The Wall Paintings of the West House at Mycenae (Prehistory Monographs) 9781931534888, 9781623034146, 1931534888

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The Wall Paintings of the West House at Mycenae

The Wall Paintings of the West House at Mycenae

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Pair of yoked horses facing left (WH F54).

PREHISTORY MONOGRAPHS 54

The Wall Paintings of the West House at Mycenae

by

Iphiyenia Tournavitou

Published by INSTAP Academic Press Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 2017

Design and Production INSTAP Academic Press, Philadelphia, PA

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Tournavitou, Iphiyenia, author. Title: The wall paintings of the West House at Mycenae / by Iphiyenia Tournavitou. Description: Philadelphia, Pennsylvania : INSTAP Academic Press, 2017. | Series: Prehistory monographs ; 54 | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2016037225 (print) | LCCN 2016038625 (ebook) | ISBN 9781931534888 (hardcover : alk. paper) | ISBN 9781623034146 (pdf) Subjects: LCSH: Mural painting and decoration, Mycenaean--Greece--Mycenae (Extinct city) | Mycenae (Extinct city) Classification: LCC ND2754.M93 T68 2016 (print) | LCC ND2754.M93 (ebook) | DDC 751.7/309388--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016037225

Copyright © 2017 INSTAP Academic Press Philadelphia, Pennsylvania All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America

Table of Contents

List of Charts and Tables in the Text...............................................................................ix. List of Figures.. . ...................................................................................................... xi List of Plates.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv Preface. ................................................................................................................ xix Acknowledgments................................................................................................... xxi List of Abbreviations... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxiii Chapter 1. Architectural Context and Chronology... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.1. Architectural Context................................................................................. 1 1.2. Archaeological Context and Chronology............................................................. 5 Chapter 2. State of Preservation, Conservation, and Drawn Restorations..................................... 11 2.1. State of Preservation.. . ........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 2.2. Conservation................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 2.3. Restoration/Drawings......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Chapter 3. The Wall Paintings.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 3.1. Introduction........................................................................................... 15 3.2. Heraldic Scene (WH F1–WH F6).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 3.3. Hunting Scene (WH F7–WH F75).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 3.4. Other Human Figures (WH F76–WH F83).. . ................................................... 64

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THE WALL PAINTINGS OF THE WEST HOUSE AT MYCENAE

3.5. 3.6. 3.7. 3.8. 3.9.

Other Floral Compositions (WH F84–WH F94)... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Unidentifiable/Indeterminate Pictorial Compositions (WH F95–WH F102).. . .............. 73 Linear/Curvilinear Compositions (WH F103–WH F122)... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 Friezes and Borders (WH F123–WH F134)... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 Monochrome Plaster (WH F135–WH F138)... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

Chapter 4. Techniques of Painting and Construction............................................................ 79 4.1. Fresco/Secco......................................................................................... 79 4.2. Plaster.. . ....................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 4.3. Layout/String Impressions.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 4.4. Preliminary Sketching............................................................................... 80 4.5. Painting Techniques................................................................................. 83 Chapter 5. Conclusions............................................................................................. 91 5.1. Pictorial Wall Paintings: Distribution, Social Context, and Ideology.. . ........................ 91 5.2. Concluding Remarks................................................................................ 99 Chapter 6. Catalog.................................................................................................. 103 6.1. Heraldic Scene.. . .................................................................................... 103 6.2. Hunting Scene....................................................................................... 106 6.3. Other Human Figures.............................................................................. 128 6.4. Other Floral Compositions.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 6.5. Unidentifiable/Indeterminate Pictorial Compositions... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 6.6. Linear/Curvilinear Compositions.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 6.7. Friezes and Borders.. . ........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 6.8. Spiral Friezes... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 6.9. Frieze with Linear Decoration.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 6.10. Monochrome Plaster................................................................................ 145 Appendix A. A Technological Investigation of the Painting Materials, by Hariclia Brecoulaki, Sophia Sotiropoulou, Vassilis Perdikatsis, Anna Lluveras-Tenorio, Ilaria Bonaduce, and Maria Perla Colombini... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 A.1. Introduction.. . ................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 A.2. State of Preservation of the Wall Paintings, Restoration, Interventions... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 A.3. Methods of Analysis and Investigations.. . ...................................................... 148 A.4. Results and Discussion.. . ......................................................................... 150 A.5. The Painting Technique.. . ........................................................................ 155 A.6. Conclusion.. . ................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 A.7. Acknowledgments.. . .......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 Appendix B. Hellenistic Composition.. . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 B.1. Curvilinear Motifs in Black and White against a Red Background........................... 159

TABLE OF CONTENTS

vii

References............................................................................................................ 163 Index... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 Figures Plates

List of Charts and Tables in the Text

Chart 3.1.

Relative quantities of monochrome plaster (2,623 total examples)............................. 16

Chart 3.2. Relative quantities of the West House material (4,495 total examples).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Table A.1. Identification of painting materials and stratigraphy of paint layers... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 Table A.2. Results of XRD analysis on paint layers of red and yellow ochers... .......................... 152 Table A.3. Sugar qualitative profiles of samples MWH 8 and MWH 10, and relative percentage content of sample MWH 16. Y = present, N = absent... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .157

List of Figures

Figure 1.

Plan of area to the west of the citadel including the Ivory Houses. Drawing M. Xypnitou. Scale: 1:1,000.

Figure 2.

The Ivory Houses, reconstruction: (a) West House (Verdelis 1959, fig. 3); (b) West House (Verdelis 1961, fig. 1); (c) Ivory Houses (French 1967, fig. 1).

Figure 3.

West House: Mycenaean and pre-Mycenaean remains. Adaptation of 1959 season plan by T. Kritharas; architect M. Xypnitou.

Figure 4.

West House, reconstruction: (a) three-dimensional view of the north part of the building from northeast; (b) three-dimensional view of the north part of the building from southeast; (c) floor plan. Drawings M. Xypnitou.

Figure 5.

West House, three-dimensional reconstruction of the building: (a) view from northeast; (b) view from southwest; (c) view from southeast. Drawings M. Xypnitou. Not to scale.

Figure 6.

West House, overall three-dimensional reconstruction of the building: (a) sloping roof; (b) flat roof. Drawings M. Xypnitou. Not to scale.

Figure 7.

West House, West wing, Rooms 1–4 and corridor: distribution of finds. Adaptation of 1959 season plan by T. Kritharas; architect M. Xypnitou.

Figure 8.

West House, Mycenaean building, incorporating post-Mycenaean remains. After adaptation of 1959 season plan by T. Kritharas; architect M. Xypnitou.

Figure 9.

Heraldic scene, restoration: winged griffin (WH F1).

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Figure 10.

THE WALL PAINTINGS OF THE WEST HOUSE AT MYCENAE

Heraldic scene, restoration: with wingless griffin (WH F1); part of head of female figure and animal limbs (WH F4); animal limbs (WH F5); and sections of white vertical elements, probably animal limbs (WH F6a). Scale 1:1 unless otherwise indicated.

Figure 11. Comparanda, seals: (a) Koukounara (CMS V.2, no. 641); (b) Pyrgos Psilonero(?), Crete (CMS V.1, no. 201); (c) Ialysos (CMS V.2, no. 657); (d) Knossos (CMS II.3, no. 63); (e) sealing, Knossos (CMS II.8.1, no. 188); (f) Crete? (CMS XI, no. 47); (g) Kalapodi (CMS V, Suppl. 3.1, no. 64); (h) Mycenae (CMS I, no. 171); (i) Aidonia (CMS V, Suppl. 3.2, no. 245). Not to scale. Figure 12.

Comparanda, faience and wall painting: (a) faience bowl from the House of Shields (Tournavitou 1995, pl. 35c); (b) the Mistress of Animals (Potnia), North Wall, first floor, Xeste 3, Akrotiri (courtesy A. Vlachopoulos, Akrotiri Excavation, Thera; drawing M. Kriga); (c) female figure holding shafts of grain accompanied by an animal, restored as a lion, Mycenae Cult Center, Room with the Frescoes (copyright and courtesy D. Wardle); (d) female figure holding shafts of grain accompanied by an animal, restored as a griffin, Mycenae Cult Center, Room with the Frescoes (Marinatos 1986, fig. 2). Not to scale.

Figure 13. Comparanda, seals: (a) Knossos (CMS II.3, no. 16); (b) sealing, Kato Zakros (CMS II.7, no. 17); (c) Modi (CMS V, Suppl. 3.1, no. 80); (d) Ashmolean Museum, Oxford (CMS VI.2, no. 284); (e) West or Central Crete, Ashmolean Museum, Oxford (CMS VI.2, no. 314); (f) Pylos (CMS I, no. 374); (g) Rethymnon (CMS V, Suppl. 1B, no. 261); (h) Ashmolean Museum, Oxford (CMS VI.2, no. 328); (i) Ashmolean Museum, Oxford (CMS VI.2, no. 331); (j) CH-Basel, Münzen und Medaillen A.G. (CMS VIII, no. 95). Not to scale. Figure 14.

First Hunting Episode, restoration: male figures and vegetation (WH F7). Scale: 1:2.

Figure 15. Second Hunting Episode, restoration: human figures, a dog, and vegetation (WH F9). Figure 16.

Vegetation: scenery with long-stemmed, leaf-like plants/trees (WH F10); sections of stemmed, leaf-like plants (WH F13–WH F19, WH F20b); floral composition with white fronds and plants (WH F24). Scale 1:2 unless otherwise indicated.

Figure 17.

Comparanda, wall painting: (a) Tiryns chariot scene, “lollipop” trees (Rodenwaldt 1912, pl. XII/DAI-Athen-Tiryns 350); (b) Tiryns boar hunt (Rodenwaldt 1912, pl. XIII/DAIAthen-Tiryns 351); (c) plants/trees, House of Sphinxes, Room 6, Mycenae (Mycenae Archive); (d) hunter with dog, Tiryns (Rodenwaldt 1912, fig. 47); (e) hunter aiming at stag, Room 43, Pylos (Lang 1969, no. 16H43, pl. 121); (f) male figures carrying cauldrons and hunter with dogs, corridor 48, Pylos (Lang 1969, no. 21H48, pl. 122); (g) battle scene, chariot group, Hall 64, Pylos (Lang 1969, no. 26H64, pl. 123); (h) male figure aiming with spear, Tiryns (Rodenwaldt 1912 119, no. 153, fig. 50); (i) male figure aiming with spear, Tiryns (Rodenwaldt 1912, fig. 51); (j) male figure carrying spears, Tiryns (Rodenwaldt 1912, 116, no. 151, fig. 49). Not to scale.

Figure 18.

Human figures, restoration: male figure facing left (WH F28) and male figure on a raised structure facing right (WH F29). Scale 1:2.

Figure 19.

Human figures: two male figures facing left, restoration (WH F30); stemmed plant and male figure facing left (WH F31); sections of greaved legs of male figures (WH F32– WH F34, WH F36, WH F37); section of stemmed plant and of greaved leg of male figure facing left (WH F35); greaved knee of male figure facing left (WH F38); feet of male figures facing each other and right (WH F39a, b). Scale 1:2.

LIST OF FIGURES

xiii

Figure 20.

Spears: two white spears in a rectangular panel (WH F41); white spear pointed at a white area (WH F42); scale: 1:1. Dogs, restoration: white dog facing the end of a rectangular panel (WH F50); part of the head of another dog (WH F51). Scale 1:2.

Figure 21.

Related male figures: male figure carrying a load, restoration (WH F52), scale 1:1; man carrying a sedan chair, House of the Oil Merchant, Mycenae (French 2002, color pl. 10), not to scale.

Figure 22.

Pair of yoked horses facing left, restoration (WH F54).

Figure 23.

Harnessed horse or horses (WH F56a, b); scale 1:2. Harnessed and/or yoked horse, restoration (WH F57); scale 1:4. Yoked horse, restoration (WH F58); scale: 1:4. Harnessed horse (WH F59); scale 1:2.

Figure 24. Horses: harnessed horse, restoration (WH F60a); hoofed animals/horses facing right (WH F61); part of a horse(?) (WH F62). Scale 1:2. Figure 25. Horses: white horse facing left (WH F64) and white horse walking on rocky ground (WH F65); scale 1:2. Comparanda, seals: (a)Vapheio (CMS I, no. 230); (b) Sklavokambos (CMS II.6, no. 260); (c) Aidonia (CMS V, Suppl. 3.2, no. 244); not to scale. Figure 26.

Chariot parts: chariot wheel, chariot box, and horse’s tail, restoration (WH F67–WH F70a, b); part of other chariot wheel, restoration (WH F71). Scale 1:4.

Figure 27.

Chariot parts: indeterminate composition with spoked, wheel-like features (WH F73, WH F74a). Animal leg facing right (WH F75). Male figure carrying spear/scepter and pole, restoration (WH F76). Robed male figure (WH F77). Scale 1:2.

Figure 28.

Other human figures: male figure(s) walking toward the left (WH F79–WH F81a); male figure and vegetation (WH F82). Other floral compositions: floral composition in blue paint against a red background (WH F88). Scale 1:2.

Figure 29. Other floral compositions: floral composition in blue paint against a red background (WH F89, WH F90), probably part of WH F88; white lilies against a red background (WH F93). Scale 1:2. Figure 30.

Other floral compositions: floral composition in blue and white (WH F94). Indeterminate pictorial compositions: palm tree or female garment (WH F95); comparanda of restored skirt of female figure in wall painting from Thebes (Reusch 1956, fig. 15). Scale: 1:2 unless otherwise indicated.

Figure 31.

Indeterminate pictorial compositions: wheel-like feature (WH F99a); unidentifiable floral motifs(?) in black paint against a blue background (WH F102a). Linear/curvilinear compositions: curvilinear motifs in white, black, and red paint against a gray/blue background (WH F103–WH F105a, WH F107f). Scale 1:2.

Figure 32. Linear/curvilinear compositions: curvilinear, mostly floral motifs in red paint against a yellow background (WH F109, WH F110, WH F112); linear decoration and curvilinear motifs in yellow and gray/blue paint against a white background (WH F115a). Hellenistic composition: curvilinear motifs in black and white paint against a red background (WH F117–WH F119). Scale 1:2. Figure 33. Friezes and borders: ivy friezes (WH F123, WH F124); spiral friezes (WH F125, WH F126); frieze with linear decoration (WH F128a, b); spiral frieze from “Pithos area,” Mycenae (Lamb 1921–1923, pl. XXIX). Scale 1:2 unless otherwise indicated.

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THE WALL PAINTINGS OF THE WEST HOUSE AT MYCENAE

Figure 34.

Friezes and borders: curved, multicolored border (WH F129); section of a wide gray/blue border (WH F134a). Scale 1:2.

Figure 35.

FTIR spectra acquired in transmission mode on KBr pellets of the sample (weighing 1–2 mg) taken from the paint surface of fragments MWH 9 and MWH 18.

Figure 36.

Raman spectra acquired under microscope (with the objective 50x): on black particles in the gray underpaint of the cross section of fragment MWH 19; on black particles, focused on the paint surface of fragment MWH 1.

Figure 37.

Sample MWH 12, EDS: (a) Spectrum 2 showing the elemental analysis of a grain of Egyptian blue (Cu, Si, Ca); (b) Spectrum 3 showing an excess of quartz (Si); (c) Spectrum 4 showing calcium (Ca) from the calcite matrix.

Figure 38. SIM chromatograms of the aminoacidic fraction of samples MWH 1 (top) and MWH 17 (bottom). Figure 39.

SIM chromatograms representative of the saccharide fraction of samples MWH 8 (top), MWH 10 (center), and MWH 16 (bottom).

List of Plates

Frontispiece. Pair of yoked horses facing left (WH F54). Plate 1.

View of the four houses from the acropolis (a); view of the south part of the West House from the south (b). Verdelis Archive.

Plate 2.

Heraldic scene (WH F1) with a small fragment from the border of the garment of the female figure (WH F2). Scale 1:0.80.

Plate 3.

Comparanda, wall painting: helmeted female figure holding griffin, from the west slope at Mycenae (Mylonas 1983, fig. 163) and woman’s arm, from outside the palace at Pylos (northeast; Lang 1969, 79, no. 40Hne, pl. C); not to scale. Heraldic scene, related fragments: blue background and parts of two white areas (WH F3); part of head of female figure and animal limbs (WH F4); animal limbs (WH F5); parts of white vertical elements, probably animal limbs (WH F6a–e).

Plate 4. First Hunting Episode: male figures and vegetation (WH F7) and white border bands (WH F8a–g). Scale 1:0.85. Plate 5.

Second Hunting Episode: human figures, a dog, and vegetation (WH F9). Scale 1:0.80.

Plate 6.

Vegetation: scenery with long-stemmed, leaf-like plants (WH F10); fragments depicting similar plants (WH F11a–f, WH F12a–g, i, k–n, p–s, u). Scale 1:2.

Plate 7.

Vegetation: sections of stemmed, leaf-like plants (WH F13–WH F17b). Scale 1:1.

Plate 8.

Vegetation: sections of leaf-like plants (WH F18–WH F20b). Scale 1:1.

Plate 9.

Vegetation: sections of stems and leaves of leaf-like plants (WH F21a–g, i, j, l–p, r–v); interiors of similar, leaf-like plants (WH F22a–c, WH F23b–e). Scale 1:1.

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THE WALL PAINTINGS OF THE WEST HOUSE AT MYCENAE

Plate 10. Vegetation: floral composition with white fronds and plants (WH F24); part of same/ similar composition with two red leaf-like elements (WH F25); part of same/similar composition depicting red leaf-like elements growing from a red sinuous branch (WH F26); parts of similar red branches (WH F27a, b). Scale 1:1. Plate 11.

Comparanda from the Orchomenos boar hunt: (a) the boar (Spyropoulos 2015, fig. 14); (b) dog attacking a boar (Spyropoulos 2015, fig. 13); (c) running dog (Spyropoulos 2015, fig. 11); (d) dog attacking a boar (Spyropoulos 2015, fig. 12); (e) dog walking behind chariot (Spyropoulos 2015, fig. 8); (f) helmeted hunters carrying spears (Spyropoulos 2015, fig. 15). Not to scale.

Plate 12.

Human figures: male figure facing left (WH F28); male figure on a raised structure facing right (WH F29); two male figures facing left (WH F30); stemmed plant and male figure facing left (WH F31). Scale 1:1.

Plate 13. Human figures: parts of greaved legs of male figures (WH F32–WH F34, WH F36, WH F37); section of stemmed plant and of greaved leg of male figure facing left (WH F35). Scale 1:1. Plate 14.

Human figures: greaved knee of male figure facing left (WH F38); feet of male figures facing each other and right (WH F39a, b); small fragments of human legs (WH F40). Spears: two white spears in a rectangular panel (WH F41). Scale 1:1.

Plate 15. Spears: white spear pointed at a white area (WH F42); sections of spears and/or dividers (WH F43–WH F49). Scale 1:1. Plate 16. Dogs: white dog facing the end of rectangular panel (WH F50); part of head of another dog (WH F51). Scale 1:1. Plate 17. Related male figures: male figure carrying a load (WH F52); fragments thereof (WH F53a, b); fragment of wall painting from the Vlachos plot at Argos, depicting a white pole originally carried by a human figure. Scale 2:1 unless otherwise indicated. Plate 18.

Horses: pair of yoked horses facing left (WH F54); parts of border bands (WH F55a–c). Scale 1:2.

Plate 19.

Horses: harnessed horse(s) (WH F56a, b); harnessed and/or yoked horse (WH F57); yoked horse (WH F58); harnessed horse (WH F59). Scale 1:1.

Plate 20.

Horses: harnessed horse(s) (WH F60a–c); hoofed animals/horses facing right (WH F61); probable parts of two different horses (WH F62, WH F63). Scale 1:1.

Plate 21. Horses: white horse facing left (WH F64); white horse walking on rocky ground (WH F65). Chariot parts: reins (WH F66); chariot wheel, chariot box, and horse’s tail (WH F67). Scale 1:2. Plate 22.

Chariot parts: additional fragments belonging to chariot wheel WH F67 (WH F68–F70b); parts of other chariot wheel (WH F71, WH F72a). Scale 1:1.

Plate 23.

Chariot parts: indeterminate composition with spoked, wheel-like features (WH F73, WH F74a, b). Animal: leg facing right (WH F75). Scale 1:1.

Plate 24.

Other human figures: male figure carrying spear/scepter and pole (WH F76); robed male figure (WH F77); male figure(s) walking toward the left (WH F79); similar male figures walking toward the left (WH F80, WH F81a, c); ass-headed genii carrying a horizontal pole, from the west slope of the acropolis at Mycenae (Mylonas 1983, fig. 198). Scale 1:1 unless otherwise indicated.

LIST OF PLATES

xvii

Plate 25. Other human figures: male figure and vegetation (WH F82); parts of female garments (WH F83a–d). Other floral compositions: red, leaf-like motif against a white background (WH F84); panelled composition with incised leaf-like motif (WH F86a); parts of floral motifs against a white or yellow background (WH F87a–d, f). Scale 1:1. Plate 26. Other floral compositions: floral composition in blue paint against a red background (WH F88–WH F91f). Scale 1:2. Plate 27.

Other floral compositions: white lilies against a red background (WH F93); floral composition in blue and white (WH F94). Scale 1:2.

Plate 28. Indeterminate pictorial compositions: palm tree or female garment (WH F95, WH F96a, b, WH F97); wheel-like feature (WH F99a); palm tree from the west slope of the acropolis at Mycenae (Kritseli-Providi 1982, no. A5, pl. 1). Scale 1:2 unless other wise indicated. Plate 29.

Indeterminate pictorial compositions: unidentifiable floral motifs(?) in white and red paint against a blue background (WH F100a–c, WH F101a); unidentifiable floral motifs(?) in black paint against a blue background (WH F102a–c). Scale 1:1.

Plate 30.

Linear/curvilinear compositions: curvilinear motifs in white, black, and red paint against a gray/blue background (WH F103–WH F106a, d–g, WH F107c, d, f, g). Scale 1:2.

Plate 31.

Linear/curvilinear compositions: curvilinear, mostly floral motifs in red paint against a yellow background (WH F109–WH F113k–m, o, p, r). Scale 1:1.

Plate 32.

Linear/curvilinear compositions: linear decoration and curvilinear motifs in yellow and gray/blue paint against a white background (WH F115a, c, h, WH F116a, b); Hellenistic examples of curvilinear motifs in black and white against a red background (WH F117, WH F118). Scale 1:2.

Plate 33. Hellenistic composition: curvilinear motifs in black and white against a red background (WH F119, WH 120a–d, WH F121d, e). Stripes in red or black paint against a red background (WH F122a). Scale 1:2. Plate 34.

Friezes and borders: ivy friezes (WH F123, WH F124); spiral frieze (WH F125); spiral frieze and fragments thereof (WH F126, WH F127b, c, e, f, h, k, l). Scale 1:1.

Plate 35.

Friezes and borders: frieze with linear decoration (WH F128a, b); curved, multicolored border and fragments thereof (WH F129, WH F130a, b, d–g). Scale 1:2.

Plate 36. Friezes and borders: blue and white bands (WH F131a–e); gray, red, and black bands (WH F133g); part of wide gray/blue border (WH F134a, c, i). Monochrome plaster: fragments of blue plaster (WH F135). Scale 1:2. Plate 37. Monochrome plaster: white wall plaster (WH F137a, c, d); white floor plaster (WH F138). Scale 1:4. Plate 38.

Cross sections of paint samples: (a) MWH 3; (b) MWH 12; (c) MWH 18; (d) MWH 16; (e) MWH 19; (f) MWH 5; (g) MWH 4; (h) MWH 3.

Plate 39.

Paint samples: (a) cross section of sample MWH 12, backscattered SEM image showing Egyptian blue layer and calcite matrix; image at right shows indication of points where EDS spectra were acquired (2, 3, and 4); (b) visible and VIL images showing the distribution of Egyptian blue on the surface of samples MWH 2–MWH 4, MWH 19; (c) top surface of sample MWH 14; (d) cross section of sample MWH 14.

Preface

The wall paintings discussed in this volume were originally discovered in 1958 by Nikolaos Verdelis during the excavation of the West House, one of the four buildings, also known as the “Ivory Houses,” south of Grave Circle B, at Mycenae. A small number of specimens were illustrated by the excavator in his preliminary report of the excavation, in 1958 and 1963 (Verdelis 1958, fig. 125:β; 1963, figs. 53, 54). When I was working on the architectural and archaeological material from all four buildings for my Ph.D. dissertation, between 1983 and 1988, and while I was preparing the final publication of these buildings between 1989 and 1994 (Tournavitou 1995), the wall paintings, stored in the Leonardon Apotheke at Nauplion, were unfortunately not available for study. The material was incidentally “rediscovered” in 2004 in the storerooms of the new Mycenae museum, where they had been transferred, along with all the other archaeological finds from the site previously stored at Nauplion. This latent rediscovery of the material prompted a systematic study of the wall paintings from the building, which began in 2005 and was completed by 2009. During this period most of the fragments were cleaned, individual pieces were joined where possible, and the material, which had been already divided into distinct stylistic and thematic groups, was systematically recorded. The wall paintings were photographed in 2010, courtesy of the Institute for Aegean Prehistory (INSTAP), by Chronis Papanikolopoulos, the photographer of the INSTAP Study Center for East Crete (INSTAP-SCEC). At the same time, a select number of samples were submitted by Hariclia Brecoulaki for chemical analysis at the Ormylia Foundation in Chalkidiki (see App. A). The professional drawing of selected material by Douglas Faulmann, the artist of the INSTAP-SCEC,

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started the same year (2010) and continued, with interruptions, until the completion of this present volume in 2012. The final publication of this material completes the cycle, which began with the original monograph on the Ivory Houses as a whole (Tournavitou 1995) and continued with the reassessment of the stratigraphy and architecture of the West House, undertaken almost 10 years after the original publication (Tournavitou 2006a). The decision to undertake the study and publication of the wall paintings signaled a directional U-turn as regards my personal academic and research interests, which were until then focused on technology, architecture, pottery, and other, mostly socioeconomic/sociopolitical aspects of the Bronze Age. This change of direction coincided, interestingly, with the beginning of an extensive project on religion and cult practice as manifested on Minoan peak sanctuaries (Tournavitou 2006b, 2009a, 2011, 2014), and with a minor side-project concerning the symbolic role of animals on the Tanagra larnakes (Tournavitou 2009b). Soon after (2010), the aftereffects of this reallocation of research interests culminated in another major project, the study and publication of the highly unusual, and in some cases unique, Mycenaean pictorial wall paintings from Argos (Tournavitou and Brecoulaki 2015). Having been introduced to iconography and wall paintings relatively late in life, I retained an impatience for typology and stylistic trivia. What I was fascinated by was the pictorial element, more specifically, the underlying narrative, the elusive, yet retrievable canvas, tentatively emerging through the seemingly stylized and often hopelessly fragmentary wall paintings. I became inevitably intrigued by the anticipation of the unexpected, by the intellectual process leading toward the meaning of individual elements, a conscious indulgence, seeking individuality in a more or less public art, irreversibly tied to compelling sociopolitical strategies. This intellectual leap into the interpretation of pictorial imagery has gradually refined my understanding of the material world, and it eventually redirected my conceptual sensibilities to the multifarious, nonmaterial aspects of human behavior, for which I am immensely grateful.

Acknowledgments

It is my pleasure to acknowledge the contributions of the many people and organizations that have made this volume possible. The excavations of the West House, directed by Nikolaos Verdelis between 1958 and 1960, were conducted under the auspices of the Archaeological Society at Athens, which graciously granted me permission for the study and publication of the archaeological material from the building. I would also like to express my sincere gratitude for the cooperation and support of the Ephorate of Antiquities at Nauplion, during the long study period of the rediscovered material at the new Mycenae museum between 2005 and 2009. The systematic study of the material would not have been possible without funding. Generous awards for the conservation of the wall paintings were provided by INSTAP in the period between 2005 and 2009 and then again in 2010–2012 for the drawings and photographs. A special thanks to the conservators Michalis Skourtis and Maria Dimitrakopoulou, who not only restored the material but also assisted in the reconstruction of the original compositions. For the excellent drawings and photographs presented in this volume, I am much indebted to Douglas Faulmann and Chronis Papanikolopoulos, two artists working for the INSTAP-SCEC. I would personally like to express my deepest gratitude to Douglas Faulmann, not only for his talent and insight during the detailed processing of the pictorial aspects of the paintings, but also for the tremendous patience he showed with the numerous changes/alterations/corrections and additions to the original drawings. For his invaluable help with the digital processing of the plates and figures, I would like to express my gratitude to Yiorgos

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THE WALL PAINTINGS OF THE WEST HOUSE AT MYCENAE

Angelopoulos. Unless otherwise noted, all drawings are by Faulmann and all photographs by Papanikolopoulos. Special thanks should also be extended to the Psycha Foundation for providing the necessary funds for the chemical analysis conducted on samples of the material and to Hariclia Brecoulaki, who provided welcome advice and information on technical issues concerning techniques and painting protocols.

List of Abbreviations

CCD charge-coupled device cm centimeters diam. diameter dims. dimensions EDS energy dispersive X-ray EDXRF energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence ext. exterior FTIR Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy GC-MS gas chromatography-mass spectrometry h. height i.d. integrated design IR infrared kV kilovolts L. length LBA Late Bronze Age LC Late Cycladic LED light emitting diode LH Late Helladic LM Late Minoan LOD detection limit LOQ quantitation limit m meters mA milliamperes max. maximum

mg milligrams μg micrograms MH Middle Helladic MM Middle Minoan mm millimeters μm micrometers mW milliwatt nm nanometers NM catalog number of the National Archaeo logical Museum, Athens, Greece. pers. comm. personal communication PAR parabolic aluminized reflector pres. preserved PVAc polyvinyl acetate SEM scanning electron microscopy SIM selected ion monitoring th. thickness TIC total ion chromatogram VIL visible induced infared luminescence w. width W watts XRD X-ray diffraction XRF X-ray fluorescence Z atomic number

1

Architectural Context and Chronology

1.1. Architectural Context The wall paintings discussed in this volume were discovered in the West House, one of the four building complexes south of Grave Circle B, also known as the Ivory Houses (Figs. 1, 2:c; Pl. 1:a). These buildings, already published as a group (Tournavitou 1995), were erected in the beginning of the 13th century b.c. (Late Helladic [LH] IIIB:1) on ground occupied by earlier Middle Helladic (MH) III/LH I and LH IIIA:2 buildings, and were destroyed by fire in the middle of the 13th century b.c. (French 1967; Tournavitou 1995, 3, 298–299; 2006a, 261; French and Iakovidis 2003, 53–54). The unique position of this group of buildings in the Lower Town of Mycenae is reflected both in the architectural and constructional methods employed and in their contents, a remarkable concentration of capital wealth, expressed in luxury materials, mostly imported, including over 18,500 pieces of worked ivory, smaller quantities of carbonized worked wood, a significant number of stone and faience vases/objects, over 2,200 clay vases, as well

as three secondary archives of Linear B tablets, unparalleled at Mycenae or elsewhere. The 56 Linear B documents kept in the premises provide additional evidence for a wide range of administrative activities, most of which were not otherwise attested in the archaeological record, or in other buildings in the area (Tournavitou 1995, 285–298). The so-called Petsas House, to the northwest of the citadel, antedating the Ivory Houses and destroyed at the end of the 14th century b.c. (late LH IIIA:2), is as yet the only exception to the rule (Papadimitriou and Petsas 1950, 214–215, fig. 18; Iakovidis 2000, 65–66, fig. 2, pl. 35β; 2001, 53–54, fig. 2; 2004, 26; 2006a, 28, pl. 20δ; 2007, 20, pl. 19β, γ; Shelton 2015a; 2015b). Although the evidence for Linear B documents in the premises of this building is comparatively limited, it nevertheless establishes a precedent for the Ivory Houses and suggests an undisputed relationship between the palatial administration and certain complexes in the Lower Town, from as early as the 14th century b.c. (Sacconi 1974, 19, pl. I; Melena and Olivier 1991, 75; Shelton 2002–2003; 2010; 2015b).

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THE WALL PAINTINGS OF THE WEST HOUSE AT MYCENAE

The evidence from the Lower Town of Mycenae is as yet unparalleled on the mainland. The four buildings in the Ivory House group seem to have served as secondary workshops for the assemblage and decoration of wooden furniture, as central multifunctional repositories/warehouses for the temporary storage of inlaid wooden furniture, stone, faience, and clay vases, as central depots for the distribution of various commodities (wool, olive oil, herbs and spices, finished objects in stone, inlaid wooden furniture, faience), and finally as secondary administrative centers for a variety of bureaucratic activities (Tournavitou 1995, 285–292; Shelmerdine 1997, 394). These activities involved transactions in wool (Oe-disbursements of wool, records of wool required for the manufacture of certain textiles, accounts of the disposal of cloth) in the House of the Oil Merchant, and a record of cloth being sent to Thebes (X508) in the House of Shields. Personnel management, such as records of personnel, ration lists, lists of people (Au, Ue, Ui, V, Wt), was mostly attested in the West House, but also in the House of the Oil Merchant and the House of Sphinxes, while allocations of olive oil (Fo) to groups or individuals for industrial, personal, or even religious purposes were recorded in the House of the Oil Merchant. Finally, records of regular taxation in a range of commodities, the majority of which can be described as herbs and spices (Ge, Go), were encountered only in the House of Sphinxes (Tournavitou 1995, 257–269; Shelmerdine 1997, 389–394; 1999, 569–573). This group of buildings, a curious mixture of the official and the domestic, combining the domestic aspect with a wide range of often overlapping industrial and administrative activities, intimately related to the palace bureaucracy, seem to have served, partly at least, as official appendages of the central authority (Tournavitou 1995, 285–298; Shelmerdine 1997, 394; 1999, 569, 573). The individuals in charge of these buildings, who may have also been involved in business ventures of a private nature, were probably acting on behalf of the palace, as palace officials, at least in regard to activities associated with the luxury finds and the Linear B documents. The craftsmen, artisans, and general personnel working and perhaps living on the premises were most likely royal dependents, employed directly or indirectly by the central authority (Tournavitou 1995, 298). The decision to locate official buildings of considerable economic and administrative significance outside the

fortification walls of the citadel, something unparalleled on the mainland, must have coincided with a period of economic prosperity and expansion that justified the dispersed character of palatial business and administrative concerns. The undisputed destruction of this group of buildings by fire was sudden and violent. The date of the destruction, although firmly placed in the 13th century b.c., has been subject to considerable revision. The date suggested by French (1967), the middle of the 13th century b.c., the end of LH IIIB:1, was questioned by Iakovidis who dated the destruction somewhat later, in the second half of the 13th century b.c. (1986, 251–254, 258–259). Some of the pottery from the houses has recently been redated to the early LH IIIB:2 period (French and Stockhammer 2009, 182, 193, fig. 6). Although there is no concrete evidence for an earthquake as the cause of the fire destruction in this group of houses, leading scholars, including Iakovidis, Mylonas-Shear, and French, are convinced that the destruction horizon, dated roughly in the middle of the 13th century b.c., and more specifically in early LH IIIB:2, both at Mycenae and at Tiryns, was caused by an earthquake. The accompanying architectural evidence from both sites (displaced and/ or leaning walls, one casualty in Panagia House I), does, on the whole, support the earthquake theory (Iakovidis 1986, 258–259; Mylonas-Shear 1987, 155; French and Stockhammer 2009, 182, 183, tables 3, 4; see also Tournavitou 1995, 298–299). The wall paintings discussed in this volume were discovered in the most controversial and perhaps the most archaeologically perplexing member of this group of houses, a single-story building on a north– south axis (Figs. 2, 3), which has been described as an ideal example of a developed, freestanding Mycenaean domestic unit, a smaller version of the palatial model, similar to the better-preserved House of Columns inside the Acropolis (Mylonas-Shear 1987, 150–154; Tournavitou 1995, 7, 285–287; 2006a, 217–221). The West House was excavated in the late 1950s and early 1960s by Verdelis (Figs. 2:a, b), under the auspices of the Archaeological Society at Athens (Orlandos 1958, 1959; Verdelis 1958, 1959, 1961, 1963). The final publication of the building (Tournavitou 1995) was recently supplemented by a detailed reconsideration of the archaeological, stratigraphical, and architectural evidence (Tournavitou 2006a).

ARCHITECTURAL CONTEXT AND CHRONOLOGY

1.1.1. The West House The Mycenaean house, constructed on a levelled rock surface in an area already occupied in the MH III/LH I period (Verdelis 1958, 160; 1961, 161–164; 1963, 20), was divided lengthwise into two distinct wings, the east wing and the west wing (Figs. 2–8). The layout of the east wing involves a three-room unit in the north, including a porch, a vestibule/ anteroom, and a main room at the back facing what appears to be a rectangular stone-paved courtyard, which is crossed by a partly covered drain that eventually exits through the east wall of the house into the passage between this house and the House of the Oil Merchant (Figs. 2:b, c, 3; Tournavitou 2006a, 221–222). Although the interior layout and contents of the three-room unit were almost completely obliterated by a severe post-Mycenaean disturbance (Fig. 8), the extant evidence suggests that this part of the building was roofed up to the southern limit of the porch (Fig. 6). The facade, here reconstructed with two columns in antis (Figs. 4–6), although by no means definitive, does conform to a known, albeit rare, architectural scheme. The rock-cut drain with built sides inside the main room of the threeroom unit, exiting through the east wall of the house and ending in the passage between the House of the Oil Merchant and the House of Shields (Fig. 3), is the only original feature of the Mycenaean room to survive later disturbances. The morphology of the drain indicates a specialized, but definitely nonindustrial, function closely associated with the function of the room itself (regular disposal of redundant liquid substances, i.e., leftovers of meals, or even the pouring of libations). Whether or not the room was originally provided with a central hearth in the manner of other main rooms is a matter of conjecture (Tournavitou 1995, 8–9; 2006a, 232–233). The restoration of a second story over this unit, although not entirely unrealistic, is unlikely on architectural grounds (Fig. 6; Tournavitou 2006a, 256). According to the detailed, systematic reconsideration of the archaeological evidence concerning the area of the paved court to the south of the porch, it seems that the east exterior wall of the house did not function as a full-scale wall, the extant foundation serving only as a base for a peribolos-type wall bordering the passage between this house and the House of the Oil Merchant (Figs. 5, 6). The stone pavement, contrary to the original arrangement of

3

the evidence by Verdelis (Figs. 2:a, b), appears to have extended over the entire area of the open court, between the porch and the southern limit of the house (Figs. 3, 4:c, 5, 6; Tournavitou 2006a, 236). The main entrance to the building from the east was most probably located in the southern part of this section (Figs. 4:c–6; Tournavitou 2006a, 257). The west wing consisted of a long and narrow corridor, running on a north–south axis along the entire length of the house, providing access to a series of five rooms that faced east and to a raised rock-cut terrace in the northwest corner of the building (Figs. 2, 3, 4:b, c). The extant evidence suggests that the west wing, including the corridor and the raised terrace in the northwest corner of the building, was effectively roofed (Fig. 6; Tournavitou 2006a, 241, 257). This part of the house was entered from the south end of the corridor (Figs. 2:c, 3, 4:c, 5; Pl. 1:b). The first three rooms on the south, free of postMycenaean disturbance (Fig. 8), comprise a single architectural unit with a common entrance on the east through Room 2, which served as an anteroom (Figs. 2, 3, 4:c, 5:c, 7; Tournavitou 2006a, 241, 257). Room 1, the southernmost room of the unit, was entered through a relatively spacious door opening (ca. 1.25 m wide), with no provisions for an actual door (Figs. 2, 3, 4:c; Tournavitou 2006a, 242). The waterproof plesia clay lining of the floor and the low platform running along the west wall (Figs. 2, 3, 4:c, 7), as well as the contents of the room (pottery, mostly small, used stirrup jars in a variety of sizes, Linear B tablets, and half a sealstone), seem to confirm the proposed function of this space as a local or secondary archive and perhaps a temporary or occasional storage area based on the interpretation of the pottery deposit (Tournavitou 1995, 9–10; 2006a, 244). The burned debris overlying the Mycenaean floor (Fig. 7), ca. 1 m thick, consisted of a large pile of stones and burned mudbricks, below which lay a large number of complete pottery vessels and Linear B tablets in an oily, ashy layer mixed with fragments of stone slabs, possibly roof tiles. Strong traces of the fire destruction that gutted the house were particularly evident in the southeast corner of the room (Tournavitou 2006a, 242–244). The tentative identification of the stone slabs as roof tiles, although reinforced by the discovery of apparently similar fragments in the area

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THE WALL PAINTINGS OF THE WEST HOUSE AT MYCENAE

of the Cult Center (Mylonas 1972b, 27), is by no means certain, nor are the slabs now available for examination. All the walls inside the room, including the exterior face of the east wall facing the corridor, were originally covered with a layer of clay plaster. Similar techniques were used in the other rooms to the north (Tournavitou 2006a, 242, 246, 250, 252–253). If this part of the house did indeed have an upper floor, which is highly unlikely judging by the thickness of the east and north walls and by the good state of preservation of the recorded finds, then the alleged upper floor was probably empty at the time of the destruction (Tournavitou 2006a, 243–244). Room 3, serving as a storeroom for foodstuffs, most likely olive oil, was smaller and more private than Room 1 (Figs. 3, 4:c, 7). In contrast to Room 1, it was provided with an actual door. Inside the room, apart from the plesia clay floor, a small rectangular partition was recorded in the northwest corner, probably originally holding a storage vessel, while a tall pithos was standing by the southwest corner of the room (Fig. 7). A funnel and fragments of another pot were found lying on their side to the south of the partition, while another vase had also fallen on its side in the middle of the room (Fig. 7; Tournavitou 1995, 11–12; 2006a, 246). A shallow semicircular pit lined with plesia clay and enclosed within a raised plaster border, found by the northeast corner of the room below a layer of carbonized wood, ashes, and pottery fragments, could have served as the locus of a small firing pit, independent of the hearth facing the corridor and the entrance to Room 4 (Figs. 3, 4:a, c, 5:a, 7; Tournavitou 1995, 11; 2006a, 248). The unusually long and narrow internal space of the fourth room of the west wing was initially identified as the kitchen of the West House, due to its proximity to the hearth and to the west branch of the court drain (Figs. 3, 4:a, c, 5:a, 7). Nevertheless, judging by the contents of the room, mostly household pots for domestic use (Fig. 7), it was most likely used not as a kitchen (lack of working space, air, and light) but as a storage area for foodstuffs and cooking utensils (Tournavitou 2006a, 248–250). The hearth, built just outside Room 4 in the northeast corner of Room 3 (Figs. 3, 4:a, c, 5:a, 7), was buried under debris from the collapsed superstructure of the house. A deposit of burned organic material as well as a row of five burned logs and a broken pot, fallen sideways over the logs,

was discovered over the hearth (Tournavitou 1995, 13; 2006a, 250–252). Room 5 is another rectangular room with a plesia clay floor, entered from an unusually wide section of the corridor (Figs. 2–4). The contents of the room, 30 unpainted kylikes and a single coarse, inscribed stirrup jar, suggest that it was being used as a domestic pottery storeroom, at least at the time of the destruction (Tournavitou 1995, 14; 2006a, 252–253). The last space to the north, lying somewhere between 1.05 to 1.21 m higher than the floor level of Room 5 to the south, was the artificially levelled rock-terrace, serving as the north limit of the west wing (Figs. 2, 3, 4:b, c, 5). Access to the terrace, which would have been originally roofed and enclosed by walls on all sides, could be effected only by means of a wooden staircase running in a north– south direction inside the north part of the corridor alongside the main room (Figs. 2, 4:b, c). The suggested staircase would thus occupy the entire width of the last 4 m of the corridor, up to the north limit of the house (Figs. 3, 4:b, c; Tournavitou 2006a, 253–254). The inclusion of the terrace to the roofed section of the house was dictated by practical architectural considerations related to the disposal of rain water (Fig. 6). If roofed, the terrace could have been used as a private sleeping space, as has been suggested for similarly placed rooms in the Panagia Houses I and II (Mylonas-Shear 1987, 19–21, 23, 31–32, 146 n. 30; Tournavitou 2006a, 257). The width of the long corridor, running just over 27 m in a north–south direction along the entire length of the house, and highly irregular throughout its length, seems to have been determined by the course and positioning of the walls and/or features on either side (Figs. 2, 3; Pl. 1:b). It was also probably related to the activities attested in this part of the house. The considerable width of the section of the corridor running along the first three rooms of the house (ca. 1.8 m) was probably related to the traffic in this area, as well as to the more intensive public use of these rooms. It was in this section, along the south half of the east wall of Room 1 that Verdelis reported the discovery of fragments of wall paintings lying on the plesia clay floor of the corridor (Fig. 7; Tournavitou 1995, 15; 2006a, 254–255). It seems that the east limit of the corridor in this section, south of the porch, was, according to the recent reconsideration of the evidence, probably defined not by the presence of a full-scale

ARCHITECTURAL CONTEXT AND CHRONOLOGY

dividing wall, as suggested at one time by Verdelis (Fig. 2:b), but by a series of vertical supports, possibly a colonnade (Figs. 5, 6), evidence for which has sadly failed to materialize. The proposed arrangement, apart from being architecturally sound and consistent with Mycenaean building tradition, would have provided light and air to the first four rooms of the west wing, which were built against the rising bedrock to the west and would have been otherwise deprived of natural light (Tournavitou 2006a, 254–256, 258). The drastic reduction in the width of the corridor farther north, in the section along Room 4 (ca. 0.65–0.7 m), can be understood only in the absence of a full-scale wall marking the west limit of the court, at least up to the level of the porch (Figs. 2:a, 4–6). It was probably also related both to the activities and the features associated with this part of the house (hearth/cooking, storage of household utensils/ foodstuffs) and to the more private nature of the north part of the wing. In addition to that, the presence of the hearth facing outward toward the corridor presupposes the free circulation of air in the vicinity and the availability of space around it that would facilitate cooking. The increase in the width of the corridor along Room 5 (ca. 2.8–2.9 m; Figs. 2, 3, 4:b, c) is probably also related to the use of the room as a storage area (Tournavitou 2006a, 254 n. 188).

1.2. Archaeological Context and Chronology The archaeological context of wall paintings associated with destroyed and/or abandoned buildings has always been a vexing subject. The position of the fragments in the fill and their distribution reflects the original context of the wall paintings and their position inside the room or building. Unless painted plaster is discovered in situ on the actual walls, which is not often the case and certainly is not the case here, fragments of wall paintings discovered in the fill or on the floor of a specific room may be assumed to belong to the decoration of this particular room, if not to a collapsed upper floor. Other material, usually odd fragments, which do not display the appropriate thematic and

5

stylistic features associated with the main body of the material, may belong to construction fills that predate the erection of the building or to the rubble fill of the collapsed walls (Lang 1969, 5; Immerwahr 1990, 84). Material found outside the building, scattered over a wide area or in organized dumps, is also assumed to predate the last phase of the unit in question (Lang 1969, 5–6; Immerwahr 1990, 84; Privitera 2015). Of course, multiphase or multiperiod sites often present a far more complicated situation, with a significantly altered or even reversed stratigraphy and hopelessly compromised, often elusive, stylistic criteria (for Knossos, see Immerwahr 1990, 84; for Hagia Triada, see Privitera 2015). During the first excavation season of 1958, when Verdelis excavated the west wing of the Mycenaean house, he reported the discovery of a considerable number of fragments of wall paintings lying on the plesia clay floor of the corridor and more specifically in the area south of the entrance to Rooms 1–3, along the east wall of Room 1 (Fig. 7; Pl. 1:b; Verdelis 1958, 160, fig. 125:β; 1963, 26, figs. 53, 54; Tournavitou 1995, 15; 2006a, 255). According to the excavation diaries, the fragments were found in clusters along the base of the east wall of Room 1, some facing up and some down (Verdelis site notebooks dated 28/2/1958). The excavator, who initially maintained that the fragments discovered on the floor of the corridor had decorated the walls of the neighboring rooms (Verdelis 1958, 160), later suggested that they had probably fallen from the east wall of Room 1 facing the courtyard (Verdelis 1963, 26). Fragments of wall paintings were also discovered in the northernmost room of the MH III/LH I house to the south of the Mycenaean building (Fig. 3; Pl. 1:b) in a mixed deposit, presumably accumulated after the abandonment of the earlier house. The ruins of the earlier building had apparently been levelled and covered over during the LH IIIB:1 period, serving as the main access route to the south entrance of the West House and through the latter to the west wing of the building (Fig. 2:a, b, 3; Verdelis 1958, 160; 1961, 161–164; 1963, 20; Tournavitou 1995, 15; 2006a, 255). This group of wall paintings, contextually inconvenient, but with close thematic and stylistic affinities to the group discovered inside the West House, can be plausibly described as related material deliberately dumped in this location

6

THE WALL PAINTINGS OF THE WEST HOUSE AT MYCENAE

shortly before and/or after the destruction the Mycenaean building. It is unfortunate that the excavator did not list, let alone catalog, the individual fragments from either location, and that no attempt was made to record the original findspots of the various pieces during the subsequent storage of the material. As a result, it is in most cases impossible to allocate individual fragments to specific contexts. The only significant clue is provided by the few illustrations of the material in the early reports (Verdelis 1958, fig. 125:β; 1963, figs. 53, 54), in which most of the major pictorial fragments, including the heraldic scene (WH F1), the first hunting episode (WH F7), fragments depicting spears (WH F41), human limbs (WH F32), a pair of horses (WH F54), parts of chariots (WH F67, WH F71), the lily composition (WH F93), and parts of friezes with ivies and linear decoration (WH F124, WH F128a), among others, are effectively assigned to the corridor of the West House. The status of the wall paintings from the corridor of the Mycenaean building as primary finds, fallen or stripped from the adjacent wall, as debris from other parts of the house temporarily deposited in this location prior to their final disposal outside the latter, or as both of the above, depends therefore on the composition of the extant corpus. Judging by the few published photographs illustrating the finds from the corridor of the house (Verdelis 1958, fig. 125:β; 1963, figs. 53, 54), it seems that despite the apparent homogeneity of the illustrated material, a random quality, and a limited, yet undeniable, stylistic and iconographical diversity in the latter, argue against a single, primary context. Although the excavator remarked on the stylistic and thematic similarity between the two deposits (Verdelis 1961, 163), he draws attention to the ambiguity concerning the formation date of the second deposit and suggests a date after the destruction or abandonment of the Mycenaean building, but one that is presumably within the Mycenaean period (Verdelis 1961, 163–164). The detailed study of the extant murals, and of the pre- and post-destruction sequence in the area of the West House (Tournavitou 1995, 2006a), suggests a more complicated sequence of events. The extant material from both locations, especially from the area south of the Mycenaean building, is both stylistically and thematically diverse. The

main hunting scene (WH F7–WH F75), possibly including the heraldic composition (WH F1–WH F6), and the various decorative friezes/banded borders (WH F123–WH F127, WH F131–WH F134), presumably framing the pictorial panels, is the only pictorial group that can be confidently identified as part of the decoration of a single room/area in the LH IIIB building. Although the rest of the fragmentary material includes a number of compositions that could have originated in other areas of the West House, it is likely that a small number of compositions, from both locations, predate its construction in the beginning of the 13th century b.c. (WH F88–WH F92, WH F93, and possibly WH F95– WH F98). To complicate matters, the obviously post-Mycenaean date of one of the extant compositions (WH F117–WH F121; see App. B), possibly discovered in the area to the south of the building, corroborated by the diversity in the provenance of even securely dated, Mycenaean material, implies that the disposal of the murals was the result of more than one depositional episode, in this case a post-Mycenaean phase. The absence of incontrovertible signs of burning in the vast majority of the extant material, including the pictorial specimens discovered in the corridor of the house (WH F1–WH F75), is, however, puzzling and could have a bearing on the suggested sequence of events leading to the present deposition of the Mycenaean murals. Evidence from other buildings destroyed by fire at Mycenae, Tiryns, and Pylos, among others, indicates that wall paintings subjected to the effects of a fire destruction can display a variety of burning patterns, even if still in situ on the walls of the buildings (Lamb 1921–1923, 162–172; Lang 1969, 7–9; Kritseli-Providi 1982, 18; Immerwahr 1990, 84; Brecoulaki 2017, 395–398; Brecoulaki, Karydas, and Colombini, forthcoming). The lack of obvious traces of burning that would have appeared as a gray veil on the upper surface of the wall paintings, altering the vividness of the colors (Brecoulaki, Karydas, and Colombini, forthcoming), would certainly suggest that the surviving specimens had been deliberately stripped from the walls before the final destruction of the building (Immerwahr 1990, 84, 106). The almost complete disappearance, however, of the blue pigment on a few of the specimens from the main hunting scene discovered in the corridor of the Mycenaean

ARCHITECTURAL CONTEXT AND CHRONOLOGY

building (WH F7, WH F9), which can only be caused by the subjection of the pigment to intense heat (Brecoulaki, Karydas, and Colombini, forthcoming), suggests that at least these specimens had been subjected to the effects of the fire that destroyed the building, in this case presumably after they had been removed from the walls. The suggested sequence of events, although largely speculative, is based on a combination of archaeological evidence and informed guesswork. If the wall paintings had been on the walls when the building was consumed by fire, which is highly unlikely considering the lack of obvious traces of burning, they would have been lying in piles under the collapsed debris following the abandonment of the site. If they had been stripped from the walls pending a renovation, all or part of the material would have been moved into convenient piles in large areas such as the paved courtyard to the east of the corridor, or in the corridor itself. Alternatively, depending on the lapse of time between the stripping of the walls and the final destruction of the building, some or all of the material would have been moved to one or more dumping grounds outside the building, where some of it was actually found. The almost complete lack of any traces of burning on the extant material, irrespective of their final location, argues against the first scenario. The absence of piles of fragments of wall paintings scattered in open areas all over the building, as stipulated by the second scenario, is not a convincing argument, especially considering the post-destruction activity in the area. Irrespective of the original distribution of the stripped material inside the Mycenaean building, the long intervening period between the abandonment of the site in the middle of the 13th century b.c. and the first systematic reoccupation of part of the east wing during the Archaic period must have precipitated the demise of a significant proportion of the initial assemblage. Even more would have been lost to clearance operations conducted during the two major reoccupation periods in the Archaic and the Hellenistic periods, when the east wing, including the paved courtyard to the south, was practically stripped to the bedrock (Fig. 8; Verdelis 1959, 146–150, 154; 1963, 13–19, 26; Tournavitou 1995, 2, 4–9; 2006a, 225, 228, 230, 232–236, 239, 250, 252–253, 256, 261–267, fig. 5). During these clearance operations all the remaining debris, including the stripped and by now diminished and

7

fragmentary wall paintings from the Mycenaean building, would have been collected and moved to a dumping ground farther afield and/or to the site of a pre-existing Mycenaean dumping ground just to the south of the 13th-century b.c. house. The same would apply to other isolated fragments belonging to earlier Mycenaean structures in the immediate vicinity of the West House, or even discarded fragments from contemporary structures. It is reasonable to suppose that the material lying along the east wall of Room 1 in the south part of the west wing, which was not reoccupied in the Archaic and Hellenistic periods, was apparently ignored at the time. The organized stripping of old, unwanted mural decorations and the subsequent dumping of the fragmentary material in specific areas is commonplace on the mainland, and this has been attested in a number of major palatial sites, including Mycenae itself (Lamb 1921–1923, 160–172), Tiryns (Rodenwaldt 1912, 1–5, 66–69; Verdelis 1956; Maran, Papadimitriou, and Thaler 2015, 99–101; Papadimitriou, Thaler, and Maran 2015, 174), and Pylos (Lang 1969, 5–6, 217–221). Similar dumps have been discovered on Crete (for Knossos, see Cameron 1975, 675, 690–691, 695–697; Immerwahr 1990, 84, fig. 25; for Hagia Triada, see Immerwahr 1990, 102; Militello 1998, 81–85, 132– 148, 185–224, 283–308; 2006, 193–196; Privitera 2015) and abroad (for Tell el Dab’a, see Bietak, Marinatos, and Palivou 2007, 41). The dismantling of existing mural decoration and the systematic or random dumping of the material is usually associated with ongoing or forthcoming renovations, after a major destruction, after major changes in state ideology, as is suggested for Pylos (Bennett and Davis 1999, 114–118), or for other, less radical reasons related to major architectural modifications or changes in fashion. The underlying reason or reasons for the suggested renovations in the West House, prior to its final destruction, are not immediately apparent. The building, which served as a palatial appendage outside the walls and was presumably considered an intrinsic part of the palace bureaucracy, had apparently been subjected to minor architectural modifications prior to its destruction, tentative evidence for which has been detected in the archaeological record (Tournavitou 2006a, 238, 241, 250). Evidence for architectural modifications to the original plan and possibly the use of certain sections of the

8

THE WALL PAINTINGS OF THE WEST HOUSE AT MYCENAE

Mycenaean building has been identified at the south end of the court and in the area of Room 4 (Figs. 3, 7). The modifications in the south end of the paved court include the construction of a section of stone pavement Γβ (Fig. 3), projecting into the passage between this house and the House of the Oil Merchant to the east, beyond the original east limit of the building. The purpose of this modification was probably associated with the need for access to some kind of communal facility, which, judging by the burned layer to its south, was possibly a firing pit or rubbish dump (Tournavitou 2006a, 237–238, 241, 257). In the absence of any concrete evidence of earthquake damage in other parts of the house, the eastward curvature of the east wall of Room 4 in the west wing, a modification to an otherwise perfectly sound, straight wall (Figs. 3, 7), was probably associated with the accessibility of the more private north part of the west wing; the lack of plaster on the interior face of the east wall of the room was possibly the result of unfinished repairs (Tournavitou 2006a, 250 n. 147, 254 n. 188). Nevertheless, although the reasons behind these modifications were probably related to functional improvements or changes, the suggested renovation of the mural decoration was obviously not. Furthermore, considering that the extant wall paintings attributed to the 13th-century b.c. building are consistent with the prevailing ideology of the ruling elite at Mycenae, as attested in the pictorial program of the palatial complex, the suggested pictorial renovation in palatial appendages, such as the West House, were presumably not prompted by latent shifts in prevailing ideological strategies, or fashions. The original location of the wall paintings inside the ground floor building is unfortunately mostly a matter of speculation. A primary consideration concerning the original position of the extant wall paintings attributed to the 13th-century b.c. building is intimately related to the suitability of the ground floor rooms and to the recurring argument concerning the existence of a second floor, especially over the west wing where most of the material was discovered. Although the suitability of the residential quarters in the east wing, especially that of the vestibule and the main room at the back, is beyond doubt, the post-Mycenaean disturbance in the area has obliterated all of the evidence (Fig. 8). The west wing is a different matter.

Judging by the original findspot of the majority of the material on the plesia clay floor of the corridor along the south part of the east wall of Room 1 (Fig. 7), the obvious choice would be to assign most of the extant wall paintings, especially the main hunting scene including the heraldic composition, to this section of the west corridor wall running along Room 1, and possibly also along Room 3 farther north (combined length of 6.5 m). These two sections of wall would be facing the open paved courtyard of the east wing through a colonnade lining the east side of the roofed corridor (Figs. 5, 6; Tournavitou 1995, 15; 2006a, 254, 257–258), thus providing ample opportunity for the viewing of the murals. In the Minoan world, the decoration of corridor walls is best exemplified in the decoration of the west corridor of the palace at Knossos, featuring a procession of life-size, youthful, mostly male figures carrying offerings (Evans 1928, 682–684, 704–712, 725–726, color pl. XII, suppl. pls. XXV– XXVII; 1930, 297), which has been tentatively dated to the Late Minoan (LM) II/IIIA:1 period (Immerwahr 1990, 53, 88–90 n. 15, 174–175, cat. no. Kn no. 22). Although the procession was associated in this case too with the entrance system of the palatial complex, the architectural layout bears no resemblance to the architectural arrangement of the entrance system in the Mycenaean building. The procession theme, most appropriate for the long corridor leading to the interior of the palace, is also incompatible with the iconographical program attested in the Mycenaean building. Beyond Knossos, the only, albeit remote, parallel in Minoan Crete would be the painted decoration from the facade of the Portico of the Stoa dell’Agora in Hagia Triada during the LM IIIA:2 period (Privitera 2015, 88, fig. 12), suggesting that mural decoration in Minoan Crete was not limited to indoor spaces. In the Cyclades, the only parallels for corridor decoration are to be found on Thera, where decorated corridors have been attested in Xeste 3 and in the House of the Ladies. In Xeste 3, the wall paintings in the narrow passage leading from the secondary staircase to Room 3 on the first floor repeat the processional theme encountered at Knossos, featuring a procession of mature women bearing offerings and walking toward the interior of the building (Marinatos 1976, 24, 36, pls. 65, 66; Morgan 1990,

ARCHITECTURAL CONTEXT AND CHRONOLOGY

260–261, fig. 9; Doumas 1992, 168–171, pls. 131– 134; Michailidou 2001, 340; Vlachopoulos 2003; 2008, 453, figs. 41.33–41.36). In the House of the Ladies, the east part of Room 1, serving as a corridor/vestibule to the main shrine, was apparently decorated with a robing scene, featuring a group of festively attired women attending to a seated female figure, possibly a priestess or deity (Marinatos 1972, 11, 15, 40, pls. 9–11, G, H; 1984, 97–104, figs. 67–69, 71; Doumas 1992, 38–43, pls. 6–12; Michailidou 2001, 187–194). Although the architectural layout and function of the West House corridor is not really compatible with the layout and function of the Cycladic specimens, the paved vestibule in the main entrance of Xeste 3, featuring a scene with young males, hunters, or athletes engaged in capturing animals (goat and bull; Vlachopoulos 2008, 451, figs. 41.3–41.6, 41.51; 2010, 177–178, figs. 6:b, 16), seems closer to the architectural arrangement of the Mycenaean building. The same can be said of the staircase in Xeste 4, which features a life-size procession of men (Doumas 1975, 217, 227–229; 1978, 223; 1992, pls. 138–141; Morgan 2005b, 37). In both Knossos and Thera, the thematic content of the most popular iconographic programs in corridors and staircases—that is, standing, life-size male and/or female figures in ritual processions or performing obscure rituals (robing scene)—bears little or no resemblance to the suggested theme of the West House corridor (hunting scene). The iconographic program in the vestibule of Xeste 3 is perhaps the closest parallel to the hunting scene decorating the entrance corridor of the Mycenaean building. The decoration of corridor walls, especially corridors facing an open court, although not unknown in Mycenaean architecture, as attested in the roofed section of the Processional Way leading to and from the Cult Center at Mycenae (Mylonas 1970, 118–119; 1972b, 18–19, pl. I; Kritseli-Providi 1982, 19, 90–92, fig. 10, pls. 26:β, 27, 28; French 2002, 85), is a comparatively rare practice, unattested outside palatial or centrally sponsored projects. At Mycenae and Tiryns, the corroborating evidence lies in organized dumps or is missing altogether, and any speculation on the original position of the extant wall paintings is mostly hypothetical. In Pylos, the evidence for pictorial wall

9

paintings between painted beam-ends along the top and a dado design at the bottom on the back wall of Stoa 44, facing the megaron courtyard, is extremely tentative (Lang 1969, 207). The only exceptions are corridor 13, decorated with a male processional figure (Lang 1969, 197), and Hall 64 in the Southwest Building, which barely qualifies as a corridor despite the open courtyard to the south (Lang 1969, 214–215). The fragments in corridor 48 had apparently fallen from an upper story (Lang 1969, 212). The mural decoration of corridors in Mycenaean architecture, palatial or otherwise, was presumably determined by two basic considerations: that the corridor involved would be roofed and that it served as a main access route to areas or rooms serving as some sort of focal point, official or otherwise. The decoration of the south part of the West House corridor, at least up to the north limit of Room 1 and/or Room 3 farther north, would make sense as regards the circulation pattern and the internal dynamics of the building. The corridor, entered through what could be described as a service entrance to the south, provided access to both wings of the house (Figs. 2, 3, 4:c, 5). In the west wing, Room 1, an area used for the administrative processing of personnel and for the temporary storage of pottery and/or other commodities, would apparently have attracted more traffic and would thus be the most likely destination (Tournavitou 1995, 9–11, 286; 2006a, 242–244). Room 3 to the north was much smaller and more private and therefore unlikely to invite this kind of traffic (Tournavitou 1995, 11–12; 2006a, 246–248). This section of the corridor also provided access through the open courtyard to the more residential/ official section of the building, the three-room unit of the east wing (Figs. 2, 3, 4:c, 5). An ideal candidate for pictorial mural decoration, especially as regards the heraldic composition and the main hunting scene (WH F1–WH F75), this section preserves almost no evidence of the original interior features, except for the small stone-built drain in the main room (Fig. 3; Tournavitou 1995, 7–9; 2006a, 230–234, 261–264). This particular choice of theme would be most appropriate for the residential core of the building, depicting activities that probably had a direct bearing on the status of its occupants. If some of the extant compositions

10

THE WALL PAINTINGS OF THE WEST HOUSE AT MYCENAE

decorated the walls of the vestibule and the main room of the three-room unit, they had probably been moved away before the destruction of the house. Of the remaining ground floor rooms in the west wing of the house, Room 1, used as a temporary storage space for fine stirrup jars and as a locus for administrative activities, mostly related to personnel management, also would be an ideal candidate if it was not for the poor lighting conditions inside the room. The poor lighting, on the other hand, would not have prevented the occupants from decorating the walls of this room with a less ambitious, more modest composition, such as floral (WH F94) or linear/curvilinear motifs (WH F103–WH F116). Quite apart from the circumstances of this particular room, the decoration of archival areas, mostly located on upper floors, and of ground floor storerooms, is not unusual in Mycenaean architecture. The occurrence of painted plaster in archival contexts appears to have been the norm in the Ivory House group. The closest parallels are the ground floor room in the House of the Oil Merchant directly above Room 2, also apparently used for archival/ administrative activities (Fig. 2:c; Cameron and Meyer 1995, 283; Tournavitou 1995, 34; Shelmerdine 1997, 389–390; 1999, 570, 572; Varias García 1999, 596), and the ground floor room in the House of Sphinxes above Room 6, also used for similar purposes (Fig. 2:c; Cameron and Meyer 1995, 283; Tournavitou 1995, 56; Shelmerdine 1997, 393; 1999, 571; Varias García 1999, 596). Wall paintings also graced other ground floor rooms in the houses,

which were apparently used mostly as storerooms and work areas, such as Rooms 2 and 4 in the House of Sphinxes (Tournavitou 1995, 47–54). Beyond Mycenae, apart from the extensive storage facilities at Glas liberally decorated with lively and imaginative wall paintings (Iakovidis 1998, 47–50, 79–84, 107, 110–111, 178–181, 183–187, 196; Boulotis 2000a, 1121, 1130–1132; 2015), decorated upper floors, presumably serving as archives, also have been identified at Thebes (Marinatos 1970, 62; Spyropoulos 1970). The existence of a second story over the west wing of the Mycenaean building, from which at least some of the wall paintings could have theoretically fallen on the floor of the corridor or even outside the house to the south, is apparently unlikely, judging by the stratigraphical evidence recorded in the first three rooms from the south, in the corridor, and the northwest terrace (Tournavitou 2006a). The debris involved included disintegrated mudbricks, remains of burned wood, probably wooden beams, and an unspecified number of flat stone slabs, conceivably serving as roof tiles or floor slabs, depending on the existence or absence of a second story. Whether this debris represented the remains of the roof of a single-story house, or the remains of the floor paving or ceiling of a two-story building, cannot be proved beyond doubt, but the position of the debris in the vertical sequence and the lack of evidence for any finds belonging to the alleged first floor argue in favor of the first option (Fig. 6; Tournavitou 1995, 15–16; 2006a, 258).

2

State of Preservation, Conservation, and Drawn Restorations

2.1. State of Preservation Despite the long abandonment of the building after its destruction and the rather turbulent postdestruction history of the site, a large proportion of the extant material is preserved in a good overall condition. In a number of cases, where many joining fragments were found severely cracked but still intact through the sheer force of adhering dirt, the whole was lifted from the soil with a backing of modern plaster so as to preserve the authentic relationship of the pieces. As a result, specimens lifted in this fashion have large gaps between fragments, making it often impossible to remove them from the backing in order to clean and reset them. Although there is no information as to the condition of the material prior to the initial conservation efforts, the plaster itself, composed of a thick, homogeneous, white layer, seems to have been notably compact (see Ch. 4.2). The vast majority of the fragments were encrusted with soil and occasionally with carbonated alkaline salts (WH F15). Where the soil had simply worked its way into the painting it

was gently washed off by mechanical and/or chemical means (see Ch. 2.2, below). Where there were breaks on the surface, caused by the collapse of the wall or the extraction process, the fire, or the weather, soil became firmly fixed in the surface and was therefore in some cases impossible to remove (WH F61). Soil still adheres to the surface of some of the pieces. Cracking of the surface, although comparatively rare, does occur on a number of fragments (WH F21n, t, WH F22c, WH F27a, WH F51, WH F61, WH F94, WH F123–WH F125). In the vast majority of cases there are no obvious traces of burning or of degradation patterns caused by moisture that would have resulted in color alteration. For the relatively few surviving specimens preserving evidence of burning, the most characteristic effect can be seen in the partial disappearance of the blue pigment (Egyptian blue) used mostly as a background color, exposing a thin gray coat of paint serving as an undercoat (WH F9– WH F13, WH F21, WH F34, WH F75, WH F79, WH F86), and in some cases, the complete disappearance of the original pigment (WH F7, WH F9,

12

THE WALL PAINTINGS OF THE WEST HOUSE AT MYCENAE

WH F10, WH F14, WH F18, WH F23, WH F87, WH F103–WH F108; see Chs. 4.5 and A.4.2.3, A.4.2.4). The differentiation in the preservation pattern of the blue pigment on some of the specimens, as for example in the case of the second hunting episode (WH F9), which was made up of a considerable number of joins, on the first hunting episode (WH F7), and on a small number of other specimens (WH F10, WH F22b, WH F69, WH F75, WH F88–WH F92), suggests that the original wall paintings were subjected to the effects of the fire and to other types of taphonomic degradation after they had been dismantled from the walls of the Mycenaean building, or perhaps after the collapse of the walls during the suggested earthquake activity, in both cases presumably already in fragments. The rosy/red pigment, used as a background color in one of the compositions (WH F88–WH F92), is similarly affected, as is the hybrid green colors used for vegetation. Where Egyptian blue had been applied as a second layer of paint over a yellow undercoat, the green usually survives in a better condition (WH F7, WH F9–WH F14, WH F16, WH F18–WH F22; see Chs. 4.5 and A.4.2.5). Blackening of the surface has not been attested, except in small areas on a few specimens (WH F1, WH F3, WH F7, WH F14, WH F42, WH F43, WH F46, WH F52, WH F68, WH F70a, WH F86a) where it could have been the result of taphonomic conditions (roots). Other damage, including scratching, chipping, or flaking of the original pigments, is occasionally attested on the upper surface of some of the extant specimens. Although minor scratching, resulting from the inevitable wear to which this type of assemblage is usually subjected in the course of destruction episodes and post-destruction debris disposal, is evidenced on most specimens, although serious damage is extremely rare (WH F117, WH F118). Chipping and flaking of the original pigments on the other hand is not so rare. It has been attested in connection with Egyptian blue, serving as the background color on a considerable number of specimens (WH F15, WH F24, WH F25, WH F27, WH F29, WH F45, WH F50, WH F57, WH F59, WH F64, WH F66, WH F94), red (WH F90, WH F93), white, especially when applied in successive layers over the blue background (WH F43, WH F44, WH F46, WH F49), yellow, applied over a blue background (WH F21c), and black, when

painted directly onto the final coat of plaster (WH F58–WH F60). Paint layers on the whole adhere well to the plaster and to each other, except in cases featuring successive coats of paint (over painting), in which the last coat is, as a rule, either extremely fugitive or has disappeared altogether. Such cases involve the red or black paint used as a final touch for the outlines and interior details of human figures (WH F9, WH F28–WH F34), the black paint used for the interior details of the dogs (WH F9, WH F50, WH F51), the red coat of paint applied over a yellow undercoat on the bodies of some of the horses (WH F54, WH F56, WH F57, WH F62, WH F63), and the yellow and red paint, used for the interior of the chariot wheels (WH F67, WH F68, WH F70–WH F72, WH F99– WH F101). The pigments used in the Hellenistic composition (WH F117–WH F121), including red for the background and black and white for the various motifs, are all extremely fugitive. The condition of the vertical edges of most of the pieces testifies that they had been broken in antiquity. The degree of adhesiveness of the various paint layers depends on the conditions of their preservation. Mechanical erosions or loss of physical cohesion between paint layers also depends on the grain size of the pigments. Egyptian blue, a coarse-grain pigment, may more easily lose its internal cohesion; this is also a reason why it was often applied on top of an undercoat of carbon black (H. Brecoulaki, pers. comm.). Other factors, such as exposure to high temperature or contact with water may have played a role in the state of preservation of the pictorial layers.

2.2. Conservation When the pieces were originally lifted from the soil the conservation team applied a polyvinyl acetate (PVA) solution on a strip of gauze over the exposed side or surface of the plaster, in order to solidify the pieces and to facilitate lifting. Most of the extant material and the vast majority of the pictorial specimens from the West House underwent conservation at the Mycenae museum laboratories during the autumn of 2001 and again during 2006,

STATE OF PRESERVATION, CONSERVATION, AND DRAWN RESTORATIONS

with the generous financial help of the Institute for Aegean Prehistory. The saline incrustations on individual pieces were initially removed from both faces and along the vertical sides by mechanical means (cotton swabs, distilled water, acetone and ethyl alcohol, and scalpels where necessary), down to the last millimeter or so of incrustation, and/or by chemical means (dilutable acetone). The consolidation of the paint layer on individual specimens was effected with the help of a copolymer of acrylates and methacrylates (Paraloid B72), diluted in acetone (5%) and applied with a brush in one to three successive layers. The joining fragments have been joined with HMG Paraloid B72 adhesive.

2.3. Drawn Restorations Individual fragments and representative specimens of the extant compositions were selected chiefly on the basis of their pictorial content

13

and interest. All of the illustrated specimens were initially drawn as accurate reproductions of the paintings in their present state. Restored drawings, attempting to recreate the missing elements of the composition, are provided for a number of the more promising scenes, offering a more or less complete version of the original design, as interpreted on the basis of existing iconographic parallels. The extent of restoration depends on the inherent potential of each piece. A full restoration of the narrative sequence of the main hunting scene has been avoided as it might be potentially misleading. In all cases the restored section is differentiated from the original, preserved section of the painting. The red preliminary sketching lines, which are often very close to the final drawing lines, do not appear in the published drawings and/or restorations of the wall paintings, as they would ultimately confuse the overall picture. The selected specimens were drawn by Douglas Faulmann, the artist of the INSTAP Study Center for East Crete.

3

The Wall Paintings

3.1. Introduction The wall paintings discovered in the West House include both pictorial and linear/abstract decorative elements. Over half of the extant material—58.35% (2,623 out of 4,495 fragments)— consists of monochrome, mostly white wall plaster (40.9%, 1,840 out of 4,495), with smaller numbers of blue (11.70%, 526 out of 4,495) and even smaller numbers of other colors (5.71%, 257 out of 4,495), often minute in size (see Chart 3.1). Fragments belonging to pictorial compositions form a considerable proportion of the material (25.78%, 1,159 out of 4,495). The remaining specimens, mostly parts of linear compositions and border friezes, consist of ca. 16% of the total (15.86%, 713 out of 4,495; see Chart 3.2). The vast majority of the extant pictorial specimens (95.59%, 1,108 out of 1,159) belong to small-scale or reduced-size compositions. The overwhelming majority of these compositions, painted against a brilliant blue background, can be assigned to a seemingly multifigured narrative scene portraying a hunting expedition (Figs. 9–28;

Pls. 2–25), which incorporates many of the iconographic episodes associated with mainland hunting scenes at Pylos, Tiryns, and Orchomenos. The human figures, ca. 18.7–20.8 cm in height, are consistent with the established mainland idiom for small-scale or reduced-size compositions (Lang 1969, 36, 40; Immerwahr 1990, 19, 109, 122). The estimated height of the original frieze, ca. 0.52 m, is nearly identical to the size of the Pylos and Tiryns hunting friezes (Rodenwaldt 1912, 97, fig. 40, pl. XII; Lang 1969, 41, 225). The few specimens tentatively assigned to one or more lifesize female figures form only a small minority of the extant material (4.40%, 51 out of 1,159). The so-called genuine or “true” Minoan miniature style—as exemplified in the Grandstand and Sacred Grove frescoes from the palace at Knossos and in the miniature narrative compositions discovered at Tylissos, Melos, Thera, and Hagia Eirene on Kea—was never really considered on the mainland as a serious alternative to life-size or small-scale compositions. The Minoan and Cycladic miniature compositions depicting outdoor public gatherings,

16

THE WALL PAINTINGS OF THE WEST HOUSE AT MYCENAE

80% 70%

70% 70.14% 60%

60%

58.35%

50%

50% 40% 40% 30%

25.78%

30% 20.05%

20%

9.79%

10% 0%

20%

White wall plaster 1,840 examples

Blue wall plaster 526 examples

Wall plaster in various other colors 257 examples

15.86%

10% 0%

Monochrome fragments 2,623 examples

Pictorial fragments 1,159 examples

Linear compositions and border friezes 713 examples

Chart 3.1. Relative quantities of monochrome plaster (2,623 total examples).

Chart 3.2. Relative quantities of the West House material (4,495 total examples).

mostly festivals of a religious character populated by a multitude of minute human figures, ca. 6.0– 8.5/10.0 cm in height, amidst a meticulously drawn landscape (Shaw 1972, 172–179, 185–188, fig. 13; 1997, 485–486; Morgan 1988, 203; 1990, 253–254, 257; Immerwahr 1990, 63–75), were apparently incompatible with the conceptual and iconographic principles pervading what we have come to know as Mycenaean narrative art. The only detectable links between Minoan-style miniature compositions and later Mycenaean wall paintings manifest an incipient tendency toward abstraction and stylization and an inherent interest in the portrayal of traditional male activities such as hunting and war. This particular tendency can be traced back, not so much to the Minoan, but to the Cycladic artistic tradition, as exemplified in the miniature compositions from Hagia Eirene on Kea and Akrotiri on Thera (Morgan 1988, 205; Shaw 1997, 502). Hunting scenes, including dogs pursuing their prey, helmeted hunters holding spears and carrying a dead animal, horses, and fragments of a horse-drawn chariot, painted against a neutral background, constitute the antecedents of what were to become hallmarks of the later Mycenaean narrative tradition (Morgan 1988, 202, 204, 205; 1990, 257, 258). In Mycenaean Greece, examples executed in a scale approaching the miniature are few and far between. The list includes a few tentatively identified fragments from Orchomenos (Spyropoulos 1973, 262, figs. 3:α, γ, 4:α, γ, pl. 213; 1974, 321, color pl. II:a, b; 2015, 364–367, figs. 18–20 [“cult scene” with robed male figures and male figures in loin cloths], 21, 22 [palm trees], 23 [facade of building and male

figures], 24 [male figures walking in front of a building]), from Tiryns (Rodenwaldt 1912, 16–18, no. 22, pl. II:7 [cult scene]), from Mycenae (Rodenwaldt 1911, 222–231, pl. IX:2; Lamb 1919–1921, 191–194, pls. VII:1, 2, 5–7, VIII:8, 9; Shaw 1996 [bull-leaping scene from the Ramp House deposit]), and from Pylos (Lang 1969, 49–50, 77, 79, 186, nos. 19Mne, 36H105, 40Hne, pls. 24, 116, 124, C [bullleaping], 26 [“woman’s arm” or Minoan daemon], 113, L [“vertebral maypole” or part of mast and rigging of ship]; Immerwahr 1990, 112, 196, cat. no. Py no. 3, fig. 31:a; see also Immerwahr 1990, 110– 113; Boulotis 2000a, 1111–1112 n. 68). The size of the human figures in these compositions, however, is almost twice the size of the figures in genuine Minoan miniatures and less than half the size of the figures in the later Minoan paneled compositions at Knossos and Hagia Triada (Immerwahr 1990, 110– 111; Shaw 1996, 179, 182 n. 55; 1997, 485). The Pylos bull-leaper was described by Lang (1969, 49) as “the most clearly Cretan painting and subject matter of all the frescoes at Pylos.” On the other hand, the ship fragment from Pylos (Lang 1969, 186, no. 19Mne, pls. 113, L), although fairly close in dimensions and proportions to the best-preserved specimens in the Flotilla fresco, preserves no evidence of the scenic background attested in the latter (Flotilla fresco; see Immerwahr 1990, 112). The deliberate spurning of the “genuine” Minoan miniature style, presumably associated with decidedly un-Mycenaean conceptual and iconographic principles, is not surprising. The adoption of the paneled small-scale compositions that appear at Knossos and Hagia Triada during LM II/IIIA:1

THE WALL PAINTINGS

became the only alternative to large-scale scenes (Shaw 1972, 187–189; 1996, 182 n. 55; 1997, 485; Immerwahr 1990, 19). This new type of pictorial composition that embraced a change in the scale of the human and animal element (human figures are now ca. 25–35 cm in height), reduced the number of figures included in the composition, and apparently simplified or even eliminated landscape information (Shaw 1997, 485) seems to have suited the stylistic and iconographic preferences of Mycenaean patrons and artists. The ancestry of the Mycenaean smallscale or reduced-size compositions, therefore, can be traced back to earlier LM II/IIIA:1 Minoan prototypes, such as the Taureador, the Campstool and the Pallanquin, and the Chariot compositions at Knossos (Immerwahr 1990, 122; Shaw 1996, 182). Although the apparently conscious decision to disregard the Minoan miniature tradition on the mainland is belied by the otherwise early use of miniature scale on a tripod offering table from Tiryns (Boulotis 1992, 85, pl. 37a, ante quem LH IIIA) and by the continued use of the miniature scale while rendering individual pictorial elements in large-scale compositions during the 13th century b.c. (Rodenwaldt 1912, 88–89, nos. 106–108, pl. X:3–5; Boulotis 2000a, 1112 n. 68) it remains an exception to the rule. In the Mycenaean small-scale or reduced-size compositions, human and occasionally animal figures (20– 40 cm in height), in mostly secular narrative scenes, painted against a neutral background nearly devoid of landscape information (Lang 1969, 28, 36, 40; Immerwahr 1990, 108, 109, 122), are the only mainland alternatives to large-scale wall paintings. The linear or curvilinear elements in the West House material belong to different compositions featuring linear or curvilinear motifs and friezes, with a series of horizontal bands or narrow floral, spiral, or linear borders, presumably framing pictorial or nonpictorial decorative panels (Figs. 29–34; Pls. 26–36). The vast majority of the extant friezes are poorly preserved and very fragmentary, making an overall reconstruction of the original compositions very difficult.

3.2. Heraldic Scene (WH F1–WH F6) Despite the fragmentary state of the bestpreserved specimen (WH F1; Figs. 9, 10; Pl. 2),

17

with the most crucial sections inconveniently, but predictably missing, the subject matter of the original composition is clearly unusual, if not unique. In its present state it includes at least three different constituent elements or images, all painted against a brilliant blue background: a large, heraldically disposed animal in the center, flanked by another animal on the left, and by a badly preserved figure, probably female, on the right. The animal figure on the left is outlined in black and rendered with yellow paint applied over a white ground. Although a section of the hindquarters and most of the torso, including the head, is missing, the position of the hind legs and the surviving section of the underbelly suggests that the animal was standing on its two hind legs, the left leg striding forward to the right, while the front part of its body rises in a most unusual, awkward angle over and behind the backside of the heraldically disposed animal in the center. The preserved hindquarters of this animal consist of a hairy right thigh in the foreground, indicated with short oblique black strokes against the faded yellow ground, and a sketchily depicted male genital. No markings are preserved on the surviving left leg, presumably indicating the softer, hairless flesh of the interior of the thigh in the background. The hoof of this animal is partly hidden behind one of the hind legs of the heraldically disposed animal to the right. The use of white for the inside of animal legs, especially deer, also has been attested at Tiryns, Argos, and Pylos (Fig. 17:e; Rodenwaldt 1912, 141, 147, nos. 199, 218, pls. XV:6, XVII:4; Lang 1969, 68, 104–107, 118–119, nos. 1C2, 2C2, 9C20, 16H43, 36C17, pls. 12, 45, 46, 49, 61, 62, 121, 131, 133, 136, B, E, G; Tournavitou and Brecoulaki 2015, 223–224, 225–227, figs. 5, 6). Despite the apparent iconographic affinities of the animal’s hoof to the standard iconographic formula used for caprids (goats), unlike the more elongated form commonly used for cervids (deer; Fig. 17:e; Rodenwaldt 1912, 144–145, 148, nos. 210, 220, 221, fig. 61, pl. XVII:2, 8; Lang 1969, 68, 105, nos. 16H43, 3C20, pls. 12, 46, 121, 132, B; Militello 1998, pls. I, L), the coloring of the animal’s flesh, the skin markings on its right thigh, and the male genitalia suggest that it is probably a male cervine, a stag, possibly a species of fallow deer. Similar hair-like brown or black markings against a light tan or greenish ground have been attested in

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THE WALL PAINTINGS OF THE WEST HOUSE AT MYCENAE

a number of wall paintings depicting deer at Pylos, including the specimens from the Inner Propylon of the palace (Lang 1969, 104–105, nos. 1C2, 2C2, pls. 45, 46, 131, E), the single specimen in the hunting scene from the room above Room 43 (Fig. 17:e; Lang 1969, 68, 205–207, no. 16H43, pls. 12, 121, B), the deer from the room(s) above Rooms 19 and 20 (Lang 1969, 105, 199–200, nos. 3C20, 4C19, pls. 45, 46, 132, E), and fragments found outside the palatial complex (Lang 1969, 106, 108, nos. 6Cnw, 15Cne, pls. 48, 52, R). The only composition painted against a blue background was discovered in the Inner Propylon. Pylos is the only site where similar black hair-like markings are also attested on dogs (Lang 1969, 96, 98, 103, 119, 121, nos. 38C64, 40C64, pls. 62–64, 66, 137, G, P). The extant specimens from the Tiryns deer frieze (Rodenwaldt 1912, 140–154, nos. 199–122, figs. 60–62, pl. XV), rendered in an overtly schematic, stylized manner, lack this type of naturalistic body features. Another deer in flying gallop, rendered with blue paint like the Tiryns specimens, but without any interior markings whatsoever, has been attested in a slightly earlier context at Argos (Tournavitou and Brecoulaki 2015, 223–224, fig. 5). In glyptic art, internal hatching indicating body hair is mostly attested on deer (CMS I, no. 13; CMS II.4, no. 113), and occasionally on wild goats (CMS I, no. 158) or wild boars (CMS I, no. 294). The representation of male genitalia, on the other hand, is practically unheard of in wall paintings. In glyptic art they do appear occasionally, mostly in representations of caprids (CMS I, nos. 123, 221) or horses yoked to a chariot (Fig. 25:b, c; CMS II.6, no. 260; CMS V, Suppl. 3.2, no. 391), and less often in representations of bulls (CMS I, no. 53), wild boars (CMS I, no. 227), and lions (CMS VI.2, no. 315). The fact that the gender of this animal is explicitly indicated by the artist, a unique practice in mainland mural painting, suggests that gender was of some importance to the ultimate meaning and/ or symbolism of the composition. The apparent pose of this animal, striding forward on its two hind legs, the upper torso and missing front legs hoisted over and above and seemingly mounting the backside of the animal to the right (Fig. 9), is highly unusual, not to say totally uncharacteristic, considering that the animal in question is probably a stag and the other animal is a feline, either real or fantastic, and a natural predator.

The improbability of the pose is ameliorated by the positioning of the stag in relation to the heraldically disposed figure in the center. The depiction of space in Aegean art does not conform to the three-dimensional linear perspective of western art. The pictorial elements (animals, plants, architectural features) were commonly depicted as flattened, two-dimensional renderings. Their positioning in the pictorial field was mostly concerned with spatial relations between elements in terms of the painted surface, and not in relation to the real world or how they would be seen from the ground. Perspective, that is, relative distance, was therefore conveyed by a series of spatial conventions, including the so-called vertical perspective, overlapping, and an occasional diminution in size. According to vertical perspective, the most pervasive of Aegean conventions for the representation of pictorial space, objects or figures that are farther away from the viewer are placed higher in the pictorial field. Seen in this light, higher or above may be interpreted as behind (Iliakis 1978, 621; Morgan 1988, 12, 70–71; Chapin 1995, 19, 44, 49, 52– 53, 56, 70; Betancourt 2000, 360; Strasser 2010, 10–12). In overlapping, on the other hand, only part of the more distant pictorial feature is visible to the eye (Chapin 1995, 44). The spatial arrangement of the three figures in this composition is perfectly compatible with Aegean spatial conventions. The positioning of the stag higher up in the decorative field, in relation to the heraldically disposed animal in the center, its left leg/hoof partly hidden behind the left leg of the feline, is a statement of perspective. In accordance with these principles the relative positioning of the stag and the overlapping with the central figure suggest that the stag was apparently conceived in a different spatial dimension, behind the heraldically disposed feline in the center and farther away from the viewer. The original pose of the animal is not readily identifiable. A rearing position, with the animal standing upright on its two hind legs, does not seem very plausible. The angle of the animal’s body is incompatible both with that of other rearing animals (for the specimen from Argos, see Tournavitou and Brecoulaki 2015, 225–227, fig. 6) and with glyptic representations of antithetic or heraldically disposed caprids/cervids (CMS I, nos. 99, 123, 266), and its front legs are not preserved

THE WALL PAINTINGS

where one might expect them if they had been supporting a standing caprid/cervid. The alternative, a leaping pose, seems more plausible. Although the extant mural representations of leaping animals, in this case caprids, both at Hagia Triada (Militello 1998, pl. 6) and Argos (Tournavitou and Brecoulaki 2015, 223–224, fig. 5), are not closely comparable to the West House specimen, both as regards pose and general context, the restoration of the stag in a leaping pose seems to be the only viable alternative. The animal, which was obviously not portrayed as prey, as is indicated on other mural and glyptic representations of horned animals, presumably running at a great speed (CMS I, no. 158; CMS V.1, no. 249; CMS V, Suppl. 1B, no. 190; Militello 1998, pl. 6; Tournavitou and Brecoulaki 2015, 223– 224, fig. 5), was therefore leaping forward, in a pose similar to that attested on a seal from the Pylos area (Fig. 11:a). The latter features two goats leaping to the right, the one in the background leaping higher that the other (CMS V.2, no. 641). The symbolic significance of the pose is another matter. A seal in the Benaki Museum (CMS V.1, no. 201) features a winged goat in a vaguely similar, albeit heraldic, pose in front of a presumably divine figure, behind which is standing a Minoan daemon holding a libation jug (Fig. 11:b). While the cultic context of the seal might or might not be pertinent to our specimen, the iconography and the syntax of the pictorial elements on the latter argue in favor of a direct semiotic relationship between the three figures. In that case, the stag, leaping forward in a different spatial dimension apparently unrelated to the heraldically disposed animal in the center, would be facing and therefore presumably addressing the only other extant figure, the hieratic female figure on the far right. The male animal in the center of the surviving composition, also facing right, is only partly preserved (Fig. 9; Pl. 2). The central part of the body and most of its forequarters, including the left foreleg, the head, and the shoulders, are missing. It is standing on its two hind legs, the surviving right foreleg presumably lying on a raised surface. Both the suggested raised surface and the left foreleg of the animal are now missing. The animal, skillfully outlined in black, is painted in two colors: light blue applied over a white ground for the tail, the right hind leg, and the right foreleg, and white for

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the hindquarters, including the left hind leg, the male genitals, and the underbelly. The animal is depicted in a modified heraldic pose, similar but not identical to that attested in the Lion Gate relief, on the sphinx ivory plaque from the House of Sphinxes (Tournavitou 1995, frontispiece), and on a considerable number of seals or sealings depicting felines, real or fantastic, in a heraldic pose. The felines are usually portrayed as guardians, either flanking a column, a tree, a Potnia or Potnios Theron, an attending female figure (possibly of divine status) or an empty space. Their two front legs stand on an altar, a platform, a construction of some sort, or on an invisible surface (Figs. 11:d–f, 13:e, f; CMS I, nos. 46, 98, 196, 374; CMS V.1, no. 253; CMS XI, no. 47; CMS V, Suppl. 1B, no. 195; CMS II.8.1, no. 188; CMS VI.2, no. 314). It might be worth noting at this point that no parallels of heraldically portrayed animals, let alone felines, are to be found in the mainland or the Minoan wall painting repertory. Although the diagnostic upper section of the extant figure, including the head and other characteristic attributes are unfortunately missing, the heraldic pose and the physique of the animal on the West House specimen, despite the unorthodox tail and other minor iconographical deviations, does suggest a feline, possibly a lion or a fantastic, hybrid creature such as a griffin or a sphinx. The chief iconographic peculiarities, or rather idiosyncrasies of our feline specimen—lion, griffin, or sphinx—include, apart from the color scheme, a number of other pictorial features implicitly related to the original identity of the animal involved. The depiction of only one of the two forelegs of the feline, for example, is not compatible with the traditional iconographic formula for heraldically disposed animals. Unless the missing left foreleg on the West House specimen was left out of the composition altogether (Fig. 9; Pl. 2), which is highly unlikely considering Aegean iconographic practices, it was probably depicted in the missing section of the composition, in the space between the animal and the female figure to the right. The missing limb was probably portrayed in a different gesture, raised or perhaps extended toward the female figure. A reconstruction of the left leg raised in respect or worship would be a plausible, if not a particularly common, iconographic solution. The only, even

20

THE WALL PAINTINGS OF THE WEST HOUSE AT MYCENAE

remote parallel is to be found not in the mainland wall painting repertory, but in glyptic art. On a Cypriot cylinder seal from Ialysos (Fig. 11:c; CMS V.2, no. 657), representing the Potnios Theron, or Master of Animals, flanked by a lion and a griffin raised on their hind legs, one of the paws of the two animals is raised toward the male figure in the center in a gesture temptingly similar to the suggested gesture of the feline from the West House. Another idiosyncrasy of our specimen involves the less upright overall pose of the animal and is probably related to the original height of the raised surface that served as the support of the single surviving foreleg. It is probably also related to the more compact, less splayed position of the hind legs on our specimen. Mural parallels of felines in a heraldic pose simply do not exist. The closest glyptic parallels, as regards the angle of the body and the overall pose of our animal, feature dogs, griffins, and lions and are mostly of Minoan provenance (Figs. 11:d–f, 13:e; CMS I, no. 81 [dogs]; CMS II.3, no. 63; CMS XI, no. 47; CMS II.8.1, no. 188; CMS VI.2, no. 314). Another, even more idiosyncratic feature of the West House specimen involves the tail of the heraldically disposed animal, which, contrary to the prevailing iconography, is decidedly nonfeline (short, raised, and forked; Fig. 9; Pl. 2). This type of tail is not attested on any of the extant representations of felines at Thera, Pylos, or Mycenae, real or fantastic (for Thera, see Marinatos 1974, 33– 34, pl. 94, color pl. 8; Doumas 1992, 64–66, 68– 74, pls. 30, 32, 33, 35, 36; Televantou 1994, 226, 231, figs. 49–51, folded drawings 2, 3, 5, 6, color pls. 46, 48, 55, 58, 59, 64, folded color pl. 3; for Pylos, see Lang 1969, 111–118, 137, nos. 21C46, 23C46, 29C43, 33C43, 34C43, 2A2, pls. 54–60, 76, 135, 136, F, P; for Mycenae, see Kritseli-Providi 1982, 28–33, no. A6, pls. B:a, 2:a; Marinatos 1988a, 245–247, figs. 1–3; Immerwahr 1990, 120– 121, 191, cat. no. My no. 6, pls. 59, 60; Rehak 1992, 50–58, pl. XVIII:a; French 2002, color pl. 12). In glyptic art, short, raised, forked tails are usually reserved for caprids, deer (CMS I, no. 13; CMS VII, no. 184), wild boars (CMS XI, no. 55), and occasionally bulls (CMS VII, no. 105; CMS XI, no. 55). Among these specimens, close iconographic parallels for the forked tail are nevertheless rare and involve mostly representations of caprids (CMS I, no. 266; CMS VII, no. 105, CMS V.1, no. 271; CMS V,

Suppl. 3.1, nos. 10, 18). Felines, real or fantastic, and hybrid creatures with feline bodies (griffins, sphinxes) are normally provided with longish, curving tails, usually raised and often ending in a tuft (Figs. 11:c–f, 13:e, f. Lions: CMS I, nos. 46, 54, 62, 71, 112, 144, 145, 149, 374; CMS II.8.1, no. 239. Griffins: CMS I, nos. 98, 102, 218, 223, 269, 271, 293. Sphinxes: CMS I, no. 129; CMS V.2, no. 690). A possible exception is a seal from Melos depicting what seems to be a short-tailed lion facing a Minoan daemon in what has been described as a cult scene (CMS VI.2, no. 306). Forked tails are also attested on a few glyptic representations of otherwise long-tailed lions (CMS V.1, no. 192; CMS II.3, no. 193) and sphinxes (CMS V, Suppl. 3.2, no. 352). Griffins, on the other hand, are a slightly different case. Even though the vast majority of extant glyptic specimens conform to the traditional feline iconography, the length of the tails varies occasionally, in some cases being comparatively or even uncharacteristically short, while the creatures are often illustrated with caprid hooves or bird’s claws instead of lion’s paws. In fact, contrary to traditional feline iconography, the extant specimens of griffins with short or relatively short tails and leonine limbs and paws (CMS I, nos. 85, 282) are almost equal in number to the specimens of short-tailed griffins provided with nonleonine lower limbs, resembling caprid hooves or even bird’s claws (Fig. 13:j; CMS I, no. 73; CMS VIII, no. 95;CMS XI, no. 41; CMS V, Suppl. 1B, no. 137). Despite the idiosyncratic iconography of the West House specimen, the pictorial formula of griffins with short, raised, forked tails has been attested on two seals, both from the mainland. One was discovered in the Mycenaean sanctuary at Kalapodi (Fig. 11:g; CMS V, Suppl. 3.1, no. 64) and one at Mycenae itself (Fig. 11:h; CMS I, no. 171). The first specimen (Fig. 11:g) depicts a seated, winged griffin with lion’s paws and a short, raised, apparently forked tail. On the Mycenae specimen (Fig. 11:h), a prostrate hybrid human figure is depicted below two antithetic winged griffins with caprid hooves, both tied to a central column. One of the two heraldic griffins, the one to the right, is provided with a relatively short, raised, forked tail. A third possible parallel is a seal from Aidonia, near Mycenae (CMS V, Suppl. 3.2, no. 245), depicting a griffin with lion’s paws and a short raised tail that was also possibly forked (Fig. 11:i).

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Another unorthodox feature is not only the depiction of male genitalia but also their position between the two hind legs of the animal. The gender of felines and other animals was never depicted in Aegean wall paintings and only rarely in glyptic art, perhaps because the sex of the animals had little or no bearing on the ultimate meaning of the scenes, which is clearly not the case here. The majority of the “engendered” animals in glyp­tic art were male, and the genitalia were usually depicted under the belly of the animals and not behind or between their hind legs, as was the case with the West House specimen. The unorthodox position of the genitalia of the feline on our specimen was probably related more to the viewing angle and the stance of the animal than to a deliberate rejection of the established pictorial tradition. Felines were rarely included in this category and when they were, the animals involved were lions, not griffins or sphinxes (CMS VI.2, no. 315). Interestingly enough, the vast majority of the extant female animals on seals and rings are griffins, depicted on their own (CMS I, nos. 269, 271) or accompanied by a seated female figure, probably a deity or a priestess (CMS I, no. 128), in which case the animals are portrayed in a subservient position. The color scheme, also rather unorthodox, or ambiguous to say the least, has nevertheless certain affinities with the traditional Mycenaean iconographic vocabulary, and if taken together with the aforementioned idiosyncrasies could be decisive for the identification of the species involved. It seems that the parts of the animal meant to be in the foreground were rendered in light blue pigment applied over a white ground, the rest of the animal being painted white (Fig. 9). The selective use of a lighter color for the underside of the belly, the hind quarters, and the inside of the leg of animals is widely attested on the mainland (Fig. 17:a, g; Rodenwaldt 1912, 99, 141, 146–147, nos. 119, 199, 215, 218, figs. 60–62; pls. XI:11, XV:1, 6, XVII:4; Lang 1969, 73, 104–107, 118–119, nos. 26H64, 1C2, 2C2, 9C20, 36C17, pls. 18, 45, 46, 49, 61, 62, 123, 131, 133, 136, E, G; Tournavitou and Brecoulaki 2015, 223–227, figs. 5, 6). Even though Aegean iconographic elements and artistic conventions for differentiating among various animals were more or less established in the major Mycenaean centers by the 13th century b.c. (Rehak 1992, 54–55, 58), the tenacity of local artistic convention and personal taste should not be

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underestimated. According to the established color conventions, lions, although not as common as griffins in the Mycenaean wall painting repertory, were traditionally rendered with yellow paint (Rehak 1992, 55), outlined in black and often elaborated with a rich variety of internal markings, especially at Pylos (Lang 1969, 100, 110–118, 137, nos. 20C6, 21C46–24C46, 26C46, 30C43–34C43, 35cnw, 2A2, 3A20, pls. 53–60, 76, 77, 134, 136– 138, F, P). At Mycenae, the only animal specimen convincingly identified as a lion is a small feline in flying gallop in the Room with the Frescoes, rendered with yellow paint and closely associated with the female figure, goddess or priestess, holding two sheaves of grain (Fig. 12:c; Taylour 1969, 96–97, fig. 2, pl. X:a; 1970, 276–277; French 1981, fig. 14; 2002, color pl. 12; Marinatos 1988a, 245– 247, figs. 1–3; Immerwahr 1990, 120–121, 191, cat. no. My no. 6, pls. 59, 61; Rehak 1992, 50–58, pls. X:c, XV:a, XVIII:a; Morgan 2005a, 167–168, fig. 10:5, pl. 24:b). Judging by the lions depicted in the miniature wall paintings from Thera, where they appear as stern ship ornaments and as predators hunting deer and wild goats, it seems that yellow was the established color for felines from the very beginning of the Late Bronze Age (LBA; see Marinatos 1974, 34, color pl. 8; Morgan 1988, 44, pls. 8, 10, 55, 56, 173, 174, color pl. C; Doumas 1992, 68–74, pls. 35, 36; Televantou 1994, 226–231, figs. 50, 51, folded drawings 3, 5, 6, pl. 40:b, color pls. 55, 58, 59, 64). A similar case can be made for the specimens from House A at Hagia Eirene on Kea (Davis 2007, 148). Although the light blue and white coloring of our specimen seems at first incompatible for a lion, it is not unknown in Mycenaean wall paintings, and it is not at odds with the established color conventions for the other two categories of feline creatures, the griffin and the sphinx, especially the former. Sphinxes are extremely rare on mainland wall paintings; the sole exception is a specimen from the palace of Nestor at Pylos (Lang 1969, 136–137, no. 1A2, pls. 75, I, R), where antithetic seated sphinxes from the Inner Propylon, painted white, served as animal akroteria sitting on top of a small-scale building facade (Lang 1969, 98, 131–132). Griffins in Aegean wall painting are, like sphinxes, always white with black outlines, even when painted against a white background; their wings and scapular feathers are rendered with yellow

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paint and blue markings (Rehak 1992, 54–55). Among the earliest mural representations of griffins in the Aegean are the specimens from Thera. They include a large white griffin from the West House, portrayed in a Nilotic landscape (Marinatos 1974, 34; Morgan 1988, pls. 5, 60, color pl. B; Doumas 1992, 64–65, pls. 30, 32; Televantou 1994, 252–254, color pl. 47, folded color pl. 3), the white griffin standing behind the seated goddess in Xeste 3 (Fig. 12:b; Doumas 1992, 130–131, 158, 165, pls. 122, 128; Vlachopoulos 2007b, pl. XXIX:b; 2008, 453, figs. 41:20, 41:21; 2010, fig. 11), and fragments of two griffins from the “Porter’s Lodge” (Vlachopoulos 2007a, 135–136, pls. 15.5, 15.17). In the first two cases, blue was extensively used for rendering the wings of the animals. The as-yet-unpublished griffin fragments, part of the bluebird frieze from House A on Kea, were apparently painted blue, both light blue and dark blue, and included notched plumes with red strokes over yellow as well as neck feathers in horizontal rows of alternate colors (Davis 2007, 148, pls. 17:1G–J). On the mainland, griffins, like lions and sphinxes, are rarely attested in extant wall paintings (Lang 1969, 101). The white, life-size, couchant griffins, accompanied by lions, flanking the throne in Room 6 of the palace at Pylos were outlined in black against a white background (Lang 1969, 99– 102, 110–111, 194–196, no. 20C6, pls. 53, 54, 125, 134, F; McCallum 1987; Immerwahr 1990, 136, 199, cat. no. Py no. 18; Shank 2007, 160–161, figs. 19:1, 2), a pictorial concept possibly echoing the throne room composition at Knossos (Lang 1969, 101–102; Immerwahr 1990, 96–98, 136–137; Shank 2007, 159–163). White, outlined in black against a white background, has also been attested among the griffin fragments of the lion and griffin frieze from the room above Room 46 (Lang 1969, 99–102, 116, 208– 211, nos. 27C46, 28C43, 29C43, pls. 58, 59, 117, 135). The unorthodox coloring attested on the restored body of the griffin (Lang 1969, 111–114, no. 21C46, pls. 54–57, F, P) is now believed to belong to a lion (H. Brecoulaki, pers. comm.). The Pylos feline specimens, although outlined in black, similarly to the West House specimen, are less sophisticated in the execution of their outlines, especially in the area of the underbelly, and they were provided with ingrowing hairs, not attested on our specimen. The single small-scale griffin in flying gallop from the Cult Center at Mycenae (Pl. 3; Mylonas

1971, 150, pl. 184:b; 1972a, 120; 1972b, 39, pl. XIII:a; Kritseli-Providi 1982, 28–33, no. Α6, pls. Β:α, 2:a; Rehak 1984, 541–542, fig. 4; Immerwahr 1990, 121, 192, cat. no. My no. 9), appearing in the arms of a helmeted female figure, probably a goddess, was painted against a blue background. Here, too, the body of the griffin in profile view was painted white with thin black outlines, the wings being rendered in yellow/orange paint edged with blue. The animal was wearing a collar attached to a leash and was provided with a long leonine tail ending in a tuft. Griffin’s wings, yellow, edged with blue and the reverse, were also recorded at Tiryns (Schliemann 1886 [1976], 300–301, pl. VII). An astonishing exception to this seemingly overwhelming uniformity is a fragment of a polychrome faience bowl from the neighboring House of Shields (Fig. 12:a), depicting a yellow lion alongside a blue griffin, both outlined in black against a white/yellow background (NM 7509; Wace 1956, 111, pl. 21:b; Foster 1979, 129–130; Tournavitou 1995, 241, pl. 35:c). The same combination of light blue and white, the latter mostly used for the inside of the legs and the underbelly, has also been attested in the deer frieze at Tiryns (Rodenwaldt 1912, 141–148, nos. 200, 203, 205, 209, 211–214, 216, 217, 219, 220, fig. 60, pls. XV:2, 4, 7, 8, XVI:3, XVII:2, 5). In the earlier Theran wall paintings, blue was also used for the cat stalking a bird in the Nilotic Landscape scene from the West House and for the fish in the Fishermen composition from the same building (Marinatos 1974, 28–30, 33–34, pls. 85–90, color pls. 6, 8; Doumas 1992, 52–55, pls. 18–23). Even though the Aegean iconographic repertory and artistic conventions for differentiating among various animals, including the lion, the sphinx, and the Mycenaean griffin (massive lion body and limbs, fine crest, elevated or displayed wings) were already established in the major Mycenaean centers by the 13th century b.c. (Rehak 1984, 539; 1992, 54–55, 58), blue, or even white for that matter, were never used in connection with lions and sphinxes. Griffins, on the other hand, seem to have been a slightly more versatile pictorial theme. Considering that blue was not an altogether unfamiliar color for griffins in Aegean wall painting, even if it was mostly used for the rendering of the wings, its use in the House of Shields faience bowl, irrespective of its ultimate provenance (Peltenburg 1991, 164, 166, 169;

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Tournavitou 1995, 243–244), provides a plausible antecedent for its use in the heraldic scene. Despite the rather unorthodox use of color and the fragmentary preservation of the animal, its tentative restoration as a griffin is not completely at odds with Aegean iconographical conventions (Figs. 9, 10). The missing head of the animal tentatively identified as a griffin was presumably depicted in one of the three more commonly attested attitudes: raised, raised and turned backward, or simply facing forward. In this case, the lack of space between the animal and the female figure to the right suggests that the third option was not really feasible, while a backward looking griffin in this particular layout would be contextually meaningless. The restored version, depicting a griffin with a raised head, seems the most plausible artistic solution (Figs. 9, 10). Griffins without human or divine attendants, as was the case at Pylos, were always depicted with raised heads (Lang 1969, 110–112, nos. 20cC6, 21aC46, pls. 54, 55, 125, 134, F, P). When an anthropomorphic figure was involved, be it human or divine, the griffin’s head, always raised, was usually turned toward that figure, as was the case in the Xeste 3 composition (Fig. 12:b) and on the specimen with the helmeted female figure from the Cult Center at Mycenae (Pl. 3), thus emphasizing the bond between the two. The same can be said about griffins and anthropomorphic figures, male or female, seated or standing, in glyptic art. Whether they are looking straight ahead (Figs. 11:d, 13:j; CMS I, nos. 128, 285), upward (CMS I, no. 309; CMS VIII, no. 95; CMS V.2, no. 654; CMS II.3, no. 63), or behind (CMS I, no. 223), they are always turned toward the accompanying anthropomorphic figure. On the whole, the extant representations of griffins on wall paintings and seals, in contrast to pictorial scenes in ivory, favor static, heraldic poses. In ivory work, griffins, much less popular than lions and sphinxes, are, like lions, mostly depicted as predators in combat scenes with other animals, chiefly lions and deer (Poursat 1977, 64–68). The single specimen involving a nonconfrontational human figure, from the tholos tomb at Midea (Persson 1931, 41, pl. XXVI; Poursat 1977, 64, no. 359), depicts a griffin being led on a leash by a man. The identity of the elusive, tapering figure to the right of the heraldic animal was initially quite puzzling. What is preserved of the figure consists of

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successive rectangular tapering panels and borders decorated with zigzags, cross-hatching, and vertical bars (Fig. 9). The largest panel, decorated with black zigzag lines against a white/pinkish-white ground, was flanked by narrow borders decorated with a pattern of alternating thin and wide red vertical bars against a white or yellow ground. Above, below, and to the right of the narrow borders other rectangular tapering panels are preserved, painted blue or decorated with cross-hatching in black paint against a blue ground. The rectangular tapering element projecting from the preserved upper left-hand edge of the extant figure, outlined in black and decorated with black lines against a white ground, has been restored as the right hand of the figure, raised toward the heraldically disposed animal to the left. The horizontal, slightly tapering element, also outlined in black, at the bottom right edge of the composition, to the right of the female figure, cannot be identified with any degree of certainty. It could represent the tip of a wing, perhaps part of a winged creature, be it a bird or another, smaller winged griffin standing at a lower level, also facing right. Alternatively, it could tentatively be identified as part of a small construction, possibly an altar, which, although at a lower level and at a smaller scale than the human and animal figures to the left, would fit well with the narrative content of the rest of the composition (see Rodenwaldt 1912, 16–18, no. 22, pl. II:7). The overall shape, size, and interior decoration of the tapering figure to the right of the heraldically disposed feline suggests that the extant drawing depicts a standing female figure, with a panelled, sketchily decorated skirt, probably facing the animal to her left. The lower border of the skirt, the feet, as well as the upper torso, including the breasts, the neck, the head, and the arms/hands of the female figure, are unfortunately missing. Standing female figures wearing long or kneelength skirts, similarly subdivided into rectangular tapering panels and narrow borders decorated with a variety of linear motifs, mostly vertical lines, are quite common in glyptic art (Fig. 13:a– e; CMS I, no. 159; CMS II.3, no. 16; CMS II.4, no. 136; CMS II.7, no. 17; CMS V, Suppl. 3.1, no. 80; CMS VI.2, nos. 284, 314), and are practically nonexistent in wall painting. The female figures on these seals/rings are variously interpreted as

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THE WALL PAINTINGS OF THE WEST HOUSE AT MYCENAE

ordinary humans/adorants (Fig. 13:c, d; CMS V, Suppl. 3.1, no. 80; CMS VI.2, no. 284), priestesses (Fig. 13:a; CMS II.3, no. 16), or divinities (Potnia Theron; Fig. 13:e; CMS VI.2, no. 314). Mural representations of women on the mainland, irrespective of size, are on the whole much more elaborately rendered, in tight bodices and polychrome flounced skirts. The only exceptions to the rule are two groups of female figures from Tiryns, two female figures from Mycenae, and a group of female figures from a recently restored small-scale composition at Thebes. The Tiryns material includes two female charioteers wearing long gray/ blue or yellow bordered tunics (Fig. 17:a; Rodenwaldt 1912, 107–108, nos. 132–135, fig. 40, pl. XII), and two groups of female figures in the newly restored procession scene (Maran, Papadimitriou, and Thaler 2015, figs. 4–7; Papadimitriou, Thaler, and Maran 2015, 188–192, figs. 2–5) wearing a variant of the bordered robe, a type of garment worn by both male and female figures, commonly associated with ritual scenes (Maran, Papadimitriou, and Thaler 2015, fig. 7; Papadimitriou, Thaler, and Maran 2015, 188–190, figs. 2–5). A similar version of the same type of bordered robe has been attested in a small-scale procession scene from the Spourlis plot at Thebes, currently under study by E. Kountouri (see also Kountouri 1999, 318; Aravantinos and Fappas 2015, 332). The attire of two out of the three female figures depicted in the wall paintings from the Room with the Frescoes at Mycenae is slightly more idiosyncratic (Fig. 12:c, d; Taylour 1969, 96–97, fig. 2, pl. X:a; 1970, 276–277; 1983, 55, figs. 33, 35; French 1981, figs. 12–14; Rehak 1984, 539–541, fig. 3; Marinatos 1988a, 245–247, figs. 1–3; Immerwahr 1990, 120–121, pls. 59–61; Rehak 1992, 43–53, pls. X:a, c, XII:a, XV:a, XVIII:a; French 2002, color pl. 12; Morgan 2005a, 166–168, fig. 10:5, pl. 24:b). The larger standing figure above the ceremonial platform (Fig. 12:c) was clad in a long, spotted, fringed robe in blue, red, and white, the vertical paneling of which bears no resemblance to the West House specimen. The female figure on the lower panel below the platform (Fig. 12:c, d) was clad in a blue/gray robe draped over a white dress, also completely different from the garment of the female figure on our specimen. Both figures have been tentatively identified as goddesses or priestesses impersonating a goddess (Taylour 1969, 96–97; 1970, 276–277; Rehak 1984, 541–542, fig. 3;

1992, 47–57; Marinatos 1988a, 246–248; Immerwahr 1990, 120–121; 1 Morgan 2005a, 166–168). The only, albeit generic, fresco parallel is a fragmentary specimen from Pylos (Pl. 3) depicting what Lang has identified as a yellow skirt, divided by black horizontal lines into rectangular panels and decorated with black vertical lines (Lang 1969, 79, no. 40Hne, pls. 26, C). The fragment has been reinterpreted by Gill (1970, 404) as a sacral knot or a corslet and by Kritseli-Providi (1982, 26) as the trunk of a palm tree, similar to the specimens from the West House on Thera (Marinatos 1974, 33–34, color pl. 8; Doumas 1992, 64–66, pls. 30–33; Televantou 1994, folded drawing 2, folded color pl. 3). Despite the idiosyncratic, perhaps unique rendering of the female figure on our specimen, at least as far as the mainland wall painting repertory is concerned, and regardless of the fact that the closest stylistic affinities are to be found in glyptic art, individual decorative features of the painted figure do have generic affinities with well-established mainland mural traditions. Different and often more elaborate versions of the narrow, barred border motif encountered on this specimen are commonly attested on the flounced skirts and bodices of life-size and under life-size female figures from Thebes, Tiryns, Mycenae, and Pylos (Fig. 30; Rodenwaldt 1912, 69–94, esp. 73– 76, nos. 75, 76, 79, 80, 85, figs. 27, 29–31, pl. X:6; Lamb 1919–1921, 194–195, no. 9, pl. VIII:9; 1921– 1923, 166–168, no. 8, pl. XXVIII:e–g, l; Reusch 1956, 52–59, fig. 15, pls. 7:21, 8:27, 28, 12:32–35, 13:38, 39; Lang 1969, 51–64, esp. 62, 82–83, nos. 1H2, 2H2, 4Hnw, 48H50, pls. 1, 2, 32, 121, A, B, M; Kritseli-Providi 1982, 49–51, nos. B20–Β24, pls. Δ:α, 9, Δ:β, 10:α, β; Mylonas-Shear 1987, 138–139, nos. 284–291, pl. 43; Papadimitriou, Thaler, and Maran 2015, 188–192, figs. 2–5; Maran, Papadimitriou, and Thaler 2015). Specimen WH F2 (Pl. 2) is part of the lower border, flanking the central panel of the skirt. The black horizontal zigzag lines decorating the main panel of the skirt are less popular on the whole. Although mild horizontal or vertical wavy lines are a fairly common feature of female garments on the mainland (Lamb 1921–1923, 168, pls. XVIII:l, m; Lang 1969, 86–89, no. 51Hnws, pls. 34– 38, E, O), the horizontal zigzag motif is only attested on a single specimen from Tiryns, decorating

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a rather narrow border (Rodenwaldt 1912, 95, no. 112, fig. 38). Finally, the white/pinkish color of the background of the central panel is easily matched in other, more traditional representations of female garments (Lang 1969, 64, 86–89, nos. 4Hnw, 51Hnws, pls. 2, 36–38, 121, B, E, O). The blue panels, with or without black hatched or crosshatched interior decoration, although unusual in mural representations of female figures, are not entirely idiosyncratic as a concept. Blue bodices, flounces, and tunics, occasionally provided with black linear decoration, are quite common in female garments in the mainland fresco repertory (Rodenwaldt 1912, 75, 76, 107, nos. 84–86, 134, figs. 27, 31, pl. XII; Lamb 1919–1921, 194, no. 9, pl. VIII:9; 1921–1923, 168, pl. XVIII:l; Lang 1969, 62–63, 82–83, 86–89, nos. 1H2, 2H2, 48H50, 51Hnws, pls. 1, 32, 34–38, A, E, M, O). If the extant drawing does indeed depict a standing woman, with a patterned, yet unsophisticated skirt and a plain blue bodice, her pose, with reference to the animal on the left, is perfectly consistent with contemporary stylistic conventions. In wall painting, the depiction of female figures in a frontal pose is rare; when it does occur, as in the case of the “Mykenaia” (Kritseli-Providi 1982, 37–40, no. B1, pls. 4, 5, color pl. Γ) or in the recently re-discovered female figure from Argos (Tournavitou and Brecoulaki 2015, 239–241, fig. 13), the frontal aspect is restricted to the torso, the head, and the lower body being rendered in profile. In glyptic art, standing female figures are often depicted in a frontal pose and are often flanked by antithetic or heraldically disposed animals. These female figures are depicted with both arms extended horizontally at shoulder level and bent at the elbows, occasionally touching the flanking animals on either side, in a Potnia Theron attitude (Figs. 11:d, 13:e; CMS I, nos. 144, 145 [lions]; CMS V.2, no. 654 [griffins]; CMS II.3, no. 63 [griffins]; CMS VI.2, nos. 314 and 317 [griffins], 315 [lions]). Interestingly, in some of the extant specimens the female figure is much bigger than the flanking animals (Figs. 11:d, 13:e; CMS V.2, no. 654 [griffins]; CMS II.3, no. 63 [griffins]; CMS VI.2, nos. 314, 317 [griffins]), while in other cases the animals, mostly lions, reach up to shoulder level (CMS I, nos. 144, 145 [lions]; CMS VI.2, no. 315 [lions]). Quite apart from the stylistic conventions or limitations associated with the rendering of frontal

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human figures in the Aegean wall painting tradition, there are also other, practical considerations. The available space between the female figure and the animal in question, as well as the positioning and the physique of the surviving upper part of the figure, would render the restoration of the latter in a Potnia Theron pose quite unrealistic (too cramped). The alternative, a profile pose, appears to be a much more attractive solution, reinforced by the existence of the angled panels on the skirt, which suggest that the latter was rendered in profile. The same convention has been used in the smaller of the two female figures depicted in profile above the ceremonial platform in the Room with the Frescoes at Mycenae (Fig. 12:c) and in the life-size female figures in the Procession scene from Tiryns (Rodenwaldt 1912, 71, 75, nos. 84, 85, figs. 27, 28, 31, pl. VIII). Nonfrontal, standing female figures in glyptic art are usually facing a standing or seated animal (Fig. 13:g–i; CMS V, Suppl. 1B, no. 261 [goat]; CMS VI.2, nos. 328 [wild goat], 331 [goat/stag]) and are commonly depicted with one arm lowered, the other bent and raised toward the animal, occasionally touching it. In most of the extant cases the animal, which is usually not portrayed in a heraldic pose, is as large as, or larger than, the female figure, a formula also encountered in the West House specimen (restored height of heraldic animal: 20.7–23.3 cm; restored height of female figure: 20.3 cm). The female figure is, in these cases, casually clad in plain, panelled garments. Although none of the extant specimens features a griffin or a sphinx, lions are also extremely rare (one surviving specimen), the vast majority of the extant representations involving caprids. Although these standing female figures on the seals are only described in generic terms, they have been in some cases identified as female deities accompanied by animals, the latter being described as supernatural creatures, serving as attendants or as symbolic substitutes of divine beings (Hiller 2001, 293, 295). Perhaps the more aggressive Potnia Theron pictorial scheme was mostly reserved for the traditional frontal compositions, with or without the so-called snake frames, or for seated female figures attended by lions or other fantastic creatures (CMS I, no. 128, [female griffin on a leash]; CMS V.1, no. 253 [lion]; CMS V, Suppl. 1B, no. 195 [heraldic lions]; CMS II.8.1, no. 239 [lion or dog]). The closest parallel to our specimen, both as regards the overall composition and the species of

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animal involved (feline), is a cult scene on a sealing from the palace at Pylos (Fig. 13:f; CMS I, no. 374). The sealing depicts two female figures, described as adorants or priestesses (Morgan 1988, 46), dressed in long paneled garments similar to the female figure in the West House specimen, raising one arm toward a central, heraldically disposed long-tailed lion, while the lion, the front paws of which are touching the skirt of the female figure on the right, is raised on its two back legs; the angle of the animal’s body is admittedly much steeper than that attested on our specimen. A generically similar scene is depicted on a seal in Dawkins’ collection (Fig. 13:j; CMS VIII, no. 95), which depicts a standing female figure wearing a paneled garment and described as a priestess, raising her hand toward a standing winged griffin with raised head facing her. The griffin, which is as large as the female figure, is depicted with a raised, rather short, tufted tail and bird’s claws. Even more intimate is the relationship between a griffin and a priest on a seal in Kenna’s collection (CMS VIII, no. 146).

3.2.1. Discussion and Interpretation It is undeniable that both the overall syntax and the individual pictorial elements in this composition do not allude to everyday activities of the Mycenaean palace elite, such as hunting, warfare, feasting, or even to popular religious activities such as female processions or audience scenes. It is clear that we are dealing with a highly unusual, quite idiosyncratic composition, including three distinct yet interrelated pictorial elements, the ultimate significance of which lies in the symbolic value of their interaction. The prospect of interpretation is daunting, owing not only to the fragmentary state of the composition but also to the unprecedented combination of the extant pictorial elements, as well as the inherent ambivalence associated with scenes featuring human versus animal figures. The scene on the West House specimen is painted against a familiar bright blue background, one of the most common background choices in small-scale narrative compositions of both secular and religious character. It is used continuously on the mainland in all the major palatial centers, from early in the 14th century b.c. (LH II/IIIA) to the very end of the 13th century b.c. (LH IIIB:2). At Mycenae, where the

chronological range of extant specimens spans the entire palatial period and beyond, blue backgrounds are associated with some of the earliest pictorial wall paintings from the acropolis. These include the Minoanizing LH II–IIIA bull-leaping scene from below the Ramp House (Rodenwaldt 1911, 222–231, pl. IX:2; Lamb 1919–1921, 191–194, pls. VII:1, 2, 5–7, VIII:8, 9; Shaw 1996, 169–172, 175–179, figs. 2–5; LH II–IIIA:1), the LH IIIA:2 hunting scene antedating the House of the Oil Merchant (Fig. 21; Cameron and Meyer 1995, 281–282; French 2002, color pl. 10; Tournavitou 2012, 725, pl. CLXVI:a; 2015, 149, 151, figs. 3, 4), and the “Warrior, Grooms, Horses, and Chariots” frieze, depicting preparations for battle from the “Pithos area,” where the blue background alternates with yellow (Rodenwaldt 1911, 239–247, pl. X; 1921, 69, 154, nos. A2, A4, A5, A9, A11; Lamb 1921–1923, 164–166, no. 8, pls. XXVI:b, XXVII, XXVIII; Immerwahr 1990, 117, 123–124, 165, 191, 192, cat. nos. My no. 2, My no. 10, pl. 64). The same combination of colors is intimated for the late 13th-century b.c. battle scene from the palace (Immerwahr 1990, 124). Blue backgrounds were extensively used during the entire 13th century b.c., both inside and outside the acropolis. Prime examples are the fragmentary hunting scene from the House of Sphinxes (Cameron and Meyer 1995, 283; Tournavitou 2015, 151–152, fig. 5) and a significant number of wall paintings from the west slope in the immediate vicinity of the Cult Center, which are mostly religious in character, a few of them allegedly dating from the 12th century b.c. (Kritseli-Providi 1982, 23–33, 37–40, 73–76, nos. Α5, A6, Β1, Γ1, figs. 3, 8, pls. 1, 2:a, 4, 5, 24, B:a, b, Γ). Although the mainlanders seem to have adopted and maintained the specific range and perhaps concept of colors developed earlier in Minoan Crete (Blakolmer 2004, 63), including the use of blue backgrounds, the narrative and/or symbolic significance of this choice of background has been scarcely pursued in the relevant literature (Eaverly 1999; Blakolmer 2004; Cleland 2004; Gillis 2004; Muskett 2004). Discussions on the role of color in the transmission of messages, explicit or implicit, or in the evocation of particular responses or meanings, aesthetic and/or symbolic (Cleland 2004, 143; Gillis 2004, 56), has focused mostly on gender/status differentiation and theoretical aspects of color coding (Eaverly 1999, 2004; Muskett 2004). Yet, the allegedly abstract use of color in Mycenaean

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iconography, “reflecting an attempt to create a reality that is not in the visible world” (Blakolmer 2004, 63), might not have been as absolute and allencompassing as suggested. The generic and formulaic character of Mycenaean art notwithstanding (see Chapin 1995, 269 n. 100, for alternate use of blue and yellow in pictorial scenes), some aspects of the so-called abstract use of color and form might simply represent a more intellectualized approach to pictorial art. It would be absurd to deny the idiomatic, narrative, social, and possibly ideological/symbolic aspects of color in Mycenaean wall paintings on the assumption that the iconographic use of color on the mainland represents an uncritical adoption of Minoan values, not only chromatic but also symbolic and ideological. The latter represent a sophisticated intellectual process, a level of visual perception that is almost always culturally defined, irrespective of chromatic assimilation. The widespread adoption of blue pigment, an imported, elite material, for the background of many secular and religious compositions on the mainland, could be related to aesthetic/stylistic values and sensibilities, inherently dependent on changing fashions. It could also be related to the cost, and hence to the elite ideological value of the raw material, or equally to the semantics of pictorial art at a narrative or more abstract, symbolic level. Although aesthetic and/or stylistic sensibilities and the elite ideological value of the material cannot be ignored, the indiscriminate use of the blue backgrounds, irrespective of geographical setting, for both secular and religious scenes of differing size and complexity, implies that it was presumably not directly associated with any one of those activities in particular. The only other semantic nuance in the indiscriminate use of blue as a background color, unrelated to stylistic values and elite cost, could be sought in the narrative content of the scenes and more specifically in the only common feature they share—their outdoor character. Seen in this light, the choice of blue could have represented the color of the sky, admirably suited to action in the open air. This provisional suggestion, devoid of sophisticated symbolic messages, is closely related to the suggested intellectualized approach in Mycenaean art, which seems to have focused on the narrative, dramatic aspects of pictorial compositions. Various tones of blue have been used to represent the sea in the miniature Flotilla fresco from Thera (Vlachopoulos

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and Sotiropoulou 2012, 252–253, figs. 3, 4). Equally varied tones of blue have apparently been attested in the depiction of both the sea and the sky in the miniature composition from the Northeast Bastion in Hagia Eirene on Kea (Morgan 1990, 254–255, fig. 2; 1998, 203). Blue was also used for the sky in the fragmentary wall paintings from the vestibule of the so-called Porter’s Lodge (Vlachopoulos and Sotiropoulou 2012, 254). The layout of the extant composition (Figs. 9, 10), featuring a number of pictorial elements, both animal and human, arranged at different levels, presumably without reference to ground lines and without direct reference to landscape information, is perfectly in character with the mainland idiom, especially in the context of small-scale narrative compositions (Lamb 1921–1923, 255; Lang 1969, 25, 48; Immerwahr 1990, 122). The focal position in the extant pictorial space is incontrovertibly occupied by the female figure interacting with the heraldically disposed feline in the center. They appear to be standing in the foreground of the composition, a pictorial device often conceived as indicative of the narrative and/or symbolic significance of the figures involved (Morgan 2000, 934–935). The heraldic formula adopted for the interaction between the imposing feline and the female figure to the right is only encountered in palatial complexes, both on the mainland and in Minoan Crete, and has never been associated with other, nonpalatial contexts (see Shaw 1997, 497, 501). The leaping stag on the left occupies a secondary iconic layer in the pictorial field, presumably representing concepts and/or action taking place in the background, farther away from the viewer and hence secondary to the overall semantics of the scene. The overall assessment of the syntactical priorities, with the possible exception of the semantic preponderance of the first pair of figures, is seriously hampered by the fragmentary character of the scene and by the implied existence of multiple pictorial levels of unknown iconic and narrative content. The identity and status of the female figure in the West House specimen, intimately related to the identity and status of the heraldically disposed animal to the left, is anything but explicit. Extant pictorial material in the Aegean Bronze Age affords few consistent clues concerning images of power, or the so-called power elite, human or divine (Crowley

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THE WALL PAINTINGS OF THE WEST HOUSE AT MYCENAE

1995, 483, 489), and even fewer associated exclusively with deities, be it on grounds of appear­ance, behavior, or gesture (Thomas and Wedde 2001, 6–8). The criteria offered for the identification of this power elite include abnormal body, body size, body shape, clothing, associated objects or fixtures (such as thrones or podiums), accompanying animals, and a certain type of ritual scene/activity, including audience scenes (homage, procession, investiture), where the figure would be shown interacting with subjects or worshippers (Crowley 1995, 476–482, 484–488). The female figure in this composition, although fragmentary, does not seem to possess abnormal body characteristics and is not distinguished by body shape, clothing, or size. The suggested wing or altar piece below and to the right, a largely hypothetical identification, is not directly associated with any obvious symbols and does not seem to be part of the main scene. What does actually remove this figure from the ordinary human realm, in spite of its small size and relatively indifferent appearance, is the associated iconographical context of the figure—the identity and status of the attending animal and her proximity and suggested attitude/gesture toward it. The fact that this female is intimately associated with a living feline and, even more significantly, with a fantastic creature belonging to the realm of myth if not outright divine, automatically identifies her as a goddess or as a member of the priesthood, perhaps even of the higher echelons of priesthood (Rehak 1984, 541; 1992, 50–57; Renfrew 1985, 23–24; Marinatos 1988a, 246–247; Crowley 1995, 486–487; Morgan 2005a, 168). In Aegean iconography a select number of animals enact what seem to be designated roles in relation to human and divine action, often complementary and usually arising from one or more particular characteristics of individual animals (Morgan 1995c, 171). Powerful animals, real or fantastic, are consistently used as emblems of human power, endowed with symbolic meaning (Morgan 1988, 45; Marinatos 1989, 19). Appropriation of power, the ultimate form of domination and one of the most prevalent themes in the extant iconography (Morgan 1995a, 171–172), religious or secular, is therefore implied both in representations of divinities and of the so-called power elite, rulers and/or priests/esses assuming superior or supernatural power, which also

extends to the accompanying animals, real or fantastic (lions, griffins, sphinxes). The iconographic and symbolic role of griffins, heraldically disposed or not, and the semiotics of their interaction with standing or seated female figures is an elusive subject. The griffin, a hybrid creature, a combination of the lion, the most powerful creature in the animal world, and a bird of prey was adopted from the Minoan/Aegean repertory fairly early in the Mycenaean period, with an increasingly growing popularity throughout the Late Bronze Age, especially in glyptic art (e.g., seals, ivories; Morgan 1988, 49, 51). The supernatural character of the griffin, similar to that of the sphinx, must have facilitated its incorporation into the symbolic and/ or religious iconographic vocabulary of the Aegean (Dessenne 1957b, 151; Marinatos 1997, 290), despite the residual uncertainty concerning its place in the prevailing religious ideology/hierarchy. In Aegean iconography, both the griffin and the lion are attested in an almost identical, and mostly interchangeable range of iconographic and symbolic roles, which extend to their relationship with human or divine figures as predators (hunters) and protectors (Morgan 1988, 52; 1995a, 173; Rehak 1992, 56). As protectors they stand guard over gateways to palaces and temples, over thrones, altars, and sacred pillars or columns, in the vast majority of the cases flanking the central object they protect (Dessenne 1957a, 211; Delplace 1967, 49; Morgan 1995a, 173). Their role as protectors also extends to deities or their representatives, religious and secular, either singly or in pairs, often in scenes with obvious cult associations (Nilsson 1950, 368; Dessenne 1957a, 212; 1957b, 151 n. 4; Delplace 1967, 49, 61; Kritseli-Providi 1982, 30; Laffineur 1992, 110). On the whole, in their relations with anthropomorphic figures, human or divine, griffins are generally assigned a distinctly subservient or beneficial role (Dessenne 1957a, 212; 1957b, 158, 160; Delplace 1967, 61, 85; Tzavella-Evgen 1970, 109–111; Kritseli-Providi 1982, 30). This element of subservience between griffins and their human or divine companions is apparently not encountered in the iconography associated with lions and sphinxes. As predators, both the lion and the griffin are associated with warfare and hunting; in their capacity as supreme predators in the animal world they are depicted attacking their prey, and, as mutual antagonists, they may even attack each other.

THE WALL PAINTINGS

Although battles between men and lions are quite common, especially in early Mycenaean art, confrontations between men and griffins are practically nonexistent in Aegean iconography (Delplace 1967, 62; Morgan 1995a, 173). The ambivalence over the human or divine status of some of the anthropomorphic figures associated with griffins in the extant iconography, both males and females, is closely related to the notion that the priesthood, or even secular rulers in the 2nd millennium b.c., often assumed divine roles and/or attributes (Marinatos 1993, 132; Morgan 2005a, 168, 170). Although the association of lions and griffins with sacral kingship may be highly controversial (Rehak 1984, 541), the antithetic/heraldic pictorial images of these creatures in throne rooms of Minoan and Mycenaean palaces illustrate their increasingly symbolic value in palatial contexts, a visualized expression of palatial power and prestige (Rehak 1992, 56). The association of powerful predators, such as the lion and the griffin, with deities, mostly in Potnia/Potnios Theron compositions, and the assumed interchangeability between deities and the priesthood (Marinatos 1993, 132; Rehak 1984, 541 n. 37), have been the cause of much confusion as regards the identification of anthropomorphic companions of beasts in nonheraldic, nonconfrontational compositions. This is especially true of scenes involving standing female figures. While seated, primarily female figures attended by griffins or lions in glyptic art (CMS I, no. 128 [male figure and griffin]; CMS V.1, no. 253 [lion in a heraldic pose]; CMS V, Suppl. 1B, no. 195 [lions in a heraldic pose]; CMS II.8.1, no. 239 [lion/dog]) and occasionally in wall paintings have routinely been interpreted as deities (Fig. 12:b; Doumas 1992, 130–131, 158, 165, pl. 122, 128; Marinatos 1993, 152; Vlachopoulos 2008, 453, figs. 41:20, 41:21; 2010, fig. 11), the identity of standing female figures appears to be more elusive. Although lions, griffins, and sphinxes have been routinely associated with deities (Nilsson 1950, 368– 369; Niemeier 1986, 74–75 n. 87, 83 n. 108, 97 n. 190), it is the context and not the beast, no matter how fantastic, that determines things (Thomas and Wedde 2001, 9). On the West House specimen (Figs. 9, 10), the surviving composition does not conform to the specifications of a typical heraldic arrangement with a central female figure in the Potnia Theron attitude flanked by two felines. The clothing of the female figure (Figs. 9, 10), instead of following

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iconographic specifications attested in numerous mural representations of female figures, human or divine, is closer to the less sophisticated, sketchier representations of female attire in glyptic art (Fig. 13). This seemingly minor deviation seems inconsistent with the majority of scenes in which anthropomorphic figures associated with griffins are in most cases distinguished by exceptionally sophisticated costumes and/or poses (Rehak 1984, 541). The gesture of the female figure as restored on the basis of the closest, albeit glyptic, parallels is ambivalent as regards the status of the figure, considering that it has been consistently ascribed to both deities and members of the priesthood, or even adorants (Figs. 9, 13). This nonspontaneous, “symbolic” ges­‑ ture (Cain 2001, 38), quite common in glyptic art (Fig. 13), obviously polysemous and contextually de­‑ fined, is in this case probably a hieratic gesture of greeting, implying an underlying equality and unspoken understanding between the two parties, which leaves the question of the identity of the female figure in limbo. Combined with the unsophisticated rendering of the clothing of the latter, it could tip the scale in favor of a human female, a priestess impersonating the goddess, or reenacting of a mystical encounter with a supernatural, mythical creature. Seen in this light, the encounter, embodying a condensed, formulaic/emblematic scheme, could be a visual manifestation of an otherwise nonarticulated, innate aspect of the relationship between man and the supernatural. The abbreviated and rather sketchy rendering of the female figure, on the other hand, which does not conform to the iconographic standards for the depiction of highly placed priestly figures accompanied by griffins (Rehak 1984, 541), could be viewed as another example of an idiosyncratic deviation from the norm, already encountered in other aspects of the painting. This deviation, in this case associated with the rendering of divine figures or their human representatives, could imply an entirely local set of criteria and stylistic or pictorial choices, also manifested in the religious compositions of the west slope (see Fig. 12:c, d; Pl. 3). Despite the superior size and physique of the heraldically disposed animal (Figs. 9, 10), depicted in its role as protector of the admittedly less imposing anthropomorphic figure facing it, and in the absence of pictorial elements indicating physical subservience of the animal to the female figure, or vice versa, it seems that the two parties are

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THE WALL PAINTINGS OF THE WEST HOUSE AT MYCENAE

interacting as equals, the scene exuding an undercurrent of intimacy and mutual respect, further illustrated by the suggested gesture of the female figure and the raised forepaw of the feline. Despite the general dearth of comparanda in the Aegean wall painting repertory, the closest, albeit generic, parallels to this scene would be the thematically unique, small-scale wall paintings from the west slope of the acropolis at Mycenae. Their discovery in an explicitly religious context implies the existence of a local, idiosyncratic 13th-century b.c. iconographic and/or religious tradition at Mycenae, favoring female figures, invariably interpreted as deities or priestesses. These figures are always depicted in a close, intimate relationship with real or fantastic, but admittedly small, felines. Prime examples are the helmeted woman holding a small winged griffin (Pl. 3; Mylonas 1971, 150, pl. 184:b; 1972a, 120; 1972b, 39, pl. XIII:a; Kritseli-Providi 1982, 28–33, no. Α6, pls. Β:α, 2:a; Rehak 1984, 541–542, fig. 4; Immerwahr 1990, 121, 192, cat. no. My no. 9) and the standing female figure with a lion or griffin in flying gallop (Fig. 12:c, d; Taylour 1969, 96–97, fig. 2, pl. X:a; 1970, 276–277; French 1981, fig. 14; 2002, color pl. 12; Marinatos 1988a, 245–247, figs. 1–3; Immerwahr 1990, 120–121, 191, cat. no. My no. 6, pls. 59, 61; Rehak 1992, 50–58, pls. X:c, XV:a, XVIII:a; Morgan 2005a, 167–168, fig. 10:5, pl. 24:b). A major conceptual difference between the two groups, possibly reflecting a subtle shift in the role of the felines, real or fantastic, as illustrated by the relative size and iconographical context of the latter, is the suggested subordination, bordering on subservience of the animals toward the accompanying female figures (Figs. 12:c, d; Pl. 3), which is very unlike the implied attitude of the heraldic animal and the standing female figure on the West House specimen (Figs. 9, 10). The extant iconography, although inherently ambivalent as regards human versus divine figures and even more so as regards their clothing (Rehak 1992, 50; Morgan 2005a, 168), argues in favor of this interpretation and certainly does not contradict it. The surviving iconographic corpus does not shed any light on the presence of the leaping stag in the background and on the semantic connection between it and the heraldic pair to the right (Figs. 9, 10). Stags, and cervids in general, are not associated with felines, real or fantastic, except in scenes

where they assume the role of prey and predator, which is certainly not the case here. The extant iconographic parallels for the leaping pose of the stag in mural and glyptic art are mostly generic and not very explicit as regards context. Although the suggested association of the stag with the female figure in the far right is quite plausible, the single glyptic parallel featuring a cultic scene (Fig. 11:b; CMS V.1, no. 201) depicts a heraldically disposed animal in the immediate vicinity of the central Potnios figure, which does not seem to be the case here. Whatever the relationship between the stag and the feline to the right, both animals are obviously male, their gender being for some reason deliberately portrayed by the artist. Although it would be unreasonable to presume that the stag was irrelevant to the narrative or symbolic meaning of the original composition, the elucidation of the precise role of the animal and our understanding of the underlying theme of the original composition remains vague. The connection of this presumably symbolic, religious scene to the major hunting sequence is indirect, not to say tentative. It would involve the metaphorical association of the feline, in its role as predator, with hunting in general and the ever present, albeit generic, connection between hunting and ritual (Marinatos 1986; 1988b; 1990; 1993, 216–218; Morris 1990, 152; Kilian-Dirlmeier 1990; Morgan 1995a, 171–173). The role of the male cervid as prey, quite popular in mainland hunting scenes, although not compatible with the pose of the animal, could serve as another, albeit remote generic reminder of the same theme.

3.2.2. Related Fragments The stylistic and/or thematic association of the heraldic composition with a number of other specimens (WH F3–WH F6) is plausible, yet tentative to say the least. They were included in this thematic cycle, either because of the unorthodox relative scales employed on one of the surviving specimens (WH F4), suggesting a nonexplicitly secular, narrative context, or due to specific iconographical features reminiscent of the stylistic idiom of the heraldic scene (WH F3, WH F5). One of these specimens (WH F4; Fig. 10; Pl. 3), depicts what looks like a partly preserved, female head in profile to the left, rendered with white

THE WALL PAINTINGS

paint and black details (eye, mouth) against a brilliant blue background. The female figure is facing two white vertical elements to the left, heavily outlined in black and tentatively identified as the lower part of animal limbs, possibly belonging to horses facing right. The profile, owing mostly to the shape and the size of the nose, appears somewhat birdlike and crude compared to other finely drawn female figures at Mycenae (Kritseli-Providi 1982, 37–40, 73– 76, nos. B1, Γ1, pls. B:β, Γ, 4, 5, 24), Tiryns (Fig. 17:a; Rodenwaldt 1912, figs. 28, 33–34, 40, pls. IX, XII), and Pylos (Lang 1969, 64–65, 83–85, 89–90, nos. 4Gnw, 49Hnws, 52Hnws, pls. 2, 33, 38, 116, 121, 127, 128, B, D). The pictorial formula used for the human head, identified as such by the white paint used for the flesh, is not strictly consistent with female or even male profiles attested at Mycenae (WH F52; Fig. 21; Pl. 17; Rodenwaldt 1911, pls. IX:2, X:1, 2, XI:3; Lamb 1919–1921, pl. VII:7; 1921–1923, pl. XXVII; Kritseli-Providi 1982, 37– 40, 73–76, nos. B1, Γ1, fig. 8, pls. Β:β, Γ, 4, 5, 24), or anywhere else on the mainland for that matter. The most blatant deviations from the norm concern the length and shape of the nose, including a long black, hooked line, presumably denoting the nostrils. The closest stylistic parallels, minus the painted internal details, are to be found in the male profiles from the hunting scene at Pylos (Fig. 17:f; Lang 1969, 69–71, nos. 18H43, 21H48, pls. 13, 15, 116, 122, B). Much smaller and more delicately drawn lines of a different shape mark the position of the nostrils on one of the life-size female figures at Pylos (Lang 1969, 86– 89, no. 51Hnws, pls. 34–38, E, O). If WH F4 indeed shows the head of a female figure facing left, the head, as preserved, appears slightly tilted forward, which suggests that the rest of the body would also be leaning forward, a rather unusual pose for an apparently sedate, nonconfrontational scene. If the body did not lean forward as suggested, the torso and upper limbs of the figure should have been visible against the blue background between the figure and the animal to the left. The female figure was presumably standing at a lower level, possibly in a different pictorial field than the animal to the left, and more importantly, she seems to be on a collision course with it. The white animal on the left, heavily outlined in black and towering over the female figure, is stylistically similar to another fragment from the

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West House material depicting the lower limbs of animals, probably horses, also moving to the right (WH F61; Fig. 24; Pl. 20). Two other specimens, also depicting white horses outlined in black (WH F64, WH F65; Fig. 25; Pl. 21), are executed in a more delicate style. The white dogs in the West House material (WH F50, WH F51; Fig. 20; Pl. 16) preserve no traces of an outline. Similarly rendered horse’s limbs are attested at Pylos (Lang 1969, 107, no. 10C27, pl. 49). Although the identification of the animal depicted on this specimen is not at all certain, it seems that horses and dogs are the only four legged animals consistently rendered with white paint, with the exception of the griffin (Fig. 17:f; Rodenwaldt 1912, 8–9, no. 4, pl. I:3; Lang 1969, 70–71, 106, 107, nos. 21H48, 7C20, 8C21, 10C27, 12C43, pls. 15, 47– 50, 116, 122, 132, 133, E). The stylistic and morphological similarities of the animal with other, similar specimens depicting horses, both in the West House material and elsewhere, suggests that the animal depicted on this specimen was most probably a horse. The affinities of this specimen with the main composition are in fact restricted to the atypical and somewhat bizarre use of heavy black outlines and to the uneven texture of the blue background. Another fragment (WH F5; Fig. 10; Pl. 3) depicts the tapering lower part of what could be construed as a white animal leg on the left and a slightly curving white element on the right, presumably part of the leg of another animal. The element to the right is marked with a number of oblique and vertical black strokes, probably representing body hair, a pictorial feature also attested on one of the thighs of the male stag in the main composition (WH F1). A third specimen (WH F3; Pl. 3), preserving a large section of bright blue background and traces of white outlined in black, with black internal details and faint traces of yellow on the white ground, probably represents part of another pictorial element, possibly an animal. Although the carelessly applied blue pigment on the background is not consistent with the quality of the blue pigment in the heraldic scene, the quality and thickness of the black outlines and the surviving traces of color are vaguely reminiscent of the stylistic rendering of the animal figures in the main composition (WH F1; Pl. 2). In the vast majority of the remaining specimens (including WH F6; Fig. 10; Pl. 3), the surviving iconography, consisting of sections of white vertical

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THE WALL PAINTINGS OF THE WEST HOUSE AT MYCENAE

elements/areas, outlined in black and possibly representing animal legs, is in too fragmentary a state to be identified with any certainty. Considering that there is no way of knowing the precise subject matter and thematic context of these fragmentary specimens, they could equally be assigned to one of the hunting episodes.

3.3. Hunting Scene (WH F7– WH F75) The hunting scene is another small-scale composition painted against a brilliant blue background. It most probably consisted of a number of narrative episodes in successive panels, and in multiple pictorial fields, illustrating different episodes of a hunting expedition conceived and executed on an apparently palatial scale. The surviving pictorial fragments include excerpts with dense vegetation in the form of stemmed leaf-like plants and trees, fully attired male hunters on foot moving above and among the vegetation, hunting dogs, a female participant, possibly a hunter, and chariot groups, as exemplified in the hunting compositions from Tiryns and Orchomenos. The fragmentary figure of a man carrying a pole (WH F52) and an isolated specimen depicting the lower limb of an animal walking among plants (WH F75) might also belong to the same thematic cycle. Despite the apparent affinities of the surviving composition with better-known hunting scenes in other Mycenaean palatial centers, the bestpreserved specimens from the West House (WH F7, WH F9) display a number of idiosyncratic features, quite unparalleled in the mainland corpus. The most prominent and distinctive of these features is the profusion of vegetation, mostly in the form of stemmed, leaf-like plants/trees, depicted in an intimate contextual relationship with the human and the animal element.

3.3.1. First Hunting Episode (WH F7, WH F8) One of the two major hunting episodes (WH F7; Fig. 14; Pl. 4), probably part of the early stages of

the hunting sequence, features the lower limbs of two male figures, presumably hunters, walking a few centimeters above a row of green, stemmed, leaf-like plants, presumably meant to represent trees, the whole being painted against a blue background. The latter has disappeared almost completely, probably due to the exposure of the painted plaster to intense heat during the final destruction of the building, with only an underlying light gray coat showing through (see Chs. 2.1, 4.5). The vegetation, mostly reserved on the final coat of plaster and occupying the lower part of the composition, consists of a row of six vertical stems culminating in tapering, leaf-like attachments, ca. 5.5–10.4/12.2 cm in height and 2.6–3.9 cm in width (leaves). The stems grow out of a single horizontal white band, ca. 1.8 cm wide, forming the lower border of the decorative panel with traces of another, originally blue band below it. A further seven fragments (WH F8; Pl. 4), featuring sections of an identical white horizontal band, are most likely part of the same composition and serve as a ground line for the vegetation. Although dissimilar in size, the stemmed, leaflike plants on this specimen display a remarkable stylistic and iconographical homogeneity (Fig. 14; Pl. 4). The green color of the plants/trees was apparently obtained by applying a yellow coat of paint over the final coat of plaster and then a blue coat of paint over the yellow, resulting in a composite green color, rather rare on the mainland and apparently more subdued in hue than the greens obtained from natural copper minerals, an even rarer occurrence in Aegean wall painting (see Chs. 4.5, A.4.5). The latter type of green, attested on a shield fragment from Tiryns (Heaton 1912, 216, table 5), was completely unknown to painters of the early phase of the palace at Pylos and was apparently reserved for the decoration of the vestibule and the megaron itself during the last phase of the palace (Brecoulaki 2014, 12–13; 2017, 400; Brecoulaki, Karydas, and Colombini, forthcoming). The composite type of green pigment was also apparently attested at Knossos (see Heaton in Evans 1921, 534, 537, color pl. VI; 1930, 305; Dandrau 1999, 21–22) and at Tell el Dab’a (Brysbaert 2008b, 131). The green in Minoan wall paintings is usually identified with green earth (glauconite and celadonite; see Dandrau 1999, 22–23; Brysbaert 2008b, 133).

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The superimposition of a layer of Egyptian blue over a layer of yellow ocher for obtaining greenish hues is a technique apparently practiced by Aegean painters from the early phase of the Late Bronze Age (Vlachopoulos and Sotiropoulou 2012, 250; Brecoulaki 2014, 13; 2017, 400; Brecoulaki, Karydas, and Colombini, forthcoming). Although this method of obtaining the green used for a variety of pictorial elements is perfectly compatible with mainland practices, the choice of green for the depiction of vegetation is not. The use of green for vegetation, or for anything else for that matter, is quite unusual on the mainland. It has been attested on a fragment depicting a wild boar from Orchomenos (Pl. 11:a, b, d; Spyropoulos 1973, pl. 213; 1974, 320, figs. 7, 9, color pl. II:d; 2015, 364, figs. 12–14) and on a fragment depicting a figure-of-eight shield from Tiryns (Heaton 1912, 216, table 5). At Pylos, it has been identified on a fragment from outside the palace (Brecoulaki 2017, 400; Brecoulaki, Karydas, and Colombini, forthcoming) and in a very limited number of plants (Lang 1969, 91, 128, nos. 53Hnws, 5N43, 6N43, pls. 38–40, 70, E). The last two specimens (Lang 1969, 128, nos. 5N43, 6N43, pl. 70) were possibly associated with the hunting scene above Room 43 (Lang 1969, 206). Although the plants preserve no traces of outlines, faint traces of black lines on the interior of the better-preserved specimens probably represent veining, or if they are to be understood as extremely stylized versions of actual trees, the branches and leaves of the trees, as exemplified in the more intricately drawn examples at Tiryns (Fig. 17:a; Rodenwaldt 1912, 104, 109, nos. 130, 136–139, figs. 40, 42, pl. XII) and Orchomenos (Spyropoulos 2015, 361, 364, fig. 10). The use of black paint for veining and other interior details, irrespective of the color of the vegetation, is quite common on the mainland and in Aegean wall painting in general (Rodenwaldt 1912, 104, 109, no. 130, 136–139, fig. 40, 42, pl. XII; Lamb 1919–1921, 195, 196, nos. 11, 13, 17, pl. IX; Lang 1969, 128, 118–119, 130, nos. 36C17, 7N53, 12Nnws, pls. 61, 62, 71, 74, 136, G, H). Although landscape information in narrative contexts is admittedly not a common feature in the mainland pictorial tradition (Morgan 1988, 17; Immerwahr 1990, 122), highly stylized floral elements were occasionally introduced as a background to the ongoing action in small-scale compositions depicting hunting expeditions. The heavily stylized

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vegetation in the form of “lollipop” trees or low grasses and plants, as exemplified in the Tiryns and Orchomenos iconographic programs, confirms their predominantly narrative role, and makes a mockery of any pretence at naturalism (Lang 1969, 25; Abramovitz 1980, 69, 71). The earliest surviving hunting scene in the Aegean is part of an extensive Minoan style, miniature composition decorating the southern of the two painted rooms in the North-East Bastion (N20) overlooking the bay and harbor of Hagia Eirene on Kea (Abramowitz 1980; Morgan 1990, 1995b, 1998, 2005b; Marinatos and Morgan 2005). The composition depicts what seems to be a public festival set in a varied landscape, including a river and a town with women looking out of windows, a harbor and ships, a scene with men attending cauldrons, a procession of men, some carrying poles with pots, a marsh, a herding scene with white sheep, white horses, and fragments of a chariot (Abramowitz 1980; Morgan 1990, figs. 1, 2, 4; 1998, figs. 3–6; Marinatos and Morgan 2005). The hunting scene, drawn on a slightly larger scale than most of the other episodes of this miniature composition, consists of fragments of at least five, possibly seven, fallow deer moving slowly to the left or quietly grazing, and fragments of white dogs pursuing fallow deer with spotted coats and white underbellies depicted in “flying gallop” (Abramovitz 1980, 61–62, 66– 67, nos. 106–113, pl. 6:d; Morgan 1990, 257; 1998, 204, fig. 7). The dogs and deer are running to the left, the same direction as a male helmeted hunter holding a spear and a pole on which a dead deer has been slung; presumably another hunter was holding the other end of the pole (Abramovitz 1980, 61, 65, no. 83, pl. 5:a; Morgan 1990, 257; 1998, 204; Marinatos and Morgan 2005, 120). In contrast to the lush vegetation depicted in other parts of the miniature composition, the hunting scene was painted against a yellow ocher background devoid of landscape information (Abramovitz 1980, 61; Morgan 1990, 257; 1998, 204, fig. 7; Marinatos and Morgan 2005, 120, pl. 15:2). Abramovitz (1980, 61, 65–66, nos. 84–89, pls. 5:b, 5:c) mentions six other hunters in loose, white, knee-length tunics, three moving to the right and three to the left or standing still. Although this miniature hunting scene anticipates the use of at least two thematic formulas typical of later Mycenaean small-scale hunting compositions (dogs pursuing their prey and hunters carrying the dead

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THE WALL PAINTINGS OF THE WEST HOUSE AT MYCENAE

animal), it can only be construed as a distant forerunner of the mainland corpus of hunting scenes. In contrast to their Cycladic antecedents, later Mycenaean hunting scenes were obviously conceived as independent narratives, consisting of a series of fully developed episodes portraying high profile hunting expeditions initiated by aristocratic and/or palatial circles and involving a high degree of display. The absence of the human element, which is only implied in the Hagia Eirene excerpt of the hunt by the presence of the dogs and the lack of landscape information, is also inconsistent with the majority of extant Mycenaean narrative episodes illustrating the chase and capture of the prey. Several Aegean-type hunting scenes, including some with human hunters and dogs wearing collars and pursuing antelopes or wild goats, were also attested at Tell el Dab’a (Bietak 1995, pl. 4:1; Marinatos and Morgan 2005, 119–120, pl. 15:1). The hunting scenes from the two sites were apparently contemporary and are the earliest extant wall paintings of this theme by Aegean artists (Morgan 1998, 205; Marinatos and Morgan 2005, 120). Of the palatial hunting scenes on the mainland, the Tiryns and the Orchomenos compositions seem to belong to the same pictorial and stylistic idiom, with Pylos representing a more idiosyncratic version of the same tradition (Immerwahr 1990, 132). In Tiryns, apart from the chariot groups proceeding at a stately pace toward the fray of the hunt against an apparently wooden landscape of stylized “lollipop” trees (Fig. 17:a), preceded by hunting dogs on leashes (Fig. 17:d) and spear-bearing hunters on foot (Fig. 17:j), the final hunting episode, the killing of the boar, features a landscape of low, extremely stylized plants in white and yellow paint (Fig. 17:b; Rodenwaldt 1912, 123–132, nos. 165–188, figs. 54, 55, pls. XI:2, XVII:7, XIII), which bear no resemblance to the vegetation depicted on the West House fragments. At Orchomenos, the recently restored hunting scene exhibited in the newly renovated museum of Thebes features two or three episodes of the hunting expedition, individual fragments of which have been published by Spyropoulos (1973, 1974, 2015). One of the restored panels features a two-horse chariot racing on an apparently uneven, perhaps rocky terrain over a row of blue stylized palm trees (Spyropoulos 2015, 361, 364, figs. 9, 21). Another restored panel features two superimposed rows of barefoot male

spear-bearers, clad in an atypical combination of Minoan-type kilts and white greaves. The male figures in the upper row are all provided with boar’s tusk helmets, while the figures in the lower row are bareheaded and seem to be walking sedately over a row of yellow stylized palm trees (Pl. 11:f; Spyropoulos 1973, pl. 213:c; 1974, color pl. II:c; 2015, 364, figs. 15–17, 22). The background behind the racing chariot group and the male hunters is apparently blank and painted blue. Finally, the third panel illustrates the final episode, the killing of the boar, in this case four fleeing boars, at least five leaping dogs, and a barefoot male hunter attacking one of the boars, all against a landscape dotted with a combination of the familiar white, stylized plants, identical to the plants illustrated in the final episode at Tiryns (Fig. 17:b), and the green stylized “lollipop” trees, which at Tiryns are only associated with the chariot groups (Fig. 17:a; Pl. 11:a– d; Spyropoulos 1973, pl. 213:b, d–f; 1974, figs. 7–10, color pl. II:d; 2015, 364, figs. 10–14). Chariot groups interspersed with hunting dogs on leashes are exhibited separately (Pl. 11:e; Spyropoulos 1973, pl. 213:a; 1974; 2015, 361, fig. 8). At Pylos, the hunting scene apparently decorating the room above Hall 46 includes hunters aiming at their prey, in this case a fleeing stag (Fig. 17:e; Lang 1969, 40–42, 68, 69, nos. 16H43, 18H43, pls. 12, 13, 116, 121, 122, B), and marching male hunters in charge of hunting dogs, carrying spears and tripod cauldrons, presumably for the feast after the hunt (Fig. 17:f; Lang 1969, 40–42, 69, 70, 107, 108, nos. 12C43, 13C43, 14C43, 17H43, 19H43, 20H43, 21H48, pls. 13–15, 50, 51, 116, 122, 133, B, M). Although the conspicuous absence of landscape information is possibly ameliorated by a set of green and lavender fronds, tentatively associated with the Pylos hunting scene from the room above Hall 46 (Lang 1969, 40, 128, 206, nos. 5N43, 6N43, pl. 70), the fronds bear no resemblance to the vegetation depicted on the West House specimens. In fact, the only specimen in the Pylos material depicting a floral landscape element directly associated with a narrative scene involves a life-size blue papyrus plant behind a standing deer, which is nevertheless unrelated to the small-scale hunting scene in the room above Hall 46 (Lang 1969, 118–119, no. 36C17, pls. 61, 62, 136). Among the celebrated palatial hunting scenes, the closest iconographic parallels to the stemmed

THE WALL PAINTINGS

plants/trees depicted in the first hunting episode from the West House (WH F7; Fig. 14; Pl. 4) are undoubtedly the stylized “lollipop” trees, attested in both the Tiryns and the Orchomenos material (Fig. 17:a; Rodenwaldt 1912, 104, 107, 109, nos. 130, 134, 136–139, figs. 40, 42, pl. XII; Spyropoulos 1974, 320; 2015, 361, 364, fig. 10). Despite the general iconographic and stylistic similarities between the specimens from Mycenae, Tiryns, and Orchomenos, including the color scheme and internal markings used for the interior of the plants/ trees, the differences between the three groups of wall paintings are suggestive of more profound functional and/or conceptual differentiations. The stylized “lollipop” trees from Tiryns belong to the episode depicting chariot groups, illustrating the commencement or the return of the hunting party, not hunters proceeding on foot as was the case at Mycenae. In addition to that, the Tiryns “lollipop” trees occupy almost the entire height of the frieze, which is not the case in the West House. These differences, related both to the iconography and the syntax of the extant specimens, suggest a completely different compositional and thematic formula, at least as regards the narrative use of vegetation. The closest parallels, on a conceptual and compositional level, depict greaved legs/feet of apparently male figures, presumably hunters, walking among low, stylized plants of the type attested in the final episode of the hunt (Fig. 17:b; Rodenwaldt 1912, 122, nos. 160, 161, figs. 54, 55, pl. XIII). In the recently restored Orchomenos hunting scene, on the other hand, the stylized “lollipop” trees (Spyropoulos 2015, 361, 364, fig. 10), almost identical to their counterparts at Tiryns, appear in a more advanced stage of the evolving narrative, the final episode of the hunt (the killing of the prey) side by side with the extremely stylized plants attested at Tiryns (Fig. 17:b). Whatever the stylistic or aesthetic differences between the Mycenae and Orchomenos specimens, the pictorial use of the “lollipop” trees in a more advanced part of the narrative involving marching hunters and/or animals in action, is definitely closer to the overall concept pervading the West House version of the hunt. Although the thematic counterpart of the first hunting episode (WH F7; Fig. 14; Pl. 4) among the Orchomenos material, as restored in the new museum of Thebes, features yellow stylized palm trees (Spyropoulos 2015, 364, figs. 15–17, 22) instead of stemmed

35

plants/trees or the familiar “lollipop” trees, the two groups of wall paintings reflect an almost identical pictorial concept and an almost identical compositional and thematic formula (armed hunters marching along above/behind tall trees). Although isolated fragments depicting flowers/ plants are attested in the wall paintings from the East Lobby and the “Pithos area” (Lamb 1921–1923, 159, 163, pl. XXV:b), as well as among the Ramp House material at Mycenae (Lamb 1919–1921, 195, pl. IX:11–13), none bear any iconographic resemblance to the West House specimens and none of them can be directly associated with narrative scenes. The wall paintings from the Mycenae Cult Center are devoid of landscape elements, with the exception of a blue palm tree not directly associated with a narrative scene (Kritseli-Providi 1982, 23–28, 102, no. A5, fig. 3, pl. 1). Fragments depicting a light blue olive tree with black interior details painted against a blue background, and other types of vegetation from the Panagia Houses (Mylonas-Shear 1987, 143, nos. 298–300, pl. 44), were executed in a style closer to the Tiryns and the Pylos specimens; none of the fragments are directly associated with a narrative scene. The closest thematic parallel in the Minoan corpus is a section of the Neopalatial miniature composition from Tylissos, more Cycladic than Minoan in character (Hazzidakis 1921, 63, pl. VIII; Shaw 1972, 172, no. 2, fig. 2:13; Morgan 2005b, 29), also featuring human figures and vegetation in a similar outdoor setting. On the whole, despite the general similarities with the Tiryns and Orchomenos material, the closest true parallels to the West House plants/trees are to be found among the fragmentary wall paintings from the neighboring House of the Oil Merchant and the House of Sphinxes. Fragments of plants/ trees were apparently discovered among the LH IIIA:2 material from the west terrace of the House of the Oil Merchant (Cameron and Meyer 1995, 282, no. F497), and among the debris fallen from the ground floor into the basement Rooms 1 and 2 of the House of Sphinxes (Fig. 17:c; Cameron and Meyer 1995, 283, nos. F020, F021). The fragments of red and green stemmed plants from the House of Sphinxes, painted against a blue/gray background and described as “balloon-type,” similarly to the Tiryns specimens, are remarkably close to the West House examples. Considering the chronological and contextual affinity of the four buildings

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THE WALL PAINTINGS OF THE WEST HOUSE AT MYCENAE

in the so-called Ivory House group, and the apparent stylistic and iconographic similarities of the extant wall paintings recovered from all three houses of the group, it might be fair to assume that the mural decoration of the buildings was undertaken by a single painter/artist or workshop. The human element in the West House specimen consists of two male figures, the lower limbs of which are depicted above the plants/trees, in the upper right-hand corner of the composition (Fig. 14; Pl. 4). Both male figures are moving at a more or less sedate pace and are facing right. While the first figure on the left appears almost stationary, the second is apparently striding forward, his right heel slightly raised from the “ground.” The male figures appear to be walking on thin air, ca. 0.7– 4.8 cm above the surviving plants/trees. The figure on the left seems to be walking just over the tip of the third plant from the left, the tallest extant plant in the center of the composition. The tip of the restored first plant from the left would have reached to just below the ankles of the two figures (Fig. 14). Both male figures are clad in white greaves, secured with two sets of four laces crosshatched on the calf and tied above the ankle and presumably also below the knee, and sandal-type shoes, rendered with red paint against a white ground. The same iconographic formula is attested in all other fragmentary male limbs discovered in the same context (WH F28–WH F40). The red curving line along the calf or shin of the better-preserved specimens (WH F7, WH F9; Figs. 14, 15; Pls. 4, 5), also attested on nine other fragments (e.g., WH F29, WH F30, WH F32, WH F35, WH F36, WH F40), was probably meant to indicate musculature (Bulle 1907, 74). In contrast to the Pylos specimens (Fig. 17:e, f; Lang 1969, 68, 70–71, nos. 16H43, 21H48, pls. 12, 15, 116, 121, 122, B), the artist working on the West House composition painted lines of musculature on both legs of the extant figures. In Mycenaean wall painting, male figures wearing greaves and footwear of various types have been associated with both hunting and war. Although the crosshatched, sandal-type shoes attested in the West House specimens are not attested in the battle scene from the megaron at Mycenae, with the possible exception of a male figure descending from a chariot (Rodenwaldt 1911, 232, no. 1, pl. XI:1) and two bull-leapers from the earlier Ramp House frescoes (Lamb 1919–1921, 192, no. 4, pl.

VII:4; Shaw 1996, 176, no. 4, fig. 3), the warriors and grooms from the Pithos area (Rodenwaldt 1911, 236–238, nos. 6, 8, fig. 2, pl. XII:2) are clad in white greaves with horizontally tied laces below the knee and above the ankle, including faint lines of musculature along their shins, much like the male figures from the West House; their feet are clad in tightly fitting shoes/boots. The rendering of the warriors in the Orchomenos battle scene (Bulle 1907, 74, pl. XXVIII:2, 3, 5, 6) is almost identical minus the footwear. At Pylos, white greaves are a regular feature of the outfit of male figures in both hunting and battle scenes. In the battle scene from Hall 64, the “Mycenaeans” were clad in white greaves with horizontal laces tied below the knee and above the ankle and occasionally tightly fitting white shoes (Lang 1969, 44–45, 71–72, no. 22H64, pls. 16, 117, A, M); they were also restored with lines of musculature along the calf. The warriors from the northeast dump were also clad in greaves with horizontal laces and were provided with lines of musculature (Lang 1969, 78, no. 39Hne, pls. 26, C). The iconography of extant hunting scenes is almost identical to the iconography of battle scenes, at least as regards the lower limbs of the human figures. In the hunting scene from Tiryns, all the hunters are clad in white greaves with horizontal laces tied below the knee and above the ankle (Fig. 17:d; Rodenwaldt 1912, 110–113, 122, nos. 140–144, 160–162, figs. 47, 54, pl. XI:4, XIV:10–12), while in the majority of the cases they are also provided with sandal-type shoes, just like the male figures from the West House material. The only exception is a specimen depicting a hunter walking barefoot (Rodenwaldt 1912, 112–113, no. 143, pl. XIV:11) like the hunters from Orchomenos (Spyropoulos 2015, 361, fig. 7). White greaves are only attested on one fragment from the old palace material, depicting the legs of a male figure against a blue background (Rodenwaldt 1912, 8, no. 2), the remaining male figures being apparently barefoot (Rodenwaldt 1912, 11, 15, nos. 10, 17, 18, pl. II:8, 9). At Tiryns, lines of musculature are attested only once (Rodenwaldt 1912, 112–113, no. 143, pl. XIV:11). In the recently restored hunting scene from Orchomenos, the spear-bearing and barefoot hunters marching along toward the left above a row of yellow stylized palm trees and the single hunter in the final episode of the hunt were provided with the familiar white greaves, also attested in the other major

THE WALL PAINTINGS

palatial centers (Mycenae, Tiryns, Pylos; Spyropoulos 2015, 361, fig. 7). On the white greaves, lines of musculature are attested on both legs (Spyropoulos 2015, 361, fig. 7). Some of the hunters were also provided with boar’s tusk helmets (Pl. 11:f; Spyropoulos 1974, color pl. II:c; 2015, 365, fig. 15). In the hunting scene from the palace at Pylos, although the male figures were all clad in white greaves (Fig. 17:e, f; Lang 1969, 68–70, nos. 16H43, 17H43, 20H43, 21H48, pls. 12–15, 116, 121, 122, B, M), footwear identical to the West House specimens is depicted only in two cases, on the specimen with the hunter aiming at a deer provided with tightly fitting, white shoes (Fig. 17:e; Lang 1969, 68, no. 16H43, pls. 12, 121) and on a specimen with a figure clad in sandal-type shoes holding a tripod cauldron (Fig. 17:f; Lang 1969, 46, 70, no. 21H48, pls. 15, 116, 122). Although Lang claims that sandaltype shoes might be a late iconographical trait (1969, 46), the extant specimens from Tiryns and from the West House at Mycenae, all dated to the 13th century b.c., make the proposition untenable. As regards the material from Pylos, greaves and footwear are rarely depicted together, but when they do occur they are associated with hunters and not warriors. On the whole, it seems that, with the exception of greaves and lines of musculature usually attested in both types of scenes, the depiction of sandal-type shoes in mainland wall paintings is primarily associated with the hunt. The two male figures in the first hunting episode from the West House (WH F7), as extrapolated from the surviving lower limbs, were probably walking along in close file and at a more or less sedate pace, the one on the left being depicted in an almost stationary stance (Fig. 14). The fact that his right foot is slightly raised from the imaginary ground suggests that he is just about to take a step forward. The figure on the right, with both heels raised from the “ground,” was apparently caught at the moment of stepping forward, when he had just taken a step forward with his left leg, just before lowering it to the “ground.” The distance between his two feet (i.e., his stride) is actually quite small (1.6 cm tip to sole and 4.0 cm tip to tip), much smaller than that of the male figure in the second hunting episode (WH F9; Fig. 15; Pl. 5; 3.8 cm tip to sole and 5.6 cm tip to tip). The closest parallels are a male soldier accompanying the chariot in the battle scene from Hall 64 at Pylos (Fig. 17:g; Lang 1969, 73, no.

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26H64, pls. 18, 123), and the two rows of male hunters walking above/behind a row of yellow stylized palm trees on the recently restored panel from Orchomenos (Pl. 11:f; Spyropoulos 1973, pl. 213:c; 1974, color pl. II:c; 2015, 364, figs. 15–17, 22). Interestingly enough, the vast majority of male figures in mainland hunting scenes seem to have both feet firmly planted on the ground (Fig. 17:d, f; Rodenwaldt 1912, 110–113, nos. 140–143, fig. 47, pl. XI:4, XIV:10–12; Lang 1969, 70–71, no. 21H48, pls. 15, 116, 122), and that includes the Pylos hunter aiming at a deer (Fig. 17:e; Lang 1969, 68, no. 16H43, pls. 12, 121, B). If there were any hunting dogs involved in this section of the composition they would either precede the figure on the right, as on the Tiryns specimen (Fig. 17:d; Rodenwaldt 1912, 111–112, no. 141, fig. 47, pl. XIV:10), or follow behind the figure/s on the left, as was the case at Pylos (Fig. 17:f; Lang 1969, 70–71, no. 21H48, pls. 15, 116, 122). The positioning, and more importantly, the juxtaposition of the human and floral element in the visual field, the disparity of scale between the two elements, the overlapping, and the absence and/or use of ground lines in respect to the human and floral elements are all consistent with the principles of the so-called vertical perspective in Aegean art (Chapin 1995, 19, 44, 49, 52–53, 70; Renfrew 2000, 139; Strasser 2010, 10–12; for “vertical perspective” and spatial conventions, see Ch. 3.2). Space seems to have been conceived and organized in two levels, the human element being placed above the floral, in one case with an almost imperceptible overlap between the two (Fig. 14). Unless a third pictorial field is restored above the two male figures, a tenable, but entirely speculative proposition based on the recently restored panel depicting an almost identical composition from the Orchomenos hunting scene, the only identifiable narrative involves the human element walking above the plants/trees, in a single, linear direction (left to right), with no other parallel episodes. The relative position of the two elements, floral and human, is not really at odds with prevailing pictorial conventions and is presumably related to perspective and to the narrative context of the composition. The position of the human element alludes to the relative distance of the male figures from the spectator and from the vegetation below, and ultimately enhances the readability of the scene. Seen in this light, the two male figures, and

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THE WALL PAINTINGS OF THE WEST HOUSE AT MYCENAE

possibly others like them, were meant to be moving in a visual plane located behind the plants/trees, now occupying the foreground of the composition (Iliakis 1978, 621; Morgan 1988, 12, 70–71; 1989, 149; Chapin 1995, 19, 44, 49, 52–53, 56, 70; Betancourt 2000, 360; Strasser 2010, 10–12). The sedate pace of the male figures in the first hunting episode (WH F7; Fig. 14), and their position above, either beyond or behind the plants/trees in the foreground, would suggest that this narrative episode was meant to illustrate a relatively early stage of the hunt. The modified iconographical syntax in the second hunting episode (WH F9; Fig. 15), on the other hand, might allude to a different timeframe in the narrative sequence. The restored height of the two male figures (20.8 cm) is almost twice the size of the tallest plant (5.5–10.4/12.2 cm), not unlike other Mycenaean small-scale compositions (Lang 1969, 27, 40; Immerwahr 1990, 19, 109, 122). Unlike the diminutive olive trees floating in mid-air in the “violent” Vapheio cup, the floral elements in the West House specimen may be smaller than the human figures walking above/behind but are certainly not diminutive. Furthermore, the vegetation in the first hunting episode is clearly placed in the foreground of the pictorial field by the white horizontal band underneath, also serving as a ground line (Fig. 14), and is not suspended in a middle, more distant zone, as suggested for the Vapheio specimens (for floating referential perspective in relation to the Vapheio cups, see Chapin 1995, 118–119, 223). It seems that the disparity in scale between the human and floral element in this composition is probably related to the clarity of the narrative, or even the type of vegetation involved, and not to the relative importance of the two elements (Morgan 2000, 934; Palyvou 2005, 186). Finally, the use of ground lines in this section of the composition is selective and was obviously dictated by the narrative context. The white band along the lower part of the specimen, one of a series of colored bands framing the decorative panel on this side, presumably served as a ground line for the floral elements growing out of it. The absence of any obvious ground line for the male figures walking above the plants/trees also attested in the Orchomenos hunting scene is consistent with Mycenaean pictorial conventions in small-scale narrative scenes (Lamb 1921–1923, 255; Lang 1969, 48; Immerwahr 1990, 122).

3.3.2. Second Hunting Episode (WH F9) The narrative in the second hunting episode (WH F9; Fig. 15; Pl. 5) is more complicated in its layout. The composition was apparently divided into multiple pictorial fields. The upper, better-preserved part of the composition features the lower half of a male figure striding forward to the right, among five green, stemmed leaf-like plants/trees, identical to those appearing in the first hunting episode (WH F7; Fig. 14; Pl. 4). The better-preserved specimens were provided with interior veining on both the stem and the main, upper part of the plant, like the examples in the first hunting episode, and were also rendered with black paint. Faint traces of outlines are preserved only on the two plants to the left of the male figure. All five plants/trees begin roughly at the level of the ankles of the male figure, except for the one on the far left, and are almost identical in size to the plants/trees in the first hunting episode. Three of the larger plants on either side of the male figure, restored to a height of 10.5–12.0 cm, must have reached up to his chest. The fourth plant (the first on the left), restored to a height of ca. 10.8 cm, probably reached his chin, and the last one, restored to a height of 4.7 cm, up to the lower border of his tunic. The male figure, preserved to just below the waist, is apparently wearing a short yellow tunic without interior markings, coming down to just above the knees (Fig. 15; Pl. 5). Although no traces of outlines are preserved, their existence on another fragmentary male figure (WH F28; Fig. 18; Pl. 12), suggests that this was probably a result of the bad state of preservation of this specimen. The color of the tunic is fairly commonplace in Mycenaean narrative scenes, especially at Pylos (Lang 1969, 69, nos. 17H43, 19H43, pls. 13, 14, B, M) and less so at Tiryns (Fig. 17:d; Rodenwaldt 1912, 110– 111, no. 140, fig. 47, pl. XI:4). The same color tunic, with interior markings, has been attested in the LH IIIA:2 material from the House of the Oil Merchant (Fig. 21; Wace 1952, 14, pl. 9:a; 1958, 9, fig. 3; Cameron and Meyer 1995, 282; French 2002, 66, color pl. 10; Tournavitou 2012, 725, pl. CLXVI:a; 2015, 151, fig. 4), and on another male figure from the West House (WH F52; Fig. 21; Pl. 17). In both cases it was associated with a male figure carrying a load. The naked flesh of the thigh of the male figure on the West House specimen (WH

THE WALL PAINTINGS

F9) is rendered with red paint, a standard convention for male flesh in Aegean art. The legs here are also clad in white greaves. The internal details, now missing, were probably identical to those attested on the two male figures in the first hunting episode and to other specimens depicting fragmentary male figures in the same material (WH F28– WH F40; Figs. 18, 19; Pls. 12–14). The surviving lower limbs of the male figure are set widely apart, ca. 5 cm at ankle level and 3.6 cm lower down (tip to heel). The positioning of the legs, although distinctive, is potentially ambivalent, especially in the absence of the upper torso. The right leg, trailing behind, is bent at the knee, the heel raised from the imaginary ground line and about to take another step forward, or else poised, ready to hit a target; the other leg is straight, with the heel firmly planted on the “ground” after having taken the step, or while taking aim. The male figure could be therefore restored as a man walking briskly along in an intense and perhaps labored march through dense vegetation, or as a man poised to throw a spear with all the weight thrown on his front leg; his right arm, holding the spear, would be presumably drawn back. Although the positioning of the legs of the male figure is not consistent with the position assumed by the hunter from Pylos taking aim at a deer (Fig. 17:e; Lang 1969, 68, no. 16H43, pls. 12, 121, B), the suggested restoration of our hunter seems quite plausible. It is rather unfortunate that the pose of another male hunter taking aim (Lang 1969, 69, no. 18H43, pls. 13, 116, 122, B), almost identical to that on our specimen, is a restoration and thus not entirely reliable. The reconstruction of the male figure on the West House specimen as a spear-bearer would be perfectly in tune with Mycenaean hunting iconography (Lang 1969, 69–71, nos. 17H43, 19H43, 20H43, 21H48, pls. 13–15, 116, 122, B, M). To the left of the male hunter, sections of three spears are preserved: a set of two spearheads pointing downward along the left-hand edge of the composition, and a third spear to their right, which automatically implies the existence of at least one or possibly two more male figures as spear-bearers. Our attempts to restore the fragmentary pictorial elements led to a compromise in one case and to a dead end in another. One of the major problems in the effective reconstruction of this part of the composition is the position and steep, downward facing

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angle of the two spears on the left, which implies the existence of a second male spear-bearer beyond the left edge of the composition in a third, intermediate pictorial field unrelated to the two existing pictorial fields and overlapping both. This male figure restored to the far left of the composition would be therefore carrying two spears, instead of one, and, judging by the angle of the latter, would probably be walking in the same direction as the male figure to the right, but at an intermediate level somewhere between the upper and the lower pictorial fields; the extant spearheads would be trailing along in front. Although the orientation of the two spears on this specimen is highly unorthodox, not to say unique, male figures holding two spears at a time are not unknown in Mycenaean wall painting, as exemplified in the hunting scenes from Orchomenos (Pl. 11:f; Spyropoulos 1974, 320–321, color pl. II:c; 2015, 364, figs. 15–17) and Tiryns (Fig. 17:j; Rodenwaldt 1912, 116–118, no. 151, fig. 49, pl. XI:5). The only conceivable alternative, that they were floral elements and not spears, is not very plausible for various reasons related to their orientation, shape, color, and technique (white paint applied directly onto the blue background and not reserved on the last coat of plaster, as were the rest of the floral elements). The other problem concerns the third spear, the circumstances pertaining to which are even more unusual. Although the angle and orientation of the spear in the upper pictorial field would imply the existence of yet another male hunter, moving to the right behind the female figure in the lower part of the composition, the identification of a second spearhead at the end of what seems to be the lower section of the same spear shaft complicates the layout of the densely populated pictorial canvas. The second spearhead was apparently pointed at an indeterminate red area behind the head of the female figure to the right, probably part of her headband trailing behind. Quite apart from the peculiarity of a double-pointed spear, the available space in the missing section of the wall painting below, exacerbated by the existence of a dog farther to the left and by traces of vegetation in the lower left-hand corner, render the restoration of this imaginary spearbearer extremely difficult, to say the least. If he was to be restored in the space between the dog and the female figure to the right, he would have to be inserted at a much lower level than the other two figures and would be holding the spear high above his

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THE WALL PAINTINGS OF THE WEST HOUSE AT MYCENAE

shoulder or in a pose similar to that attested on one of the specimens from Tiryns (Fig. 17:h, i; Rodenwaldt 1912, 119–120, no. 153, figs. 50, 51). The small section of leafy vegetation in the lower lefthand corner, below and to the left of the spear, does not resemble the vegetation depicted in the upper part of the composition, or in the first hunting episode, and might be something completely different. In the lower pictorial level, below and to the right of the male hunter, part of the head of a female figure in profile is preserved, also facing right. The rendering of the head of the female figure, which is more than twice the size of the male hunter, and has been restored to a height of at least 40 cm, is consistent with the stylistic and morphological specifications of the Mycenaean wall-painting tradition. This includes the curled locks over the forehead, the reserved ear rendered with red paint, and the red headband trailing behind. The closest stylistic parallels are to be found in the Tiryns material. Although that material includes specimens with a more sophisticated hairstyle and headband decoration (Rodenwaldt 1912, 80–81, nos. 89, 90, figs. 27, 28, 33; pl. IX), the plainer type of headband attested here does occur on a few of the extant fragments (Rodenwaldt 1912, 82, 83, nos. 92, 93, 97, fig. 34). Even if the fragmentary state of the female figure on this specimen does not really warrant a full-scale restoration, it is admittedly tempting to invoke the affinity of this figure with the two female figures riding the chariot in the Tiryns hunting scene (Fig. 17:a; Rodenwaldt 1912, fig. 40, pl. XII). Unlike the female on our specimen, the Tiryns females were apparently drawn on the same scale as the rest of the human figures in the frieze. The disparity in scale between the male and female figures in the second hunting episode, and their respective positions in the pictorial field, are probably related to the vertical perspective, that is, to the narrative content of the composition (Iliakis 1978, 621; Morgan 1988, 12, 70–71; 1989, 149; Chapin 1995, 19, 44, 49, 52–53, 56, 70; Betancourt 2000, 360; Palyvou 2005, 186–187; Strasser 2010, 10–12) and should not be confused with the “perspective of importance,” which is quite rare in Aegean art (Morgan 2000, 934). Seen in this light, the larger size of the female figure should be associated with her position in the lower pictorial field and not with her importance in relation to the more diminutive male hunter above. Her position in the

lower pictorial field would indicate that she was part of the action taking place in the foreground of the painting and of the narrative sequence as a whole. Although the disparity in scale between pictorial features according to their relative distance from the viewer, in accordance with the vertical perspective, is not a common spatial convention in the Aegean Bronze Age, it has been attested in earlier Minoan and Cycladic art (for “intuitive perspective,” see Immerwahr 1990, 73; for diminution in size, see Chapin 1995, 45, 49). The spear point aimed at the red area behind the head of the female figure, probably part of her trailing headband, was presumably a symbolic gesture related to the conceptual aspect of the hunt rather than to real narrative action. In the lower left-hand corner of the composition, a white dog, only the upper part of which is preserved, seems to be moving toward the right. Although very little is preserved of the animal itself, it seems stylistically and morphologically akin to the other two dogs attested in the West House material (WH F50, WH F51; Fig. 20; Pl. 16), all restored to a more or less identical size (WH F9: 13.5 cm; WH F50: 12.5 cm; WH F51: 11.7 cm). Curiously enough, the size of this dog with reference to the female figure farther ahead, almost three times its size, is fairly realistic. Its contextual isolation in this section of the composition is rather unorthodox and contextually baffling, yet not out of place in the narrative sequence. Although the suggestion concern­ing the restoration of the female figure moving along to the right as part of a chariot group is very tentative, the close contextual affinity of hunting dogs walking sedately behind chariot groups is exemplified in the hunting scene from Orchomenos, where the dog in question, also portrayed with raised ears, is held on a leash by a male figure presumably walking behind it (Pl. 11:e; Spyropoulos 1973, pl. 213; 2015, 361, fig. 8). In the rest of the material from Orchomenos, the surviving dogs seem to be taking part in the chase (Pls. 11:b–d; Spyropoulos 1973, pl. 213; 1974, 320, figs. 8, 9; 2015, 364, figs. 11–13). At Tiryns, the dogs walking sedately along, apparently ahead of the chariot groups, seem to be accompanied by or led by dog handlers (Fig. 17:d; Rodenwaldt 1912, 111, 114, nos. 141, 146, fig. 47, pl. XIV:6, 10). At Pylos, the situation is more ambivalent. Apart from the fact that all dogs appear

THE WALL PAINTINGS

in pairs, which does not seem to be the case here, only on one specimen were the dogs explicitly held on a leash (Fig. 17:f; Lang 1969, 70–71, no. 21H48, pls. 15, 116, 122). On another specimen (Lang 1969, 107, no. 12C43, pls. 50, 133), a pair of black and white dogs is depicted on its own, while on a third example (Lang 1969, 108, no. 13C43, pls. 51, M) the leashes have been restored. The overall syntax of the composition on the West House specimen, although problematic in many respects, does not really stray too far from the norm as attested in Mycenaean narrative scenes. The most significant iconographical feature in this section of the composition is the relation between the landscape and the human element. Although the restored dimensions of the plants/trees and of the single extant human figure are similar to those attested in the first hunting episode (WH F7), ca. 5.0–12 cm for the vegetation and ca. 19.4–20.8 cm for the male figures, what has changed in this case is the spatial relation of the vegetation in respect to the human element and the lack of a ground line for the plants. Although the five extant plants in the upper part of the composition seem to repeat the iconographical and stylistic specifications attested in the first hunting episode (Fig. 14), including the color scheme (green paint with black interior details), the plants/trees have in this case been deliberately scattered over the pictorial field. This of course affects their spatial relationship to the male figure, who is apparently meant to be walking among and not behind the extant vegetation, as was the case in the first hunting episode. The complete lack of ground lines and the staggering of levels on this specimen are perfectly consistent with mainland practices and Aegean spatial conventions (Lamb 1921–1923, 255; Lang 1969, 48; Immerwahr 1990, 122). According to the principles of vertical perspective, the male hunter walking among dense vegetation in the upper pictorial field would be moving in a different spatial dimension than the female figure below, presumably at a greater distance from the viewer. The lower pictorial field, featuring both the female figure and the outsized dog walking behind her, could be part of the narrative action taking place in the foreground, while the restored hunter behind and above the dog, partly overlapping the latter, is apparently moving in an intermediate spatial/narrative dimension, perhaps closer to that of the other hunter. The use of vertical perspective, the arrangement of

41

pictorial elements in a multitude of often overlapping levels, and disparity in scale has produced a densely populated canvas invoking a sense of horror vacui (Fig. 15; Lang 1969, 48; Morgan 1989, 149; 2000, 934; Immerwahr 1990, 122; Betancourt 2000, 360). The suggested differentiation in the intended time frame of the narrative unfolding in different pictorial fields is another point of interest. The narrative episode with a hunter making his way through dense vegetation, or even engaging with the prey in the upper part of the composition, lies farther ahead in the narrative sequence of events than the slow-moving activity depicted in the middle and lower parts of the composition, featuring a sedate pace and possibly a chariot group. The first hunting episode (WH F7) seems even farther away from the chase and the killing of the prey.

3.3.3. Vegetation (WH F10–WH F27) The West House material includes a considerable number of fragmentary specimens depicting vegetation (266 examples; WH F10–WH F23; Fig. 16; Pls. 6–9), with close iconographic and stylistic affinities to the floral elements attested in the two major hunting episodes (WH F7, WH F9; Figs. 14, 15). The relationship of a further five specimens (WH F24–WH F27b; Fig. 16; Pl. 10) to the main hunting sequence is rather tentative. To the first group belong two distinct sets of fragmentary specimens. One set, consisting of 46 fragments, depicts sections of 54 plants/trees, identical to the ones attested in the two hunting episodes (WH F7, WH F9; Figs. 14, 15). The other set, consisting of 220 fragments, depicts similar, but taller, sinuous plants. In both sets, the plants/trees were painted against the same bright blue background also encountered in the main hunting scene. Among the first set (WH F13–WH F15, WH F17–WH F23; Fig. 16; Pls. 7–9), three specimens (WH F13, WH F14, WH F21a; Fig. 16; Pls. 7, 9) preserve sections of five stemmed, leaf-like plants/ trees growing out of a white horizontal band, presumably serving as a ground line as in the first hunting episode (WH F7; Fig. 14). The overwhelming majority of the material (i.e., 43 specimens) depict 49 stemmed, leaf-like plants/trees, or

42

THE WALL PAINTINGS OF THE WEST HOUSE AT MYCENAE

rather parts of plants/trees (stems, leaves), without indication of a ground line. In most cases, this is probably due to the fragmentary nature of the material and individual specimens could have belonged to either episode (WH F7, WH F9). On one of the specimens (WH F18; Fig. 16; Pl. 8), the tips of two green, leaf-like plants, with interior veining, are associated with what seem to be the lower limbs of a white animal figure outlined in black, higher up to their left. The positioning of the surviving lower extremities of the animal figure implies that the animal in question was moving both above and among the extant vegetation, a layout closely associated with the syntax of the pictorial elements in the second hunting episode (WH F9; Fig. 15). On one of the remaining examples in the first set (WH F15; Fig. 16; Pl. 7), part of a shorter, extremely thin and stylized, long-stemmed, arrow-shaped plant is inserted in the narrow space between two regular leaf-like plants, an interesting variation on a familiar theme, possibly meant to illustrate the difference between plants and actual trees. Another fragment (WH F20b; Fig. 16; Pl. 8) preserves traces of red paint on the tip of a fragmentary leaf-like plant, while black paint was used both for the interior veining and for outlines, as on two of the plants in the second hunting episode. The same can be said for another, similar specimen (WH F20a; Pl. 8). On all the extant specimens, the plants/trees were rendered with the familiar, subdued green color, in most cases obtained by the superimposition of a blue coat of paint over a yellow undercoat, itself applied on the reserved, final coat of plaster (see Chs. 4.5, A.4.5). Quite a few examples (15) preserve traces of black veining on the interior of the plants (WH F15, WH F17, WH F18, WH F20, WH F21e, f, h–o, v, n, p, WH F23f, h; Fig. 16; Pls. 7–9), while two or three fragments (WH F20, WH F23d; Fig. 16; Pls. 8, 9) preserve traces of a black outline, also attested on some of the plants/trees in the second hunting episode (WH F9; Fig. 15). The differences in the height of the surviving plants on some of the specimens (WH F15, WH F18, WH F19; Fig. 16; Pls. 7, 8) are consistent with a similar disparity in the size of the extant vegetation in the two hunting episodes. Apart from the three specimens (WH F13, WH F14, WH F21a; Fig. 16; Pls. 7, 9) using the same iconographic formula as the first hunting episode

(i.e., stemmed, leaf-like plants growing out of a white ground line ca. 1.8 cm wide), and another specimen (WH F18; Fig. 16; Pl. 8), which seems closer to the second hunting episode, the remaining fragments preserve no real clues as to their original position in the overall composition (i.e., human or animal elements, evidence of a ground line). The specimens in the second set (WH F10–WH F12, WH F16; Fig. 16; Pls. 6, 7) include at least 12 plants and 212 fragments of plants. The bestpreserved specimen (WH F10; Fig. 16; Pl. 6) depicts the same type of landscape attested in the two hunting episodes, minus the human and animal element. The landscape is populated with an almost identical type of stemmed, leaf-like plant, painted in the same subdued green color, only in this case the stems are sinuous and the plants/trees seem to have been much taller than those attested in the two hunting episodes (max. pres. h. 15.4 cm). The sinuous curves of the stems reflect perhaps a more naturalistic treatment of the pictorial elements, or even a hint at the gentle movement of the plants in the wind, not apparent in the two hunting episodes or in the related fragments in the first set. Even though there is no way of knowing the density and the layout of the pictorial elements in the original composition, the iconography and the preserved size of the plants on this specimen, considerably larger than the restored plants in the two hunting episodes, suggest that it might have belonged to a different narrative episode of the hunt, populated with taller and denser vegetation. The human and/or animal figures participating in the action would have been inserted in the space above the extant plants/trees, as in the first hunting episode. Their absence from the narrow spaces between the extant vegetation was presumably deliberate. The differential height of the four plants on this specimen (WH F10; Fig. 16; Pl. 6) is consistent with the iconographic and contextual guidelines attested in the two hunting episodes, and was possibly related to the narrative sequence of events. The artist has in this case used a slightly modified iconographic formula, not only for the rendering of the plants/trees, but also for the rendering of the landscape, presumably for reasons related to the narrative context of the scene. The remaining five specimens in the second group (WH F24–WH F27; Fig. 16; Pl. 10), painted against the same bright blue background, feature a

THE WALL PAINTINGS

different type of vegetation bearing only a remote resemblance to the plants attested in the two hunting episodes. The better-preserved fragment (WH F24; Fig. 16; Pl. 10) preserves five white, vertical fronds decorated with red dots, at least three of which grow out of a single plant. A solid white, vertical element to their left, possibly meant to represent a tree, was also decorated with red dots. The meaning of the red horizontal, curving bands running across it and extending over the entire space between the two plants is still uncertain. The white fronds on the West House specimen have nothing in common with the short, conventionalised fronds depicted in the hunting episodes at Tiryns and Orchomenos (Fig. 17:b; Pl. 11:a–d; Rodenwaldt 1912, 122, 125, nos. 71, 72, 160, figs. 54, 55, pls. XI:2, 8, XIII; Spyropoulos 1973, pl. 213; 1974, figs. 7–9, 10:b; 2015, 364, figs. 11–14), and very little in common with the more stylized green and lavender fronds from the hunting scene at Pylos (Lang 1969, 128, nos. 5N43, 6N43, pl. 70). The solid red areas in the space between the two plants bear no resemblance to the red areas identified as the ground or rockwork at Mycenae and Pylos (Lamb 1921–1923, 159, pl. XXV:2; Lang 1969, 130, no. 12Nnws, pls. 74, H). The other four specimens (WH F25–WH F27; Pl. 10) depict sections of sinuous stems with traces of red paint applied over a white ground (WH F26, WH F27; Pl. 10) and sections of curvilinear areas, possibly parts of similar sinuous stems, with traces of yellow paint, again applied on a white ground (WH F25; Pl. 10). In two cases (WH F25, WH F26; Pl. 10), thin, stemmed leaves, rendered with red paint, are apparently growing out of the vegetation. Although there is no concrete evidence concerning the original narrative context of the plant life depicted on these specimens, and although the pictorial elements were actually painted over the blue background and had not been reserved on the final coat of plaster as was the case with the vegetation in the main hunting scene, there are some, albeit remote, similarities between the two groups. Apart from the blue background, common to both, the red paint used for the decoration of the plants, and for the thin stemmed leaves on these four specimens, is also attested, however marginally, in the rest of the vegetation from the hunting scene (WH F20; Fig. 16; Pl. 8). Moreover, the shape of

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the branch on one of these specimens (WH F26; Pl. 10) is very similar to the sinuous curves of the stems on some of the leaf-like plants in the rest of the material (WH F10; Fig. 16). This type of vegetation, vaguely reminiscent of the marshy landscape in the Tiryns and Orchomenos hunting scenes, could perhaps represent the background for the scene depicting the actual chase and the killing of the prey.

3.3.4. Legs/Feet of Male Figures (WH F28– WH F40) Apart from the two male hunters in the first hunting episode (WH F7; Fig. 14), and the hunter in the second hunting episode (WH F9; Fig. 15), there are a further 21 fragmentary specimens representing at least 15 male figures, which are only partly preserved (WH F28–WH F40); they are all wearing greaves and short, knee-length tunics. The 15 better-preserved male figures (WH F28–WH F39; Figs. 18, 19; Pls. 12–14) range between 18.7 cm and 19.3 cm in height. Considering the postdestruction history of the site, the absence of fragments depicting sections of the upper torso and the heads of the male figures is most likely an accident of survival. The vast majority of the identifiable, betterpreserved specimens (12 of 15), ca. 80% of the male figures (WH F28, WH F30–WH F32, WH F34–WH F38, WH F39b; Figs. 18, 19; Pls. 12– 14), seem to be facing left. In only three specimens (WH F29, WH F33, WH F39a; Figs. 18, 19; Pls. 12–14)—that is, in ca. 20% of the material—the extant figures are facing right, the same direction as the hunters in the two hunting episodes. On one of the better-preserved specimens (WH F28; Fig. 18; Pl. 12), the male figure facing left, is wearing a light blue/green tunic outlined in black and reaching to just above the knee. The light blue/ green color of the short tunic, an unusual choice for male dress, unattested at Orchomenos, is quite common at Tiryns (Fig. 17:h, j; Rodenwaldt 1912, 116–121, nos. 151, 153, 156, figs. 49, 50, pls. XI:5, XVII:1). At Thebes it was used for the long robes of the female figures walking in procession toward a seated female figure in a small-scale composition from the Spourlis plot (Kountouri 1999, 318;

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THE WALL PAINTINGS OF THE WEST HOUSE AT MYCENAE

2017, 452–453, figs. 1, 2). At Pylos it is used only twice for the garments of male figures, in the miniature male procession from the Inner Propylon (Lang 1969, 77, no. 35H2, pls. 25, 121, C) and on a fragment from the northwest slope depicting a negro (Lang 1969, 94, no. 59Hnws, pls. 44, 129, D). At Mycenae, light blue is used only once, on the tunic of one of the male figures in a specimen of LH IIIA:2 date discovered in the fill below the corridor of the neighboring House of the Oil Merchant (Fig. 21; Wace 1952, 14, pl. 9:a; 1958, 9, fig. 31; Cameron and Meyer 1995, 282; French 2002, 66, color pl. 10; Tournavitou 2012, 725, pl. CLXVI:a; 2015, 151, fig. 4). It was also used on the garments of the three female figures, goddesses/priestesses, from the Room with the Frescoes in the Cult Center (Fig. 12:c, d; Taylour 1969, 96–97, fig. 2, pl. X:a; 1970, 276– 277; 1983, 55, figs. 33, 35; French 1981, figs. 12– 14; Rehak 1984, 539–541, fig. 3; Marinatos 1988a, 245–247, figs. 1–3; Immerwahr 1990, 120–121, pls. 59–61; Rehak 1992, 43–53, pls. X:a, X:c, XII:a, XV:a, XVIII:a; French 2002, color pl. 12; Morgan 2005a, 166–168, fig. 10:5, pl. 24:b) and the buildings to the south, especially corridor M (KritseliProvidi 1982, 50, no. B21, pls. Δ:α, 9). The naked part of the thigh, where preserved (WH F28, WH F38, WH F40; Figs. 18, 19; Pls. 12, 14), was painted red, true to the prevailing convention for male flesh. All surviving male figures are clad in white greaves, with two sets of horizontally tied laces and crosshatched sandal-type shoes. In the vast majority of the extant fragments (17 of 23, or 73.91%), the outlines and the interior details of the greaves and the footgear are rendered with red paint, only six examples being painted black (6 of 23, or 26%). The greaves on the better-preserved specimens are rendered in a more or less uniform style, consistent with the mainland iconographic tradition used in both battle and hunting scenes (see WH F7). The curved upper edge of the greave, with the naked flesh of the thigh showing above, is attested on only three specimens (WH F28, WH F38, WH F40i; Figs. 18, 19; Pls. 12, 14). The greaves were secured with two sets of three or four laces tied below the knee and above the ankle, and were accompanied by crosshatched sandal-type shoes tied with strings at the ankle. The white color used for the greaves could be a pictorial convention for the depiction of leather (Lang 1969, 46), or a simple iconographic device for the enhancement of the

contrast between the covered part of the leg and the naked flesh above. The crosshatched, sandal-type shoes attested on all the West House specimens, including the male figures in the first hunting episode, seem to be the rule at Tiryns (Fig. 17:d; Rodenwaldt 1912, 110–112, 122, nos. 140–142, 160, figs. 47, 54, pls. XI:4, XIV:10, 12). At Pylos they are only attested in the hunting scene (Fig. 17:f; Lang 1969, 45–46, no. 21H48, pls. 15, 116, 122). Lines of musculature are attested on nine specimens representing approximately 10 male figures (WH F29, WH F30, WH F32, WH F35, WH F36, WH F40; Figs. 18, 19; Pls. 12–14). The muscles are rendered either as mildly curving lines between the upper and the lower set of laces (WH F29, WH F30, WH F32; Figs. 18, 19; Pls. 12, 13), as was the case at Pylos (Fig. 17:e, f; Lang 1969, 68, 70–71, nos. 16H43, 21H48, pls. 12, 15, 116, 121, 122, B) and Tiryns (Rodenwaldt 1912, 112–113, no. 143, pl. XIV:11), or as vertical lines, the lower end of which ends in a zigzag (WH F36; Fig. 19; Pl. 13), as was the case at Orchomenos (Bulle 1907, 74–79, pl. XXVIII:6; Spyropoulos 2015, 361, fig. 7). The former type is mostly, if not exclusively, associated with figures picked out with red paint. Male figures rendered with black paint have either the second type of line (WH F36; Fig. 19; Pl. 13) or no lines of musculature at all (WH F28, WH F33; Figs. 18, 19; Pls. 12, 13). Specimen WH F35 (Fig. 19; Pl. 13) is a hybrid. The vast majority of the figures on the extant specimens—12 to 13 of 15 examples (WH F28, WH F30, WH F32–WH F34, WH F36–WH F39; Figs. 18, 19; Pls. 12–14)—are painted against a blue background, devoid of any landscape information. Of the three remaining specimens (WH F29, WH F31, WH F35; Figs. 18, 19; Pls. 12, 13), two, rendered with red and black paint, respectively (WH F31, WH F35; Fig. 19; Pls. 12, 13), are facing left, and the third, rendered with red paint, is facing right (WH F29; Fig. 18; Pl. 12). Only one of the three (WH F31; Fig. 19; Pl. 12) is depicted among vegetation, a stemmed, leaf-like plant identical to the plants attested in the two hunting episodes. The male figure is apparently moving toward the left and away from the plant. The layout of the two pictorial elements betrays close contextual and compositional affinities with the second hunting episode, where the human element is moving among, and not above, dense vegetation. A similar

THE WALL PAINTINGS

iconographic formula is attested on two occasions in the Tiryns hunting scene (Rodenwaldt 1912, 120, 122, nos. 55, 60, fig. 54, pl. XIV:5). The second case (WH F35; Fig. 19; Pl. 13) is somewhat different, mostly because of the ambiguity concerning the identity of the white, thin vertical element to the left of the male figure. Judging by the size, the general form, and painting technique (mild relief), it is rather unlikely that it represented the stem of a plant. It is also unconvincing as a spear shaft, mostly because of its height. It would also imply the existence of another figure, lower down, holding an uncommonly tall upright shaft in a vertical position. Although as a divider it would be unique in Aegean wall painting, the interpretation of this fragment, closely related to the interpretation of other thin white elements also rendered in mild relief in the next section, is quite uncertain (see Ch. 3.3.5). The third specimen (WH F29; Fig. 18; Pl. 12) is exceptional. The male figure, facing right, appears to be standing on some kind of podium-like structure, presumably artificial, rendered in light blue paint and decorated with short black oblique strokes within a black and white border. Although internal markings on variously colored fabrics, either in the form of short black strokes or dots, are usually interpreted as indicative of animal skin (Figs. 17:e, j, 21; Rodenwaldt 1912, 16, 116–118, 120, nos. 21, 151, 155, fig. 49, pls. II:3, XI:5, XIV:5; Wace 1952, 14, pl. 9:a; 1958, 9, fig. 31; Lang 1969, 42, 66, 68, 71–72, 74–77, nos. 9H5, 16H43, 22H64, 31Hnws, 34H27, pls. 9, 12, 16, 22, 23, 25, 117, 116, 120, 121, A, B, M, N; Cameron and Meyer 1995, 282; French 2002, 66, color pl. 10; Tournavitou 2012, 725, pl. CLXVI:a), most of the surviving examples are associated with garments, which does not seem to be the case here. The precise nature of this structure is difficult to ascertain, considering that there are no real parallels in the extant pictorial corpus. Unfortunately, the only, albeit remote, parallel is contextually irrelevant to the West House specimen. The iconographical context of the human figure standing on a low rectangular podium on a LM IIIA:2/IIIB burial larnax from Klema in the Messara (Rethemniotakis 1995, figs. 4, 5) suggests a religious scene, probably the epiphany of a deity (Rethemniotakis 1995, 173–174, 181). On the West House specimen, the artist has presumably depicted the left leg of the male figure

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who has apparently just mounted the platform, with the right leg trailing behind, in the missing section of the composition (Fig. 18). The position of the male figure on this artificial podium might possibly identify him as an official or a high ranking member of the hunting party, possibly standing on higher ground to gain a better view of the prey or the situation at large. Finally, there are two specimens (WH F30, WH F39a; Fig. 19; Pls. 12, 14) featuring not one, but two male figures walking in the same or opposite directions. On the better-preserved fragment (WH F30), two male figures seem to be walking along toward the left. Both are wearing greaves and crosshatched, sandal-type shoes. One of the male figures, the one on the right, is apparently walking behind and ca. 4.0 cm above the other, the tip of his sandal practically touching the back of the calf of the figure walking ahead. Of the second figure only part of the left leg and foot has survived. Both figures are seemingly walking on thin air against a bright blue background devoid of landscape information. The scene was apparently organized in multiple levels, without ground lines, similarly to the two hunting episodes. The lack of ground lines, as attested on this specimen, is a fairly common practice in Mycenaean narrative scenes (Lamb 1921–1923, 255; Lang 1969, 25, 48; Immerwahr 1990, 122). The positioning of the second figure behind and above the first, would suggest that the two figures, drawn on the same scale and moving in the same direction, were apparently not walking in single file, the one on the right moving in a slightly different plane, behind but close to the better-preserved figure on the left. This could be another example of vertical perspective, according to which relative distance was conveyed by the positioning of the pictorial elements in the field, the elements farther away from the viewer being apparently depicted above or generally higher in the field (Iliakis 1978, 621; Morgan 1988, 12, 70– 71; Chapin 1995, 19, 44, 49, 52–53, 56, 70; Betancourt 2000, 360; Strasser 2010, 10–12). The other, very fragmentary specimen (WH F39a; Fig. 19; Pl. 14), preserves parts of two sandaled feet. The one on the right is apparently facing left, while the tip of what looks like another shoe at a lower level to the left, is facing right. If the latter was indeed the tip of a sandaled foot, this part of the composition would include two male figures,

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THE WALL PAINTINGS OF THE WEST HOUSE AT MYCENAE

apparently facing each other across the blue space serving as the background of the scene. The iconography of the hunt does not allow for this kind of interaction between human figures and it is therefore possible that this specimen belongs to a different narrative context. The vast majority of the best-preserved specimens in both color schemes (11 of 13, or 84.6%)— 12 out of the 15 identifiable male figures, and more specifically, nine out of the 10 specimens rendered with red paint, and three out of the four specimens rendered with black paint—seem to be facing left. It is only the three remaining specimens (WH F29, WH F33, WH F39a; Figs. 18, 19; Pls. 12–14), rendered with red and black paint, that seem to be moving in the same direction as the three extant male figures in the two hunting episodes. The choice of two different colors, red and black, used for the interior details of the footwear and for the outlines of the male figures, might signify the intention of the artist to make a visual statement relevant to the narrative sequence, an attempt to somehow differentiate the two groups of male hunters, possibly approaching the scene of the hunt from two different directions. This would be perfectly plausible if the two different colors had been consistently used for specimens facing toward the same direction, which is unfortunately not the case. It is also not the case at Tiryns, where both colors have been indiscriminately used for hunters facing in both directions (Rodenwaldt 1912, 110–113, 120, nos. 140– 143, 155, pls. XI:4, XIV:5, 10, 11, 12). At Pylos, all the extant male figures, irrespective of the direction in which they are facing, seem to have identical black outlines (Fig. 17:e, f; Lang 1969, 69–72, 76– 77, nos. 17H43, 21H48, 22H64, 34H27, pls. 13, 15, 16, 25, 116, 117, 122, A, B, M). The possibility that the fewer black specimens in the West House material belong to a different narrative context, although not entirely untenable, is rather unlikely considering the obvious stylistic and morphological similarities between the members of the two groups.

3.3.5. Spears (WH F41–WH F49) Quite apart from the rather unorthodox circumstances associated with the spears in the second hunting episode (WH F9; Fig. 15), the West House material includes nine more fragmentary

specimens featuring parts of 10 long, white spears and/or shafts painted against a blue background (WH F41–WH F49; Fig. 20; Pls. 14, 15), the majority of which (6 of 10, or 60%, WH F44–WH F49; Pl. 15) are only tentatively identified as such. Due to their fragmentary state almost no other pictorial elements are preserved on the extant specimens. It goes without saying that none of them are directly associated with human figures, male or female. Of the three better-preserved fragments (WH F41–WH F43; Fig. 20; Pls. 14, 15), depicting a total of four spears, only one specimen (WH F42; Fig. 20; Pl. 15) features a spear in action. A thin white spear is pointed at a solidly painted, yet impossible to identify, curvilinear area preserving faint traces of black paint on a white ground. The dappled white surface could possibly belong to an animal being stabbed with a spear, perhaps the missing prey, but the specimen is too fragmentary and the identification too uncertain. On the best-preserved specimen (WH F41; Fig. 20; Pl. 14), two white spears in a vertical, upright position (i.e., pointing upward) were painted next to a white, partly preserved rectangular border, probably serving as the upper left-hand corner of the pictorial panel. The border consists of two white bands, ca. 1.8–1.9 cm wide, meeting at right angles (Fig. 20; Pl. 14). The width of the betterpreserved upper border is consistent with other, albeit earlier, examples of borders at Mycenae (Lamb 1919–1921, 192–193, no. 4, pl. VII:4; Shaw 1996, pl. A:4). The blue area above the upper border suggests that there was yet another decorative panel above, probably featuring another episode of this or some other scene. The position of the spears in relation to the white border, ca. 1.10–1.15 cm from the left border and ca. 1.0 cm from the upper border, does not leave space for other pictorial elements in this section of the panel. The upright position of the spears suggests that unless they had been inserted into some kind of stand they were being held in this unusual, vertical position by two human figures, now missing. They would probably be holding them with one or both hands against their bodies instead of carrying them on their shoulders, as would be expected of hunters or soldiers on the move. The direction the figures would be facing cannot be ascertained. Judging by the single extant specimen

THE WALL PAINTINGS

depicting a dog facing a similar white border, of identical width (WH F50; Fig. 20; Pl. 16), they could have been facing either direction. Based on other Mycenaean paneled compositions, narrative action could be continuous despite the physical boundaries set by white borders, the end panel representing a full stop, or a semicolon in the narrative sequence, without overlapping of figures as was the case at Pylos (Fig. 17:e, g; Lang 1969, 68–69, 71–73, 107, nos. 12C43, 16H43, 17H43 [hunting scenes], 22H64, 24H64–26H64 [battle scenes], pls. 12, 13, 16, 18, 19, 50, 117, 121, 123, 124, 133, A, B, M, N). The proposed stationary pose of the imaginary male figures holding the spears is rare among extant specimens of spear-bearers on the mainland, be they hunters or warriors. In the vast majority of specimens, in both thematic categories, the spears are usually held at an angle against the shoulder of the male figures (Fig. 17:f, g, j; Rodenwaldt 1912, 5–8, 116–118, nos. 1, 151, fig. 49, pls. I:6, XI:5; Lang 1969, 69, 70, 73, nos. 17H43, 19H43, 20H43, 21H48, 26H64, pls. 13, 14, 15, 18, 116, 122, 123, B, M). Although the stylistic and morphological affinities of the West House specimen with the hunting scene are obvious, the overwhelming majority of the extant parallels are to be found in restored scenes of war as attested at Mycenae (Tsountas 1887, 164–168, pl. 11:1; Rodenwaldt 1911, 240–241, pl. XI:2; 1921, 24–27, no. 2, beilage I:2, 3), and Pylos (Lang 1969, 74, no. 29H64, pls. 21, 124). The possibility that the two white rectangular bands were not part of the panel border, as suggested, but rather architectural fixtures (columns or piers), and that the thin tapering elements within are the tips of white horns of consecration, has been considered and dismissed for various reasons. The comparison of the West House specimen to sections of miniature building facades with colonnaded porches, decorated with horns of consecration, from the Knossos palace, has demonstrated beyond any doubt the stylistic and functional inconsistencies between the two. Quite apart from the fact that horns of consecration are extremely rare in Mycenaean wall painting (Lang 1969, 135), the shape of the thin white elements on the West House specimen is not compatible with the shape of the miniature horns of consecration on Minoan paintings, or anywhere else for that matter. Moreover, the stylistic rendering of the white enclosing elements,

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columns, piers, or antae, is not consistent with Knossian prototypes (for fragments from the 13th magazine, see Evans 1921, 443, fig. 319; 1967, pl. V:1; Shaw 1996, 183–185, pl. 36:a; for Grandstand fresco, see Evans 1930, 46–65, pl. XVI; Cameron 1975, 69–70, fig. 11:a; Shaw 1996, 185–187, pl. 27). Architectural facades on the mainland, with or without columns and minus the horns of consecration, are mostly associated with battle scenes (Immerwahr 1990, 125), which is probably not the case here. This type of architectural facade, with elaborately mortised joints, has been attested in the battle scene from the throne room at Mycenae (Tsountas 1887, 164–168, pl. 11:1; Rodenwaldt 1911, 240–241, pl. XI:2; 1921, 24– 27, no. 2, pl. I:2, 3), the House of the Oil Merchant in the Lower Town (Wace 1958, 8–9, figs. 42, 43; Cameron and Meyer 1995, 283; Tournavitou 1995, 33–34, 280–281; 2012, 726, pl. CLXVI:c), and at Orchomenos in central Greece (Bulle 1907, 72–73, pl. XXVIII:1; Spyropoulos 2015, 366–367, fig. 23). Most of the betterpreserved specimens from the Inner Propylon at Pylos (Lang 1969, 131, 136–137, nos. 1A2, 2A2, pls. 75, 76, 136, I, R) are apparently part of the middle register of a Nautilus Wallpaper frieze, depicting shrine facades and animals (Lang 1969, 131) without decorative features between the columns/piers/antae. The exceptions, depicting an elaborate building facade with light blue or white horns of consecration between gray or dark red antae provided with black mortise joints (Lang 1969, 139–140, nos. 8A3, 9A3, pls. 77, 78, I, R), are incompatible with both the thin white elements on the West House specimen (shape, size) and with the stylistic rendering of the white border bands (color scheme, internal markings). The morphological similarity of the white borders to the boards of the large double windows in the Ramp House material depicting women looking out of windows, presumably onto the bull-leaping scene (Shaw 1996, 176–177, 180, color pls. A9, B3), is apparently superficial. Finally, although a building facade decorated with horns of consecration might have been, albeit remotely, related to the heraldic composition (WH F1; Figs. 9, 10; Pl. 2), its affinity to the main hunting scene is practically nonexistent and would be completely out of place in a hunting context. The third specimen (WH F43; Pl. 15), which depicts what seems to have been part of

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THE WALL PAINTINGS OF THE WEST HOUSE AT MYCENAE

another spear shaft, is devoid of any other pictorial information. The remaining specimens (WH F44–WH F49; Pl. 15) mostly depict sections of long thin vertical bands, ca. 0.2 cm wide, with no other identifying attributes. Three of these (WH F46–WH F48; Pl. 15) were rendered in mild relief, in the so-called impasto technique. Although incision was occasionally used on the mainland for the rendering of spears (Fig. 17:f, g; Lang 1969, 69, 70, 73, nos. 17H43, 19H43, 20H43, 21H48, 26H64, pls. 13–15, 18, 116, 122, 123, B, M), there are no precedents whatsoever for the use of relief. The three white, vertical bands could alternatively have served as structural elements of the composition as dividers between scenes or episodes. With the exception of WH F41 (Fig. 20; Pl. 14; two examples), WH F42 (Fig. 20; Pl. 15; one example), and WH F43 (Pl. 15; one example), and the possible exception of WH F44 and WH F49 (Pl. 15), which preserve faint traces of the pointed end of the shaft, there is no way of determining the orientation of the suggested spears. Finally, it is worth noting that, with the exception of the spears in the second hunting episode (WH F9; Fig. 15) and one other fragmentary example (WH F42; Fig. 20; Pl. 15), none of the extant specimens in this category can be associated with human or animal figures. Also, with the single exception of WH F42 and the examples in the second hunting episode WH F9, none of the spears are associated with real action and are therefore difficult to integrate into the hunting sequence. Moreover, the best-preserved and more or less securely identified specimens are depicted in a stationary, highly uncharacteristic position, which can only be associated with human figures serving as guards or accompanying a human or animal group. Both of these options are incompatible with the narrative context of the hunting scene.

3.3.6. Dogs (WH F50, WH F51) Dogs, a seemingly indispensable feature of mainland hunting scenes, are attested as early as LM I/Late Cycladic (LC) I in the miniature composition from the Northeast Bastion at Hagia Eirene on Kea (Abramowitz 1980, 62, 67, nos. 112, 113, pl. 6:d; Morgan 1990, 257–258; 1995b, 243; 1998, 204–205, fig. 7; Marinatos and Morgan

2005, 120–122, pl. 15:2) and in the Aegean-style wall paintings from Tell el Dab’a (Bietak 1995, pl. 4:1; Marinatos and Morgan 2005, 119–120, pl. 15:1; see also Ch. 3.3.1). Dogs also appear in all of the extant hunting scenes from the Mycenaean palatial centers on the mainland, including Orchomenos (Pl. 11:b–e; Spyropoulos 1973, pl. 213; 1974, 320, figs. 8, 9; 2015, 364, figs. 11–13), Tiryns (Fig. 17:b, d; Rodenwaldt 1912, 111, 113–116, 123, 125, 127–131, nos. 141, 145–150, 166, 167, 169, 177–183, figs. 47, 48, 55, pls. XI:3, XIII, XIV:6, 10), and Pylos (Fig. 17:f; Lang 1969, 70–71, 107, 108, nos. 12C43, 13C43, 14C43, 21H48, pls. 15, 50, 51, 116, 122, 133, M). At Mycenae, the only surviving specimen, depicting the snout of a red dog, is attested in the earlier LH IIIA:2 material from the west terrace of the House of the Oil Merchant (Cameron and Meyer 1995, 282, no. F004; Tournavitou 2012, 725, pl. CLXV:c; 2015, 151, fig. 3:b). Apart from the single white dog possibly walking behind a chariot group in the second hunting episode (WH F9; Fig. 15), the participation of dogs in the hunting scene is corroborated by two more fragments (WH F50, WH F51; Fig. 20; Pl. 16). On the best-preserved specimen (WH F50), a white dog, painted against the familiar blue background, is facing left toward a wide vertical border (ca. 1.8–1.9 cm wide), probably serving as the left edge of this particular pictorial panel. The dog, of which only the head and part of the neck and chest are preserved, has raised, pointed ears and a halfopen mouth. Except for the outlines for the eye and the mouth, no other interior features or outlines are preserved apart from the red collar at the neck outlined in black. On the smaller, more fragmentary specimen (WH F51), only part of the head of the dog is preserved. This animal, also facing left, was probably white with black spots. Both specimens seem to be facing the opposite direction from the dog in the second hunting episode. Both dogs seem to belong to the same breed attested in hunting scenes and decorative animal friezes at Pylos (Fig. 17:f; Lang 1969, 70–71, 107–108, 119–122, nos. 21H48, 12C43, 14C43, 38C64, 39C64, 40C64, 41C64, pls. 15, 50, 51, 62–67, 116, 122, 133, 137, G, P), Tiryns (Fig. 17:b, d; Rodenwaldt 1912, 111, 114, 128, nos. 141, 146, 147, 180, figs. 47, 55, pls. XI:3, XIII, XIV:6, 10), and Orchomenos (Pl. 11:b–e; Spyropoulos 1973, pl. 213; 1974, 320, figs. 8, 9; 2015, 361, fig. 8, 364, figs. 11–13). The single fragmentary

THE WALL PAINTINGS

specimen in the second hunting episode presumably also belongs to the same breed. Despite the overall similarities in the general appearance of the animals, the two Mycenae West House specimens display morphological idiosyncrasies, not attested in the dogs from the other palatial centers. Although the heads of the two dogs seem to have a more squared, less elongated and, on the whole, a less eloquent profile than most of the animals attested at Tiryns and Pylos, the closest parallels as regards the general profile, irrespective of size, are to be sought among the Orchomenos, the Tiryns, and the Pylos material (Fig. 17:b; Pl. 11:d, e; Rodenwaldt 1912, 128, no. 180, fig. 55, pls. XI:3, XIII; Lang 1969, 119–121, nos. 38C64, 39C64, pls. 62–65, G, P; Spyropoulos 1973, pl. 213; 1974, 320– 321, fig. 9; 2015, 361, fig. 8). The other breed represented at Orchomenos (Pl. 11:b; Spyropoulos 1973, pl. 213; 2015, 364, fig. 13), Tiryns (Fig. 17:d; Rodenwaldt 1912, 114, nos. 146, 147, fig. 47, pl. XIV:6), and especially at Pylos (Fig. 17:f; Lang 1969, 70–71, 108, nos. 21H48, 13C43, pls. 15, 51, 116, 122, M) is not entirely compatible with the West House specimens. Two of the West House specimens (WH F9, WH F50; Figs. 15, 20; Pls. 5, 16) seem to have plain white coats, attested as early as LM/LH I in the miniature composition from Hagia Eirene on Kea (Abramovitz 1980, 61, 67, nos. 112, 113, pl. 6:d; Morgan 1998, 204–205, fig. 7; Marinatos and Morgan 2005, 120–122, pl. 15:2) and later at Pylos (Fig. 17:f; Lang 1969, 70–71, 107, nos. 21H48, 12C43, pls. 15, 50, 116, 122, 133). At Tiryns, only one of the hunting dogs is white (Rodenwaldt 1912, 128, no. 181). Faint traces of black paint on the head of the smaller fragment (WH F51; Fig. 20; Pl. 16) may imply the spotted type of dog already attested at Tell el Dab’a (Bietak 1995, pl. 4:1; Marinatos and Morgan 2005, 119–120, pl. 15:1) and later at Tiryns (Fig. 17:b, d; Rodenwaldt 1912, 111, 113, 114, 127– 129, nos. 141, 145–150, 177–183, figs. 47, 48, 55, pls. XI:3, XIV:6, 10, XIII). The red collar on the larger specimen (WH F50) is consistent with the pictorial formula attested not only in Mycenaean hunting scenes at Pylos (Fig. 17:f; Lang 1969, 70–71, 119–121, nos. 21H48, 38C64, 39C64, pls. 15, 62–65, 116, 122, G, P), Tiryns (Fig. 17:b, d; Rodenwaldt 1912, 114, 128, nos. 146, 147, 178–180, figs. 47, 55, pls. XI:3, XIII, XIV:6), and Orchomenos (Pl. 11:d, e; Spyropoulos 1973, pl. 213; 1974, 320–321, fig. 9; 2015, 361, 364, figs. 8, 12), but

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as early as LM/LH I in the Aegean-style wall paintings from Tell el Dab’a (Bietak 1995, pl. 4:1; Marinatos and Morgan 2005, 119–120, pl. 15:1). The collar seems to imply that the dogs were, initially at least, led to the hunt by human handlers. Faint traces of orange paint in front of the chest of the larger specimen are probably preliminary sketches gone wrong. Contrary to the rule at both Pylos and Tiryns, none of the Mycenae specimens preserve traces of an outline, except in the area of the mouth and the eyes. Black paint, now extremely fugitive, was probably used for the rendering of the eyes and other interior features. The eyes, simply drawn ovals or triangles rendered with black paint, do not have stylistic or morphological affinities with the much more sophisticated brushwork at Orchomenos (Pl. 11:b, d, e; Spyropoulos 1973, pl. 213; 1974, 320, fig. 9; 2015, 361, 364, figs. 8, 12, 13), Tiryns (Fig. 17:b; Rodenwaldt 1912, 128, no. 180, fig. 55, pls. XI:3, XIII), and Pylos (Fig. 17:f; Lang 1969, 70–71, 119– 121, nos. 21H48, 38C64, 39C64, pls. 15, 62–65, 116, 122, G, P). The closest parallel is one of the specimens from Tiryns (Fig. 17:d; Rodenwaldt 1912, 114, nos. 146, 147, fig. 47, pl. XIV:6). All three dogs, apparently walking at a sedate pace, have raised, pointed ears, a feature also encountered in the dog following a chariot group from Orchomenos (Pl. 11:e; Spyropoulos 1973, pl. 213; 2015, 361, fig. 8) and in the life-sized dogs from Hall 64 at Pylos (Lang 1969, 119–121, nos. 38C64, 39C64, pls. 62–65, G, P). The ears were apparently painted over the blue background instead of being reserved along with the rest of the animal’s body (see Ch. 4.5). With the exception of the West House specimens and the single example from Orchomenos (Pl. 11:e), all the other dogs associated with hunting scenes are shown with ears folded back, irrespective of the narrative context. Folded ears would indeed make perfect sense for animals in a quiet mood, minding their handlers, or running after the prey, as is the case at Orchomenos (Pl. 11:b, d; Spyropoulos 1973, pl. 213; 1974, 320, fig. 9; 2015, 364, figs. 12, 13) and Tiryns (Fig. 17:b; Rodenwaldt 1912, 128, no. 180, fig. 55, pls. XI:3, XIII). The significance of the raised ears in all three West House specimens, on the other hand, is probably associated with an incipient change of mood in the animals, possibly restlessness, anticipating the imminence of the chase; and yet, all three canines are apparently strolling, not yet implicated

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in real action. The mouths of the two fragmentary specimens are half open, the animal on the smaller specimen almost snarling, perhaps because of the proximity of the prey or of other dogs. Seen in this light, the open mouths of the two animals, unlike the dog following the female figure in the second hunting episode (WH F9; Fig. 15), could be an indication that they had already started barking at the prospect of the chase and were only moments from pulling at their leashes. Half-open mouths are a regular feature among the extant specimens at Pylos (Fig. 17:f; Lang 1969, 70–71, 119–121, nos. 21H48, 38C64, 39C64, pls. 15, 62–65, 116, 122, G, P), all of them stationary or walking sedately, but not among the Tiryns material (Fig. 17:b, d; Rodenwaldt 1912, 114, 128, nos. 146, 180, figs. 47, 55, pls. XI:3, XIII, XIV:6) or at Orchomenos (Pl. 11:b, d, e; Spyropoulos 1973, pl. 213; 1974, 320–321, fig. 9; 2015, 361, 364, figs. 8, 12, 13). Although the relative scale of the three dogs (WH F9: 13.5 cm; WH F50: 12.5 cm; WH F51: 11.7 cm), in respect to the surviving male figures (WH F7: 20.8 cm; WH F9: 19.4 cm; WH F28, WH F29: 18.7 cm; WH F30: 19.3 cm), is quite unrealistic (two-thirds of the restored height of the surviving human figures), it is still less exaggerated than the scale of some of the specimens at Pylos (Lang 1969, 98). The relative scale of the dogs in respect to the female figure in the second hunting episode (WH F9; Fig. 15), possibly on a chariot, is a whole different matter (see Ch. 3.3.2). Finally, it is worth noting that although the two best-preserved dogs in the West House material are facing left (WH F50, WH F51; Fig. 20), similarly to the vast majority of the extant male figures discussed above, and most of the horses and chariot groups to be discussed below, they are not directly associated with any of the human figures taking part in the action. The only dog directly associated with the hunting scene (WH F9; Fig. 15) is facing right, similarly to the other human figures in the same episode.

3.3.7. Male Figure Bearing a Load (WH F52, WH F53) The male figure, of which only the head and the upper half of the body is preserved, is rendered in profile to the left (WH F52; Fig. 21; Pl. 17), with a

restored height of ca. 19 cm (18.75 cm). The man is carrying a thick white pole outlined in black, which is resting at an angle on his left shoulder and is held with both hands in front of his chest. From the end of the pole hangs an indeterminate white object with black interior markings, possibly indicating animal hide but too fragmentary for identification. The male figure walking sedately to the left, is, judging by the curve of his neck and back, slightly bent forward, apparently weighed down by the load suspended from the end of the white pole leaning on his left shoulder. The face, neck, and hands of the male figure are rendered with red paint, applied over a white ground (Fig. 21; Pl. 17). The face, like the rest of the figure, was originally outlined in black. The mildly articulated profile, featuring a gentle curve from forehead to nose and a rather blunt nose curve, is stylistically much closer to attested profiles from the palace area at Mycenae itself (Rodenwaldt 1911, 239, 241, nos. 10, 15b, pls. X:1, XI:3) and from the LH IIIA:2 and LH IIIB:1 pictorial material in the House of the Oil Merchant (Fig. 21; LH IIIA:2: Wace 1952, 14, pl. 9:a; 1958, 9, fig. 31; Cameron and Meyer 1995, 282; French 2002, 66, color pl. 10; Tournavitou 2012, 725, pl. CLXVI:a; LH IIIB:1: Wace 1958, fig. 43; Cameron and Meyer 1995, 283) than to most of the extant profiles from Tiryns (Rodenwaldt 1912, 5–10, 116–119, nos. 1, 5, 151, 152, pls. I:4, 6, XI:5, 6). Those from Tiryns are much more articulated, with a more pronounced nose and a different physiognomy. Most of the Pylos specimens (Fig. 17:f, g) also display more carelessly drawn physiognomies, with more pronounced noses and less pronounced foreheads (Lang 1969, 69–74, nos. 18H43, 21H48, 22H64, 26H64, 29H64, pls. 13, 15, 16, 18, 21, 116, 117, 122–124, A, B, M). The faint traces of black paint around the back of the head, probably indicating hair, are extremely fugitive (Pl. 17) and have been reconstructed on the basis of widely attested stereotypes (Fig. 17:f; Lang 1969, 69–71, nos. 18H43, 21H48, pls. 13, 15, 116, 122, B). The eye, although rendered in the conventional manner with applied white and black paint, the latter for the outline and the iris, seems larger, finer, and more articulated than the respective small-scale specimens at Tiryns (Fig. 17:j; Rodenwaldt 1912, 5–9, 116–119, nos. 1, 5, 151, 152, fig. 49, pls. I:4, 6, XI:5, 6) and Pylos (Fig. 17:f, g; Lang 1969, 69–75,

THE WALL PAINTINGS

nos. 18H43, 21H48, 22H64, 26H64, 31Hnws, pls. 13, 15, 16, 18, 22, 23, 116, 117, 122, 123, A, B, M, N). The closest parallels are to be found at Orchomenos (Pl. 11:f; Spyropoulos 1974, 320–321, color pl. II:a–c; 2015, 364, figs. 15, 17, 18) and at Mycenae itself, both in the palace area (Rodenwaldt 1911, 232– 233, 239, nos. 1, 10, pl. X:1, 3) and outside the walls in the neighboring House of the Oil Merchant (Fig. 21; Wace 1952, 14, pl. 9:a; 1958, 9, fig. 31; Cameron and Meyer 1995, 282; French 2002, 66, color pl. 10; Tournavitou 2012, 725, pl. CLXVI:a). The rendering of the eyes on the west slope specimens, dated to the 13th century b.c., are more delicately drawn, in a slightly different style (Kritseli-Providi 1982, 28–33, 73–76, nos. A6, Γ1, fig. 8, pls. B:a, b, 2:a, 24). Our male specimen is probably wearing the customary knee-length tunic, donned by hunters and warriors in all the major palatial sites, which is in this case rendered with yellow paint and decorated with largish black dots, possibly imitating animal skin. Warriors and grooms in the battle scene from the area of the palace and from the “Pithos area” are also clad in short, albeit white, tunics, decorated with diagonal dotted lines (Rodenwaldt 1911, 240–241, nos. 15.a, 15.b, pl. X:2.1). The idol from the west slope (Kritseli-Providi 1982, 41–42, no. B2, pl. 6:a) is apparently clad in a yellow tunic decorated with red dot-rosettes. At Tiryns, although yellow tunics are associated with hunters in both the old and the new palace material (Fig. 17:d; Rodenwaldt 1912, 5–8, 110–111, 140, no. 1, fig. 47, pls. I:6, XI:4), there are only two specimens with dark marks, albeit against a light blue/ violet background (Fig. 17:j; Rodenwaldt 1912, 116–118, 120–121, nos. 151, 156, fig. 49, pls. XI:5, XVII:1). Lang, when discussing the hunting and battle scenes from the palace at Pylos, comments on the significance of white tunics/skirts with black markings as representing beast skins (Lang 1969, 42, 46). She specifically mentions two examples, the “Hunter and the Stag” (Fig. 17:e) from Room 43, where the hunter aiming at a stag is wearing a white tunic with black spots against a tan background (Lang 1969, 42, 68, no. 16H43, pls. 12, 121, B), and the so-called Tarzans from the plaster dump in the northwest slope, who are wearing the “applied white beastskin garments” with red markings painted against a blue background (Lang 1969, 74–75, no. 31Hnws, pls. 22, 23, 116, B, N). Oddly, she does not include

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in this discussion the single robed male figure, part of the procession in the vestibule of the main building, wearing a white garment with brown dots (Lang 1969, 66, 67, nos. 9H5, 10H5, pls. 7, 9, 120). It should be noted that none of the yellow robes or tunics at Pylos bore any markings. A further six non-joining specimens (WH F53; Pl. 17) seem to belong to the same section of the composition (parts of the hands and the tunic of the male figure). It is perhaps not a coincidence that the only close parallel, depicting an almost identical scene, was discovered below the floor of the corridor in the basement of the House of the Oil Merchant, clearly antedating the LH IIIB:1 building (Fig. 21; Wace 1952, 14, pl. 9:a; 1958, 9, fig. 31; Cameron and Meyer 1995, 282; French 2002, 66, color pl. 10; Tournavitou 2012, 725, pl. CLXVI:a; 2015, 151, fig. 4). It portrays a male figure in profile, identified as a “porter” carrying a sedan chair, which is attached on a white horizontal pole resting on his right shoulder and held with both hands in front of his chest. The male figure, which is also facing left, is wearing greaves and a knee-length yellow spotted tunic, identical to that worn by the male figure on our specimen. Below and to the left of the first figure is depicted another male figure, in a light blue, spotted tunic moving to the left. Despite the obvious similarities between the two pieces, both in terms of the pictorial formula used and many of the stylistic details, the two fragments are not identical. The pole in the West House specimen is drawn at a steeper angle, which suggests that the weight carried by the male figure was presumably lighter than the weight carried by the figure in the earlier House of the Oil Merchant example, who might have had a partner holding the other end of the pole, as was suggested for the hunter in the Hagia Eirene miniature composition. The male figure in the West House specimen is possibly a member of the hunting party carrying provisions for the hunt, or on the return journey carrying one of the spoils of the hunting expedition. Similar figures, in both processional and hunting scenes, are attested as early as LM/LC I. The helmeted hunter in the miniature composition from Hagia Eirene on Kea, carrying a spear diagonally over one shoulder and a pole balanced horizontally on the other, from which dangles a “large brown crescent-shaped object,” probably a dead deer, is also generically similar, although the angle

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of the pole was in this case presumably different, and a second hunter has been restored as holding the other end of the pole (Abramovitz 1980, 61, 65, no. 83, pl. 5:a; Morgan 1990, 257–258; 1998, 204; Marinatos and Morgan 2005, 120). Another hunter was apparently carrying what looks like a haunch of slaughtered deer over his shoulder (Abramovitz 1980, 69). Although both these specimens trace the connection between hunting and male figures carrying loads back to the Neopalatial period in the Cyclades, a similar pictorial formula, dated in the mature Mycenaean period, was apparently used in the fragment with the ass-headed genii from the Mycenae Cult Center (Pl. 24; Tsountas 1887, 160– 162, pl. 10:1; Immerwahr 1990, 121, 192, no. 8). Probably part of the same milieu is another fragmentary specimen, from the Vlachos plot at 60 Niovis Street in Argos (Pl. 17; Deilaki 1973c; Tournavitou and Brecoulaki 2015, 228–229, fig. 8), depicting the top end of a white carrying pole or stick decorated with red dots, presumably held at shoulder level by a human figure, now missing, against a bright yellow background. What looks like a bag or vessel, with a red monochrome interior outlined in white, is hanging from the pole. In this case the figure holding the pole would be walking sedately toward the left. Preserved behind the missing figure is what might be tentatively identified as an oversized animal, also facing left, now largely unrecognizable. If the iconography on this specimen had anything to do with hunting, as the animal figure to the right seems to imply, despite the lack of landscape information, the theme of a human figure carrying a pole can be tentatively integrated into the mainland pictorial hunting iconography. In the miniature composition from Hagia Eirene, Abramovitz identifies at least 19 processional male figures in long white, himation-type garments, some carrying offerings suspended from long red poles (Abramovitz 1980, 58–59, 64, nos. 66, 68, pl. 4:c; Morgan 1990, 257, fig. 4; 1998, 204; 2005b, 29). Male figures, mostly soldiers, carrying poles or spears with attached bags, skins, or containers with provisions are commonly attested in pictorial vase painting (Furumark 1941 [1972], 240, no. 35; see also Vermeule and Karageorghis 1982, 217, 222, 130–132, nos. X:30, XI:42, XI:44; Sakellarakis 1992, 21–23, 36–37, nos. 6 [LH IIIB:2], 30, 32 [LH IIIC Middle]). In glyptic art, there are only two examples, depicted in a rather schematic

manner. In both cases the objects hanging from the poles are pots, with the poles balanced horizontally on both shoulders of the male figures involved, most probably in a very different narrative context (CMS XI, no. 122; CMS VI.2, no. 44). In both cases the male figures are naked or else their garments are not indicated.

3.3.8. Horses (WH F54–WH F65) The material from the West House includes a considerable number of fragmentary specimens depicting approximately 13 or 14 horses (WH F54–WH F65), at least three of which have been tentatively identified as such (WH F61–WH F63; Fig. 24; Pl. 20). The remaining 12 fragments (WH F54, WH F56–WH F60, WH F64, WH F65) feature approximately nine to 10 animals, drawn at two different scales. The vast majority of the betterpreserved examples (WH F54, WH F56–WH F60; Frontispiece; Figs. 22–24; Pls. 18–20), representing at least seven or eight animals in total, were drawn at a more or less uniform scale. With one exception (WH F57; Fig. 23; Pl. 19), restored to a height of 20.5 cm, the height of the remaining specimens range between 27/28 cm and 30.0/31.4 cm. The horses in the other two examples (WH F64, WH F65; Fig. 25; Pl. 21) are considerably larger in size (ca. 40 cm in height) and stylistically different from the majority of the extant specimens. Both sets of animals were painted against the same bright blue background. The vast majority of the horses belonging to the first group (WH F54, WH F56–WH F59; Frontispiece; Figs. 22, 23; Pls. 18, 19), ca. six to seven animals, are facing and possibly moving toward the left. Only in one case (WH F60; Fig. 24; Pl. 20), the four fragmentary specimens possibly belonging to the same horse, seem to be facing right. Considering that none of the extant specimens preserves any evidence of riders and that all of them preserve evidence of harnessing, either on the body itself or in the form of reins or polestays (WH F57, WH F58; Fig. 23; Pl. 19) or both (WH F54; Frontispiece; Fig. 22; Pl. 18), it seems that they were all animals originally yoked to chariots, presumably in pairs as exemplified in the bestpreserved specimen (WH F54).

THE WALL PAINTINGS

The two animals on WH F54 (Frontispiece; Fig. 22; Pl. 18) could probably be described as the bestpreserved pair of horses in Aegean wall painting. The composition includes a pair of horses, as indicated by the four extant front legs, harnessed and yoked to a chariot. Both the horses and the chariot, which was not identified among the extant material, were apparently facing left. The two horses are walking at a sedate pace on a white band, ca. 1.5– 1.6 cm wide, presumably serving as the ground line. The band serves the same purpose as the slightly wider, white horizontal band (ca. 1.8 cm wide) serving as a ground line for the stemmed, leaf-shaped plants/trees in the first hunting episode (WH F7; Fig. 14). This and two other colored bands (blue and red, respectively) seem to have formed the lower border of the composition (Fig. 22; Pl. 18). Judging by the presumed height of the three-band border below the pictorial panel (ca. 4.9–5.2 cm wide), which would have been presumably repeated on the other long side (ca. 9.8–10.4 cm for both borders), and by the restored height of the pictorial panel itself (ca. 27/28–30/31 cm wide), the original height of the entire frieze would have ranged between 39.8 and 41.4 cm. The restored height of this frieze is close to the suggested height of the Tiryns chariot composition (Fig. 17:a; Rodenwaldt 1912, 97, fig. 40, pl. XII), but considerably larger than the chariot frieze from the Processional Way on the west slope of the acropolis at Mycenae (Kritseli-Providi 1982, 90–91, no. Δ1, pl. 27, height of pictorial panel: 22 cm). Similar compositions with chariot groups being driven on a ground line depicted as a white band, or as a series of multicolored bands, are quite common in narrative compositions, both at Mycenae (for the palace area, see Rodenwaldt 1911, 232– 233, no. 1, pl. XI:1; for the west slope, see KritseliProvidi 1982, 90–91, no. Δ1, pl. 27), and Tiryns (Fig. 17:a; Rodenwaldt 1912, 97–109, nos. 113–124 [chariot parts], 125–131 [horses], 132–135 [female figures], 136–139 [trees], fig. 40, pl. XII). A similar set of two colored bands (blue and white) is attested below the chariot groups on the two short sides of the Hagia Triada sarcophagus (Long 1974, 29–32, 54–60, figs. 18, 26, 73, 75, pls. 7, 11, 25, 27). The tinted chestnut hue on the body of the horse in the foreground of the West House specimen (Frontispiece; Fig. 22; Pl. 18) was apparently obtained by the superimposition of a coat of red paint over an underlying coat of yellow paint, itself

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applied on a reserved white ground. The second pair of front legs is white. In contrast to the first pair of hooves on the left, which tread more or less firmly on the ground line, the second pair of hooves is shown in the act of being raised from the ground, which suggests that the two animals were walking sedately. Although the overall quality of the painting is excellent, it should be noted that the pair of hooves in the background (on the left) are drawn more carelessly than the other pair (Frontispiece; Pl. 18). The harnessing, cheek strap, yoke, girth, and loop are rendered with light blue paint applied over a white ground and decorated with white dots in mild relief (impasto technique; Fig. 22; Pl. 18). The polestay is rendered with red paint, again applied over a white ground, and the one set of reins, originally incised, was probably painted white. Three further fragments depicting parts of successive horizontal white, blue, and red bands (WH F55; Pl. 18) probably belong to the same composition. The chestnut/red used for the body of the horse is a familiar choice at both Mycenae and Tiryns (Fig. 17:d; Tsountas 1887, 164–168, pl. 11:2–5; Rodenwaldt 1911, 241, pl. X:1; 1912, 11–13, 103– 104, nos. 8, 13, 14, 125, fig. 47, pls. II:1, 4, XIV:3; Lamb 1921–1923, 164–165, pl. XXVII). An unspecified number of legs and hooves of tan-colored horses, apparently found in a plaster dump to the southwest of the main building, are among the closest parallels at Pylos (Lang 1969, 75–76, no. 32Hsw, pls. 24, C). The combination of a red and a white horse, the former in the foreground, is attested at Tiryns (Fig. 17:d; Rodenwaldt 1912, 103–104, no. 125, fig. 47, pl. XIV:3) and possibly at Mycenae in the chariot scene decorating the bottom end of the Processional Way (Kritseli-Providi 1982, 90– 91, no. Δ1, pl. 27). The use of differently colored hooves/legs to indicate the number of horses involved is another familiar convention, also attested at Tiryns (Rodenwaldt 1912, 104, nos. 128, 129). The elaborate harnessing of the horse, depicted in amazing detail (Fig. 22; Pl. 18), although unparalleled on the mainland, was presumably in tune with the finer artistic tradition of the big centers. Similar, but more fragmentary and not as elaborate examples are attested at both Mycenae and Tiryns, including the decorative bow and the dotted decoration on the harnessing (Fig. 17:d; Rodenwaldt 1911, 241, pl. X:1; 1912, 10–11, 103–104, nos.

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7, 125, fig. 47, pls. II:6, XIV:3). The color combination, blue bands with white dots, is only attested once at Tiryns (Rodenwaldt 1912, 105, no. 131, fig. 44). The depiction of the polestay is also rare on the mainland, preserved only on a couple of specimens from Tiryns where it was placed extremely close to the horse’s back (Fig. 17:a; Rodenwaldt 1912, 99, no. 119, fig. 40, pls. XI:11, XII, and possibly in 99, 100, nos. 118, 121, pl. XVII:3); at Pylos it is omitted altogether (Fig. 17:g; Lang 1969, 73, no. 26H64, pls. 18, 123). Finally, although the standard depiction of a two-horse chariot should normally include two sets of reins, the abbreviated version of one set of reins for both horses, as attested on the West House specimen (Fig. 22), is apparently also encountered at Pylos where the polestay is omitted altogether (Fig. 17:g; Lang 1969, 73, no. 26H64, pls. 18, 123) and in a number of seals (Fig. 25:a–c; CMS I, no. 230; CMS V.2, no. 585; CMS V, Suppl. 3.2, nos. 244, 391; CMS II.6, no. 260). The reins, ca. 1.9–2.4 cm above the horse’s back and 0.8–1.4 cm above the polestay, were apparently joined in the West House specimen some distance behind the neck of the horses, a unique occurrence in the mainland corpus. The lavish decoration of the horses, and by extension of the chariot group, suggests that they were something of a showpiece, a splendidly decorated vehicle, presumably one of a series meant to function as a public statement for the organizers of the hunting party. The chariots could very well be part of a procession signaling the commencement or the victorious return from a successful hunt and/ or battle. The sedate pace of the horses does not affect this interpretation either way. In the remaining specimens, the colors used for the bodies of the horses are limited to two choices: the same combination of red over yellow with the familiar tinted chestnut hue (WH F56, WH F57, WH F62, WH F63; Figs. 23, 24; Pls. 19, 20) and black (WH F58, WH F60, and possibly WH F59; Figs. 23, 24; Pls. 19, 20). In the best-preserved pair of horses (WH F54; Frontispiece; Fig. 22; Pl. 18), the far sided horse was painted white. Black horses are apparently quite popular in mainland narrative scenes, both at Mycenae (see Rodenwaldt 1911, 240–241, nos. a, b, pl. X:1, 2; Lamb 1921–1923, 164–165, pl. XXVII) and Tiryns (Rodenwaldt 1912, 10–12, 104–105, nos. 7, 9, 13, 130, fig. 41, pl. II:1, 6). At Pylos, in the few surviving specimens

depicting horses, the latter are mostly white with black outlines, and only a few specimens from the southwest slope are painted black (Lang 1969, 75– 76, no. 32Hsw, pls. 24, C). The hooves, where preserved, were painted yellow. The body harnessing attested on these specimens (WH F56, WH F59, WH F60; Figs. 23, 24; Pls. 19, 20) consists of two different types, featuring two different color schemes, according to the coloring of the animal: light blue strips/bands decorated with reserved white dots in mild relief (WH F56; Fig. 23; Pl. 19), as attested in the best-preserved specimen (WH F54; Frontispiece; Fig. 22; Pl. 18), with the animals painted in the same tinted chestnut hue and all four examples facing left, and red strips/bands outlined in black and decorated with reserved white dots and light blue accessory stripes, attested only on horses with black bodies and facing in different directions (WH F59, WH F60; Figs. 23, 24; Pls. 19, 20). On two of the specimens (WH F57, WH F58; Fig. 23; Pl. 19) there were no traces of body harness. Both types of body harnessing are elaborately, even intricately styled and were presumably meant for formal occasions, in the context of organized, high maintenance hunting expeditions or some other kind of ritualized procession, religious or secular. Similarly adorned chariot groups are attested at Tiryns among the old palace material (Rodenwaldt 1912, 10–11, 12–13, nos. 7, 14, pl. II:4, 6) and on a number of pictorial vases (Vermeule and Karageorghis 1982, 216, X:16, X:20; also Sakellarakis 1992, 42–43, no. 47). The rest of the harnessing gear—the reins and the polestay—are not attested on all of the extant specimens. The most complete set is attested on the best-preserved pair (WH F54; Frontispiece; Fig. 22; Pl. 18). Reins, rendered with white or red paint, are also attested on a specimen depicting part of a horse, with the same tinted, chestnut color (WH F57; Fig. 23; Pl. 19). In this case, the distance between the lower band and the back of the horse, ca. 0.25–0.30 cm, is considerably larger than that of the polestay on the best-preserved specimen (WH F54; Frontispiece; Fig. 22; Pl. 18), and although it widens out at the junction with the neck of the horse, as it should, it reaches too high on the neck of the animal, which suggests that it might have represented not the polestay but one of the two extant reins. The other band, also

THE WALL PAINTINGS

0.20–0.25 cm wide, ca. 1.40–2.25 cm above the back of the horse, and 0.45–0.60 cm from the lower band, represents the second rein. Both reins are sagging above the slightly concave curve of the horse’s back at this point. The suggested absence of a polestay from this horse/pair of horses is neither unreasonable nor a unique occurrence in Mycenaean iconography (Fig. 17:g; Lang 1969, 73, no. 26H64, pls. 18, 123). On the other example (WH F58; Fig. 23; Pl. 19), the lower band, ca. 0.3–0.4 cm wide judging by the distance from the back of the horse (ca. 0.3– 0.4 cm), could be part of the polestay, and the other, thinner band above, ca. 0.25–0.30 cm wide and ca. 1.40–1.65 cm above the back of the horse, could represent one of the two reins, rendered with fugitive red paint. The distance of the two bands from the back of the horse, and from each other, restored as the polestay and one of the reins, is fairly consistent with the norm at Mycenae (WH F54, WH F57; Frontispiece; Figs. 22, 23; Pls. 18, 19). It should be noted, however, that the projected line of the upper band, representing one of the two reins in our specimen, should, according to the previously calculated distances, be lying higher up the neck of the horse. At Tiryns, on the other hand, the lowest set of reins on a specimen from the old palace material (Rodenwaldt 1912, 10–11, no. 7, pl. II:6) was drawn only a few millimeters from the horse’s back, a position that would normally have been reserved for the polestay. Judging by the variations in the iconographic formula used for the depiction of chariot groups in the mainland corpus, it seems that pictorial rules were often subject to revision and were often adapted according to the convenience of local workshops or individual artists. Two of the three tentatively identified specimens (WH F62, WH F63; Fig. 24; Pl. 20) have been included because of their color, a tinted chestnut hue used for the solidly painted area identified as part of the body of the animals, identical to that attested on several other securely identified horses (WH F54, WH F56, WH F57; Frontispiece; Figs. 22, 23; Pls. 18, 19); another reason for their inclusion was the more or less straight upper edge of this solidly painted area that could represent a section of the horse’s back. The identification of the partly preserved rectangular border above the solidly painted area on one of the specimens (WH F62) remains obscure.

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The third specimen (WH F61; Fig. 24; Pl. 20) is a completely different case. It preserves the lower limbs of two hoofed animals rendered in white paint and outlined in black. The animals are apparently walking on a white band, also outlined in black, presumably serving as a ground line. Although they have been tentatively identified as cervids or caprids (stags/goats), the style and iconography of the animals is not compatible with the first group of small-scale horses. On the other hand, the stylistic similarities observed between these animals and the two horses drawn at a larger scale (WH F64, WH F65; Fig. 25; Pl. 21) are limited to the choice of color (white) and to the use of black outlines and black internal details. The closest parallels are to be found at Pylos (Lang 1969, 107, 109, nos. 10C27, 16Cne, pls. 49, 52, E) and among the LH IIIA:2 material from the west terrace of the House of the Oil Merchant nearby (Cameron and Meyer 1995, 282, no. F013). The two specimens in the second group of horses, ca. 40 cm in height, were drawn at a slightly larger scale (WH F64, WH F65; Fig. 25; Pl. 21). Although they were painted against the same bright blue background, they were executed in a slightly different style. The animals, at least partly reserved on the final coat of plaster, were rendered with white paint, with the outlines and interior details being executed in black, similarly to the smaller white specimens discussed above (WH F61; Fig. 24; Pl. 20). The first specimen (WH F64; Fig. 25; Pl. 21) depicts the hoof and part of what looks like one of the front legs of a horse moving sedately toward the left, the whole painted against a blue background. Similar to other narrative compositions, for example the “Warriors, Grooms, and Horses” frieze from the “Pithos area” at Mycenae (Tsountas 1887, 164–168, pl. 11:3, 4; Rodenwaldt 1911, 236, no. 6, fig. 2; Lamb 1921–1923, 164–165, pl. XXVII) and some of the white horses at Pylos (Lang 1969, 106, 107, nos. 7C20, 10C27, pls. 47, 49, 132, F), the horse on the West House specimen is not walking on a fixed ground line. The second fragment (WH F65; Fig. 25; Pl. 21) is contextually more informative. It depicts the hoof and part of what looks like one of the front legs of a horse, the second leg possibly trailing behind along the right edge of the extant fragment.

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Below the first hoof, three pointed triangular projections, again rendered with yellow paint applied over a white ground, could possibly represent the rocky landscape on which the horse was apparently walking. Part of a white, possibly floral element can be seen below the tentatively identified second leg. The earliest representation of horses in Aegean wall painting appears in the miniature composition from the Northeast Bastion at Hagia Eirene on Kea, dated to the LM/LC I period (Abramovitz 1980, 59, 67, nos. 114–119, pl. 7; Morgan 1988, 202; 1990, 257). At least six horses have been identified by Abramowitz (1980, 59), four of which are apparently standing in pairs facing left, “a white horse alongside a black one, in the traditional method of depicting a two-horse chariot in Aegean art,” presumably part of a procession (Abramowitz 1980, 59). The hoof of another horse is discerned at the top of the fragment depicting a hunter carrying a dead animal to the feast. This figure is apparently smaller in scale compared to the other fragmentary specimens and is apparently moving in the opposite direction to the horses associated with the chariot team (Morgan 1988, 204). Even though horses rendered with white paint have been attested at Tiryns (Rodenwaldt 1912, 104, no. 128) and Mycenae (Kritseli-Providi 1982, 90–91, no. Δ1, pl. 27), they were apparently more popular at Pylos (Lang 1969, 106, 107, 109, nos. 7C20, 8C21, 10C27, 16Cne, pls. 47–49, 52, 132, E). The suggested rockwork below the horse’s hooves on WH F65 (Fig. 25; Pl. 21) is a landscape feature also attested at Pylos (Lang 1969, 106, 109, nos. 7C20, 8C21, 16Cne, pls. 47, 48, 52, 132, E). The horse on one these specimens (Lang 1969, 106, no. 7C20, pls. 47, 132, E) is also depicted walking a few centimeters above and not on the actual rocks. The rocks may have been rendered somewhat differently at Pylos, with a sharper profile, a black outline, and more colors, but the concept is exactly the same. The restored size of the two West House horses has no real parallels on the mainland. Even though the presence of landscape features on one of the specimens (WH F65; Fig. 25; Pl. 21) might encourage speculation about the contextual affinity of the two pieces, their apparent uniformity in dimensions, style of execution, and background color suggest that they were part of the same composition. Their contextual affinity with the main

hunting scene, however, in which the vast majority of the horses were drawn at a different scale (h. 27– 31 cm) and the lack of any evidence of landscape information, except for the generic use of a ground line (WH F54; Frontispiece; Fig. 22; Pl. 18), is debatable. Nevertheless, although the fragmentary state of the extant specimens could prove misleading, the implied existence of a second, lower pictorial field in the second specimen (WH F65; Fig. 25; Pl. 21), also attested in the second hunting episode (WH F9; Fig. 15), and the disparity in scale between the female figure and the hunter (female figure ca. 40.95 cm; male figure 19.4 cm) in the latter suggests a possible disparity in scale between pictorial elements within the same narrative episode. Seen in this light, the two white horses drawn at a larger scale could have belonged to the same composition as the rest of the horses in the West House material. Moreover, if the chariot groups were part of the processional commencement or the return of the hunting party, as exemplified in the Tiryns frieze, these horses walking on uneven ground could belong to a different intermediate stage of the hunt, more directly associated with the hunt itself. On the whole, most of the surviving animals, with a few possible exceptions (WH F61–WH 65), were presumably yoked to chariots. The number of chariots involved, based on the number of surviving horses, is a matter of speculation. Taken together, the extant specimens, with the exception of the two white horses (WH F64, WH F65; Fig. 25) and the specimen depicting the lower limbs of two hoofed animals (WH F61; Fig. 24), would represent at least 13 horses or pairs of horses yoked to an identical number of chariots, the vast majority facing left.

3.3.9. Chariot Parts (WH F66–WH F74) The specimens depicting chariot parts, in the vast majority of the cases minus the horses with which they were originally associated, include fragments belonging to at least two different chariots, depicted at two slightly different scales. The best-preserved specimen belongs to the slightly larger chariot (WH F67–F70; Fig. 26; Pls. 21, 22). It depicts a large section of a four-spoked wheel (two of the four spokes and a section of a third), part of a chariot box visible in the upper left

THE WALL PAINTINGS

quadrant of the wheel, the end of the short vertical arm of the L-shaped piece of wood bracing the chariot pole, and part of the tail and the hind legs of the horse(s) in front and to the left of the wheel. The wheel, a two-part construction, originally ca. 18.2 cm in diameter, was apparently drawn with the help of a compass, judging by the four circular compass marks left on the wet plaster, outlining the two distinctly colored concentric elements (four concentric circles, two external, two internal; Fig. 26; Pl. 21). Solid red paint was used for the tire/outer felloe and yellow for the felloe/inner circle, for the spokes, and for the pole brace, both pigments applied over a white ground. The width of the wheel does not exceed 1.2–1.4 cm. The lower part of the chariot box, visible in the upper left quadrant, is rendered in white paint outlined in black and decorated with black oblong spots, probably representing the animal skin lining of the wooden frame. The horse was apparently rendered with white paint. No ground line has been preserved, possibly due to the fragmentary condition of the specimens. Similar compositions with chariot groups standing on a white band, or a series of multicolored bands, presumably serving as the ground line, are quite common in narrative scenes (Fig. 17:a; Rodenwaldt 1911, 232–233, no. 1, pl. XI:1; 1912, 97–103, nos. 113–124, fig. 40, pl. XII; Kritseli-Providi 1982, 90–91, no. Δ1, pl. 27). In most cases the wheel of the chariot is not in touch with the ground line, the only exception being the Mycenae west slope example (Kritseli-Providi 1982, pl. 27). The West House specimen was rendered with two different colors, without the characteristic transverse stripes on both inner and outer wheels attested in the material excavated by Bulle at Orchomenos and in the material from Tiryns (Fig. 17:a; Bulle 1907, 81, pl. XXVIII:15; Rodenwaldt 1912, 97–103, nos. 113– 124, 101, fig. 40, pl. XII). Almost identical specimens were discovered at Orchomenos (Spyropoulos 2015, 361, figs. 8, 9) and Mycenae; the latter was found in the “Pithos area” (Rodenwaldt 1911, 239; Lamb 1921–1923, 165, pl. XXVI:b). The closest parallels to the West House specimen are to be found at Orchomenos (Spyropoulos 2015, 361, fig. 9), Mycenae (Rodenwaldt 1911, 232–233, no. 1, pl. XI:1; Kritseli-Providi 1982, 90–91, no. Δ1, pl. 27), and Pylos (Fig. 17:g; Lang 1969, 73, no. 26H64, pls. 18, 123). Although the central hole for the linchpin on

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our specimen has not been preserved, it was probably rendered like one of the extant examples from Tiryns (Rodenwaldt 1912, 99, no. 116, pl. XIV:9). The dappled interior of the chariot box on our specimen is closer to some of the more sophisticated versions from the Orchomenos hunting scene (Pl. 11:e; see Spyropoulos 1973, pl. 213; 2015, 361, figs. 8, 9, interior of box decorated with zigzag lines or black crosses against a white ground) than to the simpler, monochrome, mostly red specimens from Tiryns (Fig. 17:a; Rodenwaldt 1912, 97–103, nos. 113–124, fig. 40, pl. XII), Mycenae (Lamb 1921– 1923, 165, pl. XVI:b), Orchomenos (Bulle 1907, 81, pl. XXVIII:17), and Pylos (Fig. 17:g; Lang 1969, 73, no. 26H64, pls. 18, 123). Judging by the restored dimensions of the chariot (WH F67–WH F70; Fig. 26) and the restored height of the extant horses in the first set (WH F58, WH F60, Figs. 23, 24 [ca. 30.34 cm h.]; WH F54, Fig. 22 [ca. 28 cm h.]), it seems that the latter would be a perfect match for a chariot team. The second set of fragments (WH F71, WH F72; Fig. 26; Pl. 22) belongs to a slightly smaller size of wheel and chariot. The best-preserved of these specimens (WH F71), a two-part construction apparently drawn with the help of the compass (shallow compass marks left on the wet plaster, outlining the two distinctly colored concentric elements) has the same width of wheel as the first set (1.3 cm), but is different both in size (ext. diam. 15.8 cm) and style. Here too, solid red paint was used for the tire/outer felloe and yellow for the felloe/ inner circle. Nevertheless, in contrast to the larger specimen, the red paint used for the tire/outer felloe here was applied directly on to the blue background, while the yellow felloe of the inner circle was marked with two short red transverse strokes. This type of wheel is found in three major centers, including Mycenae itself (Rodenwaldt 1911, 239; Lamb 1921–1923, 165, pl. XXVI:b) and Tiryns (Fig. 17:a; Rodenwaldt 1912, 97–103, nos. 113–124, fig. 40, pl. XII), where it is the only type of wheel attested. At Orchomenos it occurs once (Bulle 1907, 81, pl. XVIII:15). The relatively narrow white band preserved below the wheel (w. 0.7–0.8 cm), presumably serving as a ground line, is followed by a blue band, ca. 1.0 cm wide, and probably a third band below that, painted white. Although the three successive bands serving as the ground line and framing the scene

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along the bottom are reminiscent of a similar arrangement in the elaborately harnessed pair of horses discussed above (WH F54; Frontispiece; Fig. 22; Pl. 18), right down to the same color combinations, the surviving bands in WH F54 are much wider (white band 1.5–1.6 cm; blue band 1.7–1.8 cm) and could belong to a different panel. This second group of fragments was more carelessly drawn and painted than the first group and was possibly not part of the same composition. Another fragmentary specimen in this category (WH F66; Pl. 21) preserves only a section of what looks like a single set of two white reins, 0.25– 0.35 cm wide and 0.40–0.45 cm apart, minus horses, the whole painted against a blue background. The reins could have been associated with either group of horses. Three other examples (WH F73, WH F74; Fig. 27; Pl. 23), tentatively included in this category, feature an indecipherable pictorial element of a puzzling shape, which, nevertheless, displays a generic, albeit elusive, resemblance to the chariot theme. The best-preserved specimen depicts part of a circular area outlined in black and rendered with white paint (WH F73; Fig. 27; Pl. 23). The interior is decorated with black lines, resembling a four-spoke wheel. The latter is connected by a white vertical element, which resembles a wrongly attached wooden pole brace, to a curvilinear area rendered with pinkish paint applied over a white ground and outlined in black. The earliest representation of a horse-drawn chariot in Aegean wall painting appears in the miniature composition from the Northeast Bastion at Hagia Eirene on Kea, dated to the LM/LC I period. The two extant fragments belonging to a dual chariot box, feature a dappled hide like the better-preserved West House specimen (WH F67–WH F70; Fig. 26; Pls. 21, 22). A fragment depicting part of a wheel apparently decorated the south wall of the room to the right of the sailing ships. The chariot fragments were apparently also associated with fragments of horses (Abramovitz 1980, 59, 67, nos. 120–122, pl. 7; Morgan 1988, 204; 1990, 254, 257). Horse-drawn chariots in secular narrative contexts, a hallmark of the Mycenaean era, are almost nonexistent in the Minoan wall painting tradition. The relatively late appearance of the chariot in the Pallanquin fresco, now associated with the Chariot procession from the palace at Knossos dated to

the LH II/IIIA:1 period (Cameron 1967; Immerwahr 1990, 84, 92–95, 175–176, Kn no. 25), and later, in LH IIIA:2, on the Hagia Triada sarcophagus (Long 1974, 29–32, 54–60, figs. 18, 26, 73, 75, pls. 7, 11, 25, 27; Immerwahr 1990, 100–102, 180–181, cat. no. A.T. no. 2), is nevertheless consistent with the Minoan predilection for ceremonial scenes of a religious nature and is only marginally related to the Mycenaean usage of the dual chariot. The Knossos specimen is perhaps closer to the use of the chariot in the wall painting from the Processional Way leading to and from the Cult Center at Mycenae (Kritseli-Providi 1982, 19, 90–92, fig. 10, pls. 26:β, 27, 28) and the small-scale composition from the Spourlis plot at Thebes (Kountouri 1999, 318; Aravantinos and Fappas 2015, 332). The Knossos chariot, including the charioteer and two horses of contrasting color (brown and white), was painted against a blue background like the West House examples. Unlike those examples, though, the Knossian artist depicted the reins of both horses, also rendered with red paint (Cameron 1967, figs. 1, 12), and a solidly painted red box (Cameron 1967, figs. 2, 3, 12). The more summarily rendered chariots on the Hagia Triada sarcophagus preserve evidence of a two-tiered chariot wheel and a simplified version of the axle (Long 1974, figs. 18, 26, pls. 7, 11). The use of chariot groups in wall paintings depicting hunting expeditions, already attested in other artistic mediums as early as the Shaft Grave era (Karo 1930, 73–74, no. 240, pl. XXIV; Mylonas 1983, 41, fig. 30 [gold ring depicting deer hunting with chariot]), is best illustrated in the surviving pictorial material from Orchomenos (Pl. 11:e; Spyropoulos 1973, pl. 213; 1974, fig. 10:a; 2015, 361, fig. 8) and Tiryns, the fragments belonging mostly to the later palace period (Fig. 17:a; Rodenwaldt 1912, 97–109, nos. 113–139, figs. 40–46, pls. XI:11, XII, XIV:3, 9, XVII:3), and is only suggested for material from the earlier palace (Rodenwaldt 1912, 8–13, nos. 4, 5, 7–9, 12–14, pls. I:3, 4, II:1, 4, 6). In the Tiryns composition, six or more chariots moving at an apparently sedate pace, are depicted behind groups of dog handlers also walking at a sedate pace toward the hunting ground (Fig. 17:d; Rodenwaldt 1912, 111, no. 141, fig. 47, pl. XIV:10; Immerwahr 1990, 129). In the best-preserved fragments, both chariot groups and hunters walk on a white band serving as a ground line. A similar ground line is attested on

THE WALL PAINTINGS

the specimen depicting the elaborately harnessed pair of horses from the West House (WH F54; Fig. 22; Pl. 18) and possibly on another, more fragmentary specimen (WH F71; Fig. 26; Pl. 22) depicting part of a chariot wheel. The restored size of the majority of the horses and chariot wheels from the West House have close affinities to the Tiryns material. What is unfortunately not corroborated in the West House material is the contextual association of the chariot groups with the hunters and the rest of the hunting scene. The temptation to associate the female head in the lower register of the second hunting episode (WH F9; Fig. 15) with the female charioteers in the Tiryns composition (Fig. 17:a) is just that, a temptation, based solely on pictorial comparanda. If the hunters and the chariot groups were contextually associated in this hunting scene, as they were in the hunting scenes from Tiryns and Orchomenos, one could speculate on the sweeping influence of iconographic formulas incorporating a more or less fixed sequence of episodes. The pictorial content of such episodes could then be modified, to a certain extent, according to artistic whim, inspiration, or the preferences of the owner or prime beneficiary. The apparently passive role of horse-drawn dual chariots in Mycenaean wall paintings suggests that they were used mostly as vehicles of state or as conveyances to war and the hunt (Immerwahr 1990, 124; Littauer 2002, 89, 91). War and the hunt were the two activities most intimately associated with the Mycenaean warrior elite, and more specifically the aristocratic element in Mycenaean society—in other words, with the ruling elite of the Mycenaean palaces. The symbolic significance of the horsedrawn chariot was therefore intimately connected with the sociopolitical status it conveyed to its owners and to the activities in which it was used, perhaps also echoing the presence of central authority. The adoption of pictorial imagery in the palatial societies of the Late Bronze Age was primarily an ideological choice, an expression of political, social, and/or religious authority (Gates 2004, 27), and mural images were prime conveyors of such implicit and explicit messages. In this light, mural representations of chariot groups, irrespective of the narrative context, enhanced and propagated the aristocratic, secular basis of the Mycenaean state and society. The exquisite depiction of the elaborate

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and festive harnessing on some of the yoked horses (WH F54, WH F60; Frontispiece; Figs. 22, 24; Pls. 18, 20) corroborates the fact.

3.3.10. Animal (WH F75) The single specimen depicting what appears to be one of the hind legs of an animal moving toward the right, and rendered with red paint (WH F75; Fig. 27; Pl. 23), might represent our only glimpse of what could be the prey of the entire hunting expedition. Part of a long vertical, white element, with faint traces of yellow paint, preserved in front of the extant leg (i.e., to the left) and practically under the belly of the animal, may represent the stem of a plant, like the ones associated with the main hunting scene (WH F7, WH F9, WH F10; Figs. 14–16; Pls. 4–6). The stylistic rendering of what has survived of the animal is not compatible with the stylistic formulas used for horses, dogs, and cervids in the mainland corpus. The closest parallels are to be found among representations of bulls and wild boars at Tiryns and Pylos (Fig. 17:b; Rodenwaldt 1912, 13–15, 123–128, 131–132, nos. 16, 165–176, 177, 179, 187, 188, figs. 55, 57, pls. I:2, XI:2, 7, 8, XIII, XIV:8; Lang 1969, 106–107, 109–110, nos. 9C20, 11C27, 19C6, pls. 49, 53, 125, 133; see also Bietak, Marinatos, and Palyvou 2007, fig. 54). Only one of the recorded animals, a wild boar from Pylos (Lang 1969, 106–107, no. 9C20, pls. 49, 133), was also rendered with red paint. The extant glyptic parallels include a few characteristic examples from Vapheio and Pylos (CMS I, nos. 227, 294). Boars in Mycenaean wall paintings and seals are depicted either as isolated images, in ones, twos, or threes, or as part of a hunting scene (Morris 1990, 152). Bulls are mostly depicted in bull-leaping contexts and are usually dated earlier (Immerwahr 1990, 110–113, 164–165). The boars in the extant boar hunts at Tiryns and Orchomenos (Fig. 17:b; Pls. 11:a, b, d; Rodenwaldt 1912, 123–132, nos. 165–188, fig. 55, pls. XI:2, 7, 8, XIII, XIV:8; Spyropoulos 1973, pl. 213; 1974, 320, figs. 7, 9; 2015, 364, figs. 12–14), rendered with ocher/yellow or green paint and dark, black or brown markings, are unfortunately depicted exclusively in flying gallop in the final hunting episode and are of limited value

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as comparative material for the West House specimen, which portrays the animal striding quietly forward to the right. The tentative evidence for some kind of vegetation under the belly of the animal suggests that it was probably moving through a terrain with dense vegetation, similar to that provided for the main hunting scene (WH F7, WH F9, WH F10; Figs. 14– 16), and entirely different from the marshy terrain providing the background for the final act in the Orchomenos and Tiryns compositions (Fig. 17:b; Pls. 11:a–d). If this animal was indeed a boar, the landscape, populated not with fronds and low vegetation, but with stemmed, leaf-like plants, identical to the ones accompanying the earlier stages of the hunt in the West House material, would make perfect sense; the animal was in this case apparently undetected by its pursuers. The seemingly quiet stroll of the animal in its natural environment evokes the unsuspecting state of the animals in the deer frieze from Tiryns (Rodenwaldt 1912, 140–144, 148, nos. 192– 222, fig. 60, pls. XV:3, 6, 8, XVII:8) and the even earlier miniature composition from Hagia Eirene on Kea, where most of the deer seem to be grazing or moving slowly along (Abramovitz 1980, 61–62, nos. 100–111, pls. 5:c, 6:d). Seen in this light, the West House specimen could be part of an episode illustrating the prey in its natural habitat, before it apprehended the hunting party. If the extant leg does indeed belong to a boar, despite the fact that it is the “wrong” color, without interior markings and in an uncharacteristic pose, its connection to the rest of the hunting scene would be obvious and its inclusion in the composition justified.

3.3.11. Discussion This small-scale composition belongs to the category of secular, narrative scenes dominated by two subjects, war and hunt, an almost exclusively Helladic, Mycenaean genre with no Minoan antecedents (Shaw 1997, 495), painted in this case against a neutral, blue background (Lang 1969, 27–28, 36, 40; Sapouna-Sakellaraki 1973, 296–297; Immerwahr 1990, 109, 122, 166). Although differentiation between the two themes in the mainland corpus is notoriously difficult (Immerwahr 1990, 122–123), mostly due to the fragmentary nature of the extant wall paintings and the

ambiguous iconography of the human figures involved, the identification of the relevant West House material as a hunting scene is beyond doubt. The corroborating evidence includes the juxtaposition of human figures and vegetation, the presence of hunting dogs, which would be out of place in a battle scene, and the absence of architectural elements and scenes of fighting among male figures (Lang 1969, 40; Immerwahr 1990, 122–123). The suggested association of these specimens with a male figure carrying a load (WH F52), with an unidentified animal walking through dense vegetation, possibly a wild boar (WH F75), and with chariot groups (WH F54–WH F74) further corroborates the original identification. The absence of the ultimate hunting episode, that is, men and dogs stalking and attacking the prey, as exemplified at Orchomenos, Tiryns, and Pylos, is presumably incidental. Despite the obvious affinities of the West House material with other hunting scenes in the Mycenaean corpus, especially those from Tiryns and Orchomenos, the profuse landscape information and the unprecedented interaction of the human element with the extant vegetation, set this composition apart. This is also exemplified by the idiosyncratic form of the vegetation and by the use of multiple, fluid, often overlapping pictorial fields, especially in the second hunting episode (WH F9; Fig. 15). In spite of the widely acknowledged Mycenaean disinclination toward natural landscapes and landscape information in general, the profusion of plant life in the West House material, albeit simplified and abstracted, could represent the only extant Mycenaean example of a special type of Minoan/ Aegean spatial indicator, providing more specific information about the pictorial space and identified as a “locator” element (Chapin 1995, 56–57). In this case, the apparently deliberate variation in the spatial relationship between the human and floral element might serve as a direct reference to the narrative content of the hunting episodes. Landscaping and vegetation in particular, as attested in the surviving West House material, is almost completely absent at Pylos (Lang 1969, 25– 26). At Tiryns, the “lollipop” trees, which at Mycenae and Orchomenos were used as a background for the hunting party proceeding on foot, as well as for the final episode of the hunt (recently restored panel of the Orchomenos hunting scene), were apparently only employed for the episode with the

THE WALL PAINTINGS

chariot groups. Extremely stylized plants, unattested in the West House material, were employed in the final episode of the killing of the boar, as was also the case at Orchomenos, the material from which displays the closest narrative and iconographic affinities to the West House material. As on the other mainland hunting scenes, male figures predominate. The single female figure in the second hunting episode (WH F9; Fig. 15), possibly in a chariot group, is the sole exception to the rule. Only one out of the three extant hunting dogs is preserved in a meaningful context in the second hunting episode, where it is apparently walking at an intermediate level between the upper and lower pictorial fields behind the female figure. In this case, the male hunter reconstructed to the far left of the composition and the hunting dog were presumably walking behind the female figure and/or the chariot group, unlike the Tiryns sequence (Fig. 17:d; Rodenwaldt 1912, fig. 47) and closer to the pictorial syntax attested at Orchomenos (Pl. 11:e; Spyropoulos 1973, pl. 213; 2015, 361, fig. 8; Aravantinos 2010, fig. 68). The other two specimens depicting dogs in the West House material (WH F50, WH F51; Fig. 20) seem closer to the narrative sequence as attested at Pylos (Lang 1969, 107, 108, nos. 12C43, 13C43, pls. 50, 51, 133, M), where the hunting episodes, with or without dogs, are not directly associated with chariot groups. Although spears were apparently illustrated, both on their own and in the context of the second hunting episode, they are not directly associated with any of the surviving human figures. With the sole exception of one specimen (WH F42; Fig. 20), they are not implicated in the hunting. They are mostly depicted in an uncharacteristic upright position, as if they were being held by stationary male figures, unattested in this type of context. If these spears did indeed belong to the main hunting scene, they would be associated with earlier episodes in the narrative sequence, before the commencement of real action. The single figure of a man carrying a load (WH F52; Fig. 21) is also unique in the extant hunting iconography on the mainland, with the significant exception of the 14th-century b.c. specimen from the House of the Oil Merchant (Fig. 21). Finally, the surviving horses and chariots, presumably part of the hunting scene despite the lack of direct iconographic evidence linking the two groups, seem to conform more or less to the established

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iconographic formula for hunting scenes on the mainland, with parallels at both Tiryns and Orchomenos. A possibly unique element is the two specimens depicting larger animals walking on a rocky terrain, which might belong to a nonprocessional episode of the hunt, with individual male or female figures and horses making their way through mountainous landscape. Judging by surviving hunting scenes in other major centers, especially Tiryns and Orchomenos, the partly preserved composition from the West House features only two out of the three major themes encountered in the other hunting sequences—the chariot groups, possibly including a mounted female figure (proceeding at a sedate pace toward the hunting ground), and armed hunters proceeding on foot in a terrain with dense vegetation, trees, and possibly bushes, apparently accompanied by dogs. Individual narrative episodes of the composition were apparently painted in a number of successive and/or superimposed rectangular panels, defined by thick white borders in the best mainland tradition, already attested in 14th-century b.c. material from Mycenae itself (Lamb 1919–1921, 192– 193, pl. VII:4; Shaw 1996, 170, fig. 3, pl. A:4). The composition was presumably framed by a series of banded borders, decorated with stylized floral and abstract motifs (sacral ivies, lilies, spirals), of which only fragments have survived. In contrast to the Pylos material, the divisions between the panels were straight, the background of the composition did not change from panel to panel, and the action does not seem to have extended across the borders as was the case at Pylos (Lang 1969, 41). The use of a neutral blue background for small scale narrative compositions, mostly battle and hunting scenes, is widely attested in at least four Mycenaean palatial centers, including Mycenae, Tiryns, Pylos, and Orchomenos (Immerwahr 1990, 122). At Mycenae, the blue background is associated with the early bull-leaping frescoes from the Ramp House (Rodenwaldt 1911, 223, 230, pl. IX:1, 2; Lamb 1919–1921, 192–194, pl. VII; Shaw 1996, 175–176, 179, LH II–IIIA:1), as well as with the scene depicting preparations for battle from the “Pithos area,” where it alternates with yellow (Rodenwaldt 1911, 240, 248, pl. X:1, 2). The same combination of colors is also encountered in the battle scene from the throne room. It was painted against a dark colored background (reddish brown and

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gray), which, however, was severely affected by the fire that destroyed the palace and could have originally been yellow and blue, as was suggested for the Pylos material (Rodenwaldt 1911, 233– 234, 239; 1921, 41, 44, fig. 21). Blue background was also used in the earlier, LH IIIA:2 material from the House of the Oil Merchant, in the fragmentary hunting scene from the House of Sphinxes (Cameron and Meyer 1995, 282–283), and in many wall paintings from the Cult Center (Pls. 3, 24, 28; Kritseli-Providi 1982, 21–33, 37–40, 73–76, nos. A1–A4 [ass-headed genii], A5 [palm tree], A6 [helmeted female figure holding griffin], B1 [the “Mykenaia”], Γ1 [female figure holding flower], figs. 2, 3, 8, pls. A:a, B:a, b, Γ, 1, 2:a, 4, 5, 24). At Tiryns, blue was used for most of the fragmentary material from the old palace (Rodenwaldt 1912, 5–10, 15–18, 20–22, nos. 1–5, 17–19, 22, 23, 27, 29, pls. I:3, 6, ΙΙ:7, 8, 10, III:2, 5) and in the hunting scene from the new palace (Fig. 17:a, b, d, h–j; Rodenwaldt 1912, 96–137, nos. 113–193, figs. 40– 57, pls. XI–XIV, XVII). At Orchomenos, blue background was used in the well-known scene depicting armed male figures standing on the battlements of a monumental ashlar building (Bulle 1907, 72–79, pl. XXVIII:1–6) and in the hunting scene from the allegedly palatial megaron-type building discovered near the Minyas tholos tomb (Pl. 11; Spyropoulos 1973, 1974, 2015; Immerwahr 1990, 132). At Pylos, the blue background was considered an early iconographical trait, mostly due to its near absence from the extant wall paintings in the latest phase of the main building (Lang 1969, 43). Although the hunting scene from the main building (Hall 46) was painted against successive yellow and dark colored panels (Fig. 17:e, f; Lang 1969, 16, 40–42, 68–71, nos. 20H43, 21H48, pls. 12–16, 116, 121, 122, B, M), a blue background was used for the battle scene from the Southwest Building (Hall 64; Fig. 17:g; Lang 1969, 22, 43–49, 71– 74, no. 30H64, pls. 16–21, 117, 123, 124, A, M, N), in the hunting/fighting scene from the northwest slope (Lang 1969, 74, no. 31Hnws, pls. 22, 23, 116, B, N), and on other narrative scenes from inside the palace and from the southwest and northeast slopes (Lang 1969, 75–76, 78–79, nos. 32Hsw, 34H27, 39Hne, pls. 24–26, C). Even though the unpopularity of blue backgrounds on the walls of the main building at Pylos was the cause of some initial consternation concerning their value as an

early stylistic trait (Lang 1969, 43), it now seems that blue backgrounds, except perhaps at Pylos, were used continuously from early in the 14th century b.c. (LH II/IIIA) to the very end of the 13th century b.c. (LH IIIB:2; Immerwahr 1990, 105– 110, 161–165; Brecoulaki 2017, 397–398; Brecoulaki, Karydas, and Colombini, forthcoming). The indiscriminate use of the blue background, irrespective of geographical setting and narrative context, suggests that it was not directly associated, at least not on a conceptual, symbolic level, with any activities in particular. Considering the formulaic, conceptual quality of Mycenaean art, it might be worth speculating on the contextual relevance of the blue background in narrative scenes. The blue used in explicitly outdoor scenes, such as hunting expeditions and scenes of war, may in fact have been closely associated with the narrative content of the compositions, hinting at the contextually relevant blue of the sky (see Ch. 3.2.1). Hunting in the Mycenaean pictorial tradition, judging by the prevailing iconography on gold signet rings, inlaid daggers, and other objects, including the early grave stelae (Karo 1930, pls. V:1428, VI:1429, VII:1427, XXIV:240, XCIV:394; Marinatos and Hirmer 1959, pls. 146, 147, color pls. XXXV, XXXVI), was closely associated with the aristocracy and the power imagery of the elite since the Shaft Grave period. Hunting imagery in mature Mycenaean pictorial art, as exemplified by the elaborate scenes depicted on the walls of the palatial apartments at Orchomenos, Tiryns, and Pylos, was apparently understood and portrayed as a high-profile, well-organized palatial activity, which involved ostentatious display of manpower and material wealth as reflected in the participation of armed male hunters, hunting dogs, and chariots, the prestige vehicle par excellence. Their physical setting in the palatial apartments provided the ultimate link with the center of power. In contrast to their Cycladic/Aegean antecedents, Mycenaean hunting scenes were obviously conceived as independent narrative themes, presented as a collation of carefully selected narrative episodes illustrating the main activities involved in an organized, high-profile hunting expedition presumably initiated by palatial circles. The distinguishing iconographic elements of hunting scenes in Mycenaean Greece and related pictorial art include male hunters on foot, with or without helmets, holding spears

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and marching along (Figs. 17:f, h, j; Pl. 11:f; Rodenwaldt 1912, 116–123, nos. 151–164, figs. 49–50, 54, pls. XI:5, 6, XIV:1, 2, 7, XVII:1; Lang 1969, 40– 42, 69–70, nos. 17H43, 18H43, 19H43, 20H43, pls. 13, 14, 116, 122, B, M; Spyropoulos 1973, pl. 213; 1974, 320–321, color pl. II:c; 2015, 364, figs. 15–17; Boulotis 2000a, 1127–1128, 1145, fig. 14), occasionally leading hunting dogs (Fig. 17:d, f; Rodenwaldt 1912, 109–116, nos. 140–150, figs. 47, 48, pls. XI:4, XIV:6, 10–12; Lang 1969, 40–42, 70–71, no. 21H48, pls. 15, 116, 122; Boulotis 2000a, 1127–1128, 1147, fig. 17; Spyropoulos 2015, 361, fig. 8), or even attacking their prey (Fig. 17:b, e; Lang 1969, 40–42, 68, no. 16H43, pls. 12, 121, B), and occasionally dogs pursuing the fleeing animal in a marshy landscape, populated with extremely stylized vegetation in the last episode of the hunt (Fig. 17:b; Pl. 11:b–d; Rodenwaldt 1912, 123–132, nos. 165–188, figs. 55, 57, pls. XI:2, 3, 7, 8, XIII, XIV:8, XVII:6, 7; Spyropoulos 1973, pl. 213; 1974, 320, figs. 8–10; 2015, 364, figs. 11–13; Boulotis 2000a, 1127–1128, 1146– 1147, figs. 15, 16, 18). An additional feature of mainland hunting scenes, as exemplified in the Tiryns and the Orchomenos boar hunt, is chariot groups, presumably carrying the highly placed members of the hunting expedition against a landscape populated by stylized “lollipop” trees. At Tiryns the chariot crew consists of two female figures dressed in long robes (Fig. 17:a; Rodenwaldt 1912, 97–109, nos. 113–139, figs. 40–42, 44–46, pls. XI:11, XII, XIV:3, 9, XVII:3). The role of the female crew at Tiryns— that is, whether they were simply accompanying the hunting party or were actually meant to participate in the hunt—is impossible to ascertain on the extant evidence. Two of the chariot fragments from the Orchomenos boar hunt (Pl. 11:e; Spyropoulos 1973, pl. 213; 2015, 361, figs. 8, 9; Boulotis 2000a, 1127–1128, 1147, fig. 17) preserve no evidence concerning the gender of the charioteers. Spyropoulos (2015, 361, fig. 6) refers to another chariot fragment occupied by two figures, one male and one female. The hunting scene on the ivory plaque from Thebes (Aravantinos 2010, 55–60, figs. 20, 21) depicting a chariot occupied by two male figures without helmets might or might not be significant. Other, subsidiary episodes on a fragment from the northwest slope at Pylos involved men carrying tripod cauldrons and possibly the carcass of a dead animal (Fig. 17:f; Lang 1969, 70–71, no. 21H48, pls. 15, 116, 122), presumably in anticipation of the feast (Lang 1969,

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74–75, no. 31Hnws, pls. 22, 23, 116, B, N). Hunters returning from the hunt with the prey suspended from poles and men tending tripod cauldrons are attested as early as LM/LC I in the miniature composition from Hagia Eirene on Kea (Abramovitz 1980, 62, 66, nos. 90–95, pls. 4:a, 5:c, 6; Morgan 1990, 257, figs. 2, 4; 1998, 204, fig. 6; Marinatos and Morgan 2005, 120). The background in almost all extant hunting scenes on the mainland, except Pylos (Lang 1969, 40–42), is blue. The hunting scenes decorating the palace complexes at Tiryns and Pylos, as well as the monumental building at Orchomenos (Spyropoulos 2015, 359), are all dated to the second half of the 13th century b.c. Although it has been claimed that hunting is not among the themes attested at Mycenae (Kritseli-Providi 1982, 102; Immerwahr 1990, 132), Tsounta’s excavations in the megaron of the palace yielded part of a wild boar’s head (Tsountas 1887, 168, pl. 11:8). Nevertheless, outside the actual palaces and palatial complexes, pictorial wall paintings, let alone hunting scenes, are, as a rule, virtually absent. The sole exception to the rule is the material from the west slope and the Lower Town of Mycenae. The hunting theme in particular is almost exclusively associated with this group of four buildings, known as the Ivory Houses, to the west of the acropolis, erected in the beginning of the 13th century b.c. (LH IIIB:1) and destroyed by fire at the end of this period (French 1967; Tournavitou 1995, 2006a). Part of a boar hunt is attested among the fragmentary wall paintings dated to the second half of the 14th century b.c. from a building or buildings unknown in the vicinity of these houses. The fragments were discovered in the fill below the floor of the basement corridor and in the fill of the west terrace of one of these buildings, the House of the Oil Merchant (see Ch. 5.1). Nevertheless, the recurrence of the same theme in two of the newly erected, 13thcentury b.c. palatial appendages in the same area is quite intriguing. Hunting scenes have been attested not only in the West House but also in the House of Sphinxes to the southeast, the latter featuring yet another boar hunt. The few specimens depicting vegetation and possibly animal skins from Houses II and III of the Panagia group, to the southwest of the Ivory Houses, are unfortunately too fragmentary to be securely identified with the hunting theme and too widely scattered over the surface of

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the fill to be associated with specific areas in the extant buildings (Mylonas-Shear 1987, 136). With the exception of Mycenae itself, narrative pictorial themes related to prestige activities, such as war, organized hunting expeditions, and scenes of secular or religious ritual, are not attested in nonpalatial architectural units. Even at Mycenae, such occurrences are few and far between, and in the case of the West House and the House of Sphinxes they are attested in buildings closely associated with the central authority. Whatever the reason behind this choice of theme, it seems that the hunting compositions in the West House and the House of Sphinxes continued a long established 14th-century b.c. tradition at the site, corroborating the close links of these establishments with central authority. Despite the formulaic and/or idiosyncratic nature of individual pictorial episodes, the specific choice of theme for the decoration of two of the buildings in the group was probably intimately related to the status and role of these buildings within the sociopolitical/economic regime at Mycenae. By the 14th century b.c., hunting imagery in major palatial centers was associated not only with the prestige attached to a royal and/or aristocratic exhibition sport, it also provided prized experience for the skills required in war, including handling of weapons, physical fitness, personal bravery, tactical decisions, and such. (Morris 1990, 150; Hiller 1999, 323; Thomas 1999, 299). By the 13th century b.c., the original significance of hunting as a test of manhood and as a confirmation of sociopolitical status through feasting from the spoils of the hunt was presumably superseded by other, more politically oriented considerations (Morris 1990, 149, 150; Hiller 1999, 323; Thomas 1999, 299). The hunting scenes, at least in the palatial megaron apartment at Tiryns and in the megaron-type building at Orchomenos, attest to the importance of the activity in the semiotics of dominant power strategies, sending a political message of the far-reaching power of the elite to all social levels (Hamilakis 2003, 244). The ideological background defining the political and presumably economic elite of the major Mycenaean centers, as reflected in the iconographic cycles in each center, presumably exemplified the dominant ideological strategy pursued by the central authority. In stark contrast to the thematic cycles adorning the walls of the palaces at Pylos

and Thebes, mostly associated with religious processions, emblematic imagery, and scenes of ritual import, the battle scene on the walls of the latest phase of the throne room at Mycenae tells a different story. It is a prime example of the ideological basis/bias of the ruling elite/dynasty in favor of the traditional values of the warrior elite, exemplifying differences in the ideological strategies between the major palatial centers. If, as it seems, the central authority at Mycenae in the 13th century b.c. continued to promote a political power strategy relying chiefly on the old values of military prowess, it is not at all surprising that the thematic choice of the administrative center for the decoration of palatial appendages outside the citadel walls would be associated with the second most popular activity and power strategy of the warrior elite—hunting.

3.4. Other Human Figures (WH F76–WH F83) This group includes five different sets of fragments, one depicting what seems to be a standing male figure dressed in a dotted, short-sleeved tunic (WH F76), another depicting part of a robed male figure (WH F77, WH F78), two very puzzling sets of fragments depicting what seem to be striding human figures (WH F79–WH F82), and a fifth, very fragmentary set, probably depicting parts of one or more female garments (WH F83).

3.4.1. Male Figure with Spear/Scepter (WH F76) The standing male figure, depicted in profile to the left, is dressed in a yellow short sleeved tunic decorated with black dots (WH F76; Fig. 27; Pl. 24). The waist is indicated by four horizontal black lines running across the body of the figure, while his left hand is bent at elbow level; below the elbow the naked flesh of the arm is rendered with red paint. The figure seems to be holding in his left hand a thin white vertical staff in an upright position, possibly a spear or a scepter, rendered in mild

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relief (impasto technique). What seems to be part of a white pole, outlined in black and presumably held in a horizontal position with the missing right hand, is resting on the left shoulder of the figure. Although the essential features of the pictorial formula used for depicting the male figure are not unknown in Mycenaean narrative compositions, there are some pictorial elements that have no close parallels in the mainland corpus. The male figure on our specimen is holding not one, but two items: the spear or scepter with the left hand and what looks like a pole, horizontally balanced on his left shoulder and presumably held with his missing right hand. Although both gestures have been attested separately in other compositions, there seems to be no close parallel for this particular combination. The closest variant is a pictorial formula of a male figure carrying a spear over one shoulder and a pole balanced horizontally over the other. The closest parallels to this particular variant are to be found within the LC/LM I miniature compositions from the Northeast Bastion in Hagia Eirene on Kea, where a helmeted hunter is apparently carrying a spear diagonally over one shoulder and a pole balanced horizontally on the other, while a second hunter has been restored as holding the other end of the pole (Abramovitz 1980, 61, 65, no. 83, pl. 5:a; Morgan 1990, 257–258, fig. 4; 1998, 204; Marinatos and Morgan 2005, 120). Another male figure in the same composition, dressed in a long white robe, part of the procession of men depicted on the east wall of the room, is apparently holding a pole or spear with one hand and another pole or spear balanced horizontally over his shoulder (Abramovitz 1980, 58–59, 64, no. 67, pl. 4:c; Morgan 1990, 257, fig. 4; 1998, 204). In both examples the angle and/or the position of the spear or staff bears no resemblance to the West House specimen. In mainland wall painting, the only male figures holding spears or staffs in a vertical position, at both Mycenae and Pylos, are standing and/or striding helmeted warriors (Tsountas 1887, 167, pl. 11:7; Lang 1969, 74, no. 29H64, pls. 21, 124). In all the other examples, the angle of the spear or spears in relation to the body and the position of the near arm crossing the body, almost at chest level, bear no resemblance to the West House specimen (Fig. 17:g, j; Pl. 11:f; for Orchomenos, see Spyropoulos 1974, 320–321, color pl. II:c; 2015, 364, figs. 15, 16; Aravantinos 2010, pl. 67; for Mycenae,

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see Tsountas 1887, 164–168, pl. 11:4; Rodenwaldt 1911, 240–241, no. 15a, pl. X:2; Lamb 1921–1923, 164–165, pl. XXVII; for Tiryns, see Rodenwaldt 1912, 5–8, 116–118, no. 1, 151, fig. 49, pls. I:6, XI:5; for Pylos, see Lang 1969, 42, 69–70, 73, nos. 17H43, 19H43, 20H43, 26H64, pls. 13, 14, 18, 123, B, M). The same upright position is also attested on the best-preserved West House specimen depicting spears, painted against the same bright blue background (WH F41; Fig. 20; Pl. 14). A pole balanced horizontally on the shoulder of a male figure (WH F76; Fig. 27; Pl. 24) is a rare pictorial formula, attested in a very small number of Aegean compositions, including a few more examples from the procession of men in the LC/LM I Hagia Eirene miniature composition (Abramovitz 1980, 58–59, 64, nos. 66–68, pl. 4:c) and a couple of male figures in the miniature Middle Minoan (MM) III/LM I composition from Tylissos (Shaw 1972, 186–188, no. 6, fig. 13). On the mainland it has been attested only twice, both times at Mycenae. One specimen, possibly related to a hunting scene, was discovered in the LH IIIA:2 material from the neighboring House of the Oil Merchant (Fig. 21; Wace 1953, 14, pl. 9:a; 1958, 9, fig. 31; Cameron and Meyer 1995, 282; French 2002, 66, color pl. 10; Tournavitou 2012, 725, pl. CLXVI:a; 2015, 151, fig. 4), the other in the Cult Center. The latter depicts ass-headed genii allegedly carrying carcasses of dead animals, which are suspended from a long, white, horizontal pole (Pl. 24; Tsountas 1887, 160– 162, pl. 10:1; Immerwahr 1990, 121, 192, no. 8). Despite the obvious iconographic affinities of the two pieces from the Ivory House group, the pole held by the male figure in the House of the Oil Merchant example was not outlined in black and was apparently grasped with both hands (Fig. 21), unlike the West House specimen. In the fragment depicting the assheaded genii, on the other hand (Pl. 24), the long white pole, also outlined in black, was apparently held in a manner identical to our specimen (WH F76; Fig. 27). Two other fragments of wall paintings, one of which depicts a man carrying a load (WH F52; Fig. 21; Pl. 17), possibly part of the main hunting scene from the West House, and a fragmentary specimen from the LH IIIA:2 material discovered at Argos (Pl. 17; Tournavitou and Brecoulaki 2015, 228–229, fig. 8), depicting part of a white pole, presumably held at shoulder level by a human figure, with a bag or vessel hanging from it, are not

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comparable to our specimen due to the different angle of the pole in relation to the body of the extant figures. The angle of the pole is of utmost importance to the interpretation of the scene. Poles depicted in a horizontal position are involved in scenes with two or more figures carrying an apparently heavy load, be it a sedan chair, as suggested for the House of the Oil Merchant example, or the carcass of one or more animals (Fig. 21; Pl. 24). The recorded instances of male figures with a pole resting at an angle on one of their shoulders, however, feature single male figures carrying lighter, less cumbersome loads (WH F52; Fig. 21; Pl. 17), reminiscent of similar scenes on pictorial vases depicting soldiers carrying provisions (Furumark 1941 [1972], 240, no. 35; also Vermeule and Karageorghis 1982, 130–132, 217, 222, nos. X:30, XI:42, 44; Sakellarakis 1992, 21–23, 36–37, nos. 6 [LH IIIB:2], 30, 32 [LH IIIC Middle]). Two extant parallels in glyptic art (CMS XI, no. 122; CMS VI.2, no. 44) seem to represent an entirely different narrative context. Our male specimen (WH F76; Fig. 27; Pl. 24) is wearing the customary knee-length tunic, donned by hunters and warriors alike in all the major palatial sites, in this case rendered with yellow paint and decorated with largish black dots, possibly imitating animal skin (Lang 1969, 42). An almost identical garment is depicted on two specimens from the same group of houses at Mycenae, both depicting men carrying loads (Fig. 21; Pl. 17; Wace 1953, 14, pl. 9:a; 1958, 9, fig. 31; Cameron and Meyer 1995, 282; French 2002, 66, color pl. 10; Tournavitou 2012, 725, pl. CLXVI:a; 2015, 151, fig. 4). Similar dotted robes in various colors are attested in a considerable number of specimens depicting male figures in all three major centers. Lang (1969, 42, 46), when discussing the hunting and battle scenes from the palace at Pylos, comments on the significance of white tunics/skirts with black markings as representing beast skins. The four parallel, horizontal lines marking the waistline of the figure on our specimen are unparalleled in the extant iconography. All the other surviving examples featuring two parallel horizontal lines in the same general area have been identified as belts (Fig. 17:e, j; Rodenwaldt 1912, 116– 118, fig. 49, pl. XI:5; Lang 1969, 68, no. 16H43, pls. 12, 121, B).

The scene on the West House specimen (WH F76) might have included at least one additional pole-bearer holding the other end of the pole in what appears to have been a stately procession, moving toward the left. A similar solution has been suggested for the hunter carrying the dead deer in the miniature composition from Hagia Eirene on Kea (Abramovitz 1980, 61, 65, no. 83, pl. 5:a; Morgan 1990, 257–258, fig. 4; 1998, 204; Marinatos and Morgan 2005, 120). A larger number of pole-bearers, as attested on the fragment with the ass-headed genii from the Cult Center (Pl. 24), is less plausible. What the two pole-bearers are carrying is indeterminable. It could be another sedan chair, as suggested for the House of the Oil Merchant example (Fig. 21), or the carcass(es) of the dead animals killed during the hunt and now ceremoniously paraded on their return. The restored height of this figure (20.9 cm) is consistent with the height of the male figures in the main hunting scene, as is the bright blue background, while the spotted, short sleeved tunic is consistent with both secular and ceremonial activities (WH F52, WH F53; Fig. 21; Pl. 17). The relevance of this specimen to the major hunting scene is precarious and remote, yet plausible.

3.4.2. Robed Male Figure (WH F77, WH F78) The best-preserved specimen (WH F77; Fig. 27; Pl. 24) depicts part of what appears to be the head, neck, and upper torso of a poorly preserved male figure in profile to the left. Although the state of preservation of this fragment defies immediate identification, it seems that the figure, presumably male, judging by the faint traces of red paint over the white ground in the area of the face and the neck, is dressed in a patterned robe, decorated with horizontal rows of black chevrons in the area of the chest and black dashes lower down, both painted against a yellow ground. A reserved white area, outlined in black, halfway down the preserved section of the garment was probably part of the design. The hair of the figure was rendered with black paint, barely preserved along the back of the neck (Pl. 24). The reason for the almost complete disappearance of the white ground, let alone of the red or black overcoat in the area of the head and neck

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that resulted in the exposure of the red preliminary sketching lines over the blue background, is possibly related to overpainting, at least for the upper part of the figure. What can be deduced about the profile of the figure is compatible, though not identical, with the profile of another male figure from the West House, probably depicting a hunter carrying a load (WH F52; Fig. 21; Pl. 17). What remains of the garment, also attested in four smaller fragmentary pieces (WH F78), resembles the yellow dotted tunics worn by the male figures from the West House (WH F52; Fig. 21; Pl. 17) and from the neighboring House of the Oil Merchant (Fig. 21; Wace 1953, 14, pl. 9:a; 1958, 9, fig. 31; Cameron and Meyer 1995, 282; French 2002, 66, color pl. 10; Tournavitou 2012, 725, pl. CLXVI:a; 2015, 151, fig. 4), at least as far as the choice of colors is concerned. The rendering of the garment itself bears no resemblance to the knee-length, short-sleeved tunics worn by hunters and warriors in Mycenaean hunting and battle scenes. In fact, the division of the upper part of the garment in successive horizontal borders, plain or decorated with chevrons, has no real parallels on the mainland. The roundness of the upper border is reminiscent of the long robes worn by the male figures in the vestibule procession at Pylos (Lang 1969, 66–67, nos. 7H5, 8H5, 9H5, pls. 7–9, 119, 120), without the interior decoration attested on our specimen. The black dashes on yellow ground farther down, possibly indicating animal skin (see WH F29, WH F52; Figs. 18, 21; Pls. 12, 17), is a pictorial device also attested on the long garments worn by some of the male figures at Tiryns (Rodenwaldt 1912, 16, 120, nos. 21, 155, pls. II:3, XIV:5) and on the long ceremonial robes worn by female figures in a processional scene from the Spourlis plot at Thebes (Kountouri 1999, 318; 2017, 452, 453, figs. 1, 2; Aravantinos and Fappas 2015, 332). The same decorative pattern has been used on the long robes worn by some of the male figures in the miniature Flotilla fresco from Thera (Marinatos 1974, color pl. 9; Doumas 1992, 84, pl. 44) and on the skirts of the priestly figures bearing gifts for the dead on the Hagia Triada sarcophagus (Long 1974, fig. 19, pl. 6). The contextual association of this piece with the main hunting scene is dubious, to say the least. Its association with the heraldic scene (WH F1; Figs. 9, 10; Pl. 2), on the other hand, however tentative, is more compelling. Beyond the obvious similarities

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in the choice of colors and the use of black outlines, the slightly pompous, almost processional attitude of the male figure on this specimen, would certainly agree with the unreal, otherwordly, ritualistic spirit pervading the heraldic scene.

3.4.3. Indeterminate Composition with Male Figure(s) (WH F79–WH F81) The better-preserved specimen (WH F79; Fig. 28; Pl. 24) is rather puzzling. It depicts what looks like the lower half of a male figure striding toward the left. It features a pair of greaved legs, the naked flesh of the thighs being rendered with red paint, and a strictly defined yellow area above the thighs, which would normally be interpreted as the lower part of the short tunic commonly worn by hunters and warriors. Although the identification of the legs is beyond doubt, the identification of the yellow area as part of a short tunic is compromised by its asymmetrical outline, especially along the back. What is even more puzzling is yet another pictorial element visible behind the first pair of legs. This element cannot be identified as anything other than the greaved left leg of another male figure, trailing behind an invisible, or rather nonexistent right leg, an incontrovertibly human leg, that must have belonged to a male figure moving toward the left, behind the first male figure. The area above this leg is white with faint traces of the light blue background paint showing through (Fig. 28; Pl. 24). One of the other fragments (WH F80; Fig. 28; Pl. 24) depicts what looks like part of the naked thigh of another male figure, identical to those on the previous specimen (WH F79), wearing a similar splaying, knee-length, yellow tunic. Smaller fragments depicting parts of the same or other similar garments are depicted on the remaining specimens (WH F81; Fig. 28; Pl. 24), against an identical bright blue background. The iconography of the better-preserved specimen (WH F79; Fig. 28; Pl. 24) is undeniably puzzling. The missing right leg of the second figure, the undefined white area above the leg, the white paint serving as an undercoat for the entire area above the legs, the clearly defined bottom edge of this area continuing in the space between the two sets of legs, and the awkward shape of the yellow

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area to the left, probably representing the kneelength tunic of the first male figure, contribute to the ambiguity of the layout. It is of course conceivable that the artist applied a white undercoat over the entire area above the two sets of legs so as to facilitate the subsequent application of colored pigments that would effectively differentiate the knee-length tunics of the two male figures, hence the preliminary sketching of the lower edge of these tunics. It is also conceivable that the pigment used for the tunic of the figure on the right, unlike the color of the tunic of the figure on the left, has completely disappeared. Even so, the asymmetrical outline of the lower edge of the tunic on the left, and the absence of a right leg for the figure on the right, would still be problematic with reference to a plausible reconstruction of the original composition. The application of a white undercoat over the blue background in an area meant to be painted blue is also odd, as is the curving shape of the bottom edge of the white area marked by the preliminary sketching lines. Unless we attribute all the inconsistencies and incomprehensible features on this specimen to alterations of the original drawing, there is only one conceivable alternative, albeit unprecedented and remote. This pictorial alternative, however, featuring two male figures walking in front of a large solid feature, partly visible in the background as a white area between the colored tunics, possibly a horse, would still not solve the puzzle of the missing right leg and the missing traces of the tunic worn by the figure on the right. Although the extant specimen is unfortunately too fragmentary and confusing for a detailed reconstruction, it should be pointed out that the original height of the male figures is consistent with the height of the other extant male specimens in the West House material (WH F7, WH F9, WH F28– WH F30, WH F52; Figs. 14, 15, 18, 19, 21).

3.4.4. Indeterminate Composition with Male Figure and Vegetation (WH F82) The undeniably poor state of preservation of the fourth set of fragments (WH F82; Fig. 28; Pl. 25) defies detailed reconstruction. The only recognizable element in this composition seems to be the lower half of a presumably male figure, judging by

the red paint used in the area of the thighs, wearing tall white leggings, probably boots, with some kind of lacing below knee level. The figure seems to be walking toward the left. Behind it is preserved part of what seems to be a white, extremely thin leafshaped plant, or spear, and the long, sinuous stem of another plant farther to the right, rendered with red paint. The slightly oblique, vertical element to the left of the male figure could, judging by the suggested presence of other vegetation behind it, have been part of another tall stemmed plant. The thin, stemmed, leaf-like element to the right (i.e., behind the male figure) resembles the few thin plants included among other vegetation in the main hunting scene (WH F15, WH F35; Figs. 16, 19) and the spears illustrated in the second hunting episode (WH F9; Fig. 15), and in other specimens (WH F41; Fig. 20). The tall stems on either side of the human figure could have belonged to tall, stemmed, leaf-like plants, typical of the main hunting scene (WH F7, WH F9, WH F10, WH F13– WH F15; Figs. 14–16). The mild eccentricity of the footwear of the male figure, consisting of what now seem like white boots reaching to just below the knee, should not be taken too seriously in view of the state of preservation of the piece. The traces of red paint in the area of the torso of the male figure are quite inexplicable. Despite the inherent ambiguity in the iconography of this specimen, the concept of a male figure walking among dense vegetation is quite familiar in the West House material, at least as far as the main hunting scene is concerned (WH F7, WH F9, WH F10, WH F31, WH F35; Figs. 14–16, 19). Judging by the restored landscape information on this specimen, the male figure is presumably a hunter walking among vegetation that on one occasion at least is of the same height as the human figure itself (plant on the left). The closest contextual parallel is the male hunter on the upper pictorial field of the second hunting episode (WH F9, Fig. 15). Whether or not this particular fragment belonged to one of the episodes of the main hunting scene is another matter.

3.4.5. Female Garments(?) (WH F83) Finally, this set of fragments (WH F83; Pl. 25) includes specimens featuring sections of white

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plaster decorated with thin, rippling red and light blue lines, apparently crossed by a series of faint transverse light brown/black lines between tapering light blue bands. The identification of these extremely fragmentary specimens with sections of flounced female garments relies mostly on the identification of similar white rectangular panels featuring lightly rippling parallel lines rendered with red paint as parts of female garments at Mycenae in the area south of the Cult Center (Kritseli-Providi 1982, corridor M, 49–51, 85, nos. B20–B24, pls. 9, 10:α, β, color pl. Δ:α, β). Similar undulating lines have been also attested on female garments at Pylos (Lang 1969, 86–89, no. 51Hnws, pls. 34–38, E, O). Although the iconographic identification of these extremely fragmentary specimens is in any case tentative, the absence of transverse lines, attested in both the Mycenae and the Pylos examples, casts further doubts.

3.5. Other Floral Compositions (WH F84–WH F94) This rather heterogeneous category (WH F84– WH F94) includes a number of quite interesting, but badly preserved, fragmentary compositions, mostly small-scale, which do not seem to belong to the main hunting scene. There are three sets of fragments belonging to three different compositions (WH F84–WH F87, WH F88–WH F93, and WH F94), classified according to background color and/ or subject matter.

3.5.1. Floral Compositions against a White Background (WH F84–WH F87) The first set of fragments (WH F84–WH F87), depicting isolated leaf-like motifs rendered with red, green, or blue paint against a white background, are too fragmentary for reconstruction. The largest specimen (WH F86; Pl. 25), the original composition of which has almost completely disappeared, features a wide, blue horizontal border band and a presumably large, white decorative field below, populated with floral, leaf-like motifs,

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rendered with blue paint. The curving upper half of the preserved border band forms a straight edge, presumably near the top of the original panel and/ or wall. The color scheme, blue leaf-like motifs on a white ground, has been attested in other floral compositions at Mycenae (Lamb 1919–1921, 195, nos. 11–13, pl. IX), in some of the “lollipop” trees at Tiryns (Fig. 17:a; Rodenwaldt 1912, 109, nos. 136, 138–139, fig. 40, pl. XII), and at Pylos (Lang 1969, 118–119, 129–130, nos. 36C17, 11Nnws, pls. 61, 62, 73, 136, H, G). Blue floral elements painted against a white background are a rather common feature of Minoan floral/faunal landscapes, as exemplified in a number of pictorial compositions from Knossos (for the House of the Frescoes, see Evans 1928, 431–467, figs. 264, 275, color pls. X, XI; Cameron 1968b; Shaw and Chapin 2006; for the Caravanserai, see Evans 1928, 117, fig. 55; Shaw 2005, 98, 100, nos. 26–30, 32–35, figs. 4:4, pls. 34, 35; for the Unexplored Mansion, see Chapin 1997, 3, fig. 2, color pl. A). They are also encountered in the LC/ LM I material from Hagia Eirene on Kea (Abramovitz 1980, 71, 72–76, nos. 134–152, 156, 157, 159– 164, 168–170, 173, 174, pls. 8, 9:a–e, 10:a; Morgan 1998, 202; on yellow ground) and Thera (Doumas 1992, 36–37, 64–67, pls. 2–5 [blue papyrus plants in House of the Ladies], 30–34 [blue palm trees in Nilotic landscape, West House]; Vlachopoulos 2000, 632, figs. 1:633, 634, 2a:636, 3:637, 4:638, 5, 6:639, 7, 8 [the reed motif from Xeste 3]; 2007a, 136, pl. 15:1–3 [blue palm trees]; Vlachopoulos and Sotiropoulou 2012, 250, 255–256, figs. 6, 8). The pointed, leaf-shaped motifs are a familiar theme in the West House material, especially in the main hunting scene (WH F7, WH F9, WH F10; Figs. 14–16). Two of the remaining fragments (WH F84, WH F85; Pl. 25) preserve only sections of pointed, leaflike ornaments rendered with red and green paint against a white ground. Plants rendered with red paint against a white ground have been attested at Tiryns and Pylos (Rodenwaldt 1912, 21, no. 28, pl. III:3; Lang 1969, 130, nos. 12Nnws, 13Nnw, pls. 74, H), while green paint, a rather unusual color choice in Aegean wall painting, has been used for almost all the floral ornaments associated with the hunting scene in the West House material (WH F7, WH F9) and for the “lollipop” trees in the hunting

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scene from Orchomenos. At Pylos, it was applied against a dark ground (Lang 1969, 128, nos. 5N43, 6N43, pl. 70). Similar floral elements of various sizes, presumably representing parts of plants or trees, appear in other fragmentary compositions on the mainland (Fig. 17:a; Rodenwaldt 1912, 19–20, 109, nos. 26, 27, 136–139, fig. 40, pls. I:5, III:4–6, XII; Lamb 1919–1921, 196, no. 17, pl. IX; Lang 1969, 130, no. 13Nnw, pl. 74) and at Hagia Eirene on Kea (Abramovitz 1980, 71–72, nos. 134, 135, 137, 139– 144, 146, pls. 8:a–c, 9:a, b). The extant fragments seem to belong to two or possibly three different small-scale floral panels that cannot be associated with the vast majority of the extant West House material and probably represent stray specimens. The last set of fragments in this category (WH F87; Pl. 25) consists of small pieces, too fragmentary for reconstruction, depicting sections of curvilinear floral motifs, possibly parts of forked stems and flowers, rendered with gray paint outlined in black, some marked with additional red paint.

3.5.2. Floral Compositions against a Red Background 3.5.2.1. Floral Composition in Blue Paint (WH F88–WH F92) The second set of fragments includes two distinct thematic groups, both painted against a red background. The first group (WH F88–WH F92; Figs. 28, 29; Pl. 26) belongs to a presumably large panel, originally painted in an intense, rosy red color, now worn in places, decorated with groups of delicate, slender, stemmed, leaf-like plants alternating with wide, oblique, tapering and often sinuous stem-like elements rendered with blue paint. The apparent distribution of the blue elements along the panel and their size in relation to the other floral motifs suggests that, whatever their original form and size, they might have also served as dividers of a sort between sub-panels. The floral motifs in between consist of groups of slender, leaf-like plants and stamen-like elements, the latter depicted both in an upright (WH F89; Fig. 29; Pl. 26) and in an upside down position (WH F88; Fig. 28; Pl. 26). They were apparently thinly scattered along the surface of the extant panels.

Similar floral elements, especially the slender stemmed leaves, have been attested in a number of other compositions at Mycenae (Lamb 1919–1921, 195, no. 11 [Ramp House], pl. IX; 1921–1923, 159, 163, nos. i, ii [East Lobby], A1 [“Pithos area”], pl. XXV:1–3), in a composition depicting the foliage of a tree at Tiryns (Rodenwaldt 1912, 20, no. 27, pl. III:4–6), at Pylos (Lang 1969, 130, no. 12Nnws, pls. 74, H), and in earlier material from Hagia Eirene on Kea (Abramovitz 1980, 74–75, nos. 156, 165, pl. 9:e; Morgan 1998, 202, fig. 3). Apart from the Hagia Eirene material, all the other specimens belong to 14th-century b.c. deposits or to material that cannot be associated with the latest palatial phase. The relatively early date of the extant parallels is echoed in the restrained naturalism of the West House composition and perhaps in the multidirectional arrangement of the plants, previously unattested on the mainland. The interpretation of this initially confusing, multidirectional configuration of plant life in earlier Minoan/Aegean floral/faunal landscape compositions as a representation of eroding geological formations (solution cavities), which apparently entered the Aegean artistic idiom as a popular convention for the representation of rocky terrain (Chapin 1995, 67–68, 169–186), represents an iconographic formula that was apparently never incorporated into the Mycenaean artistic idiom. Although Mycenaean artists canonised earlier Aegean spatial conventions for landscape art (Chapin 1995, 253–254, 272, 281, 289– 290), such as overlapping, vertical perspective, and various versions of the so-called referential perspective (e.g., composite and “shallow cave” perspective), with impressive consistency, Mycenaean art displays no interest in naturalism or in the depiction of landscapes except as a background for human action. The few fragments of Mycenaean wall paintings featuring what seem to be floral landscapes are comparatively early in date (LH IIIA) and too fragmentary to allow valid comparisons with earlier Minoan/Aegean floral/faunal landscape scenes. The specimen from the West House is one such example. Although it might be tempting to make the comparison with the more sophisticated Minoan compositions, the surviving section of this composition, true to the Mycenaean artistic idiom, in every respect, does not justify any assumptions to this effect. The color combination—blue floral motifs against a red background—although quite rare, has been

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also attested at Tiryns in the old palace material (Rodenwaldt 1912, 19–20, no. 26, pl. I:5). Earlier Minoan use of the same color scheme is attested in the celebrated Monkey panel from the House of the Frescoes at Knossos (Evans 1928, color pls. X, XI). The widely spaced groups of plants in the West House specimen, arranged in relatively wide sub-panels between thick, sinuous, tapering, probably floral elements, is vaguely reminiscent of the more naturalistically rendered vegetation in the main hunting scene (WH F10; Fig. 16). Nevertheless, the generic affinities between this specimen and the plant life incorporated in the main hunting scene, at least in terms of pictorial formulas and the overall arrangement of floral elements in the field, do not warrant major conceptual leaps in the reconstruction of the original composition. Animal and/ or human pictorial elements are neither apparent nor implied and any references to earlier Minoan landscape conventions are perfectly compatible with the Mycenaean artistic idiom. The original context of this composition, whether or not it belonged to the LH IIIB house, is at this stage a matter of conjecture. 3.5.2.2. Lily Composition (WH F93) The second group (WH F93; Fig. 29; Pl. 27) is represented by a single large specimen, unique on the mainland both as regards the iconography and the color scheme. It depicts two stalks of white madonna lilies, each featuring a set of three splaying lily blooms with yellow stamens/anthers. The floral composition has been executed in a surprisingly naturalistic manner against a deep red background. The upper border of the composition, as preserved, consists of three successive narrow horizontal bands painted gray/blue, yellow, and white. The first two bands are decorated with the so-called tooth-ornament, a succession of black and red vertical bars. Red was rarely used as a background color for pictorial compositions on the mainland. The only recorded examples involving floral compositions are attested at Tiryns in the old palace material (Rodenwaldt 1912, 19–20, 22, nos. 26, 30, pls. I:5, III:1). At Pylos, on the other hand, red backgrounds were reserved for pictorial compositions populated with human and animal figures, not vegetation. Most were discovered inside the throne room (Lang 1969, 79– 81, 85, 105, 106, 109, 179, nos. 43H6, 44H6, 50Hnws,

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3C20, 7C20, 8C21, 19C6, 3M6, pls. 27, 28, 31, 46– 48, 53, 108, 125–126, 132, A, D, E, N). At Mycenae, the single extant specimen, a spiral and lotus frieze, does not belong to the latest phase of the palace (Lamb 1921–1923, 169–170, no. 11, pl. XXIX). The white lilies on the West House specimen, painted against a bright red background, were clearly inspired, in terms of concept, execution, and color coding, by the much earlier MM III/LM/LC IA fresco compositions. The closest parallels are to be found in Amnissos (Marinatos 1932, 86– 90, fig. 8–8:a; 1933, fig. 2; Evans 1935, 1002, suppl. pl. LXVII:b; Marinatos and Hirmer 1959, color pl. XXII; Immerwahr 1990, 179–180, cat. no. Am. no. 1), in the South East House and the House of the Frescoes at Knossos (Evans 1921, 426, 537, fig. 390, color pl. VI; 1928, 455, fig. 266:c, 456), in the Royal Villa at Hagia Triada (Halbherr 1903, 55–60, pls. VII:8–X; Evans 1921, 604, fig. 444; Smith 1965, 77–79, figs. 107–109; Immerwahr 1990, 180, cat. no. A.T. no. 1, pls. 17, 18), and in Phylakopi on Melos (Bosanquet 1904, fig. 64; Evans 1930, 130, 132, fig. 87). Despite the obvious affinities of the West House specimen with the surviving lily compositions of the Neopalatial era, it lacks the variety and spontaneity of the earlier examples. The restrained naturalism of the lily panel from the West House, whether it belongs to the original decoration of the LH IIIB:1 building, which does not seem likely, or to stray debris from earlier 14th-century b.c. buildings in the area, is perfectly at home on the mainland. The choice of colors presumably reflects the Minoan/Aegean ancestry of the theme, but cannot be traced back to extant Cycladic specimens. Although lily compositions were apparently quite popular among Minoan and Cycladic patrons and/ or artists, they presumably made less of an impression on their Mycenaean counterparts, this being the only extant example of Mycenaean provenance. The conceptual affinity of the West House specimen to the layout of the Amnissos (Marinatos 1932, 86–90, fig. 8–8:a; 1933, fig. 2; Evans 1935, 1002, suppl. pl. LXVII:b; Marinatos and Hirmer 1959, color pl. XXII; Immerwahr 1990, 179–180, cat. no. Am. no. 1) or even the Theran compositions (for West House, see Doumas 1992, 96–97, pls. 63, 64), where isolated lily plants were depicted in a structured, artificial environment or in vases, seems

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perfectly compatible with the inherent Mycenaean reluctance to naturalistic landscape scenes. The symbolic use of individual floral elements, such as lilies, outside explicitly religious scenes, especially on the mainland, seems unjustified (Angelopoulou 2000, 552) and too speculative on the basis of the surviving material. Finally, striped borders with a white band just above the main panel, similar to those on the West House specimen, are quite common on the mainland, with parallels at Mycenae, Tiryns, and Orchomenos (Lang 1969, 160). At Pylos they are attested on 50% of the extant panels. The tooth-ornament, as it appears on this specimen, conforms to the earliest version of the motif (bars of equal size, equidistant from each other), as attested at Orchomenos (Bulle 1907, 81–82, pl. XXIX:1), Pylos (Lang 1969, 154– 155, no. 17Fnwsw, pls. 87, 138, J), Thebes (Aravatinos and Fappas 2015, 337, figs. 16, 17), and Tiryns, where it was apparently used to the exclusion of the simple band border (Rodenwaldt 1912, 16–18, 30– 31, 34–40, 97–109, 141, 148, nos. 22, 42, 44, 113– 139, 199, 221, figs. 18:a, 40, 60, pls. II:7, III:7, V, XII, XV:6, XVII:8; Papadimitriou, Thaler, and Maran, 2015, fig. 2). At Mycenae it is attested in the bullleaping scene from the Ramp House (Lamb 1919– 1921, 192–193, nos. 4, 5, pl. VII; Shaw 1996, 170, 171, figs. 3, 4, pls. A4, A55, color pls. B, C) and in the “Warrior, Grooms, Horses, and Chariots” frieze from the “Pithos area” (Rodenwaldt 1911, 232–233, 241–244, nos. 1, 15:c, fig. 3, pl. XI:1; Lamb 1921– 1923, 164–165, no. B1, pl. XXVII), dated to the 14th and/or early 13th century b.c. (Shaw 1996, 189–190; Immerwahr 1990, 123–124, 165). It is worth noting that although both at Pylos and Mycenae the motif does not appear on the material from the latest phase of the palace (Lang 1969, 161; Immerwahr 1990, 123–124, 165), at Tiryns it is attested in both the old and the new palace material. At both Mycenae and Tiryns it is used in pictorial compositions, while at Pylos and Orchomenos the extant specimens frame abstract, spiral friezes. The linear scheme attested in the West House specimen, consisting of two successive colored bands rendered with blue and yellow paint and decorated with a series of black and red vertical bars of equal size, equidistant from each other, was an apparently typical border arrangement in most mainland palatial centers. Judging by the color combinations on the other extant specimens,

it is very possible that the uppermost gray band on the West House specimen was originally painted blue.

3.5.3. Floral Composition in Blue and White (WH F94) The third group of fragments (WH F94; Fig. 30; Pl. 27) is again represented by a rather large specimen composed of 14 joining pieces. It consists of a rectangular panel decorated with floral elements rendered in white, blue, and red paint, the whole painted against a bright blue background. The main panel is bordered along the top by a relatively narrow, tapering band and a wider zone, the latter decorated with a row of stylized and rather carelessly executed ivies rendered with blue paint. The fragmentary floral element in the main panel, originally rendered with red paint, of which only faint traces have survived, bears a close resemblance to the sinuous and/or forked plant stems associated with the vegetation in the main hunting scene (WH F10; Fig. 16). The identity of the blue and white floral motif to the left is problematic. The two partly preserved leaf-like elements, outlined in white, and the thin radiating black lines on the interior of the left leaf, which could theoretically be restored over the entire plant (Fig. 30), do not have any, even remotely, close parallels among the Mycenaean, Cycladic, or Minoan pictorial repertory. They have been arbitrarily restored as segments of a rather carelessly drawn and quite childlike flower or tree. Both the restored flower/tree and the smaller floral element to the right were probably depicted frontally at two different scales, which seems to defy normal iconographic principles. While the smaller floral element on the right is closely comparable to some of the stemmed plants incorporated in the main hunting scene (WH F10; Fig. 16), the plant on the left stands out, not only because of its size, but also due to the idiosyncratic rendering of the foliage. Although the exaggerated difference in scale and execution between the two floral elements was obviously deliberate, it is not related to perspective, is not compatible with the established spatial conventions, especially when it involves two pictorial elements of the same species placed side by side, and does not make any narrative sense.

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The ivy frieze above the main panel, drawn in the same, rather careless manner unlike the two other ivy friezes in the West House material (WH F123, WH F124; Fig. 33; Pl. 34), is not an unusual or unexpected choice in the mainland corpus (see Ch. 3.8.1, below). Although ivy friezes framed by successive rows of tooth-ornament are quite popular at Glas, especially in connection with the Dolphin composition (Boulotis 2015, 377, figs. 8, 15, 16), and at Tiryns in the new palace material (Fig. 17:a; Rodenwaldt 1912, 72–73, 141–142, no. 73, figs. 28, 40, 60, pls. VIII, XII), they have not been attested elsewhere at Mycenae or in most of the other palatial centers (Thebes, Pylos, Orchomenos). It is quite plausible that the same scheme was reduplicated higher up in the panel (WH F94; Fig. 30).

3.6. Unidentifiable/Indeterminate Pictorial Compositions (WH F95– WH F102) This rather broad category includes four sets of pictorial fragments of different types painted against a white or blue background, most of which are barely identifiable. All, except the first group (WH F95–WH F98), seem to belong to small-scale compositions painted against a blue background.

3.6.1. Palm Tree/Female Garments (WH F95–WH F98) The first set of fragments (WH F95–WH F98; Fig. 30; Pl. 28) includes a considerable number of specimens (35 examples) depicting parts of adjacent triangles decorated with oblique black lines drawn against a red, bluish-gray, or yellow ground, with the whole painted against a white background. Individual triangles are outlined in black. The preserved dimensions of the surviving triangles (max. pres. h. ca. 14 cm) suggest that the original composition was presumably life-size or near life-size. The pictorial identification of this set of fragments remains ambiguous, mostly because of the fragmentary nature of the extant specimens. The initial identification of the original composition relied on the apparent similarities of the West House

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specimens with similarly decorated fragments from the Cult Center at Mycenae depicting the stylized foliage of a palm tree (Pl. 28). The preserved fragments featured part of a thin, yellow trunk outlined in black and three groups of similarly decorated, tapering, triangular leaves (Kritseli-Providi 1982, 23– 28, no. A5, fig. 3, pl. 1). Nevertheless, the attempt to reconstruct the West House specimens as part of the foliage of a stylized palm tree was soon abandoned as unrealistic. Furthermore, despite the explicit association of palm trees with religious iconography in general, and with winged griffins in particular (Kritseli-Providi 1982, 25–26; Morgan 1988, 27– 28), the only close thematic parallels in the West House material are of small scale and are painted against a blue background. It should also be noted that the only other surviving representations of palm trees on the mainland, in Thebes (Spyropoulos 1971, 106–107, no. 5e, pl. 23:a) and Pylos (Lang 1969, 129–130, no. 11Nnws, pls. 73, H), do not bear any iconographic resemblance to our specimens. The proposed alternative relies on the apparent affinities of these striped, tapering areas with the tapering flounces of the skirts worn by female figures in religious processions, and more specifically the life-size women in the female procession from the Kadmeion at Thebes, as published by Reusch (Fig. 30; Reusch 1956, 11, 23, no. 35, fig. 15, pl. 12); the skirts feature three tapering flounces with double borders halfway down their length rendered with white, blue, and pink paint (Fig. 30). The interior of the flounces was apparently decorated, like the West House specimens, with a set of red and black lines of unequal thickness, the color of which depends on the background color involved. Seen in this light, the fragmentary West House specimens could theoretically belong to a life-size procession of women painted against a white ground. Life-size processions of female figures have also been attested in the LH IIIA:2 material from the west terrace of the House of the Oil Merchant (Cameron and Meyer 1995, 282) and from the terrace below the Ramp House (Lamb 1919–1921, 194–195, nos. 8–10, pl. VIII [LH IIB–IIIA:1]). The early date of the two other surviving sets of lifesize processions from Mycenae itself might suggest that the West House specimens did not belong to the 13th-century b.c. complex; they could represent stray debris from earlier, 14th-century b.c. buildings in the area.

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Despite the aforementioned stylistic affinities, the reconstruction of the extant specimens as part of the flounced skirts of female figures, of whatever scale, has unfortunately also proved unconvincing and the ultimate interpretation of these fragments will have to be declared speculative and practically untenable.

3.6.2. Compositions against a Blue Background (WH F99–WH F102) The second set of specimens (WH F99; Fig. 31; Pl. 28), painted against a blue background, features a small-scale composition, presumably pictorial, but barely identifiable as such. What is discernible on the better-preserved specimen (WH F99a; Fig. 31; Pl. 28) is a well-defined, reserved area differentiated into two distinct sections, a circular section on the left and a rectangular, L-shaped section on the right. The circular section is defined by four red concentric semicircular lines painted along the right-hand side of the circle, with traces of a short red line running across them. The roughly circular shape of this section, although otherwise undifferentiated from the section to the right and devoid of other interior details, creates the illusion of a reallife pictorial element, in this case most probably a wheel. The L-shaped section to its right was effectively outlined in red, and preserved faint traces of yellow and red paint on the interior. Although the identification of the original, presumably pictorial motif or motifs in this section of the reserved area is quite impossible in its present state, the dimensions and location of the narrow horizontal band in the upper section of the extant specimen (0.3 cm wide), painted ca. 0.6–0.7 cm above the reserved area, are temptingly similar to the dimensions and location of the reins in the extant chariot groups (WH F54, WH F57, WH F58; Figs. 22, 23; Pls. 18, 19). The red concentric lines on the circular feature, on the other hand, are too partial and uneven to be identified as anything other than preliminary sketching or even doodling. Although this and the apparent lack of any other meaningful internal details on the white, reserved ground could be construed as evidence of an unfinished state for this part of the composition, the original intention of the artist remains obscure.

The identification of the third set of fragments (WH F100, WH F101; Pl. 29) is even more elusive. Seemingly meaningless sections of white areas, in some cases highlighted with red paint and a few tips of pointed, leaf-like elements, were apparently painted against the familiar blue background (WH F101; Pl. 29). In the vast majority of the extant specimens the confusion as regards the pictorial layout of the original composition is the result of extensive damage caused to the blue background, randomly exposing the white plaster underneath. The fourth and final set of fragments in this category (WH F102; Fig. 31; Pl. 29) is very fragmentary and also quite elusive as regards form and subject matter. The best-preserved specimen (WH F102a; Fig. 31; Pl. 29) could be restored as some kind of stemmed floral ornament rendered with black paint applied on a white ground, the whole painted against a blue background. Although the thin, white, reserved lines running along two of the preserved edges and a similar tapering line radiating outward give the impression of petal dividers, they do not clarify the overall picture. In the West House material, black paint, similarly applied on white ground, has been used for the depiction of horses (WH F58, WH F60; Figs. 23, 24; Pls. 19, 20). Nevertheless, despite the apparent similarities of this specimen with the fragmentary horses associated with the main hunting scene, the original identity of the extant motif remains unclear.

3.7. Linear/Curvilinear Compositions (WH F103–WH F122) This category includes five sets of fragments, one of which (WH F117–WH F121; Fig. 32; Pls. 32, 33) belongs to the Hellenistic reoccupation of the site (see App. B). The remaining four sets of fragments represent parts of four different compositions/panels, all decorated with a variety of linear/curvilinear ornaments too fragmentary for detailed reconstruction. The extant background colors range between white, yellow, gray, and red.

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3.7.1. Composition with Curvilinear Motifs in Black, White, and Red against a Gray Background (WH F103–WH F108) The first group of fragments (WH F103–WH F108; Fig. 31; Pl. 30) belong to a linear composition rendered with black, white, and occasionally red paint against a uniform light gray background. Judging by the almost complete lack of gray backgrounds in the Mycenaean corpus, except in cases of color degeneration through fire or exposure, the surviving background color on these specimens could be the undercoat applied under a final coat of Egyptian blue that has now completely disappeared. The linear motifs consist of sets of two vertical, tapering, wavy bands rendered with black and white paint, flanked by vertical rows of white dots, in some cases enclosed within black circles (WH F103; Fig. 31; Pl. 30) and occasionally associated with straight or undulating red bands (WH F107; Fig. 31; Pl. 30). A similar composition with wavy, apparently horizontal black bands and interspersed groups/rows of white dots painted against a light gray background is attested in the earlier material from the Ramp House terrace (Lamb 1919–1921, 198, no. 31, pl. X), which also includes other fragments with sets of two, albeit horizontal, black and blue bands against a yellow and blue ground (Lamb 1919–1921, 197, nos. 23, 24, pl. VIII).

3.7.2. Composition with Curvilinear Motifs in Red against a White and/or Yellow Background (WH F109–WH F114) The second set of fragments (WH F109–WH F114; Fig. 32; Pl. 31) were presumably part of a composition including both linear and curvilinear motifs. The latter consisted of mostly pointed leaf-shaped ornaments, the vast majority in silhouette (WH F109, WH F111–WH F113a, e, g–i, r; Fig. 32; Pl. 31). There are also tapering, stamenlike motifs, on their own or in combination with leaf-shaped ornaments (WH F110, WH F113b, d, f, m, q; Fig. 32; Pl. 31), the latter occasionally associated with dots (WH F113c, j). Rows of dots resembling stylized foliate bands appear on their own or are associated with what appear to be horizontal bands on a smaller scale (WH F113f, j, k, n, o,

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p, r), all rendered with red paint. The background color, which alternates between white (WH F109, WH F111, WH F112, WH F114; Fig. 32; Pl. 31) and yellow (WH F110, WH F113; Fig. 32; Pl. 31), is somewhat of a puzzle, unless the original yellow has completely disappeared in a considerable number of specimens. One of the specimens (WH F109; Fig. 32; Pl. 31) preserves sections of two distinct decorative panels: an apparently white panel above and a yellow panel below, with a dividing border in between consisting of two tapering horizontal bands of different widths. The bands were rendered with gray and red paint, the former outlined in black. A number of fragments depicting similar bands presumably represent sections of the same border (WH F113k, p; WH F114). Although the extant composition includes quite a few floral pictorial elements (i.e., leaf-shaped ornaments mostly in silhouette and stamen-like motifs), the latter were apparently executed in a formal, stylized manner against a neutral yellow and/or white background. The incontrovertibly abstract, non-naturalistic spatial arrangement of the composition defies the underlying naturalism of the subject matter. Even though the difference in scale between the leaf-shaped or stamen-like motifs and the rows of dots, with or without the accompanying bands, is slightly awkward (cf. WH F109–WH F112 with WH F113), it is possible that in the original composition the relatively large, solidly painted ornaments were accompanied by scattered smaller elements. Alternatively, the larger ornaments forming the main part of the composition were possibly framed by strictly delineated zones decorated with smaller motifs. Although red floral motifs against a yellow ground are not unknown on the mainland (Lang 1969, 128, 130–131, nos. 7N53, 15Nsw, pls. 71, 73, H), the stylized, abstract layout of the West House specimens has no close parallels, except for the general resemblance of the leaf-shaped motifs to the stylized vegetation in the hunting scene (WH F7, WH F9, WH F10; Figs. 14–16; Pls. 4–6). Furthermore, the combination of bands and dots on some of the specimens is in fact more consistent with vase painting than with Mycenaean wall painting (Mountjoy 1986, 22, 43, FM 64, nos. 17 [LH IIB], 31 [LH IIA], figs. 12, 38).

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3.7.3. Composition with Linear Decoration and Curvilinear Motifs in Yellow against a White Background (WH F115, WH F116) The third set of fragments (WH F115, WH F116; Fig. 32; Pl. 32) feature part of yet another fragmentary composition consisting of very slender, leaf-like motifs, possibly floral, arranged between thin, linear, apparently horizontal bands and dividers, all rendered with yellow paint against a white background. The composition was apparently framed by a series of colored bands, only one of which, rendered in light gray paint and outlined in yellow, has survived on a few of the extant specimens (WH F115a, h; Fig. 32; Pl. 32). There are no close parallels on the mainland.

3.7.4. Stripes in Red against a Red Background (WH F122) The last set of fragments (WH F122; Pl. 33) belong to some kind of motif, possibly pictorial, decorated with wide red bands painted against a lighter red background. The fragmentary state of the extant specimens does not allow much speculation on the thematic context of the original composition.

3.8. Friezes and Borders (WH F123– WH F134) The material from the West House includes a number of specimens preserving sections of relatively narrow friezes decorated with floral or linear motifs and an even greater number of specimens preserving sections of curved or straight colored borders, presumably framing the main panels. The decorative friezes have been divided into three categories according to subject matter, and the borders into two distinct groups according to shape. The term frieze in this context is used for decorative zones with running, repetitive motifs serving either as borders to a larger, pictorial scene or as independent features around the upper part of the walls (Lang 1969, 140–141). The term border is used for series of narrow, colored bands defining the upper and lower edges of a panel (Lang 1969, 157).

3.8.1. Floral Friezes (WH F123, WH F124) The only floral motif attested in the West House material is ivy, more specifically two different stylized versions of the so-called sacral ivy (FM 12; see Mountjoy 1986, 18, fig. 12:3, LH IIA). Both surviving specimens (WH F123, WH F124; Fig. 33; Pl. 34) depict a narrow decorative zone featuring a row of ivies, flanked on either side by an indeterminable number of colored bands. In the first, better-preserved specimen (WH F123; Fig. 33; Pl. 34) the ivies were rendered with blue paint, the internal details being executed in black; the triangular spaces between the ivies were also apparently painted black. The ivy frieze, ca. 3.2 cm in width, was flanked by a set of at least four colored bands, ca. 1.1–1.2 cm wide, painted yellow, blue, white, and then blue again, the yellow being closer to the upper and lower edges of the frieze; they were all outlined in black. This set of bands, serving as the border of the frieze, was presumably repeated an unknown number of times, on both sides (Fig. 33). The calculated overall height of the banded border does not exceed the specifications attested at Tiryns and Pylos (Rodenwaldt 1912, 97, fig. 40; Lang 1969, 159), ca. 12 cm. As stipulated for the material from Pylos (Lang 1969, 159), the colors of the bands closer to the edges of the frieze are exactly the same yellow. The second, much more fragmentary specimen (WH F124; Fig. 33; Pl. 34) belongs presumably to a different composition. In this frieze, which is slightly wider than the previous example (i.e., ca. 3.85 cm in width), the ivies—outlined in black but apparently without the internal stripes inside the waz (the small element crowning the flower)—were painted in sets of two, alternating between yellow and blue; the triangular space between the ivies was also painted black. The ivy frieze was in this case also framed by a series of colored bands outlined in black, only two of which were preserved; the colors used for the bands are apparently identical to those on the previous specimen (yellow and blue). A third example of an ivy border is preserved on one of the floral compositions discussed above (WH F94; Fig. 30; Pl. 27). The frieze was in that case much wider (w. 5.3 cm) and the ivies, rendered with blue paint without outlines or interior details, were painted against a white ground in a severely stylized, abbreviated, and careless manner.

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Narrow ivy friezes, framed by series of horizontal colored bands, have been attested at Tiryns on the lower border of the panel depicting the female chariot team (Fig. 17:a; Rodenwaldt 1912, 97–109, nos. 113–139, fig. 40, pl. XII) and on the upper border of the panel depicting the large scale procession of women (Rodenwaldt 1912, 69–94, nos. 71–111, figs. 27, 28); in the procession, a narrow band decorated with groups of alternating yellow, white, and blue ivies has been restored between horizontal bands featuring the ubiquitous tooth-ornament. The ivies on the Tiryns specimens are slenderer and more severely stylized than on the West House example. Ivy friezes have not been attested in any of the other palatial centers, including Mycenae. In Thera, ivy friezes were also not particularly popular as border devices; they are only encountered in House Beta, where they form the upper border of the Antelope fresco and the Boxing Boys panel (Doumas 1992, 112, 117, pls. 79, 83). The layout/ function and the stylistic rendering of the two rows of ivy leaves in the Theran wall paintings bear no resemblance to the Mycenaean use of the motif. It is possible that this decorative system, including both the floral frieze and the bands flanking it, framed one of the pictorial compositions in the West House material.

3.8.2. Spiral Friezes (WH F125–WH F127) The two sets of fragments in this category (WH F125 and WH F126, WH F127; Fig. 33; Pl. 34) belong to two different panels, both flanked by alternating colored bands rendered with white and blue paint. On the better-preserved specimen (WH F126, WH F127; Fig. 33; Pl. 34) the main decorative zone, ca. 4.0 cm wide, featured isolated, linked, spiraliform motifs rendered with white paint and outlined in black. The irregular curved, trapezoidal space between the spiraliform motifs was divided into two triangular areas, painted blue and red, with small white triangles in the center, also outlined in black. The spiral frieze was framed by a series of colored bands, ca. 1.1 cm wide, only two of which are preserved, rendered with white and blue paint. In the other specimen (WH F125; Fig. 33; Pl. 34), the main decorative zone, probably wider than

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the zone on the previous example (WH F126; Fig. 33; Pl. 34), featured a series of linked, apparently stemmed spirals rendered with white paint, probably with a second row of similar spirals on a lower register; the center of the spirals was apparently rendered with blue paint. The space between the spirals was occupied by two small triangles outlined in blue and set against a yellow ground. The spiral frieze in this case was also framed by a series of colored bands, ca. 0.7–1.1 cm wide, only two of which were preserved above the frieze; they were rendered with white and blue paint and outlined in yellow. It is worth noting that the bands closest to the frieze were in both cases white, similarly to the material from Tiryns and Pylos (Rodenwaldt 1912, 219; Lang 1969, 159, 160), the next band being in both cases blue. Although there are no close parallels in the mainland repertory for either set, the spirals on the second specimen (WH F125; Fig. 33; Pl. 34) bear some resemblance to the spirals from the Spiral and Lotus frieze from the “Pithos area” at Mycenae (Fig. 33; Lamb 1921–1923, 169, no. 11i, pl. XXIX), dated to the 14th century b.c. Except for the unquestionably elaborate lotus motifs and the double spiral volutes on the specimen from the “Pithos area,” the West House spirals could be described as a simplified version of the same motif. The color combinations encountered in the West House specimens, both as regards the spirals themselves and the complementary motifs, have also been attested in other spiral friezes on the mainland (Rodenwaldt 1912, 34–40, nos. 44, 45, figs. 8–10, pl. V; Lamb 1921–1923, 169–171, nos. 11–13, pl. XXIX; Kritseli-Providi 1982, 34– 36, 58–59, nos. A19, B32–B34, fig. 5, pls. E, ΣΤ:α, β, 3, 12, 13).

3.8.3. Frieze with Linear Decoration (WH F128) This group of fragments (WH F128; Fig. 33; Pl. 35) seems to belong to the same composition, most probably part of a linear border consisting of alternating horizontal color zones rendered with yellow and light gray paint and separated by horizontal bands of varying widths, painted black. Each color

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IPHIYENIA TOURNAVITOU

zone included a frieze, ranging between 4.3 cm and over 5.1 cm in width (interior), decorated with a series of oblique, tapering black lines suspended from a thinner, tapering, horizontal black line parallel to the thick upper edge of the frieze. Judging by the linear decoration and the surviving traces of color on the extant specimens, it seems that the two better-preserved fragments (WH F128a, b; Fig. 33), although they do not join, could plausibly be restored one below the other (WH F128b, below WH F128a). There are no known parallels.

3.8.4. Curved Borders (WH F129, WH F130) This set of fragments (WH F129, WH F130; Fig. 34; Pl. 35) includes part of what looks like a curved border (max. pres. w. 6.9 cm) consisting of three colored bands (w. ca. 1.25–2.00 cm to over 3.1 cm) rendered with gray, orange/red, and black paint, and painted against a white ground. The gray band along the upper edge of the border (1.65–1.95 cm wide) was outlined in black. The wide curve of the upper edge of the curved border and the large number of surviving colored bands precludes the restoration of the fragment as part of the border of a figure-of-eight shield, or of any other conceivable ornament of a circular shape. The identity of the original motif is still unclear.

3.8.5. Straight Borders (WH F131–WH F134) This category includes three sets of fragments consisting of sections of colored bands, presumably forming part of the border of different pictorial compositions. The most popular combination (24 surviving fragments) seems to involve sets of an unknown number of bands, featuring two alternating colors, blue and white, in sets of two or three successive bands (blue-white-blue; whiteblue-white/white-blue) (WH F131, WH F132; Pl. 36). These specimens seem to belong to at least three different compositions judging by the presence (WH F131; Pl. 36) or absence (WH F132) of

outlines, and by the color and placement of the outlines. Another set of fragments (WH F133; Pl. 36) features a combination of three different colors, black, orange/red, and light gray, outlined in black. The same color combination is attested at Mycenae on the shield frieze in corridor M of the Southwest Building (Kritseli-Providi 1982, 58, no. B32, pls. E, 12). Finally, a last set of specimens (WH F134; Fig. 34; Pl. 36) consists of part of a wide blue band, 2.8– 2.9 cm in width, meeting at right angles with another band along the right-hand side of the fragment, thus framing the apparently white decorative panel below. The plaster in the upper edge of the wide horizontal band curves upward and is therefore presumably near the top of the wall. The overall number of surviving specimens in this category does not correspond to the number of the extant compositions, which confirms that a large percentage of the original material has been lost or destroyed.

3.9. Monochrome Plaster (WH F135– WH F138) The surviving monochrome pieces of plaster from the West House can be divided into two major categories: fragments painted with Egyptian blue or plain white fragments, presumably serving as the background of extant compositions and wall surfaces (WH F135–WH F138; Pls. 36, 37). The vast majority of the colored specimens (514 examples) are blue (WH F135; Pl. 36), which is perfectly compatible with the background color of the majority of the surviving compositions. The 257 miniscule specimens in red, yellow, gray, blue, or white (WH F136) represent sections of background areas, monochrome bands, or individual motifs. Most of the extant material (1,831 examples) is of white wall plaster of fine quality with no traces of other colors (WH F137; Pl. 37). One of the fragments, with many inclusions, seems to belong to a section of white floor plaster (WH F138; Pl. 37).

4

Techniques of Painting and Construction

4.1. Fresco/Secco

4.2. Plaster

Fresco is a wall painting technique using freshly laid, wet lime plaster as a support, with water serving as the medium for the application of pigments to the wall. It involves a chemical reaction between slaked lime (Ca[OH] 2) and carbon dioxide (CO2), producing calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and water (H2O) through which the paint layer is fixed to the wall. In the a secco technique, on the other hand, the pigments are fixed on the plaster with the help of an organic binder such as egg, animal glue, or plant gums (see App. A). Despite commonly held beliefs about Bronze Age Aegean wall painting, the analytical investigation of a representative number of samples from the West House material has effectively demonstrated the use of sophisticated a secco techniques in the pictorial compositions of the Mycenaean building. For an analytical discussion, see Appendix A.

The white plaster attested in the West House material was applied in two distinct layers, a sublayer and a final layer, the latter serving as the background for the painted decoration. The final layer, ranging between 0.15 cm and 0.35 cm in thickness, was pure lime plaster smoothed flat with no obvious evidence of further treatment (polishing). In the vast majority of the specimens the thickness of this layer ranged between 0.20 cm and 0.25 cm. The sublayer, also pure lime plaster and of varying thickness, ranging between 0.60 cm and 2.25 cm, is in most cases slightly uneven on the underside. In the vast majority of specimens the thickness of this layer, which was applied to the mudbrick walls of the building, ranged between 1.03 cm and 1.70 cm. Isolated cases of specimens with thicker (4.28 cm) or thinner sublayers (0.30–0.55 cm) are the exception and not the rule. A small number of inclusions

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(gravel or small pebbles), of varying dimensions was incorporated into the matrix of this layer. The individual specimens range between 0.75 x 0.3 cm, 1.5 x 1.3 cm, 0.7 x 1.0 cm (WH F41), 0.65 x 0.85 cm, 0.75 x 0.55 cm (WH F69), 0.4 x 0.6 cm (WH F118), and 0.85 x 1.45 cm, th. 0.3 cm (WH F119). In two cases (WH F17a, WH F65) there is evidence for the existence of two distinct sublayers of plaster, possibly representing renewals or repairs. The preserved surface of the second layer from the top on one of these specimens (WH F17) is more calcified and slightly uneven (max. pres. th. 0.25 cm). On the other specimen (WH F65), the second sublayer contained a large number of inclusions (max. pres. th. 1.0 cm; dimensions of inclusions 0.85 x 3.15 cm). On the reverse of another of the extant specimens (WH F93) a sizeable hollow is preserved, possibly a socket for a now missing pebble or piece of wood (h. 6.95 cm; max. pres. w. 7.5 cm). The single extant specimen of floor plaster (WH F138; Pl. 37) features a high percentage of inclusions, gravel and/or pebbles of white, gray, black, red, and brown color (max. pres. dimensions 0.60 x 1.05 cm). For further information on the consistency and chemical properties of the white plaster, see Appendix A (section A.4.2).

4.3. Layout/String Impressions Evidence the for laying out of panels and borders in the form of string impressions, that is, impressed guidelines, created by a string stretched across the soft final coat of plaster for the definition of the horizontal borders and the limits of rectangular panels and decorative friezes, is almost nonexistent in the West House material. In the single specimen preserving evidence of a string impression, a poorly executed, fragmentary floral composition in blue and white (WH F94; Fig. 30; Pl. 27), the string impression runs through the middle of the ivy frieze above the main panel, effectively cutting the row of ivies in half. The unorthodox position of this impression is seemingly unrelated to the suggested main function of string impressions, that is, marking/defining borders. This lack of string impressions in the excavated material, although probably

nongeneric, does not compare well with their relative abundance at Pylos (Lang 1969, 10–11), Tiryns (Rodenwald 1912, 208–209), Thebes (Aravantinos and Fappas 2015, 335) and Mycenae itself (Iakovidis 2013b, 239, 312, pls. 59a:1, 62a:1, 73b:5).

4.4. Preliminary Sketching Despite the apparent lack of string impressions, the evidence for preliminary sketching on the final coat of plaster or on the colored, mostly blue, background is abundant and quite diverse in nature. Preliminary sketching practices in the West House material include freehand incision on the wet plaster, the use of a compass for circular shapes/motifs, and preliminary sketching of the outlines/main lines of figures or features with red paint. Incision was an extremely rare practice, attested only once (WH F86; Pl. 25) in an apparently floral composition painted against a yellow ground. The only surviving leaf-like motif reserved on the final coat of plaster was deeply incised while the plaster was still wet. The originally green interior of the plant was apparently obtained by applying a barely preserved yellow coat of paint over the final coat of plaster and then a blue coat of paint over the yellow, without preliminary mixing of colors (see App. A). The inscribed lettering on a specimen from the Hellenistic composition (WH F117– WH F121; Fig. 32; Pls. 32, 33), spelling the Greek word “mono” (WH F118), was deeply cut, presumably into the wet plaster (see App. B). On the same, heavily scratched specimen (Pl. 32) what looks like a deep chisel cut, probably accidental, that was never smoothed over is also preserved; the same is true for a deep incision attested near the right-hand edge of another specimen in the same set (WH F119; Pl. 33). Not much can be said about the incising tool itself. As most of the incisions are not deep perhaps they were made with a stick. The use of the compass is attested in a number of specimens, especially in the drawing of chariot wheels (WH F67, WH F69–WH F71; Pls. 21, 22), a fairly common practice elsewhere at Mycenae (Rodenwaldt 1911, 233, no. 1, pl. XI:1), Tiryns (Rodenwaldt 1912, 209), and Thebes (Kountouri 1999, 318; Aravantinos and Fappas 2015, 335, fig.

TECHNIQUES OF PAINTING AND CONSTRUCTION

13). The compass was also used at Pylos for tracing wheels and circular motifs (Lang 1969, 73–74, 152–153, nos. 26H64, 12F5; pls. 18, 88). Incised compass marks of varying intensity mark the curve of the outer and inner tires of the extant chariot wheels (WH F67: two concentric arcs on the outer tire and three on the inner tire; WH F69: three, possibly four, concentric arcs marking the limits of the outer and inner tires; WH F70a: two concentric arcs marking the limits of the inner tire; WH F70b: one arc marking the inner limit of the outer tire; WH F71: two concentric arcs marking the limits of the inner tire). Sets of lightly incised compass-drawn circles, probably preliminary attempts or laying out lines, are also attested on a specimen depicting vegetation (WH F10; Pl. 6), on the first leaf-like plant from the right and on two specimens belonging to an unidentifiable pictorial composition (WH F99a–c; Pl. 28). The distinctive red paint used for the laying out of the composition, and more specifically for the preliminary sketching of pictorial features on the final coat of plaster, or on another uniformly colored background, is widely attested, both in the West House material and elsewhere at Mycenae (Rodenwaldt 1911, 223; Lamb 1919–1921, 195, no. 14; 1921–1923, 165, no. ix), Tiryns (Rodenwaldt 1912, 209), especially in the new palace material, and Pylos (Lang 1969, 12, 14–15; Brecoulaki et al. 2008, 385). The term “preliminary sketch lines,” as used by Cameron (1968a, 1968b) in reference to the Minoan wall paintings from the House of the Frescoes at Knossos, and by Shaw and Chapin (2012) in the publication of the wall paintings from House X at Kommos, seems to imply a completely different procedure, effectively unrelated to the laying out of the composition on the final coat of plaster. It refers to orange-red lines painted not on the final coat of plaster, as on the mainland, but on the coarser, penultimate coat of plaster that was meant to be covered with the fine, opaque final coat. The same use of the term has also been attested at Thera (Shaw and Chapin 2012, 56, 67–71, at Hagia Eirene on Kea (Coleman 1973, 288), and at Tell el-Dab’a in Egypt (Brysbaert 2007, 160). The only close parallel to the mainland version of preliminary sketching on the final coat of plaster are the preliminary sketching lines discerned by Cameron on the final coat of plaster on a fragment of the

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Taureador fresco (Cameron 1968a, 58, fig. 6, pl. VIII; Shaw and Chapin 2012, 71). In the West House material, red preliminary sketching lines have been attested both in relation to reserved areas/features and in relation to pictorial features or figures painted over a finished wall surface, be it the final coat of plaster or a uniformly colored surface, in this case mostly blue. All the specimens involved belong to smallscale compositions. The red preliminary sketching lines, normally masked by outlines, by the colored pigments on the interior of the pictorial features, or by the encroaching background color, are still discernible on a number of specimens. This can be traced back to a certain carelessness in the execution of the final drawing or perhaps to the natural degeneration of the masking paint over the years. The red preliminary sketching lines do not appear in the published drawings or restorations of the wall paintings (see Ch. 2.3). What appears to be the result of defective or inefficient masking of preliminary sketching lines is attested in connection with the reserved animal figures in the heraldic scene (WH F1; Pl. 2). Traces of preliminary sketching in red paint have been preserved along the lower part of the leg of the animal figure on the left, along its left thigh, along its abdomen, and also along the underbelly of the animal in the center. The outline and the interior details of the female figure to the right were apparently sketched with black paint directly onto the blue background. Faint traces of red paint along the upper border of the white reserved area at the bottom of one of the associated specimens (WH F3; Pl. 3), and on the interior of the other white reserved area to the right, might also represent preliminary sketching. Traces of preliminary sketching in red paint applied directly onto the blue background are also preserved on another associated specimen (WH F4; Pl. 3). Sketching lines are attested along the upper profile of the female figure, along both sides of what has been restored as an animal limb on the right, and along the lower right-hand side of the other limb on the left. More faint traces of preliminary sketching in red paint are preserved along the left edge of the hairy limb on the right of yet another, associated specimen, depicting animal limbs painted directly onto the blue background (WH F5; Pl. 3).

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Extensive traces of preliminary sketching lines in red paint have also been attested in the hunting scene, mostly in relation to the reserved leaf-like plants. A case in point is the first hunting episode (WH F7; Pl. 4), where traces of preliminary sketching in red paint are preserved along the second, third, and fifth plant from the left. Similar lines are attested on individual specimens depicting mostly reserved vegetation (Pls. 6–8, 10: WH F12a, c, d, k, along the outer edges; WH F14, along the right-hand edge of the plant on the right; WH F20a, along the left side of the plant; WH F25, along the lower edge of the upper curvilinear area; and WH F27a, along the left-hand edge of the wavy stem). Red sketching lines are also attested on one of the specimens depicting a white dog (WH F50; Pl. 16), mostly reserved on the final coat of plaster, with traces of preliminary sketching in orange/ red paint being preserved by the left ear, under the jaw line, and along the lower part of the animal’s chest. In the area of the mouth and more specifically in the lower jaw, white paint was used to correct the preliminary sketching. Faint traces of what looks like preliminary sketching, rendered with red paint, are also preserved on the specimen depicting a reserved male figure carrying a load (WH F52; Pl. 17), along the left edge of the load, which apparently had been painted directly onto the blue background. Although no evidence of preliminary sketching was attested on the specimen depicting the elaborately harnessed pair of horses, apparently yoked to a chariot (WH F54; Pl. 18), red sketching lines were preserved along the back side of some of the other specimens depicting horses, all of which had been reserved on the final coat of plaster (WH F58, WH F60a, WH F61; Pls. 19, 20). On one of the specimens (WH F60a; Pl. 20), traces of preliminary sketching in red paint are preserved along the back side of the animal. Traces of a patchy, or possibly incomplete correction of the original drawing, are still visible just above the backside of the horse near the left-hand edge of the specimen. More specifically, faint traces of a wavy black line running parallel to the body of the animal and the ghost of a reserved circle, preserved just above the main body of the horse, against the blue background, represent alterations in the original drawing. It seems that the original harnessing of the animal (a wide red stripe, decorated with reserved white dots), and

hence the body of the horse, reached up to this irregular black line, which formed the original upper edge of the horse’s back. Subsequent alterations in the drawing of this horse seem to have necessitated the elimination of the old line and the overpainting of this section of the body with Egyptian blue. The fact that the scraped-off dot on the harness and the old line marking the upper edge of the horse’s back are still visible suggests that these alterations were either carelessly done or had not been completed. Traces of preliminary sketching in red paint are also preserved on another specimen (WH F61; Pl. 20), depicting the lower limbs of two hoofed animals rendered with white paint applied directly onto the blue background. The red sketching lines are attested along the outer profile of the animal leg on the right-hand side of the extant fragment. Similar traces have been preserved on the spoke of the large chariot wheel (WH F67; Pl. 21) painted directly onto the blue background, and on another specimen depicting part of an indeterminate circular feature, apparently reserved on the final coat of plaster (WH F73, WH F74b; Pl. 23). On the former (WH F73; Pl. 23), possible traces of preliminary sketching are preserved along the outer profile of the curvilinear area to the right. On the other fragment (WH F74b; Pl. 23), possible traces of preliminary sketching are preserved along the outer profile of the oval area. Finally, preliminary sketching was attested on another specimen depicting the lower limb of an animal, possibly a bovid, and another vertical, white element painted directly onto the blue background (WH F75; Pl. 23). Traces of preliminary sketching in red paint are preserved along the outer profiles of both elements. Preliminary sketching lines were also identified on three other specimens depicting male figures, apparently unrelated to the hunting scene (WH F76, WH F77, WH 79–WH F81; Pl. 24). Only one of them was actually reserved on the final coat of plaster (WH F76; Pl. 24), the others being painted directly onto the blue background. In the first example (WH F76) red sketching lines are preserved along the armpit and the inner arm of the standing figure holding what looks like a spear or scepter (Pl. 24). In the second (WH F77; Pl. 24) the poor state of preservation of the specimen provides invaluable information about the original painting sequence. The latter includes the original preliminary sketching in red paint in

TECHNIQUES OF PAINTING AND CONSTRUCTION

the vicinity of the head and neck of the robed figure, which had been painted on a white layer applied directly onto the blue background. Traces of preliminary sketching in red paint were also identified on another set of specimens depicting male figures in yellow tunics (WH F79–WH F81; Pl. 24), all painted directly onto the blue background. On the largest specimen (WH F79; Pl. 24) the preliminary sketching was preserved along the lower edge of the white area, between the two sets of male legs. On two other specimens it was preserved along the left-hand edge of a yellow tunic (WH F80, WH F81a; Pl. 24), and on the last specimen (WH F81c; Pl. 24) along the inner edges of the two oblique elements. Possible traces of preliminary sketching in red paint are also preserved on another, albeit unidentifiable specimen (WH F99a; Fig. 31; Pl. 28), outlining the circular area on the left (series of curving lines) and the L-shaped area in the lower half of the fragment (Fig. 31; Pl. 28). The remaining material, including mostly unidentifiable, linear/curvilinear compositions, floral, spiral or linear friezes, and borders, does not preserve any traces of preliminary sketching.

4.5. Painting Techniques The painting techniques identified in the extant material, both as regards the drawing of individual features or figures and of the background area, are more often than not a combination of reservation on the final coat of plaster and overpainting. The latter involves the application of one or more layers of paint, usually of different colors, directly onto the background, be it the final coat of plaster or another uniformly colored surface. Overpainting has in fact been identified in the vast majority of the extant specimens. This combination of painting techniques in mostly small-scale compositions contradicts Mabel Lang’s theories concerning the Pylos material, where reservation was apparently almost never used for small-scale compositions, which were mostly painted over a uniformly colored background, usually blue or light tan (originally yellow; see Lang 1969, 14–15; Brecoulaki et al. 2008, 385).

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Blue, inadvertently identified as Egyptian blue, is the most commonly attested background color. In almost all extant specimens from the West House, a coat of light gray paint had been applied directly over the final coat of plaster in background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue, a practice that was also extended to any motifs or features eventually painted with Egyptian blue. It seems that this uniform, often gray surface created a deeper hue in the blue overcoat, enhanced the adhesiveness of the sandy blue pigment, and would have served as a backup in cases where the Egyptian blue layer wore off or had flaked off (see Ch. A.4.4). The same painting protocol, which has also been attested at Pylos and Hagia Eirene (Brecoulaki et al. 2008, 379, 385; Brysbaert and Perdikatsis 2008, 425; Brecoulaki, Karydas, and Colombini, forthcoming), was also used by painters during the Late Hellenistic and Early Roman periods (Romiopoulou and Brecoulaki 2002, 111; Brecoulaki 2006, 424–425; Brecoulaki, Karydas, and Colombini, forthcoming). The identification of this modus operandi, reflecting a complex multilayer approach, is a decisive step away from the theories propagating the fresco character of Mycenaean wall painting (see App. A). The most conspicuous examples of combined, interchangeable techniques in the drawing of individual features or figures have been identified on the best-preserved pictorial specimens. This list includes the heraldic scene (WH F1–WH F6; Pls. 2, 3), the hunting scene (WH F7–WH F75; Pls. 4–23), and other individual pictorial specimens (WH F76–WH F94; Pls. 24–27). In the main heraldic scene (WH F1; Pl. 2) both techniques had apparently been used for different figures of the same, or similar, scale. More specifically, while the two animal figures had originally been reserved on the final coat of plaster, the body and the garments of the female figure on the right were apparently painted directly onto the blue background (see Ch. 4.4). The blue background is still visible under the white paint used for the garments of the figure wherever the white has worn off. The blue background in this section of the composition, suitably outlined in black, has in some cases served as the final coat of paint on the garment of the female figure (in part of the torso and in the side

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panels of the skirt). Elsewhere (in the central panel of the skirt and on the sleeve), the interior of the garment was decorated with multiple coats of paint (red, yellow, or black) applied over a white ground, which had ultimately been painted over the blue background. Considering the absence of any obvious traces of preliminary sketching, it seems that the female figure (outline and interior divisions) had originally been sketched with black paint directly onto the blue background. The additional white coat of paint serving as a ground for other colors used in certain areas of the drawing was obviously added later. Considering that the two animal figures were originally only marginally larger than the female figure to the right (stag: 23.5–29.0 cm; feline: 20.7– 23.3 cm; female figure: 20.3 cm), the size of the pictorial elements could not have been a serious factor in the choice of painting protocol. The intricacy or sophistication of the interior details/divisions, on the other hand, might have played a role in the final choice. In the case of the female figure, it could have weighed the scale in favor of overpainting. Irrespective of the original motivation of the artist, in other words the reasoning that led to the specific painting strategies, this provides an ideal opportunity for a re-examination of at least one of the selfperpetuating and still popular theories concerning Aegean/Mycenaean iconography: the allegedly allconsuming impulse of Aegean/Mycenaean artists to repeat established technical and pictorial recipes. The use of both reservation and overpainting in small-scale compositions, the use of reservation on painted surfaces (on blue ground), and the use of unorthodox pictorial formulas, among others, exemplify an unmistakable tendency toward diversification and versatility as far as the application of painting protocols is concerned. In this case the artist must have started with the reservation of the two animal figures on the final coat of plaster. The remaining surface was then covered by two successive coats of paint, the gray undercoat and the Egyptian blue that served as the final background color, and only then did he/she proceed with the sketching and the drawing of the female figure and possibly of other pictorial features. This was followed by the insertion of the supplementary colors—yellow and light blue for

the interior of the reserved pictorial features, white and, over that, pink, yellow, red, and black for the other pictorial features that had been painted directly onto the blue background. The black paint used for the internal details in the reserved areas was added after this stage. The artist has therefore applied a minimum of two superimposed layers of paint in the reserved areas and a maximum of five superimposed layers of paint over the final coat of plaster in the remaining areas. Associated specimens (WH F3–WH F6; Pl. 3) display similar painting strategies, that is, reservation on a fairly large specimen preserved in only two very narrow white areas (WH F3), the blue background featuring ample evidence of sweeping brush strokes and unevenly applied paint, and overpainting on another specimen (WH F4), which depicts part of the head of a female figure on the right and two white, vertical elements on the left, probably animal limbs. Reservation is also attested in the largest and more informative of the remaining specimens (WH F5), among others (WH F6b–e). The same combination of techniques is encountered in the two major hunting episodes (WH F7, WH F9; Pls. 4, 5), not only with reference to individual pictorial features in the same composition, as attested in the heraldic scene (WH F1; Pl. 2), but also with reference to a single pictorial feature. The foliage, the upper section of the leaf-like plants, in both episodes was reserved on the final coat of plaster (see Ch. 4.4), while the stems of the same plants were painted directly onto the blue background. The green color of the reserved vegetation was obtained by applying a coat of yellow ocher over the final coat of plaster and then a coat of Egyptian blue over the yellow, without a preliminary mixing of colors—a practice also attested at Pylos (Brecoulaki 2017, 400; Brecoulaki, Karydas, and Colombini, forthcoming). In other cases the same result was obtained by preliminary mixing of varying quantities of the same colors, such as yellow ocher and Egyptian blue. Judging by the combined evidence from both hunting episodes, both techniques were also employed for the drawing of the male figures. The tunic of the male figure in the second episode (WH F9; Pl. 5) was reserved on the final coat of plaster, while the lower half of the figure, the limbs, were painted directly onto the blue background, similarly to the two pairs of male legs in the first hunting episode (WH F7; Pl. 4). The hind leg of the figure on the right in the first

TECHNIQUES OF PAINTING AND CONSTRUCTION

hunting episode (WH F7; Pl. 4) and the hind leg of the male figure in the second hunting episode (WH F9; Pl. 5) preserve clear evidence of the superimposition of multiple layers of white paint, originally applied onto the blue background. The resulting thickness of the white coat of paint creates an effect of mild relief (impasto technique), possibly intended to convey the illusion of volume. A similar practice has been attested at Pylos (Brecoulaki et al. 2008, 386). The female head in the second hunting episode (WH F9; Pl. 5) was mostly painted directly onto the blue background (hair, headband) and was perhaps only partly reserved on the final coat of plaster (face). The rest of the body is unfortunately not preserved. The head of the white dog walking along behind the female figure was also possibly reserved on the final coat of plaster, the ears being painted separately directly onto the blue background, similarly to the two other dogs in the West House material (WH F50, WH F51; Pl. 16). The white spears in the second hunting episode (WH F9; Pl. 5) and the white band serving as a ground line in the first hunting episode (WH F7; Pl. 4) were apparently also painted directly onto the blue background. The painting sequence in both hunting episodes is presumably similar to the painting sequence discussed earlier in connection with the heraldic scene. Here too, the artist must have started with the reservation of some of the pictorial features on the final coat of plaster (the foliage of the leaf-like plants, the torsos of the male figures, certain parts of the female figure, the head and the body of the dog). The remaining surface would then have been covered by two successive coats of paint, the gray undercoat and the Egyptian blue, which served as the final background color; only then would the artist proceed with the preliminary sketching of the other pictorial features meant to be painted directly onto the colored background. The next stage would involve the application of the white ground, serving as the backdrop for the nonreserved features and the addition of the supplementary details or additional elements in red, black, and white paint (male figure, female figure, dog, spears), and in yellow, blue, and black for the reserved areas and the stems of the plants. After the addition of the supplementary colors, the artist would have applied one to three superimposed layers of paint in the reserved areas (yellow, blue, or black

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for the plants, or yellow for the tunic of the male figure) and a maximum of six superimposed layers of paint over the final coat of plaster in the remaining areas (gray-blue-white-yellow-blue-black for the stems of the plants and gray-blue-white-red for the lower limbs of the male figure). In the first hunting episode (WH F7; Pl. 4) there is evidence of what seems to be a correction on the left leg of the figure to the right—an attempt to reduce the original width of the calf. The white paint was probably scraped off the area in question which was apparently never painted over with blue paint as was intended. The intense variations in the state of preservation of the original Egyptian blue background between the three major pictorial episodes (WH F1, WH F7, WH F9; Pls. 2, 4, 5) deserves further discussion. In the heraldic scene (WH F1; Pl. 2), the blue pigment is preserved in near perfect condition. In the first hunting episode (WH F7; Pl. 4), the original blue background has mostly disappeared, only traces of it surviving in places, mostly in the upper right-hand section. Finally, in the second hunting episode (WH F9; Pl. 5) the state of preservation of the pigment ranges between very good and very fugitive. Although the almost complete disappearance of the Egyptian blue in the first hunting episode (WH F7; Pl. 4) might be related to its exposure to very high temperatures (Brecoulaki 2017, 397–398; Brecoulaki, Karydas, and Colombini, forthcoming; see Ch. 2.1), the differential wear patterns in the second hunting episode (WH F9; Pl. 5) and the relative absence of any damage in the heraldic scene (WH F1; Pl. 2) suggest that whatever befell these wall paintings occurred after their removal from the walls of the building and after their fragmentation. This extreme differentiation between episodes, even between fragments in the same episode, corroborates the theory that the wall paintings had already been dismantled from the walls of the building, before the final destruction (see Ch. 1.2). The same mixed technique was apparently used for the remaining specimens depicting vegetation, with reservation for the main part of the plants and overpainting for the stems (WH F10–WH F23; Pls. 6–9). In the best-preserved specimen (WH F10; Pl. 6), the third plant from the left preserves evidence of overpainting, not only in the vicinity of the stem but also in the leaf-like section at the

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top where the blue background is visible through the chipped, thicker overcoat of white paint. At the same time, the white ground lines were apparently mostly reserved on the final coat of plaster and only partly painted over the blue background, primarily along the edges (WH F7, WH F8, WH F13, WH F14, WH F21; Pls. 4, 7, 9). The green color of the reserved vegetation was also obtained here by applying a yellow coat of paint over the final coat of plaster and then a blue coat of paint over the yellow, without preliminary mixing of colors. The original green color has disappeared almost completely. What has survived is the white ground and occasionally the yellow undercoat. The originally green color of the vegetation was preserved on a relatively small number of specimens (WH F15, WH F17–WH F20a, WH F22; Pls. 7–9). In the majority of cases it is either fugitive (WH F13, WH F14, WH F16, WH F21, WH F23; Pls. 7, 9), barely visible (WH F11, WH F12, WH F20b; Pls. 6, 8), or has completely disappeared (WH F10, WH F16, WH F18; Pls. 6–8). The yellow undercoat is fugitive at best in most of the specimens (WH F12–WH F14, WH F17, WH F19, WH F23; Pls. 6–9); in the majority of cases what has survived is the yellow undercoat (faint traces) and the underlying white ground (WH F10–WH F12d, g, k, m, n, r, u, WH F16, WH F21g, h, l; Pls. 6, 7, 9). The black paint used last for interior veining is fugitive at best, in some cases extremely so (WH F15, WH F19, WH F20; Pls. 7, 8). The red paint is only rarely preserved in a good condition (WH F20b; Pl. 8). Finally, the Egyptian blue is in most specimens quite well preserved (WH F11–WH F13, WH F15–WH F17a, WH F19, WH F20b, WH F21; Pls. 6–9) with no apparent evidence of serious damage. In a handful of cases it is mostly the gray undercoat that has survived (WH F12b, c, e, m, p, s, u, WH F20a, WH F23e, g, j, k, l; Pls. 6, 8, 9), which suggests that the fragments had been subjected to burning at high temperatures. In another, probably related set of specimens, depicting a somewhat different type of vegetation (WH F24– WH F27; Pl. 10), the white and the red paint used for the vegetation were both painted over the blue background, the red paint also over the white floral elements. On one of the specimens (WH F25; Pl. 10), faint traces of yellow paint, possibly an undercoat, was applied over the white ground.

In the smaller, nonjoining specimens depicting legs and/or feet of male figures (WH F28–WH F40; Pls. 12–14), the pictorial elements had been painted directly onto the blue background, similarly to the two hunting episodes (WH F7, WH F9; Pls. 4, 5). Here too, one or more successive layers of white paint were applied over the colored background (WH F29, WH F31; Pl. 12), the multiple layers conveying the illusion of volume, as suggested at Pylos (Brecoulaki et al. 2008, 386). The outlines and the interior details (greaves, shoes) in red or black were subsequently painted over the white ground. This practice also extended to the red paint used for the naked flesh on the thighs of the figures (WH F28, WH F38; Pls. 12, 14). The outlines of the legs/feet, especially those rendered with red paint, are extremely faint or have disappeared completely (WH F29, WH F30, WH F32, WH F34, WH F35; Pls. 12, 13). In the single specimen also preserving a section of a light blue tunic (WH F28; Pl. 12), the blue was predictably reserved on the final coat of plaster. The white paint used for the outline of the rectangular raised surface on another specimen (WH F29; Pl. 12), and the oblique black strokes on its interior, were also painted over the blue background. Overpainting was also used for the stem of a floral element on another specimen (WH F31; Pl. 12). The yellow paint on the interior of the plant, possibly an undercoat, was predictably applied over a white ground. Finally, a thin, white vertical element on one of the other specimens depicting human legs, possibly a spear shaft or a divider (WH F35; Pl. 13), was rendered in low relief (impasto technique), presumably to convey the illusion of volume. Overpainting was indiscriminately used for the painting of spears (WH F41–WH F49; Pls. 14, 15), rendered with white paint, sometimes rather sloppily applied (WH F41; Pl. 14), against the same blue background. In three cases (WH F46– WH F48; Pl. 15), the pictorial elements in question were rendered in low relief by the application of a thick layer of paint, as observed in WH F35 (Pl. 13), again probably an attempt to suggest volume. The white paint was often extremely fugitive (WH F42, WH F43, WH F46, WH F49; Pl. 15). Both extant dogs (WH F50, WH F51; Pl. 16) were apparently reserved on the final coat of plaster, except for the ears, which had been painted last directly onto the blue background. The

TECHNIQUES OF PAINTING AND CONSTRUCTION

interior details, in black (WH F50, WH F51) and red (WH F50), were subsequently added over the white ground. Of the black paint, only ghosts of the original designs were preserved. The white border on the best-preserved specimen (WH F50; Pl. 16) had apparently been painted directly onto the blue background. The surviving upper half of the male figure bearing a load (WH F52, WH F53; Pl. 17) was predictably reserved on the final coat of plaster, except for the section of the white pole projecting behind its back and possibly the load itself, which seem to have been painted over the blue background. The yellow paint used for the tunic, the red paint used for naked flesh, and the black paint used for the outlines were apparently applied directly onto the reserved final coat of plaster. The black decoration of the tunic was applied last, over the yellow, while the black hair, now lost, overlapped both the red used on the face/neck and the blue background in the usual fashion. The eye was apparently reserved. The last two sets of fragments tentatively associated with the hunt (horses and chariot parts) display different painting techniques. It seems that the rule concerning the drawing of animals, especially horses (WH F54–WH F65, WH F75; Pls. 18– 21, 23), stipulated the use of reservation on the final coat of plaster for the head and body of the animal, and overpainting for the legs, especially the lower part. In the vast majority of the specimens the animals were not outlined. On the best-preserved specimen (WH F54; Pl. 18) the reserved body of the near-side horse had been treated with two superimposed layers of paint, a yellow undercoat and a second red layer on top, creating what now seems like a chestnut hue (see Ch. A.4.2.6). The same treatment was also reserved for the legs of the animal, which had been painted directly onto the blue background. The two coats of paint were apparently applied over a white ground and not directly on the blue background. The farside horse was painted white (legs). The same color scheme is attested in a few more fragmentary specimens (WH F56, WH F57, WH F62, WH F63; Pls. 19, 20). On all these specimens the red overcoat was extremely fugitive or has disappeared completely, unlike the yellow undercoat, which was better preserved. The body harness on the best-preserved specimen (WH F54; Pl. 18), consisting of

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light blue bands applied over a white ground and decorated with white dots in low relief, was apparently painted over the second (red) layer of paint. Similar harnessing was only preserved on two of the other, identically colored specimens (WH F56a, b; Pl. 19). Three other examples (WH F58, WH F59, WH F60; Pls. 19, 20) were rendered with black paint applied directly onto the final coat of plaster, without an intervening layer. On one of these specimens (WH F59; Pl. 19), the black paint on the body of the horse is barely preserved. The body harness on two of these specimens (WH F59, WH F60; Pls. 19, 20) had been reserved on the final coat of plaster and rendered with alternating bands of red and light blue paint, here too decorated with white dots, only ghosts of which have survived. Traces of a careless or incomplete correction of the original drawing are still visible just above the back side of the horse on one of the specimens (WH F60a; Pl. 20; see also Ch. 4.4). In the two remaining fragments, depicting the lower part of the legs of white horses drawn at a larger scale (WH F64, WH F65; Pl. 21), the white paint was, as expected, applied directly onto the blue background, as was the white paint used for the rockwork and the floral element on one of the specimens (WH F65). These horses, in contrast to the smaller animals, were outlined in black. Finally, overpainting was also used for two other specimens, one depicting the lower limbs of a smaller pair of animals, possibly horses (WH F61; Pl. 20), the other the lower limb/s of yet another animal, possibly a bovid (WH F75; Pl. 23). The former were executed in the same color scheme as the larger set of horses (WH F64–WH F65; Pl. 21), white with black outlines and black internal details. The bovid (WH F75; Pl. 23) was painted red over a white ground. On the best-preserved pair of horses (WH F54; Pl. 18), the reins and the polestay, the original colors of which have almost completely disappeared, were mostly painted directly onto the blue background above the body of the horse. It seems that in both cases the paint applied over the blue was white. In the case of the polestay, it was covered by a coat of red paint. The same practice was also attested in other cases, where reins and polestays had been painted red, always over a white coat of

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paint; the white coat of paint had been applied directly onto the blue background (WH F57, WH F58; Pl. 19). The chariot parts in the West House material (WH F66–WH F72; Pls. 21, 22), unlike horses, were apparently painted onto the blue background over a thin coat of white paint, like the reins and the polestays, without any recourse to reservation. Judging by the best-preserved specimens (WH F67–WH F70; Pls. 21, 22), the yellow inner tire and the outer red tire of the wheel, including the yellow spokes and the spotted chariot box, were painted over a white ground, drawn with the help of the compass (see Ch. 4.4). Both the reds and the yellows are very fugitive. The same basic technique—overpainting against a blue background—was apparently used for two other specimens (WH F71, WH F72; Pl. 22), except that in these two cases the red outer tire had been painted directly onto the blue background and not on a white coat of paint. At the other end of the spectrum, the indeterminate, wheel-like feature (WH F73, WH F74; Pl. 23) was apparently reserved on the final coat of plaster. The pink pigment used for the curvilinear area on the right was apparently applied directly onto the final coat of plaster, whereas the light blue paint on the interior of the circular area on the left, had been painted on a second coat of white paint applied over the final coat of plaster. On the whole, it appears that in the West House material a single pictorial formula consisting of a chariot, a charioteer, and a pair of horses was drawn in sections, each section being associated with a different painting technique. Most of the horses and the torso of the charioteer who would have been standing in the chariot box were usually reserved on the final coat of plaster. The remaining pictorial features were apparently painted in superimposed layers directly onto the blue background. In the reserved areas (bodies of horses, torsos of human figures), a maximum of five (yellow, red, white, light blue, and white) and a minimum of two (black, red, light blue and white) superimposed layers of paint is attested. In the areas where overpainting has been attested, the superimposed layers ranged between three (gray-blue-white for the legs of far sided horse), four (gray-blue-white-black for the legs of white horses; gray-blue-white-red/yellow for the chariot wheels), and five (gray-blue-white-yellow-red for the legs of near-sided horse).

The vast majority of the remaining human figures or parts thereof (WH F76–WH F83; Pls. 24, 25) had apparently been painted directly onto the blue background, without recourse to reservation whatsoever. The wear pattern on one of these specimens depicting a robed male figure (WH F77, WH F78; Pl. 24) provides incontrovertible evidence concerning the original sequence of painting (see Ch. 4.4). The red overcoat in the area of the face and the neck is extremely fugitive, almost nonexistent in some areas, revealing the underlying white ground, which has flaked off in places, and the blue background underneath along with the original preliminary sketching lines. Lower down, in the area of the torso, the white ground, the overlying yellow paint used for the interior of the garment, and the black and red paint used for the decoration of the garment over the yellow coat, are preserved in a much better condition. In another set of fragments depicting striding male figures (WH F79–WH F81; Pl. 24), the tunic of one of the figures, which as a rule was reserved on the final coat of plaster in the main hunting scene (WH F9, WH F28; Pls. 5, 12), was here apparently painted directly onto the blue background; the yellow paint used for the tunic had been applied over a white coat of paint, which had been painted directly onto the blue background. The same sequence is attested on another, partly preserved specimen depicting vegetation and part of a male figure (WH F82; Pl. 25). In this case, red paint had been applied on a coat of white paint, which had been applied directly onto the blue background; the fugitive blue background is showing through the white in the spots where the white has flaked off. In a fourth set of fragments, depicting what could be sections of female garments (WH F83; Pl. 25), the different pigments—red, light blue, and black—were applied directly onto the final coat of plaster, which also served as the background of the composition. The only human figure that had originally been reserved on the final coat of plaster is a standing male holding a spear or scepter (WH F76; Pl. 24). The neck, the torso, and one of the arms of the figure had apparently been reserved on the final coat of plaster. The yellow paint used for the tunic of the male figure and the red paint used for the naked flesh on the face, neck, and arm were apparently

TECHNIQUES OF PAINTING AND CONSTRUCTION

painted over an additional coat of white paint applied over the final coat of plaster. The black paint used for outlines and interior details was applied last over the yellow. Only a section of the horizontal pole/spear, projecting behind the back of the figure, was painted directly onto the blue background, similar to the other fragment depicting a male figure carrying a load (WH F52; Pl. 17). It is also worth noting that the white pigment used for the vertical spear or scepter was apparently applied in a thick layer of paint, suggesting volume through the use of low relief (impasto technique). Although a number of other floral compositions, apparently unrelated to the hunting scene (WH F84– WH F94; Pls. 25–27), also made use of both reservation and overpainting, the former is exceptional and is only occasionally combined with overpainting. On one of these specimens (WH F86; Pl. 25), faint traces of yellow paint in the lower part of the main panel suggest that the incised, blue, leaf-like motif, and possibly others like it, had been originally reserved on the final coat of plaster. The original green interior of the leaf-like motif was obtained by the familiar superimposition of layers, first identified in the hunting scene. It is also attested in a set of fragments depicting light blue floral motifs against a red background (WH F88–WH F92; Pl. 26). In this case, reservation was definitely used for the vertical, wide, sinuous bands and was tentatively identified in the slender floral motifs scattered in the field between the bands. The reserved areas feature a gray undercoat and an overlying layer of Egyptian blue. In one case (WH F90; Pl. 26), a thin section of one of the sinuous bands, painted directly onto the red background, was probably a last minute correction or an afterthought. The floral composition in blue and white (WH F94; Pl. 27) combines both reservation, for the main panel, and overpainting for the ivy frieze above. The motifs, rendered with blue and red paint, were apparently reserved on the final coat of plaster. Reservation combined with overpainting was also used on another set of fragments, depicting an unidentifiable pictorial feature painted against a blue background (WH F99; Pl. 28). The feature in question was apparently reserved on the final coat of plaster, while a thin horizontal element above was painted on a coat of white

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paint applied directly onto the blue background. The reserved area was coated with two successive layers of paint, an extremely fugitive yellow undercoat and scattered traces of red paint serving either as an overcoat or as preliminary sketching (see Ch. 4.4). Finally, evidence of reservation is attested on an equally elusive pictorial feature (WH F102; Pl. 29), probably floral, with black paint on the interior. All the remaining compositions or sets of fragments, both floral and otherwise, preserve no evidence of reservation. The motifs were simply painted, mostly in single layers, over a white or uniformly colored background. This painting technique was attested not only on a number of very fragmentary floral specimens painted against a white background (WH F84, WH F85, WH F87; Pl. 25) but also on a number of indeterminate pictorial fragments (WH F100, WH F101; Pl. 29). The same basic technique—superimposition of colors over the final coat of plaster—is attested in the lily composition (WH F93; Pl. 27), where the red background was initially applied over the entire surface. A coat of white paint applied over the red ground served as the background for the bands framing the main panel along the upper border and for the white and the yellow paint used for the flowers. The gray paint applied over the white ground along the top was probably an undercoat for Egyptian blue. Lower down, yellow paint was applied over the white ground for the middle band, decorated with alternating black and red bars. A similar technique was attested on yet another composition, apparently drawn at a larger scale (WH F95–WH F98; Pl. 28), the basic pigments of yellow, red, and gray applied directly onto the final coat of plaster, while the black outlines and the black interior details were painted over the colored background. The light gray paint in this set of fragments probably served as an undercoat for Egyptian blue. The same technique was attested on a number of linear/curvilinear compositions, painted directly onto the final coat of plaster (WH F115, WH F116; Pl. 32) or against a blue (WH F103–WH F108; Pl. 30), a yellow (WH F109–WH F114; Pl. 31), or a red background (WH F117–WH F122; Pls. 32, 33). In all these cases the light gray paint probably served as an undercoat for Egyptian blue.

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The same methods were apparently adhered to in the extant friezes of floral, spiral, and linear type, and in the curved and straight border fragments (WH F123–WH F134; Pls. 34–36). The ivies, rendered with Egyptian blue on one of the specimens (WH F123; Pl. 34), were apparently painted over a light gray undercoat, with the interior details or outlines rendered with black paint. The yellow paint used for the ivies on the second specimen (WH F124; Pl. 34) was apparently applied over a white ground. The interior details were here also rendered with black paint. The spirals (WH F125–WH F127; Pl. 34) were drawn freehand, as was the case at Tiryns (Rodenwaldt 1912, 209) and Pylos (Lang 1969, 11). Here too, a gray undercoat was identified under the Egyptian blue. The lines of the spirals and the filling ornaments on one of the specimens (WH F125; Pl. 34) had been originally drawn with light gray paint on the final coat of plaster and were then overpainted with Egyptian blue; the interior was then probably painted with an additional coat of white paint. The bands framing the main decorative field were apparently painted directly onto the final coat of plaster. In the other spiral frieze (WH F126, WH F127; Pl. 34), the spirals and the filling ornaments were drawn with black paint applied directly onto the final coat of plaster. The interior of the volutes was probably here too painted white. The red and blue paint used for the filling ornaments was applied over the final coat of plaster on a gray undercoat. The investigation of the role of specific pigments in specific compositions is another matter. It is tempting to assume that, as in most societies, Mycenaeans used color as a metaphor, both on an im­ mediate cognitive level and on a more conceptual symbolic level (Brecoulaki 2014). Although certain pictorial features are depicted in more or less recognizable, naturalistic colors/hues (chestnut, black, or white for horses; green for plants; yellow, blue, and others for the colored tunics of the male figures; and white for the greaves of hunters and warriors), or in strictly defined but widely attested

conventions (red for the naked flesh of male figures, and white for females), the persistence in a primarily bright Egyptian blue background for the major small-scale compositions is another matter. Reliance on a blue background is apparently a distinctive practice with stylistic implications (enhanced bi-dimensionality) and technical requirements (the use of additional colors; see Brecoulaki et al. 2008, 384; Brecoulaki 2017, 400–405). Yet the debate over whether it should be treated only as a stylistic trend—as an abstract pictorial convention—or as a reflection of prevailing affluence (considering the cost and procurement of the pigment) is perhaps a false dilemma. As with most things, it could be a combination of two or more factors. To what extent such a stylistic choice might constitute a chronological criterion, as Lang suggested for the Pylos wall paintings (Lang 1969, 43), is a different matter. Lang’s suggestions have apparently been questioned recently, the color choices in the palatial complex attributed to the artistic preferences of a particular workshop or a group of artists (Brecoulaki et al. 2008, 384). The color schemes in the central architectural unit at Pylos were described as “a sophisticated set of color harmonies requiring and reflecting a different visual perception, and a different ideology, perhaps related to more sophisticated approach to visual propaganda/politics” (Brecoulaki et al. 2008, 384; see also Brecoulaki, Karydas, and Colombini, forthcoming). Yet, did these choices reflect only specific artistic idiosyncrasies, an overall stylistic trend initiated by a specific workshop, and/or suggestions made by the patron, as Brecoulaki suggests (Brecoulaki 2017, 400–405; Brecoulaki, Karydas, and Colombini, forthcoming)? Is it possible that those choices also reflect the availability of pigments and their relative values? Perhaps it was a combination of factors, including cognitive and symbolic parameters only barely hinted at in modern research.

5

Conclusions

5.1. Pictorial Wall Paintings: Distribution, Social Context, and Ideology The value of pictorial wall paintings in palatial societies as prestige indicators and vehicles of sociopolitical and ideological propaganda on behalf of the ruling elite is a widely accepted theoretical approach. It is based on the assumption that nonutilitarian cultural features, such as monumental architecture, including wall paintings, and luxury prestige objects are regularly exploited by privileged or socially ambitious groups for purposes related to the establishment and consolidation of their position in the sociopolitical hierarchy (Wright 1987, 175–176, 184; Laffineur 1992; Voutsaki 1995, 60; Davis and Bennet 1999; Blakolmer 2000; Boulotis 2000b, 849, 851; Chapin 2004; Gates 2004; Maran 2006, 142; 2009, 10). Wall paintings, in contrast to most categories of portable iconography, are intimately related to the spaces they decorate and therefore tend to reflect more accurately

the sociopolitical status or aspirations of the occupants of these spaces (Laffineur 1992, 105; Renfrew 2000, 136; Gates 2004, 36). Although the use of painted plaster on the mainland was widespread in domestic, nonpalatial contexts (Tournavitou 1999), pic­torial wall paintings as public art are inherently associated with palatial architecture, the cornerstone of elite sociopolitical practices, sustaining and justifying elite claims to power and status. This elite, being the principal patrons and consumers of this art form, what has been described as an art of exclusion (Chapin 2004, 60), was presumably in a position to control, prevent, or facilitate access to these images for sociopolitical purposes. The degree of assimilation of palatial architecture, including pictorial wall paintings in nonpalatial contexts, reflects the relation of these contexts to the central authority and its ideology. The pictorial imagery attested in the major palatial complexes on the mainland, local idiosyncrasies not-withstanding, is dominated by two types of

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pictorial decoration: life-size or nearly life-size processions of women, harkening back to the Minoan religious tradition as adapted to the mainland idiom (Immerwahr 1990, 114–115), and by strictly indigenous, more or less stereotyped narrative scenes illustrating two of the most favorite activities of the aristocracy, fighting and hunting expeditions. Although iconography may be didactic, to various degrees of directness (Gates 2004, 39), it does not demand an extraordinary amount of culturally defined insight to comprehend the inherent ideological messages in the battle and hunting scenes in the mainland palaces. Irrespective of the suggested religious function of the Mycenaean palatial megaron apartments, the iconographical cycles decorating these apartments, and the palatial complexes at large, are the closest one can ever get to what we now call self-advertisement (Gates 2004, 33). Mycenae was no exception to the rule. Although the murals from the latest palatial complex, the destruction of which is tentatively dated to the second half of the 13th century b.c., are poorly and incompletely preserved, the decoration of the throne room was apparently dominated by a narrative scene of war taking place in front of a walled citadel (Tsountas 1886, 67, 73; 1887, 164–168, pl. 11; Rodenwaldt 1911, 232–239, pls. XI, XII; 1921, 21– 45, figs. 16, 17, 20–22, suppl. I–IV and color pl.; Lamb 1921–1923, 249–255, pls. XLII, XLIII; Immerwahr 1990, 123–125, 165, 192, no. 11, figs. 35:a, 38:c, pl. 65). The composition decorating the palatial apartments at Mycenae appears to have displayed, and effectively advertised, the secular aspect of the state, probably a deliberate choice intimately related to local political history. The wall paintings from the palatial buildings at Orchomenos depicting a hunting expedition (Spyropoulos 1974, color pl. II:c, d; 2015, 361, 364, figs. 7–17) probably reflect a similar choice. A few burned fragments depicting a life-size procession of women from the “Pithos” area at Mycenae, tentatively assigned to a corridor of the latest palace complex (Lamb 1921–1923, 166, nos. 6, 7; Rodenwaldt 1921, 50, 69–70, nos. 154, A8, fig. 26; Immerwahr 1990, 117, 191, cat. no. My no. 2), presumably had a complementary role to the decoration of the complex. The mass of unburned wall paintings discovered in the “Pithos” area below the west terrace wall of the palace complex, presumably stripped from the palace walls during LH IIIA:2/B:1, feature a similar

combination of thematic cycles—the well-known “Warriors, Grooms, Horses, and Chariot” frieze, probably part of a battle scene similar to that decorating the walls of the throne room, and a procession of women (Rodenwaldt 1911, 239–247, pl. X; 1921, 69–70, nos. 154, A2, A4, A5, A9, A11; Lamb 1921– 1923, 164–166, no. 8, pls. XXVI:b, XXVII, XXVIII; Immerwahr 1990, 117, 123–124, 165, 191–192, cat nos. My no. 2, My no. 10, pl. 64). Although the original position of the earlier murals is uncertain, it seems that the iconographic repertory in the palace complex throughout the 14th and 13th centuries b.c., intriguingly similar to that attested in Tiryns (Rodenwaldt 1912), was a combination of a secular narrative scene, a scene of war or a hunting expedition, and a more conservative religious scene featuring a procession of women. In both cases, the intended ideological/political message is clear. In the case of the latest palace at Mycenae, where the location of some of the murals is more or less certain, the message was even more direct. In both sites the central authority promoted a subtle, yet unmistakable compromise between the traditional religious element (processions of women), also attested at Thebes (Keramopoulos 1909, 90–95, pls. 1–3; Reusch 1956), and the more secular symbolism of war or the boar hunt. As regards Mycenae in particular, the dominant ideological concept adopted and promoted by the local wanax and/ or ruling elite, throughout its history, focused primarily on the secular, aristocratic aspect of the regime (Dabney and Wright 1990, 52; Wright 1994, 74–75). Although the decoration of elite megaron-type a­part­­ments (i.e., three-room units, with sophisticated pictorial scenes), is commonplace in palatial contexts, it is rare outside the palaces themselves and even more so in private or seemingly private estab­ lishments. The evidence for mural decoration in domestic and public areas of independent or semiindependent buildings inside the citadel of Mycenae is rather vague, mostly due to the state of preservation of the architectural remains, their postdestruction/abandonment history, and the lack of detailed publications. With the exception of the west slope, recorded fragments are mostly nonpictorial and are rarely associated with extant architectural remains. The pictorial wall paintings from the site are limited to a handful of areas inside the acropolis, mostly the west slope, and to a few buildings

CONCLUSIONS

outside the walls. Much of this material, including the wall paintings from the so-called Pithos area in Room Γ1 on the north slope of the acropolis (Mylonas 1962, 63), in the fill below the floors of the Ramp House on the west slope and the House of the Oil Merchant outside the walls, and in debris above the Panagia Houses farther south is contextually vague (secondary contexts), or it consists of material predating the buildings involved. None of this material is in situ and thus cannot be firmly associated with surviving architectural remains. The rest of the pictorial material decorated the ground floors and possibly the first floors of buildings in the Cult Center (Room with the Frescoes, Tsountas House) in the Southwest Quarter, and the north, presumably roofed, end of the Processional Way, leading from the palace to the Cult Center. Outside the walls, there were only four or five buildings decorated with pictorial frescoes. Three of these buildings, the West House, The House of the Oil Merchant, and the House of Sphinxes, belong to the group of the so-called Ivory Houses, dated in the first half of the 13th century b.c. The fourth building is a LH IIIB:2 (apparently domestic) establishment to the north of the citadel (the House at Plakes). The pictorial content of the wall paintings from the last building, the so-called Petsas House, situated to the northwest of the acropolis and dated to the 14th century b.c., is less explicit (Shelton 2015a). Although the vast majority of the extant material not found in situ, is, understandably perhaps, assigned to the 14th century b.c. (LH IIIA), the material that was discovered in situ is mostly dated to the 13th and possibly the 12th century b.c. (LH IIIB–IIIC). The 14th-century b.c. pictorial material from the citadel and more specifically from an unknown building or buildings predating the Ramp House, includes a bull-leaping scene, a life-size procession of women with close affinities to the procession from the Kadmeion, and architectural fragments, including the well-known specimen with women looking out of windows (Lamb 1919–1921, pls. VII–IX; Immerwahr 1990, 110–111, 114, 164–166, 190, cat. no. My no. 1, pl. XVI:54; Shaw 1996, color pls. A, B). The extant wall paintings from the terrace of the House of the Oil Merchant in the Lower Town, also dated in the 14th century b.c., illustrate the same combination of the secular and the religious element, also attested in the palace

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complex, and to a certain extent in the Ramp House material. They feature, apart from the usual procession scene, the tip of a white spear, part of a bull’s hide, one or two dolphins or bluebirds, and, most importantly, excerpts from a boar hunt. This small-scale narrative scene was intimately related to the aristocratic way of life and was also reflected in the palace murals of the same period. The scene included legs of boars, the snout of a dog, parts of black and red horses, chariot groups, greaved male figures wearing tunics, and a male figure carrying what looks like a sedan chair (Wace 1958, 9; Cameron and Meyer 1995, 281–282; for the date of the wall paintings, see Wace 1958, 9; Tournavitou 1995, 31, 40; 2012, 725, pls. XLXV:b–e, CLXVI:a; 2015, 149–151, fig. 3). The pictorial wall paintings discovered in the Petsas House to the northwest of the citadel, another building with an apparently “special” relationship with the central authority, as exemplified by Linear B tablets discovered on the premises, are few and less sophisticated. Although the majority of the specimens recovered from the building are nonpictorial (e.g., multicolored patterns, splatters of paint), the material includes a fragment depicting what seems to be the rump of a deer possibly from a hunting scene, multicolored rockwork, part of a floral landscape, and pictorial fragments portraying hanging textiles (Papadimitriou and Petsas 1950, 215–217, 219, figs. 20:a, b, 22; 1951, 194; Iakovidis 2000, 65; 2001, 53; 2002, 18; 2003; 2004, 24; 2005, 31; 2006a, 29; 2007, 20, 21; Petrakos 2008, 29, 30, pls. 25:β, 26:α; 2012c, 24–25, figs. 11, 12; Shelton 2015a, figs. 2–4, 6–10). The later pictorial material, dating mostly from LH IIIB:1 and LH IIIB:2 levels, that is, from the 13th century b.c., can be conveniently divided into two major thematic categories: religious scenes, mostly attested in the buildings of the Cult Center and the Southwest Quarter inside the walls, and narrative, mostly secular compositions in buildings of the Lower Town. A few specimens tentatively dated in the LH IIIC period, also parts of religious scenes, were all recorded in the area of the Southwest Quarter inside the fortification walls. The only vestiges of pictorial wall paintings from the acropolis, dating from the first half of the 13th century b.c., were attested in the area of the Cult Center, especially in the “Room with the Frescoes” (Fig. 12:c, d; Taylour 1969, 96–97, fig. 2, pl. X:a; 1970, 276–277; 1983, 55–56, figs. 33–35;

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French 1981, figs. 12–14; Marinatos 1988a, figs. 1–3; Immerwahr 1990, 109, 119, 120–121, 165, 191, cat. no. My no. 6, pls. 59–61; Rehak 1992, 43–60, pls. X, XII:a, XV:a, XVIII:a; Wardle 2003; Morgan 2005a, 166–171, fig. 10:5) and the so-called Tsountas House (Pl. 24; Tsou­ntas 1886, 78; 1887, 160–162, pl. 10:1; Immerwahr 1990, 121, 192, cat. no. My no. 8). The pictorial material discovered by Mylonas at the bottom of the staircase between the Cult Center and the Southwest Quarter, including a genius (Kristeli-Providi 1982, nos. A1–A4), a palm tree (Pl. 28; Kristeli-Providi 1982, no. A5), and a helmeted female figure holding a griffin (Pl. 3; Kristeli-Providi 1982, no. A6), possibly fallen from shrine Γ1 in the Cult Center, have tentatively been dated in the LH IIIB period, presumably the first half (Mylonas 1971, 150, pl. 184:b; 1972a, 120; 1972b, 39, pl. XIII:a; 1977, 19–24, fig. 10; KritseliProvidi 1982, 16, 18, 21–36, nos. A1–A20, figs. 2, 3, pls. 1–3, color pls. A:a, B:a; Immerwahr 1990, 121, 192, My no. 9). The same applies to the fragments discovered in situ in the north part of the Processional Way leading to and from the Cult Center featuring part of a chariot and a groom (Mylonas 1970, 118–120, pl. 164:b; 1972b, 18–19, pl. I; Kritseli-Providi 1982, 19, 90–92, nos. Δ1–Δ5, fig. 10, pls. 26:b–27). The vast majority of the material from the area of the Cult Center, with the possible exception of one of the fragments from Tsountas House depicting part of an architectural facade (Tsountas 1886, 78) and probably the Processional Way composition, appear to belong to the category of religious scenes, with an emphasis on the female element. In the Lower Town the only buildings featuring pictorial decoration from the first half of the 13th century b.c. belong to the Ivory House group. These buildings served as palatial appendages, which, like the Petsas House half a century earlier, were closely monitored by the palatial administration (Tourna­ vitou 1995, 285–298; Shelmerdine 1997, 394; 1999, 569, 573). Rooms 1 and 2 on the suggested ground floor of the east wing of the House of the Oil Merchant, used as domestic/workshop and administrative quarters, were apparently decorated with a black and white narrative scene including fragments of architecture, female dress, male and female figures and animals, probably horses, as well as a large-scale griffin and lion in sepia (Wace 1958, 8–9, figs. 42, 43; Tournavitou 1995, 33–34, 280–281;

2012, 726, pl. CLXVI:c; Cameron and Meyer 1995, 283). Four of the ground floor rooms of the House of Sphinxes to the south (Rooms 1, 2, 4, and 6), probably serving as secondary workshop/assemblage and administrative areas, featured another smallscale boar hunt including vegetation, the neck of a boar, a female head, female dress patterns, spear tips, and chariot groups, similar to the earlier material from below the House of the Oil Merchant (Fig. 17:c; French 1963, 33; Cameron and Meyer 1995, 283; Tournavitou 1995, 45, 47–48, 51–56, 280–281; 2012, 726, pl. CLXVII:a, b; 2015, 151–152, fig. 5). The West House yielded one or possibly two smallscale, narrative compositions depicting what seems to be a hunting scene and a heraldic, apparently religious composition (see also Tournavitou 2009b, 2012, 2015). After the destructions in the middle of the 13th century b.c. or during the early LH IIIB:2 period, despite the suggested shift in political conditions at the site, as reflected in the extension of the fortified zone of the citadel, surviving murals from the acropolis and possibly the Lower Town (House at Plakes) seem to reflect the same predilection for religious subjects. Only the material from the fill over the Panagia Houses features excerpts of what could be interpreted as a narrative, secular composition. The battle scene inside the throne room of what was presumably the last palatial complex at the top of the hill belongs to the second half of the 13th century b.c. The only other area inside the citadel to yield fragments of pictorial wall paintings was the area of the west slope, and more specifically the Southwest Building to the south of the Cult Center. The material from this building, featuring sections of a female procession, included the “Mykenaia,” a female hand holding a figurine/ idol, a female foot resting on a footstool, and various parts of female figures and garments (Mylonas 1970, 120–124, pl. 171; 1971, 146–151; 1972b, 39–40, pl. XIV; Kritseli-Providi 1982, 18, 37–53, nos. B1–B31, fig. 6, pls. 4–10, color pls. Γ, Δ; Immerwahr 1990, 119–120, 165–166, 191, cat. nos. My no. 3, My no. 4, fig. 32:a, h, pl. XX). A few remaining fragments including the female figure holding a lily, were apparently found in a LH IIIC context, the only of their kind at Mycenae (Mylonas 1971, 146–147, pl. 180; Kritseli-Providi 1982, 73–77, nos. Γ1–Γ4, fig. 8, pls. 24–26:a, color pl. B:β). With the exception of material from the latest

CONCLUSIONS

palace, it seems that the vast majority of extant wall paintings are of a predominantly religious character, a tendency that possibly continued during the 12th century b.c., despite the suggested demise of palatial authority. In the Lower Town, pictorial wall paintings of the second half of the 13th century b.c. are attested in two of the extant complexes, the House at Plakes (Mylonas 1975; Iakovidis 2013b), to the north/ northeast of the citadel, and the Panagia Houses, to the southwest (Mylonas-Shear 1987). The pictorial compositions from three ground floor rooms of the House at Plakes, excavated by Mylonas and Iakovidis (Mylonas 1975) and eventually published by Iakovidis (2013b, 143–212, 234–242, 308–314), are explicitly religious in character. Part of a smallscale procession of male figures with light blue, sleeved tunics and high conical headgear, carrying unidentifiable objects and walking toward a robed, priestly figure was discovered in one of the ground floor rooms (Room 4; Iakovidis 2013b, 236, 309– 310, pls. 64, 65). A composition in a neighboring room (Room 5) depicts parts of two female figures and the isodomic facade of a building, including three columns with fluted capitals and pieces of cloth hanging between the columns (Iakovidis 2013b, 236–237, 310, pls. 68b, 70, 71). Part of a similar composition was discovered in the next room (Room 6; Iakovidis 2013b, 237, 310, pl. 72). Fragments of a relief fresco depicting a life-size bull (parts of the head and leg; Iakovidis 2013b, 239, pls. 66a, b) were also discovered in the same building. The wall paintings in the House at Plakes were described by the excavators as prime examples of Mycenaean “popular” art, featuring coarse, careless, and often clumsy draftsmanship of mediocre quality. The work reflected a lower class of artists than those employed for the decoration of the palace or other palatial buildings, both inside and outside the acropolis (Mylonas 1975, 160; Iakovidis 2013b, 236, 237, 239–240, 242, 313, 314). The pictorial material from the Panagia Houses, mostly Houses II and III, including nine fragments of a striped frieze, allegedly from female skirts, three fragments depicting vegetation, and three fragments possibly depicting animal skins (Mylonas-Shear 1987, 138–141, nos. 284–291, 298– 303, pls. 43, 44), although of better quality than the material from the House at Plakes, is unfortunately too fragmentary and widely scattered along the

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west edge of Houses II and III to be associated with any specific areas of the buildings (Mylonas-Shear 1987, 136–143). Nevertheless, even if this material, a narrative composition including female figures in Minoan-style dress, animal skins, and vegetation, possibly part of a small-scale composition depicting a hunting scene, decorated the walls of a building to the west of the Panagia group, the very existence of these wall paintings has sociopolitical implications that should not be taken lightly. The remaining wall paintings from the site belong to nonpictorial or indeterminate compositions in mostly secondary, 13th-century b.c. contexts. Inside the citadel fragmentary wall paintings have been attested in a considerable number of buildings, including the House of the Artisans, a LH IIIB:2 complex, part of the east wing of the palace (Mylonas 1965, 94, pls. 107, 108:a), House Δ, farther to the east (Mylonas 1967, 14–16), the Northern storerooms (Mylonas 1968, 6), where material had apparently fallen from an upper story or from the palace at the top of the hill, House M on the north slope (Mylonas 1963, 100–101), Houses I and II in the Northwest Quarter (Iakovidis 2006b, 28, 52, 54, 111), various contexts in the Southwest Quarter (Iakovidis 2013a, 469, 579), and the Granary, a LH IIIC building by the Lion Gate (Wace 1921– 1923, 48). Nonpictorial frescoes of the 13th century b.c. have also been discovered in the Lower Town in the so-called Workshop (Danielidou 2008, 47, 52, 65, 70, 84–85, 88, 95, 97, 122, 134, 137, 153, 159, 241, 259, 260–261) in the area north of the Cyclopean Terrace Building (French 1961, 81–83) and in the House of the Tripod Tomb, in an LH IIIB:2 context (Onasoglou 1995, 63, 70, 74, 89, 93, 105, 110, 140–147; Areas/Rooms 1, 5, 7, 16). The remaining houses in the Lower Town of Mycenae (Panagia House I, House of Lead, Cyclopean Terrace Building, House of the Wine Merchant) have not yielded evidence of mural decoration. The apparent shift in political conditions at the site around the middle of the 13th century b.c. seems to have triggered a change in the iconographic cycles attested both inside and outside the citadel, with the sole and perhaps significant exception of the palace complex itself. This shift in conditions and the ensuing change in the dominant iconography during the second half of the 13th century b.c. at Mycenae was chiefly inspired by religion and ritual. In the first

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half of the century religious iconography was only attested in the religious buildings of the Cult Center. The same tendency was also attested in the central unit at Pylos, where local political conditions dictated what some describe as a more sophisticated approach to power (Bennet and Davis 1999). This new approach focused on processions and feasting, demoting narrative compositions of hunting and war to less public and perhaps less frequented apartments. In contrast to the situation at Mycenae and probably Tiryns, pictorial scenes representing the earlier iconographic policy, attested in the battle scene from the Southwest Building (Fig. 17:g; Lang 1969, 43– 49, 71–74, 214–215, nos. 22H64–30H64, pls. 16–21, 117, 123, 124, A, M, N), and the hunting scene from the room above Room 43 (Fig. 17:e, f; Lang 1969, 40–49, 68–71, 205–207, 212, nos. 16H43–21H43, pls. 12–15, 116, 121, 122, B, M), coexisted with the more recent policy, apparently adopted by the central authority for the official reception areas in the central unit. At Mycenae, in contrast to the situation at Tiryns and Pylos, although the finer pictorial material of the 13th century b.c. is attested in a limited number of locations/buildings, it is by no means restricted to the palace complex. Sophisticated pictorial compositions, irrespective of subject matter, were also attested in the Ivory Houses in the Lower Town, a group of buildings intimately related to the central authority. Later, in the second half of the 13th century b.c., pictorial compositions were encountered in some of the newly erected complexes on the west slope and outside the citadel walls in the area of the Panagia Houses and the House at Plakes, although the material from the latter could hardly be described as sophisticated. The implications of the existence of narrative and religious thematic cycles in 13thcentury b.c. buildings outside the walls, such as the Panagia Houses and the House at Plakes, seemingly unrelated to central authority, could be far reaching. The appropriation of the privilege to use such elaborate, politically charged pictorial compositions, the dissemination of which seems to have been manipulated by the central authority, suggests either that the abodes of privileged groups intimately related to the central authority were scattered over a far wider area in the Lower Town than was hitherto believed, or that the use of such themes was not as strictly exclusive to the palatial elite as the evidence has led us to believe. Finally, it appears that the demise of

the art of wall painting after the destruction of the palace at the end of the 13th century b.c. was more gradual at Mycenae than at Tiryns, where changes in the ideological superstructure resulted in the abrupt cessation of practices such as the art of wall painting (Maran 2006). Beyond Mycenae, at Tiryns, the extant evidence for frescoed buildings outside the palace complex is rather thin and is restricted to the Lower Citadel (see Kilian 1983, 307, fig. 34 [helmeted male figure carrying two spears]). At Midea, extant specimens do not appear to include pictorial elements. The recorded fragments of wall paintings, mostly in the area of the West Gate, are associated with the LH IIIB:2 destruction layer; all, with the exception of one depicting part of a figure-of-eight shield, are apparently nonpictorial (Åström and Demakopoulou 1986, 24; Åström, Demakopoulou, and Walberg 1988, 9; Ästrom et al. 1990, 16; Demakopoulou et al. 2000–2001, 41, 46–48, 50; 2002, 29–30, 52, fig. 9; 2004, 13; 2005, 19–20; 2006–2007, 11, 14, 28; 2009, 15; 2010, 21; Demakopoulou, Divari-Valakou, and Schallin 2003, 11–12, fig. 15). Fragments of nonpictorial wall paintings were also discovered in the area of the East Gate and in the lower terraces (Demakopoulou, Divari-Valakou, and Walberg 1994, 38). High-quality pictorial material, including a wide range of themes some of which are unique in Aegean wall painting, was discovered at Argos in the early 1970s inside a LH II–IIIA megaron-type building (Deilaki 1973c, pls. 98:a, b), and these are currently under study by myself and H. Brecoulaki. The material in question, dating from the last phase of the building in LH IIIA:2, invites a radical reconsideration of early Mycenaean wall painting and of the status of Mycenaean Argos in the local site hierarchy (Tournavitou and Brecoulaki 2015). Fragments of wall paintings in LH IIIA–IIIC contexts, as yet unpublished, have also been reported from other parts of Argos (Deilaki 1973a, 95; 1973b, 99; 1973d, 103; Kritzas 1973–1974, 227). The limited number of wall paintings from the Potter’s House at Zygouries (Blegen 1928, 37–38) and Korakou (Blegen 1921, 94) were apparently nonpictorial. No evidence of wall paintings, pictorial or otherwise, is attested in most of the nonpalatial sites in the Argolid (Asine, Prosymna, Lerna). Sophisticated, albeit fragmentary, pictorial compositions perfectly compatible with the mature Mycenaean corpus of wall paintings from the major

CONCLUSIONS

palatial centers have been recently discovered at Hagios Vasileios in Lakonia (Vasilogamvrou 2010, 67, 68, 70, 79, 80; 2014, 133; Petrakos 2011a, 29, 31) and at Iklaina in Messenia (Cosmopoulos 2010, 34, pl. 24β; 2015; Petrakos 2011b, 27; 2012b, 29– 30). In both cases the wall paintings are associated with monumental building complexes. At Hagios Vasileios, the impressive architectural remains dated to the second half of the 14th century b.c. have been heralded as the manifestation of the long-lost palatial, administrative center for the entire region, as suggested by the considerable number of Linear B documents at the site (Vasilogamvrou 2010, 66, 68; 2014, 132; Aravantinos and Vasilogamvrou 2012; Petrakos 2012a, 52; 2013, 30). The monumental complex at Iklaina, on the other hand, dated to the LH IIB–IIIA:1 period, has been tentatively identified as the seat of an early Mycenaean power center (Cosmopoulos 2015, 257), which was eventually overshadowed or possibly dominated by Pylos. The thematic cycles and the stylistic rendering of the compositions from both sites are, not surprisingly, strikingly similar to the pictorial material from nearby Pylos. The wall paintings from Hagios Vasileios (A. Vasilogamvrou, pers. comm.; see also Vasilogamvrou 2010, 67, 68, 70, 79, 80; 2014, 133; Petrakos 2011a, 29, 31) feature a variety of themes, including stylized rockwork, a battle scene with overlapping foot soldiers and other soldiers holding rectangular body shields, part of a chariot team, the familiar theme of women looking out of a window, and heraldically disposed lions, strikingly similar to the heraldic creatures decorating the throne room at Pylos. The fragmentary naval scene from Iklaina (Cosmopoulos 2015, 251–254, fig. 2) provides an intriguing antecedent to the recently restored naval scene from Hall 64 in the Southwest Building at Pylos (Brecoulaki et al. 2015), while the medium-sized procession of female figures (Cosmopoulos 2015, 254–256, fig. 34) is perfectly at home in the mature Mycenaean iconographic corpus. In Boeotia, the northernmost frontier of the fully fledged Mycenaean koine, the picture is less clear. Apart from the well-known dolphin frieze and fragments of other marine creatures from Glas, as restored by Boulotis, in an official/palatial, but non-residential building (Iakovidis 1998, 183–187, color pls. IVa, VI–Xa; Boulotis 2000a, 1130–1132, fig. 20; 2015, 373–397), the context of

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the fragmentary pictorial compositions from Thebes and Orchomenos is ambiguous, to say the least. In Thebes, any systematic evaluation of the mural decoration from the Mycenaean acropolis is seriously handicapped by the fragmentary nature of the material, the lack of primary contexts, and the still somewhat ambiguous topography of the Mycenaean palatial complex. Very few of the extant fragments or compositions can be associated with specific buildings and even fewer of these buildings can be assigned an explicitly palatial status. Fragments of wall paintings, including parts of pictorial compositions, have been identified in over 10 different locations, all from the central spine of the acropolis. They have been assigned both to what has been pronounced as the central palatial complex of Thebes and to so-called annexes or independent buildings in its periphery (Aravantinos and Fappas 2015, 320, 331, 332, 345, fig. 1). The pictorial wall paintings associated with the central palatial complex, as restored by Boulotis, mostly religious in character, include the well-known life-size procession of women toward a standing female figure (Boulotis 1980; 2000a, 1098–1099, figs. 2–4; 2015, 371– 372; Aravantinos and Fappas 2015, 321 n. 17, 331). Yet another life-size procession of female figures was discovered in connection with a palatial building dated to the middle of the 13th century b.c. on top of the acropolis (Aravantinos and Fappas 2015, 342–343, fig. 21). Finally, a small-scale processional scene in a LH IIIB:2 secondary deposit from Spourlis plot in the east part of the acropolis (Kountouri 1999, 318; 2017, 451–452) depicting robed female figures walking toward a seated female (Kountouri 2017, 453–463, fig. 2) and a female figure riding a chariot, tentatively described as part of a scene of ritual hunting (Aravantinos and Fappas 2015, 332; but see also Kountouri 2017, 452, 463, fn 10 [two charioteers]), should probably be associated with a nearby annex of the central palatial complex (Aravantinos and Fappas 2015, 332). Seascapes and natural faunal/floral landscape scenes of uncertain date, including birds in a riverine setting or among other types of plants in a rocky landscape, were apparently also attested in two different locations in the south and the north part of the acropolis (Aravantinos and Fappas 2015, 327, 329–330, figs. 5, 6, 10, 11). The remaining fragments were apparently

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either monochrome or simply nonpictorial (Aravantinos and Fappas 2015). The fragmentary wall paintings excavated by both Bulle and Spyropoulos at Orchomenos belong to at least three distinct pictorial compositions, only tentatively associated with extant architectural remains. With the exception of the so-called cult scene associated with an inner room of the north wing of the complex (Spyropoulos 2015, 364–366, figs. 18–22), tentatively identified as part of a miniature composition, the rest of the material cannot be associated with a specific primary context. Apart from the boar hunt discovered by Spyropoulos in the immediate vicinity of the monumental complex (1973, 1974, 2015), recently identified pictorial fragments among the Orchomenos material constitute yet another Flotilla-type scene with marching soldiers and an oared ship sailing near a coastal town, tentatively associated with the material excavated at the site by Bulle (Bulle 1907; Aravantinos and Fappas 2015, 324 n. 29; Boulotis 2015, 372; Vlachopoulos 2015, 56). What does seem remarkable in this case is the presumably late date of the composition (LH IIIB:2) and the intriguing iconographic affinities detected between the proposed reconstruction and the much earlier miniature compositions from Hagia Eirene on Kea and from the West House on Thera (LM/ LC I). The close affinities of the Orchomenos naval scene with its LH IIB–IIIA:1 counterpart at Iklaina, which could have served as a Mycenaean antecedent of the Orchomenos and the Pylos naval compositions, might be further proof of the continuity of artistic tradition in the Bronze Age Aegean. Isolated fragments of pictorial, or possibly pictorial, wall paintings have also been reported from the Lower Town of Tiryns (Döhl 1975, 150, pl. 81:2), and inside Megaron B at Eleusis (Mylonas 1961, 43). The distribution of pictorial wall paintings in Minoan Crete, especially during the Neopalatial period, appears to have been even more stratified and perhaps politically biased. The palace at Knossos has yielded the highest overall percentage of wall paintings in Crete, and, with the exception of Hagia Triada, it is the only major palatial complex to yield pictorial frescoes (Immerwahr 1990, 2–3; Shaw 1997, 491; Morgan 2005b, 28). Furthermore, although wall paintings, and more specifically pictorial wall paintings, have also been discovered in no less than 13, mostly Neopalatial, town houses at Knossos, it seems that scenes with human action

were only attested in the palace itself (Cameron 1975; Chapin 1997, 22; Shaw 1997, 490, 491, 497; Morgan 2005b, 21). The elaborately built town houses were almost exclusively decorated with floral/faunal landscape compositions of outstanding quality, like the Partridge and Hoopoe fresco from the Caravanserai, the Birds and Monkeys frieze from the House of the Frescoes, and numerous other examples of floral landscapes attested in apparently private buildings erected in the immediate vicinity of the palace complex (Chapin 1997; Morgan 2005b, 26, 28). Irrespective of the few fragments of floral compositions from the palaces of Phaistos, Zakros, Archanes, and Building T at Kommos (Shaw 1997, 486), the double dichotomy as regards mural decoration—initially between Knossos and other major palaces and then between the Knossos palace and the Knossos town houses during the Neopalatial period—is a peculiarly Minoan phenomenon. At palatial level, the contrast between Knossos and other Minoan palaces seems too emphatic and aesthetically inferior to be explained away as a voluntary statement of stylistic and/or artistic independence (for the dilemma, see Shaw 1997, 491). The iconographic dichotomy between the Knossos palace and Knossos town, on the other hand, appears to be a subtler version of a similarly motivated policy designed to maintain the sociopolitical and economic status quo between the central authority and other members of the Knossian elite. With the exception of the administrative complex at Hagia Triada, which was allegedly established and controlled by Knossos during the Neopalatial period (Shaw 1997, 491; La Rosa 2010, 499), pictorial wall paintings featuring mostly floral landscapes and elaborately dressed, hieratic, life-size female figures were all apparently attested in Minoan houses, some, but not all, in the jurisdiction of Knossos (Shaw 1997, 486–487, 489–490, pl. CLXXXIX). The distribution of pictorial wall paintings on the mainland reflects a completely different balance of power between palatial and nonpalatial centers. With the exception of Attica, pictorial compositions graced the walls of most palatial complexes at Pylos, Hagios Vasileios, Mycenae, Tiryns, and Thebes, and local power centers such as Iklaina, Argos, and Orchomenos, irrespective of size or political clout. At the same time, the distribution of pictorial wall paintings in town houses located in

CONCLUSIONS

secondary centers, such as Argos, and in the environs of major palatial complexes, as exemplified at Mycenae and Thebes, argues in favor of a more relaxed attitude toward pictorial decoration for those who had the means and taste for this type of luxury. This less regimented use of pictorial decoration, which could possibly be traced to the more diffused Cycladic model, is attested as early as the 14th century b.c. on the mainland (Petsas House, buildings antedating the Ivory Houses at Mycenae, megaron-type building at Argos), and it was apparently not abandoned until the fall of the palaces at the end of the 13th century b.c. In all major Mycenaean palatial centers, however, local political history not-withstanding, it seems that sophisticated pictorial decoration, be it a reflection of the lifestyle of the ruling classes such as hunting and war or an expression of ritual display, was treated as the manifestation of specific political and/or religious ideology (Maran 2006, 142). In the Mycenaean palatial centers, sophisticated pictorial decoration was apparently treated as a privilege of the ruling elite and as a valuable medium for political propaganda to be used accordingly, depending on the changing socioeconomic and historical conditions. What remains to be seen is how changing socioeconomic and historical conditions in different sites, especially during the second half of the 13th century b.c., could have affected the dissemination of this medium and to what extent it reflected the changing sociopolitical structure on the mainland.

5.2. Concluding Remarks Visual art as a whole, and wall paintings in particular, are concerned with images, or sets of images, and their interpretation as visual stimuli, both on a pragmatic, materialistic, contextual level and on a wider conceptual, semantic level. The twodimensional pictorial representation of a threedimensional world (i.e., the implementation of what can be described as our visual perception of the world), is culturally defined and depends less on direct visual stimulation than on conditions of culturally defined attitudes (see Gombrich 1962, 3, 10, 277). In all artistic idioms, artists rely more on their knowledge of established visual language, a

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culturally defined vocabulary of forms and pictorial syntax, than on their own perception of the outside world (Gombrich 1962, 247; Chapin 1995, 11). The ultimate understanding of these types of sophisticated pictorial sequences entails an equally sophisticated, synthetic approach, with the often unrealistic hope of going beyond the predictability of convention and the entrenched assumptions about means and intentions. The ultimate, hopefully multidimensional inter­ pretation of the pictorial compositions from the West House, although provisional and occasionally tentative, relies on a number of established methodological protocols. This attempted interpretation is inexorably bound to the Mycenaean artistic idiom, the Mycenaean vocabulary of forms, and the Mycenaean pictorial syntax. It is also intimately related to an understanding of the Aegean ante­cedents of Mycenaean artistic expression, to the identification of the smallest constituent elements of Mycenaean artistic idiom, and the different means by which these elements, described by Crowley as icons (Crowley 1992, 25), are represented. The understanding of the visual language and of the constituent elements of the Mycenaean artistic idiom, however, depends on the comprehension of the wider cultural context from which they derive their meaning (Morgan 1985, 6; 1988, 10, 15; 1989, 145). The constituent elements of the visual language elicited from the extant pictorial material, including spatial conventions and individual images, can be understood and interpreted through a series of culturally defined principles (i.e., space, time, form, movement, color, light, and syntax; see Morgan 1988, 12). They constitute the means by which Mycenaean patrons and artists codified their response to the natural world and are hence integral to an understanding of the sociopolitical and ideological status quo (Morgan 1985, 7; 1988, 10, 12, 14–15; 1989, 145; Renfrew 2000, 148). As Morgan (1990, 262) rightly observes: “The choice of theme must have been relevant to the building in which it was painted, the people for whom it was intended, the time in which it was executed, or in which it was intended to be seen.” The eccentricity of the heraldic composition (WH F1, WH F2) in the West House material, featuring an unorthodox, or just plain unusual combination of animal and human subjects, lies

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mostly in the disarming intimacy between the central pair, a rather plain, unimpressive female figure and a heraldically disposed hybrid creature belonging to the realm of myth usually associated with deities and/or priestly figures. The unsophisticated attire of the female figure, entirely non-Minoan, highly unusual in the mainland wall painting repertory, and yet perfectly compatible with the iconography of priestly and/or divine female figures in the Mycenae Cult Center (Fig. 12:c, d), seems to mock the intimacy and implied equality between the two figures. It establishes, how‑ ever, a pattern, yet another deviation from the norm, which was apparently in vogue at Mycenae during this period (see Ch. 3.2). The griffin, a familiar, albeit tame figure in the west slope wall paintings, always in attendance to important females, evokes a vision of archetypal power that goes beyond its role as a guardian of deities and priestly figures, unattested in the traditional iconography at the site. In its guise as a celebrated predator, it could have provided the ultimate symbolic reference to the hunting theme of the main scene, as a discrete attendant of the deity associated with hunting and the untamed wildlife. The significance of the leaping stag to the left is perhaps conceptually related to the same theme. Its presence could have represented a reference to wildlife in general, a generic reference to hunting, or a more specific reference to the main hunting scene, assuming that the two compositions were contextually related. The hunting scene itself, depicting a wellorganized, high-profile expedition in the best mainland style with all the trappings of a royal hunt, is perfectly compatible with the suggested sociopolitical status of the building and its occupants (see Tournavitou 1995, 285–299) and also with the established iconography of the hunt as attested on the mainland. The existence of idiosyncratic pictorial features in the otherwise traditional hunting sequence, although intriguing in itself, is perfectly consistent with intra-site variation as exemplified in the three extant versions of the theme, at Orchomenos, Tiryns, and Pylos (see Ch. 3.3). One of these episodes (a male figure bearing a load, WH F52) seems to be continuing an older, 14th-century b.c. pictorial tradition from the same area. Judging by the fragmentary pictorial evidence in the earlier material from the House of the Oil Merchant, where the

prey seems to have been a wild boar, it is possible that this was also the case here. Other pictorial elements possibly related to the main hunting scene include a specimen depicting a male figure holding a spear or scepter (WH F76) and another male figure walking among tall vegetation (WH F82). The other human figures (WH F77–WH F83) are too fragmentary and stylistically incompatible to the main scene. Friezes and borders, or at least some of them (WH F123, WH F127, WH F131–WH F133 and possibly WH F128), could have framed individual panels of the main scene. The other floral compositions (WH F84–WH F93), also apparently unrelated to the main hunting scene, would have formed independent pictorial panels. The lily composition (WH F93) echoes an earlier, pre–13th century Minoanizing tradition. The other, more stylized floral composition painted against a fading, rosy red background (WH F88– WH F92), although not completely incompatible with a 13th century date, employs a background color stylistically similar to some of the 14th-century b.c. wall paintings from Petsas House (Shelton 2015a, 129, fig. 2, 137) and might have belonged to a building predating the 13th-century complex. Finally, the only floral composition that would not be out of place in the 13th-century building (WH F94), although quite simplistic in concept and execution, is stylistically related to the main scene. Some of the unidentifiable pictorial fragments (WH F95–WH F98), implying the existence of large scale pictorial elements, seem incompatble with the rest of the securely dated material, while another set of fragments painted against a blue background (WH F99–WH F102) display pictorial and stylistic features that would not be entirely out of place in the 13th-century material associated with the building. Other compositions with linear/curvilinear motifs against a variety of backgrounds, although too fragmentary for restoration (WH F103–WH F116), could be part of the decoration of the 13thcentury building, especially WH F103–WH F108, although perhaps not in the most frequented, public areas. One of the compositions in this category (WH F117–WH F121) is Hellenistic in date and presumably belongs to a discarded mural painting from the Hellenistic buildings in the area (see App. B). The existence of the Hellenistic composition, and of fragments from possibly earlier, 14th-century

CONCLUSIONS

compositions, all or most of which, with the excep­ tion of the lily fragment (WH F93), had been presumably found outside the confines of the building, suggests that the material dumped in this area was not exclusively Mycenaean in origin and not exclusively 13th century b.c. in date. It also suggests that the material dumped in this location consisted not only of 13th-century debris still lying about in the east wing/courtyard of the Mycenaean building, but also of debris from other, possibly earlier buildings in the area, dislocated by the destruction of the 13thcentury complexes and by post-Mycenaean building activity in the area. The original position of the Mycenaean, 13thcen­tury compositions inside the building has been discussed earlier (see Ch. 1.2). The main hunting theme, perhaps including the heraldic scene and a number of other human figures, was part of a single pictorial composition, developed over an unknown number of rectangular panels framed by multicolored borders interrupted by floral, spiral, or linear friezes. Although narrative episodes do not seem to overlap the specified limits of individual panels, as is the case at Pylos, the narrative sequence unfolds in multiple and apparently not strictly defined pictorial fields (WH F9). The interaction of pictorial elements in the composition, in terms of scale and contextual association, is also consistent with the mainland idiom. Although the ideal position of this sophisticated and originally extensive composition would be in the main room of the three-room unit in the east wing of the building, the discovery of the vast majority of the fragments at the base of the east wall of Room 1 facing the corridor and the open courtyard provides a credible, although not ideal, alternative location. The remaining compositions, those that are stylistically compatible with the 13thcentury tradition (see Ch. 1.2), could have decorated the walls of Room 1 and the corridor. The three storage areas (Rooms 3–5) being too small and dark do not merit any interior decoration whatsoever. Mycenaean artistic idiom turns against its own Minoan/Aegean, though perhaps not Cycladic, antecedents. Its primary concern is with the human element, and more specifically with the elite, secular side of the human state. This unprecedented

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emphasis on human interaction with other humans and/or animals, the latter mostly in their role as prey, was only partly mitigated by the selective adoption of the religious iconography pervading the Aegean artistic idiom during the Late Bronze Age. The rather conventional and more or less stereotyped processions of elaborately dressed female figures, toward a standing or seated female deity/priestess, invarably, almost dutifully, included in every official palatial or elite decorative program on the mainland, are not necessarily an expression of religious fervor or even of religious convictions. Although religious convictions may have stimulated Mycenaean cultural interest in processions, it is very possible that the mechanical repetition of a theme, with no discernible Helladic ancestry in elite Mycenaean contexts, can be better explained as an unavoidable accessory of court etiquette, a valuable propaganda tool, for the benefit of both the elite few and the underprivileged many. Seen in this light, pictorial scenes depicting splendidly organized religious processions of members of the elite, in close proximity to the divine or its human representatives, would be perfectly compatible with state policy as regard the promotion of other, even more pertinent or legitimate qualities of the ruling elite, in other words, their prowess in war and in grandiose hunting expeditions. A more authentic, less derivative relationship of the Mycenaean elite with the divine world is perhaps better exemplified by the more unorthodox, more idiosyncratic scenes from the west slope of the Mycenae acropolis. Perhaps the Mycenaean elites were, after all, more versatile than their Minoan counterparts, who focused on a single, albeit powerful, means of manipulating popular consent. The key to our understanding of pictorial images is the predictability of convention, and yet convention is often ambiguous, subject to change, or simply ignored. It has been rightly argued that knowledge is inseparable from judgment and all interpretation is contextually dependent on conventions and assumptions concerning both the interpreter and the work to be interpreted (Morgan 1985, 5 n. 2). Since iconography is not necessarily explicit and does not depend on a singular meaning, the step toward the interpretation of any given composition, from explicit meaning to implicit meaning, is in fact a step

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away from comprehension, toward inference and informed guesswork (Morgan 1985, 18). Gombrich’s rather idealistic interpretation of Egyptian art as an

“effort after meaning,” a “tendency to hide ambiguity” (Gombrich 1962, 15, 331, 332), constitutes a tempting proposition for Mycenaean Greece.

6

Catalog

The F numbers are presented in consecutive order in the catalog. In the absence of excavation registration numbers and context descriptions, the entries have been arranged according to subject matter, with all specimens belonging to individual compositions presented consecutively. Individual specimens or compositions are discussed in the same order as in the text. An F number may include several iconographically related specimens. Joined fragments, on the other hand, are registered as a single specimen. Each catalog entry includes the number of registered specimens and/or joined fragments, the dimensions of all specimens above 1.1 cm in size, the description of the paintings and their state of preservation, a description of the technique(s) employed, and information on the plaster. Comparanda are discussed in the text. It should be noted that the dimensions of individual specimens represent the actual dimensions of the pieces/specimens, as opposed to the dimensions of the painted surface, as depicted in the drawings. The drawings depict what are thought

to be the original colors of the various pictorial or nonpictorial elements, regardless of their state of preservation.

6.1. Heraldic Scene WH F1. Heraldic composition (Figs. 9, 10; Pl. 2); 1 specimen: 62 joining fragments. Max. pres. h. 14.6; max. pres. w. 26.5; max. pres. th. 1.45–1.50 cm. Parts of two animal figures and what appears to be a human figure on the right, painted against a blue background. Both animals are facing right. What is preserved of the animal figure on the left is a small section of the upper half and part of the lower body, including a section of the hindquarters of the animal (the inside of the left leg striding forward, part of the right thigh, a faint sketch of the male sexual organ between the thighs, and the lower edge of the underbelly. The hoof of the left leg is partly hidden behind the left leg of the animal to the right. Part of the abdomen and the torso of the upper half of the figure, the upper section of which seems to be leaning heavily forward, is also preserved. The interior of the right thigh preserves faint

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traces of yellow paint, applied over a white ground, and faint traces of short black strokes, the whole being outlined in black. Traces of yellow paint are also attested on the torso. The left thigh and the underbelly of the animal were rendered with white paint, also outlined in black (max. pres. h. of animal figure 13.2 cm; restored original h. of figure 23.5 cm [without the horns], 29 cm [with the horns]). To the right of this figure, in the middle of the composition, part of a large, possibly hybrid animal in a heraldic pose is preserved, also facing right. The hindquarters of the animal are represented by a section of the two hind legs (thighs) and a short raised forked tail. The rest of the animal is represented by a section of the underbelly, most of the right foreleg, and a small section of the neck. Unfortunately, the central section and most of the forequarters of the animal, including the left foreleg, the head, and the shoulders, are missing. The animal is standing on its hind legs, while its right foreleg is apparently resting on a raised surface, which is not preserved. The animal, skillfully outlined in black, is rendered with white and light blue paint, the latter applied over a white ground. More specifically, the tail, the right hind leg, and the right foreleg of the animal are painted light blue, while the hindquarters, including the left hind leg and the underbelly, marked off with black lines, are painted white (max. pres. h. of animal 10.85 cm [at the level of the hindquarters]; max. pres. L. of animal 12.5 cm [including the tail]; restored h. of animal 20.70–20.85 cm; 23.3 cm [including the restored wings]). Part of a tall, rectangular tapering figure, apparently female, is preserved to the right of the heraldic animal. The interior of the figure is divided into horizontal and vertical rectangular panels, probably representing the interior of a long garment. The larger central panel, outlined in black, is decorated with a series of three or four black horizontal zigzag lines against a white/pinkish-white ground. A narrow vertical panel to its right, also outlined in black, features a blue background. The central panel is flanked above and below by narrow borders, also outlined in black and decorated with alternating thin and thick vertical bars rendered with red paint against a yellow ground. Above and below these borders other rectangular panels are preserved, again outlined in black, the lower one decorated with black horizontal and vertical lines painted against the blue background. The rectangular, tapering element emerging from the upper left-hand side (torso) of the tapering figure, also outlined and decorated in black against a white ground, is probably part of the right arm or hand of the figure (max. pres. h. of figure 10.7; restored h. of figure 20.3 cm). Finally, by the lower right-hand edge of the extant specimen part of another rectangular tapering element is preserved, possibly the tip of a wing, rendered with white paint and outlined in black; the internal details were also rendered with black paint. Max. restored height of composition: ca. 35 cm.

State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. Traces of brush strokes are preserved on the blue background, especially under the heraldically disposed animal. The yellow and the light blue paint, applied over a white ground in the case of the two animals, and the black paint used for the outlines and the internal details of the female figure, especially when painted directly onto the blue background, are fugitive in places. The yellow and the pinkish-white ground used on the garments of the female figure are also very faint. Technique: the two animal figures were reserved on the final coat of plaster. Traces of preliminary sketching in red paint are preserved along the lower part of the leg of the animal figure on the left, along its left thigh, along its abdomen, and along the underbelly of the animal in the center. The female figure on the right was sketched and then painted directly onto the blue background. A coat of light gray paint, now visible in places, was applied over the final coat of plaster in background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. Additional white paint was possibly applied over the reserved areas. Sections of the garment of the female figure meant to receive further decoration were also painted white. The pigments used for the interior of the three figures—light blue, yellow (ocher), red, and pink—were subsequently applied over the white ground, with black paint used for the outlines and the interior details added last. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.15–0.20 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 1.430/1.425– 1.475/1.480 cm). Dimensions of inclusions: 0.75 x 0.30 cm. WH F2. Border of skirt (Pl. 2); 1 specimen: nonjoining fragment from the painted lower border of the skirt of the female figure on WH F1. Max. pres. h. 1.45; max. pres. w. 1.9; max. pres. th. 0.95 cm. Part of the bottom edge of the narrow lower border flanking the central panel of the skirt, including part of a blue rectangular panel above. The panel features faint traces of black lines and a narrow rectangular border decorated with two red bars painted against a white ground and outlined in black. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The extant colors are preserved in good condition. The blue background and the black paint, used for outlines and interior details, are fugitive in places, the black where it was applied over the blue background. Technique: a coat of light gray paint, now visible in places, was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue (see WH F1). This part of the skirt, rendered with black and red paint applied on a white ground, was painted directly onto the final coat of plaster. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer:

CATALOG

slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 0.75 cm). WH F3. Blue background and sections of white areas (Pl. 3). 1 specimen: 7 joining fragments, possibly part of the heraldic composition (WH F1). Max. pres. h. 5.55; max. pres. w. 9.3; max. pres. th. 1.25 cm. Large section of a blue background area and two narrow, white strips, with black interior details preserved along the bottom and the right-hand edge of the extant specimen. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background appears thin in places, and it was apparently not uniformly applied. The black paint is fairly well preserved. Technique: the white areas were apparently reserved on the final coat of plaster. Faint traces of red paint along the upper border of the white area at the bottom of the specimen, and on the interior of the other white area to the right, might represent preliminary sketching. A coat of light gray paint, now visible in places, was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. Sweeping brush strokes are visible across the blue area. Additional white paint was possibly applied over the reserved areas. Black paint was applied last, over the white ground. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.25 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 1.22 cm). WH F4. Part of head of female figure and animal limbs (Fig. 10; Pl. 3). 1 specimen: 2 joining fragments, possibly part of the heraldic composition (WH F1). Max. pres. h. 5.6; max. pres. w. 4.15; max. pres. th. 1.3 cm. Parts of two white vertical elements outlined in black, possibly animal limbs, with a black area to their left, painted against a blue background. Against the right-hand edge of the extant specimen, part of the head of what seems to be a female figure in profile to the left is rendered in white paint and outlined in black. Interior details, including the eye and mouth, are rendered in black paint applied over the white ground (max. pres. h. of head 1.65 cm; restored h. of head 3.1 cm; max. pres. h. of white vertical elements 3.9 cm). State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background is very well preserved. The black paint used for the outlines of the white vertical elements to the left of the female figure is also quite well preserved. Technique: a coat of light gray paint, now visible in places, was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. The female head and the white vertical elements to the left were apparently painted directly onto the blue background. Traces of preliminary

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sketching in red paint are preserved along the upper profile of the female figure, along both sides of the vertical element on the right, and along the lower right side of the vertical element on the left. Black paint, used for outlines and interior details, was applied last, over the white ground and/or over the blue background. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th: 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 1.28 cm). WH F5. Indeterminate composition with animal limbs (Fig. 10; Pl. 3). 1 specimen: 4 joining fragments, possibly part of the heraldic composition (WH F1). Max. pres. h. 4.45; max. pres. w. 3.95; max. pres. th. 1.0 cm. Part of a white, tapering element, possibly part an animal leg(?), originally outlined in black, is preserved on the left-hand side of the extant specimen; part of a tapering white area with a curved edge outlined in black, possibly part of another animal limb, probably a thigh, is preserved on the right-hand side of the fragment. Both figures are painted against a blue background. The interior of the white area to the right is marked with vertical and oblique black strokes, probably representing body hair. Two faint, black, vertical lines on the white ground of the tapering element on the left may represent elements of musculature. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background and the white ground are very well preserved. The black paint, used for outlines and interior details, is extremely fugitive. Technique: the animal limbs were apparently reserved on the final coat of plaster. Faint traces of preliminary sketching in red paint are preserved along the left edge of the hairy limb on the right. A coat of light gray paint, now visible in places, was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. Additional white paint was possibly applied over the reserved areas. Black paint, used for the interior details, was applied last, over the white. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 0.8 cm). WH F6. Indeterminate composition(s) with sections of white, vertical elements (Fig. 10; Pl. 3). 5 nonjoining specimens (a–e): possibly part of the heraldic composition (WH F1). Max. pres. h. (a) 2.15, (b) 2.1, (c) 1.90, (d) 2.9, (e) 2.5; max. pres. w. (a) 2.0, (b) 2.75, (c) 2.0, (d) 2.3, (e) 2.5; max. pres. th. (a) 1.1, (b) 0.9, (c) 0.85, (d) 0.85, (e) 1.2 cm. Specimen a: parts of two white, vertical elements of different widths (w. of element on the left 0.6 cm; w. of element on the right 0.3–0.4 cm), possibly animal legs, outlined in black, the whole painted against a

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THE WALL PAINTINGS OF THE WEST HOUSE AT MYCENAE

blue background. Specimen b: part of a white vertical element, probably part of an animal limb/foot, rounded off at the bottom and apparently outlined in black, is preserved against a blue background, along the left edge of the specimen. Specimen c: part of a white vertical element, outlined in black, is preserved against a blue background, along the right-hand edge of the specimen. Specimen d: part of a white, vertical element, outlined in black, is painted against a blue background, along the right-hand edge of the specimen. Faint traces of oblique, black lines and blobs of red paint are preserved to the left of the white area. Specimen e: part of a white, vertical element, outlined in black, is preserved against a blue background, along the right-hand edge of the specimen. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background and the white ground is fairly well preserved on most specimens. The black paint used for the outlines is very fugitive. Technique: on specimen a the white vertical elements were apparently painted directly onto the blue background. Traces of preliminary sketching in red paint are preserved along both sides of the vertical element on the right and along the left side of the element on the left. A coat of light gray paint, now visible in places, was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. The black paint, used for the outlines, was applied last, over the white ground and the blue background. On specimen b the white vertical element was mostly reserved on the final coat of plaster. A coat of light gray paint, now visible in places, was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. Additional white paint was possibly applied over the reserved area. The black paint, used for the outline, was applied last. For specimens c, d, and e, see specimen b. On specimen d, the black and red paint to the left of the white area were applied directly onto the blue background. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 0.65–1.18 cm).

6.2. Hunting Scene 6.2.1. First Hunting Episode WH F7. Male figures and vegetation (first hunting episode) (Fig. 14; Pl. 4). 1 specimen: 16 joining fragments, part of the hunting scene. Max. pres. h. 22.45; max. pres. w. 10; max. pres. th. 1.2 cm.

Five stemmed leaf-like plants of different heights and traces of a sixth along the right-hand edge of the extant specimen, rendered with green paint against a blue background, grow from a white horizontal band running along the bottom of the composition (w. of band 1.75–1.80 cm). Faint traces of black lines on the interior of the plants probably represent veining. Traces of a gray area, originally blue, possibly another band, are preserved below the white ground line. There are no surviving traces of outlines on the vegetation. (Left to right: max. pres. h. of first plant 6.1 cm; restored h. of first plant 12.2 cm; h. of second plant 6.9 cm; max. pres. w. of second plant 2.6 cm; restored h. of third plant 9.6 cm; max. pres. w. of third plant 3.9 cm; restored h. of third plant 10.4 cm; max. pres. h. of fourth plant 1.6– 1.8 cm; max. pres. w. of fourth plant 2.2 cm; restored h. of fourth plant 5.5 cm; max. pres. h. of fifth plant 5.2 cm; max. pres. w. of fifth plant 3.5 cm; restored h. of fifth plant 9.2 cm; restored h. of sixth plant 9.7 cm.) Two pairs of male legs/feet walking toward the right, wearing greaves and crosshatched sandal-type shoes, are visible above the leaf-like plants. The male figure to the left, of which only the feet and the ankles are preserved, seems almost immobile. Of the male figure to the right, the feet and the legs, up to a point below the knee, are preserved; this figure is apparently striding forward to the right. The extant lower limbs, painted white, are outlined in red; interior details (greave lacings, calf muscles, shoe laces, cross-hatching) are also executed in red paint (max. pres. h. of legs/feet 5.8 cm; restored h. of male figures: 20.8 cm). State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The original blue background has mostly disappeared, with only traces surviving in places, especially in the upper right-hand section. The underlying gray coat of paint and the white, used for the legs/feet of the male figures, are well preserved. The green of the vegetation and the red used for the outlines of the figures is extremely fugitive; the green survives only in places. Technique: the vegetation was mostly reserved on the final coat of plaster. Traces of preliminary sketching in red paint are preserved along the second, third, and fifth plant from the left. The white of the stems of the leaf-like plants was apparently applied later over the blue background. A coat of light gray paint, now visible in places, was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. Additional white paint was possibly applied over the reserved areas. The green color of the reserved vegetation was obtained by applying a yellow coat of paint over the final coat of plaster and then a blue coat of paint over the yellow, without preliminary mixing of colors. The limits of the leaf-like plants are not clear, especially along the first and the last plant from the left. The white ground line was partly reserved on the final coat of plaster and partly painted over the blue background or the gray undercoat. The white paint

CATALOG

used for the legs/feet of the male figures was apparently painted directly onto the blue background. The red pigment and the black paint, used for the outlines and other interior details, were applied last over the white and the green. Traces of what could be interpreted as a correction are preserved on the left leg of the figure to the right, which could be an attempt to reduce the original width of the calf of the figure. The white paint was probably scraped off the area in question and was apparently never painted over with blue paint. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.3 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 1.17 cm). WH F8. White bands (Pl. 4). 7 specimens (a–g): (a, c–g) 1 fragment; (b) 2 joining fragments, probably part of the groundline of the first hunting episode (WH F7; Pl. 4). Max. pres. h. (a) 3.65, (b) 4.3, (c) 2.4, (d) 2.0, (e) 1.95, (f) 2.6, (g) 2.15; max. pres. w. (a) 3.0, (b) 3.85, (c) 1.9, (d) 2.1, (e) 1.3, (f) 3.6, (g) 3.55; max. pres. th. (a) 1.25, (b) 1.35, (c) 1.45, (d) 1.2, (e) 1.05, (f) 1.15, (g) 1.2 cm. Sections of white horizontal bands painted against a blue background. Specimen a: section of a white horizontal band (w. 1.8 cm) flanked by gray/blue areas/ bands. Specimen b: section of white horizontal band (w. 2.1 cm) against a gray/blue background. Specimens c–e: sections of white horizontal bands painted against a blue background. Specimens f, g: sections of white horizontal bands painted against a blue background. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue pigment used for the background is fugitive in places, with the gray undercoat showing through. The white paint used for the horizontal bands is quite well preserved. Technique: a coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. The white paint used for the bands was either painted directly onto the blue background or was partly reserved on the final coat of plaster and partly painted over the blue. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 1.03–4.28 cm).

6.2.2. Second Hunting Episode WH F9. Human figures and vegetation (Fig. 15; Pl. 5). 1 specimen: 36 joining fragments, part of the hunting scene. Max. pres. h. 17; max. pres. w. 24.5; max. pres. th. 1.6 cm.

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A partially preserved standing male figure, part of a female figure, and a dog moving against a backdrop of dense vegetation, the whole painted against a blue background. The pointed ends of two obliquely aligned white spears, pointing downward, and part of a third spear above them, to the right, pointing obliquely upward, are visible in the upper left part of the composition. The stem of a green plant with black outlines and black interior veining, above and to the right, partly overlaps the third spearhead (restored h. of plant 10.8 cm). Part of the stem and the leaf of another longstemmed green plant, with black outlines and black interior veining, is preserved to the right (max. pres. h. of stem 7.0 cm; restored h. of plant 12.0 cm). Part of a male figure striding toward the right is painted at the same level and to the right of the plant. The hind leg of this figure rendered with white paint, minus a foot, is bent at the knee. The front leg, preserved along its entire length and also rendered with white paint up to the knee, is almost straight. Both legs, judging by the red paint used for the naked flesh of the thighs, were originally clad in greaves and sandal-type shoes, the details of which have not survived. The bottom part of a short tunic, rendered with yellow paint applied over a white ground, is preserved above the thigh. Traces of fugitive yellow paint are preserved in the lower lefthand edge of the tunic (max. pres. h. of male figure 11.8 cm; restored h. of male figure 19.4 cm). To the right of this figure three green, stemmed, leaf-like plants grow, without a ground line, from the level of the ankle of the male figure. The first plant on the left reaches up to the lower border of the tunic of the male figure; the third reaches approximately up to the middle of its torso. Part of a third plant, similar to the other two, is preserved at the right-hand edge of the composition (max. pres. h. of plants from left to right: 4.7, 8.3, 2.6 cm; restored h. of plants from left to right: 4.7, 11.0, 10.5 cm). The upper part of the head of a female figure in profile, facing right, is preserved on the right-hand edge of the lower register, below the plants. The surviving section of the face, including the ear, is rendered with white paint, the elaborate hairstyle with black paint, and the headband along the forehead, including the interior details of the ear, with red (restored h. of female figure 40.95 cm). An indeterminate red area is preserved behind and to the left of the female figure, probably the tail end of the headband, and behind it, the pointed end of an oblique white spear, pointing downward toward the red area. Traces of a white, floral motif are preserved to the left of the spear. The upper part of the head, the neck and the ears of a white dog, also facing right, is preserved near the left-hand edge of the lower part of the composition (restored h. of dog 13.5 cm; restored L. of dog 11.9–16.4 cm [including the tail]). The restored height of the extant composition is ca. 27.7 cm.

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THE WALL PAINTINGS OF THE WEST HOUSE AT MYCENAE

State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. There is considerable variation in the state of preservation of the pigments due to pre- or post-depositional breakage and post-depositional conditions. The blue background is more fugitive in the right half of the composition, the gray undercoat showing through. Also fugitive is the yellow pigment of the tunic, the interior details of the greaves, and the footwear of the male figure, as well as the green pigment used for the plants. Technique: the vegetation was mostly reserved on the final coat of plaster, as on the first hunting episode (WH F7). The white of the stems of the leaf-like plants/trees was apparently applied later directly onto the blue background. The green color of the reserved vegetation was obtained, similarly to the first hunting episode, by applying a yellow coat of paint over the final coat of plaster and then a blue coat of paint over the yellow, without preliminary mixing of colors. A coat of light gray paint, now visible in places, was applied over the final coat of plaster in background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. The white paint used for the legs/feet of the male figure was apparently painted directly onto the blue background. The red pigment, used for the outlines and other interior details, now lost, would have been applied last over the white, as apparently was the red paint used for the naked flesh of the thighs. The preserved lower part of the tunic of the male figure seems to have been reserved on the final coat of plaster, the yellow pigment applied directly over the white ground. The head of the female figure was mostly painted directly onto the blue background (hair, headband) and was perhaps only partly reserved on the final coat of plaster (face). The white paint used for the spears was applied directly onto the blue background, as probably was the dog, although its head could have been reserved on the final coat of plaster. A thick layer of white paint in low relief is attested on the hind leg of the male figure and on the last spear. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 1.58 cm). Dimensions of inclusions: 1.5 x 1.3 cm.

6.2.3. Vegetation WH F10. Scene with vegetation (Fig. 16; Pl. 6). 1 specimen: 22 joining fragments, probably part of the hunting scene. Max. pres. h. 15.4; max. pres. w. 19.5; max. pres. th. 1.6 cm. Sections of at least four, green, leaf-like plants with thick wavy stems are painted against a blue background. Along the left edge, part of the stem of a large stemmed, leaf-like plant, is rendered with fugitive green paint, with traces of the yellow undercoat visible on the far left. Part of the tall wavy stem of a second leaf-like plant, preserving extremely fugitive traces of

the green paint and its yellow undercoat, is depicted at a distance of ca. 2.2–6.2 cm to the right. Part of a third large, stemmed, leaf-like plant, with traces of the yellow undercoat, is preserved ca. 2.0–3.3 cm to the right of the second plant. Finally, a section of the fourth stemmed, leaf-like plant, with traces of yellow paint is preserved along the right edge of the specimen. No outlines are preserved. (Max. pres. h. of plants 15.4 cm.) State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background is quite fugitive in places, the gray undercoat showing through. The yellow paint used as an undercoat on the interior of the plants is extremely fugitive. The overlying blue coat of paint has disappeared. Technique: the vegetation was partly reserved on the final coat of plaster, as on both hunting episodes, and was partly painted directly onto the blue background; this is evident in certain sections where thick white paint was clearly applied directly onto the blue background, with the blue showing through. Additional white paint was possibly applied over the reserved areas. No traces of preliminary sketching are preserved. A coat of light gray paint, now visible in places, was applied over the final coat of plaster in background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. The green color of the reserved vegetation was originally obtained by applying a yellow coat of paint over the final coat of plaster and then a blue coat of paint over the yellow, without preliminary mixing of colors. Sections of two sets of compass-drawn arcs, probably preliminary attempts or laying out lines, are preserved on the first leaf-like plant from the right. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 1.58 cm). WH F11. Vegetation (Pl. 6). 6 nonjoining specimens (a–f): (a) 3 joining fragments; (b, e, f) 2 joining fragments; (c, d) 1 fragment, all similar to or part of the scene with vegetation (WH F10). Max. pres. h. (a) 6.1, (b) 4.95, (c) 5.65, (d) 3.1, (e) 5.5, (f) 2.1; max. pres. w. (a) 5.0, (b) 3.7, (c) 4.2, (d) 3.07, (e) 3.8, (f) 3.85; max. pres. th. (a) 1.3, (b) 1.6, (c) 1.35, (d) 1.3, (e) 1.35, (f) 1.0 cm. Specimens a–c: large sections of wavy stems and/ or leaves of leaf-like plants/trees, originally rendered with green paint, now preserving only traces of the yellow undercoat applied on the white ground, the whole painted against a blue background. Specimen d: section of leaf-like plant, with traces of yellow paint applied on a white ground and a thin red vertical line down the center. Specimen e: part of a stamen-like motif, with traces of yellow paint applied on a white ground and traces of a bunch of thin red lines to the right. Specimen f: section of a forked, leaf-like plant with traces of yellow paint applied on a white ground. No traces of outlines are preserved on the extant specimens. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background color is quite well preserved on the

CATALOG

whole. The original green color of the plants has almost completely disappeared. The yellow undercoat is extrem­ely fugitive as are the few traces of red paint. Technique: the vegetation was partly reserved on the final coat of plaster (specimens b and c), and partly painted directly onto the blue background (specimens a, d–f), as on the two hunting episodes (WH F7, WH F9); this is evident in certain sections where thick white paint was clearly applied directly onto the blue background, the blue showing through the white. Additional white paint was possibly applied over the reserved areas. No traces of preliminary sketching are preserved. A coat of light gray paint, now visible in places, was applied over the final coat of plaster in background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. The green color of the vegetation was originally obtained by applying a yellow coat of paint over the final coat of plaster and then a blue coat of paint over the yellow, without preliminary mixing of colors. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 1.28–1.58 cm). WH F12. Vegetation (Pl. 6). 212 small, mostly nonjoining specimens (a–u): (a, b, e, k, l) 2 joining fragments; (c, d, f–j, m–t) 1 fragment; (u) 190 small fragments, all similar to or part of the scene with vegetation (WH F10). Max. pres. h. (a) 4.8, (b) 3.9, (c) 3.0, (d) 2.3, (e) 3.3, (f) 6.05, (g) 2.6, (h) 7.15, (i) 2.45, (j) 1.9, (k) 3.25, (l) 2.8, (m) 2.8, (n) 1.85, (o) 2.5, (p) 1.65, (q) 1.5, (r) 2.25, (s) 1.45, (t) 2.25, (u) 8.3–1.0; max. pres. w. (a) 2.6, (b) 3.5, (c) 3.5, (d) 3.8, (e) 3.6, (f) 4.6, (g) 2.95, (h) 6.15, (i) 2.85, (j) 2.85, (k) 2.2, (l) 2.35, (m) 2.35, (n) 2.95, (o) 3.8, (p) 2.6, (q) 2.15, (r) 1.6, (s) 1.95, (t) 1.55, (u) 1.0–7.8; max. pres. th. (a) 1.15, (b) 1.6, (c) 1.25, (d) 1.5, (e) 1.5, (f) 1.35, (g) 1.35, (h) 1.45, (i) 1.05, (j) 1.1, (k) 1.25, (l) 1.1, (m) 1.3, (n) 1.15, (o) 1.65, (p) 1.0, (q) 1.1, (r) 0.7, (s) 1.5, (t) 0.8, (u) 0.75–1.7 cm. Small sections of wavy stems and/or leaves of plants, originally rendered with green paint applied on a white ground, the whole painted against a blue background. Faint traces of the surviving yellow undercoat are preserved on 82 specimens. Traces of red paint on a number of specimens represents interior detail. No outlines are preserved. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background and the yellow undercoat are extremely fugitive on certain specimens (blue background: specimens b, c, e, m, s, p, u; yellow undercoat: specimens d, g, k, m, n, r, u). The original green color used for the plants has almost completely disappeared. Technique: the vegetation was partly reserved on the final coat of plaster (specimens a, k, l) and partly painted directly onto the blue background (specimens c, m, p–s), as on the two hunting episodes (WH F7, WH F9); this is evident in certain sections where thick white paint was clearly applied directly onto the blue background, the blue showing through the white.

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Additional white paint was possibly applied over the reserved areas. Traces of preliminary sketching rendered with red paint are preserved on a small number of specimens (specimens a, c, d, k). A coat of light gray paint, now visible in places, was applied over the final coat of plaster in background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. The original green color of the vegetation was obtained by applying a yellow coat of paint over the final coat of plaster and then a blue coat of paint over the yellow, without preliminary mixing of colors. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 0.50–1.68 cm). WH F13. Vegetation (Fig. 16; Pl. 7). 1 specimen: 6 joining fragments, similar to WH F7 (first hunting episode), probably part of the hunting scene. Max. pres. h. 7.3; max. pres. w. 5.1; max. pres. th. 1.25 cm. Parts of two stemmed, leaf-like plants growing from a white horizontal band serving as a ground line (w. of band 1.8 cm), the whole painted against a blue background. The leaf-like plants are rendered with green paint. No traces of outlines are preserved. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background is fugitive in places, the gray undercoat and the white plaster showing through. The green color used for the vegetation is also fugitive, traces of the yellow undercoat being visible in places. Technique: a coat of light gray paint was applied over the final coat of plaster in background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. The vegetation, in this case the stems of leaf-like plants, was apparently painted directly onto the blue background, as on the two hunting episodes (WH F7, WH F9). The green color of the vegetation was obtained by applying a yellow coat of paint over the final coat of plaster and then a blue coat of paint over the yellow, without preliminary mixing of colors. No traces of preliminary sketching are preserved. The white ground line was at least partly reserved on the final coat of plaster and partly painted over the blue background. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 1.23 cm). WH F14. Vegetation (Fig. 16; Pl. 7). 1 specimen: 4 joining fragments, similar to WH F7 (first hunting episode), probably part of the hunting scene. Max. pres. h. 5.8; max. pres. w. 4.1; max. pres. th. 1.1 cm. The stem of a leaf-like plant growing from a white horizontal band serving as a ground line and faint traces of another, probably similar plant along the left-hand edge of the fragment, the whole painted against a blue background. The leaf-like plants were originally rendered with green paint (max. pres. w. of band 1.4 cm). State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background has disappeared completely in

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places, the gray undercoat and the white plaster showing through. The green color of the plants is quite fugitive in places. The yellow undercoat is also fairly fugitive. Technique: the vegetation, in this case the stems of the leaf-like plants, was apparently painted directly onto the blue background, as on the two hunting episodes (WH F7, WH F9). The section of the leaf of the plant on the right was probably reserved on the final coat of plaster. The green color of the vegetation was obtained by applying a yellow coat of paint over the final coat of plaster and then a blue coat of paint over the yellow, without preliminary mixing of colors. Only faint traces of preliminary sketching in red paint are preserved along the right-hand edge of the first plant. The white ground line was at least partly reserved on the final coat of plaster and partly painted over the blue background. A coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 1.08 cm). WH F15. Vegetation (Fig. 16; Pl. 7). 1 specimen: 4 joining fragments, similar to WH F7 (first hunting episode). Max. pres. h. 6.95; max. pres. w. 13.75; max. pres. th. 1.45 cm. Two stemmed leaf-like plants, and an arrow-shaped, stemmed plant between them, rendered with green paint, the whole painted against a blue background. Traces of black lines on the interior of the plants probably represent veining. No traces of outlines are preserved. (Max. pres. h. of leaf-like plant on left: 4.8 cm; max. pres. w. of leaf-like plant on left 4.1 cm, originally over 10.5 cm in height; max. pres. h. of arrow-shaped plant 5.2 cm; max. pres. w. of arrow-shaped plant 1.4 cm, originally over 9.8 cm in height; max. pres. h. of leaf-like plant on right 6.7 cm, originally over 10.5 cm in height.) State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background, relatively well preserved, has flaked off in places revealing the white plaster underneath. The original green color used for the plants is fairly well preserved on the whole. The black paint used for the veining on the interior of the plants is extremely fugitive. Technique: the vegetation was mostly reserved on the final coat of plaster and partly painted directly onto the blue background (stems), as on the two hunting episodes (WH F7, WH F9). No traces of preliminary sketching are preserved. A coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. The green color of the reserved vegetation was obtained by applying a yellow coat of paint onto the final coat of plaster and then a blue coat of paint over the yellow, without preliminary mixing of colors. The black paint was probably applied last.

Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.3 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 1.42 cm). WH F16. Vegetation (Fig. 16; Pl. 7). 1 specimen, similar to the vegetation on WH F10–WH F12, probably part of the hunting scene. Max. pres. h. 5.1; max. pres. w. 8.35; max. pres. th. 1.65 cm. Two vertically arranged leaf-like plants, originally rendered with green paint painted against a blue background (most of the leaf of the plant to the left, without the stem, and only part of the stem of the plant to the right). No traces of outlines are preserved. (Max. pres. h. of plant on the left 4.2 cm; max. pres. w. of plant on the left 3.6 cm; max. pres. h. of plant on the right 2.7 cm.) State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background is quite well preserved. The green paint is very fugitive, especially on the plant on the right and along the right edge of the plant on the left. Only faint traces of the yellow undercoat on the plant to the right are preserved. Technique: the vegetation was mostly reserved on the final coat of plaster and partly painted directly onto the blue background (stem of plant to the right), as on the two hunting episodes (WH F7, WH F9). A coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. The green color of the reserved vegetation was obtained by applying a yellow coat of paint over the final coat of plaster and then a blue coat of paint over the yellow, without preliminary mixing of colors. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2–0.3 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 1.62– 1.63 cm). WH F17. Vegetation (Fig. 16; Pl. 7). 2 nonjoining specimens (a, b). (a) 1 fragment; (b) 5 joining fragments, both similar to hunting episodes (WH F7, WH F9). Max. pres. h. (a) 6.3, (b) 5.1; max. pres. w. (a) 6.4, (b) 3.95; max. pres. th. (a) 1.8, (b) 1.0–1.1 cm. Specimen a: a section of a green leaf-like plant is preserved along the left edge of the extant fragment. The plant, painted against a blue background, preserves faint traces of black veining on the interior. No outlines are preserved. (Max. pres. h. of leaf-like plant 5.8 cm.) Specimen b: section of a leaf-like plant, originally rendered with green paint against a blue background. Faint traces of the yellow undercoat and of black veining are preserved on the interior of the plant. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background is preserved very well on specimen a, less so on specimen b. The green paint on the interior of the plants is preserved in a relatively good condition,

CATALOG

the yellow undercoat showing through in places. The black paint used for the veining is quite fugitive. Technique: the vegetation was apparently reserved on the final coat of plaster, as on the two hunting episodes (WH F7, WH F9). No traces of preliminary sketching are preserved. A coat of light gray paint was probably applied directly over the final coat of plaster in background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. The green color of the reserved vegetation was obtained by applying a yellow coat of paint over the final coat of plaster and then a blue coat of paint over the yellow, without preliminary mixing of colors. Black veining was applied last over the green paint. Plaster: specimen a: two sublayers and the final layer of plaster preserved. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th: 0.30–0.45 cm). First sublayer: almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 1.1 cm). Second sublayer: preserved surface more calcified, slightly uneven (max. pres. th. 0.25 cm). Specimen b: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.15 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 0.80–1.08 cm). WH F18. Vegetation (Fig. 16; Pl. 8). 1 specimen: 2 joining fragments, similar to WH F9 (second hunting episode). Max. pres. h. 6.9; max. pres. w. 6.4; max. pres. th. 1.7 cm. Small sections of two green leaf-like plants painted against a blue background in the lower right-hand side of the extant fragment. The first plant on the right preserves traces of black veining on the interior. Only the tip of the other plant is preserved. Parts of two white, curved elements outlined in black, possibly the feet of an animal facing right, are preserved in the upper lefthand side of the extant fragment. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background is fugitive on the whole. The green paint on the first leaf-like plant on the left has disappeared almost completely, but is relatively well preserved on the other plant. The black paint used for interior veining on the plants and for outlines on the white, curved elements to the left is quite fugitive. Technique: the two leaf-like plants were apparently reserved on the last coat of plaster, as on the two hunting episodes (WH F7, WH F9). No traces of preliminary sketching are preserved. A coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. The original green color of the vegetation was obtained by applying a yellow coat of paint over the final coat of plaster and then a blue coat of paint over the yellow, without preliminary mixing of colors. The white paint used for the two white, curved elements to the left was applied directly onto the blue background. The black outlines and interior details were painted last over the green and white ground. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.25–0.30 cm).

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Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 1.670–1.675 cm). WH F19. Vegetation (Fig. 16; Pl. 8). 1 specimen: 2 joining fragments, similar to hunting episodes WH F7 and WH F9. Max. pres. h. 4.1; max. pres. w. 5.25; max. pres. th. 1.1 cm. Small sections of three green leaf-like plants painted against a blue background. Only the tip of the central plant is preserved. Only faint traces of interior veining in black paint are preserved on the central plant and the plant on the left. No traces of outlines are preserved. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background is preserved in a very good condition. The blue overcoat used for the plants is fugitive in places, especially in the first plant on the left and the first plant on the right. The yellow undercoat is visible only on the first plant on the left. The black paint used for interior veining is extremely fugitive. Technique: the vegetation was originally reserved on the final coat of plaster, as on the two hunting episodes (WH F7, WH F9). No traces of preliminary sketching are preserved. A coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. The original green color of the vegetation was obtained by applying a yellow coat of paint over the final coat of plaster and then a blue coat of paint over the yellow, without preliminary mixing of colors. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 1.08 cm). WH F20. Vegetation (Fig. 16; Pl. 8). 2 nonjoining specimens (a, b): (a) 2 joining fragments; (b) 4 joining fragments, possibly part of the hunting scene. Max. pres. h. (a) 4.1, (b) 3.45; max. pres. w. (a) 2.15, (b) 3.1; max. pres. th. (a) 1.5, (b) 1.3 cm. Vegetation rendered in green paint with black veining on the interior, the whole painted against a blue background. Specimen a: part of a presumably leaflike plant rendered with green paint and faint traces of a black outline, the whole painted against a blue background. Traces of black veining and faint traces of red paint along the upper left-hand edge on the interior of the plant, the latter possibly representing a flower, are preserved. Specimen b: part of a presumably leaf-like plant rendered with green paint, traces of black veining on the interior, and faint traces of a black outline along the left side, the whole painted against a blue background. Traces of red paint in the upper left-hand edge possibly represents a flower. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background has disappeared completely on specimen a, the gray undercoat showing through; on specimen b it is fugitive in places. The green paint on the interior of the plants is fugitive in places on specimen a,

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the yellow undercoat showing through, and has almost completely disappeared on specimen b. The black paint is extremely fugitive on specimen a and quite well preserved on specimen b. The red paint on specimen b is quite well preserved, but has almost completely disappeared on specimen a. Technique: the vegetation was apparently reserved on the final coat of plaster, as on the two hunting episodes (WH F7, WH F9). Traces of preliminary sketching in red paint are preserved along the left side of the plant on specimen a. A coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. The original green color of the vegetation was obtained by applying a yellow coat of paint over the final coat of plaster and then a blue coat of paint over the yellow, without preliminary mixing of colors. The black outlines and the veining, as well as the red pigment, were applied last over the green paint and/or the blue background. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. [a] 1.48, [b] 1.28 cm). WH F21. Vegetation (Pl. 9). 22 small, nonjoining specimens (a–v), similar to both hunting episodes WH F7 and WH F9. Max. pres. h. (a) 2.3, (b) 1.8, (c) 1.55, (d) 1.6, (e) 2.25, (f) 2.0, (g) 1.2, (h) 1.4, (i) 1.2, (j) 1.1, (k) 0.85, (l) 1.2, (m) 1.0, (n) 2.2, (o) 1.45, (p) 1.3, (q) 0.7, (r) 2.05, (s) 1.85, (t) 1.35, (u) 1.9, (v) 1.05; max. pres. w. (a) 1.6, (b) 1.5, (c) 1.2, (d) 1.1, (e) 1.9, (f) 1.5, (g) 1.95, (h) 2.0, (i) 1.6, (j) 1.5, (k) 1.5, (l) 1.5, (m) 0.8, (n) 1.95, (o) 2.0, (p) 2.50, (q) 0.9, (r) 2.05, (s) 1.35, (t) 1.50, (u) 1.65, (v) 1.65; max. pres. th. (a) 0.85, (b) 0.9, (c) 0.8, (d) 0.5, (e) 0.6, (f) 0.85, (g) 1.0, (h) 0.8, (i) 1.15, (j) 0.85, (k) 0.9, (l) 0.9, (m) 0.65, (n) 1.0, (o) 0.8, (p) 0.75, (q) 0.6, (r) 1.15, (s) 1.30, (t) 0.9, (u) 1.10, (v) 0.95 cm. Small sections of stems and leaves of leaf-like plants, originally rendered with green paint against a blue background. Specimen a: part of the stem of a leaflike plant growing from a white horizontal band, with traces of the yellow undercoat on the interior (max. pres. w. of band 1.15 cm) (see WH F13, WH F14). Specimens b–d, g, i, j, q–s: parts of stems of green, leaf-like plants, also preserving traces of the yellow undercoat applied over a white ground. Specimens e, f, h, o, v: sections of green leaf-like plants with traces of black interior veining. Specimen n: part of an originally green, stemmed flower, with traces of the yellow undercoat and black paint on the interior, the black probably representing veining. Specimen p: part of an originally green/blue, leaf-like plant with black interior details. Specimens k–m, t, u: sections of leaf-like plants with traces of green or yellow paint, the whole painted against a blue background. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background is very fugitive in places, the gray

undercoat showing through. The yellow and green pigments are very fugitive on most of the specimens. Technique: the vegetation was partly reserved on the final coat of plaster (specimens b, d, e–g, h, j, k–m, p, q, t–v), and partly painted directly onto the blue background (specimens a, i, n, o, r, s), as on the two hunting episodes (WH F7, WH F9). No traces of preliminary sketching are preserved. A coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. The green color of the vegetation was obtained by applying a yellow coat of paint over the final coat of plaster and then a blue coat of paint over the yellow, without preliminary mixing of colors. The ground lines were in most cases at least partly reserved on the final coat of plaster and partly painted over the blue background. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 0.30–1.13 cm). WH F22. Vegetation (Pl. 9). 3 nonjoining specimens (a–c): (a) 2 joining fragments; (b) 4 joining fragments; (c) 3 joining fragments, similar to the vegetation on WH F7 (first hunting episode), WH F9 (second hunting episode), and WH F10–WH F12. Max. pres. h. (a) 7.7, (b) 6.2, (c) 3.3; max. pres. w. (a) 4.95, (b) 6.7, (c) 2.85; max. pres. th. (a) 1.9, (b) 1.05, (c) 0.8 cm. Large sections of interiors of plants, probably leaflike, rendered with green paint on a white ground. No traces of outlines are preserved. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The green color is fugitive in places, with white plaster showing through. Technique: the vegetation was apparently reserved on the final coat of plaster, as on the two hunting episodes (WH F7, WH F9). No traces of preliminary sketching are preserved. The original green color of the vegetation was obtained by applying a yellow coat of paint over the final coat of plaster and then a blue coat of paint over the yellow, without preliminary mixing of colors. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. [a] 1.88, [b] 1.03, [c] 0.6 cm). WH F23. Vegetation (Pl. 9). 12 nonjoining specimens (a–l): similar to the vegetation on hunting episodes WH F7 and WH F9. Max. pres. h. (a) 3.25, (b) 1.25, (c) 1.4, (d) 1.4, (e) 1.45, (f) 1.3, (g) 0.7, (h) 2.05, (i) 1.85, (j) 1.35, (k) 1.9, (l) 1.05; max. pres. w. (a) 3.05, (b) 2.3, (c) 1.95, (d) 1.8, (e) 2.0, (f) 2.5, (g) 0.9, (h) 2.05, (i) 1.35, (j) 1.5, (k) 1.65, (l) 1.65; max. pres. th. (a) 1.35, (b) 0.9, (c) 1.0, (d) 0.85, (e) 0.8, (f) 0.75, (g) 0.6, (h) 1.15, (i) 1.3, (j) 0.9, (k) 1.1, (l) 0.95 cm. Sections of interiors of plants, presumably leaf-like, originally rendered with green paint applied on a white

CATALOG

ground, the whole painted against a blue background. Faint traces of black veining are preserved on specimens b–d, h. Sections of the blue background are preserved on specimens b, g, j, k. No traces of outlines are preserved. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background, where preserved, has almost completely disappeared, the gray undercoat showing through (specimens e, g, j–l). The green color is fugitive in most cases. Traces of the yellow undercoat are preserved on specimens g–i. Technique: the vegetation was mostly reserved on the final coat of plaster, as on the two hunting episodes (WH F7, WH F9). No traces of preliminary sketching are preserved. The original green color of the vegetation was obtained by applying a yellow coat of paint over the final coat of plaster and then a blue coat of paint over the yellow, without preliminary mixing of colors. The black paint was applied last over the green. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.15–0.20 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 0.40–1.33 cm). WH F24. Floral composition (Fig. 16; Pl. 10). 1 specimen: 8 joining fragments, possibly part of the hunting scene. Max. pres. h. 8.5; max. pres. w. 12.1; max. pres. th. 1.45 cm. Five vertical, slightly spreading branches/fronds, three of which apparently grow from the same plant, rendered with white paint and decorated with red dots, presumably indicating flowers, the whole painted against a blue background (max. pres. h. of fronds 6.4 cm). A compact, solidly painted, vertical element, also rendered with white paint and decorated with red dots (max. pres. h. of vertical element 8.2 cm), and possibly meant to represent a tree, is preserved approximately 2.8–3.2 cm to their left. Across the lower part of the solid white element is preserved part of a red horizontal band, applied over the white ground. Two horizontal curvilinear bands/areas, also rendered with red paint applied directly onto the blue background, are preserved in the area between the two floral elements, above and below the red band. No traces of outlines are preserved. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background and the white paint have flaked off in places. The white paint is relatively well preserved. The red paint is extremely fugitive, especially where it was applied over the white ground. Technique: a coat of light gray paint was probably applied directly over the final coat of plaster in background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. The white paint used for the vegetation was applied directly onto the blue background and the red paint was applied last over the white ground, and in some areas over the blue background. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 1.43 cm).

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WH F25. Floral composition (Pl. 10). 1 specimen: 2 joining fragments, similar to WH F24. Max. pres. h. 7.3; max. pres. w. 3.15; max. pres. th. 0.95 cm. Two white curvilinear areas, with traces of yellow paint, possibly an undercoat, are preserved along the upper and lower edges of the extant fragment. Two pointed leaf-like elements, rendered with red paint, grow on the upper left-hand edge of the lower area. No traces of outlines are preserved. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background is fugitive in places. The white paint is relatively well preserved, while the overlying yellow paint, possibly an undercoat, is extremely fugitive. The red paint used for the leaf-like elements is also fugitive in places. Technique: a coat of light gray paint was probably applied directly over the final coat of plaster in background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. The white paint was applied directly onto the blue background and the yellow coat/undercoat of paint over the white ground. The red paint was also applied over the blue background, the blue paint showing through. Traces of preliminary sketching in red paint are preserved along the lower edge of the upper curvilinear area. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 0.75 cm). WH F26. Floral composition (Pl. 10). 1 specimen: 2 joining fragments, similar to WH F24 and WH F25. Max. pres. h. 5.3; max. pres. w. 2.8; max. pres. th. 1.25 cm. Part of a thick, vertical wavy element, probably the stem of a plant, with traces of red paint applied on a white ground, possibly interior veining, the whole painted against a blue background (max. pres. h. of stem 4.6 cm). A vaguely leaf-like element and a stemlike element, rendered with red paint, seem to be growing out of the thick stem toward the left. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background is very well preserved. The white paint used for the plant is fairly well preserved, while the red paint, applied over the white ground, is very fugitive. Technique: a coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. The white paint used for the vegetation was apparently painted directly onto the blue background, the blue showing through in places. The red paint was applied over the white ground and/or the blue background. No traces of preliminary sketching are preserved. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.3 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 1.17–1.67 cm).

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WH F27. Floral composition (Pl. 10). 2 nonjoining specimens (a, b): (a) 3 joining fragments; (b) 1 fragment, similar to WH F25 and WH 26. Max. pres. h. (a) 5.2, (b) 2.55; max. pres. w. (a) 4.95, (b) 1.5; max. pres. th. (a) 1.2, (b) 1.7 cm. Specimen a: part of a thick, vertical wavy element, probably the stem of a plant, with traces of red paint applied on a white ground, the whole painted against a blue background (max. pres. h. of stem 4.8 cm). Specimen b: small section of a vertical element, probably the stem of a plant, with traces of red paint applied on a white ground, the whole painted against a blue background (max. pres. h. of stem 1.1 cm). State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background has flaked off in places. The white paint used for the plants is fairly well preserved. The red paint applied over the white ground is quite fugitive, especially on specimen a. Technique: a coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. The white paint used for the vegetation was apparently painted directly onto the blue background, the blue showing through in places. The red paint was applied mostly over the white ground. Traces of preliminary sketching in red paint are preserved along the left-hand edge of the wavy stem on the larger specimen (specimen a). Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 1.23 cm).

6.2.4. Legs/Feet of Male Figures WH F28. Male figure with tunic (Fig. 18; Pl. 12). 1 specimen: 5 joining fragments, probably part of the hunting scene. Max. pres. h. 4.75; max. pres. w. 3.75; max. pres. th. 1.1 cm. The lower left edge of the tunic and part of a leg (part of the thigh and the calf) of a male figure facing left is painted against a blue background. The preserved section of the short tunic was rendered with a light blue paint and was outlined in black. Below the preserved section of the thigh (rendered with red paint), the greaved leg (rendered with white paint) features two sets of laces (upper and lower). The outlines and the interior details (greave lacing) are painted black (max. pres. h. of figure 5.3 cm). Part of a white area with a curving edge is visible in the upper left-hand edge of the fragment (restored h. of male figure 18.7 cm). State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background and the white paint used for the legs are preserved quite well, as is the black paint used for the outlines and the interior details. The red paint used for the naked flesh and the light blue paint used for the tunic are rather fugitive in places.

Technique: the tunic of the male figure was apparently reserved on the final coat of plaster. A coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. The light blue paint on the interior of the tunic was then applied over the white ground. The white paint used for the leg was apparently painted directly onto the blue background, while the red paint used for the thigh and the black paint used for the outlines and the interior details were applied last over the white. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 1.08 cm). WH F29. Male figure on a raised structure (Fig. 18; Pl. 12). 1 specimen: 5 joining fragments, probably part of the hunting scene. Max. pres. h. 8.3; max. pres. w. 5.6; max. pres. th. 1.6 cm. Part of the calf and the foot of a male figure standing on a raised surface and facing right is painted against a blue background. The male figure is wearing greaves and crosshatched, sandal-type shoes. The leg is rendered with white paint in the usual manner and the interior details (lines of musculature, lower set of greave lacings, shoe) are painted red. The outline, also apparently red, has not survived (max. pres. h. of leg 4.6 cm). The figure stands on a rectangular raised surface only partly preserved, probably some kind of stand, outlined in white and black along the upper edge. The interior of the structure is painted light blue and decorated with short, oblique, black strokes (max. pres. h. of stand 3.5 cm; restored h. of male figure 18.7 cm). State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background and the white paint used for the leg are preserved in a very good condition. The red paint used for the internal details of the leg/foot is fugitive in places and has completely disappeared in the outlines. The black paint used on the raised surface is slightly faint. Technique: a coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. The white paint used for the leg of the male figure was applied directly onto the blue background in successive layers (successive layers of white paint, visible along the upper right-hand side of the calf). The red paint used for the outlines and the interior details was applied last over the white ground. The white paint outlining the rectangular raised structure was apparently also applied over the blue background. The black paint used for the interior details of the raised structure was applied over the light blue. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.35–0.60 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 1.540– 1.565 cm).

CATALOG

WH F30. Male figures (Fig. 19; Pl. 12). 1 specimen: 5 joining fragments, probably part of the hunting scene. Max. pres. h. 7.25; max. pres. w. 4.9; max. pres. th. 1.9 cm. Parts of two male figures facing left, against a blue background (part of the calf and the heel of the figure on the left and the tip of the foot of the figure on the right). The figure on the right is apparently walking at a higher level, behind the one on the left. The figure on the left is wearing greaves, with two sets of greave lacings and crosshatched sandal-type shoes. A line of musculature is indicated along the calf. The leg is rendered with white paint and all the internal details (lines of musculature, greave trappings, shoe) are painted red. The original outline of the leg, apparently red, has not survived (max. pres. h. of leg 5.7 cm). The foot of the second figure is clad in crosshatched, sandal-type shoes. It is also rendered with white paint and all the internal details (crosshatched sandal-type shoes) are painted red. The second figure is apparently moving in the same direction but at a different, higher level than the first figure (ca. 4.0 cm higher; restored h. of male figures 19.25–19.30 cm). State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background and the white paint used for the leg/ feet, although chipped off in places, are preserved quite well. The red paint used for the interior details is also well preserved, whereas the red used for the outlines has completely disappeared. Technique: a coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. The white paint used for the limbs of the male figures was painted directly onto the blue background, the blue showing through the white. The red paint used for the outlines and the interior details was applied last over the white ground. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.35 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 1.55 cm). WH F31. Male figure and plant (Fig. 19; Pl. 12). 1 specimen, probably part of the hunting scene. Max. pres. h. 4.0; max. pres. w. 4.05; max. pres. th. 1.7 cm. Part of what seems to be the calf of a male figure wearing greaves (upper and lower set of lacings), apparently facing left, is painted against a blue background. The leg is rendered with white paint and all the internal details (greave lacings), including the outlines, are painted red (max. pres. h. of leg 3.6 cm). Part of a vertical, white, tapering element, probably floral (stemmed plant), with traces of yellow paint, possibly an undercoat, is preserved to the right, behind the leg (max. pres. h. of plant 2.3 cm). State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background, the white paint used for the leg of the male figure, and the red paint used for the lacings are quite well preserved. The white paint and the yellow

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paint used for the plant, the yellow possibly an undercoat, are rather fugitive. The red outlines have almost completely disappeared. Technique: a coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. The white paint used for the leg of the male figure and the plant was applied directly onto the blue background. The red paint used for the outlines and the interior details on the leg and the yellow paint used for the plant were applied last, over the white ground. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.35 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 1.66 cm). WH F32. Male figure (Fig. 19; Pl. 13). 1 specimen, probably part of the hunting scene. Max. pres. h. 5.4; max. pres. w. 5.6; max. pres. th. 1.9 cm. Part of the calf of a male figure wearing greaves (lower set of greave lacings) facing left, including the ghost of a line of musculature is preserved against a blue background. The leg is rendered with white paint and all the internal details (line of musculature, greave lacings, boot straps) are painted red. The original outlines, also apparently red, have barely survived along the upper left-hand edge of the calf (max. pres. h. of leg 3.9 cm). A section of a white area outlined in red, in a slightly oblique angle, possibly part of the hind leg of another figure facing left, is preserved at the lower lefthand corner of the extant fragment. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background and the white paint used for the leg are very well preserved. The red paint used for the interior details is extremely fugitive. The red outlines have almost completely disappeared. Technique: a coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. The white paint used for the leg(s) of the male figure(s) was applied directly onto the blue background. The red paint used for the outlines and the interior details was applied last over the white ground. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.25 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 1.87 cm). WH F33. Male figure (Fig. 19; Pl. 13). 1 specimen, probably part of the hunting scene. Max. pres. h. 6.0; max. pres. w. 4.1; max. pres. th. 1.7 cm. Part of the calf of a male figure, apparently facing right, is painted against a blue background. The leg is rendered with white paint and all the internal details (lower set of greave lacings), including the outlines, are painted black (max. pres. h. of leg 4.2 cm). State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background is quite fugitive, the gray undercoat showing through. The white paint used for the leg is

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relatively well preserved. The black paint used for the outlines and the interior details is fugitive in places. Technique: a coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. The white paint used for the leg of the male figure was applied directly onto the blue background. The black paint used for the outlines and the interior details was applied last over the white ground. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.25 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 1.675 cm). WH F34. Male figure (Fig. 19; Pl. 13). 1 specimen: 2 joining fragments, probably part of the hunting scene. Max. pres. h. 2.65; max. pres. w. 3.25; max. pres. th. 1.3 cm. Part of the calf of a male figure wearing greaves (upper and lower set of greave lacings) and apparently facing left is painted against a blue background. The leg is rendered with white paint and all the internal details (two sets of greave lacings), including outlines only partly preserved, are painted red (max. pres. h. of leg 2.5 cm). State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background is quite fugitive in places, the gray undercoat showing through. The white paint used for the leg is relatively well preserved. The red paint used for the outlines and for the interior details is extremely fugitive in places. Technique: a coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. The white paint used for the leg of the male figure was probably applied directly onto the blue background. The red paint used for the outlines and the interior details was applied last over the white ground. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 1.28 cm). WH F35. Male figure (Fig. 19; Pl. 13). 1 specimen: 2 joining fragments, probably part of the hunting scene. Max. pres. h. 4.15; max. pres. w. 4.0; max. pres. th. 1.45 cm. An extremely thin section of a white area that could be construed as part of the leg (calf) of a male figure facing left is preserved along the right-hand edge of the extant fragment, against a blue background. The leg is rendered with white paint and the internal details (ghosts of the lower set of greave lacings, bottom end of line of musculature), including the outlines (very faint traces), are painted black. A thin, white, vertical element, rendered in low relief, possibly part of a floral element (stem of plant), a spear shaft, or a divider is preserved approximately 2.15–2.20 cm to the left of what remains of the leg (max. pres. h. of leg 3.6 cm; max. pres. h. of vertical element 2.5 cm).

State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background and the white paint used for the human limb and the vertical element are quite well preserved. The black paint used for the outlines and the interior details has almost completely disappeared. Technique: a coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. The white paint used for the human leg, and for the thin vertical element to the left, was apparently painted directly onto the blue background in mild relief. The black paint used for the outlines and the interior details was applied last over the white ground. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.15–0.20 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 1.430– 1.435 cm). WH F36. Male figure (Fig. 19; Pl. 13). 1 specimen: 3 joining fragments, probably part of the hunting scene. Max. pres. h. 5.0; max. pres. w. 2.5; max. pres. th. 1.0 cm. Part of the calf and the foot (heel) of a male figure facing left and wearing greaves (lower set of greave lacings), including a line of musculature, is painted against a blue background. The leg is rendered with white paint and the internal details (line of musculature, lower set of greave lacings) including the outlines, are painted black. Only the heel of the foot is preserved (max. pres. h. of leg 3.3 cm). State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background and the white paint used for the leg are quite well preserved, as is the black paint used for the outlines and the interior details. Technique: a coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. The white paint used for the leg of the male figure was applied directly onto the blue background. The black paint used for the outlines and the interior details was applied last over the white ground. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 0.8 cm). WH F37. Male figure (Fig. 19; Pl. 13). 1 specimen: 2 joining fragments, probably part of the hunting scene. Max. pres. h. 4.45; max. pres. w. 2.6; max. pres. th. 1.6 cm. What looks like part of the calf of a male figure wearing greaves (upper and lower set of greave lacings) is preserved against a blue background. The figure is probably facing left. The leg is rendered with white paint and the internal details (lower set of greave lacings and part of upper greave lacings) are painted red. The outlines, also apparently red, are not preserved (max. pres. h. of leg 4.0 cm).

CATALOG

State of preservation: upper surface: smoothed. The blue background and the white paint used for the leg are very well preserved. The red paint used for the interior details is fugitive in places. Technique: a coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. The white paint used for the leg of the male figure was applied directly onto the blue background. The red paint used for the interior details was applied last over the white ground. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.15 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 1.585 cm). WH F38. Male figure (Fig. 19; Pl. 14). 1 specimen, probably part of the hunting scene. Max. pres. h. 1.6; max. pres. w. 1.5; max. pres. th. 0.7 cm. Part of the leg of a male figure, including the lower part of the naked thigh, painted red, and the top of the greaved calf, is preserved against a blue background. The greaved part of the leg is rendered with white paint and the internal details are painted red. State of preservation: upper surface: smoothed. The blue background and the white paint used for the leg are very well preserved. The red paint used for the naked thigh and the interior details is fugitive in places. Technique: a coat of light gray paint was probably applied directly over the final coat of plaster in background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. The white paint used for the leg of the male figure was apparently applied directly onto the blue background. The red paint used for the naked flesh and for the outlines and the interior details of the leg was applied last over the white ground. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.25 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 1.225 cm). WH F39. Male figure (Fig. 19; Pl. 14). 2 nonjoining specimens (a, b): (a) 3 joining fragments; (b) 1 fragment, probably part of the hunting scene. Max. pres. h. (a) 5.15, (b) 2.55; max. pres. w. (a) 3.3, (b) 2.5; max. pres. th. (a) 1.0, (b) 1.25 cm. Specimen a: the foot and part of the ankle of a human figure facing left, probably male, the whole painted against a blue background. The foot and the ankle are rendered with white paint and internal details (crosshatched, sandal-type shoe/boot) are painted red. Traces of a white area with red markings are visible in the lower left-hand corner, possibly the foot of another figure facing right. Specimen b: part of what seems to be the foot of a male figure facing left. The foot, apparently clad in a shoe, is rendered with white paint and the internal details are painted red. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. On specimen a, the blue background is quite well preserved. The white paint used for the feet is fugitive

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in places, the red paint even more so. On specimen b, the blue background is very well preserved. The white paint used for the foot and the red paint used for the interior details are fugitive in places. Technique: a coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. The white paint used for the feet was applied directly onto the blue background. The red paint used for the interior details was applied last over the white ground. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. [a] 0.2, [b] 0.25 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. [a] 0.8, [b] 1.22 cm). WH F40. Male figures (Pl. 14). 8 specimens (a–h), possibly part of the hunting scene. Max. pres. h. (a) 1.9, (b) 1.6, (c) 1.8, (d) 1.0, (e) 0.95, (f) 0.9, (g) 2.55, (h) 1.1; max. pres. w. (a) 1.0, (b) 1.5, (c) 1.3, (d) 0.9, (e) 0.95, (f) 1.3, (g) 2.4, (h) 0.95; max. pres. th. (a) 1.1, (b) 1.1. (c) 0.75, (d) 0.8, (e) 0.9, (f) 0.6, (g) 1.5, (h) 0.8 cm. Very fragmentary sections of what seem to be parts of human (male) legs wearing greaves (sets of greave lacings, lines of musculature), against a blue background. The legs are rendered with white paint and the internal details, including the outlines, are painted red (6 specimens) or black (2 specimens). State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background and the white paint used for the legs are well preserved on the whole. The red paint used for the interior details and the outlines is fugitive in places. The black paint is better preserved. Technique: a coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. The white paint used for the legs of the male figures was applied directly onto the blue background. The red or black paint used for the outlines and the interior details were applied last over the white ground. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 0.40–1.08 cm).

6.2.5. Spears WH F41. Spears within rectangular panel (Fig. 20; Pl. 14). 1 specimen: 6 joining fragments, probably part of the hunting scene. Max. pres. h. 9.4; max. pres. w. 8.8; max. pres. th. 1.5 cm. Part of a thick rectangular border formed by two white bands meeting at right angles and forming the upper left-hand edge of a rectangular panel, occupying most of the surviving surface, is painted against a blue background. Another, similar panel is just visible above it. The upper parts of two white, vertical elements/

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spears, pointing upward, are preserved inside the main panel. No traces of outlines are preserved (w. of band 1.8–1.9 cm; max. pres. h. of spears 1.6 cm, 5.8 cm). State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background and the white paint used for the border bands are very well preserved. The white paint used for the spears is not so thickly applied and is fugitive in places. Technique: a coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. The white paint used for the spears was rather sloppily applied directly onto the blue background, the blue showing through the white. The white rectangular border was also probably applied directly onto the blue background. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.25–0.30 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface; almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel present (max. pres. th. 1.470– 1.475 cm). Dimensions of inclusions: 0.7 x 1.0 cm. WH F42. Spear (Fig. 20; Pl. 15). 1 specimen, probably part of the hunting scene. Max. pres. h. 2.85; max. pres. w. 1.75; max. pres. th. 0.9 cm. Part of a thin white spear, including the spearhead and part of the shaft, is painted against a blue background. The spearhead is pointed at and is actually touching a solidly painted, curvilinear area rendered with white paint, possibly part of an animal or some kind of vegetation, with faint traces of black paint on the interior. No outlines are preserved. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background is preserved quite well. The white paint used for the spear and the curvilinear area is fugitive in places, the blue background showing through. The black paint used on the interior of the curvilinear area is extremely fugitive. Technique: a coat of light gray paint was probably applied directly over the final coat of plaster in background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. The white paint used for the spear and the curvilinear area was painted directly onto the blue background. The black paint used on the interior of the curvilinear area was applied last on the white ground. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 0.7 cm). WH F43. Spear(?) (Pl. 15). 1 specimen, possibly part of the hunting scene. Max. pres. h. 3.0; max. pres. w. 2.8; max. pres. th. 1.25 cm. Part of a thin white tapering element, possibly a spear shaft and perhaps part of the spearhead, is painted against a blue background. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background, albeit fugitive in places, is preserved quite well. The white paint used for the spear is extremely fugitive.

Technique: a coat of light gray paint was probably applied directly over the final coat of plaster in background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. The white paint used for the spear was painted directly onto the blue background, the blue showing through the white. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 1.23 cm). WH F44. Spear (Pl. 15). 1 specimen, possibly part of the hunting scene. Max. pres. h. 4.45; max. pres. w. 2.85; max. pres. th. 0.95 cm. Part of a thin white tapering element, pointed at one end, possibly a spear, is painted against a blue background (max. pres. h. of spear 2.4 cm). State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background is preserved very well. The white paint used for the spear is fugitive in places. Technique: a coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. The white paint used for the spear was painted directly onto the blue background, the blue showing through the white. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 0.75 cm). WH F45. Spear (Pl. 15). 1 specimen, possibly part of the hunting scene. Max. pres. h. 2.45; max. pres. w. 2.5; max. pres. th. 1.0 cm. Part of a thin, white element, possibly part of a spear shaft, is painted against a blue background (max. pres. h. of spear 1.7 cm). State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background has flaked off in places. The white paint used for the spear is preserved quite well. Technique: a coat of light gray paint was probably applied directly over the final coat of plaster in background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. The white paint used for the spear shaft was probably painted directly onto the blue background. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 0.8 cm). WH F46. Spear (Pl. 15). 1 specimen: 2 joining fragments, possibly part of the hunting scene. Max. pres. h. 6.05; max. pres. w. 6.15; max. pres. th. 1.35 cm. Part of a thin white element, rendered in mild relief, possibly a spear shaft or a divider, against a blue background (max. pres. h. of spear/divider 3.9 cm). State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background is relatively well preserved, albeit fugitive in places. The white paint used for the spear/

CATALOG

divider has mostly flaked off at one end, the blue background showing through. Technique: a coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. The white paint used for the spear/divider was applied in a thick layer directly onto the blue background (mild relief). Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 1.33 cm). WH F47. Spear (Pl. 15). 1 specimen: 2 joining fragments, possibly part of the hunting scene. Max. pres. h. 2.5; max. pres. w. 2.3; max. pres. th. 1.0 cm. Part of a thin white element, possibly a spear shaft or a divider, rendered in mild relief, against a blue background (max. pres. h. of spear/divider 1.7 cm). State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background and the white paint used for the spear/ divider are very well preserved. Technique: a coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. The white paint used for the spear/divider was applied in a thick layer directly onto the blue background (mild relief). Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 0.8 cm). WH F48. Spear (Pl. 15). 1 specimen, possibly part of the hunting scene. Max. pres. h. 3.9; max. pres. w. 3.45; max. pres. th. 1.6 cm. Part of a thin white element, possibly a spear shaft or a divider, rendered in mild relief, against a blue background (max. pres. h. of spear/divider 3.5 cm). State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background and the white paint used for the spear/ divider are very well preserved. Technique: a coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. The white paint used for the spear/divider was applied in a thick layer directly onto the blue background (mild relief). Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 1.58 cm). WH F49. Spear (Pl. 15). 1 specimen, possibly part of the hunting scene. Max. pres. h. 1.8; max. pres. w. 1.8; max. pres. th. 0.75 cm. Faint traces of what could be construed as the pointed end of a white spear or part of a floral motif are preserved against a blue background.

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State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background is fugitive in places, the gray undercoat showing through. The white paint used for the spear/floral motif is extremely fugitive, the blue background showing through. Technique: a coat of light gray paint was probably applied directly over the final coat of plaster in background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. The white paint used for the spear/floral motif was painted directly onto the blue background, the blue showing through the white. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 0.55 cm).

6.2.6. Dogs WH F50. White dog (Fig. 20; Pl. 16). 1 specimen: 14 joining fragments, probably part of the hunting scene. Max. pres. h. 10.35; max. pres. w. 10.8; max. pres. th. 1.8 cm. The head and part of the neck and the chest of a dog with a half open mouth and ears standing upright is painted against a blue background. The dog, wearing a red collar outlined in black, is facing left, toward a white vertical border. This border probably served as the left edge of a pictorial panel (w. of band 1.8–2.0 cm). The dog was rendered with white paint. Except for the black outline used for the eye and the interior of the mouth, almost no other interior features or outlines are preserved (max. pres. h. of head 3.2 cm [including ears]; max. pres. L. of head 4.0 cm; max. pres. h. of animal 6.4 cm; restored h. of animal 12.5 cm). State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background has flaked off in places. The white paint used for the border and for the body of the animal is quite well preserved, as is the red paint used for the collar. Only ghosts remain of the black paint used for interior details (features of the animal). Technique: the animal was reserved on the final coat of plaster, except for the ears, which were painted later directly onto the blue background. Traces of preliminary sketching in orange/red paint are preserved by the left ear, under the jawline, and along the lower part of the animal’s chest. In the area of the mouth and more specifically in the lower jaw, white paint was used to correct the preliminary sketching. A coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. Additional white paint was possibly applied over the reserved area. The black paint for the interior details and for the outline of the collar was applied directly over the white ground, as was the red paint used for the collar. The white border was probably painted directly onto the blue background.

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Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.3 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 1.77 cm). WH F51. Spotted dog (Fig. 20; Pl. 16). 1 specimen: 2 joining fragments, probably part of the hunting scene. Max. pres. h. 4.1; max. pres. w. 5.5; max. pres. th. 1.3 cm. Part of a dog’s head facing left, with a half open mouth and ears standing upright, is painted against a blue background. The dog was probably originally white, with black spots or painted black. Interior features, including the triangular eye and the mouth, were rendered with black paint. No outlines are preserved (max. pres. h. of head 1.9 cm; max. pres. L. of head 3.8 cm; max. pres. h. of animal 2.1 cm; restored h. of animal 11.7 cm). State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background is fairly well preserved, as is the white paint used for the head of the dog. The black paint used for the interior features and/or the body of the animal is extremely fugitive. Technique: the animal was reserved on the final coat of plaster, except for the ears, which were painted later directly onto the blue background. No traces of preliminary sketching are preserved. A coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. Additional white paint was possibly applied over the reserved area. The black used for the interior details and/or the body of the animal was applied directly over the white ground. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.25 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 1.275 cm).

6.2.7. Related Male Figures WH F52. Male figure carrying load (Fig. 21; Pl. 17). 1 specimen: 4 joining fragments, possibly part of the hunting scene. Max. pres. h. 5.2; max. pres. w. 8.0; max. pres. th. 0.9–1.0 cm. Part of a standing male figure facing left (almost the entire head, the neck, the shoulders, the upper torso, and the hands), facing and apparently moving toward the left is painted against a blue background. The figure is holding with both hands a long white pole, outlined in black and resting against its left shoulder. Part of the load hanging from this pole is preserved along the right-hand edge of the extant fragment. The load, rendered with white paint and black interior details, is outlined in black. The head and the neck of the figure, as well as all other naked parts of the body, are rendered with red paint applied over a white ground and outlined in black. Traces of the black outline are preserved along the right profile of the figure and around

the hands. The elaborately drawn eye was also rendered with black paint, as were the hair, faint traces of which are preserved along the back of the head. The figure was dressed in what looks like a robe/tunic of unknown length, probably made of animal skin, rendered with yellow paint, outlined in black, and decorated with black dots (max. pres. h. of male figure 4.9 cm; restored h. of male figure 18.75 cm). State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background is quite well preserved, as is the white paint used for the male figure. The red paint used for the naked flesh is very fugitive, as is the yellow paint used for the garment. The black paint used for the outlines and the interior details is fairly well preserved in places. Technique: the male figure was reserved on the final coat of plaster, while the part of the pole projecting behind the back of the figure and the suspended load were apparently painted directly onto the blue background. Faint traces of what looks like preliminary sketching, rendered with red paint, are preserved along the left edge of the load. A coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. Additional white paint was possibly applied over the reserved areas. The red and yellow pigments used for the interior of the male figure were applied directly over the white ground. The black paint used for the outlines and other interior details was applied last. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 0.7–0.8 cm). WH F53. Indeterminate fragments (Pl. 17). 6 nonjoining specimens (a–f), possibly part of the male figure carrying a load (WH F52). Max. pres. h. (a) 2.0, (b) 2.8, (c) 2.3, (d) 1.5, (e) 1.7, (f) 1.45; max. pres. w. (a) 3.7, (b) 2.5, (c) 1.9, (d) 2.5, (e) 3.05, (f) 1.2; max. pres. th. (a) 1.1, (b) 1.15, (c) 1.2, (d) 1.0, (e) 1.25, (f) 0.7 cm. Specimens a, b: traces of red and black paint, the former, on specimen a, possibly forming the hands of a male figure, are preserved against a yellow ground. Specimen c: part of a curvilinear area rendered with yellow paint and traces of red paint applied over the yellow, are preserved against a blue background. Specimen d: part of a rectangular area rendered with yellow paint and traces of red paint applied over the yellow are preserved against a blue background. Specimen e: parts of two curvilinear areas rendered with yellow paint and traces of red paint applied over the yellow are preserved against a blue background. Specimen f: a thin white element in the upper part of the extant fragment and part of a white, pointed ornament in the lower part of the specimen, both outlined in black and bearing traces of red and yellow paint applied over the white ground, are painted against a yellow ground. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background, where preserved, is in a quite good condition. The red paint, applied over the white ground,

CATALOG

is extremely fugitive, the yellow paint less so. The black paint used for the outlines is fairly well preserved in places. Technique: the original design was apparently reserved on the final coat of plaster. A coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. Additional white paint was possibly applied over the reserved areas. The red and yellow pigments were applied directly over the white ground. The black paint used for the outlines and the interior details was applied last over the yellow and blue ground. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 0.50–1.23 cm).

6.2.8. Horses WH F54. Pair of yoked horses (Fig. 22; Pl. 18). 1 specimen: 32 joining fragments, possibly part of the hunting scene. Max. pres. h. 28; max. pres. w. 13.75; max. pres. th. 2.1 cm. The front half of a pair of horses, apparently yoked to a chariot and facing left, is painted against a blue background. What is preserved of the nearsided horse is part of the lower jaw and the neck, part of the tufted mane, the front half of the body with the harnessing and the reins, part of the polestay, as well as two pairs of front legs. The horse’s body is rendered with red paint tinted with yellow, both applied on a white ground. The legs of the near sided horse are rendered with the same red paint tinted with yellow, its hooves with yellow paint. Only the two front legs and the hooves of the far sided horse are indicated, both painted white. The harnessing—part of the cheek strap, the yoke saddle, a double neck strap, the girth, and two loops, one tying the neck strap and the other tying the girth to the yoke saddle—consists of light blue bands decorated with white dots, again on a white ground. The reins, two instead of four, ca. 1.9–2.4 cm above the horse’s back and ca. 0.8–1.4 cm above the polestay, had probably been painted white, although only faint traces of the original paint are now preserved. The distance between the two reins near the neck of the horse, where preserved, does not exceed 0.3 cm. The polestay, 0.45– 0.90 cm above the horse’s back, was probably rendered with yellow paint, only faint traces of which are preserved, applied over a white ground. No outlines are preserved. Both horses are walking on a white, horizontal band, apparently serving as a ground line (w. of band 1.5–1.6 cm). Approximately 1.7–1.8 cm below this band is preserved a small section of a second horizontal band, with traces of red paint (max. pres. h. of horses ca. 23.6 cm; max. pres. L. of horses 13.5 cm; restored h. of horses: 27, 27.5 [including the ears], and 28 cm [including the groomed mane]).

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State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background is very well preserved on the whole. The red used for the body of the horse is fugitive in places, the yellow undercoat showing through. The light blue and the additional white paint used for the harnessing is fugitive in places. The yellow used for the polestay has almost completely disappeared, as has the white for the reins. Technique: the horses were mostly reserved on the final coat of plaster. The lower part of the legs of the horses was apparently painted later, the white paint being applied directly onto the blue background, the blue showing through the white. The yellow paint was applied over the white ground. No traces of preliminary sketching are preserved. A coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in the background areas to be subsequently covered with blue. Additional white paint was possibly applied over the reserved areas. A coat of yellow paint was applied first over the white ground and, subsequently, a coat of red paint was applied over the yellow, resulting in an overall chestnut hue. The light blue paint, the additional white paint, and the yellow paint used for the harnessing, the reins, and the polestay were applied last on the chestnut body of the horse, on a white ground (polestay) and/or the blue background (reins). The white dots on the blue harnessing were rendered in low relief. The white band serving as a ground line was partly reserved on the final coat of plaster and partly painted over the blue background. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.35 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 2.065 cm). Dimensions of inclusions: 0.5 x 0.5 cm, 0.6 cm, and 0.5 cm. WH F55. Horizontal bands (Pl. 18). 3 specimens, possibly part of the banding framing WH F54. Max. pres. h. (a) 3.7, (b) 2.7, (c) 2.75; max. pres. w. (a) 3.7, (b) 4.4, (c) 2.3; max. pres. th. (a) 1.3, (b) 1.3, (c) 1.3 cm. Sections of the banded border below the yoked horses: Specimen a: section of white band (ground line), section of blue band below it (w. 2.0 cm), and section of red band along the lower edge of the specimen. Specimen b: section of white band (ground line) (w. 1.85 cm), flanked by sections of blue bands. Specimen c: section of white band (ground line) and section of blue band below it. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background is fairly well preserved on the whole, as is the white paint used for the bands. On specimen a, the white paint used for the thin band is fugitive. Technique: a coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in the background areas to be subsequently covered with blue. The white and the red paint used for the bands were painted directly onto the blue background. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.3 cm). Sublayer:

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slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 1.27 cm). WH F56. Harnessed horse(s) (Fig. 23; Pl. 19). 2 specimens (a, b): (a) 5 joining fragments; (b) 3 joining fragments, similar to WH F54, possibly part of the hunting scene. Max. pres. h. (a) 6.6, (b) 5.8; max. pres. w. (a) 8.0, (b) 3.65; max. pres. th. (a) 1.45, (b) 1.2 cm. Two nonjoining fragments, possibly parts of one or two harnessed horses painted against a blue background. Specimen a: what seems to be part of the body of a horse (base of the neck and part of the body), against a blue background. The horse’s body, similarly to WH F54, is rendered with fugitive red paint, the yellow undercoat still visible in places. The harnessing consists of two intersecting straps, rendered with light blue paint and decorated with white dots. No traces of outlines are preserved (max. pres. h. of horse 6.3 cm; max. pres. L. of horse 5.7 cm). Specimen b: what seems to be part of the body of a horse and its harnessing is preserved against a blue background. The horse’s body, as WH F54, although probably also rendered with red paint, now preserves only traces of the yellow undercoat applied over a white ground. The harnessing here is also rendered with light blue paint and decorated with white dots. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background is very well preserved on the whole. The red paint used for the body of the horse(s) is extremely fugitive on specimen a, the yellow undercoat even more so. On specimen b, the red paint used for the body of the horse has disappeared almost completely, while the yellow undercoat is preserved in places. The light blue paint and the additional white paint used for the harnessing is also fugitive on both specimens. Technique: the horse(s) were reserved on the final coat of plaster. No traces of preliminary sketching are preserved. A coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in the background areas to be subsequently covered with blue. Additional white paint was possibly applied over the reserved areas. A coat of yellow paint was applied first over the white ground and, subsequently, a coat of red paint was applied over the yellow, probably also resulting in an overall chestnut hue. The blue and white paint used for the harnessing were applied last on the chestnut body of the horse. The white dots on the blue harnessing, only the ghosts of which are now preserved, were probably also rendered in low relief. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. [a] 0.3, [b] 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. [a] 1.42, [b] 1.18 cm). WH F57. Harnessed and/or yoked horse (Fig. 23; Pl. 19). 1 specimen: 4 joining fragments, similar to WH F54, possibly part of the hunting scene. Max. pres. h. 6.4; max. pres. w. 8.2; max. pres. th. 1.65 cm.

What seems to be part of the body of a yoked horse, including the reins, against a blue background. The horse’s body (the back and part of the neck) was originally rendered with red paint applied over a yellow undercoat over white ground, similar to WH F54 and WH F56. Approximately 0.7–1.5 cm above the body of the horse, a parallel, slightly sagging band, rendered with red paint applied over a white ground, and thickening out where it intersects with the neck of the animal, possibly represents the lower rein and not the polestay. Part of another, slightly sagging band, also rendered with red paint applied over a white ground, is preserved approximately 0.45–0.60 cm above the latter and 1.40–2.25 cm above the body of the animal. The second band, only faint traces of which survive, probably represents the upper rein. Judging by the body of the horse and the angle of the harnessing, the animal is facing left. No traces of a polestay are attested (max. pres. h. of horse 5.6 cm; max. pres. L. of horse 8.0 cm; restored h. of horse 19.7 cm, 20 cm [including ears], 20.5 cm [including groomed mane]). State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background is quite well preserved. The white paint used for the body of the horse and the reins is very well preserved, the yellow undercoat applied over it still visible in places. The red paint used for the body of the horse and the reins is extremely fugitive and is only preserved in a few places. Technique: the horse was reserved on the final coat of plaster. Traces of preliminary sketching in red paint are preserved along the back of the horse. A coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in the background area to be subsequently covered with blue. Additional white paint was possibly applied over the reserved area. A coat of yellow paint was applied first over the white ground and, subsequently, a coat of red paint was applied over the yellow, probably resulting in a chestnut hue as in WH F54 and WH F56. The white ground for the reins was apparently applied directly onto the blue background. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 1.63 cm). WH F58. Yoked horse (Fig. 23; Pl. 19). 1 specimen: 6 joining fragments, possibly part of the hunting scene. Max. pres. h. 6.8; max. pres. w. 7.5; max. pres. th. 1.4 cm. What seems to be part of the body of a yoked horse, including the reins and/or a polestay, against a blue background. The horse’s body (back side, near the base of the neck), unlike WH F54, WH F56, and WH F57, was originally rendered with black paint applied over a white ground. A more or less straight, narrow band, approximately 0.3–0.4 cm above the body of the horse, possibly representing the polestay, is rendered with red paint applied over a white ground. A farther 0.75–0.80 cm above the suggested polestay and 1.40–1.65 cm

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above the horse’s back, another more or less straight, narrow band is preserved, also rendered with red paint applied on a white ground. The horse was probably facing left (max. pres. h. of horse 4.50 cm; max. pres. L. of horse 5.95–6.00 cm; restored h. of horse 30 cm, 30.45 cm [including ears], 31.4 cm [including groomed mane]). State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background is quite fugitive in places, the gray undercoat showing through. The black paint used for the body of the horse has flaked off in places. The red paint used for the polestay has almost completely disappeared. Technique: the horse was reserved on the final coat of plaster. Traces of what looks like preliminary sketching in red paint are preserved along the back of the horse. A coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in the background area to be subsequently covered with blue. It seems that no additional white paint was applied over the reserved area. A coat of black paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster. The red paint used for the polestay was applied over a white ground, itself applied directly onto the blue background. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 1.38 cm). WH F59. Harnessed horse (Fig. 23; Pl. 19). 1 specimen: 6 joining fragments (not conserved), possibly part of the hunting scene. Max. pres. h. 7.4; max. pres. w. 6.95; max. pres. th. 1.6 cm. What seems to be part of the body and the neck of a harnessed horse, against a blue background. The horse’s body (part of the neck and the curving backside) was originally rendered with black paint applied over a white ground, judging by the faint traces of black on the body, most of which has effectively disappeared. Traces of a curving red band decorated with white reserved dots down the left-hand edge of what seems to be the neck of the horse probably represents part of the harnessing. Faint parallel traces of blue paint to the left, and an even fainter ghost of red paint in between, might be the remains of another harness strap. The animal was probably facing left (max. pres. h. of horse 2.40 cm; max. pres. L. of horse 6.4 cm). State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background has flaked off in places. The black paint used for the body of the horse has almost completely disappeared, with only minute grains of the original paint surviving. The red paint and the blue paint used for the harnessing are also very fugitive. Only the ghosts of the dots of white paint used for the decoration of the harnessing have survived. Technique: the horse was reserved on the final coat of plaster. No traces of preliminary sketching are preserved. A coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in the background areas to be subsequently covered with blue. The final coat of

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black paint was painted directly onto the final coat of plaster. The red and light blue paint used for the harnessing were also apparently applied on the final coat of plaster, which suggests that the harnessing was probably reserved on the final coat of plaster. The white paint used for the dots was applied last. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.3 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 1.57 cm). WH F60. Harnessed horse(s) (Fig. 24; Pl. 20). 4 nonjoining specimens (a–d): (a) 8 joining fragments; (b–d) 1 fragment, probably belonging to the animal on specimen a, possibly part of the hunting scene. Max. pres. h. (a) 9.7, (b) 3.9, (c) 2.8, (d) 2.45; max. pres. w. (a) 8.3, (b) 2.8, (c) 3.9, (d) 2.4; max. pres. th. (a) 1.75, (b) 1.2, (c) 1.55, (d) 1.2 cm. Specimen a: part of a curvilinear area, originally rendered with black paint applied on a white ground, and probably corresponding to a section of the neck and the back side of a horse, is preserved against a blue background. Sections of red transverse bands, decorated with white dots, which probably represent harnessing, are preserved on the horse’s body. A wider red vertical band, decorated with white reserved circles and faint traces of an adjacent blue band outlined in black, possibly decorated with white reserved circles, also part of the harnessing, was preserved in the section corresponding to the middle of the horse’s body. Faint traces of a wavy black line, running parallel to the body of the animal, up to the base of its neck, are preserved just above the main body of the horse, near the left edge of the fragment. The ghost of a reserved circle against the blue background seems to indicate that the wide red stripe, decorated with reserved wide circles and running down the belly of the horse, had originally continued upward to the irregular black line. The horse was probably facing right (restored h. of horse 30 cm, 30.45 cm [including ears], 31.4 cm [including groomed mane]). Specimen b: part of a white curving area, possibly a section of the back of the same or another harnessed horse, is preserved against a blue background. Extremely faint traces of black paint applied over the white ground, and two red parallel curvilinear bands, decorated with white reserved circles, with faint traces of black outlines and faint blue paint in between, probably representing harnessing, are preserved within this area. Specimen c: five splaying bands of differential width, rendered with red paint and outlined in black are preserved against a white ground, with extremely faint traces of black paint, possibly representing the interior of the same, or another horse. The wider, red stripes are decorated with vertical rows of white, reserved circles, the narrower ones, also painted red, bearing a blue stripe down the middle applied over the red ground. The whole seems to be radiating from two parallel curving black lines, with traces of red and black paint in between. Specimen d: part of a

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white area, with faint traces of black paint, traces of red and blue bands, and the ghosts of white reserved circles against a blue background. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background is fugitive in places, the gray undercoat showing through. The white paint used for the horse’s body is very well preserved, the black overcoat being extremely fugitive. The red paint used for the harnessing is preserved in a better condition, while the white paint used for the dots on the harnessing is barely preserved. Technique: the horse was reserved on the final coat of plaster. On specimen a, traces of preliminary sketching in red paint are preserved along the back side of the animal. A coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in the background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. The final coat of black paint was painted directly onto the final coat of plaster. The red and light blue paint used for the harnessing was also apparently applied on the final coat of plaster, which suggests that the harnessing was probably reserved on the final coat. The white paint used for the dots was applied last. Traces of a possible incomplete correction of the original drawing are still visible just above the present line of the back side of the horse, near the left-hand edge of specimen a. It seems that the line of the horses’ backs was altered by a few centimeters, which necessitated the elimination of the old drawing and the overpainting of this section of the body with Egyptian blue, including the harnessing; this was apparently never completed, since the old line and the scraped-off dot on the harness are still vaguely visible. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 1.18–1.73 cm). WH F61. Hoofed animals/horses (Fig. 24; Pl. 20). 1 specimen: 2 joining fragments, probably part of the hunting scene. Max. pres. h. 4.25; max. pres. w. 7.45; max. pres. th. 1.4 cm. The lower limbs of two hoofed animals outlined in black and rendered with white paint and black interior details are painted against a blue background. The surviving limbs seem to represent the two hind legs of an animal moving toward the right. The second hoof is slightly raised from the ground. To the left, the tip of a similarly executed hoof is preserved, possibly part of the front leg of a second animal following behind. Both animals are moving to the right. The animals seem to be walking on a white area also outlined in black and serving as the ground line (max. pres. w. ca. 1.3 cm; max. pres. h. of legs 3.0–3.1 cm.) State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background is fairly well preserved, as is the white paint used for the animal legs and the black paint used for the outlines and for interior details. Technique: a coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in the background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue.

The animal legs and the white area serving as the ground line were apparently painted directly onto the blue background, although a section of the background seems to have been reserved on the final coat of plaster. Traces of preliminary sketching in red paint are preserved along both sides of the outer profile of the animal leg on the right-hand side of the extant fragment. The black paint used for the outlines and the interior details was applied last. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 1.38 cm). WH F62. Horse(?) (Fig. 24; Pl. 20). 1 specimen: 8 joining fragments, possibly part of the hunting scene. Max. pres. h. 8.0; max. pres. w. 9.65; max. pres. th. 1.15–1.20 cm. Part of what is tentatively identified as the body of a horse is preserved against a blue background. The area in question, with a slightly convex upper edge, was apparently rendered with red paint applied over a yellow undercoat and the latter over a white ground, similarly to WH F54. Part of a small rectangular area, rendered with red paint applied over a white ground, is preserved ca. 0.60–0.65 cm above the upper edge of the painted area representing the body of the horse (max. pres. h. of animal 5.7 cm; max. pres. w. of animal 8.4 cm). State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background is quite well preserved. The white ground used for the body of the horse is preserved in a very good condition. The red paint used for the animal’s body, and the rectangular area, is extremely fugitive, the yellow undercoat less so. Technique: the solidly painted area representing the body of the horse was reserved on the final coat of plaster. No traces of preliminary sketching are preserved. A coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in the background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. Additional white paint was possibly applied over the reserved area. Similar to WH F54, a coat of yellow paint was applied first over the white ground and, subsequently, a coat of red paint was applied over the yellow. The white paint used for the rectangular area was applied directly onto the blue background and served as the background for the red overcoat. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.25 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 1.125– 1.175 cm). WH F63. Horse(?) (Pl. 20). 1 specimen: 2 joining fragments, possibly part of the hunting scene. Max. pres. h. 4.15; max. pres. w. 8.15; max. pres. th. 1.3 cm. A solidly painted area with a straight upper edge, tentatively identified as part of a horse, is preserved against a blue background. The area in question was

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apparently rendered with red paint applied over a yellow undercoat and the latter over a white ground, similarly to WH F54. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background is fairly well preserved in places. The white ground, the red paint, and the yellow undercoat are extremely fugitive. Technique: the solidly painted area was reserved on the final coat of plaster. No traces of preliminary sketching are preserved. A coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in the background areas to be subsequently covered with blue. Additional white paint was possibly applied over the reserved area. Similar to WH F54, a coat of yellow paint was applied first over the white ground and, subsequently, a coat of red paint was applied over the yellow. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.25–0.30 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 1.270–1.275cm). WH F64. Horse (Fig. 25; Pl. 21). 1 specimen: 30 joining fragments, possibly part of the hunting scene. Max. pres. h. 19.1; max. pres. w. 9.4; max. pres. th. 1.7 cm. The lower part of a horse’s leg moving toward the left is painted against a blue background. The leg, outlined in black, is rendered with white paint; black vertical lines on the interior of the leg probably depict musculature. No ground line is preserved (max. pres. h. of leg 9.7 cm; restored h. of horse ca. 40 cm). State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background is quite well preserved. The white paint used for the horse is somewhat fugitive in the lower part of the leg. The black paint used for the outlines and the interior details is very fugitive in places. Technique: a coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in the background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. The white paint used for the surviving section of the horse was probably painted directly onto the blue background, mostly evident in the vicinity of the hoof. The black paint used for the outlines and the interior details was probably applied last. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 1.68 cm). WH F65. Horse (Fig. 25; Pl. 21). 1 specimen: 40 joining fragments, probably part of the same composition as WH F64 (same scale), possibly part of the hunting scene. Max. pres. h. 14.5; max. pres. w. 14.0; max. pres. th. 3.2 cm. The lower part of a horse’s leg, apparently one of the front legs, including the hoof and moving to the left, is preserved against a blue background. The leg, outlined in black, is rendered with white paint. Faint traces of black lines on the interior of the leg probably depict

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musculature. A solidly painted area ending in three pointed peaks is preserved below the hoof, but is not in contact with it. Its interior is rendered with what seem to be faint traces of yellow paint applied on a white ground, and is further elaborated with three oblique black lines. This solidly painted area was possibly intended as a schematically executed version of rocky landscape, serving as a ground line for the horse. Along the right-hand edge of the extant fragment a section of a white, vertical, slightly oblique element is preserved, possibly part of another horse leg minus the hoof, without traces of an outline. A white, forked, tapering element, possibly floral, is preserved below this leg. No traces of outlines are preserved. (max. pres. h. of left leg 8.2 cm; max. pres. h. of element/leg on the right 8.95 cm; restored h. of horse: ca. 40 cm). State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background is fairly well preserved. The white paint used for the animal legs, the rockwork, and the floral motifs is somewhat fugitive in places, especially in the area of the hoof on the left and over the entire surface of the leg on the right. The yellow paint from the interior of the solidly painted area below the horse’s leg, and the black paint used for the outlines and the interior details, are extremely fugitive. Technique: a coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in the background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. The white paint used for the surviving section of the horse, the rockwork, and the floral element was probably painted directly onto the blue background. The black paint used for the outlines and the interior details was probably applied last. No traces of preliminary sketching are preserved. The coat of yellow paint used on the interior of the suggested rocky terrain was applied over the white ground. The black paint used for the outlines and the interior details was applied last. Plaster: two sublayers and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.25 cm). First sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster, small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 1.8 cm). Second sublayer: preserved surface uneven, almost pure lime plaster with a large quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 1.0 cm). Dimensions of inclusions: 0.85 x 3.15 cm.

6.2.9. Chariot Parts WH F66. Reins(?) (Pl. 21). 1 specimen: 9 joining fragments, possibly part of the hunting scene. Max. pres. h. 14.2; max. pres. w. 9.9; max. pres. th. 1.75 cm. Sections of two narrow parallel bands rendered with white paint, probably representing the reins of a pair of harnessed/yoked horses are preserved against a blue background (distance between bands/reins 0.40–0.45 cm; w. of bands 0.25–0.35 cm).

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State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background, although fugitive in places, is quite well preserved. The white paint used for the reins is fugitive in places. Technique: a coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in the background area to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. The white paint used for the reins was painted directly onto the blue background. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.25 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 1.725 cm). WH F67. Chariot wheel (Fig. 26; Pl. 21). 1 specimen: 12 joining fragments, as well as 4 nonjoining fragments (WH F68–WH F70), possibly part of the hunting scene. Max. pres. h. 10.8; max. pres. w. 13.0; max. pres. th. 1.2 cm. Part of a chariot wheel (part of the tire/felloe, two spokes almost to the center of the wheel, and the lynch pin, the start of a third, the lower part of the chariot box in the upper left-hand quadrant of the wheel, and part of the pole brace) is painted against a blue background. The tail and part of the hind leg of the horse drawing the chariot is visible to the left of the wheel. The wheel itself, consisting of two parts, was rendered with red paint for the tire/outer felloe and with yellow paint for the felloe, both applied over a white ground. The spokes are painted yellow. The box, outlined in black, is rendered with white paint with the interior decorated with black curvilinear shapes, possibly representing animal skin. The pole brace is rendered with white paint. The horse’s tail and limb are also rendered with white paint (w. of wheel 1.2 cm; external diam. of wheel 18.2 cm). State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background is preserved very well. The white paint used for the wheel, the chariot box, and the horse is fairly well preserved. The yellow paint used for the wheel is very fugitive, the red paint, also used for the wheel, and the black paint used for outlines and for interior details even more so. Technique: a coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in the background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. The white paint used for the chariot wheel and the horse was apparently painted directly onto the blue background. Traces of compass marks (preliminary sketching) are preserved on the chariot wheel (two concentric arcs on the outer tire and three on the inner tire). Traces of preliminary sketching in red paint are also preserved along the lower spoke. The yellow paint and the black paint used for the interior of the chariot wheel and the chariot box were applied over the white ground. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.25 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 1.175 cm).

WH F68. Chariot wheel (parts) (Fig. 26; Pl. 22). 1 specimen, nonjoining part of WH F67, possibly part of the hunting scene. Max. pres. h. 2.6; max. pres. w. 2.55; max. pres. th. 0.8 cm. Part of the spoke and the inner tire/felloe of a chariot wheel, rendered with yellow paint applied on a white ground, is painted against a blue background. Above the spoke a section of the chariot box, rendered with white paint, is also preserved against a blue background. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background is quite well preserved, as is the white paint used for the wheel. The yellow paint is extremely fugitive. Technique: a coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in the background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. The white paint used for the chariot wheel and box was apparently painted directly onto the blue background. The yellow pigment was applied over the white ground. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.25 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 0.55 cm). WH F69. Chariot wheel (parts) (Fig. 26; Pl. 22). 1 specimen: 2 joining fragments, part of WH F67, possibly part of the hunting scene. Max. pres. h. 3.9; max. pres. w. 4.25; max. pres. th. 1.3–1.4 cm (including pebble). Part of the tire of a chariot wheel, both inner and outer, is preserved against a blue background. The chariot wheel is rendered with red paint for the tire/outer felloe and with yellow paint for the felloe, both applied over a white ground. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background is quite well preserved, as is the white paint used for the wheel. The red paint on the tire/outer felloe is rather fugitive, the yellow paint on the felloe even more so. Technique: a coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in the background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. The white paint used for the chariot wheel was apparently painted directly onto the blue background. Traces of compass marks (preliminary sketching) are preserved on the chariot wheel (three/four concentric arcs). The red paint and the yellow paint used on the interior of the wheel were applied over the white ground. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 1.28– 1.38 cm). Dimensions of inclusions: 0.65 x 0.85 cm; 0.75 x 0.55 cm. WH F70. Chariot wheel (parts) (Fig. 26; Pl. 22). 2 nonjoining specimens (a, b), part of WH F67, possibly part of the hunting scene. Max. pres. h. (a) 3.0, (b) 4.3; max. pres. w. (a) 3.15, (b) 2.6; max. pres. th. (a) 1.4, (b) 1.8 cm.

CATALOG

Parts of the tire of a chariot wheel are preserved against a blue background. The wheel, consisting of two parts, was rendered with red paint for the tire/outer felloe and with yellow paint for the felloe, both applied on a white ground (w. of wheel [a] 1.2 cm, w. of outer tire 0.40–0.45 cm). State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. On specimen a, the blue background is quite well preserved, as is the white paint used for the wheel. The red paint used for the tire of the wheel has almost completely disappeared, the yellow paint used for the felloe less so. On specimen b, the blue background is fugitive in places, the gray undercoat showing through. The red and yellow pigments used for the outer and inner tire, are fugitive, but less so than on specimen a. Technique: a coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in the background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. The white paint used for the chariot wheel was apparently painted directly onto the blue background. Traces of compass marks are preserved on the chariot wheel (at least 2 concentric arcs for specimen a and 1 for specimen b). The yellow and the red pigments used on the interior of the wheel were applied over the white ground. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. [a] 1.38, [b] 1.78 cm). WH F71. Chariot wheel (Fig. 26; Pl. 22). 1 specimen, possibly part of the hunting scene. Max. pres. h. 5.2; max. pres. w. 4.95; max. pres. th. 2.05 cm. Part of the tire of a chariot wheel is preserved against a blue background. The wheel, consisting of two parts, was rendered with red paint for the tire/outer felloe and with yellow paint for the felloe, the yellow applied on a white ground. Two transverse bars in red paint were painted over the felloe. The wheel stands on a slightly tapering, horizontal, white band, probably serving as a ground line (w. of band 0.7–0.8 cm). A blue area ca. 1.0 cm wide is preserved below the white band (w. of wheel 1.3 cm; external diam. of wheel 15.8 cm). State of preservation: upper surface: smoothed. The blue background is fugitive in places, as is the white paint used for the inner tire and the band. The red paint used for the tire/outer felloe is quite fugitive, the yellow paint used for the felloe less so. Technique: a coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in the background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. The white paint and the red paint used for the wheel were apparently painted directly onto the blue background. Shallow compass marks are preserved on the chariot wheel (two concentric arcs). The yellow paint used for the felloe was applied over the white ground. The red paint used for the bars was applied last over the yellow paint. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer:

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slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 2.03 cm). WH F72. Chariot wheel(s) (Pl. 22). 5 nonjoining specimens, possibly part of WH F71. Max. pres. h. (a) 5.2, (b) 2.7, (c) 2.5, (d) 4, (e) 2.6; max. pres. w. (a) 4.15, (b) 3.5, (c) 2.55, (d) 2.7, (e) 2.2; max. pres. th. (a) 1.25, (b) 1.2, (c) 0.8, (d) 1.1, (e) 1.05 cm. What seem to be sections of chariot wheels are preserved against a blue background. Specimen a: traces of a wide red circular band and to its right traces of a similar, but much narrower, white band with faint traces of yellow paint (max. pres. w. of wheel 1.3 cm). Specimens b–e: curved bands with traces of red and yellow paint, the latter on a white ground. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background is quite fugitive in places, as is the red paint used for the outer tire. The yellow paint used for the inner tire has almost completely disappeared on specimen a. Technique: a coat of light gray paint was probably applied directly over the final coat of plaster in the background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. The red and the white paint used for the wheel were painted directly onto the blue background. The yellow paint was applied last on the white ground. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. [a] 1.23, [b– d] 1.18–0.60 cm). WH F73. Indeterminate composition, possibly chariot (Fig. 27; Pl. 23). 1 specimen: 8 joining fragments. Max. pres. h. 12.1; max. pres. w. 7.95; max. pres. th. 1.25 cm. Part of a roughly oval area outlined in black is preserved on the left against a blue background. Converging black lines on the interior of the oval area are vaguely reminiscent of the spokes of a wheel. The interior is rendered with fugitive light blue paint applied on a white ground. A white angular element, also outlined in black, connects this area with another curvilinear area to the right, rendered with pinkish-white paint applied over a white ground and outlined in black. Small sections of apparently similar circular or ovoid areas are preserved above and below the area to the right. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background and the black paint used for the outlines and for interior details are quite well preserved on the whole. The light blue paint used for the roughly oval area to the left is very fugitive. The pinkishwhite paint used for the curvilinear area to the right is very faint. Technique: the composition was apparently reserved on the final coat of plaster. Possible traces of preliminary sketching are preserved along the outer profile of the curvilinear area. A coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in

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the background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. Additional white paint was possibly applied over the final coat of plaster. The light blue paint used for the interior of the roughly oval area to the left was applied directly onto the white ground. The pinkish-white pigment used for the curvilinear area to the right was applied directly onto the final coat of plaster. The black paint used for the outlines and interior details was applied last. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 1.23 cm). WH F74. Indeterminate composition (Fig. 27; Pl. 23). 2 nonjoining specimens (a, b): (a) 3 joining fragments; (b) 1 fragment, probably part of WH F73. Max. pres. h. (a) 4.2, (b) 2.7; max. pres. w. (a) 5.1, (b) 1.75; max. pres. th. (a) 0.95, (b) 1.05 cm. Specimen a: a section of a circular area, thickly outlined in black and rendered with fugitive pinkish-white paint, against a blue background. Traces of white paint are preserved along the outer perimeter of the circular area. Specimen b: parts of two adjoining oval or semicircular areas, rendered with pinkish-white paint applied on a white ground, are painted against a blue background. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background and the black paint used for the outlines are quite well preserved on the whole. The white paint serving as a ground for the pinkish-white paint, especially on specimen b, is preserved in a very good condition. The pinkish-white paint is very faint. Technique: the composition was apparently reserved on the final coat of plaster. Possible traces of preliminary sketching are preserved along the outer profile of the oval area on specimen b. A coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in the background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. Additional white paint was possibly applied over the final coat of plaster. The pinkish-white pigment used for the interiors of the circular or oval areas was applied over a white ground or the final coat of plaster. The black paint used for the outlines was applied last. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.25 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. [a] 0.7, [b] 0.9 cm).

6.2.10. Animal WH F75. Animal (Fig. 27; Pl. 23). 1 specimen: 4 joining fragments, possibly part of the hunting scene. Max. pres. h. 3.8; max. pres. w. 4.0; max. pres. th. 1.45 cm.

The lower part of an animal leg, minus the hoof and bent at the knee, is painted against a blue background. The animal, probably a bull or a wild boar, is moving to the right. The leg is rendered with red paint applied over a white ground. A section of a long, vertical white element, possibly floral, is preserved along the righthand edge of the extant specimen (max. pres. h. of leg 3.8 cm). State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background is fugitive in places, the gray undercoat showing through. The red paint on the animal leg is very fugitive. Technique: a coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in the background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. The white paint used for the animal leg and the floral element to the right was apparently painted directly onto the blue background, the latter showing through the white. Traces of preliminary sketching in red paint are preserved along the outer profiles of both elements. The red paint used for the body of the animal to the left was applied last over the white ground. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 1.43 cm).

6.3. Other Human Figures 6.3.1. Male Figure with Spear/Scepter WH F76. Male figure with spear/scepter (Fig. 27; Pl. 24). 1 specimen: 8 joining fragments. Max. pres. h. 9.8; max. pres. w. 4.85; max. pres. th. 1.25 cm. Part of a standing male figure, wearing a shortsleeved garment/robe is painted against a blue background. The figure, rendered with yellow paint applied over a white ground, is decorated with black dots, probably representing animal skin. Four black horizontal lines were drawn across the figure at waist level. The surviving left arm of the figure, rendered with red paint indicating naked flesh, is bent at the elbow. Faint traces of a black outline are preserved along the inner left arm and body of the male figure. The figure is apparently holding a thin white vertical element in an upright position with the left hand, probably a spear or a scepter rendered in mild relief. The spear or scepter seems to extend all the way up to the head and perhaps above it. Part of what could be the neck of the figure, rendered with red paint, only faint traces of which are preserved, is visible above shoulder level. Sections of two horizontal black lines framing a white area, possibly representing part of a pole resting on the shoulder of the male

CATALOG

figure, are preserved in the area between the neck and the shoulder (max. pres. h. of figure 8.8 cm; restored h. of figure 20.8 cm). State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background, where preserved, is in a quite good condition, as is the white paint used for the figure. The yellow paint used for the garment is fugitive in places and has flaked off in the lower right-hand edge, the white ground showing through. The red paint used for the naked flesh is quite well preserved in the area of the arm, but has almost completely disappeared in the area of the neck. The black paint used for the outlines and the interior details of the garment is quite fugitive in places. Technique: the figure was originally reserved on the final coat of plaster. Traces of preliminary sketching in red paint are preserved along the armpit and the inner arm of the figure. A coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. Additional white paint was possibly applied over the reserved areas. The yellow paint used for the garment and the red paint used for the naked flesh were applied over the white ground. The black paint, used for the outlines and the dots on the garment, was applied last over the yellow paint. The white paint used for the vertical spear/scepter was thickly applied over the background in low relief. The section of the horizontal pole extending beyond the area of the neck/shoulder of the figure, now lost, was probably painted directly onto the blue background. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.25 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 1.22 cm).

6.3.2. Robed Male Figure WH F77. Robed male figure (Fig. 27; Pl. 24). 1 specimen: 6 joining fragments. Max. pres. h. 5.9; max. pres. w. 8.15; max. pres. th. 1.35 cm. Part of a human figure (part of the head, the neck, and the upper torso, rendered in profile to the left), probably male, is painted against a blue background. The original, presumably preliminary, outline of the figure, including the head, is executed with fugitive red paint. Only faint traces of the red paint representing the naked flesh of the head and neck, applied over a white ground, are preserved. The black paint used for the hair of the figure is barely preserved along the back of the neck. The garment is rendered with yellow paint applied over a white ground, the internal details and outlines executed in black. It is divided into horizontal, mildly curvilinear zones, the interior of which is decorated with black chevrons occasionally highlighted in red. Both the neck and the garment of the figure

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were apparently outlined in black. A section of a white curvilinear area is preserved along the upper edge of the extant specimen (max. pres. h. of figure 5.5 cm; restored h. of figure 19.4 cm) State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background is quite well preserved on the whole, while the red paint used for the face and the neck is extremely fugitive. The white paint used for the figure has flaked off in places, especially in the area of the face and neck. The yellow paint used for the garment of the figure is quite well preserved on the whole, as is the black paint used for the outlines and the interior details. Technique: a coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. Part of the figure (the upper section of the garment, the area of the neck and head), or perhaps the entire figure, was painted directly onto the blue background. The red paint used for the face and neck of the figure and the yellow paint used for the interior of the garment were apparently applied over a white ground, itself painted directly onto the blue background. The black paint used for the interior details and the outlines was applied last over the yellow and/or the white ground. Traces of preliminary sketching in red paint are preserved in the area of the head and neck. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 1.33 cm). WH F78. Robed male figure. 4 nonjoining specimens (a–d): (a, b) 2 joining fragments; (c, d) 1 fragment, probably small sections of the garment of the robed male figure (WH F77). Max. pres. h. (a) 5.05, (b) 3.55, (c) 2.2, (d) 0.8; max. pres. w. (a) 3.75, (b) 3.0, (c) 1.8, (d) 1.45; max. pres. th. (a) 1.65, (b) 1.3, (c) 0.9, (d) 0.8 cm. Specimen a: part of an indeterminate yellow area with a curvilinear upper edge, outlined in black against a blue background. The interior is decorated with oblique black lines and thin black strokes. Specimen b: part of a curvilinear yellow area, outlined in black, against a blue background. The interior, rendered with yellow paint and with faint traces of red paint, is divided into horizontal zones and decorated with oblique black strokes. Specimen c: part of a curvilinear yellow area, outlined in black along one end. Rows of oblique black strokes painted against a yellow ground are preserved below it. Specimen d: small part of a curvilinear yellow area decorated with oblique black strokes, the whole painted against a blue background. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background is quite well preserved. The yellow paint used for the interiors and the black paint used for the outlines and interior details is fairly well preserved in places.

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Technique: a coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. The composition was painted directly onto the blue background. The yellow paint used for the interiors was applied over a white ground, itself painted directly onto the blue background. The black paint used for the outlines and for the interior details was applied last over the yellow. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 0.60–1.63 cm).

6.3.3. Male Figure(s) WH F79. Indeterminate composition with male figure(s) (Fig. 28; Pl. 24). 1 specimen: 3 joining fragments. Max. pres. h. 5.7; max. pres. w. 10; max. pres. th. 1.6 cm. On the left half of the specimen, part of a male figure moving toward the left is painted against a blue background. What is preserved of this male figure is the lower part of a short tunic rendered with yellow paint applied on a white ground, the thighs rendered with red paint, and the upper half of the lower limbs clad in white greaves, picked out with red paint. To the right of this figure what looks like an isolated human limb is depicted, in addition to the naked lower part of the thigh and the upper part of the calf, also glad in greaves, perhaps part of a second male figure. Above the thigh of this second figure, white paint has been applied over the blue background, to the right of the yellow area representing the tunic of the first male figure. The lower edge of this area is marked with a red line, probably preliminary sketching. No traces of outlines are preserved (max. pres. h. of male figure on the left 5.2 cm). State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background is slightly fugitive between the two figures, the gray undercoat showing through. The white paint is quite well preserved on the whole. The red paint and the yellow paint used for the interior of the figure(s) are fugitive in places. Technique: a coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. The white paint used as a ground for the male figure(s) was apparently painted directly onto the blue background. Traces of what looks like preliminary sketching in red paint are preserved along the lower edge of the white area between the two sets of legs. The yellow paint used for the tunic and the red paint used for the naked flesh of the figure(s) were applied over the white ground. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.15 cm). Sublayer:

slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 1.58 cm). WH F80. Indeterminate composition with male figure (Fig. 28; Pl. 24). 1 specimen: 2 joining fragments, probably part of the previous composition (WH F79). Max. pres. h. 5.0; max. pres. w. 3.5; max. pres. th. 1.2 cm. Part of what looks like the lower left-hand edge of a short yellow tunic and the upper part of a naked male thigh below it, probably representing part of the left leg of a male figure, are painted against a blue background. The naked thigh is rendered with red paint applied over a white ground. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The white paint used for the male figure and the yellow paint used for the tunic are fairly well preserved. The red paint used for the naked flesh is fugitive in places. Technique: a coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. The white paint used as a ground for the male figure(s) was apparently painted directly onto the blue background. Faint traces of what looks like preliminary sketching in red paint are preserved along the left hand edge of the yellow tunic. The yellow paint used for the tunic and the red paint used for the naked flesh were applied over the white ground. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 1.18 cm). WH F81. Indeterminate composition with male figure (Fig. 28; Pl. 24). 3 non-joining specimens (a–c): (a, b) 2 joining fragments; (c) 1 specimen, probably part of the previous composition (WH F79, WH F80). Max. pres. h. (a) 4.65, (b) 3.4, (c) 2.3; max. pres. w. (a) 5.6, (b) 3.0, (c) 4.35; max. pres. th. (a) 1.9, (b) 1.15, (c) 1.65 cm. Specimen a: what looks like part of a yellow tunic, similar to that on WH F79 and WH F80, is painted against a blue background. Part of a long, white, vertical element, leaning toward the tunic, is preserved to the left of the yellow area. Specimen b: a yellow area, similar to that on WH F79, WH F80, and WH F81a, is preserved against a blue background. Traces of a black outline are visible along the edge of the yellow area. Specimen c: parts of two tapering elements, both rendered with yellow paint applied on a white ground, are preserved against a blue background. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background is fairly well preserved on specimens a and b. The white paint used for the vertical elements and the yellow overcoat, are well preserved on the whole. Technique: a coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. The white paint used as a ground for the vertical elements was apparently painted directly onto the blue

CATALOG

background. Faint traces of what looks like preliminary sketching in red paint are preserved along the left-hand edge of the yellow area on specimen a and along the inner edges of both elements on specimen c. The yellow paint was applied over the white ground. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. [a] 1.88; [b] 1.13, [c] 1.63 cm).

6.3.4. Male Figure and Vegetation WH F82. Indeterminate composition with male figure and vegetation (Fig. 28; Pl. 25). 1 specimen: 9 joining fragments. Max. pres. h. 11; max. pres. w. 9.0; max. pres. th. 2.05 cm. Part of a poorly preserved pictorial composition painted against a blue background. It includes what seem to be the legs of a male figure, moving toward the left, and to the right, the upper part of a pointed leaf-like ornament. The lower limbs of the male figure, including the thighs, the calves, and both feet, are rendered with red paint. Tall white boots reach up to the middle of the calves, and preserve faint traces of five short horizontal transverse lines just below knee level, probably indicating some kind of lacing. The pointed leaf-shaped white element behind the male figure is drawn at an angle and reaches up to the middle of the thighs of the figure. An indeterminate red area with the same, slightly oblique orientation is preserved along the right-hand edge of the extant speciman. The upper half of the specimen is occupied by an indeterminate white area with traces of red paint, part of which could have formed the upper half of the male figure. To the left of the figure an almost vertical white element, which appears to be a continuation of the white area above, is depicted with faint traces of red paint applied over the white ground. No traces of outlines are preserved (max. pres. h. of male figure 7.8 cm). State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background is fugitive in places. The white paint used for the male figure and the other elements is fairly well preserved. The red paint used mostly for naked flesh is extremely fugitive. Technique: a coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. The white paint used for the male figure and the possible floral elements was apparently painted directly onto the blue background. The red paint used for the naked flesh and for other elements of the composition was applied over the white ground. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 2.03 cm).

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6.3.5. Female Garments(?) WH F83. Female garments(?) (Pl. 25). 9 nonjoining specimens (a–i): (a) 3 joining fragments, (b, c, f, g, i) 1 fragment, (d, e) 2 joining fragments. Max. pres. h. (a) 3.6, (b) 2.9, (c) 1.9, (d) 3.6, (e) 2.05, (f) 1.6, (g) 1.8, (h) 4.1, (i) 2.4; max. pres. w. (a) 4.45, (b) 2.1, (c) 2.1, (d) 2.6, (e) 3.65, (f) 1.75, (g) 0.8, (h) 2.2, (i) 2.6; max. pres. th. (a) 1.15, (b) 0.9, (c) 1.3, (d) 1.55, (e) 0.95, (f) 0.9, (g) 1, (h) 1.1, (i) 1.3 cm. Specimen a: thin, parallel, light blue lines at right angles to a horizontal light blue band, the whole painted against a white ground. Specimen b: thin, parallel, red and light blue lines on either side of a horizontal, tapering, light blue band at right angles to the latter. The whole is painted against a white ground. Faint traces of a series of horizontal lines, rendered with dark brown/black paint, seem to be crossing the vertical series of lines. Specimen c: thin, parallel, red and light blue lines at right angles to a horizontal light blue band, the whole painted against a white ground. Faint traces of a series of horizontal lines rendered with dark brown/black paint seem to be crossing the vertical series of lines. Specimens d, g: thin, parallel, red and light blue lines painted against a white ground. Faint traces of a series of horizontal lines, rendered with dark brown/black paint, seem to be crossing the vertical series of lines. Specimens e, f: thin, parallel, light blue lines painted against a white ground. Faint traces of a series of horizontal lines, rendered with dark brown/ black paint, seem to be crossing the vertical series of lines. Specimens h, i: thin, parallel, black lines painted against a red ground. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The red and the light blue paint are quite well preserved. The dark brown/black paint is extremely fugitive. Technique: all three pigments, red, light blue, and black, were apparently painted directly onto the final coat of plaster. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 0.70–1.53 cm).

6.4. Other Floral Compositions 6.4.1. Floral Compositions Painted against a White Background WH F84. Floral composition (Pl. 25). 1 specimen: 2 joining fragments. Max. pres. h. 3.0; max. pres. w. 2.7; max. pres. th. 1.4 cm.

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Part of a pointed, leaf-like motif rendered with red paint with faint traces of a black outline. Traces of blue/ black veining are visible on the interior. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The red paint used for the interior of the leaf is fugitive in places, the black paint used for the outlines and the veining even more so. Technique: the red paint used for the floral motif was painted directly onto the final coat of plaster. The black and blue paint were applied last over the white and/or the red. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.15 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 1.38 cm). WH F85. Floral composition. 1 specimen: 4 joining fragments. Max. pres. h. 7.85; max. pres. w. 4.7; max. pres. th. 1.25 cm. Part of a pointed, leaf-like motif rendered with green paint, the whole painted against a white ground. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The green paint used for the interior of the leaf is fugitive. Technique: the green paint used for the leaf-like ornament was apparently obtained by applying two successive coats of yellow and blue, the yellow directly onto the final coat of plaster, without preliminary mixing of colors. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 1.23 cm). WH F86. Floral composition (Pl. 25). 2 specimens (a, b): (a) 11 joining fragments; (b) 1 fragment, probably part of the same composition. Max. pres. h. (a) 6.55, (b) 2.3; max. pres. w. (a) 12.6, (b) 2.9; max. pres. th. (a) 1.35, (b) 1.50 cm. Specimen a: part of a floral composition, bordered along the top by a single, wide blue horizontal band (w. 1.75 cm). The lower part of the main panel is divided off by a faint black line. Part of a pointed, deeply incised, leaf-like ornament with faint traces of yellow and blue paint on the interior, is preserved below that line. Faint traces of blue paint and yellow paint are also visible in the right half of the panel, again applied on a white ground. The upper half of the blue border curves upward, which suggests that it lay near the top of the wall. Specimen b: small fragment preserving part of the blue border band and traces of blue paint applied on white ground, below it. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue paint on the main panel is extremely fugitive, while that on the border along the top is quite well preserved. Technique: a coat of light gray paint was apparently applied directly over the final coat of plaster in the area of the horizontal band and was subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. The motifs were at least partly incised on the final coat of plaster and then painted with blue paint directly onto the plaster.

Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. [a] 1.33, [b] 1.48 cm). WH F87. Unidentifiable floral composition (Pl. 25). 7 nonjoining specimens (a–g). Max. pres. h. (a) 2.75, (b) 1.85, (c) 2.1, (d) 1.7, (e) 2.2, (f) 2.5, (g) 2.75; max. pres. w. (a) 1.9, (b) 1.55, (c) 1.65, (d) 2.3, (e) 2.7, (f) 2.1, (g) 4.4; max. pres. th. (a) 0.8, (b) 1.15, (c) 0.9, (d) 1.4, (e) 1.1, (f) 1.8, (g) 1.25 cm. Parts of curvilinear, splaying, possibly stylized floral motifs rendered with gray paint and outlined in black, the whole painted against a white or yellow background. Traces of red paint on specimens a and b probably represent interior details. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The gray paint used for the various motifs is quite well preserved, while the black paint used for the outlines is quite fugitive in places, the red paint used for the details even more so. Technique: the gray paint used for the motifs, probably serving as an undercoat for a final coat of Egyptian blue, was apparently painted directly onto the final coat of plaster. The black outlines and the red details were applied last on the final coat of plaster, often overlapping the blue. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 0.60–1.78 cm).

6.4.2. Floral Composition in Blue Paint against a Red Background WH F88. Floral composition (Fig. 28; Pl. 26). 1 specimen: 17 joining fragments. Max. pres. h. 12.2; max. pres. w. 27.9; max. pres. th. 2.25 cm. Part of a floral composition rendered with light blue paint against a red background. Sections of three thin, stemmed, leaf-like motifs, rendered with blue paint, are preserved in the left half of the extant specimen. The one along the left-hand edge is barely preserved. The one in the middle is pointed downward. The one on the right consists of single thin stem ending in two leaf-like elements. A section of a wide, tapering, slightly oblique band, possibly part of another floral ornament also rendered with blue paint, is preserved farther to the right (w. 3.65–3.9 cm). Faint traces of a thick black line along the right-hand edge of the tapering band might possibly have served as an outline (max. pres. h. of thin, stemmed leaf-like plant 7.0 cm; max. pres. h. of tapering band 10.6 cm). State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The red paint used for the background is extremely fugitive.

CATALOG

The blue paint used for the floral ornaments is better preserved in places. Technique: the wide, tapering band was probably reserved on the final coat of plaster. A coat of light gray paint was apparently applied directly over the final coat of plaster in the reserved area and was subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. Although no traces of preliminary sketching have been detected on the extant specimen, it seems that the slender floral motifs rendered with blue paint were painted on white ground, possibly the final coat of plaster or a white coat of paint applied over it. The red paint used for the background was apparently also applied directly onto the final coat of plaster. The black outline along the tapering band was applied last over the blue. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 2.23 cm). WH F89. Floral composition (Fig. 29; Pl. 26). 1 specimen: 9 joining fragments, part of the previous composition (WH F88). Max. pres. h. 9.15; max. pres. w. 6.4; max. pres. th. 1.2 cm. Part of a floral composition rendered with blue paint against a red background. Part of a thin floral, element, rendered with blue paint applied on a white ground, is preserved on the right-hand side of the extant fragment. Part of a wide, tapering, vertical band, possibly part of another floral ornament also rendered with blue paint, is preserved to its left (max. pres. h. of tapering band: 8.6 cm; max. pres. w. of tapering band 1.7–2.1 cm; max. pres. h. of thin floral element 2.8 cm) State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The red paint used for the background is quite fugitive in places. The blue paint used for the floral elements is fairly well preserved on the whole, less so on the thin floral element. Technique: the wide, tapering band was probably reserved on the final coat of plaster. A coat of light gray paint was apparently applied directly over the final coat of plaster in the reserved area and was subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. Although no traces of preliminary sketching have been detected on the extant specimen, it seems that the slender floral motifs rendered with blue paint were painted on white ground, possibly the final coat of plaster or a white coat of paint applied over it. The red paint used for the background was apparently also applied directly onto the final coat of plaster. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 1.18 cm). WH F90. Floral composition (Fig. 29; Pl. 26). 1 specimen: 10 joining fragments, part of the previous composition (WH F88, WH F89). Max. pres. h. 10.2; max. pres. w. 9.4; max. pres. th. 1.3 cm.

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Part of a floral composition rendered with blue paint against a red background. Part of a wide, sinuous tapering band, possibly part of another floral ornament, rendered with blue paint, is preserved down the middle of the extant specimen. Faint traces of a thick, black line along the left-hand edge of the wide, sinuous band presumably served as an outline. Along the right-hand edge, the traces of black paint are very faint. Traces of a second blue band are visible along the left-hand edge of the fragment (max. pres. h. of wide band: 10.2 cm; max. pres. w. of wide band: 1.65–2.00 cm). State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The red paint used for the background, although it has flaked off in places, is fairly well preserved on the whole. The blue paint used for the floral elements is quite fugitive in places. The black paint used for the outline is extremely fugitive. Technique: the wide, sinuous band was mostly reserved on the final coat of plaster, while a narrow strip along the left-hand edge, probably representing an alteration of the original width of the band, was apparently painted directly onto the red background. A coat of light gray paint was apparently applied directly over the final coat of plaster in the reserved area and was subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. The red paint used for the background was apparently also applied directly onto the final coat of plaster. The black outline along the tapering band was applied last over the blue. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 1.28 cm). WH F91. Floral composition (Pl. 26). 6 nonjoining specimens (a–f): (a, b) 4 joining fragments; (c–f) 1 fragment, part of the previous composition (WH F88, WH F89, WH F90). Max. pres. h. (a) 2.75, (b) 4.25, (c) 3.85, (d) 3.7, (e) 4.15, (f) 3.3; max. pres. w. (a) 5.7, (b) 5.35, (c) 5.2, (d) 2.8, (e) 3.8, (f) 2.6; max. pres. th. (a) 0.8, (b) 0.95, (c) 0.95, (d) 0.95, (e) 1.65, (f) 1.6 cm. Specimen a: part of sinuous, tapering band rendered with blue paint against a red background (max. pres. w. of tapering band 1.8–1.95 cm). Specimens b–f: sections of bands rendered with blue paint against a red background. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The red paint used for the background is fugitive in places. The blue paint used for the tapering bands is fairly well preserved, except on specimen a. Technique: the wide, tapering bands were apparently reserved on the final coat of plaster. A coat of light gray paint was apparently applied directly over the final coat of plaster in the reserved areas and was subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. The red paint used for the background was applied directly onto the final coat of plaster. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. [a–d] 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster

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with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. [a] 0.6, [b–d] 0.75, [e] 1.63, [f] 1.58 cm). WH F92. Floral composition. 106 nonjoining specimens (a–h): (a–e) 5 larger fragments; (f) 1 small fragment; (g) 2 joining fragments; (h) 99 small fragments, all part of the previous composition (WH F87, WH F88, WH F89, WH F90). Max. pres. h. (a) 3.5, (b) 3.3, (c) 3.25, (d) 3.9, (e) 3.95, (f) 1.85, (g) 4.9, (h) 1.15–3.9; max. pres. w. (a) 3.95, (b) 3.4, (c) 3.8, (d) 3.9, (e) 3.45, (f) 2.0, (g) 5.8, (h) 1.35–2.45; max. pres. th. (a) 1.3, (b) 1.25, (c) 1.25, (d) 1.4, (e) 1.10, (f) 0.7, (g) 1.1, (h) 0.35–1.55 cm. Specimens a–e, g, h: sections of wide, tapering bands rendered with blue paint against a red background. Specimen f: part of a stemmed, leaf-like floral motif, rendered with blue paint, against a red background. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The red paint used for the background and the blue paint used for the interior of the tapering bands are fugitive in places. Technique: the wide, tapering bands were apparently reserved on the final coat of plaster. A coat of light gray paint was apparently applied directly over the final coat of plaster in the reserved areas and was subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. The red paint used for the background was applied directly onto the final coat of plaster. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. [a–f] 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. [a] 1.28, [b, c] 1.23, [d] 1.38, [e] 1.08, [f] 0.5, [g] 1.08, [h] 0.15–1.43 cm).

6.4.3. Lily Composition WH F93. Floral composition with white lilies (Fig. 29; Pl. 27). 1 specimen: 5 joining fragments. Max. pres. h. 14.6; max. pres. w. 25; max. pres. th. 4.6 cm. Part of a naturalistic composition depicting two bunches of white lilies, three lilies in each bunch, painted against a dark red background. The petals of the lilies are rendered with white paint, while the stamens, three to each flower, are rendered with a yellow, extremely fugitive paint. In most cases only the ghosts of the yellow paint are visible. The main panel is bordered along the upper edge by three horizontal bands, gray, yellow, and white. The first two bands from the top (gray and yellow) are decorated with short vertical bars in black and red. The upper border of the extant specimen is straight, smoothly finished, and curves slightly upward, which suggests that this section of the composition was probably close to the top of the wall (max. pres. h. of flowers 6.8–8.1 cm [including stamens]; max. pres. w. of central flower, left bunch 6.3 cm; max. pres. h. of main panel: 11.4 cm; max. pres.

w. of main panel: 20.30 cm (22.40 cm); original h. of main panel ca. 15 cm; w. of horizontal bands 1.20 cm). State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The dark red paint used for the background is preserved in a relatively good condition. The yellow paint used for the stamens is extremely fugitive, the white paint used for the petals less so. Technique: the red background was applied directly onto the final coat of plaster. A coat of white paint in the upper part of the extant specimen, in the area occupied by the three border bands, was applied over the red. The gray paint on the upper band, applied directly over the white ground, probably served as an undercoat for Egyptian blue. The yellow paint used for the second border band was applied over the white and the black, and red strokes were applied last over the blue and the yellow. Both the white paint used for the petals of the flowers and the yellow paint used for the stamens were also applied directly onto the red background, without any traces of preliminary sketching. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 4.58 cm). A sizeable hollow, possibly a socket for a now missing stone or piece of wood, is preserved on the reverse of the extant specimen (h. 6.95 cm; max. pres. w. 7.5 cm).

6.4.4. Floral Composition in Blue and White WH F94. Floral composition in blue and white (Fig. 30; Pl. 27). 1 specimen: 14 joining fragments. Max. pres. h. 15.3; max. pres. w. 22.2; max. pres. th. 1.25 cm. The upper part of the extant specimen is divided into a relatively wide decorative zone (w. 5.3 cm), marked off by relatively wide, tapering blue bands (w. of bands 0.9–1.1 cm); the decorative zone features a row of stylized and carelessly drawn ivies, without outlines, rendered with blue paint against a white ground. A narrow white band (w. 1.1–1.3 cm) frames the main decorative panel below. The main panel features blue/white and red curvilinear, presumably floral motifs, carelessly executed. The larger motif on the left consists of parts of two petal-like elements, presumably part of a flower or plant, rendered with blue paint and outlined in white. The petal on the left also preserves faint traces of thin radiating lines on the interior rendered with black paint. The floral motif on the right consists of a forked stem with two branches, a thick one on the left and a thinner one on the right, which features two leaflike motifs at the top (restored h. of flower/plant on the left ca. 16 cm; restored w. of flower/plant on the left 18.3 cm). State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue paint has flaked off in places. The red paint used for the interior of the plant on the main panel and the

CATALOG

black paint used for the radiating lines on the interior of the other plant have almost completely disappeared. Technique: the blue paint used for the row of ivies along the top was painted directly onto the final coat of plaster. Although no traces of preliminary sketching are preserved, the floral elements on the main panel below were initially reserved on the final coat of plaster. The blue paint used for the larger floral motif on the left was apparently applied directly onto the final coat of plaster, as was the red paint used for the forked floral elements to the right. The black paint used for the radiating lines on the interior of the plant to the left were applied last over the blue and the white. A deep horizontal string line running horizontally through the middle of the ivy frieze is preserved approximately 3.3 cm below the upper edge of the specimen. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 1.23 cm).

6.5. Unidentifiable/Indeterminate Pictorial Compositions 6.5.1. Palm Tree/Female Garments WH F95. Palm tree/Female garment (Fig. 30; Pl. 28). 1 specimen: 9 joining fragments. Max. pres. h. 16.45; max. pres. w. 12.5; max. pres. th. 1.45 cm. Sections of three adjacent curvilinear, triangularshaped areas outlined in black. The interiors are filled with oblique black lines painted against a yellow, red, and blue ground, the whole painted against a white background. Only the gray undercoat of the blue ground is now preserved. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The yellow and the red paint are quite fugitive on the whole. The gray undercoat is preserved in a better condition. The oblique black lines on the interior of the triangular areas, especially those painted against the red ground, are extremely fugitive. Technique: the various pigments were originally applied directly onto the final coat of plaster. The light gray paint would have probably served as an undercoat for a final coat of Egyptian blue. The oblique black lines were presumably applied last over the colored ground. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 1.43 cm). WH F96. Palm tree/Female garment (Pl. 28). 2 nonjoining specimens (a, b): (a) 1 fragment; (b) 2 joining

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fragments, both probably part of the previous composition (WH F95). Max. pres. h. (a) 5.65; (b) 5.0; max. pres. w. (a) 8.3; (b) 7.2; max. pres. th. (a) 1.6; (b) 1.55 cm. Specimen a: sections of two adjacent, probably curvilinear, triangular-shaped areas outlined in black. The interior is apparently filled with oblique black lines painted against a red and originally blue ground, the whole painted against a white background. Only the gray undercoat of the blue ground is now preserved. Specimen b: sections of two adjacent, curvilinear, triangular-shaped areas outlined in black. The interior is filled with oblique black lines painted against a red and originally blue ground. Only the gray undercoat of the blue ground is now preserved. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. Both the red paint and the light gray paint are extremely fugitive, the gray especially on specimen b. The black paint used for the oblique lines on the interior of the triangular areas is also extremely fugitive. Technique: the various pigments were originally applied directly onto the final coat of plaster. The light gray paint would have probably served as an undercoat for a final coat of Egyptian blue. The oblique black lines were presumably applied last over the colored ground. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. [a] 1.58; [b] 1.53 cm). WH F97. Palm tree/Female garment (Pl. 28). 1 specimen: 8 joining fragments, probably part of the previous composition (WH F95, WH F96). Max. pres. h. 13.9; max. pres. w. 8.15; max. pres. th. 1.65 cm. A section of the interior of a presumably curvilinear, triangular-shaped area. The interior features oblique black lines painted against a red ground. No traces of an outline are preserved. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The red paint is extremely fugitive in places, as is the black paint used for the oblique lines on the interior of the triangular areas. Technique: the red paint was originally applied directly onto the final coat of plaster. The oblique black lines were presumably applied last over the red ground. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 1.63 cm). WH F98. Palm tree/Female garment. 31 nonjoining specimens (a–l): (a–j) single fragments; (k) 12 small fragments; (l) 9 small fragments, all probably part of the previous composition (WH F95, WH F96, WH F97). Max. pres. h. (a) 4.8, (b) 2.5, (c) 3.8, (d) 1.6, (e) 2.7, (f) 2.6, (g) 3.3, (h) 2.0, (i) 3.0, (j) 2.3, (k) 1.6–3.7, (l) 1.6–2.8 cm; max. pres. w. (a) 4.15, (b) 3.1, (c) 4.15, (d) 2.25, (e) 2.5, (f) 2.45, (g) 1.75, (h) 2.4, (i) 3.5, (j) 2.65,

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(k) 1.7–4.0, (l) 1.60–2.95 cm; max. pres. th. (a) 0.95, (b) 1.2, (c) 1.5, (d) 1.25, (e) 0.85, (f) 1.1, (g) 1.25, (h) 1.2, (i) 1.3, (j) 1.0, (k) 0.5–1.4, (l) 1.0–1.4 cm. Specimen a: a section of the interior of a presumably curvilinear, triangular-shaped area, featuring oblique black lines painted against a red ground. No traces of an outline are preserved. Specimen b: sections of two adjacent, curvilinear, presumably originally triangularshaped areas outlined in black. The interior is filled with oblique black lines painted against a yellow and originally blue ground with a border band in between, rendered with red paint. Only the gray undercoat of the blue ground is now preserved. Specimen c: sections of two adjacent, curvilinear, presumably originally triangularshaped areas outlined in black. The interior is filled with oblique black lines painted against an originally blue and red ground with a border band in between, rendered with red paint. Only the gray undercoat of the blue ground is now preserved. Specimen d: section of a presumably curvilinear, triangular-shaped area outlined in black. The interior is filled with oblique black lines painted against a red ground, the whole painted against a white background. Specimens e, f: sections of presumably curvilinear, triangular-shaped areas outlined in black. The interior is filled with faint oblique black lines painted against an originally blue ground, the whole painted against a white background. Only the gray undercoat of the blue ground is now preserved. Specimens g, h: sections of two adjacent, curvilinear, triangularshaped areas outlined in black. The interior is filled with extremely faint oblique black lines painted against a red and originally blue ground. Only the gray undercoat of the blue ground is now preserved. Specimens i, j: sections of the interior of presumably curvilinear, triangular-shaped areas, featuring oblique black lines painted against an originally blue ground. Only the gray undercoat of the blue ground is now preserved. No traces of outlines are preserved. Specimen k: sections of the interior of presumably curvilinear, triangular-shaped areas. The extant areas consist of an interior fill of oblique black lines painted against a red ground. No traces of outlines are preserved. Specimen l: sections of the interior of presumably curvilinear, triangular-shaped areas, featuring oblique black lines painted against a yellow ground. No traces of outlines are preserved. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The various pigments (yellow, red, bluish-gray) are extremely fugitive, the black paint used for the oblique lines on the interior of the triangular areas even more so. Technique: the various pigments were originally applied directly onto the final coat of plaster. The light gray paint would have probably served as an undercoat for a final coat of Egyptian blue. The oblique black lines were presumably applied last over the colored ground. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with

a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. [a] 0.75, [b] 1.18, [c] 1.48, [d] 1.23, [e] 0.65, [f] 1.08, [g] 1.23, [h] 1.18, [i] 1.28, [j] 0.80, [k] 0.30–1.38, [l] 0.80–1.38 cm).

6.5.2. Compositions against a Blue Background WH F99. Unidentifiable pictorial scene (Fig. 31; Pl. 28). 5 nonjoining specimens (a–e): (a) 10 joining fragments, (b–e) 1 fragment. Max. pres. h. (a) 8.1, (b) 2.25, (c) 3.3, (d) 2.5, (e) 1.7; max. pres. w. (a) 7.55, (b) 2.3, (c) 2.1, (d) 1.8, (e) 2.4; max. pres. th. (a) 1.45, (b) 0.8, (c) 1.2, (d) 1.2, (e) 1.2 cm. Specimen a: part of a clearly defined, reserved area, with traces of yellow and red paint applied over a white ground, the whole painted against a blue background. What looks like a circular motif, one of the edges of which is marked by four, consecutive, semicircular lines, resembling compass marks, rendered with red paint, is preserved along the left-hand side of this fragment. Another red line crosses the four lines and runs toward the center of the circle. Traces of another red line cross the four lines and run toward the center of the circle. The circular feature forms the left edge of a L-shaped area outlined in red and extending toward the right, up to the right-hand edge of the specimen. Inside this area are preserved faint traces of red and yellow paint, the yellow possibly an undercoat. A section of a thin horizontal element, rendered with red paint applied over a white ground, is preserved above this area. Specimen b: small fragment preserving a section of a white area with traces of red paint in the lower half and possible traces of compass marks below. Specimen c: small fragment preserving a section of a circular area with traces of yellow paint and two compass marks. Specimen d: small fragment preserving a section of two parallel white horizontal elements rendered with red paint applied over a white ground. Specimen e: small fragment preserving a section of a white area outlined with red paint. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background is very well preserved. The yellow paint and the red paint used on the interior of the preserved areas are extremely fugitive. Technique: the clearly defined areas on specimen a were mostly reserved on the final coat of plaster. A coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. Additional white paint was possibly applied over the reserved areas, occasionally overlapping the blue paint. The yellow paint and some of the traces of the red paint used on the interior were applied over the white ground. The red lines outlining the L-shaped area in the lower half of the bestpreserved specimen (a), at least some of the red lines on its interior and the four curving lines along the circular

CATALOG

feature on the left are presumably the remains of preliminary sketching. The white paint used for the thin horizontal element above the delineated area on specimen a was painted directly onto the blue background, the red paint being applied over the white. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 0.60–1.43 cm). WH F100. Indeterminate motifs in white and red (WH F100a–c: Pl. 29). 28 nonjoining specimens (a–f): (a) 7 joining fragments; (b) 1 fragment; (c, d) 3 joining fragments; (e) 1 fragment; (f) 23 fragments, including one with 7 joining fragments and one with 2 joining fragments. Max. pres. h. (a) 6.3, (b) 1.6, (c) 3.75, (d) 3.5, (e) 2.3, (f) 1.60–8.15; max. pres. w. (a) 11.2, (b) 2.3, (c) 6.2, (d) 3.8, (e) 1.65, (f) 1.1–9.9; max. pres. th. (a) 1.3, (b) 1.35, (c) 1.65, (d) 1.5, (e) 1.2, (f) 1.05–1.50 cm. Sections of unidentifiable curvilinear areas, rendered with white paint, painted against a blue background. On specimens a and b there are traces of red paint applied over the white. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background and the white paint are fugitive in places. The traces of red paint are extremely fugitive. Technique: a coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. The white paint used for the unidentifiable, curvilinear areas was mostly painted directly onto the blue background and perhaps partly reserved on the final coat of plaster (specimen c). The red paint used for the interior details was applied over the white ground. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 1.03–1.63 cm). WH F101. Indeterminate motifs in white and red (Pl. 29). 7 nonjoining specimens (a–g): (a, b) 1 fragment; (c, d) 2 joining fragments; (e–g) 1 fragment, possibly part of the previous composition (WH F100). Max. pres. h. (a) 3.9, (b) 3.6, (c) 3.4, (d) 3.8, (e) 2.1, (f) 1.95, (g) 1.7; max. pres. w. (a) 5.3, (b) 3.8, (c) 4.9, (d) 3.1, (e) 2.3, (f) 1.75, (g) 1.45; max. pres. th. (a) 1.55, (b) 2.1, (c) 1.0, (d) 1.4, (e) 1.1, (f) 1.7, (g) 1.0 cm. Specimen a: the pointed tip of what could be a leafshaped motif and sections of other unidentifiable motifs, rendered with white paint, are preserved against a blue background. Traces of red paint are visible against the blue background between the white areas and on the unidentifiable motifs. Specimen b: the pointed tips of what could be a leaf-shaped motifs, rendered with red paint applied on a white ground, are preserved against a blue background. Specimen c: part of the pointed tip of what could be a leaf-shaped motif and a larger longitudinal,

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leaf-shaped element, rendered with red paint applied on a white ground, is painted against a blue background. Specimen d: part of the pointed tip of what could be a leaf-shaped motif, rendered with red paint applied on a white ground, is preserved against a blue background. Specimens e–g: parts of mostly indeterminate motifs, rendered with red paint applied on a white ground, are preserved against a blue background. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background is quite well preserved on specimens a and b, but extremely fugitive on specimens c–g. The red paint is fairly well preserved in some cases (specimen b) and has almost completely disappeared in others (specimens a, c–g). Technique: a coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. The white paint used for the preserved white areas was apparently painted directly onto the blue background. The red paint used for the interior details was applied over the white ground. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 0.80–2.08 cm). WH F102. Indeterminate motifs in black (WH F102a: Fig. 31; Pl. 29; WH F102b, c: Pl. 29). 22 nonjoining specimens (a–c): (a) 5 joining fragments; (b) 1 fragment; (c) 20 small, nonjoining fragments. Max. pres. h. (a) 6.35, (b) 2.65, (c) 1.05–5.10; max. pres. w. (a) 7.3, (b) 3.1, (c) 1.1–3.6; max. pres. th. (a) 1.55, (b) 1.25, (c) 0.65–1.40 cm. Specimen a: part of an unidentifiable, presumably stemmed motif, possibly floral, rendered with black paint, the interior details reserved in white, and the whole painted against a blue background. Specimen b: section of a black area with a straight edge painted against a blue background. Specimens c: the vast majority of the fragments (18 of 20) preserve only sections of black areas. In two cases, black areas, with curving edges, also preserve a section of the blue background. Thin reserved strips are visible along or in between the black areas. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue background is very well preserved on the whole, as is the black paint. Technique: the motifs were apparently reserved on the final coat of plaster. A coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. The black paint used for the interior of the motifs was applied onto the final coat of plaster. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 0.45–1.53 cm).

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6.6. Linear/Curvilinear Compositions 6.6.1. Composition with Curvilinear Motifs in Black, White, and Red against a Gray Background WH F103. Composition with curvilinear motifs (Fig. 31; Pl. 30). 1 specimen: 9 joining fragments. Max. pres. h. 11.6; max. pres. w. 10.3; max. pres. th. 1.3 cm. Sections of two parallel vertical wavy bands, rendered with black and white paint, and flanked by vertical or slightly oblique rows of white dots, two of which are enclosed within a black circle, are painted against a uniformly gray background. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The gray background, serving as an undercoat for a final coat of Egyptian blue, is very worn. The white paint is fugitive in places, the black paint even more so. Technique: a coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue, which has completely disappeared, probably due to exposure to high temperatures. The motifs, rendered with black and white paint, were originally painted directly onto the blue background. The extant specimen preserves part of the original upper edge of the decorative panel. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 0.60–1.28 cm). WH F104. Composition with curvilinear motifs (Fig. 31; Pl. 30). 1 specimen: 10 joining fragments, part of the previous composition (WH F103). Max. pres. h. 11.15; max. pres. w. 8.8; max. pres. th. 1.2 cm. Sections of two parallel, vertical, wavy bands, rendered with black and white paint, are preserved against a gray background. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The gray background, serving as an undercoat for a final coat of Egyptian blue, is very worn. The white paint is fugitive in places. The black paint has almost completely disappeared. Technique: a coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue, which has completely disappeared, probably due to exposure to high temperatures. The motifs, rendered with black and white paint, were originally painted directly onto the blue background. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 0.60–1.18 cm).

WH F105. Composition with curvilinear motifs (Fig. 31; Pl. 30). 4 specimens (a–d): (a, b) 1 fragment; (c) 2 joining fragments; (d) 3 joining fragments, all part of the previous composition (WH F103, WH F104). Max. pres. h. (a) 8.5, (b) 6.55, (c) 6.25, (d) 5.35; max. pres. w. (a) 6.6, (b) 8.95, (c) 5.0, (d) 4.5; max. pres. th. (a) 1.25, (b) 1.55, (c) 1.25, (d) 0.95 cm. Specimen a: sections of two parallel, vertical, tapering, wavy bands, rendered with black and white paint, are painted against a gray background. The black band seems to be forming a corner at the top. A single white dot is preserved to the left of the two bands. Specimen b: sections of two parallel, vertical, tapering, wavy bands, rendered with black and white paint, are preserved against a gray background. Specimen c: a section of a tapering, wavy band, rendered with white paint, is painted against a gray background. Specimen d: section of a white band and part of an L-shaped motif rendered with black paint, are preserved against a gray background, along the bottom of the specimen. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The gray background, serving as an undercoat for a final coat of Egyptian blue, is very worn. The white paint is fugitive in places. The black paint on specimens b–d has almost completely disappeared. Technique: a coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue, which has completely disappeared, probably due to exposure to high temperatures. The motifs, rendered with black and white paint, were originally painted directly onto the blue background. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 0.75–1.53 cm). WH F106. Composition with curvilinear motifs (Pl. 30). 94 nonjoining specimens (a–o): (a–g, i–n) 1 fragment; (h) 3 joining fragments; (o) 80 small fragments, all part of the previous composition (WH F103–WH F105). Max. pres. h. (a) 5.0, (b) 3.65, (c) 2.05, (d) 3.35, (e) 4.6, (f) 2.0, (g) 2.9, (h) 2.95, (i) 2.6, (j) 2.55, (k) 2.2, (l) 3.25, (m) 2.5, (n) 2.4, (o) 4.75–5.0 cm; max. pres. w. (a) 3.45, (b) 4.35, (c) 2.85, (d) 3.95, (e) 3.85, (f) 2.25, (g) 3.7, (h) 3.1, (i) 3.0, (j) 2.7, (k) 3.25, (l) 2.4, (m) 3.2, (n) 1.85, (o) 4.40–5.45 cm; max. pres. th. (a) 0.95, (b) 1.2, (c) 1.1, (d) 1.0, (e) 1.15, (f) 0.9, (g) 0.95, (h) 0.8, (i) 1.4, (j) 0.85, (k) 1.15, (l) 1.0, (m) 1.15, (n) 1.15, (o) 1.75–2.00 cm. Specimen a: two white, elongated dots are preserved against a gray background. Specimen b: parts of two white dots are preserved against a gray background. Specimen c: a small white dot is preserved against a gray background. Specimen d: a section of a vertical band, originally rendered with black paint and part of a curvilinear motif to its right, also rendered with black paint, are preserved against a gray background. Specimen e:

CATALOG

part of an oblique band, rendered with black paint, is preserved against a gray background. Specimen f: section of a band, rendered with black paint, is preserved against a gray background. Specimen g: a section of a vertical, slightly oblique, wavy band, rendered with black paint, is preserved against a gray background. Specimens h–o: small fragments preserving traces of black and occasionally white paint, painted against a gray background. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The gray background, serving as an undercoat for a final coat of Egyptian blue, is very worn. The white paint and the black paint are extremely fugitive in places. Technique: a coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue, which has completely disappeared, probably due to exposure to high temperatures. The motifs, rendered with black and white paint, were originally painted directly onto the blue background. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 0.60–1.88 cm). WH F107. Composition with curvilinear motifs (Fig. 31; Pl. 30). 15 nonjoining specimens (a–h): (a–g) 1 fragment; (h) 8 small fragments, all part of the previous composition (WH F103–WH F106). Max. pres. h. (a) 3.8, (b) 3.25, (c) 3.15, (d) 4.9, (e) 3.15, (f) 3.15, (g) 2.5, (h) 1.35–2.10; max. pres. w. (a) 5.1, (b) 4.1, (c) 3.95, (d) 3.5, (e) 4.35, (f) 3.5, (g) 3.35, (h) 1.55–2.75; max. pres. th. (a) 0.95, (b) 1.0, (c) 1.15, (d) 1.0, (e) 1.2, (f) 0.5, (g) 1.05, (h) 0.55–1.05 cm. Specimen a: section of a white, wavy band and traces of red paint are painted against a gray background. Specimen b: traces of white, black, and red paint are preserved against a gray background. Specimens c–e: sections of red bands are preserved against a gray background. Specimen f: a section of a thick, undulating, red band is preserved against a gray background. Specimen g: part of a seemingly polygonal motif, possibly floral, rendered with red paint is preserved against a gray background. Specimen h: small fragments preserving traces of red paint against a gray background. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The gray background, serving as an undercoat for a final coat of Egyptian blue, is very worn, as is the white paint. The red paint is fairly well preserved. Technique: a coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue, which has completely disappeared, probably due to exposure to high temperatures. The motifs, rendered with black, white, and red paint, were originally painted directly onto the blue background, except on specimen f where the red paint appears to have been applied directly onto the final coat of plaster.

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Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 0.35–1.18 cm). WH F108. Composition with curvilinear motifs. 63 nonjoining specimens, possibly part of the previous composition (WH F103–WH F107). Max. pres. h. 1.25–7.50; max. pres. w. 0.90–4.45; max. pres. th. 0.60–1.35 cm. Fragments preserving only sections of a gray background. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The gray background, possibly serving as an undercoat for a final coat of Egyptian blue, is very worn. Technique: a coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue, which has completely disappeared, probably due to exposure to high temperatures. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 0.40–1.33 cm).

6.6.2. Composition with Curvilinear Motifs in Red against a White and/or Yellow Background WH F109. Composition with curvilinear motifs (Fig. 32; Pl. 31). 1 specimen: 4 joining fragments. Max. pres. h. 10.15; max. pres. w. 4.9; max. pres. th. 1.6 cm. Sections of two successive horizontal bands, rendered with gray and red paint, the first outlined with black, are preserved against an originally yellow ground (w. of gray band: 1.7–1.8 cm; w. of red band: 1.05–1.20 cm). Part of a curvilinear, solidly painted, possibly originally leaf-shaped motif, rendered with red paint, is preserved below the two bands. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The yellow paint used for the background has almost completely disappeared. The red paint is very well preserved. The light gray paint, serving as an undercoat for a final coat of Egyptian blue, is very worn. The black paint used for the outlines has almost completely disappeared. Technique: the yellow paint, originally used as a background, was applied directly onto the final coat of plaster. The light gray paint on one of the bands, also applied on the final coat of plaster, served as the undercoat for a final coat of Egyptian blue. The red paint used for the other band was perhaps also applied directly onto the final coat of plaster. The red paint used for the leaf-shaped motif was apparently painted over the

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yellow background. The black outlines were applied last over the light gray coat. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 1.58 cm). WH F110. Composition with curvilinear motifs (Fig. 32; Pl. 31). 1 specimen, probably part of the previous composition (WH F109). Max. pres. h. 3.25; max. pres. w. 5.55; max. pres. th. 1.45 cm. What seems to be the pointed end of a vertical leafshaped element, rendered in outline with red paint, is painted against a yellow ground. Part of a tapering, stamen-like motif with a dot, rendered in silhouette with red paint, is preserved above it. Part of a black area is preserved along the right edge of the extant fragment. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The yellow paint used for the background is quite fugitive in places. The red paint used for the motifs is comparatively well preserved. The black paint is very worn. Technique: the yellow paint used for the background was applied directly onto the final coat of plaster. The red paint used for the floral motifs was painted over the yellow background, as was the black paint along the right-hand edge of the specimen. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 1.43 cm). WH F111. Composition with curvilinear motifs (Pl. 31). 1 specimen: 2 joining fragments, part of the previous composition (WH F109, WH F110). Max. pres. h. 5.3; max. pres. w. 7.15; max. pres. th. 1.9 cm. Part of a circular or ovoid motif in silhouette, rendered with red paint, is preserved against an originally yellow ground. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The yellow paint used for the background has almost completely disappeared. The red paint used for the motif is fairly well preserved. Technique: the yellow paint, originally used as a background, was applied directly onto the final coat of plaster. The red paint used for the circular/ovoid motif was painted over the yellow background. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster, with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 1.88 cm). WH F112. Composition with curvilinear motifs (Fig. 32; Pl. 31). 1 specimen, part of the previous composition (WH F109–WH F111). Max. pres. h. 8.1; max. pres. w. 6.45; max. pres. th. 1.7 cm. The pointed end of what looks like a leaf-shaped motif, rendered with red paint, in silhouette and part of another curvilinear motif, also rendered with red paint,

along the upper edge of the extant specimen, are painted against an originally yellow ground. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The yellow paint used for the background is extremely fugitive. The red paint used for the motifs is fairly well preserved. Technique: the yellow paint, originally used as a background, was applied directly onto the final coat of plaster. The red paint used for the motifs was painted over the yellow background. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 1.68 cm). WH F113. Composition with curvilinear motifs (Pl. 31). 48 nonjoining specimens (a–r): (a, c–g, j–q) 1 fragment; (b, h–j) 2 joining fragments; (r) 2 examples: 2 joining fragments; 1 example: 3 joining fragments; 28 examples: 1 fragment, all part of the previous composition (WH F109, WH F110, WH F111, WH F112). Max. pres. h. (a) 4.3, (b) 4.6, (c) 4.15, (d) 4.7, (e) 2.9, (f) 3.3, (g) 2.7, (h) 6.3, (i) 2.7, (j) 3.7, (k) 2.2, (l) 3.2, (m) 2.6, (n) 2.45, (o) 2.1, (p) 1.8, (q) 3.1, (r) 1.8–4.9; max. pres. w. (a) 5.0, (b) 3.7, (c) 4.7, (d) 3.5, (e) 3.3, (f) 3, (g) 1.8, (h) 5.3, (i) 2.7, (j) 3.5, (k) 2.75, (l) 3.1, (m) 2.0, (n) 2.7, (o) 1.9, (p). 1.4, (q) 3.2, (r) 1.50–3.85; max. pres. th. (a) 1.5, (b) 1.8, (c) 1.45, (d) 1.15, (e) 1.05, (f) 1.15, (g) 1.25, (h) 1.45, (i) 1.55, (j) 1.4, (k) 1.2, (l) 1.25, (m) 1.0, (n) 1.25, (o) 1.0, (p) 0.75, (q) 1.1, (r) 1.05–1.35 cm. Specimen a: a section of a curvilinear motif, rendered with red paint against a yellow ground, with further traces of red paint preserved below it. Specimen b: parts of three tapering stamen-like motifs, rendered with red paint, are painted against a yellow ground, with traces of black paint along the upper edge of the specimen. Specimen c: part of a leaf-like motif and traces of two dots above it, all rendered with red paint against a yellow ground. Specimen d: part of a tapering stamenlike motif, rendered with red paint against a yellow ground. Specimen e: section of a curvilinear motif, rendered with red paint against a yellow ground. Specimen f: section of a curvilinear motif, rendered with red paint against a yellow ground. Part of a thin, red stamenlike motif is painted above it, and there is a red dot to its left. Specimen g: section of a curvilinear motif, rendered with red paint against a yellow ground. Specimen h: parts of two curvilinear motifs, rendered with red paint against a yellow ground. Specimen i: sections of two curvilinear motifs, rendered with red paint against a yellow ground. Specimen j: part of a red curvilinear motif and two dots below the curvilinear motif, against a yellow ground. Specimen k: section of a red band and a red dot below that, against a yellow ground. Specimen l: section of a red band and a red dot below the band, against a yellow ground. Specimen m: part of a red, tapering stamen-like motif and a red dot to its left, against

CATALOG

a yellow ground. Specimen n: a row of three red dots is against a yellow ground. Specimen o: two elongated dots, possibly part of a stylized foliate band rendered with red paint against a yellow ground. Specimen p: section of a narrow band and a dot below it, both rendered with red paint, are painted against a yellow ground. Specimen q: part of a curvilinear motif and part of a thin, stamen-like motif below it, both rendered with red paint, are painted against a yellow ground. Specimen r: parts of red curvilinear motifs, four of which depict dots, are painted against a yellow ground. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The yellow paint used for the background is extremely fugitive. The red paint used for the motifs is fugitive in places. Technique: the yellow paint, originally used as a background, was applied directly onto the final coat of plaster. The red paint used for the motifs was painted over the yellow background. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 0.55–1.78 cm). WH F114. Composition with curvilinear motifs. 11 nonjoining specimens (a–k), all part of the previous composition (WH F109–WH F113). Max. pres. h. (a) 1.75, (b) 4.0, (c) 3.0, (d) 3.55, (e) 2.6, (f) 3.0, (g) 1.7, (h) 2.05, (i) 3.75, (j) 2.3, (k) 2.3; max. pres. w. (a) 1.75, (b) 3.8, (c) 4.3, (d) 2.7, (e) 2.6, (f) 2.0, (g) 2.85, (h) 3.4, (i) 3.65, (j) 2.45, (k) 2.25; max. pres. th. (a) 1.7, (b) 1.4, (c) 1.05, (d) 0.9, (e) 0.85, (f) 1.2, (g) 1.15, (h) 1.5, (i) 0.8, (j) 1.1, (k) 1.1 cm. Specimen a: sections of two successive areas, rendered with gray and red paint, probably sections of horizontal bands, are painted against an originally yellow ground. Specimens b–f: sections of straight or curvilinear red areas, probably bands with a straight edge, and sections of motifs, are preserved against an originally yellow ground. Specimens g, h, j: sections of curvilinear motifs, rendered with red paint, are preserved against an originally yellow ground. Specimen i: a section of a curvilinear gray area is painted against an originally yellow ground, with traces of red paint adjacent to it. Specimen k: section of a red and a gray area, with a straight edge, probably sections of successive bands. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The yellow paint used for the background has almost completely disappeared. The red and gray paint used for the motifs are fugitive in places. Technique: the yellow paint, originally used as a background, was applied directly onto the final coat of plaster. The red paint and the gray paint used for the motifs were painted over the yellow background. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer:

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slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 0.60–1.65 cm).

6.6.3. Composition with Linear Decoration and Curvilinear Motifs in Yellow against a White Background WH F115. Composition with linear decoration and curvilinear motifs (Fig. 32; Pl. 32). 18 nonjoining specimens (a–h): (a) 2 joining fragments, (b) 1 fragment, (c) 2 joining fragments, (d–f) 1 fragment, (g) 2 joining fragments, (h) 11 fragments. Max. pres. h. (a) 7.5, (b) 5.0, (c) 3.55, (d) 2.3, (e) 2.3, (f) 1.9, (g) 3.45, (h) 1.1–2.7; max. pres. w. (a) 5.8, (b) 5.0, (c) 4.9, (d) 2.5, (e) 2.5, (f) 2.6, (g) 2.9, (h) 1.1–3.3; max. pres. th. (a) 2.6, (b) 1.3, (c) 1.2, (d) 1.45, (e) 0.8, (f) 1.2, (g) 1.0, (h) 0.60–1.95 cm. Specimen a: sections of two parallel, horizontal yellow lines, the thinner one at the bottom serving as the outer border of a light gray area, along the lower part of the extant specimen. They are both painted against a white ground. Specimens b–h: sections of similar, probably horizontal, yellow lines, painted against a white ground. Seven specimens also preserve part of a gray area (specimen h). State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The yellow paint used for the linear decoration is fugitive in places. The gray paint is fairly well preserved. Technique: the yellow paint was applied directly onto the final coat of plaster. The light gray area, serving as an undercoat for a final coat of Egyptian blue, was also applied directly onto the final coat of plaster. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 0.40–2.58 cm). WH F116. Composition with linear decoration and curvilinear motifs (Pl. 32). 3 nonjoining specimens (a– c), all probably part of the previous composition (WH F115). Max. pres. h. (a) 3.4, (b) 2.5, (c) 3.0; max. pres. w. (a) 5.45, (b) 3.45, (c) 2.7; max. pres. th. (a) 1.2, (b) 0.95, (c) 1.25 cm. Specimen a: the pointed ends of three thin, leaf-like motifs, all rendered with yellow paint, painted against a white ground. Specimen b: part of a leaf-like motif, rendered with yellow paint, painted against a white ground. Specimen c: parts of leaf-like motifs, rendered with yellow paint, painted against a white ground. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The yellow paint used for leaf-like motifs is fugitive in places. Technique: the motifs, rendered with yellow paint, were painted directly onto the final coat of plaster.

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Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 0.75–1.23 cm).

6.6.4. Hellenistic Composition For WH F117–WH F121 (Fig. 32; Pls. 32, 33), see Appendix B.

6.6.5. Stripes in Red against a Red Background WH F122. Stripes (Pl. 33). 44 nonjoining specimens (a–h): (a) 4 joining fragments, (b–f) 1 fragment, (g) 26 fragments, (h) 12 fragments. Max. pres. h. (a) 3.85, (b) 5.25, (c) 4.55, (d) 3.45, (e) 3.4, (f) 3.0, (g) 0.95–3.85, (h) 1.6–3.7; max. pres. w. (a) 9, (b) 5.6, (c) 5.2, (d) 4.35, (e) 3.95, (f) 4.45, (g) 1.40–3.85, (h) 1.4–4.0; max. pres. th. (a) 0.8, (b) 1.25, (c) 1.5, (d) 1.2, (e) 1.15, (f) 1.45, (g) 0.6–1.6, (h). 0.5–1.4 cm. Specimen a: red bands painted against a lighter red background. Specimens b, c, e: red bands painted against a lighter red background. Specimens d, f: black bands painted against a light red background. Specimen g: red bands painted against a lighter red background. Specimen h: black bands painted against a light red background. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The light red paint used for the background is extremely fugitive, the black paint and the dark red paint used for the bands less so. Technique: the light red paint used for the background was apparently painted directly onto the final coat of plaster. The dark red paint and the black paint used for the bands were applied over the light red background. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 0.30–1.58 cm).

6.7. Friezes and Borders

row of ivies in silhouette. The frieze is painted against a white background. From top to bottom: part of a blue band, a yellow band (w. 1.2 cm), a section of decorative ivy border outlined in black (w. 3.2 cm), and, again, yellow band (w. 1.1 cm), blue band (w. 1.1 cm), and white band (w. 1.1 cm), followed by a section of a blue band. The ivies are rendered with blue paint, the outlines and the interior details executed in black. The triangular space between the ivies is also painted black. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The yellow paint is quite fugitive. The blue paint and the black paint are very well preserved. Technique: the blue and the yellow paint used for the bands was applied directly onto the final coat of plaster. The blue used for the ivies was applied over a thin coat of gray painted directly onto the final coat of plaster. The black paint used for the interior details and for the outlines was applied last over the white. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 1.38 cm). WH F124. Ivy frieze (Fig. 33; Pl. 34). 1 specimen: 2 joining fragments. Max. pres. h. 4.2; max. pres. w. 3.6; max. pres. th. 1.15 cm. Part of a narrow zone decorated with what seems to be a row of ivies (max. pres. w. of ivy zone 2.35 cm), flanked on at least one side by a yellow band (w. 1.0 cm), and, below, part of a blue band outlined in black. The ivies were painted in sets of two, alternating in color between yellow and blue, the outlines and the interior details executed in black. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The white ground is quite well preserved, while the yellow paint is extremely fugitive. The blue paint and the black paint are quite well preserved. Technique: the blue and the yellow paint used for the bands was applied directly onto the final coat of plaster. The decorative zone above the bands was apparently originally covered with an undercoat of gray paint and then with Egyptian blue, over which the individual ivies were painted. White paint was used as the ground for the yellow set of ivies. The black paint used for the interior details and for the outlines was applied last. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 1.13 cm).

6.7.1. Floral Friezes WH F123. Ivy frieze (Fig. 33; Pl. 34). 1 specimen: 4 joining fragments. Max. pres. h. 11.3; max. pres. w. 6.15; max. pres. th. 1.4 cm. Part of a narrow frieze flanked by a set of three to four successive bands, rendered with yellow, blue, and white paint, and outlined in black, is decorated with a

6.8. Spiral Friezes WH F125. Spiral frieze (Fig. 33; Pl. 34). 1 specimen: 4 joining fragments. Max. pres. h. 5.05; max. pres. w. 6.25; max. pres. th. 1.3 cm.

CATALOG

Part of a decorative zone decorated with linked, apparently stemmed, spirals, rendered with white paint and outlined in blue (max. pres. w. of zone 3.25 cm). A set of two small white triangles, outlined in blue, occupies the space between the spirals, the remaining area being painted yellow. The decorative zone was bordered at least on one side by two successive blue and white bands, outlined in yellow (w. of white band 0.7 cm). State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The yellow paint along the upper border of the main decorative zone is quite well preserved, unlike the blue paint used for the outlines of the spirals. The blue paint used for the bands is quite well preserved, that used for the triangular ornaments less so. Technique: the main decorative zone, if not the entire composition, was probably reserved on the final coat of plaster. A coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in the areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. The yellow paint used for the outlines of the bands and the blue paint used for the bands themselves were applied directly onto the final coat of plaster. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 1.28 cm). WH F126. Spiral frieze (Fig. 33; Pl. 34). 1 specimen: 4 joining fragments. Max. pres. h. 8.3; max. pres. w. 4.8; max. pres. th. 1.2 cm. Part of a decorative zone (w. 4.2 cm) outlined in black and decorated with linked upright, spiraliform motifs rendered with white paint and outlined in black. A small white triangle, outlined in black and encased within a larger blue triangle, occupies part of the space between the spirals along the top; along the bottom, the space between the spiraliform motifs, forming a curved trapezoidal area, was painted red and blue. The main decorative zone is flanked by successive white and blue bands (w. of white band below decorative zone 1.1 cm). State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The black paint used for the outlines is very fugitive. The blue paint and the red paint, used in the main decorative zone and in the band below, are quite well preserved. Technique: the main decorative zone was apparently painted directly onto the final coat of plaster. A coat of light gray paint was probably applied directly over the final coat of plaster in the areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. The blue paint and the red paint were subsequently applied over the gray undercoat and over the final coat of plaster. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 1.18 cm). WH F127. Spiral frieze (Pl. 34). 29 nonjoining specimens (a–o): (a) 2 joining fragments; (b–d) 1 fragment;

143

(e) 2 joining fragments; (f–n) 1 fragment; (o) 15 small fragments. All are part of the previous composition (WH F126). Max. pres. h. (a) 4.1, (b) 3.55, (c) 3.3, (d) 2.5, (e) 2.3, (f) 2.2, (g) 2.65, (h) 3.4, (i) 1.7, (j) 1.7, (k) 2.0, (l) 2.5, (m) 3.35, (n) 1.55, (o) 0.95–2.40; max. pres. w. (a) 5.0, (b) 2.5, (c) 2.15, (d) 2.8, (e) 3.85, (f) 1.9, (g) 2.7, (h) 2.6, (i) 2.0, (j) 1.85, (k) 1.7, (l) 1.95, (m) 2.75, (n) 1.7, (o) 0.75–1.80; max. pres. th. (a) 1.75, (b) 1.55, (c) 1.35, (d) 1.05, (e) 1.2, (f) 1.05, (g) 1.0, (h) 1.6, (i) 0.9, (j) 1.25, (k) 1.2, (l) 0.9, (m) 1.0, (n) 1.2, (o) 0.5–1.5 cm. Small sections of the same decorative border with white, upright, linked spiraliform motifs outlined in black. A small white triangle, outlined in black and encased within a larger blue triangle, occupies part of the space between the spirals along the top; along the bottom, the space between the spiraliform motifs, forming a curved trapezoidal area, was painted red and blue. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The black paint used for the outlines is very fugitive on some specimens. The blue paint and the red paint, used in the main decorative zone, are quite well preserved. Technique: the main decorative zone was apparently painted directly onto the final coat of plaster. A coat of light gray paint was probably applied directly over the final coat of plaster in the areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. The blue paint and the red paint were subsequently applied over the gray undercoat and over the final coat of plaster. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 0.30–1.73 cm).

6.9. Frieze with Linear Decoration WH F128. Frieze with linear decoration (Fig. 33; Pl. 35). 9 nonjoining specimens (a–c): (a) 2 joining fragments; (b) 3 joining fragments; (c) 7 small nonjoining fragments, all part of the same composition. Max. pres. h. (a) 8.55, (b) 5.75, (c) 1.75–1.90; max. pres. w. (a) 4.0, (b) 5.1, (c) 1.20–2.45; max. pres. th. (a) 1.1, (b) 1.05, (c) 0.80–1.35 cm. Specimen a: the main zone (w. 4.3 cm), bordered by thick black bands, is decorated with a series of oblique, tapering, black lines suspended from a thinner, tapering, horizontal, black line painted against a yellow ground. The main decorative zone was apparently flanked on both sides by a series of bands, rendered with yellow and light gray paint, a possible narrow band, and another similar frieze. Specimen b: part of a similar decorative zone (max. pres. w. 4.7 cm) preserving a series of oblique, tapering, black lines suspended from a thin, tapering, horizontal, black line painted against a light gray ground. Specimen c: smaller fragments

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preserving sections of the oblique, tapering black lines suspended from a thin, tapering, horizontal, black line painted against a light gray ground. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The yellow paint, used as background on specimen a, is quite fugitive in places. The black paint used for the motifs and for the borders is very well preserved on specimen a, but quite fugitive in places on the other specimens. The light gray paint used for the background is very fugitive on all specimens, except specimen a. Technique: the yellow paint and the light gray paint used for the background, the gray possibly serving as an undercoat for a final coat of Egyptian blue, were applied directly onto the final coat of plaster. The black paint used for the motifs and for the borders was apparently applied over the yellow and the light gray/blue ground. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 0.60–1.33 cm).

6.9.1. Curved Borders WH F129. Curved border (Fig. 34; Pl. 35). 1 specimen: 14 joining fragments. Max. pres. h. 20.75; max. pres. w. 15.65; max. pres. th. 1.5 cm. Part of what looks like a curved border, consisting of a series of successive bands rendered with gray, orange/red, and black paint, the gray band outlined in black, is painted against a white background (w. of black border line 0.85 cm; w. of gray band 1.65–1.95 cm; w. of orange band 1.25–1.35 cm; max. pres. w. of black band 3.1 cm). State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. All three pigments are fairly well preserved. Technique: the three pigments used for the bands were apparently applied directly onto the final coat of plaster. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 1.48 cm). WH F130. Curved border (Pl. 35). 42 nonjoining specimens (a–g): (a, c, f) 1 fragment; (b) 3 joining fragments; (d) 2 joining fragments; (e) 3 joining fragments; (g) 36 small fragments, all part of the previous composition (WH F129). Max. pres. h. (a) 4.6, (b) 4.15, (c) 4.5, (d) 2.9, (e) 5.45, (f) 4.5, (g) 0.7–3.9; max. pres. w. (a) 3.3, (b) 4.2, (c) 3.95, (d) 3.65, (e) 4.75, (f) 3.8, (g) 0.85–3.65; max. pres. th. (a) 1.3, (b) 1.3, (c) 1.65, (d) 1.25, (e) 1.1, (f) 0.9, (g) 0.6–1.6 cm. Specimen a: part of a curved border, consisting of three successive bands, rendered with gray, orange/ red, and black paint, respectively. Specimen b: part of a curved border, including a section of a gray band, outlined in black, is painted against a white background.

Specimen c: part of a curved border, consisting of three successive bands, rendered with gray, black, and orange-red paint. Specimen d: part of a curved border, consisting of two successive bands, rendered with gray and orange-red paint, the gray band outlined in black. Specimen e: part of a curved border, including a section of a gray band, is painted against a white background. Specimen f: part of a curved border, including a section of a gray band, outlined in black, is painted against a white background. Specimen g: small fragments preserving part of the curved border, including sections of two or three successive bands, and occasionally part of the white background. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. All three pigments are fairly well preserved. Technique: the three pigments used for the bands were apparently applied directly onto the final coat of plaster. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 0.40–1.63 cm).

6.9.2. Straight Borders WH F131. Blue and white bands (Pl. 36). 5 nonjoining specimens (a–e): (a) 6 joining fragments, (b–e) 1 fragment. Max. pres. h. (a) 4.25, (b) 3.95, (c) 3.7, (d) 3.15, (e) 3.6; max. pres. w. (a) 5.2, (b) 4.05, (c) 2.25, (d) 2.95, (e) 1.95; max. pres. th. (a) 0.95, (b) 1.45, (c) 1.25, (d) 1.25, (e) 1.1 cm. Specimens a, b: sections of three successive horizontal bands rendered with blue, white, and blue paint. The white band in the middle (th. 1.3–1.4 cm) is outlined in two different colors, yellow along one edge and black along the other. Specimens c, d: sections of two successive horizontal bands rendered with white and blue paint, the blue band outlined in black. Specimen e: sections of three successive horizontal bands rendered with white, blue, and white paint, the blue band in the middle outlined in black. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue paint is fairly well preserved in most instances, the yellow paint less so. Technique: a coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. The black paint and the yellow paint used for the outlines were applied directly onto the final coat of plaster. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 0.75–1.43 cm). WH F132. Blue and white bands. 18 small, nonjoining specimens. Max. pres. h. 2.20–7.45; max. pres. w. 1.5–3.2; max. pres. th. 0.85–1.80 cm.

CATALOG

145

Small specimens preserving sections of two successive horizontal bands rendered with blue and white paint without outlines. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue paint is fairly well preserved in most instances. Technique: a coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 0.75–1.43 cm).

State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue paint is fairly well preserved in places. Technique: a coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 1.08–1.53 cm).

WH F133. Gray, red, and black bands (Pl. 36). 7 nonjoining specimens (a–g): (a–f) 1 fragment, (g) 7 joining fragments. Max. pres. h. (a) 2.7, (b) 3.5, (c) 3.0, (d) 2.95, (e) 3.15, (f) 4.35, (g) 5.4; max. pres. w. (a) 3.15, (b) 3.3, (c) 2.4, (d) 2.5, (e) 2.75, (f) 3.9, (g) 7.1; max. pres. th. (a) 1.0, (b) 1.0, (c) 0.9, (d) 0.8, (e) 0.8, (f) 1.4, (g) 1.15 cm. Sections of two or three horizontal bands rendered with black, orange/red, and gray/blue paint outlined in black. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. Only the gray paint, possibly serving as an undercoat for a final coat of Egyptian blue, is fairly well preserved. The orange/red and the black paint are quite fugitive. Technique: a coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster, possibly in areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. The orange/red and the black paint were applied directly onto the final coat of plaster. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 0.6–1.38 cm).

6.10. Monochrome Plaster

WH F134. Wide gray/blue border (Fig. 34; Pl. 36). 9 nonjoining specimens (a–i): (a) 3 joining fragments, (b) 2 joining fragments, (c–h) 1 fragment, (i) 2 joining fragments. Max. pres. h. (a) 3.4, (b) 2.65, (c) 3.0, (d) 2.7, (e) 3.35, (f) 3.35, (g) 3.0, (h) 1.3, (i) 2.55; max. pres. w. (a) 10.0, (b) 4.95, (c) 4.25, (d) 3.1, (e) 2.2, (f) 3.85, (g) 2.7, (h) 1.8, (i) 4.6; max. pres. th. (a) 1.45, (b) 1.55, (c) 1.25, (d) 1.15, (e) 1.25, (f) 1.4, (g) 1.45, (h) 1.2, (i) 1.1 cm. Specimen a: part of wide horizontal band along the upper edge of the specimen (w. 2.8–2.9 cm), presumably the upper border of the decorative panel, originally rendered with blue paint that has completely disappeared in the upper section, revealing the light gray undercoat and forming a corner at the right-hand edge of the specimen. Along the lower edge is preserved part of the ensuing white decorative panel. Specimens b–h: section of a wide, horizontal band along the upper edge of the specimen, presumably the upper border of the decorative panel, originally rendered with blue paint that has completely disappeared in the upper section (w. 1.65 cm), revealing the light gray undercoat.

WH F135. Blue plaster (Pl. 36). 514 nonjoining specimens: 1 specimen: 8 joining fragments; 5 specimens: 2 joining fragments. Max. pres. h. 0.90–6.95; max. pres. w. 0.8–5.6; max. pres. th. 0.75–2.60 cm. Plaster painted blue, probably sections of background areas or bands. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The blue paint is fairly well preserved in most cases. Technique: a coat of light gray paint was applied directly over the final coat of plaster in background areas to be subsequently covered with Egyptian blue. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 0.55–1.58 cm). WH F136. Colored plaster. 257 miniscule, nonjoining specimens. Max. pres. h. 0.2–1.0; max. pres. w. 0.3–0.9; max. pres. th. 0.6–2.0 cm. Monochrome plaster painted red, yellow, gray, blue, and white, probably sections of background areas, bands, or motifs. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. The various pigments are quite well preserved. Technique: the different pigments, except perhaps the blue, were applied directly onto the final coat of plaster. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 0.40–1.98 cm). WH F137. White wall plaster (Pl. 37). 1,831 nonjoining specimens (a–d): (a) 4 joining fragments, (b) 4 joining fragments, (c) 829 fragments, (d) 1,000 miniscule fragments. Max. pres. h. (a) 10.1, (b) 10.6, (c) 1.1–8.6, (d) 0.2–0.4; max. pres. w. (a) 22.6, (b) 8.1, (c) 0.9–5.7, (d) 0.3–0.5; max. pres. th. (a) 1.7, (b) 2.3, (c) 0.6–2.3, (d) 0.5–1.1 cm. Specimens of white plaster. State of preservation: upper surface smoothed. Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer:

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slightly uneven surface, almost pure lime plaster with a small quantity of gravel (max. pres. th. 0.30–2.28 cm). WH F138. White floor plaster (Pl. 37). 1 specimen: 3 joining fragments. Max. pres. h. 8.45; max. pres. w. 8.6; max. pres. th. 2.3 cm. Section of white floor plaster with many inclusions. State of preservation: upper surface fairly rough. No traces of color are preserved.

Plaster: one sublayer and the final layer of plaster. Final layer: pure lime plaster (th. 0.2 cm). Sublayer: plaster contains large quantity of gravel/pebbles of white, gray, black, red, and brown color (max. pres. th. 0.40–1.98 cm). Max. pres. dimensions of inclusions: 0.6 x 1.05 cm.

Appendix A

A Technological Investigation of the Painting Materials by Hariclia Brecoulaki, Sophia Sotiropoulou, Vassilis Perdikatsis, Anna Lluveras-Tenorio, Ilaria Bonaduce, and Maria Perla Colombini

A.1. Introduction Recent research on the technological aspects of Aegean wall painting has shed new light on both the range of pigments, inorganic and organic (Dandrau 1999, 2000, 2001; Perdikatsis et al. 2000; Jones and Photos-Jones 2005; Dandrau and Dubernet 2006; Sotiropoulou and Karapanagiotis 2006; Brysbaert 2008a, 2008b; Brysbaert and Perdikatsis 2008; Brecoulaki 2017; Brecoulaki, Karydas, and Colombini, forthcoming) and the techniques applied by the painters, suggesting a wider use of materials than was previously thought and a variety of applications adopted by workshops on the mainland, including tempera techniques (Brecoulaki et al. 2008, 2012). Paint samples from the House with the Idols, the Temple complex (Profi, Weier, and Filippakis 1974; Philippakis, Perdikatsis, and Paradellis 1976), and Palaces II, IV, and V at Mycenae (Brysbaert 2008b) have been analyzed in the past. The present contribution offers an insight into the nature of painting materials and the methods of their application on the walls of the West House at

Mycenae, further enriching the existing data and our knowledge of the art of painting at Mycenae during the LH IIIB period. Our samples were taken from a group of nonjoining fragments originally belonging to the large composition of the main hunting scene (see Ch. 3.3), which preserved a variety of hues, including red, orange, pink, blue, green, black, and white. The high quality of the painting is clearly reflected in the refined modeling and accurate rendering of details of the human and animal figures, the precision in the various stages of the pictorial execution, and the complex multilayer pictorial technique (Pls. 4, 5, 38). The identification of pigments confirms the use of a restricted and previously known palette, including iron-based minerals for the red and yellow hues, Egyptian blue, carbon black, and calcium carbonate white. The well-attested and regular practice of superimposing paint layers, together with the presence of organic binders in a number of samples, suggests the adoption of a secco and tempera techniques.

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A.2. State of Preservation of the Wall Paintings, Restoration, Interventions The majority of the wall painting fragments from the West House are preserved in a fairly good overall condition (see Ch. 2.1). The plaster appears compact and homogeneous, and the pictorial layers preserve their consistency in most cases. Dirt and saline incrustations often create a veil on the pictorial surface and in large areas where Egyptian blue pigment was applied; losses are often observed due to mechanical erosion and/or lack of cohesion of the paint film. The paint surface of fragments under investigation has been cleaned and consolidated with synthetic materials during restoration (see Ch. 2.2). Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis applied on micro samples (ca. 1–2 mg) taken from the paint surface of different fragments (samples MWH 8–MWH 10, MWH 14, MWH 17, MWH 18) showed evidence of the presence of polyvinyl acetate resin. In the FTIR spectra of samples MWH 9 and MWH 18 (Fig. 35; representative of the spectra acquired on the six samples), the stretching band of C=O group from carboxylic acids at 1,730 cm-1, in combination with the stretching vibration of the C-O group at 1,226 cm-1 and 1,020 cm-1, appears, which are associated to the ester groups present in polyvinyl acetate resins (PVAc Mowilith). These latter bands are partially overlapped with the asymmetric stretching bands of the Si-O-Si groups of the aluminosilicates present in the ochers (namely quartz and albite). The synthetic polymeric resin covering, and to a certain extent penetrating the paint surface, interfered with the acquisition of Raman spectra when attempted directly on the paint surface. In certain cases, however, it was possible to acquire an exploitable spectrum by focusing on a defect of the consolidating film.

A.3. Methods of Analysis and Investigations Twenty small nonjoining samples, ranging from 1 to 2 cm2 each, have been chosen among the hundreds of wall painting fragments from the West House now stored in the Archaeological Museum at

Mycenae. Although none of these fragments could be joined to any of the extant pictorial compositions, the majority belong to the main hunting scene (for architectural context, see Ch. 1). The samples are representative of the entire range of macroscopically visible surface colors, including white, black, blue, greenish blue, olive green, light pink, yellow, orangish brown, and various shades of red. Most samples were monochrome but in some cases distinct brush strokes of other colors had been applied. Standard analytical techniques have been applied for the identification of the painting materials.

A.3.1. Microscopy and Polarizing Light Microscopy The paint surface of the fragments was examined and photographed under a stereomicroscope (ZEISS Stemi SV 11). Cross sections of the samples were examined under a polarizing microscope (ZEISS, Axiotech) with white and ultraviolet light for any visible fluorescence.

A.3.2. Visible Induced Infrared Luminescence Imaging (VIL) Infrared (IR) photo-luminescence imaging was used for the detection and mapping of pictorial layers composed of Egyptian blue. This method was proposed by Giovanni Verri (Verri 2009a, 2009b), and it is based on the Egyptian blue cuprorivaite’s property of emitting infrared luminescence when excited in the visible area. This exceptional property of Egyptian blue allows us to distinguish it from all other natural or synthetic blue pigments that are not photo-luminescent in the spectral range under study. For the application of the VIL method on the West House wall painting fragments, LED parabolic aluminized reflector (PAR) lights were used for excitation (Eurolite LED PAR56 RGB spots 20W, [151 LEDs], 45°, of which the red LEDs were used selectively), a visually opaque polyester filter (LEE polyester IR filter 87, a visually opaque filter with transmission starting at 730) was placed in front of the lens of the digital photographic camera (SONY camera A300, 10.2 Mpixels) to absorb unwanted visible light. The camera’s built-in

A TECHNOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION OF THE PAINTING MATERIALS

IR-blocking filter, placed in front of the chargedcoupled device (CCD) sensor, was removed.

A.3.3. X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) Qualitative elemental analysis directly on the samples’ surfaces was made with EDXRF (energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence). Measurements were carried out with a tube-based handheld XRF analyzer (Thermo Scientific NITON®). The handheld spec­trometer has high sensitivity in the range of its detection ability from the element chlorine (atomic number [Z] = 17) to the rest of the periodic table, but low spatial resolution due its large measuring window of 8 x 15 mm. The detection of only major elements (of Z>17), which are characteristic of the pigments under investigation, therefore was effectually achieved (e.g., Fe for ochers; Cu and Ca, however omnipresent in the calcitic matrix of the ground, for Egyptian blue).

A.3.4. X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) Noninvasive semiquantitative X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis was subsequently performed for identification of the mineral composition of the plaster and the pigments. The crystalline phase analysis was carried out on a Bruker D8 Advance Diffractometer, using Ni-filtered Cu K radiation (35 kV, 35 mA) with a Lynx Eye strip silicon detector. Data were collected for two values in the range of 3° to 70° with a step size of 0.02° and a count time of one second per strip step. The diffractograms were taken nondestructively directly on the surface of the fragment. The diffractograms were analyzed and interpreted with the Diffrac Plus software package from Bruker and the Powder Diffraction File. The painted plaster was rotated so as to minimize surface roughness and grain size effects (grain size should be