The Western Interior of Canada: A Record of Geographical Discovery, 1612-1917 9780773591530

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THE WESTERN INTERIOR OF CANADA A RECORD OF GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERY

161 2 - 1917 EOlTED AND WITH AN INTRODUCTION DY

JOHN WARKENTIN

The Carleton Library No. 15 McClelland and Stewart Limited Torolllo / Montreal

C McClelland and Stewart Limited. 1964

The Canadian Publishers McClelland and Stewart Lim ited 25 Hollinger Road. Toronto 16

PH.INTBD AND BOUND IN CANADA

BY T. H . BEST PRINTING COMPANY LIMITED

THE CARLETON LIBRARY

A series of Canadian reprints and pew collections of source material relating

to Canada, issued under the editorial supervis ion of the Institute of Canadian Studies of Carleton University, Ottawa.

DIRECTOR OF THE INSTITUTE

Pauline Jewett

GENERAL EDITOR

Robert L. McDougall

EDITORIAL BOARD

David M . L. Farr (HislOry) Khayyam Z. Paltiel (Political Science) H . Edward E nglish (Ecollomics) Bruce A. McFarlane (Sociology) Gordon C. Merrill (Geography) Wilfrid Eggleston (Journalism) Robin S. Harris (Education)

CONTENTS INTRODUCTION, 1

BOOK ONE:

EXPLORERS VENTURE ACROSS THE WEST, 1612·1824 I. ON THE WESTERN COAST OF HUDSON BAY, 1612-31,11 1. Jens Munck Winters at Munck Ha rbour (Port Churchill), J 6 19·20, 12 Description 0/ the Churchill Estuary and surrounding area, 16/9. 2. Luke Foxe Describes the Manitoba Coastline, 1631,13 The West coast of Hudsoll Bay from 63° N to 60° N; Churchill Harbour and approaches; the Nelson River Estuary.

U.

EXPLORATIONS INLAND,

1683-1787,16

1. The First Reports on the Interior, 1690-92, 20 Henry Kelsey's first season in the Interior, 1690; Kelsey's further explorations in the ill/erior, /691-2.

2. The West as Seen from the Bay, 1694-1749,30 Nicolas Uremie describes the country southwest of Hudsoll Bay. J 720; H enry Ellis describes the resources of the coast of Hudson Bay, 1 746-47; James Isham's observations on the Bay, 1743 and 1749. 3. The French Describe the Lake Winnipeg and Saskatchewan River Countries, 1730-60, 41 La Verendrye reaches the Southern Plains, 1731-49,' Joseph La France describes Southern Manitoba, 1740-42; Jacques Saint-Pierre's account of the founding of Fort 10 Jonquiere, 1751-52. 4. The British Reconnoitre the Saskatchewan River Country, 1754·72,50 Allthony Henday travels to the Rocky Mountains, 1754·55. 5. The British Visit the Barren Grounds, 1715-72, S4 Samuel H earne describes the Barrens, 1769-72. 6. The Athabaska Country Is Opened, 1766-87,58 Peter Pond's maps, 1784-87; Alexander Henry the Elder' and the North West Passage, 1775-81.

m.

AN EMERGING GEOGRAPHICAL PA'ITERN, 1784-1814,65 1. Philip Turnor - Surveyor, 1790-92, 68 Tumor describes the southeast shore of Lake A thabaska, 1791; Turtlor comments on the Peace River Country, 1792; Peter Fidler describes a former river bed, 1792.

vili - THE WESTERN I NTERIOR OF CANADA

2. Edward Umfreville Describes the Saskatchewan Country, 1790,72 3. Alexander Mackenzie's Account of Western Interior Canada, 1787-1 801,75 Mackenzie describes the canoe route across the Canadian West; th e Peace River Country, 1792; settlem ent possibilities and the resources of Western Interior Canada. 4. David Thompson - Cartographer and Regional Geographer, 1784-1814,91 Geographical jeatures oj Churchill, 1784-85,' country between Churchill and York Fort, 1785,' BQw and Saskatchewan River Courttries, 1787-88; Musk Rat Country; the Great Plains; Assiniboine River Country, 1797,' Journey in mid- winter through southwestern Manitoba, 1797-98: Journey do wn the Assiniboine and up the Red River, 1798. 5. Alexander Henry the Younger - Field Geographer, 1800-1811,105 Red and Assiniboine River regions, 1800-1806. 6. John Tanner Describes the Assiniboine River, c. 1800,108 7. Gabriel Franchere and M. Bibaud's Romantic Account of the Saskatchewan Country, 1814, 109 TIlE FUR TRADER TURNS GEOLOGIST, 1812-24, 111 1. William Auld's Remarks on the Geology of the Nelson River Country, 1812,112 2. Samuel Black Describes the Peace River Country, 1824, 115

IV.

BOOK nYO :

SCIENTIFIC EXPLORATIONS AND SURVEYS, 1819-1 917 SCIE.NTIFIC TRAVE.LLERS AND OBSERVERS, 1819-55, 122 1. Dr. Richardson Travels the Northern Routes, 1819-49,127 Descriptive geoiogicaltraverse - York Factory to Lake Winnipeg to Lake Athabaska, 1819-22. 2. William Keating Visits Southeastern Manitoba, 1823,138 Observations on rhe L acustrine deposits on the Red River Lowland; Red R iver Lowland of Manitoba; Winnip eg River Country . 3. Governor George Simpson Describes tbe Plains, 1841, 143

V.

CONTENTS - ix VI.

GEOGRAPHICAL EXPEDITIONS STUDY TIlE WEST,

1853-81,144 I. Americ ans Investigate the Plains South of the 49th Parallel, 1853-54, 149 Observations on the Plains, 1854; a panoramic view of southwest A Iberia, 1854; Governor Isaac Stevens on agricultural possibilities between the Red and Souris rivers. 2. The Geographical Appraisal of the West by British and Canadian Exploring Expeditions, 1857-60,153 The Palliser Expedition, 1857-60; the Hind-Dawson Explorations, 1857-58. 3. Canadians Begin to Examine Their New Territory After 1869-70, 231 Land Surveyors col/ect information on the Canadian West from 1869 on; George M. Dawson and the survey of the 49th Parallel,1873-74; Sandford Fleming's Canadian Pacific Railway surveys and the work of John Macoun, 1872-80; the Geological Survey of Canada begins investigations in the West from 1873 on. VII.

REGIONAL RECONNA ISSANCE AND EXPLOR~TORY SURVEYS, 1881-1917,

261 1. Reports on the Sedimentary Region, 188 1-90,263 R. C. McConnell describes the M issouri Coteau in the Regional Geologica l Report on the Cypress Hills, 1883-84; McConnell describes the country between the Peace and A thabaska rivers, 1889-90. 2. The Controversy over Continental Glaciation and the Beginning of Systematic Studies, 1887-9 1,271 Warren Upham describes the Lake A gassiz Basin, 1890. 3. J. B. Tyrrell Describes the Topography of the Canadian Shield, 1890-96, 279 Pleistocene features of centraJ Manitoba, 1896. 4. Scientific Exploration After 1900, 284 A. E. Cameron describes Ihe Hay River Dislrict, 19 / 7. BIBLIOGRAPHY,

288

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS, INDEX, MAPS,

300

301 305-308

1. Topography

2. Selected Routes,1631-1778 3. Selected Routes, 1789-1820 4. Selected Routes, 1857-1 917

INTRODUCTION

""'" T he explo rati on of the provi nces of Manitoba, Saskatchewa n, and Alberta neither began nor ended with the fa mous journeys of Sir Thomas Button , Henry Kelsey, La Vcrendrye. Anth ony Hend ay, or Sir Alexa nder Mackenzie. Natives were famili ar with the country before these men of European origin a rrived , but we know their impressions of th e land o nly at second hand. But after these famous explorers had charted th e way anew, informati on about these regions continued to accumulate as scienti fic ex plorers crossed a nd recrossed the land, integrating the data they coll ec ted into mea ningful geographical interpretatio ns of the country. OUf schools, universities, and indeed all persons wh o live in or arc concerned with the country extending from the Lake of the Woods to the Rocky Mo untains, have a "received body of knowledge" about this area, which is taken fo r granted - almost as if th e descript io ns a nd interpretations enabli ng us to grasp the geographical identity of the regio n were ready-made by nature. It is too often forgotten that there is a history of the scient ific exp loratio n of every land , and that our present knowledge of the phys ical geography of Manitoba, Saskatchewa n, a nd Alberta, for instance, was pieced together by many men o nly after years of persistent travel and field work, of careful and pat ient inves ti gation. Intrepid mariners, unschooled fur traders, gi fted a mateur naturalists, and scientists of international stature contri buted to this story. In thi s volume I have selected excerpts from the journ als and reports of these explorers in the hope th at th ey will show how our geograp hi cal knowledge of the land grew fro m the time that Sir Thomas Button first stepped ashore on the coast of Manitoba in 16 12, until 1917, the year the last major uninvestigated region

2 - THE WESTERN INTERIOR OF CANADA

in Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta was described by a scientific observer. But 1917 must not be regarded as a rigid date terminating the geographica l exploration of those provinces. During the first quarter of the twentieth century the first rough geographical outline of Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta was finally being completed . By this time the co nceptual framework was established in which all of us today view the physical geography of this region. The selections in this vo lume are centred on the grassland and park country of the sedimentary pla ins of southern Manitoba. Saskatchewan, and Alberta. But to look at this interior area alone is not enough. We must see it in its larger setting, particularly from the viewpoint of the geographical explorers who made the first records of the region. The country beyo nd the sou thern limit of the Saskatchewan River watershed was not visited regularly by men from the northeast, and the Rocky Mountains served as a firm barrier on the west with a few gaps that led into an entirely new country. Lake Athahaska was the great gateway to the north and west out of the interior region, with water routes leading off into the Arctic and Pacific Oceans, and from this lake there is a great arc of shield country extending to Hudso n Bay and Lake of the Woods, the gateways on the east. In slating this we have roughly delimited, surpri si ng as it may seem, the boundaries of the prese nt provinces of Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta. In the days of the fur trade there was a real unity within this area that belied the contrast between its two great physiographic divisions, the sedimentary plains and the crystalline shield. This unit y grew out of the way the traders brought together th e resources and the transportation routes within the two landscapes in developing the region. And many people living here tod ay are conscious of a continuing modern unity in the area between Hudson Bay and Lake of the the Woods and the Rocky Mountains, though the actu al forms which the developments have taken and the ways of life that have resulted are of course very different from those existing in the era of the fur trade. No satisfactory name for the three provinces as a whole has as yet been devised. In the nineteenth century the region was often designated as the "North West," but this term bas now been transferred to the Mackenzie and Yukon basins. "Prairie Provinces" is the name most frequently used today, but it is

INTRODU CTION - 3

quite inappropriate and has misled ma ny people about the character of the land. For many Canadians the term "Western Canada" means these three pro vinces; but it is not geographically acc urate, si nce this usage excludes British Columbia. I am therefore introducing the term "The \Vestern Interior of Ca nada" to designate the provinces of Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta. This term co mbines two ideas about the land - th at it is weste rn a nd that it is interior - that have ample precedents in usage and which are geographically accurate. "Western" of course is widely accepted today as a designation of the area. The word "interior" was used occasionally in the nineteenth century when refe rring to this land. Geologists, too, use the phrase "Wes tern Interior," but they refer specifically to the sedimentary strata between the Shield and the Rockies, whereas I wi ll be applying the term "The Western Interior of Ca nad a," or simply the "Canadian West" to designate a group of political units. The evolution of our geographical knowledge of the Western Interior of Ca nada was a continuous process; the record changed gradually from simple desc ription, to classification, and finally to interpretation and explanation of th e geographical features of the region. These changes resulted from a variety of causes, including: the arrival of outstanding and exact observers who were able to record what they saw; the application of new concepts in the earth sciences to the region; the urgent necessity of preparing a geographical inventory of tbe area so that the reso urces could be exploited effectively; and the introduction df new techniques a nd methods of carrying out surveys. With these developments in mind the accumu lation of knowledge on the geography of the Western Interior of Canada can be divided, with overlapping, into two main periods: 1612-1824, and 1819-1917. There are many other shorter stages as well, a nd these will be described in the context of the explorers' records as reprinted in this book. In the first period, 1612-1824, traders looked mainly for furs and for transcontinental routes, though there were always some who pushed on simply because th ey were curious. With some importa nt exceptions, the gathering of detailed information about anyone area was secondary. Sir Alexander Mackenzie made this poi nt weU in the introduction to his Voyages when he wrote :

I

4 - THE WESTERN I NTERIOR O F CANADA

I do not possess the science oj ,he naturalist; and even if the qualifications of 'hat character had been allailled by me, ils curious spirit would nOl ha ve been gratified. I cou ld nor stop to dig illto the earlh, over whose surface I was compelled 10 pass with rapid steps,' f1 0 r could [tum aside to collecl the plants which nolllre might have scattered on the way, when my though ts were anxiously employed ill making provision for th e day th at was passing over me. (Voyages from Montrea l, p. vi.) For two centuries after the first recorded Europeans saw parts of Manitoba, most accou nts of the Western In terior of Canada dealt with the simple topographica l linea ments of the la nd; they were straig htforward descriptions of the generally Hat terra in, bounded on th e west by the high mountai ns of the Rockies, the many waterways , and the vegeta tion of the area. During th is period the primary ach ievement was in the everincreasing areal extensio n of sim ple landscape desc ription and mapping across the Canadian Wes t; only occasionally would observers record a penetra ting remark or co mprehensive genera lization. By the beginning of the nineteenth century a fa irl y good general kn owledge of the topography of the Ca nadi a n West had been developed, though it was not by a ny means all on record. By 180 1 even the general public could read about the region in Edward Umfreville's or Sir AJexander Mackenzie's books describing their experiences and trave ls, and A. Arrowsmith's first maps of British North America were ava ilable. In the second period, 1819-1 917, explorations were carried o ut expressly for the sa ke of acquinng scientific knowledge about the Canadian Wes t. These in vestigations co rresponded to the wider scientific explorations which in the nineteenth century were ca rri ed on throughou t the world. Natura lly the incidental gathering of data by traders and other travellers continued throu ghout the century. Beginning in 1819, however, scientifically trained observers began to visit the Western Interior of Canada. Having the growing body of scientific knowledge of Europe and the United States on which to pattern their work, they recorded their observations more precisely and in a new vocabulary much fuller than that of the earlier exp lorers. Eve n more significantly, they organized and class ified their data, and attempted to explain how the topography was produced. J

INTRODUCTION -

s

Tbrougbout the nineteenth century there was a steady accumulation of information on the country, particularly in the field of geology, but also in pla~t geograpby. Perceptive and creative scientists worked in the Western Interior of Canada, and near the 'mid-point of the century certain regional generalizations about the topography of tbe plains were made which have remained basic to our understanding of that part of the Canadian ,"Vest. But although these region al syntheses are now classic, they are limited to the southern part of the Western Interior of Canada. We still have no equivalent interpretations for the central and northern areas, in particular for the Shield. Indeed, since the first quarter cif this century there has been no essential advance in the layman's comprehension of the geography of the Shield, because that great part of Canada has not yet been divided into smaller regional units that are real to him. Only too often the Shield is simply "the North" - a convenient myth rather tban a geographical reality. Fortunately the re-examination of the environment never ends. By the turn of the nineteenth century more exact scientific investigations were already being undertaken throughout the Canadian ,"Vest. In the twentieth century work began in soils geography and in land classification, both of which had particular signi ficance on the southern sedimentary plains. And in the north, scie ntific studies of the Shield finally came into their own as geological investigations and the compilation of forest inventories were greatly faci litated by the airplane and the aerial photograph. The date of the final excerpt in this book, 1917, is almost coincidental wi th the post-World War I years when the airplane was first used in scientific exploratory work in Canada. Indeed, the airp lane, and later the helicopter, are associated with a new era in exploration, which is however not dealt yvi th in this volume. Aircraft not only speeded up survey work and made it less costly in terms of mapping accomplished, but made possible new kinds of surveys that have provided further knowledge on the structure of tbe earth's crust. This has enabled geophysicists to divide the Shield into great geological provinces, and thus start to bring order out of fragmentary detail. As yet the grand regional generalizations based on this research have not reached the general public, but scientists are outlining a conceptual framework that will eventually help the layman comprehend the

6 - THE WESTERN INTERIOR OF CANADA

geography of the Shield throughout its ex tent in North America, and also throw more light on the geography of the northern Western Interior of Canada. Thus scientific exp lorations are still continuing in the Ca nad ian West, bu ilding on the foundatio ns la id since 16 12, a nd revealing the land to the Ca nad ian people. Many accounts a nd journals quoted in this compilation were not published unti l long after the men who wrote them were dead, so that the knowledge that these men possessed was not made ava il able to their contemporaries in written fo rm . T his of course retarded the deve lopment of the geographical knowledge of the West, since knowledge can only grow from the reco rded contributions of many men. Neverthe less I have included excerpts from the journa ls of these men because often their accounts show the impact of the land on the early European observers. As well, the journals reveal to us the state of the geographica l knowledge of the time, rega rdless of whether th ei r con ten ts were passed o n effectively or not. I n a ny case, all th e passages quoted, whether or no t pub lished at the time they \~e r e wr itten, are descript ions of geograph ical fea tures which exist today. This gives a con tinu ing vita li ty to the selections, even th ough we, with o ur differe nt needs and a different tec hnology, may have a different view of these enduring features th an the men of the seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries. The reports o f explorers, travellers, a nd scien tists o n the Canadi an West fi ll so many vo lu mes th at in a small book li ke this it is im possible to do more than select the most significant passages th at will show how our exact knowledge of the phys ical" geography of the Western J nter ior of Canada deve loped. For the period f rom 16 12 to 1824 th e seq uence of events has been well charted by hi storians of the exploration of Canada. My task nas been to find what the explorers actua ll y recorded of the physical geography. From these records I have chosen, first, the ea rliest topographi c descri ptio ns of all the major parts of th e West, wh ich are usua lly in the form of it ineraries; and seco nd, those reg ional descriptions in wh ich an effort was made to co nvey an un derstanding of the character of wider areas, and some sy nthes is was attempted. It has proved imposs ible, for lack of space, to inc lu de descriptions of the Rocky Mountains. For the pe riod from 1819 to 19 17 li tt le has been published on the progress of scientific exploration in Canada. T he excerpts presented below and the introductio ns to eac h of them

INTROD UCTION - 7

~)

and to the various sections must therefore se rve as a preliminary outline of the history of scientific exploration in th e Canadian West. (W. O. Kupsch, howeve r, has written an excellen t introduction to the geological exploration of Saskatchewan and F. 1. Alcock's shor t history of th e Geological Survey of Canada has been useful. ) 1n this peri od the material on record is so voluminous that only samples of the kind of scientific work acco mplished can be quoted. Excerp ts have been included to show how we attained a knowledge of the major geological cras: the Precambrian, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic. But space limitations have made it impossible to trace systematically the subdividing of these eras. Considerably morc space is allotted to quotations showing how our knowledge of the terrain or surface geology developed . Precise descriptions of the landscapes of different areas, and classifications of the terrain into landform regions are reprinted. Complementary to these are the excerpts showing how the nature of field research changed during the nineteenth century from the early reconnaissance geographical surveys, to regional geological studies, and then to the detailed analytical study of a particular aspec t of the geology of an area. Accounts describing climate and vegetation, and analysing the settlement potentialities of the Canadian West have also been included. These quotations do no more than introduce "students to the weal th of excellent material on the physical geography of Canada's Western Interior contained in accounts, journals, and reports published from the seventeenth to the twentieth centuries on that area. Some of the sources are inaccess ible to stud ents. But the volumes published by the Champlain Society and the Hudson's Bay Record 'Society, and the reports of tbe Geological Survey of Canada and of other government agencies are available in all large libraries. The bibliograpby is a guide to some of this literature. I wish to express my appreciation to my good friend Armour Mackay of Bird River, Manitoba, wi th whom I have had many stimulating discussions about the explorations of the West which have helped me shape the form of this book; to my wife Germaine who assisted me in putting these sources together; and to Gordon Merrill of Carleton University for his help in

8 - THE WESTERN INTERIOR OF CANADA

reducing th e mass of so urce material to a manuscript of manageable size. I also wish to thank Miss Margaret Mackenzie, reference librari an at the Universi ty of Manitoba, and Miss Marjorie Morley of the Manitoba Provincial Library fo r helping me collect material. ,..., JOH N WARKENTJN

Y ork University January. 1964.

T he symbol ..... has been used throughou t the text to indicate material interpolated by the editor.

BOO K ONE

EXPLORER S VENTU R E ACROSS THE WEST, 1612 - 18 2 4

...... The first explorers of the Western Interior of Canada we re men completely unknown to us. We do not even know when they came or what tracks they fo llowed. Artifac ts fo un d in fa llowed fields, on allu via l terraces wit hin rive r valleys, or along the pa tbs that lead from lake to lake show that these lands were in habited for ma ny years before the European exp lorers arrived. T he natives, mostly I nd ians but also a few Eskimos, knew the la nd intimately. and no European travelling in th is country was ever the fi rst person to see any part of it. The natives showed the Europeans which paths to follow through the in tricate waterways of the north, helped them to subsist - and even to survive - and often unconsciously urged them on wi th descrip tio ns of what lay beyond. Some European explorers not only acknowledged the help they received from individ ual natives in piloting them thro ugh the wilderness, but made traci ngs of the sketch maps drawn by these men, thus preserving some evide nce of their assistance. As rece ntly as 1950 the delineations o n the official maps of this country of a few remote streams in the North West Te rri tories were still based on sketches drawn by Esk imos fo r a passing exp lo rer, 1. 8. T yrrell - accordi ng to M r. Tyrrell 's statement to the present writer. The fact that most parts of the Canadian West were inhabited by natives was of inestimable help to th e Europea ns. But it did not necessarily lessen the dangers of traversing t.he reg ion, nor redu ce the de mands placed o n a n explorer's qualities of leadership. H e alone could dec ide: H ow far shall I go? Will I fi nd food

10 - THE WESTERN I NTERIOR OF CANADA

along the way? Shall I trust the natives' story? Can my men continue? And always: Will we get back if we go on? Though recognizing th at thoughts like these were with every explorer at nearly every step of his way, I bave reluctantly pushed as ide in this collection the perils and deligbts, the hardships and the tedious toil of trave l, and concerned myself witb the explorer's eye for the land, and bow our knowledge of the land grew. In the 212 years from 1612 to 1824 the major regions of the West were explored and partially surveyed. The advance was not rapid. From the time that the west coast of Hudson Bay was sigb ted until tbe Canadian Rockies were first seen in J 754 (or was it really in 1752?) there passed 142 years. And even then little precise knowledge was on record. But after the midpoint of the eigh teenth century there was a great burst of exploration as fur traders paddled, trudged, and rode through the interior, so that by 1824 a great amount of geographical information had been collected. Yet the reasons for the adventurers' presence in the West - fur traders first and explorers second - meant th at much of this knowledge remained with each individual, or with a small group only. as information was passed on by word of mouth. Then again, recorded observations might lie dorm ant in a journal without adding to contemporaries' knowledge, to be published, if at all, in another age. Despite the fact th at so much information wen t unrecorded or unpu blished, by 1824 some important books describing th e geograph y of tbe Canadia n West bad been printed, and maps had been compiled from careful su rveys - and even reproduced in England by A. Arrowsmith, the cartographer - so that the approximate geographical pattern of the Canadian West was known by that date. --

I

On the Western Coast of Hudson Bay, 1612-1631

-- Europeans approached the Western Interior of Canada by four routes , enterin g the region through: Hudson Bay; the St. Lawrence - G reat Lakes-Lake of the Woods system of rivers and lakes; th e Upper Miss issippi Valley- Red River Low land; and the Columbia River or the Strait of Georgia and the passes through the Western Cordillera. The earlies t docume nted explorations by Europeans were carried out in the seventeenth and eighteent h centuries, first from Hudso n Bay and the n latcr by using the St. Lawrence-Great Lakes-Lake of the Woods route. The other two routes were used on ly in the nineteenth century. and then only by the occasional fur trader or sc ientific explorer. In th e summer of 1610 Henry Hudso n sailed into the Bay named after him. but he d id not touch the western shore of the Bay. Two years later Thomas Button fo llowed Hudson. Button was not only the first recorded European to see the western shore of Hudson Bay. but he also wintered at the mouth of the Nelson River, in 161 2-13. Since his journal is lost there is no description of the coas tli ne or the land from his pen, a nd we merely have some ge neral reports of his activities in the Bay. In 16 19-20 Jens Munck, a Danish navigator, wintered at Chu rchill, and in 1631 Captains Luke Foxe and Thomas J ames, both from England but on independ ent expeditions, sailed along the coast of today's Man itoba. All these navigators were in search of the North West Passage. Since there are no long inlets in Manitoba accessible

12 - T HE WESTERN INTER IOR OF CANADA

to ocean vessels, the explorers' journals deal only with the coastal strip and we learn nothing about the interi or from these first exp lorations. 1. l ENS MUNCK WINTERS AT MUNCK HARBOUR (PORT CHURCH1LL). 16 19·20

-- Munck left Denmark with two ships in May, 161 9, to search for the North West Passage. He reached Hudson Bay safely, and early in September found his way in to what is now Port Churchill, where he was the first Europea n to spend the winter. Until Christm as his crew lived well, despite the severe coJd, but in the new year sc urvy killed sixty-two of the sixty-five me n in the expedition. The fact th at the expeditio n was gradually decimated, the men dying one by one instead of in one great disaster, deepens the horror of that remote sub-arctic winter. With only two other men, M unck managed to bring one ship back to Denmark in th e summer of 1620 - one of the great feats in the exploration of the New World. Munck collected little geographical information, al though the fi rst printed map of any part of the Wes tern Interior of Canada was included in his account of the exploration, published in 1624. Yet th e bleakness of the land emerges from his few comments on the scenery. ,....

a Description 01 the Churchill Estuary and Surrounding Area, 1619. [Along the coast to the west of Churchill] no harbours could be found ; the land was low, fiat , and wooded, and th ere was scarcely any safe harbour to protect a boat properly... . [Along the coast to the east of Ch urchill] th ere were no harbours suitable fo r winter quarters .. . but only flat, bare, and swampy land . . . . I myself journeyed up the [Church ill] river to see how far I could get with a boat; but, about a mile and a half up, there were so many stones in it, that I could not advance any further, and had to return .. .. After [October 22 when th e ice became firm] the crew commenced to go on shore in the day time in pursuit of game. A part went into the forest to set traps to catch animals .. . another part of the men betook themselves to the open country for shooting, because there were plenty of ptarmigan and hares,

PART I: 16 12- 16 31 - 13

as well as all kinds of birds. as long as the snow was not too deep . . . . I went on sho re on the 7th of November with 19 men, and penetrated nearly three miles into the country. in order to ascertain whether any inh abitants were to be found . As, however, there was a sudd en great fa ll of snow, which was too heavy for us to make our way through. we were obliged to return wi thout effecting anything by the journey. (C. C. A. Gosch fed.}. Danish A rctic Expeditions, 1605 to 1620 lLondon : Hakluy t Society, 1897], If, pp. 25-3 1

2. LUKE FOXE DESCRIBES THE MAN ITOBA COASTLINE, 1631

- In the summer of 163 1 Captain Luke Foxe of Hull sailed southward along th e western shore of Hudson Bay. He sent out occasional land ing parties. and even stopped in the estuary of the Ne lson River for twe lve days. Foxe returned to England th at same year, having clearl y established that there was no North West Passage anywhere along the southwestern coast of Hudso n Bay. H is account of the exploration was published in London in 1635. a Til e Wesl Coast of Hudson Bay from 63°N. to 60 0 N .

-- Foxe observed the gently shelving shore, and the many ridges th at paralleled the coast. The higher strand li nes noted by Foxe were incorrectly explained by him. They of course result from the slow rising of the land that is taking place around Hudson Bay since th e latest glaciation. There is an indication of the location of the tree line in his remark of August 2, 1631 . -July 29, 163 1: Now, for this Hand [Marble Island, c. 63 °N.l, it is all of a white Marble [quartzite], of indifferent height, with man y water Ponds therein, and great store of Fowle, especially water-fowle . . . . I tooke it to be 6 or 7 miles long; but they [Foxe's landing p arty] thought it to be parted in two. It is all shelves and ridges betwixt the shore and it, making, as it were, a Bay betweene the North land, which is high, and tbe Soutb; for all tbe land to South of this is all low land, except 3 or 4 places neere unto the West part of Hudson 's West Bay [James Bay], where Captaine James wintered.

14 - THE WESTERN INTERIOR OF CANADA

Augus t I. [About 61 oN.] This morning, the Master and I in the Maine top might see two ridges dry, which last evening wee came hard by. I doe thinke that in Winter the windy stormes puts in some flowings of water incredible to be beleeved in respect of other places; for it may be perceived that the water bath been up on the land and !lands higher by five or six fathome then the usuall Spring-Tydes . . . . August 2. [61 ° N.] The land is low, but wit hin are many water ponds, and small growne wood . A ugust 3 . .. . the land lowe, but now and then a Sandie knowle or downe would appeare, much like the coast of H oJfand and Flanders; wee made way S. W. and by W. 10 leag., and divers tim es see dry shelves betweene us and the shoa re. The Latit. was 60 d. 22 m. (Miller Christy [ed.l. The Vo)'ages 0/ Captain Lllke Foxe 0/ !l1I1I. and Captain Thomas James 0/ Bristol in Searcll 01 a North-Wes t Passage, in J6JJ -J2 [London: Hakluyt Society. 1894] . II. pp. 324-32)

b Churchill Harbour and Approaches. ,...., Foxe commen ts briefly on the possibilities for sett lement. Captain Thomas James had passed this way earlier that year, and this explains Foxe's reference to him . ,....,

August 6: [The coast north of Churchill] This lan d bore from me to the S.E. by E., and was genUie descending down to the Seaside, the greenest & best like I have seene since I came out of the river of Thames, and as it were inclosed with thick rowes of Trees betweene one meadowe and another, distinct as it were Barne Elmes, nere London, and at sight hereof I did thinke of them; and if there be any keeping of tame Deere or other beasts, or tillage, in all that countrey, I should thi nk it to be there .. . . But to proceed: I stood along the land, and had deep from 20 to 30 fatb _ This morning was gray overcast; the Sun rose thinly va led. but visible; there was a Rainebow in the firmament. and some drops of raine feU. Standing along, whiles this land trented E. and W., wee see the entrance of a large river [Churchill River] , bUI all full of scaupes, shelves, and shoale water, wch, comming forth, changeth the Sea to be more white. At the S. entrance of this River was a Cliffe, like unto Balsea cliffe, nere Harwich. and on the S. again, another great Bay,

PART I: 16 12 - 1631 - IS

whose bottome was esie to be seen. I was nere the entrance thereof, and found it was all full of shoales and ridges; at this [point] was Capt. James on ground, as I found by his speeches afterwards. The S. part of this Bay Iyeth E. and W., and at the E. end thereof Iyeth an I1and S. and N., about 3 miles long. I stood from the mouth of this River and Bay to go to the N. of the said I1and. (Foxe: Voyages, II, pp. 336-37)

c The Nelson River Estuary. -- Foxe made a few remarks on the topography of the area, including some ecological observations. Though he mentions the surface deposits he says nothing about the nature of the bedrock. -

August 10. This river [Nelson River] is on both sides full of small woods . The North side is a clay cliffe, Jike of that to tbe Nase in Essex, but not so high. August 17. [About six miles up the Nelson River] ... up so farre, and above the Hands, as we could see, it was Clay clift on both sides, and of reasonable height; but the fresh came down with great force, or else you might wade it over. It is also thicke as can stand of Firre and Spruce-trees, but small ones. for there is no ground for the wood to take roote upon, for the thicknesse of Masse, so they cannot roote in the earth, but grow up, and fall downe and rot . ... Me thought the vaWes was good grasse, store of wood; and here we gathered black-berries, as we found in other places, with straw-berries, goose-berries, and Vetches, with several sorts of small shrubs and trees. August 21: [East of the Nelson River] ... the land full of woods, but lowe, and stretched here E. and by N. from the River's mouth. Here is good smooth and even ground. if any occasion were hereafter to use it; the land is faire to be seene. (Foxe: Voyages, II, pp. 342-51)

n Explorations Inland, 1683·1787

...... The first journeys into the interior were not mad e by explorers in search of a route ac ross North America but by men pursuing the fur trade. In 1648 and 1649 the Iroquois nearly annihilated the Huron Indians of prese nt-day Southern Ontario, who had served as midd lemen between the French traders of the St. Lawrence and the Indian trappers of the Upper Great Lakes country. Thus in the I 650's the French traders th emselves were forced to travel to the Lake Su perior basin, via the Ottawa River and Lake Huron, to fe-establish contacts wi th the fur-supp lying Indians. T wo of the traders in this re mole land, Medard Cho u art, better known as Groseilliers. and Pierre-Esprit Radisson, pondering about the great ga teways to the interior of the North American continent, conceived the idea that the fur country could be reached through Hudson Bay. This proved to be one of those simple but great ideas th at occasio nally come to influence the desti ni es of large reg ions. Having qu arrell ed with the aut horit ies at Quebec, Groseilliers and Rad isson tra ve lled to England seeking support for their scheme to use the Bay as a route to conduct trade in the heart of North America. They persuaded an English commercial grou p to outfit an expedition to trade for furs in Hudson Bay in 1668-69. The venture was a success, and in 1670 a charter was granted in London to the Hudson's Bay Company, giv ing it exclusive rights to the trade of the Hudson Bay basin. Despi te the charter a fierce rivalry fo r furs on the Hudso n Bay coast bega n in the 1670's, as E nglishmen, Frenchmen, and New E nglanders fou ght for the trade. Europeans, however, did

PART II ; 1683- 1787 - 17

not journey far into the interior a fter pelts, beca use the natives brought them to the coast, where co mpetition was therefore concentrated. Beginning in the 1680's perm anent posts were established at strategic points, such as the forts on the Churchill, Nelso n, and H ayes Rivers. Radisson, th at restless energetic spirit, appears to have been the first Europea n to go inland from the Bay, when he travelled up country for four days in 168 3 from the Ha yes estuary. Unfortunately we learn little of the country from the record of his journey. Five years after Radisson's short trip the eastern entra nce to Western Interior Ca nada, through Lake of the Woods, was approached. Jacques de Noyon, a French trad c r~travell e d from Lake Superior to Lake of the Woods, but left no description of his journey. It was another forty years before the thrust along the St. Lawrence route was fully res umed. Thus it was travellers from the Bay who gained the renown of discovering the prairie region. In 1690 th e first great journey inland was undertaken. To expand the fur trade Henry Kelsey. in the service of the Hudson's Bay Compan y, travelled from the Bay across the Canadian Shield to the plains of the interior. His is the first personal report of those prairie lands which are associated in our minds with the words "Canadia n West." In 1715 another great journey was successfully carried out by a Hudson's Bay Company man, William Stewart, when he travelled west and north from the Bay into what have become known as the Barren Grounds. The Trea ty of Utrecht of 1713 left the British in sole control of Hudso n Bay, so that there was no great necessity to continue th e exploration inl and until trading ri va ls from the St. Lawrence began to appear in the Western Interi or of Ca nada. But even if no one was travelling up country to collect information about distant localities, some exact knowledge was accumulating of the country near the Bay, where the Europeans were stationed. This is shown in the accounts of the area written by men like Nicolas Jeremie, Christopher Middleton, Arthur Dobbs, Henry Ellis, William Coats, Joseph Robson, and James Isham. From them we learn for the first time something about the soil, are bodies, climate, permafrost problem, plant life, and so on of Western Interior Canada. In the early eighteenth centu ry the push fro m th e St. Lawrence into the Canadian West was resum ed. By the 1720's to get

18 - THE WESTERN INTERIOR OF CANADA

to the Lake Winnipeg country the French traders were again using tbe route blazed by Jacques de Noyon. At Lake Winnipeg, tbey diverted to Montreal many of the furs intended for the English on the Bay. But there was no sustained, well-organized westward movement until after 1731 when Pierre Gaultier de Varennes, Sieur de la Verendrye, received his commission as Commandant of the Western Posts, which he held until 1744. In th e years from 1731 until 1760 the French explored presentday southern Manitoba, and the Saskatchewan River to its forks and perhaps even beyond. Since the French had no convenient operational bases on the threshold of the western fur country, such as the Hudson's Bay Company possessed, they had to establish posts amidst the Indians as they proceeded westward. The Hudson's Bay Company men soon learned from the Indians of the far-ranging activities of the French. In reply to the French enterprise in the West the Company sent out Anthony Henday, in 1754 with a group of Indians, to visit the tribes of the interior on their own grounds and try to persuade them" to trade at the Bay. H enday immediately surpassed the exploits of the French by travelling to within sight of the Rocky Mountains. Other men from the Bay followed. Matthew Cocking travelled to central Saskatchewan, and William Pink, Joseph Smith, and Joseph Waggoner to southern Manitoba. These journeys provided rel atively reliable information to the Hudson's Bay Company officials on the vast extent of the southern plains. Travel in the Canadian West slackened during the Seven Years' War (1756-63), and even before the end of the conflict French trading activities in the interior had ceased. In 1763, by the Peace of Paris, Canada became a British colony and, beginning in 1766, independent British traders renewed the thrust from Montreal, using the old French bands to staff their brigades. Many new fur-tradin g posts were established in the interior. In 1774 Joseph Frobisher, a trader from Montreal, travelled north on the Sturgeon weir from the Saskatchewan River, crossed Frog Portage to the Churchill River, and intercepted the Indians who were carrying their furs to Hudson Bay. But even more significantly, his journey pointed the way to tbe northern trapping grounds of the Athabaska, Peace. aDd Mackenzie river systems. The Hudson's Bay Company was beginning to reply to tbese

PART II : 1683-1787 - 19

encroachments. In 1769-72 Samuel Hearne made three separate journeys of exploration to the Barren Grounds, northwest from Prince of Wales's Fort on the Churchill River. He went in search of copper, not fur, and these journeys led to no further development in that area. But having proved himself, Hearne was sent to establish in 1774 Cumberland House on the Saskatchewan River. This was the first Hudson's Bay Company post in th e interior. It was foHowed soon by many more, as rival traders sought to establish posts at strateg ic locations. A very important discovery of the period after the Seven Years' War was made in 1778 by Peter Pond, a trader born in Connecticut but trad ing from Montreal, when he crossed a portage connecting the Churchill River sys tem with a stream flowing westward into the Athabaska River. T his was Methy Portage, the great link between the major canoe routes of the Canadian West, by which Alexander Mackenzie was to reach the Mackenzie River and the Arctic Ocean in 1789, and the Peace River and the Pacific Ocean in 1793. After 1766 th ere were many fur traders in the Canadian West, but this does not mean that our geograp hical knowledge increased proportionally. 10 the course of their work the traders always followed pretty we ll the same waterways to and from the trappi ng grounds, so that once the main routes had been explored, little new information was added to our record of the country. Most of the journals that have survived say little about the topograph y. though traders like Alexander Henry the Elder and Dan iel Harmon occasionall y described the areas in which they traded. Nevertheless great new territories were opened up by the fur trade in the years from 1683 to 1787, so that the areal extent, at least, of approximate geographical knowledge increased tremendously. From Hudson Bay in the northeast and from Lake of the Woods in the so utheast, through Lake Winnipeg and up the Saskatchewan and Churchill river sys tems to the Red Deer River in the southwest and Lake Athabaska in the northwest, the land was explored, roughly described, and roughly mapped. However, very little of the information collected became known to th e ge neral public at that time. ""'"

20 - THE WESTERN I NTER IOR OF CANADA

1. THE FIRST REPORTS ON THE INTERIOR, 1690-92

- From the 1670's unti l 17 13, when by the Treaty of Utrecht France recogni zed England's claim to the Hudson's Bay basin, there was a spirited rivalry in the Bay betwee n th e French and the English. Usuall y th is took the form of co ntrolling strategic posts on the Bay, but th e British did attempt to exte nd the trad e inland through the journeys of H enry Kelsey. Kelsey came to Fort Nelso n on Hudson n ay in 1684. In 1688, as a youth of 18, he made his firs t significant journey. travelling two hundred miles north of Churchill into wha t he soon found was a land unproductive of furs. Two years late r, on Jun e 12, 1690, he left York Fort on his famo us journey so uthwestward to the interior plains. He remained there for two winters, a lone European living with the India ns, and did not retu rn to York Fort until the summer of 1692. Kelsey rose in the fur trade in later years, and became governor of York Fort in 1718. His interest in exploration continued, but it was directed northward along the coast of the Bay, where he searched for minera ls; he neve r attempted anoth er journey inland. He retired to England in 1722, and died there sometime between 1724 a nd 1730. It was not until 1926 that wh at appea r to be Kelsey's original journ als, letters, and memoranda were fo und, in Irela nd . They were published in 1929 as The K elsey Papers. T he journal of Kelsey's great journey to the interio r is in two parts, with the travels of 1690 described in verse and those of 1691-92 in prose. Kelsey's contemporaries appea r to have ignored his explorations, and his discoveries do not figure in any of th e accounts of Rupert's Land written in th e first half of the eighteenth century. However, in 1749 a portion of the prose journal was printed in the appendix of the R eport of the Select Committee on th e Hudson's Bay Com pany. But so little use had been made of Kelsey's add iti ons to geographi cal know ledge that at least one writer, Joseph Robson, in 1752, cast doubt on the journal's authenticity. The Papers conta in little topographical detail. Kelsey's aim was not to map the country but to persuade the Indians to trade at the Bay. As in so many early journals the changes in plant life are observed and described much more fully th an the changes in the terrain. -

P A RT 11 : 16 83 ·17 87 - 21

a Henry K elsey's First Season in th e Interior, 1690. ~ In 1690 Kelsey accompani ed a group of Indians up the Hayes River- Nelson River complex, bypassed Lake Winnipeg on the north, and reached th e Sas katchewan River through small rivers and lakes. Somewhere near tbe present town of The Pas, Kelsey selected an adva nce base fo r his further travels near a great meand er in the Sas katchewan River, th at he named Deerings Point. From here he travelled towards the plains. It is impossible to trace b~s route exactl y, since his account of this journey is not in the form of a dail y itinerary, but consists of general comme nts on the country. He me ntions leaving the woods behind and crossing a plain fo rty-six miles wide. Buffalo were sigh ted. He return ed to Deerings Point after freeze-up, but he does not say where he wintered. -.;

(This text has been reproduced in as close an approximation to the original as possible. Letters or words whicb have been cancelled a.re here underlined. Ends of lines a re indicated thus, I; and of pages thus, / / .J

,

.

Henry Kelsey his Book being y G ift of James / Hubbud in the year of our Lord 1693 / Now Reader Read for I am well assur'd I Thou dost not know the hardships I endur'd /

,

In th is same desert where Ever y I have been I

,

Nor wilt thou me believe without y thou had seen I The Emynent Dangers th at did often me attend I

,

But still I lived in hopes yonce it would amend I And makes me free from hunger & from Cold /

'"

Likewise many other things w I cannot here unfold I For many times I have , often been oppresst I With fears & Cares y I could not take my rest / Because I was alone & no friend co uld find I

,

And once y in my travels I was left behind I Which struck fea r & terror into me I But still I was resolved this same Country fo r to see I

22 - THE WEST E RN IN TERI OR OF CANADA

Although through many dangers 1 did pass f m

H oped still to undergo y, at the Last f t

Now Considering y it was my dismal fate / for to repent I thought it now to late / Trustin g still unto my masters Consideration / Hop ing th ey will Except of this my small Rel ation

I

Which here 1 have pend & sti ll wi ll Justifie f Concerning of those Indians & thei r Country / If this wont do farewell to all as I may say / /

And for my jiving i'll seek some other way / In sixteen hundred & ni nety' th yea r / 1 sel fo rth as plainly may appea r /

Through Gods assistance for to understand / The nati ves language & to see the ir land / And for my masters interest I did soon /

,

,

Sen from y hOllse y twealth of June / c

Then up y River I with heavy heart / Did take my way & from all English part f c Nnth'cs

To live amongst y"of this place / If god permits me for one two years space /

The Inland Cou ntry of Good report hath been / By Ind ians but by English ye t not seen / Therefore I on my journey did not stay / c

But making all y has t I could upon our way /

,

,

Gatt on y borders of y stone [Assiniboine] Indian Country /

,

I took possessio n on y tenth Instant Jul y / m

And for my masters I speaking for y, an / This neck of land I deerings point did call /

,

Dista nce from hence by Jud geme nt at y lest /

,

From y house six hundred miles so uthwest /

PART II : 168 3- 1787 - 23

Yuskatim lake o n Burntwood river, from which line they grad uall y decrease in thickn ess westward. Around Reed lake they nearl y fill the rocky holl ows, while around Cranberry lakes they seem to have entirely disappeared. The o ri gin and mode of deposition of these clays is quite appa ren t. When the Keewatin glacier in its gradual reti rement lOwards th e nort h was joined by the glacie r flowing fro m the east, the water derived from their melting was held betwee n the united ice-front and the face of the Manitoba esca rpment, and Lake Agass iz, a large extra-glacial body of water was formed. The eastern glacie r advanced westward to within a short distance of Wekusko lake, and then bega n to retire. Strea ms draining th e glacie r ca rri ed a large quantity of sedi-

282 - THE WESTERN INTERIOR OF CANADA

ment into the lake, and this sediment was spread over the smooth rocky bottom which had but recently been cleaned and polished by the passage over it of the two glaciers. This sedi ment was deposited in greatest thickness along the extreme edge of the glacier, for whatever may have been thrown down in front of the advancing glacier was aga in picked up by the ice, carried forwa rd, and afterwards redistributed in the lake. Farther from the front of the glacier, the sediment became fine and smaller in amount, just as is seen to be the case on ascending Burn twood or Grass rivers. F rom the extreme western line to which the eastern glacier reached, the Agassiz clays were deposi ted eastward, as the glacier gradually retired, as long as the extra-glacial Lake Agassiz existed, and as the clays do Dot seem to extend any considerable distance east of Nelson river, Lake Agassiz was evidently drained when the eastern glacier had retired to that line. No distinct shore lines of Lake Agass iz were defini tely determined in this district, but it is probable that the sandy plain over which Cranberry portage run s, was formed at or near the shore of the lake at one of its stages. One wou ld not expect to find the old shore lines which marked the eastern side of the lake; nevertheless th e existence of an esker, such as that below the Sea River falls on the Nelson river, gives abundant evidence, if such were needed, that Lake Agassiz had almost entirely disappeared when the eastern glacier bad retired east of Nelson river. This esker was formed in running water, between the icy walls of one of the streams flowing from the glacier, perhaps the one that brought down most of the sediment deposited south of the present Lake Winnipeg. If it were formed west of Playgreen lake it has doubtless been modified and spread out, perhaps to form the sand plain on the portage to Kisk ittogisu river. Over the ridge at Sea falls there is no sign of the prevailing Agassiz clay, but that portion of the ridge west of the river may have been a delta formed at the mouth of the glacial river where the lake stood about forty feet above the prese nt level of Lake Winnipeg. The sandy rid ges at the south-west end of Cross and of Sipiwesk lakes are probably also combinations of kames and delta-pla ins at the termination of an esker, where the ancient lake stood at about the same level. Till is remarkably scarce throughout the entire region, the whole rocky surface having been scraped very clean by either the Keewatin or eastern glacier or by both. Where ti ll was seen

PART VlI: 188 1· 1917 - 283

it was almost always in the form of loose fragments of rock , mixed wi th sa nd and clay, dumped into the eastern side of some steep valley, or under the lee of some rocky cliff. Boulders are almost en tirely absent from the surface of the country covered by Agassiz clay, but from Wek usko lake west to Cranberry lake th ey are moderately abundan t on the rocky hills and on the shores of the lakes. No heavy or extensive moraines were recogn ised bu t a light moraine, consis ting of a ridge of boulders of Archaean rocks run s along the brow of the limestone escarpment west of Reed lake, apparently formed when the face of th e Keewatin glac ier rested fo r a lillie while against the face of the escarpment Kettle hol es formed by streams flowing from the Keewatin glacier occur in the gneiss on Kettle island in Playgreen lake and ncar the foot of a hill of massive gran ite on the west shore of Winterin g lake. In eac h case the sides of the holes have been partially cut away since they were formed, perhaps in part by the Keewatin glacier itself and in part by the eastern glac ier. These holes would indicate that an ex tra glac ial lake existed in front of the Keewatin glacier where they were formed, but that the streams plunged down from the ice to the rocky floor and afterwards flowed away freely over the surface. As these holes are usually on the east or south-east sides of rocky hills, the pos ition of the maul ins into which the water plunged were doubtless determined by the existence of the hills, the ice having been more read ily split or melted here than elsewhere. The sur face of the Archaean ri ses in gentle rounded knolls and ridges, apparently emergi ng from beneath the Palaeozoic limestone with about the same contour that the rem ainder of the sur face has a t present. The only difference rem arked was tha t the softer, more highly altered chloritic and sericitic schis ts were more conspicuous along the foot of the li mes tone escarpm ent th an elsewhere. Where they have been more exposed they bave been eroded deeper than the surrounding rocks, and conseq uentl y occupy the beds of tbe lakes and otber hollows. Most of the knolls are smoothed a nd marked with glacial striae. The stri ae in the western part of the region have been made entirely by the Keewatin glacier. which moved southward from the country west of Hudso n bay, whil e those in the eastern part of the region have. wi th one or two excepw tions, been made by the eastern glac ier. On a belt a few miles in width. down the middle of the region both sets of striae can

284 - THE WESTERN IN TERIOR OF C ANADA

be clearl y seen, crossing each other at a wide angle, the rocks of the eastern glacier over-riding and rubbing out those made by the Keewatin glacier. The direction of motion for both glaciers is unmi stakable. How far east the K eewatin glacier extended has not yet been determined. (J. B. Tyrrell, "Report on Expl orations in the North-Eastern Portion of the Dist rict of Saskatchewan and Adjacent Pa rts of the District of Keewa tin, " G.S.C., Report, 1900, pp. IOF-12F )

4. SCIENTIFIC EXPLORATION AFTER 1900 ,...; By ~b e twentieth century there were still many scattered diSlricts in Western Interior Canada that bad not been investigated by scientific explorers, but these " unknown areas" were being stead ily reduced in size by the well-proven reconn aissa nce trac.k surveys. In 1908 and 1909 the Department of the Interior sent a civil engineer, Frank Crean, into the area between Prince Albert and Fort MaCM urray to "ascertain its possibilities for settlement." This was tbe first survey undertaken for this express purppse in tbe north country, and Crean reported favourably on the agric ultural reso urces of many of the river basins he visited. In 191 4 Charles Camsell of the Geological Survey of Canada carried out an exploratory traverse through typical Shield country, between Lake Athabaska and Great Slave Lake, by following the Tazin and Taltson rivers. Most of the area explored by Camsell lay in the North West Territories, but his canoe expedition was the last important geograph ical exploratio n into country completely unknown to white men to start from within the borders of the provi nces of Man itoba, Saskatchewan, and A lberta. The last major region within the Western Interior of Canada to be explored by scientists was the sedimentary plains area to the northwest of Peace River in Alberta. This district was not particularly difficult to reach, but it had been ignored beca use there were no easy ri ver connections to the area and it did not appear to contain any great resources. The first scientific exploration of this regio n was not even made from the so uth. In 1888 R. G. McConn ell made a short mid-winter traverse to Lake Bistcho from Great Slave Lake, but· at that season he could see little and so he gave only a brief descri ption of the terrain, suggesting that the country rese mbled the

PART V ll : 1881·1917 - 285

Missouri Coteau. In 1917 A. E. Cameron of the Geological Survey made the first summer geological reco nnaissance of the area, when he trave lled from Fort Vermilion overland to Hay Ri ver, and (hen dow n to G rea t Slave Lake. -a A. E. Cameron D escribes th e Hay River District, 1917.

-- Came ron clearly was ca rryi ng out his scientific exp loration in a new era; in the case of his work, not have only the trader and missionary as usual preceded the scientist, but a jou rn alist and policeman as well. This region to the northwest of the Peace River is beginning to be developed in the 1950's and '60's. Reco nn aissa nce soil surveys are conducted today by means of helicopter traverses, and a new railway is being driven north to Great Slave Lake on the eastern side of the region. -PR EVIOUS WORK

In 191 J. Hulbert Footner, journalist, descended Hay river from the "Horse tracks" to Alex andra falls and in 1910 Sergeant Mellor of the Royal North West Moun ted Police m ade a patrol up Buffalo river and about the eastern end of Buffalo lake in order to determine the western limit of range pf the Wood Bison. With the exception of the publications describing these two journeys no information was availaple regarding the .country adjacent to the rivers traversed during the season. GENERA L CHARACTER OF THE DISTR ICT WAGON ROAD FROM FORT VERMILIO N TO H AY RIVER

This road which has been made by the traders, the Hudson's Bay Company. and Revillon Freres, to facilitate the carriage of freight to their outposts on H ay river, follows a general west-northwest direction from Peace river at North Vermilion to Hay river, a distance of 91 mil es. For the first 60 miles it traverses a broad level plain of alluvial soil lightly wooded with poplar, willow, and al der and containing many large, open, prairie sections which have a luxuriant crop of prairie hay. The plain is dissected by numerous small streams tributary to Boyer or Paddle river and the land where under cultivation in the vicinity of Fort Vermilion produced excellent crops of wheat, oats, and garden vegetables. In the succeeding 15 miles the road crosses the low divide between Boyer and Hay rivers and

286 - THE WESTERN INTERIOR OF CANADA

the country here is hilly and very stony. The road passes two small lakes, Summit and Devils LFootner] lakes, which lie between low ranges of hills and form the so urce of Meander river, one of the principal tributaries of Hay river. The cou ntry consists of a series of low ridges of glacial drift with a maximum elevation of 1,300 fee t where crossed by the 29th base-line. To the south of th ese lakes the Watt mountains, 2,500 feet in eleva tion, ri se above the plain and are apparently formed of Cretaceous sediments overlain by a thick maotle of glacial drift. Meander River valley, down which the wagon road runs to Hay river, contains considerable areas of open prairie lands and is bordered by low bills of glacial drift covered with a light grow th of poplar, spruce, and willow. HAY RJVER

This river, rising in the foothills of the Rocky mountains to the north of Fort St. John, B.C., and fed by numerous small tributaries, is one of the largest streams discharging its waters into Great Slave lake. It crosses the 6th meridian a few hundred yards south of sec. corner 25, tp. 114, range I, and flows from this point in a north-easterly direction. Though of a meandering character it holds its direction of magnetic north (north 35 0 30' east astr.) throughout the total distance of 225 mi les to its mouth on Great Slave lake. Throughout the 26 miles from the 6th meridian to the mouth of Meander ri ver at the "Horse tracks," the river has an average width of 200 feet and is very swift and broken by a succession of rap ids. The valley here has a width of less th an half a mile and the adjacent country is of a gently rolling, drift-covered character wooded with scrubby spruce and poplar, much of which has been burnt over in recent times. North of the "Horse tracks" the valley widens and shallows and tbe river, straightening its course, widens to from 400 to 600 feet and flows smoothly and sluggishly for a distance of 116 miles through a rather flat muskeg and brule country, which is in places relieved by low hills of glacial drift. Devonian limestones come to the surface 116 miles below the "Horse tracks" and show in tbe river valley as low limestone ramparts, causing the river to narrow and increase its curren t. From tbis point for a distance of 33 miles, rapids occur in quick succession wherever the channel has been cut down to the

PART VII: 1881·1917 - 287

limestones, until 149 miles below the "Horse tracks" the waters plunge 105 feet over the Alexandra falls and a mile farther down take a second drop of 46 feet, formi ng Louise falls. The country through which this portion of the river flows has in general the irregular relief of glacial morainal drift. The drift overlies Devonian limestones, the low ridges being covered with jack·pine and poplar and the hollows between containing a spruce muskeg. Below the falls the river has cut a narrow gorge, about 250 feet deep, in the limestones, through which it rushes in a continuous rapid for a distance of 6 miles before it clears the escarp· ment. For the succeeding 40 miles it flows with steadily diminishing ve locity until abou t 4 mi les from the lake it loses itself in a maze of channels amongs t the delta deposits. Only one of these channels, however, finds its way to the lake separate from tbe main body of the river, the others all coming together and issuing as one stream into the lake. The peculiar physiograp hic feature of a river having a well formed delta at some distance from the margin of the body of water into which it empties is even more clearly shown on Buffalo river and, taken together with the nu merous remnants of old lake beaches previously noted on both shores of the lake, clearly indicates that the Great Slave lake of early postGlacial times was of much greater extent than the present lake. (A. E. Cameron, "Explorations in the Vicin ity or Great Slave Lake," G.S.C., Summary Report , 1917, pp. 22C·23C)

,..... The fac t that the record of exploration for the purposes of this book ends in 19 17 does not mean that the task of geographical exploration ended in that year. The explorations still continue, and the most striking illustration of this is perhaps found in northern Manitoba - the area first sighted by Europeans in 1612. Not until 1934 did W . A . Johnston, of the Geological Survey of Canada, make the first geological traverse along the Seal River, and it was not until 1952 th at George Russell, of the University of Manitoba, made a similar traverse of the Wolverine and Caribou rivers. Russell of course was flown into the area and out again, and kept supplied with equipment and food by aircraft, and he did have aerial photo· graphs to facilitate his work. But he still carried out the basic exploratory work by means of the class ic canoe track survey, like the many scientists who preceded him elsewhere within the Shield. -

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290 - THE WESTERN INTERIOR OF CANADA

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EDWARDS, ABEL.

2~2

- T H E WEST ERN I NTERIOR OF CANADA

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29~

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296 - THE WESTERN I NTER I OR OF CANADA

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298 - THE WESTERN INTERIOR OF C ANADA

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We wish to thank the followi ng societies and publishers for permission to reprint source materi al appearing in tbis book: The Cbamplain Society, the Geological Society of America, the Geological Society o[ London, the Geological Survey o[ Canada, The H akluyt Society, Her Majesty's Stationery Office, the Hudson's Bay Record Society, the Musson Book Company Ltd., tbe Public Archives o[ Canada, the Queen's Printer, Ross & Haines, Inc., and the Royal Society o[ Canada.

NOTE ON THE EDITOR

Jobn Warkentin was born in 1928 at Lowe Farm, Manitoba, in the centre of the Red River Lowland. He was educated at the Univers ity of Manitoba, where he took a B.SC. degree in 1948. After teaching at Gilbert Plains, he entered the graduate school of tbe University of Toronto, where he received a PH.D. in geog raphy in 1961. After teach ing at the Un ive rsity of Manitoba for severaLyears, he became an Associate Professo r in Geography at York University, Toronto, in 1963 , where he is now Professor of Geography and Chairman of the Department. He has done research on the settlement geography of Manitoba and on the historical geog raphy of the Canadian West. His current preoccupation is the history of the scientific explorations of Ca nada. He is married and has one daughter.

Index Agricultural potential, 73. 86, 89, I S2,

1734,176, 2) 1-2 .260,270 Alberta, southwestern, 8 1, 95 , 99, 152, 245, 263 Ame rican desert, 148, 171, 175, 2,2 91 232; G. M. Dawson on, 244; Hmo on, 229·30; Palliser o n, 178 Arid p,iai ns, 147 , 169. 175 A ssimboinc Ri ver. 47. 98, 104; described by Kelsey. 26: by Mackenzie, 78: by Palliser, 183 A ssiniboi ne River country, H ind on sand dunes of, 2 13: on vegetation of. 221 : on suitability for sClIlcment, 224; La Vercndryc on, 47-8 ; Thomp-

son Oil, 10 1-2, 104 Athabaska R iver. 84, 253. 269

At habaska ta r sands. descri bed by M ackenzie, 84: by Richardson, 136 A uld, William, 112, 119

Bad lands, I SO: G. M. Dawson on, 235 Barren, term ap plied to the plains, SO Darren Grounds, 17. 19; desc ribed by Hearne, 54-8 ; vis ited by T y rrell, 280 Base Icyel, described by Samuel Black, 117 Bell, Robert. 264, 271, 275, 279; career of, 257; describes the Shield, 257; o n the clay de posits of the Shield, 258; 0 11 dis tributio n of trees on Ihe Shield, 259; on settlement possibilities of Nelson R. coun try, 260; o n permnfrost in northeas t Manitoba, 260 Bibaud. M., 68 , 109 Black, Samuel, desc ribes Peace RiYer country, 11 5·8; o n base level, 117 ; o n raised beaches, 117·8; o n Grande Prairie, 11 8 Blakiston, Lieut. Tho mas. 156 Blodget, Lorin, 125, 146, 223 Bo tanical inyestigallons, 124 Bou rgeau, Eugene, 156; on future settlem ent, 173 Bo w Ri ver, 95 , 99, 162, 186 Bow Rjyer region , geological repo rt o n, 261 Braided stream , Bow RiYer, 95 Buuon, S ir Thomas, I, II, 280

Cameron, A. E., 285 Camsell, Charles, 284 Canadian Pacific Railway Survey, 231 ; land capability map. 245 Canadian Shield, 2, 5, 6 1; described by Alexa nde r H e nry the E lder, 61; mentioned by Mackenzie, 80, 90 ; desc ri bed by Richardson, 131, 134: by Tho mpson, 96 ; re gional geological reports on, 261; su rvey methods in, 279 Chinook, described by Mackenzie, 81 Churchill Riye r, 54, 57. 6 1, 62, 134, 251; descri bed by J~r~ mie, 33: by Munck, 12 Climate, 125; of Bo w River country, 95 ; earliest precise meteorological

observations, 38 ; o f Edmonton, 165; of Grea t P lains described by Hector, 166; discussed by Hector, 164; dis· cussed by H ind, 2 16; of Hudson Bay described by Isha m, 38: by Ellis, 36-7; discussed by Mac kenzie, 80-1; o f Peace Ri yer country, 256; o f Red River described by Hector, 18 1-2; of Saskatchcwan country described by Umfreyille, 74; Tho mpson desc ribes blizzard, 102; Thompson on wind , 103 Coal, Hector on. 157; Richardson o n, 133; at Smoky Ri ve r, 116; Thompson on, 100; UmfrcYilIe on, 73 Coa ts, William. 17,30 Co ntinental glaciation, 155; contro· versy oyer, 26 1·2, 271; of the Plaills, G. fI.'l. Dawson Oil, 238; of !lIe Shield, G. M. D awso n on , 239 Crean , F rank , 284 Cretaceous strata, 145, ISO, 157, 158, 200, 235; first iden ti fied in the West, 154; delimited by H ind, 203; established by S. J . D awson , 202 Cypress Hill s, 150, 154, 146; Pallise r describcs veijetation of, 187; rc gioll a] gcoloijical report on, 261 Dawson, G. M., 246, 264, 271, 280 ; career of, 234 ; on selliemcn t poten· tial. 235, 242·5; o n Bad lands, 236; o n glaciation, 237-40; 0 11 Peace Riye r country , 252·6; in itiatcs regional geological re ports, 261 Dawso n, S. J./ 146, 252: collects cretaceous (ossils, 154,202; describes t hree to pograph ical divisions, 295, 0 11 settlement potential, 223 Dcnnis, J. S., 233 Devine, Tho mas, his map, 145 Devonian Slrata, 123, 126, 154; defined by H ind , 203 Distribution of trees. Bell on, 258 D o ly, J ames, o n southwestern Alberta, 1S2 Douglas, David, 124 Dowling, D. D., 33 , 252, 263 , 279 Drummond, T homas, 124 D uck M oun ta in, 98, 197, 203, 205, 2 13, 273,277,278; H ind o n, 200: on vegeta tio n of, 231; regional geological report o n , 26 1 Edwards, Abel, 112, 119 Ellis, H enry, 17. 31; on the coast of Hudson Bay. 35-7; criticized by Isham, 41 Fertile Belt ~ .147, 232; G. M. D awso n o n, 244; H ecto r o n vegetation of, 169 ; Hecto r o n, 171; na med by Hind, ISS, 229; H ind on , 230; P alliser on, 17S , 187, 188; Tac h~ on, 148 Fidle r, Peter, 119, 279; describes pot holes 71 First Prairie Level, Heetor o n, 158 ;

302 - THE WESTERN INTERIOR OF CANADA Hind on , 213; Palliser on, 177 Fleming, Sir Sandford, 245 Foothills, 162 , 188 ; H ector o n vegetation, 170 Foxe, Luke, 11; describes Manitoba coast, 13-5; on settlement potential, 14

Franchere, Gabriel, 68, 109; describes Saskatchewall Rlve.r, 109-111; o n settlement Ilotential, 110 F ran klin, Capt. J ohn, 120, 127 Frobisher, Joseph, 18 Frog Porta ~e , 18.62,82, 134 Frost wedgLl1g, Thompson o n, 94 Geological nomenclature, used by Richardson, 138 Geological Survey of Canada, 7, J21; begins work in Ihe West, 252; economic stud ies, 252 Glacial drill. G. M. D awso n on, 239; Hector o n, 160; H ind on, 207; of Missouri Coteau, 263 Glacial erralics, 134, 160, 209; Keating on origin of 142; Richardson on, 135 Glaeia.lion, G. M. D awson Oil , 237; first reference 10 125-6 ; H ind on, 204 ; Isbister on , 126; Richardson on, 125-6 G lacial ab rasion Hind on, 206 Glacial striae, I l 4, 283 G lacial submergence, 240; difficulties of theo ry of, 241 Glacial theory, G . M . Dawson on, 241; Hind on, 208 Glacial till fabrics , H ind on, 204 Great Pla.ins, effect on o f fi re, 104; Hector on climale of, 166; Henda.y on, 52-4; Alexander Henry the Elder, on, 62; H ind on, 205: on rea.sons for aridity , 21 8·9; J ohn La.mbett on, 15 1; Mackenzie on, 89; Richa. rdson on, 13 3; Thompson on , 97-10 1 Grea.t Prairie Plateau, Hind on 205 G reat Slave Lake, 54, 59, 123, 284.286 GroseiUiers, Mcdard Choua.rt, 16 Hayden Ferdinand, 150, 203,239 Hayes River, 33, 35, 48, 112, 128, 257 Hearne, Samuel, 19,262,280; o n place names, 56; on vegetation of the barrens, 56; on barrens, 57 Hector, Dr. James, 143, 150, 153, 154. 156, 235 239, 252, 265 ; o n three levels, 157; on Cretaceous, 158; on coal beari ng stra la, 159 ; on erratics, 160' on drift. 161; on foolhiUs, 162; on Rocky Mountains, 162; on MiSSOUri Coteau, 163 ; on moraine, 163; on climate , 164 ; on vegetation, 167; on soils, 167; on settlemen t potential, 171 ; on American desert in Canada , 17 1; on Fertile belt, 172; on railway building, 173 Henday, Anthony, 1. 18, 50; in the Shield, 51 ; in the Plains, 52; mentions Rocky Mou ntains, 53 Henry, Alexander the Elder, 19, 58; describes the Shield, 6 1; desc ri bes route across continent 62·5 Henry , Alexander the Younger, 105; field geographer, 67 ; on Manitoba Escarpment, 107; 00 Red Rlver Low-

land, :06; on sand duneS, 108 Hind, H . Y.,67, 146, 147, 150,246, 252, 27 1, 278; on meleorolOilY, 155; his na rra tive, 193; geological contributions of, 203; o n surface geology, 204; o n glaciation, 204; on Prairie Pla teau, 205; on climate, 2 16; on moisture regions, 217; on aridity of plains. 21 g; on prairies and plainS, 219; on vegetation , 221; on settlement potential, 224 ; land capability map, 224 ; on senlemenl poliey, 229; on resources 230 H udson, H en ry, t I Hudson Bay coast, Foxe on , 13 ; Munck on, 12-3 ; Ric hardson o n, 128 Hudson's Day Company, begins map· -ping, 65 Hudso n Bay Lowland, Auld on , 113; northern limit of, 280; Richardson on , 130; Thompson on, 97 Ice Rafting, Isham on, 40 Inner Trian gle, of Hind. 219 Irrigation, G. M. Dawson on, 244 Isbister. A. K., 145; on glaciation, 126; his map, 136 Isham, James, 17, 32, 37 ; on permafrost, 39 ; on effects of ice, 40 Isotherms, 146 James. Capl. Thomas, 11, 14 Jt!rcmie, Nicolas, 17, 30; on Manitoba Rivcr systems, 33 Keating, W. H., liS, 124, 149; narrati ve, 138; on lac ustrine deposits./: 138; on "primitive" landscape, 14u; on " secondary" landscape, 140; on crratics, 142 Kelsey, H enry , I, 17,50,55; appraises land. 30; on buffalo hunt, 28-9 ; decribes park country, 27; describes _prairie, 28 Kettles, Hind on, 213-4 La France, J oseph , o n southern Manitoba, 48-9 Lake Agassiz, 107, 143_ 262.:. 272,281; cl3ys on the Shield, 28 1; lIut recognized , 138 l.3ke Agassiz basin, topography de· scribed by Upham, 272-9 Lake Athabaska, 2, 54 , 60, 64, 66, 75 , 84, 214, 262, 270, desc ribed by Turnor. 69 Lake of the Woods, I, lIt 4!1 206, 228, 275; visi ted by Jacques ae Noyon, 17 ; desc ribed by Mackenzie, 76 Lake ManitOba, 46, 143 , 154, 179, 273, 278 Lake Winnipcg, 33. 34, 44; 46 , 48 , 54, 62, 78 . 131 , 143, 158, 17 , 205, 275, 278, 281 Lake Winnipegosis, 34, 43, 46, 143, 179, 273 Lambert, J ohn, on Great Plains, 15 1 Land ca.p.abilil Y m aps, of C .P.R., 245; Hind, .24 Land surveyo rs, reappraise tile land , 233 . 234 La Vcrendrye, Pierre Gaultier de Va· rennes, Sieur de, I, 18, 42, 47, 119,

INDEX - 303 272; maps, 42-3 ; on the southern plains, 43, 45; o n vegetation, 44 Logao,. Sir William, 192.239 Long Kivee shale, 15 8 Low, A. P., 252, 279 Mackenzie, Sir Alexander, t, 3, 50•.59 64, 66,93, 119. 145 224; geologica 1 observations, 76, 86• 90; describes Melhy Portage, 83; describes chinook. 87; on settlement potential, 89 ; on

climatc,90 Macauo, J ohn, 232, 252, 264; on Palliser. 249-50

Manitoba Escarpment, 47. 216; described by S. J . Dawson, 19b: by Alexander Henry the Younger, 107; Thompson on settlement potential, 98

Manitoba, southern, La France on, 48; L:l

V~ rcnd ryc

o n, 47

Manitoba, southwest, Hind on, 222; Mackenzie on , 79 ; Stevens on settle-

ment potential, 152; Thompson on settlement potential, 103 Maps, first of western Can3.dll., 12; of the French, 42; or the l'aUiser expe· dition , 157; of Peter Pond, 58 McConneU, R. G., 263, 264 , 281!! 284; on Missouri C6teau, 265; on .t'eacc· Athabas ka country, 268 McEvoy, James, 265 MC i nnes, William 280 Meek, F. B. , on C~tnceous, 150,203 Mesozoic stnlla, 7, 123 Meteorological observations, by PalJi· ser and Hind eXpeditions, ISS ; by Thompson, 92 Methy Portage, 19, 58, 64, 8),4, 135 Middleton, Christopher, 17 , 31 Military men , and exploration, 119·20 Missouri Coteau, 139, 153, 160).. 163, 205, 219, 240, 267, 273, 276 ; v. M. Dnwson on, 238; Hector on 159, 163; McConnell on, 265 , 266; test case (or glacial theory, 271 Missouri River country, described by Stevens, 149·50 Moisture regions, Hind on, 217 Moraines, Heclor on, 159, 163 Munek, Jens, 12 Nelson River, 11, IS.t 23 , 46, 91, 112,

128, 257,273,275, :l81

Nelson·ChurchlU bas in, Bell on settlem ent potential, 260; regional gcoloreport on, 280

rliical

N~cr~~ets1s~a~cb~'!!an

River country, Bourgeau on setUement potential, 1734 Noyo n, Jacques de, 17

Owen, D. D., 124, 149, 211, 212 Palco7.oic strata, 7, 123, 134 Pnlliser, Cap t. John. 146, 147l.t53, 235, 246, 248, 250, 252; on the North American desert, 175; on agricultural potential, 176; compared to Stevens, 176; on the three prairie levelst.!77; on settlement facUities in the west, 190

Palliser Expedilion, instructions to, 155-6; explorations oC, 156; map produced br, 157 "PaUiser's Trlan8le," 232 Park country, H ector on, 167; Kelsey on, 27; Mackenzie on, 82; Thompson on , 96 Pasquia Hills, 133, 143,203,205,273, 277,279 Peace-Alhabaska country, McConnell on, 268 Peace River, 64 ,11 5,268 Peace River country, 123; G. M. Daw· SOil on , 252-6; Mackenzie on, 85 ·7; Macoun on, 248i Tumor on, 71 Pembina Mountam, 47 98, 107, 158, 205, 272, 277, 278; 6 wen on, 212, Hind on , 212 Permafrost, Bell on, 260; Isham on, 39; Richardson on, 129; Thompson on, 96; at York Factory, 86-7 Petroleum, 264; mentioned by Rich· ardson 136 Pink, \Villiam, 18 Plains, Hind on extent of, 221; Hind on settlement potential, 223; de· scribed by Kelsey, 24; southern, 50 P ond t Peter, 19; his maps, 58; discoy· ers ~1 e thy Portagc, 58; on route to Pacific Ocean, 59 Porcupine Mountain, 197, 205, 273 , 277,278 Prairie, defined by H ind, 223; Hind on its limits, 223; Kelsey on, 28; La Verendrye on, 46; of Peace Rive r area, 254·5 Prairie levels, three, 147, 154, 237; Hector defines, 157; Hind on, 204; Palliser on, 175 Prairie landscape, and geological stud· ies, 263 Precipitation, G. M. Dawson on sea· sonal d istribution of, 244 Primitive formation , 127,234 Qu ' ~pelle

River, 101.267 Qu'AppeUe River country, 201

Radisson, Pierre-Esprit, 16; makes first trip inland, 17 Railway build ins, Hector on, 172·3 Raised beach rid ges, described by Black, 117-8 ; by F oxe, 13-4; by Hind, 200; by Thompson , 94; oC Lake Agassiz, 274; of Lake Winnipeg, 80 Red River, 43, 45, 47, 49, 104, 106, 107, 109, 128, 279; described by H ind, 193; Mackenzie on, 78 Red River country, 11. 107, 139, 140, 149; G. M. Dawson on drainage. 243: on settlement potential, 242; floods, 125 ; Hind on flood s, 194 : on glacial drift, 207: on precipitation, 2 18: on swamps, 194; Palliser on agricu lture, 183: on climate, 181·2: on drainage, 180: on flood s, 180: on settlement potential , 180; Thompson on settlement poetential, 105 Ric hardson , Sir J ohn. 145, 202, 252, 257, 264; on glacial aCllon, 125-6 ; his geological map, 126; geological nomenclature, 127, 238; delimits the

304 - THE WESTERN INTERIOR OF CANADA Preca mhrian and Paleozoic, 134 Riding M ountain, 911 , 10 1 J97, 203, 205,213,224, 273 , 277,278; H ind on, 199-20 1, 221 River erosion, Thompson o n, 100 Robson, J oseph, 17,20, 31,65 Rocky Mountains, 1, 6, 10,53,60, 88, 89, 98, 11 6, 132; glaciation , 240; H ector on, 162; mentioned by H eli' day, 53: first seen by Thompson, 95 Ross, Alexander, 125 Russell, Alexander J ., 147 Russell, George, 287 Saint· Pierre, Jacques de, 49 Snskatchewan Ri ver, 2, 34 , 45,46,49, 5 1, 54, 62, 128, 217 ; F r anch~ r e on, 109; Henda y on, 52-3; Mackenz.ie on, 80; Palliser on, 183, 184, 186; Umfreville on. 12 ; South SaSkatchewan , 156, 266, 279 Saskatchewan River cou ntry, H Ind on . 226; Palliser on , 190; Richardson on , 132; Thompson on, 96; Umfreville on,15 Second prairie \evd. 158; G. M. Daw. son on settlemen t potentia l, 244: M aco ull on. 248; PallIser on, 117 Seconda ry formation . 121 Selwyn, A. R. C .. 252, 264 Selliement patterns. Bourge:lU on, 114 Settlement policy , Hind on, 239 Senlement poten tial. Bell on Nelson Rivcr cou ntry. 260; Bourgeau o n, 113-4 ; failure to appra ise, 247; G. M. Dawson on, 235. 242: o n Peace River country, 2434; S. J . Dawson on, 223; Denn is on, 233; Ellis on, 3 1; Foxe on, 14; Franchcrc on Saskatchewan River country, 11 0; H ector on Fertile Belt, 171; Hind on, 224-1; Macoun on, 247, 250·1; Palliser on foothills country, 188: on Red Rivet country, 182 : o n Saskatchewan country. 185 . 190: on the West, 189; Thompson o n Great Plains. 98-9: on Manitoba Es· carpment, 98-9: on Park country, 96: on Red River coun try, 105: on south· western Manitoba, 103; of West re· app r:lised,232 Silurian strata . 123; of Hudson Bay Lowland, 280 Simpson, Sir Geo rge, 125; on prairie levels, 14 3 Smith, Joseph. 18 Soils. H ector on, 167; of Red River country, 140, 183 . 242; of Peace River country. 254-5

Souris River, 98, 153.277 Souris Rive r gorge, 218 South :SaSkatchewan River country, Hind on, 222-3; Pallise r o n, 186 Steppes, threl!, Pallise r on , 175 Stevens, I. I., 145 , 150, 152, 176 Stewart, William, 17. 54-5 Surveying methods, in the Shield, 257, 219; of Thompson , 92 Swan River country, S. J . Dawson o n, 198 Tache, AJexandre. 148 Tanner, John, 68, 108 Tertiary straW, 126. 145 , 150, 203' discovered by Palliser exped ition, 154 Third pr:li rie level, 159, \63; G. M. Dawson on, 244; Palliser o n, 117 TIlOmpson, David. SO, 66. 91. l OS, 119, 145, \48, 279; his map, 61; survey methods, 92; geologIcal essay , 111

Touchwood H ills, 29, 98, 206, 213, 222, 226, 240 T ransi tion format ion, 127 Tundra, 56 Tumor, Philip, 65, 68, 10, 91, 219; on Lake Athabaska, 69 Turtle Mountain, 47, 98, 102, 103, 143 , 159.205.240 T yrrell , J. B., 9. 56, 61, 68 , 93 , 263, 27 1; travels 10 battens, 280; o n con· tinental glaciation, 264 Umfreville. Edward, 4, 66. 11 9; on S3skatchewan cou ntry. 12-5 Upham, Warren, 138, 262. 212 Vegetation. of Canadian Shield, 259; H earne o n, 56; Hector on limit of trees, 168; H ind on, 221 ' of Hudson 8ay Lowland, 96-7; Jer 1mie on , 35 ; La Verendrye on, 44; PaUiscr on, 178; zones defined by Palliser expedition, ISS; of Peace River country. 81 , 2S4; of Peace-Athabaska coun try, 268-9; Keating on, 129; Thompson o n. 89, 104 Waggoner, J oseph , 18 Weathering, mechanical, at Churchill,

94

Winnipeg Ri ver. 43, 45, 62, 179; G. M. Dawson on. 237 ; Mackenzie on, 17 Winnip_c g River country. Hind on, 207 ; Keating on, 140, 141; La Veren· drye on, 45 W ood Mountain , 265, 267

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THE CARLETON LIBRARY

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