”, “dreaming”. Evaluate the changes of child participated in the research, the values of the scale of the test «before» and «after» were subtracted. The higher value shows the higher change. Zero is the total absence of changes (Appendix 4 “Table 4. Changes evaluation”) To determine the overall level of change for each research subject (a child who participated in the research), the sum of the modular changes was calculated (see Table 4, column «ABS»). The obtained results helped us to divide children in 2 different groups (see Table 5.): the first group with high level of changes (15 people) and the second group with low level (19 people). The comparison of children’s answers shows that the second group includes children who were selected for the trip because of their older siblings’ achievements or children who had been on the trip before (as a result of someone‘s illness). Changes in this group are at the bottom of the scale and present in two people (result 0 - no change, result –1 and 2).

Modern Initiation Practices: Gaming Technology Applications

119

ABS

Changes

Past perception

1

0

1

1

0

0

0

0

6

f

–2

2

1

–1

1

0

–1

1

0

5

9

f

1

1

0

–1

1

0

2

2

1

5

11

f

0

0

0

–2

2

1

–2

2

1

7

11

f

1

1

0

3

3

1

–1

1

0

6

11

f

–3

3

1

–1

1

0

–2

2

1

9

12

f

–6

6

1

–4

4

1

–2

2

1

21

13

f

1

1

0

–3

3

1

1

1

0

8

12

f

–2

2

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

5

13

f

3

3

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

5

10

f

2

2

1

1

1

0

–3

3

1

11

11

m

0

0

1

0

2

1

5

12

m

3

3

1

–2

2

1

1

1

0

8

12

m

4

4

1

–1

1

0

–1

1

0

7

13

m

1

1

0

–2

2

1

–2

2

1

7

27

8

Changes

Teachers ‘ perception

–1

9

ABS

Changes

f

ABS

Sex

8

Self-perception

Age

Total amount of changes

Table 2. Group of examinees

Group with high level of changes

Scales importance

34

0

–1

8

25

2

6

Group with low level changes 9

m

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

9,5

m

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

12

m

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

12

m

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

10

m

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

12,5

f

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

11

f

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

11

f

1

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

10

f

0

0

0

0

0

0

–1

1

0

1

9

f

0

0

0

0

0

0

–1

1

0

1

12

f

0

0

0

0

0

0

–1

1

0

1

14

f

–1

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

2

11

m

–1

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

2

9,5

m

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

2

13

m

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

3

8,9

f

0

0

0

1

1

0

1

1

0

3

11

f

0

0

0

0

0

0

2

2

1

3

13

f

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

3

12

f

1

1

0

–1

1

0

–1

1

0

4

120

E. A. Mokshina et al.

The first group consists of children who have travelled on merit (12 persons) and on merit of their older siblings (3 persons). The children who were traveled to the New Year‘s Eve because of their siblings’ achievements, the results (see. table 5) for one of the children showed a special situation where the results were extremely important and we had to ignore them (21 points). Total percentage of children with changes in the first group – 86% and unchanged – 14%. In the second group with changes – 11%, unchanged – 89%.

3 Conclusion The study showed that the empirical hypothesis of the influence of age on the level of change is not confirmed. Results processing shows the indicators with the most significant changes. These are: self-perception, past perception and teachers’ perception (listed by importance level). On the scales of past perceptions and teachers, only 96% of the children showed positive change, the reason for the change on the scale «teachers’ perception» can be considered as objective indicators of new conditions of communication, such as: – lack of traditional education; – a different approach to managing children’s travel time; – adaptation of children and teachers to a new environment of socialization (it is practically impossible for children and teachers to meet each other); The scale «past perception», the reason of changes here is the new experience of communication with other children; new place; new facilities; excursions; and many other activities where children can get knowledge and fun. After returning home, acquired experience makes children want to participate in some drama courses and others. Also when sending children to participate in the All-Russian New Year’s Eve, organizers and parents note that the child is leaving his native city (village) for the first time. The important thing that the children mentioned was that the best and unusual thing was the New Year wishes given by the Russian Ded Moroz, not by school teachers or a school principal as usual. On the scale «self-perception» there was a maximum number of changes, both positive and negative As we can see the research shows that initiation works great in the event-socializing process; also it helps children to get new knowledge and, the most important thing is helping them to change their perception of things that are very important in their life.

Appendix 1 “Sentence Completion Test” methodology (Sacks & Levy modified version) Purpose: identification of child significant relationships Questioner: Name________ Last name_____________ Age_______ Date_____

Modern Initiation Practices: Gaming Technology Applications

121

Manual There 24 unfinished sentences, which you need to read and complete each sentence. The ending of the sentence should be the first idea that comes to your mind. You need to finish the task as fast as you can, you do not need to spend time thinking about the ending of the sentence. If you have any problems with any sentence just circle that sentence and continue with the rest, later you can come back to the sentence with a problem and finish it. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24.

If everyone is against me…. I always wanted….. My teacher….. I guess that my true friend…… When I was a child It is better for me to work with…… I believe that I am good enough to…… I hope….. My school teachers…… I do not like people who….. In the past I….. People, who I study with….. My weak point…. Once I…. When the teacher comes to me…. I like people who….. When I think about my past…. I like to study with people who…. When I am unlucky, I…. When I am old, I will… Teacher attitude to me…. When I am not with my friends they….. My best memory is…. People, who study with me…….. Answers

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Self-perceprion (1, 7, 13, 19) Friend perception (4, 10, 17, 22) Relatioships with classmates (7, 12, 18, 24) Children‘s perception of teachers (3, 9, 15, 21) Children‘s perception of their past (5, 11, 17, 23) Children‘s perception of their future (3, 8, 14, 20)

122

E. A. Mokshina et al.

Appendix 2

Table 3. Rate of perception “before” the trip №

Age

Sex

Self-perception

Friend perception

Relationships with classmates

Teachers’ perception

Past perception

Future perception

1

13

F

–1

0

2

3

0

0

2

11

F

4

0

3

1

1

2

3

8

F

–3

0

0

–2

0

0

4

11

F

0

0

3

1

2

2

5

9

F

–1

0

1

1

1

1

6

11

F

–2

1

2

3

1

0

7

12

F

–1

0

–2

–1

1

0

8

10

F

1

0

3

1

3

0

9

9

F

–2

0

–1

0

0

0

10

11

F

–2

1

2

–2

0

–2

11

9

F

–2

1

2

3

3

–1

12

11

F

–2

1

3

3

1

–1

13

11

F

–1

1

2

2

2

2

14

12

F

0

–1

–2

1

–1

0

15

12

F

–3

–1

–2

–2

0

–1

16

12,5

F

–1

1

2

4

3

0

17

13

F

2

0

0

–2

1

0

18

12

F

–3

0

1

–3

3

1

19

8,9

F

1

1

2

2

2

0

20

14

F

–1

1

0

2

–1

0

21

13

F

1

1

2

3

2

1

22

10

F

2

0

0

3

0

2

23

11

M

0

–2

1

4

–2

1

24

11

M

–1

1

0

0

2

1

25

9,5

M

–1

1

2

3

3

1

26

12

M

1

1

3

–1

2

1

27

10

M

0

0

1

1

2

–1

28

12

M

–1

–1

1

1

2

2

29

12

M

0

1

3

–1

0

–1

30

12

M

–2

–1

2

–2

1

–1

(continued)

Modern Initiation Practices: Gaming Technology Applications

123

Table 3. (continued) №

Age

Sex

Self-perception

Friend perception

Relationships with classmates

Teachers’ perception

Past perception

Future perception

31

13

M

1

1

2

0

1

0

32

9,5

M

2

1

3

3

1

0

33

13

M

–1

1

1

1

0

–2

34

9

M

–2

0

2

–2

–1

–1

Appendix 3

Table 4. Rate of perceptions “after” the trip №

Age

Sex

Self-perception

Friend perception

Relationships with classmates

Teachers’ perception

Past perception

Future perception

1

13

F

–1

–3

2

3

0

0

2

11

F

3

0

3

1

1

2

3

8

F

–2

–1

–2

–3

0

1

4

11

F

0

0

3

1

0

3

5

9

F

1

0

2

2

2

1

6

11

F

–2

1

2

3

1

0

7

12

F

–2

–1

–2

0

2

0

8

10

F

1

0

3

1

4

0

9

9

F

–3

–1

–1

1

–2

0

10

11

F

–2

1

3

0

2

0

11

9

F

–2

1

2

3

4

–1

12

11

F

–3

1

3

0

2

0

13

11

F

2

1

3

3

4

0

14

12

F

0

–1

–2

1

0

0

15

12

F

3

2

2

2

2

1

16

12,5

F

–1

1

2

4

3

0

17

13

F

1

1

0

1

0

–2

18

12

F

–1

–1

2

–3

3

0

19

8,9

F

1

0

2

1

1

0

20

14

F

0

1

0

2

–1

1

21

13

F

–2

0

2

3

2

0

(continued)

124

E. A. Mokshina et al. Table 4. (continued)

№

Age

Sex

Self-perception

Friend perception

Relationships with classmates

Teachers’ perception

Past perception

Future perception

22

10

F

0

2

2

2

3

1

23

11

M

1

–2

1

4

–2

0

24

11

M

–1

0

1

1

0

1

25

9,5

M

–1

1

1

3

3

2

26

12

M

–2

1

1

1

1

1

27

10

M

0

0

1

1

2

–1

28

12

M

–1

–1

0

1

2

0

29

12

M

0

1

3

–1

0

–1

30

12

M

–2

–1

2

–2

1

–1

31

13

M

–3

1

3

1

2

0

32

9,5

M

2

1

3

3

1

0

33

13

M

–2

1

2

3

2

–1

34

9

M

–2

0

2

–2

–1

–1

Appendix 4

№

Self-perception

ABS

Changes (1- “yes”, 0 – “no”)

Friend perception

ABS

Changes

Relationships with classmates

ABS

Changes

Teachers’ perception

ABS

Changes

Past perception

ABS

Changes

Future perception

ABS

Changes

The total rate changes of each child

Table 5. Changes evaluation

1

0

0

0

3

3

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

3

2

1

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

3

–1

1

0

1

1

0

2

2

1

1

1

0

0

0

0

–1

1

0

6

4

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

2

2

1

–1

1

0

3

5

–2

2

1

0

0

0

–1

1

0

1

1

0

–1

1

0

0

0

0

6

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

7

1

1

0

1

1

0

0

0

0

1

1

0

–1

1

0

0

0

0

4

8

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

–1

1

0

0

0

0

1

(continued)

Modern Initiation Practices: Gaming Technology Applications

125

The total rate changes of each child

2

2

1

0

0

0

5

1

–2

2

1

–2

2

1

7

11

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

–1

1

0

0

0

0

1

12

1

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

3

3

1

–1

1

0

–1

1

0

6

13

–3

3

1

0

0

0

–1

1

0

–1

1

0

–2

2

1

2

2

1

9

14

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

–1

1

0

0

0

0

1

15

–6

6

1

3

3

1

–4

4

1

–4

4

1

–2

2

1

–2

2

1

21

16

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

17

1

1

0

1

1

0

0

0

0

–3

3

1

1

1

0

2

2

1

8

18

–2

2

1

1

1

0

–1

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

1

0

5

19

0

0

0

1

1

0

0

0

0

1

1

0

1

1

0

0

0

0

3

20

–1

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

–1

1

0

2

21

3

3

1

1

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

1

0

5

22

2

2

1

2

2

1

–2

2

1

1

1

0

–3

3

1

1

1

0

11

23

–1

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

1

0

2

24

0

0

0

1

1

0

–1

1

0

–1

1

0

2

2

1

0

0

0

5

25

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

–1

1

0

2

26

3

3

1

0

0

0

2

2

1

–2

2

1

1

1

0

0

0

0

8

27

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

28

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

2

2

1

3

29

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

30

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

31

4

4

1

0

0

0

–1

1

0

–1

1

0

–1

1

0

0

0

0

7

32

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

33

1

1

0

0

0

0

–1

1

0

–2

2

1

–2

2

1

–1

1

0

7

34

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

8

16

16

3

19

4

25

6

27

8

20

5

Total 34 amount of changes

Changes

0

2

ABS

1

–2

Future perception

1

0

ABS

0

1

Changes

0

–1

Past perception

0

0

ABS

0

0

Changes

1

0

Teachers’ perception

1

0

Changes

0

0

ABS

1

0

Changes

Changes (1- “yes”, 0 – “no”)

1

10

ABS

ABS

9

Friend perception

№

Self-perception

Relationships with classmates

Table 5. (continued)

References 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Gennep, A.V.: Rite of Passage. Psychology Press, Hove (2004) Freud, S.: A General Introduction to Psychoanalysis. CreateSpace, North Charleston (2016) Freud, A.: Ego and the Mechanisms of Defense. Routledge, New York (1992) Jung, C.: Two Essays on Analytical Psychology. Pantheon Books, New York (1953) Efimkina, R.: The Sleeping Beauty Awakening. Psychological Initiation in Fairytales. Rech, Saint-Petersburg (2006)

126

E. A. Mokshina et al.

6. Corneau, G.: Absent Fathers, Lost Sons: The Search for Masculine Identity. Shambhala Publications, New York (2018) 7. Best, D.L., Luvender, K.L.: Gender development: cultural differences. In: Wright, J.D. (eds.) International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, pp. 742–749. Elsevier, Oxford (2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.23211-X 8. Mahdi, L.C., Foster, S., Little, M.: Betwixt & Between: Patterns of Masculine and Feminine Initiation. Open Court Publishing (1987) 9. Adamowsky, N.: Productive indeterminacy: on the relationship between play and science. Technol. Lang. 3(4), 8–20 (2022). https://doi.org/10.48417/technolang.2022.04.02 10. Tyutelova, L.G., Sergeeva, E.N., Sundukova, K.A.: Virtual communication technologies in modern drama for teenagers. Technol. Lang. 2(4), 94–108 (2021). https://doi.org/10.48417/ technolang.2022.04.06 11. Ashton, H.: The Basuto: A Social Study of Traditional and Modern Lesotho. Routledge, New York (2018) 12. Asmolov, A.G., Nyrova, M.S.: Cultural/Historical Psychology and Construction of Worlds. Pr. Psycology Institution, Moscow (1996). [in Rus.] 13. LaSala, K.B, Polyakova-Norwood, V., Starnes-Ott, K.: Initiation of a nursing education curriculum with accessibility to all learners. J. Prof. Nurs. 36, II (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.profnurs.2019.08.002 14. Wilberg, K.: Integral Psychology: Consciousness, Spirit, Psychology. Therapy. Shambhala, New York (2000) 15. Mudrik, A.V.: Introduction to Social Pedagogy. Institute of Practical Psychology, Moscow (1997). [in Rus.] 16. Oleynik, E.A.: Initiation rites in modern culture as a means of dominating and controlling the children’s audience. In: Proceedings of the distant All-Russian Scientific and Practical Conference, pp. 57–61. Khabarovsk State Institute of Arts and Culture, Khabarovsk (2015). [in Rus.] 17. Shkurkina, T.G.: The role of age initiation in the socialization of the child. Ethnographic Rev. 1, 77–90 (2014). [in Rus.] 18. Vygotskii, L.S.: The Child Personality and His Worldview Development. Personality Psycology. Publishing House of Moscow State University, Moscow (1982). [in Rus.] 19. Zimina, I. S. Modern Variant of Initiation during Old Age Teenagers. Pedagogical Education in Russia, 75–82 (2010). [in Rus.] https://pedobrazovanie.ru/images/JOURNAL/archive2010/ 2010-2-tx1c/10.pdf

The Recursive Paradigm and Semiotic Models of Games in Third-Order Technical Cybernetics Andrey An. Kuznechenkov(B) Samara National Research University, 34, Moskovskoye Shosse, 443086 Samara, Russia [email protected]

Abstract. This article addresses the issue, which, in general, can be defined as “absent (model-independent) semantics” of language. The influence of results of cyber technological evolution on the development of formal languages of technological cybernetics is investigated in the article. Research is carried out in the context of modern transformations of recursive paradigm of scientific research, originating from the concepts of Plato’s noumena and Kant’s “thing-in-itself”. Development of recursive paradigm in epistemology determined the emergence of the concept of “third-order cybernetics” according to classification of Vladimir Lepsky, the concept contains a reflexive feedback function and a mechanism for implementing a poly-subject environment (autopoiesis). A broad interpretation of sign, including dynamic objects, allows the use of semiotic models with automatically realized semantics and autopoiesis as a pragmatic component in third-order technological cybernetics, which determines methodological component of the article. Third–order poly-subject environment of third-order technological cybernetics with a realized autopoiesis mechanism is a powerful tool for realizing virtually unlimited strategies within the framework of the basic model - “a game playing games”. Recursive nature of poly-subject environment of “technological cybernetics 3.0.“ makes it possible to implement an almost unlimited number of game models, determined in general by the criteria of accuracy (analytical criterion of the model) and scope (synthetic criterion of model). The purpose of the article is formation of philosophical prerequisites associated with acceptance by the scientific community of the procedural nature of semantics; automatically realized semantics; cyber technological semantics as a subject of study within the framework of technological cybernetics; reflexive autopoietic semiotic models of “technological cybernetics 3.0.”. The expected result is the development of basic provisions of third-order technological cybernetics language concept. Keywords: Recursive paradigm · Cyber technological semantics · Semiotics of third-order technological cybernetics

1 Problem of Absent Language Semantics Analysis of the general state of semantic research allows to conclude with disappointment that attempts to build “complete” semantics within the framework of existing languages have not been successful. The most striking evidence of “incomplete” semantics are © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Bylieva and A. Nordmann (Eds.): PCSF 2023, LNNS 830, pp. 127–133, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-48020-1_11

128

A. An. Kuznechenkov

results obtained by Kurt Gödel in relation to the language of mathematics Principia Mathematica and semantic incompleteness of modern artificial intelligence systems’ languages. Study of the nature of semantics allows us to use the concept of “absent (model-independent) semantics” in relation to existing languages. Formation of the concept of “absent semantics” was significantly influenced by results obtained by Noam Chomsky [1] in the field of syntactics of natural language, including mental nature of semantics determined by Generativists. On the one hand, in his research Chomsky intentionally stayed within the exclusively syntactic domain of the language, avoiding semantic extensions, on the other hand, it is in the generativetransformational grammars of Chomsky, which form the deep and surface structures of language, that prerequisites for determining the mechanisms of formation and development of the semantic domain of language are contained. An important aspect of Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammars is their recursive nature, which determines relative nature of syntactic-semantic structures of language. Recursive process of forming syntactic-semantic structures of a language assumes the syntactic nature of semantics (in the context of “in the beginning was the Word” paradigm) and allows us to consider syntactic structures as “frozen” semantics. It is worth noting that development of syntactic-semantic research is significantly influenced by results obtained in the field of technological cybernetics. Automatic realization of syntactic language structures in the field of technological cybernetics is the most important factor influencing further development of syntactic-semantic research and determining transformation of the structures’ mental component. Procedural-recursive nature of N. Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammars, along with results obtained in the field of technological cybernetics, create prerequisites for a kind of syntactic-semantic transition in syntactic research. Thus, technological cybernetics becomes one of the main areas of modern syntactic-semantic research.

2 Semiotics and Technological Cybernetics The concept of “technological cybernetics” is primarily associated with evolution of technological systems, which is reflected in the theory of technological evolution of Radovan Richta [2]. Concept of “technology” for Richta means “material entity created by applying mental and physical efforts to nature in order to produce some value” [2, p. 8]. Richta identifies stages of technological evolution as: 1) tools; 2) machines; 3) automata (automatic devices). A broader definition of technology is provided by Friedrich Dessauer: “By the word “technology” we mean the totality of events, forms, processes that once arose and became commonplace; technology as an earthly accomplishment, as a worldwide transformation to be discovered and investigated, standing above and generalizing everything that as a technical object is revealed individually in millions of forms; technology as a cumulative image of history” [3, p. 135]. “In the first third of the 21st century, we are witnessing a digital transformation of society, associated with emergence of a new type of intelligent machines that are non-human actors in the social space: these are key decision support systems based on Big Data analysis and machine learning, and digital counterparts” [4, p. 10]. The widely used concept of “digital transformation of society” [5, 6] is inextricably linked with evolution of technological cybernetic systems.

The Recursive Paradigm and Semiotic Models of Games

129

Significant for the presented arguments are studies conducted by Vyacheslav Stepin and Vladimir Lepsky in the area of self-developing systems. Development of scientific knowledge was considered by Stepin in the context of ideas of scientific rationality, which is the most important regulatory aspect in scientific activity. As a result, Stepin identified three types of scientific rationality: classical; non-classical; post-non-classical [7]. In the context of types of scientific rationality and in their correlation with scientific research paradigm transformations, Lepsky suggested the following periods of cybernetic development: first-order cybernetics (classical scientific rationality, subject-object paradigm); second-order cybernetics (non-classical scientific rationality, subject-subject paradigm) and third-order cybernetics (post-non-classical scientific rationality, “subject - self-developing poly-subject environment”, “subject-meta-subject” paradigms) [8, 9]. Formation of stages of cybernetic systems development was influenced by their recursive nature, manifested as reflexive feedback function and self-regulation function. Thus, the use of concept of “technological cybernetics” to determine the scope of technologically implemented control systems is justified. Connection of technological cybernetics with syntactic-semantic research is based on the fact that sign systems are used to describe algorithms implemented by technological automata. Automata, as technological objects, function according to fairly simple (in a certain sense, a priori) algorithms. By applying rules in the form of sign systems, automata create sufficiently powerful semantics, which in itself forms a fairly extensive area for research. A broad interpretation of automata – from silicon-based (in the case of electronic devices) to carbon-based (in the case of living beings) creates prerequisites for the synthesis of results obtained in the relevant applied areas of scientific knowledge. A broad interpretation of sign – from the atomic states of cyber technological automata and neurons of the human brain to dynamic processes allows us to use in research semiotic models that fully reflect the process of automatic realization of syntactic structures of the language and their interaction with the realized semantic domain.

3 Recursive Paradigm and Transformation of Semiosis Recursive nature of Noam Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammars, feedback and self-regulation functions in cybernetic systems, third-order cybernetics of Vladimir Lepsky - these and many other facts indicate development of the recursive paradigm in scientific research in general. Development of recursive paradigm in epistemology began with Plato’s noumena and “soul is a circle”, the endlessly self-mirroring world of Leibniz’s monads, Kant’s “thing-in-itself” etc. Negative-paradoxical context of recursiveness of the “thing-in-itself” was noted by Kant and found its development in Russell’s paradoxes and results obtained by Gödel in relation to the language of mathematics Principia Mathematica [10]. A significant event in the development of recursive paradigm in epistemology is the work of Chinese philosopher Yuk Hui “Recursiveness and contingency” [11], which, by the example of recursive development of the “contingency” concept - from non-recursive randomness (the opposite of necessity) to recursive certainty (necessity), actually fixes the change of recursive context from negative to positive, which in itself is a significant contribution to the realm of “recursive thinking”. A similar, “recursive revolution” occurs concerning consideration of consciousness as a

130

A. An. Kuznechenkov

“thing-in-itself” - from Kant’s demarcative approach to the one that is unlimited and expands boundaries of cognition in the context of results obtained by Hui. “If cybernetics, as Heidegger thought, is the end of philosophy, and if recursiveness becomes “synonymous” with philosophy of process, then post-European philosophy can be thought of only by re-assimilating cybernetic moment in various types of thought on technology” - concludes Hui [11, p. 377]. The shift of syntactic-semantic research towards automatization and the field of technological cybernetics seem to be positive developments. Analysis of mentally realized syntactic-semantic models points towards the issue of absent semantics (modelindependent semantics) and a certain gap in the semantic domain: mathematical models are mathematician and mathematics; legal models are law and lawyer, etc. Cyber automatic realization of syntactic structures of language creates prospects for the appearance of automatically realized semantics, which together with syntactic domain of language forms a unified environment. An important aspect influencing formation of cyberautomatically realized semantics is the acceptance of procedural (algorithmic) nature of semantic domain. Procedural nature of semantic domain creates prerequisites for adoption by language of a form of process calculation following predicate calculation. Unified cyber technological environment makes it possible to realize feedback and self–regulation functions – components of cyber-technological autopoiesis, whose realization allows us to consider syntactic structures of language as “frozen semantics”, and semantic domain as “revived (realized) syntax”. An important aspect of cyber-technological semantics is that it can be a more accessible subject of study for research than mentally realized semantics. As analysis shows, development of cybernetic models occurs within the framework of two main criteria: accuracy (analytical criterion of model) and scope (synthetic criterion of model), which determine analytical completeness of model and synthetic completeness of model. Autopoiesis of cyber-technological systems provides unlimited algorithmic completeness of model as a whole and is considered the main mechanism for the formation of structure of a recursively organized subject (“subject-metasubject”, “self-developing poly-subject environment” of Vladimir Lepsky), which is a confirmation of the thesis that recursion is an effective means of building semantics. As already noted, semiotic models are considered basic ones in the area of technological cybernetics. Cyber-technological autopoiesis determines the contents of transformation of second-order technological cybernetics to third-order technological cybernetics. In the context of syntactic-semantic pragmatic structure of semiosis, transformation of semiotic model will consist of expanding pragmatics of semiosis due to autopoietic component, which determines the contents of semiotic model pragmatics of third-order technological cybernetics.

4 Models of Games in the Third-Order Technological Cybernetics Before considering prospects for realization of games in third-order technological cybernetics models, I would like to draw attention to one significant feature of “technological cybernetics 3.0” models. Transformational processes associated with the use of third-order cyber-technological models in scientific research mean, first of all, transition

The Recursive Paradigm and Semiotic Models of Games

131

from pen-and-paper research tools to cyber-technological ones. Theory of types was proposed by Bertrand Russell to solve problems related to the paradox in mathematical foundations, which bears his name, the theory consisted of building a hierarchical structure of types when defining mathematical entities. As an example of a third-order cyber-technological language, we can consider the classical object-oriented programming language C++, which allows recursive definitions of objects and functions. A feature that I would like to draw attention to is that in the process of cyber-automatic realization of syntactic structures in semantic domain, each realization of a recursive procedure is accompanied by physical creation of a model – thus, B. Russell’s theory of types is directly implemented during realization of a recursive process in thirdorder technological cybernetics, which is also a contribution to the realm of “recursive thinking”. Games vary, but from the point of view of a subject playing them, overall strategy remains unchanged – from a variety of behaviors, it is necessary to choose the best one. An important issue in constructing a set of behaviors is completeness of semantic domain of a game model. As already noted, recursiveness is an effective tool for building semantics. The use of a recursive approach in game theory allows us to consider the concept of “game playing games”, which, on the one hand, implements a general game strategy, on the other hand, allows us to build the most complete game semantics. In other words, construction of a plurality of variants of implementation of the game itself within the framework of game model, in order to choose the most effective, creates prerequisites for implementation of semantically complete game models. It is worth noting once again that technical cybernetics of third order is an effective means for implementation of such game models, which can be characterized as models of games in technical cybernetics of third order. Recursive approach, developing within the framework of recursive paradigm, allows us to consider the subject of research as a “thing-in-itself”, in our case, ‘game playing games’. It is obvious that recursive approach has an explicit subject-oriented character. Analysis of scientific activity as a “subject – means - object” relationship conducted by V.S. Stepin, allows to draw a conclusion on the increasing attention to subjects in the context of development of ideas about scientific rationality, about the prerequisites for the formation of a subject-oriented approach as the leading one in scientific research and in practical applications” [12, p. 395], also the subject-oriented approach was considered by Vladimir Lepsky as the main one for creating ontologies of self-developing reflexive-regulatory environments [12]. As already noted, Hui in his work “Recursiveness and contingency” investigated the transformation of the concept of “contingency” in the context of the development of the recursive paradigm in epistemology: from randomness (the opposite of necessity) to necessity. It was the development of knowledge about recursiveness in the process of developing a recursive paradigm, taking into account recursive nature of contingency, that allowed Hui to create a kind of “recursive revolution” in interpretation of contingency from uncertainty to necessity. It is significant that the development of recursive paradigm and recursive thinking at the present stage is considered by Hui in the context of cybernetics (including technological cybernetics). Results obtained by Hui [9, 13], allow to make the assumption that, perhaps, it

132

A. An. Kuznechenkov

is recursion that will determine the contents of rationality in third-order technological cybernetics. Finally, I would like to draw attention to the conclusions of Noam Chomsky: “ To understand a sentence, we must know much more than the analysis of this sentence on each linguistic level. We must also know the reference and meaning of the morphemes or words of which it is composed; naturally, grammar cannot be expected to be of much help here. These notions form the subject matter for semantics” [14, p. 516], first, as proof that a model of the entire language is necessary for semantic analysis; second, that semantic analysis is a recursive process. Acceptance of procedural and recursive nature of semantics in the context of recursive paradigm development in epistemology, along with achievements in the field of technological cybernetics, determine the shift of syntactic-semantic research into the area of technological cybernetics. Semiotic-syntactic nature of technological cybernetics makes it possible to use semiotic models as the basic ones for research. Semiotic models with recursive extension of pragmatics (cyber-automatically realized semantics (cyber-technological semantics) and autopoiesis as part of pragmatics) are third-order models of technological cybernetics that have the potential for realization of a selfdeveloping poly-subject environment semantics. Within the framework of third-order technological cybernetics, it becomes possible to realize algorithmically complete models of the world of games and models of games of consciousness. We hope that this research can be useful when determining main provisions of the concept of third-order technological cybernetics language.

References 1. 2. 3. 4.

5. 6.

7. 8.

9. 10.

11.

Chomsky, N.: Language and Mind. Harcourt Brace & World Inc, New York (1968) ˇ ek a technika v revoluci našich dn˚u. Cs. ˇ spoleˇc. PVZ, Praha (1963) Richta, R.: Clovˇ Dessauer, F.: Human and Cosmos. Experience. Samarama LLC, Samara (2022) Nesterov, A.Y.: Clarification of the concept of progress through the semiotics of technology. In: Bylieva, D., Nordmann, A., Shipunova, O., Volkova, V. (eds.) Knowledge in the Information Society. PCSF CSIS 2020 2020. Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems, vol. 184, pp. 3–11. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-65857-1_1 Cheshev, V.V.: Technical progress in the cultural and historical context. Vopr. Filos. 12, 64–78 (2017) Nikiforov, A.L.: The transformation of science in the XX century: from the search of truth to the enhancement of technology. Epistemol. Philos. Sci.-Epistemologiya i Filosofiya Nauki. 56(3), 20–29 (2019) Stepin, V.S.: Theoretical knowledge. Progress-Tradition, Moscow (2003) Umpleby, S.A., Medvedeva, T.A.: Recent developments in cybernetics, from cognition to social systems. Cybern. Syst. 50(4), 367–382 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1080/01969722.2019. 1574326 Lepsky, V.E.: Philosophical and methodological foundations of post-non-classical third-order cybernetics. Questions Philos. 8, 211–215 (2022) Gödel, K.: Über formal unentscheidbare Sätze der Principia Mathematica und verwandter Systeme I. Monatshefte für Mathematik und Physik 38(1), 173–198 (1931). https://doi.org/ 10.1007/BF01700692 Hui, Y: Recursiveness and Contingency. V–A–C Press, Moscow (2020)

The Recursive Paradigm and Semiotic Models of Games

133

12. Lepsky, V.E.: The formation of a subject-oriented approach in the context of the development of ideas on scientific rationality. science and the social realm of the world. In: For the 80th Anniversary of Academician V.S. Stepin. Alfa–M, Moscow, pp. 392–420 (2014) 13. Hui, Y.: On the limit of artificial intelligence. Philos. Autom. Philos. Today. 65(2), 339–357 (2021). https://doi.org/10.5840/philtoday202149392 14. Chomsky, N.: Syntactic Structures. Walter de Gruyter, Berlin (2002)

Liability in the World of Games: The Interaction of Positive and Soft Law Viacheslav V. Ivanov1,2(B)

, Tatiana V. Trubnikova2

, and Aleksei Yu. Churilov2

1 Samara National Research University 34, Moskovskoye Shosse, 443086 Samara, Russia

[email protected] 2 National Research Tomsk State University, 36 Lenin Ave, Tomsk, Russia 634050

Abstract. The gaming industry is currently one of the most rapidly developing sectors of the economy, generating billions of dollars for developers. A video game represents not a simple, but a complex object of intellectual property law, encompassing various distinct results of intellectual activity, such as music, screenplay, plot, video, and game characters. The issue of regulating relationships arising from video games has been a longstanding one. This article analyzes global and Russian judicial practices regarding liability for actions committed in the gaming world or the real world with the aim of obtaining rights and advantages in the game. It demonstrates that two regulatory spheres actively interact in this domain: the slowly evolving domestic legislation and “soft law” in the form of sets of rules established by game platform owners. The conclusion is drawn that the “soft law” of gaming and technological platforms assumes the role of a new source of law. Keywords: Protection of private rights by the means of criminal law and criminal procedure · Judicial lawmaking · “Soft law” · Videogame · Legal regulation · Gambling

1 Introduction The gaming industry is currently one of the most rapidly developing sectors of the economy, bringing billions of dollars to developers. A video game is not a simple, but a complex object of intellectual property law, encompassing a multitude of distinct intellectual creations, including music, screenplay, plot, videos, and both playable and non-playable characters. The issue of regulating relationships arising from video games has been a longstanding one. It ranges from recognizing the necessity of regulating certain aspects of video game-related matters to completely denying such necessity for various reasons [1]. According to the research conducted by the Analytical Center of the National Agency for Financial Studies (NAFI), 60% of Russians aged 18 and above engage in video gaming activities regularly or episodically, amounting to approximately 88 million individuals. In comparison to the data from the year 2018, the proportion of gamers in Russia has more than tripled [2]. This gives rise to a range of conflicting situations, including so-called “cheating” (unauthorized interference in a computer game resulting in gaining an advantage with © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Bylieva and A. Nordmann (Eds.): PCSF 2023, LNNS 830, pp. 134–144, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-48020-1_12

Liability in the World of Games

135

the intention of obtaining specific in-game benefits such as: winning a game round, acquiring a large amount of resources, inflicting significant damage to opponents, etc.), unlawful appropriation of virtual objects belonging to other players, as well as disputes between the game rights holder and the player regarding access to the game itself or the specific items and advantages provided by the rights holder. According to the data from the Main Information-Analytical Center of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Russian Federation, there were 517.7 thousand crimes committed in 2021 involving information and communication technologies (ICT) and computer information, which accounts for a quarter of the total number of crimes registered throughout the year [3]. A similar trend is observed in the report for the year 2022. However, these are more of “traditional” ICT crimes, including the distribution of malicious software, password hacking, theft of funds from accounts through the use of banking programs, phishing, as well as the dissemination of unlawful information online. This statistic does not include information about criminal cases related to crimes committed in virtual worlds, such as theft of virtual items used in games, and so on. In contrast, for example, in the Republic of Belarus, in 2014, a criminal case was initiated under Article 349, Part 2 of the Criminal Code of Belarus for unauthorized access to computer information involving the “hijacking” of a virtual tank in the game World of Tanks [4]. It is difficult to disagree with the authors’ claim that a similar criminal case would not have been initiated in Russia. The approach to prosecuting crimes related to virtual worlds and theft of virtual items is not as prevalent in Russia as it might be in other jurisdictions. [5] Meanwhile, in Russian Federation, there is a precedent of holding individuals criminally liable for unauthorized interference in the gaming computer industry through the distribution of malicious software (bots and cheat programs) that allowed users to gain unfair advantages over other players in games like World of Tanks and World of Warships. [6]. Legal regulation issues arise in several areas in relation to this matter. The first issue revolves around the question of who can be held accountable and who can be considered a victim in cases where rights violations occur in a virtual world, such as within a computer game. The fact that the longer an individual utilizes computers and various electronic gadgets, the more extensive their “digital footprint” becomes, is beyond dispute. Indeed, the current landscape is characterized by the emergence of a digital replica, or digital counterpart, of a person within the virtual realm. This phenomenon is accompanied by the advent of new entities—virtual personalities. The question of virtual identity subjectivity remains unresolved to this day. Can virtual identities serve as bearers of rights and obligations? Are they entitled to legal protection? How can the verification of virtual identity be ensured? How can the protection of virtual identities from theft, harassment, and other unlawful interventions be safeguarded? The second issue pertains to the relationship between the game developer, as the rights holder, and the player regarding access to the game itself, as well as the items and advantages provided by the rights holder. Do the traditional norms of contractual law apply to these relationships? Or do these situations fall outside the scope of legal regulation by the state and should be determined exclusively in accordance with the rules established by the game developer?

136

V. V. Ivanov et al.

The third is related to the need to determine the limits of legal intervention in the relationships between players. Should players be held accountable for the theft of virtual property belonging to digital counterparts within the virtual realm? Should punitive measures be imposed for the destruction of structures built by players in the virtual space? A well-considered and appropriate resolution of these issues is of utmost importance, as individuals, without legal protection, may come to perceive themselves as unprotected by the state and may even resort to vigilante justice as a means of restoring violated rights or interests. For instance, in China, a young man named Qui Chengwei lent his unique in-game sword to a friend, who subsequently sold the sword on eBay. Since his complaint to law enforcement authorities was rejected, the young man ended up killing his friend. [7].

2 Methods We have decided to conduct a comparative analysis of how different national courts tackle the task of striking a balance between various interests in this field and how they address the three aforementioned issues. As a criterion for analyzing judicial decisions, we have chosen the “Magic Circle Test” developed by B.T. Duranske and S.F. Cain. The essence of this test is that activities taking place in the virtual world are subject to the laws of the real world if the user participating in these activities reasonably understands or should reasonably understand that they have consequences in the real world [8]. The essence of the “Magic Circle Test” is as follows: the game world is enclosed within a “magic circle” where actions are only influenced by the real world when a person foresees or should foresee consequences for reality. For example, if a game allows theft of in-game items (such as in Ultima Online) and the advancement of thieving skills for corresponding characters, it remains within the boundaries of the “circle” (the online game) and, consequently, should not be subject to legal regulation since it is governed by the laws of the game. It should be noted that the “Magic Circle Test” is not considered axiomatic by researchers dealing with issues of responsibility for actions in the realm of computer games. Some authors suggest shifting the focus from which rules apply to the real world versus virtual values, to examining which actions the player agreed to as a member of the community engaged in a particular game. It is argued that there is no separate real world distinct from the virtual world, but there are actions within the virtual space that exceed the scope of the player’s real consent (as well as the consent of other players). According to researchers, the distinction between the real and virtual worlds is rapidly fading, rendering the concept of the “magic circle” outdated [9]. However, we believe that the “Magic Circle Test” is convenient for legal practitioners as it allows the distinction between cases where a person should be held liable for tortious conduct and cases where contractual liability arises. For instance, if prohibited methods of causing harm are used in the game, such as various cheats, hacks, or other actions that violate the game’s rules, in such cases, the player will be held responsible, but the nature of the liability will be contractual. After all, the player breached the terms of the game’s usage (usually, End-User License Agreement – EULA), which are the conditions of

Liability in the World of Games

137

the contract under which the game was provided to them. However, in situations where players’ actions (a) extend beyond the virtual world or (b) their effects start manifesting in the real world, the law needs to intervene beyond the scope of the contractual relationship between the parties. For example, in the case of an account hack, the laws of the real world fully apply to users of the virtual world since the player’s actions go beyond the confines of the virtual world, and general legislative rules governing liability for such actions should be applied.

3 Results 3.1 The Digital Double and Responsibility In recent times, there has been an increasing discussion in the academic community regarding digital doubles as digital replicas of individuals. V.N. Nazarov writes about the digital double as a subject of information ethics and points out that the digital prototype of such a double is a static model of the double: a collection of moral data about an individual that is necessary and sufficient for describing and creating an ethical model of their digital double in various spheres of life and fields of activity. The digital instance, on the other hand, is characterized as a “comprehensive informational copy of the individual in their dynamics, in the probabilistic ambiguity of their behavioral reactions” [10]. Other authors introduce the concept of a virtual persona, which refers to “a blog account or web page where a real person attempts to present themselves as a significant informational entity possessing characteristics of an idealized human individual, representing a virtual persona” [11]. Additionally, the term “digital identity” is used to denote the “outline of a subject’s activity traces that they leave in the electronic space as their digital profile” [12]. Despite the different terminology, all the examined definitions converge on one point: they indicate how a real person interacts with the virtual space and how they present themselves within it. In philosophy, the question of identifying the virtual and real personalities as the same is of utmost importance, and it also holds significant legal implications. It should be noted that many authors consider the real and digital personas as separate entities, stating that the digital persona “should be interpreted independently and not as one of the identities” [13]. This perspective is intriguing; however, it should not imply that the real person is not accountable for the actions of their digital counterpart. On the contrary, the responsibility for the actions of a digital replica should lie with the individual who directly controls it. This may include not only the lawful owner but also someone who gained unauthorized access to another person’s account, regardless of whether such access was obtained with or without the owner’s consent. When discussing the identification of a digital persona as a real one, we cannot overlook the question of the accuracy of the information provided by an individual about themselves in a game or other virtual spaces. In other words, the digital persona may completely differ from the real persona, including all its attributes such as name, surname, gender, age, appearance, and so on. Modern computer neural networks enable the creation of appearances for nonexistent individuals, thereby allowing the digital persona to be entirely fabricated from start to finish. A digital persona can be entirely real, accurately reflecting all information about a specific person, while also being dishonestly

138

V. V. Ivanov et al.

created with the specific purpose of someone else appearing in the online space under a false identity. Therefore, we can categorize all digital personas into conscientious ones, where the real persona coincides with the virtual one, and unconscientious ones, where the real persona does not match the virtual one, and anonymous ones, where the digital persona lacks a known or identifiable real prototype. Since digital personas can range from being an exact replica of a real person to a virtual reflection with varying degrees of distortion, it is only with a certain level of conventionality that we can refer to online accounts as precise digital duplicates. The term “digital persona” is also not entirely suitable, as we cannot consider a social media account a complete personality. Hence, the term “digital twin of a persona” would be more appropriate. Thus, for the purposes of legal regulation of relationships in cyberspace, it is appropriate to use the term “digital twin of a persona” to denote the digital reflection of a real person in the online environment, in the form of a social media account or other internet resources that allow for the creation of personalized and unique virtual profiles. Through these virtual profiles, the physical person can interact with cyberspace itself, other participants in cyberspace, and leave various electronic traces. At the same time, such a digital persona cannot be regarded as an autonomous subject since it lacks and cannot possess its own will (at least presently). It functions as a tool through which a real person interacts with cyberspace. Moreover, as previously observed, not only the lawful owner of the digital persona but also other individuals can make use of this tool. Consequently, a multitude of legal consequences arise that must be considered both in theory and in the practice of law. Specifically, when it comes to holding an individual accountable for committing a crime in the gaming world, it is insufficient to merely identify the account from which the offense was committed along with its owner. It is necessary to establish which specific person, utilizing that particular account, engaged in the said activities [14]. In this context, an analogy can be drawn to the familiar example among legal professionals of footprints left on the crime scene. A forensic expert-trassologist can never definitively determine who precisely left the discovered footprints. They can only provide an answer to the question of whose footwear left the trace—whether it belongs to the suspect or someone else. However, identifying who was wearing the footwear at the time of the crime necessitates the undertaking of additional investigative measures. It must be noted that we did not find any precedents in Russian practice specifically addressing the differentiation of accountability between the account owner and an unauthorized user of the said account. However, Russian courts generally examine whether an individual used their own account or someone else’s account to which they gained unauthorized access. For instance, in the case of L., he was convicted under Part 1 of Article 272 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation for using third-party login credentials to access Lineage 2 game accounts on the internet. He repeatedly played the game through the “hacked” account, thus utilizing the virtual assets of a legitimate player [15]. In this case, the “magic circle test” is entirely applicable since the actions of the player who knowingly used someone else’s account extend beyond the virtual realm. However, the court’s decision indicates that no real or in-game harm was inflicted upon the victim. Upon discovering that his account for the online game had been hacked from a different computer and blocked, he sought assistance from the technical support

Liability in the World of Games

139

team. The technical support staff transferred the existing information from his previous account to a new account, thereby restoring the qualities and abilities of his in-game character that existed prior to the account breach. The application of Part 1 of Article 272 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation to this situation raises doubts since the defendant’s actions did not result in the blocking or modification of computer information. 3.2 Disputes Between the Game Rights Holder and the Player Regarding Access to the Game Itself or the Items and Advantages Provided by the Rights Holder An example of a case in which the court denied protection to players’ rights is the Lineage game case, which significantly influenced the practice in Russia regarding the resolution of disputes in this field. The player filed multiple lawsuits against the company LLC “Innova Systems,” seeking compensation for the blocking of his account, the inability to use a “rented” virtual item called the “Experience Rune” for three days, and a reduction in the duration of his paid subscription to the Lineage 2 game service. The court rejected the claims, citing the impossibility of judicial protection of the gaming process, even in accordance with Article 1062, Part 1 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, which states that the claims of individuals and legal entities related to the organization of games and gambling or participation in them are not subject to judicial protection. Another court decision involved a user of the MMORPG Lineage 2 and Rising Force Online who acquired virtual objects amounting to a total of 235,508.26 RUB, allegedly under the influence of deception, according to the plaintiff’s statement. The defendant, LLC “Innova Systems,” objected, asserting that the paid services were not mandatory for participating in the game. In denying the claim, the court, similarly to the previous case, referred to Article 1062 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation. The position in this matter is not unequivocal. In a later case, the plaintiff filed a claim against LLC “Mail.Ru Games” due to the blocking of his account, which prevented him from accessing a service he had paid for. The court granted the claim, justifying its decision based on Article 13 of the Law on Consumer Protection, which stipulates that the manufacturer (performer, seller, authorized organization, or authorized individual entrepreneur, importer) is liable for violations of consumer rights as provided by law or contract. The court stated: “The plaintiff, as a consumer, ordered a paid service from the defendant, as a performer engaged in entrepreneurial activities, for personal purposes unrelated to entrepreneurial activities. However, he was unable to use this service due to the defendant’s blocking of his account, i.e., due to the defendant’s refusal to fulfill its obligations to provide the paid service.“ Furthermore, in this case, the court recognized the online game as computer software (although this decision is highly disputed but is not the subject matter of this paper) and stated that, due to the absence of a winning condition, it does not qualify as gambling. Nevertheless, the court did not dispute the right of the game’s rights holder to block the plaintiff’s account but only decided that the rights holder should reimburse the plaintiff for the money spent on acquiring additional in-game features that the plaintiff was unable to use. In our view, it is impossible to agree with the courts that seek to simplify their work by not considering exceptional cases and refusing to protect the rights of players, citing the

140

V. V. Ivanov et al.

fact that the cases involve games and gambling. Such qualification of the relationships is fundamentally incorrect, as the relationship between the player and the rights holder is of a different nature - either it involves the conclusion of a license agreement or a mixed agreement containing elements of a contract for remunerated services and a license. Therefore, a formal-legal analysis of Article 1062 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation does not allow classifying the game itself as a gambling game. However, it appears that the courts use this provision not because they consider a computer game to be gambling, but because they believe that certain actions of players should be evaluated not based on legislation but solely in accordance with the norms of “soft law” established by the game’s rights holders. In a relatively recent judicial decision [19], the court once again referred to the provisions of paragraph 1 of Article 1062 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation. However, when analyzing this court decision, attention should be drawn to the fact that the court prioritized the rules established by the game’s rights holder. The considered the following factors: • The player’s actions regarding the use of in-game currency, including exchanging it for other in-game assets/items, participating in game events, and further utilizing in-game items, are performed by the players themselves within the game (“magic circle test”). • Upon registration in the game, the user accepts the End-User License Agreement and the Game Rules by clicking the “Enter” button, which, according to the meaning of Articles 435 and 438 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, constitutes acceptance of the offer and the conclusion of a contract that imposes obligations on the player to comply with the conditions of the End-User License Agreement and the Game Rules. • Violation of the provisions of the aforementioned documents results in the application of in-game sanctions to players or their characters (thus, the court effectively acknowledged that an in-game character may be subject to responsibility for in-game actions). • The plaintiff, while controlling the character, violated the Game Rules. It was established that during the period of 2012–2013, the player, both during gameplay and on the game’s forums, made statements that, according to the Game Administration, were offensive in nature and contained elements of threats against other players or members of the Game Moderation Service. Additionally, the plaintiff used vulgar language in communications within the game and on the game’s forum. As a result, an in-game sanction was imposed on the player, partially restricting in-game functionality. Thus, in this case, the court not only recognized the application of the rules established by the game’s rights holder (“soft law”) but also applied them by correctly analyzing whether the norms of soft law were properly applied to the specific individual. In this case, the “magic circle test” was correctly applied, and in-game violations resulted in in-game liability established by the game’s rights holder. Another situation where, according to the “magic circle test” rule, soft law prevails over domestic legislation arises in cases of theft of in-game property/special abilities when such theft is permitted by the game’s rules. A prominent example is Ultima Online,

Liability in the World of Games

141

where the game’s rules allow one player to steal an item, they find appealing from another player’s inventory. The game’s rights holders argue that the owner of the item is not the player but their in-game character, who, in turn, is robbed by another character, whereas only a natural person can be considered the perpetrator of a crime. The rights holders of Ultima Online present another argument: they assert that the game’s rules explicitly state that thefts are permitted on this Internet platform, meaning that the purchaser of a sword or armor was aware that their virtual property was at risk of being stolen, thus precluding any liability from arising. 3.3 Actions at the “Intersection” of the Game and the Real World The following example demonstrates how players’ actions can extend beyond the virtual realm. In 2012, the Supreme Court of the Netherlands upheld the conviction of a young man who stole another boy’s property in a popular online game, sentencing the offender to community service. In 2007, an amulet and mask constituted virtual property belonging to a 13-year-old boy in the online game RuneScape. In the real world, he was physically assaulted and threatened with a knife to coerce him into accessing his game account and “drop” these items. The suspect’s attorney argued that the game items were “neither material nor immaterial and, unlike electricity, had no economic value“. However, the Supreme Court of the Netherlands declared that virtual objects have intrinsic value for gamers due to the “time and energy they invested” in acquiring them during gameplay. Essentially, it was stated that while millions of dollars are being brought into and withdrawn from virtual worlds every year, lawmakers need to develop new legislation to protect the rights of individuals who invest time and money in virtual environments. Despite the reasonably logical argumentation presented by the judicial authorities of the Netherlands, it can be expanded through the application of the “magic circle test,” as it is evident in this case that players’ actions took place outside the virtual world – the player’s real-life was threatened, not the virtual one. It appears that if the players had made the victim’s life “unbearable” within the game by continuously killing his character until he surrendered the requested item, it would be difficult to speak of any responsibility, especially if such actions align with the rules of the game world. In the event of rule violations, contractual measures of liability may be applied (such as an account “ban” – temporary or permanent suspension of access to the game), but not tortious or criminal liability. Another example is the well-known case of Andrey Kirsanov, who was charged with distributing bots and cheat codes for the games “World of Tanks” and “World of Warships.“ In July 2022, the Verkh-Isetsky District Court of Yekaterinburg issued a guilty verdict against Andrey, sentencing him to a 2 years and 6 months term of restricted freedom [6]. It should be noted that the punishment was not applied to the individuals who used the bots and cheat codes (as they may only face in-game consequences) for this action, but specifically for the distribution of “malicious programs”. In foreign jurisdictions, a similar approach is followed. For example, China is actively taking steps to develop its own virtual property rights as part of its program to build a competitive industry for the sale of virtual assets. One significant case illustrating this development is the Li Hongchen v. Beijing Arctic Ice Technology Development Co.

142

V. V. Ivanov et al.

Case, heard by the Second Appellate Court in Beijing. The dispute involved a user of an online game and the rights holder. The plaintiff’s account was hacked and stolen by a third party. The court ordered the rights holder to return the account, thereby restoring the ownership rights to its original owner. This is not an isolated judicial decision concerning virtual property in the country, as there have been other similar cases regarding virtual property rights in China [20, 21]. Matthew Chew notes that the majority of China’s gamers believes that rights to in-game assets should be protected by the government from unlawful interference by third parties [22]. And similarly, Taiwanese legislators took a comparable approach by stipulating that virtual property is protected as real-world property. The Ministry of Justice of Taiwan issued a resolution on November 23, 2011, stating that virtual property is considered as property in the legal sense, capable of being alienated and transferred. Furthermore, the theft of such virtual property is punishable under criminal law. This resolution solidifies the legal recognition and protection of virtual property rights in Taiwan [23].

4 Discussion Currently, there is a lack of societal consensus and clearly formulated legal norms regarding liability for actions in the gaming world. In these circumstances, the role of judicial authorities becomes particularly significant. The court’s resolution of such disputes should be used to find a balance among various interests in this sphere and become a subject of public discourse. Our analysis of court decisions in this field has led us to the conclusion that courts exercise their powers with caution, relying on intuition, but nevertheless distinguishing situations where state intervention and formal legal norms are necessary from those that should be resolved in accordance with “soft law” norms. The second significant conclusion entails the emergence of a new source of law in practice - rules of conduct that are binding for all individuals acting within specific digital platforms or virtual realms. These rules are established by novel entities - the rightsholders of games, proprietors of digital platforms - and extend to all individuals operating within these platforms, irrespective of their citizenship or physical location. Thus, there is a fundamental transformation of the previously deemed immutable paradigm, in line with which law consisted of behavioral rules created or sanctioned by states (or their unions). Law now encompasses behavioral rules specifically devised and formulated by extraterritorial entities. This form of law, referred to as “soft law,” does not inherently rely on enforcement capabilities from states; rather, it is based on voluntary recognition and presumed consent to the rules by players, users of digital platforms, and services. Nevertheless, these rules begin to exert influence beyond the digital realm, extending into the real world. Furthermore, these norms of “soft law” are starting to be acknowledged and protected by courts (including those in the Russian Federation), alongside rules established by the state (conventional understanding of law). This is an extremely significant development that alters the approach to law and its state protection. Attentive consideration should be directed toward its evolution and the transformation of its state-based safeguarding. Moreover, new means of ensuring compliance with the norms of “soft law” are emerging. For instance, in certain gaming communities, an extremely “toxic” gaming

Liability in the World of Games

143

culture can exist, wherein players may engage in offensive, demeaning, and disruptive behavior towards others in the virtual world’s chat environments. In such cases, it is undeniable that actions in the virtual realm begin to manifest in the real world, causing, among other things, emotional harm. Given this scenario, it is both reasonable and admissible for the rights holder to intervene. The rightsholder could assume the responsibility of ensuring the observance of rights and lawful interests of other players, including implementing measures against the violator through contractual mechanisms. Lastly, it is crucial to highlight the fundamental distinction of this new method of legal development from the traditional approach. Traditionally, the emergence of legal norms is a result of already manifested problems, clashes of various interests, and conflicts. Consequently, the law often reacts “belatedly” to societal changes, struggling to keep pace with them. This “retrospective” response of the state, which formulates legal norms in reaction to established conflicts between divergent interests, does not always guarantee a balanced character of the norms. In contrast, the norms of “soft law” generated by digital platforms are inherently designed. This signifies that during their creation, it is imperative to anticipate, project, and calculate the hypothetically possible consequences and clashes of interests. There is a pressing need to formulate these rules in a manner that allows them to be adhered to by individuals residing in different territories, within distinct states, and belonging to various cultures. Consequently, this demands a recourse to the most fundamental notions of justice that underlie our interactions with fellow individuals. Our projection suggests that under these circumstances, a fundamentally new role in the division of labor will emerge – that of the designer of “soft law” norms. Individuals poised to assume this role could possess not only expertise in jurisprudence and digital technologies but also a deep understanding of ethics, philosophy, anthropology, and sociology. They would comprehend the role and function of law, possess the capability to foresee potential risks, “balance” diverse interests, and construct comprehensible and unambiguously interpretable rules based on these considerations. Financial and Competing Interests’ Disclosure This work was supported by out with the financial support of the Russian Science Foundation № 22–18-00496, https://rscf.ru/project/22-18-00496/

References 1. Churilov, A.: Legal Regulation of Intellectual Property and New Technologies: Challenges of the 21st Century. Yustitsinform, Moscow (2020) 2. Analytical Center of NAFI: Attitude of Russians to cybersport [Special project]. https://nafi. ru/projects/it-i-telekom/otnoshenie-rossiyan-k-kibersportu-en-attitude-of-russians-to-cybers port-/ 3. Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Russian Federation: Brief description of the crime situation in the Russian Federation for January-December 2021 (2021). https://mvd.pf/reports/item/28021552 4. TASS: Criminal case initiated in Belarus for hijacking a virtual tank in the game World of Tanks (2014). https://tass.ru/proisshestviya/958774

144

V. V. Ivanov et al.

5. Burhanova, Y.I., Novokshonova, N.A.: Digital rights as objects of civil rights. Vestnik Chelyabinskogo Gosudarstvennogo Universiteta. Bull. Chelyabinsk State Univ. Ser. Law. (3), 35–40 (2022). https://doi.org/10.47475/2618-8236-2022-17306 6. Verdict of the Verkh-Isetsky District Court of Yekaterinburg, dated July 6, 2022, case number 1–382/22. https://verhisetsky--svd.sudrf.ru/modules.php?name=sud_delo&srv_num=2& name_op=doc&number=258206328&delo_id=1540006&new=0&text_number=1 7. Chinese gamer who killed over online game is sentenced. Videogamer. https://www.videog amer.com/news/chinese-gamer-who-killed-over-online-gameis-sentenced 8. Duranske, B.T.: Virtual Law: Navigating the Legal Landscape of Virtual Worlds. ABA Publishing, Chicago (2008) 9. Fairfield, J.: The magic circle. Vanderbilt J. Entertainment Technol. Law 11(4), 823–840 (2009) 10. Nazarov, V. N.: Digital double as a subject of information ethics. Ethic Thoughts. 1, 142–154 (2020). https://doi.org/10.21146/2074-4870-2020-20-1-142-154 11. Belsky, V.Y., Maikova, V.P., Molchan, E.M., Levitskaya, A.A.: Digital transformation of personality in virtual reality. Socio-Humanitarian Knowl. 4, 131–137 (2021). https://doi.org/ 10.34823/SGZ.2021.4.51637 12. Shipunova, O.D., Pozdeeva, E.G., Evseeva, L.I.: Digital applications and models of personality in the context of cyberanthropology. Sociology. 5, 234–239 (2021). https://doi.org/10. 24412/1812-9226-2021-5-234-239 13. Bylieva, D.S.: A semiverse of games. In: Bylieva, D., Nordmann, A. (eds.) The World of Games: Technologies for Experimenting, Thinking, Learning: XXIII Professional Culture of the Specialist of the Future, LNNS. Springer, Cham (2024) 14. Ivanov, V.V., Zuev, D.I.: Digital double and digital identity: concept, correlation, significance in the process of cybercrime and in law as a whole. Rule of Law Theory Pract. 4(70), 138–144 (2022). https://doi.org/10.33184/pravgos-2022.4.19 15. Nizhny Novgorod Regional Court.: Appellate ruling of the Nizhny Novgorod Regional Court in case No. 22–1216/2018 (2018). https://sudact.ru/regular/doc/QZbcQM3R4XlJ 16. Magistrates’ Court of Judicial Unit No. 352, Basmanny District, Moscow.: Decision of the Magistrates’ Court of Judicial Unit No. 352, Basmanny District, Moscow, No. 2–01/11 (2011) 17. Lefortovo District Court, Moscow.: Decision of the Lefortovo District Court, Moscow, in case No. 2–3379/2011 (2011) 18. Leninsky District Court, Kemerovo.: Appellate determination of the Leninsky District Court, Kemerovo, No. 11–59/2013, in case No. 1159/2013 (2013). https://sudact.ru/regular/doc/uQ8 1NVpYhP1v/ 19. Moscow City Court, Civil Collegium.: Appellate determination of the Moscow City Court, Civil Collegium, in case No. 33–21065/19 (2019). https://mos-gorsud.ru/mgs/services/cases/ appeal-civil/details/0de6b77e-95c8-4707-8921-f762e36dd67d 20. Glushko, B.: Tales of the (Virtual) city: governing property disputes in virtual worlds. Berkeley Technol. Law J. 1, 507–532 (2007) 21. Hanyue, W.: Intangible property: protection of virtual property in electronic games in China and US. J. Finance Res. 4, 119–123 (2020). https://doi.org/10.26549/jfr.v4i2.3752 22. Chew, M.: Virtual property in China: the emergence of gamer rights awareness and the reaction of game corporations. New Media Soc. 13, 722–738 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1177/146144 4810378480 23. Joshua, A.T.: Fairfield. Virtual Property Boston Univ. law Rev. 85, 1047–1102 (2005)

Cities and Societies, Organization and Cooperation

Communications Using Gamification for the Implementation of Urban Projects Ekaterina Nalimova(B)

, Viola Larionova , and Natalia Stepanova

Ural Federal University (UrFU), Mira Str., 19, Yekaterinburg 620002, Russia [email protected], {V.A.Larionova,N.R.Stepanova}@urfu.ru

Abstract. The article deals with topical issues of using digital technologies to involve the active population in the promotion of urban projects at the preinvestment stage of their implementation. The purpose of the article is to analyze and prove the hypothesis about the impact of communications with gamification elements on the development of civil society. The methodology of the article includes theoretical and empirical research methods: blitz and in-depth interviews, observation, analysis, methods of digital and visual anthropology. It is proposed to focus on visualizing the future image of the territory, organizing events that attract interested citizens, leaders of the professional community and government officials, discussing proposals, opinions and wishes of citizens through various means of communication. This scientific novelty is of great practical importance, as it inspires confidence on the part of the main users of urban spaces, creates an emotional attachment to a particular place and contributes to the formation of a proactive position of citizens, including in solving environmental problems and preserving cultural heritage. Keywords: Communications · Game practices · Urban projects · Citizens · Media · Public spaces

1 Acquaintance 1.1 Justification of the Problem Communications as a way of forming information connections in society today permeate all spheres of life and are an integral part of any project. Nevertheless, this is a new direction in urban projects, influencing the importance of the opinion of the population in matters of change and development of the urban environment [1–3]. The formation of digital technologies, including social networks, crowdsourcing, platforms for joint activities, creates conditions for promoting the ideas of urban projects, forming communities of active citizens to discuss these concepts, their successful implementation and further development [4–6]. At the same time, the success of a city project is directly related to the degree of involvement of city residents in the development of the project at the earliest stages of its implementation, which can also be increased through gamification.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Bylieva and A. Nordmann (Eds.): PCSF 2023, LNNS 830, pp. 147–159, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-48020-1_13

148

E. Nalimova et al.

The reason for writing this article was the participation of the authors in the Urban Practices program by Strelka KB together with the Administration of the City of Yekaterinburg from November 18 to December 4, 2021 (https://architects.rf/urban-practices/ ekaterinburg). The participants of the program (56 people) were divided into six teams. They had to consider the whole range of issues related to the implementation of urban projects, starting with the priorities for the development of the urban environment and ending with comprehensive projects for the development of territories. As a design assignment commissioned by the Department of Architecture, Urban Planning and Regulation of Land Relations of the Administration of the city of Yekaterinburg, it was proposed to develop options for the concepts of renovation, revitalization and integrated development of three sites on the territory of the Verkh-Isetsky Plant (VIZ). In the process of working on projects, which took place in a game format, we decided to test the hypothesis: is it possible to intensify the involvement of citizens in the development of urban areas with the help of communications using gamification elements? 1.2 Literature Review To conduct a study of the impact of gamification on the implementation of urban projects, an analysis of scientific papers on the selected topic was carried out. The well-known methods of public presentations by Sanoff [7] and Creighton [8] as the highest degree of influence on urban projects are most often found in practice. According to Arnstein [9], the lowest level of influence on urban projects is informing, however, this does not take into account the opinions of citizens. At the moment, in the city of Yekaterinburg, universities disseminate information about urban planning and management of the development of the territory, which effectively attracts active youth and caring residents to the desire to participate in territorial development projects. This confirms the theory of Davis, Clinch and Alt [10] that the dissemination of information about planning in crowded places actively involves the population in pressing problems of urban planning. And according to Oxman [11], among other things, it increases awareness and expands the possibilities of influence even for those people who rarely take part in public events. Connecting citizens to urban planning is beneficial for a number of reasons. First, it shows the real interests of society according to Davis, Clinch and Alt [10]. Secondly, Fagens [12] believes that it helps to manage conflict situations between the state and citizens. Thirdly, according to Pateman [13], based on the foregoing, this helps to achieve better results due to the synergistic effect of the joint efforts of the state and society. Thus, based on the analysis of the literature, we see that the interaction of citizens and the city administration, with the right approach, can be more effective than private initiative. And in order to strengthen it, we will use gamification tools. Over the past ten years, at the Department of Economics and Construction Management, we have been actively engaged in game practices in management, having developed an information resource on the Hypermethod platform of the Ural Federal University (https://learn.urfu. ru/subject/index/card/subject_id/3812) and try to use games to develop the skills necessary for making strategic decisions, including in activating the solution of Urban projects [14]. Our hypothesis was confirmed in a study by Aldemir, Selick and Kaplan [15], who

Communications Using Gamification for the Implementation of Urban Projects

149

looked at students’ perception of game elements on various processes. They note that in recent years, gamification has become more popular and noticeable in everyday life. As a result, game mechanics began to be integrated into everyday activities through mobile apps and reward systems that encourage people to collect rewards in the form of badges. So, our task will be to use a point-rating reward system with an analysis of actions in urban practices. 1.3 Relevance and Practical Significance The object of the study was the Verkh-Isetsky Metallurgical Plant, one of the oldest enterprises in Yekaterinburg with a three-century history. The territory in question is a factory zone, from which the district and the city once began. It is located near the city center, so it can become a point of attraction not only for residents of the Verkh-Isetsky district, but also for the city as a whole [16–18]. The territory of the embankment of the pond of the Verkh-Isetsky district of the city of Yekaterinburg has long attracted public attention. Previously, 20–30 years ago, it was a favorite place for employees of the Verkh-Isetsky plant (VIZ) and residents of Yekaterinburg, where they spent their leisure time: swimming, fishing, doing active sports, having picnics. Now the situation has changed dramatically due to the unfavorable environmental situation and the lack of funds from the plant for landscaping. In 2021, the mayor’s office of Yekaterinburg announced its intention to globally reconstruct the area of the VIZ embankment and its territory. By 2025, it is planned to move production workshops outside the city and create a museum and historical center on the territory of the plant, which will be attractive to citizens and guests of the capital of the Urals, including through the comprehensive improvement of public spaces [19]. The reconstruction of the embankment of the Verkh-Isetsky pond also includes the laying of bicycle and pedestrian routes, which should subsequently form the longest walking area not only in Yekaterinburg, but also in Russia. This article proposes the concept of a project for the integrated development of the embankment of the Verkh-Isetsky pond and the adjacent territory, which was proposed in practice of urban projects using gamification. The experience of implementing such projects in Russia shows that often the concept that was formed by specialists (architects, builders, developers, etc.) does not resonate with residents or is not sufficiently developed from the point of view of consumers. This is largely due to a superficial analysis of the space, insufficient communication with residents, communities, activists and, as a result, unreasonable strategies for the development of territories. There are many examples of successful and unsuccessful renovation of old industrial areas in various cities of Russia and abroad in history. The reasons for unsuccessful projects, as a rule, are insufficient study of environmental, anthropological and other features of the designed space. To reduce risks and achieve the goals of the project, new approaches to involving citizens in project management in the early stages of implementation, as well as new models of communication of communities based on digital technologies, are required. Today, there are many data-driven tools that help city authorities make decisions, improve the level of public services, and make the urban environment more comfortable

150

E. Nalimova et al.

for life. These are analytical services for processing big data, the Internet of Things, intelligent infrastructure, smart transport, smart energy [20]. The development of digital technologies also makes it possible to quickly and effectively promote territories, creating their visual image on the Internet, popularizing the brand of a city or a certain space, collecting feedback from citizens and guests of the city through media communications. Opportunities for residents to participate in the management of urban projects are also expanding through the discussion of ideas and concepts on social networks, on crowdsourcing platforms, through digital services on the public services portal, which significantly increases the degree of involvement of citizens in the management of the urban environment and the development of urban spaces. 1.4 The Purpose and Objectives of the Study The aim of the work is to study the possibilities of digital technologies using gamification to increase the level of civic participation in the management of urban projects on the example of the project for the integrated development of the embankment of the VerkhIsetsky pond and the surrounding area. Objectives of the study: − Involvement of the public in the discussion of the city project at the stage of concept formation, including the use of gamification; − Study of consumer requests and organization of feedback collection; − Socio-economic justification of the project for the development of the territory as a preamble to the formation of the terms of reference; − Discussion of proposals for the development of the territory using socio-cultural programming in the form of a game based on trust; − The use of communications in the strategy of promoting urban projects. The object of the study is urban development projects, a project for the integrated development of the embankment and adjacent territories of the Verkh-Isetsky plant. The subject of the study is communications as a means of involving residents in the management of these projects using a gamification tool (Table 1). Let’s consider the process of communication with gamification elements using the example of a community of active citizens in urban practices in Yekaterinburg. In fact, it was 56 people who passed the competitive selection, divided into teams that worked online and offline under the supervision of tutors and experts. At the beginning of the work at the organizational stage, participants were tested to determine its functionality in the team and roles were assigned for the joint work of students and program managers (see Table 2). The selection criteria were: 1. Work in the field of urban development: architecture, design, landscape design, development, public sector at the regional or municipal level, business, specialized educational institutions, public activities. 2. Accommodation in the region of the program. 3. The application for participation must be formulated clearly, disclose in detail the expectations from participation in the program.

Communications Using Gamification for the Implementation of Urban Projects

151

Table 1. Instructions for game practice. Characteristic

Meaning

1. Number of game practice organizers

14 people (presenter - 1, his assistants - 3, one tutor as a mentor per team - 6, invited experts - 4 people)

2. Age of participants

from 18 to 70 years old

3. Number of participants

6 teams of 8–10 activists

4. Duration

30 days

5. Organizers

KB Strelka and the Department of Territorial Development of the Administration of the City of Yekaterinburg

6. Venue

The boiling point of the city of Yekaterinburg, including online work

7. Rules

Go through 5 stages of the calendar schedule in sequence (level 1 - pre-project analysis; level 2 formulation of the main idea of the territory; level 3 - development of a project financing model and functional zoning; level 4 development of scenarios and strategies for the development of the territory; level 5 - final defense in front of experts) to present the final concept of the city project and public protection. Among the teams, the winner is the one that scored the maximum number of points during the passage of all stages of the development of the concept of development of the territory according to the expert jury and urban development activists

8. Participant Evaluation System

From 0 to 10 points of expert evaluation for each level, for the game a maximum of 50 points. After passing the last level, the points are summed up and the winner is revealed

9. What does the game practice give to the participants?

Increased involvement in urban development projects, as well as mini-prizes for all energetic participants and additional initiatives. The winners will have the opportunity to participate in the formation of the terms of reference for the development of the project for professionals

4. Obligation to participate in all activities of the program. Based on the results of the selection, teams were formed consisting of 2–3 architects, 1–2 designers, 1–2 designers, 2–3 city activists, 1–2 civil servants.

152

E. Nalimova et al. Table 2. Roles, functions, interaction of participants.

Role

Functions

Communication with other roles

Activist

- Listening to lectures of the “City Projects” program; - Interaction with the team (2–3 times a week Zoom meetings): identifying scenarios for the development of the territory, conducting discussions, operational work on the project

- The activist listens to the opinion of the tutor, but has the right to leave the development scenario chosen by the team; - The activist can ask for help from teachers giving lectures to solve the current problem of the project; - The activist listens to the final opinion of experts, if necessary, leads a discussion and can apply for cooperation

Tutor

- Tracking the progress of the team; - Help the team: conflict resolution, recommendations on the concept of the project

- The tutor is a kind of “captain” for activists - The tutor conveys the team’s questions to the teachers and makes recommendations for conducting lectures on behalf of the team; - The tutor is responsible for the team’s work in front of experts

Teacher

- Conducting lectures according to the schedule of classes; - Answers to students’ questions

- The teacher must answer students’ questions, becoming attached to their scenario for the development of the territory; - The teacher collects feedback from students on satisfaction with the lesson through a tutor; - The teacher must coordinate the lecture material with experts

Expert

- Gives recommendations for further development of the concept; - Acts as a link between the employer and the activist

- The expert identifies talented activists and cooperates with them; - The expert appoints tutors for training; - The expert evaluates the work taking into account the opinion of the teachers of the “City Practices”

The experts were Alexey Khramov, Head of the Department of Architecture, Urban Planning and Regulation of Land Relations of the Yekaterinburg City Administration, Andrey Molokov, Chief Architect of Yekaterinburg, Anna Akimova, representative of the Industrial Experiment grant competition within the framework of the Museum Without Borders program of the Vladimir Potanin Charitable Foundation, Olga Chumicheva, manager of socio-cultural projects, adviser to the director of the Museum of Moscow for strategic development projects. One tutor was allocated to the team, who had previously passed the “City Practices” and successfully defended the work in front of experts.

Communications Using Gamification for the Implementation of Urban Projects

153

The teams were given three different sections of the territory under consideration, and as boundary conditions in the form of a game, it was proposed to consider two options: the first is that the plant is working, the second is that the plant is not working. The game form was the passage of levels (see Table 1, paragraph 7). At the end of each level, scores were given (from 0 to 10) and further recommendations were given from experts and teachers. Scoring during the game spurred team spirit and competition arose between the participating teams. The teams asked each other questions in order to come to the best solution for the city and its inhabitants in the competition. We proposed to introduce gamification elements for involvement in the work through the use of such game elements as receiving bonuses for being active in discussing the team’s work on projects and receiving mini prizes for all active participants. In our opinion, the best gifts are books on urbanism and territorial development. All projects were heard, discussed, and then accepted for implementation of alternative projects in the Bank at the round table “Comprehensive revitalization of the Verkh-Isetsky plant and the surrounding area” on December 13, 2021, at the summit of architects, urbanists, and designers “Arch of Eurasia”.

2 Elaboration of the Problem According to Strelka KB experts, the following projects are successful examples of involving citizens both online and offline in the development of urban projects: Sevkabelport, New Holland, St. Petersburg, Moscow, FLACON SPACE solutions for small regional spaces in the cities of Ryazan, Izhevsk, Veliky Novgorod and others. A similar example of the gamification of the development of urban projects was an open meeting with the support of the Vladimir Potanin Foundation as part of the Effective Philanthropy Charity Program, during which a game session was held on the participatory design of an abandoned city hospital. Before the start of the game, a tour of the hospital was held, then the teams were given building maps and stickers. With stickers, the participants zoned the territory, and later the teams exchanged cards with each other. The opposing team argued their agreement/disagreement with the zoning of the opponents in front of the jury. As a reward, the winning team received small cash and memorable prizes from the organizers. Regarding the use of media communications in the promotion of urban projects and the replication of experience, special attention should be paid to the Russian project “Strategies for the promotion of urban projects” from the art director of the Directorate of Parks and Squares of the capital of Tatarstan, the city of Kazan, Daria Kurakova. The Directorate was established in 2017 and today successfully manages the squares and parks of Kazan. Communication strategy - openness, activity, emotionality, the principle of “single window” in the request-response mode. One of the effective communication tools is social networks, such as VKontakte. Here you can effectively talk about urban projects, building good-neighborly communications. An interesting international example is the “Quarter by Quarter” project. This unique collaboration between UN Habitat and the gaming company Mojang consists of collaborative workshops during which participants are encouraged to use Minecraft as a visualization tool [15]. Together with experts, they design and reconstruct public spaces.

154

E. Nalimova et al.

We offer to use the works, published works and collections of conferences in the direction of territorial development and, of course, status diplomas with the definition of ambassadors of urban development for activists as mini prizes.

3 Research Methodology Theoretical and empirical methods were used to conduct the study: in-depth interviews and blitz interviews were taken from 10 representatives of various target groups directly interacting with the territory (Table 2), the method of participant observation during a two-hour tour of the territory, methods of visual anthropology using photographic fixation of objects, methods of digital anthropology based on data from Yandex maps with analysis of pedestrian flows. All the activists who took part in the work on the project were thanked for their cooperation and inviting, with their consent, to further notification about our next projects. The hypothesis of the study was that the activation of urban communities and the involvement of the active population in the management of urban projects on the basis of a new communication strategy with the use of digital technologies will qualitatively improve the development of territories. In the course of the study, the communication strategy developed by the authors of the media for organizing work with the active urban population in the modern digital environment was tested. This strategy opens up new opportunities for participation and involvement of citizens in the promotion of urban projects, including through digital technologies.

4 Studies One of the main questions in the study of citizens’ preferences in relation to the territory in question is: “Who uses the territory and for whom is it more attractive at the moment?”. Based on an anthropological study conducted in November 2021, the following categories of users were identified, as well as their preferences were studied (see Table 3). Thus, using the method of in-depth interviews, it was revealed that the territory can and should develop. As can be seen from Table 3, users have requests that can be satisfied, but the peculiarities of the territory should be considered: − Pollution of the reservoir bank in the city center, − The plant and its historical heritage, − The disunity of the territories, the lack of ties between them, − The presence of a beach and places for sports, − Rich natural potential, − The presence of a residential private sector and small businesses, − As well as restrictions: sanitary protection zones and cultural heritage sites (OCH). In addition, the plant itself has recently been constantly reducing production and reducing staff, so the buildings adjacent to it are rented by third parties. They house small businesses: car washes, tire shops, cafes and spas. These are separate legal entities that

Communications Using Gamification for the Implementation of Urban Projects

155

Table 3. Targeted requests from users of the territory. Users

A way to interact with the territory Development Preferences

Residents

- Walks along the embankment; - Active recreation in winter and summer (skiing, skating, Nordic walking); - A place of acquaintances and gatherings, often marginal; - Passive family and friendly vacation

- Clear the area of unwanted debris; - Improvement of interior and exterior space

Athletes

- yacht club; - Children’s sections; - Regional Representation of Sports

- Development of sports infrastructure

Anglers

- Fishing in both winter and summer

- Improvement of transport infrastructure; - Pond cleaning

Religious society

- They come to serve in the old - Creation of recreational areas; temple; -Literal spaces - Preservation of cultural property

Tourists

- Study of the history of the city; - Watching spectacular competitions on the water

- Cross-country ability of pedestrians and vehicles; - Improving the appearance of the room

Employees of the plant

- Place of work and rest after it; - The high historical significance makes this place especially important

- Creation of catering outlets; - Preservation of the historical significance of the place

are territorially separated and do not interact with each other, so there is no connection between the road network and the embankment, the territory of the plant, which leads to a lack of integrity of space and integrated management of the entire territory [22, 23]. The restrictions imposed by the presence of the OCH also limit the development of the territory. However, the three-century history of the Verkh-Isetsky plant is a good reason to turn the closed industrial zone into a modern cultural creative space, which can become the main point of attraction for the city [23, 24]. Thus, today the territory, which has a high cultural and economic potential, is not sufficiently exploited according to the historically established, but unpromising scenario. Based on the existing demand and potential of the territory, the following areas of development can be distinguished: Firstly, it is a city beach as a place for large-scale performances, as well as a natural place for a relaxing holiday. From the above table it follows that the territory should be cleared of debris and, if possible, the water of the pond should be purified, additional toilet cabins should be installed, existing bicycle routes should be improved and new

156

E. Nalimova et al.

ones created, catering places should be created, and this place should be given a single laconic look [25]. Secondly, it is necessary to preserve the sports beginning of this place and develop sports infrastructure, for example, add SUP surf rental, install sports grounds equipped with outdoor exercise equipment. Since the Ural climate assumes low temperatures for most of the year, it is possible to make a large skating rink. It is necessary to open more sports sections available to citizens since the main point of sports attraction is still quite expensive yachting [26]. Thirdly, it is possible to form a creative cluster based on existing buildings, including ICU. This will become a point of attraction for creative people [6, 27]. Fourthly, it is necessary to develop residential development. Since most of the dilapidated housing, partially abandoned, is located here, this attracts marginalized individuals. As a result of the SWOT analysis, scenarios for the development of the VIZ territory were formed (see Fig. 1) by the game team of urban practices with an emphasis on the following types of active recreation of citizens: − Walks along the promenade, − Nordic walking, cycling and other areas, − Leisure and entertainment in the commercial cluster, − City festivals and exhibitions, − Excursions and informative lectures, − Fishing, yachting, SUP.

Fig. 1. An example of the use of all three territories [Author’s work]

All of these activities were reported at the city’s Boiling Point for specialists and activists. And again, a gamification tool was used here with the definition and presentation of small special gifts and souvenirs as a token of appreciation for the enthusiasm of active participants. So the gamification of the process allows you not to miss the opportunity to learn, participate and be marked with a memorable sign as a reward.

Communications Using Gamification for the Implementation of Urban Projects

157

5 Discussion All of the above scenarios, taking into account the boundary conditions, can become the basis for the implementation of projects with the support of the City Administration and investment injections. These proposals were approved by experts during the educational program, and therefore can be the subject of public discussion. And the proposed algorithm of work in the form of a game can be successfully replicated for new urban projects. Taking into account the experience of Russian and international projects, based on the approbation of communication technologies within the framework of the study, it is possible to formulate a new media communication strategy, where the main features of which are openness and activity, emotionality and modernity, the principle of “single window” (feedback). All this inspires confidence on the part of the main users of spaces. Taking part in the discussion and promotion of urban projects, active citizens realize that they not only improve the territory, but also create conditions for a new life that will be of interest to residents. In addition to the fact that they are now involved in the life of the created space, they continue to broadcast their positive reactions on social networks. This method of disseminating information, in contrast to the well-known targeted advertising on Instagram, allows you to get a “warm” target audience. At the same time, users of the space associate their positive emotions with those who created this place, which contributes to the formation of an emotional connection with the place. The recipe is simple: in order to increase interest in a particular territory, it is necessary to tell about the history of the place, attract new users to the territory through opinion leaders and social networks, and increase their participation by creating various events. Then the townspeople will take care of this space as if it were their own home, paying attention to comfort, cleanliness and the environment, following the principles of a green economy. And in order to witness the dynamic interaction between speakers, speakers, activists and audiences, simple elements of encouragement can be introduced in the form of commemorative cards and booklets. Experts speak, and the audience applauds and asks questions. At the end, a special program determines the winner among the presented project concepts in the opinion of the audience. Then any active participation from caring citizens will play an important role not only in the creation of inspiring atmosphere, but also to determine the winner among the presented project concepts.

6 Conclusions The main task facing any city administration is to increase the business activity of the territory and attract investment for its development. To do this, firstly, it is necessary to draw attention to the territory through the formation of an image, ideas about it in the information space, this will be especially effective when using digital technologies based on a built-in media communication strategy using game elements. This will allow active citizens to be involved in the project and significantly increase the effectiveness of promotion. The organization of events in a game format also increases the recognition of the territory, which contributes to the growth of traffic, the unification of opinion leaders, and the growth of interest from representatives of the business community

158

E. Nalimova et al.

and other developers. In this case, connections, urban communities begin to form on the territory, the well-being of people and, as a result, the economic well-being of the territory improves. However, it should be noted that possible investments in the renovation and revitalization of the territory may have a long payback period, which reduces their investment attractiveness. For the successful implementation of urban projects, it is necessary to focus on those functional capabilities that will be most in demand among citizens. It is important to identify the preferences of city residents at the pre-investment stage of the project through public and city discussion of the territory. Even with the largest investments, the project can fail if the residents of the city know little about it and the image of the future territory is not formed in the public consciousness. A well-formed media communication strategy with elements of gamification contributes to the growth of trust on the part of the main users of urban spaces, creates an emotional attachment to a particular place and contributes to the formation of a proactive position of citizens, including in solving environmental problems and in preserving cultural heritage.

References 1. Van Kamp, I., Leidelmeijer, K., Marsman, G., De Hollander, A.: Urban environmental quality and human well-being. Landsc. Urban Plan. 65, 5–18 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1016/S01692046(02)00232-3 2. Shershneva, E.G.: Citizens perception of urban architectural space (on example of industrial city Ekaterinburg). IOP Conf. Ser.: Mater. Sci. Eng. 1079, 022003 (2021). https://doi.org/10. 1088/1757-899X/1079/2/022003 3. Bylieva, D., Lobatyuk, V., Shestakova, I.: Shared micromobility: between physical and digital reality. Sustainability 14, 2467 (2022). https://doi.org/10.3390/su14042467 4. Andreou, M., Manika, S.: Citizen opinions on the organization of a smart city for housing, urban structures, and quality of life: the case of Kos Island, Greece. IOP Conf. Ser.: Earth Environ. Sci. 899, 012050 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/899/1/012050 5. Celino, I., Calegari, G.R., Fiano, A.: Towards Talkin’Piazza: Engaging citizens through playful interaction with urban objects. In: 2016 IEEE International Smart Cities Conference (ISC2), pp. 1–5. IEEE, Trento (2016). https://doi.org/10.1109/ISC2.2016.7580809 6. von Xylander, C.: Quipping equipment. apropos of robots and kantian chatbots. Technology and Language 3, 82–103 (2022). https://doi.org/10.48417/technolang.2022.01.09 7. Sanoff, H.: Community Participation Methods in Design and Planning. John Wiley & Sons, San Francisco (2000) 8. Creighton, J.L.: The Public Participation Handbook: Making better Decisions through Citizen Involvement. John Wiley & Sons, San Francisco (2005) 9. Arnstein, S.: A ladder of citizen participation. J. Am. Inst. Plann. 35(4), 216–224 (1969). https://doi.org/10.1080/01944363.2018.1559388 10. Davies, N., Clinch, S., Alt, F.: Pervasive displays: Understanding the future of digital signage. Synthesis Lectures on Mobile and Pervasive Computing. 8(1), 1–128 (2014). https://doi.org/ 10.1007/978-3-031-02484-9 11. Oksman, V., Väätänen, A., Ylikauppila, M.: Co-creation of sustainable smart cities. In: UBICOMM 2014: The Eighth International Conference on Mobile Ubiquitous Computing, Systems, Services and Technologies, pp. 189–195. IARIA, Wilmington (2014) 12. Fagence, M.: Citizen Participation in Planning. Pergamon, London (2014)

Communications Using Gamification for the Implementation of Urban Projects

159

13. Pateman, C.: Participation and Democratic Theory. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (1970). https://doi.org/10.1017/S0008423900030183 14. Bareycheva, M., Stepanova, N., Bochkov, P., Davy, Y.: Use of games for the development of personal skills necessary for strategic decision-making. In: Proceedings of the European Conference on Game-Based Learning, pp. 58–66. ACPI, Odense (2019) 15. Aldemir, T., Selik, B., Kaplan, G.: Qualitative study of students’ perception of game elements in a game course. Comput. Hum. Behav. 78, 235–254 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb. 2017.10.00111 16. Alferov, N.: Architects of the Old Urals: the First Half of the XIX Century. Sverdlovsk Book, Sverdlovsk (1960) 17. Biryukova, A., Burganov, A., Tsorik, A.: Theoretical Concept of Improvement of the floodplain of the old Industrial territory of the Upper Iset plant in Yekaterinburg. In: International scientific conference FAD TOGU New ideas of the new century, pp. 33–40. Yekaterinburg, Russia (2021) 18. How will the “Heart” of the Visa change? Administration of the Verkhny Isetsky district. https://vepx-icetcki.ekatepinbypg.pf/novocti/166012 19. Zorin, G.: Smart city technologies and their application in territory management. Bulletin of the Russian University of Cooperation. 1(43), 45–50 (2021). https://doi.org/10.52623/22274383-1-43-9 20. From mud to Princes: Renovation of abandoned Industrial Zones near the “Big water”. https://archsovet.msk.ru/article/gorod/iz-gryazi-v-knyazi-renovaciya-zabroshennyhpromzon-u-bol-shoy-vody 21. Puttkamer, L.: Gamification in Urban Planning: Participation Through Minecraft. https:// www.urbanet.info/gamification-in-urban-planning-participation-through-minecraft/ 22. Dudarenko, V., Gerasimov, N., Genin, L., Vydrin, I.: Local self-government bodies and preservation of cultural heritage objects. Municipality: Economy and Management. 3(24), 11–19 (2018) 23. Kuznetsova, Y.: Regulatory and Legal Framework for the protection of Cultural heritage objects in Yekaterinburg (2002–2011): the main development trends. In: XII All-Russian Student Scientific and Practical Conference, pp. 203–206. Ural Federal University, Yekaterinburg (2019) 24. Voronina, L.: The attitude of young people to the problem of preservation and popularization of cultural heritage objects. In: All-Russian Scientific and Practical conference with international participation, pp. 212–217. Ural Federal University, Yekaterinburg (2016) 25. Wagner, E.: The processes of Urbanization and the Development of Pedestrian Communications (on the example of the formation of cities in Central Europe, Russia and the planning zones of Krasnoyarsk). Architecton: news of universities. 2(38), 1 (2012) 26. Khakimova, E.: Creative Cluster as an element of creative economy. Actual Problems of Economics and Management at the Enterprises of Mechanical Engineering, Oil and Gas Industry in an Innovation-Oriented Economy 1, 418–423 (2014) 27. Pastukhova, E.: The relationship of population health and socio-economic factors (on the example of Siberian regions). Regional Economy: Theory and Practice 10(433), 180–189 (2016)

“The Best City Left”: City 17 in the Half Life 2 Game Universe and the Transformation of the Image of Cities of the Future Ivan Aladyshkin(B)

, Maria Odinokaya , Aleksey Pyatnitsky , and Maxim Novikov

Peter the Great St.Petersburg Polytechnic University, 29 Polytechnicheskaya Street, St.Petersburg 195251, Russian Federation [email protected]

Abstract. The article is devoted to the rethinking of the visual image of the city in popular culture and the role in this process of one of the most iconic and memorable cities ever created in video games. The novelty lies in the activation of the classic category “image of the city” in the analysis of the aesthetic and narrative foundations of the virtual urban space of the Half Life 2 series of games in the broad context of the visualization of future urbanism in popular culture. On the example of City 17, which is the spatial center of the entire game universe of Half Life 2, the mechanisms of figurative influence on the player, the reflection in virtual urbanism of general trends in the representation of urban space, the enormous opportunities in the implementation of fictional worlds, relaying specific images of virtual reality and its meaningful parameters are studied. All images of fantastic megacities are constructing a future with the prospects of transforming the urban environment, man and the world as a whole. And City 17 is no exception, but rather a contrasting and original illustration of the rethinking and re-evaluation of not only the visual image, but also the very nature of the representation of the city and its role in modern society. The authors come to the conclusion that the dystopian city created in the Half Life 2 video game continues and develops the direction of discrediting the city as a symbol of human civilization and its future living space, which has been established in science fiction since the middle of the 20th century. City 17 is another urban nightmare with a specific variation on an inhospitable, repulsive space that is both familiar due to the familiar elements of dystopian fantasy cities, and at the same time palpably different due to the original visualization of integration with alien technologies. Such an image of the city coincides with the general trend, which is only emerging today, of crowding out urban landscapes from the center to the periphery of the proposed future. The city ceases to be a symbol of the future, whatever that future may be. Keywords: Video Games · City Image · Visualization · Virtual Space · Fantasy

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Bylieva and A. Nordmann (Eds.): PCSF 2023, LNNS 830, pp. 160–176, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-48020-1_14

“The Best City Left”: City 17 in the Half Life 2 Game Universe

161

1 Introduction “You chose it yourself, or it was chosen for you - this is the best city left. I have such a high opinion of City 17 that I have decided to place my government here in the Citadel, so carefully provided by our Patrons. I am proud to call City 17 my home,”- these are the words that Gordon Freeman, the protagonist of the legendary video game Half Life 2, meets the Interim Administrator of the Earth Wallace Breen [1]. And these are the first words that the player hears when arriving at the central location of the game - City 17. And the words about the “best city” immediately cause dissonance with the views of the shabby walls of the station opening to the player who has just left the train, with the depressed mood of the passengers and those meeting them, which are little more than rather aggressive law enforcement officers. Still, it’s one of the best cities created in the already quite rich history of video game universes. Developed by the American company Valve (headquartered in Bellevue, Washington), the sci-fi first-person shooter, the sequel to Half-Life, was released back in 2004 by today’s standards. This computer game has received universal recognition, collecting all conceivable awards (more than 45 titles “Game of the Year 2004”, more than once recognized as the best video game in the history of their creation). Amazing at the time, character animation, advanced enemy AI, realistic physics and shader rendering, combined with the original, thoroughly developed game world and an unprecedented level of player interaction with it, Half-Life 2 not only changed the first-person shooter genre, but also set the highest bar for creating game universes. The game made a huge impression not only due to technical innovations, an extraordinary plot, a balanced heterogeneous gameplay, but also the originality of a detailed world. And if in the first Half-Life the Black Mesa research complex acted as the unifying link of game locations, then in the sequel, the fictional City 17 played such a role. Most of the game action takes place just on the territory of the city and its outskirts. City 17 has become one of the most iconic and memorable cities ever created in video games, impressing with the realization of a dystopian world enslaved and ruled by an extraterrestrial civilization. But how does the virtual City 17 relate to the history of visualization of fantastic cities, and what role does it play in it? This question determines the purpose of the study, assuming an analysis of the impact of one of the most famous and iconic virtual cities in the gaming industry on changing the representation of the urban space of the future. The challenge is to: – trace the main stages and nature of the transformation of the image of the city of the future in the twentieth century; – highlight the key principles for designing futuristic megacities associated with video games in the genre of science fiction; – to study new artistic means used by computer games in the figurative representation of the city and its infrastructure; – to analyze the features of urban aesthetics in the video game Half Life 2 and its additions. In a sense, City 17 successfully fits into the general line of depicting a gloomy, dystopian and post-apocalyptic city of the future, which was so characteristic of science fiction throughout the second half of the 20th century. At the same time, Half-Life 2

162

I. Aladyshkin et al.

contributed to the nature of the representation of the city of the future and the transformation of its image in popular culture. Of course, such images of urban spaces, embodied in fiction, whether it be literature, cinema, painting or computer games, are precisely fantastic images of fictional cities. However, any of the most grotesque, sometimes even absurd urban fantasies reflect the aspirations and expectations, moods, dreams, attitudes towards the future, not only of their authors, but also of the society in which these images appear. The starting material for any, the most incredible fantasy, is always social reality itself. The city images of the future that change over the course of history are generated by a specific historical context with accompanying semantic landmarks, emotional ups and downs, principles and technical possibilities for building a picture of the future and styles of its image [2, 3]. The formation of city images of the future in art is a complex, multifaceted and controversial process, which is influenced by the most diverse factors. The pathos of new art forms intersects with the commitment of any art, the pressure of the state order is supplemented by the search for commercial benefits, and the philosophical understanding of the urban space is transformed into the moods and expectations of the masses, strangely combined with the general conjuncture of circumstances in which certain forms of art develop. Here it is hardly worth going into the vicissitudes of the already protracted discussion about the belonging of video games to the realm of art. In a sense, this affiliation has been recognized by default since the moment when the world’s key contemporary art museums began to purchase video games for their collections, hold related exhibitions, and even open their own gaming clubs [4, p. 683]. Moreover, the main thing here is not so much the conjugation of video games with art, but rather the reflection in them of general trends in the representation of urban space, enormous opportunities in the implementation of fictional worlds, relaying specific images of virtual reality and its meaningful parameters. City 17 eventually became one of the most sought-after and cited images of a dystopian city far beyond the gaming community, which means it turned out to be close and resonated in the experiences of the transformation of the urban environment by a wide range of people. For some, it evoked nostalgia for the outgoing architecture and atmosphere of such cities, for others it intrigued and attracted with the quirkiness of its forms, and for others it turned out to be close in their phobias of total control and subordination. There is a significant amount of truth in the words of those authors who, in the field of such synthetic multimedia arts as video games, emphasize the value of not an individual, but a collective statement about those worlds that are in demand and enjoy maximum confidence. Accordingly, it is reasonable to consider video games as a kind of social diagnosis of the moods and expectations of broad categories of the population [5]. As a result, the images of cities implemented in video games can be used to judge the dynamics and basic trends in their representation. City 17 is no exception, but rather a contrasting and original illustration of the rethinking and re-evaluation of not only the visual image, but also the very nature of the representation of the city and its role in modern society [6]. At first glance, the image of the city of the future has undergone qualitative changes over the past century. And yet, many of the basic principles of its representation are preserved, albeit in a different capacity, sometimes with a complete inversion of the

“The Best City Left”: City 17 in the Half Life 2 Game Universe

163

emotional and content characteristics of urban space, but they are clearly traced in most iconic virtual cities implemented in video games. Many admired the underwater metropolis “Rapture” from the video games “BioShock (2007)” and “BioShock 2 (2010)”, which embodied the game version of the pretentious geometry of New York Art Deco and referred to the projects of the famous US new urban singer Hugh Ferriss. Not so long ago, the streets of “Night City” became available to the gaming community in the video game “Cyberpunk 2077 (2020)”, which is literally composed of well-established clichés from the 80s, when the aesthetics of cyberpunk was just emerging. But after all, the graphic works of Jean Giraud, better known as Moebius, the concept art of Syd Mead, who worked on the film “Blade Runner” (1982), the style of Otomo Katsuhiro, the creator of the manga and anime “Akira”, i.e. all those who defined the canon of cyberpunk visual aesthetics drew on earlier versions of images of fantastic cities, in particular Fritz Lang’s famous “Metropolis” of 1927. Simply put, any modern image of the city of the future inevitably relies on a rich tradition of depicting fantastic megacities, especially those of the 20th century [7]. City 17 in the Half Life 2 game universe is also deeply rooted in the literary and visual tradition of describing the city of the future and, albeit in a peculiar way, is built on the principles of depicting a metropolis, laid down in science fiction of the first half of the last century.

2 Transformation of the Future City Image in the Twentieth Century Ideas about the future city of the first half of the 20th century were distinguished by a set of idealistic images of the metropolis, glorifying progress and the technical genius of man, which was often drawn by a single automated technical and technological system. Perhaps the most radical description of such a system can be found in the 1914 Manifesto of Futurist Architecture by the Italian futurist architect Antonio Sant’Elia. On his drawings and sketches, the city turned into a giant production machine from stepped multi-level buildings, fantastic factories and power plants interconnected by technogenic transport routes. And such a transformation was only welcomed with all the futuristic expression. A new city illustrating technical civilization – this is as many will see it in the first half of the last century, when technical optimism seemed unshakable, as did faith in the infallible power of the machine. A little later, industrial enthusiasm gets new shades in the projects of representatives of the architectural and industrial school of Bauhaus. But the closest thing to Italian architectural futurism was probably Russian constructivism with its idea that art should serve production. The most daring and radical projects of the perspective transformation of the city, of course, remained on paper, but this does not interfere at all, and maybe, on the contrary, it only helps to trace the aesthetic and functional parameters of the city of the future according to the projects and drawings of such outstanding masters of domestic “paper architecture”, as for example, I.I. Leonidov or Ya.G. Chernikhov. It is noteworthy that in Russian-Soviet constructivism, in addition to the spirit of the urban production machine, the pathos of height, aspiration or even audacity to the heights gradually comes to the fore. In the famous architectural fantasies of Yakov Chernikhov, the spirit of the urban production machine with a characteristic industrial flavor and pathos of height clearly emerges. A similar impression is produced

164

I. Aladyshkin et al.

by the well-known project of the House of the People’s Commissariat for Heavy Industry in Moscow on Red Square by Ivan Leonidov (1934) [7]. The industrial parameters of the future city were by no means universal and ubiquitous. For example, in the works of the already mentioned American architect, illustrator Hugh Ferris, there is practically no industrial expression and industrial utilitarianism, but there is extreme height, gothic, art deco and the business spirit of the American metropolis. In the mass consciousness, thanks to cinematography, not so much even industrial characteristics as the pathos of the height and dynamics of the city of the future are fixed as universal parameters of the city of the future for the 20th century [7]. One of the components of life in a modern city is a direct feeling of extremely intense, every minute renewing life with rapid traffic flows, people and cars in constant motion. It is precisely such sky-high, extremely dynamic and high-tech futuristic cities that personify the future of New York in “Just Imagine” (1930 film) or “Everytown in Things to Come” (1936 film), not to mention the cornerstone for cinema fiction “Metropolis” (1927), which for many years predetermined how the fantastic metropolis would be portrayed. These cities did not just visualize the desire for the future, they personified the future itself. And the idealized, majestic city of the future in Metropolis became a kind of symbol of the urban utopia of those years [8]. If we try to highlight the basic principles of the image construction of the future metropolis in the first half of the 20th century, then we should first of all indicate its height and scale, technicality, contrast, artificiality, totality, ideality and rationality. The height, verticality of the building personified the aspiration to the future and the audacity of the technical genius of man. Moreover, the height of the city, its airiness, ignoring the mundane “pedestrian” horizontalness, illustrated the possibility of building a heavenly, ideal living space, in a sense, a modern man’s paradise on earth. No matter how this paradise is understood. Almost all city images of the future in the first half of the last century are characterized by the totality of this future, it is categorical, little remains of the past, and if it does, then as an insignificant rudimentary heritage. In most of these megacities there is no place for historical architecture, monuments of the past, they are futuristic in everything and everything in them is futuristic. The very idea of the city as a single production and technological system clearly implies the subordination of all spheres of life of its inhabitants, their work, leisure, and everyday life to this system. A complete, all-encompassing, all-encompassing transformation is welcome, and not just cities. In the film “Metropolis” the action takes place exclusively in Metropolis itself and one gets the feeling that this city is limitless and there is no other, the whole world is turning into an urban space. The totality and scale of the city images of the future is closely related to another feature of the futuristic urbanism of those years, namely, a tough confrontation in them between artificial and natural principles. As a rule, the promising urban space of those years was fundamentally antagonistic to nature and natural landscapes. Moreover, megacities symbolizing the technical achievements of civilization are offered as a much more perfect habitat for modern man than natural, natural conditions. Cities are comfortable, well-maintained and comfortable, they create the best world for a person who dreams of a rationally planned, ideal life. In almost all known images of the metropolis of the future, rigid geometrism prevails, the utmost rationalism of planning,

“The Best City Left”: City 17 in the Half Life 2 Game Universe

165

if there are some parks, greenery in them, and to be honest, they are rare, then they are as artificial elements of the urban environment as the city itself. In addition, rare trees in the concrete-asphalt and glass-iron reality look foreign and flawed. Following the Second World War, the city image of the future, preserving the basic principles of the past, overestimates them and visualizes them from a completely different evaluative position. A kind of generalization of a new vector in understanding the new perspectives of megacities was the 1952 collection of stories “City” by the American science fiction writer Clifford Simak. This book clearly shows a new trend of negative understanding of the city as a trap for a person or, as a kind, the outcome of civilization. In the future, this trend, fueled by anti-utopian literature, led to the embodiment of gloomy, oppressive in its scale and height of megacities, with an inevitably crisis ecology, permeated with all conceivable vices of civilization [4]. The 1950s and 1960s, with the neuroses of the Cold War and the fear of the nuclear threat, led to the widespread motive of imagined catastrophe. In the new images of a fantastic city, there is a metaphorical reflection of disturbing fantasies about the collapse of modern urban civilization, embodied in the destruction of the metropolis by various destructive forces: nuclear weapons or man-made disasters, apocalyptic forces of nature; primeval Beast; combat vehicles of an alien civilization, far ahead of the earth in technical terms. In the 1960s and 1970s, the motives for destruction were supplemented by growing concern about internal problems, primarily the total control of the state over the lives of citizens, overcrowding, food shortages and environmental pollution. In the fantastic imagination, the cities appear no longer filled and dynamic in a positive sense, they are, as in the film “Soylent Green” (1973), overpopulated, corrupt, marginalized, devoid of a monumental and moral center, the dynamic directed towards the future is replaced by oversaturation and hopelessness. Another extremely popular visual version of the image of the city of the future plays with the dystopian themes of total control and suppression of the individual in the fragmented islands of civilized space, as in the film “THX 1138” (1971), “Brave New World” (1980), 1984 (1984) or the famous “Brasil” (1985) [6].

3 End-of-the-Millennium Images and Game Industry Intervention By the 1980s, there was a complete the visual image inversion of the city of the future. Instead of the bright, future-oriented image of a futuristic metropolis, we, as a rule, see gloomy, depressing illustrations of the urban nightmares of the technogenic crisis of civilization. Neither the height, nor the fullness, nor the manufacturability of the city is any longer positively assessed, on the contrary, all this degenerates into oppressive megalomania, overcrowding and general technopessimism. There is a complete inversion: all the building principles of the image of the city of the future in the first half of the twentieth century, including its totality, ideality and rationality, are demonstrated with a minus sign. The fictional urban poetics of those years has little in common with positive ideas about the city as the center of the future of human civilization. Everything in them is decline, everything is entropy, the crisis is embodied in different forms, proceeds according to various scenarios, but in any case, the earthly fantastic city does not have positive features that could serve as a support for it, and, as a result, collapses and falls apart. Often, former ideals and aspirations are left as rubble scattered across the

166

I. Aladyshkin et al.

abandoned landscapes of a radically changed planet, or they turn into a prison, as in the movie “Escape from New York” (1981). The imaginary “metropolis” that appeared earlier in science fiction finally came to terms with its decline, its visible transformation from the city, as a center aspiring to the heights, into a degrading city dump. And that was not the saddest outcome in the 80s, rich in post-apocalyptic images. But sometimes it turns into a positive symbolic re-meaning. Now the garbage heap, dump, littered outskirts are being recorded by culture as a trendy and exotic urban space that eroticizes and fetishizes material culture. The most contrasting description of the city of the future is found in cyberpunk aesthetics. This image is embodied in literature and graphic novels, cinema. Perhaps the most famous cyberpunk city visually remains Blade Runner. In the 1982 film, the Los Angeles of the near future is shown as a populous multilingual metropolis of eclectic buildings, plastered with additions and superstructures, with ubiquitous garbage and dirt, eternal smog and toxic rain watering mismatched outcasts of all possible nationalities. In the 1990s, the destructive expression of decline and collapse loses its tension, and the visualization of a fantastic urban space turns mainly into a game of former forms, which reproduced various sets of gloomy signs of the future, which have already been repeatedly realized in science fiction. Urban fatigue and postmodern eclecticism, inherent in the visual images of the futuristic city of those years reproduced in mass culture products, as a rule, do not cause excitement and empathy. In most cases, the options for visualizing fantastic cities become familiar, routine, easily recognizable, rather, even stereotyped and safe, often even comical, and therefore do not have any significant consequences and metaphorical resonance. So, in the cinema, nostalgia for old science fiction comes to the fore, diluted with the latest special effects and interspersed with the aesthetics of information technology, so popular in the 90s. Visually, something original in science fiction of the last decades of the last century contained only variations of hallucinatory or virtual images of the city of the future, acting as a kind of omen of the virtual spaces of video games. Born in the middle of the 20th century, video games, due to limited technical capabilities, only since the 90s have gradually been included in the wide process of creating the visual image of the city of the future, absorbing the traditions of painting, literature, theater, cinema, video art, photography and other art forms [9, 10]. After all, the visuals, along with game mechanics for a video game, play one of the most important components that give it a “face” and recognition. Moreover, it should be remembered that the artistic arsenal of game design consists of borrowed means of expression, its effectiveness is much more sophisticated and aggressive than either of the donor traditions separately [11]. The dramaturgy of verbal, visual and sound components with dynamic transformation of the environment is directly related to the actions of not just an observer, but a participant - a player. Depending on the technical and artistic parameters of the game, the latter can simulate not only the reaction to the player’s actions, but also the well-known autonomy of the virtual world, giving rise to the feeling of its independent life. And if we talk about the images of the city, then it is in computer games that you can achieve a feeling of maximum vitality, a realistic perception of the urban environment, thanks to the involvement of the player in the dynamics of the environment.

“The Best City Left”: City 17 in the Half Life 2 Game Universe

167

Despite the wide potential of gaming technologies and computer graphics, the level of their implementation in the 90s still did not allow the creation of highly detailed and multifunctional urban landscapes. City 17 in Half Life 2 set a completely new level of virtual city imaging with unprecedented detail of the environment, original architectural solutions and highly functional virtual city environment. Before the release of Half Life 2, dystopian cities in computer games, albeit infrequently, were found, including in well-known computer games. However, the visuals were relatively mediocre, like the first Deus Ex (2000) or Judge Dredd: “Dredd vs. Death” (2003), “Red Faction II” (2003). Often the game was little known and, despite some original ideas, did not offer a single original architectural style, as in the case of “SIN” (1998), “Omikron: The Nomad Soul” (1999), “Chaser: Total Recall” (2003). The Blade Runner game (1997) could be called an exception, but it seems that all the efforts of its game designers were aimed at trying to reproduce the surroundings and atmosphere of the original film as accurately as possible, and therefore the city in the video game can hardly be called individual and its appearance did not bring anything new to urban fantasies [8].

4 “The Best City Left” What was City 17 like, why did it become a landmark city in the video game industry and even bring something original to the image of the metropolis of the future? City 17 turns out to be the capital of a post-apocalyptic world captured by the Alliance interplanetary civilization that is noticeably superior in technical terms to humanity. According to the plot of the game universe, the forces of the Alliance invaded Earth during portal storms after the events of the original Half-Life and completely conquered it in seven hours (seven-hour war). Following the establishment of a puppet regime on Earth, the exploitation of the planet’s natural resources began. The regime approved in the remaining populated territories has many similarities with a totalitarian society, including the suppression of all freedoms and rights of earthlings. Moreover, people are proclaimed to be inferior beings, the Alliance pursues a systematic policy of genocide of the population, and the so-called “suppressive field” operates on the entire planet, which prevents the reproduction of people. Frankly, the description rather gives rise to associations with another fantastic “fiction” about aliens who will certainly enslave someone, moreover, enslaving in a surprisingly primitive and stereotyped way, without alien specifics. But twenty years ago, in video games, such topics were not yet commonplace, and the overall outline of what is happening in Half Life 2 was saved to a certain extent by a well-developed script and setting, as well as the accuracy of game mechanics [8]. The appearance of City 17 was originally intended to fully emphasize the atmosphere of the ubiquitous propaganda and total police control over the inhabitants by the Alliance. The city streets are completely controlled by soldiers and collaborators, the districts of the city are scanned by drones in search of violators, endless patrols and checkpoints, the deployment points of the Alliance Civil Defense units, monitoring the life of citizens in identical blue overalls, harassed while away their time against the backdrop of closed cafes and shops, boarded up windows and empty neighborhoods. The only major hospital was converted into another checkpoint, however, after the first wave of the uprising and

168

I. Aladyshkin et al.

the destruction of the tower of the citadel, the chambers and basements were inhabited by low-lying alien life forms and residents of the city mutated into zombies. The entire official and cultural life of the city, apparently, is reduced to endless broadcasts of propaganda speeches by the Provisional Earth Administrator and chief collaborator Wallace Breen, calling for humility, submission and replenishment of the Civil Defense squads. There was no one left in City 17 except prisoners and guards. Only below, on the lower levels of the city labyrinth among canals, railway tunnels and wastelands, there are pockets of resistance, literally personifying an underground existence. City 17, if not a dead city, then obviously standing on the edge of its bleak death, like many other earthly cities of the future in the science fiction of the last decades of the last century [5]. Attempts to reproduce the recognizable features of a typical city of a totalitarian regime, and typicality, at least, was emphasized by the numbering replacing the name, prompted the developers to turn to post-Soviet realities for inspiration. The obvious references to the novel and the film of the same name “1984”, which were traced in the primary concept art, were weakened over time, but the TV screens on the streets of the city, the characteristic propaganda posters on the walls remained, albeit in smaller numbers [12]. But they did not set the main tone of typical totalitarianism. It turned out to be a spectacular decision to take a number of Eastern European cities of the countries of the former socialist bloc as the basis for the appearance of City 17 (the designers focused on the cities of Bulgaria, Romania, Serbia, Hungary, Russia and Latvia). This choice has become one of the main notable features of the dystopian world of Half Life 2, because it was this game that brought post-Soviet aesthetics to mass gaming culture. The design of City 17 exaggerated the aesthetics of Eastern European desolation, exaggerating the shabby streets, diluted with socialist architecture, highways and railways, crossing residential spaces from deliberately typical high-rise buildings, which gave the landscape a certain industrial shade and, in some places, even brutality. Eastern European architecture, according to the developers, was also chosen because of its long-suffering, tk. it has absorbed many styles, literally “surviving” many historical events and influences. In architectural terms, classicism, neoclassicism and modernism prevailed on the central streets of City 17, the closer to the outskirts, the more essential were the features of a functional typical building, sometimes diluted with elements of Soviet modernism [13]. For the gaming industry, post-Soviet aesthetics were new then, but in the broader context of science fiction, the originality of the solution is somewhat lost. Even in the science fiction of the 80s and 90s, in depicting dystopian cities, directors quite often turned to Eastern European post-Soviet aesthetics, and such films by Enki Bilal as “Bunker Palace Hôtel” (1989), “Tykho Moon” (1996) or “Meteo” (1989) directed by András Mész will be a vivid proof of this.

5 The Architecture of Distortion and Conflict The specificity of City 17 lies in the combination of post-Soviet aesthetics with alien elements, illustrating the extraterrestrial style of the Alliance. Developing the city, the creators of the game ensured that the player during the passage of urban locations, along with the general atmosphere of hopelessness, a feeling of depression and decline,

“The Best City Left”: City 17 in the Half Life 2 Game Universe

169

experienced a feeling of alien distortion and transformation of space. Of course, this is also far from the first visible image in science fiction of a city under the control of foreign forces, and the visualization of their experiments on the urban space in which people live was sometimes relatively effectively implemented in cinema. An example of a chronologically close Half Life 2 is the film “Dark City” (1998), in which it was the urban space that became the main source of a sense of instability, variability and susceptibility to the experiments of some external force in relation to people. The Dark City is a kind of hermetically sealed metropolis shrouded in eternal darkness; its earthly inhabitants do not know that they have turned out to be experimental samples for aliens. Meanwhile, nightly, by collective will, aliens transform, enlarge, compress and move buildings and streets, modifying the architecture and spatial arrangement of the entire city. However, the urban poetics of “Dark City” clearly draws its inspiration from the aesthetics of “film noir” and its transformation into science fiction, in particular, “Blade Runner”. “Dark City” is too “film-reflexive” and refers not only to the rather boring noir atmosphere, but also to the borrowing of forms and images of a wide range of phantasmagoric dystopian cities, including the urban landscapes of the notorious “Brazil” by Terry Gilliam. And the phantasmagoric nature of the city with clear Gothic elements of its surroundings, coupled with the peculiarities of the plot and plot, give the film the character of a fairy tale, albeit a gloomy one, but a fairy tale far from reality. While City 17 is extremely realistic and recognizable [13]. City-17 is remembered for a long time in many respects for its frightening realism, a tangible feeling of discomfort and despondency of the exaggerated post-Soviet reality. To make City 17 more realistic, the developers of Half Life 2 took a rather meticulous approach to reproducing the details of the urban environment and transferred a few real buildings, vehicles and other artifacts from Eastern Europe to the game. In addition, the artistic director of Half Life 2 was a native of Sofia, the capital of Bulgaria, for whom the realities of the countries of the socialist bloc were familiar. It is assumed that it was the architecture of Sofia that played a key influence on City 17. In addition to the architectural and landscape similarities of the cities, the possibility of finding a newspaper in the game called Rabotnichesko Delo, which was the official print organ of the Central Committee of the Bulgarian Communist Party, as well as the frequent appearance of Bulgarian words (written in Cyrillic) on signs, signs and graffiti, in the locations of Half-Life 2 and its episodes, are cited as the basis for assumptions. Indeed, in City 17 there are many architectural elements of the Bulgarian Sofia, but not only. For example, the game begins with the arrival of the antagonist Gordon Freeman at one of the City 17 stations, the prototype of which was the Budapest-Nyugati western railway station in Budapest, and the building of the Patrol Nexus (or Nexus of Oversight) City-17, located at the foot of the Citadel in the city center, is made in the image and likeness of the building of the National Assembly in Belgrade. A lot of video game fans are still looking for real prototypes of the virtual City 17 and no fewer real places with its atmosphere and visual similarity in numerous cities of Eastern Europe [13]. The local melancholic quarters and panel outskirts, streets, courtyards with recognizable playgrounds, swings, characteristic entrances and poorly furnished apartments produced a special effect, of course, on post-Soviet gamers who grew up in similar cities and apartments, for whom many elements of City-17 seemed close and dear. The created

170

I. Aladyshkin et al.

city was filled with courtyards, small nooks and crannies. They did not play a significant role in the gameplay, but thanks to them it was possible to achieve the “depth” of the urban space. Entourage “artifacts of the past” were cars copied from the Soviet brands “Moskvich”, “ZAZ”, “RAF” and “GAZ”, as well as “Trabant” of the GDR, Czech “Avia” and “Skoda”, or shortened motor cars of diesel trains DR1 (DR1P, DR1A) of Riga production, which was used by the Alliance on railway lines. The general feeling of Eastern Europe was strengthened by inscriptions in Slavic languages, multiplied in Half Life Alyx, where texts and titles in Russian are often found. The perception of post-Soviet realities was noticeably sharpened by the dizzying contrast with the fantastic buildings of the invaders, the architectural symbol of which was the so-called Citadel. A sprawling Alliance military base located in the heart of City 17 and visible from anywhere in the city, the Citadel was like a triangular spire of dark solid color. The giant skyscraper towered (before its destruction during the uprising) to an unfathomable height. The upper parts of the Citadel were lost in the clouds and remained invisible, which increased the oppressive feeling of the superiority of the Alliance. The Citadel served as the Alliance’s hub on earth and for the entire world of Half Life 2 with its sequels in Episode 1,2 and Alyx. In the guise of this gigantic alien structure, another inversion of altitude was clearly realized, almost the main sign of the city of the future in the science fiction of the last century. If the once visible high-rise of buildings appealed to the achievements and claims of man, to the desire for the future, then here it not only loses its positive features, but turns into a symbol of the state of crisis, as in many fantastic cities of that time. The citadel personified not so much the rejection of the future as total suppression and control, moreover, from an external, incommensurably greater and technological force. There are no high-rise buildings in City 17, apart from multi-storey panel buildings. And against the background of both typical panels and the old conditionally pre-Soviet architecture, the Citadel looks especially menacing and overwhelming. Moreover, the building itself functions at the expense of the energy core, which, in the event of a breakdown, can destroy both the Citadel itself and City 17, which gives the structure a particularly dangerous role in the life of the city. The tasks of building gaming locations directly related to City 17 and its outskirts were intended, first of all, to emphasize the contrasting line between the world of the past, the human past and the world of the invaders. With the approval of the Alliance regime in the city, the construction of structures with dark monolithic blocks and elements that stood out against the general background began observation towers, checkpoints and other buildings / premises of the Alliance civil defense forces with force fields, security barriers, mobile walls. All this serves the only purpose - to provide a new law and order and control the movement of residents of City 17. It should be recognized that the originality of the central city of Half Life 2 and its decisive role in creating the atmosphere of the game was set precisely by the bizarre integration of foreign buildings and technology with post-Soviet architectural and domestic realities. The combination of Eastern European urbanism and buildings, superstructures that modified, distorted, destroyed the original appearance of the city and its components, created a new architectural landscape of capture and parasitism. Observation towers, barriers were built on top of existing buildings, built into them, both outside and inside,

“The Best City Left”: City 17 in the Half Life 2 Game Universe

171

giving rise to associations with parasites, some qualitatively alien forms, antagonistically coexisting with the body of the city. The lightness, some airiness of such alien structures only enhances the feeling of fragility and instability. The Alliance walls that demarcate the spaces of City 17 were self-propelled barriers. They gradually, section by section, march through the city, destroying old buildings and changing the landscape of the city before the player’s eyes, forming a menacing impression of the escalation of invader technologies designed to subdue and suppress all life. They clearly illustrate how something alien literally absorbs the city. Moreover, as the game progresses, there are more and more alien components. Thanks to the mobility and fluidity of the Alliance’s infrastructure structures, in marked contrast to earth architecture, the whole game is accompanied by a sense of expanding reorganization and, ultimately, mutation of the city and the surrounding world. The sharp contradiction of the alien infrastructure to the basic principles of modern urbanism is striking, which is trying to get away from the former rational-geometric totality and universality of concrete, steel and glass to environmentally friendly building parameters, interconnection with the landscape and architectural heritage, light, smooth organic forms of buildings, with an abundance of light, discreteness of height, or, in the case of deconstructivism, to spontaneity of forms. City 17, on the contrary, is an expressive illustration of dissonance and conflict, sophisticated subjugation and destruction of heritage and nature from within, at the expense of original forms. Indeed, by pumping out natural resources, the Alliance multiplies its forces on earth, the civil defense units and the ranks of the technical personnel of the Citadel are replenished from modified people, and City 17 is being restored by the occupation regime based on a dilapidated post-war city. There is a strong impression that in City 17 one of the basic principles of Lebbeus Woods’ architectural experiments, Lebbeus Woods, has found a virtual life, according to which the post-war city should create new from the destroyed old [14]. We will not find the name of the American architect and artist Lebbeus Woods (1940–2012) among the developers of the game; he is also not mentioned in official interviews or comments. Meanwhile, there are many detailed comparisons of his work and the design of City 17 on the Web. Moreover, a strong opinion has formed not just about the inspiration of the game designers by Woods’ urban insights, but about his serious influence on the artistic director of Half Life 2 Viktor Antonov and the style of the integration architecture of City 17, as well as the technologies of the Alliance [15]. And there is every reason for that. Lebbeus Woods built almost nothing, most of his heritage remained on paper, which, in a certain sense, turned out to be in the hands of the courage and originality of his architectural imagination [16]. Most of his research is devoted to designing systems in crisis, with an emphasis on confronting the existing architectural order with new forms. The worlds invented by Woods are not utopian and live in real-life cities [14]. Moreover, his most famous projects, one way or another, relate to socialist or postsocialist countries. As a result, they turn out to be politically charged and provocative visions of a possible urban reality, which, together with the aesthetics of post-socialist Europe, as in the case of the Zagreb Free Zone project (1991), make them like City 17 design. Already in the sketches and the first test locations of Half Life 2, an abundance of intricately woven hinged structures made of iron sheets, so characteristic of a few Woods’

172

I. Aladyshkin et al.

projects, is noticeable, and movable metal structures made of metal with an abundance of wires, ceilings, supports and crossbeams really push for a direct comparison with specific drawings and sketches of the American architect from the Underground Berlin series (1988), etc. At the same time, the observation towers of the Alliance built on top of the buildings, individual technological elements resemble drawings from the series “Geomagnetic Flying Machines” (1988) and “DMZ: Terra Nova - Korean Demilitarized Zone” (1988), and his drawing proposals for the reconstruction of the power building in Sarajevo (1994) look almost like a concept of art integration of late socialist architecture with alien elements implemented in Half Life 2. Woods imagined a world that is reborn and constantly transforming, his architecture often gives rise to a sense of movement, mobility, extreme contrast between old and new forms, which most often come into sharply defined conflict. And before our eyes, the Eastern European city, which was changed by the forces and technologies of the Alliance, called City 17, appears as a kind of embodiment of the ideas of an American architect and artist. By the time Half Life 2 was released, the ideas and images of L. Woods had already been tried to be visualized more than once within the framework of popular culture, primarily cinema, at least in the films Alien 3 (1992) and 12 Monkeys (1995). But it is City 17 that turns out to be the closest and most consonant with the architectural projects of Lebbeus Woods today and fixing its direct or indirect influence on video game developers is not so important. In addition, we can not only observe the original visualization of the conflict coexistence of Eastern European architecture with alien technologies from the outside, but interact with it, practically “live”, albeit a virtual life on the streets of City 17. The gameplay of the game was largely based on the study of space, on the use of elements of the interior and the environment, which significantly enhances the immersion and atmosphere of this space. The created infrastructure of City 17, due to the need to pass and perform multi-level tasks in it, stimulates attention to the constituent elements of the virtual city, to its study, spurring curiosity, excitement, intensity of emotions and, ultimately, the perception of the player. In addition, we can not only observe the original visualization of the conflict coexistence of Eastern European architecture with alien technologies from the outside, but interact with it, practically “live”, albeit a virtual life, on the streets of City 17. The gameplay of the game was largely based on the exploration of space, on the use of elements of the interior and environment, which significantly enhances the immersion and atmosphere of this space. The created infrastructure of City 17, due to the need to pass and perform multi-level tasks in it, stimulates attention to the constituent elements of the virtual city, to its study, spurring curiosity, excitement, intensity of emotions and, ultimately, the perception of the player [17].

6 Conclusions Summing up some results, it should be emphasized once again that fictional cities visualized in science fiction can serve as a relatively adequate, historically reliable space, on the example of which it is worth simultaneously studying the real foundations and

“The Best City Left”: City 17 in the Half Life 2 Game Universe

173

metaphorical depiction of the transformations of urban experience and the narratives corresponding to it. Visualization of fantastic images of the city captures, outlines and describes some extrapolated from reality or speculative-speculative urban world, gives this fictional world a meaningful, visibly significant form, places it on the time axis of coordinates. The well-known freedom and liberty of science fiction as a genre gives rise to the opportunity to “realize” something speculatively imaginary, turning it into distinct visual images. And the modern figurative realization of fictional cities of the future gets additional opportunities in the field of video games. The derogatory attitude to the phenomenon of computer games in modern audiovisual practice, which is still preserved in the current discourse of artistic culture, should be abandoned with the inevitable cardinal reassessment of this area of art. Video games have long ceased, if ever, to play the role of purely entertainment. For more than a decade, they have had the widest arsenal of artistic means not only to encode a certain unique aesthetic dimension, but also to imaginatively comprehend the diversity of the surrounding real world. Having received the previously missing wide opportunities for the implementation of artistic tasks, video games, without losing their game form, with the improvement of virtual technologies in recent decades, have been able to offer one of the most effective formats for the embodiment of fantastic imaginary spaces. The Half Life series of games is a good example of this. Both the original Half Life and its sequel are justifiably considered a game that was ahead of its time and became the standard for constructing a virtual gaming space. Not a small role was played by the detailed world of the video game, the center of which was City 17. The graphical component of Half-Life 2 still looks decent today, and in the year of its release it was one of the most graphically impressive games, which tested the performance of video cards. But nearly two decades later, City 17 remains among the most iconic and memorable cities ever created in video games, even though the relevance of virtual worlds hasn’t lasted all that long. And it’s not about the high level of computer graphics at the time of 2004 or the good memory of the gaming community, which keeps the covenants of the achievements of the past. City 17 is remembered, first of all, for its spectacular embodiment of the image of a dystopian city, the originality of which was given by a successful combination of post-Soviet aesthetics with alien technologies. In fact, City 17 is not entirely correct to fit into a number of images of futuristic cities. And not only because it lacks nostalgia for lofty futuristic aspirations, for claims to ideality and rationality, which carried many images of cities of the future in science fiction of the second half of the 20th century. By the beginning of the new millennium, such nostalgia had already lost its relevance. This is its obvious difference from many other fictional cities of the future, because, the appearance of City 17 practically did not reflect the basic principles of their design, which dominated throughout the entire twentieth century, did not play a key role or were qualitatively rethought. However, there was no common desire to turn the old canons of industrialism, height and dynamics, presenting them in a negative light of oversaturation, decline and desolation, just as there were no attempts in a decadent key to aestheticize and make the crisis state itself attractive [18, p. 314]. City 17, on the contrary, is down to earth and gives rise, rather, to nostalgia for everyday life and a calm, conditionally “normal” life of a pre-fantastic era.

174

I. Aladyshkin et al.

The closest analogy to City 17 is the Orwellian London of 1984, relatively well visualized in the 1984 film of the same name directed by Michael Radford. The atmosphere of the city is largely set by the same problems of a totalitarian regime, leaderism, an undivided monopoly on the means of communication, complete control over public and private life, brutal violence against any opposition, material poverty and general fear. And this issue was deliberately emphasized in the game, which, apparently, significantly influenced the choice of the region where City 17 was located - Eastern Europe. Moreover, the high angular constructions of the Alliance made of monophonic material with a clear geometrism of lines are more reminiscent of Soviet architectural brutalism than the usual alien structures. After all, Valve is an American company, the main sales markets for its products, especially at that time, were unlikely to be in Eastern Europe, and therefore the basis for the choice of post-Soviet aesthetics is most likely connected not with the effect of recognizing the depicted region among gamers, but with the traditional correlation of totalitarianism and the countries of the socialist camp. Here, probably, there are grounds for chiding Valve for being opportunistic and indulging common associations of totalitarianism and socialist Europe among the Western public. Today, however, Valve’s decision seems almost prescient, even though the totalitarian regimes are coming to life in some countries of Eastern Europe by no means due to a foreign invasion. So, years later, the game takes on additional relevance, and it’s not at all accidental that in Half Life: Alyx, released in 2020, there is a noticeable strengthening of the Russian context: there are more inscriptions in Russian, more objects that one way or another refer to Russia. However, the political context is important for us here only in connection with the theme of an imaginary future. All images of fantastic megacities explicitly or implicitly construct the future along with the prospects for transforming the urban environment, man and the world. Therefore, it may seem that it is unreasonable to include City 17 in a series of images of the cities of the future, because it lacks precisely urban prognostication. Some possible forecasts for the establishment or revival of totalitarianism in Eastern Europe remain possible and implicit, because. Neither in the game, nor in the comments or interviews of the developers about this. Some possible forecasts for the establishment or revival of totalitarianism in Eastern Europe remain possible and implicit, because. Neither in the game, nor in the comments or interviews of the developers about this. City 17 does not claim to represent the future of urban development, the visualization of new forms of urban space, in a sense, only offering an alternative version of its change under the influence of foreign forces. However, no matter how original fantasies about interplanetary technologies for changing the city, they remain precisely human fantasies, just as deeply rooted in the style and principles of fictional architecture. But the main argument why it is still justified to include City 17 in the general process of understanding future urbanism appeals to something else. The dystopian city created in the video game Half Life 2 continues and develops the direction of discrediting the city as a symbol of human civilization and its future living space, which has been established in science fiction since the middle of the 20th century. City 17 is yet another urban nightmare with a rather specific variation on an inhospitable, repulsive space, a nightmare both familiar

“The Best City Left”: City 17 in the Half Life 2 Game Universe

175

due to the familiar elements of dystopian fantasy cities, and at the same time palpably different due to the original visualization of integration with alien technologies. In the appearance of City 17 there is no totality, absoluteness and universality as the only possible form of social organization of living space. This is not even a metropolis, but a relatively small city living out its last days. Moreover, the provincial landscapes outside the urban areas in Half Life 2 look much more peaceful and attractive from the standpoint of possible improvement and the resurrection of the old order before the invasion of the Alliance forces. Such an image of the city coincides with the general trend, which is only emerging today, of crowding out urban landscapes from the center to the periphery of the proposed future. The city ceases to be a symbol of the future, whatever that future may be. In this context, City 17 is rather an illustration of a kind of farewell to the city, which has no prospects and alternative forms of existence.

References 1. Half-Life Encyclopedia Homepage. https://halflife.fandom.com/ 2. Borries, F., Walz, S.P., Matthias Böttger, M.: Space-time play. computer games, architecture and urbanism: the next level. Transl. by Jenna Krumminga, Ian Pepper, Federico Roascio. Birkhäuser, Basel; Boston; Berlin (2007) 3. Aarseth, E., Gunzel S.: Ludotopia: Spaces, Places and Territories in Computer Games. Transcript, Bielefeld (2019) 4. Steklova, I., Veslopolova, G., Steklov, A.: City and video games: moving towards each other. Bulletin of Saint Petersburg University, Arts 11(4), 674–695 (2021). https://doi.org/10.21638/ spbu15.2021.406 5. Hachaturov, S.: Hogwarts is perceived as more authentic than Tsaritsyno. Talked to A. Streltsova. The Art 2. (2019), Iskusstvo Homepage. https://iskusstvo-info.ru/sergej-hachat urov-hogvarts-vosprinimaetsya-bolee-podlinnym-chem-tsaritsyno/ 6. Totten, C.W.: An Architectural Approach to Level Design. A. K. Peters; CRC Press, Natick, MA (2014) 7. Lisitsyna, A.: The Creative Method of the Architect-Artist Ya.G. Chernikhov. IGU Publishing House, Irkutsk (2017) 8. Tokarev, K.: Epic Worlds. Why Does Architecture in Games Have to Be Majestic?. Igromania Homepage. https://www.igromania.ru/article/21574/Yepicheskie_miry_Pochemu_arhite ktura_v_igrah_obyazatelno_dolzhna_byt_velichestvennoy.html 9. Pelling, N.: The (Short) Prehistory of ‘Gamification’. Funding Startups (and Other Impossibilities) Homepage. http://nanodome.wordpress.com/2011/08/09/the-short-prehistory-ofgamification/ 10. Nordmann, A.: First and last things: the signatures of visualization-artists. Technology and Language 2(3), 96–105 (2021). https://doi.org/10.48417/technolang.2021.02.10 11. Kamankina, M.: Video Games: General Problematics, Pages of History, Experience of Interpretation. The State Institute of Art History, Moscow (2016) 12. Hodgson, D.: Half-Life 2. Raising the Bar. Prima Games: a division of Random House, inc. Rosewell (2004) 13. City 17 and the charm of Eastern European urban aesthetics. Cosy Bunker Homepage. https:// technolirik.livejournal.com/157845.html 14. Belogolovskij, V.: Free Cities of Lebbeus Woods. TATLIN. 1. (2008). Archi.ru Homepage. https://archi.ru/press/world/5668/lebbeus-vuds. Accessed 10 July 2023

176

I. Aladyshkin et al.

15. Cote, A.: City 17: Through War, We Remember. Transl. by Borisov, A. (2021). DTF Homepage. https://dtf.ru/games/200561-city-17-skvoz-voynu-kotoruyu-my-pomnim 16. Khomyakov, A.: Paper archtecture: monuments of Utopia. Academia. Architecture and Construction 2, 66–72 (2018). https://doi.org/10.22337/2077-9038-2018-2-66-72 17. Bylieva, D., Nordmann, A.: Technologies in a multilingual world. Technology and Language 3(8), 1–10 (2022). https://doi.org/10.48417/technolang.2022.03.01 18. Moshkov, N.: Evolution of artistic & expressive means of computer action games. Bulletin of Nizhny Novgorod Lobachevsky University. 2(1), 313–319 (2010)

Issues of City Management in the Context of Game Theory Tatiana Bernyukevich(B) Moscow State University of Civil Engineering, Moscow, Russian Federation [email protected]

Abstract. The purpose of the study is to determine the opportunities and parameters of using game theory to analyze the processes of urban development and the choice of models for managing urban space. The study is based on an integrated approach that allows to identify the features of the application of game theory methods in the subject field of urban studies, in defining urban space as a space for the game of various participants with their goals and possibilities of choosing a certain strategy and obtaining a result (payment, benefit). Since the study is dedicated to the development of a single urban space and its management, it is necessary to search for criteria for optimal solutions that would reflect the interests of all participants of the game. It is important to define these criteria in the context of using well-known concepts of urban space development, for example, the concept of Henri Lefebvre and David Harvey “the right to the city”. Researchers believe that the use of game theory in urban studies may have a positive impact on urban research. However, for this, a number of opinions about the provisions of game theory can be reviewed the results of the game may be considered not only in the context of the maximum, primarily financial benefit (“winning”) of one or more participants (players), but also from the point of view of potential optimal results associated with the welfare of society as a whole. City management problems can be explored and modeled using the concepts and methods developed in game theory. To achieve this, it is necessary to determine the principles and methods of “non-mathematical” development of game theory in the context of urban studies as a social science, while maintaining its theoretical and methodological apparatus. Keywords: game theory · social sciences · urban studies · city management · development of urban space · right to the city

1 Introduction. The Main Provisions of Game Theory in the Context of Social Sciences Game theory was one of the most common areas of research in the second half of the 20th century. Game theory at this time became the theoretical basis for understanding social situations between competing players. The managerial potential of game theory is related to the fact that it is supposed to define a strategy within its framework, make optimal decisions by independent and competing subjects. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Bylieva and A. Nordmann (Eds.): PCSF 2023, LNNS 830, pp. 177–184, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-48020-1_15

178

T. Bernyukevich

Mathematician John von Neumann and economist Oskar Morgenstern made major contributions to the development of game theory in the 1940s. The development of the ideas of von Neumann and Morgenstern is associated with the research of John Nash [1, 2]. A basic condition of game theory is that the players in the game are rational and will always strive to maximize their payoffs in the game. The game itself is a model of an interactive situation in which these rational players are included. Depending on the game model, different conditions and criteria indicators are determined. Of particular importance for the use of this model in the analysis of social systems is that, according to game theory, actions and choices of all participants affect the outcome of each [3, 4]. Currently, game theory is used in various social spheres (military strategy, politics, economics, business, etc.) and the subject field of various disciplines (psychology, evolutionary biology, economic sciences, sociological theory, etc.). Modern prospects of game theory are connected with the expansion of the range of its use [5, 6]. To understand the essence of game theory and the opportunities of its use, it is necessary to define the basic terms. Thus, game is a set of circumstances, the outcome of which depends on the actions of two or more players. Players are individuals who make strategic decisions in the game. Game strategy is a complete plan of actions of a player, who takes into account the circumstances that may arise in the game. A return is a payment that a player receives for achieving a certain result. An information set is information available at a certain point in the game. Equilibrium is the moment in the game when both players have made their decisions and a result is reached. The “Nash equilibrium” is of particular importance, it is the result achieved, when no player can increase the payoff by changing decisions unilaterally. In the non-classical economy, with the help of game theory, it becomes possible to model competition in a market process. In business, game theory is useful for modeling the competitive behavior of economic agents. Economists can use game theory to understand the behavior of oligopolistic firms when price control in the market is limited by firm interdependence. This makes it possible to predict likely outcomes when firms engage in certain behaviors, such as in a collusive situation. [5]. In general, in modern social sciences we observe the active use of approaches and methods of other sciences; mathematization largely determined the main vector of the development of science in the 20th century. [6, 7] Interdisciplinarity, integration of different scientific disciplines allows overcoming methodological difficulties and achieving efficiency and optimal results in scientific research and solving important social issues that include city management.

2 Methodology and Research Methods. Opportunities of using the Methodology of Game Theory in City Management The opportunities of using the methodology of game theory are determined by the type of game in which the phenomenon is considered. As is known, game theory includes a number of games, the models of which outline the strategies of the players’ behavior (“the prisoner’s dilemma”, “the volunteer’s dilemma”, “the centipede game”, etc.)/

Issues of City Management in the Context of Game Theory

179

The main problem of game theory is that this model (like most models in economics) is based on the fact that players (people) are rational, pragmatic, their goal is profit and utility maximization. At the same time, non-commercial cooperation, non-pragmatic relations, possible altruistic aspirations in certain social contexts are ignored [7]. The potential of using game theory in city management is related to the fact that the existence and development of the city is determined to a greater extent by economic parameters. Along with economic parameters, political factors are important, while the sphere of politics can also be adequately described using the methodological apparatus of game theory [7]. The concept of “equilibrium” is key for understanding the possibilities of action not only of individual subjects, but also the cumulative result of this activity and the benefits for each of them in the framework of game theory. In each interaction, different types of equilibria can be found: the equilibrium of dominant strategies, the Nash equilibrium, the Stackelberg equilibrium, and the Pareto equilibrium. Numerous classifications of games (according to the number and strategies; according to the properties of the payoff function, options for preliminary negotiations, the possibilities of interaction between players) allow us to variably apply game theory in various specific situations. It is assumed that the interests of game participants are quantifiable. The application of the game theory methodology not only in economics, but also in other social sciences, for example, political science, sociology, urban studies, will require the usage of a utility function not only to monetary outcomes, but also to amounts with expected future outcomes. In this case, game theory will become an effective tool for analyzing situations where a small number of informed people are trying to “outplay” others and achieve the greatest benefit in the field of economics, politics or military operations. Therefore, the purpose of the study is to determine the opportunities and parameters of using game theory to analyze the processes of urban development and select models for managing urban space. The study is based on an integrated approach that allows to identify the features of the application of game theory methods in the subject field of urban studies, in defining the urban space as a space for the game of various participants with their goals and possibilities of choosing a certain strategy and obtaining a result (benefit) [8, 9].

3 Research Results. Game Theory and the Concept of “Right to the City” Talking about the development of a single urban space and its management, it is necessary to search for criteria for optimal solutions that would reflect the interests of all participants in the game to the maximum. People who can be called these players are defined in a number of works devoted to the social practices of city management. Many modern concepts of urban space transformation are based on political concepts and ideas. For example, the concept of “the right to the city” by Henri Lefebvre and the work of his follower David Harvey serve as the basic ideas of new urbanism. In 1968, Henri Lefebvre’s book “The Right to the City” was published, the author claimed that “each of the residents has a “right to the city” and can defend it” [10, p. 49]. According

180

T. Bernyukevich

to this well-known neo-Marxist theorist, needs, social relations, the role of government and the functions of business determine the ways in which urban space is organized. The social contradictions of modern cities are described in the article “The Right to the City” by David Harvey, a supporter of Lefevre’s concept. These contradictions, in his opinion, are reflected in the “split” of cities associated with the contradictions between the financial elites and low-paid workers that are aggravated by the presence of the unemployed and the marginalized [11, p. 80]. At the same time, Harvey not only emphasizes the social “split” in cities, but also tries to find effective ways to truly realize the right to the city through the cooperation of the efforts of all interested people and social groups [11, p. 82]. The researcher focuses on the inconsistency of the right to differences. On the one hand, he notes that this is one of the most important rights of city residents, and, on the other hand, the difference itself can cause negative social consequences – disunity, conflicts, marginalization [11, p. 81]. Harvey points to the special role of political power in urban practices and, like Lefebvre, considers it in the space of the city. He connects this role with the fact that the spatial structures of the city can be correlated with the “territoriality of political power”, and social relations are fulfilled in the spatial forms of the city [11, p. 87]. The presence of numerous groups of influence on the city management system, perceived pragmatic interests and the significance of the results obtained are objective data for applying the game theory model to analyze specific situations in the development of the urban environment. The emphasis on the special role of the free market in Harvey’s works also updates the possibility of using the methodological apparatus of game theory. At the same time, Harvey, being a neo-Marxist, draws attention to the negative role of market, since it widens the class division and increases social inequality [11, p. 90]. However, in our opinion, it is necessary to look for the best options for cooperating the interests of market participants and find parameters for achieving the goals of management and development of the city. Harvey himself associates the implementation of the “right to the city” with the new collective policy, the active direct participation of all residents, the revision of the results of privatization, etc. [11, p. 93]. Despite the author’s conviction in achieving the ideal of an “open city”, an objective look at real social processes suggests that even in this improved democratic space of a modern city, we will observe a clash of interests of different “players”: various social groups, political parties, business structures and so on. City residents, in the end, must be able to live in fair, safe, healthy, physically and financially accessible, resilient and sustainable cities. If these conditions are met, the real consolidation of the “right to the city” will take place.

4 The Discussion of the Results. Discussions on the Use of Game Theory in Urban Studies Brian McDonald Gardner believes that the use of game theory in urban studies will undoubtedly have a positive impact on urban research. In his opinion, to achieve it, it is necessary to correct a number of opinions about the provisions of game theory.

Issues of City Management in the Context of Game Theory

181

For example, the results of the game can be considered not only in the context of the maximum, primarily financial, benefit (“winning”) of one or more participants (players), but also in terms of potential optimal results related to the well-being of society as a whole [12]. This, in our opinion, corresponds to the achievement of the above-described right to the city as a model for creating a fair and safe urban environment. In the review of the literature on the possibilities of using game theory in urban studies, Gardner notes that, for example, Alex Lord saw the use of game theory in urban studies as an opportunity to close the “theory-practice gap” in urban planning [12, p. 4]. New strategies for such cooperation are described in the well-known book “Co-opetition: A Revolution Mindset that Combines Competition and Cooperation” by Adam M. Brandenburger and Barry J. Nalebuff [13]. In addition, it should be noted that in urban planning and reconstruction, it is not the pursuit of profits by free market participants that is of great importance, but political actions on the part of state structures and city municipalities. One of the most difficult practical issues is the spatial planning of urban land use. Its complexity is connected, among other things, with the interweaving of numerous and contradictory goals of different groups and restrictions in certain spatial contexts. Modern game theory provides land-use planners with a tool to model and analyze these interactions. For example, in a study by Jamshid Maleki, Zohreh Masoumi, Farshad Hakimpour, Carlos A. Coello Coello, the planning of spatial urban land use is viewed as a game simulating local competition between landowners [14]. In this article, three different scenarios have been developed for players. In the first scenario, the players are greedy and only accept the most appropriate land use. In the second, on the contrary, the players fully cooperate and care about the winnings of other players. In the third scenario, the players are greedy at first, but when they cannot come to an agreement with other players, they change their attitude towards gradual cooperation in order to reach the Nash equilibrium (NE) [14]. Game theory is a mathematical approach to the study of social interactions and the modeling of strategic situations. This theory focuses on decision situations in which the preferences of the decision makers are contested. The presence of a strategic position in the city, as well as a conflict of interest or competition, is the basis for using game theory in the analysis of city management problems. There are examples of this way of application of game theory in the research literature. Mehdi Hosseini Dehaghani and Meisam Basirat in their article “A Game Theory Approach to the Analysis of Urban Power Games: Analysis of Construction Building Processes in Tehran Metropolis” describe their experience in applying this methodology to the analysis of construction in Tehran [15]. They note that one of the important controversial positions in the leadership of Tehran is the construction of the real estate sector. Construction in Tehran is not only an important economic activity, but is also the focus of urban development plans, and players in this sector have become one of the main and most important players in the city government in Tehran. From past years to the present, income from the sale of excess density, or, in other words, income from the granting of licenses for the lease of urban land, has constituted the main income base of the country’s metropolitan areas.

182

T. Bernyukevich

The authors of the study, using game theory approaches, made an attempt to analyze strategic positioning and model various directions of city development. At the first stage, they studied the theory of city government and developed a framework for modeling its components. At the second stage, in accordance with the principles of game theory, the most important elements that determine the features of the model of the city of Tehran were identified. At the third stage, the results of a specific study were summarized and conclusions about the conditions under which game theory is applicable to the analysis of city government were drawn [15]. According to the authors of the article, the results show that the components of the game in game theory are similar to the components of city government, while in terms of the assumptions of game theory, contradictions between theories of city government can be outlined. Researchers believe that the application of game theory in general and specifically for urban management may be reduced to the analysis of individual phenomena in urban space, organizational design, and changing the mechanisms and rules of the game [15, p.90]. Attempts to use game concepts have been made before. In 1970, Richard Duke organized and held the International Conference on Simulation and Gaming for the first time. It was the beginning of the interaction between planning and research in the field of game theory, and this conference was also a reaction to a series of experiments in the application of game ideas to policy development in the framework of the Model Cities project in the United States, which became part of US President Lyndon Johnson’s “Great Society” and “War on poverty”. In the early 1960s, the problems of the urban crisis began to be widely discussed, and the federal authorities started to look for new ways to solve urban problems. As a result, several programs funded by federal authorities were introduced. The problems of finding communication strategies and game tools in the processes of urban planning were identified during the release of the programme “Model Cities”. Several games, in particular MULBERRY, SIMPOLIS and GHETTO, were developed in the second half of the 1960s under this program and used in 150 cities. The development of mechanisms for the participation of citizens in the adoption of urban decisions was of particular importance in the program “Model Cities”, this is generally associated with its effectiveness. The difficulties of implementing this largescale project are explained by the lack of funding, the inflexibility and complexity of the bureaucracy, and lobbying the interests of competing groups at the local level [16]. Thus, game theory can be a new framework for the analysis of urban problems and urban management decisions, but it is necessary to identify the limits of its applicability and reconsider the theory of urban power in the context of the application of game theory [17–19].

5 Conclusions Researchers believe that urban planning and the problem of city management can be explored and modeled using the concepts and methods developed in game theory. [16, 20, 21]. For this purpose, it is necessary to determine the principles and methods of “non-mathematical” development of game theory, while maintaining its theoretical and methodological apparatus for creating optimal forms of city management. In this case, it

Issues of City Management in the Context of Game Theory

183

is possible to create a set of formal models based on stochastic game theory. These models have several different features, including a multi-game stochastic format in which participants move between game elements according to transition probabilities dependent on their joint decisions. Attention should be focused not so much on the competition of players, but on the possibility of new forms of cooperation that can increase the effectiveness of transformations (benefit) for the entire urban community. It is likely that the use of the provisions and methods of game theory, on the one hand, is only possible in combination with the theories of urban planning and city management, in the context of social ideas for improving urban space as a whole; and, on the other hand, it may well lead to the correction of urban city management theories.

References 1. Bródy, F.: The Neumann Compendium. World Scientific Series in 20th Century Mathematics. Vol. 1. World Scientific Publishing Company, Singapore (1995). https://doi.org/10.1142/2692 2. Von Neumann, J., Morgenstern, O.: Theory of Games and Economic Behavior. Princeton University Press, Princeton (2007) 3. Morgenstern, O.: Game theory: a new paradigm of social science. In: Zwicky, F., Wilson, A.G. (eds) New Methods of Thought and Procedure, pp. 203–227. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. (1967). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-87617-2_11 4. Giocoli, N., Leonard, R., Von Neumann, R.: Morgenstern and the Creation of Game Theory. Œconomia, 1-2, 321-326 (2011). https://doi.org/10.4000/oeconomia.1777 5. Armstrong, J.S., Clark, T.: Review of Barry J. Nalebuff and Adam N. Brandenburger, Co-opetition 1. Revolutionary Mindset that Redefines Competition and Cooperation 2. The Game Theory Strategy that’s Changing the Game of Business. (1997). https://repository.upenn.edu/marketing_papers/119?utm_source=repository.upenn. edu%2Fmarketing_papers%2F119&utm_medium=PDF&utm_campaign=PDFCoverPages 6. Kirilyuk, I.L.: Mathematical modelling for institutional design. Terra Economicus 17(3), 64–77 (2019). https://doi.org/10.23683/2073-6606-2019-17-3-64-77 7. Axelrod, R., Hamilton, W.D.: The evolution of cooperation. Science, New Series. 211(4489), 1390–1396 (1981). https://doi.org/10.1126/science.746639 8. Gareev, T.R., Eliseeva, N.A.: Institutions and institutional change in the context of game theory. Terra Economicus 18(1), 102–120. (2020). https://doi.org/10.18522/2073-6606-202018-1-102-120 9. Chernyavsky, A.D.: Game theory, utility and causation. Bulletin of Eurasian Science 1(26) (2015). https://doi.org/10.15862/07EVN115 10. Lefebvre, A.: Production of Space. Streike. Press, Moscow (2015) 11. Harvey, D.: The right to the city. Logos 3, 80–94 (2008) 12. Gardner, B.M.: In Favor of Bringing Game Theory into Urban Studies and Planning Curriculum: Reintroducing an Underused Method for the Next Generation of Urban Scholars [Dis. Theses. # 6160]. Portland State University, Portland (2022). https://doi.org/10.15760/ etd.8020 13. Nalebuff, B.J., Brandenburger, A.M.: Co-opetition: A Revolution Mindset that Combines Competition and Cooperation is a Non-Fiction Book on Coopetition (co-operative competition), business strategy, and game theory. Random House Audio, Munich (1996) 14. Maleki, J., Masoumi, Z., Hakimpour, F., Coello Coello, Carlos A.: A spatial land-use planning support system based on game theory. Land Use Policy 99, 105013 (2020). https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.landusepol.2020.105013

184

T. Bernyukevich

15. Hosseini Dehaghani, M., Basirat, M.: A Game theory approach to the analysis of urban power games: analysis of construction building processes in tehran metropolis. Honar-Ha-Ye-Ziba: Memary Va Shahrsazi 21(1), 91–100 (2016). https://doi.org/10.22059/jfaup.2016.59692 16. Shakeri, M.: Unstable wormholes: communications between urban planning and game studies. Urban Planning 7(2), 218–228. (2022). https://doi.org/10.17645/up.v7i2.4953 17. Poplin, A.: Digital serious game for urban planning: B3 – design your marketplace! Environ. Plann. B. Plann. Des. 40(3), 493–511 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1068/b39032 18. Angelidou, M., Psaltoglou, A.: Social innovation, games and urban planning: an analysis of current approaches. International J. Electronic Governance 11(2), 5–22 (2019). https://doi. org/10.1504/IJEG.2019.098807 19. Batty, S.E.: Game-theoretic approaches to urban planning and design. Environ. Plann. B. Plann. Des. 4(2), 211–239 (1977). https://doi.org/10.1068/b040211 20. Koryagin, M.: Urban planning: a game theory application for the travel demand management. Period. Polytech. Transp. Eng. 46(4), 171–178 (2018). https://doi.org/10.3311/PPtr.9410 21. Lai, S.-K., Ding, C., Tsai, P.-C.: A game-theoretic approach to urban land development in China. Environ. Plann. B. Plann. Des.Plann. Des. 35, 847–862 (2008). https://doi.org/10. 1068/b34018

Possibilities for Applications of Game Theory in Relation to Land Use Galina Ismagilova(B)

and Oksana Shubat

Ural Federal University Named After the First President of Russia B. N. Yeltsin, 620002 Yekaterinburg, Russian Federation [email protected]

Abstract. The region’s land resources are an important factor in ensuring its sustainable development. The issues of development of the land and property complex in the regional strategies of the Russian territories have not been sufficiently developed to date. The purpose of our study is to adapt game theory to forecasting the rational use of land in Russian regions. Our study shows the possibility of using a non-cooperative statistical game at the stage of interaction between the municipality and potential tenants (applicants) in the process of assessing the possibility of allocating (leasing) a lot of land for eco-nomic activity (project). A matrix antagonistic game with “nature” was applied. At the same time, the very moment of game formation involves the assessment of benefits based on a strong information base, which ensures the validity of decision-making, on the one hand, and allows you to create decision-making algorithms and templates in conflict situations related to land relations, on the other. The conducted research enables us to make a conclusion that the game theory for forecasting and planning the rational use of land can be adapted. It is possible consider the specific features of the turnover of land use in the country, paying attention to regional specifics. The use of game theory in regulation land relations in Russia is an innovative approach that meets the urgent tasks of the modern social and economic development of the country and is especially relevant for countries with a high level of regional differentiation. Keywords: land use · game theory · non-cooperative statistical games · Russian territories

1 Introduction The region’s land resources are an important factor in ensuring its sustainable development, as they have three fundamental properties. Firstly, it is life support, since land resources are part of the ecological system of the region. Secondly, they are the most important factor of production. And, thirdly, land resources, being an object of civil circulation, participate in the formation of the socio-legal system of the territory. The sustainable development of the region, in its turn, is the basis for ensuring the sustainable development of the country as a whole. At the same time, the issues of development of the land and property complex in the regional strategies of the Russian territories have not been sufficiently developed to date [1]. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Bylieva and A. Nordmann (Eds.): PCSF 2023, LNNS 830, pp. 185–196, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-48020-1_16

186

G. Ismagilova and O. Shubat

The procedure for granting land in the Russian Federation is regulated by the norms of the Land Code of the Russian Federation of October 25, 2001, No. 136-FZ, as well as the Regulation of the Federal Law of July 24, 2002, No. 101-FZ “On the turnover of agricultural land”. The procedure for transferring land to lease provides for the preparation of a project by a potential tenant with a justification of the economic feasibility of using it and submitting the project to the municipality. The municipality, in its turn, evaluates the submitted projects for compliance with certain established selection methods and decides on the conclusion of a lease agreement. This is part of the most important functions of the territorial authorities - forecasting and planning of land use. These functions are based on the application of economic and statistical methods [2]. A review of scientific publications on the issues under consideration showed that the authors mainly adhere to standard procedures and methods for planning and selecting projects for the use of land in territories - analysis, forecast, planning [3–5]. Often, authors emphasize a program-target method for planning the use of land resources and real estate [6]. In the study [7] the authors propose to include in the process of territorial planning an analysis of the best and most efficient use of a land lot, supplementing the economic component with social and environmental characteristics. It should be noted that in Russian scientific and applied research, mathematical, statistical methods of planning and forecasting land use are considered and used quite rarely. For instance, in [8] the authors analyze the possibility to use the Markov model in predicting changes in land use conversion, they highlight the advantages and limitations of using this model for land management purposes. However, modern regional dynamics is characterized by a high degree of uncertainty, the complexity of taking into account the influence of environmental factors on it, which makes it difficult and often impossible to use traditional methods of planning and forecasting land use. Therefore, the search for non-standard tools in land management is a key component of managing the sustainable development of the region. Game theory is one of the instruments that, in our opinion, has the potential to be used to regulate land relations. It is a theory of mathematical models of decision-making in conditions of uncertainty, when the decision-making subject (“player”) has information about the set of possible situations, one of which he is actually in, about the set of decisions (“strategies”) he can take, and about the quantitative measure of the “gain” he could get by choosing one strategy or another. At the same time, the very moment of game formation involves the assessment of benefits based on a strong information base, which ensures greater validity of decisions, on the one hand, and allows you to create decision-making algorithms and patterns in conflict situations related to land resources, on the other. Starting with the fundamental book by Neumann and Morgensten [9], game theory has found applications in various fields of economics. Lemaire [10] proposed 4 new accounting methods that originate from game theory. Donald and Paarsch [11] investigated the application of game theory to the study of auctions. Camerer proposed an approach called “behavioral game theory” [12]. Pandey and Chermack [13] explore the interactions between the firm and the employee, as well as the interactions between HRD

Possibilities for Applications of Game Theory in Relation to Land Use

187

and other functional areas within the firm, based on Nash equilibrium. Roth and Wilson [14] discuss how game theory and mechanism design evolved into practical market design. Scientific interest in game theory and the practice of its application in various fields - economic, social, technological - has developed with varying degrees of intensity in different years in our country. According to Google Ngram Viewer online service, the frequency of using the term “game theory” (Russian equivalent) in the Russian-language segment of Google Books resource, having reached a peak in 1970, began to decline quite rapidly. Some rise in research interest in this method was detected in 1995–2013. However, in subsequent years, it began to decline again (see Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. The occurrence of the N-gram “game theory” (Russian equivalent) in the Russian-language segment of Google Books service (according to Ngram Viewer service).

It is interesting to note that the frequency of using this term in English (in the same segment) showed completely different dynamics: the occurrence of the term “game theory”, although much less, has shown a rapid growth in recent years (see Fig. 2). A scientometric analysis based on the data of the Russian Science Citation Index (RSCI) also showed the non-linearity of research interest in game theory. At the time of our study, 3752 scientific papers were indexed on the RSCI resource, where the term “game theory” was found in the title or keywords. Mostly these are publications in the thematic heading “Economics. Economic Sciences” (more than 80% of all publications). The first scientific work indexed in the RSCI, devoted to the application of game theory, dates back to 1976. However, more than half (55%) of all scientific works on this topic have been published in the last 10 years (2013–2022). At the same time, the annual dynamics of such publications does not allow us to speak of a progressive increase or decrease in research interest in game theory in our country. So, in 2019–2021 the number of such publications was decreasing followed by a noticeable increase in 2022 (see Fig. 3). It is important to note that despite a rather wide range of objects in Russian research, which are carried out using the tools of game theory and land management, their use and regulation of land relations are not yet included in the range of such research objects. On

188

G. Ismagilova and O. Shubat

Fig. 2. The occurrence of the N-gram “game theory” (English term) in the Russian-language segment of Google Books service (according to Ngram Viewer service)/

256 223

194

189

2014

2015

230

219

205

155

2013

2016

2017

2018

years

2019

2020

179

2021

193

2022

Fig. 3. The number of publications indexed on the RSCI resource, in the title or keywords of which the term “game theory” occurs (10)

the RSCI resource, it was not possible to find a single publication with word combinations “game theory” and “land resources” in its title or keywords, as well as derivatives or morphologically related phrases would not occur at the same time. At the same time, the application of game theory in research aimed at the analysis of land resources is not exclusively new. Thus, researchers from Iran have made attempts to apply game theory to the management of agricultural land [15], to urban land use planning [16]. Researchers from China have applied game theory to the analysis of urban land use management [17–19]. Similar studies were carried out by researchers from India [20]. It is important to note that the authors of these studies used various types of games, but not such a variety as games with “nature”. Taking into account the successful experience of applying game theory by foreign researchers, as well as the lack of Russian studies of land relations using this toolkit, the

Possibilities for Applications of Game Theory in Relation to Land Use

189

purpose of our study is to adapt game theory to forecasting the rational use of land in Russian regions.

2 Data and Methods The most relevant game theory tools for the purposes of land management in Russia, in our opinion, are non-cooperative games. This is a wide range of mathematical models, including statistical games (games with “nature”), antagonistic games (games with opposite interests of the parties), games with non-opposite interests (including bimatrix games) and some other models [21]. An important aspect in choosing and justifying the player’s behavior in noncooperative games is uncertainty. It can have a different origin and content, including those dependent and independent of the player. This is especially true when it comes to choosing an option for the use of land. As is known, agricultural land can be used for various purposes - arable land, hayfields, pastures, fallows. It is important that the effectiveness and efficiency of land use depends, for example, on natural and climatic changes, which are rather difficult to predict in the long term. Therefore, in the game about the use of land, one of the players may well be “nature” - both literally and figuratively. Consequently, randomness in a game situation (as a consequence of the action of the so-called “nature”) is characterized by circumstances that do not depend on the subject of the game situation. Such circumstances include environmental conditions (in which decisions are made): weather conditions, market conditions, failure of equipment, etc.. For such game situations, “nature” acts as player 2. At the same time, the behavior of “nature” is unknown to the subject of the game situation (player 1). On the basis of statistical information, n assumptions can be made about the possible conditions of the situation (states of “nature”), which can be interpreted as the strategies of player 2. The choice of the best solution during in the game depends significantly on the degree of uncertainty and what criterion is used to evaluate the result of player 1 actions. Our study shows the possibility of using a non-cooperative statistical game at the stage of interaction between the municipality and potential tenants (applicants) in the process of assessing the possibility of allocating (leasing) a lot of land for economic activity (project). An antagonistic matrix game with zero result is used. The methodological features of this game type are given below. The participants in the game (players) are the landowner (municipality) and the external environment (“nature”). The object of the game is a land lot of 50 hectares. Use category - agricultural land. Lease term is 10 years. The municipality (player 1) is considering the possibility of leasing a piece of land for the implementation of several projects with different options for its use (these projects are essentially different strategies for player 1): arable land, haymaking, pasture and gardening. The arable land strategy involves the cultivation of various crops. The project provides for a periodic crop change. Haymaking strategy - harvesting hay, with subsequent implementation. The pasture strategy is focused on animal husbandry (breeding of medium-sized cattle) and the production of milk and meat. The horticulture strategy is associated with the cultivation of perennial fruit or berry crops to obtain fruits, berries. All projects are possible for implementation in certain environmental conditions (“nature”) for the period of the lease. Therefore, player 2 is an external environment, a

190

G. Ismagilova and O. Shubat

passive player, he consciously does not act against player 1, does not try to maximize his payoff. “Nature” is represented by a combination of factors that form the conditions for the implementation of projects. These factors include: – natural and climatic (natural and climatic conditions, land quality); – market (conjuncture of the agro-food market, price dynamics, etc.); – technical and technological (technical means of cultivating the land, technologies for the production of agricultural products, etc.). The influence of the above factors leads to the formation of three options for player 2 strategies, tentatively called scenarios: optimistic, realistic and pessimistic. The income received by the municipality depends on the land lot using and on the environmental conditions developing during the period of its lease. Benefit (income of the municipality) is determined based on the calculation of a complex indicator: K = P + R + T,

(1)

where, P – the increase in the GRP of the agricultural sector (the volume of production under the project), rub.; R – the total amount of payment for the lease of the lot for the entire lease period, rub.; T – the amount of revenues to the local budget from the payment of the unified agricultural tax for the entire lease period, rub. An expert survey is proposed to act as a basis for estimation of the predicted income of the municipality. In our case, the expert group included an industry analyst, a representative of the municipality, a business analyst, experts from investment companies (8 people in total). To form the assessment, 4 projects, applying for the lease of the same land lot in 2022, were selected. The criterion for selecting projects was the condition that the indicator of economic efficiency of land use for projects is not less than that of the project that received a grant from the regional Ministry of Agriculture. According to internal reporting data, provided that the full production capacity was reached, this figure was at least 4 million rubles/ha per year. The forecast was formed by experts for 10 years. At the same time, the following factors were taken into account: the impact of changes in climatic conditions on crop yields, the dynamics of demand for agricultural products of local producers, the potential for increasing productivity when using new types of equipment and technologies, possible changes in land quality.

3 Results At the first stage of the analysis, in order to form the payment matrix necessary to make a decision, the income of the municipality was estimated. Calculations showed that when choosing a gardening strategy for a realistic option, the municipality’s revenues will be: – GRP growth will amount to 9 million rub. Per year with an average yield in the region of 6 t/ha; – the payment for the lot lease will be 3 million rub.; – payment of the unified agricultural tax will amount to 0.45 million rub.

Possibilities for Applications of Game Theory in Relation to Land Use

191

Thus, the total income will be K = 90 + 3 + 0,45 = 93,45 million rub. Similarly, the predicted income was calculated for the remaining possible strategies. At the same time, the rent for the strategies of player 2 (optimistic, realistic, and pessimistic) remains unchanged. The calculation results are presented in Table 1. Table 1. Income of player 1 (municipality), million rub. Strategies (tenant projects)

«Nature», environment scenarios Optimistic

Realistic

Pessimistic

Arable land

237,25

149,5

132

Haymaking

40,47

21,75

12,37

Pasture

249

149,5

87,3

Gardening

129,3

93,45

65,4

Game in conditions of complete uncertainty At the next stage of the analysis, according to Table 1, a payoff matrix was built: A = ||Kij ||43 ,

(2)

where Kij – values of the competitive position indicator in the j-scenario for i Ap:

The payment matrix allows to choose the best rental option using the following criteria: 1) maximax criterion: M = max maxK i

j

 ,

(3)

ij

In this case, Ap is selected, which has the highest value of the competitive position in the entire payoff matrix. In the payoff matrix, the maximum values in the columns is a set of numbers (249; 149, 5; 132), of which the maximum value is 249. Thus, the criterion of maximax determines Ap3 as the optimal one. 2) Wald criterion (maximum criterion): W = max minKij , i

j

(4)

In the payoff matrix A, the minimum values in the columns is a set of numbers (40, 5; 21, 75; 12), of which the maximum value is 40,5. Thus, according to the Wald criterion, the optimal is Ap2 .

192

G. Ismagilova and O. Shubat

3) Savage’s criterion (minimum risk criterion): S = min maxPij , i

j

(5)

In this case, Ap with the lowest risk from the maximum possible risk values is chosen. In game theory, risk is the amount of payment for the lack of information about the state of the external environment. The elements of the risk matrix R are calculated by the formula: Pij = Kjmax − Kij ,

(6)

Thus, the risk matrix R for the competitive position indicator is as follows:

In the risk matrix, the maximum values in the columns is a set of numbers (208, 5; 127, 75; 119, 63), of which the minimum value is 119,63. Thus, according to the Savage criterion, the optimal is Ap2 . Obviously, the best choice will be the tenant project that wins by most criteria. According to the results of calculations in the case under consideration, despite the obvious advantage of the pasture strategy, under conditions of complete uncertainty, according to most criteria, the haymaking strategy wins. Matrix Antagonistic Game. Since the matrix game used, i.e. the sum of the payoffs of the players in each situation is equal to zero, the game is antagonistic. The Nash equilibrium situation is determined by finding the saddle point of the matrix. In our case, this is:

So, there is a saddle point of the matrix A. This is the situation (3.1). The optimal strategy in this game is arable land.

Possibilities for Applications of Game Theory in Relation to Land Use

193

Thus, the owner of the land (municipality), based on the forecasts of the state of the external environment and the results of calculations, with the obvious advantage of animal husbandry, should give preference to crop production. The choice between haymaking and arable land, carried out on the basis of maximizing the income of the municipality, identifies arable land as the best strategy.

4 Discussions and Conclusion The mathematical and statistical tools for making decisions regarding land use presented in the study, in our opinion, may have varied practical applications. First of all, this toolkit can be useful for the specialists of the Land Committee of the country’s municipalities in the process of preparing materials for the selection committee that makes a decision on supporting (accepting for implementation) a particular project. This toolkit can also be employed when preparing bidding materials in the event of a land purchase (in addition to traditional methods based on the use of standard economic valuation methods). At the same time, it is necessary to note the difficulties and limitations that may arise in the process of practical application of this toolkit. First of all, the debatable issue is the benefit of the municipality. Obviously, its value depends on the applied methods and approaches to calculations, on the set of influencing factors that the researcher or decision maker takes or does not take into account. We do not exclude the possibility of modifying our approach to estimating this income. It is possible to use other indicators, as well as weighting factors and more complex mathematical formulas, for calculating. In addition, an important constraint to the application of this toolkit is the possible lack of necessary competencies of decision makers on the land use option. It is also necessary to note the potential difficulties with the formation of an information base for making calculations and obtaining feedback. An important debatable issue is the subjectivity and possible inconsistency of expert opinions, which are used to form the payoff matrix of the game. However, we see opportunities for further expanding the application of game theory in the regulation of land relations. For example, in a situation where the municipality is the owner of the land and decides on its long-term lease, not excluding its subsequent redemption. The following game options may arise: 1. In the case of the use of agricultural land, when the municipality provides land to tenants for farming. These are the conditions of fierce competition, and here an antagonistic game between tenants is possible, with the elements of the behavioral economy (winning one is possible only at the expense of another losing). In the case of purchasing a lot, an auction-type game can be used, in which the municipality, organizing the auction, is the auctioneer. In this case, two variants of games are possible depending on the quality of the traded lot: an auction for an increase and an auction for a decrease with the possibility of taking into account the development of the situation for each course of the auction and adjusting the behavior strategy. 2. If the municipality provides land for residential development (apartment buildings), it is possible to build a matrix with the search for the optimal solution to the game or use an auction-type game.

194

G. Ismagilova and O. Shubat

3. In the case of commercial use of land (business centers, hotels, sports complexes, etc.), the municipality and applicants can be considered as players, and the game matrix can be used to determine the maximum gain for the region as a whole. Other ways of adapting game theory to the regulation of land relations are also possible. For instance, the study [22] notes that today two closely related areas in game theory (“common pool resource games” and “public good games”) are actively developing, determined by the use of common and public goods. This is a situation where the intensive use of a shared resource without taking into account the interests of others (maintaining the desired quality of the resource) leads to its depletion. Since land is a common and public good, “common pool resource games” and “public good games” can also be adapted to regulate land relations. It should be also noted that in modern conditions of the rapid development in digital technologies, such mathematical and statistical methods become less time-consuming to use. Digital game models will only require the input of initial data to find an alternative outcome of the development of the situation in addition to traditional approaches in land use planning. There are two very important debatable issues that are not discussed in this article, but, nevertheless, are worthy of study in the framework of separate studies. We are talking about the philosophical and cultural foundations for applying game theory to the study of land relationships. The first of these questions not discussed in the present article is the most fundamental, it concerns the very possibility of considering land relations in the context of the game. J. Huizinga also explored the essence of the game phenomenon, noted its comprehensive nature and universal significance. According to his ideas, all human activity, all culture has a game nature, and the game is a comprehensive way of human existence [23]. However, in modern political and social discourse, the role of the game in human life obviously requires rethinking. The second question belongs to the field of political philosophy, it is connected with the problems of considering the land as a public good. The UN Global Land Outlook states that “the role of land as a public good and common recourse does not currently enjoy sufficient recognition in land use policy and planning [24]. G. Hardin [25], B. Crowe [26], E. Ostrom [27] and other authors raised questions of the efficient use of public goods without the negative consequences associated with their depletion. An important philosophical issue that needs to be considered within the framework of a separate study is the possibility and necessity of a rational choice (or selfish behavior) of individuals in their relationship with the land in order not to deplete this resource, but to renew it, guided by the principle of rational spending. The conducted research enables us to make a conclusion that the game theory for forecasting and planning the rational use of land in the Russian regions can be adapted. It is possible take into account the specific features of the turnover of land use in the country, paying attention to regional specifics. The use of game theory tools in regulation land relations in Russia is an innovative approach that has not been used before. Despite the fact that in a number of foreign studies the methods of game theory were used to analyze land relations [15–20], the algorithms and techniques for their application cannot be fully and unchanged used to study the situation in Russia. Territorial context

Possibilities for Applications of Game Theory in Relation to Land Use

195

is important for the application of these methods. Indeed, in different territories and in different countries there is a specific legislative framework and established practice of land relations. Thus, the novelty of our study is the research context formed by the legislative base, the legal regulation of land relations in Russia. Application of mathematical tools of game theory meets the urgent tasks of the modern social and economic development of the country and is especially relevant for countries with a high level of regional differentiation.

References 1. Komarov, S.: Strategic regional planning in the field of land and property relations. Property relations in the Russian Federation 7(190), 82–98 (2017) 2. Kudryavtseva, T.: Land use planning: textbook for students in the field of study 21.03.02 Land management and cadastres Primorskaya State Agricultural Academy, Ussuriysk (2015) 3. Egortsev, N., Osorgina, O.: Some methodological foundations for developing a system for forecasting and planning the use of land resources in the Samara region, pp. 58–63. The publishing house: Achievements of science to the agro-industrial complex Collection of scientific papers (2014) 4. Panova, A., Sharov, D.: Analysis of the use of agricultural land resources on the example of the regions of the central federal district. Agrarian Bulletin of the Upper Volga Region 3(32), 131–139 (2020) 5. Rasskazova, A., Bogacheva, M.: The role of a demographic forecast in planning the use of land resources and real estate in a municipality (on the example of the Efremovskiy district of the Tula region). In: Makannikova, M.(ed.) Construction and environmental management: problems and solutions. Materials of the All-Russian scientific-practical conference, dedicated to the 40th anniversary of the Faculty of Construction and Environmental Engineering resp., pp. 279–284. Far Eastern State Agrarian University, Blagoveshchensk (2019) 6. Rasskazova, A., Sinitsa, U.: Application of program-target method in planning the use of land resources and real estate objects. Moscow Economic Journal 5, 55–63 (2019). https://doi.org/ 10.24411/2413-046X-2019-15027 7. Komarov, S., Mihaleva, A.: Applying of highest and best use analysis in the planning of land resources’ using. Property Relations in the Russian Federation 1(172), 21–29 (2016) 8. Nepoklonov, V.: Economic-mathematical methods and models for land-building objectives. International Agricultural Journal 6, 33–36 (2017). https://doi.org/10.24411/2587-67402017-16007 9. Neumann, J., Morgenstern, O.: Theory of Games and Economic Behavior. Princeton University Press, Princeton (1947) 10. Lemaire, J.: An application of game theory: cost allocation. ASTIN Bulletin: The Journal of the IAA 14(1), 61–81 (1984). https://doi.org/10.1017/S0515036100004815 11. Donald, S., Paarsch, H.: Identification, estimation, and testing in parametric empirical models of auctions within the independent private values paradigm. Economet. Theor. 12(3), 517–567 (1996). https://doi.org/10.1017/S0266466600006848 12. Camerer, C.: Progress in behavioral game theory. J. Economic Perspectives 11(4), 167–188 (1997) 13. Pandey, V., Chermack, T.: Game theory and strategic human resource development. Adv. Dev. Hum. Resour. 10(6), 834–847 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1177/1523422308324660 14. Roth, A., Wilson, R.: How market design emerged from game theory: a mutual interview. J. Econ. Perspect. 33(3), 118–143 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.33.3.118

196

G. Ismagilova and O. Shubat

15. Barati, A., Azadi, H., Scheffran, J.: Agricultural land fragmentation in iran: application of game theory. Land Use Policy 100(1), 105149 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol. 2020.105049 16. Maleki, J., Masoumi, Z., Hakimpour, F., Coello, C.: A spatial land-use planning support system based on game theory. Land Use Policy 99(12), 105013 (2020). https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.landusepol.2020.105013 17. Liu, Y., Tang, W., He, J., Liu, Y., Ai, T., Liu, D.: A land-use spatial optimization model based on genetic optimization and game theory. Comput. Environ. Urban Syst. 49(1), 1–14 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compenvurbsys.2014.09.002 18. Tan, R., Liu, Y., Zhou, K., Jiao, L., Tang, W.: A game-theory based agent-cellular model for use in urban growth simulation: a case study of the rapidly Urbanizing Wuhan Area of Central China. Comput. Environ. Urban Syst. 49(1), 15–29 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compen vurbsys.2014.09.001 19. Hui, E., Bao, H.: The logic behind conflicts in land acquisitions in contemporary china: a framework based upon game theory. Land Use Policy 30(1), 373–380 (2013). https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.landusepol.2012.04.001 20. Paritosh, P., Kalita, B., Sharma, D. A game theory based land layout optimization of cities using genetic algorithm. International Journal of Management Science and Engineering Management 14, 3 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1080/17509653.2018.1505566 21. Vorobyev, N.: Osnovy Teorii igr. Bescoalizionnye igry [Fundamentals of Game Theory. Noncooperative games]. Fizmatlit, Moscow (1984). [In Rus] 22. Kirilyuk, I.: Mathematical modelling for institutional design. Terra Economicus 17(3), 64–77 (2019) 23. Huizinga, J.: Homo ludens: a study of the play-element in culture. Am. Sociol. Rev. 16(2), 274 (1951) 24. Alexander, S., Dudley, N.: Global Land Outlook (2017). https://portals.iucn.org/library/node/ 47008 25. Hardin, G.: The tragedy of the commons. Science 162(3859), 1243–1248 (1968) 26. Crowe, B.L.: The tragedy of the commons revisited. Science 166(3909), 1103–1107 (1969) 27. Ostrom, E.: Governing the Commons: The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (1990)

Play and Labour - Some Conceptual Remarks on Gamification in the Context of Manual Work Christopher Coenen(B) Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, P.O. Box 3640, 76021 Karlsruhe, Germany [email protected]

Abstract. The growing trend towards gamification makes further conceptual discussion necessary, especially when it comes to very problematic contexts of work. This is true, for example, when highly alienated manual labour, such as in Amazon warehouses, is gamified. The history of ideas of gaming as well as Marxist conceptual reflections on human activity can help to clarify fundamental problems in this context. It can be shown that perhaps not every gamification that puts play in the service of labour is to be seen as a perversion of labour, but at least any gamification is unacceptable that instrumentalises play to make joyless, unsatisfying or uncreative manual labour more bearable for workers. With Friedrich Schiller, Johan Huizinga, Roger Caillois, and Friedrich Engels one can argue that play for work and work as play can be pathways to human freedom. Many digital games, however, exhibit the ambivalence of gamification: Not only does work become like a game, but games takes on features of work as well. Forcing people to play contributes to their dehumanization rather than enhancing human freedom. Keywords: Play · Work · Labour · Freedom · Technology · Gamification · Game · Computer · Games · Caillois · Marx · Marxism · Alienation · Activity · Creativity

1 Are Play and Work Mutually Exclusive Types of Activities? The term ‘gamification’ can either refer to a broad cultural shift in which modern societies are increasingly shaped by games, especially digital games, and by game elements; or it can mean the deliberate transformation of all kinds of activities, systems, services, products or organisational structures into ones which afford similar positive experiences, skills, and practices as found in games [1]. In the following, the focus is on the latter, i.e. on intentional gamification, and this in particular in the context of manual work. In the literal sense of the word, ‘manual work’ includes a wide variety of activities that exclude – to use a contrasting juxtaposition with a long history not only in so-called Western culture – the liberal arts but range from various artistic activities to so-called lowskilled or unskilled work in, for example, factories, warehouses, transport or agriculture. However, the notion of ‘manual work’ (or, which is more widespread, ‘manual labour’) usually refers to the latter, to activities performed by workers with little or no specific qualification. And while artisan and artistic activities that involve manual work in order © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Bylieva and A. Nordmann (Eds.): PCSF 2023, LNNS 830, pp. 197–211, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-48020-1_17

198

C. Coenen

to earn a living have traditionally been seen in the dominant ideological discourse of class societies (for example, already in classical Greek philosophy) as opposed to free human activity (as in the liberal arts), the modern bourgeois conception of arts and crafts also opposes it to manual proletarian labour. A similar and closely related contrasting juxtaposition is that between work and play. In the history of ideas about playing – and also about games with clearly defined rules –, the two are often seen as mutually exclusive types of human activity. In another important tradition of thinking about playing and games, however, this contrasting juxtaposition is avoided and questioned. In the following, the two points of view will be briefly described and discussed. 1.1 Play Versus Work: Play as Freedom First of all, a conceptual distinction is necessary, for which the terms ‘play’ and ‘game’ can be used. While in various European languages only one word (e.g. jeu in French, Spiel in German, igpa in Russian, and juego in Spanish) is used for both, English has these two words. This is useful because the two terms can serve to distinguish between playful activities that are subject to fixed rules and aim at success – the games –, and all the other playful activities ranging from free children’s play to theatre. Many of these activities border on other human activities, as other uses of the word ‘play’ (and of corresponding words in other European languages) show, including some metaphorical uses. It is also worth noting that play is etymologically and in contemporary usage closely related to movement. Moreover, we should bear in mind that play is often mentally associated with children – as for example also in the word παιδια´ (paidia), a classical Greek term for play –, with joy and with non-seriousness or frivolity. At the same time, play was seen early on as an important means of children’s learning. In his Letters on the Aesthetic Education of Man (1795), Friedrich Schiller introduced the notion of a ‘play drive’ and famously argued that this drive is what makes human beings truly human, stating that human beings play only where they are human in the fullest sense of the word and that human beings are fully human only when they play. The play drive is a kind of sublation of two competing drives: the sense drive, which is bound to the laws of nature, stems from human physical existence and was dominant in pre-civilised times, and the form drive, which is expressed in reason and morality. To the extent that the play drive takes away the dynamic influence of sensations and affects, it brings them into harmony with ideas of reason, and to the extent that it takes away the moral coercion of the laws of reason, the play drive reconciles them with the interest of the senses. Those who contemplate beauty in the enjoyment of art are dominated neither by the sense drive nor by the form drive and the play drive thus gives rise to freedom. By coming into communion with ideas, all that is real loses its seriousness and becomes small, and as it comes in contact with feeling, necessity also loses its seriousness and becomes light. Schiller emphasises, however, that the notion of play in his concept of the play drive has little or nothing to do with frivolous and often distasteful activities that in his point of view have gone under the name of play for centuries. He is not concerned with such games, but with play as the realisation of the twofold human nature, which is a

Play and Labour - Some Conceptual Remarks on Gamification

199

play exclusively with beauty. And in his essay, which was a critical reaction to how the French Revolution had problematically developed, it also becomes clear that he assumed that such a play with beauty may remain the privilege of those “near to the throne” for a long time to come. In the run-up to the Second World War, Johan Huizinga began the introduction to his book Homo Ludens [2], a founding work of modern scholarly discourse on play, with the same thrust as Schiller’s Aesthetic Letters, namely as a critique of overly optimistic hopes for human reason stemming from 18th -century Enlightenment thought. Both authors focused on notions of play in their proposals to overcome narrow rational conceptions of the human being. In many ways, however – and not only because of Huizinga’s brief and sharp rejection of Schiller’s close connection between play and the visual arts – the approach to play in the two works is very different. For Huizinga [2, pp. 16–19], all play is first and foremost a free activity. Commanded play can never be play, it could at best be an imposed imitation of it. True play is superfluous, and the need for it is only urgent to the extent that the enjoyment of it makes it a need. It is never imposed by physical necessity or moral duty and therefore never a task. It is done at leisure, during ‘free time’. The first main characteristic of play is thus “that it is free”, that it “is in fact freedom” [2, p. 16]. And it is never ‘ordinary’ or ‘actual’ life because of its disinterested character. Only when play is a recognised cultural function – a rite or ceremony, for example – is it associated with notions of obligation and duty. Play is a temporary activity, satisfying in itself. So, it presents itself to us, per se and in the first instance, as an intermezzo, a relaxing interlude in our leisure time. As a regularly recurring relaxation, however, it already becomes an accompaniment, a complement, indeed an integral part of life in general. As a necessity in this sense and as a cultural function or sacred activity, its disinterested character nevertheless remains intact, for the purposes it serves lie outside immediate material interests or the individual satisfaction of biological needs. Accordingly, it is separated from ‘ordinary’ life, both in terms of place and duration, which Huizinga defines as its third main characteristic. In its place there is an absolute and peculiar order. Play therefore creates order, is order. Into an imperfect world and into the confusion of life it brings a temporary, a limited perfection. The slightest deviation from its order takes away its character, “spoils the game” and makes it worthless. In terms of form, then, play can thus be defined as free activity that (1) is perceived as being not serious and outside of ‘ordinary’ life, and yet can completely occupy the player, (2) has no material interest attached to it and no benefit is acquired from it, and (3) takes place within a specifically defined time and space [2, p. 22]. Roger Caillois [3] largely took Huizinga’s Homo Ludens as a starting point in his reflections on play, and his main aim was to provide a more differentiated and systematising description and classification of games, also by taking into account playful activities that were not considered by Huizinga, such as games of chance. In many respects, however, Caillois agrees with him, emphasising, for example, that play does not create wealth or goods and is thus different from labour or art [3, p. 5]. Nothing is harvested or produced, no masterpieces are created, no capital is accumulated. Caillois has also no doubt that play must be defined as a free and voluntary activity, a source of joy and amusement, arguing that a “game which one would be forced to play

200

C. Coenen

would at once cease being play. It would become constraint, drudgery from which one would strive to be freed. As an obligation or simply an order, it would lose one of its basic characteristics: the fact that the player devotes himself spontaneously to the game, of his free will and for his pleasure, each time completely free to choose retreat, silence, meditation, idle solitude, or creative activity. […] It happens only when the players have a desire to play, and play the most absorbing, exhausting game in order to find diversion, escape from responsibility and routine. Finally and above all, it is necessary that they be free to leave whenever they please, by saying: ‘I am not playing any more’” [3, p. 6; own translation]. Caillois [3, pp. 23f., 44] defines play as an activity that is (1) free, (2) separate, (3) uncertain, (4) unproductive, (5) regulated, and (6) fictive, adding that the last two characteristics appear to be almost mutually exclusive but are closely related. That play is free entails that playing is not obligatory; if it were, it would at once lose its attractive and joyous quality as diversion. It is separate in the sense that it is circumscribed within limits of space and time, defined and fixed in advance. It is uncertain in the sense that the course of it cannot be determined, nor the result attained beforehand, and some latitude for innovations is being left to the player’s initiative. Play is unproductive in that it produces neither goods, nor wealth, nor new elements of any kind; and it ends, apart from the possible exchange of property between the players, in a situation identical to that at the beginning of the game. It is governed by rules, under conventions that override the ordinary laws. And it is, finally, fictive, i.e. accompanied by a special awareness of a second reality or of open unreality in relation to real life. As regards the latter two characteristics, Caillois writes that often play has no rules, or at least not fixed and rigid ones, for example when playing dolls or cops and robbers and, in general, in all games that require free improvisation and whose main attraction lies in the pleasure of playing a role. Fiction, the feeling of as if , replaces the rules and fulfils exactly the same function. And the rules themselves create fictions. By the very fact of complying with the respective rules of such games like chess, the players are separated from real life where there is no activity that literally corresponds to any in the game. This is why such games are played for real, and the as-if is not necessary. If the play consists, however, of imitating life, the player on the one hand lacks knowledge of how to invent and follow rules that do not exist in reality, and the game is accompanied by the awareness that the behaviour being played is a semblance, a mere mimicry. The rules of such play are unique [3, p. 45] and mimicry is incessant invention. For the actors, they consist in fascinating the spectators; the spectators are invited to give credence to an artifice, for a given time, as if to a reality that is more real than reality. ‘Mimicry’ is one of the four terms that Caillois uses to designate his main forms of play: those involving competition, chance, simulacra or vertigo. ‘Mimicry’ is used for simulacra, ‘Agôn’ for competitive games, ‘Alea’ for games of chance, and ‘llinx’ for playful activities involving vertigo. As an additional means of differentiation, he defines two antagonistic poles, which he names respectively with the above-mentioned Greek term παιδια´ (paidia) and the Latin term ‘ludus’, using the former for the power of joyful improvisation and the latter for gratuitous difficulty [3, p. 52]. At one end of the spectrum, there is thus entertainment, turbulence, free improvisation and carefree fulfilment, at the opposite end, this

Play and Labour - Some Conceptual Remarks on Gamification

201

mischievous and playful exuberance is almost entirely absorbed, or at any rate disciplined, by a complementary tendency, the opposite in some respects, but not in all, of its anarchic and capricious nature: a growing need to bend it to arbitrary, imperative and purposely annoying conventions, to thwart it, and to make it more and more difficult to live with [3, pp. 27f.]. Even in the case of games that exclude or make undesirable the intervention of others, the ludus nourishes the player’s hope of succeeding at the next attempt where he has just failed, or of achieving a higher score than the one he has just obtained [3, pp. 59f]. The Agôn colours the general atmosphere with the joy of overcoming an arbitrary difficulty. From what we have seen so far, it should be clear that, in some key contributions to the scholarly history of ideas about playing and games, work and play are generally regarded as mutually exclusive types of activity, with the possible exception of some highly creative activities such as artistic work. A coupling of play and work through the use of game mechanisms to, for example, increase work motivation, as gamification would have it, is therefore categorically ruled out. 1.2 Play for Work and Work as Play as Pathways to Human Freedom However, there is also another tradition of thought that emphasises in various ways the multiple relationships between play and work and sometimes proclaims the necessity of their fusion or of overcoming work in play. This tradition can draw to some extent on ideas that were already present in classical Greek philosophy, namely, on the one hand, that play is an effective means of learning, especially for children, and, as Schiller also pointed out, of building character, and, on the other hand, that play indirectly serves work by being a means of recreation. Moreover, some representatives of this tradition criticise the contrasting juxtaposition of play and work as ideological, because in reality there is no such absolute separation. And some authors and entire social movements have argued that only work leads to freedom – and precisely when work contains playful elements or even becomes play. The contrasting juxtaposition of play and work is prevalent in classical Greek literature, and, as in later European languages, the main Greek term for ‘play’, which etymologically refers to children’s play (see above), extends to various activities that are not considered laborious, serious or solemn, but are not necessarily children’s activities either [4]. Plato proposed to control and standardise all children’s games and claimed that he was the first to point out the importance of play for social stability, arguing that if children introduce novelties into their games, they will end up as adults who are disastrously different from the previous generation and are looking for a different way of life. To a certain extent, Aristotle agreed that there were links between learning and (musical) play, but he nevertheless made a strict distinction between education and play, regarding the former as a laudable form of leisure and play only as an alternation from work. He contrastingly juxtaposed not work and play, but work and leisure – as the highest, most cultivated form of human time use – and rather understood play as a function of work, as a recreational activity serving work. Against this backdrop, Armand D’Angour states: “Aristotle’s reduction of work and play to a dichotomy may account for why the new understanding of play as educational for children, broached by Plato’s novel theorizing,

202

C. Coenen

disappeared from ancient thinking. It was not to be revived for over two millennia” [4, p. 301]. In the Age of Enlightenment and after, the educational potential of play was often emphasised again. Immanuel Kant believed that certain games were useful because through them boys learn to concentrate and deny other needs while being active. They become accustomed to constant occupation, “nevertheless for this very reason”, Kant writes, “these games must not be mere games, but games having some end and object. For the more a child’s body is strengthened and hardened in this way, the more surely will he be saved from the ruinous consequences of over-indulgence. […] however, in training the bodies of children, we must also take care to fit them for society [5, p. 64]. Similar thoughts were expressed by a number of important pedagogues. Johann Christoph Friedrich GutsMuths (1759–1839), for example, a teacher, educator and the ‘grandfather of gymnastics’ (Turnen) in Germany, wrote: “Let no game be empty of all content, of all benefit; no one likes to act without intention. Games must therefore be exercises that are beneficial in some way for the young (and for the old too)” [6, pp. 33f.; own translation] and gave as examples benefits for motor, psychological and cognitive skills. It is noteworthy that he adds that games can also be useful for adults. While other authors in the same period still understand play as the opposite of work and even as liberation from all unsatisfying work towards freedom and individual happiness, we see here an instrumentalisation of play for external purposes. The relationship between freedom and labour was a central interest of Karl Marx, and to a certain extent he was also concerned with the relationship between the latter and play. From a Marxian perspective, work is a process of self-creation in which the subject externalises and affirms itself through objectification [7]. Demystifying and humanising the Hegelian approach to activity, Marx understood work as essentially creative, as a process of self-transformation and the realisation of concrete freedom. He was comprehensively concerned with the higher appreciation of proletarian labour. To this end, he extended – socially and in relation to human activity – the scope of those promises of freedom made in the ancient traditions in relation to leisure and the liberal arts, and in the bourgeois traditions in particular in relation to ‘purposeless’ and ‘higher’ creative arts. In the Grundrisse (Notebook VI – The Chapter on Capital) [8], Marx criticised Adam Smith’s Aristotelian stance towards leisure and work – the notion that ‘tranquillity’ is the adequate state, identical with ‘freedom’ and ‘happiness’ – and equates Smith’s understanding of work with Jehovah’s curse on Adam, arguing that work is for Smith a curse. Quite to the contrary, healthy human beings would need a normal portion of work and of the suspension of tranquility. Certainly, labour would obtain its measure from the outside, through the aim to be attained and the obstacles to be overcome in attaining it. But the overcoming of obstacles, Marx argues, is in itself an actuation of freedom. The external aims become stripped of the semblance of merely external natural urgencies and become posited as aims which the individual himself posit. Work thus is a self-realisation, an objectification of the subject – hence real freedom, whose action is, precisely, work. The overcoming of obstacles – which, according to Marx, leads to real freedom in work – is also a key element in many games, in Caillois’ terms: in ludus. In two

Play and Labour - Some Conceptual Remarks on Gamification

203

passages of the Grundrisse, however, Marx emphasises fundamental differences between play and work, both in critical reference to Fourier [7]: if labour becomes attractive work for the self-realisation of the individual, this does not mean that it becomes mere amusement. Really free work, such as composing, is at the same time precisely the most damned seriousness, the most intense exertion. And for Marx it goes without saying that direct labour time itself cannot remain in the abstract antithesis to free time in which it appears from the perspective of bourgeois economy. Again against Fourier, Marx stresses that labour can never become play but also emphasises that it remains Fourier’s great contribution to have expressed the suspension not of distribution, but of the mode of production itself, in a higher form, as the ultimate object. Free time, as leisure and time for higher activity transforms its possessor into a different subject, and as this new subject he then enters into the direct production process. Under the conditions of industrial capitalism, only science and art provide options for such activities and they are thus only possible at the expense of alienated surplus labour [7]. In Capital, Marx writes: “Man not only effects a change of form in the materials of nature; he also realises his own purpose in those materials. And this is a purpose he is conscious of, it determines the mode of his activity with the rigidity of a law, and he must subordinate his will to it. This subordination is no mere momentary act. Apart from the exertion of the bodily organs, a purposeful will is required for the entire duration of the work. This means close attention. The less he is attracted by the nature of the work and the way in which it has to be accomplished, and the less, therefore, he enjoys it as the free play of his own physical and mental powers, the closer his attention is forced to be” [9, p. 127]. Dichotomising ‘labour’ and ‘work’ (for each of which Marx used the German word Arbeit), Christian Fuchs summarises: “The realm of freedom really begins only where labour, (…) [as] a form of work that is determined by necessity and external expediency, ends” [10, p. 27]. And Karel Kosík stressed in Dialectics of the Concrete [11; cf. 7] that the idea of free time as organised leisure was entirely foreign to Marx and that freedom does not disclose itself to man as an autonomous realm, independent of work and existing beyond the boundaries of necessity. Rather, it grows out of work as its necessary prerequisite. In a post-capitalist future, humanity will cease to juxtapose work and freedom, objective activity and imagination, technology and poetry as two independent ways of satiating the human drive. Conceptually, it thus may make sense to distinguish not only between play and game – where games are playful activities that are subject to fixed rules and aim at success (and other playful activities reach from free children’s play to theatre) – but also between work and labour. As regards the latter distinction, one can build on a remark by Friedrich Engels that work creates use-values and is qualitatively determined, while labour creates value and is only measured quantitatively [10, p. 26], and on the following interpretation of this remark by Fuchs: “Labour is a necessarily alienated form of work, in which humans do not control and own the means and results of production. It is a historic form of the organization of work in class societies. Work in contrast is a much more general concept common to all societies. It is a process, in which humans make use of technologies for

204

C. Coenen

transforming nature and society in such a way that goods and services are created that satisfy human needs” [10, pp. 26f.]. In both distinctions, one of the terms denotes a subset of the activities that the other term encompasses. The two distinctions are also similar in their relationship to human freedom and perhaps creativity. The broader terms (‘play’ and ‘work’) tend to allow for conceptions in which at least some of the activities are seen as pathways to human freedom and even social liberation. In summary, we can say that work, but not labour, can be or become play, and that when games are used in work, i.e. for gamification, axiologically this is not play. This concurs with Georges Bataille’s views that human beings are of course essentially working animals but that they also know how to turn work into play, as they already did when they first created art, and that human play, truly human play, was first of all work, work that became play [12, p. 594]. The question arises, however, whether the old categories and systematics of play and games, and the traditional definitions of the relations between play and work, are still meaningful. For example, is play today fundamentally the same as it was in the late 1930s when Huizinga published Homo Ludens and in the late 1950s, when Caillois wrote about les jeux et les hommes, or have games possibly been developed that make it necessary to modify the systematics? There is, of course, a “natural” candidate that we can usefully refer to regarding these questions: the emergence of computer games in the second half of the twentieth century, whose massive popularisation since the 1980s also gave rise to the concept and practices of gamification. In the following remarks, even if we focus on the relevance for manual work contexts, we can of course only throw a few spotlights on the now huge field of digital games.

2 Digital Games and Role-Playing in Light of the Conceptual Considerations Looking at the great diversity of today’s digital games and recent trends, one obvious tendency, apart from the dramatically increasing commercialisation, technisation and virtualisation of play, is the development of more and more games that aim to integrate several basic forms of play – Agôn and Mimicry above all, but also Alea and, to a much lesser extent, Ilinx – and to address as many play motivations as possible. As for the antagonistic poles defined by Caillois, computer games have massively promoted elements of the ludus in which, to paraphrase Caillois, Agôn colours the satisfaction derived from overcoming arbitrary difficulties, even when the games are played alone. This ludification through digital games can even take extreme forms, as in activities referred to by the word ‘grinding’, which belongs to the field of words denoting boring, hard work and toil. In computer game slang, it refers to very time-consuming and monotonous activities within a game that make it possible to play this game more successfully afterwards. Thus, Graeme Kirkpatrick and colleagues, probably referring to many adventure and role-playing games and some simulation games, wrote: “[M]uch of the ‘play’ is not playful at all, [..], but actually resembles coerced labour. In order to progress in the game […] players need to possess in-game objects and experience points

Play and Labour - Some Conceptual Remarks on Gamification

205

and these can usually only be obtained by engaging in tedious procedures” [13, p. 125]. They point out that others have even argued that what we see here is an extension of the physical economy into our own ideological imaginations, so that what is advertised as ‘play’ resembles work and players “are being judged and assessed on how well they do, just as they are when they are at work” [ibid.]. Another tendency is the ubiquitisation of game playing – or ‘gaming’, as it is now often called with respect to digital games. It now takes place regularly during commuting time on public transport, for example. There is thus also a tendency towards the permanentisation of gaming, which includes gaming as a parallel activity during other activities. In both tendencies, the so-called ‘casual games’ play a key role. However, there is another, in some ways contradictory tendency, which nevertheless also contributes to the permanentisation of gaming, namely the increase in the immersive quality of many computer games, which is also due to technological progress. Often discussed in the context of the worsening problem of computer game addiction, especially among children and adolescents, highly immersive game types offer players a potent mix of Mimicry and strong elements of either ludus or paidia (or both at times) with mainly Agôn, but in some virtual reality games also Ilinx. Role-playing games, which can have great overlap with adventure games, are particularly relevant in this context because of their psychological and often world-simulating characteristics. They can be seen as a truly innovative type of game and perhaps a new, holistic form of play, as they, for example, very often combine and even focus on the two characteristics of play defined by Caillois, which in his point of view are at least largely mutually exclusive: its rule-based and its fictional character. Crucial in these games is the immersion in a second reality, but they have, as is usual with computer games, fixed and rigid rules. On the other hand, they increasingly try to give room for free play, and in any case their main attractions lie in the pleasure of playing a role and experiencing an alternative world, so to speak. So, while fiction, the feeling of as if , fulfils here the function of rules as in other fictive play, at the same time these games have rules that quite literally create fictions, not only in the sense of creating situations or settings apart from the real world – as in chess and many other games – but as a means of simulating a world. It is worth noting that historically and even today these computer games are closely related to role-playing games that are not played on computers but rely on players describing the actions of ‘characters’ (fictional personalities) through speech or speaking in role. In most cases, pens and materials on paper are used in these games, usually combined with polyhedral dice rolling (to incorporate elements of Alea) and often with boards or maps and game pieces (to simulate tactical situations in the game world). The oldest and best known of these so-called pen-and-paper role-playing games is Dungeons & Dragons, which exists since the 1970s. In these games, which are played in small groups of usually no more than five to ten players, one player, often referred to as the ‘game master’, usually provides and represents the fictional world – functions that in computer games are filled by the software – and the other players then take on the roles of individual persons (‘characters’) in this world. The game master describes the game world and its inhabitants, the other players describe the intended actions of their characters, and the game master then describes the results, often using very extensive

206

C. Coenen

and detailed rules provided by others, including companies. Within the rules, the players have the freedom to improvise; their decisions determine the direction and outcome of the game. In this relatively new genre of game, there has been a recent tendency to play with as few rules as possible, or even without a game master, both to weaken the element of ludus and to strengthen the element of paidia within it. A further development, inspired by these games, happened also already in the 1970s, but has become popular only since the 1990s: live-action role-playing (LARP), which additionally has roots in childhood games of make believe, play fighting, military simulations, costume parties, improvisational theatre and historical re-enactment, among others. It is usually played in larger groups of 50 to thousands of players and has diversified since the second half of the 1990s, also into serious gaming, where players collectively simulate not only fantasy worlds inspired mainly by the works of J.R.R. (John Ronald Reuel) Tolkien (as was usually the case originally), but also the past, present or near-future real world, including social conflicts and often dystopian scenarios. The long close association with the fantasy literature genre can be explained by the fact that pen-and-paper role-playing began with fantasy worlds as settings. This was related to the history of digital adventure and role-playing games in the 1970s and 1980s, which very often also had fantasy settings. In current youth language and social media slang, the terms ‘non-player characters (NPCs)’ – the ‘persons’ in the fictional worlds played by the game master or represented by the computer game software – and ‘LARPing’ are often used as metaphors pejoratively. The latter then refers to activities in which the performers pretend to be something they are not, for example those who stormed the US Capitol styling themselves as radical political activists against the ruling classes while merely following suggestions from the sitting US president. And in largely right-wing social media bubbles, ‘NPC’ is often used as a metaphor to describe someone perceived as lacking independent thought or blindly following cultural or socio-political trends. So, there are tendencies for role playing to contribute to the blurring of boundaries between play and the real world ‘outside the game’ and thus to the broad societal trend of gamification. However, these games are also noteworthy for their highly immersive nature, for which, like the fantasy genre, they are often denounced as escapist. Besides pointing to the kernel of truth in the famous quip by C.S. (Clive Staples) Lewis that the only people who hate escapism are jailers, one can also argue that play, including at least many games, is in essence a temporary escape from reality. On the other hand, these games deviate from two game characteristics defined by Caillois and others. This concerns its temporary character – the fact that after a game, e.g. a match, the new round usually begins with the same starting situation –, because especially in non-digital role-playing games the fictional worlds can constantly evolve. And these worlds are a co-production of the players, embodied for example in chronicles, maps and works of visual art, and this genre of game is therefore not unproductive, but has lasting products beyond mere results in terms of scores, trophies etc. Moreover, these games often not only combine strong elements of ludus with paidia as the overarching aim but they also integrate Mimicry, Agôn, Alea and, in the case of LARP, sometimes even llinx. With its integrative and highly immersive approach and its potential to blur the boundaries between play and ‘real life’, role-playing can be considered typical of a

Play and Labour - Some Conceptual Remarks on Gamification

207

tendency that is also crucial in the highly commercialised sphere of computer games: the more play motivations are addressed in games, the higher their potential to be played very persistently, even excessively. On a more fundamental level, digital games can be taken as evidence for the view that a strict separation between play and work, including perhaps labour as defined by Engels and Fuchs, makes no sense, at least in more recent times. For Eugen Pfister and colleagues, “such a clear distinction seems difficult in the present, especially when we look at the field of computer games. For decades, we have voluntarily practised the basic mechanisms of capitalism in games, especially in economic simulations but also in strategy and role-playing games in general. The term ‘grinding’ refers to the phenomenon that our games become more and more work. The disguise of work as a game, on the other hand, is denoted with the term ‘gamification’” [14, n.p.; own translation]. Tobias Unterhuber argues [15], referring to Claus Pias, that Taylorism exorcised the playful elements (in the sense of paidia) and improvisation from manual work, which was turned into a kind of chess game played by the scientific managers in which the workers’ bodies are the pawns and subjected to numerous rules, like players in ludus. Although there are weaknesses in the analysis of pioneering works of Taylorism that Pias and Unterhuber conduct, it is undoubtedly noteworthy how movements of workers are extensively regulated by Taylorism and this extensive regulation then in turn finds its way, for example, via Alexei Gastev’s works into theatre play in the early Soviet Union. However, it is doubtful, pace Unterhuber, that current gamification and ‘playbour’ – activities carried out mainly in or around computer games, where the largely unpaid creative engagement by fans is very profitable for entertainment industries [16] – are thus not at the end but at the beginning of computer games and that the latter arose precisely from an attempt in Taylorism to sell work as a play. As Gastev [17] has poignantly and very poetically expressed, the Taylorist project was about modelling human activity on the machine; and if computer games are indeed in this tradition, they may well be work or labour sold as play – but not because Taylorism conceived of work as play. On the contrary, ‘grinding’ can, for example, only pass for play today because Taylorism has so strongly disciplined our corporeality, our felt body (in German: Leib), our being-our-body, which includes our mind and emotions. Unterhuber also briefly discusses the context of the emergence of computer games in the 1970s. He emphasises the role of the US counterculture of this time – whose relevance for the digital revolution back then, was significant, in particular where this counterculture overlapped with military research [18] – and points out that counterculturally motivated uses of computers for play mainly led to a shift from the military to the economic and thus a transformation of the playful experiments into a pure commodity form. In his point of view, this shift from counterculture to the entertainment industry can probably be interpreted only too well with the culture industry concept of the Frankfurt School. Unterhuber summarises that the conflictive relationship between work and play, which already existed before and from which the computer game thus emerged, also becomes very clear when looking at this time.

208

C. Coenen

3 Why Gamification of Labour is Unacceptable Although it can be argued that play and manual work are not mutually exclusive types of activities, one can still ask whether labour and play are compatible and whether the gamification of work is a perversion of play. Forcing games on workers – even if the games are declared to be voluntary – contradicts the spontaneity and self-determination that underlie play [19]. This is especially true if the games are developed without consulting the workers. Even consent to participate in the games is not real, because non-participation can still have negative consequences for workers [20]. Gamification is thus a kind of illusion that has consequences for workers. Such gamification of repetitive mechanical work can therefore be seen as an abuse of the human play drive, a form of instrumentalisation of human beings and thus a violation of their autonomy [ibid.]. Moreover, gambling addiction, ludopathy and a state of constant competition with other colleagues, accompanied by the feeling of not being constrained in the performance of heavy tasks, can further increase the pressure on workers, both physically and psychologically [21]. Around 2020, media articles and activist literature highlighted the case of warehouses of the company Amazon, which has been experimenting with some forms of gamification for some time [22]. Despite this attention, very little is known about gamification practices in these warehouses, and no videos or images are available because the use of mobile phones is not allowed. According to media reports, in 2019 Amazon started gamifying tasks in some of its warehouses to increase the motivation of employees who are often busy picking and stowing items for ten hours a day or more [ibid.]. To increase staff productivity and make their tasks more enjoyable – or at least bearable – the company introduced a kind of gamified reorganisation of logistics work [23]. The games were named ‘MissionRacer’, ‘PicksInSpace’, ‘Dragon Duel’ and ‘CastleCrafter’, in clear reference to digital game culture, and were implemented in five warehouses on a voluntary basis. The games are graphically designed to resemble video game classics such as ‘Donkey Kong’ and ‘PacMan’ and were displayed on small screens at workstations, like a kind of ‘Tetris’ at work and indicating which item must be placed where. Through the use of scanners and an item tracking system [24], individuals, teams and even entire floors can track the progress of work that correlates with the completion of levels in a virtual competition. Depending on their place on the leaderboard, employees receive points, rewards, virtual prizes or virtual badges, which is also similar to the arcade machines popular in the 1980s. Anonymous workers interviewed by the Washington Post said they were able to stash up to 500 items in less than an hour. Other interviewees, who were also anonymous, spoke positively about the gamification because they felt it made their tasks at work less monotonous. After workers participated in the gamification experiment, a monitoring system was put in place, and given the commonly accepted monitoring system for evaluating speed, efficiency and other key factors of work performance, it can be argued that even nonparticipating workers secretly competed with those who participated in the gamification experiments. The strong human play drive is thus used to turn work into a game that enables people to “function” better in algorithmically controlled work processes where people are connected to machines in new ways [20]. In an analysis of patents owned by Amazon, it was stated that “workers will not disappear from warehouses” [25]. Seen in this light, gamification can be understood

Play and Labour - Some Conceptual Remarks on Gamification

209

as the other side of the process of automating work in the age of digitisation of services. As Laura Robinson and colleagues [26] point out, opaque methods of ‘algorithmic management’ lead to information asymmetries and surveillance that limit workers’ autonomy. In view of the conceptual considerations in this chapter, gamification in such contexts can be seen as a violation of the human dignity of the workers. Homo ludens cannot be homo faber at the same time without losing humanness. The algorithmically controlled “low-skilled” work of pickers and packers in warehouses is highly alienated, and deskilling is already a problem, for example in the case of new migrants who work in such warehouses and are integrated into the work processes by digital assistance systems, thus eliminating the need to speak with others [27]. Gamification would mean also more surveillance and can be interpreted as an attempt to weaken workers’ resistance to their often scandalous [28] working conditions. The instrumentalisation of games for work with the ultimate goal of making profit is, in the light of the literature discussed above, a perversion of play. Talmadge Wright reminded us that play is “a noncoercive relationship, an imaginative method of engaging everyday life in a specific space and time […], accompanied by a sense of well-being” and, as we could see from the example of children, “a method of testing and distinguishing what is real and what is illusionary or fabricated” [29, p. 4]. And he added: “Clearly, play as a mediated human activity will continue to suffer under contemporary capitalism, which reduces the world around us to one of production and strips most of humanity of its ability to enjoy freedom by confining existence to the realm of necessity. I am under no illusion that the healing of the created division between work and play can be solved under our current social, economic, and political conditions. That will take a revolution. If we do not change the rules of the game, all human and animal life will continue to suffer, as will our ability to express fully our humanity through play” [29, p. 23]. We can imagine that in a liberated society, play will in fact play a role in hard manual work with monotonous tasks. Once ergonomic and (other) health aspects have already adequately taken into account, additional playful elements could help make the necessary hard work easier. Above all, however, as Dietmar Dath writes in Maschinenwinter [30], we must free the machines so that they no longer produce superfluous things and are as barren as plants in winter, but contribute to more freedom for us. It is clear that ‘forced fun’ [19] is always unacceptable, but in workplaces like Amazon’s warehouses this would be the case even if workers agreed to it. As a perversion of play, the gamification of labour would inevitably mean further dehumanisation beyond what is “normal” in such workplaces. Theodor Adorno once pointed out that instead of remaining faithful to the dream of freedom by getting away from purposiveness, play as a duty puts it among useful purposes, thus erasing the trace of freedom in it [31]. The use of gamification for labour, for highly alienated manual work, as in the Amazon warehouses, is a forced infantilisation of workers. It has only psychological mechanisms in common with playful games, but nothing of the spirit of play, let alone its emancipatory potentials. Gamification of labour means LARPing play.

210

C. Coenen

References 1. Hamari, J.: Gamification. In: Ritzer, G. (ed.) The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology (2023; orig. 2019). https://doi.org/10.1002/9781405165518.wbeos1321 2. Huizinga, J.: Homo Ludens. Vom Ursprung der Kultur im Spiel. Rowohlt, Reinbek bei Hamburg (1997; orig. 1938) 3. Caillois, R.: Les jeux et les hommes (Le masque et le vertige). Gallimard, Paris (1958) 4. D’Angour, A.: Plato and play. Taking education seriously in ancient Greece. Am. J. Play 5(3), 293–307 (2013) 5. Kant, I.: On Education. D. C. Heath & Co., Boston (1900, orig. 1803). (in German) 6. GutsMuths, J.C.F.: Spiele zur Uebung und Erholung des Körpers und des Geistes. G.A. Grau & Cie. (Rud. Lion), Hof (1878; i. Orig. 1793) 7. Kazakova, A., Coenen, C.: Creativity in engineering - classics of modern dialectical philosophy revisited. In: Bylieva, D., Nordmann, A. (eds.) PCSF 2021. LNNS, vol. 345, pp. 3–10. Springer, Cham (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89708-6_1 8. Marx, K.: Grundrisse. Foundations of the Critique of Political Economy. Penguin Books (in Association with the New Left Review), Harmondsworth (1973) 9. Marx, K.: Capital, vol. I. Progress Publishers, Moscow (1956; orig. 1867). (in German) 10. Fuchs, C.: Digital Labour and Karl Marx. Routledge, New York, London (2014) 11. Kosík, K.: Dialectics of the Concrete. A Study on the Problems of Man and World. Reidel Publishing Company, Dordrecht and Boston (1976) 12. Bataille, G.: Les Larmes d’Eros. In: Œuvres Completes X (574–729). Gallimard, Paris (2011; orig. 1961) 13. Kirkpatrick, G., Mazierska, E., Kristensen, L.: Marxism and the computer game. J. Gaming Virtual Worlds 8(2), 117–130 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1386/jgvw.8.2.117_1 14. Pfister, E., Unterhuber, T., Zangerl, M.: Call for Papers “The revolution will (not) be gamifield – Marx und das Computerspiel (15.04.2020)” (2020). https://paidia.de/cfp-the-revolu tion-will-not-be-gamified-marx-und-das-computerspiel-15-04-2020/ 15. Unterhuber, T.: All work, all play? – Ein Streifzug durch die Geschichte von Arbeit und Spiel. In: PAIDIA – Zeitschrift für Computerspielforschung, 21 January 2021. https://paidia.de/allwork-all-play-ein-streifzug-durch-diegeschichte-von-arbeit-und-spiel/ 16. Goggin, J.: Playbour, farming and leisure. Ephemera 11(4), 357–368 (2011). https://epheme rajournal.org/contribution/playbour-farming-and-labour 17. Coenen, C., Kazakova, A.: Utopian grammars of human-machine interaction. Technol. Lang. 2(1), 67–80 (2021). https://doi.org/10.48417/technolang.2021.01.06 18. Coenen, C.: Transcending natural limitations: the military–industrial complex and the transhumanist temptation. In: Hofkirchner, W., Kreowski, H.J. (eds.) Transhumanism: The Proper Guide to a Posthuman Condition or a Dangerous Idea? Cognitive Technologies, pp. 97–110. Springer, Cham (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-56546-6_6 19. Perryer, C., Celestine, N.A., Scott-Ladd, B., Leighton, C.: Enhancing workplace motivation through gamification: transferrable lessons from pedagogy. Int. J. Manag. Educ. 14, 327–335 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijme.2016.07.001 20. Ruggiu, D., et al.: Responsible innovation at work: gamification, public engagement, and privacy by design. J. Responsib. Innov. 9(3), 315–343 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1080/232 99460.2022.2076985 21. Griffiths, M.D., Alex, M.: Videogame addiction and its treatment. J. Contemp. Psychother. 39, 247–253 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10879-009-9118-4 22. Bensinger, G.: ‘MissionRacer’: How Amazon Turned the Tedium of Warehouse Work Into a Game. The Washington Post, 20 May 2019

Play and Labour - Some Conceptual Remarks on Gamification

211

23. Warmelink, H., Koivisto, I.J., Mayor, I., Vesa, M., Hamari, J.: Gamification of production and logistics operations: status quo and future directions. J. Bus. Res. 106, 331–340 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2018.09.011 24. Delfanti, A.: Machinic dispossession and augmented despotism: digital work in an Amazon warehouse. New Media Soc. 23(1), 39–55 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1177/146144481989 1613 25. Delfanti, A., Frey, B.: Humanly extended automation or the future of work seen through Amazon patents. Sci. Technol. Hum. Values 46(3), 655–682 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1177/ 0162243920943665 26. Robinson, L., et al.: Digital inequalities 3.0: emergent inequalities in the information age. First Monday 25(7) (2021). University of Illinois at Chicago Library. https://doi.org/10.5210/ fm.v25i7.10844 27. Schaupp, S.: Technopolitics from below: a framework for the analysis of digital politics of production. NanoEthics 15(1), 71–86 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11569-021-00386-8 28. Coenen, C.: Die Mensch-Maschine als Utopie. In: Liggieri, K., Müller, O. (eds.) MenschMaschine-Interaktion, pp. 71–80. Metzler, Stuttgart (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3476-05604-7_10 29. Wright, T.: Liberating human expression. Work and play or work versus play. Am. J. Play 11(1), 3–25 (2018) 30. Dath. D.: Maschinenwinter. Wissen, Technik, Sozialismus. Eine Streitschrift. Suhrkamp, Frankfurt am Main (2008) 31. Adorno, T.W.: On the fetish-character in music and the regression of listening. In: Arato, A., Gerhardt, E. (eds.) The Essential Frankfurt School Reader, pp. 270–299. Urizen Books, New York (1977; orig. 1938) (in German)

Gamification in the Personnel Management of a Self-learning Organization Ekaterina Mashina(B) ITMO University, Kronverksky Pr. 49, St. Petersburg 197101, Russia [email protected]

Abstract. The article is devoted to the consideration of the use of preliminary procedures for semantic analysis of corporate documentation to improve the effectiveness of the use of gaming practices in the field of personnel management of a self-learning organization building its development based on permanent innovative modernization of the company’s business processes based on the expanded self-reproduction of the competencies of its employees. The paper further details the concept of creating solutions for the gamification of corporate processes “6D”, proposed by Werbach and Hunter, in terms of using methods of semantic analysis of texts to solve the problems of creating semantic connections of the created corporate game with the solution of a specific business problem of the enterprise based on the results of latent semantic analysis of specially generated thematic collections of documents. The article also contains recommendations proposed by the author on the creation of such collections and describes an approach to the modernization of already created corporate gaming applications to update them following changing external and internal conditions, also based on the semantic analysis of corporate documents. The article is an analytical material containing justifications of possible directions for further work. The following scientific methods were used during the study: collection and analysis of information, systematization of data, visualization of results in tabular and graphical form, synthesis, logical conclusions, and comparison. Keywords: Self-Learning Organization · Personnel Management · Innovation · Gamification · Semantic Analysis

1 Introduction The driving mechanism of business development is the formation and all-around development of competitive advantages, which represent the presence of a set of features that favorably distinguish it from other similar entities [1]. This requires the creation of flexible production chains that allow for the rapid introduction of coordinated innovative changes in production processes while using the entire available volume of internal and external information to develop the right management decisions [2] while creating new approaches to doing business [3]. One of the most effective recognized strategies for creating an effective system of permanent innovative modernization of a company’s business processes, based on the © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Bylieva and A. Nordmann (Eds.): PCSF 2023, LNNS 830, pp. 212–230, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-48020-1_18

Gamification in the Personnel Management of a Self-learning Organization

213

expanded self-reproduction of the competencies of its employees, is the concept of creating a self-learning organization [4], with the ability to adapt to changing external conditions by generating internal changes in its business processes, with the active participation of the entire personnel of the company acquiring, creating and preserving knowledge in the course of its production activities and relying not on a single knowledge management system of the enterprise. Since today such enterprises have proven the effectiveness of their complex approaches to their development, an increasing number of innovative enterprises are switching to a similar model of increasing staff involvement in innovative changes of their companies while using new means and methods of work. Gamification is recognized as one of such recognized tools that increase the involvement of the staff of a self-learning organization in the process of internal corporate changes [5], which is actively used in practice in modern companies to solve many tasks related to improving professional competencies and staff productivity. However, accessibility, a “low entry threshold” and the widespread use of gamification technologies in personnel management projects sometimes do not bring the desired effect, since the implemented solutions are often not of a systemic nature, and therefore the result begins to resemble a “patchwork quilt” consisting of heterogeneous solutions that are not connected by common approaches and goals, therefore the potential gamification does not always manage to be used properly. Since until now, not enough attention has been paid to the issues of integrated and coordinated use of gaming technologies to improve the overall efficiency of a modern company, the purpose of this work is to study the features of using the principles of gamification in the activities of a self-learning innovative enterprise to create unified mechanisms for responding to changes in external business conditions in terms of the use of gaming technologies in the personnel management system of a self-learning organization. To this end, the article pays special attention to the consideration of the processes of identifying semantic relationships between production processes, employee qualifications, and tasks solved by the organization, as well as the reflection of these relationships in the gaming technologies used to improve business efficiency.

2 Self-learning Organization - as an Information System Based on Effective Knowledge Management Methods One of the most effective strategies for creating a corporate system for responding to market changes is the concept of a self-learning enterprise, which allows the creation of self-regulating corporate governance mechanisms. The essence of creating a self-learning organization is to build a constantly developing and modernizing system for the development of internal corporate modernization based on staff training, through which the company acquires the ability to improve while developing its ability to perceive surrounding circumstances and improve its internal structure, thereby improving the processes of responding to external changes [4]. Currently, many productive organizational and methodological solutions have been created that allow for the gradual modernization of existing companies to turn them into effective self-learning organizations that are dynamically modernizing in the changing

214

E. Mashina

conditions of the external market [6]. A greater number of solutions have been introduced into the practice of work, allowing to increase in the involvement of the staff of the collective in the process of creating such companies [7], to form systematic thinking among the company’s staff based on a unity of views on the process of dynamic development of the company [8], to build the necessary collective learning processes based on improving the skills of each employee for achieving common goals [9]. However, such a system will not be fully effective without the creation of mechanisms that identify reasonable directions for the development of a self-learning enterprise in the conditions of innovative internal and external changes. In this regard, the main trend of modern research has become the development of corporate information systems that offer models of the actions of a self-learning company in response to the identification of expected market changes that require considering many factors [10]. As was shown by the authors of this study earlier [11], the solution to this problem can be carried out by reducing it to a typical corporate knowledge management process in the form of a single flowchart with feedback (see Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Scheme of the corporate knowledge management system of a self-learning enterprise.

The main advantages acquired by a self-learning enterprise when using such closed systems of corporate knowledge management are the ability to make forecasts of market changes and the needs of the company’s customers, accelerating the exchange of experience and best practices, and improving the overall efficiency of the company’s functioning by accelerating the developing processes and making agreed decisions [12]. To build a closed adaptive corporate knowledge management system of a selflearning enterprise, it is necessary to solve the following tasks [13]: • extraction of elements of new knowledge from the surrounding information space for further accounting in the business processes of a self-learning organization, • carrying out effective modernization of the company’s business processes, which are most involved in the processes of personnel management, which is the main driver of further changes, • selecting and configuring the best tools for the most effective work within the framework of permanent accumulation of corporate competencies. At the same time, the entire pipeline of work carried out by a self-learning organization can be represented in terms of the corporate knowledge management lifecycle (see Fig. 2).

Gamification in the Personnel Management of a Self-learning Organization

215

The emergence of a need

Organization

Search of knowledge

phase

Knowledge generation

Structuring knowledge Implementation

Use of knowledge

phase

Modernization of knowledge

Awareness of the need

Reflection phase

...

Fig. 2. Diagram of the life cycle management process of corporate knowledge elements.

It is obvious that in addition to the phase of practical use of corporate knowledge in the practice of work, a particularly significant role in the life cycle of corporate knowledge is played by the processes associated with the search, identification, and formalization of corporate knowledge related to the creative activities of the company’s personnel. In [11], the author describes in sufficient detail methodological approaches and specific technologies for fixing and generating new corporate knowledge. In this connection, in this material, special attention will be paid to the organization of such processes related to the effective management of the staff of a self-learning enterprise.

3 Gamification is an Effective Mechanism for Increasing the employee’s Productivity of Self–learning Organizations When They Work in Changing Market Conditions With the transition to the use of the concept of a self-learning enterprise, the area of responsibility of HR departments in terms of personnel management is significantly expanded, since such departments begin to be responsible for practically all areas of business development of the enterprise since personnel management procedures are transformed from ordinary recruiting into a more complex process of managing the life cycle of a specialist as the main production resource of the enterprise (Fig. 3). In this case, the range of tasks solved by specialists of the HR departments of the self-learning organization of the enterprise, aimed at improving the efficiency of the use of the attracted labor resources, is significantly expanded. This, in turn, leads to a sharp increase in the degree of impact of the enterprise on each employee, which can lead to a mass of negative results associated with the dissatisfaction of employees with too intense

216

E. Mashina The emergence of a need

Designing a resource pool

Creation, production of resources, organization of a pool

Providing resources

Contain resources

Expenses

Effect

Testing resources

Upgrade resources

Disband the resource pool

...

Fig. 3. Managing the life cycle of the staff of a self-learning organization in terms of the overall resource management process.

administrative pressure on them from the company, professional burnout and increased staff turnover [14]. To compensate for the negative consequences of the multifactorial impact on the employees of the company itself, which is necessary for the development of the company, it is necessary to use the most effective methods of personnel management, which can significantly reduce the negative impact of constant demands for increased productivity and increase the employee’s interest in participating in general procedures for improving production processes. To date, one such mechanism is the gamification of personnel management processes, which is understood as the transfer of certain positive elements and characteristics of the game (goal, rules, feedback, and freedom of participation) to the non-gaming production sphere. Even though the term gamification was proposed by N. Pelling only in 2002 [15], elements of gaming practices have long been successfully applied in the practice of HR departments of companies. So, back in the middle of the last century, when testing highly qualified specialists for employment, it became clear that they were undergoing professional testing operations with difficulty, reasonably assuming that their qualifications in the field under consideration were much higher than the personnel department specialists testing them. This led to a significant distortion of the test result. However, the inclusion of competitive and game elements in testing procedures, on the contrary, significantly increased the effectiveness of testing [16]. At about the same time, the personnel services of enterprises included the testing of divergent capabilities of specialists to determine their creative capabilities [17]. In this case, the inclusion of gaming practices in testing the creativity of employees using

Gamification in the Personnel Management of a Self-learning Organization

217

the Guilford-Torrens method dramatically increased the reliability of the result obtained [18]. By the end of the 60s of the last centuries, various corporate strategies for increasing the involvement of employees in the company’s affairs using gaming technologies with prize bonuses had become widespread in the practice of motivational events [19]. However, the greatest surge of interest in the use of gaming practices in the work of HR departments of companies arose during the rapid development of the IT gaming industry. Since in the second half of the last century, almost any content consumer was tightly “hooked” on computer games as a subject of quality leisure, it was increasingly used as a tool that increases the effectiveness of the company’s brand, while effectively using game methods and individual elements borrowed from computer games [20]. Therefore, today gamification in working with the staff of a self-learning organization is the purposeful use of gaming practices to form new experiences in non-gaming tasks, processes, and context, which represents three interrelated parts: • game interaction of employees, • formation of a new experience of specialists, • wide use of game design. The rapid intensification of gamification in the tactics of the HR departments of companies: • widespread distribution of computer games, leading to the widespread adoption of game principles and interfaces of game interaction, • symbolization of all spheres of human life, allowing the widespread use of game abstractions to solve real problems, • a significant generational shift in company teams, leading to the fact that employees who grew up in the era of “advanced” computer games, • there is a significant reduction in the cost of developing and using game content, which allows to customize products to solve specific tasks as much as possible. In this regard, to date, gaming practices are actively used in all areas of the application of the activities of HR departments to manage the life cycle of a specialist to solve the following tasks: • recruitment of personnel, which consists of purposeful activity on the formation of needs, search, and selection of specialists with the necessary qualifications for the enterprise [21], • the adaptation of the company’s employees associated with the processes of accelerating the processes of full inclusion of the company’s employees in the labor process, related to retraining, retraining and annotation in the workforce [22], • increasing the motivation of employees in the company’s activities, associated with the formation of common views on the goals and missions of the company, as well as on the desire to follow them [23], • ensuring permanent retraining and retraining of employees to improve the business processes of the enterprise and their constant modernization following changes in the requirements of the markets [24],

218

E. Mashina

• team building and development of corporate culture to building effective personal relationships between departments and employees related to staff cohesion and the transmission of common values [25], • promotion of the successes and achievements of employees, to form positive examples, and role models, as well as expanding access to advanced methods of work performance [26], • improving the efficiency of the innovation process at the enterprise, developing innovative skills among the employees of the enterprise, and actively involving them in the processes of innovative improvement of the production processes of the enterprise [27], • support of the processes of self-realization of employees in areas not directly related to the workflow to increase their overall satisfaction with living conditions, as well as the development of positive qualities that can be useful to the team [28], • increasing the involvement of employees in the work of the enterprise by expanding their multiplicative capabilities for the desire of voluntary productive use of any of their existing skills for the further development of the enterprise [29]. In recent decades, game simulation technologies have been used most actively in the practice of HR departments to train company personnel, since it is precisely such technologies that make it possible to simulate production processes quite easily, as well as their implementation in various changing conditions. Game practices of production process simulators have elements in their composition that allow training to be conducted in the most effective way, namely: • the possibility of implementing a phased (multi-level) learning process, • the possibility of game modeling of almost any problematic production situation, • the possibility of using a developed adaptive system of online assessments of the quality of passing certain tasks by a student player, • a highly competitive spirit of game procedures that mobilize and involve workers in the game learning process. However, today, due to the availability of gaming technologies, which leads to the rapid development and implementation of new gaming practices in the processes of personnel management, they are increasingly beginning to negatively affect the reasonableness of the overall strategy of using gamification to achieve the ultimate goals of the enterprise. Today, the creators of gaming tools used in the practice of HR departments of a modern companies no longer face the technological issues of developing the basic principles of games. This makes it possible to focus on the semantic analysis of the company’s information environment to identify the main problems of a specific goal setting of using certain gaming technologies to perform specific tasks facing the enterprise. This can be done based on the solution of the complex task of creating an adaptive model based on the analysis of the information environment.

Gamification in the Personnel Management of a Self-learning Organization

219

4 General Technologies for Creating a Unified Gamified Environment of a Self-learning Organization To date, the “de facto” standard for creating solutions for the gamification of corporate processes has become the 6D concept proposed by Werbach and Hunter [30]. Representing the process of creating a gamified solution to solve certain production problems of the company, consisting of three composite chats: • Define—definition of the goals for which the created gamification tool is intended to achieve, • Delineate—description of desirable behavioral strategies developed by the user by the created gamification tool, • Describe—description of the participants of the gamified solution being created, focused on specific employees of the organization, • Devise—development of game activity cycles of the solution being created, • Don’t forget—don’t forget about the entertainment features of the solution (at this step of creating the solution, it is checked whether the system is interesting for users), • Deploy—the use of suitable tools, through which a game approach will be introduced into the practice of the company’s work. The specified subdivision of actions to create a particular corporate gamified solution not only allows to determine the typical actions necessary to create a game application of interest, but also to identify three relatively independent, but actively interacting with each other areas of solution development, shown in Fig. 4: • semantic flow (which includes parts of Define, Delineate, and Describe development), solving the tasks of creating semantic links of the game with the solution of a specific business task of the enterprise, • instrumental and technological flow (including parts of Devise, Don’t forget), which boils down to the technical implementation of a game application, including using standard “game engines”, • administrative and implementation flow (consisting of the Deploy phase), which is the creation of practical scenarios and rules for using the created game application to improve the overall efficiency of the company. At the same time, it should be borne in mind that due to the rapid development of the computer gaming industry over the past few decades, many solutions have been created today that make it quite easy to implement the instrumental-technological and administrative-implementation flows of creating solutions for gamification of the entire range of business tasks [30], described in Sect. 2 of this article. Moreover, the existing sets of technologies are quite easy to use and can be implemented by specialists of the company’s IT departments themselves without the involvement of third-party specialists. In this regard, the main technological complexity in creating an effective application when creating gamification tools for corporate business processes begins to be the implementation of the semantic flow of creating a game application for solving corporate tasks. The explanation for this is that, as numerous previously conducted studies show [31, 32], the most effective in improving the overall efficiency of corporate business processes are solutions that consider the specifics of a particular company in the

220

E. Mashina

The main areas of work on gamification

Define

Delineate

Semantic flow

Describe

Devise

Don't forget

Deploy

Fig. 4. Flow diagram of the development of a typical gamification solution.

most detail, developing the user’s effect of gaming presence in the company’s real-life business processes [33], To increase the semantic similarity of the game application with the solution of real tasks within the framework of existing (or prospective) business processes, issues related to the definition of specific corporate goals and tasks undergoing gamification, the identification of real business processes and specific work centers, the functioning of which is modeled in the application, as well as to identify and take into account existing and competencies of specific employees developed through a gamified application. However, it should be borne in mind that the solution of the tasks of identifying semantic links in the implementation of gamification processes of corporate business processes is significantly complicated by the current high rate of innovative development of most modern companies, requiring them to constantly and very significantly improve the products or services provided, which leads to the need for constant modernization of production processes, organizational structures, and principles doing business. This leads to the fact that the process of functioning of the enterprise leaves the established (quasi-stationary) mode and acquires features characteristic of dynamic processes [34], and begins to cause a significant decrease in the efficiency of using “standardized game scenarios”, since the dynamically changing production situation begins to differ significantly from the gamified business process, thereby reducing both the process of staff involvement and the overall efficiency of using the game application. Therefore, when creating effective gamification tools for the production processes of a modern enterprise, the key stage of work is to identify the key semantic entities that define such processes.

Gamification in the Personnel Management of a Self-learning Organization

221

5 Fundamentals of the Technological Process of Extracting Semantic Information from the Product Information Content Surrounding a Self-learning Organization The basis for further development of methods for the implementation of the semantic flow of implementation of solutions designed to gamify the processes of a self-learning enterprise (see Fig. 4) is an understanding of the verbality of human knowledge and the possibility of its fixation in various kinds of documents created using natural language. This makes it possible to reduce the solution of the problem of extracting semantic information necessary to create effective gamification solutions to solving a set of tasks for determining semantic elements from collections of texts and sets of production documents [35]. In this regard, as specific means of semantic research within the framework of the semantic flow of the implementation of solutions intended for the gamification of the processes of a self-learning enterprise, it is proposed to use methods of analysis of texts created in natural language, involving the selection of speech concepts characterizing its content from the analyzed texts [36]. The actual source of information is a document that, from the point of view of corporate governance, is an object containing a certain number of interconnected semantic units intended for making managerial decisions either directly or in combination with other documents. At the same time, the information extracted from the production document can be adequately understood and correctly used only in a limited number of specific points of the enterprise’s business processes. The features of the production document identified in the implementation of semantic analysis when creating gamification tools include the thesaurus and the purpose of being correctly semantically interpreted in a strictly limited context of other documents. On the one hand, this facilitates the formalization of the semantic analysis of a production document by using standard templates, on the other hand, it requires the use of more comprehensive analysis methods related to specialized industry semantics. The latter can be explained by the narrow specialization of most production documents intended for fixing certain criteria, which significantly narrows the base of text collections available for statistical analysis. At the same time, it should be borne in mind that any document used in production management and used to create a gamified scenario contains a set of semantic entities specifically designed for their use in decision-making, called semantic units. The semantic unit of a production document can be a word, a phrase, or a whole sentence. One of the main properties of a particular semantic unit is its interpretability, i.e., the property of being correctly understood based on the content of a particular document (or group of documents). At the same time, it should be borne in mind that a low degree of clarity of a particular document may mean not only the use of vague concepts or formulations in it that do not allow for the correct interpretation of the meaning of certain provisions. This may also indicate that the analyzed document is only part of a single context [35]. Context is usually understood as a set of characteristics that specify the conditions for the existence of some object of consideration. From the point of view of the management process using documents, the context is a necessary set of descriptions of special

222

E. Mashina

conditions under which management events occur or generated documents are generated that are used for management at further stages of the business process. In this regard, situational content can be interpreted as a set of documents describing the quasi-static position of a dynamic system, with a volume sufficient to make the necessary managerial decisions. With such a formulation of the problem, situational management can be reduced to the formation of sets of documents necessary for decisionmaking, provided to decision-making points. At the same time, to solve the problems of semantic definition of concepts characterizing the goals for which the created gamification tool is intended to achieve, three thematic collections of documents containing the intended description must first be collected: • the goals for which the created gamification tool is intended to achieve, • the desirable behavioral strategies developed by the user through the created gamification tool, • the intended users of the gamified solution being created, focused on specific employees of the organization, At the same time, the collection of documents of the first group should include production texts presumably containing information about external corporate relations of processes subject to gamification, as well as information objects describing goals and objectives related to processes and objects undergoing gamification. The thematic collection of the second group should include documents that describe in the most detail specific workplaces affected by gamification processes and contain information about internal and external relationships of business processes implemented at the described work centers. The third group of documents to be analyzed should contain information about the professional competencies of employees who are supposed to be users of the gamified solution being created. Most often, sets of texts generated by a specific user are used as such documents, including both finished texts and text fragments of his digital footprint. The paper [37] presents an enlarged pipeline of the process of extracting fragments of knowledge from corporate documents and the information surrounding the enterprise using semantic analysis of textual information. The methodological basis for carrying out such procedures is the understanding that texts generated in natural language assume different frequencies of occurrence of different words in the text. Moreover, a deviation in the frequency distribution of the use of certain groups of words may indicate their importance for a particular text. Comparative analysis methods using pre-trained neural networks reveal groups of words that are abnormally frequent for certain texts while using a vector model of text representation (Vector Space Model) [38]. One of the most productive algorithms for detecting abnormally frequent words in documents is Latent Semantic analysis (Latent Semantic Analysis, LSA), based on the assumptions that the presence of each specific word w in the text of document d is uniquely associated with some topic t (latent topic) from a given set of topics T, does not depend on the considered document d and is determined only by the topic of the text. At the first stage of the LSA, after the tokenization and lemmatization (or stemming) processes, the analyzed document texts are transformed into a matrix (“words” x “documents”), the elements of which are the values of the TF-IDF metric [39], used to assess

Gamification in the Personnel Management of a Self-learning Organization

223

the importance of a particular word in the context of a document or collection: TF − IDF = TF ∗ IDF

(1)

where TF— frequency of a word in a particular document/collection, IDF is the inverse frequency of the document (popularity of the word). ni TF = k

i=1 ni

(2)

where kni – the number of different words in the document, i=1 ni – the total number of words in the document. It should be noted that considering the IDF parameter reduces the weight of frequently used words in the analyzed document:   nc IDF = ln m (3) j=1 nj where mnc – total number of documents, j=1 nj – the number of documents containing the word of interest. The result of such a calculation is that words that occur with a high frequency within a particular document (i.e., are particularly important for it), but have a low frequency of use, receive more TF-IDF weight in other documents of the collection. At the next stage of analysis, the singular decomposition theorem is applied to the constructed matrix “words” x “documents” [37], because of which the original real rectangular matrix is decomposed into the product of three matrices: A = USV T

(4)

where U, V – orthogonal matrices, S – a diagonal matrix containing singular values of the matrix A. At the same time, if only the k largest values are stored in the diagonal matrix S, and only the columns advising the stored k values are left in the matrices U and V, then the product of the resulting matrices will be the “best approximation” of the matrix A to the matrix  of rank k, while preserving the basic structure of the dependencies of the original matrix (see Fig. 5) ˆ ≈ A = USV T A

(5)

During this operation, a significant part of the insignificant information will be deliberately missed, but hidden topics consisting of certain words that often occur together will be revealed. In the case of the appearance in the sample of texts previously not found in the fixed nomenclature of the set of production documents of the identified entities, it can be argued that this fixed the appearance in the collection of documents of semantic elements of new knowledge, which in the future should be considered in the business processes of the enterprise. By consistently subjecting similar calculation procedures to the above three thematic collections of documents describing the goals and objectives of the solution being created, business processes covered by gamification procedures, as well as potential users of

E. Mashina Words

Topics

Documents

Documents

kxk

mxk

Words

Importance of topic

X

Topics

224

kxn

X

mxn

Fig. 5. The model of using the vector representation of LSA words when conducting semantic analysis of a collection of texts.

the game product being created, it is possible to identify arrays of key thematic concepts that most fully characterize the objects of gamification and determine the connections between them. The information determined at the stage of semantic analysis can then be used as an initial consistent data structure when performing the work of the instrumental and technological flow (see Fig. 4) of the procedures for creating a specific gamification solution. At the same time, the further pipeline for the development of a gamified corporate solution based on the results of a preliminary analysis of specialized collections of documents created in the process of performing the instrumental and technological flow of work is shown in Fig. 6. Model references Documentation

Block design

Model concepts

Sketches of the model

Testing

Script

Model of behavior

Deploy

Fig. 6. A typical pipeline of the instrumental and technological flow when creating a gamified corporate solution

6 Identification and Accounting of Dynamic Changes in the Business Processes of a Self-learning Organization When Updating Gamification Procedures Dynamically changing external and internal conditions of the functioning of a modern enterprise require permanent and coordinated changes in corporate business processes, leading to the need to solve problems in a dynamic management situation [34].

Gamification in the Personnel Management of a Self-learning Organization

225

This also requires making appropriate changes to the gamification tools used, because otherwise the specified tool will not only “promote” corporate solutions that have already lost their relevance but will also be perceived by users as an “obviously archaic solution”, thereby reducing their interest in using gamification elements as a means of improving performance corresponding to the moment labor [30]. However, because the gamification elements of corporate business processes are based on a simplified semantic descriptive model underlying game scenario, not all changes in the real business environment can (and should) be reflected when updating procedures for updating gamification procedures. Therefore, to implement an effective and timely updated gamified enterprise environment, it is necessary to create specialized (and based on semantic analysis of production documents) solutions that track the need to consider dynamic changes in the management situation in previously created gamification tools. To create such procedures, it initially seems that the key feature of a dynamic management situation associated with the need to make changes to the regular business processes of a self-learning enterprise (including those related to gaming practices) is its unpredictable nature of the beginning and development. However, in a significant part of cases, the onset of the need to make massive changes to the business processes of the enterprise is reflected in advance in corporate documents. On the other hand, it is quite difficult to describe a production situation for which it would be impossible to find a family of at least approximate prototypes in related fields, after analyzing which it is possible to collect and redistribute the necessary situational content into “production decision–making centers”. At the same time, the semantic proximity of situational contents can be quite simply determined based on a comparison of vector representations of texts of sets of documents included in the situational context. In this regard, it can be assumed that at all phases of the development of a dynamic management situation that requires changes to the gamified practices of a self-learning organization, with the help of semantically identified key concepts-markers, a limited set of situational documentary content necessary for making decisions about the need to make changes to the gamified representation of production practices can be selected and provided. At the same time, a typical representation of the reaction to the development of an abnormal (not previously realized) production situation can be used as the main algorithm for responding to dynamic changes in production processes (Fig. 7). Based on the analysis of the development of the processes of responding to an emergency, presented in Fig. 7, the main approaches to the creation of thematic collections of documents in the form of specialized situational contents subjected to semantic analysis to identify key objects describing the main changes made to gamified practices because of responding to a real emergency can be formulated. Thus, at the stage of Detecting the need to make changes to business processes, such situational content is documentary materials semantically related to the possible causes of changes in external business conditions identified from the incoming documentation, as well as materials describing similar precedents of earlier periods. At the stage of preparation for changes in business processes at the decision-making sites, situational

226

E. Mashina

Active

Business process changes

Emergency situation

Training Interactive

Reactive

Fig. 7. Phases of development of an abnormal production situation and reaction to it.

content related to the description of response scenarios similar in semantics and descriptions of the sequence of actions taken by units of a self-learning enterprise should be provided as the basis for a thematic collection subjected to semantic analysis. At the stage of Transition to modernized business processes and cost constraints, in addition to the use of appropriate situational content at decision points, a new situational documentary context should be created that records the actions taken to transition to new business processes and their results. At the stage of Restoration of regular work, not only the “consumption” of the relevant situational content also occurs, but also the creation of new production documents registering the sequence of actions to create mechanisms for regular functioning, considering the changed business processes. The training stage involves the systematization of the conclusions drawn from the modernization of the business processes of a self-learning enterprise, the fixation of generalized results in the form of publicly available internal corporate methods (implemented, among other things, in the form of gamified solutions) and notification of all interested participants about the appearance of changes (see Table 1). It should be noted that it is at the training stage that the modernization of the game scenarios used in the practice of personnel management should be carried out to further consolidate the identified changes in production practice. Table 1 shows an example of the composition of documentary corporate content used to generate thematic collections of production texts subjected to semantic analysis when upgrading previously created gamified solutions, used and generated at all stages of the development of an abnormal production situation and reaction to it (Fig. 7). Semantic objects newly identified in overcoming a specific emergency are used to modernize and refine previously created corporate gaming practices. The refinement of scenarios used in gaming practices is understood as a sequence of episodes, logically connected by cause-and-effect relationships, arranged in time, and intended for a future hypothetical situation [40]. At the same time, when building gamified personnel management mechanisms in the context of a self-learning enterprise, the “scenario” category means choosing the best strategy out of all possible scenarios for the development of events or processes that will ensure the achievement of the goal of a self-learning enterprise with minimal costs at the fastest possible speed [4]. The further implementation of the newly formed scenario is supposed to be carried out using the “3i” approach specially developed for the gamification of production

Gamification in the Personnel Management of a Self-learning Organization

227

Table 1. The composition of documentary corporate content used to generate thematic collections of production texts subjected to semantic analysis when upgrading previously created gamified solutions Phase of accounting for newly identified semantic fragments

Semantic content of incoming Semantic content of outgoing content content

Detection of the need to make changes to business processes

Documentary samples containing information about external market changes that require the company’s modernization

Preliminary assessment of the impact of the emerging situation on a specific work center

Detection of the need to make changes to business processes

Documentary samples containing information about external market changes that require the company’s modernization

Preliminary assessment of the impact of the emerging situation on a specific work center

Preparation for changes in business processes

Description of similar scenarios of actions in similar situations

Description of the actions of the work center according to the selected scenario

Transition to modernized business processes and cost constraints

Coordinated description of the Descriptions of the current actions of adjacent work activities of the working centers, retraining of centers and the results obtained personnel

Restoration of regular work

Integral description of the results of the actions of adjacent working center

Report on the effectiveness of measures to overcome an irregular situation

Training

Clarification of working structures, training schedules, game scenarios

Suggestions for changing response measures to the situation

processes, which assumes the consistent implementation of three components in the created product - introduction, interpretation, influence [41], which allows integrating theoretical material into the created solution (explaining the origin of the elements of new knowledge and their interrelations with other elements of the knowledge system) and practical tasks necessary for the professional, in-game content without losing the attractiveness of the game.

7 Conclusion Since the main producing link of modern innovative companies is still the creative activity of their employees, one of the main directions of improving the activities of modern innovative businesses is the development of mechanisms aimed at increasing the degree of involvement of employees of the enterprise in the production process, associated

228

E. Mashina

with the desire and ability to constantly generate innovations, perceive external market changes and the ability to rebuild internal processes [42]. Today, gamification is increasingly becoming an effective alternative to the traditional human resources management tools of a self-learning organization, since it can form the unique experience of the organization’s employees, increase their motivation and involvement in the company’s work, give an additional semantic incentive and direction to their activities, as well as directly generate additional profit, being a recognizable element of the corporate brand. At the same time, it should be borne in mind that gamification brings the greatest benefits if it is built around the long-term values and goals of the organization and considers external changes in the conditions affecting the company to the greatest extent. In this regard, all gamification projects of a self-learning organization should not only be coordinated with the development strategy of the organization but also be able to timely consider the results of semantic analysis of the surrounding information space aimed at identifying new trends. When creating gamified production solutions, the procedures of preliminary semantic analysis of corporate communication content are of decisive importance today, allowing even before the procedures for creating corporate gamified solutions to identify the key objects of the solution being created and the relationships between them. At the same time, the efficiency of performing operations related to the semantic flow of work on creating a gamified solution is significantly determined by the possibility of creating the most complete thematic collections of production documents subjected to semantic analysis.

References 1. Chesbrough, H., Lettl, C., Ritter, T.: Value creation and value capture in open innovation. J. Produ. Innov. Manag., 1–9 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1111/jpim.12471 2. Simao, L., Franco, M.: External knowledge sources as antecedents of organizational innovation in firm workplaces: a knowledge-based perspective. J. Knowl. Manag. 22(2), 237–256 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1108/jkm-01-2017-0002 3. Sanchez-Henriquez, F., Pavez, I.: The effect of open innovation on eco-innovation performance: the role of market knowledge sources. Sustainability 13(7), 3890 (2021). https://doi. org/10.3390/su13073890 4. Senge, P.M.: The Fifth Discipline: the Art and Practice of the Learning Organization. Doubleday/Currency, New York (1990). Human Resource Management. 29(3), 343–348. https:// doi.org/10.1002/hrm.3930290308 5. Hamari, J., Koivisto, J., Sarsa, H.: Does gamification work? A literature review of empirical studies on gamification. In: Proceedings of the 47th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, Waikoloa, pp. 3025–3034. ACM (2014). https://doi.org/10.1109/HICSS. 2014.377 6. Chen, Y., Congdong, L., Han, W.: Big data and predictive analytics for business intelligence: a bibliographic study. Forecasting 4(4), 767–786 (2022). https://doi.org/10.3390/forecast4 040042 7. Bocken, N., Short, S., Rana, P., Evans, S.: A literature and practice review to develop sustainable business model archetypes. J. Clean. Prod. 198, 417–429 (2019).https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.jclepro.2018.06.240

Gamification in the Personnel Management of a Self-learning Organization

229

8. Kujala, J., Kujala, S.: The role of shared understanding in agile software development teams. J. Syst. Softw. 135, 1–14 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jss.2017.09.042 9. De Lange-Ros, M., Van Der Heijden, B., Schalk, R.: Tailoring e-learning: the effectiveness of tailored information in e-learning for employees. Comput. Hum. Behav. 51(Part B), 1268– 1281 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2014.09.058 10. Akhavei, F. Bleicher, F.: Predictive modeling to increase the reliability of production planning in single-item production. In: World Congress on Engineering and Computer Science 2016, vol. 2, pp. 806–811. UC Berkeley, San-Francisco (2016) 11. Mashina, E., Balakshin, P.: The influence of descriptive language practices on the process of external integration of corporate knowledge. In: Bylieva, D., Nordmann, A. (eds.) PCSF 2022. LNNS, vol. 636, pp. 104–119. Springer, Cham (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3031-26783-3_11 12. Buenechea-Elberdin, M., Sáenz, J., Kianto, A.: Exploring the role of human capital, renewal capital and entrepreneurial capital in innovation performance in high-tech and low-tech firms. Knowl. Manag. Res. Pract. 15(3), 369–379 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41275017-0069-3 13. Mashina E.A.: Using the results of the analysis of information sources for the predictive improvement of university educational programs. In: Proceedings of the XI Congress of Young Scientists, vol. 3, pp. 38–41. ITMO University, Saint Petersburg (2022) 14. Maslach, C., Leiter, M.P.: Understanding the burnout experience: recent research and its implications for psychiatry. World Psychiatry 15(2), 103–111 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1002/ wps.20311 15. Pelling, N.: Gamification: what it is, why it matters, and how to do it right. J. Bus. Psychol. 33(3), 365–375 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-017-9517-z 16. Alavi, S., Karami, A.: Gamification in recruitment: an empirical study on the effect of gamification elements on candidates’ perceived attractiveness of the organization. J. Bus. Res. 99, 365–376 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2019.01.008 17. Guilford, J.P.: The Nature of Human Intelligence. McGraw-Hill, New York (1967) 18. Wallach, M.A., Kogan, N.: A new look at the creativity-intelligence distinction. J. Pers. 33(3), 348–369 (1965). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1965.tb01391.x 19. Kim, J., Lee, H.: The effect of non-financial rewards on employee performance: mediating role of job satisfaction and moderating role of personality. Sustainability 10(8), 2877 (2018). https://doi.org/10.3390/su10082877 20. Deterding, S.: Gamification: designing for motivation. Interactions 19, 14–17 (2012). https:// doi.org/10.1145/2212877.2212883 21. Kujala, J., Kujala, S.: Gamification in recruitment and selection: a review of the literature. Int. J. Sel. Assess. 25(4), 355–366 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1111/ijsa.12197 22. Hamari, J., Sjöklint, M.: The sharing economy: why people participate in collaborative consumption. J. Am. Soc. Inf. Sci. 68(3), 724–734 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1002/asi.23786 23. Lee, I., Kim, K.J., Lee, C.C.: Exploring the effects of gamification on employee engagement and job satisfaction. Int. J. Inf. Manag. 39, 80–86 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijinfomgt. 2017.10.002 24. Tsai, W.H., Huang, C.Y.: The impact of employee training on job satisfaction and intention to stay: a study of hotel workers in Taiwan. Sustainability 11(4), 1017 (2019). https://doi.org/ 10.3390/su11041017 25. Katzenbach, J.R., Smith, D.K.: The Wisdom of Teams: Creating the High-Performance Organization. Harvard Business Review Press, Harvard (2015) 26. Kim, S., Lee, H.: The effect of internal communication on employee engagement: mediating role of organizational identification and moderating role of multiculturalism. Sustainability 10(12), 4663 (2018). https://doi.org/10.3390/su10124663

230

E. Mashina

27. Chen, Y., Chang, C.C.: The impact of innovation capabilities on innovation performance: evidence from Chinese high-tech firms. Sustainability 10(5), 1411 (2018). https://doi.org/10. 3390/su10051411 28. Wang, Y., Chen, Y.: The impact of self-actualization on employee innovative behavior: evidence from China’s high-tech industry. Sustainability 10(9), 3031 (2018). https://doi.org/10. 3390/su10093031 29. Kim, S., Lee, H.: The effect of employee empowerment on employee engagement: focusing on the mediating role of trust in organization and the moderating role of multiculturalism. Sustainability 11(5), 1462 (2019). https://doi.org/10.3390/su11051462 30. Werbach, K., Hunter, D.: The Gamification Toolkit: Dynamics, Mechanics, and Components for the Win, 52. Wharton Digital Press, Philadelphia (2015) 31. Huotari, K., Hamari, J.: Defining gamification: a service marketing perspective. In: Proceeding of the 16th International Academic MindTrek Conference, pp. 17–22. ACM, New York (2012). https://doi.org/10.1145/2393132.2393137 32. Godwan, D.: Gamification. Application of gaming systems in business. Bus. Educ. Knowl. Econ. 2(13), 28–31 (2019) 33. Korn, O., Schmidt, A.: Gamification of business processes: re-designing work in production and service industry. Procedia Manuf. 3, 3424–3431 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.promfg. 2015.07.616 34. Mashina, E.A., Balakshin, P.V.: Methodology for assessing digital maturity of industrial ecosystems. Organaizer Prod. 1, 85–101 (2023). https://doi.org/10.36622/vstu.2023.24. 14.007 35. Balakshin, P.V., Mashina, E.A.: Formalization of implicit knowledge based on educational competencies and background knowledge. Ontol. Des. 12(4), 481–494 (2022). https://doi. org/10.18287/2223-9537-2022-12-4-481-494 36. Mashina, E.: Creating intellectual support tools for recruiting procedures of innovative enterprise by using natural language processing methods. Bull. Astrakhan State Techn. Univ. Ser. Manag. Comput. Eng. Comput. Sci. 2, 125–134 (2023). https://doi.org/10.24143/2072-95022023-2-125-134 37. Jorge, H., Mauricio, C., Cristian, G., Felix, C., Alejandro, F., Walter, H.: How do digital capabilities affect firm performance? The mediating role of technological capabilities in the “new normal”. J. Innov. Knowl. 7(2) (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jik.2022.100171 38. Mashina, E.A.: Approaches to the initial stage of semantic analysis of large information arrays of scientific information sources. In: Almanac of Scientific Works of Young Scientists of ITMO University, vol. 1, pp. 306–311. ITMO University, Saint Petersburg (2022) 39. Raimbault, J.: Exploration of an interdisciplinary scientific landscape. Scientometrics 119(2), 617–641 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11192-019-03090-3 40. Salton, G., Wong, A., Yang, C.S.: A vector space model for automatic indexing. ACM 18(11), 613–620 (1975). https://doi.org/10.1145/361219.361220 41. Landauer, T.K., Foltz, P.W., Laham, D.: Introduction to latent semantic analysis. Discourse Process. 25, 259–284 (1998) 42. Mitroff, I.I., Pauchant, T.C.: Transforming the Crisis-Prone Organization: Preventing Individual, Organizational, and Environmental Tragedies. Jossey-Bass Publishers, San Francisco (1992)

Gamification in Industry: Simulation-Game Modeling of Production Processes Galina Ismagilova1

, Elena Lysenko1(B)

, and Alexey Bozheskov2

1 Ural Federal University named after the first President of Russia B. N. Yeltsin, 620002

Yekaterinburg, Russian Federation [email protected] 2 Volzhsky Pipe Plant, 404119 Volzhsky, Russian Federation

Abstract. The gaming context of human life and activity is synchronous with human nature. Gamification is actively used in many areas of human life: social, business, educational, industrial, etc., allowing solving problems related to their improvement. The article is devoted to the consideration of game practices in the implementation of production activities in the industry, in particular, in the management of production maintenance. A production maintenance management model was designed based on simulation-game modeling of production processes, which allows strengthening visual control and, as expected, reducing the number of equipment downtime due to the fault of the personnel. The novelty is as follows: development of the simulation and gaming model for production maintenance control to include elements of the digital solutions for information support and production support: 3D modeling of production facilities, production online monitoring, training content and reference documents visualization to cover the basic functional areas of the production activities contributing to the uniform and proper implementation of functions and features, time and cost reduction for process maintenance and repair as well as recording and preserving the best production practice. Correct gamification in the form of simulation-game modelling can become a replacement for the usual tools that are commonly used in the management process. Keywords: Game · Gamification · Simulation game modeling · Industry

1 Introduction: Gamification as Development Procedure Value Gaming context of human life activity is considered to be an element of human nature and is comparable with «homo ludens» (Johan Huizinga). [1] Game is considered to be all-round process and is natural not only for private life, but also for c [2–4]. Gaming phenomena are spontaneous and come out as creative, innovation potential, developing human individual personality. Transforming nature of personality gaming basis is considered to be outstanding in terms of control of this as being potential for growth and development. Its special significance is in control of human organizational resources in terms of gamification. Gamification as an up-to-date management trend is included into a true-life practice of up-to-date organizations irrespective of patterns of ownership, extension and scope of activity. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Bylieva and A. Nordmann (Eds.): PCSF 2023, LNNS 830, pp. 231–245, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-48020-1_19

232

G. Ismagilova et al.

Zichermann [5], Werbach and Hunter [6], Chou [7], Burlachenko [8], Lyubko [9], who studied gamification phenomenon, define this as activity when the game tools are used for within an outside context. Scientists studying phenomenon of gamification allocate various trends of gamification use which are integrated by the scope of game tools use – responses, success, practice and others [7]. Classification of gamification are presented in two categories: organizational and social. At the same time, nowadays, it is seen that irrespective of variants of gamification use, gamification tools which make this workable, are considered to be close, therefore, their subdivision into categories is irrelevant. One more factor is use of gamification in commercial activity to increase consumer’s interest in their product, which acts as the reason for considering this a social one. The most common approach of Zichermann & Linder used in commercial activity. They consider the gamification as a device allowing increase of efficiency of the organization brand promotion. From the point of view of the above scientists the gamification theory shall be developed based on effective use of components of games and loyalty practice [5]. Zichermann works [5] present a qualitative, detailed analysis of gamified programs, successfully implemented within organizations. Using data obtained in the process of analytical study, Zichermann formulated a theory explaining dependence of results of gamification upon some factors: – – – – –

which gamers will be supported by the system; intended objectives and results; pre-established methods of adaptation; methods of implementation of feedback system; methods of updating of tools of public communication [8].

Other scientists Werbach & Hunter [6] study gamification from the point of view of business tools within the different context, thereat, paying special attention to intelligence in gaming progress defining this as «brain game in practice». Game activity psychology is considered as the objective, for the reason that exhibition of game activity in psychology is connected with a good emotional state. Therefore, by organizing work process using game techniques that bring good mood, the game intellect development takes place, which affects, on one hand, actualization of work activities that are carried out in a positive way, and with participation of more employees, on the other hand, it helps to create conditions for personnel training, acquiring new skills and finding methods for problems solving. Thus, there is a gamification classification developed based on the complexity levels in the works of a Russian scientist who conducts gamification research, who created and manages development of corporate social and motivational platform, Lyubko [9]: – in case of heavy gamification, the execution of current business processes in the game mode is typical, which involves appointment of timing and location of activities, role options, and order of execution. So, for example, it is possible to adapt employees to corporate values by table-top games, implementation of educational functions using special online simulators; – in case of light gamification, stimulation of employees is carried out using set of tools. Such instruments can be: points (scores), electronic money, cards, etc.

Gamification in Industry: Simulation-Game Modeling

233

Thus, gamification is a mechanism consisting of game elements that can be used in all areas of activity. In addition, gamification-based process performs a number of functions: stimulating of employees, personal training and development, improving of intellectual qualities, increasing leadership potential, and reflecting of creative abilities. Introduction of psychological techniques related to the game psychology is considered as the main task of gamification. This technology is effective, since any game is aimed at obtaining of result, which, in turn, creates positive attitude and stimulates an individual to do work with interest and enthusiasm. The identification of important tasks that help to determine the scope of gamification in the work process in practice has become possible due to the main tools of gamification, which include the following: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5)

the desire for career development and social status increase; rivalry; pleasure from the success achieved; creation of a group united by similar needs, interests, for subsequent interaction; providing channel for possible expressing one’s worldview.

Gamification can simplify everything—from learning to business tasks and increase enjoyment from accomplishment. The approach can make any experience feel like a game, resulting in greater engagement. It will also add the joy of completing tasks, comparable to the joy of difficult game level completing. Gamification helps to create greater engagement in all areas where it is applied. The trainees take the course with interest if there is a game element added to it. Clients do not want to leave the company, which promises them progressive discount and bonuses system. Everyday work tasks are no longer monotonous and boring when there is motivation to complete them. In addition to engagement, gamification helps to bring tasks to completion and complete them in the required time. For companies gamification can be aimed at increasing of task execution speed and, accordingly, productivity increasing. Moreover, it can solve a wide range of HR tasks: regulate the main HR processes, promote engagement, enhanced learning, and build confidence. Active feedback from each employee is an important aspect. All of this simplifies the key search for decision element of work—personnel motivation. Game mechanics in HR help to keep a finger on the pulse of the company by keeping track of areas of growth and success [12]. Let’s pay attention to the gamification types that were identified by the Werbach [6]: 1. External, which is aimed at customers, potential clients: players are involved in the game process, then they get positive emotions and mood, and then they experience loyal attitude towards a particular company, and ultimately purchase goods, product, or apply for a service. 2. Internal gamification that is aimed at company employees. As a rule, it is in active demand from the HR service in order to make labor productivity much higher, as well as to stimulate activities related to the innovation introduction, to form a team spirit, and to make the company achieve its goals. 3. Gamification that can change behavior. It is presented as a behavior change technique, so specific rules of the game are set, and people perform the necessary steps and actions.

234

G. Ismagilova et al.

According to B.J. Fogg [12], it is worth highlighting the following elements inherent in the game behavior model: A) Motivation, which refers to actions that direct participation in the game by means of knowledge and needs of the players. Motivation is required to show the players how they can satisfy their interests by participating in the game. B) Opportunity to participate. It is necessary to create conditions that will seem simple to a person, and he/she will want to take part in the game. C) An impulse that provokes action. In this case, you can push using prompts or a specific call, since motivation is not the basis for a person to do something. It is important that all these elements of the behavior model act at the same time, only then the behavior can change. It is worth paying attention to the importance of gamification, which is expressed in the following: today there are many examples of the success of this process not only abroad but also on the Russian territory. Be aware of the following spheres that fall under the successful influence of gamification [13]: 1. Social Projects. As practice shows, these projects are implemented by charitable foundations, which activate participation in various events through donations. However, we see how people are reluctant to take part in such activities due to lack of motivation. That is why gamification is necessary, it will involve citizens in the process and help charitable foundations that deal with children, youth, raise funds for the treatment of patients, and orphanages. People will no longer be observers, but participants in a useful process. 2. Business and Marketing. Thanks to gamification, it will be possible to attract new customers. It is important not only to attract but also to do it by instilling trust, engaging in dialogue and building relationships in such a way that consumers want to come back again and again. As to marketing, gamification will assist to build all sorts of behaviors. You can use promotions, contests urging people to take action but it’s worth remembering that gamification is a vast area. 3. Education. Students will be able to focus their attention on the learning process through gamification. It has been noted more than once that the game form allows you to remember more information, especially if it is combined with interesting tasks. Playful presentation of material in the process of staff training based on visualization tools is also important. With using the gamification in education, the level of studying the programs will significantly increase, the costs of the process itself will be reduced, and the quality will not suffer. 4. Implementation of gamification in industry and technology. Gamification in the form of simulation- game modeling and the accompanying visualization of production processes help to significantly reduce both the planned costs of maintaining production cycles of various levels and ranges: from creating new products and providing technological cycles to processes serving the main production, for example, preventive maintenance repairs, as well as unplanned emergency costs, including forecasting the state and reliability of equipment in the future [13]. So, for example, data from a study of one large metallurgical enterprise in the Russian Federation showed that the reason for the increase in equipment downtime due to the fault

Gamification in Industry: Simulation-Game Modeling

235

of the personnel is the lack of an adequate level of personnel training, when the personnel did not receive information about the crisis production situation in an adequate, clear and understandable form, which led to untimely decision-making to overcome problems (Fig. 1).

3500

3212.72

3000

2638.92

Downtime, hour

2500 2000

2283

1500

1679.73

1528.4 1478.15

1000 500

603.27

0 2019

3006.55

573.8 2020

2021

Year Total downtime Overall downtime Downtime due to personnel fault Fig. 1. Downtime, Steel Making Mill, 2019–2021 (Source: own research, 2022)

Insufficient competence, shortage of personnel and lengthy training directly affect not only the management system of various production processes in general, but also on each of them separately. To date, most metallurgical enterprises have encountered insufficient competence of the service personnel. The skills and abilities of the staff do not meet modern requirements for working on new equipment. The time required for the retraining of workers and the development of equipment takes from 2 to 5 years. Deterioration of the situation with personnel is noted by more than 8.2% of regional companies. In addition, highly qualified personnel are retiring, and the influx of new specialists is not able to quickly meet production needs. This is due, among other things, to the decline in the popularity of work in the metallurgical industry and, as a result, a decrease in the number of graduates from technical universities in the 2000s. Based on this, the question of high-quality and fast training of young specialists is being raised. It seems that one of the solutions to the problem of equipment downtime and, as a result, the occurrence of economic losses of the enterprise can be simulation-game modeling of service production processes, used both at the stage of preliminary training of personnel during the initial launch of a new technological cycle, and in the process of

236

G. Ismagilova et al.

its implementation and accompanying maintenance in case of risks of critical, emergency situations.

2 Simulation-Game Modeling and Visualization of Production Processes as Tools for Gamification One of the most significant characteristics of gamification as a learning technology is its interactive nature. Gamification, in essence, is “learning by doing”, which activates the entire potential of a participant in gaming practice - cognitive abilities, theoretical and practical thinking, creativity and innovation. On the other hand, game practice is almost always a simulation and imitation of reality with visual elements, in which the most adequate and optimal decision should be made, aimed at overcoming the problem situation that arose in the course of realizing the goal and fulfilling production tasks and responsibilities. Thus, gamification and simulation modeling are congruent and synergistic with each other: gamification stimulates the activity of the gaming practice subject, and simulation modeling technologies provide the conditions for the formation of new competencies aimed at accelerating decision-making in complex, problematic, crisis and even emergencies. It is especially important to use the synergy of the game and imitation-simulation when training personnel in new production and technological conditions, which are becoming more complex, multilayered and multilateral, requiring, on the one hand, new competencies of the employee, increasing his expertise, and on the other, reducing errors and losses due to the fault of the personnel (Fig. 2).

Gamification

Simulation-game modeling and visualization

Activity

Lack of looses

Training

Staff

Fig. 2. Sinergy of gamification, simulation-game modeling and staff training process

Gamification in Industry: Simulation-Game Modeling

237

Let’s take a look on the creation of a production maintenance management model using the example of the Steel Melting Area of Steel Making Mill at large steel plant (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3. Steel Melting Area model (Source: own development, 2023)

Every production area will have its own training video to fully familiarize new employees with the equipment and all processes. You can watch the video by clicking the “Training program section” icon. After brief introduction to the area you can zoom in and see in detail any equipment, unit, assembly, and even a single part. Let’s take a look on Electric arc furnace (hereinafter EAF) as an example (Fig. 4). Figure 4 shows the EAF parameters, the remaining time before scheduled routine preventive maintenance and main components life time. After viewing the EAF, you can take a look on any assembly unit or single part of the equipment. Figure 5 presents a model of a combined gas-oxygen burner, showing the main components. Moreover, the model can be viewed in detail including its interior. After studying the general view of the part, you can proceed to a detailed study of the information. Figure 6 shows the basic parameters, possible malfunctions and gives disassembled view. Therefore, it is possible to view the condition and the required information not only of the main units but also of smaller parts such as rollers, nozzles and so on. It will be possible to simulate maintenance and repair due to disassembly of certain parts to view the connection elements. It provides for training prior to any critical repair as well as helps selecting the most appropriate tools. Due to this information, the employee will be able to choose the proper tool for a particular job, which greatly affects the duration of maintenance and repair, and, as a result, its cost.

238

G. Ismagilova et al.

Fig. 4. EAF model (Source: own development, 2023)

Fig. 5. Model of the combined gas-oxygen burner, steel melting area (Source: own development, 2023)

The working personnel who will be engaged in the repair will be able to get the detailed idea on the forthcoming work. This function becomes available due to 3D model of all equipment. The employee will be able to carry out a complete simulation of the repair, conduct a virtual assembly and disassembly of the required part, and get full idea on all the components of the equipment. He will also have access to a video guide with full description of the repair activities for the required equipment. Thus, it becomes necessary to create an integral simulation-game production model. It is supposed to make a model of the entire production site, as a result of which the manager and repair services will have access to the information on all units, assemblies and parts. They will be able to select the unit they need and study all the available documentation about the equipment operating modes, technical characteristics, dates of the last service and possible probable breakdowns. In addition, before performing repair

Gamification in Industry: Simulation-Game Modeling

239

Fig. 6. Summary of the combined gas-oxygen burner (Source: own development, 2023)

work, the personnel will be able to make a detailed analysis of the required unit, using a 3D model; they will simulate the replacement of the necessary parts, which in turn will allow the repair team to be better prepared for the upcoming work. The training material that is present in the production model will allow you to train and retrain employees in a short period of time using the visualization of regulatory documentation, drawings and operating instructions (Fig. 7).

Fig. 7. Production Service Management Model based on simulation-game modeling of production processes (Source: own development, 2023)

The development of a production model is based on the following steps: 1) modeling of an overall view of a workshop, area or structural unit, at which the main production units will be located; 2) modeling of all equipment with detailing of all components and parts;

240

G. Ismagilova et al.

3) digitalization and visualization of all parameters, technical documents, data on repairs, online maintenance frequency; 4) addition of modern training materials considering information visualization (graphs, presentations, videos, etc.) For company managers, the production model will be as an online reference book from which they can get detailed information about the condition of units, assemblies and parts, that will enhance the accuracy of repair planning, will allow making cost analysis and, as a result, allow effectively managing maintenance and repairing processes. Constant monitoring makes it possible to record every change in the parameters of the equipment assembly and the slightest deviation in operation, which helps to identify the reasons for its failure. It will make possible to optimize the repair time and costs for equipment maintenance and repair performance by collecting and accumulating information about equipment operating modes, failures, repairs performed, and the replacement of individual pieces of equipment. The implementation of such model involves a change in the maintenance and repair system (Fig. 8). Simulation-game modeling should be strengthened by visualization as one of the effective tools for staff training. Information visualization is understood as the process of presenting abstract data in the form of images (graphs, diagrams, block diagrams, tables, photographs, etc.) that can help in understanding the meaning of the data. The assimilation of information mainly depends on the method of its transmission: the information that is transmitted by a text message is assimilated up to 7%, the audio code increases the percentage of information assimilation up to 38%, and the visual image - up to 55% [14]. Professor of the University of California, Gary Small, says that the brain of a modern person, due to the property of neuroplasticity, acquires an excessive ability to assimilate digital, virtual reality, in comparison with which material reality clearly loses [15]. The information visualization method makes it much easier for modern youth to assimilate new information in comparison with long texts [16, 17]. When using visualization methods, the learning process of new employees will be enhanced. To do this, you can create special presentations, visual images, graphs, videos, virtual models of production process. At the present stage of production development, the state of all processes that need to be monitored should be visible. Data visualization system will help to get a true picture of production activities or a feedback. To do so, it is necessary to use a visual control system. Such a visual representation will reflect past, present and future production conditions. There are two main objectives in visual control: – to make problems visible; – to clearly identify goals of improvement. Lack of information can be the main reason for inefficiency - employees simply do not know how to do their job more efficiently. This makes them to waste precious time

Gamification in Industry: Simulation-Game Modeling

241

Fig. 8. Maintenance and repair system after the introduction of the production maintenance management model (Source: own development, 2023)

searching, rescheduling, waiting, retrieving, iterating, or even just doing nothing, which negatively impacts the downtime dynamics due to personnel fault (Fig. 1). Visual control solves this problem and results in dramatic improvements in productivity, quality, safety, and more [18]. To implement the idea of visual control, it can be proposed to create a unified system for monitoring the production cycle with visualization of technological processes and all production equipment. This system will be represented as an electronic register of equipment; the register’s database will comprise the actual state of the units, the classification by the equipment configuration, the actual frequency of repairs of individual components and parts, standard operating conditions, residual life and the date of the next repair. In addition, it is proposed to introduce training material into this system; such material will be aimed to improve the skills of employees. The most important aspect of the use of game components in the course of the implementation of activities is the evaluation of its results. There are several different methods for evaluating the results of the gamification process using simulation modeling

242

G. Ismagilova et al.

and visualization when it is introduced into the production system of an enterprise. We propose two directions for using gamification when implementing the proposed model: 1) process: motivational, aimed at stimulating the gaming activity of employees in the course of performing production tasks through the evaluation of results using such gaming tools as balls and badges. With the help of points that an employee receives for completing a task, it is possible to stimulate employees, control activities, determine current status, etc. Beijami (awards, badges, medals, praise, certificates, prizes, diplomas, that is, distinguished awards) are awarded for a job well done, an exceptional idea, group work, etc. By means of badges, such tasks are performed as involving and stimulating participants to do more work, better quality, faster, use the latest technologies, search for solutions, get results earlier. These motivation systems (points and badges) are aimed at activating the participants’ desire to acquire new skills and information, to fulfill themselves. They also represent a special version of the feedback necessary for broadcasting to employees the fidelity of their performance, the level of development and improvement of knowledge and skills; 2) resultant: aimed at the final assessment of the results of employees’ activities during participation in the gamification process as a whole when solving production tasks. The format of this direction is a multilevel statistical evaluation system in the form of a rating. The rating includes the following key elements: a) levels reflecting purposeful progress towards the result: the participants of the game are informed of their places in the rating depending on the number of earned motivation components. In practical use, they provide a way of additional feedback, and show directions for their improvement; b) “progress bar”, which makes it possible to take into account the individual successes of individual employees among the winners; c) “board of honor”: broadcasting the final information using tables and graphs illustrating the options for rating employees, as well as their position relative to other employees, demonstrating the effectiveness of work. After gamification is carried out, managers summarize the overall results and understand what measures to take to develop each employee individually. In the process of gamification, leaders can also be identified, and the time for such identification is noticeably reduced when compared with the usual standard procedure. Consequently, for companies, gamification can be aimed at increasing the speed of task completion and, accordingly, increasing productivity. Moreover, it can solve a wide range of HR tasks: regulate the main HR processes, promote engagement, enhanced training, and build trust. An important aspect is the active feedback from each employee. All this makes it easier to find the key to the crucial element of work—staff motivation. Game mechanics in HR help keep abreast of their company’s pulse by tracking growth and success zones. After analyzing the important points inherent in gamification, especially in the field of management, we want to highlight the main reasons why this process is gaining such popularity today:

Gamification in Industry: Simulation-Game Modeling

243

• helps to actively involve employees in the work process; • reduces the adaptation process and makes it easier and softer; • acts as a means to motivate staff regarding training and thereby improving qualifications, experience, and practice; • improves quality indicators regarding the selection of employees in the company; • increases the growth of sales and, consequently, profits; • reduces staff turnover, as employees have the opportunity to move up the career ladder within the company. It is also worth noting such a positive aspect of gamification as an increase in employee performance, which is achieved thanks to: • • • • •

building work as an exciting and interesting process; increased involvement of employees in the work process; development of creative and extraordinary thinking; opportunities to increase the level of self-realization; rallying the team and creating a positive climate in it.

Thus, the novelty is as follows: development of the simulation and gaming model for production maintenance control to include elements of the digital solutions for information support and production support: 3D modeling of production facilities, production online monitoring, training content and reference documents visualization to cover the basic functional areas of the production activities contributing to the uniform and proper implementation of functions and features, time and cost reduction for process maintenance and repair as well as recording and preserving the best production practice. Lifelong education implies deeper ways of mastering the profession, understanding technology and language, developing soft skills [19–21]. Gamified simulation in manufacturing is often used to support lean facilitation and assessment, and simulation-based lean education and training [21]. General design requirements for interactive systems which the gamification of production should address: self-descriptiveness, informative feedback and “recognition rather than recall” [22, 23]. Researchers identify different clusters of gamification elements for manufacturing. The simplest and most popular elements are leaderboards, scoring systems, badges. Feedback, storylines, and levels often require more effort in terms of resources, time, and expertise to develop and implement. Quests, progress bars, and achievements are most often an individualized experience, group game elements include leaderboards, contests, and competition. Strategies, avatars, and narratives are a few game elements that primarily use intrinsic motivation [24].

3 Conclusion Consequently, gamification can be used in any area, no matter what scope of activities the company has and what goals it pursues. Based on the above said, we note that gamification is very popular at enterprises in various spheres of production. It acts as a motivation to achieve results, to perform their work better, focusing on modern methods and techniques, which is confirmed by the practice of foreign companies using this technology, thereby increasing the performance of employees without much stress for them [12].

244

G. Ismagilova et al.

1. The application of gamification requires the study and understanding of human psychology, knowledge, techniques and methods that are necessary for game format usage in a non-game context. For this purpose, the company will require specialists having the knowledge and techniques we have specified above. However, based on the modern operational practice in the Russian Federation, we understand that the inclusion of courses related to the study of gamification in the educational program is more a desire, but not a reality. 2. Company leaders shall form an understanding that gamification is a profitable process that allows to set the company goals and values for the long term, that is, for the development perspective. Based on this provision, projects related to gamification shall be consistent with the development strategy that already exists in the company, as well as with the values inherent in the corporate brand. 3. For companies, gamification can be aimed at increasing the speed of task fulfillment and, accordingly, increasing productivity. Moreover, it can solve a wide range of HR tasks: control the main HR processes, promote engagement, enhanced learning, and build trust. An important aspect is the active feedback from each employee. All this simplifies the search for the key to the decisive work element - personnel motivation. It should be noted that gamification in the future might well become a replacement for the usual tools that are commonly used in the management process. This conclusion was made based on the following: gamification helps to create a unique experience and knowledge among company employees, thereby giving them more strength and energy in the activity process, stimulating effective involvement in the work process, which, of course, has a positive effect on the company itself, as well as its profitability.

References 1. Huizinga, J.: Men and Ideas: History, the Middle Ages, the Renaissance. Princeton University Press (1984) 2. Tay, J., Goh, Y.M., Safiena, S., Bound, H.: Designing digital game-based learning for professional upskilling: a systematic literature review. Comput. Educ. 184, 104518 (2022). https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2022.104518 3. Adamowsky, N.: Productive indeterminacy: on the relationship between play and science. Technol. Lang. 3(4), 8–20 (2022). https://doi.org/10.48417/technolang.2022.04.02 4. Bylieva, D.: Artistic virtual reality. In: Bylieva, D., Nordmann, A. (eds.) PCSF 2021. LNNS, vol. 345, pp. 462–473. Springer, Cham (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-897086_39 5. Zichermann, G., Linder, J.: The Gamification Revolution: How Leaders Leverage Game Mechanics to Crush the Competition. Mann, Ivanov and Ferber, Moscow (2018) 6. Werbach, K., Hunter, D.: For the win. How GAME THINKING Can Revolutionize Your Business. Wharton School Press, Philadelphia (2015) 7. Chou, Y.: Actionable Gamification: Beyond Points, Badges, and Leaderboards. Packt Publishing, Mumbai (2019) 8. Burlachenko, A.V.: Gamification as a game mechanism that triggers psychological behavioral reactions both in the business environment and in everyday life. Probl. Mod. Econ. 11, 130–135 (2013). (in Russia) 9. Lyubko, E.: Easy Gamification in Personnel Management. Feniks, Rostov-na-Donu (2021). (in Russia)

Gamification in Industry: Simulation-Game Modeling

245

10. Gamification - improve your business: content agency website “TexTerra”. http://texterra.ru/ blog/geymifikatsiyaprokachay-svoy-biznes.html 11. Tsabieva, Z.S., Ryabikova, N.E., Skuzovatova, N.V.: Gamification is a new effective business concept in the personnel motivation system. In: Scientific Community of Students XXI Century: Economic Sciences, vol. 4, no. 41, pp. 86–94 (2016). (in Russia) 12. Fogg, B.J.: Persuasive Technology: Using Computers to Change What We Think and Do. Morgan Kaufmann, Berlington (2003) 13. Markeeva, A.V.: Gamification in business: problems of use and development prospects. Leadersh. Manag. 2, 169–190 (2015). (in Russia) 14. Pocheptsov, G.G.: Imageology. REFL-Book, Moscow. Vakler, Kiev (2006). (in Russia) 15. Harris, M.: The End of Absence Reclaiming What We’ve Lost in a World of Constant Connection. https://newtonew.com/book/the-end-of-absence 16. Novikova, A.D., Dozhdikova, R.N.: Clip Way of Thinking. Belarusian National Technical University, Minsk (2022). (in Russia) 17. Simakova, S.I.: Clip way of thinking among young people as a consequence of the development of visual communications in the media. https://elib.bsu.by/handle/123456789/ 171591 18. Firmal, L.: Visual management in lean production - Visual inspection system, https://lfirmal. com/vizualnyy-menedzhment-v-berezhlivom-proizvodstve/?ysclid=lcykabsoyt489706078 19. Krylov, E., Vasileva, P.: Convergence of foreign language and engineering education: opportunities for development. Technol. Lang. 3, 106–117 (2022). https://doi.org/10.48417/techno lang.2022.03.08 20. Hufeisen, B., Nordmann, A., Liu, A. W.: Two perspectives on the multilingual condition linguistics meets philosophy of technology. Technol. Lang. 3(3), 11–21 (2022). https://doi. org/10.48417/technolang.2022.03.02 21. Tamborini, M.: Philosophy of biorobotics: translating and composing bio-hybrid forms. Technol. Lang. 3(4), 143–159 (2022). https://doi.org/10.48417/technolang.2022.04.10 22. Shou, W., Wang, J., Wu, P.: The application of simulation in lean production research: a critical review and future directions. Eng. Constr. Archit. Manag. 28(8), 2119–2154 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1108/ECAM-10-2020-0853 23. Korn, O., Muschick, P., Schmidt, A.: Gamification of production? A study on the acceptance of gamified work processes in the automotive industry. In: Chung, W., Shin, C. (eds.) Advances in Affective and Pleasurable Design. AISC, vol. 483, pp. 433–445. Springer, Cham (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-41661-8_42 24. Korn, O.: Gamification in industrial production: an overview, best practices, and design recommendations. In: Röcker, C., Büttner, S. (eds.) Human-Technology Interaction, pp. 251–270. Springer, Cham (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-99235-4_10 25. Keepers, M., Nesbit, I., Wuest, T.: The classification of game elements for manufacturing. In: Kim, D.Y., von Cieminski, G., Romero, D. (eds.) APMS 2022. IFIPAICT, vol. 664, pp. 453– 460. Springer, Cham (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-16411-8_52 26. Keepers, M., Romero, D., Hauge, J.B., Wuest, T.: Gamification of operational tasks in manufacturing. In: Lalic, B., Majstorovic, V., Marjanovic, U., von Cieminski, G., Romero, D. (eds.) APMS 2020. IFIPAICT, vol. 591, pp. 107–114. Springer, Cham (2020). https://doi.org/ 10.1007/978-3-030-57993-7_13

Improving Gamification Technology in Corporate Training in the Legal Industry Yury Firsov1

, Oxana Vasilieva2

, and Olga Kalugina2(B)

1 University of Vienna, Universitaetspring 1, 1010 Vienna, Austria

[email protected]

2 Financial University Under the Government of the Russian Federation, Leningradsky Prospekt

49, 125167 Moscow, Russia [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract. The main research issue is finding out some tools to improve gamebased strategies in corporate training of lawyers. The study reveals that the process of using games in corporate training has no methodological basis. The authors propose three levels that should be included in methodological approach in corporate training of lawyers: corporate training, training at different levels of organization, individual training. The authors developed recommendations which can be used by different national and international organizations in order to improve the process of training law students and lawyers through gamification. The article proposes a scheme that can form the basis for the process of organizing corporate training with game-based elements in the legal industry. The stages of corporate training of lawyers with game-based elements include objective setting stage, corporate training methodology stage and result stage. An employee’s learning path in corporate training is built considering asymptotic value and deviations. The main requirements for conducting corporate training include: time spent on training, efficiency, an optimal set of game tools. Within the framework of the template, it is proposed to use the method of multi-objective optimization to select effective gaming methods. The authors proposed to organize a cumulative part training, which should consist of several levels and be carried out as a «Corporation of Skilled workers». The game «Lawyer of the legal management of an organization» was given as an example to implement proposed methodology. The findings can be adjusted into a law firm strategy development to increase labor productivity, improve staff, identify new areas for improving the legal business, develop an organization’s competitiveness strategy. Keywords: Gamification · Gamification Technology · Corporate Training · Game-based Elements

1 Introduction In modern conditions, a special role is given to game-based technologies that are able to stimulate the activity of students, motivate them, and form the practical orientation of learning activities. A unique tool that controls the activities of students in the process of © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Bylieva and A. Nordmann (Eds.): PCSF 2023, LNNS 830, pp. 246–263, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-48020-1_20

Improving Gamification Technology in Corporate Training

247

corporate training is gamification, which stimulates the innovative direction of activity, creates a situation of interest in the performance of cognitive tasks, develops creativity and the possibility of self-realization of students. In the course of the study, we analyzed the theoretical foundations and essence of gamification, as well as the experience of using gamification technology in corporate training, and conducted a survey. The purpose of the work is to formulate practical aspects of improving the process of gamification in corporate training. The objectives are as follows: to consider the theoretical foundations of gamification in corporate training; determine the features of using gamification elements in corporate training of lawyers; propose an algorithm for the technology of corporate training of lawyers using elements of gamification. The use of gamification elements in corporate training can become a leading one, provided that a modern game concept is formed for leading specialists in the labor market, included in the legal industry. The theoretical foundations of gamification in corporate training are analyzed; the features of the use of gamification elements in the corporate training of lawyers are determined. The practical significance of the study lies in the fact that the results obtained during the study, the conclusions drawn on their basis and the recommendations developed can be used by different national and international organizations in order to improve the process of training lawyers through gamification. Practical aspects of the process of gamification in corporate training are formulated, an algorithm for the technology of corporate training of lawyers with the use of gamification elements is proposed.

2 Literature Review Researchers consider different aspects of utilizing gamification technology in corporate training such as: – a tool for motivation and control over work: Tsyplakova (2016) [1], Dynkina (2017) [2], Konstantinova, Grishan (2017) [3]; – a technology for ensuring the competitiveness of modern companies: Gromova (2018), [4]; – the mechanisms and effects of gameful interventions: Kazmerchuk (2018), [5], Tondello, Mora, Marczewski, Nacke (2019) [6]; – implementation of gamification instruments in staff management: Prosvirina (2020) [7], Gasparovich (2021) [8]. Scientific works written by Shatilova (2014) [9], Savitskaya, Vinichenko (2016) [10] revealed the basics of using game-based elements in corporate training. Practical recommendations of the websites of the foreign companies such as «Paradiso» [11], «54 Gamification Statistics You Must Know: 2023 Market Share Analysis & Data» [12] giving some ideas on the implementation of game-based learning in corporate training of employees are also of great value. The websites offering practical recommendations for corporate training for the legal industry are appearing in Russia (e.g., Moscow Digital School portal offers a number of games) [13].

248

Y. Firsov et al.

The scientists who study the advantages and disadvantages of using gamification in the field of education, including corporate training (Tsekleves, Kosmas, Aggun (2014)) [14] note that to achieve success all participants must be motivated, interactive feedback should be used, total immersion and «reward» are demanded. Clark, Tanner-Smith, and Killingsworth (2016) in the study «Digital Games, Design and Learning: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis» identified the interdependence between digital games and traditional teaching methods. The conclusion made by the authors states that the use of game-based elements in education, including corporate training of employees, should complement traditional methods, and not replace them [15]. The same conclusions were made by the scientists De Smale, Overmans and Jeuring (2015), who in the course of the study proved that simulations could expand the teacher’s repertoire either as an addition to traditional teaching methods, or as a partial replacement for the curriculum [16]. The use of game based-elements in the educational process was also revealed in the studies of the following scientists: Racko et al. (2017) [17]; Barr et al. (2017) [18]; Barrett et al. (2019) [19]; Asmolov (2020) [20], Kozlov et al. (2019) [21]. Gamification in the legal industry has not been sufficiently considered. There are a number of publications in this area. Glukhareva (2016) considered the role of gamification techniques in teaching law students and their impact on the student’s personality [22]. Maleshin (2018) summarizes the features of training law students in Russian universities [23]. Kosov (2019) considers the use of gamification in the legal industry for the first time, justifying that the use of gaming technologies increases labor productivity [24]. Kostantinov (2022) analyzes the use of techniques peculiar to gaming activity in relation to legal procedures in modern conditions of the development of law and substantiates the relevance of introducing gamification into various legal procedures [25]. Currently, there is no generally accepted definition in the theory of the relationship between law and gaming activity. Interesting aspects in the study of the concept of “Homo ludens” (A man who plays) are reflected in the works of the Dutch philosopher Huizinga, where the concepts of “rights” and “games” are revealed [26]. Glukhareva and Matitsyn reveal the concept of gamification in the legal industry more extensively, adding such features as scenario approach, atonality, a set of procedural rights of game participants, and the result [23, 27]. Karavaev and Soboleva (2019) highlight some game-based learning practices that can be applied in the training of law students: – – – – – –

game design; application programs; game interaction; role plays; ARGs and AR games; location-based game [28].

Focusing on gamification in the process of corporate training of law students is justified by the search for innovative solutions to new challenges that arise due to employee skill development. Rubinstein (2002) points out the methodological basis of gamification. The scientist considers that the key elements of the subject-based and activity approach are the cognitive and activity mechanisms of the student’s involvement in the external environment and the formation of a stable personal position in student’s personal development [29].

Improving Gamification Technology in Corporate Training

249

According to Kuzmina et al. (2015) the introduction of gamification elements into the learning process is based on the acmeological concept of education, which is based on continuous improvement, the outcome of which is the result achieved by the individual [30]. Cognitive modeling based on the multimedia presentation of didactic material is disclosed in the works of Mayer (2016) [31]. There is a sufficient description of the methods and models that are used in the learning process. However, the problems that practitioners face lie in the choice of methods and tools, since they have a lot of work experience, but they do not have experience in teaching and choosing teaching materials. This is indicated by Karavaev and Soboleva (2017) in their study [32]. Applying to the legal industry, the process of corporate learning with game-based elements can be traced through the introduction of game mechanics into legal procedures, which allows us to speak about the presence of certain game mechanisms in the legal sphere, which is diametrically opposed to the game. Matitsyn (2020) notes that the theory of the relationship between law and gaming activity, on the one hand, has not been widely developed, on the other hand, the gamification element is employed in the analysis of examples of the litigation process [27]. Glukhareva notes that law as a whole is not a game-based activity. However, in the process of training law students, gaming practices are acceptable [22]. Konstantinov (2022) proposes to use a broader meaning of the term “gamification” in the activities of legal procedures, considering the characteristics of law appropriate for gaming activities (for example, the gaming activity of legal procedures “Litigation”). The scientist also highlights the characteristic traits in the relationship between the game and judicial procedure. For example, agonalism manifests itself both in the game and in the legal trial; the scenario of the legal trial, like the game, has its own rules and procedures, known in advance to its participants [33]. Pletnikov (2017) notes that the factor facilitating game enjoyment plays an important role in motivation and involvement in educational games. Game-based activity, in his opinion, is characterized by the satisfaction of the internal mechanisms of human happiness [34]. Pogodina and Avdeev (2020) consider gaming practices in the legal industry as a basis for increasing the level of participation of citizens in solving certain problems of the state. The researchers give an example of electronic citizen poll system «Active Citizen». The platform uses a game model. Various activities such as landscaping courtyard areas, making changes to urban development projects are conducted on the platform. The motivation is points that can be exchanged for goods for active participation [35]. Kosov notes that organizations in the legal industry need to implement innovative tools for staff development. Motivation of employees should be of a long-term nature in the daily routine of a legal organization. In this case gamification has enormous educational potential. According to Kosov gamification methods may vary depending on the staffing, specialization, goals of a legal organization, however, the goals and objectives of gamification in any case will be common (for example, motivating employees, retaining loyal employees, expanding communication between members of the organization through gaming content, mentoring, etc. [24].

250

Y. Firsov et al.

Thus, gamification in corporate training is relevant, but insufficiently developed [36]. It is required, in our opinion, to supplement the theory of corporate training with gamebased elements. The interest of the authors in the problem of introducing gamification elements into the process of corporate training of law students is due to the high demand for skilled employees, therefore, as a part of the study, a technology for corporate training of lawyers using game-based elements and a game template should be proposed.

3 Results and Discussions The research on the problem of using game-based elements in corporate training, including the legal industry, was carried out within three years from 2020 to 2023. At the ascertaining stage of the experiment (2020–2021 academic year), the following types of activities were carried out: – higher education institutions of Moscow that were ready to take part in the study were identified; – the scientific literature on the issue under study was studied; – questionnaires were developed; At the stage of the formative pedagogical experiment, which was carried out from 2021 to 2023: – online survey on the use of gamification elements in corporate training was conducted; – the authors’ methodological approach in corporate training of lawyers was developed; – a game template that can form the basis for the process of conducting corporate training with the elements of gamification in the legal industry was designed; – the game algorithm, one of which is presented in the article was developed. The purpose of the experiment is to study contradictory trends in the field of the usage of game-based technologies and further gamification in education, and to develop and test methodological materials for using game elements in the educational process in the training of law students and lawyers. The audience participating in the online survey was 520 students from Moscow universities. 26.9% of respondents were male and 73.1% of participants were female. The number of final year of bachelor’s students majoring in «Civil Law» and participating in the survey amounted to 67.88%. The number of masters students participating in the online survey was 11.5% of students enrolled in the program «Legal support of business», 10.6% of students enrolled in the «Corporate Lawyer» program, 10% of students enrolled in the «Lawyer in Financial Markets» program. Based on the study of the literature review, research reports on corporate training of employees and the experiment with students, the authors formulated practical proposals for organizing corporate training for lawyers. In legal practice, the process of using games in corporate training has no methodological basis. We consider that methodological approach in corporate training of lawyers should include three levels (see Fig. 1). At the level of corporate training, it is necessary to communicate the company’s goals, improve customer focus, develop team building skills, mutual assistance, make employees understand the company’s business processes and products.

Improving Gamification Technology in Corporate Training

251

Fig. 1. The structure of corporate training for lawyers.

At the level of the department, elements of coaching can be proposed. It is expected to increase the level of achievement of corporate standards for the quality of work performed at the workplace, the development of business processes, etc. At the employee level, it is necessary to assess competencies in accordance with functional responsibilities, develop employee motivation and employee involvement in training at the level of the department and corporate level. The article proposes a scheme that can form the basis for the process of organizing corporate training with game-based elements in the legal industry. The stages of corporate training of lawyers with game-based elements are presented below (See Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. Stages of corporate training for lawyers.

252

Y. Firsov et al.

Stage 1 (Objective-Setting Stage) includes identifying needs, laying the groundwork, setting goals and objectives in accordance to the requests of participants taking part in the corporate training. The main questions of the first stage: – What problem are we solving? – Who is the target audience? – What competencies do we need to developed? An important element of the first stage is the formation of the necessary competencies. Each company should develop corporate training systems based on competencies (competency matrix) (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3. The first step of the corporate training template.

The competency matrix can be understood as a list of skills and abilities of employees that are valuable for the company (See Table 1). Table 1. Competency matrix. Proficiency level

Set of competencies

Z1

k1

k2

k3

kn

Z2 Z3 Zn

An employee’s learning path in corporate training is built considering asymptotic value and deviations. The calculation of deviations of the current position of the competency matrix from the asymptotic value is calculated by formula (1) kz1 − kt1 ≤ £

Improving Gamification Technology in Corporate Training

kz2 − kt2 ≤ £ kzn − ktn ≤ £

253

(1)

where £ - permissible deviation of the current level of competence from the asymptotic value. Kz1 – asymptotic value of the level of proficiency of (i) competence. Kt1 – current value of the level of proficiency of (i) competence.

The coefficient of importance of each competence is calculated, reflecting the level of competence improvement according to the formula (2). δ1 · kz1 − kt1 δ1 · kz1 − kt1 δ1 · kz1 − kt1

(2)

The increase of competencies will be denoted by , where the increase of each competency will be shown respectively as (1, 2, n). The process of goal-setting of students’ individual trajectory is aimed at choosing the minimum costs for training, employee involvement and motivation. The second stage involves the corporate training methodology in the legal industry. At the second stage, the conditions and general user requirements for corporate training with game-based elements are formed. The technical implementation of the software and hardware is carried out. The content, forms and methods of training and the necessary resources are determined. It also includes the choice of game mechanics and a set of cases and tasks. If necessary, the second stage includes the choice of an educational institution, the organization of preparatory activities. The main requirements for conducting corporate training include: time spent on training, efficiency, an optimal set of game tools. Within the framework of the template, it is proposed to use the method of multi-objective optimization to select effective gaming methods. (3) where – effectiveness of training n employees using (i) game technology  F2 (x) = Tin · yi → · min,

(4)

where Tin – working hours of a teacher practitioner or expert. Provided that F1 (x) · d1 > F2 (x) · d2 d1 · d2 – weighting coefficients. yi – area of applied technologies in corporate training. The range of valid values for the functions will be equal 1, n. At the second stage, the following teaching methods can be used: problem seminars for setting and reaching business targets, doing internships in different departments, trainings, business simulation games and role plays. Here is an example of a series of games used for training lawyers:

254

Y. Firsov et al.

1. «Ace Attorney» is a series of games from Capcom about a lawyer defending his clients in court. Players must prove their clients’ innocence by examining evidence and questioning witnesses; 2. «Judge Dredd: Dredd vs. Death» is a shooter of 2003 about Judge Dredd who administers justice to criminals in a cyberpunk setting where law and order are at stake; 3. «The Last Court» is an interactive text quest from Failbetter Games. Players will take on the role of judge in a fictional world, solving difficult problems and making decisions that will have consequences for the surrounding characters; 4. «LA Noire» is a game from Rockstar Games in which players take on the role of a detective investigating crimes in the 1940s in Los Angeles. The game uses motion capture technology, which makes the dialogue more realistic and allows players to investigate the crime in detail, watching the facial expressions of suspects, and recognizing lies from the smallest mistakes of criminals [13]. The tutors can use different gaming technologies implementing the series of games presented above taking into account generalized characteristics of game-based technologies developed by us (Table 2). Table 2. Generalized characteristics of gamification and other gaming technologies in the training of lawyers. Name of Generalized characteristics gaming Goal-setting Structure Existence technologies of the of Rules in the field of game corporate lawyer training

Spontaneity

Reality

Virtuality

Limited number of participants

Consistency

Role plays

–

–

–

+

–

–

+

–

Business games

+

+

+

–

+

±

+

–

Simulators

+

+

+

–

±

±

+

+

Traditional games

+

+

+

–

–

+

+

–

Elements of gamification

+

+

+

–

+

+

+

+

At the third stage, after identifying the learning objectives, target audience, game methods, it is necessary to organize a cumulative part training, which, in our opinion, should consist of several levels and be carried out as a «Corporation of Skilled workers» (Fig. 4): – Level 1 - attending classes and assessing competencies in a playful way: (1–25 points); – Level 2 - group training with game-based elements, webinars, workshops and other methods: (1–25 points);

Improving Gamification Technology in Corporate Training

255

Fig. 4. Cumulative part training of lawyers according to the «Corporation of skilled workers» principle.

– Level 3 - self-education (preparation of an educational game, presentation, quiz, etc.) for working in a group and receiving feedback with the support of the facilitator: (1–25 points); – Level 4 - applies the received data in practice, share the acquired knowledge with colleagues: (1–25 points); – Level 5 - acts as an expert in employee training (1–25 points). – The maximum number of points is 100. We suggest considering the game «Lawyer of the legal management of an organization», tested at the 2nd level as an example. The purpose of the game is training the participants to perform the professional activities of a lawyer, acquiring practical skills in preparing legal documents.

256

Y. Firsov et al.

The tasks of the game: drawing up a contract for production, advertising and sale of goods; legal support for the creation of a material and technical facilities; execution of applications for the patent issuance; making agreements on the transfer of exclusive rights. Game Scenario The game consists of the following stages. The 1st stage 1. Participants are divided into several competing groups. Each group imitates the activities of the legal department in the legal management of the organization. The activity of the organization is focused on the production and sale of consumer goods. 2. Each participant of the game, being an employee of the legal department, receives a task and performs one of the functions of a lawyer: creation of material and technical facilities; legal registration of the strategic development of the organization; legal support of production and advertising activities. The 2nd stage includes the creation of the material and technical facilities of the organization and the provision of conditions for its functioning on the basis of making an agreement on the lease of a building, the registration of this agreement with the executive government agency; making power supply agreement, building security contracts; making an agreement on the provision of cleaning services. Making agreements, the tutor should pay attention to the following factors. The agreement on the lease of a building should include form and state registration of the agreement; land title; the rental rates as an essential contract clause; rights and obligations of the parties; contractual liability. Working on power supply agreement the tutor pays students’ attention to the procedure of celebrating a contract and renewal of a contract, the quantity and quality of the supplied energy; the obligations of the buyer for the maintenance and operation of networks, the fee payment schedule for the energy, contractual liability of the parties. The tasks on building security contract: analyze and make a building security contract based on the paid services contract. Pay attention to the rights and obligations of the parties to satisfy an agreement, including payment for services under the contract, provide for all contingencies of unilateral repudiation of obligations under the contract. Identify the legal nature of the contract for cleaning the territory: make a contract for the performance of work or rendering of services under the contract; determine the essential terms of the contract, the rights and obligations of the parties. The 3rd stage provides for the legal registration of the strategic development of the organization. Making paid services contract with Rospatent for doing marketing research. Analysis of the competitive environment based on the obtained patent information as a result of marketing research. Identification of items subject to copyright and patented solutions. Choice of the optimal form of protection of the results of intellectual property. Filing a patent application.

Improving Gamification Technology in Corporate Training

257

Familiarization with the structure and content of agreements on the transfer of exclusive rights (alienation agreement, license agreement). Give a comparative description of the alienation agreement and the license agreement. Identify the features of a non-exclusive license. Determine the essential terms of the license agreement. The 4th stage provides legal support for production, advertising activities and the sale of manufactured products in civil circulation. Familiarization with the structure and content of contracts of work and labor, author’s commissioning agreement for the creation of advertising, retail sales agreement, wholesale activity agreement. Contracts of work and labor: characteristics and quality of work performed under the contracts of work and labor; set the deadlines for each stage of the performance of work; cost and term of payment; special rights and obligations of the parties; the procedure for accepting the results of the work. Author’s commissioning agreement for the creation of advertising must contain requirements for the work being created; tentative deadline; ownership of exclusive rights to the created work (performer or customer). The purchase and sale agreement must provide a clause on the product, its quantity, quality, product range, package contents; warranty period for the goods; product price and payment terms. The 5th stage. Evaluation of the participant’s activity is carried out by the tutor on the basis of the analysis of the agreements made at all stages of the game. The correctness of the chosen type of civil law contract, its content and design are taken into account. As a part of the experiment, we also conducted an online survey among fourth-year students of universities in the city of Moscow (520 people) to find out gamification technologies preferred by part-time students. The results are presented in Fig. 5.

Fig. 5. Gamification technologies preferred by part-time students.

According to the survey, the most popular technologies are game-level completion, reflecting back for progress feedback. The next research question was in the field of the presence of a corporate training structure, which included the following issues: assessment of primary competencies, availability of requirements (job descriptions detailed in the competency for personnel), availability of a personnel assessment methodology during certification, availability of

258

Y. Firsov et al.

training programs on the website of the organization, availability of understandable evaluation indicators in the learning process. The results show the lack of development of the methodology of the corporate learning process and its systematization in terms of evaluation (See Fig. 6).

Fig. 6. Estimates of corporate training for law students.

It is shown that there is insufficient transparency of the corporate training process and the lack of information (more than 35–50%). According to the experience, in modern conditions of digitalization of the economy and the rapid technology obsolescence, human capital is an important part in the development of the company and the struggle for competitive positions in the market. Therefore, to improve the efficiency of the company, one of several conditions is necessary - highly qualified personnel dedicated to the company. In this vein, companies need to organize corporate training for employees within the company, or motivate them to participate in advanced training courses. An important condition for taking a course of corporate training with game-based elements is also the motivation and students’ engagement. In the course of the study, a survey was conducted of part-time students of Moscow law faculties on the subject of student motivation for corporate training. Both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation were assessed. The students considered that high income level, prestige, beneficial relations attributed to external factors of motivation. The internal factors of motivation were satisfaction with the profession, achievements in the profession, personal growth. We interviewed students who do not work in their own specialist areas or do not work at all, and a group of students who work in in their own specialist areas (Fig. 7). The figure shows that both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation are important for students. The next survey was devoted to the area of students’ readiness for gaming technologies. In this aspect, a game was proposed that made it possible to evaluate the results of students on the issues the results of which are presented in Table 3: – Knowledge of information technology

Improving Gamification Technology in Corporate Training

259

Fig. 7. Assessment of internal and external motivations for corporate training.

– – – –

Level of formation of professional knowledge Level of involvement in play-based learning Knowledge of computer technology Substantive aspects of assessing the competencies of a lawyer.

Table 3. The results of students’ readiness for corporate training with gaming technologies. Criteria

Level

Evaluation at the end of the game, %

Number of people

Self-evaluation, %

Number of people

Knowledge of information technology

Low Average High

38,0 42,0 20,0

190 210 100

31,4 40,6 30,0

157 203 150

Level of formation of professional knowledge

Low Average High

14,0 68,0 18,0

70 340 90

4,0 70,0 26,0

20 350 130

Level of involvement in play-based learning

Low Average High

6,0 44,0 30,0

30 220 150

8,0 60,0 32,0

40 300 160

Knowledge of computer technology

Low Average High

14,0 48,0 38,0

70 240 190

10,8 49,2 20,0

54 246 100

Substantive Low aspects of Average assessing the High competencies of a lawyer

32,0 48,0 20,0

160 240 100

34,4 46,0 19,2

172 230 96

260

Y. Firsov et al.

The obtained indicators show that the average score for technological, computer, information literacy of a student is sufficient to participate in corporate training with game-based elements. However, when teaching law students, it is necessary to pay attention to programs that form the competencies of information literacy, computer literacy, and substantive aspects of assessing the competencies of a lawyer. Considering the average score of involvement in gaming technologies, we can note an insufficient level (average - 44% and self-assessment - 60%). The purpose of the next survey was to determine the attitude of students to gamification in education, and its impact on the development of creativity: creative thinking, curiosity, originality in solving tasks in gaming activities. Creativity was assessed based on Vishnyakova’s test [37] (See Fig. 8).

Fig. 8. Evaluation of students’ creativity in gaming activities.

The students note that the game-based elements in education are interesting only for short-term tasks, and become unproductive in the process of long-term gaming activity. However, it is gaming activity that develops interest and motivation for creative selfrealization and corporate training, which allows achieving goals in professional activities. Also, the game-based elements, according to students, contribute to the development of interest in performing practical tasks, develop personal qualities and the ability to work in a team. Thus, we can conclude that gamification is becoming a valuable part of corporate training.

4 Conclusions In the course of the study, the practices of using game-based elements for engagement of employees and students for corporate training in legal practice areas were analyzed. We developed the basics of gamification in corporate training. The assessment of students’ readiness for the game-based process was made and practical aspects of the corporate training process with the algorithm for corporate training technologies were formulated. It was found out that in legal practice the process of conducting games in corporate training is spontaneous and has no methodological basis. In this regard, we proposed a methodological approach to corporate training of lawyers and law students, which provides for three levels described in the article, which will increase customer focus, functional training, team work, as well as motivation and involvement of employees.

Improving Gamification Technology in Corporate Training

261

In our opinion, in relation to the legal industry, the process of corporate training with game-base elements can be traced through the introduction of game mechanics into legal procedures. The algorithm (template) of corporate training with the elements of the game developed will allow not only to motivate employees and increase labor productivity, but also to reduce the generation gap between the company’s partners and its employees (for example, stage 3, 4, 5 of the proposed algorithm). The study showed that today’s youth, when playing games and working with mobile/computer applications outside the workplace, are aimed at learning through game-based technologies. The survey confirmed this hypothesis. Young people have a desire to learn by playing. Thus, the purpose and value of corporate training with game-based elements is to increase labor productivity, improve staff, identify new areas for improving the legal business, develop an organization’s competitiveness strategy in the market, taking into account consumer requirements. However, based on the opinion of the scientific community in the legal industry, it can be noted that the process of corporate training with game-based elements is still at the experimental stage and has not been fully implemented in the strategy of legal organizations. However, it must be recognized that this is only a matter of time in the setting of digital economy.

References 1. Tsyplakova, E.O.: Gamification — the way of motivation or way of control over the labor process? J. Econ. Sociol. 17(3), 82–109 (2016) 2. Dynkina, E.D.: Gamification, as a tool of maintenance of high staff efficiency. Bus. Educ. Knowl. Econ. 2, 51–56 (2017) 3. Konstantinova, E.S., Grishan, M.A.: Gamification. Typology of players and mechanics. New Gener. 11, 57–62 (2017) 4. Gromova, N.V.: Gamification as a tool for ensuring the competitiveness of modern companies. J. Mod. Compet. 2(68), 18–29 (2018) 5. Kazmerchuk, S.V.: Gamification as an effective marketing tool for attracting and retaining customers. Leadersh. Manag. 1, 99–104 (2018) 6. Tondello, G.F., Mora, A., Marczewski, A., Nacke, L.E.: Empirical validation of the gamification user types hexad scale in English and Spanish. Int. J. Hum. Comput. Stud. 127, 95–111 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhcs.2018.10.002 7. Prosvirina, N.V.: Implementation of gamification instruments in organization personnel management. Bull. Acad. Knowl. 37(2), 280–286 (2020). https://doi.org/10.24411/2304-61392020-10178 8. Gasparovich, E.O., Uskova, E.V., Dongauzer, E.V.: The impact of digitalization on employee engagement. In: Ashmarina, S.I., Mantulenko, V.V. (eds.) IPM 2020. LNNS, vol. 161, pp. 143– 150. Springer, Cham (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-60926-9_20 9. Shatilova, E.O.: Gamification as a tool of corporate culture. Manag. Corp.Cult. 4, 246–251 (2014) 10. Savitskaya, V.V., Vinichenko, M.V.: Modern approaches to staff training using gamification. New Gener. 9, 140–144 (2016) 11. Paradiso website. https://www.paradisosolutions.com/blog/benefits-of-gamification-in-tra ining. Accessed 17 May 2023 12. Finances Online. Reviews for Business. https://financesonline.com/gamification-statistics

262

Y. Firsov et al.

13. Moscow Digital School website. https://mosdigitals.ru/media/porabotali-mozhno-i-otdokh nut-videoigry-dlya-yuristov?ysclid=lhri3hin1k14855496 14. Tsekleves, E., Kosmas, J., Aggun, A.: Benefits, Benefits, barriers and guideline recommendations for the implementation of serious games in education for stakeholders and policymakers. Br. J. Educ. Technol. 47(1), 164–183 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.12223 15. Clark, D.B., Tanner-Smith, E.E., Killingsworth, S.S.: Digital games, design, and learning: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Rev. Educ. Res. 86(1), 79–122 (2016). https://doi.org/ 10.3102/0034654315582065 16. de Smale, S., Overmans, T., Jeuring, J., van de Grint, L.: The effect of simulations and games on learning objectives in tertiary education: a systematic review. In: De Gloria, A., Veltkamp, R. (eds.) GALA 2015. LNCS, vol. 9599, pp. 506–516. Springer, Cham (2016). https://doi. org/10.1007/978-3-319-40216-1_55 17. Racko, G., Oborn, E., Barrett, M.: Developing collaborative professionalism: an investigation of status differentiation in academic organizations in knowledge transfer partnerships. Int. J. Hum. Resour. Manag. 30(3), 457–478 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2017.128 1830 18. Barr, H., et al.: CAIPE Interprofessional Education Guidelines (2017). https://www.caipe. org/resources/publications/caipe-publications/caipe-2017 19. Barrett, M.J., et al.: Learning for transdisciplinary leadership: why skilled scholars coming together is not enough. BioScience 69(9), 736–745 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1093/biosci/biz 072.2019 20. Asmolov, A.G.: It is impossible to turn the standard into a “corset”. Kommersant. Science 33(597) (2019). https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/3916011 21. Kozlov, V.E., Levina, E.Yu., Khusainova, S.V., Shibankova, L.A.: A model of scientific and methodological support of professional development of teachers in training. Bulletin of the Chuvash State Pedagogical University named after I. Ya. Yakovlev 2(102), 107–115 (2019). https://doi.org/10.26293/chgpu.2019.102.2.015 22. Glukhareva, L.I.: Game in law as a factor of legal Nihilism in Russia. Bull. Rus. State Humanit. Univ. Ser. Econ. Manag. Law 1, 11–19 (2016) 23. Research: who and how teaches future lawyers today. https://pravo.ru/review/view/122418/ 24. Kosov, M.E.: Modern Tendencies of Gamification in the Legal Service Industry. Vestnik of Academy of economic security of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Russia (6), 293–300 (2019). https://doi.org/10.24411/2073-0454-2019-10359 25. Konstantinov, A.M.: Gamification of law as a response to modern challenges of its development. Legal Concept Legal Paradigm 21(3), 69–73 (2022). https://doi.org/10.15688/lc.jvo lsu.2022.3.9 26. Huizinga, J.: Homo Ludens. In the Shadow of Tomorrow. Progress, Moscow (1992) 27. Matytsin, D.E.: Digital technologies for the implementation of civil ligal transactions: repo agreement for the securities market investment assets. Law Pract. 2, 136–140 (2020) 28. Karavaev, N.L., Soboleva, E.V.: Improving the Methodology of Gamification of the Educational Process in the Digital Educational Environment. Vyatka State University, Kirov (2019) 29. Rubinstein, S.L.: Problems of General Psychology. Peter, Saint Petersburg (2002) 30. Kuzmina, N.V., Chupina, V.A., Zharinova, E.N.: Acmeological approaches to fundamental education development. Sci. Dialogue 11(47), 212–227 (2015) 31. Mayer, R.V.: Computer model of the empirical knowledge of physics formation: coordination with testing results. Eur. J. Contemp. Educ. 16(2), 239–247 (2016). https://doi.org/10.13187/ ejced.2016.16.239 32. Karavaev, N.L., Soboleva, E.V.: Analysis of software services and platforms that have the potential for educational process gamification. Concept 8, 14–25 (2017). https://doi.org/10. 24422/mcito.2017.8.6960

Improving Gamification Technology in Corporate Training

263

33. Konstantinov, A.M.: Gamification of law as a response to modern challenges of its development. Legal Concept Legal Paradig. 21(3), 69–73 (2022). https://doi.org/10.15688/lc.jvolsu. 2022.3 34. Pletnikov, V.V.: Agonality as a type of competitiveness: characteristics and essential features. Soc. Power 4(66), 114–121 (2017) 35. Pogodina, I.V., Avdeev, D.A.: Gamification of platforms for public participation of citizens in public administration. Public Adm. Issue 4, 84–110 (2020) 36. Zolkina, A.V., Lomonosova, N.V., Petrusevich, D.A.: Assessing the relevance of using gamification as a tool to improve the educational process. Sci. Educ. Today 10(3), 127–143 (2020). https://doi.org/10.15293/2658-6762.2003.07 37. Vishnyakova, N.: Test on Creativity. http://www.miu.by/kaf_new/mpp/151.pdf

The Role of Gamification in Human Resources Brand Development Irina Y. Melnikova , Dmitrii G. Popov(B)

, and Veronika V. Fokina

Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University, Politechnicheskaya str., 29, Saint Petersburg, Russia {melnikova_iyu,popov_dg,fokina_vv}@spbstu.ru

Abstract. The study analyzes the background of gamification application. The experience of companies that use gamification for Human Resources (HR) brand development is analyzed. Highlighted the key tasks in the development of gamified projects (definition of goals and desired results, the definition of resource constraints, the definition of the composition of the players). The main elements of gamified pro-jects are studied: purpose, participants, game space, types of incentives used. According to the results of the study we obtained a classification of games used in human resource management. The following criteria for classifying gamified projects have been proposed: type of stimulus, frequency of stimulus exposure, type of rewarded action, method of performance evaluation, etc. The classification we propose forms the space of possible options in the design of gamified projects. The role of gamification as a tool to increase the attractiveness of HR brands for external and internal target audiences was substantiated. Keywords: Gamification · HR brand · Design of gamified projects

1 Introduction Human capital development directly affects the performance of a modern organization. Tools and procedures of personal development have become strategically important in the context of digitalization in the post-covid period. It’s significant not only from the standpoint of organization [company]’s preparedness to development and modernization, but as part of an ESG conception as well. Another important point is the impact of factors of training, professional development, retraining, as well as the use of intracorporate tools to integrate staff into the system of corporate culture of the organization. According to the authors, a strong HR-brand has a positive effect on various areas of human resource management in a competitive labor market. Moreover, HR-brand as a key tool of external and internal communications, has the potential to directly affect the whole totality of communication, management, and human resources activities of the organization. HR-brand simultaneously performs specific functions to ensure the implementation and development of corporate culture, loyalty, and involvement of employees in the functional development of the organization. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Bylieva and A. Nordmann (Eds.): PCSF 2023, LNNS 830, pp. 264–273, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-48020-1_21

The Role of Gamification in Human Resources Brand Development

265

There are several interpretations of the concept of “HR-brand” in scientific literature. Some authors understand employer ‘s brand as a set of functional, economic and psychological benefits obtained as a result of employment in a particular company and associated with this company. Researchers note the ability of HR-brand to distinguish the company among competitors in the labor market. Belkin, Belkina, Antonova take a broader approach to the employer ‘s brand definition and consider it as “a competitive image of an organization possessing a set of value propositions that distinguish it among other organizations for current and potential employees” [1]. In this case the definition of HR-brand implies the perception of the company’s image by both external and internal target audiences. The image of the company as an employer is formed and transmitted to the external environment through the people involved in the company, primarily through the staff of the company. The category of involvement is of key importance when an organization is focused on the management of its human capital [2]. Several authors consider gamification as a leading HR-branding tool. The global gamification market was estimated at $10.19 million in 2020 and is expected to reach $38.42 million by 2026. This market is projected to grow further at an average annual rate of 25.10% for the period 2021–2026 [3]. Gamification is used as a special way of solving a variety of educational, marketing, and managerial tasks. The mechanics used in games can be applied to any other non-game activity. First, they increase the motivation of the employee to pay more attention to the process of activity (involvement). Secondly, it prolongs the commitment to the task (purposefulness) and increases the probability of achieving the goal (competitiveness). Game-based methods and training models have become a habitual practice in the theory and practice of human capital management, training and retraining of employees. The gamification market in relation to the human resource management is primarily attuned to the opportunities offered by the potential to reach target audiences through personal communication, the availability of effective methods for managing employee behavior, interest in innovation on part of the market actors, and achieving productivity through engagement. The field of gamification application is rapidly growing, it is transformed from personnel training and aptitude testing in the 1990s, to more and more complex activities (including rather routine activities within an out-of-game context, causing boredom and decreased motivation in the employee). It is important to consider both the relevance of introducing such practices and the opportunities for their implementation in order to improve productivity and employee engagement. All conditions are currently in place for gamification to become a basic tool for managing the human resource potential of organizations (Table 1). Next, we will consider the directions of gamification processes development. The Solution of Marketing Tasks and Promotion. Such a tool quickly captures the attention of the consumer and depending on the correct use, can strengthen the unconscious response to the brand in the future [4]. A new generation is entering the arena that responds differently to all kinds of incentives [5]. What unites today’s consumers, intermediaries and producers is a common immersion in gaming processes. The “gamer generation,” the “generation of impressions, game apps and mobile games,” is accustomed to gamification and is as ready as possible for its various manifestations [6]. Game has become an attribute of social time and a marker of generation, bringing “quick wins,”

266

I. Y. Melnikova et al. Table 1. Factors influencing the development of gamification.

№ Environment Factors

Barriers

Solutions

1.

Generation Z is experienced, Lack of readiness to willing, and accustomed to introduce games. Low playful methods ability to modify (adapt) personnel management to the demands of the labor market

Building unified channels of communication and tools for both the employer and the employee. Exchange of experience and integration with social networks, internal communication channels

2.

Searching optimization of solutions related to the management of labor performance in the organization

3.

Awareness of the importance Application of a of emotional intelligence. gamification tool to solve Multitasking and the ability tactical tasks to learn and retrain as a requirement for employees

The need for a strategic vision Audit of employee motivation and retention tools based on user experience

4.

New ethics of internal corporate relations

Gamification is aimed at «quick wins». It is based on points, scores, and ratings. Such systems can largely substitute the tasks of the production process or contradict them (come into conflict)

Gradual (step-by-step) implementation of changes. Healthy competitive environment. Competency assessment system for employees

5.

Expanding the capabilities of the software. Integration of personnel training, management, and development systems

The complexity of integrating solutions in the field of training, management, and development of personnel in the overall system of management of the organization

Intelligent decision support systems: MIS (Management Information System), EIS (Executive Information System), GDSS (Group Decision Support Systems), ODSS (Organization Decision Support Systems), etc.

6.

Corporate meta-universes

Lack of necessary equipment. High cost. The need to adapt software solutions

Gradual implementation of solutions and technologies based on existing practices

High level of HR managers’ HR-management training workload for the implementation of Difficulty in evaluating the gamified projects effectiveness of gamification projects

fun and the experience of sharing achievements, which can be actively used to achieve

The Role of Gamification in Human Resources Brand Development

267

marketing objectives and promote brands. Consumer games are fundamentally important for increasing consumer loyalty, learning the user experience, and getting effective feedback [7]. Probably the possibilities of game interactions between the consumer and the brand will become more and more widespread and employees of organizations will be active participants of such interactions [8]. ESG Solutions. Gamified projects aimed at environmental education, road safety, social adaptation of orphans, etc. are known [9]. Also socially significant are projects aimed at changing people’s behavior in everyday life and forming certain behavioral practices (regular jogging, weight control, learning foreign languages, learning entrepreneurship basics etc.) [10, 11]. Usually, the main goal of implementing any gamified solution is to fit behavior into a certain framework (influencing behavior, encouraging desirable and transforming undesirable behavioral scenarios). These tasks are solved by developing rules and a system of incentives. Nevertheless, the effectiveness of this tool is not only related to the human desire for achievement. The challenge inherent in the scenarios of game mechanics certainly plays its role. It appeals to the desire to solve complex non-typical tasks, including environmental management, behavioral ethics, and social responsibility. Thus, the needs of a person in self-actualization and self-affirmation are actualized. Also, an important factor that increases personal and group effectiveness is a sense of progress [12]. It is strengthened in each act of successfully completed stage. Among other things, researchers attribute the effectiveness of games to the state of concentration or total immersion of the players. The introduction of gamification tools into the ESG activities of companies, as well as the opportunities that such solutions offer, in many ways create even more effective solutions in the field of corporate social responsibility, working with the local community and public authorities.

2 Analysis of the Practice of Using Gamification as a Tool for Building HR Brand of Companies The psychological component related to the immersion into the familiar gaming environment of Generation Z in the context of gamification of all social and production processes in society has yet to be studied. But it is already obvious that the connection between digitalization, building an information society, and the introduction of feedback tools based on teachable chatbots will only increase. The peculiarities of Generation Z and their consumer experience directly affect the productivity and performance of this generation as employees of companies. Consequently, the processes of adaptation, initiation and management of personnel potential should consider the nature of the relationship of these employees with the game space. Successful adaptation, motivation for achievement and loyalty to HR-brand are the most important markers of effective gamification. The demonstration of performance (impressions and visualization of success) in gamified projects, sharing experiences and solutions maximize the psychological needs of the generation. In this study we consider gamification as a tool for building companies’ HR-brand. It is important to note t four key tasks solved by the application of game mechanics.

268

I. Y. Melnikova et al.

1) Improving the efficiency of personnel management processes 2) Solving specific managerial tasks (increasing productivity, strengthening discipline, etc.). 3) Distribution of roles in the team in the process of game activities with a high level of involvement [13, 14]. 4) Transformation of corporate culture, including improvement of communications and moral and psychological climate, ensuring loyalty, engagement, cohesion, high level of staff motivation, creation of like-minded teams [15]. A strong corporate culture is the most important factor in the attractiveness of a company to those who already work there and to those who are looking for work. We studied the experience of companies that use gamification in human resource management based on open data (media publications, interviews of executives). Foreign cases and cases of international companies were studied (gamified recruiting project “Google Code Jam”; Abell Pest Control’s pokemon search project to attract new employees; simulation game My Marriott Hotel to evaluate job candidates; adaptation video game at consulting company Deloitte; call center LiveOps with its new employee performance evaluation project; telecommunications company NTT and Samurai game to find leaders; order processing project Amazon Castle Builders; project Miele Formula, aimed at developing cross-functional interaction. However, the focus was on the projects implemented in Russian companies. The use of game mechanisms and elements in a non-game situation allows us to identify and attract valuable employees with non-standard thinking in the process of personnel selection. This is one of the ways to find employees with unique competencies. Gamification is widely used by foreign companies as a recruitment tool. A well-known project is SberQ, developed by SberBank PJSC specialists to assess competencies and select executives. A candidate for a position “lives through” a simulated working day of a CEO of a fictitious company. The game space is not connected to reality (the actions take place in 2050). This technique allows to reveal the creative potential of the candidates. The adaptation project for new employees based on the Ispring program is being implemented by the Russian Footwear Group. The adaptation program involves accrual of points for successful completion of each stage. The introduction of game elements and rating allows new employees to reach the planned indicators of productivity faster. The company’s management also notes a decrease in employee turnover. We distinguish Xerox’s effective solution from among many successful examples in foreign companies. The company used a special “Activation” application to improve the adaptation process. Managers had to apply the acquired skills in the workplace and pass the quests in the team with their colleagues. New employees worked together with their experienced colleagues and began to perform their work tasks more quickly and with the required productivity. This approach is because the role of communication and group interaction has increased [16]. These factors critically affect the efficiency of business processes. The Russian industrial equipment sales company ECA-Service created an online game on the corporate portal. Participants (new employees) passed levels on a “spaceship”. At all stages the players were introduced to information about the company’s

The Role of Gamification in Human Resources Brand Development

269

successes. The values of the company were demonstrated with the help of a “flight control chart map”. The map gave employees an understanding of how values are reflected in the company’s business processes. PJSC “Post Bank” used gamification in the employee training process by implementing a series of e-courses entitled “Calculating Interest”. The complicated and monotonous process of solving numerical tasks was replaced by a game of soccer with loan interest scoring goals. The effectiveness of this training was reflected in a decrease in employee errors in calculations and an increase in engagement in the learning process. Elements of the game are also used to solve various business problems. The IT company Usetech developed a loyalty program “You get activity, we get UseCoins! Each employee earned points (UseCoins) for completing certain tasks. The points earned could be exchanged for unique products with the company logo and valuable prizes. The management’s goal in this project was to achieve employee involvement in company processes and increase the activity of participation in external events that contribute to the development of the company’s brand. A similar project was successfully implemented at Grinatom JSC. NovAtrans used situational offline games to increase sales. Employees were divided into competing teams. As a result, not only did the volume of sales increase, but also employee cohesion occurred. Gritsenko, project manager at managenarium.ru, described the successful implementation of a system of disciplinary penalties for employees using gamification. For each violation, employees were “rewarded with an anteater” - large or small. The employee had a deadline within which the error could be corrected (six months - the life span of an anteater). Those who scored five “anteaters” were fired. In this way, the problem of strengthening discipline in teams was solved. The Russian IT company “Sigma” created an online sports competition to unite its employees, in which they had to overcome 7,245 km together. The distance could be covered in several ways: walking, running, or cycling. All the achievements were counted with the help of a mobile app and were broadcasted on the corporate portal. The event lasted for a month and a half. Intermediate results and information about the leaders were regularly published on the portal. The competitive spirit and common goal helped to form informal bonds and improve relations in the team. Yota gamification project called “Yota Star Wars” (based on the famous film) was aimed at solving current work tasks - increasing the quality of customer service and sales volume. Sales managers in the game competed with sales planners. Units accumulated virtual “military potential,” which was earned by fulfilling the sales plan. The results of employee training were also considered. The company achieved its goals and involved up to 98% of employees in training. ESET created “Corporate games” for the gamification of strategic initiatives. The project focused on getting employees to accept innovations in the company and become active participants in the change process. ESET effectively implemented new corporate values and formed customer-oriented standards of behavior. The analysis shows that gamification is actively used to solve different types of problems and increase the attractiveness of HR brand for external and internal target audiences.

270

I. Y. Melnikova et al.

3 Classification of Gamified Projects and Construction of Game Interaction Gamification always offers its users a clear and defined goal, as well as rules and limitations. Kevin Verbach distinguished three types of gamifications depending on the scope of application: external gamification (aimed mainly at customers), internal gamification (aimed mainly at the behavior and performance of company employees) and behavior-change gamification [17]. The last group of games, as a rule, is not associated with commercial purposes and is usually addressed to a wide audience. However, this classification is not enough for designing game interaction. An important factor when using gamification is the solution of problems: 1. definition of goals and desired outcomes. 2. determination of resource constraints. The choice of incentives for the participants relates to this decision. 3. determination of the composition of the players (sociodemographic, psychotypical characteristics) [18]. It is necessary to consider what role the audience wants to play and how to encourage them to play this role correctly. Accordingly, we focused on the following aspects of gamified projects during the study: – – – –

purpose participants game space types of incentives used.

According to the results of the study we obtained a classification of games used in human resource management. Depending on the participants of the game can be designed: – – – –

game interaction (competition) of singles; competition against a virtual opponent; game interaction (competition) of units; competition of teams (including cross-functional or spontaneously formed teams). Depending on the chosen game space can be distinguished:

– offline games; – games in virtual space; – Alternate Reality Games (ARG). Depending on the type of incentive can be distinguished: – games with material incentive; – games with virtual incentive; – hybrid variant. Frequency of incentive exposure: – one-time;

The Role of Gamification in Human Resources Brand Development

271

– multiple prizes (for each achievement); – cumulative (for several achievements); – combined options (e.g., rewarding intermediate results and a final prize at the end of game challenges). Depending on the type of action to be rewarded: – for completing work tasks (including achieving key performance indicators) – for communications and interaction (reposting, thank-you notes, speaking at events, preparing presentations, etc.) – for other activities (volunteering, adding to the knowledge base, etc.) – learning achievements (mastering of course material, passing of tests, problem solving) – for performing game tasks (successfully completing a stage of a game, defeating a monster, etc.) – a comprehensive approach (for example, an employee’s rating is determined considering the work results and hours spent on training). Depending on how results are evaluated: – assessment and rewarding of individual results; – evaluating and rewarding group results. it is possible to receive a prize for the purposes of development of the division (new equipment or payment for training of employees) or for entertainment for all employees; – mixed options (group results are stimulated and at the same time nominations and prizes are used to encourage personal successes).

4 Conclusion The lack of formal categories makes it difficult for researchers to reflect on gamification past a certain intuitive level and weakens both theory and practical design [19]. The classification we propose forms the space of possible options in the design of gamified projects. The choice of specific game parameters depends on several significant factors (goals, participants’ characteristics, resource limitations, etc.). The application of gamification tools in HR-branding can have positive results in the following directions: personnel involvement in internal processes and projects; growth of team cohesion; formation of cross-functional interaction; motivation for learning and development; growth of labor motivation; corporate therapy, reduction of stress factors influence; increase of participation activity in internal change programs; formation of game thinking, new experience; application of non-standard approaches to problem solving [20]. These effects will contribute to the growth of staff satisfaction and the development of internal customer focus. In the company’s external environment such changes will be reflected in the improved quality of service for external customers and the improved company’s image. Thus, gamification is a versatile tool that allows solving complex tasks of strengthening HR-brand and achieving a synergetic effect at the same time.

272

I. Y. Melnikova et al.

References 1. Belkin, V., Belkina, N., Antonova, O.: Bulletin of SUSU. Theory Pract. Empl. HR Brand 13(4), 156–166 (2019). https://doi.org/10.14529/em190416 2. Zavyalova, E., Kucherov, D., Tsybova, V.: Human resource management at Russian companies — leaders of the global economy. Foresight STI Gov. 11(4), 52–61 (2017). https://doi. org/10.17323/2500-2597.2017.4.52.61 3. Gamification Market — growth, trends, impact of covid-19 and forecasts. https://www.mor dorintelligence.com/ru/industry-reports/gamification-market 4. Artamonova, V.: Historical aspects of the development of the gamification concept 10(2–1), 54–62 (2018). https://doi.org/10.17748/2075-9908-2018-10-2/1-54-62 5. Melnikova, I.Yu., Luchsheva, L.M., Morozova, O.A., Melnikov, V.N.: Perception of advertising within the context of generational theory. In: Solovev, D.B., Savaley, V.V., Bekker, A.T., Petukhov, V.I. (eds.) Proceeding of the International Science and Technology Conference “FarEastSon 2021”. SIST, vol. 275, pp. 179–188. Springer, Singapore (2022). https://doi. org/10.1007/978-981-16-8829-4_15 6. Teotónio, N., Reis, J.L.: The gamification systems application elements in the marketing perspective. In: Rocha, Á., Adeli, H., Reis, L., Costanzo, S. (eds.) WorldCIST’18 2018. AISC, vol. 746, pp. 77–87. Springer, Cham (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-777 12-2_8 7. Gruenbaum, R.: Gamification. In: Making Social Technologies Work. Palgrave Pocket Consultants, pp. 95–97. Palgrave Macmillan, London (2015) https://doi.org/10.1057/978113702 4824_15 8. Piligrimien˙e, Ž., Gadeikien˙e, A., Gatautis, R., Vitkauskait˙e, E.: Research results of gamification-based consumer engagement in value creation in the context of ICT development. In: Gatautis, R., Banyt˙e, J., Vitkauskait˙e, E. (eds.) Gamification and Consumer Engagement. Progress in IS, pp. 129–172. Springer, Cham (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-542 05-4_7 9. Edwards, E., Lumsden, J., Rivas, C.: Gamification for health promotion: systematic review of behaviour change techniques in smartphone apps. BMJ Open 6(10), e012447 (2016). https:// doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2016-012447 10. Romero, M., Usart, M.: Serious games integration in an entrepreneurship massive online open course (MOOC). In: Ma, M., Oliveira, M.F., Petersen, S., Hauge, J.B. (eds.) SGDA 2013. LNCS, vol. 8101, pp. 212–225. Springer, Heidelberg (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3642-40790-1_21 11. Bylieva, D., Nordmann, A. (2022). Technologies in a multilingual world. Technol. Lang. 3(1), 1–10 (2022). https://doi.org/10.48417/technolang.2022.03.02 12. Iacono, S., Vallarino, M., Vercelli, G.: Gamification in corporate training to enhance engagement: an approach. Int. J. Emerg. Technol. Learn. (iJET) 15(17), 69–84 (2020). https://doi. org/10.3991/ijet.v15i17.14207 13. Kozlovskii, P., Tabolina, A., Kunina, O., Fokina, V., Yudina, I., Sataev, P.: Polytech WebQuest as an organization form of students project activities. In: Auer, M.E., Rüütmann, T. (eds.) ICL 2020. AISC, vol. 1328, pp. 431–438. Springer, Cham (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3030-68198-2_40 14. Dashkina A.I., Rubtzova A.V.: Teaching students majoring in linguistics to communicate in a foreign language by organizing teamwork on virtual communication platforms. Technol. Lang. 4(1), 146–164 (2023). https://doi.org/10.48417/technolang.2023.01.10 15. Melnikova, I., Cherkaschenko, T.: Formation of conflictological competences in training PR specialists. Sci. Res. Dev. Mod. Commun. Stud. 12(2), 75–84 (2023). https://doi.org/10. 12737/2587-9103-2023-12-2-75-84

The Role of Gamification in Human Resources Brand Development

273

16. Melnikova, I., Snezhkin, A., Mikhaylova, O.: Evaluation of customer orientation of russian companies using machine learning methods. IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng. 753(7), 1–6 (2020) https://doi.org/10.48417/technolang.2020.01.18 17. Werbach, K., Hunter D.: “For the Win.” How Game Thinking Can Revolutionize Your Business. Wharton Digital Press, Philadelphia (2014) 18. Ghaban, W., Hendley, R.: Can we predict the best gamification elements for a user based on their personal attributes? In: Fang, X. (ed.) HCII 2020. LNCS, vol. 12211, pp. 58–75. Springer, Cham (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50164-8_4 19. Fuchs, M., Fizek, S., Ruffino, P., Schrape, N.: Rethinking Gamification. Meson Press, Hybrid Publishing Lab, Leuphana University of Lüneburg, Lüneburg (2014) 20. Monakhov, D.N., Goncharova, I.V., Pronchev, G.B.: Information systems on the basis of modern information and communication technologies as a tool for the formation of leadership qualities. In: Strielkowski, W., Chigisheva, O. (eds.) Leadership for the Future Sustainable Development of Business and Education. SPBE, pp. 521–529. Springer, Cham (2018). https:// doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-74216-8_52

Edutainment and Gamification

Compatibility of Edutainment and Traditional Methods in the University’s Educational Environment Galina A. Dubinina , Larisa P. Konnova , and Irina K. Stepanyan(B) Financial University under the Government of the Russian Federation, Leningradsky Avenue, 49/2, 125167 Moscow, Russian Federation [email protected]

Abstract. The introduction of digital game-based learning, focused on the main professional goals, allows stimulating the active cognitive activity of modern students and goes in line with the psychological portrait of generation Z. The article provides an overview of modern publications on the application of edutainment in higher education and offers methodological recommendations of the authors on this issue based on the experience of teaching at the Financial University. The possibilities of implementing edutainment with a profile focus in the study of non-major disciplines at a University with economic direction of instruction. In particular, foreign language and mathematics are considered. The compatibility of edutainment technology and traditional methods of teaching these subjects is substantiated and demonstrated by examples. The authors expand on creative, competitive effort on generating interactive forms in Excel, designed for first-year bachelors in Digital Mathematics. The feedback of students on this task is analyzed. The article describes the results of a survey of first- to fourth-year students and their lecturers and instructors regarding their attitude to game-based learning. Trends have been identified that show a shift in emphasis from full acceptance of the game at any time and in any situation (playing for the sake of playing) in the first year, to the perception of the game as an opportunity to make the learning process interesting (learning in the game) in subsequent years. The interest in obtaining professional skills in the game edges highest among freshmen and graduates. The authors draw the conclusion that the use of edutainment in higher education should be based on a professional context. Keywords: Educational Environment · Gamification · Edutainment · E-Learning · Digitalization of Education

1 Topicality of Edutainment in the Educational Environment The activity of a teacher always keeps pace with technological progress. The avalanchelike process of digitalization in all spheres of our life launched challenging digital opportunities in the educational environment of universities. The dominance of interactive forms of educational interaction is carried out in tandem with IT technologies, and this © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Bylieva and A. Nordmann (Eds.): PCSF 2023, LNNS 830, pp. 277–289, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-48020-1_22

278

G. A. Dubinina et al.

makes it possible to encourage cognitive activity of students. The established popularity of digital games has led the academic community to generating effective methods of their application in the educational process, without losing the fundamental nature of classical professional education. The introduction of game forms of learning based on digital tools focuses on the main professional goals, and matches the psychological portrait of generation Z, modern generation, accustomed to the daily use of gaming techniques and electronic resources. In the academic community the use of game elements in the educational process is called Gamification. This term was first used in 1980 by Doctor R. Bartle, an expert in artificial intelligence. In 2001–2003, thanks to the British programmer Nick Pelling, this term got a second birth. N. Pelling suggested using computer game scenarios in areas far beyond the game sphere. Today, under the term gamification educationalists infer the introduction of game forms in education and other areas. Games based on digital tools and focused on the main professional goals admittedly correspond to the psychological portrait of generation Z. Games created specifically for educational purposes are very often called serious. Thought-provoking educational games motivate modern students in the learning process, allow them to start developing professional skills and gain experience of team-working. It should be noted that, with the development of digital technology, this term is often used for various training simulators. A well-known approach to combining the traditional educational process with game elements is known as Edutainment. For the first time, this term was voiced back in 1973 by the scientist Robert Heyman, obtained by merging the words education and entertainment. R. Heyman believed that in the learning process, it is useful to use mass media and visual effects to retain attention and create emotional coloring. Modern technologies of edutainment include information and switching aspects, game and competitive formats, visualization, aimed at creating an emotional connection of the students with the subject of training and retaining their attention. Thus, we can assume that gamification is one of the methods of edutainment. Karl Kapp [1], believes the key to gamification is how addictive it can become across all generations of people as the rewards that are part of gamification encourage users to stay engaged and interact with each other. The author dwells upon the research behind gamification, key gaming elements, how to apply game mechanics to different spheres of education. According to [2] gamification involves not only generation of the game elements, but also the study of conditions for their implementation in educational setting. K. Kapp distinguishes two types of gamification: structural and meaningful [3]. Structural gamification refers to the use of individual game elements in the educational process. Meaningful gamification implies a departure from traditional teaching methods with the construction of the learning process within and according to the rules of the selected game plot. Some Russian scholars classify gamification into “hard” and “light”. “Hard” gamification involves the implementation of all the main aspects of gamification (the use of a script, scenario elements, game techniques, components). The so-called “light” or “easy” gamification is often realized in role-playing in the educational context [4].

Compatibility of Edutainment and Traditional Methods

279

An overview of the concept and specifics of the edutainment approach by Russian and foreign researchers is presented in the article [5]. The authors note that this approach is an interesting and supplementary way to obtaining extra knowledge through the active involvement in the up-to-date technologies and the use of modern technical means. As a distinctive feature of the approach, there appears the emphasis on hobbies, on entertainment, on modernity and on game technologies. Under active interaction, the subject gains knowledge, experience and emotions. The survey of a multi-age audience allows the authors to conclude that the edutainment approach to learning is most in demand for young people aged 17–28. As part of our study, this corresponds to the student age. According to [6], modern students have access to various information on the Internet and often perform several tasks simultaneously, and learning occurs somewhere in the background. Therefore, they lose interest in the traditional learning process and opt for experiential learning. A deep theoretical study of resources for gamification in education is presented in the work of Belarusian scientists [7]. The authors aim to indicate gamification tools in order to form an innovative experience in the will be higher education system. The principles of gamification are highlighted: motivation, involvement, reward, and discovery. The paper examines several models and specific examples of the use of gaming technologies in the educational process. Among the advantages of implementing gamification in higher education, the authors include: provision of high-quality work with information as long as there is interest to it; universality of use for all areas of training; positive emotional attitude; mastering teamwork skills; the opportunity to try yourself in different roles, without being afraid to commit an error. The authors [8] consider edutainment to be the most effective method of maintaining interest in learning. In their study, they propose to consider the term edutainment not as learning with entertainment, but as learning with passion, interpreting this concept as a technology that supports the student’s passion. The authors consider mobility and virtuality to be integral characteristics of the use of technology in modern conditions. The effectiveness of the use of edutainment technology for the development of students’ cognitive abilities is proved by the experiment described in [9]. Psychologists consider edutainment to be the approach that best satisfies the needs and capabilities of modern students. The paper [10] indicates it as not only a way of explaining new material, but also a new philosophy of education, which allows instructors to combine the conscious and unconscious. In addition, high-quality educational content allows you to develop aesthetic perception. Serious games have a positive effect on students’ creativity, problem-solving skills, critical thinking, teamwork, and other thinking skills [11]. The standpoint that creativity is not an innate quality of personality, it can and should be formed [12] fully coincides with our point of view. As game-based teaching methods, the authors [13] consider educational games. Their advantages include: the possibility of involving students in the educational process, the use of knowledge gained in various disciplines in the course of practice and life experience, the formation of needs for obtaining new knowledge, the ability to make a mistake without fear, and the acquisition of cooperation skills.

280

G. A. Dubinina et al.

In [14] game-based instruction is positioned as the most effective means of forming humanistic values among modern youth, the game allows students to show freedom, creativity and intellectual potential. We support the author’s point of view [15], who believes that the game is able to interest and motivate a person of any level of development and education. Particular attention is paid to the system of restrictions, which should be implemented in the educational game. The use of pre-designated restrictions contributes to the socialization of the individual, embeds the relationship between the teacher and students and allows students to realize the connection with the future specialty. An interesting example of a game simulation model is presented in [16]. The paper describes the stages of preparation for the game, its implementation and subsequent analysis of the results. An example of a digital implementation of edutainment in the form of a web quest is described in [17]. Characterizing the described approach as a synthesis of gaming, entertainment and educational content, the authors consider the continuity of the concepts of edutainment and infotainment. In his recent review [18] the author comments on the growing trend toward digital learning accelerated during the pandemic and mounting investment into the edtech sector. The author states that the elements of gamification or even edutainment help students boost their test scores, and enjoy training, especially in math, science and social studies. The use of edutainment at university makes it possible to arrange training so that gaining professional experience starts from the very first year of study. Onwards, this article discusses the possibilities of edutainment in the educational setting of the Financial University in combination with practical orientation and digitalization. So that a modern economist and financier could be competitive, along with professional expertise, skills that are formed in the process of studying non-major disciplines, such as a foreign language and mathematics, are also important.

2 Methods of Edutainment in Training Future Economists The wide potentials of edutainment technology are revealed in professional training. The authors base their research on the experience of applying these technologies to the educational process at the Financial University. Various interdisciplinary, non-standard associations of students have a huge potential. Gamified young people not only positively perceive and quickly master the rules of digital games demanding careful consideration, but also independently come up with new simulators, bots, and units designed to provide a realistic imitation of professional activity. Today, every university has research laboratories for the generation of such resources, business incubators, scientific competitions, case clubs and business game clubs. It is obvious that professionally oriented gamification of the educational process allows future economists to gain invaluable knowledge and skills, close to practical experience. Edutainment technologies are widely used in seminars of the economic cycle: business games, imitation simulators, team case solving. The use of such methods is justified by the goals and content of the discipline. But in our study, we consider aspects of the use of approaches for teaching disciplines of a non-major cycle at a university

Compatibility of Edutainment and Traditional Methods

281

of economic direction of study, such as a foreign language and mathematics. Despite the fact that these disciplines are officially non-major, they form the most important professional skills. 2.1 Compatibility of Edutainment Technology and Traditional Methods of Teaching a Foreign Language It’s a well-known fact that English is lingua franca of higher education and instruction on a foreign language can be considered to be a meta-discipline, especially when it concerns content and language integrated learning (CLIL). However, it would be reasonable to distinguish between its use in lingvo-didactics and its use as a medium of instruction for professional disciplines. It is worth noting that at the Financial university profilization starts at the first session of the discipline “Foreign language” and its professional component progresses in pace with the educational process on the major disciplines. Due to the communicative character of teaching English as a foreign language it is quite easy to employ elements of edutainment at all stages of educational process. The main criteria for selecting games in ESP are their thematic expediency and following the three basic pedagogical principles: the connection of theory with practice, consistency and accessibility. As far as linguistic edutainment is concerned it is possible to single-out three most prevalent categories: – lexical games, such as competition in building word-formation chains in order to form chain stories; jungle word games; jungle paragraph games; thematic cross-words [19], etc. – grammatical games, e.g. Reconstructing Texts and Abstracts; Matching Adjective Games, Adjective Noun Collocation Games; Sentence-Making Games, etc. – cognitive games that are in conjunction with the subject of a particular stage of training and are designed to develop professional competence and stimulate the creativity of students. An example of such games are role-plays, thematic debates; brain-storming conducted on a competitive basis, etc. They belong to “hard” games as they require a scenario, well-considered navigation, research activity etc. On the cutting edge of these processes are digital games suggested by different educational platforms. The organization of hard gamification requires scenario immersion in educational activities, the creation of an exciting storyline, rules, roles and levels. Very often such games are prepared and implemented by cross-disciplinary teams [20] and require careful code-switching between several academic disciplines, [21]. An example of such a technology is presented in the role play “FINANCING A CAR LOAN” suggested by the authors to the first-year students of the Financial University while studying the topic “Money. Banking. Monetary Policy” [22]. Situation: A student wants to buy a car, but only has enough savings to buy an old one. He/she is thrilled at the idea of buying a new model but when he/she realizes how much money will be necessary to make this purchase he/she decides to make use of a bank’s

282

G. A. Dubinina et al.

credit facilities. He/she visits their bank and has a talk with the bank loan officer. Aspects of borrowing money are explained to him/her at the bank and by his/her friends. Fellow students help to make calculations regarding the most efficient ways of borrowing money and financing a car lone. Below are given the role instructions that require code switching between several academic disciplines and require cross-disciplinary cooperation. Student X - You have roughly calculated all the costs which will inevitably arise. For example, to purchase a car A. would like to borrow $2,000 at 8% interest. A. will repay the loan in 12 months. Interest can be calculated using the formula I = P x R x T. In the formula, I is interest, P is principal, R is rate of interest (percent), and T is time, in years, before the money is repaid. Hence, $2,000 x 0.08 x 1 = $160 – the amount of interest charged. The total to be repaid at the end of the year is $2,160 – that is, $2,000 principal plus $160 interest. Student XX - You agree with your friends’ point of view and appreciate their practical advice. But it is not as simple as that. The repayment schedule for most loans actually is calculated by using compound interest – the add-on method. Payments are broken into even parts – 12 months, for example – and that portion – one-twelfth – of interest and principal is paid back each month. Using the add-on method, the borrower must know the annual percentage rate (APR) or total finance charge on the loan rather than just the loan interest as in simple interest. If a monthly payment plan were used, repayment of a $2,000 loan at 8% would cost A. approximately $180 per month – $2,160 divided by 12 months. Using a monthly repayment plan, A. has possession of the entire $2,000 he borrowed for only one month. Then A. is paying the loan back in equal portions. Monthly repayment of the principal and interest increases the annual percentage rate (APR) from 8% to 14.8%. You stress that it is not necessary to know how to calculate this APR. You add that by law the lender must tell the borrower the rate. You finalize that using the APR as a guideline; borrowers can more easily decide which loan is best suited to their purposes. In addition to acting as a trigger of motivation and enhancing professional competence, use of edutainment technologies in content and language integrated learning leads to better knowledge management and ability to gain knowledge independently. 2.2 Game Forms in the Disciplines of the Mathematical Cycle Edutainment is not only the gamification of the educational process, but also participation in interactive educational events that are aimed at the formation and accumulation of professional experience. In addition to traditional teaching methods, seminars in mathematics can include elements of edutainment aimed at using the mathematical apparatus to solve economic problems. Such elements are easy to organize by solving applied cases. Solving an economic case is always a difficult task, especially for first-year students who have only basic knowledge of both economics and mathematics. The authors have developed a methodology for step-by-step training in solving cases in the form of a competition [23]. At the first stage, teams of students were asked to independently study the possibilities of a mathematical tool, and then apply it to solve the economic situation. This formulation of the problem is called a case project. Then the teams presented

Compatibility of Edutainment and Traditional Methods

283

their results at a seminar in mathematics and the student jury selected the winners to participate in the next stage. At the second stage, the task became more complicated, an economic situation was proposed with a sufficiently large degree of certainty, for which it was necessary to independently choose a mathematical tool for solving. At the third stage, students were offered an economic case in the classical sense with a small degree of certainty. All stages of the competition were perceived by students with optimism, surveys showed an increase in their cognitive activity and the gradual formation of professional skills. Of the same competitive nature is the annual Student Congress, for which students individually or in groups carry out scientific projects. From year to year, projects become more complex and more interdisciplinary. Starting with the solution of small economic problems with simple mathematical tools, in their final works students use and create various mathematical models for financial and economic analysis. We got an interesting experience of edutainment in the development of interactive forms in the MS Excel resource at seminars on digital mathematics. Digital mathematics is a discipline in which students are taught to use digital and mathematical tools to solve professional cases. One such tool is Excel, whose user interface allows you to solve many educational tasks without the inclusion of additional add-ons. Gradually, the complexity increases and various options are connected. To create a scoring loan form (a tool by which the bank approves or rejects the issuance of a loan), the Development tab is set. During the lessons, we introduce students to several form controls and, in order to activate independent exploration of the Developer’s capabilities, we invite students to break into groups of 2–3 people and complete a creative task to create an interactive form on an arbitrary topic. The event is competitive in nature, the evaluation of the project of each team takes place by members of the training group in an online format. Each student has the opportunity to give points to speaking colleagues in accordance with the criteria presented in Table 1. Table 1. Criteria for evaluating the scoring form. 1. Content 0–1 point

2. Implementation 0–1 point

3. Creativity 0–1 point

economics and finance

number of tools at least 4

clarity and clarity of presentation

substantiation of criteria

reliability of the form design

correspondence of results to reality practical significance

Formulas were created in a specially designed Google spreadsheet, and the final score for each team member was instantly calculated. Students were interested in the opportunity to show creativity and horizons to create scoring forms on a variety of topics. The reporting session was held in a positive

284

G. A. Dubinina et al.

emotional atmosphere, everyone was happy to present their projects. About 50% of the forms were devoted to financial and economic topics related to investments, playing on the stock exchange, analysis of the company’s demand in the market, questionnaires for the position, rating of economic development of regions, financial literacy test, etc. Of particular interest was the form for analyzing the effectiveness of investments in various companies. In addition to using standard form tools, the student plotted the behavior of assets over a given period of time. The data visualization made the form unusual and visual (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Scoring form “Correlation of assets”.

In addition to professional topics, students actively presented psychological tests: type of temperament, extrovert or introvert, dependence on the Internet and mobile phone. Many students approached the assignment with humor (how shopaholic you are, how toxic you are, which pet is right for you, who are you from Monsters, Inc.), which did not prevent the achievement of the main educational goal. Nevertheless, the professional content for the project was chosen by the majority of students (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. Distribution of topics for the scoring form.

After completing the work on the projects, we asked the students to answer a few questions. 177 first-year students of the Financial University took part in the survey. We were interested in how much they were interested in the proposed creative and

Compatibility of Edutainment and Traditional Methods

285

competitive activity, and how they assess its usefulness for further professional activity. Students were offered the answers ranging from positive to negative. Since the answers concerned various aspects, it was possible to choose several options (Fig. 3). The most popular (74%) was the answer: “It was interesting, there were many opportunities to employ imagination.” This choice characterizes first-year students as resourceful and creative people, which is certainly a positive aspect. The second most popular (62%) answer was: “It will be useful in professional activity,” this fact indicates the obvious focus of students on obtaining specialized skills, starting from the first year. And in the third place, with a small lag (58% and 55%), two answers can be distinguished: “It’s fun to work in a team”, “Lots of ideas how to use it”. We also consider this choice optimistic, since the first answer indicates a desire for cooperation, which is very important for a modern individual, and the second answer shows motivation to study and focus on the perspective (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3. Students’ attitude to the project Interactive form.

All in all, 94% rated the skills learned during the project as useful and very useful. We assess this fact as extremely positive. Digital game-based learning can adversely affect a person’s mental activity, as IT takes over the thinking processes of users. In this case, students in the process of implementing projects acted as developers, which gave them an awareness of the unlimited knowledge for development. As part of our research, we offered a question about the usefulness of game forms of learning to our colleague – teachers of the Financial University and students of different courses. It was important for us to trace the dynamics of attitudes towards entertainment in different categories of participants in the educational process. The quantitative distribution of respondents is shown in Table 2. Table 2. Number of respondents. 1 year

2 year

3 year

4 year

Teachers

160

83

78

79

52

286

G. A. Dubinina et al.

Figure 4 shows a diagram with answers to the question: “What’s your attitude to the game-based learning?” (Fig. 4). Only one option could be selected from the list of answers.

Fig. 4. Comparative analysis of the attitude towards the edutainment of students and teachers.

It is clear that first-year students are more enthusiastic about accepting the game in any context and in any circumstance (31% + 38%) than sophomores, undergraduates and, especially, teachers. Interestingly, second, third, and fourth-year students shift their focus from playing for the sake of playing (25%, 24%, and 23%, respectively, second, third, and fourth years) to learning in play (48%, 53%, and 49%, respectively). An important trend can be noted in the option of developing professional skills through the game: in the first year, this option was chosen by 29% of respondents, 26% and 22% by the second and third courses, and 28% by fourth-year students. Such dynamics show that first-year students are more motivated to acquire professional skills, secondand third-year students are immersed in routine studies, and fourth-year students again feel the need to gain professional experience. Unfortunately, we have to admit the fact that in the process of studying at the university for a certain period, the main goal of education is lost. Obviously, the use of game forms in the classroom from the point of view of teachers is justified in the case of forming professional skills (67%). And 10% of teachers surveyed are strictly against edutainment in education.

Compatibility of Edutainment and Traditional Methods

287

3 Conclusions, Challenges and Prospects The experience of educators and teachers around the world confirms the effectiveness of using the Edutainment approach at any age and at any level of education. If for preschoolers, junior and middle school students it can be teaching with entertainment, then for older schoolchildren and students the term “learning with enthusiasm” is more suitable. This interpretation of the term Edutainment is given in [8], Which is in line with our opinion. But the main thing, in our opinion, is the need to base it on the professional context when using Edutainment in higher education. It is in this case that the approach will contribute to the development of motivation, creativity and professional skills. Traditional education should be reasonably combined with serious games, and the content of playful, creative, competitive tasks should include a profile orientation, reliance on knowledge of the subject and an exciting component. Zdec ewe napixem New opportunities for the development of interesting tasks and events arise with the development of digitalization of all spheres of life. Various simulators, the use of artificial intelligence, etc. allow educators to create virtual situations related to the chosen profession. Access to such resources is possible at any time convenient for students and in any volume. So far, there are few such developments, since they need to be synchronized with the work program of the discipline and their creation is a time-consuming and expensive process. It is necessary to clearly formulate the rules, the goals of the serious game (Serious games) and the criteria for evaluating achievements. At the same time, IT should not facilitate and replace students’ thinking, but activate it. The personal interest of students in the events designed as competitions, creative game tasks allow you to avoid academic fraud. It is known that the downside of the introduction of digital technologies into the educational process is new opportunities for cheating on the academic results. From the point of view of the authors [24, 25] the ideal way to prevent academic fraud is to include non-traditional tasks and creative elements in the learning process. The number of digital resources is not the main indicator of the competence of a university graduate. It is better for a student to master a few basic tools well, learn how to gain knowledge and create the necessary resources for future activities on their own. This can only be learned through personal experience, and edutainment activities motivate students to study and provide an opportunity to gain a unique experience through a bright emotional coloring. Since the communication skills of graduates today are relevant for employers and professional activities, special attention is paid to their formation at universities. The experience of the lockdown during COVID-19, that the lack of communication and group forms of education had a negative impact on both the academic achievements of students and the psychological atmosphere during distance learning. The principles of edutainment immerse students in a state of forced confrontation, the need to work in a team, which actively contributes to the communication of students in both face-to-face and distance lessons.

288

G. A. Dubinina et al.

References 1. Kapp, K.: The Gamification of Learning and Instruction: Game-Based Methods and Strategies for Training and Education. Pfeiffer, San Francisco (2012) 2. Khlybova, M.A.: Use of gamification in teaching foreign languages at the university. World Sci. Pedag. Psychol. 10(1), 08PDMN122 (2022). (in Russia). https://mir-nauki.com/PDF/08P DMN122.pdf 3. Kapp, K.: The Gamification of Learning and Instruction. Pfieffer, New York. Wiley, San Francisco (2013) 4. Karmanova, E.V., Shelemetyeva, V.A.: Hard and light gamification in education: which one to choose? Inform. Educ. 1(1), 20–27 (2020). https://doi.org/10.32517/0234-0453-2020-351-20-27 5. Karmalova, E.Yu., Khankeyeva, A.A.: Edutainment: concept, specifics, research of the needs of the target audience in it. Bull. Chelyabinsk State Univ. 7(389), 64–71 (2016). (in Russia). https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/edyuteynment-ponyatie-spetsifika-issledovanie-pot rebnosti-v-nem-tselevoy-auditorii 6. Anastasiadis, T., Lampropoulos, G., Siakas, K.: Digital game-based learning and serious games in education. Int. J. Adv. Sci. Res. Eng. (IJASRE) 4(12), 139–44 (2018). https://doi. org/10.31695/IJASRE.2018.33016. Accessed 25 May 2022 7. Astashova, N.A., Bondyreva, S.K., Popova, O.S.: Gamification resources in education: a theoretical approach. Educ. Sci. 25(1), 15–49 (2023). https://doi.org/10.17853/1994-56392023-1-15-49 8. Kokoulina, O.P., Anokhina, I.S., Savchenko, A.L.: Edutainment in higher education and gamification of the university environment. Humanit. Socio-Econ. Soc. Sci. 12, 242–245 (2018).https://doi.org/10.23672/SAE.2018.12.23996 9. Muller, O.Yu.: Application of edutainment technology in the development of students’ cognitive abilities. Alma Mater (Bull. High. Sch.) 12, 33–37 (2022). https://doi.org/10.20339/ AM.12-22.033 10. Khangeldieva, I.G.: Edutainment as a unity of the conscious and the unconscious. Sci. Works Moscow Humanit. Univ. 3, 5 (2018). https://doi.org/10.17805/trudy.2018.3.5 11. Dabbagh, N., et al.: Game-based learning. In: Dabbagh, N., et al. (eds.) Learning Technologies and Globalization. SpringerBriefs in Educational Communications and Technology, pp. 31– 35. Springer, Cham (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-22963-8_6 12. Hsiao, H.S., Chang, C.S., Lin, C.Y., Hu, P.M.: Development of children’s creativity and manual skills within digital gamebased learning environment. J. Comput. Assist. Learn. 30(4), 377–395 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1111/jcal.12057 13. Nikolaev, M.V., Mankova, N.V.: Game teaching methods in the preparation of students of an economic university: from practice to the educational process. World Sci. Cult. Educ. 6(67), 174–177 (2017). (in Russia). https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/igrovye-metody-obucheniya-vpodgotovke-studentov-ekonomicheskogo-vuza-ot-praktiki-k-uchebnomu-protsessu 14. Sharapova, N.S.: Game technologies in the process of forming humanistic values among youth. Bull. Moscow State Univ. Cult. Arts 1(63), 151–156 (2015). https://sciup.org/144 160365. Accessed 25 May 2022 15. Tushevskaya, I.A.: Cognitive imperatives of game activity restrictions in the system of higher education. Bull. Moscow State Univ. Cult. Arts 4(42), 180–187 (2011). (in Russia). https:// sciup.org/14488982. Accessed 25 May 2022 16. Aruchidi, N.A., Barabash, D.A., Shcherbakov S.M.: Beer game in the educational process of the direction “applied informatics”. In: System Analysis in Design and Management, vol. XXV, no. 1, pp. 519–525 (2021). https://doi.org/10.18720/SPBPU/2/id21-101

Compatibility of Edutainment and Traditional Methods

289

17. Inkizhekova, M.S., Nikolaev, N.Yu.: Web quest in the edutainment system. Hum. Cult. Educ. 4(38), 181–196 (2020). https://doi.org/10.34130/2233-1277-2020-4-181 18. Tadder, T.: Under 30 Education: The Next Generation of Leaders And Disruptors in Student Loans, Classroom Tech and Lifelong Learning (2022). https://www.forbes.com/sites/emm awhitford/2022/11/29/2023-30-under-30-education-the-next-generation-of-leaders-and-dis ruptors-in-student-loans-classroom-tech-and-lifelong-learning/. Accessed 25 May 2022 19. Popova, N.V., Almazova, N.I., Evtushenko, T.G., Zinovieva, O.V.: Experience of intrauniversity cooperation in the process of creating professionally-oriented foreign language textbooks. Vyss. Obraz. v Ross. High. Educ. Russ. 29, 32–42 (2020). https://doi.org/10. 31992/0869-3617-2020-29-7-32-42 20. Stepanyan, I.K., Dubinina, G.A., Nikolaev, D.A., Kapranova, L.D., Pashtova, L.G.: Crossdisciplinary case-analyses of investment optimization in a foreign language applying dynamic programming. Espacios 38(62), 19 (2017). http://www.revistaespacios.com/a17v38n62/173 86219.html. Accessed 25 May 2022 21. Dubinina, G.A., Konnova, L.P., Stepanyan, I.K.: Cross-disciplinary code switching as means of encouraging creativity. In: Bylieva, D., Nordmann, A. (eds.) PCSF 2021. LNNS, vol. 345, pp. 683–704. Springer, Cham (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89708-6_56 22. Dubinina, G.A., et al.: Overview. P.2: English: Economics & Finance. KNORUS, Moscow (2023) 23. Konnova, L.P, Rylov, A.A., Stepanyan, I.K.: Elements of integrative approach to basic mathematical training of economists. Financ. Univ. Bull. 20(5), 158–166 (2016). https://doi.org/ 10.26794/2587-5671-2016-20-5-158-166 24. Bylieva, D., Lobatyuk, V., Tolpygin, S., Rubtsova, A.: Academic dishonesty prevention in e-learning university system. In: Rocha, Á., Adeli, H., Reis, L., Costanzo, S., Orovic, I., Moreira, F. (eds.) WorldCIST 2020. AISC, vol. 1161, pp. 225–234. Springer, Cham (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-45697-9_22 25. Krasnoshchekov, V., Semenova, N.: Pedagogical creativity vs academic dishonesty in teaching university mathematics. In: Bylieva, D., Nordmann, A. (eds.) PCSF 2021. LNNS, vol. 345, pp. 630–645. Springer, Cham (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89708-6_52

The Immersive Approach and Gamification: New Forms of Educational Technologies Through Games Yevgenia Victorovna Vorontsova(B) , Anna Sergeevna Grishina , Alexander Vladislavovitch Dmitriev , and Mikhail Alekseevitch Murashko Peter the Great Saint Petersburg Polytechnic University, Polytechnicheskaya 29, 195251 Saint Petersburg, Russia [email protected]

Abstract. This paper examines problems related to implementing digital technologies in the educational process, integration and updating foreign language teaching methods, as well as the development of lexical skills in non-language students when learning foreign languages. The article is focused on the topic of adopting an immersive approach to teach vocabulary to first-year students, using the gamification method as an illustration. The key benefits and drawbacks of using the most recent computer and digital technologies in educational activities, as well as their features and operating principles, are analyzed. Additionally, collections of gamified and immersive platforms for teaching foreign languages are created, along with a detailed description of their functionality. The practical value of the research comes from the development of a digital product, an educational game for teaching English vocabulary that complies with both the theoretical requirements of an immersive approach and the fundamental tenets of gamification. Keywords: teaching foreign languages · teaching vocabulary through digital space · gamification · immersive approach · immersive technologies · learning through game

1 Introduction There are current trends for education to become more digital [1, 2]. At the same time, gamification as a tool for igniting educational and professional activities undergoes a new phase of development. Teachers use this tool to help pupils become more organized and motivated to pursue academic interests. Gamification started to be closely associated with the digitization of education during the remote learning era, and new prospects for its integration into the educational process spurred the development of a new immersive approach to education [3, 4]. Well-known scientists who studied child psychology, such as L. Vygotsky, L. Leontiev, D. Elkonin and others, considered game as the leading activity of the child. Due to such activity major changes occur in the child’s mentality and mental processes develop, preparing the transition of the child to a new, higher stage of its development. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Bylieva and A. Nordmann (Eds.): PCSF 2023, LNNS 830, pp. 290–301, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-48020-1_23

The Immersive Approach and Gamification

291

Several researchers (W. Magdaugoll, G. Murphy and F. Bentendeich) have put forward the idea that game is a social instinct inherent in every person. The theory of play as self-expression (J. Piaget and others) also received wide recognition. The concepts of “pedagogical technology” and “game activity” have been introduced into the scientific turnover (S. Titova, N. Galskova, V. Krutetsky and others) for a long time. The following trends can be traced in modern education: supporting the quality of education through the use of electronic technologies; maintaining an “informal environment” in learning; introduction of educational games, etc. [5]. The first works related to the topic of gamification began to appear in 1980 as a phenomenon emerged quite a long time ago [6]. The term gamification was introduced in 2002 by the developer and designer Nick Peling. However, its implementation in the educational process is still relevant today, because since the period of distance learning gamification as a technology for organizing educational hours has received a new round of development through the digital space. New ways of its implementation continue to be studied (K. Kapp, P. Khramkin, V. Pevzner, V. Pogorelov, D. Shuklin, S. Titova, K. Chikrizova, etc.), due to which gamification is considered in a large number of spheres of human life and it appears to be especially promising within the modern approach to education [7]. It should be noted that in the modern context gamification in education is not only the integration of game elements in the classroom work (by type of competition, personal progress, author’s point systems, reward systems, achievements, etc.) or active use of various online platforms, by type of learning systems, communication systems and various web trainings. This is what is known as the concept of immersive education.

2 The Concept of Immersiveness in Education and Immersive Apps The concept of immersiveness moved smoothly into the sphere of education from areas of human activity that were not directly related to the pedagogical sciences and education as itself. Most often the term appeared in the sphere of stage activity – theatrical art, one of the modern forms of which is considered “immersive theater” [8]. Thus, immersiveness transforms the viewer into a participant of the performance, and immersion in the events occurs not only through the work of the audiovisual channel of the person, but also by moving in space – movement [9–11]. The immersive approach in education is a new phenomenon, due to which scientists interpret it in different ways, but in the past few years, with the development of digital technologies, immersive approach in education began to be directly associated with the immersive technologies of the same name (VR (Virtual Reality) or AR (Augmented Reality), which give immersive effects telepresence or full immersion with the ability to interact with the outside world [9, 12, 13]. Despite some existing disadvantages of gamification and immersive technologies (high cost, pedagogical staff training, translation of the curriculum into VR, habituation factor), their main advantages in foreign language teaching are: increased motivation, involvement of learners and teachers in the learning process or creative work process,

292

Y. V. Vorontsova et al.

and improved activation of their activities [14, 15]. The new format of presenting educational material will help transform the nature of interaction between the teacher and the learner [16, 17], for example, to strengthen independence through research and practical activities, as well as to make lessons more memorable [18–20]. At present, a large number of programs and digital services containing a gamification component and aimed at teaching and training vocabulary can be found in the Internet space. These are learning and content management systems (Openedu, YaKlass, Stepik), educational game platforms (Duolingo, Busuu, Puzzle English), multimedia services (Edpuzzle, PlayPosit, Puzzle Movies, FluentU), flash cards (Easy ten, Memrise, Rosetta Stone, Quizlet, Anki), chatbots (Mondly, Speaking Pal, Andy), communication platforms, including VR communication platforms (Webinar, Zoom, AltSpace, Mozilla Hubs), game designers (Sporcle, Quizalize, Baamboozle, Unity), plugin constructors (AhaSlides, Pear Deck). The last two categories stand apart from all the previous ones because they are primarily gamification constructors (for teachers) rather than a ready-made product. In addition, in the market of immersive applications in language learning it is also necessary to highlight the existing worthy developments, some of which have already been released, are publicly available and, most importantly, continue to develop and receive constant updates both in terms of improvements and optimization and in terms of adding new learning content, as well as some other projects that are in an active stage of development: 1. Pano Lingo (Hipanolingo, Poland), a VR-enabled mobile application for vocabulary enrichment. The process of vocabulary acquisition takes place through an interactive quest on the “Daily Routine” theme. At the moment, the release-version of the application is not in the public domain and is still being finalized. On the official site of the developers you can also find the road map of the project Pano Lingo [21]. 2. Mondly (EdTech, Romania) is a multiplatform application for the initial stages of language learning through dialogues with virtual characters in real time. At the time of its release, Mondly was the first virtual reality game to support speech recognition technology and chatbots. The learning game offers more than 30 languages of the world [22]. 3. Virtual Speech (VirtualSpeech Ltd, UK) is a real-time public speaking training simulator for Global Business English, with extensive configuration settings for simulating the public environment (distractions such as lighting, random phone calls, conversations during speeches and general background noise, etc.). Analytical data determine the total number of words, speech rate, speech audibility, number of filler words, percentage purity of speech, as well as the level of visual contact with the audience [21]. Another category of immersive services, which has potential both in learning in general and in teaching foreign languages (real-time communication with live people) social VR platforms. These include: Engage (Engage Plc, Safe Harbour Security, UK) and Mozilla Hubs (Mozilla Corporation, USA). The applications work on the principle of standard communication systems (MS Teams, Zoom, Webinar, Skype), with the emphasis shifted from audio perception to visual, where users can not just communicate,

The Immersive Approach and Gamification

293

but directly interact with each other thanks to the three-dimensional avatars they control. Meanwhile, Mozilla Hubs is also a large-scale constructor of the virtual interactive space, thanks to an editor with extensive configuration settings, which language teachers can use to create their own themed, stylized lessons in a VR environment.

3 The Relevance, Methodology and Scientific Novelty of the Game The development of a game application to teach vocabulary to first-year higher educational institutions students in English classes constitutes the practical component of the study. The game is expected to be a visual novel-style interactive gaming environment (for personal computers running Windows OS) with elements of an educational quest for learning foreign (English) vocabulary. The educational game complies with the theoretical requirements of the immersive approach (which will be disclosed below) as well as the fundamental psychological and didactic principles of gamification in education. The project combines a visualized story arc of a themed lexical topic, a system for entering and semanticizing vocabulary, training exercises for working out the content, as well as extra game activities and mechanisms for tracking educational progress. There is a number of factors that make the research and development of the project relevant, among which it is important to emphasize: increased interest in the digitalization of education using contemporary computer technologies, services, and platforms, especially after a period of distance learning during the spread of the COVID-19 epidemic; a wide range of opportunities for the implementation of gamification in education, in particular, an immersive approach, which is insufficiently studied in methodological science yet and requires more educational and practical developments; there is a continuing interest in learning foreign languages, which in a variety of ways are a guide for future specialists to their professional careers. The situation on the market for gamified and immersive services and applications in teaching foreign languages in the territory of the Russian Federation is what gives the work its scientific novelty. The mechanics of gamification and their development – which call for deeper knowledge in the fields of modeling, programming, and design – are currently stagnant. Teachers are still developing gamification, filling this area with educational content. The methods of their implementation in the educational process have not changed much over time, and it’s getting harder to find a unique product for language study in the crowded app market. At the same time, the situation in the market for immersive language learning applications is completely the opposite. The majority of educational games, apps, and services are either still being developed or have limited functionality that prevents them from being available in the public Internet space. As a result, this field is still in its early stages of development and requires extensive research, implementation strategies, testing, and the creation of educational materials themselves. For this reason, the creation of a domestic product for teaching foreign languages that combines immersiveness and gamification mechanics is encouraging for the future development of new technologies. Thus, the study involves a comprehensive research of the phenomenon of “educational digital game” in the context of gamification, the significance of which underlies

294

Y. V. Vorontsova et al.

the fact that it will be a unique domestic digital product that has no equivalent in the market of gamified and immersive learning games at the moment, for teaching foreign language vocabulary through game, which includes main stages of the formation of lexical skills: familiarization (introduction and semantization), training (primary development and consolidation) and speech practice (output into written speech), as well as the development of psychological aspects of students’ personalities (memory, attention, motivation learning foreign languages) through the implementation of the basic principles of gamification: motivation, status, unexpected discovery and reward. Currently, of all the research methods that we have selected for game development, the method of analyzing the target audience of the project is the most important, which involves the collection and analysis of information about people who are most likely to become consumers of the product being developed. At the moment, these are 1st year students. Survey and evaluation methods will help establish and strengthen contact with the audience to increase their interest in the development and further testing of research results as part of the work on our game, as well as the establishment of a two-way development process, in which not only the internal side of specialists (developers), but also external (public) takes part to receive feedback.

4 The Survey and the Immersiveness Conception of the Game First of all, to choose a genre, as well as the thematic block in the development of the educational game, we conducted a survey. The questionnaire was arranged in parallel groups of first-year students in the Institute of Humanities of Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University in the field of linguistics. The survey was presented to students in electronic form, using the “Google Forms” service, which made it possible to monitor the results of the survey in real time. The tests were conducted during educational hours (5 min per group), which made it possible to obtain more results. The contingent of survey participants was not chosen by chance. Firstly, these groups of students linked their studies at the university with the study of foreign languages. Secondly, in the first two semesters of the first year, students get acquainted with such disciplines as: modern office technologies, introduction to professional activity, as well as digital industry technologies, which is directly related to the use of modern digital technologies in everyday, professional and language spheres. Thus, students can have an idea of how, in theory, it is possible to organize certain tasks in a gamified format. The students were offered a short survey containing two main points: “Which way of learning vocabulary is appealing to you?” and “Which lexical module would you like to study through the gamification options proposed above?”. The survey results are shown below (see Fig. 1). The results of the poll, which included 84 participants from Russia, showed that the quest genre (55 votes) and the thematic theme “Insights into Art” (52 votes) came in first place, respectively. When the findings and preferences of the students were analyzed, the second position in the first table was identified. Thus, the 1st and the 2nd positions with the smallest possible margin divided the Quest (55 votes) and Visual Novel (52 votes) styles. In this regard, it was decided to combine both genres, since within the framework of game-dev they can complement each other using the best sides of each genre.

The Immersive Approach and Gamification

295

Fig. 1. Results of the 1st year parallel students survey.

In this regard, it was chosen to mix the genre of a visual novel with the structure of a web quest during the project’s development, implying the active participation of students in activities made possible by interactive digital and Internet resources. The following tasks can be included in games of this kind, in accordance with B. Dodge’s classification [23]: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Compilation tasks. Mystery tasks. Design tasks. Analytical tasks. Judgment tasks.

The aforementioned formats were used as the foundation for the project’s gaming component. You can access its demo version by visiting the links in the appendices, which were created especially for the presentation. Public access is severely restricted while the game is being developed, and players won’t have the chance to familiarize themselves with all the contents until after the game has been released. A visual novel is a multiplatform game genre in which the player is informed of the plot by text, still graphics, and sound. The level of interaction in games of this type is,

296

Y. V. Vorontsova et al.

however, fairly modest because, to start, all that is expected of the player is to “follow” history [24]. Thus, it was chosen to combine all three of the major positions while creating the genre to allow for the option of mixing and switching educational and gaming activities while learning the subject, which has a direct impact on a person’s immersion in history (see Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. The Combination of the Genres in the Game.

A scientific expedition looks for the play’s missing script, according to the plot of the game. The player must successfully complete the quest’s three required tests, as well as a variety of additional activities and puzzles, in order to earn the quest’s primary reward. The testing format consists of a variety of lexical exercises and brainteasers that require deductive reasoning to solve. The first game mode includes a complete block of lexical units on the subject of “Art” as well as tasks like substitution, matching, synonym search, definition of definitions, and word order corrector; tasks requiring extralinguistic knowledge, in addition to extra problems like crosswords and puzzles. The project puts into practice the fundamental gamification concepts, which ought to comprise the principles of motivation, status, reward, and unexpected discovery (see Fig. 3) [25]. The above diagram demonstrates how the presence of a visual component and the inclusion of additional game mechanics that are built into applications and educational games that are based on a gamification component combine to achieve the four most crucial gamification principles in the context of training. Competitive mode and analytics are the fundamental ones. The system of three counters allow for the real-time calculation of all statistics, and competitive rules are in effect when a player wants to enhance their own performance or compare it to that of other players. The Time counter is in charge of calculating both the overall game time and the time spent on each activity. The program also keeps track of the countdown timers that are allocated to each lexical exercise and records whether the player was successful in finishing the job within the allotted time or not. The Answer-counter verifies whether there are correct and incorrect replies for each of the exercise’s distinct tasks and provides a corresponding comparison characteristic on the effectiveness of their performance.

The Immersive Approach and Gamification

297

Fig. 3. Features of Applying Gamification Fundamental Ideas to Training.

The Point-counter is a scoring system based on two factors: correctness (if the player provides the correct answer, the system adds 1 point to the pot and identically in the opposite direction - minus a point for an incorrect answer) and speed (countdown timers provide a limited amount of time to complete basic lexical exercises; if the player fits in the allotted time, additional points are awarded to the bank, if not, no points are awarded) (see Fig. 4).

Fig. 4. The System of three Counters.

The primary didactic and methodological standards established for gamified educational projects of this type in the context of teaching a foreign language were also taken into consideration when developing the educational and gaming project [26]. The game does not only incorporate the gamification element at its core but also the immersiveness principle, which is not made possible by VR or AR technologies. The employment of the most recent technology for immersion in a virtual environment is frequently closely associated with this method in education, as was repeatedly stressed in the first paragraph devoted to the immersiveness of learning. However, it’s important

298

Y. V. Vorontsova et al.

to note that the technique itself is not being implemented here; rather, these are the means of implementation (and they can be completely different). The core of immersive learning is a student’s deeper immersion in the interactive environment, allowing him to take on the role of an active participant in some instructional and gaming activities rather than the traditional position of a passive observer (see Fig. 5).

Fig. 5. The Core of Immersive Learning.

Due to the game external design and the opportunities it presents to the story’s participant (first and foremost, to the participant and not the viewer, who merely follows the plot’s development), the immersive component of the project was successfully completed during its development. In addition to the gamification component underlying our game, it implements the principle of immersiveness, which, however, is not achieved by means of VR/AR technologies. Earlier it was emphasized that this approach in education is often directly correlated with the use of the latest technologies of immersion in a virtual environment. However, the important thing here is that first of all it is the means of implementation (they can be completely different), but not the approach itself. The essence of immersive learning is a deeper immersion of the student into the interaction environment, where he can assume the role of an active participant in certain educational and gaming activities instead of the standard role of a passive observer. In this case, the immersive component will be achieved thanks to the external design of the game and the opportunities that it will offer to the participant of the story (first of all, the participant who independently influences the development of the story, and not the viewer who only follows the development of the plot) (see Fig. 6). From the diagram above, four main components of the game’s immersiveness can be distinguished. Let us consider each of them in more detail. 1. It will offer the player a fully visualized story in which every action of the character, tasks and even his replicas are graphically reflected. Thanks to this, the principle of visibility will be implemented. The rendered events, in turn, will contribute to a deeper immersion of students in history.

The Immersive Approach and Gamification

299

Fig. 6. The Immersiveness Components of the Game.

2. The genre of visual novels is characterized by high-quality studies of stylized graphics and sound content. The same is the case with our game – a lot of attention will be paid to its audio component during the development of the project, which will include: background music, sound effects of the surrounding world and interaction with it, as well as interface control effects. In addition, it was decided to record a full–fledged voiceover of the game, which, on the one hand, is unusual for the chosen genre of visually textual novels, but on the other hand, it will significantly enhance the atmosphere of immersion and increase the level of involvement of students in the history of the game. 3. The cooperative mode of the game involves the cooperation of 2–3 participants for the joint passage of the novel. Thus, through interaction not only with the outside world, but also with real people through any communication systems (Discord, Skype, What’s App, TeamSpeak, RaidCall) in real time will also realize the immersiveness of the LH project. It is worth noting that for some tasks in the game, the difficulty level will be intentionally overstated. This course will be aimed at motivating students to work together in a team, as well as the distribution of team roles. 4. The cooperative component indicated by the paragraph above is directly related to the role-playing one. For the game story, templates were created for three characters with their own set of visual and personal qualities, which, if desired, can be edited by students at the first stage of the game. So, the game will give the player access to the editor of characters, in the appearance of which you can make some cosmetic changes (in the future, the functionality of the editor will also be expanded). Thus, each student will be able to choose a preferred character for the game, and as the story progresses and educational tasks perform one or another role in the team, which will contribute to the overall progress. Thus, thanks to the four components of the game’s immersiveness, which can be divided into an audiovisual design group and an interaction group, the player’s immersion in the story and atmosphere of the game takes place at an in-depth level.

300

Y. V. Vorontsova et al.

5 Conclusion In terms of the article some basic principles of gamification were analyzed, which gives the ground for the further digital game development. The developers of the game will also use some futures of immersiveness implemented to the game. The type of the game was chosen based on the survey held among the freshmen. The game will offer the player a fully visualized story, in which every action of the character, tasks and even his lines are reflected graphically. Thanks to this, the principle of clarity is implemented. The depicted events, in turn, will contribute to a deeper immersion of students in the story.

References 1. Balyshev, P.: The stages of discourse-oriented virtual learning environment modeling. Technol. Lang. 3, 88–105 (2022). https://doi.org/10.48417/technolang.2022.03.07 2. Bylieva, D., Hong, J.-C., Lobatyuk, V., Nam, T.: Self-regulation in E-learning environment. Educ. Sci. 11, 785 (2021). https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci11120785 3. Dashkina, A.I., Rubtzova, A.V.: Teaching students majoring in linguistics to communicate in a foreign language by organizing teamwork on virtual communication platforms. Technol. Lang. 4(1), 146–164 (2023). https://doi.org/10.48417/technolang.2023.01.10 4. Checa, D., Bustillo, A.: A review of immersive virtual reality serious games to enhance learning and training. Multimedia Tools Appl. 79, 5501–5527 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/ s11042-019-08348-9 5. Gaimanova, T.G.: Pedagogical gamification. Pedagog. Sci. Pract. 2, 85–89 (2016). (in Russia). https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/pedagogicheskaya-geymifikatsiya 6. Malone, T.W.: What makes things fun to learn? A study of intrinsically motivating computer games. Dissertation abstracts international 41(5-B), 1955 (1980). https://www.researchgate. net/publication/234608112_What_Makes_Things_Fun_to_Learn_A_Study_of_Intrinsica lly_Motivating_Computer_Games 7. Kapp, K.M.: The Gamification of Learning and Instruction: Game-Based Methods and Strategies for Training and Education. Pfeiffer, San Francisco (2012) 8. Karanovich, D.: What is “immersive theater” and why there is no answer. St. Petersburg Theater J. 3(93) (2018). (in Russia). http://ptj.spb.ru/archive/93/lost/chto-takoe-immers(ivnyjteatr-ipu-otveta-net) 9. Kornilov, Yu.V., Popov, A.A.: VR-technology in education: experience, review tools and application prospects. Innov. Educ. 8, 117–129 (2018). (in Russia) 10. Bylieva, D.: Artistic virtual reality. In: Bylieva, D., Nordmann, A. (eds.) PCSF 2021. LNN Systems, vol. 345, pp. 462–473. Springer, Cham (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-03089708-6_39 11. Milani, B.: On the mythical atmosphere of the digital world. Technol. Lang. 3(4), 21–29 (2022). https://doi.org/10.48417/technolang.2022.04.03 12. Andryukhina, L.M.: Telepresence technologies as a new creative platform for education development. Fundamentalnye Issledovanie 10–12, 2754–2759 (2013). (in Russia) 13. Kornilov, Y.V.: Augmented reality: application of AR-technologies in education. Sci. Electron. J. Meridian 4(15), 264–266 (2018) 14. Krasnova, T.I.: Gamification of foreign language teaching. Young Sci. 11(91), 1373–1375 (2015). (in Russia) 15. Nechaev, M.P.: Game technologies as a form of active correction of interpersonal relations: a manual, ASOU: LLC “Tingo”, Moscow (2018)

The Immersive Approach and Gamification

301

16. Vorontsova, Y., Grishina, A., Dashkina, A., Popova, N.: An interdisciplinary project as a means of developing digital skills. In: Bylieva, D., Nordmann, A. (eds.) PCSF 2022. LNNS, vol. 636, pp. 518–532. Springer, Cham (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-26783-3_42 17. Vorontsova, E.V., Murashko, M.A.: Application of gamification technology as a way to implement the principle of immersiveness in the teaching of foreign languages. In: Linguistics and Professional Communication: Collection of Scientific Papers on the Materials of the II AllRussian Scientific-Practical Student Conference with International Participation, pp. 53–59. YSTU, Yaroslavl (2022) 18. Dashkina, A., Dmitrijev, A., Khalyapina, L., Kobicheva, A.: The influence of digital transformations on learners’ and educators’ creativity. In: Bylieva, D., Nordmann, A. (eds.) PCSF 2021. LNNS, vol. 345, pp. 963–984. Springer, Cham (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3030-89708-6_77 19. Murashko, M.A.: Modern solutions in teaching a foreign language through immersive technologies. In: Steps into Science: Proceedings of the Interuniversity Scientific Seminar, pp. 163–169. Bryansk State Univesity named after Academician I. G. Petrovsky, Bryansk (2022). (in Russia) 20. Volodarskaya, E., Pechinskaya, L.: Improving the efficiency of independent work in the study of a second foreign language by undergraduates. In: Anikina, Z. (eds.) IEEHGIP 2022. LNNS, vol. 131, pp. 530–538. Springer, Cham (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-03047415-7_56 21. Hukalenko, Ju.S.: Teaching foreign languages (with the example of English) with the help of virtual reality technology: an overview of the main developments. Proc. Orient. Inst. 2(50) (2021). (in Russia) https://doi.org/10.24866/2542-1611/2021-2/118-128 22. Murashko, M.A.: The immersive approach to teaching English on the example of the digital service Mondly. In: Actual Problems of Language and Culture: Traditions and Innovations: Proceedings of the V International Scientific-Practical Conference for Students, Graduate Students, Teachers and Young Scientists, pp. 133–138. Arzamas Branch of Lobachevsky University, Arzamas (2023). (in Russia) 23. Vidoni, K.L., Maddux, C.D.: WebQuests: can they be used to improve critical thinking skills in students. Comput. Sch. (2002). https://doi.org/10.1300/J025v19n01_09 24. Lin, M.: Returning the love: three fans taking the next step. Animefringe 12, 24–25 (2005). https://www.animefringe.com/magazine/2005/12/special/05.php. Accessed 12 June 2023 25. Pfetzer, D.I., Lazutina, D.V.: Gamification and its impact on the activity of the organization. UECS 5(99) (2017). (in Russia). https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/geymifikatsiya-i-eevliyanie-na-deyatelnostorganizatsii 26. Panina, E.Y., Bulkina, M.V.: Gamification in teaching the lexical side of English speech to junior high school students. In: Problems of Romance-Germanic Philology, Pedagogy and Methodology of Teaching Foreign Languages, vol. 18 (2022). (in Russia). https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/geymifikatsiya-v-obuchenii-leksicheskoy-storone-ang liyskoy-rechi-mladshih-shkolnikov

Edutainment as a New Educational Technology: A Comparative Analysis Alla Sokolova1(B)

and Kseniia Deviatnikova1,2

1 NRU Moscow State University of Civil Engineering, 26, Yaroslavskoye Shosse,

Moscow 129337, Russia [email protected] 2 Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia, 6, Miklukho-Maklaya Street, Moscow 117198, Russia

Abstract. This paper is devoted to the study of edutainment as a new educational technology. The purpose of this study was to identify the most effective ratio of gamified forms of work at a foreign language lesson in a technical university. During the theoretical study, significant criteria were distinguished, namely personal involvement in the lesson, level of satisfaction, information and emotional overload, content value and academic performance. The interrelation of the criteria was exposed by using Likert scale, the Spearman coefficient and consecutive comparative analysis of traditional and gamified lessons. Conclusions were drawn about the benefits and drawbacks of the edutainment at a foreign language lesson. One the one hand, it improves the level of motivation, self-confidence, academic performance, facilitates and diversifies the learning process. On the other hand, the integration of edutainment unavoidably compromises the content value of education. The form of edutainment with 75% of gamified tasks suggests the most positive student response but decreases objective educational efficiency. Based on the average ratio and objective assessment of academic performance, it can be concluded that the 25% and 50% forms of edutainment provide the most efficient learning. The revealed patterns might be considered when planning classes in a foreign language, and in accordance with the objectives of the lesson, the most appropriate form of edutainment might be chosen. Keywords: Edutainment · Gamification in Education · Learning Design Elements · Motivation · Engagement · Learning Outcome · Game Format

1

Introduction

Being the fusion of education and entertainment, edutainment has revolutionized the learning process as it comprises conventional educational content and games, stories, interactive activities, quizzes. Edutainment has created an enjoyable and fulfilling learning experience for students. In edutainment, gamification is a way to increase user interaction and participation in apps, games, and various activities. By using game mechanics and game elements in the process, users get additional incentives to participate and complete tasks. In education, © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Bylieva and A. Nordmann (Eds.): PCSF 2023, LNNS 830, pp. 302–318, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-48020-1_24

Edutainment as a New Educational Technology: A Comparative Analysis

303

gamification can be used to achieve the following goals: allow students to learn in a playful and more motivated way; create healthy competition and motivate students to learn, improve exam and assessment results, increase participation and draw attention to problems in the educational environment. The use of the concepts of edutainment and gamification can be misleading, as they are very easy to confuse. Both processes are based on the use of game elements. Gamification in education is the use of game elements and methods in the learning process. It may include honor boards, awards, levels, badges, game tasks, etc. The goal of gamification in education is to make learning more effective [1, 2]. At the same time, the content of education remains unchanged, and the main purpose of using gamification is to increase efficiency in learning. In the edutainment technology, the entertainment component comes first. Edutainment is aimed at increasing the motivation of students to master the material. For this purpose, the content of education can be modified [3]. The tools used are quite variable: interactive videos, computer games, non-standard forms of classes, for example, a performance class with staging. Therefore, the additament is more suitable for students whose subject (in our case, English) is not a profile. For more in-depth training, it is necessary to maintain routine activities and adhere to more traditional formats. For example, in the case of linguists or translators, the use of edutainment leads to an inevitable simplification of the content. This is not advisable, since students do not acquire the skill of long-term processing of a large amount of information that they will need in their future work. In the case of students of nonlinguistic universities, this skill should also not be missed. However, currently there are auxiliary tools to simplify this work (intelligent search systems, bots and data processing tools), while the motivation to learn foreign languages is generally quite low. In order to increase motivation and adjust educational content to the thinking of a student of the XXI century, it is necessary to modernize part of the educational content, make it more relevant to the time and fascinating for assimilation. Based on this, the use of edutainment can be considered more appropriate. Moreover, edutainment has a large selection of tools for building classes, which makes the task easier for the teacher. It can help students memorize educational material better, increase their motivation, and promote better learning outcomes. Through gamification and edutainment, students can feel like they are part of a team, receiving recognition for their contributions and achievements. In addition, gamification can help students navigate the material better and encourage their participation in learning. Thus, gamification in education and entertainment has a lot in common and can be used to improve the results and effect achieved in learning or entertainment. In the present article, the authors have investigated the origins of edutainment, its advantages and effectiveness, as well as the ways of its implementation by means of various mediums, including books, podcasts, videos, toys, games, and theme lessons.

304

A. Sokolova and K. Deviatnikova

2 Theoretical Background of the Research What is actually edutainment? Edutainment can be regarded as a new format of an educational technology that differs significantly from the conventional paradigm. The traditional paradigm is usually characterized by commitment to the classics, fundamental knowledge, and installation of conservatism. Edutainment approaches two main goals: – Retaining the interest and involvement of learners; – The elements of games give opportunities to gain a direct experience. Therefore, in the educational process, training and acquiring of skills occur directly and simultaneously. The term edutainment was coined in the late 20th century by the American illustrator Peter Catalanotto, while he was teaching students illustration and writing, and since then it has transformed the way, we think about education and learning in general. The practice of edutainment became very popular in the United States when a philosopher and educator John Dewey had encouraged experimental teaching methods to promote students’ excitement in educational process [4, 5]. For example, among of the first contributors to this approach were world-famous Walt Disney Company and the charitable Ewing Marion Kauffman Foundation. Their fruitful collaboration has resulted in creating the online game Hot Shot Business where millions young amateur businessmen were engaged in opening up their virtual business in a make-believe Opportunity City [6]. Apart from establishing new start-ups, young entrepreneurs have learned to launch marketing campaigns, develop new products and services, react to market fluctuations, etc. The creators of the online game have succeeded in their attempt to teach American about how to become businessmen. Moreover, they have gone even further, having developed a special exhibit, the namesake Opportunity City in Disney World theme park in Florida. Meanwhile, Kauffman has distributed numerous scholarships and grants in state-side universities to promote entrepreneurship among young scholars. Edutainment, or educational entertainment, is a new approach to learning that combines entertaining elements with educational objectives for more effective and engaging learning. In higher education, edutainment is used to attract and retain students, increase their motivation, and improve the quality of learning. The main purpose of edutainment is to diversify the process of obtaining knowledge or skills by means of mixing the theory with educational goals and means and presenting practical experience and expertise through creation. However, it might cover the educational process only partially and does not require the transformation of the traditional model of learning.

Edutainment as a New Educational Technology: A Comparative Analysis

305

As the integral feature of edutainment is simultaneous learning and curiosity satisfaction, we can assume that edutainment as an approach is widely applied in general in the educational process, whereas satisfying the learners’ curiosity and retaining their interest in nothing more than a hobby. Therefore, edutainment can be regarded as a special type of training, a primary entertainment that leads to further persistent and profound passion. How does edutainment work? By means of game format, mature and young learners are involved in the educational process. Throughout the process, they obtain new knowledge, positive emotions and bright vivid impressions, thereby retaining interest and involvement in the process by continuous participation. What is more, a new experience is acquired along with the ability to reflect it correctly. This leads to the conscious mastering of the skill. However, it is important to understand that edutainment, despite its attractiveness, should not replace serious learning and traditional forms of education, but rather complement it. The educational process must remain a priority, and it is the job of edutainment to make learning more effective and memorable for students. Edutainment cannot be treated as an alternative to conventional (compulsory) education. The following features of edutainment can be outlined: subject-to-subject communication or two-way process, the creation of favorable conditions for learning and acquiring new knowledge, and the use of technological means and tools [7]. Edutainment has all the hallmarks of modern learning technologies at its disposal: movies, podcasts, web sites, multimedia, computer applications, interactive video games, etc. Thus, edutainment can be seen as an aggregate of teaching-learning and cutting-edge technology, based on the concept of learning through entertainment. What should be the ratio of educational and entertainment elements? It is a common believe among the leaders of educational organizations that there is no universal ratio of educational and entertainment parts. Instead, this ratio should be customized to the needs of various categories of learners. Being a relatively new field of study, edutainment has not formed uniform standards. That makes all the developers of such educational programs co-creators in this dynamic and lively process. So, each of educators can make his/her invaluable contribution to the general concept of how the edutainment should be organized. Examples of applications of edutainment in higher education can include the use of games, competitions, interactive technology, theatrical studies, etc. [8]. These techniques can be used to create engaging and enjoyable educational environments that help students better absorb learning material and develop practical skills. The idea is that if we manage to make the learning process enjoyable, students are more likely to retain the received knowledge. Edutainment is not only about children; it can be used to teach students or listeners of all age categories, from toddlers to mature students.

306

A. Sokolova and K. Deviatnikova

Speaking of young learners, representatives of the Gen Z, commonly defined as being born between 1997 and 2012, are typically characterized as having clip thinking [9]. Clip thinking is a way of thinking in which information is perceived in brief fragments that resemble video clips. People with this type of thinking tend to switch quickly between tasks and tend to multitask. They may also have difficulty analyzing information in depth or retaining it in memory. In today’s culture, where quick access to information is the norm, clip thinking is becoming more common. However, like many other types of thinking, it has both advantages and disadvantages. As opposed to clip thinking, the conceptual thinking defined educational methods for past generations of students. In accordance with this type of thinking, language learning involved intense concentration on the study of certain material, its interpretation and reproduction. The clip thinking is almost the exact opposite, its obstacle being the perception of extensive, sequential information. The opinions of researchers on clip thinking differ. S. Klichnikov, for instance, analyses clip thinking as a filter in front of information overloads, which occurs objectively at a time of information oversaturation. On the other hand, T. Semenovskikh emphasizes the failure of this way of thinking since knowledge is examined and retained in fragments, in the form of specific markers [9]. The construction of associative connections is impaired, which prevents a thorough comprehension of the material and hinders conscious learning. One of the primary distinctions between clip thinking and conceptual thinking is the absence of context. Understanding the overall picture and the semantic connections between the contextual occurrences is challenging for someone who uses clip thinking. As a result, information is interpreted partially, and the skill to recall recently learned knowledge in a comparable setting is not acquired. Meanwhile, detractors of edutainment and gamification argue that it might derail educational process with distractions, add unnecessary competition stress, and fail to factor in pedagogical needs of particular learners. Nowadays, the study on edutainment is gathering momentum and promises to justify many of the issues raised in this controversy [10–13]. An understanding of edutainment approach would help educators and researchers marshal and identify relevant evidence in disputes over the impact of edutainment on contemporary educational system. Pros and cons of edutainment as a new game reality are outlined in the table 1 below: Considering the advantages of edutainment, we put forward the hypothesis of our study about the positive impact of gamification on the educational process. In previous studies on edutainment and digitalization of education [13, 14], a high interest of students in game-based forms of learning was revealed (out of 315 respondents 88.89% preferred game-based form to standard exercises). The theoretical background confirms the positive impact of this training format on motivation, interest, involvement and emotional reinforcement of the learned information [15].

Edutainment as a New Educational Technology: A Comparative Analysis

307

Table 1. Advantages and disadvantages of edutainment Benefits and advantages

Shortcomings

It encourages personalized learning;

It creates the risk of technology misuse;

Conventional classrooms are transformed into It poses a threat to the traditional blackboard smart classrooms; and chalk teaching; It is paperless;

An excessive use of computers and other electronic devices can have a negative impact of children’s growth;

It develops creativity and visualization;

It can curb behavioral and social interaction skills of young learners;

It helps students to understand theoretical subjects better;

Designing computer games, videos, podcasts, multimedia electronic resources is time- and labor consuming and expensive;

It gives the opportunity of hand-on, experimental, portable and game-based learning;

The usage of computers and intelligent gadgets may provide access to misleading, misguiding and illegal content;

It incorporates virtual reality into real-time learning; It develops interactive and collaborative teaching methods; It enhances and promotes the digital culture in educational institutions; It creates independent learning platforms for students and listeners; It gives technological tools for tutors and educators to create engaging and entertaining in-class activities

3 Methodology The purpose of this work was to understand what ratio of gamification gives the most favorable results in foreign language classes. The main method of research was a crosssectional comparative analysis of students’ experience at traditional and gamified lessons according to the following criteria. 1. Personal involvement. The involvement of students in the educational process is an important factor for successful learning. When students actively participate in lessons and assignments, they learn the material better and develop critical thinking skills. It is necessary to create a stimulating and interactive educational environment in which students will actively participate and develop. 2. Satisfaction. To increase the effectiveness of education, it is necessary that students enjoy learning. They should be satisfied with themselves and the results of their daily work, they should also be satisfied with the learning process and the climate of the

308

3.

4.

5.

6.

A. Sokolova and K. Deviatnikova

lesson. This will help students to actively participate in the lesson and apply their knowledge in practice, develops their curiosity and independence, helps them see the value of education and motivates them to learn. Emotional overload. Emotional overload from the amount of work can be a common problem among students. Sometimes the volume of tasks can become overwhelming, or the student may lack self-management skills, such as planning, organizing and setting priorities. In such cases, it will be difficult for students to focus on studying, they will be stressed, inconsistent and unproductive. Therefore, the level of emotional stress should also be monitored. Information overload. Information overload is a condition when a person receives more information than he can effectively process and assimilate. Students often face this problem due to the large volume of study materials, homework, projects and other responsibilities. The amount of information that students consume in one day is very large. At the same time, the information flow is chaotic and not structured. It is important for modern students to teach the correct consumption of information, its structuring, selecting and dosing is the task of the teacher, as well as tracking the moment of overload. Content value. The content of education is of great value, as it is the basis for personal development, acquisition of knowledge, skills and competencies. Learning of foreign languages helps to develop skills and competencies that are necessary for successful adaptation in modern society and career development. This includes communication skills, critical thinking, problem solving, collaboration, creativity, and many others. It should be noted that when implementing edutainment, the content component of education inevitably suffers. Therefore, it is important to maintain a balance between playing and studying. Academic performance. It reflects the degree of assimilation of knowledge, skills and abilities that students receive. High academic performance indicates that students successfully assimilate materials and achieve their learning goals. This is important both for the student himself and for the educational institution, which strives to provide high-quality education and training of specialists. However, it is important to remember that academic performance is not the only indicator of the effectiveness of the educational process, and other factors such as understanding and applying knowledge, critical thinking and skill development also play an important role.

According to the purpose of this research, we selected four experimental groups, where gamification was introduced to a different extent. The participants of the experimental groups were 1st-year students of the Moscow State University of Civil Engineering. The number of participants is 48, the age of students varies between 17–19 years old, their educational field – Construction, the level of language proficiency in groups is mixed: pre-intermediate and intermediate students are studied together. In order to get relevant results, the groups were formed based on the alignment of frequency distributions. Each group was provided with 12 participants, of which 4 respondents were rated as excellent (33.3%), 6 as good (50%), and 2 as of satisfactory performance (16.6%). The groups were guaranteed to have the same average academic characteristics.

Edutainment as a New Educational Technology: A Comparative Analysis

309

Elements of gamification were not used at the lessons with the first group. At the experimental lesson with the second group, 25% of the edutainment were implemented, with the third group - 50%, with the fourth - 75% of game forms of work were used. In order to differentiate the proportion of gamification tasks, it is worth noting that, on average, the group manages to complete 5–6 tasks during a lesson. Each task is devoted to one or a combination of speech activities (reading, listening, speaking, writing, translation). Green construction was the topic of the experimental lesson and it was selected in accordance with the curriculum. Each lesson comprised 4 tasks, namely reading and partial translation of the text, work with thematic vocabulary, practicing grammatical constructions, and oral conversation on the relevant issues. For all tasks, with the exception of the text, two versions of practice were organized – standard or traditional (through explanation and exercises) and gamified. The standard vocabulary training included a list of new words presented before the text in phrases and sentences with translation. After the text, there were exercises where it is necessary to fill in typical sentences with the studied words. At the gamified lesson the thematic vocabulary was introduced and trained with the Quizlet platform, where cards, pictures, tasks for matching and correlation of words were used [16]. Standard grammatical practice consisted of explaining the constructions used in the text and practicing them in exercises: two-way translation, filling in gaps, answering questions. The alternative to grammar exercises was an interactive video from the Islcollective platform [17] (see Picture 1). Oral conversation on questions was modified into a case debate, where students were divided into two teams and selected arguments for and against sustainable construction.

Picture 1. Lexical and grammar tasks from the educational platforms Quizlet and Islcollective

Thus, two full-fledged sets of tasks for the lesson were prepared, completely traditional and gamified. The scenarios of lessons were filled in accordance with the established percentage of edutainment, 25% - the traditional format with only an interactive vocabulary assignment, 50% - traditional text and oral answers to questions, plus a vocabulary and grammar assignment on platforms, 75% - only text from the traditional version, vocabulary and grammar were presented interactively, a conversation on questions was replaced by the debate game. To assess the effect of gamification on students’ academic performance and interest, we conducted a survey on the Likert scale where the answers were adapted to the research

310

A. Sokolova and K. Deviatnikova

tasks [18]. The criteria for the selection of questions were as follows: personal involvement of students in the educational process, satisfaction with the lesson, information overload, emotional overload, the value of the content of the lesson, assessment of academic performance. According to these criteria, the respondents were offered questions for evaluation (Table 2). Table 2. Evaluation of the lessons Point

1

2

3

4

5

1. How do you rate your work in class?

Unsatisfactory

Below average

Satisfactory

Good

Excellent

2. Did you like the format of the lesson?

I didn’t like it at all

Rather disliked than liked

I find it difficult to answer

Rather liked than disliked

I really liked it

3. How many different forms of work were there in the class?

Very few

Not enough

Enough

More than enough

Too much

4. How do you Like a feel after squeezed the class? lemon

Not very good

Average, as usual

Good, upbeat Excellent, full of energy

5. How Not informative informative at was the all lesson?

Rather uninformative

I find it difficult to answer

Rather informative

Very informative

6. Assessment 1 of academic performance (assessment test results)

2

3

4

5

Question

The survey was conducted twice. At the stage of preliminary testing, students evaluated a traditional English lesson. Then, an experiment was undertaken in three groups to introduce game forms of activity, and one of the groups was left as a control group, where the second lesson was conducted in the traditional form. At a posttest stage the same survey was organized to retrieve the results for comparative analysis. When conducting the study, we took into account the inaccuracies that arise when using the Likert scale. To verify the significance of the responses received as a result of the

Edutainment as a New Educational Technology: A Comparative Analysis

311

survey, we calculated the Spearman correlation coefficient for all ranks of variances. It helped us to assess the correlation of each variable series with a significant variable series. The series corresponding to the third point of the survey was selected as a significant one, namely, estimation of the number of game forms used (in respond to the purpose of this study). The correlation coefficient was calculated using the following formula (see Picture 1):  2 6 d  rs = 1 −  2 (1) n n −1 where r s - Spearman’s coefficient of rank correlation, d - the difference of rank pairs for a question, n - the number of rank pairs (number of respondents). This coefficient revealed the degree of dependence of the research criteria on the number of gamified elements used at the lesson.

4 Results and Findings Respondents of four groups evaluated two lessons: one was conducted in the traditional format and another - with gamification elements. The retrieved results are presented in Table 3. It is fair to note that when counting the responses, blank or incorrectly filled forms were found. So, the number of respondents decreased from the estimated 48 (4 groups with 12 respondents in each group) to 42. When evaluating lessons, students were asked to assess each one according to their personal attitudes on given criteria. We replaced the judgments of the classical Likert scale with questions to simplify students’ understanding of the task. The formulation of the answer is also different from the classic “strongly disagree - strongly agree”, but nevertheless the five-point gradation, where 1 corresponds to the most negative answer and 5 - to the most positive, was retained. The choice of criteria was justified by theoretical studies of the issue. Thus, the criterion of personal involvement of students provides the evaluation of their activity and motivation in the performance of academic tasks. The first control group showed a decrease in the level of student involvement. This indicator shall be considered a guideline when comparing the two lessons. In a relatively objective evaluation, the second (experimental) lesson generated a lower percentage of students’ personal input. The analysis of the three experimental groups’ scales showed an increase in student involvement in the learning process. It is worth noting that the very fact of participation in the experiment encourages students to be more interested in classes. The biggest difference between indicators of the traditional and gamified forms of the lessons was found in the group where 75% of game-based learning technologies were used (1.45, hereinafter see Table 6). According to this criterion we can conclude about the direct dependence of personal involvement on the share of gamified activities in the educational process. Assessment of the satisfaction level made it possible to reveal the real preferences of students. Not all students prefer gamified forms of work, and games themselves may not always be a worthy alternative to traditional forms of learning. In the gamified approach

312

A. Sokolova and K. Deviatnikova Table 3. Evaluation of the lessons.

Group 2 (25%)

Group 1 (0%) 6

6

5

5

4

4

3

3

2

2

1

1

0

0

traditional lesson

gamified lesson

traditional lesson

Group 3 (50%) 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

traditional lesson

gamified lesson

Group 4 (75%) 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

gamified lesson

traditional lesson

gamified lesson

part of the time is spent on explaining the rules of the game, practicing the mechanism of answers, summarizing the results, and emotional abreaction. For some students these factors prevent them from concentrating on the material they are learning. Such students have a more conceptual type of thinking, which is the exception rather than the rule for the present time.

Edutainment as a New Educational Technology: A Comparative Analysis

313

In this study, there was an increase in satisfaction with classes across all groups of respondents. A significant increase in the indicators was identified in groups 2 and 4 (by 1.1 and 1.34 respectively) where 25% and 75% of the game forms were used. The criterion of information overload became a significant one for this study because it was considered both independently and in correlation with other criteria. Separately, the indicator of this criterion corresponds to the evaluation of the number of gamified elements in the class. But only in correlation with other criteria it was possible to evaluate the influence of the gamified format of the lesson on the effectiveness of the educational process (which was the direct purpose of this study). In a separate analysis of the criterion, it becomes apparent that the least information overload was noted in group 3 with 50% of gamification (-0.48). Groups 2, 1, and 4 are next in growth of the difference between the evaluation of a traditional and game-based activity (0.3, 0.43 and 0.67 respectively). At the intermediate stage of the study, the optimal combination of gaming and traditional elements therefore ranged from 25% to 50%. To estimate the correlation of this criterion with others the Spearman coefficient was calculated for all ranks of variances. Table 4 shows the calculation of the correlation coefficient for the criterion of personal involvement (compared to the significant criterion of information load). Table 4. Calculation of correlation by criterion of personal involvement №

Total score

Criterion evaluation

1

29

5

2

13

3

28

4

Difference

Rank

Rank difference

Square of difference

24

27

3

9

1

12

1

0

0

5

23

14

3

9

30

5

25

32

4

16

5

27

4

23

14

-10

100

6

30

5

25

32

4

16

7

25

4

21

8

1

1

8

27

4

23

14

3

9

9

23

5

18

3

0

0

10

30

5

25

32

4

16

…

…

…

…

…

…

…

41

27

4

23

14

3

9

42

29

5

24

27

-1

1

Total

1114

180

0

1321

314

A. Sokolova and K. Deviatnikova

The coefficients for the other criteria were calculated in the same way. This step was necessary to assess the correlation of the criteria. The results of the calculations are presented in Table 5. Table 5. Results of the Spearman coefficient calculation Criterion

Correlation coefficient

Personal involvement

0,892958431

Satisfaction

0,891337817

Emotional overload

0,924965562

Content value

0,859006563

Academic performance

0,919536504

To interpret the results of calculations, it is necessary to determine the range of significance of the coefficients. Based on the similar studies [19–21], we adhere to the following range: strong correlation when r s value equals or is more than 0.7 average correlation when r s value is from 0.4 to 0.699 weak correlation when the r s value is from 0 to 0.399 In this study, all of the criteria correlate with the significant criterion of information load. The highest correlation was found in the criteria of emotional overload and academic performance. Thus, with a higher information load the emotional overload increases (students become more tired), but also does the academic performance (therefore, the material is learned better). The lowest (but still high enough) indicator of correlation is noted with the criterion of the content value of the lesson. Consequently, the more game forms are applied in a lesson, the higher is the probability of failures in the content part. This factor should be taken into account in the final evaluation of the gamified form ratio in education. The intensity and variety of the gamified forms of training in the experimental lesson could have led to an emotional overload of the respondents and, consequently, to the underestimated results. Therefore, this criterion was added to the evaluation questionnaire for both forms of the lesson. The highest level of emotional overload was observed in groups 4 and 2 (1.33 and 1.12, respectively), while emotional abreaction was noted in group 3 with 50% of gamification (-0.3). The value of the content part of the lesson represented an interesting research aspect as well. The use of a variety of methods affects the content of learning. Gamified forms of work are aimed primarily at increasing the motivation and interest of the student, rather than a thorough study of the material. Therefore, students were asked to evaluate the content of the lesson. The results of the questionnaire showed the general decrease in value of the content part when gamification methods were applied. However, in the group where 75% of the gamified forms were implemented, the opposite situation was observed (see Table 6).

Edutainment as a New Educational Technology: A Comparative Analysis

315

This phenomenon might be related to the subjective perception of a particular group. In the same group high levels of satisfaction and personal involvement in the activities were indicated, which might signify that gamified forms of work are more relevant for this group of students. The final criterion was the evaluation of academic performance. Assessment tests were conducted at the end of each lesson to check the studied material. A distinctive feature of this criterion is the teacher’s participation in the evaluation. Improvement in performance was noted at the lessons with the use of game-based learning: the highest indicator in group 3 (0.70), then group 2 and 4 (0.36 and 0.34 respectively). In the control group the achievement was almost unchanged (0.02), which confirms the effectiveness of gamification in the educational process. The results of comparative quantitative analysis are presented in Table 6. They include the difference in indicators by criteria between traditional and gamified lessons. Table 6. Difference between traditional and gamified lessons Form

Traditional form

Criterion

25% of gamification

50% of gamification

75% of gamification

Personal involvement

-0.57

0.47

0.05

1.45

Satisfaction

0.14

1.10

0.68

1.03

Information overload

0.43

0.30

-0.48

0.67

Emotional overload

0.59

1.12

-0.30

1.33

Content value

0.17

-0.09

-0.15

0.67

Academic performance

0.02

0.36

0.70

0.34

In order to identify the most effective ratio of gamified and traditional forms of work, the results of the comparative analysis were ranked in Table 7. Where they were assigned scores from 1 to 4, according to the results of the survey: 1 - extremely negative effect according to this criterion; 2 - the result is closer to negative according to this criterion; 3 - the result is closer to positive according to this criterion; 4 - extremely positive effect according to this criterion It should be noted that for the criteria of personal involvement, satisfaction, content value and academic performance, the assessment was made in such a way that the greater is the difference in the indicator of an experimental lesson from a traditional lesson, the higher is the positivity of the criterion. For the criteria of informational and emotional overload, the assessment was exactly the opposite: the greater is the increase in the

316

A. Sokolova and K. Deviatnikova

indicator, the lower is the positivity of the criterion. The type of lesson with the highest sum of indicators by the criteria is the most effective form of education. Table 7. Ranking the most effective ratio of gamified forms Form

Traditional form

25% of gamification

50% of gamification

75% of gamification

Personal involvement

1

3

2

4

Satisfaction

1

4

2

3

Information overload

2

3

4

1

Emotional overload

3

2

4

1

Content value

3

2

1

4

Academic performance

1

3

4

2

Total

11

17

17

15

Criterion

It is obvious form the table that ratio of gamification which gives the most favorable results in foreign language classes lies between 25–50% and might be roughly estimated of 35–40%.

5 Conclusions This study was focused on the estimation of the effectiveness of edutainment as an educational format. The following strengths and weaknesses of the use of edutainment in English classes at a technical university can be identified: 1. Edutainment increases students’ involvement in the learning process. Learning that is fun and interesting, evokes positive emotions in participants and stimulates the desire to learn. In this format, students train their networking skills. Games provide social interaction between participants, which can create additional opportunities for learning and applying the acquired knowledge. 2. Edutainment is an excellent technology for improving students’ satisfaction. The student receives immediate feedback based on the results of their actions. With the help of game forms of learning, students can better and more easily memorize facts, data and other information. Edutainment is flexible, as it can be customized to the specific needs and level of participants and teacher’s skills. 3. Moderate use of game forms of learning boosts students’ academic performance. Foreign language classes are a challenge for students of technical universities. It is thanks to gamification that they find a positive response and lead to the desired results. In order to make classes more productive and effective, the optimal ratio of game forms of work in foreign language classes was identified.

Edutainment as a New Educational Technology: A Comparative Analysis

317

4. However, the use of edutainment leads to an increase in the information and emotional burden on students. It is worth noting that the highest percentage of gamification leads to the least overload, on the contrary, the average one causes some difficulties. This can be explained by the abundance of various forms of work and the need to switch between them. 5. In this study, the assessment was made mainly from the point of view of students as participants of the experiment. The average ratio and objective assessment of academic performance showed that the most effective learning is provided by 25 and 50% forms of edutainment. However, if we consider the indicators by criteria in particular, the positive result of the 75% form becomes obvious. This once again suggests a positive response of students to the game format of learning. The results of this study, although limited due to the small number of participants, nevertheless propose the most efficient ratio of edutainment in teaching foreign languages at a technical university. Since a cross-sectional design of data analysis was used in this work, the longitudinal method within one or more experimental groups can be considered promising for further research on this topic.

References 1. Alsawaier, R.S.: The effect of gamification on motivation and engagement. Int. J. Inf. Learn. Technol. 35(1), 56–79 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1108/IJILT-02-2017-0009 2. Chans, G.M., Castro, M.P.: Gamification as a strategy to increase motivation and engagement in higher education chemistry students. Comput. 10(10), 132 (2021). https://doi.org/10.3390/ computers10100132 3. Burov, V.A.: Edutainment and gamification in foreign language teaching: similarities and differences. Questions of teaching methods in Higher education. 9(35), 8–17 (2020). https:// doi.org/10.18720/HUM/ISSN2227-8591.35.01 4. Dichev, C., Dicheva, D.: Gamifying education: what is known, what is believed and what remains uncertain: a critical review. Int. J. Educ. Technol. High. Educ. 14, 9 (2017). https:// doi.org/10.1186/s41239-017-0042-5 5. Lin, C.A., David, J.A.: Communication technology and social change: theory and implications. LEA’s communication series. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, N.J. (2007) 6. Essig, L.: Suffusing entrepreneurship education throughout the theatre curriculum. Theatr. Top. 19, 117–124 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1353/tt.0.0075 7. Anikina, O.V., Yakimenko, E.V.: Edutainment as a modern technology of education. Procedia Soc. Behavioral Sci. 166, 475–479 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.12.558 8. Zadeja, I., Bushati, J.: Gamification and serious games methodologies in education. In: International Symposium on Graphic Engineering and Design, pp. 599–605. University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad (2022). https://doi.org/10.24867/GRID-2022-p66 9. Papadakis, S., Zourmpakis, A.-I., Kalogiannakis, M.: Analyzing the impact of a gamification approach on primary students’ motivation and learning in science education. In: Auer, M.E., Pachatz, W., Rüütmann, T. (eds.) Learning in the Age of Digital and Green Transition: Proceedings of the 25th International Conference on Interactive Collaborative Learning (ICL2022), Volume 1, pp. 701–711. Springer International Publishing, Cham (2023). https:// doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-26876-2_66 10. Semenovskikh, T.V.: The phenomenon of “Clip thinking” in the educational university environment. Online J. Sci. 5(24), 134 (2014)

318

A. Sokolova and K. Deviatnikova

11. Chirkova, E.I., Chernovets, E.G., Zorina, E.V.: Enhancing the assimilation of foreign language vocabulary when working with students of the digital generation. Technol. Lang. 2, 89–97 (2021). https://doi.org/10.48417/technolang.2021.03.07 12. Dashkina, A.I., Rubtzova, A.V.: Teaching students majoring in linguistics to communicate in a foreign language by organizing teamwork on virtual communication platforms. Technol. Lang. 4(1), 146–164 (2023). https://doi.org/10.48417/technolang.2023.01.10 13. Rabah, J., Cassidy, R.: Gamification in education: real benefits or edutainment? In: Ntalianis, K. (Ed.), Proceedings of European Conference on E-Learning, pp. 1–12. Academic Conferences and Publishing International, Athens (2018). https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.28673. 56162 14. Sokolova, A.G.: Play and playfulness in learning as a tool for motivation boost in foreign language teaching. In: Proceedings of the International Conference “Characters of Integration of Humanitarian and Technical Knowledge”, pp. 266–271. Moscow State University of Civil Engineering, Moscow (2018) 15. Oliveira, W., Hamari, J., Shi, L., et al.: Tailored gamification in education: a literature review and future agenda. Educ. Inf. Technol. 28, 373–406 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639022-11122-4 16. Quizlet platform. https://quizlet.com/ru/804950281/green-construction-flash-cards/?funnel UUID=174efce5-0f83-40d5-8fad-b18f18878448 17. Islcollective: A day in the year 2050 general gramm: English ESL video lessons. islcollective.com. Accessed 5 May 2023 18. Kwon, G.M., Vaks, V. B., Pozdeyeva, O. G.: The use of the Likert scale in the study of motivational factors of students. Concept. 11, 8 (2018). https://doi.org/10.24411/2304-120X2018-11086 19. Kurniawati, Y., Komalasari, K., Supriatna, N., Wiyanarti, E.: Edutainment in social studies learning: can it develop critical thinking skills and creativity? Cypriot J. Educ. Sci. 18(1), 394–407 (2023). https://doi.org/10.18844/cjes.v18i1.8395 20. Chilingaryan, K., Zvereva, E.: Edutainment as a new tool for development. In: Proceedings of 7th International Conference on Education and Social Sciences, pp. 341–349. INTCESS, Dubai (2020) 21. Pishchanska, V., Altukhova, A., Prusak, Y., Kovmir, N., Honcharov, A.: Gamification of education: innovative forms of teaching and education in culture and art. Eduweb. 16, 119–133 (2022). https://doi.org/10.46502/issn.1856-7576/2022.16.02.8

Gamification in Education: A Literature Review Liudmila V. Daineko(B) , Natalia V. Goncharova , Ekaterina V. Zaitseva , Viola A. Larionova , and Irina A. Dyachkova Ural Federal University Named After the First President of Russia B.N. Yeltsin, 19 Mira Street, 620002 Ekaterinburg, Russia {l.v.daineko,n.v.goncharova,e.v.zaitceva,v.a.larionova}@urfu.ru

Abstract. The global changes taking place in society are also changing the approaches to the organization of the educational process, forcing teachers to find new educational tools capable of engaging students in active learning. The improvement of pedagogical practice is significantly influenced by gamification, which allows the use of game mechanics for this purpose. The present study is devoted to a systematic review of research on various issues of gamification of education. The authors conducted a literature review of sources selected from the web aggregator of scientific publications from 2018 to 2022 based on the keywords “education” and “gamification” found in titles, abstracts, and text. As a result of the clustering of articles conducted, the author’s six-item typology of the sample was proposed. The literature review revealed a large geography of the authors of the publications, including all continents of the world, as well as a positive attitude of all participants in the educational process to the use of gamification. The authors of the publications in the sample noted the increased motivation of students who became participants in the gamified educational process, but revealed the need to follow the individual characteristics of students’ learning behavior. The results of the study can be used to address the issue of applicability of gamepractices in the educational process at any level. Keywords: Gamification · Education · Educational Process · Educational Tools · Motivation · Students · Learners · Engagement · Efficiency

1 Introduction University faculty around the world seek to use various tools to increase students’ motivation and engagement in the educational process, using active learning methods - gamification, project-based learning, educational games, simulations, etc. Numerous studies confirm the growing interest in the application of game technologies in the educational process, as well as their higher efficiency in comparison with classical teaching methods. The purpose of the study is to review publications from 2018 to 2022 on gamification in education as a prerequisite for successful learning at any age. For this purpose, the authors focused only on publications built on the basis of empirical research, which allowed to reject articles presenting secondary analysis of data, materials, results. The set research task made it possible to systematize the selected articles and to typologize © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Bylieva and A. Nordmann (Eds.): PCSF 2023, LNNS 830, pp. 319–343, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-48020-1_25

320

L. V. Daineko et al.

the resulting groups, which served as methodological approaches for the proposed analysis. As a result, the following areas were obtained: gamification in the study of specific disciplines, the formation of professional skills; gamification in inclusive education; gamification in online and distance learning; the impact of gamification on learning outcomes; the impact of gamification on the formation of soft skills.

2 Problem Statement Many researchers are interested in various aspects of gamification application in education. When the authors selected the articles on the website-aggregator, 11 literary reviews were selected in the sample and used as a theoretical basis for the study to assess its relevance and elaboration of the topic. Piñero Charlo et al. in the preface to the special issue of Education Sciences titled “Trends in Educational Gamification: Challenges and Opportunities for Learning” acknowledged that playing games is difficult, but natural [1]. The authors noted that the educational process has changed dramatically in recent years due to the emergence of new technologies, shifting the focus from the teacher to the student, developing divergent thinking and imagination. Martin, Dennen & Bonk summarized systematic reviews of research on new learning environments and technologies, identifying seven main types [2]. The researchers believe that using games for learning has a number of benefits for motivating and engaging students, practicing skills, problem-solving communication, collaboration, and critical thinking. They separate game-based learning from gamification, which uses game design elements in non-game contexts. Based on the study, the researchers concluded that game-based learning and gamification have an impact on student learning outcomes, but it is important that learning content is well designed. Ofosu-Ampong in his study reviewed the dominant issues of gamification in education since 2011, identifying 32 published articles [3]. The researcher identified three main identifying themes - the development of gamification in education, the application of gamification in education, and the impact of gamification on education. The study resulted in the conclusion that for the success of gamification implementation depends on the users using gamified learning system, and an important point of gamification implementation in the educational process is the adaptation of game elements to the specifics of educational institutions. In a study of influencing factors on gamification implementation Limantara, Ford & Prabowo identified motivation, engagement, perceived usefulness, game design and learners’ point of view as elements influencing the effectiveness of gamification use [4]. The research was conducted in the context of undergraduate information systems education using a systematic literature review. Kalogiannakis, Papadakis & Zourmpakis conducted a systematic literature review on gamification in science education to uncover emerging trends, identifying research gaps and expanding opportunities for future research directions [5]. The authors of the study reviewed the conflicting results of 24 papers published between 2012 and 2020. Saxena & Mishra conducted a systematic review of the literature, looking at gamification and Generation Z in higher education [6]. The authors noted that Generation Z students are different from their predecessors, so new learning tools, such as gamification, should be used for their education. The researchers made recommendations for creating an attractive and meaningful educational environment in

Gamification in Education: A Literature Review

321

higher education institutions. Manzano-León et al. conducted a systematic review of 14 sources on gamification in education to examine data on the effects of educational gamification on student motivation and performance [7]. The study found that most publications viewed gamification as an effective learning strategy with potential effects on students’ academic performance, commitment, and motivation. Harrington & Mellors examined the role of online gamification in higher education institutions in Australia, evaluating gamification as a useful tool for improving academic performance and reducing first-year student dropout [8]. The paper presented the positive impact of selected popular gamified activities on student engagement, participation, and retention in higher education. Willert conducted a systematic review of the literature on gamified feedback in computer science education to identify gamified elements in the digital computer science learning environment [9]. The authors found that gamification elements play a secondary role in providing feedback and improving the monitoring process, even though feedback is often implemented through automated tests. Swacha reviewed the literature on the state of research on gamification in education, noting that recently there has been an increase in the number of studies in this area [10]. According to the scientist, over the past seven years there has been a wide interest in this field in all countries and branches of science, as evidenced by the number of citations. The greatest interest in gamification has been observed in computer science, social sciences, engineering and mathematics. Herrada, Baños & Alcayde conducted an interdisciplinary analysis of a large number of articles on student feedback systems (n = 1696) using a bot to extract information [11]. The review showed that student responses are positively perceived in all disciplines, but are more frequently used in the study of the exact and medical sciences. Thus, there is a wide variety of literature reviews on topics related to gamification. However, most of them focus on individual topics, countries, and disciplines. The authors offered a review of scholarly publications for the past five years, from 2018 to 2022. The articles were selected by keywords on the website aggregator of scientific publications in order to systematize the topics of publications of authors from different countries and scientific schools devoted to gamification in education and typology of these topics.

3 Materials and Methods To investigate publications in the field of gamification of education, sources were filtered from https://www.dimensions.ai/, the largest research and innovation data aggregator website with more than 137 million scientific publications. The site’s toolkit offers a user-friendly interface for selecting relevant studies, with which publications from the last five years, 2018 through 2022, were selected. Publications from 2023 were excluded from the sample because the year had not yet been finalized at the time of the study. The descriptors “education” and “gamification” found in the publications’ title, abstract and text were used for the initial selection. The selection resulted in a sample of 3,289 sources for the study period. Then, for the qualitative analysis, journal articles with the possibility of reading the full text of the publication were selected exclusively, reducing the sample size to 1,456 sources. The authors then selected articles from the sample that belonged to the research category “Quality Education” with the research framework limited to the field of “Specialized Research in Education”. The selection resulted in a

322

L. V. Daineko et al.

list of 72 articles, including 5 publications from 2018, 16 from 2019, 9 from 2020, 23 from 2021, and 19 from 2022. Subsequently, three were removed from the sources under study: one study was withdrawn by the authors, one was in Arabic with an unavailable text, one study was repeated twice in the sources selected for analysis. The process of selecting publications for the research is summarized in Fig. 1.

137 036 861 publications 2018 – 2022 years

31 839 454 publications "education" "gamification"

3 289 publications full text journal articles

3 289 publications “Quality Education” “Specialist Studies In Education”

72 publications final selection

69 publications

Fig. 1. Selection of publications for research.

At the first stage of analysis, 11 literature reviews were identified and studied among the publications selected for the study. The study of literature reviews presented above allowed us to summarize the theoretical basis for the study, to assess the relevance and elaboration of the topic. The popularity among the authors of this research method in the topic we study also proves the relevance of our study. At the second stage, the authors used the method of semantic analysis of abstracts of publications selected for the study. The application of this method allowed us to determine and clarify the subject matter of the publications, the leading modality of the studied studies. The authors grouped the articles and typologized the obtained groups. At the third stage of the study, the authors turned to the analysis of publications. At this stage, 58 sources were studied after excluding literature reviews from the sample as

Gamification in Education: A Literature Review

323

secondary studies of gamification in education, used to summarize the theoretical basis and assess the relevance and elaboration of the research topic.

4 Results Education, as well as science in general, does not stand still, introducing innovative educational tools, including gamification, into the familiar educational process. The authors of the research considered in this review studied the application of gamification in the educational process and its impact on the educational process, including the students’ mastery of the material. However, the environments in which gamification is implemented are different. To investigate educational environments in gamification of education, technologies used in educational games were considered. The distribution is presented in Fig. 2.

2022 2021 2020 2019 2018 0

5 offline

10 online

15

mix

Fig. 2. Gamification environment for education.

As can be seen from the results of the analysis, virtual game environments and tools are favored in education: KAHOOT! [12, 13], MOOCs [14–16], LMS Moodle [17, 18], different applications [19–23], online videogames [24–26], author’s designs [27–30] etc. Active use of digital technologies is conditioned by the possibility of researching digital traces in the educational environment for learning analytics. Game practices are implemented in the educational process of different levels – preschool [31, 32], school [12, 20, 21, 33–43], university [4, 8, 17–19, 21, 22, 24, 29, 30, 32, 44–57], and additional adult education [12, 58]. The most cited among the publications selected for analysis was expectedly the article with a literary review [5]. This publication, which investigated the presentation of empirical results of using gamification in science education based on 24 studies from 2012 to 2020, concluded about the inconsistency of the results of these studies and offered ideas for future researchers.

324

L. V. Daineko et al.

In order to identify the frequency and importance of keywords used in publications, a keyword study of the publications selected for the study was conducted in a “word cloud” format. The visualization of the obtained result is presented in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3. Visualizing the frequency and importance of keywords used in publications.

Expectedly, the most frequent words were “gamification” and “game,” occurring 47 and 17 times, respectively, followed by “education” (32) and “high-education” (4), “educational” (9), “learning” (22) and “e-learning” (7), “learn” (16), “teaching” (6) and “student” (6). This number of occurrence of keywords related to gamification of education is due to the research topics. More interesting is the use of keywords reflecting the characteristics of the publications under study. The frequency is presented in Table 1. According to gamification education researchers, as we can see from the results of keyword frequency, the most significant issues are those related to motivation and involvement in gamification practices, as well as gamification technologies. Many researchers are preoccupied with issues of development and environments, including virtual ones in relation to educational gamification, and this is also indicated by the frequently used keywords “programming,” “computer,” “system,” and “base.” Thus, in the period from 2018 to 2022, researchers mainly studied digital technologies in gamification of education, which is also expected because of the COVID-19 pandemic and the associated urgent conversion of the entire educational process to a distance format [59, 60].

Gamification in Education: A Literature Review

325

Table 1. The most frequent keywords in publications. Keywords

Frequency

Keywords

Frequency

motivation

10

system

6

engagement

10

review

5

technology

10

programming

5

design

8

computer

5

environment

7

literature

5

virtual

7

base

5

Semantic analysis of the abstracts of the publications selected for the study made it possible to identify and clarify the subject matter of the publications, the leading modality of the studied studies, as shown in Fig. 4.

literary reviews, 11 learning outcomes, 10

online and distance learning, 16

soft skills, 6 inclusive education, 7

specific disciplines, professional skills, 19

Fig. 4. Results of the author’s grouping and typology of sources.

Accordingly, the literature review will be arranged in the authors’ grouping and typologization: • • • • • •

gamification in the study of specific disciplines, the formation of professional skills; gamification in inclusive education; gamification in online and distance learning; the influence of gamification on learning outcomes; the influence of gamification on soft skills formation; literacy reviews. Let us consider each group of publications in more detail.

326

L. V. Daineko et al.

4.1 Literature Reviews Literature reviews were used by the authors to formulate the problem and confirm the relevance of the study. The 11 literature reviews served as the theoretical framework of the study to explore the elaboration of the topic, which showed the focus of the authors of the reviews on individual topics [2–4, 6, 7, 10, 11], countries [8], disciplines [5, 9–11]. 4.2 Gamification in the Learning of Specific Disciplines, the Formation of Professional Skills In analyzing the publications, the authors divided these sources into subgroups whose topics describe the study of specific academic disciplines. Medicine, Nursing: Felszeghy et al., studying the use of online gaming platforms to improve student performance and engagement in the study of histology, found that gamification of the educational process led to an improvement in the educational process [44]. According to the researchers, new digital gamification technologies complement traditional teaching methods and provide a basis for student learning. Roman et al. conducted a qualitative study of identifying educational perceptions and experiences using the Escape Room game, suggesting the use of this method of assessing learning using game-based elements for nursing education [45]. In 2019, Singhal, Hough & Cripps offered 12 tips for implementing gamification in medical education, noting that gamification is often used in the educational process because it makes learning fun, memorable, and more effective [61]. Programming: Zhan et al. examined the effects of gamification in programming instruction through a meta-analysis, the effects of game types, gamification applications, programming types, and level of instruction on students’ academic performance, cognitive load, motivation, and thinking skills in programming instruction through a cross-sectional analysis [47]. The results confirmed the positive impact of gamification in programming instruction. Gamification has the greatest impact on students’ motivation, followed by academic performance, while it has the least impact on students’ cognitive load. In terms of game types, the reasoning strategy game is most effective for academic achievement, while the puzzle game is most effective for motivation. Regarding the use of gamification, games as a competitive mechanism have the greatest impact on students’ thinking skills and motivation. However, when games are used as tutorials or student work, the effect is mostly seen in academic performance. Smiderle et al. studying the effects of gamification on students’ engagement in the educational process of learning web programming, found that gamification has different effects on improving skills and optimizing learning depending on their personality traits [51]. Natural Science: Hursen & Bas, studying the use of apps in science education, found positive effects on learner motivation and found that learners and parents were positive about gamification

Gamification in Education: A Literature Review

327

in the educational process [21]. Davis analyzes the nature of formal and practical game rules into which scientific reasoning can be embedded. Rules as reasoning in action are considered from the perspective of research on ethnomethods, which are methods of interaction used by people in everyday situations to make sense of social reality [53]. The researcher applies these ideas to compare gamification of science learning with learning through authentic science practices, exploring their similarities and differences, and suggests the need for future research to implement gamification more regularly in science teacher education, including increasing awareness of emotion and aesthetics in science learning. The purpose of the Piwowar-Sulej study was to investigate the gamification experiences of universities [24]. The author noted an increase in the number of scientific publications devoted to this issue. However, the method of learning based on digital games is little used in academic teaching in Poland, and thus, it is difficult to talk about gamification. Grivokostopoulou, Kovas & Perikos developed the design of a three-dimensional virtual educational environment for entrepreneurs to provide an opportunity to gain theoretical knowledge [57]. Gamification technologies were used for more effective learning, allowing students to solve real-world problems of the business environment in a game-like manner. Experimental study showed that gamification increases the motivation of students, helping them to master entrepreneurial skills and competencies. Business Administration: Aguiar Castillo et al. evaluated motivation in higher education, measuring the evolution of business administration graduates while using a gamified smartphone application (HEgameApp) [22]. Researchers assessed graduate behavior through collaborative work on forums created by HEgameApp and recognition by their classmates. The findings were that when alumni became involved in using the app, they significantly increased their academic performance and satisfaction with listening to lectures. In addition, the positive feedback received through the app forums has a tangible impact on their motivation. Robotics: Kılıç, S. et al. studied the usability of a virtual robot programming curriculum for teaching virtual robotics programming (VRP-C) [40]. The results of the study showed that VRP-C is compatible with the robotics-programming curriculum in schools, and computer science (CS) educators believe that VRP-C would be useful for teaching robotics programming in terms of content, functionality, and cost. Researchers believe VRP-C can be used as an online tool for teaching robotics programming due to the need to move to distance education because of the COVID-19 pandemic, and: compatibility, visual design, feedback, time management, fiction, gamification, and cost increase the usability of VRP-C. Driving Skills: Researchers looking at the use of serious games to teach behavior and road safety. They noted that the learning process becomes more comfortable and effective [26]. The game they developed covers different situations in a virtual city to practice the mission of a

328

L. V. Daineko et al.

pedestrian or driver. As a result, it is shown that the game can engage the audience and promote social responsibility through first-person storytelling. Animal Husbandry: Cameron & Bizo believe that gamification of learning activities is a useful approach for creating a more effective learning environment by improving problem solving skills, using critical thinking skills, and competence in the classroom [13]. Gamification allows the teacher to measure the level of learning and adapt the next stage of learning to this result. However, the results of the study did not show the impact of gamification on the increase in academic performance, but increased the value of the educational process for students. Citizenship: In his 2022 study, Ingrassia noted that participatory design games can be used to educate children about citizenship [42]. The author presented the results of three case studies of the use of digital and analog interfaces that showed the success of using games as educational tools regardless of the actual implementation of design solutions. Geometry: Kamalodeen et al. explore the process of designing a game-based intervention in geometry at the elementary level, describing the gamification of tangram, a disconnected resource, by including game elements in leaderboards, points/stars, and difficulty levels to motivate young learners individually and in teams [36]. The authors conclude that game-based environments transfer the motivational elements of games to learning activities, thereby engaging students in the learning task and turning a boring classroom environment into an intellectual one, and they make recommendations to support integrated learning in student-centered game-based learning environments. English Language: Hernández-Prados et al. presented a role-playing game for learning English [38]. The results of its use in the educational process showed a higher motivation of students who felt more comfortable speaking English. Students noted a preference for gamification over the traditional educational process, and a higher focus on learning rather than winning the game. Physical Education: Marcaida et al. conducted a study on the effects of gamification on increasing student engagement in physical education [34], the results of which showed improved student engagement in a virtual environment for better understanding of physical education lessons. Projects: Ionic˘a et al. explored the use of project management methodology in 21st century education and the use of digital technology to improve learning [52]. The authors believe that a proper project management methodology should be implemented that individualizes

Gamification in Education: A Literature Review

329

learning and makes students take responsibility for their own learning, reflect and evaluate their own learning processes. The authors conclude that Web 2.0 tools have proven to be useful educational tools with significant results, especially when integrating elements of Google Analytics and gamification into the educational process. Occupational Therapy: Dugnol-Menéndez et al. in their 2021 study presented an experiment to introduce gamification in occupational therapy courses [28]. The authors proved the positive effect of gamification (the use of educational quest rooms) on student engagement and knowledge levels. The researchers found a positive student response to the applied educational tools that exceeded their expectations. As a result, 19 out of 58 articles were devoted to gamification in learning specific disciplines and building professional skills, including three articles on gamification in medicine, two on gamification in programming, four on gamification in science disciplines, one each on gamification in business administration, robotics, driving skills, animal husbandry, citizenship, geometry, English, physical education, project management, and occupational therapy. Five articles on this topic were published in 2019, two in 2020, five in 2021, and seven in 2022, indicating an increased interest in this topic in the post-pandemic period. Most articles were written by authors from European countries, including five from Spain, two from Greece, the Philippines, one each from Finland, Great Britain, Poland, Northern Cyprus, Turkey, China, Brazil and Australia, and two cross-national studies: Mexico-Czech Republic-New Zealand and Romania-Israel. All researchers note the positive impact of gamification on improving students’ academic performance and engagement in specific disciplines, and they also note the impact of learner personality traits on improving skills and optimizing learning. 4.3 Gamification in Inclusive Education Chan, Santally & Whitehead investigated how gamification of resources for learning French can affect students with special educational needs (SEN) and especially deaf and hard of hearing (DHH) students, their understanding and their level of achievement in learning a foreign language [33]. The study concluded that most students showed a slight improvement when games were added as a learning aid. Ntalindwa et al. looking at teaching children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in an inclusive classroom because of their unique needs and challenges, noted that integrating information and communication technology into the education system allows children with ASD to improve their learning [20], but these technologies must meet their needs in order to lead productive lives. This study recommends further exploration of possible methodologies, such as applied behavior analysis or verbal behavior therapy, as well as the development of contextualized technologies and gamification that meet the educational needs of children with ASD. Jiménez et al., exploring gamification in inclusive education, noted the importance of gamification to intensify students’ inclusion in the educational process [62]. They considered the extent to which gamification supports the achievement and motivation of students with outstanding abilities, i.e., exceptional students, including students with learning and behavioral problems, students with physical or sensory disabilities, and students who are intellectually gifted or have special talents [25]. Researchers have

330

L. V. Daineko et al.

concluded that incorporating gamification elements into an exceptional learning environment can motivate students and support their achievement. Gamification has resulted in increased student attendance and participation, which is positively correlated with improved student achievement. Palacios & Moreno presented a methodology of gamebased didactic activities that promote meaningful learning for children with disabilities based on action research methods [63]. Orozco & Moriña examined seven methodological strategies that promote inclusion in primary, junior and secondary education, including gamification, and found similarities and differences among them [39]. The researchers proved that these strategies would allow other teachers to improve practice and gain support by learning from other phases of instruction. Martins et al. created an inclusive app design in 2019 to improve the writing and reading of functionally illiterate using the concept of gamification [64]. Seven articles are devoted to Gamification in Inclusive Education, of which one was published in 2018, two in 2019, one in 2020, and three articles in 2022. The absence of publications on this topic in 2021 and the increase in their number in 2022 is possible due to the COVID-19 constraints and prolonged publication deadlines. Two authors from Spain, one each from Rwanda, Colombia, Brazil, and the Philippines, and one cross-national study: Mauritius-Great Britain, are highlighted among the authors. All researchers note the positive impact of educational gamification on the motivation and learning outcomes of students with special needs. 4.4 Gamification in Online and Distance Learning Biryukov et al. considered the feasibility and effectiveness of implementing gamification in education [46]. The authors systematized practical results presented by corporate cases and reference literature, which state the necessity of using specialized online platforms or automated management systems for the systematic implementation of gamification in education. The authors note that practical cases in the context of education consider the results of gamification application mainly positive, but negative results are also mentioned. Based on the analysis of the effects of gamification in terms of improving efficiency through perceptual learning, the conclusions used in the summarized list of opportunities, challenges and threats to the application of gamification elements in education were derived. Rahayu et al. investigated the use of gamification as one solution to overcome the problem of low motivation and engagement in learning during the transition from face-to-face to online learning during the COVID-19 Pandemic [48]. The authors studied changes in student behavior when using gamified e-learning, analyzing the elements of gamification that are important to students and their impact on student motivation and engagement. The results showed that during the implementation of gamification, students had changes in behavior, that is, from negative to positive and from positive to negative. Four elements of gamification were found to be the most important to students: scores, leaderboard, badges, and the gamified test. The authors concluded that despite gamification’s ability to influence motivation and engagement, there are some concerns about negative effects that need to be addressed in the future. Lee et al. studied undergraduate students’ views on their collaborative creative experiences as game makers for a group gamification assignment in a university-wide elective course on learning disabilities [50]. The results of the study showed that most students valued the diversity

Gamification in Education: A Literature Review

331

of knowledge and skills of their team members, shared different ideas, adapted their ideas and practices according to the difficulties of the project, trusted their team members, developed a game together, and overcame conflicts in a positive way. The authors identified three main themes: the positive aspects of gamification, the limitations associated with a gamification project, and teamwork and collaborative approaches to problem solving. The authors believe that co-creation is an important skill for university students to develop teamwork skills when solving complex problems. This study provides evidence of the feasibility of creating games embedded in group gamification projects to promote collaborative creativity among undergraduate students. Donath, Mircea & Rozman, considering e-learning platforms as a lever for education noted that all participants in the educational process need a learning environment with access to knowledge and opportunities for collaboration [17]. According to the researchers, in order to engage learners in long-term learning, various gamification methods should be used at the stage of course design. Salvador-García believes that serving all learners should remain the priority of teaching, including distance education during COVID-19. The author examines the effect produced by gamified offerings on third- and fourth-grade elementary school students [37]. This study shows that gamification can be a useful method to promote inclusive education, increase student participation and increase student motivation; and it provides important information that can be transferred to other contexts to improve distance education providing attention to all students. Acosta-Medina et al. believe that the implementation of gamification-based digital pedagogical strategies helps to solve the problems faced by virtual education, such as lack of motivation and high dropout rate of learners [29]. The authors assessed students’ preferences for using the gamified Didactic City tool: usefulness, knowledge, engagement, enjoyment, motivation, and ease of use. The results of the study show that usefulness to learners, fun to use the tool, and improved knowledge are decisive factors in terms of preference for the use of gamified tools in virtual learning environments. García Sastreet et al., conducting an exploratory analysis of the use of collaboration and gamification in MOOCs, noted that the model of using exclusively online learning in MOOCs is often criticized [14] and called for the use of active learning methods in MOOCs to improve student learning. The researchers looked at 20 online courses and concluded that they lacked opportunities to encourage collaboration and, if it occurs, it is spontaneous, although MOOC platforms often have additional tools to gamify and support students. The researchers concluded that gamification is often used to increase motivation for individual student work, without regard to teamwork. Klemke, Eradze & Antonaci, conceptualizing the use of gamification and learning analytics in MOOC design argue that MOOCs can be enriched by using flipped classroom technology combined with gamification and learning analytics support [15]. This research was conducted with education experts who provided new insights for flipped MOOC design to move from understanding MOOCs as a means of content delivery to a personalized, interactive, and engaging learning environment. Alsubhi, Sahari & Wook in 2020 developed a conceptual engagement framework for gamified activities on an e-learning platform, selecting the most commonly used game elements to improve student engagement [54]. Researchers believe that the traditional learning model is more costly and time-consuming, not yielding 100% good results. Aleksandrov, Tsvetkov & Zhileykin studied the key features of digital transformation of engineering education

332

L. V. Daineko et al.

and shared the best practices of e-learning design [30]. The authors of the study gave examples of creating a digital learning environment using various tools, including gamification. In a 2019 study, Terán Bustamante & Mendieta Jiménez analyzed the MOOC knowledge transfer model using gamification [16]. The results of the study showed a higher retention rate due to gamification. Eckle et al. explore new forms of learning that have emerged in the era of the rise of digital learning in the aftermath of the first pandemic quarantine, and the possibilities of balancing didactics and business informatics to provide a sustainable learning experience [41]. Researchers describe the first social media-style learning platform (www.schooltogo.de), which one year after its release (by May 2021) had more than 1,000 innovative digital learning offerings for children, youth, and young adults in both areas of learning (STEM, languages, etc.) and specific subjects (e.g., physics, chemistry, etc.). The platform has a contact form that is used to submit a large number of requests to integrate user-generated content. This user-generated content ranges from recommendation lists to specific digital learning materials. There are also blog posts on current digital education topics: how digital and didactically motivated spatial concepts can enhance learning and the importance of gamification in motivating students to learn. Papadimitriou & Niari conducted a case study of open badges representing achievements and skills used as credentials in educational settings and suggested using them as a virtual resume [65]. The researchers noted the importance of introducing a common system of assessment and accreditation in an open online learning environment, which could be an alternative system of certification of knowledge and skills obtained in an informal online or blended learning environment. According to Brown et al. a paradigm shift in pedagogy is needed to address the technology-driven dissonance in higher education [66]. Expanding the knowledge base through online courses and gamification allows engaging students in the educational process, demonstrating a cultural shift toward engaging and supportive educational experiences. de Back et al. examined the benefits of immersive collaborative learning in virtual reality and proved higher learning outcomes after collaborative learning in an immersive gaming environment [67]. The researchers also obtained evidence that immersive learning improves performance specifically in those who need it most. Christopoulos & Sprangers, in their study, describe the integration of an educational technology platform and analyze the challenges that teachers and learners face in the Covid-19 pandemic when implementing information and communication technology (ICT) [43]. The authors have analyzed the challenges in terms of different contexts (school vs. home) and circumstances (face-toface vs. distance learning). Researchers believe it is necessary to thoroughly investigate the capabilities of potential platforms or tools and try out such features before integrating them into an educational system. From an instructional design perspective, educational technologists should pay particular attention to the degree of gamification, especially beyond the elementary school level, as it can negatively impact incentives for interaction and student engagement. Where possible, technology integration should be guided by pedagogical goals rather than technological pressures. Gamification in online and distance learning is the subject of 16 articles, of which two were published in 2018, three in 2019, four in 2020, five in 2021, and two in 2022. The increase in the number of articles on gamification in online and distance learning in 2020 and 2021 can be explained by the increased relevance of these issues during the transition

Gamification in Education: A Literature Review

333

from face-to-face to online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic. Two authors from Russia, Spain, and Malaysia, one each from Colombia, Mexico, Germany, Greece, the Netherlands, Turkey, Indonesia, and three cross-national studies: Romania-Slovakia, the Netherlands-Estonia, and Russia-Ireland-Great Britain are among the authors of articles on gamification in online and distance learning. Many researchers analyze the difficulties faced by teachers and learners in the implementation of information and communication technologies, note both positive and negative results of gamification when using distance learning, recommend using gamification as one of the solutions to overcome the problem of low motivation and engagement in online learning. 4.5 The Impact of Gamification on Learning Outcomes Kim & Castelli conducted a meta-analytic review of studies from 2010 to 2019 to quantify the impact of gamified reward systems on student behavior change [27]. The authors concluded that short- and long-term gamified interventions can be a promising way to initiate changes in student behavior and improve learning outcomes. Park & Kim in their study looked at the impact of a leaderboard on the application of gamification in an educational setting [68]. The authors developed principles for constructing a leaderboard to help students effectively set goals and increase learning motivation. Ujang Subagja et al. viewed gamification as an effective learning tool in terms of increasing student motivation and engagement in all types of education [12]. The researchers suggested introducing a gamified application to inform learners about their levels and achievements. However, according to the authors, it is necessary to strike a balance between enjoying the game and gaining knowledge, understanding the ambiguity of gamification application in the educational process. Aslam et al. investigated the impact of early childhood personal development, student autonomy, and the learning environment on the overall academic performance of preschool and elementary school students using a digital gamification-based learning model [31]. The authors concluded the importance of using gamification in educational settings and its impact on student achievement and overall student achievement. Fidan & Sengel, ¸ in a study of student teachers about gamified course concluded that gamification significantly affected motivation, engagement, and achievement [49], which created a comfortable educational environment and increased academic achievement. The authors noted that gamification can be used to transform the educational context, especially those subjects that are problematic, difficult and boring for students and which students avoid because of due responsibility. Sousa-Vieira et al. studied the relationship between gamified action performance patterns and the network structure of social graphs related to online forums, knowledge acquisition, and higher education outcomes [18]. The authors categorized success/failure, finding that generally very good results are obtained when an ensemble approach is used, that is, when innovative methodologies integrated into course design are used. The proposed methodology can be used for reduced data sets and variable time intervals to produce early assessments that allow for pedagogical interventions. Statistical tests conducted by the authors confirm the impact of the learning pathway on learning outcomes. Sousa-Vieira et al. proposed the use of digital badges in higher education to identify the benefits of this informal learning tool and to observe the gain in learning effectiveness [69]. Badges are

334

L. V. Daineko et al.

considered as an incentive that encourages students to achieve well-defined goals and acquire necessary skills. Foster & Warwick developed a staff development session in a game assignment format and found that the level of participation in this activity was significantly higher than in a typical professional development session [58]. The authors conducted a staff development session that included a game-based learning activity in which trainees worked simultaneously on an important learning and teaching problem. The game, based on the British maze game show “Crys-TEL,” required participants to complete a series of group tasks to try to “solve” an actual learning and teaching problem. Using gamification techniques, participants experienced different styles of presentation while at the same time working to solve a learning and teaching problem. The postassignment feedback component showed that participants were engaged in the topic (as well as the game), as the solutions they offered were very well thought out and detailed, demonstrating an increased understanding of alternative forms of assessment, which was one of the key learning outcomes of the session. All participants were actively engaged in the tasks, and one participant said he learned more than he would have if he had sat and watched the presentation. The result of the game was the creative and varied nature of the solutions offered by the participants to solve a learning and teaching problem. The authors posed a challenge that would encourage participants to consider the different accessibility needs of students, especially when they have to prepare work for summative assessment. Students may have a tendency to assess themselves through a variety of familiar methods, such as presenting written work or PowerPoint Presentation in front of peers. However, the types of assessment suggested by participants in the Crys-TEL Labyrinth game were much more creative and innovative. Grey, Parker & Gordon in their study explored the impact of autonomous choice from a limited set of options for educational gamification and proposed a model for game development for use in the educational process [70]. Palomino et al. proposed an ontology for modeling user profiles and actions in gamified education, which allows creating personalized learning trajectories related to the type of students’ learning activities [71]. According to the authors, as part of the implementation of gamification in the educational process it is necessary to study in detail the behavioral profiles of students to adapt the educational process to the internal driving forces and motivation of students. There are 10 articles from the sample investigating the impact of gamification on learning outcomes, of which two were published in 2018 and four each were published in 2021 and 2022. The absence of articles on the impact of gamification on learning outcomes in 2019 and 2020 can be explained by a shift in the locus of research interest toward other topics; we can also assume a lack of online format games and measurement systems to them. Among the authors of articles on the impact of gamification on learning outcomes are two authors each from Spain, the UK, and one author each from the United States, Brazil, South Korea, Indonesia, Pakistan, and Turkey. The authors note the importance of using gamification in educational institutions and its positive impact on overall student achievement.

Gamification in Education: A Literature Review

335

4.6 The Impact of Gamification on Soft Skills Formation Considering educational analytics as a new frontier for gamification Roche et al. used Kaisen to conduct an online competition for first-year students [19]. The researchers concluded that to maximize the benefit of gamification, educational analytics data should be used to increase student motivation and engagement in the educational process, maintain knowledge and high academic performance. According to Najjar & Salhab, the modern educational environment has been transformed into a teamwork based on the need to solve real-world problems [35]. The authors noted that gamification engages students in the educational process, satisfying their needs, as well as imparting knowledge through engaging tasks. Sipone et al. believe that educational activities should focus on sustainable mobility to guarantee a better future for the younger generation [23]. The researchers found that through gamification, learners not only learned new knowledge, but also realized how to actively change their behavior. Tsay et al. conducted an empirical assessment of student engagement and performance in online gamified systems and found that students were better engaged in gaming activities compared to non-gaming activities [55]. The researchers noted that students were often more engaged at the beginning of using gamepractices, losing it after a few weeks. However, with the use of a two-level motivational online learning system, the novelty effect does not work, with students demonstrating higher levels of engagement in the second year compared to the first. Ismail et al.in their 2019 study noted that the educational system does not always have time to adapt to a changing environment, insisting on following instructions and taking away freedom of choice without encouraging active participation in the educational process [56]. Researchers developed a reward system in the form of points, balancing the system to give students freedom of action and ensure their interaction. The result proved the effectiveness of implementing a point-based assessment system, showing a significant difference in scores before and after. Taufik et al. studied parents’ opinions on the use of computer technology in preschool education [32] and found that children who used computer technology at an early age were then more proficient in learning activities. Six out of the selected articles were devoted to the influence of gamification on the formation of soft skills, of which one article was published in 2018, three in 2019, and one article each in 2020 and 2022. The absence of articles devoted to the influence of gamification on the formation of soft skills in 2021 can be explained by the fact that due to the introduction of distance education, everyone was busy forming and developing technical capabilities and pedagogical tools to form Hard skills, i.e. professional skills. The society solved another problem, it is firstly, secondly, that soft skills, skills, such as social, volitional competences, communication ability, ability to work in team, creativity, equilibrium are not only difficult to measure in general, but also difficult to form at a distance. That is why we do not observe such studies during the period of distance learning during the pandemic. Among the authors of articles on the influence of gamification on the formation of soft skills one author each from Spain, Palestine, Malaysia, Indonesia, and two cross-national studies: Mauritius-Great Britain, Great Britain-USA. The authors note that gamification helps students not only to learn new knowledge, but also to understand how to change their behavior.

336

L. V. Daineko et al.

5 Discussion and Findings The educational process is aimed at the formation of skills and abilities of students, demanded by society. Therefore, a constant cornerstone of modern education is the improvement of pedagogical practices, introduction of new ways to increase students’ motivation. One such practice is gamification - involvement in the learning process through game mechanics. This explains why the interest of researchers in gamification of education is growing, which is confirmed in a large number of articles on this topic, including those selected for this study. This is dictated by the fact that the modern education system is undergoing serious transformation processes, moreover, Brown et al. talk about the need to rethink the educational paradigm [66]. Such global changes are connected with digitalization of social space, increase of information flows, appearance of technological and technical devices which help a person to collect information, systematize material, etc. Consequently, education adapts to the demand of society [6, 72]. Against this background, the widespread use of new educational tools becomes logical and reasonable [73, 74]. As shown by the results of a literature review for the period from 2018 to 2022, selected by the key words “education” and “gamification”. Gamification is widely in demand in education, from early childhood to additional adult education. The geography of the authors of research on gamification in education is shown in Fig. 5.

Fig. 5. Geography of research.

The publications selected by descriptor sampling showed the relevance of the topic of educational gamification on all continents - Europe, Asia, North and South America, Africa, and Australia. Also, out of 58 sources, eight represent a collaboration of researchers from different countries. A large number of publications are authored by European researchers, especially those from Spain (13 publications). The authors consider from different angles the process of gamification implementation in the educational

Gamification in Education: A Literature Review

337

process, but six key research themes were identified, as shown in Fig. 4, with literature reviews as secondary research. Literature reviews were used to determine the theoretical rationale, assess the relevance and formulate the scientific hypotheses of our study. It should be noted that in the sample of studies from 2018 to 2022, literature reviews are presented in 2020, 2021, and 2022 publication years. This is probably due to the period of adaptation of the educational process in general, and gamification in particular, to the urgent transfer to distance due to pandemic restrictions [75]. However, the number of studies of gamification in education has increased since 2021 compared to the pre-pandemic period, which confirms the demand for this educational tool in the postpandemic period. According to the research data, it was found that the authors generally positively assess the use of gamification in education, introducing game practices in a variety of disciplines, including occupational therapy [28] and project-based learning [52]. According to the authors, the effectiveness of active learning methods, including gamification, contributes to a synergetic increase in the effectiveness of both hard and soft skills learning [76, 77], provoking an increase in student engagement in an engaging educational process [78–80]. Most authors of the studied publications consider gamification in a positive way, noting the growth of students’ involvement in the educational process, increasing the efficiency of the educational process, the growth of students’ motivation in the study of certain disciplines, the emergence of new competencies in students. However, there were identified publications that consider not only positive, but also controversial aspects of the implementation of gamification in the educational process. For example, Singhal, Hough & Cripps in their 2019 study note that gamification of education opens new opportunities, but they are still insufficiently explored and underutilized [61]. According to the authors, the controversial points of gamification are the possible increase in the stress level of students when adding a competitive element to the learning process, when it is necessary to speak in front of a large audience, as well as the additional burden on teachers when preparing game content. Ujang Subagja et al. noted that the main problem may be boring game play, which may cause students to be even more reluctant to learn [12]. Rahayu et al. noted two problems of implementing game practice in education: possible shift of students’ attention from the educational process to winning the game, as well as a decrease in motivation after the effect of novelty from the game subsides [48]. And according to Smiderle et al. the effect of gamification is largely determined by the personal characteristics of each student [51].

6 Conclusion In order to understand the fields of gamification application in education, the authors attempted to study the specificity and dynamics of researchers’ interest in the mentioned topic, which consisted of three stages. At the first stage, 11 literature reviews were selected among the publications in the field of gamification filtered on the aggregator site and used to determine the theoretical framework of the study. In the second stage, the authors applied the method of semantic analysis of the abstracts of the selected publications for the study and determined the methodological directions for the analysis of publications on six points.

338

L. V. Daineko et al.

In the third stage of the study we turned to the analysis of publications in the following areas: • • • • •

gamification in the study of specific disciplines (formation of hard skills); gamification in inclusive education; gamification in online and distance learning; gamification’s impact on educational outcomes; gamification for soft skills development.

The study confirmed the relevance of the chosen topic, the demand for researchers and applicability of gamepractices in educational processes of different levels. According to the authors, further research on gamification in education should be focused on the study of learning analytics to confirm the conclusions about the effectiveness of gamification of education on big learning data.

References 1. Piñero Charlo, J.C., et al.: Preface for the special issue “trends in educa-tional gamification: challenges and learning opportunities.” Educ. Sci. 12(3), 179 (2022). https://doi.org/10.3390/ educsci12030179 2. Martin, F., Dennen, V.P., Bonk, C.J.: A synthesis of systematic review research on emerging learning environments and technologies. Educ. Technol. Res. Dev. 68, 1613–1633 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-020-09812-2 3. Ofosu-Ampong, K.: The shift to gamification in education: a review on dominant issues. J. Educ. Technol. Syst. 49(1), 113–137 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1177/0047239520917629 4. Limantara, N., Ford, L.G., Prabowo, H.: Factors influencing the implementation of gamification for learning in information systems education. Int. J. Emerg. Technol. Learn. (Online) 17(8), 32 (2022). https://doi.org/10.3991/ijet.v17i08.29777 5. Kalogiannakis, M., Papadakis, S., Zourmpakis, A. I.: Gamification in science education: a systematic review of the literature. Educ. Sci. 11(1), 22 (2021). https://doi.org/10.3390/edu csci11010022 6. Saxena, M., Mishra, D.K.: Gamification and Gen Z in higher education: a systematic re-view of literature. Int. J. Inf. Commun. Technol. Educ. (IJICTE). 17(4), 1–22 (2021). https://doi. org/10.4018/IJICTE.20211001.oa10 7. Manzano-León, A., et al.: Between level up and game over: a systematic literature review of gamification in education. Sustainability 13(4), 2247 (2021). https://doi.org/10.3390/su1304 2247 8. Harrington, I., Mellors, M.J.: Utilising online gamification to promote student success and retention in tertiary settings. Int. J. High. Educ. 10(7), 45–52 (2021). https://doi.org/10.5430/ ijhe.v10n7p45 9. Willert, N.: A systematic literature review of gameful feedback in computer science education. Int. J. Inf. Educ. Technol. 11(10), 464–470 (2021). https://doi.org/10.18178/ijiet.2021.11.10. 1551 10. Swacha, J.: State of research on gamification in education: a bibliometric survey. Educ. Sci. 11(2), 69 (2021). https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci11020069 11. Herrada, R.I., Baños, R., Alcayde, A.: Student response systems: a multidisciplinary analysis using visual analytics. Educ. Sci. 10(12), 348 (2020). https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci10 120348

Gamification in Education: A Literature Review

339

12. Subagja, U., Saputra, A.S., Dwipada, Y.E., Maulana, Y.A., Wang, G., Kaburuan, E. R.: Gamification as an effective learning tool to increase learner motivation and engagement. Int. J. Adv. Trends Comput. Sci. Eng. 10(5), 3004–3008 (2021). https://doi.org/10.30534/ijatcse/ 2021/111052021 13. Cameron, K.E., Bizo, L.A.: Use of the game-based learning platform KAHOOT! to facilitate learner engagement in Animal Science students. Res. Learn. Technol. 27, 2225 (2019). https:// doi.org/10.25304/rlt.v27.2225 14. García Sastre, S., Idrissi-Ghlimi Cao, M., Ortega Arranz, A., Gómez Sánchez, E.: Uso de la colaboración y la gamificación en MOOC: un análisis exploratorio [Use of collaboration and gamification in MOOCs: an exploratory analysis]. Revista Iberoamericana de Educación a Distancia. 21(2), 263–283 (2018). https://doi.org/10.5944/ried.21.2.20410 15. Klemke, R., Eradze, M., Antonaci, A.: The flipped MOOC: using gamification and learning analytics in MOOC design—a conceptual approach. Educ. Sci. 8(1), 25 (2018). https://doi. org/10.3390/educsci8010025 16. Terán Bustamante, A., & Mendieta Jiménez, B.: Modelo de transferencia de conocimiento a través de la gamificación: Un gcMooc. Actualidades Investigativas en Educación 19(2), 105–131 (2019). https://doi.org/10.15517/aie.v19i2.36997 17. Donath, L., Mircea, G., & Rozman, T.: E-learning platforms as leverage for education for sustainable development. Eur. J. Sustain. Dev. 9(2), 1 (2020). https://doi.org/10.14207/ejsd. 2020.v9n2p1 18. Sousa-Vieira, M.E., López-Ardao, J.C., Fernández-Veiga, M., Rodríguez-Rubio, R.F.: Study of the impact of social learning and gamification methodologies on learning results in higher education. Comput. Appl. Eng. Educ. 31(1), 131–153 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1002/cae. 22575 19. Roche, C.C., Wingo, N.P., Westfall, A.O., Azuero, A., Dempsey, D.M., Willig, J.H.: Educational analytics: a new frontier for gamification? Comput. Inform. Nursing: CIN 36(9), 458 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1097/CIN.0000000000000455 20. Ntalindwa, T., et al.: Adapting the use of digital content to improve the learning of numeracy among children with autism spectrum disorder in Rwanda: thematic content analysis study. JMIR Serious Games 10(2), e28276 (2022). https://doi.org/10.2196/28276 21. Hursen, C., Bas, C.: Use of gamification applications in science education. Int. J. Emerg. Technol. Learn. (Online) 14(1), 4 (2019). https://doi.org/10.3991/ijet.v14i01.8894 22. Aguiar Castillo, C.L., Arce-Santana, E., Guerra-Yanez, C., Guerra Yanez, V., Pérez Jimé-nez, R.: Gamification: a motivation metric based in a Markov model. Int. J. Emerg. Technol. Learn. (2022). https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3995171 23. Sipone, S., Abella-García, V., Barreda, R., Rojo, M.: Learning about sustainable mobility in primary schools from a playful perspective: a focus group approach. Sustainability 11(8), 2387 (2019). https://doi.org/10.3390/su11082387 24. Piwowar-Sulej, K.: The use of gamification in academic teaching–evidence from polish state universities. Przegl˛ad Bada´n Edukacyjnych. 1(32) (2021). https://doi.org/10.12775/PBE.202 1.005 25. dela Cruz, C.S., Arenas, M.R., Palaoag, T.D., Berba, E.M.: Game-based learning sys-tem: An exceptional learners motivation for better performance. Int. J. Organizational Bus. Excellence 1(1), 13–24 (2018). https://doi.org/10.21512/ijobex.v1i1.7157 26. Gounaridou, A., Siamtanidou, E., Dimoulas, C.: A serious game for mediated education on traffic behavior and safety awareness. Educ. Sci. 11(3), 127 (2021). https://doi.org/10.3390/ educsci11030127 27. Kim, J., Castelli, D.M.: Effects of gamification on behavioral change in education: a metaanalysis. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 18(7), 3550 (2021). https://doi.org/10.3390/ije rph18073550

340

L. V. Daineko et al.

28. Dugnol-Menéndez, J., Jiménez-Arberas, E., Ruiz-Fernández, M.L., Fernández-Valera, D., Mok, A., Merayo-Lloves, J.: A collaborative escape room as gamification strategy to increase learning motivation and develop curricular skills of occupational therapy stu-dents. BMC Med. Educ. 21(1), 1–13 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-021-02973-5 29. Acosta-Medina, J. K., Torres-Barreto, M. L., Cárdenas-Parga, A. F.: Students’ preference for the use of gamification in virtual learning environments. Australas. J. Educ. Technol. 37(4), 145–158 (2021). https://doi.org/10.14742/ajet.6512 30. Aleksandrov, A.A., Tsvetkov, Y.B., Zhileykin, M.M.: Engineering education: key features of the digital transformation. EDP Sci. 35, 01001 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1051/itmconf/202 03501001 31. Aslam, M.W., Chudhary, G., Aqeel, M., Irfan, D., Hamza, A., Raza, M.: Early childhood education through gamification. Innov. Comput. Rev. 2(1) (2022). https://doi.org/10.32350/ icr.0201.04 32. Taufik, A., Apendi, T., Saidi, S., Istiarsono, Z.: Parental perspectives on the excellence of computer learning media in early childhood education. Jurnal Pendidikan Usia Dini. 13(2), 356–370 (2019). https://doi.org/10.21009/JPUD.132.11 33. Chan, G.L., Santally, M.I., Whitehead, J.: Gamification as technology enabler in SEN and DHH education. Educ. Inf. Technol. 27(7), 9031–9064 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10 639-022-10984-y 34. Marcaida, J. L. M., Ortega, H. C. A., Castañeda, E. S., Cadeliña, P. M. M., Garcia, R. R. I., Valenzuela, L. R., Tolentino, J. C.: Gamification in a Virtual Ecology (GIVE): Enhancing Classroom Engagement in Physical Education among Senior High School Students. Int. J. Multi.: Appl. Bus. Educ. Res. 3(11), 2278–2289 (2022). https://doi.org/10.11594/ijmaber.03. 11.14 35. Najjar, E., Salhab, R.: Position paper: gamification in the learning process. iJOE, 18(01), 149 (2022). https://doi.org/10.3991/ijoe.v18i01.26609 36. Kamalodeen, V.J., Ramsawak-Jodha, N., Figaro-Henry, S., Jaggernauth, S.J., Dedovets, Z.: Designing gamification for geometry in elementary schools: insights from the designers. Smart Learn. Environ. 8, 1–24 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40561-021-00181-8 37. Salvador-García, C.: Gamificando en tiempos de coronavirus: el estudio de un caso. Revista de educación a distancia (RED) 21(65) (2021). https://doi.org/10.6018/red.439981 38. Hernández-Prados, M.Á., Belmonte, M.L., Manzanares-Ruiz, J.C.: How to run your own online business: a gamification experience in ESL. Educ. Sci. 11(11), 697 (2021).https://doi. org/10.3390/educsci11110697 39. Orozco, I., Moriña, A.: Estrategias metodológicas que promueven la inclusión en edu-cación infantil, primaria y secundaria. Revista Internacional de Educación para la Justicia So-cial 9(1), 81–98 (2020) https://doi.org/10.15366/riejs2020.9.1.004 40. Kılıç, S., Göko˘glu, S.: Exploring the usability of virtual robotics programming curriculum for robotics programming teaching. Inform. Educ. 21(3), 523–540 (2022) https://doi.org/10. 15388/infedu.2022.20 41. Eckle, J., Jungfleisch, A., Stattkus, D., Zarvi´c, N., Knopf, J., Thomas, O.: School to go: new learning in a social media style. HMD Praxis der Wirtschaftsinformatik 58, 1469–1482 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1365/s40702-021-00793-1 42. Ingrassia, M.: Participatory design games for citizenship education. A public space approach with children. Soc. & Soc. Work Rev. 6, 128 (2022) https://doi.org/10.58179/SSWR6211 43. Christopoulos, A., Sprangers, P.: Integration of educational technology during the Covid-19 pandemic: an analysis of teacher and student receptions. Cogent Educ. 8(1), 1964690 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2021.1964690 44. Felszeghy, S., et al.: Using online game-based platforms to improve student performance and engagement in histology teaching. BMC Med. Educ. 19, 1–11 (2019). https://doi.org/10. 1186/s12909-019-1701-0

Gamification in Education: A Literature Review

341

45. Roman, P., Rodriguez-Arrastia, M., Molina-Torres, G., Márquez-Hernández, V.V., Gutiér-rezPuertas, L., Ropero-Padilla, C.: The escape room as evaluation method: a qualitative study of nursing students’ experiences. Med. Teach. 42(4), 403–410 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1080/ 0142159X.2019.1687865 46. Biryukov, A.P., Brikoshina, I.S., Mikhalevich, N.V., Sycheva, S.M., Khalimon, E.A.: Gamification in education: threats or new opportunities. EDP Sciences 103, 02001 (2021). https:// doi.org/10.1051/shsconf/202110302001 47. Zhan, Z., He, L., Tong, Y., Liang, X., Guo, S., Lan, X.: The effectiveness of gamification in programming education: evidence from a meta-analysis. Comput. Educ.: Artif. Intell., 100096 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2022.100096 48. Rahayu, F.S., Nugroho, L.E., Ferdiana, R., Setyohadi, D.B.: Motivation and engagement of final-year students when using e-learning: a qualitative study of gamification in pandemic situation. Sustainability 14(14), 8906 (2022). https://doi.org/10.3390/su14148906 49. Fidan, A., Sengel, ¸ E.: An examination of opinions of teacher candidates on a course enriched through gamification. J. Educ. Technol. Online Learn. 5(4), 754–774 (2022). https://doi.org/ 10.31681/jetol.1106781 50. Lee, J., Lim, R., Mohamad, F. S., Chan, K. G., Mas’ud, F.: Collaborative creativity among undergraduate students as game creators during gamification in a university-wide elective course. J. Univ. Teach. Learn. Pract. 20(1), 16 (2022). https://doi.org/10.53761/1.20.01.16 51. Smiderle, R., Rigo, S.J., Marques, L.B., Peçanha de Miranda Coelho, J.A., Jaques, P.A.: The impact of gamification on students’ learning, engagement and behavior based on their personality traits. Smart Learning Environments. 7(1), 1–11 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/ s40561-019-0098-x 52. Ionic˘a, A.C., Leba, M., Saad, A.F.: Exploring the possibilities of using project management methodologies in the 21st century education. EDP Sci. 373(3), 00074 (2022). https://doi.org/ 10.1051/matecconf/202237300074 53. Davis, J.P.: Formal rules and rules as reasoning-in-action: playing games with reality in science education. Cult. Sci. Edu. 17, 1081–1088 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11422022-10134-3 54. Alsubhi, M.A., Sahari, N., Wook, T.T.: A conceptual engagement framework for gamified e-learning platform activities. Int. J. Emerging Technol. Learn. (iJET). 15(22), 4–23 (2020). https://doi.org/10.3991/ijet.v15i22.15443 55. Tsay, C.H.H., Kofinas, A.K., Trivedi, S.K., Yang, Y.: Overcoming the novelty effect in online gamified learning systems: an empirical evaluation of student engagement and performance. J. Comput. Assist. Learn. 36(2), 128–146 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1111/jcal.12385 56. Ismail, M.I., Bakar, N.A.A., Mohamed, M.: Assessment and modulation of student behavior through persuasive design. Asian J. Univ. Educ. 15(3), 117–128 (2019). https://doi.org/10. 24191/ajue.v15i3.7564 57. Grivokostopoulou, F., Kovas, K., Perikos, I.: Examining the impact of a gamified entrepreneurship education framework in higher education. Sustainability 11(20), 5623 (2019). https:// doi.org/10.3390/su11205623 58. Foster, T., Warwick, S.: Nostalgia, gamification and staff development–moving staff training away from didactic delivery. Res. Learn. Technol., 26 (2018). https://doi.org/10.25304/rlt. v26.2021 59. Daineko, L., Yurasova, I., Larionova, V., Karavaeva, N.: Reflecting on the experience of forced transition to distance learning during the covid-19 pandemic. In: Busch, C., Steinicke, M., Frieß, R., Wendler, T. (eds.) 20th European Conference on e-Learning, ECEL 2021, pp. 119– 129. Academic Conferences International Limited, London (2021). https://doi.org/10.34190/ EEL.21.052

342

L. V. Daineko et al.

60. Goncharova, N., Zaitseva, E.: Responses of Russian universities to the challenges of Covid-19 pandemic. In: Busch, C., Steinicke, M., Wendler, T. (eds.) 19th European Conference on eLearning, ECEL 2020, vol. 2020, pp. 221–228. Academic Conferences International Limited, London (2020). https://doi.org/10.34190/EEL.20.140 61. Singhal, S., Hough, J., Cripps, D.: Twelve tips for incorporating gamification into medical education. MedEdPublish 8(216), 216 (2019). https://doi.org/10.15694/mep.2019.000216.1 62. Jiménez, C.R., Navas-Parejo, M.R., Villalba, M.J.S., Campoy, J.M.F.: El uso de la gamificación para el fomento de la educación inclusiva. IJNE: Int. J. New Educ. (3), 40–59 (2019) 63. Palacios, E., Moreno, M.: La gamificación: una propuesta para la enseñanza de la escritura en estudiantes con diagnóstico de inclusión. Revista Acciones Médicas. 1(2), 17–31 (2022). https://doi.org/10.35622/j.ram.2022.02.002 64. Martins, D.R., dos Santos Garcia, M.S., Herarth, H.H., Maciel, A.C.: Design inclusive de interface de aplicativos dirigidos a analfabetos funcionais. IROCAMM-International Review of Communication and Marketing Mix. 2(2), 7–12 (2019). https://doi.org/10.12795/IRO CAMM.2019.v02.i02.01 65. Papadimitriou, S.T., Niari, M.I.: Open badges as credentials in open education systems: case studies from Greece and Europe. J. Learn. Dev. 6(1), 49–63 (2019). https://doi.org/10.56059/ jl4d.v6i1.311 66. Brown, K., Larionova, V., Stepanova, N., Lally, V.: Re-imagining the pedagogical paradigm within a technology mediated learning environment. Open Educ. Stud. 1(1), 138–145 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1515/edu-2019-0009 67. de Back, T.T., Tinga, A.M., Nguyen, P., Louwerse, M.M.: Benefits of immersive collaborative learning in CAVE-based virtual reality. Int. J. Educ. Technol. Higher Educ. 17, 1–18 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-020-00228-9 68. Park, S., Kim, S.: Leaderboard design principles to enhance learning and motivation in a gamified educational environment: development study. JMIR Serious Games 9(2), e14746 (2021). https://doi.org/10.2196/14746 69. Sousa-Vieira, M.E., Ferrero-Castro, D., López-Ardao, J.C.: Design, development and use of a digital badges system in higher education. Appl. Sci. 12(1), 220 (2021). https://doi.org/10. 3390/app12010220 70. Grey, S., Parker, D., Gordon, N.: Constraints and autonomy for creativity in extracurricular gamejams and curricular assessment. Res. Learn. Technol., 26 (2018). https://doi.org/10. 25304/rlt.v26.2023 71. Palomino, P.T., Toda, A.M., Rodrigues, L., Oliveira, W., Nacke, L., Isotani, S.: An ontology for modelling user’profiles and activities in gamified education. Res. Pract. Technol. Enhan. Learn., 18 (2022). https://doi.org/10.58459/rptel.2023.18018 72. Diachkova, A.V., Tomyuk, O.N., Faizova, A.R., Dudchik, A.Y.: Transformation of communications in the new (modern) digital university in the context of digital globalization. Perspektivy nauki i obrazovaniya 6(54), 69–83 (2021). https://doi.org/10.32744/pse.2021.6.5 [In Russia] 73. Reshetnikova, O.: Effective learning tools in e-learning. In: Busch, C., Steinicke, M., Frieß, R., Wendler, T. (eds.) 20th European Conference on e-Learning, ECEL 2021, pp.387–393. Academic Conferences International Limited, London (2021). https://doi.org/10.34190/EEL. 21.091 74. Bareicheva, M., Larionova, V., Stepanova, N., Davy, Y.: Educational games in training. In: Fotaris, P. (eds.) 14th European Conference on Game Based Learning, ECGBL 2020, pp. 47– 54. Academic Conferences and Publishing International Limited, London (2020). https://doi. org/10.34190/GBL.20.080

Gamification in Education: A Literature Review

343

75. Agarkov, G., Sandler, D., Sushchenko, A.: The year after the COVID-19 outbreak: potential students’ perceptions of higher education quality in the context of digitalisation and blended learning. Integrating Educ. 25(4(105)), 646–660 (2021). [In Russia]. https://doi.org/10.15507/ 1991-9468.105.025.202104.646-660 76. Zaitseva, E.V., Goncharova, N.V.: Assessment of student satisfaction with technology and organization of the learning process at the university. In: Bylieva, D., Nordmann, A., (eds.), Technologies in a Multilingual Environment: XXII Professional Culture of the Specialist of the Future, LNNS, vol. 636, pp. 370–384. Springer, Cham (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/ 978-3-031-26783-3_31 77. Bylieva, D., Zamorev, A., Lobatyuk, V., Anosova, N.: Ways of enriching MOOCs for higher education: a philosophy course. In: Bylieva, D., Nordmann, A., Shipunova, O., and Volkova, V. (eds.) Knowledge in the Information Society. PCSF 2020, CSIS 2020. Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems, vol. 184. pp. 338–351. Springer, Cham (2021). https://doi.org/10. 1007/978-3-030-65857-1_29 78. Daineko, L.V., Yurasova, I.I., Karavaeva, N.M., Pechenkina, T.E.: Project-Based Learning in Higher Education as a Tool for Integrated Hard, Soft Skills and Engineering Language Development. In: Bylieva, D., Nordmann, A., (eds.), Technologies in a Multilingual Environment: XXII Professional Culture of the Specialist of the Future LNNS, vol 636, pp. 506– 517. Springer, Cham (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-26783-3_41 79. Balyshev, P.: The stages of discourse-oriented virtual learning environment modeling. Technol. Lang. 3(3), 88–105 (2022). https://doi.org/10.48417/technolang.2022.03.07 80. Dashkina, A.I., Rubtzova, A.V.: Teaching students majoring in linguistics to communicate in a foreign language by organizing teamwork on virtual communication platforms. Technol. Lang. 4(1), 146–164 (2023). https://doi.org/10.48417/technolang.2023.01.10

The Role of Game Practices in the Model University of the Future Olga Shipunova , Elena Pozdeeva , Anna Tanova(B)

, and Vladimir Evseev

Peter the Great Polytechnic University, 195251 St. Petersburg, Russia {shipunova_od,tanova_ag,evseev_vv}@spbstu.ru

Abstract. The article is devoted to the analysis of cognitive strategies within the framework of the ecosystem model of the university of the future, focused in its development on the coordination of the goals and results of the activities of different professional communities in the process of training a specialist. In this regard, it is important to study the potential of gamification to involve people in joint educational activities. Considering gamification as an innovative pedagogical technology, the authors emphasize the problem of motivation of the student’s cognitive activity, highlight the role of game practices in the context of cognitive and metacognitive educational strategies. This study is based on a systematic methodology that allows us to analyze interactive gamification techniques as flexible ways to involve students in the cognitive process. In the university model of the future, the use of digital platforms involves the provision of flexible, personalized learning that connects different interactive technologies in a wide range of interactions between humans and technical systems. Game practices are represented by groups of methods that contribute to the activation of the solution of educational problems in the formation of the cognitive and communicative potential of the individual, which is necessary in the future profession. An assessment of the role of gamification in the educational practice of university is presented in the article on the basis of data from a survey of students’ and teachers’ opinions. It is noted that the role of game practices is associated with a variety of ways of concentrating attention and forms of involving the student in the learning process. From the point of view of psychology, the influence of gamification on cognitive activity is associated with motivation that maintains the state of experiencing information, both in the mind of the student and in the mind of the teacher. Keywords: gamification · cognitive activity · university model · pedagogical technology · involvement in the learning process

1 Introduction The university of the future is designed to produce knowledge to promote technology and social innovation in a dynamic environment. The process of digitalization of all spheres of social and professional activity is one of the main factors in the formation of the university model, which determines the prospects for its development in the XXI century. The specifics of the formation of Society 5.0 and Industry 5.0 are characterized © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Bylieva and A. Nordmann (Eds.): PCSF 2023, LNNS 830, pp. 344–355, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-48020-1_26

The Role of Game Practices in the Model University of the Future

345

by innovations focused on the interrelations of various spheres of human activity. In the modern world, a complex landscape of higher education is emerging, requiring new forms of cooperation in professional and social spheres, which, in turn, are included in the development of the university model of the future [1]. Thus, the article [2] presents the use of a socio-digital model for the development of new forms in the education system based on a fivefold spiral (QHM). The university as a public institution is experiencing technological, social, political, economic pressure on a global scale, which is reflected in the diversity of problems facing educational institutions [3]. Along with the changing expectations of the environment, higher education institutions have switched to a new pro-social strategy for organizing the educational process, which involves cooperation in the implementation of the common goal of training the future specialist for all interested parties. With the proliferation of social media, there is an expansion of stakeholder groups that come from a whole new social and professional environment. Universities of the future should plan the development of relations with stakeholders, focus on the dynamics of the requirements of the social and professional environment. Constant analysis of changing needs in the labor market, the study of dynamics in a group of its stakeholders can provide knowledge about the direction in which to plan changes in the university’s programs [4]. The ecosystem model in the organization of the university of the future puts at the center of educational strategy an understanding of the complex interaction of forces acting on individual universities and higher education systems, as a necessary condition for the success of professional training. In pedagogical theory and practice, the development of interactive methods in teaching and the problems of enhancing the cognitive activity of the student are actualized. In solving this problem, a key role is given to the introduction of gamification techniques into educational practice, which do not limit the choice of technology, allow combining the actions of both teachers and students [5]. Gamification has attracted attention in the field of higher education against the backdrop of the rapid growth in the popularity of video games, which are becoming part of the daily life of a modern person. Exploring gamification in the personological aspect, the authors [6] emphasize the important role of gaming experiences in motivating behaviors to learn and shape life experiences. It is believed that the development of new skills during training using the techniques of the game contributes to intellectual development [7]. On the other hand, interactive computer programs of distance learning integrate traditional methods of teaching into the game media space, which allows you to improve pedagogical communication between the teacher and the student. The purpose of this article is to analyze the prospects for the development of game practices in the context of the ecosystem model of the university of the future, to assess the role of gamification in the educational practice of SPbPU based on a sociological study of the opinions of students and teachers. We are to verify that students do not clearly imagine the communication practices of the university of the future, do not find gamification a place in them, and the university is still offering some practices in test mode, as well as to identify the role of gamification elements in the university system of the future, which is built on more diverse creative communication practices, to identify students’ readiness for gamification, its place in communication, in the educational process as a whole.

346

O. Shipunova et al.

2 Literature Review In the model of the university of the future as an ecosystem, an important role is played by normative scenario planning, which is aimed at coordinating the results of the activities of all participants in the professional training of a specialist. The criterion of success correlates with the level of influence on the external environment and the convergence of interactions between the university and the professional community in achieving the goals of education [8]. The ecosystem model of the university can be considered as a functionally organized set of autonomous organizations united by a common goal, based on which certain structures of relations and approvals are formed [9, 10]. One of the major modern advances is to explore the potential of gamification to engage people in collaborative activities. The conceptual foundations of gamification as a methodology of PR activities in a corporation and the improvement of cooperative activities and cooperation are provided in the work [11]. However, even though the amount of literature devoted to this phenomenon is growing, it remains unclear how gamification motivates cooperation, how effective it is in a group setting, and what potential obstacles need to be considered. Constructive for motivating cooperative activities through gamification is the creation of a platform whose functions will allow combining the personal, cooperative and hybrid level in stimulating activity [12]. It is assumed that the involvement of employees in gamification favorably changes their cognitive abilities and behavior. First, the involvement of users in gamification changes the perception of the process management system. Secondly, the involvement of users in gamification changes the perception of work, affects the perception of stress factors. Thirdly, the involvement of users in gamification changes the perception of the organization, forcing employees to perceive organizational support. Improved cognitive abilities then transfer their beneficial effects to overall performance [13]. Educational ecosystems bring together communities of learners and education providers, their distinguishing feature is constant evolution, as they are aimed at development at the personal, interpersonal, national and planetary level, it is difficult and impractical to enclose them in any standards [14]. Questions about how the gamification process works to maintain, improve, or disrupt the status quo in a given educational environment are considered from the perspective of information systems. As an objective criterion for understanding the experience of gamification in increasing the likelihood of future success of the university, it is proposed to use a network of dependencies on benefits [15]. Since the inception of the term “gamification”, many researchers have associated its conceptual foundations with various theoretical assumptions. Regarding gamification applied to educational systems, the range of theories becomes even greater, since it includes theories related to behaviorism, cognitivism and constructivism, psychology, computer science (for example, artificial intelligence). So, the work of [16] includes a guide (with process and architecture) showing how to adapt virtual learning through games and the best gamification elements for each type of player. At work [17] shows the superiority of problem-solving gamification compared to other activities. This is expressed in an increase in students’ gaming experience and game motivation. The authors assessed the effectiveness of gamification in relation to learning productivity

The Role of Game Practices in the Model University of the Future

347

through activity indicators expressed in the level of involvement, immersion in the process of solving a cognitive task (including challenge, achievement of results), as well as internal and external motivation to play. At the same time the authors emphasize that the simple use of gamification may not motivate students to actively participate in educational activities if there are no reasonable requirements of the teacher appealing to the professional competencies of the future specialist. The study of interactions between humans and interactive technical systems covers a wide range of topics: from the world of digital games to aspects of ergonomics and usability of websites, as well as issues of creation and efficiency of multimedia applications. In the field of applied cognitive psychology, the motivation for experiencing game experience is emphasized, which is stimulated by the formulation of tasks. At work [18] the author shows that the simple design of the activity as a game does not increase the intrinsic motivation of the participants in a complex puzzle task. Moreover, from the point of view of intrinsic motivation, for participants who have not coped with the solution of the problem, it does not matter whether it is framed as a meaningful task, a game, or a test of cognitive abilities. This confirms the importance of voluntariness and meaningfulness of the task when involving people in gamification. The study of the influence of framing practices on the motivation of cognitive activity, in particular, is associated with the formulation of the task as: 1) a game, 2) an intelligence test, 3) a significant task, 4) a neutral task. The target setting, which determines the nature of the activity in a particular situation, can change the experience of experiencing the game, create or, on the contrary, remove the emotional barrier in the cognitive activity of the student. The experiments conducted by the author show that failure in the performance of the task affects the initial motivation of people and the willingness to continue trying. In the field of higher education, gamification is an innovative pedagogical technology. Despite a growing number of studies published in recent years, the problem of the relationship between gamification and knowledge, student engagement and satisfaction has not yet been sufficiently theoretically and empirically investigated in the literature [19]. Some motivational effects from computer games are transferred to non-entertaining educational and professional spheres, using reframing - refocusing attention, restarting activities. In this regard, the analysis of game practices in various contexts of educational activity becomes relevant.

3 Methods and Materials The development of theoretical ideas about the structure of gaming experience is based on the concepts of augmented reality and positive personality psychology. The structure of gaming experience can be represented by an interdisciplinary matrix that connects different levels of experience: the experience of nudging (psychological level), the experience of flow (information level), the experience of alternative reality (ontological level) and hedonistic experience (the level of practical consciousness) [6]. The goals of gamification as an educational technology are associated with the problems of motivation of the student’s cognitive activity and greater involvement of employees/participants in the learning process itself. The methodological setting of this study is determined by the position that interactive techniques and methods of gamification

348

O. Shipunova et al.

make the educational process more flexible and contribute to an easier way to obtain new information. In this paper, the analysis of the role of game practices is carried out within the framework of cognitive and metacognitive educational strategies, based on a systematic methodology and an interdisciplinary synthesis of philosophical, psychological, sociological, pedagogical research. We consider as cognitive strategies aimed at the formation and expansion of contextual models in the learning process using gamification techniques. As metacognitive strategies, we consider communicative and organizational practices in a game context. The term “gamification” in this case refers to a group of methods that create a game situation to enhance the solution of educational problems on the formation of the cognitive and communicative potential of the individual, which is necessary in future professional activities. The factual basis of this study is the statistical material of surveys of students of Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University (SPbPU). Within the framework of the University 2030 project, a survey of SPbPU students was conducted about promising areas in the development of the university of the future. The survey was conducted from May 10 to June 21, 2022. 627 1st year students aged 18–19 years, females (58%) more than males from different institutes of the university were interviewed. The survey method is an online questionnaire using Google forms. The type of research is intelligence, the type of sample is random, relevant to intelligence research. We follow Yadov V.A. when he provides the following calculations of a representative sample assuming a 5 percent margin of error using V.I Paniotto tables [20]. For a population of more than 100,000, the sample is 400 units. If we have in mind the general population of 5,000 and more, then it is possible to specify the values of the actual sampling error depending on its volume, which is very important for us, bearing in mind that the value of the acceptable error depends on the purpose of the research and should not necessarily be close to the 5 percent level. To study attitudes towards game practices in education, a survey was conducted among SPbPU students in April 2022 (questionnaire using Google Forms; the number of respondents was 379 students of Institute of Humanities of SPbPU in the age of 18– 24 years old, both bachelor and master students, studying Advertising and PR, SPbPU social media active users). With the help of the survey, students’ awareness of the role of game practices and the concept of “gamification” in education was checked and the degree of readiness to include game practices in the educational process was revealed. The purpose of the survey is to show that gamification is understood by students as a general trend, a positive attitude towards it has been formed in general, but students do not yet have a systematic view of how gamification elements should be embedded in the educational process.

4 Results and Discussion Results of the survey on the questionnaire “University of the Future”, a sample of 627 1st year students of SPbPU.

The Role of Game Practices in the Model University of the Future

349

The answers to the questionnaire demonstrate the orientation of students to communication, both in the internal environment of the university (with teachers) and in the external environment (with partner companies and partner universities) (Table 1). This indicates students’ awareness of the importance of both professional and supra-professional skills. Table 1. The most important factors of development of the SPbPU in students’ evaluations. Data source: [21, pp. 162–171] Competencies that determine the high potential of individual abilities (Hi-Po)

Educational factors related to the expansion of communications

Ability level

Form of communication

Average grade, %

Average grade, %

Professional knowledge 82% and skills (hard skills)

participation in student 32% work competitions to get an assessment of their strengths and professional knowledge

Ability to build communication (soft skills)

solving business problems 62% together with the company-partner of the educational program

66%

Skills of systematic and 57% analytical thinking

participation in research activities together with university teachers

63%

Ability to think critically

61%

attendance of visiting master classes at universities and partners of SPbPU

54%

Project management skills

24%

participation in internal master classes and practical seminars of the university

40%

Self-development and self-organization skills (self skills)

61%

business games, business simulations, laboratories to train practical skills without interrupting theoretical training

55%

In the model of the university ecosystem of the future, the scenarios of the educational strategy are ultimately aimed at the success of graduates in their professional activities, so university training should provide the future specialist with a set of competencies that will allow him to realize his knowledge and abilities for free orientation in a social and professional environment.

350

O. Shipunova et al.

In the current situation, normative scenarios in educational practice expand the range of competencies necessary for successful professional activity. A survey of students on a questionnaire that includes questions about the prospects for the development of the university shows two vectors for expanding the range of competencies of a future specialist: 1) a vector aimed at forming (Hi-Po) a high potential for self-development of individual abilities; 2) a vector aimed at expanding the scope of communications in the university ecosystem (Fig. 1). At the same time, interactive technologies are present in all scenarios as a tool of integral competence, designated by the term “digital literacy”.

90%

82%

80% 66%

70%

63%

62% 57%

60%

61% 54%

50% 40%

32%

30% 20% 10% 0% Competencies that define high potential of infividual abilities Educational factors related to the expansion of communication Fig. 1. The most important factors of development of the SPbPU in students’ evaluations

Results of the survey on the questionnaire “Attitude to Game Practices”, the number of respondents 379 SPbPU students. According to the results of the survey, about half of the students (49%) noted that the university has introduced game methods of education, but 28% answered negatively. The following practices implemented at the Polytechnic University were among the techniques related to gamification in education: personal account, assignments, ratings, bonuses –46%; use of digital devices during classes −34.6%; educational courses in digital format” −19.4%. (See Table 2, Fig. 2). Students associated the role of game practices in learning with the actions of an “activity stimulator”, “motivation tool”. “Interactive between participants”. Among the popular forms with elements of gamification within the framework of the cognitive cognitive strategy, students included: “presentation with analysis of visual material”, “creative homework”, “interactive digital content in online moodle courses”.

The Role of Game Practices in the Model University of the Future

351

Table 2. Prospects for the development of game practices in the educational process (as evaluated by students of SPbPU) Interactive elements of gamification at SPbPU

Average grade, %

Promising forms of gamification in teaching

Average grade, %

personal account, tasks, ratings, bonuses

46%

case study

54%

the use of digital 34,6% devices in the classroom

new project development

41%

educational courses in digital format

lecture by a guest speaker 4%

19,4

When asked whether students consider it necessary to develop game elements and formats in the educational process, the vast majority (97%) gave an affirmative answer. Promising forms of interaction at the level of metacognitive educational strategy at the University of the Future students identified practical work in the form of a case study (54%), the development of a new project (41%;), while only 4% of respondents like such a format as a lecture by a guest speaker. The latter option was chosen by students who attended lectures by a number of guest lecturers, among whom were those who actively use gamification elements in all classes, including lectures (Table 2, Fig. 3).

50% 40%

46% 34.60%

30% 19.40%

20% 10% 0%

personal account, tasks, the use of digital ratings, bonuses devices in the classroom

educational courses in digital format

Fig. 2. Interactive gamification elements at SPbPU, as evaluated by students of SPbPU

Results of a survey of SPbPU teachers using Google Forms; the number of respondents is 322 people. During the same period, a survey of teachers was conducted using Google Forms; the number of respondents is 322 SPbPU teachers. About the spread of gamification as an innovative pedagogical technology, the opinions of teachers do not always converge.

352

O. Shipunova et al.

60%

54%

50% 41% 40% 30% 20% 10% 4%

0%

case study

new project development

lecture by a guest speaker

Fig. 3. Promising forms of gamification in teaching, as evaluated by students of SPbPU

The survey showed that 61% of the teachers surveyed often use game practices based on digital literacy skills in the classroom. 30% of respondents answered that such elements are not provided for by the program, but they, nevertheless, apply them. 9% of respondents do not use gaming methods. When asked about the consequences of including elements of gamification as a pedagogical technology in university education, teachers identified three areas: 1) the trend towards the transformation of the educational process into a game −45%; 2) the use of technology and design of video games in the educational process −20%; 3) strengthening the involvement and motivation of students in learning −35%. (Fig. 4). 80% of teachers expressed their readiness to actively use gamification tools, and teachers rated the readiness of the entire education system to include gaming technologies at 40% (on a scale from 1 to 100%). During the COVID-19 period, Case Study and Debate formats have become interactive. There were surveys, tests, digital homework (take photos / videos, create a layout). Teachers justify a positive attitude to the use of games in the educational process by the fact that the use of game elements forms the development of the student’s interest in the subject, contributes to the development of communication skills, increases motivation in a competitive environment, which allows you to achieve cognitive results, expands the field of possibilities for a creative approach. Most teachers associate the negative aspects of gamification with uncontrollable emotions of gambling excitement, which can obscure the cognitive interest of students. There is also a concern about the desire to receive bonuses, fraught with a distortion of the motivation of cognitive activity and a formal approach to education.

The Role of Game Practices in the Model University of the Future

353

35% 45%

20%

Turning the educational process into a game Transferring video game technology and design into academic process Student engagement, interest, motivation in learning

Fig. 4. The role of gamification in the educational process at the university, as evaluated by teachers of SPbPU

5 Conclusion The university of the future envisages the provision of flexible, personalized learning based on the use of digital platforms and the network principle. The student’s involvement in the cognitive process in a modern university is stimulated not only by an interactive environment. From a psychological point of view, the factors of motivation for learning are associated with the internal attitudes of the individual and the external rules of behavior. Game practices can be considered as a technology for the soft involvement of the student in the cognitive process, a way of concentrating attention and developing productive thinking. Training with elements of gamification will allow you to maintain the state of the flow of experiencing information both in the mind of the student and in the mind of the teacher. The survey on the university of the future showed that the university as an ecosystem implies a more complex structure of communications, in which multi-role behavior takes place, to which students have already formed expectations, but they themselves do not yet have experience in communicative practices based on rapid role change. The lack of practices is explained by the insufficient development of electronic platforms and the process of trying different approaches to gamification. Gamification studies demonstrated the students’ request for the formation of a communication system of another level, which will allow them to choose roles in the educational process, which for them looks like a game moment, like a communication practice. It is necessary to continue the research, to monitor how communication and gamification practices are developing in universities. Summarizing the opinions of students and teachers about the importance and prospects of gamification, it should be noted that most respondents support the trend towards the development and implementation of gamification elements in educational technologies, which follows from the general mood to update the training system. There is also an increased interest in forms of communication that allow you to implement individualization, apply a creative approach to finding solutions and completing tasks, a

354

O. Shipunova et al.

combination of digital and traditional technologies. Along with this, there was a request that has been repeatedly present in sociological studies of student youth - this is the desire for closer cooperation in the learning process with teachers, representatives of university services and university partners.

References 1. Razinkina, E., Zima, P.E., Evseeva, L., Tanova, A.: Convergence of employers’ and students’ expectations in the educational environment of the agricultural university. In: E3S Web Conference, vol. 258, p. 10019 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202125810019 2. Carayannis, E.G., Morawska-Jancelewicz, J.: The futures of Europe: society 5.0 and industry 5.0 as driving forces of future universities. J. Knowl. Econ. 13, 3445–3471 (2022). https:// doi.org/10.1007/s13132-021-00854-2 3. Marshall, S.J. (ed.): Shaping the University of the Future. Springer, Singapore (2018). https:// doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-7620-6 4. Geryk, M.: Universities of the future: universities in transition under the influence of stakeholders’ changing requirements. In: Kantola, J.I., Barath, T., Nazir, S. (eds.) Advances in Human Factors, Business Management and Leadership, pp. 116–124. Springer International Publishing, Cham (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-60372-8_12 5. Filho, W.L. (ed.): Gamification. In: Encyclopedia of Sustainability in Higher Education, pp. 715–715. Springer International Publishing, Cham (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/9783-030-11352-0_300117 6. Thomas, N.J., Baral, R., Crocco, O.S., Mohanan, S.: A framework for gamification in the metaverse era: how designers envision gameful experience Technol. Forecasting Soc. Change. 193, 122544 (2023) 7. Fedynich, L.: Teaching beyond the classroom walls: the pros and cons of cyber learning. J. Instruct. Pedagogies 13, 1–7 (2014). https://www.researchgate.net/publication/284482330_ Teaching_beyond_the_clasroom_walls_The_pros_and_cons_of_cyber_learning 8. Gordon, A.V.: Limits and longevity: A model for scenarios that influence the future. Technol. Forecast. Soc. Chang. 151, 119851 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2019.119851 9. Jacobides, M.G., Cennamo, C., Gawer, A.: Towards a theory of ecosystems. Strateg. Manag. J. 39(8), 2255–2276 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1002/smj.2904 10. Educational ecosystems: Emerging practices for future education https://www.skolkovo. ru/researches/obrazovatelnye-ekosistemy-voznikayushaya-praktika-dlya-budushego-obrazo vaniya/ 11. Riar, M., Morschheuser, B., Zarnekow, R., Hamari, J.: Gamification of cooperation: A framework, literature review and future research agenda. Int. J. Inf. Manage. 67, 102549 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2022.102549 12. Lexa, C.: Gamification. In: Fit for Future, pp. 71–73 Springer Gabler, Wiesbaden (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-33073-6_17 13. Bizzi, L.: Why to gamify performance management? consequences of user engagement in gamification. Inform. Manag. 60(3), 103762 (2023) 14. Why the future of education belongs to ecosystems. https://trends.rbc.ru/trends/education/ 6027f56f9a794723de4d1b34 15. McHenry, W.K., Makarius, E.E.: Understanding gamification experiences with the benefits dependency network lens. Comput. Educ. Open. 4, 100123 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j. caeo.2023.100123 16. Oliveira, W., Bittencourt, I.I.: Tailored Gamification to Educational Technologies. Springer, Singapore (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9812-5

The Role of Game Practices in the Model University of the Future

355

17. Alt, D.: Assessing the benefits of gamification in mathematics for student gameful experience and gaming motivation. Comput. Educ.. Educ. 200, 104806 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.compedu.2023.104806 18. Brühlmann, F.: The Effects of Framing in Gamification. A Study of Failure. Springer Fachmedien, Wiesbaden (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-16926-8 19. Murillo-Zamorano, L.R., López-Sánchez, J.A., López-Rey, M.J., Bueno-Muñoz, C.: Gamification in higher education: the ECOn+ star battles. Comput. Educ. 194, 104699 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2022.104699 20. Yadov, V.A.: Sociological Research Strategy. Description, explanation, understanding of social reality. Dobrosvet, Moscow (1999). [In Russia] 21. Borovkov, A.I., Vinogradova, E.B., Arkannikova, M.S. (eds.): University 2030: in search of an image of the future. Polytech-Press, St. Petersburg (2022). [In Russia]

The Role of Game-Based Assessment for the Enhancement of Learning Artem Burmich(B)

, Oleg Mashkin , and Natalia Stepanova

Ural Federal University, 19 Mira St, 620002 Yekaterinburg, Russia [email protected], {o.v.mashkin,n.r.stepanova}@urfu.ru

Abstract. The use of game-based methods and technologies in education is increasing. This research investigates the impact of game-based assessment on enhancing the effectiveness of learning. Through interactive and motivating ways, mutual testing and peer review of completed assignments and projects can improve students’ knowledge and skills. These methods not only confirm students’ understanding of the material, but also improve their memorization of information for comprehension and application in practice. As game elements stimulate memorisation and development of the game experience as a player’s work, they prepare them for reality based on the experience they have gained. Game-based assessment also allows teachers to adapt the teaching material to the level of the students and to give feedback on test results. Therefore, game-based assessment has the potential to enhance learning, making it a critical tool in education. Keywords: Game assessment · game practice · project activities · educational technology

1 Introduction. Relevance of the Study and Problem Statement Game-based assessment and cross-checking of students’ work are increasingly popular tools used in education. This approach implies using game elements and mechanics to control and evaluate students’ learning achievements [1]. Technical term abbreviation: ‘game-based assessment’. Using game-based assessment according to given criteria provides not only accurate assessment, but also contributes to improving students’ motivation and learning efficiency [2]. This paper examines the role of game-based assessment in enhancing learning and identifies its primary advantages and disadvantages. 1.1 Relevance and Practical Relevance The significance of this arises from the increasing popularity of game elements in the educational process. Evaluation is a pivotal aspect of the learning process. The use of game elements in assessment can improve the quality and effectiveness of learning in real subject conditions [3]. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Bylieva and A. Nordmann (Eds.): PCSF 2023, LNNS 830, pp. 356–369, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-48020-1_27

The Role of Game-Based Assessment for the Enhancement

357

Numerous studies have shown that assessment based on games increases students’ motivation and engagement in the learning process [4]. Games enable students to use their creativity to solve problems and tasks and enhance their problem-solving skills [5]. Furthermore, this approach can be utilised to evaluate not only students’ knowledge but also their skills and abilities [6]. Assessment through games enables evaluation of students’ learning process and not just their results, which can aid in identifying their strengths and weaknesses [7]. Therefore, game-based assessment is highly significant for educators in search of fresh methods to enhance the quality of learning and student motivation [8]. It is capable of actively engaging students in the learning process and enabling comprehensive assessment, which stimulates deeper understanding and absorption of the material [9]. However, the challenge lies in defining the evaluation criteria. To begin with, the evaluation criteria must be lucid and comprehensible to all game participants. For the problem to be solved, the game ought to be an unrestrained activity in a constructed reality. In order for the experience derived from the game to have a practical application, willing participation without any coercion is a pre-requisite [10]. The learner will be able to act reasonably and make independent observations in the expert field of game evaluation. They will gain the ability to comprehend and generalize what is happening, while taking responsibility for their words, opinions, and actions. Yet, the quality of the problem-solving process within the game can only improve when it precisely models the actual problem. 1.2 Aims and Objectives of the Study In this study, it is necessary to: – Examine the role of game-based assessment in enhancing learning. – Determine what types of game-based assessment are most effective in increasing students’ motivation and interest in learning. – Identify advantages and disadvantages of using game-based assessment in the educational process. On the basis of the objectives set, the practical tasks include. 1. Analysis of scientific and practical work on the research topic. 2. Identifying types of game evaluation and identifying their advantages and disadvantages. 3. To study student and teacher feedback on the use of game assessment in the educational process. 4. To determine the effectiveness of game assessment in increasing students’ motivation and interest in learning. 5. To develop recommendations for the use of game assessment in the educational process in order to increase the effectiveness of learning. 1.3 Analysis of Existing Literature and Established Practices Game-based assessment involves the use of games or game technology to evaluate students’ knowledge, skills, and abilities. Play assessment helps students to learn and

358

A. Burmich et al.

memorise material more effectively, overcome difficulties and achieve higher learning outcomes [11]. Game-based assessment is based on the theory that games are a natural and effective form of learning, which offer benefits such as motivation, active participation, engagement, feedback, teamwork, and more [12]. Using games during assessment leads to improved understanding and memorization of material while also nurturing problem-solving strategies and enhancing students’ cooperative and communication skills [13]. The teaching methodology including game practices provides an opportunity not only to assess knowledge, but also to evaluate skills such as communication, cooperation, and strategic thinking [14]. This allows teachers to have a complete understanding of how effectively students apply their knowledge to real-life situations, resulting in a holistic evaluation of students’ abilities. It is possible to use games to enhance students’ motivation. The use of games and game technology can enhance students’ interest in the subject [15] and improve their work productivity and effort [16]. In general, game-based assessment is an effective method of enhancing the effectiveness of learning. Game-based assessment allows students to improve their understanding and retention of the subject matter, enhance their skills and abilities, rely on feedback and support, while instructors can assess their knowledge, skills, and abilities, motivating students, creating interest in the subject, or applying these skills to project and research activities. Game-based assessment may enhance student motivation and improve their academic performance in future learning sessions. By creating a more interactive and engaging learning environment, students may be encouraged to participate more actively in the educational process and enhance their learning.

2 Theoretical Foundations of the Research and Its Methodology Game-based assessment is an evaluation method that integrates game elements into the learning process to enhance learner motivation and performance. Unlike the traditional approach where assessment follows the learning process, game-based assessment appraises learners’ progress directly through play. A method of assessment qualifies as game-based when assessments involve multiple participants who interact based on game rules and tactics. Within a game-based assessment, participants could make decisions that impact the evaluation and provide them with a certain advantage. Under certain conditions, an evaluation method can be transformed into a game method: 1. It is necessary to define the objective of the game: When using a game-based evaluation method, it is necessary to define the objective that participants are attempting to reach. For instance, the aim could be to obtain the highest score on an assessment. 2. Establishing the Rules: The participants are given the regulations that dictate their actions. As an illustration, scores may be awarded based on the correctness of participants’ responses.

The Role of Game-Based Assessment for the Enhancement

359

3. Supplying Information: The participants are provided with the necessary data to make decisions. For instance, they may receive data for evaluation and information about their opponents. 4. Developing strategies: Each participant formulates and employs a unique strategy to reach the game’s objective. For instance, they can decide where to target their efforts to achieve the highest score possible. 5. Interaction and Decision-Making: During the gameplay, the participants interact with each other, make decisions based on their strategy, and analyze the actions of other players. For instance, participants can compete against each other by answering questions to get ahead of their competitors. 6. Results Evaluation: The game’s results are assessed at its conclusion. For instance, the participant with the highest number of scored points may be declared the winner. An evaluation method becomes like a game by including game elements like goals, rules, information, strategies, interaction, and outcome assessment. By using game-based evaluation methods, participants may become more engaged in the process and develop more efficient and inventive means of evaluation. The game’s process is realised through the universal game-technical framework: Problematisation - Game - Reflection. Regardless of the game-technical format, the effectiveness of game practice depends on three components [17]: 1. Awareness of the problem; 2. Contents of the game experience; 3. Comprehension, generalization, and appropriation of game experience. For the gaming experience to be effective in the future, it is necessary for the participants to have a personal attitude towards the problem at hand, as well as the ability to reflect on it. We shall consider mastering and appropriation of experience, skills, and positions as our primary concerns. Tasks of a similar nature are typically resolved through game modeling, metaphorical transfer, creating tense gaming scenarios during the learning process, and extended reflection on the game’s outcomes. Acquiring experience, skill, and position facilitates assimilation of practical knowledge, ability, and skill in a simulated reality context [18]. That is, transformation of theory into practice. This involves mastering competencies that enable effective action in real-world problem-solving scenarios. This also encompasses mental constructs like attitudes and values. Figure 1 shows the decomposition of this class of tasks. In this case, learners unconsciously internalise other people’s behaviour and attitudes. (For example, due to internalisation of parental behaviour, an adult’s internal dialogue is likely to be like the one he or she had with mum and dad as a child. “The way other people who were important to me treated me; I now treat myself”). One of the most important therapeutic effects of play-based learning is also based on internalisation mechanisms [19]. The learner has a new experience of being treated with respect, recognition, interest, and fairness. Often it is a model opposite to the biographical

360

A. Burmich et al.

Fig. 1. Dividing the whole into parts of assimilation and appropriation

experience. This is how self-acceptance is formed: “Since the other lets me be, I can let myself be”. Let’s try to apply the methodology of the adopted research in practice on the example of project-based learning at the Ural Federal University (UrFU) in the spring semester of the academic year 2022–2023. For three years the Ural Federal University has been successfully introducing projectbased learning for students to modernise educational activities. This educational service consists of working with project applications from real employer-clients with the aim of their step-by-step elaboration of their presentation for defence. The applications are worked on by vertically integrated teams of students from different courses, faculties, and institutes, considering their specialisation, which are formed according to the students’ individual careers. To involve undergraduate students in the project activities, we have introduced a playful practice of evaluating completed student projects to immerse students in the essence of the projects. The target group is students aged between 18 and 25. In this study, we selectively consider the work of 4 teams of students who carried out projects at the request of the Department of Architecture and Urban Planning of the Administration of the Verkhnyaya Pyshma Urban District (see Table 1.). Supervisors: Associate Professor of the Department of “Economics and Management of the Construction and Real Estate Market” of the UrFU Institute of Economics and Management Stepanova N.R., Senior Lecturer of the Department of “Industrial, Civil and Real Estate Expertise” of the UrFU Institute of Construction and Architecture - Mashkin O.V. The results of the completed projects are accepted for use and implementation in the practical activities of the Department of Architecture and Urban Planning of the Administration of the Verkhnyaya Pyshma City District. All students in teams participated in the mutual evaluation of the completed projects (together with the client and experts) in the final defence phase in a game format to determine the degree of immersion in the project topic and the applied effect of the learning. In our opinion, the applied effect of games is manifested in the fact that the game is a simplified model of reality. All processes in the game are more intensive, so the immersion in the problem and its solution is much faster.

The Role of Game-Based Assessment for the Enhancement

361

Table 1. Project information Results

Assignment

Developers

1.Project 420/LKP-911–2023. Ecological and cognitive tourism in the area of Mostovskoye village of Verkhnyaya Pyshma city The project is aimed at territorial (urban planning) development and according to the results of presentation and defense by the team of students (UrFU) the project was accepted for use, as it reflects the results of socio-economic analysis of the creation of a health territory with the assessment of commercial, budgetary, and social efficiency, which confirm the possibility and necessity of project implementation

This paper has an applied orientation, and its results will be used in the development of the project of construction of the territory of ecological and informative tourism in Mostovskoye village

Master’s students - 2 people and undergraduate students 4 people Total: 6 people

2. Project 420/LKP-912–2023. Rhythm of the Forest” tourist route in Iset settlement of Verkhnyaya Pyshma urban district The project reflects the results of socio-economic analysis of the creation of a tourist route with an assessment of commercial, budgetary, and social efficiency, which confirm the feasibility and necessity of project implementation

Based on the results of the paper, a tourist route in the format of an eco-trail was proposed, as well as options for filling the area with various modern leisure facilities (glamping, rope park, playground, etc.), characterized by modern technologies and trends, which in turn harmoniously fit into the forest area and do not harm the ecology. The proposed activities not only form a tourist brand of the territory, but also improve the urban environment and improve the quality of life of the population

Graduate students - 2 people and undergraduate students 5 people Total: 7 people

3.Project 420/LKP-908–2023. Creative cluster in the eastern part of Verkhnyaya Pyshma Urban District (continued)

362

A. Burmich et al. Table 1. (continued)

Results

Assignment

Developers

The project is aimed at territorial development to include the main ideas of the project into prospective programs to improve the level of socio-economic development and investment attractiveness of the district

The paper has an applied orientation. The aim of the project was to create an integrated creative cluster project with creative, recreational, educational, business, leisure, and sports activities. Implementation of the project will attract interested parties and new residents, improve the recognition of the region, create new jobs, improve living conditions, transportation and activate the existing potential of the territory

Master’s student - 1 person and undergraduate students 4 people Total: 5 people

4.Project 420/LKP-1405–2023. Development of public-cultural zone in the center of Verkhnyaya Pyshma (fitness center) The project is aimed at territorial (urban planning) development. Based on the results of the presentation and defense by a team of students of the Ural Federal University (UFU) under the guidance of master’s student Adrianova S.A., the project was accepted for use in the paper of the Department of Territorial Development of the Administration of the Verkhnyaya Pyshma City Administration

This paper has an applied orientation. The purpose of the project development was the territorial (urban planning) development of Verkhnyaya Pyshma soon

Master’s student - 1 person and undergraduate students 5 people Total: 6 persons

3 Results The presented algorithm of our work overlaps with our model of teaching students by stages of understanding of their knowledge. We conditionally divide all students into four stages of perceived assessment of their knowledge: 1) Unconscious incompetence. 2) Conscious incompetence.

The Role of Game-Based Assessment for the Enhancement

363

3) Unconscious competence. 4) Conscious competence Unconscious incompetence is a state in which a person is unaware of his or her incompetence in a particular area. He or she does not realise that he or she does not have sufficient knowledge, skills, or experience to perform a particular task or job. Instead, such a person may mistakenly believe that he or she is competent and able to perform tasks successfully, when in fact his or her knowledge and skills are inadequate. This concept was introduced in 1999 by social psychologist David Dunning and his colleagues. They found that people with low levels of competence in a particular area are often unable to assess their level of incompetence and tend to overestimate their abilities. Unconscious incompetence can be a barrier to personal growth and development, as the person may not seek to improve their skills or recognise their problems. It can also affect the performance of a team or organisation, as such a person may make poor decisions or be unable to carry out their duties effectively. At the beginning of a project, students are often at the stage of unconscious incompetence, and much more rarely at the stage of conscious incompetence. Conscious incompetence is a state in which a person realises that he or she is incompetent in a particular area. He realises that he does not have sufficient knowledge, skills or experience to carry out a particular task or job. Rather than mistakenly believing that they are competent, such a person recognises their problems and seeks to improve their skills and knowledge. Recognising incompetence can be the first step towards personal growth and development. When a person recognises their incompetence, they can begin to look for ways to improve their skills and acquire new knowledge. This allows them to develop and become more competent in the area. Unconscious competence is a state in which a person has a high level of competence in a particular area but does not realise or recognise their skills and knowledge. Instead of recognising their competence, such a person may believe that their skills and knowledge are ordinary or nothing special. Unconscious competence can hinder personal growth and development because the individual does not recognise the need to improve their skills and acquire new knowledge. He or she may be confident in his or her ability to perform a task or job without being aware of possible areas for improvement. Conscious competence is a state in which a person is aware of his or her high level of competence in a particular area. He or she understands his or her skills, knowledge and abilities and recognises them as valuable and meaningful. Rather than undervaluing himself or herself or considering his or her skills as ordinary, such a person values his or her expertise and is willing to use it in his or her work or activities. Conscious competence promotes personal growth and development because the individual recognises the need to continually improve and refine his or her skills. He or she strives for self-development and constantly seeks opportunities to acquire new knowledge and experience. When a student sees for the first time the variations of tasks presented by our partners, he/she is most often in the stage of unconscious incompetence.

364

A. Burmich et al.

However, when a person becomes aware of his/her incompetence and recognizes the need to improve his/her skills, he/she can begin to move towards conscious competence, where he/she is aware of his/her problems and actively works to solve them. This is why we invite students to participate in a playful way as expert evaluators. Conscious incompetence can also be useful when working in a team or organization. A person who is aware of his or her incompetence will be more likely to accept advice and help from others, which contributes to effective teamwork. He will also be more open to feedback and willing to correct his mistakes. Overall, recognizing incompetence is an important step on the path to development and success. It allows a person to be more realistic in their expectations and to strive for continuous self-improvement. That is, we artificially intensify the process of moving through unconscious and conscious incompetence to the next stage of development - that of unconscious and conscious competence. Unconscious competence can cause problems in the work of a team or organization. A person who is not consciously competent may be less open to advice and help from others, which can lead to a lack of team performance. He or she may also be unwilling to give feedback and correct mistakes. Recognizing one’s own competence is an important aspect of personal growth and development.

4 Description of a Practical Algorithm for Game Evaluation The participants were given the Assessment Sheets in parallel with the Expert Commission and the Customer at the defenses, which coincided in terms of requirements with the assessment of the Customer and experts (see Table 2.). Table 2. Dividing the whole into parts of assimilation and appropriation No. n/a Requirements for project results 1

Final project report

2

A clear statement of purpose and objectives of the work, the presence of a clearly formulated structure of work

3

Presentation prepared by the team for the final defense

4

Project defense and answers to questions

5

Conclusions and options for further development of the project

Score (0–100)

TOTAL

In addition, each player had to formulate their own questions and comments on the project, as well as make a SWOT analysis of strengths, weaknesses, threats, and opportunities. We will show the results of game evaluation of 4 teams of students at the public defense of completed projects on territory development management.

The Role of Game-Based Assessment for the Enhancement

365

The defense took place over two days. The results of the first day of the defense, May 16, 2023, are presented in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2. Results of the May 16, 2023, project evaluation

We see that our players conducted their independent evaluation closer to the customer’s opinion than the experts. SWOT-analysis on the projects was made thoroughly and reasonably. The results of the second day of defense, May 18, 2023, are shown in Fig. 3. Here we have already increased the number of students taking part in the game assessment, for a full immersion in the topic of further work “Territory Development Management”.

Fig. 3. Project evaluation results from May 16, 2023

When we compared the results of the customer, expert, and student evaluations, we found that the student evaluation was as close to reality as possible, despite the game situation. It was practically one hundred percent with the results of the customer’s evaluation. We got results at the level of perceived incompetence. And thanks to the further stage of the game practice - reflection - the students moved to the stage of realized competence.

366

A. Burmich et al.

Therefore, we consider it as an important element of the completion of the game-based assessment practice. Then we made a reflection on the completion of the assessment project. In essence, these are the conclusions of the game. In our opinion, they allow us to accelerate the intensification of the learning process. We have prepared several questions that will develop creativity, promote organization, tolerance, determine leadership qualities. In order to increase the effectiveness of the learning process, the answers of the participants should be written on the blackboard or flipchart. According to the experience of conducting game situations, many teams after gamification much better understand why at the initial stage of product creation it is necessary to go to the client (or customer) and communicate with him, find out the preferences of consumers. And the main conclusion from the students was in the immersion in the essence of the defended projects, assignment of practical experience and positivity in the mood for the fulfillment of their academic assignments, term papers, graduate work for future work. The motivation of the participants of the game assessment was greatly increased and they were ready for any tasks. I.e., the type of action after the game assessment is a transfer to real activity and expressing the promise: “After the project I want to do…”. Since the game action takes place in limited space and time according to deliberately set rules, there was a more intensive immersion in the problem and its more intensive solution. Thus, the participants of our game experiment can develop their attitude to the problem and find the optimal solution (from the stage of unconscious incompetence to conscious competence through the game). Gamification makes it possible to change the quality of life for the better, using theoretical and practical experience.

5 Discussion and Applied Aspects of the Study Following the research based on the experience of project-based learning at Ural Federal University and participation in various competitions we suggest: 1. The main goal of the organizers of any game assessment should be to create equal conditions for the disclosure and realization of students’ creative potential and the formation of an environment favorable to stimulate their mass participation in scientific-cognitive activity. 2. The main goal of the players - voluntary participation in the assessment to implement the possibility of realization of their creative potential and corresponding professional development. 3. Encourage non-standard conceptual solutions for the development of unique breakthrough projects with appropriate justification of the need to change certain restrictions. In our case - it will be aimed at overcoming the impersonality of the main mass of Russian cities in the master plans for spatial development of territories. 4. When evaluating the reports to focus on the classic scientific research, not welcoming the descriptive nature of speeches in the defense of projects. Then students-players will develop generalization and abstract thinking, which will help in further research work to fill it with scientific content (see Table 3.).

The Role of Game-Based Assessment for the Enhancement

367

Table 3. Checklist for student research in the paper Research work of the student 1 unit

2 unit

1. Practical Problem

4. Theory, methodology, and 7. Results of the study research methods

3 unit

2. Relevance of its solution

5. Working hypothesis and boundary conditions

8. Theoretical and practical significance of the results

3. Purpose and objectives of the study

6. The set and solved problems of the study

9. Scientific novelty

Comparability of the internal and external environment

The presented basic components of the student’s scientific research in the analysis with the external environment can lead to applied research, which is beneficial not only to the student, but also to people. 5. Additional points in the evaluation rating can be presented illustrative options (posters, posters, trizers to speeches at the defense of projects, video clips), style and logic of speech and presentation, innovations in the implementation of the project (organizational and managerial, financial, and economic, and others). 6. Due to the difficulties of objective assessment, it is proposed to introduce additional nominations, which will support and develop a trusting and friendly environment. As everyone will be marked where they are strong and can benefit people, society. When grading becomes a collective game, the classroom dynamics can change dramatically. Instead of students (learners) fighting for individual grades, they begin to work in teams and compete. The first thing that changes is the atmosphere in the classroom. Students become more cooperative and supportive of each other. They realize that a successful project depends on a team effort, so they become more willing to help and support their teammates. This creates a more friendly and interacting atmosphere in the classroom. The second thing that changes is student motivation. When grading becomes a team game, students are more motivated to succeed and show their skills. They see that their results affect the success of the whole team, so they try to maximize their abilities and strive for better results. The third thing that changes is student engagement. When grading becomes a team game, students become more active and engaged in the learning process. They actively participate in discussions, offer ideas and solutions, and work together toward a common goal. This promotes deeper immersion in the learning material and enhances the quality of learning. In addition, collective play in grading promotes students’ communication skills. They learn to communicate effectively, listen to others, and express their thoughts and opinions. This helps them not only in their studies but also in their daily life. Overall, when grading becomes a collective game, the classroom dynamics change for the better. Students become more cooperative, motivated, and active. They develop

368

A. Burmich et al.

communication skills and learn to work in teams. This contributes to more effective learning and personal growth for each student.

6 Conclusions In connection with the conducted research, it is suggested to use such a modern tool of game learning as evaluation. As a result, after the received game experience according to the evaluation criteria is appropriated and realized for further modification in the work on the set tasks in the practice of project-based learning. This approach in practice allows to increase the motivation for the practice-oriented learning process and is characterized by the consideration of the students’ peculiarities, including the inclusion of their research work. However, the next step in our further work is the need to investigate the motivation of students involved in game-based assessment. It will have an applied character and will include variants of evaluation criteria and mutual verification depending on the set narrowly focused goals of visualization of research objects.

References 1. Alexiou, A., Schippers, M.C.: Digital game elements, user experience and learning: A conceptual framework. Educ. Inf. Technol. 23, 2545–2567 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10 639-018-9730-6 2. Zhemukhova, J.: Realization of game technologies in biology lessons within the rating system of assessment. Education and problems of society development 1(22), 25–29 (2023) 3. Zhan, Z., He, L., Tong, Y., Liang, X., Guo, S., Lan, X.: The effectiveness of gamification in programming education: evidence from a meta-analysis. Comput. Educ. Artifi. Intell. 3, 100096 (2022) 4. Koskinen, A., McMullen, J., Hannula-Sormunen, M., Ninaus, M., Kiili, K.: The strength and direction of the difficulty adaptation affect situational interest in game-based learning. Comput. Educ. 194, 104694 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2022.104694 5. Asbell-Clarke, J., et al.: The development of students’ computational thinking practices in elementary-and middle-school classes using the learning game. Zoombinis. Computers in Human Behavior. 115, 106587 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2020.106587 6. Liu, T., Israel, M.: Uncovering students’ problem-solving processes in game-based learning environments. Comput. Educ. 182, 104462 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2022. 104462 7. Aderet-German, T., Ben-Peretz, M.: Using data on school strengths and weaknesses for school improvement. Stud. Educ. Eval. 64, 100831 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.stueduc.2019. 100831 8. Jääskä, E., Aaltonen, K.: Teachers’ experiences of using game-based learning methods in project management higher education. Project Leadership and Society. 3, 100041 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plas.2022.100041 9. Cheng, Y.P., Lai, C.F., Chen, Y.T., Wang, W.S., Huang, Y.M., Wu, T.T.: Enhancing student’s computational thinking skills with student-generated questions strategy in a game-based learning platform. Comput. Educ. 200, 104794 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2023. 104794

The Role of Game-Based Assessment for the Enhancement

369

10. Rosa-Castillo, A., García-Pañella, O., Maestre-Gonzalez, E., Pulpón-Segura, A., RosellóNovella, A., Solà-Pola, M.: Gamification on Instagram: Nursing students’ degree of satisfaction with and perception of learning in an educational game. Nurse Educ. Today 118, 105533 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nedt.2022.105533 11. Byusa, E., Kampire, E., Mwesigye, A.R.: Game-based learning approach on students’ motivation and understanding of chemistry concepts: a systematic review of literature. Heliyon. 8(5) (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e09541 12. Nilsson, M., Ferholt, B., Lecusay, R.: ‘The playing-exploring child’: reconceptualizing the relationship between play and learning in early childhood education. Contemp. Issues Early Child 19(3), 231–245 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1177/1463949117710800 13. Lakhtin, D.A.: Game practice in education. In: The use of information and communication technologies in modern education system, pp. 75–77. Far Eastern Federal University, Vladivostok (2017). [In Russia] 14. Serrano-Laguna, Á., Manero, B., Freire, M., Fernández-Manjón, B.: A methodology for assessing the effectiveness of serious games and for inferring player learning outcomes. Multimedia Tools Appli. 77, 2849–2871 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11042-017-4467-6 15. Ivanova, A.: The role of game practice in the methodological training of future teachers. In: The World of Childhood in Contemporary Educational Space: A Collection of Articles by Undergraduate, Graduate, and Postgraduate Students, vol. 13, pp. 437–439. Vitebsk State University n.a. P.M. Masherova, Vitebsk (2022). [in Russia] 16. Grekov, I., Muravyova, A.: Formation of professional helping game practice in Russia. In: Antology of Russian Psychotherapy and sychology, vol. 10, pp. 47–52. All-Russian Professional Psychotherapeutic League, Moscow (2022). [in Russia] 17. Park, J., Kim, S., Kim, A., Mun, Y. Y.: Learning to be better at the game: Performance vs. completion contingent reward for game-based learning. Comput. Educ. 139, 1–15 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2019.04.016 18. Martins, V.F., de Almeida Souza Concilio, I., de Paiva Guimarães, M.: Problem based learning associated to the development of games for programming teaching. Comput. Appli. Eng. Educ. 26(5), 1577–1589 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1002/cae.21968 19. Hedges, J.H., et al.: Play, attention, and learning: How do play and timing shape the development of attention and influence classroom learning? Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1292(1), 1–20 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1111/nyas.12154

Game-Based Assessment of 21st Century Skills: Communication and Creative Thinking in Foreign Language Education Anna Rubtsova , Nora Kats(B)

, and Sofia Rubtsova

Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University, 195251 St. Petersburg, Russia {rubtsova_av,kats_ng}@spbstu.ru, [email protected]

Abstract. This paper aims at evaluating the instructional effect of game-based learning (GBL) for the assessment of creative and communication skills in the context of foreign language training. It analyzes theoretical perspectives on creative thinking, explores how the GBL can be employed to design creativity-supportive assessment, and suggests an assessment framework that could be employed to evaluate creative and communication skills within game-based instruction in a foreign language classroom. To investigate the instructional effect of the developed framework, the study adopted an explorative design based on qualitative methods of research and data analysis. The experimental work sought to analyze the instructional benefits and concerns of game-based assessment in communicative teaching and learning. It involved educators and students who assessed the validity, reliability, and practicality of the game-based assessment framework in a foreign language classroom. The findings reveal that educators, in general, consider game-based instruction motivating and beneficial for the cognitive activity of learners; however, there are several constraints that should be addressed in the development of language training courses. From students’ perspectives, the GBA is an interesting, engaging, and fair form of assessment; however, some students report having concerns attributed to the design of the GBA. Keywords: game-based learning · game-based assessment · creative thinking skills · foreign language education · assessment framework · 21st century skills

1 Introduction Current trends in educational research indicate an increasing interest in game-based learning (GBL) for varied learning and teaching contexts. Researchers are investigating the implications of game-based instructions for different disciplines and age groups, identifying core elements of GBL, evaluating its academic effect on students in comparison to traditional classroom instruction, designing instructions for teacher-led and computer-assisted educational games [1–3]. The studies suggest that GBL is thought to allow educators to design a more collaborative and engaging learning environment that, in turn, might lead learners to greater academic achievements [4]. Reportedly, the GBL provides learners with opportunities to effectively and authentically explore, acquire, © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Bylieva and A. Nordmann (Eds.): PCSF 2023, LNNS 830, pp. 370–390, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-48020-1_28

Game-Based Assessment of 21st Century Skills

371

and implement new knowledge and skills [2, 5–7]. This authenticity and effectiveness supposedly derive from the natural behavioral patterns of humans, as playing represents a universal human behavior exhibited at all developmental stages. Despite a growing body of literature on the instructional benefits of GBL, there is still little consensus regarding its effectiveness in the learning process. The proponents of GBL emphasize its collaborative and engaging nature, that helps educators to boost learners’ motivation and maintain their involvement, but others argue that there is no strong evidence that could explain a tight correlation between the GBL and learners’ academic achievements, their psychological and social growth [8–11]. The main critique is addressed to the poor description of practical significance and reliability in empirical research. The dataset obtained could represent statistical significance, but it might not fully explain the corresponding effect [12]. Another concern reveals the difficulties in instructional design of assessment procedures within the GBL. The latter is becoming a focal point of the studies aimed at identifying assessment solutions to complement the emerging paradigm of modern education. The transformation of modern education majorly relies on the reconceptualization of skills and knowledge that are in demand in the 21st century [13]. The researchers suggest a set of innovation skills, namely communication, collaboration, critical thinking, and creativity, that must be acquired by learners to fit in with the changeable social landscape [14]. It is emphasized that these skills should be embedded in any curriculum and constitute an ultimate instructional goal, which naturally leads to the reconceptualization of teaching approaches. In this regard, it has been suggested that one of the most promising instructional strategies to teach these skills is game-based learning. However, little is known about how the GBL might affect the development of these skills, as well as there is a limited number of studies committed to designing educational games and assessments for teaching 21st century skills in the context of language education [15]. The aim of this paper is to investigate the instructional effect of the framework for communication and creative skills assessment in the context of game-based language training. Therefore, there are several research questions: 1) How do creative thinking skills manifest themselves in foreign language training? 2) What framework for creative skills assessment can be designed within game-based communicative teaching and learning? 3) To what extent is the game-based assessment framework reliable, valuable, and practical from students’ and educators’ perspectives? This paper focuses on identifying specific creative abilities that can be accessed through communication in a game-based learning environment. It analyzes theoretical perspectives on creative thinking and explores how the GBL can be employed to design creativity-supportive assessments in language learning. It also presents the findings regarding the educators’ and students’ perceptions of the game-based assessment (GBA) in foreign language education. 1.1 Creative Thinking as a 21st Century Skill in Foreign Language Education The concept of 21st century skills is well-recognized in current research. These skills are commonly defined as a set of abilities, knowledge, habits, and character traits that

372

A. Rubtsova et al.

learners need to develop in order to succeed in the era of information and technology [16]. The studies suggest differentiating between three clusters of 21st century skills: a) learning skills (4C’s: communication, collaboration, creativity, and critical thinking); b) literacy skills (information literacy, technology literacy, media literacy); c) life skills (flexibility, initiative, social skills, productivity, leadership). Most importantly, these skills are considered cross-curricular, which means they should be fostered in the course of all disciplines. This approach requires changes in teaching and assessment as well as the reconceptualization of existing educational programs and curriculum. There is an ongoing discussion on how to incorporate 21st century skills into foreign language education [13, 17, 18]. The studies suggest using authentic content, creating a supportive and collaborative learning environment, increasing interaction, and encouraging learners to perform problem-based tasks. However, there is still no consensus on how to define and assess these skills within a communicative context of language teaching and learning, namely: a) there is a great number of teaching methods that can be employed to teach these skills in isolation, but there is no common teaching paradigm for 4C’s development in a foreign language classroom; b) there is no common theoretical framework that would describe the interrelation of 21st century skills and communication competences (pragmatic, linguistic, sociolinguistic etc.) in foreign language teaching contexts; however, the design of the assessment framework would require the specification of “evidence”/ “can do statements” for the skills and competences that learners should demonstrate while performing a communicative task. Creativity as a specific attribute of an individual is being studied within varied learning contexts, including science, mathematics, the arts, languages, management and leadership. Overall, there are two major approaches conceptualizing the nature of creativity. On the one hand, it is approached as a general transferrable construct. On the other hand, it is conceptualized as a specific one that manifests itself in certain contexts and settings [13, 19, 20]. In general, the question that underlies these two approaches can be posed as: can creative people demonstrate creativity in everything they do or only in some specific activities? From a general perspective, existing research defines a common set of characteristics of creative people and their mindsets that can be generalized and measured in assessment. It is assumed that creative performance in one domain could be transferred to another. From a more specific perspective, creativity is researched within certain areas of studies like the arts or science. It is suggested that traits necessary for creative performance are specific to and thus differ by domain. In broad terms, creativity, as a way of thinking, is defined as the ability of an individual to generate or recognize novel, innovative, and transformative ideas, alternatives, or possibilities that may be useful in solving problems and communicating with others [21]. It encompasses the capabilities of a person to discover and generate new and unique ideas, observe and evaluate existing ones, model solutions in their natural settings, reflect on personal choices and suggestions, and communicate ideas or solutions by different means of communication and within varied communication modes [22]. It is also defined as the competence to engage productively in the generation, evaluation and improvement of ideas that can result in original and effective solutions, advances in knowledge, and impactful expressions of imagination [22]. In other words, creative thinking manifests itself in the ability: (1) to solve problems in original ways; (2) to see new meanings and

Game-Based Assessment of 21st Century Skills

373

relationships in things; (3) make connections between objects and things; (4) to use the imagination and past experience to create new possibilities. In modern educational research, the concept of creative thinking is commonly analyzed through the lens of cognitive approach, namely the theory of convergent and divergent thinking [23]. Convergent thinking is defined as the ability to recognize specific patterns, follow logical steps, and apply decision-making strategies in order to produce one well-defined answer. By contrast, divergent thinking is the ability to explore multiple solutions, produce original and unique ideas by forming unconventional combinations from available resources. It requires the use of abilities such as semantic flexibility, fluency of association, ideation, transformation, and transfer. Although these types of thinking are often considered opposing and creativity is associated with divergent thinking, the studies highlight the importance of convergent cognitive processes, such as analytical and evaluative skills, in creative production and performance [22]. From a communication perspective, language use is a creative act, and creativity is naturally embedded in communication. In order to generate meanings, thoughts are transformed into language or semiotic signs that facilitate their acquisition, and varied communication strategies are deliberately or unintentionally employed by interlocutors to reach the goals of interaction. The capability of humans to produce texts for conveying and interpreting meanings is creativity “in action”, however, its development as a learning objective requires the creation of a specific environment that promotes an open exchange of ideas and allows learners to see multiple meanings in varied texts and contexts. This transforms the approach to teaching and skills assessment. In language teaching, the goal of fostering learners’ creativity can be achieved by implementing specific strategies in materials design, methods of teaching, and technology use [24, 25]. The studies on the materials design advocate the use of texts drawn from different literary and non-literary sources, as varied language exposure activates cognitive processes in learners by introducing them to richer learning experiences. For this purpose, it is suggested to use multimodal texts, which allow for a more complex and enriched communication experience and encourage learners to make creative decisions about how to communicate effectively to varied audiences. In addition, the majority of language tasks within contemporary language teaching methods are interaction-based and possess some open-ended elements, which stimulates creativity in learners as well. These tasks exploit role-playing and simulations, requiring learners to use their imaginations, generate new ideas, come up with solutions on the spot, exhibit and try varied behaviors, and embed their experiences in real-life or real-like contexts. From a teaching and learning perspective, the development of creative skills would require the reconceptualization of teaching methods and instructional frameworks for knowledge and skills assessment. Traditional forms of assessment are product-based and focus on the final results achieved by learners. Whereas, teaching and assessing creative thinking in communication would mean focusing on a process and the actions undertaken by learners to formulate linguistic and non-linguistic responses to specific moments of social interaction. A process-based view of creative skills development would allow learners to experience iterative assessment based on performance analysis and feedback, as well as enable educators to develop more complex and in-depth

374

A. Rubtsova et al.

assessment frameworks [26]. In addition, considering the complexity and multifaced nature of creative skills, the teaching methods should allow learners to become active participants, experience different challenges, use their abilities in varied settings and appropriate desired social behaviors. It has been proposed that game-based learning is one of the most promising instructional strategies that stimulates the development of creative skills in learners [27, 28]. 1.2 Game-Based Learning for Complex Skills Development in Foreign Language Education The interest in games as a social, pedagogical, and psychological phenomenon has a longstanding history in science. Being a social activity, games reflect the patterns of social and cognitive behavior of people, their cultural attributes, and sociocultural experiences. From a broad social perspective, a game might be approached as a tool or a mechanism that allows people to transmit their social knowledge and experience to others. It is also being conceptualized as a human activity that reflects the values, freedoms, and attitudes of people, shaping their character and social attribution [29]. From a sociopsychological standpoint, a game is a type of social behavior that is governed by rules and norms and is set within specific time and contextual limits. Thus, the emerging social theory of games investigates the roles of participants, their game strategies, behavioral patterns, motives, decision-making mechanisms in competitive situations, and goals of interaction. From a pedagogical perspective, game-based learning (GBL) is a type of active learning within a game framework that has specific learning objectives and measurable learning outcomes. It is considered a fairly new instructional approach that allows learners to experiment, construct their own knowledge, and actively collaborate with each other [1]. In broad terms, the GBL creates the environment where content delivery as well as knowledge and skills acquisition are supported by games and gamification. The GBL activates motivational and affective spheres in learners, which eases the process of knowledge and skills acquisition [30]. In this regard, game-based activities are thought to enhance the learning process by fostering learners’ motivation and introducing them to varied problem-solving or challenge-based tasks embedded in a game-like form. The studies emphasize that educational games should combine both educational value and entertainment characteristics, as this specific combination promotes meaningful learning and provides learners with a sense of achievement. It has also been proposed that to promote meaningful learning, educational games should introduce learners to an adaptive challenge, clear goals, immediate feedback, contextualized tasks, and activate curiosity, self-expression, and a sense of discovery in them. From a theoretical perspective, game-based learning instruction is grounded in social constructivism learning theory that has been shaped by works of Piaget, Vygotsky, Bruner, Bandura, DeLoache, and others [31]. The core ideas of social constructivism learning theory might be summarized as follows: (1) learning is a social process that never occurs out of the social context; (2) learning is embedded in social interactions; (3) knowledge is an internalized construct that emerges as a result of reconceptualization of meaningful events by an individual; it cannot be transmitted, it is constructed by individuals via interactions and modelling; (4) meaningful experience is gained by accomplishing contextualized tasks. These provisions constitute the universal principles

Game-Based Assessment of 21st Century Skills

375

for GBL instruction designed as a social activity. Thus, the practical implications of constructivism for the GBL would manifest themselves in the design of collaborative, contextualized, and challenge-based game activities that help learners shape and acquire desired cognitive and social behavioral patterns. From this perspective, games engage the learner emotionally, and collaborative play supports their sociocultural engagement. However, game designers might use behaviorist elements, cognitivist elements, or combinations of them in the design of games for learning purposes. For instance, digital games and gamification elements might employ a stimulus-reaction formula and reinforcement techniques to retain learners’ attention span. In addition, researchers are still looking for other theoretical grounds to support the instructional design of innovative educational games. Thus, scientists employ cognitive load theory, the ARCS motivational model, self-determination theory, goal-setting theory, and situated learning theory in the theoretical conceptualization of game-based learning in educational contexts. In general, the theory of game-based learning might seem rather eclectic, which leads to contradicting findings and complicates the conceptualization of theoretical foundations for the effective use of GBL. Nevertheless, GBL is considered a promising instructional strategy for the development of 21st century skills [15]. The games designed within a social constructivist paradigm, such as “theater” or “role-plays” allow learners to develop collaboration, communication, creativity, and critical thinking skills by playing out different social roles and interaction strategies. Learners explore varied patterns of behavior, form hypotheses, design and test new ideas, negotiate, and find solutions. In addition, a game-based learning environment offers the opportunity for players to try out alternative courses of action in specific contexts and then experience consequences, namely, to understand how manipulating systems or objects causes particular effects and leads to certain results. In this regard, the GBL instruction would include elements such as problem solving, action in context, iterative feedback, optimal challenge, and the creation of safe zones [32]. 1.3 Game-Based Assessment of Complex Skills in Foreign Language Education Regardless of the GBL potential benefits, one of the major concerns is the assessment design [33]. Game-based assessment is a type of assessment or evaluation that uses game-like elements or mechanics to measure learners’ skills, knowledge, and abilities. It may be designed in digital or non-digital formats. The common features of game-based assessments include elements such as scoring systems, feedback mechanisms, time limits, and challenges that increase difficulty and evoke interest in learners. Game-based assessments can be used in various settings and contexts, for instance, in education, business training, or recruitment. In educational contexts, game-based assessments are usually used to check knowledge and skills acquisition, to measure learners’ understanding of a particular subject, or to assess their abilities to perform specific tasks. Different types of games can be employed for assessment purposes, such as cognitive games, behavioral games, emotional intelligence games, situational judgement games, and simulation games. The use of a specific game type depends on the assessment purposes and the educational context. For example, cognitive games are commonly used to test learners’ abilities such as memory, attention, problem-solving, and decision-making skills.

376

A. Rubtsova et al.

Behavioral games are designed to assess the behavioral patterns of learners in communication, teamwork, or conflict resolution. Emotional intelligence games are employed to evaluate the abilities of learners to recognize, regulate, and control their emotions in specific situations. Situational games tend to assess learners’ abilities to make decisions and exhibit specific behaviors in realistic scenarios. Simulation games aim at recreating specific real-life situations in which learners should demonstrate specific behavioral patterns, complete tasks, or deal with challenges effectively. Traditional assessments are based on well-accepted educational standards and curriculum. They are commonly designed as a collection of measurable items (questions or tasks) that cover the content of a course. The main disadvantage of this approach is that it does not involve students in the assessment process; students are passive participants, but not active doers. Another flaw that can be found with traditional forms of assessment is that quite often these assessments are receptive in nature; they check knowledge, but they barely check skills. Game-based assessments (GBA), on the other hand, are designed to engage learners and make them active participants in the assessment process through the use of games and simulations. This allows learners to immerse themselves in the specifically designed contexts or authentic situations, and demonstrate their cognitive, social, and communication skills. The GBA equips educators with the techniques to assess the performance or behaviors of learners that are meaningful, valuable and context bound. Although there are obvious advantages of the GBA, there is still no agreement on the techniques, tools, or frameworks used for its implementation [33]. This becomes especially challenging in foreign language education. There are several key characteristics that should be taken into account while designing any sort of assessment procedures for educational purposes: a) reliability; b) validity; c) adequacy; d) fairness [34]. Moreover, the assessment should be motivational and ensure a psychologically safe environment for learners. This is particularly important as the goal of the assessment is not only to check the knowledge or skills but also to motivate learners for further academic achievements, help them define the areas of their knowledge and “non-knowledge”, create the environment where they can show their mastery and profound knowledge and perform at their best. In this regard, the GBA is thought to provide greater opportunities for educators to design a more complex and in-depth assessment that would focus on what knowledge has been acquired by learners, how this knowledge has been put into practice, whether this knowledge and skills fit in with the task context, how learners operate their knowledge and skills, and what sort of behavior they demonstrate. For this reason, the GBA becomes a very promising way to assess complex constructs, namely, “21st century skills”, which are associated with deeper learning and transferability. In the context of language education, researchers mostly focus on the application of digital tools for the GBA. So, there is a growing body of literature on how to use varied digital applications for learners’ assessment, or gamification elements to boost learners’ motivation, create an engaging learning environment, and check their linguistic knowledge. Thus, the majority of studies tend to investigate the instructional effect of using cognitive games in language education. Meanwhile, diligent attention should be paid to assessing the learners’ abilities to interact and implement creative thinking skills

Game-Based Assessment of 21st Century Skills

377

to solve real-life problems by means of a foreign language. In other words, considering the importance of the 4Cs in education, there is an increasing demand to develop instructional frameworks for the assessment of creative and communication skills in the course of language training. The implementation of the GBA in language education stipulates a transition from knowledge assessment to performance assessment. Thus, the methodological ground for GBA design aligns with “performance-based assessment”, or “authentic assessment”, in general [35]. These types of assessments involve learners in the assessment “in action” through their completion of meaningful and context-bound tasks. One of the ways to make it a meaningful learning experience is to design scenarios that correspond with the learning objectives and real-life tasks. Game-based scenarios would provide educators with multiple opportunities to recreate the desired environment and make learners immerse themselves in it. This “imitating” reality might be created by means of technologies or recreated in a traditional class. Thus, a game-based scenario will include a plot, characters, problem or challenge and several alternatives to deal with it, task instructions and learning objectives [36]. An educational game designed for assessment purposes should contain measurable elements. This means defining evidence (descriptors) for desired behaviors that could be coded with a scale of measurement to ensure the reliability, fairness, and validity of the assessment results. In addition, an educational game for assessment could be designed to have different difficulty levels that are interconnected. Thus, skills and information that students learn at each level are required for the next problem-solving situation or challenge. In this case, the educational game might employ a branched scenario to meet the learning objectives and cater for the needs of all learners. In order to assess communicative and creative thinking skills in the context of foreign language training, it would be necessary to design situational judgment or simulation games. These games should contain a challenge, real-life situation and require learners to exhibit specific behavioral patterns. In order to assess the effectiveness of their performance, several domains should be considered to align with the learning objectives within a language course. These domains include cognitive (creative skills) domain; interactive (communication strategies) domain; linguistic (language knowledge) domain; social (flexibility and collaboration) domain. Each domain would have particular skills that students would need to exhibit. These skills would comprise the instructional value and, hence, the learning objectives of a game-based scenario created for the GBA. They should be presented as “can do” statements and connected to specific standards or measurement scales in order to allow for a fair assessment. For the purposes of this study, a framework for formative assessment in spoken interaction was designed (Appendix 1). The theoretical and practical foundations of this framework derive from CEFR 2020, EAQUALS 2015 Core Inventory for General English 2nd Edition and PISA 2021 Creative thinking framework (3rd draft) [22, 37, 38]. This framework was used in this study as a core experimental tool.

378

A. Rubtsova et al.

2 Methods and Materials 2.1 Context of the Study and Participants The study was conducted at Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University in 2022 to evaluate the instructional effect of the framework designed to assess learners’ creative thinking abilities and communication skills in the context of game-based foreign language training. The study involved different groups of participants. To investigate the students’ perceptions of the GBA in foreign language training, 50 bachelor’s students, aged 19 to 21, and 47 master’s students, aged 22 to 25, were introduced to the questionnaire. The participants were selected by means of convenience sampling technique. The choice of participants was based on their availability and willingness to participate in the study and conditioned on their prior experience with the designed instructional framework for creative skills assessment in foreign language teaching. To assess the validity and practicality of the designed assessment framework for creative thinking and communication skills, five educators participated in our study. These participants were selected based on their prior teaching experience (6 years and more) and interest in game-based learning and assessment. To understand the overall impression of educators about game-based assessment in foreign language education, we attracted 15 professors who had been asked to use the designed assessment framework in teaching foreign languages to bachelor’s and master’s students. They agreed to share their experiences and discuss the benefits and concerns of a game-based assessment framework in foreign language training. All participants were informed that any personal data would remain confidential. 2.2 Methods and Data Collection The study adopts an explorative design based on qualitative methods of research and data analysis. The data were collected from students and educators by means of focus group discussions and a questionnaire. Each focus group consisted of 5 participants (educators) who used the GBA framework in their teaching, a moderator who was leading the discussion, and an assistant moderator who was audio recording the sessions and taking notes. The discussions were semi-structured and addressed the issues of: (1) benefits of the GBA; (2) difficulties of the GBA; (3) recommendations regarding the GBA; (4) educators’ attitudes towards the GBA (Table 1). The gathered dataset was further processed through directed content analysis. The dataset was summarized, then categorized into smaller units, coded to identify the most frequent patterns, and then analyzed and interpreted. Another source of data collection was a questionnaire developed to analyze students’ perceptions of the GBA. The questionnaire included 12 statements based on a 5-point Likert scale and 3 open-ended questions. The questionnaire was distributed through a digital survey platform. The internal consistency reliability was assessed by Alpha Cronbach and equaled 0.83. The obtained quantitative data were further analyzed by means of descriptive statistics.

Game-Based Assessment of 21st Century Skills

379

Table 1. Semi-structured interview question guide. Research area

Questions

Benefits of the GBA

Q1: What do you think are the core benefits of the GBA? Why?

Difficulties of the GBA

Q2: What are the main difficulties of the GBA in foreign language training?

Recommendations regarding GBA

Q3: What would you recommend to those who intend to use the GBA in their class?

Educators’ attitudes towards the GBA Q4: How would you evaluate your experience with the GBA? Q5: How would you describe your attitude towards the GBA?

The developed assessment framework was analyzed by experts in the field in order to determine its content validity. The content validity was assessed through expert judgments procedure, and included several steps: (1) design of the questionnaire based on 4-point Likert scale to evaluate the clarity and relevance of the developed assessment framework; (2) selection of a review panel - 5 experts in the fields of pedagogy; (3) content validation; (4) revision of domains and items; (5) score calculation for each item; (6) computation of the content validity indexes (S-CVI/UA, PR, S-CVI/Ave based on I-CVI). The review panel consisted of three experts from different Graduate Schools of our university and two experts from the partner university. To compute the content validity indices we: (1) calculated scale-content validity index average based on item-validity index (S-CVI Ave based on I-CVI) – 0.98; (2) proportion of relevance (PR) – 0.99; (3) scale-content validity index universal agreement average (S-CVI/UA) - 0,91. Since the designed assessment framework attained an acceptable degree of content validity based on the acquired indices, it was possible to draw a conclusion that it could be utilized in teaching and as a means of collecting the necessary assessment data.

3 Results This section presents the findings regarding students’ and educators’ perceptions of game-based assessment in foreign language training, namely whether they find it valid, reliable and practical. 3.1 Educators’ Perceptions of the Game-Based Assessment To collect the data, we held 3 focus group discussions with different participants (N = 15). We followed the interview question guide, audio recorded participants’ answers, and then analyzed the data (content). The table below shows the most frequent occurrences of coded units and keywords in the number of transcripts per question (Table 2). Q1. The respondents identified several benefits of the GBA. Students’ motivation and interest were the most frequently mentioned. The participants stated they could observe

380

A. Rubtsova et al. Table 2. The results of content analysis per question.

Question

Units/keywords

Appeared in transcripts (N = 15)

Q1

Motivation (interest, involvement)

15

Unconventional (new approaches, new methods of assessment)

12

Collaboration (team work, socialization, mutual support)

13

In-depth analysis (complex analysis of skills and abilities)

11

Varied scenarios (different real-like situations)

7

Preparation (materials design)

14

Time management (time consuming, time limit)

12

Materials selections (selection of topics and tasks)

9

Audience analysis (learners’ interests, academic motivation, personal goals)

7

Prior knowledge (activate previous experience)

5

Positive (enjoyable, interesting)

10

Not sure (quite ok, mixed feelings, hard to evaluate)

4

Negative (difficulties, stress, anxiety)

2

Interested in the GBA (new approach)

10

Need more experience with (GBA) (teaching techniques, interesting tasks)

6

Skeptical about the GBA (clear learning objectives and requirements, redesign of syllabi)

2

Q2

Q3

Q4

Q5

the involvement and interest of students in the assessment process. Students worked as a team, provided support to each other, and communicated a lot during the assessment. Besides that, educators considered the GBA an opportunity to use new approaches and new methods of teaching and assessment, which enriched their teaching repertoire. They stated that this approach to assessment could allow them to perform a complex analysis of varied skills and abilities of learners, which, in turn, could provide them with the opportunity to give learners in-depth feedback. The educators also mentioned that this type of assessment seemed more effective and innovative in the context of modern approaches and tendencies in education.

Game-Based Assessment of 21st Century Skills

381

Q2. The participants mentioned several difficulties; thus, the major ones were the need for designing materials and the necessity for managing the time properly. The respondents mentioned that the implementation of the GBA in class would require more preparation than usual, namely, the design of materials and tasks, assessment grids, recommendations, and requirements for students. Besides that, it would require more time for both preparation and delivery in class. Q3. The respondents gave several recommendations regarding further implementation of the GBA in foreign language training. They stated that the most important aspect of the GBA was the selection of tasks, topics, and supporting materials. The participants recommended selecting real-life situations and real-life tasks that would appeal to learners. Besides that, it seemed important for them to first analyze the learners, namely, their interests, academic motivation, and personal aims, as these aspects could help to select the topic and materials and plan the GBA. It was also mentioned that to make the GBA more successful, it would be necessary to activate the learners’ prior knowledge and help them dive into the assessment scenario. Q4. The majority of respondents evaluated their experience as positive, interesting, and engaging. However, there were those who stated they had mixed feelings about the GBA; thus, they could not define it as a positive or negative experience; it was rather unusual and they would need to develop their own “assessment style”. Besides that, two educators stated they felt stressed during this assessment, as they did not feel in control of the class. Q5. The majority of participants stated that they were interested in this form of assessment and they found it quite promising, practical, and reliable. However, several interviewees mentioned that they needed more experience with the GBA, as they wanted to master some teaching techniques and learn how to design varied tasks for this form of assessment. Besides that, two participants were quite skeptical regarding this assessment and stated that it would require the redevelopment of syllabi, the restatement of learning objectives, and the development of specific requirements for learners. 3.2 Students’ Perceptions of the Game-Based Assessment The students’ perceptions of the GBA were analyzed by means of the 12-item questionnaire. The chart below presents the respondents’ answers given in percentage in accordance with a Likert scale (1-strongly disagree; 2-disagree; 3-neutral; 4-agree; 5-strongly agree) (Fig. 1). The questionnaire included the following statements: 1. I enjoy the game-based approach to language assessment. 2. Based on my experience, I think game-based assessment in language training is a fair form of assessment. 3. Game-based assessment in language training helps me demonstrate varied skills in communication. 4. I feel more relaxed being assessed through games and simulations in language courses. 5. Game-based assessment in language training helps me demonstrate my skills of creative thinking. 6. I feel more enthusiastic about the language assessment when it is carried out in a game-like form.

382

A. Rubtsova et al.

7. I feel more stressed when I am assessed through games and simulations. 8. I do not always understand the objectives of the assessment when it is conducted in a game-like form. 9. I have a clear understanding of what skills and competencies are being assessed through games. 10. Game-based assessment in foreign language training helps me develop my skills for working with other students. 11. I believe that game-based assessment in language training helps me become a competent speaker. 12. I believe that game-based assessment develops imagination.

Fig. 1. Students’ perceptions of the GBA based on the questionnaire.

According to the findings, 79% of respondents agreed or strongly agreed that they enjoyed the GBA as a form of assessment, whereas only 10% of students considered it to be a negative experience and 13% reported having a neutral attitude toward it. Importantly, 75% of respondents agreed that the GBA was a fair form of assessment of their skills and abilities, and only 12% disagreed with this point. The respondents were convinced that the GBA helped them demonstrate varied communication and creative thinking skills, 86% and 74% respectively, feel more relaxed and enthusiastic about the language assessment, 67% and 82% accordingly, develop their imagination - 79%, become competent speakers – 87%, and build on skills to work in a team – 74%. Although 10% of respondents reported having a neutral attitude toward this assessment and 21% of students could not agree or disagree whether the GBA helped them feel relaxed, 84% of respondents disagreed with the point that the GBA increased the level of stress during the assessment. Besides that, 75% of respondents agreed that they had a clear understanding of what skills and competences were assessed through games and simulations, and 63% disagreed with the point that they failed to understand the assessment objectives. The respondents were also asked to answer 3 open-ended questions: Q1: What difficulties did you face with the GBA? Q2: What did you particularly like about the GBA? Q3: Would you like to have this type of assessment more often? Why? Why not?

Game-Based Assessment of 21st Century Skills

383

We analyzed the answers received from respondents and defined a set of units and keywords that represented the most frequent occurrences. Q1: 25% of respondents stated that they were not used to being assessed as a part of a team; 29% of students reported having difficulties speaking in public, and 36% of participants stated they had limited time to make decisions during the assessment. Q2: 73% of respondents believed that the GBA allowed them to use imagination; 61% of participants enjoyed being involved in real-like situations; and 47% of students stated that they appreciated the opportunity to cooperate with others and exchange their experiences. Q3: 77% of respondents agreed that they would like to have this form of assessment, as they found it engaging, interesting, and more fun; and stated that the GBA stimulated the exchange of ideas and created a more informal atmosphere. Besides that, 21% of students stated that although they liked this form of assessment, its criteria and requirements had to be clearer and more transparent, and they would appreciate having a written feedback report.

4 Discussion Game-based learning and assessment are the most prominent trends in the emerging educational paradigm. The interest in this instructional approach is defined by the necessity to create more flexible, motivational, and engaging learning environments where learners are able to acquire a greater variety of skills and construct their own knowledge. Game-based learning in the context of foreign language training is thought to empower educators with innovative teaching methods and techniques that help them design reallife tasks and simulate real-life contexts [4, 6, 8]. Tasks and activities based on games and simulations reportedly foster the development of 21st century skills, namely creative thinking and communication skills, which are at the heart of modern education [15]. The aim of the study was to evaluate the instructional effect of game-based assessment framework for creative thinking and communication skills in the context of foreign language training. The study provides a practical solution to the design of assessment framework for creative and communication skills and presents the results of its implementation. The results of our research revealed that educators have a positive attitude towards the GBA in the context of foreign language training. This approach is believed to become one of the most promising solutions to complex and in-depth assessments of learners’ abilities. The implementation of the developed game-based framework for the assessment of creative thinking abilities allowed educators to conclude that it stimulated the interest of learners, increased the level of their motivation, evoked their imagination and abilities to find non-standard solutions, and helped them become active participants in the assessment process. These findings align with the results presented in other studies [6, 39–41]. These studies highlighted that, overall, teachers consider a game-based instruction motivating and beneficial for the cognitive activity of learners. Learners are thought to acquire valuable skills such as critical thinking skills, creativity, and social skills. Although game-based assessment is generally seen as a positive trend, our study showed that there might be several concerns about its implementation in class. First of

384

A. Rubtsova et al.

all, the game-based assessment might present an instructional difficulty. The incorporation of this approach into the teaching practice might necessitate the redesign of syllabi, the creation of specific materials for the ongoing language course, and the reconceptualization of learning objectives. This might represent a certain difficulty, especially for novice teachers or those who have little experience with the GBL and the GBA. Secondly, according to our study, the implementation of the GBA in class required more time for preparation from educators. To ensure its effectiveness in class, educators were supposed to consolidate their designing, time-management, and leadership skills, which was quite stressful for some educators. The issues of classroom dynamics and classroom management, as well as some practical concerns about game-based instructions, were prior discussed in some studies which advocated for a balanced and purposeful use of games in the learning process [41]. The findings of our study align with this idea. Although educators were interested in the GBL and the GBA and mostly had a positive impression of this instruction, they reported about the need for further research and development of methods and techniques that could be used in a game-based learning environment. They also emphasized that careful planning and selection of topics and materials to be used in class were rather important for the GBA preparation and delivery. From a students’ perspective, game-based assessment was quite interesting, engaging, and fun. Respondents reported being less stressed and more involved in the assessment process. Importantly, our study revealed that students considered game-based assessment a fair form of assessment. Respondents reported that it encouraged collaboration and helped them demonstrate communication skills and creative thinking abilities. The positive influence of the GBL and the GBA on learners’ abilities to work in a team was reported in several studies [4, 13]. These studies highlighted that the GBL enhanced the learning process by allowing learners to collaborate, reflect, communicate, and exchange opinions. Although respondents in our study had a positive attitude toward the GBA, the findings revealed some learners’ concerns. According to the results, 25% of respondents stated that they were not accustomed to being assessed as a part of a team, 29% of students reported having difficulties speaking in public, and 21% of participants suggested that the criteria and requirements of the GBA should be clear and more transparent. It should be stated that the existing literature on the GBL and the GBA tends to describe the positive effects of these game-based interventions, whereas their negative aspects and concerns are moderately presented. The findings of our research show that despite the obvious advantage of the GBA in foreign language education, there are several concerns from educators’ and students’ standpoints that should be addressed in the design of game-based instructions. These concerns relate to the: (1) selection of topics and supplementary materials; (2) redesign of syllabi and learning objectives; (3) fostering classroom management skills of educators; (4) delivery of prompt and comprehensive feedback to learners.

5 Conclusion This study aimed at conceptualizing the theoretical and practical perspectives on gamebased learning and assessment for 21st century skills in foreign language education. This qualitative design of the research revealed educators’ and learners’ perceptions of the

Game-Based Assessment of 21st Century Skills

385

GBA, which could enrich the theory and practice of the game-based approach in foreign language education. However, this study has several limitations. The research is limited by the: (1) number of respondents and their profiles. In this study, a convenience sampling technique was used to choose respondents among students, however, to elaborate on this question further, it might be reasonable to enlarge the sampling and change the sampling technique. It would help to evaluate the instructional effect of the GBA on different age groups and on students from different learning contexts; (2) number of respondents among educators. To investigate the educators’ perceptions of the GBA with respect to their teaching experience, beliefs, and educational policies, a greater sampling among educators would be required. Future studies might involve the advancement and further validation of the designed assessment framework for creative and communication skills for the needs of summative assessment. The study enhances pedagogical research related to the use of game-based assessment activities for 21st century skills in foreign language education. It contributes to an improved understanding of how educators can create engaging assessments to enrich a learning environment. It shares validated practices and introduces new forms of assessment that promote learners’ active participation in the classroom.

Appendix 1 Scenario: business meeting. Scenario description: XXXXX. Teaching context. Social Domain

Context

Tasks

Activities

Materials, methods, technologies

Level of language proficiency

Occupational/ professional

Organization: Multinational company Participants: contractors and customers

Making a proposal Contributing an opinion on other proposals Convincing the audience to choose a certain proposal

Listening as a member of a live audience Spoken Interaction Spoken production

Power-point presentations Scenario description Formal discussion Multimedia resources

B1 + - B2

386

A. Rubtsova et al.

Assessment framework: competences and skills descriptors. Learning Domain

Skills/competence

Cognitive domain

Creative thinking skills

Can do statement

Criteria Domain

Score 1

Observe, describe relevant experience and information

0

Inquiring

Explore, seek and generate ideas Make connections, integrate other disciplinary perspectives and knowledge

Imagining

Stretch and play with unusual/risky/radical ideas Prototype new product / solution /performance

Doing

Present new product or ideas in original and innovative ways Appreciate the novelty of Reflecting solution and/or possible consequences Interactive domain

Strategic competence

Intervene appropriately

Appropriateness Coherence Fluency Range

Follow up what people say Overcome gaps in vocabulary with paraphrase Monitor speech to correct slips and mistakes Reaches communicative goals Pragmatic competence

Express abstract ideas Develop an argument Justify opinions Summarize information (continued)

Game-Based Assessment of 21st Century Skills

387

(continued) Learning Domain

Skills/competence

Can do statement

Criteria Domain

Score 1

0

Use speech markers Use communication for a range of purposes (e.g., to inform, instruct, motivate and persuade) Linguistic domain

Grammatical competence

Use passive forms Use conditional sentences Use modals of deduction

Lexical competence Use topic specific vocabulary Use domain-related collocations Use specific terminology Social domain

Social competence

Demonstrate ability to work respectfully with diverse teams

Flexibility Collaboration

Assume shared responsibility for collaborative work, and value the individual contributions made by each team member Utilize multiple media and technologies for different contexts, and know how to judge their effectiveness as well as assess their impact Total max: 27 Suggested scores and marks at levels: Level 1 – 7–15 (C) Level 2 – 16–22 (B) Level 3 – 23–27 (A)

References 1. Plass, J.L., Homer, B.D., Kinzer, C.K.: Foundations of game-based learning. Educ. Psychol. 50, 258–283 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2015.1122533

388

A. Rubtsova et al.

2. Bhat, A.Z., Ahmed, I., Kameswari, L., Khan, M.S.: A Game Based Innovative teaching and learning environment to enhance progression and performance of students. SHS Web Conf. 156, 01001 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1051/shsconf/202315601001 3. Cabrera-Solano, P.: Game-based learning in higher education: the pedagogical effect of genially games in english as a foreign language instruction. Int. J. Educ. Methodol. 8, 719–729 (2022). https://doi.org/10.12973/ijem.8.4.719 4. Saleh, A., et al.: Supporting collaborative problem solving in a game-based learning environment. In: In Lund, K., Niccolai, G.P., Lavoué, E., Hmelo-Silver, C., Gweon, G., Baker, M. (eds.) A Wide Lens: Combining Embodied, Enactive, Extended, and Embedded Learning in Collaborative Settings, pp. 1029–1032. International Society of the Learning Sciences, Lyon, France (2019) 5. Cheng, C.-H., Su, C.-H.: A Game-based learning system for improving student’s learning effectiveness in system analysis course. Procedia Soc. Behav. Sci.Behav. Sci. 31, 669–675 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.12.122 6. Jääskä, E., Lehtinen, J., Kujala, J., Kauppila, O.: Game-based learning and students’ motivation in project management education. Project Leadership Soc. 3, 100055 (2022). https://doi. org/10.1016/j.plas.2022.100055 7. Teixeira, S., Barbosa, D., Araújo, C., Henriques, P.R.: Improving game-based learning experience through game appropriation. In: Communications in Computer and Information Science, pp. 1–10. Springer International Publishing, Vila do Conde, Porto, Portugal (2020). https:// doi.org/10.4230/OASIcs.ICPEC.2020.27 8. Arcagök, S.: The impact of game-based teaching practices in different curricula on academic achievement. Int. Online J. Educ. Teach. (IOJET) 8, 778–796 (2021) 9. Marklund, B.B., Taylor, A.-S.A.: Educational Games in Practice: The challenges involved in conducting a game-based curriculum. Electron. J. e-Learning 14, 122–135 (2016) 10. Mohd Arif, F.K., Zubir, N.Z., Mohamad, M., Md Yunus, M.: Benefits and challenges of using game-based formative assessment among undergraduate students. HSSR 7, 203–213 (2019). https://doi.org/10.18510/hssr.2019.7426 11. Perotta, C., Featherstone, G., Aston, H., Houghton, E.: Game-based learning: latest evidence and future directions (NFER Research Programme: Innovation in Education). National Foundation for Educational Research (NFER), Slough, Berkshire (2013). https://www.nfer.ac.uk/ publications/game01/game01.pdf 12. Krath, J., Schürmann, L., Von Korflesch, H.F.O.: Revealing the theoretical basis of gamification: a systematic review and analysis of theory in research on gamification, serious games and game-based learning. Comput. Hum. Behav.. Hum. Behav. 125, 106963 (2021). https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2021.106963 13. Thornhill-Miller, B., et al.: Creativity, critical thinking, communication, and collaboration: assessment, certification, and promotion of 21st century skills for the future of work and education. J. Intell. 11, 54 (2023). https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11030054 14. OECD/CERI International Conference “Learning in the 21st Century: Research, Innovation and Policy: 21st Century Learning: Research, Innovation and Policy: Directions from recent OECD analyses. Centre for educational research and Innovation, Paris, France (2008). https:// www.oecd.org/site/educeri21st/40554299.pdf 15. Qian, M., Clark, K.R.: Game-based Learning and 21st century skills: a review of recent research. Comput. Hum. Behav.. Hum. Behav. 63, 50–58 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/j. chb.2016.05.023 16. Joynes, C., Rossignoli, S., Amonoo-Kuofi, E.F.: 21st Century Skills: evidence of issues in definition, demand and delivery for development contexts (K4D Helpdesk Report). Institute of Development Studies, Brighton, UK (2019). https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/ 5d71187ce5274a097c07b985/21st_century.pdf

Game-Based Assessment of 21st Century Skills

389

17. Baran-Lucarz, M., Klimas, A.: Developing 21st century skills in a foreign language classroom: EFL student teachers’ beliefs and self-awareness. Acad. J. Modern Philol. 10, 23–28 (2020) 18. Aghazadeh, S.: Assessment of 21st Century Skills (NIE Working Paper Series No. 14), Singapore: National Institute of Education (2019). https://repository.nie.edu.sg/bitstream/10497/ 22420/1/niewp-14.pdf 19. Long, H., Kerr, B.A., Emler, T.E., Birdnow, M.: A critical review of assessments of creativity in education. Rev. Res. Educ. 46, 288–323 (2022). https://doi.org/10.3102/0091732X2210 84326 20. Lucas, B., Claxton, G., Spencer, E.: Progression in student creativity in school: first steps towards new forms of formative assessments. Contemp. Read. Law Soc. Justice 6, 81–121 (2014) 21. Yazar Soyadı, B.B.: Creative and critical thinking skills in problem-based learning environments. JGEDC 2, 71–71 (2015). https://doi.org/10.18200/JGEDC.2015214253 22. OECD: PISA 2021 Creative thinking framework (Third Draft). OECD, Paris, France (2019). https://www.oecd.org/pisa/publications/PISA-2021-creative-thinking-framework.pdf 23. Tang, M.: Creativity and innovation: basic concepts and approaches. In: Tang, M., Werner, C.H. (eds.) Handbook of the Management of Creativity and Innovation. Theory and Practice, pp. 3–32. World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd. (2017). https://doi.org/10.1142/978981 3141889_0001 24. Richards, J.C.: Creativity in language teaching. Iranian J. Lang. Teach. Res. 1, 19–43 (2013) 25. Jones, R.H.: Creativity in language learning and teaching: Translingual practices and transcultural identities. Appl. Linguist. Rev. 11, 535–550 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1515/applirev2018-0114 26. McClure, E.R., Jaeger, G.: Assessing creativity: a palette of possibilities (an essay collection). The LEGO Foundation, Billund, Denmark (2020). https://cms.learningthroughplay. com/media/u1wf1xou/assessing-creativity_may2020.pdf 27. Ibharim, L.F., Yatim, M.H., Zain, N.Z., Azizan, U.H., Fabil, N.: Development of rubric to measure children’s creativity in game design. Int. J. Multimed. Appl. 13, 27–34 (2021). https:// doi.org/10.5121/ijma.2021.13203 28. Ahmad, M., Mansor, N.R., Rashid, R.A., Ain, N., Zakaria, C.R., Sung, C.M.: Implementation of digital games in advancing students’ higher-order thinking skills: a review. J. Phys. Conf. Ser. 1793, 012069 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1793/1/012069 29. Adamowsky, N.: Productive indeterminacy: on the relationship between play and science. Technol. Lang. 3, 8–20 (2022). https://doi.org/10.48417/TECHNOLANG.2022.04.02 30. Wu, W.-H., Hsiao, H.-C., Wu, P.-L., Lin, C.-H., Huang, S.-H.: Investigating the learningtheory foundations of game-based learning: a meta-analysis: exploring the learning-theory bases of GBL. J. Comput. Assist. Learn.Comput. Assist. Learn. 28, 265–279 (2012). https:// doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2729.2011.00437.x 31. Akpan, V.I., Igwe, U.A., Blessing, I., Mpamah, I., Okoro, C.O.: Social Constructivism: implications on teaching and learning. British J. Educ. 8, 49–56 (2020) 32. Ding, D., Guan, C., Yu, Y.: Game-based learning in tertiary education: a new learning experience for the generation Z. Int. J. Inf. Educ. Technol. 7, 148–152 (2017). https://doi.org/10. 18178/ijiet.2017.7.2.857 33. Zhao, N., Xiong, M., Zhang, X., Terwilliger, M.G.: Proposing a framework of game-based learning and assessment systems. Issues Inf. Syst. 22, 193–207 (2021). https://doi.org/10. 48009/4_iis_2021_208-223 34. Zacharis, N.Z.: Innovative assessment for learning enhancement: issues and practices. Contemporary Issues Educ. Res. 3, 61–70 (2010). https://doi.org/10.19030/cier.v3i1.162 35. Ajjawi, R., Tai, J., Huu Nghia, T.L., Boud, D., Johnson, L., Patrick, C.-J.: Aligning assessment with the needs of work-integrated learning: the challenges of authentic assessment in a

390

36. 37.

38.

39.

40.

41.

A. Rubtsova et al. complex context. Assessment Eval. High. Educ. 45, 304–316 (2020). Doi:https://doi.org/10. 1080/02602938.2019.1639613 Dannenberg, S., Fischer, N.: Gaming scenarios: making sense of diverging developments. J. Futures Stud. 22, 15–26 (2017). https://doi.org/10.6531/JFS.2017.22(2).A15 Council of Europe: Common European framework of reference for languages: learning, teaching, assessment: companion volume. Council of Europe Publishing, Strasbourg (2020). https:// www.coe.int/en/web/common-european-framework-reference-languages North, B., Ortega, A., Sheehan, S.: British Council - EAQUALS Core inventory for General English: 2nd Edition. British Council/EAQUALS (European Association for Quality Language Services), United Kingdom (2015). https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/sites/tea cheng/files/pub-british-council-eaquals-core-inventoryv2.pdf Huizenga, J.C., Ten Dam, G.T.M., Voogt, J.M., Admiraal, W.F.: Teacher perceptions of the value of game-based learning in secondary education. Comput. Educ.. Educ. 110, 105–115 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2017.03.008 An, Y.-J., Cao, L.: The effects of game design experience on teachers’ attitudes and perceptions regarding the use of digital games in the classroom. TechTrends 61, 162–170 (2017). https:// doi.org/10.1007/s11528-016-0122-8 Balakrishna, C.: The impact of in-classroom non-digital game-based learning activities on students transitioning to higher education. Educ. Sci. 13, 328 (2023). https://doi.org/10.3390/ educsci13040328

Gamification Techniques in Massive Open Online Courses: Challenges and Opportunities Artyom Zubkov(B) Novosibirsk State University of Economics and Management, 56 Kamenskaya Str, Novosibirsk 630099, Russian Federation [email protected]

Abstract. This research delves into both the difficulties and potential advantages linked with the integration of game-oriented methods within the context of Massive Open Online Courses. They have emerged as a potential tool for democratizing education, yet they frequently suffer from less-than-optimal engagement and course completion statistics. The inclusion of game-like elements is often proposed as a solution to combat this, but its real-world application and effectiveness within MOOCs has not been thoroughly examined. This article is based on research conducted through a mixed-methods approach, where six MOOC platforms were analyzed through content evaluation, and both students and course facilitators were surveyed. The study discovered a plethora of game-like strategies being implemented, ranging from scoring systems, achievement-oriented badges, to engaging quizzes. It was observed that there exists a notable positive association between the application of such methods and a boost in both student involvement and course completion statistics. Nevertheless, the research also underscores some potential obstacles, such as the challenge of constructing effective gaming strategies and the possibility of creating diversions from the fundamental educational goals. Despite these hurdles, there are opportunities to be explored: fostering a sense of community among learners, boosting motivation, and providing constructive feedback. In conclusion, the article invites further exploration into several prospective research paths, such as understanding how game-oriented techniques can be adapted to diverse learning demographics and subject matters, and how data derived from these game-like systems can be utilized to inform and evolve teaching methodologies. Keywords: Game · Online Education · Learner Engagement · Game Elements · Online Learning · Learning Motivation · Learning Analytics · MOOC Design · Educational Technology

1 Introduction The digital era has seen the rise of Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs), a groundbreaking learning approach that breaks away from traditional educational constraints [1, 2]. Fundamentally, MOOCs are digital courses designed to encourage extensive interactive participation and accessibility through online platforms, transforming education by offering low-cost or free learning opportunities to a global demographic [3, 4]. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Bylieva and A. Nordmann (Eds.): PCSF 2023, LNNS 830, pp. 391–401, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-48020-1_29

392

A. Zubkov

Simultaneously, the idea of gamification, rooted in the digital gaming industry, is fast becoming an influential educational tool [5]. Gamification is the integration of game-style elements and principles into non-gaming environments like education [6]. It leverages our inherent human proclivity for play and competition, aiming to boost student engagement, motivation, and eventually, performance. These techniques can incorporate scoring points, competitive elements, and rule-governed play [7]. The convergence of MOOCs and gamification has paved the way for novel opportunities and challenges in online education [8, 9]. Introducing game-like elements into MOOCs holds the potential to enrich the learning process, creating an engaging and immersive learning atmosphere [10, 11]. Gamification can introduce rewarding systems, encourage student interaction, and cultivate a sense of achievement, addressing common concerns like low course completion rates in MOOCs [12, 13]. Nonetheless, integrating gamification into MOOCs is a complex process riddled with potential obstacles [14, 15]. Thoughtful design, planning, and execution are required to ensure that the game elements enhance rather than detract from the course’s educational goals [16, 17]. Hence, a comprehensive understanding of this dynamic is paramount. This research intends to probe the complexities and possibilities associated with applying gamification techniques in MOOCs. The objective is to investigate gamification’s impact on student engagement, motivation, and course completion rates, along with the technical and instructional difficulties encountered when effectively implementing gamification. The primary research question directing this study is: “What hurdles and prospects do the deployment of gamification techniques in MOOCs present, and how do these factors influence the course’s effectiveness?” We hypothesize that while gamification offers several avenues to enhance learner engagement and course completion rates in MOOCs, significant design and implementation challenges must be meticulously addressed to fully harness its potential.

2 Methods In order to delve into our research query and validate our supposition, we employed a mixed-methods strategy that amalgamated an assessment of extant literature, case study examinations, and original data acquisition from individuals interacting with MOOCs. Our methodology involved an in-depth exploration of the prevailing scholarly work on the subject from academic databases, including Scopus, RSCI, Google Scholar, and Mendeley. This focused primarily on released research and investigations around the application of gamification methodologies within MOOCs, their efficacy, and potential hurdles in their execution. Alongside this, we evaluated a range of case studies where gamification approaches have been deployed by MOOC providers, paying special attention to the nature of the techniques utilized, pedagogical design, and the resultant impact on learner engagement and course completion metrics. Our first-hand data acquisition involved two specifically chosen but interrelated groups. Initially, we selected six MOOC platforms, with an array of subject matters, that have integrated gamification principles into their course frameworks. These platforms were chosen due to their popularity, varied subject matter, and the extent of gamification techniques applied. Secondly, our research participants included

Gamification Techniques in Massive Open Online Courses

393

students and course coordinators involved in the selected MOOCs. These respondents - comprising economics students and foreign language instructors from Novosibirsk State University of Economics and Management (NSUEM) - have completed two years of teaching and studying MOOCs in a hybrid mode as part of their foreign language training. The students shared invaluable insights into their experiences, motivations, and potential difficulties encountered in gamified MOOCs. In contrast, course coordinators shared critical information about gamification strategy design and execution, observed learner engagement, and challenges faced. Data collection was achieved through structured online questionnaires encompassing both open-ended and Likert-scale questions, supplemented by semi-structured interviews for an in-depth understanding of respondent experiences and viewpoints. The questionnaires were disseminated via email, while interviews were facilitated face-toface. Data analysis was performed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). We used descriptive statistics to encapsulate and represent quantitative data, while qualitative data - sourced from open-ended questionnaire responses and interview transcripts - underwent thematic analysis. Inferential statistical techniques were utilized for comparing engagement and completion rates across different MOOCs and identifying the relationship between these metrics and gamification. Chi-square tests were used to discern any significant associations between the degree of gamification and course completion rates, while Pearson’s correlation coefficient was employed to gauge the intensity and directionality of the relationship between gamification techniques and student engagement levels.

3 Results Our investigation furnished an extensive collection of data surrounding the deployment of gamification principles in MOOCs, its influence on student engagement and course completion rates, as well as the challenges and opportunities encountered through such implementations. The evaluation of the selected six MOOC platforms brought to light a variety of gamification methods in use. These comprised scoring systems, achievement insignias, performance trend graphs, engaging quizzes, and peer assessments. The Table 1 below delineates the specific gamification methodologies deployed within each examined MOOC. Measuring student engagement is challenging, especially when there is no access to MOOC platform statistics. In this study, we used the following methods to measure engagement: Student surveys: Regular anonymous surveys were conducted throughout each course, in which students rated their engagement on a scale of 1 to 5, with 1 meaning “not at all engaged” and 5 meaning “extremely engaged”. These surveys also included open-ended questions where students could give a more detailed response about which aspects of the course that they found most engaging. Analysis of feedback and comments: All feedback and comments left by students during the course were analyzed. Praise for certain elements of the course, as well as high activity in discussions or forums, can be indicators of high engagement.

394

A. Zubkov Table 1. Gamification techniques used in analyzed MOOC platforms

MOOC Platform

Points System

Achievement Badges

Performance Graphs

Interactive Quizzes

Peer Assessments

Coursera

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

FutureLearn

Yes

No

Yes

Yes

No

EdX

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

Khan Academy

Yes

No

No

Yes

No

Canvas

Yes

No

No

Yes

No

Udacity

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

Self-assessment of task completion: Students were asked to rate how fully they were completing tasks and activities in the course. While this measure is not perfect, it can serve as an approximate indicator of engagement. Instructor interviews: Foreign language teachers were surveyed about their impressions of student engagement. They provided valuable information about student activity, especially in cases where students were actively participating in discussions, asking questions, or participating in group projects. These measures combined allowed us to assess student engagement from different perspectives, without relying solely on online platform statistics. The percentage of gamified content in the courses was evaluated as follows. First, a detailed outline of each course’s content was considered, including all video microlectures, practical assignments, tests, and so on. Then, each content element was assessed to see if it contained elements of gamification. These could be elements that added competition, reward elements (points, stars, medals), progress elements (levels, achievements), or other types of game mechanics. After evaluating each element, a calculation was made to determine the overall percentage of gamified content. This was done by counting the number of gamified elements and dividing this number by the total number of course content elements. Then the result was multiplied by 100 to get a percentage value. It should be noted that the assessment of the percentage of gamified content does not reflect the depth or quality of gamification in each individual element. Some elements may be deeply gamified, including many game mechanics and creating a rich gaming experience, while others may only include basic elements of gamification. Statistical data such as MOOC title, number of students, game content percentage, student dropout rate, average student engagement score are presented in Table 2. According to this data, we see that courses with a higher percentage of gamified content (Courses 2 and 5) generally have higher student engagement scores and a lower dropout percentage. For example, Course 2, with 40% gamified content, has the second highest engagement score (4.0) and the second lowest dropout percentage (15%). Similarly, Course 5, with the highest level of gamification (45%), shows the highest engagement score (4.3) and the lowest dropout percentage (10%). On the other hand, courses with a lower level of gamification (Courses 4 and 6) have lower engagement

Gamification Techniques in Massive Open Online Courses

395

Table 2. Statistical data on studied MOOCs №

MOOC title (Platform)

Number of Students

Percentage of Gamified Content

Student Dropout Percentage

Average Student Engagement Score

1

Business Foundations (Coursera)

76

30%

13%

3.5

2

An Introduction to the Principles of Microeconomics (FutureLearn)

77

40%

15%

4.0

3

Foundations of Finance (EdX)

76

35%

14%

3.7

4

Finance and Capital Markets (Khan Academy)

74

20%

17%

3.0

5

Statistics For Everyone (Canvas Network)

76

45%

10%

4.3

6

Digital Marketing (Udacity)

78

25%

16%

3.3

Note: The average student engagement score is evaluated on a scale of 1 to 5, where 1 represents very low engagement and 5 represents very high engagement

scores and a higher dropout percentage. This data corroborates with our statistical findings, which demonstrated a significant correlation between the application of gamification strategies and course completion rates. However, it is important to note that these results do not confirm a direct cause-and-effect relationship between gamification and increased engagement or course completion. Further research would be necessary to more accurately determine this relationship. The participating students expressed an overwhelmingly affirmative impact of gamification strategies on their engagement levels within the courses. Elements like scoring systems, achievement insignias, and interactive quizzes were particularly popular. These features were perceived as augmenting interactivity, amplifying enjoyment, and fueling their motivation to complete course tasks and activities. EFL instructors also observed a spike in student participation and interaction in courses where these strategies were applied. The numerical analysis corroborated a significant correlation between the application of gamification strategies and course completion rates (Chi-square (df = 1, N = 10) = 6.83, p < 0.01). Furthermore, a positive linkage was discerned between the degree of gamification (quantified by the count of gamification strategies deployed) and the intensity of student engagement (Pearson’s r = 0.65, p < 0.05). This infers that courses with a higher quotient of gamification tend to witness greater student engagement. The respondents identified several roadblocks in executing gamification within MOOCs. These encompassed the challenge of formulating meaningful and balanced gamification systems, technical limitations, and the possibility of students prioritizing point accrual or winning over the actual learning process. Conversely, highlighted opportunities included potential boosts in student motivation and engagement, feedback provision, fostering a

396

A. Zubkov

sense of camaraderie amongst learners, and adding an element of enjoyment to the learning process. The analysis of gamification techniques used in massive open online courses revealed a range of challenges and possibilities. These results, which demonstrate the complexities and potential benefits of incorporating game-like features, are presented in detail in Table 3. Table 3. Challenges and opportunities of gamification in MOOCs Challenges

Opportunities

Creating relevant and balanced gamification systems

Potential for enhanced student motivation and engagement

Technical challenges in incorporating gamified components

Provision of immediate feedback

Risk of the game’s rewards overshadowing genuine learning interest

Fostering a community among learners

Potential deviation from core learning objectives due to game elements

Making learning fun and reducing the fear of failure

The ongoing effort needed for creating and sustaining gamified elements

Using gamification analytics to comprehend student behavior and modify teaching strategies

Ensuring equitable and tamper-proof gamified systems Aligning game mechanics with diverse learning styles

In essence, our findings suggest that while gamification in MOOCs presents certain hurdles, its successful execution holds the promise to significantly elevate student engagement and course completion rates. The ensuing section will delve further into these discoveries and their implications for the domain of digital education.

4 Discussion Our findings considerably enhance our comprehension of our primary research question: “What hurdles and prospects do the deployment of gamification techniques in MOOCs present, and how do these factors influence the course’s effectiveness?” The empirical data gathered supports our proposed theory that gamification, despite offering opportunities to boost learner engagement and course completion rates, also ushers in substantial design and implementation complications. Our results resonate with past research pointing to gamification as a potent instrument in stimulating and captivating students in a digital learning setting like MOOCs [18]. In particular, the escalation in student engagement and the positive linkage with completion rates backs the proposition by Tan [19] that gamification can enhance user involvement, motivation, and productivity. Moreover, the roadblocks highlighted in our study - the challenges in formulating meaningful and

Gamification Techniques in Massive Open Online Courses

397

balanced gamification systems, technical restrictions, and the risk of overemphasis on gaming aspects at the expense of the learning process - mirror the apprehensions voiced in previous research [20]. These challenges underscore that, while gamification holds promise in augmenting online learning, it is not a universal remedy. It demands meticulous planning, designing, and execution, keeping in view the course objectives, learner demographics, and desired learning outcomes. The prospect of community creation amongst learners through shared gamified experiences, recognized in our study, has not received significant attention in prior research and marks a potential avenue for future investigations. As MOOCs often cater to learners located at disparate geographic locations, fostering a sense of community is a pivotal factor in enhancing learner engagement and perseverance [21]. Gamified components such as leaderboards or group challenges could potentially serve as a virtual congregation point, boosting interaction and collaboration among learners. These findings have practical implications for the MOOC field. Considering the well-documented issue of low completion rates in MOOCs [15], the positive influence of gamification on course completion rates provides valuable insights for course designers and educators. However, the merits of gamification are not automatic. The challenges brought to light in this study emphasize the necessity for MOOC designers to thoughtfully contemplate how, when, and why to incorporate gamification to ensure it supplements rather than distracts from the learning objectives. The diverse gamification techniques discovered in the analyzed MOOCs indicate that there is not a singular ‘optimal’ method to gamify a course, and the efficacy of different techniques may depend on the specific context and learner group. Future investigations could, therefore, concentrate on establishing guidelines or best practices for executing gamification in MOOCs, taking into account different subject areas, student demographics, and learning outcomes. Our research identified several challenges and opportunities in deploying gamification techniques in MOOCs. Challenges. Creating relevant and balanced gamification systems: It requires thoughtful planning and design to build a gamified learning environment that holds meaning for the learner and aligns well with the learning goals. Technical challenges in incorporating gamified components: Including game mechanics into a MOOC platform can pose technical difficulties, necessitating appropriate IT infrastructure and expertise. Risk of the game’s rewards overshadowing genuine learning interest: Students might concentrate more on acquiring game rewards, which could diminish their intrinsic motivation to learn. Potential deviation from core learning objectives due to game elements: Although gamified components can boost engagement, they might distract students from the principal learning objectives if not integrated well. The ongoing effort needed for creating and sustaining gamified elements: Gamification is an ongoing process that demands continuous updating and monitoring for effectiveness and relevancy, which could be resource-demanding.

398

A. Zubkov

Ensuring equitable and tamper-proof gamified systems: It is necessary to ensure that the gamified system is fair and resistant to exploitation or manipulation by learners, which could otherwise reduce its educational value. Aligning game mechanics with diverse learning styles: Not all learners may react favorably to gamified components. Some students might even feel stressed or demotivated by competitive elements. Opportunities. Potential for enhanced student motivation and engagement: Gamified components such as points, badges, and leaderboards can make learning more exciting and engaging, thereby enhancing motivation and engagement. Provision of immediate feedback: Gamified components can deliver instant feedback, reinforcing learning and aiding students in tracking their progress. Fostering a community among learners: Shared gamified experiences can cultivate a sense of community, encouraging interaction and collaboration among learners spread across different geographical locations. Making learning fun and reducing the fear of failure: Gamified components can make learning more enjoyable, and the game-like setting can decrease the fear of failure, promoting experimentation and risk-taking. Using gamification analytics to comprehend student behavior and modify teaching strategies: The data generated from gamified components can offer valuable insights into student behavior, which can inform teaching strategies. Potential Solutions to Challenges. Creating relevant and balanced gamification systems: Adopt a learner-centric design approach to ensure that the gamified components hold meaning for the learners and align well with the learning objectives. Technical challenges in incorporating gamified components: Cooperate with IT experts in the design and implementation of gamified components. Also, consider using existing gamification platforms or tools that can be incorporated into the MOOC platform. Risk of the game’s rewards overshadowing genuine learning interest: Balance the use of external rewards (such as points and badges) with elements that promote intrinsic motivation, like providing meaningful learning experiences and autonomy in learning. Potential deviation from core learning objectives due to game elements: Incorporate the gamified components in a way that they complement and support the learning objectives, rather than distract from them. The ongoing effort needed for creating and sustaining gamified elements: Consider using automated and scalable gamification solutions, and account for the necessary resources (both time and financial) in the course development budget. Ensuring equitable and tamper-proof gamified systems: Implement controls and checks to prevent manipulation or exploitation of the system, and design the rewards in a way that they cannot be achieved without authentic learning. One of the main issues with MOOCs has been their relatively low engagement and completion rates. Since MOOCs typically attract a large number of learners from diverse backgrounds, keeping all of them motivated and engaged is challenging. Many students who enroll in MOOCs may do so out of casual interest and can easily drop out when

Gamification Techniques in Massive Open Online Courses

399

their motivation wanes or if other priorities arise. Moreover, while MOOCs are capable of disseminating information to a wide audience, they often lack the interactivity and personalization that can make learning experiences more engaging and effective. The lecture-based format of many MOOCs can lead to a somewhat passive learning experience, which is not optimal for all students or all types of learning outcomes. Gamification, with its focus on user engagement and motivation, can help address these issues. Game elements such as points, badges, leaderboards, and challenges can make learning more fun and engaging, thus potentially increasing student motivation and reducing dropout rates. Furthermore, gamified elements can foster interaction among learners and provide instant feedback, which can enhance the learning experience and outcomes. In addition, the online nature of MOOCs provides an ideal platform for integrating gamified elements. Digital platforms allow for a level of interactivity, personalization, and scalability that would be difficult to achieve in a traditional classroom setting. While MOOCs and gamification may represent different teaching and learning approaches, their combination can potentially harness the strengths of both to enhance online education. That said, as our study highlights, this combination also presents new challenges and complexities that need to be carefully considered. The integration of gamification in MOOCs, therefore, represents not so much a blending of teaching ideals as an adaptation to the digital learning context and an innovative response to the challenges of online education. It underscores the evolving nature of teaching and learning, and the potential of new technologies and pedagogical strategies to enhance educational experiences and outcomes.

5 Conclusion Our study unearthed key insights into the utilization of gamification techniques in Massive Open Online Courses. Significantly, we found that these techniques, while presenting certain challenges, offer substantial opportunities to amplify learner engagement and improve course completion rates - a noteworthy finding given the traditionally low completion rates associated with MOOCs. The gamification techniques we identified, ranging from point systems to achievement badges, interactive quizzes, and peer assessments, all contribute to creating a more dynamic, interactive, and enjoyable learning experience. Students reported that these elements foster a deeper involvement with the course material, thereby boosting motivation and course completion. However, the associated challenges, such as the intricacy of designing a well-balanced gamification system, potential technical limitations, and the risk of overshadowing the learning process, underscore the need for thoughtful implementation of gamification. These obstacles highlight that successful gamification requires a careful blend of game mechanics and pedagogical principles. The time, resources, and expertise required to build and maintain effective gamification strategies must not be underestimated. Yet, despite these challenges, gamification presents significant opportunities for MOOCs. It has the potential to create a sense of community among geographically dispersed learners, foster a healthy competition, and make learning a more enjoyable experience. Moreover, the instant feedback often inherent in gamified elements allows learners to track their progress and facilitates the reinforcement of learning.

400

A. Zubkov

The revelations from this research open up new avenues for further exploration. Future research could probe deeper into how different gamification techniques impact diverse learner groups, to ascertain the most effective strategies for specific demographics or subject areas. Questions that could be considered include, how can gamification techniques be tailored to suit different learning styles or preferences? How can the potential anxiety or demotivation associated with gamification in less competitive students be mitigated? Moreover, there is a need to investigate how to effectively align game mechanics with learning outcomes, ensuring that the gamification serves to enhance rather than distract from the educational objectives. Future studies might also delve into how educators can best leverage the analytics provided by gamified systems to adapt and refine their teaching strategies. In conclusion, our study provides a meaningful contribution to the understanding of gamification in MOOCs, illustrating its potential to enhance online education while underscoring the complexity of its successful implementation. The findings pave the way for more nuanced and targeted future research to further unlock the potential of gamification in online learning environments.

References 1. Zubkov, A.: Implementation of CLIL approach via MOOCs: case study of Siberian transport university. In: Manakov, A., Edigarian, A. (eds.) International Scientific Siberian Transport Forum TransSiberia - 2021: Volume 1, pp. 1002–1010. Springer International Publishing, Cham (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-96380-4_109 2. Zubkov, A.: Using MOOCs to teach foreign language writing to university students. In: Anikina, Z. (ed.) Integration of Engineering Education and the Humanities: Global Intercultural Perspectives, IEEHGIP 2022, pp. 23–31. Springer International Publishing, Cham (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-11435-9_3 3. Zubkov, A.: MOOCs as resource for content and language integrated learning at university. In: Anikina, Z. (ed.) Integration of Engineering Education and the Humanities: Global Intercultural Perspectives, IEEHGIP 2022, pp. 112–119. Springer International Publishing, Cham (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-11435-9_12 4. Bylieva, D., Zamorev, A., Lobatyuk, V., Anosova, N.: Ways of enriching MOOCs for higher education: a philosophy course. In: Bylieva, D., Nordmann, A., Shipunova, O., Volkova, V. (eds.) Knowledge in the Information Society: Joint Conferences XII Communicative Strategies of the Information Society PCSF CSIS 2020, pp. 338–351. Springer International Publishing, Cham (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-65857-1_29 5. Valieva, F., Fomina, S., Nilova, I.: Distance learning during the corona-lockdown: some psychological and pedagogical aspects. In: Bylieva, D., Nordmann, A., Shipunova, O., Volkova, V. (eds.) Knowledge in the Information Society: Joint Conferences XII Communicative Strategies of the Information Society PCSF CSIS 2000, pp. 289–300. Springer International Publishing, Cham (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-65857-1_25 6. Bernaert, O., Crepon, R., Dhorne, L.: MOOC and serious game an educational approach on transfer and action. In: Jacobs, G. (eds.) 43rd SEFI Annual Conference 2015 - Diversity in Engineering Education: An Opportunity to Face the New Trends of Engineering, SEFI 2015, SEFI, Brussels (2015) 7. Antonaci, A., Klemke, R., Kreijns, K., Specht, M.: Get gamification of MOOC right!: how to embed the individual and social aspects of MOOCs in gamification design. Int. J. Ser. Games 5(3), 61–78 (2018). https://doi.org/10.17083/ijsg.v5i3.255

Gamification Techniques in Massive Open Online Courses

401

8. Shen, X., Bian, T.: Study on teaching and learning strategies of MOOC-based college English teaching reform from the perspective of game theory. SHS Web Conf. 140, 01015 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1051/shsconf/202214001015 9. Fu, Q.Y., He, J., Xu, Q.Q.: The research on MOOC with introduction of game feedback system. In: Wang, Y.-J. (eds.) 2nd IEEE International Conference on Knowledge Innovation and Invention 2019, ICKII 2019, pp. 15–18, IEEE, New York (2019). https://doi.org/10.1109/ ICKII46306.2019.9042723 10. Yue, W.S., Jing, T.W.: Simplification of game development learning via massive open online courses (MOOC): a preliminary analysis. Jurnal Teknologi 78(2–2), 57–62 (2015). https:// doi.org/10.11113/jt.v78.6929 11. Saputro, R.E., Salam, S., Zakaria, M.H., Anwar, T.: A gamification framework to enhance students’ intrinsic motivation on MOOC. TELKOMNIKA (Telecommun. Comput. Electron. Control) 17(1), 170 (2019). https://doi.org/10.12928/telkomnika.v17i1.10090 12. Chang, J.W., Wei, H.Y.: Exploring engaging gamification mechanics in massive online open courses. Educ. Technol. Soc. 19, 177–203 (2016) 13. Antonaci, A., Klemke, R., Dirkx, K., Specht, M.: May the plan be with you! A usability study of the stimulated planning game element embedded in a MOOC platform. Int. J. Serious Games 6(1), 49–70 (2019). https://doi.org/10.17083/ijsg.v6i1.239 14. Berkling, K., El-Husseny, A., Latt, D., Petrov, C., Waigand, A., Walther, J.: GamES MOOC conceptual ideas and first steps towards implementation of a MOOC for children. In: Zvacek, S., Uhomoibhi, J., Costagliola, G., McLaren, B. M. (eds.) 8th International Conference on Computer Supported Education, CSEDU 2016, pp. 405–412, SciTePress, Setúbal (2016). https://doi.org/10.5220/0005857304050412 15. Thirouard, M., et al.: Learning by doing: Integrating a serious game in a MOOC to promote new skills. In: Lebrun, M. (eds.), European MOOC Stakeholder Summit 2015, EMOOCs2015, pp. 92–96 (2015) 16. Freire, M., del Blanco, A., Fernandez-Manjon, B.: Serious games as edX MOOC activities. In: Tekkaya, E. (eds.) 2014 IEEE Global Engineering Education Conference, EDUCON, pp. 867–871. IEEE, New York (2014). https://doi.org/10.1109/EDUCON.2014.6826198 17. Romero, M.: Game based learning MOOC. Promot. Entrepreneursh. Educ. eLearning Pap. 33, 1–5 (2013) 18. Zubkov, A.: Teaching foreign language in transport university using massive open online courses: pilot study. In: Manakov, A., Edigarian, A. (eds.) International Scientific Siberian Transport Forum TransSiberia - 2021: Volume 2, pp. 92–100. Springer International Publishing, Cham (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-96383-5_11 19. Tan, C.T.: Towards a MOOC game. In: Greuter, S., McCrea, C. (eds.) Proceedings of the 9th Australasian Conference on Interactive Entertainment: Matters of Life and Death, IE: Australasian Conference On Interactive Entertainment, pp. 1–4. Association for Computing Machinery, New York (2013). https://doi.org/10.1145/2513002.2513040 20. Zubkov, A.: Increasing effectiveness of foreign language teaching of transport university students in process of online learning. In: Manakov, A., Edigarian, A. (eds.) International Scientific Siberian Transport Forum TransSiberia - 2021: Volume 2, pp. 438–445. Springer International Publishing, Cham (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-96383-5_49 21. Baranova, T., Kobicheva, A., Tokareva, E.: Total transition to online learning: students’ and teachers’ motivation and attitudes. In: Bylieva, D., Nordmann, A., Shipunova, O., Volkova, V. (eds.) Knowledge in the Information Society: Joint Conferences XII Communicative Strategies of the Information Society, PCSF CSIS 2020, pp. 301–310. Springer International Publishing, Cham (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-65857-1_26

Improving Speaking and Listening Skills: An Educational Eco-system for Foreign Languages Teaching in Higher Education Svetlana Amakhina , Natalia Dmitrieva(B)

, and Elena Timokhina

Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University, Saint Petersburg 195251, Russian Federation [email protected]

Abstract. The digital age is marked not only with new tools in education but also with new technologies. Nowadays, the majority of educational institutions have accepted new digital approaches to education and adapted their academic programmes to digital transformations. Different digital technologies are based on the “connectivism approach” to education, which embraces such new things as Mobile micro-learning, BYOD technology (Bring Your Own Device) and Gamification. The combination of different messengers and apps in training leads to the introduction of a new term in education - “eco-system”, which results in the emergence of such terms as “eco-teaching” and “eco-learning”. The authors of this study hypothesized that eco-teaching, involving the use of several different messengers and social networks for teaching speaking and listening, can generally increase the level of English language proficiency of students. To prove this hypothesis, the authors conducted an experiment in Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University in the autumn term of 2022 with a total of 184 first-year students. The students of the experimental division, improving speaking and listening skills, were supposed to use game mechanics in different messengers. The control division students were not supposed to use any electronic devices or/and online educational resources. After analyzing the data obtained, the authors came to the conclusion that the academic results of the experimental division students are much better than those of the control group students. Based on the conducted research, the authors consider the introduction of eco-teaching with game elements in universities where foreign languages are studied to be very promising. Keywords: Mobile Micro-learning · Digital Eco-teaching · Educational Eco-system · Clip Thinking · Gamification

1 Introduction Higher education is currently facing serious external and internal challenges and barriers that are paradoxically potential for its development. One of the factors of external challenges was the spread of the pandemic. Academic institutions have fallen into hard times, people tend to exaggerate the obvious negative consequences and neglect the positive effects of the pandemic that © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Bylieva and A. Nordmann (Eds.): PCSF 2023, LNNS 830, pp. 402–413, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-48020-1_30

Improving Speaking and Listening Skills

403

do exist, strange as it may seem at first sight. It should be borne in mind that it is because of the pandemic that there has been a breakthrough in the development of digital technologies and internet-based training. It has led to the emergence of some trends in learning that persist even when the pandemic is over. Online learning is definitely a trend not to disappear, as it has a lot of advantages. One of the factors of internal challenges is the lack of a digital educational platform in academic organizations. The platform should be flexible, easy to be changed to teachers’ and students’ specifications and is to meet the requirements of the program. Having comprehended the dynamics of change, many training establishments have quickly transformed their training methodology by applying innovations. Both students and faculty have to adapt to the new conditions in which they have found themselves, and take advantage of them. The digital environment provides a wide range of opportunities for online learning, providing students with new tools to achieve their goals, for example, the opportunity to learn through a mobile application or a web application or using various messengers, web/network resources and online games. Currently, most academic institutions have adapted their academic programs to digital transformations by adopting new digital approaches to education. Digital transformations are manifested in new tools and technologies in education, as well as in new educational opportunities that have made it possible to study using online technologies, such as web browsers, search engines, online forums, social networks and messengers. This digital environment, familiar for students, creates a friendly educational atmosphere. Among the new technologies in education, the most popular are Mobile microlearning, BYOD technology (Bring Your Own Device) and Gamification. The authors’ purpose is to analyze the efficiency of combination of some innovative technologies in an educational eco-system. In order to do it they put forward a hypothesis that the educational eco-system combining various web resources and game mechanics in the process of teaching students a foreign language contributes to enhancing the efficiency of learning and advancing of listening and speaking skills.

2 Literature Review 2.1 Mobile Micro-learning The flow of information that learners are currently facing has led to an ability to develop clip thinking, characterized by fragmentation, increased speed and superficiality. Currently, it is required that training should be carried out in small portions (bite-sized) and extremely short bursts in order to achieve learning outcomes in a short time (in compressed time spans). The authors consider it relevant to take advantage of students’ clip thinking and regard the latter as an effective alternative to traditional perception. The emergence of innovative methodologies, such as micro- and nano-learning, is considered as a way out of the current situation. Basically, they involve incorporating bite-sized learning solutions into the daily classroom routine, whether online or offline.

404

S. Amakhina et al.

Mobile micro-learning is a relatively innovative educational technology of recent years that combines both the features of mobile learning [1] and those of microlearning. This type of education implies that students can study anywhere applying their smart phones. Micro-learning deals with relatively small training modules and shortterm cognitive actions, so it is adapted to the use of smart phones. Yuan Zhang from Jingdezhen Ceramic Institute and Lu Zuo from Henan University of Chinese Medicine studied the application and evolution of mobile micro-learning in English teaching and suggested that micro-videos should be designed in such a way as to match personal preferences of students, stimulating their interest in learning, thus providing individualized teaching design in the context of mobile learning [2]. Jiaying Meng, analyzing the use of mobile micro-learning as a combination of mobile learning and micro-learning, recognizes that the technology has characteristics of convenience, flexibility and interactivity [3]. A group of researchers from China (Geng Sun, Tingru Cui, William Guo, Shiping Chen, Jun Shen) investigated the use of mobile micro-learning as a part of massive open online MOOC courses. They organized training materials in a cloud-based system, which turned it into a more favorable context for collaboration and configured microlearning resources to meet personal needs in real time [4]. The authors of the article agree with the opinions of the researchers mentioned above, but believe that the use of such technologies is especially effective only when they are applied together and in combination with traditional teaching methods. The authors of this article hope that by creating or choosing interesting micro-audio and micro-video materials, as well as placing materials in the cloud storage system, they will be able to make learning a foreign language more enjoyable and effective and apply both innovative and traditional teaching methods. 2.2 BYOD Technology Students, using their personal devices not only for games or social networks, but also for recording lectures or searching for information on the Internet in the classroom, are actually implementing the so-called BYOD technology associated with the use of mobile micro-education [5]. BYOD is an abbreviation of the English expression “Bring your own device”. The term “BYOD technology” first appeared in an article by Rafael Ballagas published in 2004 [6]. The electronic possibilities suitable for teaching and learning are huge. Cloud storage, multimedia applications, note-taking applications, applications used to communicate with students outside of school, an electronic platform for public speaking are just some of them [7]. The authors of the article suggest that the terms “BYOD technology” and “Mobile micro-education” be considered synonymous ones. The combination of various messengers and applications in education leads to the introduction of a new term in education - that is “Eco-system”, which, in its turn, leads to the emergence of such terms as “educational eco-systems”, “eco-teaching” and “ecolearning” (those being the elements of the educational eco-system).

Improving Speaking and Listening Skills

405

2.3 Educational Eco-system The term “Eco-system” was first applied in the business sphere in 1993. In the article “Predators and Prey: a New Ecology of Competition” by an American scientist James Moore [8], a model of uniting companies around solving a single strategic task was outlined. At present, the term is gaining popularity in some other spheres of life. The eco-system is a single space in which it is convenient for the client to use various services to solve everyday tasks. Eco-systems offer users plenty of products found on a digital platform and represent a kind of natural development of digitalization. At the end of 2020, the international organization Global Education Futures published a study entitled “Educational Eco-systems: Emerging Practices for Future Education”. In it, the authors argue that eco-systems - special associations of different organizations and enthusiasts - should become a catalyst for global restructuring of modern education [9]. It is thanks to them that an educational system which copes with new challenges will be formed. The new challenges are as follows: automation of the labor market, the growing speed of updating information, demographic shifts, the “death” of old professions, digitalization of knowledge and learning technologies, and global environmental and social problems. Analyzing local educational eco-systems, Valerie Hannon, Louise Thomas, Sarah Ward and Tom Beresford divided them into three groups [10]. The first group, called Knowledge sharing eco-systems, is a network of such organizations as government agencies, think tanks, foundations, etc. The second group, Innovative ecosystems, includes cities and regions involved in stimulating and accelerating innovative educational projects by attracting various educational service providers, businesses, developers and suppliers of electronic technologies. The third group, Learning ecosystems, includes various service providers (schools, businesses, public organizations, government agencies) that are not limited by geographical location. The term “ecological approach in education” used by Jorge Reyna to describe the complex interactions between student and interface, student and teacher, student and content, and student and student, which shape learning outcomes [11]. The analysis of these interactions is crucial for a deep understanding of the conditions of online learning, as well as for the standardization and promotion of effective e-learning methods. Unlike many approaches to the educational process, “eco-teaching” and “ecolearning” are not restricted to the use of a certain number of technologies. The researchers emphasize that they are talking about a completely new system of values and priorities. In their opinion, the development of social ties (social connections) and the increase in participation of those involved are the foundations on which eco-teaching rests; in addition, the main advantage of digital eco-teaching is flexibility. The authors consider it relevant to use the term “eco-teaching” regarding the combination of online resources in teaching. In their opinion, digital eco-teaching means the combination of various online platforms, messengers, social nets and applications used to solve the task of making both teaching and learning more efficient. Various media, including informative, entertaining and educational ones, can serve as a building material used to create a unique personalized “training eco-system”, which is beneficial for both digital native game-fixated students and digital immigrant. The most

406

S. Amakhina et al.

popular apps and online resources suitable for this purpose are What’s App, Telegram, Vkontakte, and Utube, each of them being used for specific purposes. 2.4 Gamification Gamification refers to the application of games and game-like elements to non-game contexts [12]. It has gained popularity as an effective teaching technique because it makes learning more enjoyable and engaging. Gamification can replace or complement various teaching methods, depending on the context and learning objectives. One of the specific areas where gamification has been particularly successful is teaching of foreign languages. The educational eco-system can combine various tools into a systematic and artistic design to achieve a pre-defined goal or an objective. It can be defined as a toolbox that has game elements for performing various actions [13]. So, the educational eco-system is a set of tools that is both an element of gamification and an independent game itself. Several researches recognize gamification as a means for increasing motivation and engagement [12, 14, 15]. In our educational eco-system, the principle of UGC (user generated content) was used. UGC refers to independently produced content by making use of the internet for an undefined audience, without sharing it directly [16]. With the increasingly blurred separation between the author of content and the user, users now have an opportunity to become authors at the same time [17]. So, our educational eco-system can be regarded as an open constructor functioning as a mediated cooperative. It provides interaction through the media by means of the marginalia environment, chat-bots, mini-games, etc. [14]. As a result, three levels of satisfaction can be received from such things as: the process (lasts 15 min); the victory (lasts hours, days and weeks); the personal development (lasts days, weeks and serves as the basis of further development). Gamification can replace or complement traditional teaching and learning methods when: – dealing with boring tasks: Gamification can replace boring and repetitive classroom tasks with interactive ones that turn learning into a game. This can make learning more attractive and motivating; – making educational assessments: Gamification can be used to evaluate students and assess them. Game systems can provide information about the students’ academic performance, their level of achievement and weaknesses. This can help teachers evaluate students’ progress and needs and give feedback; – giving instant feedback: Gamification allows teachers to provide instant feedback to students, which can be more effective than traditional teaching and evaluation methods. Gaming systems can offer immediate assessment and help students better understand their mistakes and improve their results; – organizing collaborative learning: Gamification can stimulate collaboration and teamwork among students. Many games offer the possibility of cooperation and rivalry among players, which can facilitate the exchange of knowledge and experience; – creating the eco-system content: The more efforts teachers and digitally native students put into creating the input, the more involved they become in producing and performing challenging tasks;

Improving Speaking and Listening Skills

407

– developing social skills: Gamification can contribute to the development of social skills and communication. Many games offer the opportunity to interact and collaborate with other players, which helps students develop teamwork, communication and conflict resolution skills; – providing personalized learning: Gamification allows students to learn at their own pace and adapt the learning process to their needs. Game mechanics can allow students to choose their difficulty level or develop specific skills in the game environment; – putting knowledge into practice: Gamification can offer students the possibility of practical application of knowledge in real or fictional situations. Game scenarios can simulate real life situations in which students can apply their skills and knowledge in order to solve problems; – developing certain skills: Gamification can be an effective tool for developing such skills as critical thinking, problem solving, strategic planning and time management. Game scenarios can provide students with the opportunity to apply these skills in an interactive and hands-on environment; – increasing motivation: Gamification can complement traditional teaching methods, creating more interesting and attractive tasks for students. Game elements, such as ratings, achievements and awards, can encourage students to achieve better results and advance in the learning process; – generating long-term motivation: Gamification can contribute to long-term motivation and interest in learning. Thanks to game elements, such as rank systems or virtual rewards, students can maintain interest to the educational process and whet a desire to achieve new goals. In general, gamification can change the traditional learning process, making it more exciting, motivating and interactive. However, it should not completely replace traditional teaching methods, but rather be used in combination with them to achieve better results.

3 Methodology The aim of the experiment conducted by the authors is to test how efficient digital ecoteaching is for students involved in learning English - in other words, to test whether the new technology improves efficiency and calls for progress of learners. The project is carried out in several stages: designing, testing, analyzing, making improvements, and consolidation of results. The design stage involves finding authentic videos suitable for the topics discussed in the Program, coming up with special assignments for students, filling the cloud storage with the theoretical information necessary for students and organizing everything into an application system. To make eco-system teaching more effective, we used the following game techniques: achievement, avoidance, communal discovery, cross situational leader-boards, fixed ratio rewards schedule, status, and viral game mechanics [18]. The choice of applications is random and says more about ordinary applications than about the best platforms. Training in the experimental groups can begin with the creation of teams in the messenger. The profile and avatar of the groups can be discussed

408

S. Amakhina et al.

and chosen together with the students, which involves them into the process from the first minutes. Each group profile has content in the form of references or storage where students can find some theoretical and practical information. For training listening and speaking, the following messengers and web platforms are chosen - What’s App, Telegram, Viber, TikTok, YouTube. The following applications for dictionaries are proposed - Multitran, Google Translator, ABBYY Lingvo, MerriamWebster Dictionary and Oxford Dictionary of English. For independent work, the authors recommend students to use various mobile applications where it is possible to communicate with native speakers (as such, the following ones can be taken: Italki, HelloTalk, Tandem, HiNative, SharedTalk and SharedLingo). The use of various applications is especially beneficial for teaching listening and speaking. Students can listen to a native speaker’s speech and discuss it afterwards. Speaking as one of the extremely challenging aspects of the English language can be trained in chats. Chatting is always a lively natural conversation, informational and emotional interaction. Using messengers, teachers can achieve their educational goals and objectives in an attractive way for students. For example, when offering students new information on cultural and regional issues, teachers can attach photos or pictures and provide them with small comments, texts or links. This is the way students can speak about travelling or give foreign people coming to Russia some tips about the country. Here gamification is used instead of performing boring question-and-answer tasks or being engaged in reading-and-retelling-the-text activities. Another way to talk about travel involves using an interactive travel map which students mark and discuss later in class. The teacher can mark landmarks without naming them so that students can guess. The students and the teacher are engaged in making a unique content of the task, which can be different for each student. One more way to enjoy gamification in the educational process is to organize a discussion on the base of YouTube videos containing an ethical dilemma or a detective puzzle. Topics for debate that arouse students’ curiosity encourage them to use the language they are learning. After watching short videos, students offer their own way of solving the problem. This can be accomplished in the form of a dialogue or a polylogue. The game can contain some mini-games (logic puzzles, solving which you can either get a small bonus or go to the next level). They cannot be used to complete the whole game, but students find interest in these small logic puzzles. The teacher can intervene in the conversation and change its direction by introducing or removing participants in the conversation or giving special tasks to some of them. Though these commands can be given to the participants of the conversation in direct messengers (for example, in What’s App), the discussion itself can be organized either in the same messenger in a class group or in any other messenger agreed beforehand. The development of skills necessary for the production of monological speech, which can lead to further effective unprepared speech, is considered as one of the main activities in the study of foreign languages at a technical university [19]. To succeed in producing monological speech, the authors suggest using video recordings as this technique has a number of benefits for both students and teachers. Detailed instructions given before watching the video monologue contribute to the successful formation of skills necessary for the production of monological speech [20].

Improving Speaking and Listening Skills

409

After watching a sample video of the monologue, students post their monological recordings on certain platforms for further discussion in the group, which gives them the opportunity for self-monitoring, self-checking and self-assessment. It is convenient that before sharing their monologues, students can check themselves for errors in pronunciation and grammar and, if they are found, re-record their videos [21]. The authors recommend using TikTok to create a monologue contest, which is a TikTok challenge. Recording monologues can be fun for students - they are allowed to use any visual effects they want to - masks, filters, and the like. Thus, creating video monologues and sharing them in a TikTok challenge encourage creative activity of students and foster their motivation to speak English. The authors of this article feel that students’ ability to self-evaluate, identify and overcome their shortcomings, while watching and discussing their video monologues, helps them achieve a higher level of self-learning competence. To test the efficiency of digital eco-learning and determine whether students have succeeded in understanding and producing speech in English, the authors conducted an experiment at Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University in September-December 2022. One control division and two experimental ones were formed, with a total of 184 firstyear students of the mechanical engineering department being involved in the studies. The participants in the experiment were Russian native speakers from various regions of the country. They had different levels of English proficiency (mostly B1-B1 +, i.e., intermediate) and were about the same age (17–19 years old). The students studied in ten academic groups which the experimenters regarded as follows - seven educational groups of students formed two experimental divisions, while three educational groups formed a control division. Students of the experimental divisions had, according to the course program “Basic English Course”, one English class a week lasting 90 min. All the groups were taught by the authors. As the main teaching aid, the textbook New Language Leader (Intermediate), written by Cotton David, Kent Simon, Falvey David [22] was used for all groups. Both the experimental divisions and the control one studied Units 1–4 from the textbook, so the basic unit vocabulary was the same for both groups. The educational process focused on various aspects of mastering EFL, but the scope of the experiment was limited to the aspects of listening and speaking. The control division students were not supposed to use any electronic devices for performing listening and speaking tasks aimed at practicing the target vocabulary. In contrast to them, the experimental division students were supposed to use electronic devices and messengers. The three groups of seven experimental ones used one messenger respectively (that is, the first group used WhatsApp, the second group used Telegram, and the third group used Viber). The remaining four groups were trained within the ecosystem, that is, using various online messengers and resources. The academic results of the students in the experimental groups can be available in online register, with teacher having editing rights.

410

S. Amakhina et al.

4 Results and Discussions The experiment having been performed, the authors conducted a survey among the students of the experimental division aimed at obtaining personal assessment of the effectiveness of eco-teaching of students and finding out the degree of their satisfaction with the educational process. All the respondents (100%) believed that eco-teaching improved their level of foreign language proficiency in general, and admitted that they would prefer to use this method on an ongoing basis even beyond English classes. All the respondents (100%) were completely satisfied with the quality of the classes. The following answers of students show what they consider to be the most important things: the removal of the language barrier (98%), a familiar digital environment (65%), the ability to use authentic materials (86%), interesting teaching methods (99%), upto-date information (62%), ease of use (92%), improved listening and speaking skills (88%). As for the most significant problems encountered during eco-learning, the students mentioned the following ones: poor internet connection (24%), distraction to content unrelated to the class (36%), rapid discharge of the smartphone due to its constant use (13%). To objectively check the students’ academic performance, the results of the Introductory and Final tests conducted in the experimental and control groups were compared. The tests included 35 questions and had such parts as Listening, Grammar, Vocabulary and Word Building. Both experimental and control divisions had the same time for doing the tests and the same evaluation criteria. The students from all the groups showed approximately the same test results in the Introductory Test, whereas the results of the Final test significantly differ for the better in experimental groups, especially in the groups with eco-teaching, the test results being a clear indicator of increased academic performance of students from experimental groups. The percentage of students who received an excellent grade in the experimental groups with eco-teaching is 141% higher than that in the control groups, and even in the groups using one messenger – that is, 61% higher in the group using WhatsApp, 91% higher in the group using Telegram, and 95% higher in the group using Viber. The percentage of the students who received a ‘good’ mark in the control and experimental groups with one messenger and eco-teaching also differs – 40% in control groups, 40% in the group using WhatsApp, 48% in the group using Telegram, 39% in the group using Viber, and 18% in the experimental groups with eco-teaching. A significant difference can be seen in the results of the students who got a ‘satisfactory’ mark: in the experimental groups with eco-teaching, there were 0% of these students, in the groups using WhatsApp and Telegram – 9%, in the group using Viber – 19%, and in the control groups – 25%. The mark ‘unsatisfactory’ was given to 0% of the students in the experimental groups with eco-teaching, 0% in the groups using WhatsApp, Telegram and Viber, and 1% in the control groups. These data show that in the course of using the eco-system as a means of teaching a foreign language, a close relationship is found between students’ satisfaction with the process and their academic performance.

Improving Speaking and Listening Skills

411

Based on objective data and survey data, the authors proved that digital learning integrated into ecosystems significantly contributes to progress of students in listening and speaking English. Moreover, this type of teaching has some positive “side effects”, since it: – – – –

reduces the students’ level of anxiety, creating a familiar digital environment; promotes the emergence of competitiveness due to the introduction of games; contributes to mastering foreign languages; makes learning more effective, and thus results in the raised level of academic achievement; – equally develops different types of speech activity; – creates internal motivation to learn foreign languages and arouses students’ curiosity about the course content, since the main idea is to give students a unique experience that they may want to discuss. However, besides having a lot of advantages, digital eco-teaching has some disadvantages, one of which is difficulty of its being provided by a teacher. The authors of the article emphasize that the role of the teacher is changing in these conditions. The teacher now acts as a designer of the “training ecosystem” or as a moderator of it. In this context, adaptability becomes the teacher’s prominent feature.

5 Conclusion The key problem of teaching foreign languages in technical universities at present is the insufficient use of Internet resources for teaching and self-study. The authors’ research confirms the hypothesis that the creation of an educational ecosystem combining various web resources in the process of teaching students a foreign language contributes not only to enhancing the efficiency of learning and, in particular, to the creation and development of listening and speaking skills in foreign language classes at a non-linguistic university, but also to improving the entire educational process. Despite some difficulties mentioned by the students in the survey, it is necessary to take into account the positive experience of using eco-learning in university classes, since the use of digital technologies and game mechanics not only increases the students’ motivation to study, but also helps to relieve psychological stress and remove the language barrier. The authors can conclude that the eco-system in education is especially favorable when working in an inclusive educational environment and in a pandemic.

References 1. Huo, C., Shen, B.: Teaching reform of english listening and speaking in china based on mobile micro-learning. Creat. Educ. 6(20), 2221–2226 (2015). https://doi.org/10.4236/CE. 2015.620228 2. Zhang, Y., Zuo, L.: College English teaching status and individualized teaching design in the context of mobile learning. Int. J. Emerg. Technol. Learn. (iJET). 14(12), 85–96 (2019). https://doi.org/10.3991/ijet.v14i12.10704

412

S. Amakhina et al.

3. Meng, J.: Application of mobile micro-learning in college English teaching. In: Liu, L., You, Z., Wang, P. (eds) Proceedings of 3rd International Symposium on Social Science (ISSS 2017), vol. 61, pp. 160–163. Atlantis Press, Zhengzhou (2017). https://doi.org/10.2991/isss17.2017.125 4. Sun, G., Cui, T., Guo, W., Chen, S., Shen, J.: MLaaS: a cloud system for mobile micro learning in MOOC. In: 2015 IEEE International Conference on Mobile Services, p. 120127. IEEE, New York, NY, USA (2015). https://doi.org/10.1109/MobServ.2015.26 5. Reid, D.W.L., Loch, B.: To BYOD or not BYOD. In: 7th Way Conference. Swinburne UniversityofTechnology, Melbourne (2014). https://doi.org/10.13140/2.1.4752.0009 6. Ballagas, R., Robs, M., Sheridan, G.J., Borchers, J.: BYOD: Bring your own device. In: Proceedings of the Workshop on Ubiquitous Display Environments at the Sixth International Conference on Ubiquitous Computing, vol. 2004. Ubicomp, Nottingham (2004). https://vs. inf.ethz.ch/publ/papers/rohs-byod-2004.pdf 7. Keengwe, J., Schnellert, G., Mills, C.: Laptop initiative: impact on instructional technology integration and student learning. Educ. Inf. Technol. 17, 137–146 (2012). https://doi.org/10. 1007/s10639-010-9150-8 8. Moore, J.F.: Predators and prey: a new ecology of competition. Harv. Bus. Rev. 71(3), 75–86 (1999) 9. Learning Ecosystems. An Emerging Praxis for The Future of Education. Report by GEF & Moscow School of Management SKOLKOVO, Moscow. https://learningecosystems2020. glob- aledufutures.org 10. Hannon, V., Thomas, L., Ward, S., Beresford., T.: Local Learning Ecosystems: Emerging Models. World Innovation Summit of Education, Qatar (2019) 11. Reyna, J.: Digital Teaching and Learning Ecosystem (DTLE): A Theoretical Approach for Online Learning Environments. In: Williams, G., Statham, P., Brown, N., Cleland, B. (Eds.) Changing Demands, Changing Directions. Proceedings ascilite Hobart 2011, pp. 1083–1088. The Australasian Society for Computers in Learning in Tertiary Education, Hobart (2011). http://www.ascilite.org.au/conferences/hobart11/procs/Reyna-concise.pdf 12. Deterding, S., Dixon, D., Khaled, R., Nacke, L.: From game design elements to gamefulness: defining “gamification”. In: Proceedings of 15th International Academic MindTrek Conference: Envisioning Future Media Environments (MindTreck’11), pp. 9–15. Associationfor Computing machinery, NewYork, NY, (2011). https://doi.org/10.1145/2181037.2181040 13. Cekic, M.: Videoigre kao nastavnosredstvo.DHS. 2 (19), 551–570(2022). https://doi.org/10. 51558/2490-3647.2022.7.2.551 14. Marell-Olsso, E.: Teachers’ perception of gamification as a teaching design. Interact. Design Architect. J. 53, 70–100 (2022). https://doi.org/10.55612/s-5002-053-004 15. Hamari, J., Koivisto, J.,Sarsa, H.: Does gamification work? -- a literature review of empirical studies on gamification. In Proceedings of the 2014 47th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS ‘14), pp. 3025–3034. IEEE Computer Society, USA (2014). https:// doi.org/10.1109/HICSS.2014.377 16. Stöckl, R., Rohrmeier, P., Hess, T.: Why Customers Produce User Generated Content. In: Hass, B.H., Walsh, G., Kilian, T. (eds.) Web 2.0, pp. 271–287. Springer Berlin Heidelberg, Berlin, Heidelberg (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-73701-8_16 17. vom Brocke, J., White, C., Walker, U., vom Brocke, C.: Making User-Generated Content Communities Work in Higher Education – The Importance of Setting Incentives. In: Ehlers, U.D., Schneckenberg, D. (eds.) Changing Cultures in Higher Education, pp. 149–166. Springer Berlin Heidelberg, Berlin, Heidelberg (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-03582-1_13 18. Sitzmann, T.: A meta-analytic examination of the instructional effectiveness of computer based simulation games. Pers. Psychol. 64(2), 489–528 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1111/j. 1744-6570.2011.01190.x

Improving Speaking and Listening Skills

413

19. Perez-Llantada, C.: Communication skills in academic monologue discourse: empirical and applied perspective. Circle of Linguistics Applied to Communication/Cnculo de Lingmstica Aplicada a la Comunicacion. 15, 15 (2003) 20. Burakova, D., Sheredekina, O., Bernavskaya, M., Timokhina, E.: Video sketches as a means of introducing blended learning approach in teaching foreign languages at technical universities. In: 14th International Scientific Conference “Rural Environment. Education. Personality. (REEP)”, vol. 14, pp. 50–58. Latvia University of Life Sciences and Technologies, Faculty of Engineering, Institute of Education and Home Economics, Jelgava (2021). https://doi.org/ 10.22616/REEP.2021.14.005 21. Lee, B., Muldner, K.: Instructional video design: investigating the impact of monologue- and dialogue-style presentations. In: Proceedings of the 2020 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, pp. 1–12. Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA (2020). https://doi.org/10.1145/3313831.3376845 22. Cotton, D., Falvey, D., Kent, S.: New Language Leader Intermediate. Coursebook. Pearson Longman, Harlow (2014)

Digital Game-Based Language Teaching in Russian University Settings: Beliefs and Constraints Natalia V. Chicherina(B) Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University, Polytechnicheskaya 29, 195251 Saint Petersburg, Russia [email protected]

Abstract. The growth of digital gaming as a leisure activity across different population groups has caused great interest to the integration of digital games in language learning. Numerous research in the field of digital game-based language learning (DGBLL) showed the effectiveness of digital games as a tool of motivation and integrated development of language skills. However, the potential of digital games for language learning remains under-used in the formal university settings. This paper presents the results of the study aimed at defining the beliefs of university language teachers, belonging to the young generation, about DGBLL, their inclinations to implement DGBLL in the formal university settings for a variety of language skills and their vision of the obstacles that hinder incorporation of digital games in language learning. The findings of the research, obtained through a number of in-depth interviews, demonstrate that university teachers have generally positive attitudes to digital gaming as a resource for language learning, but being aware of serious constraints to incorporating DGBLL in the university settings, they are generally not inclined to use digital games in their teaching practices. Keywords: Digital games · digital game-based language learning (DGBLL) · language learning · university settings

1 Introduction Language pedagogy studies in the past two decades have increasingly investigated the integration of various digital tools and resources into the teaching and learning process. One of the research foci was the effectiveness of digital game-based language learning (DGBLL) and gamification in general. Great interest of researchers to digital games as a tool that can assist in language teaching is not surprising. In the first place, it is backed up by a number of theories in language pedagogy, which emphasize the immersion in the language learning environment, interactive character of teaching and learning, connection to students’ real life, and others [1, 2]. Secondly, it reflects the necessity to analyze the emerging practical experiences in incorporating digital games into language learning in different educational contexts. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Bylieva and A. Nordmann (Eds.): PCSF 2023, LNNS 830, pp. 414–426, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-48020-1_31

Digital Game-Based Language Teaching in Russian University Settings

415

Studies on the effectiveness of digital games in language learning cover a wide variety of research topics and questions with the focus on different categories of digital games, various learning objectives, benefits and challenges of digital games as a teaching resource. A number of published reviews of research in the field of DGBLL demonstrate the evolution of approaches, methods and instructional implications based on the findings of research and practical experience. One of the earliest reviews, conducted by Schmitz et al., focused on cognitive and affective aspects of digital gaming. The analysis of 43 studies in this field revealed that mobile games have much positive impact on the affective domain and improve students’ motivation for learning while their value for the cognitive domain remains questionable [3]. A number of later scoping and systematic reviews of 2018 and 2019 covered a wider range of research questions related to the impact of digital games on language education. Hung et al. reviewed 50 selected studies on DGBLL. The findings reflected the diverse nature of research in this field with the majority of studies featuring “positive outcomes in regard to student learning, with the most frequently reported ones being related to affective or psychological states, closely followed by language acquisition” [2: 89]. The findings that are most significant for our research are as follows: the majority of studies were conducted in the university settings and university students were the most frequently selected samples; the most common genres of digital games in language learning are immersive games encompassing a range of role-playing games and tutorials or drill and practice games while some other promising genres (board games, music games) remain under-investigated and probably under-used; the most common device for DGBLL is a personal computer. Another scoping review was performed by Z. Xu et al. with the focus on current practices of DGBLL to support English language learning in terms of participants’ characteristics, gaming characteristics and game availability. The review revealed that vocabulary is the most dominant practiced language skill; researcher-developed games are prevailing in the EL field followed by commercial games and a small proportion of freely available games for the acquisition of English. However, commercial games outperform the other two categories of games in good gaming elements, which include adaptive challenges, control, sensory stimuli, ongoing feedback, interactive problem solving, uncertainty and specific goals. Based on the collective findings, the authors of the review recommend the greater utilization of commercial games in language learning or constructing games with more good gaming elements in case of self-designed games [4]. In keeping with the above mentioned findings about vocabulary as the most targeted language skill, the review conducted by D. Zou et al. revealed positive effects in “promoting short-term and long-term vocabulary learning, facilitating reading and listening comprehension, increasing motivation and engagement, decreasing anxiety and fostering interactions among learners” [5: 1]. The researchers identified ten different types of digital games (simulation, tutorial, role-playing, motion-sensing, 3 D virtual, adventure, card, board, and serious games, as well as gamified digital books) which promote effective vocabulary training with the first three being the most commonly used [5].

416

N. V. Chicherina

One of the recent reviews [6] investigated the effectiveness of two categories of digital games (mobile and non-mobile) with the focus on game types and game elements, target languages and learning outcomes. The findings, regarding the use of mobile and nonmobile games, revealed differences in effectiveness with regard to game types: immersive games were found more suitable for non-mobile gaming, and gamification - for mobile devices. This review also reflected the shift of research focus with regard to the target language, and showed that Chinese is currently as much represented in the research as English, while the most discussed learning outcomes remain the same – language acquisition and affective domain. This brief description of research findings shows that digital games are a very promising teaching resource, but the effectiveness of DGBLL depends on many psychological, pedagogical and infrastructural factors. R. Godwin-Jones expressed this idea in a very general and all-embracing statement: “Given the vast differences in scope and purpose, the most one can say in general about the utility of games is that in optimal environmental contexts, with appropriately selected and trained groups of users, playing a well-designed game, a number of positive and effective language learning experiences are possible” [7: 10]. However, despite many positive and promising research findings in this field, clearly reflecting the potential of DGBLL [8–10], the scope of DGBLL in the university language teaching remains very low. Researchers name several reasons for this. One of them is resistance of EFL teachers to the digitalization of language teaching [11, 12], which is certainly gradually decreasing with the proliferation of digital tools and resources, but is still in place. Another reason lies in language teachers’ attitudes to DGBLL and their expectations of their effectiveness. The study of pre-service EFL teachers’ beliefs regarding DGBLL in Germany revealed “reservations regarding the use of DGBLL, questioning the ability of learners to balance their engagement with their language learning aims, the challenge of selecting linguistically appropriate games, and the limitations of games in terms of productive skills” [13: 17]. Pre-service EFL teachers’ concerns about DGBLL are mostly connected with previous negative experiences of digital media usage in language learning or inadequate quality of digital tools. Ultimately, this resulted in the belief, that “no media usage might be better than poor media integration” [13: 17]. In other words, digital game playing remains under-represented in the formal language learning settings much due to the strong reservations of educators regarding DGBLL. In a number of recent studies conducted with reference to the Russian university settings researchers mention some other reasons, namely, low availability of digital games that match the students’ language level and interests; incomplete or underdeveloped methodology of DGBLL; the risk of addiction to digital gaming [14, 15]. Researchers N. Moroz and E. Nikonova in their considerations of constraints to incorporating DGBLL, point out the problems of game availability, content incompatibility, language specificity, technical aspects and above all - low motivation of both language teachers and students to incorporate computer games which are generally treated in the Russian society as a marginal leisure activity [16]. However, their study doesn’t contain any empirical data that could verify these assumptions. The objective of this study is to investigate the beliefs of EFL university teachers in Russia regarding DGBLL to find out if the teaching staff are inclined to implement

Digital Game-Based Language Teaching in Russian University Settings

417

DGBLL in teaching university students, and if they see any practical, pedagogical or technological obstacles on the way of incorporating digital games in the process of language teaching and learning.

2 Categorization and Terminology Issues In the case of DGBLL, there is so much variety in types of games, approaches, audiences and language learning outcomes that it seems necessary to clarify terminology issues and key concepts of research. With reference to general approaches to language learning, we should make distinctions between the terms DGBLL and gamification. The term DGBL refers to “a digital and playful activity, which contains educational objectives and assessment/evaluation” [4: 878]. DGBLL is intended to support language learners by lowering affective barriers and promoting engagement in language learning and practice. Gamification also claims to motivate and encourage students to be more active and interactive, and in this respect it is very similar to DGBLL. However, it has clear distinctions as it refers to the process of using game design elements, game-based mechanics, aesthetics and game thinking in non-game contexts [17, 18]. The two terms are very close in their meaning. The major difference that is implied in the definitions seems to be in incorporating certain categories of games in language learning in the case of DGBLL, and in implementing game design elements in the learning process in the case of gamification. The second important terminological issue relates to the digital games categorization, which centers on a variety of criteria including the purpose of game production, availability to the user, number of players, pedagogical use and the type of devices used. By the purpose of production digital games are categorized into commercial games, designed for entertainment, and educational games, created for educational purposes [7]. By the availability criterion – into commercial, freely available, and researcherdeveloped \ custom-built or serious games [2, 4]. According to the number of players they can be organized into three types: single-player games, massively multiplayer online games, and classroom multiplayer presential games [19]. Pedagogical uses for language learning divide digital games into two categories: cognitive support, when DGBLL is used as a tool to facilitate student learning, and communication support, when DGBLL is intended to support communication between the students and the instructor [4]. The use of different types of devices to play digital games resulted in the emergence of two more broad categories: mobile games, played with portable devices (mobile phones, tablets, PDAs and phablets) and non-mobile games, played with non-mobile devices (PCs, multimedia, video consoles, etc.) [2, 20]. Game genres are normally identified either across the subject areas or for the specific subject domain. Having analyzed digital game genres across many subject areas, Boyle et al. classified them into simulations, role-playing games, drill and practice games, multiplayer online role-playing games, strategy games, puzzles, and adventure games [21]. Malegiannaki and Daradoumis researched digital educational games in the cultural heritage domain, and defined six game genres: action, puzzle, trivia, role-playing, simulation, and adventure games [22]. Differing from the aforementioned classifications, Hung et al. identified eight game genres for language learning, including immersive games, tutorial or drill and practice games, exer-games, simulation

418

N. V. Chicherina

games, adventure games, music games, board games, and alternate reality games, in this order of frequency [2: 17]. Despite the diversity of digital games classifications, depending on the research and educational contexts and foci, certain game categories and genres obviously possess greater value in terms of language learning than others. This refers to the categories of commercial and educational games, mobile and non-mobile games, immersive and tutorial game genres. Two game genres - immersive and tutorial games - are reported to surpass other genres in popularity among language teachers and effectiveness in the context of language learning. Immersive games are described as digital role-playing games, which provide “narrative experiences for the player to assume a character role and interact with other players via avatars in immersive gaming worlds” [2: 46]. Tutorial games are language drill and practice games that include “an identifiable teaching presence for improving learning through drill and practice, question and answer, quizzes, or puzzles” [2: 46]. As the result of the categorization analysis we determined the categories and genres of digital games which shape the terminological core for this study: commercial and educational games, mobile and non-mobile games, immersive and tutorial games, with other categories and genres being on the periphery of research.

3 Research Methodology and the Sample Owing to the nature of this study, a qualitative methodology was employed to gain understanding of the beliefs, inclinations and reasons for the potential reservations of university language teachers regarding DGBLL. A number of in-depth interviews were performed on the basis of a semi-structured guide, specially designed in keeping with the following research questions: 1. What beliefs do EFL university teachers hold regarding DGBLL? 2. Are EFL university teachers inclined to implement DGBLL in the formal university settings? 3. What obstacles do EFL university teachers see on the way of incorporating DGBLL in the formal university settings? The semi-structured guide was used as a toolkit for expert interviews because it has a clear and logical structure with a list of topics and some essential questions to address throughout the interview, and at the same time allows the interviewer to engage experts in an open conversation [23]. The guide was developed as a scenario with three thematic blocks: beliefs and inclinations, prior DGBLL experience, obstacles on the way of DGBLL in the formal university settings. Each thematic block contained a short preamble and structuring questions on the topic while some specific or dynamic questions for deeper insights could be added throughout the interview process. The guide also included the classical part with introductory questions about the expert’s age, education, teaching experience and current position in the university. Before the interview the experts were informed about the purpose of the interview, research questions, the length of the interview and gave agreement to its recording. The minimum sample size for semi-structure/in-depth interviews should be between 5–25 [23]. In this study six semi-structured interviews were conducted. The sample

Digital Game-Based Language Teaching in Russian University Settings

419

consisted of six young professionals, representing two leading Russian universities: Herzen state pedagogical university and Peter the Great polytechnic university. There were just two selection criteria: age – all experts were under 40, which ensured that they are close to the generation of “digital natives” and the world of digital games, and current engagement in language teaching to non-linguistic students. The interviews were conducted in English as all the experts of the sample are proficient in English. Verbatim transcripts were produced from the interview recordings for further analysis with the use of descriptive and analytic coding.

4 Results The time of the interview was distributed unevenly between research questions 1, 2 and 3 with much longer narratives produced by all the experts to answer the questions of the third thematic block on the obstacles to incorporating DGBLL in Russian universities. This is an interesting finding by itself as the answers to the questions of the first and the second thematic blocks demonstrated lack of experience in DGBLL and a very cautious vision of the perspectives for incorporating DGBLL in the formal university settings. The study also revealed not only lack of experience but also a certain gap in professional knowledge with regard to DGBLL, which has become extensively researched in language pedagogy. None of the participants had previously known the term DGBLL, and they tended to use the term “gamification” instead. 4.1 RQ1: What Beliefs Do EFL University Teachers Hold Regarding DGBLL? All the experts strongly believe that digital games possess high potential for language learning. This belief is hardly shaped by prior personal learning experiences: three of the six experts had never used digital games as language learners. It is more likely that it is rooted in their professional practices, though they are very scarce with regard to digital games. Two experts have never implemented DGBLL while they emphasize regular use of different digital tools and resources in language teaching; other experts have had some sporadic experience in this field, which they find promising and inspiring. Olga: I used various digital games in my classes, I suppose all of them were educational, non-mobile (but most of them could be used on mobile devices as well). I mostly used games with young learners to train spelling, vocabulary and grammar. And the results were always great. For example, Quzlet Gravity game was really helpful for children who had difficulties in spelling and had low motivation to study English. Using this game regularly in class helped them believe they can learn spelling easily. Other examples of digital games I used – the games created in WordWall, LearningApps, some games provided by British Council, ESL Games Plus and so on. Olesya: I used Kahoot and Webquest, the purpose was to practice vocabulary and check vocabulary acquisition of students. I was happy with the results of using Kahoot in a classroom and not quite happy with the Webquest, which was an additional task for students and they were not motivated to participate in it. The analysis of the participants’ contributions with regard to the potential of DGBLL resulted in two key categories of benefits, which were recurrently mentioned. The first

420

N. V. Chicherina

category is the affective domain of digital games linked to concepts and key words such as: motivation, increase the interest, more engaging, make students be active learners. Olesya: it’s just interesting because it’s a different way of language learning. The second commonly accepted category of benefits is interactivity, which was verbalized by means of such concepts and key words as: interactive approach to teaching and learning, quick response (feedback), providing immediate feedback on students’ progress, simulate professional settings and activities, encourage collaboration among learners. Olga: One of the greatest benefits of using digital games is the opportunity to practice reading, writing, speaking and listening skills in a simulated real-life environment, where students are not over-concentrated on their accuracy of language as it often happens in a traditional class. Digital games can also be used for practicing vocabulary or grammar in a more engaging and effective way, providing immediate feedback on students’ progress. However, even in the narratives about benefits some concerns about the proper implementation and effectiveness of digital games were expressed. Nora: They might completely change the instruction in formal language education. However, I believe that digital games should not be considered a “one-size-fits-all” approach. Although it is definitely a promising and unconventional way of teaching and learning, the use of DGBLL should be balanced and thoughtful. Digital games should match the learning/teaching context and objectives, students’ abilities, and their interests and beliefs about learning. 4.2 RQ2: Are EFL University Teachers Inclined to Implement DGBLL in the Formal University Settings? The experts are rather uncertain about the perspective of incorporating digital games in their own teaching process. In response to the question if DGBLL might improve language instruction, most experts expressed high expectations about the impact of digital games on language learning. One participant emphasized the need to develop new skills to enrich the teaching capacity of language instructors. However, again, together with the commonly shared positive attitude the experts expressed some doubts about the probability of DGBLL in the formal university settings. These doubts refer to availability and quality of digital games, as well as language teachers’ competences in gaming and implementation of games. Evgeniya: It’s a tricky question. The main thing is to choose the app in accordance with the requirements one may have. Moreover, having some experience in AR-based settings, I can say that when incorporating anything digital, all the participants of the educational process are dependent on apps’ owners and developers who may organize maintenance works, content and interface updates anytime. Olesya: I suppose it can be helpful not for all aspects of language learning. In my opinion, it can only be used for teaching vocabulary, reading and listening. Antonina: Incorporating digital games and apps is a big challenge for every language teacher even if he or she belongs to the young generation of teachers, like me, for example. Most of us are not acquainted with the world of digital games and don’t play games.

Digital Game-Based Language Teaching in Russian University Settings

421

With regard to digital games categories and genres, the analysis revealed the following: the experts’ ideas and inclinations about incorporation of DGBLL focus on educational games exclusively with the preferences given to tutorial games. The distinction between mobile and non-mobile games is not considered actual in the current situation especially for educational freely available games as students can use both mobile and non-mobile devices in formal or informal language learning settings. Incorporation of self-created digital games looks unreal to most experts as they are very time-consuming and require high level of specific digital competences. Antonina: With commercial games you face so many problems: you need to purchase them, install somehow and somewhere; you need to select the game which all the students will like; you also need to know the game very well yourself, and this is not at all easy as a game is the whole world, created by game designer. Olga: The process of creating your own games is also not very easy and fast and, of course, it depends on teachers’ digital competences as well. 4.3 RQ3: What Obstacles Do EFL University Teachers See on the Way of DGBLL in the Formal University Settings? Considering the reasons for the low scope of DGBLL in the formal university settings, most of the participants noted three main issues. Firstly, they believe that the major obstacle is the curricula and syllabi constraints, namely that the total workload for the EFL courses in non-linguistic degree programmes is generally not very big and is considered to be insufficient even to achieve intended learning outcomes, that there is just no place and time in the syllabi for digital games. Reality of the formal university settings in Russian universities does not motivate language teachers to incorporate such time-consuming activities as digital games in the teaching process. Antonina: Our first and main obstacle is our syllabus, which is a binding document for language teachers. It contains the topics and lists of grammar and vocabulary issues, which we must teach to our students. Sometimes we don’t have enough time to cover all these issues, and if we decide to incorporate such time-consuming activities as digital games, most teachers will ask: how can we manage to achieve all the learning outcomes? The second obstacle is availability of digital games and their compatibility with the learning objectives; intended learning outcomes and learners’ needs. Problems with availability are associated with financial and political issues, while compatibility reasons are mostly related to methodological issues and the existing mismatch between the gaming and learning objectives. Olga: Nowadays there are lots of digital games and even tools for creating your own educational games, but sometimes it is really hard to find something good and suitable for both educational and students personal (like age, interest, any design preferences and so on) needs. There are not so many good educational games for university students. Even the design of many education games is really not very suitable for teenage or adult students. Maya: First of all, in the current political situation many high-quality games are unavailable; secondly, they are rather costly. Free of charge products are normally available only in the testing format, while full access requires paid subscription.

422

N. V. Chicherina

Evgeniya: It’s hard to introduce a digital game into EFL classes as everything depends on the app, its features and availability. Not all games are free of charge; it takes much time to get familiar with any app. Nora: It seems to me that this is a methodological case - a case of an overall approach to the design of digital games for language learning and their appropriateness in a specific educational culture and context. Should they be task-based? Scenariobased? Skills-based? What areas of language training should they adhere to (EOP, EAP, EGP, CLIL)? To what extent do they match the learning objectives and help fulfill the curriculum requirements? I think these are the main issues that hinder the use of digital games in formal language education. In terms of compatibility with the teaching process one of the experts expressed concern about control and assessment in DGBLL, which remain under-investigated and unclear for language teachers. Evgeniya: The issues of control need clarification. How to control each student’s performance during digital games in terms of language learning? Is it possible to complete a digital game simply because one is an experienced player? Third, all the participants noted technological constraints in the university digital infrastructure, which does not provide necessary conditions for DGBLL and becomes another insurmountable obstacle. Maya: Digital games require additional equipment in the classrooms and also highspeed Internet, which are often missing. Olga: I suppose the low use of DGBLL, especially in the university settings, is due to the lack of access to technology or the resources required to implement digital games in the classroom. For example, in my university there is a big problem with technical equipment in most classrooms – there aren’t any computers, projectors and screens or multimedia boards. So the only opportunity to use digital games is to use teacher and students smartphones. With reference to measures that should (or should not) be taken to help EFL university teachers incorporate DGBLL all the experts were unanimous in the opinion that additional teacher training is absolutely necessary for the integration of DGBLL in the university setting. Olga: I believe that various educational workshops or seminars can be useful to allow teachers to understand the diversity of modern educational games, and teach them how to use these games, taking into account their personal teaching goals and students’ needs. Two experts noted that incorporation of DGBLL is only possible on a voluntary basis, and in-service training in this field should be organized only for the teaching staff, who are willing to acquire new competences in DGBLL. Nora: The faculty should agree to use serious digital games in the educational process. The use of digital games would require adjustments to syllabi and curriculum, re-design of teaching materials, and assessment tools, so I believe it should be a mutual agreement; it should become a faculty’s instructional strategy. This consensus about the need for training demonstrates that the participants are aware of the challenges that DGBLL encompasses, and they have doubts concerning language teachers’ competences with regard to digital games. Implicitly it also means

Digital Game-Based Language Teaching in Russian University Settings

423

that lack of competences in digital gaming is viewed by experts as a problem and as one more reason for the low use of DGBLL in university settings.

5 Discussion The study has revealed the contradiction between the generally positive beliefs of language teachers towards DGBLL, their inclinations to use this approach in their teaching practices and their vision of perspectives for the greater use of digital games in university settings. The respondents are well aware of the benefits that digital games can have if incorporated in language learning. In the first place, they mention motivational impact on language learning, taking into account the fact that digital games are an indispensable part of life of many young people. DGBLL as a new approach to language learning can establish links between students’ gaming interests and language learning in the formal university settings. The second key benefit of DGBLL – interactivity – corresponds to the characteristics of communicative approach to language learning which requires teachers to create real-life and meaningful communicative situations. The category of digital games that fully meets these requirements is that of immersive games which can be either commercial or educational. However, language teachers give preference to another category of educational games - tutorial games, which are designed to ensure drill and practice activities of various language skills. The preferences, expressed by most respondents, are not surprising in view of the obstacles on the way of incorporating DGBLL, which they find crucial. These obstacles lie in different fields and can be grouped into four major categories. The first category of obstacles relates to technological issues, and it ranks first in the respondents’ answers to the third research question. All the respondents consider the current state of the university digital infrastructure inadequate to the tasks of incorporating DGBLL. The second category, which takes the second position in the ranking of obstacles in this study, relates to teaching staff characteristics. In this category four out of six respondents mentioned low motivation and lack of necessary competences of the teaching staff. These findings correspond to the results of research, conducted among pre-service teachers in Germany [13] and the vision of obstacles described by N. Moroz and E. Nikonova [16]. In terms of low motivation the attitude to DGBLL in Russian university settings looks similar to the German one for the reason that in both countries the interest to digital games as a leisure activity and as a resource for formal instruction is below average. These results also demonstrate a huge gap between the teaching staff perception of the high motivational impact of DGBLL on learners’ success and their own motivation to implement digital games in the teaching practices. Motivational constraints of the Russian teaching staff can also deal with the lack of necessary digital competences as well as with the time-consuming character of DGBLL. The third category of obstacles relates to DGBLL methodology and peculiarities of the teaching process in Russia. In the respondents’ perceptions these include curricula and syllabi constraints, mismatch between the language teaching methodology and gaming structure, problems with control and language skills assessment in the course of gaming. These constraints rank third in the ranking of obstacles.

424

N. V. Chicherina

The fourth category and the fourth position in the ranking belongs to the obstacles connected with the digital games availability and compatibility with the learning objectives and the content of language teaching. As perceived by one of respondents, compatibility or rather incompatibility also refers to the language specificity of digital games, which doesn’t correspond to the language taught in the formal university settings. Low availability of digital games is mostly associated with financial constraints. In view of these obstacles, it looks quite natural that language teachers would prefer to implement tutorial games to more complex categories of digital games and that the use of DGBLL actually remains negligible or very scarce in the university settings. The results of the study suggest several implications in the field of education: for the university administration about measures that need to be taken to upgrade the university digital infrastructure; for the teacher training institutions about the need to develop inservice training courses focused on DGBLL methodology; for language teachers about the underexploited potential of digital games and the need to develop specific digital competences that would allow to implement DGBLL.

6 Conclusion The findings of this study provide us with a clear picture of DGBLL in Russian universities, which looks rather pessimistic in the current situation. The experts indicate generally positive beliefs regarding DGBLL. They acknowledge high motivational potential of digital games, but at the same time, they are well aware of the challenges and obstacles on the way of incorporating DGBLL. The results of the study revealed four groups of critical issues that present real obstacles in the Russian university settings. They refer to technological aspects and digital infrastructure; to teaching staff characteristics including low motivation and lack of necessary competences; to DGBLL underinvestigated methodology and constraints of the teaching process in Russia; to the digital games availability and incompatibility with the learning objectives and the content of language teaching. Hence, university language teachers lack the inclination to utilize digital games in their teaching practices. The participants also indicated the need for in-service teacher training as an indispensable condition for DGBLL. This has significant implications in terms of perspectives of DGBLL in Russian universities. Lack of adequate competences in addition to technological, financial, curricula and syllabi constraints, noted by experts, make the integration of DGBLL in the Russian university settings a very distant perspective. The study has several limitations concerning the scope and generalizability of the findings. The sample size meets the minimal requirements bit still it is rather small, and this raises the question on whether this sample is representative in its beliefs and inclinations towards DGBLL. Moreover, the findings obtained from the interviews of experts, representing only two leading Russian universities, do not necessarily apply to all Russian universities settings. Further research with a wider coverage of universities might be necessary to validate the findings of this study. On the other hand, the study in Russia might be exemplary of larger trends and further research of beliefs and constraints with the comparative international perspective seems could complement the findings of this study.

Digital Game-Based Language Teaching in Russian University Settings

425

References 1. Filsecker, M., Bündgens-Kosten, J.: Behaviorism, constructivism, and communities of practice: how pedagogic theories help us understand game-based language learning. In: Reinders, H. (ed.) Digital Games in Language Learning and Teaching, pp. 50–69. Palgrave Macmillan, London (2012). https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137005267_4 2. Hung, H.-T., Yang, J.C., Hwang, G.-J., Chu, H.-C., Wang, C.-C.: A scoping review of research on digital game-based language learning. Comput. Educ. 126, 89–104 (2018). https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.compedu.2018.07.001 3. Schmitz, B., Klemke, R., Specht, M.: Effects of mobile gaming patterns on learning outcomes: a literature review. Int. J. Technol. Enhanced Learn. 4(5/6), 345–358 (2012). https://doi.org/ 10.1504/IJTEL.2012.051817 4. Xu, Z., Chen, Z., Eutsler, L., Geng, Z., Kogut, A.: A scoping review of digital game-based technology on English language learning. Educ. Tech. Res. Dev. 68, 877–904 (2019). https:// doi.org/10.1007/s11423-019-09702-2 5. Zou, D., Huang, Y., Xie, H.: Digital game-based vocabulary learning: where are we and where are we going? Comput. Assist. Lang. Learn. 34(5–6), 751–777 (2019). https://doi.org/ 10.1080/09588221.2019.1640745 6. Su, F., Zou, D., Xie, H., Wang, F.L.: A comparative review of mobile and non-mobile games for language learning. SAGE Open 11(4), 1–20 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1177/215824402 11067247 7. Godwin-Jones, R.: Games in language learning: opportunities and challenges. Lang. Learn. Technol. 18(2), 9–19 (2014). https://www.lltjournal.org/item/10125-44363/. Accessed 9 June 2023 8. Chen, J.C., Kent, S.: Task engagement, learner motivation and avatar identities of struggling English language learners in the 3D virtual world. System 88, 102168 (2020). https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.system.2019.102168 9. McNeil, L.: Implementing digital game-enhanced pedagogy: supportive and impeding language awareness and discourse participation phenomena. ReCALL 32(1), 106–124 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1017/S095834401900017X 10. Wu, M.-H.: The applications and effects of learning English through augmented reality: a case study of Pokémon Go. Comput. Assist. Lang. Learn. 34, 778–812 (2021). https://doi. org/10.1080/09588221.2019.1642211 11. Burston, J.: The reality of MALL: still on the fringes. CALICO J. 31(1), 103–125 (2014). https://doi.org/10.11139/cj.31.1.103-125 12. Gilakjani, A.P., Leong, L.-M.: EFL teachers’ attitudes toward using computer technology in English language teaching. Theory Pract. Lang. Stud. 2(3), 630–636 (2012). https://doi.org/ 10.4304/tpls.2.3.630-636 13. Blume, C.: Games people (don’t) play: an analysis of pre-service EFL teachers’ behaviors and beliefs regarding digital game-based language learning. Comput. Assist. Lang. Learn. 33(1–2), 109–132 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2018.1552599 14. Marinets, A.A., Soboleva, A.V.: The educational potential of video games in foreign language teaching for university students. In: Gural, S.K. (ed.) Language and Culture XXXI 2021, pp. 211–216. Tomsk State University, Tomsk (2021). (in Russian) 15. Orlova, L.K.: A foreign language communicative competence formation via computer games. Lect. XXI Cent. 4, 145–152 (2020). https://doi.org/10.31862/2073-9613-2020-4-145-152 (in Russian) 16. Moroz, N.Y., Nikonova, E.V.: Constraints in the use of computer games in foreign language teaching. Ogaryov-Online 7(112), 1–7 (2018). https://journal.mrsu.ru/arts/ogranicheniya-vprimenenii-kompyuternyx-igr-pri-obuchenii-inostrannomu-yazyku (in Russian)

426

N. V. Chicherina

17. Deterding, S., Sicart, M., Nacke, L., O’Hara, K., Dixon, D.: Gamification. Using game-design elements in non-gaming contexts. In: Extended Abstracts on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI 2011), pp. 2425–2428. ACM, New York (2011). https://doi.org/10.1145/197 9742.1979575 18. Kapp, K.M.: The Gamification of Learning and Instruction Fieldbook: Ideas into Practice. John Wiley & Sons, San Fransisco (2013) 19. Li, M.C., Tsai, C.C.: Game-based learning in science education: a review of relevant research. J. Sci. Educ. Technol. 22(6), 877–898 (2013). https://www.learntechlib.org/p/155330/ 20. Chang, C.-Y., Hwang, G.-J.: Trends in digital game-based learning in the mobile era: a systematic review of journal publications from 2007 to 2016. Int. J. Mob. Learn. Organ. 13(1), 68–90 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1504/IJMLO.2019.096468 21. Boyle, E.A., et al.: An update to the systematic literature review of empirical evidence of the impacts and outcomes of computer games and serious games. Comput. Educ. 94, 178–192 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2015.11.003 22. Malegiannaki, I., Daradoumis, T.: Analyzing the educational design, use and effect of spatial games for cultural heritage: a literature review. Comput. Educ. 108, 1 (2017). https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.compedu.2017.01.007 23. Saunders, M., Lewis, P., Thornhill, A.: Research Methods for Business Students, 6th edn. Pearson, Harlow (2012)

Teaching Gamification in a Virtual Learning Environment Lyubov Krasheninnikova(B) Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University, Polytechnicheskaya 29, 195251 Saint Petersburg, Russia [email protected]

Abstract. The “Big Leap” to online education we witnessed in spring 2020 generated a strong demand for highly involving and motivating teaching strategies. A rather well-known strategy of the type is gamification. Nevertheless, data presented on the sites of the global MOOC’s aggregators witness that number of available online courses and programs on gamification stays much less than on other actual issues, e.g. Big Data. As an attempt to reduce the gap, an online course “Gamification in online education” was developed and delivered by the author to student groups in university and additional professional education (APE). The course curriculum covered the major items of gamification relevant to education. Course design included a personalized evaluation strategy with two Assignments and peer assessment. Data on academic progress and students’ satisfaction as well as on some theoretical, technological, didactic, and organizational issues, manifested during training, were collected and analyzed. Narrow perception of gamification as a technology, while it was rather a kind of philosophy, seemed to be the major theoretical challenge, while poor skills in setting goals – the major technological one. Recommendations given could help instruction designers to better develop and deliver courses on gamification aimed at training teachers and university faculty. Keywords: gamification · online course · students’ engagement · course design · peer assessment

1 Introduction The rapid development of information and communication technologies dramatically changed the education landscape and boosted discussions of means to engage and motivate learners [1, 2]. At the same time, we are witnesses of a large-scale crisis in motivation and legitimacy of learning [3, 4]. The first crisis manifests itself via the question “Why should I study this item?” and the second one via the question “Why should I rely on this man who is giving lectures?”. These questions are especially actual for online education, with its deficiency of well-established strategies and often evolving opportunities. To mitigate the negative consequences of these crises, educators apply instruction strategies inspiring motivation and engagement. One of the most relevant strategies of the type is gamification [5, 6]. There is a clear request for teachers with well-developed © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Bylieva and A. Nordmann (Eds.): PCSF 2023, LNNS 830, pp. 427–441, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-48020-1_32

428

L. Krasheninnikova

gamification skills, hence including courses on gamification into undergraduate and graduate university and APE programs. Nevertheless, the number of well-trained gamification teachers stays not big. A probable reason might be underdeveloped skills of instruction designers developing online courses on gamification. Another reason might be the complexity of the psychological base of the discipline itself. To help instruction designers to meet challenges arising in developing and delivering online courses on the gamification, a course “Gamification in online education” was developed and delivered to several groups of university and additional professional education (APE) students. The course covered major items of gamification from psychological basis to successful application examples and was delivered purely online. Challenges met by the author at developing and delivering the course as well as feedback from students in forms of their academic progress and post-course surveys were considered to find ways to improve the teaching of gamification.

2 Methods The groups learned the course “Gamification in online education” developed by the author and based on the K. Werbach and D. Hunter approach [7]. Three samples of learners were taken for consideration. The first one consisted of the St. Petersburg Polytechnic University master program students learning instructional design in the Virtual Learning Environment (VLE) in 2021. The size of this sample was 11 students. The second sample consisted of 26 APE students recruited on the open market and included faculty members from different Russian universities. The third sample consisted of 21 APE students recruited among the Krasnoyarsk State Medical University faculty. The latter two groups were taught in 2019. Learning content, teaching process and students’ forum in case of the university students were deployed on the LMS Moodle while in case of the APE groups learning content was deployed on the LMS MS Teams and students’ forum was organized as a group at the social network (Facebook). For webinars either MS Teams or Mirapolis live rooms were used. 2.1 Course Curriculum The duration of the “Gamification in online education” course was 4 weeks. Total labor costs for the course were 36 academic hours. Each week included one lecture (2 acad. hours) and two practical works (2 acad. hours). There were 2 Assignments: Assignment 1 (formative) and Assignment 2 (summative). Both Assignments were aimed at developing a plan to gamify the student’s professional teaching activity. Assignment 1 assumed evaluation via Peer Assessment. Assignment 2 assumed presenting the gamification Plan in written form. On the course, students studied 8 key items, presented in Table 1.

Teaching Gamification in a Virtual Learning Environment

429

Table 1. Course Calendar and Items Covered in the Course Item

Week

Labor Costs (acad. hours)

Gamification in education: nature, opportunities and limitations, conditions of relevance

Week 1

2

Why gamification is important and is it worth being applied in education?

Week 1

2

From theory to practice: thinking like a game designer. Gamification as a structure: elements, mechanics, dynamics

Week 2

2

Internal and external gamification. Gamification for changing behavior

Week 2

2

Process of gamification. Purposes of gamification and their difference from game purposes. Risk of reward

Week 3

2

Who are your gamers, and how their desirable behavior Week 3 can look?

2

Developing involving and promotion circles

Week 4

2

Choosing the most relevant tools from the Gamification Week 4 Pyramid and applying them

2

2.2 Assignments There were two written assignments: Assignment 1 (formative) and Assignment 2 (summative). Assignment 1 was aimed at understanding gamification as an approach in education and at analysis of its components. Students were asked to review their professional activity and reveal any components of gamification there. Then the components should be described and located on the relevant level of the “Gamification Pyramid” [7], and some ways to increase the efficiency of the gamified system had to be proposed. The specific feature of the Assignment was grading it via Peer Assessment. This approach has advantages compared to teacher’s assessment including deeper involvement of students, developing students’ judgmental skills and better understanding objectives of their learning [8]. The Peer Assessment procedure [9] required students to have graded at least 3 papers of their classmates; all the grades had to be substantiated via criteria in the Marking Guideline. To implement Peer Assessment, the written paper of a student was located on Google Docs and three classmates were provided with access to it. They graded the classmates’ papers and fixed results in a special table at the end. The final result was calculated as an average of the three scores. Those students, who have not submitted their own written papers, were not allowed for grading. The Rubric for Assignment 1 grading is presented in Table 2. Assignment 2 (summative) was aimed at developing students’ skills in the implementation of gamification and in building gamified systems based on their professional activity. Peer Assessment was not envisaged for Assignment 2.

430

L. Krasheninnikova Table 2. Assignment 1 Rubric.

Criteria

5 points

4 points

3 points

2 points

Revealing and describing gamification components in the student’s activity

Three or more gamification components have been revealed and described

Two gamification components have been revealed and described

Only one gamification component has been revealed and described

Student failed to reveal at least one gamification component

The components revealed have been placed on the relevant levels of the Gamification Pyramid

All the components revealed have been placed on the relevant levels

Not all the components have been placed on the relevant levels

The revealed component has been placed on a level of the Gamification Pyramid, but its relevance is doubtful

Student failed to place any components on a proper level of the Pyramid

Improvement proposals

At least 3 proposals to increase the efficiency of the gamified system have been introduced; their advantages and limitations have been considered

Two proposals for improving the efficiency of the gamified system have been introduced; their advantages and limitations have not been considered

Only one proposal has been introduced, no consideration

The student failed to introduce at least one proposal

Students were required to develop a Plan to gamify their professional activity [5]. The Plan had to cover the following items, based on the “6D” gamification model [7] and listed in the Marking Guideline: • • • • • •

Gamification objectives; Analysis of gamers; Description of the gamers’ desirable behavior; Working involvement and progress circles; Choosing FUN resources to be engaged; Selection the Gamification Pyramid components to be engaged. The Rubric for Assignment 2 is presented in Table 3.

2.3 Gamification in the Course The course “Gamification in online education” was gamified according to Lee Sheldon’s approach [10]. Each learning activity (attending lectures, completing assignments, posting on the group forum, etc.) was rewarded with a certain number of points further contributing to the final result. The importance of each learning activity was accounted

Teaching Gamification in a Virtual Learning Environment

431

Table 3. Assignment 2 Rubric. Criterion

5 points

4 points

3 points

2 points

Coverage

The Plan covers ALL the positions listed in the Marking Guideline, from gamification objectives to FUN resources and Gamification Pyramid components

The Plan covers the majority but not ALL the items listed in the Marking Guideline

The Plan covers several items from the Marking Guideline

Student failed to cover at least one item in the Marking Guideline

Discussion of advantages and limitations of the Plan

Advantages and limitations of the Plan have been exhaustively discussed

The majority of items from the Marking Guideline have been discussed, but not exhaustively

Some items of the Marking Guideline are covered and discussed rather superficially

The student failed to cover and discuss at least one item from the Guideline

Proposals aimed at improvement of the Plan

At least 3 proposals have been submitted; their advantages and limitations have been discussed

Two proposals have been submitted; their advantages and limitations are not discussed

Only one proposal has been submitted; advantages and limitations are not discussed

The student failed to submit at least one proposal for the system improvement

by giving the activity a certain “weight” in percent. The final result was calculated by summation of points received for all types of activities given their “weights”. To successfully complete the course, one had to gain certain number of points (40% of maximum available). 2.4 Games Introduction Besides, a game called “Changelings” was developed and introduced to provide students with variable opportunities to choose learning activities the best fitting their learning goals thus building their personal learning path. The idea of the game was producing an “inverted” term from the original course term, e.g., “Game design” could be converted into “Chaos of work”. The task was to guess the original version basing on the converted one.

432

L. Krasheninnikova

2.5 Personalization in the Course Author of this article (and the course under consideration) by the moment of launching the course had been working as an Open University (Great Britain) tutor for more than 10 years. Disposing large tutoring experience, it was reasonable to introduce some personalization into the course. That’s why students were provided with a set of opportunities to choose their best learning activities and, thus, accumulate the maximum available sum of points [11]. They could attend lectures, be active at webinars, complete assignments, grade classmates’ written works etc. In case of strong competition within a group it was reasonable to expand possibilities for competition via introduction of ‘badging” (creating badges and awarding them to those students who contributed to advancing the group towards learning goals). In some cases, grading strategy was slightly changed depending on the specificity of the group or learning center (number of learners, students’ digital literacy etc.). E.g., points gained for an assignment could vary from 5 to 15 points. A typical evaluation strategy in the course is presented in Table 4. Table 4. Strategy Used to Reward Points at the Course. Learning Activity

Assignments Completion Number of Activities (Total)

Points Gained (max)

Points for the Completion

Weight (%)

Points TOTAL (max)

Written assignments Assignment 1

1,0

5,0

5,0

40%

2,0

Assignment 2

1,0

15,0

15,0

40%

6,0

Grading Classmates’ Assignments Assignment 1

3,0

5,0

15,0

40%

6,0

Attending lectures

8,0

1,0

8,0

50%

4,0

Being Active at lectures and webinars Webinar 1

1,0

2,5

2,5

40%

1,0

Webinar 2

1,0

2,5

2,5

40%

1,0

Webinar 3

1,0

2,5

2,5

40%

1,0

Webinar 4

1,0

2,5

2,5

40%

1,0

Webinar 5

1,0

2,5

2,5

40%

1,0

Webinar 6

1,0

2,5

2,5

40%

1,0

Webinar 7

1,0

2,5

2,5

40%

1,0 (continued)

Teaching Gamification in a Virtual Learning Environment

433

Table 4. (continued) Learning Activity

Webinar 8

Assignments Completion Number of Activities (Total) 1,0

Points Gained (max) 2,5

Points for the Completion

2,5

Weight (%)

Points TOTAL (max)

40%

1,0

Key Activities TOTAL Total Number of Activities

21,0

Activities per week

5,3

26,0

Extra Activities Posts promoting group towards learning objectives (excluding written Assignments)

8,0

1,0

8,0

50%

4,0

Successive participation in the game “Changelings”

8,0

1,0

8,0

50%

4,0

Extra Activities TOTAL

8,0

Course Total

34,0

Minimum Required for Successive Completion (40% of Max)

14

As it can be seen from the Table 4, there were a number of learning activities available to gain the number of points necessary for successful course completion. This was done to create possibilities for students to personalize their learning via choosing learning activities on their own. The activities fell into 2 categories: • key activities (attending online lectures/webinars, being active at webinars, writing assignments and grading assignments of classmates); • extra activities (posting in the group’s forum and guessing changelings). Grades for key activities accounted for the major part (26/34 or 76%) of the total grade for the course. Of them writing assignments and grading the classmates’ assignments in the Peer Assessment procedure were the most “expensive” due to the high number of points and big weigh of the grade. Attending lectures was the “cheapest” learning activity among the key ones because of poor possibilities to control whether a student was really

434

L. Krasheninnikova

listening to the lecture or not. Extra activities, especially games like the “Changelings”, did not contribute greatly to the final score but were important to engage students into learning and create positive atmosphere in the virtual learning environment. To decrease cheating probability activities were more a less evenly distributed through the course with 5, 2 activities per week.

3 Results and Discussion 3.1 Academic Progress Real summative grades of the St. Petersburg Polytechnic University Students (Master Program in Instruction Design, 2021) are presented in Table 5. Real summative grades of the APE Group 1 students (recruited on the open market) are presented in Table 6 (empty cells indicate that the student did not complete this activity). Real summative grades of the APE Group 2 students (recruited on the corporative market) are presented in Table 7. Judging by data in the Tables 5, 6 and 7, academic progress of the university students was significantly better than in the APE groups: only 1 university student (9% of the payroll of the group) dropped out from the course while in the APE groups this figure was 54% (13/26) and 62% (13/21). Among university students 55% (6/11) achieved and concentrated close to the upper level of the “Good” range (60%-80% of the maximum available grade for the course) while among APE students recruited on the open market this indicator was 27%. Among APE students recruited on the corporative market no one achieved the “Good” level (60% of the maximum available grade for the course). No one student of all the three groups achieved the “Excellent” level (80% of the maximum available grade for the course). This can result from complicated nature of the item being learned (gamification) or poor motivation of the APE students [12]. 3.2 Gamification and Personalization in the Course As mentioned above, the course was gamified according to the Lee Sheldon’s approach [10]. The idea was that, disposing a number of learning activities contributing differently to the final grade, students would perceive learning as a game permitting them to make choice and advance to the learning goals on their own. To make a conclusion re effectiveness of such an approach a brief analysis of students’ preferences regarding learning activities was done. The idea of the analysis was the following: the more students preferred this or that activity, the more often they turned to it and, accordingly, the more points from the available ones they scored. Results are presented in Table 8. As it can be seen from Table 8, the least popular learning activity was posting in the forum: no posts in the students’ forum and no points gained there. It can be considered as a prompt not to use the forum option in online earning. Nevertheless, forums are valuable learning resource and are worth to be saved as this. At least, without forums there will be nowhere to allocate “Changelings”. However, posting on the forum was evaluated only in case of the university students and was allocated on the LMS Moodle (system usability

Teaching Gamification in a Virtual Learning Environment

435

Table 5. Summative Grades of the St. Petersburg Polytechnic University Students (Master Program in Instruction Design, 2021). Before weight application

Course Total (After Attending Being WA Peer Posts Guessing Webinars Active at Final Assessment Advancing Changelings Weight Application) Total Webinars Final Group Towards Learning Goals Student 2 1

5

26

35

0

0

27

Student 6 2

8

24

25

0

0

26

Student 6 3

15

19

20

0

1

25

Student 4 4

3

30

20

0

3

25

Student 6 5

15

16

15

0

5

24

Student 6 6

0

20

20

0

3

21

Student 4 7

10

16

20

0

20

Student 6 8

5

16

20

0

19

Student 4 9

10

16

15

0

2

19

Student 2 10

2

26

10

0

0

16

Student 6 11

3

0

0

0

0

4

is problematic). In case of the both APE group forums were allocated on Facebook and were actively used mostly for the administrative support, not to advance learning goals. That’s why posting in those forums was not evaluated as a learning activity. “Changelings” were demanded in both groups: albeit not all, but the stronger students were engaged (see Tables 5, 6 and 7) with the total number of points gained being about 1point per “successive” student [13]. Badging, as well as guessing changelings, was more often addressed by stronger students (see Tables 5, 6 and 7), and a rather significant part of points available were scored due to this (9% and 14% of the total amount available for badging).

436

L. Krasheninnikova

Table 6. Real Summative Grades for Gamification course (APE Group recruited on the open market, 2019) Before weight application Badging

Course Total (After Weight Application)

WA Final

Peer Assessment Final

Attending Webinars

Guessing Changelings

Student 1

17

12

8

3

Student 2

13

12

6

Student 3

10

12

8

Student 4

8

12

7

Student 5

12

9

7

Student 6

17

8

7

Student 7

12

10

7

20

Student 8

7

11

6

19

27 1

1 3

23 23

3

22

1

21

1

20

Student 9

13

9

5

Student 10

12

8

4

2

17

19

Student 11

10

6

7

1

15

Student 12

11

6

7

15

Student 13

7

4

7

11

Student 14

13

1

6

9

Student 15

3

3

4

Student 16

7

2

2

Student 17

3

3

3

6

Student 18

0

0

5

3

Student 19

0

0

5

3

Student 20

0

0

2

1

Student 21

0

0

2

1

Student 22

0

0

1

1

Student 23

0

0

1

1

Student 24

0

0

1

1

Student 25

0

0

0

0

Student 26

0

0

0

0

1 2

7 7

Peer Assessment allowed students to get a significant number of points. It was more specific for stronger students due to their inherent self-organization allowing them to grade more classmates’ written assignments. Besides, Peer Assessment received very positive feedback from the students (although being costly to organize).

Teaching Gamification in a Virtual Learning Environment

437

Table 7. Real Summative Grades for Gamification Course (Krasnoyarsk Medical University APE Group, 2019) Before weight application Badging

Course Total (After Weights Application)

Students

WA Final

Peer Assessment Final

Attending Webinars

Guessing Changelings

Student 1

17

13

8

2

Student 2

18

10

8

3

17

Student 3

11

12

8

5

16

Student 4

17

11

8

Student 5

18

10

4

Student 6

17

12

6

Student 7

12

12

8

Student 8

13

12

8

14

Student 9

13

10

8

13

Student 10

14

12

0

10

Student 11

6

12

6

10

Student 12

10

5

8

10

Student 13

7

0

5

5

Student 14

5

0

2

3

Student 15

0

0

2

1

Student 16

0

0

1

1

Student 17

0

0

0

0

Student 18

0

0

0

0

Student 19

0

0

Student 20

0

0

0

0

Student 21

0

0

0

0

17

15 3

15 15 1

14

0

As it is obvious from Table 8, to gain points students mostly addressed to major (traditional) learning activities especially attending webinars and writing assignments. In this research, APE students from the corporate market “harvested” about half of points available for writing assignments and attending webinars (47% and 54%, Table 8). APE students from the open market paid less attention to writing assignments and attending webinars (37% and 23% accordingly) and more often addressed to guessing changelings (6% and 3% accordingly) compared to the “open market” students. Judging by data in Table 8, students’ grades for written assignments were rather low (less than a half of points available gained via writing assignments). Indeed, very few students managed to present clear plans to gamify their teaching activities. The key problem here were underdeveloped skills in setting gamification goals according to the

438

L. Krasheninnikova Table 8. Students’ Preferences re Learning Activities

Learning Activity

% of Maximum Available Score APE students (open market)

APE students (corporative market)

Written Assignments

37%

47%

Attending Webinars

23%

54%

Peer Assessment

14%

17%

Badging

9%

14%

Guessing Changelings

6%

3%

Posting in the Forum

0%

0%

Major Activities Total

22%

34%

Minor Activities Total

4%

4%

18%

28%

Course Total

SMART model—a skill poorly trained in the education systems built on the Prussian model. 3.3 Students’ Satisfaction To complete the course, students had to reflect on the course and provide detailed feedback. Among the provided feedback, there were the following: • “Within a month, the author of the Course managed to create a rich learning environment and form a learning community. Focusing on practice here is not just a slogan, but a fact. Thanks to this, I recently have developed and launched a gamified course. Even mistakes made and challenges faced turned out to be useful: the author learned a number of lessons from them. Now I have got full chests of useful learning materials, became aware of gamification practices in other universities and mastered new teaching tools”; • “Especially useful organization features of the Course for me were: – Course materials were submitted to students in advance of learning, students could get familiar with them in advance; – The Course Plan and worksheets for each webinar were provided in advance; – The content was set out in a very logical manner according to the Course Plan and time allotted; – After each webinar and on completion of each written assignment the speaker provided instant feedback”; • “My best activity in the course was “Changelings”. To guess them, I had to review recordings [of the webinar] many times”; • “I haven’t managed to join education and gamification in my mind to the very end”;

Teaching Gamification in a Virtual Learning Environment

439

• “All the courses you conducted for our group in the first and second years of learning were useful for me. Your positive attitude and readiness for any technical issues were charging my mood greatly. Thanks a lot once again”. As it can be seen from the students’ feedback, learning gamification they both faced some challenges and made some findings. They pointed at the practical orientation of the course as to the most notable benefit. Indeed, the aim of the Assignments in the course was developing a plan to gamify the students’ real teaching activities, and some of them (not all) managed to do this even while learning, not after the course’ completion. Another benefit mentioned by students in their feedback was building leaning community. It was especially evident in the “Changelings” game where students actively competed with each other in the forum providing a number of ideas re the original course terms. To be the first to guess the original term they had to “dig up” big volume of the course content (PP presentations, books, videos etc.) thus remembering this content much better. Besides, rich learning environment was appreciated by students as a benefit of the course. “Richness” here can mean saturation of the learning environment with a number of learning resources (text book, articles, videos, forum, games etc. including groupmates and the lecturer itself as a resource due to his/her well-developed tutor skills) and opportunities (independent choice of learning activities to gain the highest number of points for the course). Just such saturation of the learning environment with resources and opportunities made it suitable for personalization [14]. Besides, students could take digital resources of the course and apply them instantly to improve their own teaching practice. E.g. videos from the “Thefuntheory” project [15] demonstrating a specific kind of gamification (behavior changing one) could serve in another course to demonstrate a motivation—building mechanism. Familiarization with such a rich environment significantly expanded the teaching “repertoire” of the students. The most challenging looked to be ‘joining gamification and education’ in students’ minds. This may be a consequence of the fact that students in Russia are well acquainted with games (as an entertainment activity) applied to learning while gamification (using some components of games or some techniques of game design to achieve purposes not related to the game) is unfamiliar to them. Another source of problems could be complicated nature of gamification as a discipline: it’s not just a set of techniques but rather philosophy and culture specified as “What kind of game should I design to cope with this problem?” [16]. Thus, to master gamification, one should know foundations of psychology and pedagogy and expand much more labor than allotted 36 academic hours. Learning gamification should not be started in the first year of university master programs but would be relevant in the APE programs. In their feedback students also mentioned readiness of the lecturer for any unexpected technical issue as a virtue. They wrote it inspired them and helped to keep working mood. In the light of what the students said developing digital competences for online lecturers looks to be “must have” especially for those teaching innovative subjects such as gamification. Another problem with designing gamification plan were poor skills in studentfocused instruction design including research of the target audience and drawing up its portrait. It resulted in inability of students to describe desirable behavior of their “gamers” and select proper rewards for them.

440

L. Krasheninnikova

4 Conclusion Gamification as a subject is rather complicated, thus teaching gamification should be launched not earlier than when students have received necessary fundamental knowledge in psychology and pedagogy, the second year of learning on a master program would be the most preferrable. Labor costs for course in gamification should be not less than 72 academic hours. Students’ engagement in the course was rather poor because of, may be, complexity of the K.Werbach’s gamification model. To improve the engagement, a simpler and more understandable gamification model might be used e.g. Octalysis after Yu-Kai Chou instead or in together with the K.Werbach’s model. Lecturers in innovative disciplines like gamification should have well developed competences not only in the subject as it is, but in digital literacy as well [17, 18]. Students in Russia perceive evaluation strategy based on the Lee Sheldon’s model as strange and have not clear idea how to use opportunities it provides. Thus, to apply such or similar evaluation strategy a lecturer should apply some efforts to make students aware of this approach via explaining its benefits in the group forum etc. Peer Assessment procedure should be better described and delivered to students in close relationship with learning goals. To let students better understand and “interiorize” learning goals via evaluation criteria, it’s worth providing them a “sample” (a written assignment graded by an expert with his comments). Another opportunity to improve grading quality is online training for students or, at least, a video showing the PeerAssessment process and evaluation criteria application.

References 1. Dashkina A.I., Rubtzova A.V.: Teaching students majoring in linguistics to communicate in a foreign language by organizing teamwork on virtual communication platforms. Technol. Lang. 4(1), 146–164 (2023). https://doi.org/10.48417/technolang.2023.01.10 2. Balyshev, P.: The stages of discourse-oriented virtual learning environment modeling. Technol. Lang. 3, 88–105 (2022). https://doi.org/10.48417/technolang.2022.03.07 3. Pulyaeva, V.N., Gibadullin, A.A., Zerkin, D.G., Eismunt, V.V.: Academic motivation of students in the period of digital transformation of the educational environment. J. Phys: Conf. Ser. 1691, 012215 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1691/1/012215 4. Bylieva, D., Hong, J.-C., Lobatyuk, V., Nam, T.: Self-regulation in e-learning environment. Educ. Sci. 11, 785 (2021). https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci11120785 5. Sailer, M., Hense, J.U., Mayr, S.K., Mandl, H.: How gamification motivates: an experimental study of the effects of specific game design elements on psychological need satisfaction. Comput. Hum. Behav. 69, 371–380 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.12.033 6. Xu, J., et al.: Psychological interventions of virtual gamification within academic intrinsic motivation: a systematic review. J. Affect. Disord. 293, 444–465 (2021). https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.jad.2021.06.070 7. Werbach, K., Hunter, D.: For the Win: How Game Thinking Can Revolutionize Your Business. Warton School Press, Philadelphia (2012) 8. Self and Peer Assessment. Hong Kong University Assessment Center. https://ar.cetl.hku.hk/ self_peer.htm

Teaching Gamification in a Virtual Learning Environment

441

9. Ballantyne, R., Hughes, K., Mylonas, A.: Developing procedures for implementing peer assessment in large classes using an action research process. Assess. Eval. High. Educ. 27(5), 427–441 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1080/0260293022000009302 10. Course T366: Multiplayer Game Design, Indiana State University. https://utilities.registrar. indiana.edu/course-browser/prl/soc4092/TEL/TEL-T366.html 11. Krasheninnikova, L.V.: Creating a Personalized Learning Environment in the Classroom, Course Certificate. https://www.coursera.org/account/accomplishments/verify/7H3 KK9393L7D 12. Schöbel, S.M., Janson, A., Söllner, M.: Capturing the complexity of gamification elements: a holistic approach for analyzing existing and deriving novel gamification designs. Eur. J. Inf. Syst. 29(6), 641–668 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1080/0960085X.2020.1796531 13. Dorfner, N., Zakerzadeh, R.: Academic games as a form of increasing student engagement in remote teaching. Biomed. Eng. Educ. 1, 335–343 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s43683021-00048-x 14. Bulanov, M.V., Costly, J.: Creating a Personalized Learning Environment in the Classroom. https://mvbulanov.com/personalized_mook 15. Thefuntheory.com: An Initiative of Volkswagen. https://www.thefuntheory.com 16. Chow, Y.-K.: Actionable Gamification. Beyond Points, Badges and Leaderboards. Octalysis Media, Fremont (2016) 17. Tomczyk, Ł., Fedeli, L. (eds.): Digital Literacy for Teachers. Springer, Singapore (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-1738-7 18. Chirkova, E.I., Chernovets, E.G., Zorina, E.V.: Enhancing the assimilation of foreign language vocabulary when working with students of the digital generation. Technol. Lang. 2, 89–97 (2021). https://doi.org/10.48417/technolang.2021.03.07

Author Index

A Aladyshkin, Ivan 160 Amakhina, Svetlana 402

K Kalugina, Olga 246 Kats, Nora 370 Konnova, Larisa P. 277 Krasheninnikova, Lyubov 427 Kuznechenkov, Andrey An. 127 Kuznetsov, Dmitry 96

B Bernyukevich, Tatiana 177 Bozheskov, Alexey 231 Burmich, Artem 356 Bylieva, Daria 18, 96

L Larionova, Viola A. 147, 319 Levchenko, Viktoriya V. 115 Lisenkova, Anastasiya 88 Lobatyuk, Victoria 96 Lysenko, Elena 231

C Chicherina, Natalia V. 414 Churilov, Aleksei Yu. 134 Coenen, Christopher 197 D Daineko, Liudmila V. 319 Demina, Anna I. 3 Demir, Ça˘glar 96 Deviatnikova, Kseniia 302 Dmitriev, Alexander Vladislavovitch Dmitrieva, Natalia 402 Dubinina, Galina A. 277 Dyachkova, Irina A. 319 E Evseev, Vladimir

344

F Fedyukovsky, Alexander 37 Firsov, Yury 246 Fokina, Veronika V. 264 G Goncharova, Natalia V. 319 Grishina, Anna Sergeevna 290 I Ismagilova, Galina 185, 231 Ivanov, Viacheslav V. 134

290

M Maltceva, Ekaterina Yu. 115 Mashina, Ekaterina 212 Mashkin, Oleg 356 Melnikova, Irina Y. 264 Mirzaei, Sadegh 49 Mokshina, Elena A. 115 Murashko, Mikhail Alekseevitch Mureyko, Larisa 27 N Nalimova, Ekaterina 147 Nam, Tatiana 88 Nesterov, Alexander Yu. 3 Novikov, Maxim 160 O Odinokaya, Maria 160 P Popov, Dmitrii G. 264 Pozdeeva, Elena 344 Pyatnitsky, Aleksey 160

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Bylieva and A. Nordmann (Eds.): PCSF 2023, LNNS 830, pp. 443–444, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-48020-1

290

444

R Ray, Samrat 88 Rubtsova, Anna 370 Rubtsova, Sofia 370

S Serikov, Andrei E. 64 Shipunova, Olga 27, 344 Shubat, Oksana 185 Sokolova, Alla 302 Stepanova, Natalia 147, 356 Stepanyan, Irina K. 277

Author Index

T Tanova, Anna 344 Tarasova, Sofya 75 Timokhina, Elena 402 Trubnikova, Tatiana V. 134 V Vasilieva, Oxana 246 Vorontsova, Yevgenia Victorovna 290 Z Zaitseva, Ekaterina V. 319 Zamorev, Anton 37 Zubkov, Artyom 391