The Urban Saint in Early Byzantine Social History 9780860540007, 9781407346564

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The Urban Saint in Early Byzantine Social History Julia Seiber

BAR Sr�.pplementary Series 3 7 1 977

British Archaeological Reports 122, Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7BP, England

GENERAL EDITORS A. C. C. Brodribb, M.A. Mrs. Y. M. Hands

A. R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D. R. Walker, M.A.

B.A .R. Supplementary Series 37, 1977: "The Urban Saint in Early Byzantine Social History'' © Julia Seiber, 1977 The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860540007 paperback ISBN 9781407346564 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540007 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

CONTENTS

Page ME N , W OMEN AND SOCIETY

PART I I n troduc t ion Chap ter I :

1

Men a nd S oc iety

1 1

Method — Marr iage a nd F am ily Career a nd S oc iety — S um mary Chap ter I :

Pos it ion o f Byzan t ine Wo men

2 6

Method — Advan tages a nd D isadvan tages F am ily a nd Househo ld — S oc ial Act iv it ies a nd S ha me Career Wo men — S um mary PART I

SOCIETY AND THE S AINT

I n troduc t ion — S a in ts a ct ive w ith in t he S oc iety Chap ter I I :

S a in ts a nd I nd iv idua ls

4 1

Tact ics i n e ncoun ters — e v idence F r iend ly a nd Host ile meet ings — method F irs t a nd S econd Groups o f C it ies The S a in t a s a n I nd iv idua l — s u m mary Chap ter I V :

S a in ts a nd I nst itut ions

5 9

S ec t ion A : S ecu lar I nst itu t ions method - e v idence - s tate s oc ia l g roups S ect ion B :

- p rofess iona l g roups

s u m mary

Ecc les iast ic I nst itu t ions

method

6 9

- p ersona l , p hys ica l , s p ir itua l ma t ters

e v idence :

r ela t ions w ith c hurch a nd c hurch men

t he s a in t a s a n i nst itu t ion s u m mary Chap ter V :

Phys ica l I l lness a nd t he h ea l ing o f t he s ou l — Methods o f d iv ine med ic ine

I n troduct ion Hypotheses a nd a na lys is o f e v idence — method , i l lnesses

8 1

P age Cures :

s urgery t o e xorc is m - t he p rocess o f h eal ing

S oc ia l imp l icat ions — Chapter V I :

Conc lus ions :

Method :

s u m mary The S a in t a nd C iv ic Un ity

S um mary a nd p o in ts a r is ing

Ev idence — I n terpretat ion Poss ib le f urther i nvest igat ions The d ec l ine o f t he U rban S a in t

1 03

I NTRODUCT ION

T he S a in ts o f t he Eastern Emp ire s hou ld n o t b e c on fused w ith West Europ ean c oun terparts.

They h ad more i n c om mon w ith t he g uru o r h o ly man o f

As ia t han t he marty r o r k n igh t s a in ts o f t he Western Wor ld.

I ti s t he p re m ise

o f t h is work t hat t here was a lso a r ecogn isab le d iv is ion i n r o le b etween s a in ts l ead ing t he l i fe o f ad esert h er m it a nd t hose i n o r n ear c i t ies w ith c u l t s i tes a ccom moda t ing p i lgr i ms a nd d isc ip les. l abe l The U rban S a in ts.

F or t hese l at ter Ih ave c reated t he

T hese U rban S a in ts h ave t oo o f ten b een swep t t o-

g ether w ith t he ir r ura l a nd p er ipa tet ic c oun terparts o r h ave b een a ccep ted w ithout r ea l isa t ion o f , o r a tt e mpt t o n ote, t he d if ferences. I ti s h ere c on tended t ha t t hey a re a n e n t ity a part a nd t ha t b as ic q uest ions must b e a sked wh ich h ave n o t b een e xa m ined b efore : Why w ere t hey t here? — Why p ro m inen t a t t ha t t ime? What d id t hey d o? Wha t p art d id s a in t a nd C ity p lay i n e ach o ther 's l ives? Works o n Byzan t ine S oc ia l H istory , p art icu lar ly o f t he e ar ly p er iod , a re a t t he b est , v ery f ew a nd f ar b etween . o f p urpose, o ne o f method.

Th is g ave r ise t o t wo e le men ts :

o ne

F irst ly i t made i tp oss ib le i fn o t p robab le t hat

as tudy o f t he s i mp le q uest ions a lone a nd o f t he mat ters t hey i mp ly m ight r ev ea l i mpor tan t F eatures a nd l inks i n o ur u nderstand ing o f Byzan t ine S oc iety. S econd ly i t mean t t ha t Ih ad t o l ean q u ite h eav ily o n modern works o f s oc io logy a nd a n thropo logy o f t he Med iterranean a rea. They p rov ided t r igg ers ; t he ir p art icu lar f us ion o f t h is w ith t he a va ilab le mater ia l i s t he o utc ome o f t he a uthor 's own i n terests.

I n a dd it ion p er iphera l i n for ma t ion f ro m

med ica l a nd o ther s pheres h as b een emp loyed. Apart f ro m t hese " props" t he o rgan isa t ion i s t he a u thor 's a nd t here must r est t he b la me f or a ny i d iosyncrat ic emphases. S tart ing f rom a c oup le o f t he ma jor s ources a nd s o me o f t he s econdary s t imu l i, f urther r ead ing s erved o n ly t o r e in force t he o r ig ina l i deas w ith wh ich t he S tudy w as b egun a nd h e lped t o b u i ld t he f ra mework u sed h ere. B efore i nvest igat ing t he c onnec t ions o f S a in t a nd U rban S oc iety w e s hou ld l ook c r it ica l ly a t h ag iography a s as ource o f e v idence. I n ac u lture w h ich r ev ea ls i t sel f t o t he modern r eader ma in ly t hrough p o l it ica l a nd l ega l t reat ises, h ag iography i s o f ten t he o n ly wr it ten e v idence f or s oc ia l s tudy.

I nscr ip t ions

a nd e p itaphs s upp le men t k now ledge b u t c annot g ive t he s a me c overage.

But

t he a i ms a nd a l leg iances o f h ag iograph ies must a lways b e t aken i n to a ccoun t a nd c an c o lour t he mater ia l c ons iderab ly .

Y et , ag reat d ea l o f i nva luab le

i n format ion wh ich i s t o b e g a ined n owhere e lse, i s g iven away f reely w ith g rea t p rec is ion a nd r equ ires n o c arefu l d ecod ing.

Hag iography w as a lso a r ecogn ised l i terary g enre w ith i t s s et p anegyr ic p at terns a nd modes o f e xpress ion. Th is t oo c an b e ap i tfa l l f or t he u nwary , b u t c an a lso b e ap os it ive a id t o t hose a l ive t o i t s mot ives a nd f or ma t. One f urther c au t ionary p o in t t o b e t ack led a t t h is s tage c oncerns t he q uest ion o f b e l iev ing i n h ag iography . Th is i s p erhaps t he most v u lnerab le meet ing p o in tb etween Byzan t ine s ub jects a nd modern r eaders. I t s hou ld n ot , h owever , b e r egarded a s ag rea t s tumb l ing b lock o f i nva l ida t ion . C lear ly , n ot a l l d eta ils o f h ag iography c an b e s wa l lowed a s f act. These a re s ty l ised a necdotes, s omet i mes r eappear ing i n s evera l o f t he s ources ; many o f t he mirac les a re e i ther e xp l icab le o r i ncred ib le t o t he modern r eader.

N ever-

t he less h ag iography r ef lects v ery r el iab ly h ow Byzan t ine S oc iety t hought o f i t self a nd o f i t s w or ld ly s urround ings. Hav ing s e t o ut t o o bserve e xact ly t hat , w e may q uest ion a nd c ompare, b u t n ot d is m iss t he i n for mat ion t hat t he s ources g ive. I n t h is s ense t he e v idence u sed , d esp ite i t s s elect iv ity p rov ides at ruer p icture t han a ny a t te mpt a t a" sc ien t if ic" e xa m inat ion wh ich wou ld b el it t le a nd m isunderstand t he s ub ject f rom t he o u tset .

The p er iod u nder s tudy , r ough ly t he l ast h a lf o f t he f i f th c entury t o t he f i rst t h ird o f t he s even th, h as l ong b een c ons idered t he Go lden Age o f e ar ly Byzan t ine a ch ieve men t. C it ies a nd S a in ts w ere b o th n umerous a nd t hr iv ing i n a n Emp ire w ith c en tra l p ax o n a Roman model a nd e xpand ing f ron t iers. Th is b ackground i s r elevan t t o a ny e xa m ina t ion o f r ela ted r o les o f S a in t a nd S oc iety. The c ho ice o f s ources w as d ictated b y t he n eed f or a r easonab le s ized s amp le w ith s ome h o mogene ity o f t ime a nd p lace a nd a lso p rov id ing a r ange o f s ize o f c i t ies. The c hanges a nd e stab l ishmen t o f Emp ire d ur ing t he s ix th c en tury , a s o ne m igh t e xpect , d o r ender t he s oc iety a nd a t t itudes o f t he l ate f i f th c en tury v ery d if feren t f rom wha t i s f ound a t t he l ater e nd o f t he t ime s pectru m. T he l eng th o f t he p er iod a nd c overage g iven i n t he s ources d oes , h owever, s upp ort i n terest ing c o mpar isons w ith in t hese l im its. G eograph ic h o mogene ity i s a ch ieved b y ac oncen trat ion o n c i t ies o f t he e astern Med iterranean s ea-board a s c i t ies t o t he West o f C onstant inop le h ad v ery d if feren t p rob le ms t o f ace i n t he ir t erra in , f ert i l ity o f t he ir h in terland , c l i mate , c om mun icat ions a nd d efence. The c i t ies c hosen r ange i n s ize f rom t he g ian t c os mopo l is o f Constan t inop le a lready a pproach ing t hree q uarters o f am il l ion i n p opu lat ion , t hrough o ther c it ies o f i mpor tance i n c om merce, a dm in istrat ion a nd t rad it ion , t o S ykeon , a modest t own w ith l i t t le o ther c la im t o f a me t han i t s s a in t .

*

2

T he p urpose o f t h is w ork i s t o e stab l ish t hat t he p lace o f t he u rban s a in t was f i r mly i n tegrated w ith t he f ortunes o f h is u rban s oc iety . I n o rder t o d o t h is, t he a ct iv it ies o f t he s a in ts a re e xa m ined a long w ith t he c om mun it ies ' r esponses t o t he m, t he mo t ives f or a n r esu l ts o f t he r elat ionsh ip o n b o th s ides. An a t te mpt i s made t o b an ish t he p reva il ing v ague p icture o f a ssorted e therea l h o ly f i gures w ander ing i n t he w i lderness f u lf il l ing o n ly t he ir own a sce t ic v ocat ion. I ns tead , t he p icture t o b e p a in ted i s o ne o f t he u rban s a in t a s av ery p os it ive f orce i n t he l i fe o f h is c hosen c en tre a nd i ndeed a s i nstrumen ta l i n i t s c on t inu ity a nd s urv iva l. T he s tudy i s d iv ided i n to t wo i ndependen t b u t i n terconnected s ect ions. The f i rst c ons ists o f t wo c hap ters e stab l ish ing t he d eta iled make-up o f t he u rban s oc iety wh ich i s u nder c ons idera t ion o n a more g enera l b as is. The e lemen ts t o b e c ons idered i n r e lat ion t o s a in ts a nd h ag iography a re t hen i so la ted b efore p rob ing t he c onnec t ions. a f ter a l l , p roducts o f t h is s ame s oc iety.

Both s a in t a nd h ag iographer w ere,

I n o ther words, u s ing t he s a me mater ia l s ources a s S ect ion I , s ect ion Is ets o ut t o i nvest igate a nd p u t f orward a n i mpress ion o f t he S oc iety. S urp r is ing ly l i t t le i s k nown o r w r it ten a bou t t he mos t b as ic a spec ts o f Byzan t ine S oc iety .

O f b oth Ro man a nd Greek p recursors w e k now f ar more, b u t a s y et

t h is c orner o f t he Byzan t ine p anop ly h as n o t b een r eached o r made r espectab le. T he e v idence f or f am i ly l i fe a nd t he s oc ia l p os it ion o f w omen i n p art icu lar b u t a lso o f men , i s d iverse a nd n o t e as i ly a ccess ib le. Hag iography i s , a s a lready a dm it ted , ab iased s ource o f i n for mat ion , i ti s a lso i nco mp lete.

Yet

i ti st he most r e l iab le i n for mat ion w e h ave a nd a ccords w el l w ith t he l ater a n thropo log ica l a nd s oc io log ica l mater ia l n ow a va i lab le. S ome s uch ma ter ia l f i nds i t s way i n to t he f i rs t s ec t ion o f t h is work a nd , i ti s h oped , c an h e lp i n u nderstand ing t he s ign if ican t d eta ils o f S ect ion I . T he s econd s ect ion e xam ines t he v ar ious s a in ts a nd c om mun it ies a long t he l i nes s uggested b y ma ter ia l u sed f or t he S a in ts ' e ncoun ters w ith p eop le, t he ir most b as ic a nd v a luab le a c t iv ity , p rov ide t he b u lk o f t he r aw mater ia l. These p eop le c an b e c al led c l ien ts, s eek ing a id o f v ar ious k inds , a nd o pponen ts.

The h ypo thes is f o l lowed i s t hat b oth c l ien ts a nd o pponen ts f e l l

i n to t wo d ist inct t ypes when t reated b y t he h ag iographer. As a f i lter a nd d es igner, t he h ag iographer d el ibera te ly c hose s ome t o b e t rea ted a s i nd iv id ua ls a nd s ome o thers a s r epresen tat ives o f ag roup o r i nst itu t ion .

The

mater ia l i s a na lysed f rom t h is p re m ise t o i l lu m inate t he i mp l icat ions a nd s ign if icance o f t h is s yste m. The t op ic o f d iv ine med ic ine i s t rea ted i n r elat ion t o t h is c en tra l t heme. As t he s a in ts ' c h ief s pec if ic a c t iv ity , i tc asts f urther l i ght o n t he ma instream o f t he a rgumen t a s w e l l a s s upp ly ing a g rea t d ea l o f e x tra d eta il o f i ndependen t i n terest. T he f unct ion o f t he h ag iographer w as c omp lex .

The r eader 's s usp ic ion

s hou ld h owever, b e t e mpered b y t he f o l low ing c ons idera t ions :

h e w as o f ten

t he p ersona l d isc ip le a nd c on te mporary o f t he s a in t w hose l i fe h e u nder took , a s ah o ly a nd v i ta l d uty , t o r ela te t o t he w or ld.

I fh is memory r eached b ack

t hrough t he c areer o f t he s a in t , s o d id t ha t o f many o thers.

3

He c ou ld n o t

a f ford t o c on trad ict t he k now ledge o f h is a ud ience n or t o o verstretch t he ir c redu l ity. The t rea tmen t o f mater ia l w as t herefore, i n as ense, modera ted. I t was a lso g overned b y t rad it iona l l i terary a nd i deo log ica l modes o f c on ten t a nd f or m. The f a me o f as a in t was a lso a u sefu l w eapon i n t he marg ina l e conomy o f t he c i ty a nd i t s s urround ing a rea. N ews a nd p i lgr i ms t ravel led s urpr is ing ly e f f ic ien t ly a nd e x tens ively.

The h ag iographer 's awareness o f

t hese b urdens o ft he c apac it ies o f h is a ud ience i s w e l l d e monstrated b y t he s ources t he mselves. The d ev ices o f man ipu lat ion a nd s ubt le i n f luence p layed u pon t he a ud ience a re a pparen t t o t he modern r eader b u t wou ld n o t h ave d imi n ished t he ir c on te mporary e f fect iveness. The e x ten t t o w h ich t hese l i ves o f s a in ts w ou ld h ave b een r ead o r h eard r ec ited s hou ld n ot b e o ver looked. They v ary e nor mous ly i n t he ir emp loymen t o f r hetor ica l a nd o ther l i terary o r s e man t ic p ressures o n t he a ud ience.

I n

t he more c rowded n arrat ive l i ves, t he h ag iographers, f or e xamp le o f S ymeon a nd o f t he h ea l ing s a in ts, a re c on ten t t o l et t he d eeds t e l l t he ir own s tory wh i le t he r hetor ica l u nder l in ing i s l im ited t o t he o ccas ional r efra in .

On t he

o ne h and t hese a u thors migh tb e t hough t t he most r e l iab le b ecause t hey a re t he l eas t i n terpretat ive. On t he o ther h and , t he h ea l ing s a in ts, l ike S . Thee la , w ere " dead" s a ints a nd s o o f fered e x tra s cope f or man ipu la t ion . I n t he c ase o f S s. Cos mas a nd Da m ian a n e x tra t hreat t o c on t inu ity a nd r e l iab il ity i s p osed b y t he f act t hat t he t a le i s r elated b y s evera l a u thors a nd e x tends i n t ime f ar l a ter t han t he s ta ted l im its o f t h is s tudy. These f acts i n t he mse lves h owever, a dd a n i n terest ing d i mens ion f or c ompar ison a nd i ns igh t. The m irac les o f S . The da a re p erhaps t he most o bv ious c ase o f a u thori n terference. The d if f icu l t ies o f B ishop Bas i l a nd h is a i ms s tand o u t v ery c learly i n t he t ex t a nd a dd h u man i n terest .

They a re d iscussed e lsewhere

a nd n eed n o t b e dwe l t u pon h ere. Another e le men t wh ich a ids t he r eader t o d i f feren t iate t he c haracter ist ic t ra its o f t he s ources a nd i ndeed , t o g auge i t s a ud ience, i s t he t ex t 's c loseness t o s et h ag iograph ic ( panegyr ic ) f or mu lae.

The met icu lousness o f s ty le—or

l ack o f i ti s a s g ood a way a s a ny o f a scerta in ing t he l i terary a nd c lass ica l a ccomp l ishmen ts o f t he a u thor a nd t he l ike ly l eve l o f h is r ecept ive a ud ience. Th is i s n ot a ma jor i ssue o f t h is s tudy b u t i t may b e wor th r ecord ing a t t h is s tage t ha t g ood s ty le s ee ms more d ependen t u pon t he t ime t han u pon t he p lace i n wh ich i tw as w r itten . B ishops w ere c lear ly more h igh ly e duca ted i n l i terary ma tters t han s i mp le monks a nd d isc ip les. The p anegyr ic f orma t d e manded d eta i ls o f t he S a in ts ' p aren tage , e ar ly u pbr ing ing a nd y ou thfu l i nd icat ions o f p rod ig ious p owers.

T he emphas is o n

t h is v ar ies e nor mously ; t he h ag iographers o f t he h ea l ing s a in ts c on f in ing t he mse lves t o m irac les a lone. S ymeon 's t ra in ing a nd p rogress t hrough monast ic d isc ip l ines a re r ela ted i n e nor mous d eta il ; t he c orrespond ing p hases i n t he l ives o f S . Dan iel a nd S . T heodore a re more e ven ly b a lanced b y a ccoun ts o f t he ir c h ildhood b o th n or ma l a nd e x traord inary. I n a l l c ases, t he n arrat ive o f m irac les o u twe ighs t hese p r i mary c ons ide rat ions.

I n s ome c ases , n otab ly t hose o f S . S ymeon , S . N iko las , a nd S .

Dan ie l , t h is i s i n terspersed w ith r eferences t o ag row ing n umber o f d isc ip les

4

and buildings on site. The biographies of S. Daniel and of S. Theodore also pay great attention to the saints' death and the ritual of the occasion, and miracles ensuing thereafter. Beyond this brief idea of emphasis, the texts must speak for themselves. Before embarking on the main body of the work, a survey of the sources giving an idea of locations in time and geography now seems appropriate. Attached to Constantinople we have three sources. The earliest one is the life of S. Daniel. The text is most easily accessible in translation by Dawes and Baynes. It covers the last half of the fifth century referring to the great fire of the city in 456 and conquests of Basilicos against the vandals. The date of the saint's death is given as 493 A .D. The Saint's pillar site, established after considerable opposition from demons and more tangible obstacles, was at some distance from the city. It was close enough for frequent visits from courtiers and others whose oc­ cupations kept them busily employed in the city and its environs - it was also far enough away to be a gathering point for landowners and humbler country dwellers as well as travellers. Another practical reason for absence from the city was the absence of bureaucratic interference, while at the same time providing a focal point for the saint as protector and overseer of the City's destiny - from outside • Certainly the destiny of Constantinople required such care. Still official­ ly Latin speaking and writing, still very close to the idea of itself as Rome in continuation, the city was expanding rapidly towards its early peak. This would be reached in the half century after the building of Justinian's monument to the Holy Wisdom. At this stage it did not dominate the skyline. The city was then, as now, the meeting place of continents, seas, trade routes and the scene of all political, diplomatic, and commercial activity. It already far outstripped all the cities of the known world in size although its population was not to reach the million mark for some centuries. As with all ancient and medieval cities the transition from city to country was sudden. The sur­ rounding countryside was fertile sea-side plain and wealthy through proximity to the city. Tempting outlying areas were still prey to marauding looters and disorder. The miracles of Ss. Cosmas and Damian cover a wide span of time from the sixth century onwards, the latest text extending into the eleventh century. These saints were "dead" and had no need to be removed from immediate civil interference. The site was a sanctuary inside the city limits, adminis­ tered by a full retinue of priests and attendants. The cult was imported and the promise of healing and the fame of the site brought pilgrims and sight­ seers from great distances. S. Theodore of Sykeon's monastery possessed an icon of Ss. C osmas and Damian - their cult extended to Rome where a large Church of Byzantine craftsmanship still stands in their honour. The miracles are related in six identifiable texts by as many authors spread over five centuries. They show not only the increasing reputation and expansion of the site and its accumulating wealth and burden of suppliants but also records many details of the changing fortunes of Constantinople and the altering social outlook of its citizens. Fears of enemies and increasingly 5

r ig id h ierarch ies a re among t he mat ters f ound i nc iden ta l ly t o t he u n fo ld ing p lo t. The l i fe o f Andreas S a los, o r f oo l f or t he s ake o f Chr ist , p erhaps a dds l i t t le i n t h is w ay. I th as a c ur ious h istory. The i dea o f t he h o ly f oo l i s more As iat ic t han European a nd Andreas w as n o t t he o n ly s uch f igure. T he t ex t d ates f rom t he n in th c en tury a lthough s et i n t he s ix th. The h istor ica l Andreas, i ft here was o ne, i s c louded i n o bscur ity — o n ly t h is a nachron is t ic c ur io r e ma ins. I ta dds amus ing d eta i ls t o o ur o vera l l i dea o f as a in t 's l i fe , a ct iv it ies a nd m ishaps b u t l i t t le t o t he p icture o f t he c i ty. I td oes s uppor t t he i dea o f s a in ts ' l i ves a s " best-sel lers" a nd may b e t he e ar l iest e xa mp le o f a Byzan t ine h istor ica l n ove l. A lexandr ia was t he s econd l argest c i ty o f t he E astern Emp ire. I th ad a lready a l ong , g lor ious a nd c os mopo l itan p ast , s pann ing s everal c u ltures a nd d ynast ies. The s ize o f t he p opu lat ion a t t h is p er iod i s d if f icu l t t o d et er m ine, a lthough a f i gure a round a h a lf m il l ion may b e a ssumed.

By t he e nd

o f t h is e ar ly p er iod i tw as a ga in t hreatened a nd w as s oon t o c ome u nder A rab r ather t han Byzan t ine i n f luence.

T he s harpness o f d iv id ing l ines b etween

t hese t wo s pheres o f i n f luence h as b een much e xaggerated. N everthe less w e may h ere b e v iew ing A lexandr ia a t ap er iod o f c on tract ion r ather t han e xp ans ion . Our ma in s ource f or A lexandr ia i s t he l i fe o f J ohn t he A l msg iver , h e was o f p rosperous a nd i l lustr ious p aren tage, h is f am i ly h av ing a n impress ive r ecord i n t he i mper ia l s erv ice. H e was Archb ishop o f ag reat a nd w ea l thy c ity a t ap er iod when t he r e ins o f c en tra l c on tro l may h ave b een c ons iderab ly l oosened. A lexandr ia i n t he e arly s even th c en tury p rov ided h im w ith more i n f luence t han most p rov inc ia l Eastern B ishops h ad a ny r igh t t o e xpec t. C lear ly h e w as a lso a p erson o f c ons iderab le p ersona l p resence a nd i nd iv idua l p ower. The f orce o f h is a ct ions a nd p ersona l ity l eaps f rom t he t ex ts i n a manner n o o ne c ou ld i gnore, l east o f a l l h is b iographers. The t wo c on temp orary t ex ts a re f rom S ophron ius a nd J ohn Moschus a nd r everberate w ith l i fe i n af ash ion v ery u n l ike t hose o f o ther s a in ts. The o ther t ex t b ased n ear A lexandr ia c oncerns t he m iracles o f S s. Cyrus a nd J ohn. Th is i s a no ther n arrat ive f rom S ophron ius, t he s ty le a ga in l i ve ly. These s a in ts w ere a lso " dead" h ea lers. The s i te h ad a lready b een a p agan p lace o f h ea l ing a nd a s o f ten h appened , t he c u l t o f t he p re-Chr ist ian g od w as merged a nd t he p lace merely a dop ted. The s anctuary i s r eferred t o a s a n Asc laep idar ium a nd c lear ly t he methods o f h ea l ing u sed t here i ncorpora ted a l l t hose wh ich c ou ld h ave b een o bserved a t a ny e arl ier c en tre d ed icated t o t ha t g od. The s a in ts ' s anctuary was c ons iderab ly r emoved f rom t he c ity. A lexa ndr ia 's p os it ion o n t he d elta r endered i tt oo h um id a nd p rone t o i n fect ions a nd i nsect i n festat ion .

The m irac les t ook p lace i n al i gh ter , p urer a ir ,

more a k in t o t he i nv igora t ing a tmosphere o f K os a nd Ep idauros. A t An t ioch w e h ave o n ly o ne s ource, t he l i fe o f S . S ymeon t he y ounger, as ty l ite. Th is i s a va ilab le i n p ara l lel t ex ts w ith t ransla t ion a nd c om men tary b y Van Den Ven.

I tw as w r itten d own i n a round 5 95 , s oon a f ter t he d em ise

o f t he s a in t , b y ad isc ip le.

An t ioch i s c a l led t he mega lopo l is, a nd i ndeed

6

was among t he l argest a nd most i n f luen t ia l o f p rov inc ia l c en tres.

N everthe-

l ess s igns o f c hange a nd d ec l ine a re a pparen t a nd s ign if ican t a t t h is d ate. The p icture i s o ne o f p o l it ica l c on fus ion , r el ig ious d isorder a nd a d ec ided s eed iness. The c iv ic i mage i s v ery o bv ious ly s l ipp ing a nd t here i s a n a ir o f i rreso lu te d ecadence a bou t t he c i t izens wh ich s ee ms b red o f d espa ir a nd l ack o f c en tra l c on tro l o r p urpose.

The i nhab itan ts t eeter b etween o r thodoxy ,

h eresy a nd c omp lete l apse t o p agan is m a nd i ti s n ot iceab le t hat S . S ymeon h as o ne o f t he most d if f icu l tp assages i n g et t ing e stab l ished a s w el l a s t he most f raught p er iod o f m in istry. I n ap er iod when w e k now c omparat ively l i t t le o f t he s tandard o f l i fe o n t he f r inges o f Emp ire t h is s ource a rguab ly h as a s ign if ican t c on tr ibut ion t o make. T he c i t ies a re o rgan ised t hroughout t h is work i n to t wo g roups. The g reat c i t ies o f t he f i rs t g roup h ave n ow b een d ea lt w ith. The p os it ion o f An t ioch i s , a s h in ted a bove, amb iguous a nd a g reat d ea l more w il l b e s a id o n t h is p o in t l a ter. T he p laces i nc luded i n t he s econd g roup a re Myra S e leuce ia a nd S ykeon. These a re moderate s ized t owns — n o t i ncons iderab le b u t n o t amongs t t he p r imary c en tres o f c o m merce a nd a dm in istrat ion . F or p urposes o f c ompar is on o n ly , as ub-group o f s a in ts f ro m more minor l ocat ions i n P a lest ine a nd S yr ia a re i ncluded i n t he s e lected t ex ts a nd f igure i n t h is s tudy a s " Les Mo ines d 'Or ien t" a t i t le g iven b y t he t heo log ian F estugr ere t he ir s tuden t , t rans lator a nd c om men tator. T he i nclus ion o f s uch ' rura l ' ma ter ia l i s j ust if ied b y t he c on tr ibu t ion i t makes. U rban p reoccupa t ions a re t hrown i n to s harper c on tras t. The t ens ions b etween c i ty a nd s urround ing c oun try r iva lr ies a nd p rox im it ies a re made more o bv ious b y t he ir a bsence; t he f ar away i dea l o f t he i t oX tç i s a n image wh ich i ti s i ns truct ive t o h o ld a ga inst t he r ea l it ies. R eturn ing t o t he i n ter med iary t owns o f t he s econd g roup , t he t ex ts a re a ga in h elpfu l. Myra was t he c hosen c en tre o f S . N icho laos. I tw as n ot h is b irthp lace, b u t a s o f ten h appened , ap lace t o wh ich h e was d irected i n a v is ion b y God. I t was a lready a c en tre o f r el ig ious t each ing a nd N icho laos t here r ece ived h is l i turg ica l t ra in ing. A f ter p i lgr i mage t o J erusa le m a nd o ther h o ly s ites, h e w as j udged worthy t o e stab l ish h is own s i te, j ust o u ts ide Myra. Th is was a p ort o n an arrow c oasta l p la in s urrounded b y ac luster o f v i l lages c l ing ing t o l i fe i nt he f ert ile s pots — w ith c ons iderab le p recar iousness. The s uperst it ion a nd p re jud ice o f t he c oun try a reas a re v ery a pparen t a s i s t he n au t ica l f l avour o f many o f N icho laos ' c l ien ts f ro m Myra i t se lf . T he t ex t d ates f rom t he l ate s ix th c en tury a nd t he p os it ion o f t he t own o f Myra a l though c lose t o t he f r inges o f Byzan t ine i n f luence a ppears t o h ave b een r easonab ly s tab le. P lague c aused more t roub le f or t he c i ty -- a nd N icho laos — t han i nvaders. N icho laos a f ter a f u l l a nd s uccessfu l l i fe d ied s hort ly a f ter a p remon it ion o f h is e nd i n 5 65 A .D.

The t ex t i s a va ilab le i n p ara l lel t ex ts

e d ited b y Anr ich. T he m irac les o f S . Theela wh ich r e late t o S e leuce ia c onst itu te t he e ar l ies t mater ia l u sed i n t h is s tudy.

The B ishop Bas i l, much a f fec ted b y

l oca l t r ia ls o f s treng th h as t o b e f org iven f or t urn ing t he t e l l ing o f t he m iracles v ery t ransparen t ly t o h is own a dvan tage. 7

S eleuce ia was a t own o f t he P rov ince o f I saur ia more o r l ess d irect ly t o t he n orth o f Cyprus. The h igh Tauros moun ta ins o f t he S ou th Turk ish c oas t p ress c lose t o t he s ea l eav ing a v ery n arrow c oas ta l p la in i n tersected a t t h is p o in tb y ar iver w h ich t hen f l ows t o t he s ea t hrough a sma l l d e lta. The t roub lesome p rox im ity o f t he l aw less moun ta ins s he lter ing b ands o f b r igands i s a l l t oo o bv ious. Due t o t he r iver a nd t he p ass t hrough t he moun ta ins w h ich i t s c ourse c rea ted , S e leuce ia was o n a ma jor r ou teway a nd o f i mpor tance d isproport iona te t o i t s s ize.

T he s i te d ed icated t o t he martyr-sa in t Thee la

was a n a dop ted t e mp le o f a nc ien t p agan a ssoc iat ions.

The h o ld o f Chr ist ian ity

o n t he r eg ion was n ot , i n t he f i f th c en tury , e n t ire ly s ecure a s c an b e s een c lear ly f rom t he t ex t . The h ag iographer B ishop B as i l emp loyed c ons iderab le s ty l ist ic s k il l a nd e n thus ias m f or t he s a in t i n h is b a t t le a ga inst t he r eturn o f o lder g ods a nd s p ir its. S ykeon , u n l ike t he o thers, was a n i n land t own i n t he p rov ince o f Ga la t ia. I tt oo h ad i t s g eograph ica l impor tance b e ing o n a ma in r ou te e astwards f rom Cons tan t inop le t owards t he Ar men ian P rov inces a nd Cappadoc ia. The t err a in i s moun ta inous, t he t own o n ar e lat ive ly f ert i le p lateau.

The f i rst

d ecades o f t he s even th c en tury , f rom wh ich t he l i fe o f S . Theodore d ates , w ere v ery a c t ive i n t h is a rea w ith f requen t g o ing a nd c om ing o f i mper ia l t roops s ecur ing t he f ron t ier p rov inces a ga inst t hrea t f rom t he N orth a nd E ast . Theodore 's mother k ep t a n i nn c ater ing f or t he v ar ious n eeds o f t he t roops ; t he s a in t h i mse lf w as b orn a s ar esu l t o f o ne o f h er e ncoun ters a s ac ourtesan. I ti s worth n o t ing a lso t hat t he b us iness o f t he i nn was s u f f ic ien t ly p rof itab le t o e ducate t he c h i ld a nd s end h i m, r ich ly d ressed , t o Constan t inop le t o f urther h is c areer a t t he a ge o f 6 . Dur ing t he r e ign o f H eracl ius, c ond it ions w ere q u iet e nough f or t he S a in t t o t rave l e as ily t o Cons tan t inop le, h av ing p rev iously v is ited J erusa le m o n t wo o ccas ions. L eav ing t he Emp ire i n Heracl ius ' c apab le h ands a nd h av ing p red icted t he l ong a nd s uccessfu l r e ign f or t ha t emperor, t he S a in t d ied i n 6 13 a nd h is l i fe w as s w if t ly r ecorded b y G iorg ios, ad isc ip le a nd p r iest o f t he s a me monastery. Bo th t he m irac les o f S . Thee la a nd l i fe o f S . Theodore h ave b een t ransl a ted b y F estugr ere a nd a re a va ilab le w ith a u sefu l c om men tary. Ex tra s ource mater ia l i s s omet i mes i ncorporated i n t he f or m o f e p i taphs f rom K orykos a l ate f ourth c en tury t o e ar ly f i f th c en tury t own w ithout i t s own s a in t.

I tw as c lose t o S e leuce ia a nd p rov ides a n a rchaeo log ica l c on tro l t o

t he v agar ies o f h ag iography. S o much f or t he ma ter ia ls u sed — a s ummary o f t he e vo lv ing a rgumen t f o l lows.... The f i rst p art o f t h is s tudy s ets t he s cene w ith a p ortra it o f s oc iety f rom h ag iograph ic e v idence a t o ur d isposa l v iewed w ith a n e ye t o a n thropo log ica l/soc io log ica l g u idel ines. The s econd s ect ion c ons iders t he r e lat ionsh ip b etween t he s oc iety t hus r evea led a nd t he a ct iv it ies o f t he U rban S a in t. The Urban S a in t i s ap henomenon p ecu l iar t o Byzan t ium a nd t o t he e ar ly p er iod. The c en tral t heme i s t hat t he a c t iv it ies o f t hese s a in ts w ere e ssen t ia l t o t he l i fe a nd c on t inu ity o f t he c i t ies i n o r o u ts ide wh ich t hey f unct ioned.

Through t h is i n f luence t he

s a in t g a ined d isc ip les, a t rad it ion , p ower a nd a c erta in i nst itu t iona l p os it ion i n h is own r igh t.

The mu tua l d ependence o f c i ty a nd s a in t s erved t o g uaran tee

ac erta in l ease o f l i fe f or b oth o f t he m. 8

A Map of the Eastern Mediterranean sho\Ning the sites of the Urban Saints

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PART I : CHAPTER I :

MEN , WOMEN AND SOCIETY MEN I N BYZANT INE SOCIETY

I n troduct ion 1 Method 1 .1

Man i n t he f am ily :

1 .2

Career a nd s oc iety :

1 .3

O ther i t e ms

2 Ev idence : 2 .1

as er ies o f r e la t ionsh ips r ec iproca l e f fect

Fa m ily Marr iage

2 .21

Re lat ions o f man a nd w ife

2 .22

Father a nd c h i ld

2 .23

S p ir itua l f a therhood

2 .24

Master a nd s ervan t , h ouseho ld

3 Ev idence :

Career a nd S oc iety

3 .1

C it ies o f t he f i rst g roup

3 .2

C it ies o f t he s econd g roup

4 S u m mary 4 .1

Fam ily

4 .2

Careers a nd o ther c ons idera t ions

CHAPTER ONE MEN I N BYZANT INE SOCIETY

T he t wo c hap ters i n t h is s ect ion a im t o e xa m ine t he men a nd women w ho c o mposed t he s oc ie ty wh ich w e a re t o c ons ider. Byzant ine s oc iety , more empha t ica l ly t han most , w as b ased u pon t he f am i ly u n it a nd l eg it i mate p roc reat ion — w ith t rad it iona l a nd r el ig ious b ack ing. Bo th men a nd wo men a re t herefore e xa m ined i n t he ir r o le i n t he f am ily wh ich i s t hen r e lated t o w ha te ver f unct ion t hey may h ave i n t he s oc iety i n g enera l. 1 .1 With in t he f am ily t he man 's p os it ion i s b est s een a s as er ies o f r e lat i onsh ips.

The p r i mary o nes w ere t hose b etween ( i ) h usband a nd w ife, ( i )

f ather a nd c h ild.

A t tendan t o n t he l a t ter w as t he p ecu l iarly Byzan t ine r o le

o f s p ir itua l f atherhood. O f t hese p r i mary r elat ionsh ips , t he f ocus w as t he marr iage i t se lf , wh ich p rov ides t he b est v an tage p o in t f or o bservat ion . I n a dd it ion t here w as, w ith in t he f am i ly o r h ouseho ld , t he r ela t ionsh ip b etween t he h ead o f t he h ouse a nd t he s taf f a nd o ther r elat ives. 1 .2

T he s econd p art o f t he c hapter d ea ls w i th men i n t he ir c areer, a nd

w ith t he e f fec ts o f f am ily a nd c areer u pon e ach o ther.

I ta lso v iews t he

ma le c on tr ibu t ion t o t he s tab il ity o f Byzan t ine s oc iety . 1 .3

Hag iography a lso p rov ides many i t e ms o f i nc iden ta l i n for ma t ion i n

l oose c onnect ion w ith t he c en tral s ub ject.

These a re u sefu l a dd it ions t o t he

o vera l l p icture a nd , b ecause o f t he ir i nc iden ta l n ature, r equ ire l ess c au t ious c ons iderat ion t han i n for ma t ive i t e ms where s trong h ag iograph ic b ias i s e xp ected. 2 .

The F am i ly .

I n many ways t he ma le p os it ion i n t he f am ily w as o ne

o f s econdary i mportance.

The h usband a nd f a ther h ad u lt i mate e xecut ive

p ower b u t f or p ract ica l a dm in istra t ive p urposes, t he w ife a nd mo ther w as p ree m inen t. 2 .1 The meet ing p o in t o f t hese v ar ious f ace ts o f f am ily l i fe f or t he Byzan t ine ma le w as t he marr iage. Cho ice o f p artner was l argely l ef t t o t he p aren ts.

They t ook r espons ib i l ity f or t he a rrange men ts o f t he c eremony

a nd c on t inued t o s uperv ise t he n ew ly-weds ' w e lfare.

Chr ist ian ity o n ly s erved

t o s trengthen t he b onds o f p aren ts a nd c h i ldren . T hroughou t t he t ex ts , f a thers c on t inued t o i n terfere i n t he marr iage a rrange men ts o f t he ir c h i ldren , p art icu lar ly d augh ters, a lthough t he p rac t ica l d eta ils w ere l ef t t o t he w i fe a nd mo ther. The c ere mony i t se lf w as a d emonstrat ion t o b us iness a nd s oc ia l a ssoc iates o f t he f a ther 's a b i l ity t o p rov ide f or h is c h ildren .

The f atherin-

l aw o f J ohn t he A lmsg iver i l lustra ted t he p er manence o f t he p rotect ive r A o le b y i n terfer ing o nb eha lf o fh is d augh ter 's c on juga l r igh ts. S oc ial a nd l ega l s anct ion w ere b eh ind h i m,

1

b u t when t he s i tuat ion was r eversed , ah usband

c ou ld e xpec t l i t t le p aren ta l a id i n p ersuad ing h is w ife t o f u lf i l h er mar ita l 1 2

d u ty i n t h is r espect. J ohn , t he f a ther o f S ymeon , h ad t o wa it p at ien t ly u n t i l Martha r ece ived d iv ine a ssurance t hat s he w as n ot r equ ired t o r e ma in c e l i2 b ate. Marr iage was e xpected b y s oc iety o f a l l t hose c apab le o f p rocrea t ion . The a scet ic l i fe was a v ocat ion — o r a n e scape f ro m marr iage —but t he c ommitmen t t o e ither was t oo t o ta l t o a l low a ny i nd iv idua l t o p ursue b o th s imu lt aneous ly.

Paren ta l c ho ice a nd i n terference h ave b een i l lustrated a nd

c on t inued t o b e af actor i n t he l ives o f t he y ounger g enerat ion d ue t o t he p rev a lence o f e x tended h ouseho lds c on ta in ing s evera l t i ers o f f am i ly i nhab itan ts. The " fam i ly" might c ons ist o f a ge ing g randparen ts, u n marr ied o r w idowed u nc les a nd a un ts, p art icu lar ly r e lat ives o f t he w ife, a nd t he n ew ly w ed " ch i ldren" s t il l s eek ing t o e stab l ish t he mse lves i n c areer, s oc iety a nd t he ir own h o me.

Wh i le s uch a s truc ture p ers isted , a n e laborate h ierarchy o f

manners a nd r espons ib il it ies was e ssen t ia l. O ne r am if ica t ion o f t h is c lose-kn it f am ily c irc le was t ha t a l l t he c onsp irat ors a ga inst Z eno w ere r e lated t o t he d owager empress a nd , o f c ourse, e ach o ther. The f i na l u surper , Bas il iscos , w as y et a nother d is tan t r elat ive . 3 A c l ien t o f Cos mas a nd Da m ian was a nother i l lustrat ion , f or h e b rough t t o t he h ea l ing c o mpound b oth h is w ife a nd s isterin-law f or c ure f rom t he c omp la in t a f fec t ing t he m a l 1. 4 The mother o f Theodore o f S ykeon r an h er b ro the lc um-hotel w ith t he a id o f s is ter, mo ther , a nd b u t f or t he i ncons isten t d est iny o f h er s on , d oubt less h er d augh ter t oo. 2 .21

5

The c on t inu ity o f t he f am ily wh ich s uch a s et-up e ncouraged , a nd

t he r espons ib il it ies t hus e ngendered , t o al arge e x ten t g overned t he r elat ions h ips t he f am ily c on ta ined. On h usbands a nd w ives, t he h ea l ing s a in ts s hed t he most l i gh t. S ymeon a nd o ther " l ive" s a in ts a nswered t he p leas o f s ter ile a nd s tarv ing c oup les, b u t o ther i n for ma t ion c an b e g leaned. I n most c ases t he w oman s upp l icated f or t he s a in ts ' h e lp o n h er own , f or a v ar iety o f r easons.

The most r elevan t o f t hese w as t he c onven t ion d es ignat ing h er a s

t he g uard ian o f n o t o n ly t he c h i ldren b u t a lso t he h usband 's moral w e lfare. I l lness o f e ither p arty a f fected t he o ther a cu te ly. The woman who w as s ick was d isgraced b y f a il ing t o c arry o u t h er d u t ies ;

t he man , p art icu lar ly a

p oor o ne, s uccumb ing t o i l lness, " lost h is l i vel ihood".

I n s ickness a s a t

o ther t imes, i t was t he h usband 's d u ty t o p ro tect h is w ife a nd t o make t he d ec is ions d irect ly a f fec t ing h er l i fe.

Ap rov inc ia l a r my o f f icer e ven f orbade

Cos mas a nd Da m ian t o c arry o u t s urgery o n h is w ife .6

Another h usband

c on t inued t o s eek h e lp a nd p rotect ion f or h is s pouse when h is own d e mon p assed o n t o h er, a lthough h e c o mp la ined o f h er " hard h earted" a bandonmen t o f h im a nd t he ir c h ild. 7

P art ly t he mot ive f or s uch c are w as t he p roduct ion

a nd w el l-be ing o f c h ildren , b u t t h is d oes n o t d eny h is g enu ine l ov ing c oncern . I n fer t il ity o r s udden c oncept ion f o l low ing a l ong f a i lure c ou ld a lso g ive r ise t o mar i ta l s tra in a nd s usp ic ion . One h usband h ad t o b e " reconc i led" t o t he n ew s ta te o f a f fa irs a f ter t wen ty y ears o f f ru it less e f fort. 8 The i n ference i s , o f c ourse, t hat h usbands p r ivately s uspected t he ir own c apab i l it ies a nd t heref ore t he ir w ives ' f i del ity —a l though t o a dm it t h is p ub l ic ly w as u n th inkab le a nd i ndeed was n o t c a tered f or i n l aw o r l i terature. Approaches w ere made t o h ea l ing a nd n on-spec if ic s a in ts f or n on- med ica l p urposes t oo.

The o racu lar o r c la irvoyan t p owers o f t he " l ive" s a in ts w ere

1 3

a lso f ound i n " dead" o nes a nd h e lped t o d ispel t he s usp ic ions o f a nother h usband.

The s peed a nd f ina l ity o f d iv ine a rb itra t ion s pared t he c oup le

r es idua l r esen tmen t a nd a l eng thy s trugg le, a nd , i n t h is way , c ou ld g ive a d ub ious mar ita l r elat ionsh ip a f resh s tart. W ives a lso made n on- med ica l d e mands u pon t he s a in t i n t h is f i eld.

T he ir w ish t o c iv il ise r ude o r d is-

o rderly h usbands was t he c ounterpart t o t he p rotect ion r ece ived a nd was a lso i n l ine w ith t he d icta tes o f S . P au l 's c oncep t ion o f t he f e male ro le . 9 J ohn t he A l msg iver a nd Theodore o f S ykeon a lso r escued women f rom p hys ica l i l l-trea tmen t a t men 's h ands. 2 .22

The mother, a s w il l b e s een , was r espons ib le f or t he e ar ly t ra in-

i ng o f c h i ldren , b u t h igher e duca t ion a nd t he a cqu is it ion o f c areer s k il ls a nd c ho ice o f emp loymen t w ere more i n t he p rov ince o f t he f a ther.

One f ather

i n t he m irac les o f Cos mas a nd Damian s ought o ut a t ravel l ing p edagogue — whose c reden t ia ls h e h ad b othered t o c heck — t o t u tor h is s on .1 0

He was a

l earned man , ap refec t 's a rch iv ist , a nd o bv iously c ared t hat h is s on s hou ld b e q ua l if ied t o f o l low a n e qua l ly i fn ot more e rud i te a nd r espec tab le o ccupat ion .

N epo t is m a nd/or t he s im ilar ity o f f a thers ' a nd s ons ' c areers was a

p rac t ica l a nd e cono m ic r ea l ity i n Byzan t ine s oc iety .

However , Id o n o t

w ish t o a rgue i n f avour o f t he r ig id o ccupat iona l c aste s yste m s uggested b y e arl ier a u thors a nd wh ich was e nerget ica l ly d e mo l ished b y W. Ceran .1 1 Pursu it o f t he more h igh ly q ua l if ied a nd h igh-s tatus p rofess ions, f or i ns tance, t he f ather a nd s on g ra m mar ians e ncoun tered b y S . Thec la i n a match o fq uot a t ions, l en t c on t inu ity a nd a t l east h ad t he mer it o f i nsur ing a ga inst d ec l ine i n s oc ia l s tatus f or t he f am i ly .1 2

Change was r isky b u t f or t hose w ith l ess

t o l ose c ou ld b r ing s pectacu lar i mprove men t .

One b e mused a rt isan , a

' bu tcher...s ince h is i n fancy" , was c o m manded b y Cos mas a nd Da m ian t o a ct a s b arber t o a n a r istocrat ic f e l low-suf ferer.

A f ter t he c ure h e p rac t ised

s uccessfu l ly a s ab arber. " Ex tended f am il ies a nd a r e la t ive l ack o f mob il ity c o mb ined w ith r el ig ious a nd p opu lar i deo logy t o e ncourage f i l ia l o bed ience a nd r espect t owards o ne 's e lders a nd p aren ts.

The c on t inued i n f luence o f Martha o n h er s on S ymeon

was j ust o ne e xa mp le o f t h is. o f ag rea t p ub l ic o f f ic ia l.

Another o utstand ing c ase was t hat o f t he s on

F ear ing h is own i nadequacy t o p lead h is c ase b e-

f ore t he s a in ts, h e s en t f or h is t rusted a nd r espected f ather t o i n tercede o n h is b eha lf .

Th is a ct ion a nd t he p ro mpt r esponse i te voked d e monstrate t he

r elat ionsh ip b etween f ather a nd s on more p iquan t ly t han c ou ld b e a ch ieved b y many words .1 4 2 .23

S uch s en t i men ts g ive r ise t o t he c ons iderat ion o f t he Byzan t ine

p heno menon o f " sp ir itua l f a therhood."

A lthough t he e ssence o f t h is was mon-

a st ic a nd e n ta iled t he c omp lete a bd icat ion o f s e l f-w i l l a nd r espons ib il ity t o a n e xper ienced b rother b y t he n ov ice, i tf ound r epresen ta t ion i n t he wor ld o u ts ide t he c lo ister.

I n i t s s i mp lest f or m i tc ou ld b e t he g uard iansh ip t aken

o n b y as ponsor o r g od-fa ther a t b apt is m.

The r espons ib i l ity was n o t o n ly

s p ir itua l b u t w as i n tended t o b e p rac t ica l i n c ases o f n eed. s ponsors o f who m w e h ear most w ere s a in ts.

N atural ly , t he

However, n ot a l l f am il ies h ad

s uch a p rest ig ious c and ida te t o h and a nd t hose who d id e ng ineer s uch a u n ion were o f s usp ic ioualy h igh s oc ia l s tand ing.

( c f. Chap ter 3 , 2 .11.)

r elat ionsh ip was f requen t ly o f l ong s tand ing.

1 4

S uch a

T he g o lds m ith 's s on s ponsored

b y S . Dan iel c on t inued t o v is it t he s a in t e ven w hen g rown u p.

1 5

I ti s n o t c lear

t o what e x ten t a nd a t w ha t a ge t he s p ir itua l f a ther s uperseded t he d u t ies o f t he mother. I n t he c ases r ecorded i n h ag iography , t he c h ild i n q uest ion was a lways a s on . F or d augh ters i t may h ave b een c ons idered u nnecessary , s ince t he ir mothers c ou ld i nstruct t he m i n a l l t he e ssen t ia l ma t ters o f b e ing a w ife a nd mother, a nd t he ir f a ther, a s s een a bove , c on t inued t o p rotec t t hem i n p rac t ica l a f fa irs a f ter t he ir marr iage.

Bapt ism s ee ms t o h ave b een a lso

e xclus44 t o ma le s ub jects —at l east i n t hese s ources .1 6 2 .24

The r e la t ionsh ip o f master t o s ervan t w as i n many w ays s im ilar

t o t hat o f s p ir itua l f atherhood.

The h ead o f t he h ouseho ld h ad l i t t le t o d o w ith

i t s d eta iled a dm in istra t ion b ut h e w as r espons ib le f or t he w e l l-be ing o f i t s me mbers.

One master a pp l ied t hrough c orrespondence t o S . Dan ie l f or c ures

o n b eha lf o f h is e n t ire f am ily a nd s taf f .1 7

An e x-servan t o f J ohn t he A lms-

g iver was s o i nf luenced b y h is master a nd s a in t t ha t h e g ave a s i lver c ross ( a g if t f ro m t he A l msg iver ) a nd a h om ily t o ab eggar. 1 8 Ano ther o f t he s a in t 's s ervan ts was r el ieved o f p ub l ic embarrass men t b y as ecret monetary g if t when h e was a f f l icted b y s udden p overty. 1 9

A s ervan t who d ist ingu ished h i m-

s elf t hrough i n te l l igence a nd d i l igence c ou ld w in f avour f rom h is master. Andreas S a los was made h ead s teward a nd w as g iven med ica l t reatmen t a nd e ven tua l ly h is f reedom b y h is master .20 3 .

Career a nd S oc iety.

O ther i n for ma t ion c oncern ing t he r o les o f t he

man i nt he f am ily c an b e g a thered b y l ook ing a t t he woman 's s ide o f t he mat ter a nd work ing b ackwards, b u t more i s g iven , o n t he s ub ject o f c areers, emp loymen t , a nd t he p os it ion i n s oc iety o f men . The t endency t owards c on t inu ity i n f am i ly e ducat ion , emp loymen t a nd s ta tus h e lped b y marr iage, d ictated a man 's c areer c ho ice t o ac ons iderab le d egree, b u t o pen ings e x isted f or t he t a len ted a nd t he d ar ing.

The c areer o f t he h ouseho ld h ead r ef lected u pon

f am i ly a f fa irs y e t i n t he ma le world w as s eparated f rom t hem more t han w as p oss ib le i n t he f e ma le. 3 .1

For Constan t inop le a nd A lexandr ia w e a re w e l l i n for med i n t h is

s phere. Dan iel o f fers a g ood i ns igh t i n to t he p o l it ica l wor ld o f h is t ime, s ince h e n eeded a nd h ad many p owerfu l f r iends. One o f t hese w as t he " coun t o f t he s acred t ab le" , w ho h ad e x tens ive e states a nd v ineyards c lose t o t he c i ty , a round Dan iel 's c hosen s i te.

H e f ound i tn ecessary t o h ire l oca l g uards t o

p rotect t hem a ga ins t r a ids b y t he p opu lace . 2 1 o uts ide t he 1 c oX1 .

Th is l ack o f l aw-en force men t

was c omparable t o t he s i tua t ion a t S e leuce ia.

There,

Basi l u nderl ined t he d angers o f c oun try t ravel a nd t he r u le o f t he b r igands o ver t he r ura l h in terland a nd i t s v i l lages. The c oun t may a lso h ave f ound t he e s tates a c onven ien t g uaran tee a ga inst a p recar ious f ortune a t c ourt .

An

e x-consu l a nd p raetor ian p refect i l lustrated t he p oss ib il ity o f r ap id r ise t hrough h is p ersona l t a len ts . 2 2

H is s uccess w as e n t irely " due t o h is s agac ity" ,

b ut h e w as a s r ap id ly d is lodged b y ap lot. Court w as a lways a g ood b reed ing g round f or j ealousy a nd f act ion , e spec ia l ly a ga inst t he o ver-successfu l— a nd p erhaps a lso a ga ins t t hose w hose r ise f rom h umb le o r ig ins w as d ue t o p ersona l a b i l ity .

H is f ate w as t o b e s en t t o a sma l l i so lated t own a s ab ishop .

Com-

men t o nt he u se a nd s tatus o f s uch a j ob a nd o n t he i deo log ica l v a lue o f e x i le f ro m t he c ap ita l c ou ld n o t b e c learer.

The l ure o f t he c iv ic e thos c on t inued

t o b e c ompe ll ing d esp ite t he i nstab il ity o f c ourt l i fe w h ich w as f urther i l lus-

1 5

t rated b y t he n ear-d isgrace o f t he " coun t o f t he s tab le" a nd o f t he i mper ia l a rch itect o n t he s treng th o f t he emperor 's wh i m.

For s uch a s t hese t he

s a in t 's e nc losure p rov ided a sy lu m. 2 3 Cos mas a nd Da m ian e ncoun tered a f a irer c ross-sect ion o ft he p opu lat ion who w ere i n n eed o f t he ir s erv ices , a lthough most d e ta il i s s t i l l d evo ted t o t he b ureaucracy a nd t he p owerfu l.

P art o f t he ir p o l icy i nvo lved u s ing c l ien ts

o f w idely d isparate s oc ia l b ackgrounds a s i nstrumen ts o f e ach o ther 's c ures. The s a in ts w ere s upposed ly a bove c lass a nd h ad p art icu lar d u t ies t owards t he p oor a nd u n fortunate , b u t t he l ater h ag iographers o f Cos mas a nd Da m ian b et rayed t he r ig id ity o f t he ir own a tt itudes.

O f o ne c ourt ier 's c ure-partner t he

e p ithet w as t hat h e w as a mere a ctor, a "man s uch a s h e wou ld h i msel f emp loy."

When a g roup o f p oor p eop le r ece ived t he a t ten t ion o f t he s i te p er-

s onne l p r ior t o aw eal thy a r istocra t , t he h ag iographer c onc luded t hat p ref erence h ad b een s hown b ecause t he r ecogn ised p o l icy was o ne o f " f irst c ome, f i rst s erved." 24 These i nc iden ts s how n ot o n ly a p o lar isa t ion o f c lass d ist inct ions b ut more i nc iden ta l d eta i l , f or i ns tance, t he c on t inu ing v ogue f or p r iva te t hea tr ica l e n terta in men t i n c h ic Byzan t ine s oc iety. I nvo lve men t i n t he m iracu lous c ou ld b r ing a d ramat ic c hange i n c areer a nd f ortune. men t ioned.

The t rave ls a nd t rava ils o f t he p edagogue h ave a lready b een The g reat r oX L g

t hose w ith s pec ia l ised s k i l ls.

a cted a s a magnet t o a l l , b ut p art icu lar ly t o Al ow-rank ing c ler ic o f a n h eret ica l s ect a lso

e xper ienced a d rama t ic c hange i n h is l i fe-sty le when h is c ure t urned h im i n to as uccessfu l p ropagand ist o f t he s a in ts ' d eeds a nd i n to a r e l ig ious l eader. He w ished t o s pread t he g ood word " even t o t he c rews o f s h ips i n t he A t lan t ic" a nd f i na l ly b eca me a n o rthodox p reacher — a p os i t ion o f c ons iderable s ta tus .25 C iv ic d ign itar ies p layed n o p art i n t he l i fe o f Andreas S a los.

D il igence

b rought h im s en ior ity i nh is master 's h ouseho ld a nd f raud b rough t h im r elease i n to a w or ld o f m inor c ler ics a nd w idows, wh ich w as p unctua ted o n ly b y t he a t ten t ions o f Ep iphan ius a nd men t ion o f c orrup t ion among d eacons. Th is a nd t he h istor ica l-nove let te n ature o f t he work , a dm irab ly a rgued b y S . Murray , e xp la in t he h eavy-handed s ymbo l is m a i med a t ad i f feren t , l a ter a ud ience . 2 6 The A lexandr ian h ea lers, Cyrus a nd J ohn , e ncoun tered a c o m mun ity a rt i f ic ia l ly r estr icted t o t hose w ith s u f f ic ien t money a nd l e isure t o i ndu lge i n c oncern f or t he ir h ea lth. Aga in t he s tatus o f p at ien ts i s n o t a lways g iven b ut c an o f ten b e d educed f rom t i t-b its o f i n for mat ion . A c l ien t o n al i t ter " carr ied b y s ix teen s laves" was marked o u t a s a man o f w ea l th a nd s ome p o mp. The f act t hat a d eacon 's d augh ter f e l l f rom a h igh w indow i nd ica tes t hat mu lt is torey h ouses w ere i nhab ited ( t hough n ot e xclus ively ) b y t he u pper c lasses . 2 7 I n t he s upposed ly e ga l itar ian s i tua t ion o f t he s a in ts ' s anctuary , t he d eacons w ere a lso p rov ided w ith a s pec ia l r ostrum . 2 8 P oor men when i l l w ere " depr ived o f t he ir l i vel ihood" a s t he h ag iographer a cknow ledged , a nd w ere i n c onsequence e n t it led t o s a in t ly a id 29 Both t hey a nd b et ter-of f c l ien ts w ere l i ab le t o b ecome i nd ignan t a nd b lasphe mous i ft hey d id n ot r ece ive t he h elp w h ich t hey r egarded a s t he ir d ue. The p rofess iona ls a t Abouk ir w ere f a ir ly c osmopo l itan . Ab u ild ing e xpert a nd g eometr ic ian w ere b o th n oted b y t he h ag iographer a s b e ing o f Egyp t ian b ackground.

Th is o bserva t ion may b e i n tended t o i nd ica te c on t inu ing

1 6

n a t iona l p rowess i n t he ma themat ica l a nd e ng ineer ing f i eld, b ut i ta lso g ives away t he c l ien ts ' i nco me b racket.

Cyrus a nd J ohn were much i n terested i n

t h is a spect o f men 's s i tuat ions, a nd p rescr ibed c ures f or a t r ibune a nd a n a r istocrat s uf fer ing f rom a s im i lar e ye c o mp la in t .

The b ureaucra t w as

a ssu med t o h ave s uf f ic ien t money a nd l e isure t o u ndertake

a .

p i lgr i mage t o

t he h o ly s ites o f J erusa le m , p art icu lar ly t he p oo l o f S i loa m, wh i le t he o ther w as e nab led t o h ea l h i mse lf w ith h is own t ears . 3 1

Th is d evelop ing s oc ia l

i mba lance was u nderl ined b y J ohn t he A l msg iver 's h ag iographer i n t he f o l lowi ng a necdo te.

A l and-owner , wh i le s t il l w ea l thy e nough t o o f fer h andso me

g if ts t o t he s a in t d ur ing a f am ine , i ntended t hese a s t he p urchase-pr ice o f a d eacon 's a ppo in tmen t. 3 2

T he p r iv ileges a nd e xe mpt ions wh ich t he o f f ice

c arr ied h ad b ecome , i fn ot e ssen t ia l , a t l east d es irab le a s as afeguard o f h is p os it ion a ga inst e ros ion .

The c ourt ier men t ioned e arl ier h ad c o mp leted

t he c irc le b y p urchas ing e states a nd r espec tab il ity. A lexandr ian s ources a lso o f fer i n forma t ion o n t he p rofess iona l a nd g u ild s tructures wh ich e x isted.

T he n umerous d octors e v iden t ly h ad s ome i n terna l

o rgan isat ion a nd h ierarchy o f t he ir own .

The p apyrus i ndustry a lso was o r-

g an ised w ith t er ms o f a ppren t icesh ip a nd i t s own r u les.

Earl ier n on-hag io-

g raph ic e v idence f or t he sma l l t own o f K orykos h in ts a t s ome g u ild-l ike o rgan isat ion among t he money-changers a nd s i lvers m iths.

Bu t i n t hese s ources

e v idence f or a ny w e l l-def ined c o mprehens ive o rgan isa t ion i s l ack ing.

S tr ict

c odes o fb ehav iour d oubt less e x isted b ut a nother p oss ib le i n terpretat ion wou ld b e o f at e mporary b reakdown o r r elaxat ion o f t he r ig id s yste m o f t he l ate Roman e ra. J ohn t he A l msg iver h ad c on tacts w ith many f ore igners a nd t raders a t tracted t o t he b usy p ort.

S o me o f t hese o ccup ied p ro m inen t p os it ions a nd w ere e n-

g aged i n t he c ity 's d ip lo mat ic a nd e cono m ic b us iness.

The h azards a nd r ewards

o f mar ine t rad ing a re t reated i n v iv id a nd f am il iar d eta i l.

The p rocedure f or

p rov is ion o f s h ips , c rews a nd c argo a nd f or p rof itab le i nvestmen t a ppear wel lt r ied i f s o met i mes a l i t t le h aphazard.

More p rec ise d eta il o f money ma tters

i s g iven h ere i n t h is s ource t han i n a ny o ther. An e x-servan t who e arned t hree n om is ma ta p er a nnu m a s ah ot-wa ter-carr ier i s ay ardst ick f or w age a nd p r ice l eve ls.

3 3

On t h is i nco me h e c ou ld k eep a w ife a nd t wo c h i ldren .3 4

The s a in t

f ound t ha t t he l ow wages o f m inor c hurch o f f ic ia ls e ncouraged c orrupt ion a nd h e t herefore i ncreased t he ir i nco mes — n ot a lways w ith t he d es ired e f fect. 35 The w ea lth a nd b ust le o f A lexandr ia a t tracted h ordes o f b eggars t o who m i t was t he s a in t 's d uty a nd p leasure t o a t tend a nd t o g ive u nceas ing ly. One c ause o f f inanc ia l d if f icu lty f or many was t he h eavy t ax-burden wh ich was a ggravated b y t he c ost o f f ront ier d efence.

N icetas e ven tua l ly r eturned

t he s a in t 's own t ax c on tr ibu t ion b u t o thers w ere d ependen t o n t he A l msg iver a nd o n p rofess iona l money-lenders . 3 6

O ne h arrassed man w as f orced t o t urn t o

t he s a in t when a g randee-of f icer p ostponed a p ro m ised t ax-loan . 37

Th is

i nc iden t i l lu m ina tes a p art o f t he Byzan t ine e cono my wh ich i s o f ten c ons idered c on trovers ia l.

Taxes a s w e l l a s wages were o bv iously p a id i n c ash — a t l east

i n u rban a reas. A we l l-estab l ished mechan is m o f l oans a nd p a tronage i s a lso a pparen t a nd u pon i tt he t ax-payer a nd c o l lector h ad c o me t o r e ly . Through t h is a d eve lop ing c lass o f m il i tary a nd b ureaucrat ic l and-owners d er ived p ower

1 7

a nd r espec tab il ity.

The p h i lan throp ic a spect o f t he ir a c t ion w as p ra isewor thy

a nd t hey r eaped l ong-ter m b enef its f rom t he h o ld g a ined o ver t hose who wou ld c on t inue t o n eed t he ir h elp.

The r ise o f t h is c lass i s n o t a n u nknown p henom-

e non , b ut h ere i ti s s een i n e x istence e ar l ier t han h as o f ten b een r ea l ised. There i s a lso e v idence f or t he c on t inua t ion o f t rad it iona l Egyp t ian i ndustr ies, s uch a s t he p roduct ion o f p apyrus. Church c onnec t ions w ith t rade a lso p ersi sted —though n o t i n a l l t he f or ms n oted b y Wipzycha . 3 8 The i nsu lter o f t he A lmsg iver 's n ephew p a id r en t f or h is s hop a nd t axes t o t he A lexandr ian c hurch. 39 S uch a rrange men ts must h ave b een c o mmon .

The i mpress ion g a ined o f

A lexandr ia i s o verwhelm ing ly o f ab usy a nd p rof itab le c i ty.

One money-changer

was s o s uccessfu l t hat h is p rosper ity i nduced h im t o r et ire a nd b ecome a p h ilan throp ist . 40

T h is f l ow o f t rade a nd money a nd t he c iv ic o rgan isat ion w as

l i t t le d isturbed b y t he p rox im ity o f e ne my a ct iv ity a nd p er iod ic e xchanges o f p r isoners. The p icture g iven b y S . S ymeon 's b iographer g ives a v ery d if feren t i mp ress ion o f An t ioch. Desp ite t he t ag o f " the g reat metropo l is" wh ich h e g ave i tf or i t s w ea lth a nd magnet ic q ua l it ies, i t s s epara t ion f ro m t he o ther t wo g rea t c i t ies b ecomes a pparen t.

S ymeon was a n e xamp le o f as a in t c augh t

b etween t he n eeds o f t he u rban a nd r ura l s ect ions o f h is a rea o f r espons ib i l ity. By v irtue o f Med iterranean c urren ts a nd w inds, An t ioch was more i so lated f ro m Cons tan t inop le t han was A lexandr ia. P erhaps t o match t he h arsh l oca l s urround ings, t he emphas is i ns ide S ymeon 's monastery was u pon p overty a nd a bst inence.

Un l ike t he A l msg iver a nd Dan iel , S ymeon w as w ithout p owerfu l

l oca l f r iends, a nd h e h ad n one o f t he a u thor ity c on ferred b y h igh o f f ice o r c o m mun icat ion w ith t he emperor.

S ymeon 's s trugg les w ith t he h u man a nd

s uper-human p owers o f e v il w ere a cu te; d e mons , s orcerers , a nd t hose c orrupted b y w ea l th a nd i delness o pposed h im a s d id t he " ta in ted" me mbers o f t he r u l ing c lass.

O rder a s d es ired b y t he s a in t w as o n ly r estored w ith

t he a id o fa n i mper ia l em issary. Rac ia l p re jud ice was more i n e v idence a t An t ioch t han i n Constan t inop le —o r S e leuce ia.

The J ew ish p hys ic ian a ttend ing Emperor J ust in was l abe l led

a s ah eret ic a nd s orcerer . 4 1 The n umber o f J ews i n t he med ica l p rofess ion was u nder l ined b y t he r eference i n t he m iracles o f S . Thee la t o " go ing t o t he J ews". 42 The ir p resence i n s uch a s k il led p rofess ion may h ave a dded t o t he d isl ike e xpressed t owards b oth J ews a nd d octors. There i s as ugges t ion t hat An t ioch w as s hort o f o ther f or ms o f s k il led l abour.

The c ity c orpora t ion

h ad t o p ay h igh w ages t o e ngage a s tone mason whose " go ld" , ment ioned i n t he h om ily wh ich h e r ece ived o n s igh t , was p robab ly more t han metaphor ical.43 E igh t Ar men ians w ere a lso i mported f or c iv ic p ro jects. The amoun t s to len f rom t he m was t wo y ears ' w ages. 44 S ince t he ir wages w ere i n tact t hey w ere p robab ly p a id o ver a nd a bove l i v ing e xpenses , p resumab ly u nder c on trac t . S ymeon 's monastery was p art ia l ly b u il t b y ag roup o f g ratefu l I saur ians . 4 5 L ack o f money may h ave h indered h im f rom a c t ing b efore, b ut l ack o f al abour f orce m ight e qua l ly we l l h ave b een r espons ib le.

A lthough t he e v idence i n-

d ica tes s o me c iv ic d is in tegra t ion , a t l east f rom t he h ag iographer 's p o in t o f v iew , s k il led workers w ere s t i l l p r ized a nd were n eeded f or c iv ic b u ild ing p ro jects.

1 8

3 .2

The s a in ts ' r e ponses t o v ar ious s oc ia l g roups w ere i fa ny th ing

more p ronounced i n t he sma l ler p rov inc ial c it ies a nd w ere o f ten more p ragma t ic ( c f . Ch. 4 a 2 .2 ) N iko laos ' c oncen trat ion o n t he r ura l s ec t ion o f h is a rea a nd r espons ib il it ies i s o ne i nd icat ion o f t h is. H is i nvo lve men t w ith t he s ea-farers i s a nother. Th is e nab les t he a ud ience t o s ee h ow v cd 3x ,Xnpo L made e x tra money f ro m t he c arr iage o f p assengers a s w e l l a s emphas is ing t he d evoutness o f s a i lors. Ev idence f rom Cos mas a nd Dam ian a nd f rom J ohn t he A l msg iver a lso s uggests t he g row ing v o lume o f c onvoy t rad ing f or monast ic a nd e cc les iast ic s upp ly . A t Myra t he r o le o f t he s ea a s t he ma ins tay o f t he c i ty 's e cono my a nd emp loymen t i s more o bv ious t han a t o ther c en tres.

The c i ty a lso h oused s k il led c raf tsmen .

Wood c arvers h ad t o b e

s ummoned t o Mt . S ion when t he v i l lages c ou ld n o t s upp ly men o f t he c a l ibre r equ ired. 46 A p oss ib le e xp lana t ion i s t hat t he n eed f or s uf f ic ien t c ustom t o make t he ir c raf t v iab le h ad d r iven men o f t h is t ype i n to t he t own . Agr icu lture r e ma ined t he ma in p reoccupat ion o f t he r ura l p opu lat ion a nd t he s uperst it ious f ar m ing v i l lagers r ece ived t he l argest p ort ion o f t he s a in t 's a t ten t ion a nd b enef ited f rom t he g reatest e xerc ise o f h is m iracu lous p owers. These w ere t he s uf ferers f ro m ma lnutr it ion , t hreatened f am ine , i n fert il ity a nd f ear o f d e mons a nd o f t he f requen t ly h ost i le s p ir its o f t he n ature wh ich s urrounded t he m. On t he ir b eha lf N iko laos c our ted t he w ra th o f t he c omb ined s ecu lar a nd e cc les iast ica l a uthor it ies , w ho s ee m t o h ave b een o rgan ised a nd un ited b u t n ot a lways i n t ouch w ith t he t ownspeop le. I n c r ises , t he r efugees f rom t he c oun trys ide d epended o n t he c i ty whose p opu lat ion t hey t e mporar ily swe l led .

The h arshness o f t he e nv ironmen t s ee ms a lso t o h ave made t h is

g ood s a in t-breed ing t err itory , t o j udge f rom t he n u merous h o ly f igures a nd p laces wh ich N iko laos v is ited o n h is j ourney when i n d isgrace. S e leuce ia was c o mparab le w ith Myra i n i t s s eaboard p os it ion a nd i n i t s h arsh h in terland. Bu t t he m irac les o f S . Thee la r ef lect a d if feren t c u ltura l a nd s oc ia l p icture. The a dm in istrat ive p ersonne l w as n umerous a nd c o mp lex i n s tructure.

Pane ls o f a dvoca tes , t r ibuna ls, s evera l b ureaux , a nd

ag overnor t o whom t hey w ere r espons ib le a nd whom t hey a dv ised , w ere a l l men t ioned. I n t he c i ty t here were a lso a m i l itary c om mander o f c ons iderab le s tand ing a nd t roops whose g ra in s upp ly w as t he r espons ib il ity o f t wo me mbers o f t he c i ty c ounc il. The p rospects f or a l oca l g overnmen t p ost f or t hose o f s u itab le b ackground w ere t herefore v ery g ood. Opportun it ies f or c orrup t ion were c orrespond ing ly g rea t a nd i nc iden ts o f c hea t ing a nd embezzle men t a re q uoted.

The n u merous a dvocates a lso i nd icate t he v o lume o f l i t igat ion .

I n

t h is a nd i n g enera l b ureaucra t ic o rgan isa t ion S eleuce ia s eems b et ter s erved t han s ome l ater a nd l arger c iv ic c en tres. The a dvocates who f igured i n t he l oca l g overnmen t a dm in istra t ion may h ave h ad s ome g u i ld-type o rgan isa t ion a nd w ere c erta in ly o f h igh s oc ial s tatus , a nd w ea l thy — a s t he e labora te marr iage p reparat ions f or t he ir c h ief 's d augh ter s how .4 / 7 ( c f . Ch. 2 3 .2 ). Bas i l c oncen trated ma in ly o n t he l oca l 5 vvaTol ,

i n n arrat ing t he m irac les.

H is

p os it ion a s b ishop a nd s pec ia l g uard ian o f t he s a in ts a nd c u l t-s ite n atura l ly i nf luenced h is s e lect ion o f e ven ts a nd i deas t o p or tray .

On ly o ne l oca l a r t isan

a ppeared i n t he s aga. H is l i fe was d ra mat ica l ly a l tered b y p art ic ipa t ion i n t he m iracu lous. As a f erryman h e was c lassed w ith t he " poor manua l workers" o f t he c i ty , b ut h is c ure t ransferred h im t o t he r anks o f t he i l lust r ious a nd c hanged h is j ob f rom d rudgery i n to a " nob le s erv ice t o a l l

1 9

4 8

a t l east a s f ar a s Bas i l ( and h is a ud ience ) w ere c oncerned.

O ther i t e ms o f i n terest c oncern t he s tandard o f e duca t ion w h ich w as a ch ieved a nd e xpected a t S eleuce ia.

Bas i l w as a t p a ins t o s how o f f h is own a t ta inmen ts

a s we l l a s S . Thee la 's a nd t hose o f ag en teel l ady h os tage f rom a n e ighbour ing, b u tlesser, t own . 49

G ra m mar ians a nd p rofessors a lso f igured i n t he m irac les.

L oca l s tandards o f l i teracy w ere h igh , a nd t h is was o bv ious ly r egarded a s a ma tter f or s e lf-congra tu lat ion a nd p r ide .5 0 The s o l idar ity a nd c u ltura l o rder o f t he t own c on trasted s harp ly w ith t he i nsecur ity o f t he s urround ings. The a bsence o f t he r u le o f l aw i n t he h in terl and h e lped t he s upre macy o f d e mon-a ided b r igands who i mper i l led t rave l lers. The moun ta in v i l lages a nd t owns w ere embro i led i n i ncessan t s quabb les a nd p opu lated b y t he l aw less a nd t he i m mora l who p lagued S e leuce ia a nd i t s b ishop.

5 1

Myra a nd S eleuce ia w ere b o th i mpor tan t c iv ic c en tres i n t he ir own r igh t. O ther t owns w ere g iven t he ir s tature s o lely b y t he p resence o f as a in t ( o r i f t hey c ou ld c la im t o b e h is b ir thp lace ) .5 2 I n s uch a c ase t he p rob le m o f e vo lv ing a c iv ic i den t ity wh ich was t o d om ina te t he s urround ing h in ter land was n ot s o d esperate.

Theodore w as t he s a in t o f s uch a c om mun ity a t S ykeon

where a d iv is ion b etween t he a f fa irs o f t own a nd c oun try was v is ible b u t d id n ot c ons t itu te a ma jor d icho tomy a nd s tumb l ing b lock .

Theodore, d esp ite h is

e x traord inary b ackground o f i l leg it i ma te b irth a s t he s on o f ac ourtesan , s ucceeded i n k eep ing o n t he r igh t s ide o f t he a uthor it ies a nd o f t he g overn ing c lass i n g eneral. He r ece ived g if ts f rom s ecu lar a nd e cc les iast ica l d ign it ar ies who f ound h is p atronage u sefu l i n ap ract ica l a s we l l a s as p iritua l w ay. A c erta in amoun t c an b e l earn t a bout t he f unc t ion o f a nd r eact ion t o t he T t poT t x .Topcg The ir o f f ic ia l c apac ity a roused s ome o ppos it ion f rom t he p easan ts a nd g ave t he m amp le o pportun ity f or a buse o f t he ir p os it ion . Theodore c rossed s words w ith o ne w ho o ppressed t he l oca l p easan ts .5 3 They i n t urn o n ly d ared c omp la in i n t he k now ledge o f t he s a in t 's s upport . Another 7poT r i xTwp

was a dmon ished b y Theodore f or w ife-bea t ing — a u n ique e xa mp le

o f emp loymen t a nd f am i ly ma t ters b e ing men t ioned i n t he s a me b rea th. M Hypat ius a nd t he o ther s a in ts i n t he s ub-group o f F estugf ere 's "Mo ines d 'Or ien t" s upp ly l i t t le d eta i led i n for ma t ion i n t h is a rea e xcep t f or t he c areers o f t he s a in ts t he mse lves. J ohn Hesychaste s howed t he most i n terest ing p rogress ion . O f h igh b irth a nd a g ood e duca t ion , h e h e ld o f f ice i n t he c iv ic a nd i mper ia l g overnmen t a f ter a s uccessfu l m il itary c areer. H is b rotherin-law w as t he g overnor o f Ar men ia a nd u nab le t o r ise h igher i n p rov inc ia l s ecu lar s oc iety a nd o f f ice, J ohn b eca me a b ishop. H is n ew Ale c aused a b reach b etween c hurch a nd s tate, a nd J ohn s ough t t he " tranqu il ity" o f ad esert s a in t 's c e 1 1. 55 Desp ite t h is l ik ing f or i so lat ion a nd q u iet , e ven r ura l s a in ts c ou ld d isp lay a p ro-urban o ut look . Hypa t ius r e marked t hat Phryg ian c ler ics were e x tre mely i l l-educa ted a nd s tup id...."as w as n atura l i n t he c oun try". 5 6 4 .

S um mary.

Career a nd p lace i n s oc iety w ere t he p r i mary c ons idera-

t i on o f a Byzan t ine ma le 's l i fe.

The c ompet it ive n ature o f s oc iety a nd t he

s tress l a id u pon d e monstrab le ma ter ia l s uccess was l arge ly r espons ib le a nd may a lso b e c u lpab le f or t he l ess w el l-def ined e th ical c ode r ela t ing t o t h is s ide o f l i fe. The f am i ly , wh ich was s econdary t hough s t i l l e nor mous ly i mp ortan t , h ad i t s r ela t ionsh ips a nd mores much more c lear ly d ef ined. 2 0

4 .1 The f am i ly a f fa irs o f t he man w ere d iv ided i n to p r imary a nd s econda ry s e ts o f r e lat ionsh ips w h ich g ave h im a r o le w ith r ig id , t rad it iona l a n t i s tab il is ing l im its ; d iv is ion o f r espons ib i l ity w as e v iden t i n a l l a reas o f f am i ly a nd h ouseho ld mat ters. T o t he man f e l l t he s elect ion o f c areer a nd h igher v oca t iona l e duca t ion f or h is s ons a nd a d uty t o a ppear a s t rong a nd r espons ib le p a terfam i l ias f or t he e n t ire h ouseho ld — w ithout a ctua l ly c oncerni ng h i msel f w ith i t s e veryday r unn ing.

Hav ing r el inqu ished t h is b o therso me

t ask t o h is w ife, h e was s t i l l r espons ib le f or h er w e l l-be ing a nd ma jor d ec is ions a f fect ing h er l i fe.

Much o f h is r espons ib i l ity a nd t he way i n w h ich i t

worked i s l ef tu nsa id a nd c an o n ly b e o bserved t hrough t he r o le o f Byzan t ine w o man .

S uch f am i ly l i fe-s ty le a s i s p ro jected i nh ag iography b elonged t o

t hose w ith h o mes a nd s ervan ts, w h ich p resupposed a c er ta in s tandard o f w ea l th a nd l i v ing.

The p oor, s laves, e unuchs a nd c r im ina ls f i gure l i t t le, i f

a t a l l , i n t hese s ources a nd t o s o me e x ten t t he p ic ture o f t h is s ector o f men 's l i ves i s , t herefore, l im ited. 4 .2 A r are o ccas ion o n wh ich f am ily a nd b us iness c ame i n to c on tact was t he e ven t o f a marr iage. T he f am i ly c ircle was w ide a nd o f e x tre me i mport ance n ot o n ly i n i t se lf b u t a s a means o f g a in ing b us iness c on tacts a nd i nf l uence.

A marr iage c eremony w as a ma jor a rena f or e x tend ing t h is c ircle

a nd p u t t ing s uch c on tacts i n to e f fect. f am i ly a nd b us iness mat ters.

The c areer o f t he s on t oo i n fr inged u pon

T ra in ing h im f or t he s a me o r as im i lar c areer

a s t he f a ther was a c om mon p ract ice a nd w as e nhanced b y t he u se o f v ar ious f or ms o f n epot is m a nd f am i ly i nf luence a nd b y t he t rad it iona l r espect i n wh ich as on h eld h is f a ther. Hag iography g ives g l i mpses i n to t he e x tra-fam ily l i fe o f a l l k inds o f Byzan t ine c i t izens, p oor a nd i n f luen t ia l a l ike.

The c oncen tra t ion o f t he

h ag iographer t ends t o b e u pon t he p owerfu l o f t he l oca l ity who most a f fected t he l i fe o f t he s a in t. Constan t inop le a nd A lexandr ia d isp lay t he w idest r ange o f o ccupa t ions, o pportun it ies a nd s tatus d ist inct ions d er ived f rom work . Th is r ange s pread f rom t he c ourt ly i n tr igues a nd p reoccupa t ions s urround ing Dan iel t o t he mu l t itud inous amen it ies a nd o ccupa t ions i l lustrated i n t he m ir acles o f Cos mas a nd Dam ian a nd o f J ohn t he A lmsg iver t o t he r a ther r ar iN evertheless , i tw as

f i ed e nv ironmen t o f Abouk ir , t he A lexandr ian s pa.

t he b iographer o f Cyrus a nd J ohn who i so lated t he p rob le ms o f t he s ick p oor. I t was a lso h e, t ogether w ith t he b iographer o f J ohn t he A lmsg iver, who d rew a t ten t ion t o t he c hang ing b a lance o f p ower b e tween t he o ld , l anded a r istocracy a nd t he n ewer b ureaucracy . I ti s p oss ib le t hat t h is w as more n ot iceab le a tA lexandr ia where t he t wo w ere l ess f used t han a t Constan t inop le. The p l igh t o f t he o rd inary t ax-payer i s a lso i l lum inated , a long w ith t he mec han is ms b y wh ich i t was c ircumven ted. A lexandr ia w ith i t s e normous v o lume o f c o m merc ia l a ct iv ity a nd i t s l i qu id a ssets must h ave b een a g ood s ource o f p rov inc ia l c ash f or t he i mper ia l t reasury. An t ioch d oes n ot p resen t ap icture o f ab a lanced e conomy w ith a r ich h arvest f or t he c ap ita l. I t s c i t izens d id n ot d isp lay t he s ame w el l-ordered r esponse t o t he ir p recar ious g eograph ica l s i tuat ion a s t he A lexandr ians. The b ureaucart ic s tructure w as t here b ut r equ ired i mper ia l a nd s a in t ly i n terference t o p reven t i t s c o l lapse u nder h ardsh ip , c orrup t ion a nd h eresy.

2 1

Th is a t l east i s t he i n ference o f S ymeon 's h ag iographer — whose a pproach may n ot h ave b een e n t irely o pen- m inded. The b alance o f c iv ic a nd r eg iona l i n tere sts was a nother p rob le m wh ich b eset t he s a in t a nd wh ich w as a b as is f or c o mpar ing An t ioch n ot w ith t he g rea t c i t ies, b u t w ith t he ir l esser b rethren o f t he s econd g roup. Both S e leuce ia a nd Myra s uf fered most n o t iceab ly f rom t h is d ichotomy , t he l a t ter w ith more s er ious r epercuss ions f or h ag iography . A lthough b oth o f t he m d epended o n t he s ea a nd u pon a gr icu l ture, o n ly a t Myra i s t he r eader made a cutely aware o f t h is ; a t S eleuce ia h e i s f ar more o ccup ied w ith a s ee m ing a rmy o f o f f ic ia ls. V irtua l ly n o o ther f or m o f emp loymen t i s men t ioned i n t he c i ty , a nd o u ts ide t he i mpress ion i s ma in ly o f t he h ordes o f b r igands — who w ou ld o therw ise p resumab ly h ave b een u ne mp loyed a nd/or b are s ubs istence f ar mers. Ev idence f or l esser t owns b ears w itness o n ly t o t he e x istence o f o f f ic ia ls o f l oca l g overnmen t a nd d efence, a n e x tens ive p easan try , t he o ccas iona l wander ing o r s tat ionary h o ly man o r ap agan o pponen t , s uch a s as orcerer, a nd c ler ics o f v ar ious r ank . F ro m o ther e v idence w e c an a ssume t hat t h is p icture w as d iscret ionary r a ther t han c omp lete, b ecause o f e v idence f rom o ther s ources a nd b ecause t he p et ty c raf ts men o f t he v i l lage w ere n ecessary f or i t s s urv iva l. 5 7 The c on tacts a nd i n terests o f t he h ag iographer g ive a f ar f rom f u l ly r epresen ta t iona l p ortra it o fu rban l i fe nn d e ven l ess o f o ne i r t he s em i-urban f r inges.

N evertheless t he p icture i s v a l id f or t he d eta ils i t

d oes g ive a nd wh ich a re u nob ta inab le e lsewhere, a nd f or t he i ns igh t g iven o n t he p reoccupa t ions w ith in t h is s phere o f t he mos t a r t icu late , w ide ly s pread a nd i n f luen t ia l v o ice i n e ar ly Byzant ine s oc iety.

2 2

NOTES

1 .

J ohn t he A l msg iver , p ara. ( 1 ) 3 .

2 .

S y meon , p ara 2 -3.

3 .

S . Dan ie l , p aras , 6 8-9.

4 .

Cos mas a nd Da m ian , mir. n o. 1 6.

5 .

S . Theodore o f S ykeon , p ara 1 -4.

6 .

Cos mas a nd Da m ian , mir. n o. 1 3.

7 .

S ymeon , p ara. 2 29.

8 .

I b id. p ara 18.

9 .

I . Cor in th ians 7 .

1 0.

Cos mas a nd Da m ian , mir. n o. 1 8.

1.

W. Ceran , s ee b ib l iography .

1 2.

S . Thec la , mir. n o. 2 4.

1 3.

Change a f ter t he b eg inn ing o f v ery e ar ly t ra in ing wou ld t herefore s ee m t o h ave b een u nusua l.

1 4.

I b id., mir. n o. 4 .

1 5.

S . Dan iel , p ara. 8 6.

1 6.

Cos mas a nd Da m ian , m ir. n o. 3 4.

The n or ma l a ge f or t h is s acra men t t o b e u nder taken s ee ms n ot t o h ave b een f ixed.

1 7.

I b id., p ara. 8 8.

1 8.

J ohn t he A l msg iver, ( i )

1 9.

J ohn t he A l msg iver , p ara. ( i i ) 2 9.

2 0.

Andreas S a los , p ara. 2 2.

2 1.

S . Dan iel, p ara. 2 5.

2 2.

I b id., p ara. 3 1.

2 3.

I b id., p aras. 4 8-9.

2 4.

Cos mas a nd Da m ian , m ir. n o. 3 9.

2 5.

I b id., mir. n o. 2 6.

2 6.

S . Murray , s ee b ib l iography.

2 7.

Cyrus a nd J ohn , p aras. 5 , 1 1.

2 3

2 8.

I b id., p ara. 6 1.

2 9.

I b id., p ara. 5 6.

3 0.

I b id., p aras. 4 2, 4 9.

3 1.

I b id., p aras. 4 7 , 4 7.

3 2.

J ohn t he A lmsg iver , p ara. ( i i ) 1 2.

3 3.

I b id., p ara. ( i i ) 1 .

3 4.

Th is i n for ma t ion a lso h elps t o make s ense o f t he i nscr ipt ion f ro m K orykos wh ich r eads t hat a p erson w as " worth 2 ( or 3 ) ( s i lver ) n om is ma ta."

3 5.

I b id., p ara. ( i i ) 4 .

3 6.

I b id., p aras. ( i i ) i , 2 9.

3 7.

I b id., p ara. ( i i ) 2 9.

3 8.

Wipzycha , s ee b ib l iography.

3 9.

J ohn t he A l msg iver , p aras. ( i i ) 1 5-16.

4 0.

I b id., p aras. ( i i ) 3 8-9.

4 1.

S ymeon , p ara. 2 10-11.

4 2.

S . Thec la , m ir. n o. 2 .

4 3.

S y meon , p ara. 1 80.

4 4.

I b id., p ara. 2 37.

4 5.

I b id., p ara. 1 92.

4 6.

S . N iko laos, p ara. 1 9.

4 7.

S . Thec la, m ir. n o. 5 .

4 8.

I b id., m ir. n o. 7 .

4 9.

I b id., m ir. n os. 2 4-6, 1 31, 4 .

5 0.

I b id., m ir. n os. 2 4-6, 3 1.

Bas i l may a lso h ave b een e x tra e ager t o

s tress c onnec t ions b etween t he s a in t 's c u l t a nd l i teracy i n o rder t o o f fs et o r d isprove a n e xc lus ive ly p agan h er itage o f c lass ica l l earn ing. 5 1.

The a u thor u nder l ined h is p o in t b y a l low ing h i msel f s o me f anc ifu l c hr isten ing o f s uch v i l lages - f or e xa mp le " Lystraegon ia" , o r r obbers ' c orner.

5 2.

Theodos ius ' b irthp lace was " an o bscure v i l lage" , b ut b eca me t hrough i t s a ssoc ia t ion w ith t he s a in t " i l lustr ious a nd f a mous". d 'Or ien t , 1 13, p ara. 1 .)

5 3.

Theodore o f S ykeon , p aras, 7 6-7.

5 4.

I b id., p ara. 1 49.

2 4

( Mo ines

5 5.

Mo ines d 'Or ien t , v o l. 3 , p art I I, c h. i v .

5 6.

I b id., v o l. I , p ar t ( i ), c h. i .

5 7.

Ep itaphs f ro m K orykos s how t he w ide v ar iety o f c raf ts p rac t ised i n a sma l ler t own o f a n e ar l ier d ate.

I n p ar t t h is o bscur ity may b e d ue t o

p easan ts ' d oub le r ö le a s f ar mer a nd c raf ts man , b ut h e w as r emembered f or h is ma jor o ccupa t ion w h ich h e s hared w ith h is f e l low v i l lagers.

2 5

CHAPTER I :

THE POS IT ION OF BYZANT INE WOMEN

I n troduct ion Byzan t ine wo men c o mpared t o t he ir c lass ica l p redecessors D if f icu l t ies o f r ead ing b etween ( ma le ) l ines 1 Method 1 .1

D iv is ion o f n or ma l a nd a bnor ma l l i fe-pat tern — f am ily r ö le

1 .2

S oc ia l r o le

1 .3

Career wo men , t he o dd-ones-ou t

2 Ev idence 2 .1

Mater ia l a nd o ther a dvan tages o f t he s yste m

2 .2

Wo men a nd t he l aw

3 Ev idence :

Fa m i ly

3 .1

Marr iage a nd p rocrea t ion

3 .2

Wife a nd d oub le s tandards

3. 3

Ch ildren a nd e duca t ion f or c on t inu ity

3 .4

Re l ig ion a nd h osp ita l ity

4 Ev idence :

S oc iety

4 .1

S oc ia l r ö le c en tred o n t he f am ily

4 .2

L e isure a nd g oss ip

5 Ev idence :

Career Wo men

5 .1

Ecc les iast ics a nd h o ly women

5 .2

Wo men i n p ower :

5 .3

P rofess iona ls :

5 .4

F e ma le e ducat ion a ccord ing t o a ma le-based i deo logy

empresses

p rost itutes

6 S u mmary

2 6

CHAPTER TWO THE POS IT ION OF BYZANT INE WOMEN

F in ley h as d escr ibed t he women o f Rome a s s i len t ; Byzan t ine w omen w ere c onsp icuous ly u ns i len t. The ir Ale i n t he f am ily a nd i n s oc iety h as n ever, h owever, b een a ccorded t he a t ten t ion i td eserves.

Many s tr ik ing

w omen f igure i n Byzan t ine p o l it ica l h istory , w h ich d ist ingu ishes i tf rom c lass ica l a nd e astern t rad it ion . The ir i n f luence was n o t s ynonymous w ith i ndependence a nd w as n o t af orce f or c hange. To a l arge e x ten t , w o men 's s treng th w as d ependen t u pon t he ir a b i l ity b oth t o r epresen t a nd t o p romote o rder i n t he s oc iety a nd i n t he h o me. F or t h is t o b e p oss ib le o ver a l ong p er iod i t was n ecessary t hat t he e stab l ished s yste m o f mar ita l a nd materna l d u t ies s hou ld h ave i n terna l f l ex ib i l ity a nd e x terna l l et-ou ts o r a lterna t ives. The t rack o f wo men i n h ag iography r equ ires e ven more r ead ing b e tween t he l ines t han o ther t op ics a nd t he p icture wh ich emerges i s s ketchy b u t s u ff i c ien t t o c on tr ibu te s ubs tan t ia l ly t o t he o vera l l i mpress ion o f s oc iety a nd i t s f ra mework wh ich was p u t f orward a bove. 1 .

Women d iv ide c onven ien t ly i n ( a ) t hose w ho f i t ted i n to t he n or ma l p at-

t ern o f f am ily e ven ts a nd ( b ) t he o dd o nes o u t w ith c areers. 1 .1

The f or mer c a tegory e ncompassed t he v ast ma jor ity o f w omen . The

f am i ly Ale i nc luded ( i ) h usband-w ife r e lat ions ( i nc lud ing t he marr iage ), ( i i ) c h i ld b ear ing a nd r ear ing i n e ar ly y ears , ( ii ) h ouseho ld manage men t.

Th is

l ast i nc luded r unn ing t he h ouseho ld s taf f , h osp ita l ity ( i nc lud ing t he r espons ib i l ity t owards v ar ious u nmarr ied o r w idowed r ela t ions ) a nd a lso r espons ib i l ity f or t he f am ily 's r el ig ious a nd mora l r ec t itude. 1 .2 Wives a nd mo thers a lso h ad a p art t o p lay i n s oc iety a s t hey w ere t he p r imary med ium o f g oss ip a nd c om mun ica t ion i n g roups c onnec ted b y f am ily o r o ther t i es. 1 .3 Career women i n Byzan t iu m c ons isted c h ief ly o f t he u nmarr iageab le a nd t hose w ith a t rue v oca t ion f or t he r e l ig ious l i fe, b u t a lso i ncluded w omen w ith p ower o r w ith a p rofess ion , h owever r are. 2 .1

Th is " syste m" , i th as t o b e a dm it ted , h ad c erta in b u i ltin a dvan tages.

S econd c lass c i t izensh ip b y marr iage e n ta iled mater ia l b onuses o f p rotect ion a nd p rov is ion . A wo man b rough t t o S s. C os mas a nd Dam ian b y h er h usband w as s a id t o b e " l ike a l l wo men , a fra id o f n ausea" .1

S uch a s tereo typed a t t itude t o w omen 's

w eaknesses h igh l igh ts a no ther c ons idera t ion :

s uch e v idence a s w e d o p ossess

a bou t wo men was w r it ten b y men b e long ing t o as oc iety o f ma le-for mu lated v a lues a nd f or a p redo m inan t ly ma le a ud ience. 2 7

An a dvan tage t hat t h is s oc iety h eld f or b o th s exes w as i t s i ndu lgence f or t a len ted o pportun ists. Beauty a nd p ersonal ity won a dvan tageous marr iages f or l ad ies o ther t han Theodora. t he h usband.

S tatus w as e n t irely d ependen t u pon t hat o f

Al ess a pparen t b u t most i mpor tan t f ema le a dvan tage w as a

c u l tura l i nher itance o f e s tab l ished f am ily mores a nd r edes w h ich r equ ired o n ly t o b e f u lf il led — a nd w ithout i n terference, s ince t he v a lues wh ich s oc iety imposed a lso i nh ib ited ma le medd l ing. 2 .2

Wo men w ere n ot w ithou t r igh ts.

The l aw a l lowed t hem t o own p rop-

e rty , t hey w ere e n t it led t o d ivorce a nd r eta ined s ome r ights o ver t he ir d owry . Early Byzan t ine l eg isla t ion l ef t t he t heoret ica l s truc ture o f Roman l aw l i t t le c hanged. Hag iography o n t he who le s huns t he s ub jec ts f ound i n l ega l c odes a nd d e monstra tes i t s a t t itude o n ly w ith r egard t o a du ltery . Th is om iss ion c anno t b e t aken a s p roof o f t he ir a bsence f rom t he Byzan t ine s cene — a l though t he l aw c ode i s u ndoubted ly e qua l ly m is lead ing. 3 . F am i ly. Marr iage, a s i n t he p rev ious c hap ter , i s t he b est v an tage p o in t f rom wh ich t o v iew t he r e lat ionsh ips o f t he a verage Byzan t ine w o man 's l i fe. Des ires f or l eg it i ma te p rocrea t ion , ( Chr ist ian ) s oc ia l p ract ice, c hurch , s tate a nd h ag iography a l l j o ined f orces t o p romote c h i ld-bear ing a nd t he mar ita l s tate. Even a n e ncoun ter b etween a d u mb w oman a nd a p ara ly t ic f or h ea l ing p urposes w as r eso lved i n marr iage t o f i t t he h ag iograph ical d es ign .2 I rregu lar ity i n marr iage w as b lamed f or a no ther c l ien t 's i l lness.

I n y et

a nother c ase t he p rospect ive b r ide 's f a ther t hrea tened t o f ind a n a l ternat ive g room when t he Chr ist ian o f t he g irl 's c ho ice w ished t o d e lay t he c ere mony u n t il s he h ad b een c onverted. 3 .2

The w ife 's d u t ies t owards h er h usband i nc luded t he c arefu l n urture

o f h is r eputat ion , a nd s ince h er own s tand ing d epended u pon h is, t here w as a n e le men t o f v ested i n terest.

The r everse o f t h is w as t hat t he h usband s hou ld

b e c oun ted f ortuna te b y h is p eers i n h is c ho ice o f aw ife whose v irtue a nd a b i l ity f or manage men t a s a mother a nd h ousekeeper r ef lec ted f avourab ly o n h i m.

H is b ad q ua l it ies h ad i n t urn t o b e c oncea led b y h er.

Without a po logy ,

t he Odyssey i s i n troduced a s a n a p t p ara l le l model — o ne w ith wh ich Byzan t ine s oc iety was , moreover , w e l l a cqua in ted.

O dysseus w as c omp l i men ted o n h is

c ho ice o f aw ife whose c onstancy , w isdom, j ust ice a nd a b il ity t o r eta in t he r espect o f c h i ldren a nd h ouseho ld w ere s o e v iden t. s ame a s t hose a scr ibed t o t he ot i xo5gano L va

The q ua l it ies w ere t he

i n a n Anato l ian i nscr ip t ion

r ecorded b y L . Robert. 3 P lu tarch a lso w rote o n t he r espec t d ue t o t he " good w oman".

S he w as t o

b e s ub m iss ive, c ou ld a lways b e c onquered b y f orbearance a nd r eason , a nd q uarrels s hou ld b e k ep t d iscreet ly p r iva te. The r ewards f or t he h usband w ere t o b e l i fe long . 4

S uch n ob le f orbearance w as d e monstrated b y J ohn , t he

h usband o f Martha , wh ile h e w a ited f or h er s crup les o n marr iage a nd i n terc ourse t o b e o vercome. 5

Another h usband c on t inued t o s eek a id f ro m

S ymeon f or h is d e men ted , d e mon-possessed w ife d esp ite h er " hard-hear ted" d esert ion o f t he h o me a nd f am ily a nd d esp ite h is o bv ious ly d im in ish ing h o ld o n h er .6 M istreated w ives e x isted , o f c ourse, d esp ite Chr ist ian e th ics a nd l ega l s anct ions a ga inst b la tan t m isbehav iour.

2 8

Hag iograph ica l s ources c on ta in f ew

e xamp les, a s t hey w ere s upposed t o b e mora l ly i nsp ir ing f or t he a ud ience, a nd t herefore t ended t o m in im ise s uch u ned ify ing d eta ils. Another f unct ion o f t he w ife w as t o a ct a s g uard ian o f t he h usband 's c iv i li sed b ehav iour.

P lutarch 's a dv ice t hat w ives s hou ld p lay a l arge p art i n t he

d evelopmen t o f t he h usband 's a t t itude i n t h is r espect was e choed b y P au l. A f ter t wo w ives c onsu lted S ymeon o ver t he ir u ncou th a nd r ude s pouses, t here w as a marked i mprove men t i n t he h usbands ' b ehav iour . 7

T he d espera te

s t ep t aken b y t he w ife i n p ub l ic is ing s uch u nmen t ionab le s ub jects may h ave b een l argely r espons ib le f or t he c hange t hrough t he p ressures o f ma in ta in ing s oc ia l a ppearances. I n a du ltery t oo t he n ecess ity o f k eep ing u p a ppearances f avoured t he c ont i nua t ion o f d oub le s tandards. One b etrayed w ife w as a fra id o f t he " ou trage t o h er h onour" — t hat i s , p ub l ic o p in ion wh ich h eld h er r espons ib le a nd made h er r id icu lous. 8 ( Her r e medy f rom S . Thee la w as a n i ncrease i n h er own b eau ty i n o rder t o r ecapture h er h usband f rom t he a ttract ions o f h is m istress — s ee Chapter 4 ).

I tw as n ot t he h usband who w as b lamed , r esen ted o r

p un ished b y t he w ife o r h ag iography .

T he " fa ilure" o f t he w ife a nd e v i l c harms

o f t he m istress b ore t he r espons ib i l i ty i nstead. The emphas is o n p hys ical a t tract ion b etrays t he s lan t o f Byzan t ine v a lues, w h ich was e ngra ined i n c ommon c u l tura l a t t itudes a nd wh ich r esu lted f rom t he p redom inan t ma le i n terpreta t ion o f s uch mat ters. The s ame may b e s a id o f t he " v irtues" o f wo men . They w ere a n i dea l b ased u pon t he ma le i n terpret a t ion o f t he f e ma le c oun terparts o f ma le v irtues o f e ndurance , s treng th a nd r esourcefu lness. The mora l t a le s urround ing a du l tery w as c on t inued t hrough t he s ame i nc iden t i n t he mirac les o f S . The da w hen t he w ife f o l lowed t he P lu tarch ian c ode a nd n ever r epr i manded h er h usband.

The m istress w as h e ld c h ief ly t o b la me

a s s he t hreatened t he o rder ly p at tern o f marr iage a nd l eg it i ma te p rocrea t ion . L a ter, h owever, t he s a me w ife , n ow w idowed , p rov ided a f urther o b ject l esson. S he e loped w ith a c o m mon mu le-breeder a nd was a ga in t o b la me — t h is t ime f or s acr if ic ing h er s oc ia l a ssets a s t he w idow o f a n i n f luen t ia l m il it ary c om mander.

F idel ity i n w idowhood was h eld t o b e d es irab le a l though

n o t w ide ly p ract ised o r r equ ired b y l aw.

T he r ea l " cr i me" was t he s oc ia l

b reach — wh ile a man m igh t marry b eneath h im w ith i mpun ity i ft he w oman h ad a t tract ions e nough t o o f fer, a w o man o n ly l ost b y s uch f oo lhardy a ct ion . Ma le a du lterers a re o n ly men t ioned i n a n a dverse l i ght where t hey w ere h e ld g u i lty o f o ther, more s er ious , s ins. A g roup o f r evel lers w ere a t tacked b y S ymeon , ma in ly o n a ccoun t o f t he ir b lasphemy a nd i do la try —bu t a du l tery w as a lso men t ioned among t he ir t ransgress ions .9 Even t he s usp ic ion o f a du l tery w e ighed u nequa l ly . One s usp ic ious h usband h ad r ecourse t o t he o racu lar p owers o f S s. Cos mas a nd Dam ian f or j udge men t o nh is w ife .1 ° A s usp ic ious w ife i n t he s ame s i tuat ion c ou ld o n ly wa it .

I f

h er f ear w ere c on f ir med s he w ithdrew i n to t he s he l l o f h er r espectab i l i ty , u n less s he c ou ld s um mon s uperna tura l a id.

O dysseus c ou ld r un t he w ho le

g amu t o f s exua l r elat ionsh ips a nd e xpect P ene lope t o wa it " constan t a nd w ise" a t h o me. S he r eta ined h er v irtues — a nd O dysseus r eturned t o h is h ome, t o h is h earth-tree wh ich was a lso h is b ed a nd t he p i l lar o f h is h ouse.

2 9

The s ymbo l is m r e ma ined p owerfu l a nd v a l id. 1

T h is w as t he s tab il ity o f

marr iage o n wh ich t he w ife h ad t o d epend a nd u sua l ly c ou ld. Deta i ls o f t he a ctua l p rocess o f marr iage a re a lso i n forma t ive. Martha a nd J ohn t he A l msg iver w ho w ished t o r ema in c el iba te w ere o n ly p ersuaded t o t ake o n t he " yoke o f marr iage" b y t he i nvocat ion o f f i l ia l d u ty a nd o bed ience t o t he ir p aren ts.

Wh ile J ohn w a ited f or Martha t o c hange h er m ind o ver

marr iage a nd c e l ibacy , t he f a ther o f J ohn t he A l msg iver 's b r ide s tepped i n t o t hreaten h is s onin-law a nd p ro tect t he g irl 's c on juga l r ights .1 2

The

A lmsg iver 's b iographer, moreover, s aw n o c on trad ict ion b etween t h is b ehav iour a nd h is d escr ip t ion o f t he " gen t le a nd p eace lov ing , p opu lar a nd b e loved" y oung man .

S oc ia l p ressures f avoured f am ily l i fe f or a l l t hose c apab le o f i t .

F am i ly a nd a scet ic l ives c ou ld n ot b e a dequate ly p erformed s i mu l taneous ly b y a nyone, b u t c ou ld t ake p lace o ne a f ter t he o ther. As Martha s howed , a f am i ly o f s a in ts w as n ot a n i mposs ib i l ity. I n Byzan t ine s oc iety f e ma le c h ildren w ere v a luab le, a t t he v ery l east a s marr iage p awns.

Desp ite t he n ecess ity o f p rov id ing a d owry , marr iage o f

d augh ters was a s ound e conom ic a nd s oc ia l i nves tmen t. I te xpanded t he a l limportan tg roup o f k in a nd a ssoc iates. Therefore t he c ho ice o f marr iage p artner w as o f ten t oo i mportan t t o b e l ef t i n t he h ands o f t he d irect ly i n terested p art ies.

Martha 's p aren ts s elected J ohn , a nd c hecked h is c reden t ia ls wh ich

w ere t hen l i sted b y t he h ag iographer , a nd n ego t ia t ions t ook p lace w ith h is "r espectab le"

p aren ts.

Wedd ings w ere p ub l ic d isp lays o f t he e x ten t o f

f am i l ies ' w ea lth , s tatus a nd i n f luence.

The marr iage o f a n a dvoca te 's d augh ter

r elated b y Bas i l i n t he m irac les o f S . Thee la i l lustrates t he s oc ia l f unc t ion o f t he c ere mony.

The d epreda t ions o f t he t h ief t hreatened t he s uccessfu l o utcome

f or b o th p aren ts a nd n ew ly-weds.

I t was a lso s ign if ican t ly t he mo ther 's d evo-

t i on t o t he s a in t wh ich s aved t he s i tuat ion .1 3 Unders tandab ly , u nmarr iageab le d augh ters w ere a c ause o f f am ily d ismay a nd s oc ia l s hame.

An i mportan t c r iter ion f or marr iageab i l ity was t he v isua l

a ppearance o f t he g irl.

Many ma lfor med d augh ters w ere t aken t o s a in ts f or

ac ure. The most d eta iled e xamp le w as t he a f fa ir o f J ust in 's d aughter w hose c ure f rom d e mon-possess ion w as p erfor med b y S ymeon t he Younger. B ecause o f h er p ub l ic p os it ion t he c ase w as p roport iona l ly more a cu te .1 4

The d istance

o f t he a gen t o f c ure f ro m Cons tan t inop le may h ave b een a n a dded c onven ience t o t he i mper ia l f am ily . S p inster o r w idowhood r elat ions o f ten b ecame p art o f t he h ouseho ld o f t he ir more f ortuna te s ibl ings. S uch a dd it ions c ou ld l i gh ten t he l oad o f t he w ife , mother a nd oi . xobgcr ,o t i va Aun ts, u nc les a nd o thers a ided i n t he e arly t ra in ing o f o f fspr ing , a nd f or t h is s erv ice, b oard a nd l odg ing was a c heap r eturn . The p ivo t o f marr iage w as p rocrea t ion . among t he s a in ts ' c l ien ts.

I n fert i le w ives a ppear o f ten

On t h is p o in t , h ag iography a nd t he l aw c oncurred

i n p ro mot ing s exua l i nequa l ity.

Any s ugges t ion t ha t i tm igh t b e a t tr ibu tab le

t o t he w ou ld-be f a ther was n ever s tated , o n ly i mp l ied i n a most r oundabou t w ay. W itho ld ing a l eg it i ma te h e ir w as t he u lt i mate f e ma le w eapon , f or t hough i tm igh t b r ing d isgrace o r e ven d ivorce f or h er , t he m iss ing l ink i n t he l i ne

3 0

o f h is h ouse w as a d isaster f or t he h usband.

There w ere, h owever , more

s ubt le methods o fb r ing ing p ressure t o b ear, b u t a l l i nvo lved s ome r isk t o t he w oman. Appea l t o t he s a in t , h owever p ub l ic, was s afer a nd o f fered a d egree o f r el iab i l ity a nd r espectab il ity . 3 .3 P ene lope a nd T e le machus a re a ga in a u sefu l i l lustrat ion o f mo therc h ild r e lat ionsh ips. F i l ia l r espect p reven ted h im f rom t hrow ing h is mo ther o u t a nd a lso i nduced h im t o a venge h er h onour.

F il ia l o bed ience h as a lready

b een s een i n o perat ion i n t he ma t ter o f marr iage f or Martha a nd J ohn t he A l msg iver. When f u l ly i ndependen t a nd e stab l ished a s as a in t , S ymeon c ont i nued t o b e o bed ien t t o h is mother 's d e mands. Her p lea f or t he s afety o f An t ioch b o th o n h er own a ccoun t a nd b ecause o f i t s s anct ity a s S ymeon 's b irthp lace w as a nswered. T he s treng th o f h er h o ld o n h er s on s uperseded e ven t he c onven t ion w h ich d e manded t hat a l l s a in ts s hou ld s ever t he ir f am ily t i es. The e duca t ion o f v ery y oung c h ildren w as i n t he mo ther 's h ands.

The

f a ther 's r ö le i n t he c h ild 's f urther e ducat ion a nd v oca t iona l t ra in ing h as a lr eady b een i l lustrated ( c f . C h. 1 2 .22 ). Ae l ius Ar ist ides ' p reference f or h is n urse a nd s ervan ts r ef lects a p re-Chr ist ian s tate o f h ouseho ld a nd f am i ly a f fa irs s uch a s h ag iography wou ld n ot a dm it. 1 5 T he sma l l b oy o f s ix who r escued h i mself f rom a w o lf t hrough p rayers t o t he s a in t h ad h is mo ther t o t hank f or t he e ar ly t ra in ing w h ich p ro mp ted t h is r esponse t o t he s i tuat ion .1 6 S ick c h ildren were a l most a lways t aken t o t he s a in t b y t he ir mo ther. An e p i lep t ic whose f a ther f avoured c onsu ltat ion w ith d octors a nd p ract it ioners o f H ippocra t ic med ic ine w as s aved b y h is mother who s en t h im t o S s. Cyrus a nd J ohn .1 7 Ano ther mother b rough t ad umb c h ild t o Dan iel 's monastery t o b e b rought u p a s am in ister o f God. The i n mates ' s usp ic ions o f h er r ea l mo t ives i nd ica te t he f requency w ith wh ich o verburdened mo thers s ough t a way o ut o f p overty a nd d if f icu lty f or t he ir o f fspr ing. 1 8 3 .4

But t hese o bserva t ions o f mo ther a nd c h ild r e la t ions h ave a s much t o

d o w ith t he wo man 's p os it ion w ith r egard t o t he f am ily r el ig ion a s w ith motherh ood. Th is i n t urn b r ings u s t o c ons ider t he woman i n t he h ouseho ld. The t ask o f t he oi , x .obgcr to L va w as c o mp lex. I ti nvo lved a s uccessfu l c omb inat ion o f mar ita l a nd materna l d u t ies w ith t hose o f a dm in istra t ion .

The h osp i-

t a l ity a nd r e l ig ious a f fa irs o ft he h ouse w ere a lso a p art o f t h is.

L ow s tandards

i nh osp ita l ity t o k in a nd o thers e ndangered t he g ood n ame o f t he h ouse a nd t herefore o f i t s master. F or t h is r eason a s w e l l a s f or e xped iency , P ene lope w as n ever o vert ly h ost i le t o h er u nwe lcome g uests.

The o rd inary r unn ing o f

t he h ouseho ld w as t he w ife 's r espons ib i l ity a nd w as t o b e p erformed smooth ly t o a l low t he h usband t o g et o n w ith h is t asks a nd c areer u n troub led. c lass a nd w ea l th made s ome d i f ference.

I n t h is,

Al arge s taf f c ou ld b e t ime-consum ing

t o a dm in istra te b ut d id a l lev ia te t he a c tua l work-load f or t he ot xo5gc-r t oL va . The a l leg iance o f s ervan ts w as u ndoub ted ly t o t he h ousew ife, h owever p o ten t af i gurehead t he h usband m igh t b e.

The s ervan ts o f t he J ewess t r icked i n to

b uy ing p ork b y S s. Cos mas a nd Dam ian l oya l ly c oncea led h er t ransgress ion f rom h er h usband. 1 9 The h ouseho ld r el ig ious o bservance w as t he w ife 's r espons ib il ity , t hough n o l onger i n t he s ame way a s i n t he d ays o f Roman l i bat ions t o t he a ncestors. Respec tfu l c onsc iousness o f f am ily h istory was p art o f ar e l ig ious-cu ltura l h er itage.

N everthe less t here w ere c oun terba lances t o t h is " age o f ma le

3 1

e ros ion o f f e ma le r el ig ious a u thor ity" a l leged b y P . B rown . Mater ia l a lready u sed e nab les u s t o e xa m ine t h is a ssert ion . The mothers o f t he e p ilept ic, o f t he c h ild t aken b y t he wo l f , a nd o f o ther s ick o f fspr ing , w ere a l l r espond ing t o t he q ua l ity i n w o men wh ich o thers, n o tab ly I . L ew is, h ave c a l led a n a f f in ity f or t he emot ive o r e cstat ic s ide o f r e l ig ion . 20 S uch a n a f f in ity g ave women a p owerfu l a l ly a nd i nstrumen t o f p ub l ic ity i n t he s a in ts. Th is p ub l ic ity was e xper ienced a t t he c u lt-s ite a nd s pread t hrough t he med ium o f g oss ip.

U pon

man ipu lat ion o f p ressures o f t h is v ery k ind d epended w omen 's p os it ion i n s oc iety , a nd i tw as t heuse o f t he ir l e isure t ime wh ich made t h is a p oss ib i l ity . Th is s i tuat ion was n ea t ly s um med u p i n t he w ords o f t he h ag iographer w hen d iscuss ing t he c ure o f ad eaf- mu te l ady o f h igh r ank i n Constant inop le.

S he

was " sha mefu l ly t a in ted w ith h er i l lness" b ecause " she c ou ld n o t c onverse w ith o thers o f h er own k ind".

2 1

I l lness o f a ny k ind w as a d isf igur ing d isab i l ity .

For a l ess f ortunately p laced woman i t mean t t o ta l i nab il ity t o c ope w ith e veryd ay d u t ies a nd t he s ha me o fb e ing s een t o f a i l. I n b oth c ases , b u t e spec ia l ly i n t he f or mer , i tw as s oc ia l d isab il ity wh ich w as t he w e igh ty f actor. 4 .

S oc iety .

S o much o f h er s oc ia l r o le r evo lved a round t he f am i ly a nd

i t s v is ib le s ta te o f a f fa irs t hat s harp d iv is ions b etween t he t wo f or a marr ied woman w ere l arge ly a cade m ic.

I n t h is t hey d if fered f rom t he men .

Women 's

s oc ia l i nf luence w as ma in ly a s ac o l lect ive f orce. The u t i l isat ion o f t he i nd iv idua l 's l e isure i n ac o l lect ive c ause c ou ld h ave g reat e f fect. Goss ip w as t he t he t hresh ing f l oor o f r epu tat ions a nd t he f oundat ion o f f e ma le i n f luence. J ohn t he A lmsg iver was aware o f t he d amag ing p oten t ia l o f g oss ip a nd f orbad h is f o l lowers t o i ndu lge i n i d le a nd ma l ic ious c ha t , p o in t ing o u t t he d i f f icu l ty o f r ega in ing a g ood r eputat ion o nce l ost. 2 2

Goss ip w as a means o f c om mun i-

c a t ing n ews a nd w as a lso a s ound ing-board f or s oc ia l mores a nd c onven t ions a nd f or t he ir g radua l c hange o r r eten t ion . The l everage o f t h is f orce , b o th o bv ious a nd s ubt le, was c ons iderab le.

I tw as a nswered b y ac o l lect ive f ear

o f women o nt he p art o f t he men , wh ich may h elp t o a ccoun t f or t he c onnect ion o f wo men a nd e v il c om mon t o s evera l c u ltures a nd t raceable i n h ag iog raphy. Apart f rom t he d read o f t e mp tat ion e xpressed b y J ohn o f L ycopo l is a nd o ther r ura l a scet ics, t here w ere i nc iden ts i n w h ich t he f e male r ö le w as s ign if ican t ly c onnected w ith e v il.

S uch w as t he i nstance o f t he w ife o f

Emperor J ust in , w ho i ns isted o n k eep ing t he s erv ices o f t he J ew ish p hys ic ian a nd s orcerer i n d ef iance o fS ymeon 's c om mands. 2 3 p ower a ch ieved l i t t le o n b eha lf o f women .

Y et t h is c o l lect ive

The p a ttern o f f e ma le b ehav iour

was e stab l ished a nd was p assed d own f ro m mother t o d augh ter w ith l i tt le mod if ica t ion t o t he v a lues a nd c onven t ions i mposed b y ma le t rad it ion . Consc ious p ressure w as a lways t owards C c pµov C a a nd away f ro m t he d angers o f i nnnovat ion . Whenever t he mat ter w as r a ised f or a s a in t 's a rb it ra t ion , t he r esponse w as p red ictab ly t ha t t r ied a nd e s tab l ished mores w ere a dvocated a s a modus o perand i. Har mony w as t o b e p romoted i n t he f am i ly a nd i n t he s oc ial s et t ing. T he f unc t ion o f t he ( predom inan t ly f e ma le ) c o mmun i ty g roup i n t h is c on tex t i s c lear ly d e monstrated b y a n i nc iden t i n t he l i fe o f S ymeon t he Younger. Ar obbed w o man h ad b een t o t he s a in t t o c omp la in a nd i n h ope o f r ecoveri ng h er p roperty a nd h ad b een t o ld t o r eturn h ome t o f ind t he g oods.

On h er

r eturn s he f ound t he g oods — a nd a c rowd o f n e ighbours w an t i n g t o h ear w hat

3 2

t he s a in t h ad s a id.

Amongst t he a sse mb led l i steners a nd p o ten t ia l r epor ters

o f h er s tory was t he t h ief , w ho , t err if ied b y t he m irac le, c on fessed a nd w as " cured". 2 4 J ust ice was t hus a ccomp l ished t hrough t he g roup 's p ower a s a rb it er o f b ehav iour a nd a s ag oss ip g enerator. F orbearance b etween members was v i ta l t o t he l i fe o f t he g roup. 5 . Career w omen. T here w ere i n Byzan t ium s ome w omen w ho f orsook o r w ere e xc luded f rom t h is c om mon p at tern . These o dd-ones-ou t f a l l i n to t hree g roups. 5 .1

S oc ia l p ressures a ga ins t s p insterhood h ave a lready b een men t ioned ,

b u t f or t he u nmarr iageab le t he r el ig ious l i fe w as a g reat f ace-saver.

F or

women o f h igh r ank w ith amb it ion o r g enu ine v ocat ion t he c hurch was a g ood c areer o pen ing ; b r idegroo m.

i tc ou ld a lso b e a n e scape f rom p overty o r t he u nwe lcome

The d eaconesses w ho a ppear i n t he s ources w ere o bv ious ly o f

e leva ted s oc ia l o r ig in .

T he f i rst t rave l led w ith a n e n tourage o f s laves a nd

b aggage o n h er " progress" w h ich i nc luded a v is it t o Hypat ius t o t est h is o rthod oxy . The s econd w as a n a un t o f an ob il iss i mus o n p i lgr i mage t o J erusa le m where s he was b anned f rom v is it ing t he h o ly man h i mself. 2 5

Both , h owever,

e n joyed mob i l ity w h ich w as d en ied t o most women . T h is b r ings t o l i ght a n a dd it iona l i ssue. A t t itudes t o women w ere n o t e xempt f ro m g eograph ica l v ar ia t ion . The d esert a scet ics w ere f ar more wary o f t he p oss ib le d angers o f s ee ing w omen t han w ere t he ir more c osmopo l itan c oun terparts. Wo men c ou ld b e s a in ts a s w el l a s d eaconesses. Enough h as a lready b een s a id o f Martha 's d iv ided a ct iv it ies, b ut t he m irac les o f S . Thee la p rov ide i n terest ing a dd it iona l ma ter ia l. H er h ag iog rapher n o tes n ot o n ly h er omn ipresen t p ower b u t a lso h er g ood e ducat ion a nd h er j ea lous p ro tect ion o f h er s i te a nd a ttendan ts.

Her a tt itude t owards

o ther wo men was most ly k ind , b u t Bas il s howed h i mse lf h arsh o n mora l l apses i n o ther f e ma les.

T here i s l i t t le i n h is p ortra it o f h er t hat i s s pec i-

f i ca l ly f em in ine; h er q ua l it ies c ou ld e qua l ly w e l l b e t hose o f a ma le s a in t. S he w as c omfortab ly o u ts ide y et d id n ot c onf l ict w ith t he s tandard ised f e ma le r ö le. 5 .2

O ther w o men w ith p ower, e ducat ion a nd mob il ity w ere empresses.

Two v is ited S s. Dan ie l a nd E uthym ius. Un l ike women i n t he c hurch , empress es d id h ave a f am ily l i fe. S ince t h is v ar ied more i n d egree t han i n t ype, w e c oncen trate h ere o n t he ir e x tra-fam il ia l l i fe. Eudox ia a nd Eudok ia w ere r e lat ive ly f ree t o r oa m t he emp ire a nd t o g et i n to p o l it ica l a nd r e l ig ious d isc uss ions a s n o r espectab le w oman s hou ld.

They h ad a lso a d u ty t o e xerc ise

p h i lan throp ia. Imper ia l a nd s a in t ly b e ings a s w e l l a s t he w ea lthy w ith s pare c ash h ad t he p r iv ileged d uty t o i ndu lge i n t h is a ct iv ity . The s oc ia l r espons ib i l ity o f a n empress a s d ist inct f rom h er more o rd inary f am ily r ö le w as e xc ept iona l. 5 .3

The o ther c ategory o f w omen o uts iders i s t he o n ly o ne w h ich c an b e

c a l led p rofess iona l. S evera l p rost itu tes a ppear i n t he s ources , a nd e n joyed af avourab le t o lerance o n t he p art o f s a in ts a nd h ag iographers a nd l i tt le a pp aren t s oc ia l s t igma. Un l ike a l ong-ter m m istress , t he o ccas iona l p leasures o f ap rost itu te c onst itu ted n o t hrea t t o t he p eace a nd o rder o f f am i ly l i fe a nd 3 3

l eg it i mate p rocreat ion .

Theodore o f S ykeon , i l leg it i mate s on o f as em i-

r efor med c ourtesan , w as n ot e xc luded f rom b ecom ing a s a in t.

H is mother

c ou ld a lso a f ford a t utor a nd f ine c lo thes f or h im , wh ich i nd icates t he s uccess o f h er h oste lry . 26

Another p rost itu te owned a s i lver c hamber-po t ;

a no ther,

i n Cons tan t inop le, c ou ld a f ford t o r et ire i n to a l i fe o f p h ilan throp ic d eeds. 2 7 P rost itu tes u sua l ly r ece ived a f avourab le h ag iograph ic p ress.

The c our tesan

embro i led i n t he p lot a ga inst S . Dan iel r epen ted , r evea led t he c onsp irators a nd w as k ind ly t rea ted b y t he s a in t a nd h is a ud ience when s he was p ossessed b y ad e mon .2 8

Another p rost itute w as i nsp ired b y t he Ho ly Ghost t o h arangue

t he s in fu l c i t izens o f An t ioch , p art ia l ly i n r esponse t o S ymeon 's p lea f or a l eader o f t he p eop le a ga inst e v i1. 2 9

Martha 's p h i lan throp ia h as a lready b een

men t ioned , b ut t he Constan t inopo l itan a u thor i n troduced a f urther n o te o f s oph ist icat ion i n h is o ut look when h e i mp l ied t ha t p rost itut ion a nd c r i me w ere t he r esu l t o f p overty a nd i nsecur ity i n a n u rban e nv ironmen t.

S uch a n e n-

l ightened a t t itude was f ar f ro m t he h arshness o f t he p ena l c odes a nd f rom t he e arl ier a nd more p rov inc ia l r eact ion o f Bas i l t o mora l l ax ity. One d educt ion wh ich c an b e made f rom t he e v idence r e la t ing t o o u ts ide wo men was t ha t t he ir p os it ion was a ccep ted b y s oc iety a s l ong a s i tc onst itut ed n o t hreat t o i t s n or ma l o rder.

Career wo men w ere t oo r are t o p roduce

a ny r ad ica l e f fec t , b u t t h is w as n ot n ecessar ily t rue o f e ducated wo men . Hag iography , t he s cr ip tures a nd t he c lass ica l l i terary h er itage wou ld h ave b een a va ilab le t o a nd k nown b y many , a nd t he s ymbo ls a nd p ara l le ls wh ich t hey emp loyed wou ld h ave b een f am il iar.

I n p art icu lar , w e a re t o ld t ha t S .

Thee la was w el l-read , " fond o f o ra tory" a nd e n joyed i n tel lec tua l e xchanges w ith l earned men .

A f e ma le h ostage l iv ing a t h er s anc tuary was a lso r epu ted

t o b e g en tee l a nd w el l e duca ted. 3°

Bas il may h ave h ad h is own r easons f or

magn ify ing f e ma le i n tel l igence a nd e duca t ion , b u t h e c ou ld n ot h ave f a ls if ied t he i mage b eyond t he p o in t where i tw as a ccep tab le t o al oca l a ud ience. 6 .

To s u m mar ise t he p os it ion o f wo men i nev itab ly b r ings a c er ta in

amoun t o f p aradox.

The v ast ma jor ity o f Byzan t ine wo men c en tred t he ir

l ives r ound t he e stab l ished f ra mework o f marr iage ( o f ten a rranged ), p rocreat ion ( strong ly u rged ), a nd g ood f am i ly a nd h ouseho ld manage men t .

Th is

p at tern was l ikely t o h ave a b ackground o f as em i-ex tended f am ily s ituat ion wh ich n ecess itated i nheren t r equ ire men ts s uch a s r ig id ity i n f i l ia l-paren ta l r elat ions o f d isc ip l ine a nd r espect .

I ta lso e nhanced t he c on t inu ity o f s oc ia l

b ehav iour a nd f am i ly c onven t ions. Th is f ra mework h e ld a dvan tages f or women ; f i rst ly ma ter ia l a nd s econd ly i n t he s treng th t hey d er ived f ro m t he ir p os it ion a s u nquest ioned a nd u n in terfered-w ith g uaran tors o f h o me o rder. One i l lus trat ion o f t he s tab il ity o f t h is s i tua t ion i s t he a pp l icab il ity o f Homer ic a nd P lu tarchan e th ics. F lex ib i l ity w ith in t he s yste m a lso o perated i n wo men 's f avour.

The d if-

f erence b e tween t he l ega l a nd a ctua l p os it ion i n t h is mat ter was c o mparab le t o t he s a me d ispar ity i n o ther f i e lds, a nd a lso d e monstrated t he mal leab i l ity o f t he s i tuat ion i ns ide t he r ig id f ra mework .

I n a dd it ion , t here w ere t he o ut-

s ide a l ternat ives f or t he wo man whose amb it ion a nd t a len ts r equ ired g reater s cope o r a n e scape.

Po ten t ia l m isf its o r d issen ters who m ight h ave e ndangered

h ar mon ious s oc ia l l iv ing c ou ld b e a cco m modated.

F or t hose w ho r e ma ined

" ins ide" , t he c onnec t ion b etween f am i ly a nd s oc iety was v ery c lose i n aw ay

3 4

q u ite a l ien t o ma le s oc iety . f am ily a f fa irs.

S oc ia l p os it ion a nd i n teract ion r evo lved a round

These w ere d iv ided i n to d if feren t s ets o f r elat ionsh ips, a l l

mutua l ly d ependen t.

Husband a nd w ife r e la t ions w ere f raugh t w ith s exua l

i nequa l it ies, i n a du l tery a nd o ther mat ters. c oex istence w as d ef ined , b u t i t was t here.

The a pparatus f or h ar mon ious At wo-t iered s tructure o f r espons-

i b i l ity e x isted i n wh ich t he h usband c on tro l led t he w ife a nd h er ma jor d ec is ions , w h i le h e c eded t o h er t he f u l l c on tro l o f t he h ouseho ld ma tters , i nclud ing h osp ita l ity a nd r el ig ious o bservance, a nd o f t he c h ildren a nd t he ir e ar ly t ra ini ng.

F or h er p art , t he w ife h ad t o c ope s uccessfu l ly i n t hese a reas t o ma in-

t a in n ot o n ly h er own h onour a nd r eputat ion a s as upp le men tary t o h er h usband 's, b u t a lso t o e nab le h im t o d evote h i mse lf , u nencumbered , t o h is c areer i n s oc iety . Her s uccess i n ma in ta in ing t h is b a lance d eter m ined a marr ied w oman 's s oc ia l p os it ion w ith h er p eers. To a ssert h er p os it ion i n t h is d irect ion , s he n eeded l e isure a nd t he a b il ity t o u se i ti n a ssoc ia t ion w ith h er f e l low-women . S hou ld t h is c apac ity b e l ost o r i mpa ired , h er i nf luence d ecl ined a nd s he h ad r eason f or s hame. G roups o f women h ad a c o l lect ive p ower wh ich w as t he ir means o f i n f luence, t hrough g oss ip o n t op ics r ang ing f rom i nd iv idua l r epu tat i ons t o s oc ia l c onven t ions.

T h is c o l lect ive s trength was r igh t ly f eared b y

men a lthough i t s p o ten t ia l w as n ot e xp lo ited. C lose mother-ch i ld r ela t ions w ere u rged b y Chr ist ian t each ing. F or t he f i rst y ears o f e ducat ion a nd t ra in ing i n mora ls , v a lues a nd r el ig ion , t he mo ther was r espons ib le. Dur ing t h is p er iod a c onsc iousness o f f am i ly a nd w ider h ero is m a nd h istory w as i nst il led a s a n e xa mp le, t hus r educ ing a ny i nst i nct f or i nnovat ion a nd c hange.

The wo man 's r espons ib i l ity f or c h ildren

a nd h ouseho ld s taf f e ncouraged l oya lty t o h er a nd t he v a lues o f o rder wh ich s he r epresented. F ew n ot iceab le d if ferences emerge b etween t he more a nd l ess i n tensely u rban s ources i n f am i ly mat ters. But f or t he " outs ide" women more d if ferenc es a re a pparen t , a ccord ing t o l ocat ion a nd t ime.

F ear a nd s hyness o f wo men ,

f or i nstance, i s more e xp l ic it i n e arl ier a nd more r ura l s urround ings. The most e x tre me c on trast i s b etween t he a t t itude o f S s. C os mas a nd Da m ian 's b iographer t owards c r i me i n t he c i ty a nd Bas i l 's i nd ignat ion o ver t he s educt ion o f T hec ia 's v irg in a ttendan t. Bas i l a nd t he h ag iographer o f S yr ia a nd P a lest i ne wou ld h ave f ound Const an t inop le d istress ing ly " perm iss ive". There w as ad i f ference, h owever, i nt he ir r eact ion t o women .

Bas il d escr ibed h is f ew

p r inc ipa l f e ma le c harac ters v ery f avourab ly — r e mov ing a g reat d ea l o f t he ir d ist inct ly f em in ine a t tr ibu tes i n t he p rocess.

The s a in ts a nd h ag iographers

f urther e ast b la tan t ly e xpressed s uperst it ion a nd d iscr im ina t ion. O bv ious a s much o f t he c on ten t a nd c onc lus ions a re, t hey d eserve t o b e s tated i fo n ly b ecause t hey h ave b een p rev ious ly s o n eg lected. Understandi ng t he p os it ion o f w o men r equ ires a s ubt lety o f a pproach u nnecessary t o a n e xam inat ion o f mater ial r e la t ing t o men a nd t he ir c areers. I n t he f am ily , h owever, t he f l ex ib il ity o f t he s i tua t ion h ad t o b e at wo-s ided a f fa ir. The s i tua t ion o ut l ined h ere i s l i able t o h ag iograph ic b ias.

I n v iew ing t he who le

p icture, i t must a lso b e r eme mbered t hat t he modern r eader i s a t t he mercy o f ma le w r iters, r ef lect ing t he ir own s tandards f or a p redom inan t ly ma le a ud ience.

3 5

NOTES

1 .

Cos mas a nd Da m ian , m ir. n o. 1 6.

2 .

Cos mas a nd Da m ian , mir. n o. 2 4.

3 .

L . Robert i n Hel len ica X [I I, p p. 3 5ff .

4 .

P lu tarch, Mora l ia, Vo l. 2 , p p. 2 14-93.

5 .

S y meon , p ara. 2 .

6 .

S ymeon , p ara. 2 23.

7 .

I b id., p aras. 1 69, 2 12.

8 .

S . Thee la, mir. n o. 4 .

9 .

S y meon , p ara. 1 57.

1 0.

Cos mas a nd Da m ian , mir. n o. 2 5.

1 1.

The Odyssey , e d. Murray , 1 966.

1 2.

J ohn t he A l msg iver, p ara. ( i ) 3 .

1 3.

S . Thec la, mir. n o. 5 .

1 4.

S y meon , p ara. 2 08.

1 5.

S ee C . Behr, i n b ib l iography.

1 6.

S y meon , p ara. 2 38.

1 7.

Cyrus a nd J ohn , p ara. 5 4.

1 8.

S . Dan iel , p ara. 8 9.

1 9.

Cos mas a nd Da m ian , mir. n o. 2 .

2 0.

I . M. L ew is, Ecstat ic Rel ig ion - s ee b ibl iography.

2 1.

Cos mas a nd Da m ian , mir. n o. 7 .

2 2.

J ohn t he A l msg iver, p ara. ( i i ) 4 3.

2 3.

S ymeon , p aras, 2 09-11.

2 4.

S y meon , p ara. 1 81.

2 5.

Mo ines d 'Or ient , v o l. 3 , p art 3 , c hap. XX [I I.

2 6.

Theodore o f S ykeon , p ara. 6 .

2 7.

I b id., p ara. 4 0, a nd Cos mas a nd Da m ian , mir. n o. 1 2.

2 8.

S . Dan iel, p aras. 3 9-40.

2 9.

S y meon , p ara. 1 69.

3 0.

S . Thec la, mir. n os. 2 4-6 a nd 3 .

3 7

PART I

SOCIETY AND THE S AINT

I NTRODUCT ION

The f i rst p art o f t h is s tudy d ea l t w ith t he i nd iv idua l me mbers o f t he f am i ly a nd t he ir r oles i n s ocie ty . I ta i med t o s how t he r e la t ions b etween f am i ly , s oc ia l , a nd p ro fess iona l p os i t ions . F ro m n ow o n t he ma in c oncern w i l l b e t o e xa m ine t he r e la t ions b etween t he s a in t a nd s ocie ty .

T he b es t way t o d o t h is

i s t o l ook a t t he s a in ts ' mos t impor tan t a nd mos t f requen t a c t iv i t ies a nd a t te mpt t o s e t t hese a ga ins t ab ackground o f t he s oc ie ty 's a t t i tudes .

T h is b ackground

r eaches u s t hrough t he med iu m o f t he h ag iographer a nd a l lowances h ave t o b e made f or t h is .

As we s ha l l s ee i n C hap ter f i ve , t he mos t t ime-consu m ing o f

t he s a in ts ' f unc t ions were t hose o f h ea l ing a nd e xorc is m .

T h is med ica l a c-

t i v i ty was t he mos t impor tan t s peci f ic t ype o f e ncoun ter b e tween t he s a in t a nd o ther p eop le . L ook ing a t t hese p oin ts o f e ncoun ter more c lose ly , we s ee i n teres t ing d i ff eren t ia t ions .

The s a in t was b o th a n i nd iv idua l e ndowed w i th a r ecogn isab le

c harac ter a nd a lso t he embod i men t o f ac ol lec t ion o f c onven t ions a nd a t ta inmen ts wh ich were e xpec ted b y s oc ie ty a nd were t o al arge e x ten t s tereotyped . T hese l a t ter r epresen ted t he i ns t i tu t ion o f s a in t l iness .

Moreover , t he c l ien ts

who m t he h ag iographer d escr ibed f or t he a udience w ere a lso p resen ted i n t wo d i f feren t ways . E i ther t hey were d escr ibed i n i n t i ma te d e ta i l t o b eco me " rea l c harac ters" f or t he a ud ience , o r t hey were l e f t more n ebu lous a s p ersons , b u t i den ti f ied i n t er ms o f t he p ar t icu lar g roup o r s ec tar ian i n teres t t hey r epresen ted . Ad e ta i led e xa m ina t ion o f t he e v idence f or b o th t ypes o f e ncoun ter i s made i n t h is a nd t he f o l lowing c hapters .

H ere ( Chapter t hree ) w e l ook a t t he s a in t

a nd i nd iv idua ls , a nd a f terwards ( Chapter f our ) a t s a in ts a nd i ns t i tu t ions .

I t

s hou ld b e n o ted t ha t t he " ind iv idua l i ty" o r " represen ta t ive" f unct ion o f t he c l ien t d oes n ot n ecessar i ly d e ter m ine t he c apaci ty i n wh ich t he s a in t i s b e ing a pproached b y h im .

4 0

PART I : CHAPTER I I :

SOCIETY AND THE S AINT THE S AINT AND I NDIVIDUALS

I n troduct ion t o Part I The s a in t a ct ive w ith in t he s oc iety I n troduct ion t o Chapter I I Encoun ters b etween t he s a in t a nd p ersons t he b as is o f t h is a ct iv ity Persons p ortrayed a s i nd iv idua ls o r l ess w e l l d ef ined 1 Method 1 .1

The c r iter ia f or c a l l ing a c ase " ind iv idua l"

1 .2

The u se o f l anguage

1. 3

The u se o f g roups o f c i t ies ( as i n p rev ious c hap ters )

1. 4

O ther d iv is ions

2 Ev idence 2 .1

2 .2

F irst g roup o f c i t ies : 2 .11

F r iend ly r e la t ionsh ips

2 .12

Host il it ies a nd p art icu lar l oca l p rob le ms

2 .13

O ther i t e ms

The s econd g roup o f c i t ies

3 The s a in t a s a n i nd iv idua l 4 S u m mary a nd c onc lus ion

4 1

CHAPTER THREE THE S AINTS AND I ND IV IDUALS

1 .1

To j udge wh ich e ncoun ters w ere r egarded b y t he h ag iographer t o b e

importan t b etween s a in t a nd i nd iv idua l i s n ecessar i ly a r a ther d el icate p roced ure.

S uch a n a tt itude i s f ound w here t he c l ien t i s d ep icted b y t he h ag iographer

t o make t he c ase s tand o u t f ro m t he r est. The d eta il o f t he w ord ing , n a mes, t he u se o f empha t ic r epet it ion , a re a g u ide t o t h is. Rhetor ical r efra ins a re a lso emp loyed — t o u nder l ine a mora l—a nd i nd icate t he a u thor 's c oncen trat i on u pon t he c ase.

S u itab le c r iter ia h ave t o b e e stab l ished a nd t he d ec is ion

i s b ound t o b e p art ia l ly s ub ject ive. 1 .2

The l anguage u sed i s o f ten a g ood g u ide .

S ources v ary w i th t he i d io-

s yncras ies o f t he a u thor i n t he amoun t o f r he tor ic o r r epe t i t ion emp loyed . S o me c a tch-phrases a re s pread r igh t a cross t he c o l lec t ion . T he s a in ts i n p ar t icu lar o f ten c arry s im i lar d escr ip t ive ( ad jec t iva l ) words o r p hrases i n wake.

S uch d escr ip t ions were c onven t ions p er ta in ing t o t he i ns t i tu t ion o f

s a in t l iness , a nd t o e u log is t ic wr i t ing , b u t t hey a lso i nd ica te wh ich p ar t icu lar a t tr ibu te t he h ag iographer t hough t i ta ppropr ia te t o emphas ise .

The s ign i f i-

c ance o f a mirac le i s o f ten u nder l ined f or t he a ud ience w i th a k ind o f c onc lud ing r e fra in .

F or e xa mp le , a f ter t he s econd mirac le o f C os mas a nd Da m ian i n

wh ich a c ure f or c ancer was a cco mpan ied b y t he c onvers ion o f aJ ewess , t he h ag iographer c hose t o emphas ise t he c onnec t ion o f b ody a nd s ou l. T he f or mu la i s r epea ted i n t h is a nd o ther t ex ts t o k eep t he p oin t i n t he a ud ience 's m ind .

T he u se o f l ingu is t ic d ev ices — a l mos t s logans — w i l l b e

e xa m ined more f u l ly i n t he l as t c hapter o f t h is s tudy , " The s a in t a nd c iv ic u ni ty" . 1 .3 v ious ly ;

T hese c hapters w i l l , a s f ar a s p oss ib le , f o l low t he me thod u sed p ret ha t i s t o s ay , s ources a re g rouped a ccord ing t o c i ty .

v an t f ac tors a lso i n f luence t he o rgan isa t ion .

O ther r e le-

F or i ns tance , i n t he p resen t

c hapter t h is i s t rue o f t he d is t inc t ion b e tween " a l ive" a nd " dead" s a in ts . 1 .4

A " dead" s a in t c ou ld more e as i ly b e a nnexed b y ap ar t icu lar l oca l i ty

o r f or a p ar t icu lar p urpose , a nd was more — wha tever h is a i m migh t b e .

man ipu lab le b y t he h ag iographer

H e was a lso a p resen t r em inder o f al egendary

p as t i n wh ich g rea t f ea ts a nd mirac les w ere more t o ta l ly c red ible . t he a ge o f h eroes a nd t he mar tyr-sa in ts , t he t rue d c ek ry rng c urren t , i nsp ir ing r ea l i ty .

H e b rough t

o f C hr is t , i n to

T h is p rocess n a tura l ly e nhanced t he i ns t i tu t iona l

s ide o f t he s a in t a s we l l a s t he c harac ter w i th wh ich h e c ou ld b e e ndowed , s o me th ing wh ich was l arge ly d ependen t o n t he h ag iographer a nd t he p ersonne l o f t he c u l t-s i te . 2 .

The e v idence f ro m t he f irs t g roup o f c i ties .

T here a re t wo ma jor

s ources f or e ach o f t he g rea tes t c i t ies , o ne " a l ive" a nd o ne " dead" .

4 2

The

p ic ture i s wel l b a lanced , b u t e ach s ource h as a d is t inc t ive c harac ter o f i t s own , wh ich a rgues f or t he i nd iv idua l d i f ferences among s a in ts a nd t he ir b iographers . I tc an b e s a id t ha t g enera l ly t he s a in ts were s upposed t o t h ink o f t he ir c l ien ts ' c ases i nd iv idua l ly . The a nswers o r c ures were v ery v ar ied , e ven f or p ersons i n s im i lar c ircums tances w i th t he s a me p rob le m . C ures were " ta i lor- made" w i th t he s oc ia l , e cono m ic a nd o ther p ersona l c ircums tances o f t he i nd iv idua l i n m ind .

S o we a re n ot work ing f ro m a f a lse b as is b u t f ro m o ne t aken i n to a c-

c oun t b y h ag iographers .

B u t t h is may n o t b e a l l .

T he h ypo thes is Is hou ld l ike

t o a dvance i s t ha t c ases where c l ien ts r eceive " ind iv idua l t rea t men t" were c are fu l ly p re-se lec ted b y t he h ag iographer a nd f or g ood r eason . F irs t ly , t h is me thod wou ld s hape t he f igure w i th who m t he a ud ience was s upposed t o i den t i fy , a nd s econd ly , i tc ou ld b e u sed t o h igh l igh t p ar t icu lar l oca l p rob le ms a nd s o p rov ide more g enera l c om for t a nd s olu t ions t hrough t he p erson a nd d ea l ings o f t he s a in t . I n s o d o ing , i ti nc iden ta l ly a l lowed i deas o f t he i ns t i tu t ion a nd i nd iv idua l p ersona l i ty o f t he s a in t t o d eve lop . I ti s s hown , f or e xa mple , t ha t t he s a in t , a l though r epresen ta t ive o f t he p ower o f t he s uperna tura l , c ou ld f or m f r iendsh ips a nd r e la t ionsh ips o n ah uman l eve l . 2 .11 S uch f avour i t ism o r f r iendsh ip was l im i ted t o t he " l ive" s a in ts . S . D an ie l a nd J ohn t he A l msg iver p rov ided g ood e xa mp les . I nb o th c ases t hese f r iendsh ips e xpose t he s a in ts t o ac er tain s uspicion . J ohn 's c loses t f r iend emerges a s N ice tas , t he imper ia l r epresen ta t ive i n t he c i ty who h ad r esp ons ib i l i ty f or t axes a nd c iv ic c o m merce. T he A l msg iver e ven b eca me g odf a ther o r s ponsor a t h is c h i ld 's b ap t is m t o c e men t t he b ond .

1

Dan ie l 's f r iends

a re a lso among t he u sefu l ly p ower fu l . T hey were t he imper ia l g uards man who g ave v i ta l p rotec t ion a nd i n for ma t ion f ro m c our t , a nd ( a f ter s o me i n i t ia l o ppos i t ion ) t he c oun t o f t he t ab le , a n a r is tocra t , c our t ier a nd l and-owner . 2 We s hou ld c er ta in ly b e j us t i f ied i n s uspec t ing t ha t s a in ts c hose t heir f r iends w i th a n e ye t o t he ir own p o li t ica l a nd s oc ia l we l l-being .

D an ie l b eca me s o i n f luen-

t ia l l a ter t ha t h e c ou ld a f ford t o b e fr iend t hose i n l ess s tab le p os i t ions . F or i ns tance , t he e x-pre fec t a nd c onsu l who h ad b een b an ished t o a n i so la ted b ishop r ic b eca me a f r iend a f ter h is d augh ter h ad b een c ured a nd b apt ised . H e o ff ered t he s a in t an ew p i l lar .3 T h is was a f i erce ly c on tended h onour , a s we s ee f ro m t he d isappo in t men t o f a n o lder f r iend t hus d en ied t he p r ivi lege . L a ter t he s a in t b e fr iended a r e la t ive ly o bscure I saur ian , Z eno , who h ad d en ounced a n a n t i-i mper ia l p lo t . T he b less ing o f t he s a in t f o l lowed t he y oung man t hrough h is c areer o f p ro mo t ion a nd marr iage i n to t he i mper ia l f am i ly , a s a lso t hrough a dvers i ty .4 E ven when Z eno was i n e x i le , D an ie l h ad t he a ud ac i ty t o men t ion h is n a me w i th in t he wa l ls o f C ons tan t inople . Wi th h is s a in t ly g i f t o f p rophecy D an ie l c an b e a ssu med t o h ave f oreseen t he f u ture s ucc ess o f h is p rotege , o r e ven t o h ave worked t owards i tb u t a t l eas t h e was more t han a f a ir-wea ther f r iend . T he " dead" s a in ts o f t he t wo g rea t c i t ies , h ea lers i nb o th c ases , c ou ld n ot f orm f r iendsh ips i n t h is way .

B u t t he ir u nder lying k indness o r f r iend l iness

t owards mank ind i s c ons tan t ly emphas ised .

I n C os mas a nd D am ian i np ar t i-

c u lar t h is i s s hown i n ah umorous a pproach t o s o me c l ien ts wh ich makes t he m s tand o u t i n t he s a me way a s t hose who s hared t he p ersona l f r iendsh ip o f t he l i v ing s a in t . T he mos t n o tab le o f t hese i s t ha t o f t he p ara lyt ic man a nd t he d umb wo man . Th is mirac le ( n o . 2 4 ) h as b een much q uo ted a lready a nd w i l l b e u sed a ga in , s o t he d e ta i ls a re n o t g iven h ere .

4 3

T he e ccen tr ic i ty o f t he s hock

t rea t men t emp loyed a nd t he c u lm ina t ion i n t he c oup le 's marr iage s hou ld b e s u f f ic ien t i ndica t ion o f t he t ype o f h u mour , t he e ssen t ia l ly k ind a pproach , wh ich i s mean t . Wi th C yrus a nd J ohn t he t one i s o ne o f d i f fused k indness o nce a ga in . When ap oor man was i l l a nd d epr ived o f h is l i vel ihood t he h ag iographer emphas ised t ha t t he s a in ts l oved t he p oor a nd t hough t h i m wor thy o f h ea l ing .

5

Ano ther i n-

d ica t ion o f t heir t hough t fu lness i s t he way i n wh ich c ures a re r e la ted t o t he i nd iv idua l 's n eeds . At r ibune a nd a p a tr ician b o th s u f fer ing f ro m t he s a me k ind o f e ye c o mpla in t r ece ive v ery d i f feren t t rea t men t . t ras t , t he ir c ases a re r ecorded c onsecu t ive ly . 3 .1 )

( paras .

T o emphas ise t he c on4 6-7;

s ee C h . 1 ,

As we l l a s f or m ing a n i n teres t ing s oc ia l a nd e cono m ic c o m men t ( as d is-

c ussed a bove ) , t he s a in ts ' a t ten t ion t o d e ta i l i s made a pparen t . 2 .12

As migh t b e e xpected , o pponen ts o f t he s a in t , a s we l l a s f r iends ,

a re s trong ly b rough t t o l i fe b y t he h ag iographer .

I n Dan ie l t he S tyl i te t here

was a n o ppos ing d e mon , who i n fec ted t he c h i ldren o f D an ie l 's c l ien ts i n al ongd rawn-ou t b a t t le f or s upre macy . I n t he f ina l d e ten te , t he e v i l s pir i t 's a pp earance , a dm iss ion o f mu l t ip le g u i l t a nd s ub m iss ion a re mos t g raph ica l ly d escr ibed . r eader .

6

Th is , a nd h is r ecurr ing a ppearance , l end h im s ubs tance f or t he

A more t ang ible f orce o f e v i l a ppears i n t he t ex t o f C yrus a nd J ohn .

T h is was Rhodope , t he i mm igran t " K ing o f An t ioch" . a rrogan t a nd a ccused o f b e l i t t l ing t he s a in ts .

7

H e was d escr ibed a s

I n ar are mo men t o f i n trac ta-

b i l i ty t he s a in ts c onde mned h im t o r e turn t o h is h o me a nd awa i t t he f ina l s epar a t ion o f b ody a nd s ou l . T he c ase was f el t t o b e u t ter ly h ope less a nd t he t rea t men t d es igned a ccord ing ly . The h arshness o f t h is c ase , i n wh ich t he s a in ts c ou ld b e s a id t o h ave f a i led , c an b e c ons trued a s a warn ing .

The b as ic

message o f r ede mpt ion t hrough d iv ine a id was r e in forced b y t he p ro m ise o f h e l l i n t he f ace o f s tubborn h u man s el f-wi l l . Hu man a rrogance o r al ack o f p roper o r thodox b e l ie f was a u n iversa l p roble m . O f ten i tt ook t he f or m o f p ro longed d isbel ie f i n t he p owers o f t he s a in ts .

I ti s

a n i n teres t ing c o m men t o n B yzan t ine a t t i tudes t ha t s uch a c on t inua t ion o f d oubt was a l igned w i th i rra t iona l i ty .

Tw ice i n t he mirac les o f C yrus a nd J ohn t he

c onvers ion t o o r thodoxy i s a scr ibed t o t he p owers o f r eason . The c ase o f G es ios i s mos t r e levan t h ere . 8 T he a u thor wen t t o s o me l eng ths t o n arra te t he c ase .

The f ina l s ub m iss ion was c on f iden t ly a scr ibed t o t he f act t ha t h e

c ou ld n o l onger w i ths tand t he s a in ts ' r a t iona le .

I ts hou ld b e n o ted t ha t h e w as

a me mber o f t he i a trasoph is ts , a n e l i t is t g roup we l l v ersed i n c lass ica l med ic ine a nd a p ar t icu lar t hrea t t o t he s a in ts b ecause o f t he ir own p er ipa te t ic l i fe a nd a scet ic a ppea l .

The c onques t b y r eason h ad a p urpose o f t opica l s ign i f icance .

T h is c ase l ends s uppor t t o t he h ypo thes is t ha t u n iversa l p rob le ms were n o t t he o n ly o nes wh ich were h igh l igh ted . The s ources were a lso u t i l ised t o b r ing h o me p ecu l iar ly l oca l p rob le ms f ac ing t he s a in t o r c u l t-s i te .

I n A lexandr ia

i a trasoph is ts were a c ha l lenge t o t he h ea ling p owers o f t he C yrus a nd J ohn s i te .

I n o rder t o " prove" o r thodox s uper ior i ty , s uch p ole m ic n arra t ives w ere

t hough t t o b e p ar t icu lar ly e f fec t ive . Another a spec t o f l i fe i n t he g rea tes t u rban c en tres was t he d iss ipa t ion o f r ich , u noccupied y ou th . Th is i s e xpressed i n t he c ase o f C oun t J u l ian . 9 The p ersona l a nd mora l d angers wh ich b ese t a nyone i n t h is p os i t ion were

4 4

o bv ious ly a f ac tor o f wh ich t he s a in ts a nd t he h ag iographers d e fend ing s oc ia l mores were o n ly t oo we l l a ware .

A lexandr ia was , i ti s e v iden t f ro m t he c o m-

b ined s ources , ar easonab ly we l l-ordered me tropo l is .

I t was wea l thy , a nd

a lthough b e leaguered b y e ne my f orces t he c on t inu i ty o f c iv ic l i fe was n o t y et s er ious ly d isrup ted .

F ro m t he a ccoun t wh ich we r eceive f ro m S . S y meon t he

Younger i ti s c lear t ha t An t ioch was b y n o means i n s uch f avourab le c ircu ms tances . Th is p o in t w i l l b e c lar i f ied when An t ioch i s s cru t in ised i n i t s t urn . Bu t i ts hou ld b e o bserved t ha t t he p rob le m o f d iss ipa ted c i t izens was u n iversa l t o s o me e x ten t a nd was r ecogn ised t o b e d irec t ly r ela ted t o t he " tone" o f c iv ic l i fe . T here were o ther f or ms o f c orrupt ion a ga ins t wh ich t he s a in t was e xpected t o t ake a s tand .

S o me o f t he c ases o f i nd iv idua l t rea t men t b y t he h ag iographer ,

a bou t t o b e e xa m ined , i nd ica te a reas o f s pecia l v u lnerabi l i ty .

J ohn t he A l ms-

g iver i s p erhaps t he s a in t who mos t c onspicuous ly c o mba ts s peci f ic a buses . As h e i s p or trayed a s t he f ocus o f a l l k inds o f p ower i n A lexandr ia , i ti s n ot s urpr is ing t ha t t he t a le o f h is l i fe r e f lec ts a v ery l arge s ec t ion o f t he s pec tru m o f e ven ts i n c i ty l i fe .

T he p o l i t ica l s i tua t ion t here i s r ef lec ted i n t he s a in t 's

i nvo lve men t i n t he n ego t ia t ions f or e xchang ing p r isoners w i th t he P ers ians . H is p os i t ion l ed t o d isagree men t a s wel l a s f r iendsh ip w i th N icetas .

1 0

They

q uarre l led f irs t o ver t he A l msg iver 's own t axes , t hen o ver t he p ro f i t marg in o f t he marke t a nd t he r igh ts a nd wrongs o f t axa t ion a nd p oor r e l ie f .1 1 S hor tage o f immed ia te c ash t o mee t t ax d e mands a nd o f l ong-ter m f inanc ia l s ecur i ty a re i nd ica ted a s t he r easons f or much a buse .

T hese i ns tances a re s ing led o u t b y

t he a u thor f or i nd iv idua l t rea t men t a nd a re i n teres t ing f or s evera l r easons . The h ag iographer s aw f i t t o r epresen t t he m i n a n u n favourab le l igh t , p erhaps a s aw arn ing o f ag row ing t rend .

I n s o d o ing , h e h as u ncovered f or t he modern

o bserver p oin ts t ha t a re o f ten h e ld t o b e c on trovers ia l o r h ave b een a scr ibed t o l a ter p er iods o f B yzan t ine h is tory . F or e xa mp le , i ti s q u i te c lear f ro m t h is s ource t ha t t axes a nd d ues o f a l l k inds w ere p ayab le i n c ash n o t i n k ind .

Wages were a lso men t ioned , s o me

b eing p a id i n s i lver . T he e x is tence o f as i lver c urrency a t t h is d a te h as b een i n d ispu te . Impor tan t i n for ma t ion o n t he c o m merc ia l s ec tor i s t hus c onveyed , t hough n o t n ecessar i ly i n ten t iona l ly , a nd a more d e ta i led d iscuss ion o f t hese p oin ts was c on ta ined i n C hap ter I .

Mone tary a buses were a s ub jec t c lose t o

t he h ag iographer 's h ear t ( as w e h ave a lready s ee i n C hap ter I ) .

T hese i nvo lve-

men ts a lso p rov ide i n for ma t ion o n d eve lop men t a nd c hange i n l and-ownersh ip a nd c lass s truc tures , c aused b y h ab i tua l a buse o f t he s ocia l s ys te m .

T he

a u thor s ough t t o e xpose t h is c orrup t ion . T o s u m mar ise t he s i tua t ion: t he " ord inary" c i t izen b ore a h eavy t ax b urden . Th is was i ncreased i n t he f ace o f d e fence n eeds o n t he e as tern f ron t ier .

C ash f or t hese p ay men ts was o f ten

b orrowed f ro m a p rosper ing c lass o f p ro fess iona l s o ld iers .

T hey were b e-

g inn ing t o e s tabl ish t he mselves w i th l andho ldings a nd g a ined n o t o n ly l ong-ter m p rof i t a nd s ecur i ty b u t a lso s o me k ind o f s pur ious r espec tabi l i ty f ro m t heir r o le a s money-lenders .

On t he o ther h and , t he o lder t ype o f a r is tocracy , t he

l and-owners , l ived i n a wor ld o f d im in ish ing r eturns a nd were f orced t o s eek s ecur i ty f or t he f u ture .

T he w ea l th t hey p ossessed p rov ided u sefu l b arga in ing

p ower i n a n a t te mp t t o p u t t he mse lves i n to a c lass w i th more u p-to-da te p r iv il eges .

I n s p i te o f s porad ic e f for ts t o c orrect t he s i tua t ion t hrough l eg is la t ion ,

s uch a c lass , t he d iacona te , q ua li f ied f or t ax-exe mp t ions a nd h ad r e la t ive ly f ew

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r espons ib i l i t ies .

H ere we s ee t he p owers o f t he s a in t r e f lec t ing i n ter m i t ten t

a t te mp ts o f t he c en tra l g overn men t t o c urb a g row ing p rob le m . R ecogn ised a buses were n o t t he o n ly o nes t he A l msg iver f ough t i n t he p erson o f i nd iv idua ls .

T here was a lso t he c ase o f t he s a in t 's n ephew .

H e f ound t ha t

i t was n o u se r e lying o n t he n or ma l f am i ly l oya l t ies a nd n epo t is m .

H is u nc le

was n o t p repared t o f avour h im i n h is d ispu te w i th l oca l t rades men .1 2

T he

h ag iographer r e marks t ha t J ohn s howed h i mse l f t o b e t he " true p hys ician" i n s oo th ing h is n ephew a nd t hen c onc i l ia t ing t he o ther p ar ty .

T he s hopkeeper ,

d oubt less e xpec t ing t err ible r e tr ibu t ion a s wou ld h ave b een n or ma l , i ns tead f ound h is t axes a nd t he r en t o f t he s hop , wh ich was c hurch-owned , r em i t ted . T he s a in t h ad s truck a ga in — t h is t ime a t ac onven t ion wh ich was a ccep ted b y b y t he s oc iety b u t wh ich was o pen t o f l agran t a buse. O ther i nd iv idua l c ases d ea l t w i th b y t he A l msg iver c oncern t he o pera t ion o f p h i lan thropia . T he b eggar who k ep t a sk ing f or more a nd who was f ina l ly g iven t he s a in t 's p urse t o d ip i n to f or h i mse l f was o ne r ece iver o f t h is .1 3 H e t oo i l lus tra tes t ha t ac onven t iona l a c t iv i ty o f emperors , s a in ts a nd t he c ons c ien t ious wea l thy was o pen t o a buse b y g reed . N ever the less t he s a in t was h appy t o g ran t t he p auper 's w ish .

The r eason

h e g ave was t ha t h e c ou ld n o t b e c er ta in t ha t i t was n ot C hr is t t es t ing h im i n d isgu ise.

T he message o f t h is i nc iden t i s t ha t t he g iv ing was t he mos t i m-

p or tan t e le men t i n t he t ransac t ion .

I rrespec t ive o f t he wor th iness o f t he r e-

c ipien t , g iv ing was a d u ty a nd t he f u lf i l men t o f i tc on ferred g race — u pon t he d onor .

I n as im i lar ly u nbus iness l ike way t he s a in t g ave w i thou t q ues t ion t o a

p ro m inen t f ore ign c i t izen who h ad b een b urg led a nd t o as h ip 's c ap ta in i n h is employ who r epea ted ly l os t h is v esse l a nd c argo i n wrecks .1 4 The v ir tue o f t he g iver was emphas ised when t he t h ird c argo o f merchand ise , o bta ined i n Br i ta in , t urned f ro m b ase meta l t o af ine s i lver r eward o vern igh t . t i tude was n o t l os t o n t he A lexandr ians .

Th is a t-

When t he A l msg iver 's own r esources

s ee med e xhaus ted a nd h is s h ips l os t , t hey r a l l ied t o h im w i th s uppor t a nd e nc ourage men t . h o me l aden .

Their a id p roved u nnecessary , f or t he s a in t 's s h ips r e turned T he t a le was r ecorded f or t he i nsp ira t ion o f t heir s uccessors .

B es ide t he A l msg iver h i msel f , whose s trong p ersona l i ty emerges e ven f ro m t hese s hor t e x trac ts , mos t o ther c harac ters a re dwar fed .

T he mean

b ishop , h orard ing money f or o rna men ta l s i lver , h owever , was d ep icted c lear ly . The s a in t t ook h im r ound t he p oor q uar ters t o s how wha t h ad b een d one a nd h ow much was s t i l l n eeded . A f ter p ersuas ion t he b ishop was p ar ted f ro m a modera te s um t o b e s pen t o n f ur ther p rov is ions f or t he p oor . I n v ery r ea l is t ic f or m , h e f e l l i l l f ro m t he f rus tra t ion o f t h ink ing a bou t t he i nc iden t .

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T he

A l msg iver a cted i n a ccordance w i th t he e p i the t o f " true p hys ician" p rev ious ly awarded h im b y t he h ag iographer . r e l iev ing b u t s ha m ing h im .

H e v is i ted a nd r e i mbursed t he s ick b ishop ,

As w i th t he a rrogan t R hodope , C yrus a nd J ohn 's

" fa i lure" was u sed t o emphas ise t he b ene f i ts o f mora l r ec t i tude a nd g eneros i ty . The a l l-too-hu man f au l t o f meanness , l i ke a rrogance , was d er ided a nd s een t o b r ing i t s j us t d eser ts , men ta l , p hys ica l a nd ma ter ia l . Dan ie l 's s phere was much more p o l i t ica l .

B es ides d e mons , t he t asks

f acing h i m were n o t t o d o w i th c o m merc ia l c orrup t ion b u t w i th t he w ie ld ing o f p o li t ica l i n f luence , p ar t icu lar ly a t c our t .

As h in ted p rev ious ly , t hose o f h is

f r iends d ep ic ted a s i nd iv idua ls f requen t ly h e ld s o me o f t h is p ower . 4 6

Aga in i n teres t ing f ace ts o f s ocia l s tructure a re r evea led . T he c harac ters i n Dan iel 's l i fe o n t he who le d o n o t c o me t o h im f or ma ter ia l a id . T he e xcept i ons t o t h is a re t hose who b rough t s ick c h i ldren a nd who h ave b een men t ioned a lready .

Un l ike t he c l ien ts o f J ohn t he A l msg iver a nd o f t he h ea l ing s a in ts ,

Dan ie l 's c a me mos t ly f or a dv ice .

T he s a in t t here fore h ad t o k eep h i mse l f

we l lin for med o n c urren t a f fa irs a nd p roceed ings a t c our t , t o b e p ersp icac ious , a nd a bove a l l t o h ave a p ersona l i ty f orce fu l e nough t o c o m mand i ns tan t t rus t . These q ua l i t ies w ere a pparen t ly a bundan t . H e was n ot o n ly c onsu l ted o np ers ona l ma t ters s uch a s n a mes f or c h i ldren , b u t was e ven made a rbi tra tor b et ween t he emperor a nd t he K ing o f t he L azi .

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T he i nd iv idua ls i n D an ie l 's

" l i fe" r epresen t h is s treng ths r a ther t han h is p rob le ms . We s ee t ha t h is s anct uary was im mune f ro m g overnmen ta l i n ter ference , af ocus o f p o li t ica l a sy lum . The c oun t o f t he s tab les a va i led h i mse l f o f i t when t he emperor was d isp leased a f ter t he d angerous b ehav iour o f h is h orse .1 7 Ano ther f igure o f p ower was t he emperor L eo H i msel f .

H is e xa l ted s ta t ion p reven ted h im f ro m b eco m ing a s

f u l ly c harac ter ised a me mber o f t he d ra ma t is p ersonae a s h e migh t o therw ise h ave b een . N ever the less h e p layed a v i ta l p ar t i n t he ma in a ct ion o f t he n arrat ive . A l though h e f igured a s a n i nd iv idua l i n s o me ways , t h is i s a lways s ec ondary t o h is r o le a s t he embod i men t o f t he s ta te a nd imper ia l p ower .

I n

Dan ie l 's c ase t he p ower c en tre i s , o f c ourse , u nmed ia ted b y t he p resence o f al oca l g overnmen t f orce . T h is e xa m ina t ion o f t he s ources r e la t ing t o t he t wo ma jor c i t ies r evea ls t ha t s evera l s or ts o f c l ien ts a re t rea ted a s i nd iv idua ls a nd f or v ar ious r easons . F or i ns tance , we s ee t ha t t he s a in t c ou ld s how f r iendsh ip a nd s o was made more a pproachab le a nd h u man . F or t h is r eason C os mas a nd D am ian i np ar t icu lar were e ndowed w i th a g rea t s ense o f h umour . On c loser e xa m ina t ion , t hese f r iendsh ips o r a ssoc ia t ions a re o f ten r evea led t o b e p o l i t ica l ly o r s oc ia l ly a dv an tageous — t o t he s a in t . P ersons i n s ocia l a nd p o l i t ica l p os i t ions o f p ower t here fore b eca me n a tura l c and ida tes f or t h is t ype o f i nd iv idua l t rea tmen t . Th is i s mos t o bv ious i nt he c ase o f D an ie l , t o who m s ources o f p ower w ere were e spec ia l ly impor tan t f or t he c onduc t o f h is min is try . S ources o f p ower f avourab le t o Dan ie l a s we l l a s t hose i n o ppos i t ion a re r epresen ted . E lsewhere , s trong i nd iv idua l d e f in i t ion t ends t o b e r eserved f or t he d e mons tra t ion o f e v i ls wh ich i t was t he s a in ts ' d u ty t o f igh t a nd , i n o rder t o e ncourage t he a ud ience , t o o verco me . L as t ly i n t he g roup o f ma jor c i t ies c o mes An t ioch , r epresen ted i n t he a ccoun t o f a no ther " l ive" s a in t , S y meon t he Younger . Men t ion h as a lready b een made o f t he way i n wh ich An t ioch 's r eac t ion t o i t s c ircums tances o f war a nd i t s d i f f icu l t a ccess t o C ons tan t inop le d i f feren t ia ted i tf ro m t he o ther t wo g rea t c os mopo l i tan c en tres . Th is a pparen t d i f ference may w e l l h ave b een e nhanced b y S y meon 's o wn l oca t ion o u ts ide t he c i ty b ound ary , wh ich r esu l ted i n h is a t trac t ing a l l t he p rob le ms o f t he r ura l h in ter land . Exa mp les o f t hese were v i l lage d ispu tes a nd t he t ens ions b rough t a bou t b y s eas ona l u ne mp loy men t a nd p over ty . S y meon 's a t ten t ion h ad t o b e d iv ided b e tween u rban a nd r ura l a f fa irs . T he s a me s p l i t i s a pparen t i n t he t asks o f s a in ts a tt ached t o c i t ies i nt he s econd g roup , p ar t icu lar ly i nt he c ase o f N iko laos o f Myra . The f i rs t c harac ter t o i mpinge u pon t he r eader o f t he An t iochene s ource i s Mar tha t he mo ther o f S y meon . r epea ted a ppearances .

The impress ion s he makes i s s treng thened b y

H er s trugg le t o r e ma in a v irg in d ed ica ted t o C hr is t 4 7

a nd h er s ubsequen t a cqu iescence t o t he w ishes o f h er p aren ts a re made v ery c red ib le . T hey a lso make a n i n teres t ing c o mpar ison w i th t he r eact ions o f J ohn t he A l msg iver i n s im i lar c ircu ms tances . 18 Mar tha 's f ee l ings a nd s low a ccep tance o f t he r oles o f w i fe a nd mo ther a re mos t h u man ly p or trayed . A t t he s a me t ime , s he , l i ke t he A l msg iver , r epresen ts t he c onven t iona l v ir tue o f f i l ia l o bed ience . S im i lar ly , S y meon 's d u ty t o h er l a ter c aused h im t o i n terc ede f or An t ioch a nd r escue i t s c i t izens f ro m f ur ther d es truc t ion b y e ar thquake .1 9 Dur ing S y meon 's c h i ldhood a nd a ppren t icesh ip i n t he monas tery t here w ere o ther e ncoun ters wor thy o f men t ion . T he f i rs t was t ha t b e tween t he s pir i tua l men tor , t he a bbot , a nd t he f i erce ly a sce t ic n ov ice . T h is i l lum ina tes c lear ly t he d i f f icu l t ies f or a n a u thor i ty i n a sma l l c o m mun i ty wh ich c on ta ined a p o tent ia l s a in t .

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The j ea lousy a nd s ubsequen t i l lness o f h is f el low- monk t oge ther w i th h is c ure a nd f org iveness b y S y meon d e mons tra te t he p rob le m o f a ccep tance o f s uch a p heno menon i n t he ir mids t — b y " bro thers" , l e t a lone b y s oc iety i n g enera 1 .2 1 The s a in t h ad t o e s tab l ish h is p os i t ion a nd s ecure i tf ro m h uman o ppos i t ion a nd s usp ic ion . T h is was t o b e a ch ieved b y l ove o f h is f e l low men — h ence t he t ac t ic o f c on found ing t he e ne my w i th g enerous p ardon . Ou ts ide t he monas tery S y meon s t i l l e xper ienced t he p rob le m o f r e jec t ion b y men mot i va ted b y f ear , a rrogance a nd j ea lousy.

I n t he r ura l s ec t ion o f h is min is try ,

t he ma in s ource o f o ppos i t ion was f ro m s orcerers , s eers a nd o ther p agan v i l lage c o m mod i t ies who m t he s a in t t hrea tened t o p u t o u t o f b us iness . T he p rob le m o f l apses i n to b lasphe my a nd i do la try was l ess e x tre me . Av i l lage p r ies t was a ccused o f l ack ing f a i th when h e s howed h i msel f worr ied a bou t t he h ea l th o f t he v i l lage c h i ldren .

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B u t t he e x ten t o f c o mp la in ts a bou t f a i th i n

r ura l c o m mun i t ies p a les b es ide t he l i s t o f c i ty o f fenders . There, r ich c i t izens mocked S ymeon a nd f or t he ir v ar ious e v ils, l ost a l l t he ir p ossess ions . 2 3 The n otor iety o f t he c i ty w as s uch t hat a n i mper ia l o ff i cer h ad t o b e s en t t o p un ish t he r anks o f t he u northodox. We a re t o ld t ha t h e f ound a l l t he p ersons o f i mpor tance i n t he c i ty t a in ted w ith s ins o f h eresy a nd i do la try .2 4 The s a in t h ad t aken o n at ask o f v ast p roport ions. A t al oca l l eve l t he p erfor mance o f h is d u t ies w as c omp l icated b y t he r ig id ity o f t he c lass s tructure.

Wh i le i n s o me measure h e a cqu iesced a nd u sed i ta dvan tageous ly

i n c hoos ing f r iends, t he s a in t h ad a lso t o c ombat i t . When a n otab le w as p laced a t t he h ead o f t he q ueue f or t he Euchar ist b y o ne o f t he d isc ip les, S ymeon s et a n e xamp le b y mak ing t he man w a it h is t urn . 25 T he n otab le a ga in d e monstrat ed t he l ow s p ir itua l s ta te o f i mportan t c i t izens. H e w as d etected a s b e ing g u ilty o f a mu lt itude o f o f fences a ga inst o rthodoxy a s we l l a s o f c r i mes o f a more c iv ic n ature. S y meon was n o t o n ly r equ ired t o d ea l w i th l oca l p rob le ms , a l though t hese were t he o verr id ing c oncern o f s a in t a nd b iographer . The h ag iographer was a t p a ins t o s how t ha t t he s a in t 's i n f luence e x tended a s f ar a s C ons tan t inople . A s i len tar ios wro te t o c onsu l t h im a bou t mar i ta l a f fa irs .2 6 The emperor J us t in a lso s ough t a id f ro m h im i n t he c ase o f t rea t men t f or h is d e mon-possessed d augh ter .2 7 I t may n ot b e s ign i f ican t , b u t i ti s i n teres t ing , t ha t b o th o f t hese c ases r e la te t o ma t ters wh ich wou ld b e t he c ause o f g rea t s ha me , e spec ia l ly l oca l ly .

The p o in t i s made g raph ica l ly i n t he c ase o f t he y oung p r incess , who

f or o bv ious r easons n eeded t o b e i n af i t c ond i t ion t o b e o np ubl ic d isplay . I nd iv idua ls o f impor tance w ou ld h ave f ound s uch f ace-sav ing a t ad is tance v ery 4 8

c onven ien t .

T heir c ases i n t urn d e mons tra te f or t he a u thor t he r ange o f t he

s a in t 's p owers . e ver , e nd t here .

S y meon 's i nvo lve men t w i th t he imper ia l f am i ly d id n o t , h owA lthough J us t in 's ma in r o le was t o r epresen t t he imper ia l

o f f ice a nd t he s ta te , h is r epea ted a ppearances a nd t he v ar ie ty o f c ircu ms tances i n wh ich h e f igured q ua li fy h im f or a t ten t ion h ere .

T he c ure o f h is d augh ter

was n o t t he o n ly e ncoun ter b e tween h im a nd t he s a in t .

S y meon h ad e ar l ier

d e mons tra ted h is g i f t f or p rophecy i n f ore te l l ing t he s uccess ion o f b o th t he n ew emperor a nd t he p a tr iarch .

A l though t h is p rophecy was i n tended t o b e p r i-

2 8

v a te , i th ad b eco me w ide ly k nown a nd p resu mably b e l ieved .

T he n ew emperor

migh t t hen owe t he s a in t ad ebt o f g ra t i tude f or b ias ing t he p ub l ic t owards h im . Th is t i e was r e in forced b y t he d augh ter 's c ure . s how h ow i t was b roken , b y t he empress ' d oc tor f or t he emperor .

T he h ag iographer g oes o n t o

c on t inu ing emp loy men t o f aJ ew ish

T h is d ef iance o f t he s a in t 's c o m mands s hows t he p os-

s ib i l i ty o f aw i fe 's b ad i n f luence , e specia l ly when h er h usband was s ick . ( I n t wo o ther i ns tances , p aras . 1 69 a nd 2 12 , t he w i fe a nd mother 's i n f luence i s p or trayed v ery f avourab ly ) .

The c onnec t ion o f t he f e ma le a nd e v i l was n o t

o f ten s ta ted e xp l ic i t ly , b u t i td oes f ind e xpress ion h ere .

The d oc tor 's J uda is m

was a lso a n i nv i ta t ion f or t he c harge o f b lasphe my a nd s orcery t o b e l eve l led a ga ins t h im .

[ Yb .P o i )Tog x a t . E m .u46v i Lv e EOX I TEUTbg y or ITc[aLg vacyoXouµEvog & EC.]

2 9

The emperor 's a ssoc ia t ion w i th S y meon , b o th i ns t i tu t iona l a nd p ersona l , was t erm ina ted f or thw i th . P hys ica l i l lness e nded i n madness a nd d ea th . E ven f or t he g rea tes t t here was n o r e turn t o r igh teousness i ft oo much t i me e lapsed . S y meon 's p owers were a lso e f fec t ive i nd irec t ly . men t o r h a ir p roved e f f icac ious h ea l ing a ids .

I n t wo i ns tances h is g ar-

F or e xa mp le , ap r ies t r eques ted

al ock o f h a ir a nd s e t u p am in ia ture c u l t-s i te u s ing t he h ea l ing p roper t ies o f t he " re l ic" 3 .° The l oca l b ishop 's o ppos i t ion makes t he c ase more i n teres t ing . H is o b jec t ion was s upposed ly t o S y meon h i msel f. Bu t we may s uspec t t ha t a t l eas t s o me o f i tw as p rovoked b y t he p resence o f an on-es tab l ish men t e lemen t w i th in h is j ur isd ic t ion . S y meon , u n l ike t he h ea l ing s a in ts o f t he g rea t c i t ies , h ad o ccas ion t o e xerc ise h is p ower t o r es tore l i fe .

T he s ub jec t o f t he mirac le was a c h i ld .

T he

p oin t o f i n teres t f or t he p resen t i ssue i s t ha t S y meon 's i n ten t ion was o pposed b y al oca l o f f ic ia l , t he mag is tr ianos .3 1 P e t ty o f f icia ldo m was a no ther s ource f ro m wh ich t he s a in t c ou ld e xpec t p et ty o ppos i t ion .

I n t h is i ns tance — d esp i te

b ibl ica l " jus ti f ica t ion" f or t he mag is tr ianos — t he s a in t won t he d ay . S o w e h ave s een a v ar ie ty o f i nciden ts i n wh ich c l ien ts were t rea ted a s i nd iv idua ls b y t he h ag iographer f or t he g rea ter e d i f ica t ion o f t he a ud ience . These e xa mp les s how t he u se o f s uch c ases t o i l lus tra te a r ange o f a reas i n wh ich t he s a in t was p ar t icu lar ly h arra .ssed o r p ar t icu lar ly p ower fu l , o r b o th . 2 .13

I n a dd i t ion t here a re c ases i n t he l i fe o f S y meon t he Younger wh ich

a re n o t r e markab le f or i l lus tra t ing s uch ma t ters b u t wh ich a re e x tre me ly i nt eres t ing f or t he i nc iden ta l i t e ms o f i n for ma t ion wh ich t hey c on ta in .3 2 S uch i n teres t i s g rea ter f or t he modern r eader t han i t wou ld h ave b een f or c on te mp orar ies , s o t ha t we mus t l ook f or a dd i t iona l r easons f or t heir s e lec t ion b y t he h ag iographer .

Two s uch i t e ms o ccur c lose t ogether i n t he s ource . 4 9

T he

f irs t i s t ha t o f as tone mason w i th a n e ye-co mp la in t .

I n teres t ing t o t he modern

r eader i s t he f act t ha t h e was emp loyed b y t he c i ty c orpora t ion a nd f or a s ta ted monetary wage .

Th is p oin t h as b een d iscussed a lready i n C hapter I .

The

r eason f or i t s s e lec t ion b y t he h ag iographer i s i n t he s econd p ar t o f t he mirac le . The mason h ad b een d epr ived n o t o n ly o f money b u t a lso o f s igh t .

T h is g ives

a n o ppor tun i ty f or a r hetor ica l s o li loquy o n t he p ar t o f t he a u thor .

S igh t o r

" l igh t" , t he s u f ferer was r em inded , was f ar more impor tan t t han b ase " go ld" . Th is i s i n l i ne w i th emphas is l a id o n t he impor tance o f v is ion a nd v isua l b eau ty e lsewhere i n t he s ources — t he l a t ter e spec ia l ly i n marr iage ma t ters .

B l ind-

n ess , i t s hou ld a lso b e r e me mbered , was c lassed a s ad e for m i ty . T he s econd i nc iden t , f o l low ing h ard o n t he h ee ls o f t he f irs t , a lso c oncerns ar obbery .

T h is t ime i t was a h ousew i fe who s u f fered .

On h er r eturn f ro m

t he s a in t 's a ud ience a g roup o f n e ighbours , i nc lud ing t he t h ie f , c rowded r ound t o awa i t h er r epor t o f e ven ts .

T hey w i tnessed t he f ind ing o f t he g oods r ep laced

i n t he h ouse i n a ccordance w i th t he s a in t 's a dv ice .

T he t err i f ied t h ie f c on-

f essed , r epen ted a nd was " cured" . T he i n teres t f or b o th t he modern r eader a nd t he c on te mporary a ud ience i s t he g roup s truc ture r evea led . Wi th in t he l arge u rban u n i t , sma l l c o m mun i ty g roups e x is ted w i th s uch b ases a s a reas o f h ous ing .

Wi th in t hese t he p ower o f g oss ip was s upre me .

T he g roup was

q u i te l i ke ly t o i nc lude p o ten t ia l t h ieves a nd p e t ty c r im ina ls o r o f fenders . a lso c on ta ined e le men ts o f e f fec t ive l oca l j us t ice .

I t

T he d e tec ted t h ie f h ad t o

make h is p eace w i th t he g roup a s we l l a s w i th h is o wn c onsc ience.

S uch s o lu-

t ions were p er fec t ly a ccep tab le a nd i ndeed n ecessary i n ac i ty where p ub l ic j us t ice w as s low a nd o f ten i naccess ib le a nd where mobi l i ty was l im i ted . 2 .2 .

T he s econd g roup o f c i t ies .

t o t he g roup o f t he sma ller c i t ies .

N ow we move o n t o t he s ources a t tached

T he o vera l l p a t tern d oes n o t c hange .

Accoun ts o f mirac les i l lus tra te l oca l p rob le ms a nd t he s a in t 's c orrespond ing s treng ths .

The t ypes o f p rob le m r e la ted t o t h is g roup a re o f ten s im i lar t o

t hose o f An t ioch b u t a re l ess c lose t o t hose o f t he t wo g rea tes t c i t ies . N iko laos o f Myra h as a lready b een men t ioned a s s ub jec t t o t he s a me u rbanr ura l t ens ion a s S y meon t he Y ounger . o bv ious .

I n h is c ase i t was more d eve loped a nd

E xacerba ted b y f am ine c ond i t ions i te xp loded .

N iko laos r e fused t o

mee t t he d e mand o f t he c iv ic a nd c hurch d ign i tar ies t ha t h e s hou ld g o i n to Myra t o a id t he m w i th t he s tarv ing p opu la t ion a nd r e fugees f ro m t he s urround ing c oun try .3 3 H is d ecis ion t o s tay o u ts ide a nd h e lp t he f ar mers a nd r e ma in ing c oun try-dwe l lers d e f ied t he e xpec ted c iv ic l oya l t ies t o wh ich S y meon a cqu iesced o n t he i ns is tence o f h is mo ther .

T hus N iko laos s ucceeded i n r ang ing a l l t he

i n terna l u rban p owers a ga ins t h im .

D iscuss ion o f t h is i nc iden t r ea l ly b e longs

t o t he f o l lowing c hap ter , b u t men t ion o f i th as t o b e made h ere t o i l lus tra te t he d icho to my b e tween u rban a nd r ura l a f fa irs i n t he s a in t 's a c t iv i t ies . F am ine was a n e nde m ic l oca l p roble m , a nd w as p ar t icu lar ly s er ious i n sma l ler t owns wh ich c ou ld n o t a f ford t o impor t g ra in a nd o ther r aw ma ter ia ls i n t he e ven t o f f a i lure o f t he marg ina l a gr icu l ture .

L ives tock d isease w as a n

a cco mpanying h azard , a s i s made p la in i n t he m irac les o f S . Theela o f S e leu4 3 c eia . T here , we a re t o ld , b o th r ich a nd p oor were a f fec ted b y t he p es t i lence among t he c a t t le , s heep , g oa ts a nd o ther a n i ma ls .

S . D e me tr ius o f T hessa-

l on ica 's mirac les a lso c on ta in a r e ference t o p lague among h u mans .

T h is ,

l ike t he f am ine a nd e ar thquakes a t An t ioch , was s upposed ly d iv ine p un ish men t f or t he c i ty 's e v i l d o ings , a nd was b o th d iagnosab le a nd r evers ib le b y t he i n ter5 0

c ess ionary e f for ts o f t he s a in t .

I n t h is c on tex t , h owever , t hese ma t ters d o n o t

g ive r ise t o a ny i nciden ts o f i nd iv idua l n o te . An i nd irec t e f fec t o f t he u rban-rura l d icho to my i s t he emphas is l a id b y t he h ag iographer o n t he s a in t 's r eac t ion t o t he s oc ia l a nd p rofess iona l c lass s truct ures o f t he a rea .

N iko laos ' f l ou t ing o f t he c iv ic a nd c hurch d ign i tar ies a nd

t heir e xpec ta t ions o f h im h as b een men t ioned a bove .

C orrespond ing ly , h is

war mes t a nd mos t d e tai led e ncoun ters a nd t hose t he h ag iographer p or trayed a s mos t mer i tor ious were t hose i nvo lv ing s a i lors a nd t he merchan t-sh ip mas ters , t he v o ci .m .X r i po

L ;

o f t hese , t he v o :f» tXr ipo t ,who o f fered t heir s erv ices t o c on-

v ey t he s a in t t o J erusa le m o np i lgr i mage r ece ive t he mos t s pace .3 5 Grea t a t ten t ion i s a lso p a id t o o ne s a i lor i n p ar t icu lar who h ad t he p resence o f mind t o s ecure a p rotec t ing c ross t o t he mas t o f h is s h ip d ur ing a d e mon-provoked s tor m .

3 6

p owered .

T he d e mon was g rappled w i th , s urrounded , i so la ted a nd f ina l ly o verT here c an b e l i t t le d oub t a s t o t he s ign i f icance o f t h is n arra t ive .

A l arge s ec t ion o f t he p opu la t ion o f Myra d epended o n t he s ea f or a l i v ing , a nd i n t h is w ay t he a verage c i t izen o f Myra was e ncouraged t o f ace u p t o , a nd t r iumph o ver , t he e v i l f orces c on fron t ing h im . A t ten t ion t o t he l oca l e nv iron men t i s a lso i n e v idence i n t he s ec t ion o f t he s ain t 's w ork c oncerned w i th t he c oun trys ide . R epea ted men t ion o f t he s a me v i l lage n a mes — a n e le men t f ound a lso i n t he c ase o f T heodore o f S ykeon — l en t c onv ic t ion .

T he p reva lence o f d e mons i n n a tura l t h ings s uch a s we l l-water

a nd w ood i n t he e ar ly p ar t o f t he t ex t a lso a dds l oca l r ura l f lavour . I n a dd i t ion , i td e mons tra tes t ha t t he s a in t h ad t o f ace r es idua l p agan s upers t i t ion . I n t he c ase o f S . T hee la , u n like t ha t o f N iko laos , t h is s uperna tura l f orce was p erson if ied .

H er p agan r iva l was S arpedon , whose p ower s he h ad t o " over throw" i n

o rder t o g a in a scendancy o ver b o th t he s i te a nd t he c i ty . E ven t hen , h er h ea l ing p owers were a t tr ibu ted t o t he o lder-es tab l ished S arpedon b y o ne p agan p rofessor . C lear ly h er image was n o t i m med ia te ly more c red ib le o r a ppea l ing t han t ha t o f h er o pponen t .

N a ture d e mons i n af orbidd ing l andscape a nd h os t i le e nv ironmen t

made more f ear fu l b y al ack o f e x tra- mura l l aw a nd o rder were n o t e as i ly d isc oun ted . Two f acets o f h ag iography f igure e spec ia l ly s trong ly i n t h is s ource . f irs t i s t he u se o f s y mbo l is m .

T he

T he s a in t 's moun ta in h eadquar ters a re r e ferred

t o me taphor ica l ly a s t he s h ip o f s ta te a nd a s J erusa le m . 38 B ib l ica l e choes , p ar t icu lar ly o f J esus ' l i fe a nd mirac les , a re mos t n o t iceab le . ( c f . C h . 4B , s ect . 3 ) .

The s econd a spec t i s t he c oncept o f t he s p ir i tua l f a ther men t ioned

i n C hap ter Ia nd h ere s een i n N iko laos ' c are f or h is s econd-in-co m mand , Ar te mas . T he l a t ter i s n ever d escr ibed , b u t a ppears r epea ted ly i n t he n arrat ive .

We s ee h im c hosen a s t he s a in t 's a ide a nd p laced i n c harge o f t he n ew ly-

f ounded monas tery o n M t . S ion , i n wh ich c apac i ty h e mus t h ave r e l ieved t he s a in t o f many a dm in is tra t ive c ares . L a ter we s ee Ar te mas a ssa i led b y t he Dev i l b o th p hys ica l ly a nd men ta l ly .3 9 H e was g uarded , h owever , b y t he e verwa tch fu l s a in t a nd s aved f ro m t e mp ta t ion a nd n igh t a t tacks . N iko laos h ad a ssu med r espons ib i l i ty f or t he b ody a nd s ou l o f h is a ide , a nd i t was t he h ag iog rapher 's b us iness t o a dvert ise t he s a in t 's s uccess . O ther a reas o f c o mpetence wh ich a re more c o m mon t hroughou t t he s ources a ppear h ere t oo .

Among t hose who f locked t o t he s a in t were s ter i le a nd s tarv-

i ng c oup les who were c ured a nd h e lped , a nd c rowds o f o n lookers who were f ed . H e a lso made a p rophecy c oncern ing t he t er m ina t ion o f t he e p iscopacy o f t he 5 1

3 7

b ishop . 4° I n t he miracles o f S . Thec la , t oo , d reams a nd c la irvoyance o ccur a round t he t ime o f t he d ea th o f t he me tropo l i tan o f T arsus , s o t ha t t he a n imos i ty b e tween t he b ishop a nd t he s a in t/hag iographer i s c lear e nough . I n t he p resen t c ase i ti s more c on jec tura l , b u t a f ter N iko laos ' p rev ious c lash w i th t he c hurch a nd s ta te a u thor i t ies , r e la t ions mus t h ave b een p recar ious . Pass ing o nt o t he mirac les o f S . T hecla , we f ind many s im i lar i t ies i n t he c ircums tances o f t he t wo t owns . One f unda men ta l d i f ference , h owever , s hou ld b e k ep t i n m ind . Thecla was a " dead" s a in t , a nd h er l egend was b e ing d e l ib era te ly k ep t a l ive , r e furb ished , t ranscr ibed i n to a c onsc ious ly d es igned l i terary c u l t .

B as i l , t he b ishop a nd a u thor , emerges f ro m t he t ex t a s ad omi-

n a t ing p ersona l i ty .

Is ugges t t h is i s o ne o f t he c leares t c ases o f ac are fu l

mou ld ing o f t he l egend t o s u i t t he n eeds o f l oca l ( and p ersona l ) c ircu ms tances . S e leuceia 's ma jor p rob le ms o f l aw a nd o rder a re d ep ic ted a s e x terna l o nes .j B r igands maraud ing w i th t he a id o f d e mons a nd e v i l-doers , a lways f ro m n e ighb our ing , sma l ler t owns a nd v i l lages , were t he ma in c u lpr i ts . P erhaps b y v ir tue o f t he c lose r e la t ionsh ip wh ich B as i l c la i ms b o th b etween t he s a in t a nd h i msel f a nd b e tween t he s a in t a nd t he c i ty , t h is s ource i s i n t i ma te i n n a ture . T he s oc ie ty p or trayed i s l im i ted i n s ize a nd c lose ly i n tegra ted . Ah igh p rop or t ion o f t he o bv ious ly p re-se lec ted mirac les a re c ases wh ich i nvo lve i nd iv id ua ls , a nd many were r epor ted b y a cqua in tances o f t he a u thor — a t f irs t o r s econd h and . T he f i rs t m irac le i s d evoted t o n arra t ing t he d is lodge men t o f S arpedon f ro m h is r ocky s i te a nd t he t ake-over b y Thec la a s p a tron o f t he h o ly p lace a nd c ons equen t ly o f t he t own . Bu t t he a ssocia t ion o f e v i l a nd t he o u ts ide moun ta inous t erra in c on t inued .

I n a dd i t ion, o ne o f t he t wo p agan p ro fessors u s ing t he s anc-

t uary a s ar es t c en tre a t tr ibu ted h is i mproved h ea l th t o v ar ious e le men ts , i nc lud ing S arpedon b u t w i thou t men t ion o f T hecla . D ua l i ty c on t inued t o e x is t . T he b r igandage a nd e x terna l ised c r i me were p inpoin ted a nd p erson i f ied i n ah and fu l o f mirac les .

T he t h ird i n t he t ex t s hows t he r eader t he marauders

o f a sma l l h i l l t own , K ie t is , f orced t o o f fer a h os tage t o g uaran tee t he ir f u ture p eace fu l b ehav iour .

T he c r i me i s h igh l igh ted b y t he d escr ip t ion o f t he h os tage

h erse l f . S he was e legan t , c u l tured , d e l ica te ly s ens i t ive t o t he h ea t . H er s on i nher i ted h er v ir tues , a nd was s a id t o h ave r e la ted t he t a le t o t he a u thor h i ms el f . T hus t he c on tras t was emphas ised , t he i nc iden t made t ang ible f or t he a ud ience a nd a p o in t a ga ins t l aw lessness made . A t t he c e lebra t ions o f t he s a in t 's f es t iv i t ies i t was y ou ths f ro m E irenopo l is who c aused t roub le among t he g a thered c rowds o f t he f a i th fu l .

T hey were p un ished merc i less ly f or t he ir

t e mer i ty a nd l us t . 41 The b ishop o f T arsus , more e leva ted i n t he c hurch h ierarchy , was s hown t o b e l ess e xa l ted t han S e leuce ia 's b ecause h e l acked t he s uppor t o f al oca l p a tron s a in t . 42 T he c over t s quabbl ing b etween t he s ees e nded i nt he d ea th o f t he u nsuppor ted me tropo l i tan , " seen" i n ad rea m a t S ele uceia . There were i n terna l p rob le ms t oo .

L oca ls u nder t he s a in t 's p ro tec t ion ,

l ike t hose o f J ohn t he A l msg iver , were p rone t o c orrup t ion . Two c ounc i l o ff icers were r espons ib le f or d is tr ibu t ing g ra in t o a r my t roops s ta t ioned n earby. When o ne d ied , h is p ar tner embezzled h eav i ly , a nd c omm i t ted a lso t he o f fence o f c hea t ing o rphans o u t o f t he ir i nher i tance. 43 C o mmon t he f t was a no ther c i ty p rob le m . S . T hec la , l i ke S y meon , c ou ld s ee i n to t he h ear ts o f a l l a nd s o d et ect t he s to len g oods i n t he ir h id ing p lace a s w e l l a s t he t h ie f .

The c ase o f

r ich t rapp ings s to len f ro m a s ocie ty wedding r ece ived t he mos t a t ten t ion . 5 2

The

c ere mony i s r evea led a s al av ish d isp lay f or s oc ia l a nd b us iness a ssoc ia tes . " O ther i n terna l p rob le ms i nc luded f am ine a nd a n i ma l d isease .

E ye-s ickness

was a lso p reva len t a s i t was a t A lexandr ia — a no ther c i ty w i th a n earby e s tuary a nd marshes .

Mar i ta l d ispu tes a lso f ound t he ir p lace o n t he l i s t o f e xa mp les .

Two w ives h ad t o s uf fer t he s ha me a nd n eg lec t o f s pouses o ccup ied w i th a mist ress e lsewhere . 45 B o th c ases a re d escr ibed i n c ons iderab le d e ta i l . T he f irs t w i fe was s aved b y d iv ine b eau ti f ica t ion . T he h usbind , ag rea t mi l i tary c o mmander , t hen f ound h er more a t tract ive t han t he m is tress a nd r e turned h o me .

T he s econd w i fe was f ac ia l ly d is f igured b y h er r iva l .

T he wrong was

r edressed b y ad iv ine i n terven t ion c aus ing r eversa l o f t he ma lady . T here a re s evera l l essons t o b e l earn t h ere . T he e qua t ion o f v isua l b eau ty a nd d es irab i li ty i s o bv ious a nd d eno tes v a lues o ther t han t hose i n wh ich modern s ocie ty wou ld t ake p r ide . O thers h ave a lready b een men t ioned . ( Ch .2 ) S uch s oc ia l p roble ms w ere c o m monp lace p erenn ia ls i n a ny s oc ie ty , b u t Bas i l a lso f ound i tn ecessary t o d raw a t ten t ion t o t he r e l ig ious s i tua t ion . S e leuce ia 's p opu la t ion i nc luded p agans a nd J ews . T he l a t ter a re r e ferred t o a s a ccep ted b u t n o t a cceptable me mbers o f t he med ica l p rofess ion . The p agans were a lso c onnected w i th t he c u l tured c lasses . e xamp le .

The p agan p ro fessors were a n

The e xc lus iveness o f t he c onnect ion B as i l s ee ms t o h ave s e t o u t t o

d isavow . The p ious h os tage , t he a u thor , t he s a in t h erse l f , a l l emerge a s c u lt ured p ersons o f ag ood c lass ica l e duca t ion . A s ocia l ly e xpec ted d ivergence b etween h o l iness a nd l earn ing , a dop ted b y s o me modern s cho lars s uch a s F es tug ibre , mus t h ave e x is ted s trong ly e nough , i n S e leuceia a t l eas t , f or Bas i l t o h ave f ound t he c oun terb low n ecessary . 46 T he s a in t i s s hown t o b e a b le t o improve t he s ocia l p os i t ion o f h er c l ien ts , a s w e l l a s t he ir h ea l th , t hrough t he work ing o f a mirac le . B as i l h i msel f was h e lped w i th s peech-wr i t ing f or h er f eas t-day a nd a t t he s ynod . H e was a lso e ncouraged i n wr i t ing t he t ex t o f t he mirac les a nd c ured o f e arache . 47

T h is

c ou ld b e a t tr ibu ted t o " ves ted i n teres ts" , b u t t he c ase o f P aus ikakos c anno t . The l ow ly f erry man , o f t he c lass o f p oor manua l workers , was c ured o f a n e ye c o mp la in t . S ubsequen t ly h e was d ee med t o b e o n af oo t ing w i th t he i l lust r ious , a nd h is j ob b eca me a n h onourab le s erv ice f or a l l S e leuce ia . 48 T he l anguage i s empha t ic e nough t o make t he p oin t i nde l ib le i n t he m inds o f t he a ud ience . S o we move o nt o t he l i fe o f T heodore o f S ykeon .

V i l lage t ens ions , a gr icu l-

t ura l h azards a nd c on f l ic t w i th a ncien t r ura l b e l ie fs r ender t h is s ource c o mp arab le t o t he l i ves o f S . N iko laos a nd o f S y meon t he Younger . T heodore 's own b ackground was r e markab le f or a s a in t , a nd h is mo ther i s t he f irs t o u ts tand ing c harac ter o f t he t ex t .

T he p ious h er i tage o r h igh b ir th o f mos t s a in ts

were b o th a bsen t . I ns tead , T heodore h ad a n i t ineran t imper ia l messenger a s f a ther a nd a c our tesan f or a mo ther . Fa m i ly l i fe was s uppl ied b y t he v ar ious f e ma le r ela t ions e ngaged i n s ta f f ing t he h os telry . T heodore , l i ke t he l i ve s a in ts i n s ources e xa m ined e ar l ier , h ad p ower fu l f r iends . T he n ephew o f Emperor P hocas r e ma ined a p ersona l f r iend a nd b enef ac tor e ven when T heodore a nd t he emperor were a t l oggerheads . When Phocas was r ep laced b y H eracl ius , t he s a in t p rotec ted t he n ephew a ga ins t p oss ib le v eng eance . 49

The p a tr ician P ho t ius , l a ter t he e xarch a t R o me , p ersuaded t he

5 3

s a in t t o b ap t ise h is c h i ld — a s a lso d id H erac l ius .5 0 Un like N iko laos , T heodore d id n o t a l iena te t he r eg iona l a u thor i t ies o r t he c hurch h ierarchy , e ven when h o ld ing a b ishopr ic h i mse l f . I ns tead , o ppos i t ion c a me f ro m t he wel l-es tab l ished f orces o f p agan mag ic , f ro m s orcerers a nd w i tchdoc tors . An e ar ly a t te mp t t o p o ison h i m was o n ly a ver ted b y as peedy r e trea t t o t he monas tery a nd r ecourse t o t he i con o f C os mas a nd Da m ian .

5 1

The u ses o f t he monas tery a re f ur ther

e xe mp l i f ied i n t he c areer o f o ne o f i t s p up i ls . A f ter i l lness a nd a p er iod o f " usefu l" s uf fer ing , h e was c ured b y t he s a in t , a nd , f o l low ing a p i lgr i mage t o J erusa le m , p rogressed t o t he s ta tus o f h er m i t a nd s ty l i te .5 2 Al a ter e ncoun ter w i th a s orcerer i s a lso r ecorded . T h is o ne was a c ler ic a s we l l — ev idence t ha t f orb idden a r ts a nd a r espec tab le c areer c ou ld g o h and i n h and .

5 3

I n c on tras t t o t hose d escr ibed i n t he l as t s ource , t he c l ien ts o f

Theodore a re r are ly p resen ted a s a cqua in tances o f t he s a in t o r a ccorded i n t ima te d escr ip t ions . One o r t wo i nc iden ts i nvo lv ing p ar t icu lar ly p ra isewor thy o r c u lpab le p ersons , h owever , d o o b trude . T here was , f or i ns tance , t he monast ery a rchdeacon s en t t o C ons tan t inop le t o p urchase s i lver v esse ls f or t he n ew c hape l .

F ro m t he g old- a nd s i lver-s m i th h e o bta ined a " po l lu ted" a r t ic le , a

p ros t i tu te 's c ha mber-po t .5 4 I ti s n o t e n t ire ly c lear , b ear ing i n mind Theodore 's own p aren tage , whe ther t he a r t ic le was r e jec ted b ecause o f i t s p as t u se o r p as t ownersh ip . I td oes , h owever , d e mons tra te t he f i nanc ia l s uccess o f p ros t i tu tes a nd a lso t ha t t here was a s y e t n o s e t t rad i t ion f or t he f or m o f e ccles ias t ica l o rna men ts . S o h ere we h ave T heodore 's a rray o f i nd iv idua l e ncoun ters r ecord ing f am i ly b ackground , a r is tocra t ic f r iends a nd c on tac ts w i th emperors , c o mba t w i th s upers t i t ion a nd h eresy . I n ten t iona l o r u nconscious r eve la t ion o f i n teres t ing i t e ms b y i nd iv idua l isa t ion f igures l i t t le i n t h is s ource . E ven when t he s a in t miracu lous ly f reed a p r isoner f ro m h is c ha ins t o e nab le h im t o r ece ive t he Euchar is t , t he o ppos i t ion c a me n o t f ro m h igh a u thor i t ies b u t f ro m t he p e t ty o ff icer i n c harge , a nd n o o f f ic ia l r ebuke i s r ecorded .

5 5

O ther n a mes a ppear ,

b u t t he p ar t t hey p layed a s i nd iv idua ls was l ess impor tan t t han t heir r epresent a ta t ive c apaci ty . I nt h is way we s ee " good" emperors p aying r espec t fu l h o mage , d u t i fu l b ishops b ear ing g i f ts a nd g ra te fu l c i ty e lders e lec t ing t he s a in t t o ab ishopr ic . T h is l as t h onour r es ted u neas i ly o n T heodore 's s hou lders . We s ee h im , f or u nspeci f ied r easons , b uck le u nder t he s tra in a nd r es ign t w ice . ( c f . C h . 4B ) F ina l ly t here i s t he f ragmen tary e v idence c on ta ined i n t he s ources mak ing u p t he sma l l " sub-group" o f F es tug iere 's Mo ines d 'Or ien t .

F or t hese more

e as ter ly a nd l ess u rban s a in ts t he e v idence i s o f ten s can ty , a l though s a in ts a nd t he ir b ackgrounds "— ma in ly a r is tocra t ic — a re d escr ibed . I n t h is s ec t ion i t i s i nc iden ta l i n for ma t ion r a ther t han t he f r iendsh ips o r a n i mos i t ies wh ich d om ina te t he s cene . H ypa t ius , f or i ns tance , was v is i ted b y a wea l thy d eaconess . ( c f . C h . 2 ) S he was we l l e duca ted a nd f ree t o t rave l . S he a lso t hough t h ers el f c o mpe ten t t o " tes t" t he s a in t i n ma t ters o f o r thodoxy . 5 6 T h is may b e t aken a s a n i nd ica t ion o f many p eop le 's a t t i tude t o s a in ts b efore a nd d ur ing t he ir e s tab l ishmen t . Eu thy m ius a nd J ohn H esychas te , t he o thers i n t h is g roup w i th who m Iam c h ie f ly c oncerned , a lso r ece ived i n teres t ing v is i ts f ro m d is t ingu ished l ad ies . Ad eaconess w i th h er n ephew , ag rand iss i mus , v is i ted J ohn . T hey were o n p i lgr i mage t o J erusa le m : a n i ndica t ion o f mob i l i ty . I n s p i te o f o bv ious ly h igh 5 4

c onnec t ions , t he d eaconess was n o t a l lowed i n to t he s anc tuary b ecause o f h er s ex . G rea ter d iscr im ina t ion i n P a les t ine t han f ur ther wes t i n t he emp ire i s ap oss ib le i n terpre ta t ion . T he n ephew , a n a dversary i n t he s ense t ha t h e was h ere t ica l , was c onver ted t o o r thodoxy — t hus d e mons tra t ing t he s a in t 's g i f t o f c la irvoyance a nd h is s treng th a s a n em issary o f t he t rue f a i th . 5 7 The v is i t o f empress E udok ia t o E u thy m ius was l ess p ersona l , more a f or ma l r epresen tat i on o f l i a ison w i th t he imper ia l f am i ly i n t he ir t rad i t iona l r o le a s p ub l ic p h i lant hropis ts .

5 8

T heodos ius , a no ther s a in t i nt he c o l lec t ion , met imper ia l o ppos i t ion f ro m Anas tas ius .

As u sua l , t he c ause was o ppress ion o f t he c hurch .

C are i s t aken

b y t he h ag iographer t o c lar ify t he p oin t t ha t t he s a in t i s n o t o ppos ing t he imp er ia l i ns t i tu t ion a s s uch , b u t s eek ing t o c orrect t he r epress ive p o l icy o f a n i nd iv idua l " bad" emperor . T h is b r ings t o ac lose t he o bserva t ion o f i nd iv idua l c ase h is tor ies o f s a in ts a nd t he ir c l ien ts o r o pponen ts .

I n s p i te o f t he d i f f icu l t ies o f f ind ing a nd im-

p os ing t he c r i ter ia t he amoun t o f t he e v idence u pho lds t he e x is tence o f a n i ssue t o b e e xa m ined . T he f orce o f , b oth l oca l b ias a nd o f t he a u thor 's p ersona l i ty a nd a i ms made t he mse lves f e l t . T he a rgumen t s hou ld b e c ons iderably s treng the ned b y c ons ider ing t h is c hap ter i np ara l le l w i th t hose f o l low ing . 3 .

T he S a in t a s a n I nd iv idua l .

B efore t urn ing t o t hese , h owever , o ne f ina l

a spec t d eserves c ons idera t ion . T he i n troduc t ion men t ioned t he d ua l r o le o f t he s a in t . H e p erson i f ied t he e xpec ted p owers a nd v ir tues i n t he i ns t i tu t ion o f s a in tl iness , a nd h e was a lso a n i nd iv idua l . I ts ee ms a ppropr ia te t o g ive s o me c ons idera t ion t o t he l a t ter h ere . T he i nd iv idua l i ty o f " dead" s a in ts , a s s hown i n t heir r esponse t o p eople a nd s i tua t ions , was d e ter m ined b y t he h ag iographer .

T he r eader i s l e f t w i th t he

a u thor 's c harac ter a nd t he s treng th o f i t s i n f luence . The f ines t e xa mp le o f t h is i s B as i l , t he B ishop o f S e leuce ia . H is wr i t ing o f t he mirac les o f S . T hee la a ppears f ro m t h is p o in t o f v iew a mas ter ly a nd o f ten s ubt le n arra t ive , d es igned w i th in a l oca l f ra mework t o t rans m i t as trong message f or c iv ic u n i ty a nd r igh teous o r thodoxy. O ther s a in ts i nt h is c a tegory a re a lso e ndowed w i th d i ff eren t ia ted c harac ter is t ics . The " l ive" s a in ts , r ecorded b y c on te mporar ies a nd d isciples , w ere l ess man ipu lab le b u t s t i l l l i ab le t o b iograph ica l i n terpre ta t ion . The ir h o me b ackg round i s n or ma l ly r ecorded i n d e ta i l . T he p aren ts were mos t ly p ious a nd u pper-c lass . S o me , l ike t he A l msg iver a nd H ohn H esychas te , were o f t he h ighes t a r is tocracy , wh ich may h ave f aci l i ta ted t he ir g ood r ela t ions w i th t he p ower fu l f igures o f c hurch a nd s ta te . L ess we l l-connec ted s a in ts s uch a s N iko laos a nd S y meon t he Y ounger may h ave h ad t he ir r e la t ions w i th t he p owerf u l a dverse ly a f fec ted f or t h is r eason . B ackground a s we l l a s t he d e mands o f l oca l c ircums tance may h ave s haped t he s a in t 's p re ferences among c l ien ts a nd h is r esponses t o v ar ious s ocia l g roups . S a in ts v ar ied i n t he amoun t a nd d egree o f i nd iv idua l a t ten t ion me ted o u t , a nd t he r ecipien ts v ary t oo . T he e v idence a rranged a bove a rgues t ha t t he r easons g overn ing e ach c ase c on for m t o r ec ogn isab le p a t terns . I ft he c l ien t was r epresen ted t o t he a ud ience a s a n i nd iv idua l f or t he p urp ose o f mak ing t he t ex t more c onv incing , i tf o l lows t ha t t he s a in t s hou ld h ave ap ersona l s ide . The d egree t o wh ich t he i nd iv idua l c harac ter o f t he s a in t c o mes t hrough t he s truc ture o f t he t ex t a nd t he r i tua l ised p or tra i t o f h im , v ar ies . 5 5

Though h e was o f t he s uperna tura l , a n e le men t o f h uman i ty was a lways e ssent ia l f or g enu ine c on tact w i th t he l oca l p opu la t ion . 4 . S u m mary . S umm ing u p t he e v idence p resen ts u s w i th a c o mp lex f ra mework w i th in wh ich t o work . F irs t ly , i t mus t b e a ssumed t ha t t he c ases a re d e l ibera te ly p re-se lec ted f or t he p urposes o f t he a u thor . F o l low ing f ro m t h is , i t may b e o bserved t ha t t he c ases f a l l i n to t he t hree ma jor b u t n o t mu tua l ly e xc lus ive c a tegor ies a lready d escr ibed .

L oca l d i f f icu l t ies were o f ten c o mmon

t o s evera l o f t he s ources , a l though o thers were p ecu l iar t o o ne i n p ar t icu lar . N iko laos ' c on fron ta t ion w i th t he c oncer ted a u thor i t ies a nd t he s epara t ion o f e xt erna l v io lence f ro m i n terna l mishaps a t S e leuceia a re b o th u n ique . C l ien ts o f t he s a in ts s eek ing a l l k inds o f a id — ma ter ia l , med ica l , a dv isory — a re r epresen ted . S im i lar ly , s oc ia l , r e l ig ious , a nd p o li t ica l/ lega l o pponen ts a re a l l p a in ted a s i nd iv idua ls . N o a spec t g oes c o mple te ly u n i l lus tra ted . T he b a lance i n a ny o ne s ource i s n o t n ecessar i ly e qu i tab le — S y meon t he Y ounger a nd N iko laos s ee m p ar t icu lar ly b ese t w i th p rob le ms , whereas D an ie l , o nce e s tab l ished , a ppears s ingu lar ly we l l p laced i n t he b a lance o f l oca l p owers . T h is d isequ i l ibr iu m may b e d e l ibera te o nt he p ar t o f t he b iographer a nd d epend en t o n t he message h e w ished t o c onvey . E ach s ource e xa m ined i n t h is way h as much t o t e l l a bou t l oca l c ond i t ions a nd d e mands . T o l earn more a bou t t he s a in t 's r e la t ions w i th h is c hosen c ornmun i ty , t h is c hap ter s hou ld b e v iewed i n c on junc t ion w i th t hose wh ich f o l low , c oncerned w i th t he s a in t a nd h is r ela t ions w i th l oca l i ns t i tu t iona l f orces .

5 6

NOTES

1 .

J ohn t he A l msg iver , p ara . 1 2 , p . 2 19 .

2 .

S . Dan ie l S ty l ite , p aras . 2 6-8 .

3 .

I b id ., p aras . 3 1-2 .

4 .

I b id ., p ara . 6 5 .

5 .

Cyrus a nd J ohn , p ara . 5 6 .

6 .

S . Dan ie l S ty l ite , p aras . 2 9,31,33 .

7 .

Cyrus a nd J ohn , p ara . 6 2 .

8 .

I b id ., p ara . 3 0 ( see a lso 3 9) .

9 .

i b id . ,p ara . 1 2 .

1 0 .

J ohn t he A l msg iver , p ara . 9 , p . 2 04 .

1 1.

i b id . ,p ara . 1 4 , p p . 2 23-4 .

1 2 .

i b id ., p aras . 1 5-16 , p p . 2 25-7 .

1 3 .

I b id ., p ara . 3 7 , p . 2 45 .

1 4 .

I b id ., p ara . 2 7 , p . 2 37 .

1 5 .

I b id ., p ara . 1 0 , p p . 2 16-18 .

1 6 .

S . D an ie l t he S ty l i te , p ara . 5 1.

1 7 .

I b id ., p ara . 4 9 .

1 8 .

S y meon t he Younger , p aras . 3 -4 .

1 9 .

i b id ., p aras . 8 7 , 1 20 .

c f . J ohn t he A l msg iver , p aras. 1 -4 .

I ts hou ld b e n oted t ha t i n t he s econd o f h er

a ppearances o n t h is m iss ion , Mar tha a dded a nother p oten t p lea t o h er a rgu men t . S he a sked S y meon t o r equest mercy f or h is b ir thp lace a nd f e l low-c it izens . T h is i nc iden t w i l l b e d iscussed i n t he e nsu ing c hap ter , b u t i ti s i n terest ing h ere t ha t t he mother , wh i le k now ing t he s treng th o f h er i n f luence , s t i l l c hose t o b ack i tu p w ith a c a l l t o S ymeon ' sc iv ic s ens ib i l it ies . 2 0 .

I n p ass ing i ti s wor th p o in t ing o u t t he l ack o f a t ten t ion p a id t o t he l aw g overn ing t he l ower a ge l im it f or monast ic r ecru its .

2 1.

i b id ., p aras . 1 -40 , i n p ar t icu lar p aras .

2 2 .

I b id ., p ara . 2 33 .

2 3 .

i b id ., p ara . 2 31.

2 4 .

I b id ., p ara . 1 61.

2 5 .

I b id ., p ara . 2 21.

2 6 .

i b id . ,p ara . 1 51.

5 7

, 14 .

2 7 .

i b id ., p ara . 2 08 .

2 8 .

i b id ., p aras 2 02-4 .

2 9 .

i b id ., p ara . 2 11 .

3 0 .

i b id ., p ara . 1 30 .

3 1.

i b id ., p ara . 1 44 .

3 2 .

i b id ., p aras . 1 80-1.

3 3 .

S . N iko laos, p aras . 5 2-3 .

3 4 .

S . T hec la , m ir . n o . 2 1-2 .

3 5 .

S . N iko laos, p aras. 2 8-30 .

3 6 .

i b id ., p ara . 2 1.

3 7 .

S . Thee la , mir . n os . 1a nd 2 5-6 .

3 8 .

S . N iko laos, p aras . 7 , 1 1.

3 9.

i b id ., p aras, 4 4-8 .

4 0 .

i b id ., p aras . 4 5 , 4 0 , 5 9 .

4 1.

S . Thee la , mir . n os . 1 8-19 .

4 2 .

i b id ., mir . n os . 1 3-14 .

4 3 .

i b id ., mir . n o . 2 0 .

4 4 .

i b id ., mir . n o . 5 .

4 5 .

i b id ., mir . n os . 4 , 2 8 .

4 6 .

S ee b ib l iography , F estug iere , L es Mo ines d 'O r ien t , v o l I , p ar t ( i ) .

4 7 .

S . Thee la , m ir . n o . 1 6 .

4 8 .

i b id ., m ir . n o . 7 .

4 9 .

T heodore o f S ykeon , p ara . 1 52 .

5 0 .

i b id ., p aras . 1 54-5 .

5 1.

i b id ., p aras . 3 7-9 .

5 2 .

i b id ., p aras . 4 5-8 .

5 3 .

i b id ., p ara . 1 59 .

5 4 .

i b id ., p aras . 4 0-2 .

5 5 .

i b id ., p ara . 1 25 .

5 6 .

Mo ines d ' Or ien t , v o l H , p ar t ( I ) .

5 7 .

i b id ., v o l 3 , p ar t ( ii) Ch . XX I I IIV .

5 8 .

i b id ., v o l . 3 , p ar t ( I ) Ch . XXX .

S ee a lso Ch . 2 . S ee a lso Ch . 2 .

5 8

CHAPTER I V :

THE S AINT AND I NST ITUT IONS

S ECT ION A :

S ECULAR I NST ITUTIONS

I n troduct ion D if ference o f i nd iv idua l a nd r epresen tat ive p resen tat ion r e-stated 1 Method Two s ect ions :

s ecu lar a nd e cc les iast ic i nst itu t ions.

I nst itut iona l

v a lue o f t he s a in t 1 .2

C ity g roups ( as b efore ) D iv is ion o f i nst itut ions :

p o l it ica l , s oc ia l , p rofess iona l

2 Ev idence 2 .1

The s tate :

i mper ia l a nd l oca l g overnmen t a nd t he o f f ic ia ls

2 .2

S oc ia l g roups :

a r istocracy , b ureaucrats, mercan t i le,

a rt isans a nd t he p oor o f t he c rowds 2 .3

Profess iona l g roups

3 S u m mary

5 9

CHAPTER FOUR THE S AINT AND SOCIAL I NSTITUT IONS

S ECT ION A :

S ECULAR I NSTITUT IONS

I n t he i n troduct ion t o t he p rev ious c hap ter a d iv is ion was made b e tween t wo k inds o f s a in t-c l ien t e ncoun ters . T he f i rs t t ype was t ha t i n wh ich t he c l ien ts ' i nd iv idua l c haracter was c ruc ia l . T he s econd was t ha t i n wh ich t he p redo m in an t f unc t ion o ft he c l ien t was t o r epresen t ag roup . C hap ter T hree e xam ined t he f i rst o f t hese a nd d iscussed p oss ib le r easons f or t he s e lec t ion o f c ases . F o l low ing t he s ame l i nes , t h is c hap ter e xam ines c ases o ft he s econd t ype o f e ncoun ter . 1 . F or r easons o f c onven ience , t he s urvey i s s p l i t i n to t wo s ect ions . T he f i rst d ea ls w i th t he s ecu lar i nst i tu t ions a nd g roups , i nc lud ing t hose w i th s oc ia l c lass o r p rofess iona l b ases .

T he c hurch a nd r e l ig ious i nst itu t ions a re e xam-

i ned i n t he s econd s ec t ion . T h is i nc ludes a s ub-sec t ion wh ich a i ms t o a na lyse t he i nst itu t iona l v a le o f t he s a in t . 1 .2 A s b efore , t he s ources a re c ons idered i n t wo g roups a ccord ing t o t he c i ty t o wh ich t hey a re r e la ted . T he i nst itu t ions o r g roups a re d iv ided u p a s f o l lows : ( i ) t he s ta te , l oca l g overnmen t a nd i t s o f f ic ia ls ; ( i) c lass g roups , f ro m a r is tocracy t o merchan ts , t o t he c i ty mob ; ( i i ) p rofess iona l g roups . C o mpara t ive ly f ew o f t hese a re r epresen ted ; d oc tors a nd s cho lars a re e xamp les o ft hose wh ich a re . Ac er ta in amoun t o f o ver lapp ing i s i nev i tab le . 2 .1 T he S ta te T he h ead o f s ta te i s a n a ppropr ia te s tar t ing p lace . R e lat i ons b e tween s a in ts a nd emperors a ppear t o c on form t o ap red ictab le a nd r i tua l ised f ormu la . Emperors were d es igna ted " good" o r " bad" b y h ag iog raphers a ccord ing t o t he o r thodoxy o f t he ir f a ith a nd t he ir t rea t men t o f t he c hurch . T he ir p ersona l i ty was s epara ted f ro m , a nd s econdary t o, t he ir o f f ice . T h is l a t ter d iv is ion h ad t he a dvan tage o f a l low ing h ag iography t o h o ld a "b ad " emperor c u lpab le f or a ny a dverse s ta te o f a f fa irs w i thou t r ecogn is ing a ny i nh eren t c on f l ic t b e tween t he s a in t a nd t he s ta te . T heodore o f S ykeon a nd t he r e mo ter T heodos ius b o th s uppor ted t he o rthodox c hurch a ga inst r epress ive emperors . I n T heodore ' sc on f l ic t w ith P hocas i ti s s ign if ican t t ha t t he empero r r epresen ted c haos .1 T he t r iumph o f r igh teousness, g ood o rder a nd t he s a in t were made s ynonymous . S a in t ly s uppor t was d oub le-edged . C ons tancy o n t he s ide o f r igh teousness g ave D an ie l t he p ower t o o ppose a nd i nsu l t Z eno ' s u surper w ith i mpun ity . H e e ven e n tered t he c i ty a nd d ared t o u t ter t he n ame o f o f t he e x i le , p rescr ib ing i ta s t he n ame f or a n u nborn c h i ld o f a n a r is tocra t ic mother .

2

T h is e ven t was o ne o ccas ion o n wh ich t he d ec is ion t o e n ter t he c i ty was made u n i la tera l ly b y t he s a in t i n at ime o f t roub les . I n o ther i nstances , a s a in t ' sp rogress i n to t he c ap i ta l was o n ly a t t he i nv ita t ion o f 6 0

g ood" emperors,

s ome t i mes a ct ing i n u n ison w i th t he p a tr iarch . T he r easons f or wh ich s a in ts a nd emperors v is ited e ach o ther must a lso b e e xp lored . U n l ike o rd in ary c l ien ts ' ,emperors ' v is its c anno t b e c a l led ma ter ia l a id-seek ing , ( c f . C h . 3I n tro . )f or s uch h e lp w ou ld h ave b een c ons idered b enea th i mper ia l d ign i ty . O ther me mbers o ft he i mper ia l f am i ly a nd c our t were h ea led b y s a in ts -b u t t h is n orma l ly t ook p lace a way f ro m t he c u l t-s ite . A dv ice a nd a rb i tra t ion w ere a d i f feren t ma t ter . Emperors s ough t t hese w hen t hey were a va i lab le a nd c lose a t h and . T he s a in t was i dea l ly i rreproacha b le , a ccess ib le a nd s upposed ly i mpar t ia l -t hough t h is a t l east was, a s w i l l b e s een , d ec ide ly q uest ionab le . A loofness made a rb i tra t ion a t a l l s oc ia l l eve ls p oss ib le f or t he s a in t . D an ie l e ven h ad t o p res ide i n a n i n terna t iona l c ase w hen t he emperor L eo a nd t he K ing o f t he L az i s ough t h is h e lp i n t h is c apac ity .3 Emperors ' v is i ts t o s a in ts i n t he ir s anctuary-s i tes were n orma l ly more o f a s oc ia l a f fa ir , ap ub l ic d emonstra t ion o f c on t inued c oncord b e tween G od ' s c hosen r epresen ta t ives o n e ar th . T h is c onst i tu tes a g ood r eason f or t he a bs ence o f c on tac ts b e tween emperors a nd" d ead" s a in ts w i th who m s uch a p ub l ic s how was i mposs ib le . As a in t ' sb less ing was ap ub l ic s anc t ion u pon t he g overnmen ta l d eeds o f t he emperor . I tw ou ld b e n a ive t o s uppose t ha t e i ther p ar ty was u naware o f t he a dvan tages o f a n o ccas iona l c eremony o f t h is t ype , b oth f or t hemse lves a nd f or g enera l mora le . I t was t oo u sefu l ar e la t ionsh ip t o b e u n .exp lo i ted . L eo ' sw ords t o D an ie l a f ter t he n ear-destruc t ion o f h is p i l lar i n as torm c an l eave l i t t le d oubt a s t o t he t rue i mper ia l o p in ion o ft he mat ter . Dan ie l was u rged t o t ake b e t ter c are o f h i mse lf ...." f or G od h as g iven y ou t o b e f ru i t fu l o n o ur b eha lf ." 4 O n o ther o ccas ions t he a ud ience was t rea ted t o t he s igh t o f L eo p rostra t ing h i mse lf b e fore Dan ie l a nd H erac l ius p ro m is ing T heodore t o f orego r evenge a ga inst p ersona l e ne m ies a nd a sk ing ab less ing u pon h is P ers ian c ampa ign .5 I n b o th c ases i t was t he emperor who t ook t he i n it ia t ive . T he s ame was p rob ab ly t rue o f i nv ita t ions i ssued t o t he s a in ts t o e n ter t he ir c i ty . T hey w ere i nv i ted t o d o s o o n ly when t hey were n eeded , e i ther i n af am ine o r d ur ing a c r is is o f c on f idence i n t he r u ler . T h is p o in t may b e i l lum ina ted f ur ther when we c ons ider t he r e la t ions o f s a in t , g overnmen t a nd c i ty mob . ( see s ec t . 2 .2) . I ti sn ot iceab le t ha t n o s a in t i s r ecorded a s h av ing r efused s uch a n i nv i ta t ion o nce i th ad b een p ub l ic ly i ssued . T he p resence o ft he s a in t was a d e monstrat i on o f c oncord . I n q u ie t t imes i t was p ropaganda , i n t imes o f t roub le i t was r eassurance a nd h ope . 2 .12

B e low i mper ia l g overnmen t c ame t he l oca l a u thor it ies a nd a l l t he ir

o f f ic ia ls . T hese c an b e v iewed b oth a s a n i ns t itu t iona l e n t ity a nd a s ap rof ess iona l g roup . E i ther way , t he ir c on tac t w i th s a in ts was b o th f requen t a nd v ar ied . B o th Dan ie l a nd J ohn t he A l msg iver d rew t he ir "f r iends" f ro m t he g ove rn ing c lasses a nd f ro m t he a r istocracy . ( c f . C h . 32 .11) . I n D an ie l ' sc ase , h is f orays i n to t he c i ty w ere c lear ly d iv ided b e tween f l urr ied a nd u nco m fortab le a ppearances f or t he masses a nd q u ie ter e xchanges w i th t he 5 uvor rol

6 1

O n o ne o ccas ion h e was r escued f ro m t he mob ' sp ressure b y o ne s uch g en t leman , a nd o n a no ther b y r e trea t i n to t he n earby S tud i te monastery .6 H is c h ief c on tacts were w ith t he c our t a nd i t s o f f ic ia ls, h owever , a nd q u i te u n in terrup ted b y t he p resence o f a ny i n termed ia te l oca l g overnmen t s tructure . Re la t ions w ith t h is t ype o fb ureaucracy c an o n ly b e s een i n a ct ion away f ro m C onstan t inop le . T he o ppos it ion b e tween N iko laos a nd t he c o mb ined l oca l d ign itar ies d ur ing a f am ine h as a lready b een men t ioned .

( c f . C h . 3 , 2 .2) .

C lose a t ten t ion s hou ld b e p a id t o t he t erms i n wh ich t he i nc iden t i s r e la ted . O n h ear ing N iko laos ' r efusa l t o a ccede t o t he ir d e mands, t he l oca l g overnors o f s ta te a nd c hurch s en t t he message t ha t h e h ad " beco me a g rea t s ycophan t" .7 I n o ther words, h e was f a i l ing t o f u lf i l l h is d u t ies - a s t hey p erce ived t he m . S y meon a nd T heodore o f S ykeon r epresen ted t he o ppos ite e nd o f t he s pec tru m , where l oca l g overnmen t a nd s a in t worked h and i n g love t o t he a dvan tage o f b o th . N ice tas, t he imper ia l r epresen ta t ive , h as a lready b een d escr ibed a s t he c h ief c on tact a nd f r ien t o f J ohn t he A l msg iver . T here were a rgu men ts b et ween t he m , most ly o n c o m merc ia l ma t ters, b u t t he c loseness o f t he ir work ing r e la t ionsh ip was emphas ised b y t he h ag iographer . T he f o l low ing p o in ts a re n otewor thy :

( i ) t he f r iendsh ip was c e men ted b y t he b ap t is m o f N ice tas ' c h i ld .

One manuscr ip t e ven makes t he m r e la t ives .

Wha tever t he t ru th o f t he ma t ter ,

t he image o f s ta te a nd s a in t ly p owers h ad b een s uccessfu l ly we lded f or t he a ud ience ' sb enef it ; a nd ( i) t he s a in t a lways g a ined t he u pper h and i n t he ir a rgu men ts .

T he A l msg iver ' so ther e ncoun ters w i th t he g overn ing c lasses

were w ith l oca l o f f ic ia ls, a nd were a l l c ons idered i n t he p rev ious c hapter . ( c f . Ch . 3 , 2 .11) . A lso i mpor tan t t o b oth C onstan t inop le a nd A lexandr ia were t he d octor s a in ts . B oth p a irs o f h ea lers p a id g rea t a t ten t ion t o t he l oca l g overn ing b ureaucracy b u t h ad n o c on tact w ith emperors . p rone t o d igest ive a nd o ther n ervous c o mp la in ts .

Bureaucra ts were p ar t icu lar ly D iscuss ion o f t h is a spec t

b e longs e lsewhere ( see C h . 5 ) , a nd h ere we n eed o n ly r ecord t ha t t he ir c ont acts w ith t he h ea l ing s a in ts were many , u rgen t a nd most ly f r iend ly . S ymeon t he Younger ' sc on tacts - l i ke t hose o f t he s econd c i ty g roup — were r a ther d if feren t .

H is p rob le ms were w i th t he n otab les o f An t ioch a nd

h is ma in c r it ic is m was o f t he ir h ere t ica l a nd i ndu lgen t l i fe-sty le , where i nd iv idua l h igh l igh t ing was u sed b y t he h ag iographer . ( see C h . 3 ) . Bu t ( apart f ro m t he r e l ig ious d ev iance i nside t he c i ty) t here was a nother d i mens ion t o S y meon ' sm in istry . L oca l g overn men t i n r ura l a reas imp inged o n a l l t he s a in ts o ft he s econd c i ty g roup , a s we l l a s o n S y meon , i n t he f or m o f h iera rch ica l v i l lage a u thor it ies .

The d iv ine a id s ough t i n t hese a reas was ma in ly

a rbi tra t ion i n d ispu tes a nd m iracu lous i n tercess ion o r l argesse d ur ing f am ine o r d rough t .

Here t he s a in t p rov ided a s erv ice f or c l ien t a nd o verworked

a u thor it ies a l ike .

T he f i na l ity o f h is j udge men t a lso wa ived t he p oss ib i l i ty

o f a ppea l a nd r educed l oss-of-face f or b oth p ar t ies.

C onsequen t ly t he r ura l

h in ter land l i fe was l ess l i ke ly t o b e d isrup ted f or l ong . I n t h is s ense t he s a in t was a n a gen t o f r eg iona l g overn men t a nd a g o-be tween f or c i ty a nd v i l lage a dm in istra t ion .

B oth S y meon a nd T heodore o f S ykeon were a ct ive i n t h is way .

N iko laos, n oted a lready f or h is c on fron ta t ion w ith t he c o mb ined m igh t o f c iv ic d ign itar ies, p resen ts a nother f acet o f t he r espons ib i l i t ies o f t h is p osi t ion .

6 2

H is r efusa l t o c o-opera te w i th t he a u thor it ies was d ue t o h is i ns istence o n s tay ing o u ts ide w i th t he f am ine-struck f armers. 8 T he n ames o f c er ta in v i l lages r ecur i n t he s ource - a nd i n o thers, p resu mab ly f or a dded a u then t ic ity . T he ir e lders a nd c i t izens a lso s ough t t he s a in t ' sa dv ice a nd a id o n p rob le ms s uch a s i n fer t i l ity , f am ine a nd i n d ispu tes, a s we l l a s f or e xorc is m . S . T hee la a t S e leuee ia a lso p rov ides i n terest ing i n forma t ion t hrough c ont act w i th t he l oca l g overn ing c lass . I n h er c lass, t he " con tact" was f igura t ive , a s s he - a lone among t he s a in ts o f t he s econd g roup -was " dead" . T he i nt erpre ta t ion was a lso c o loured b y t he f act t ha t t he h ag iographer was t he l oca l b ishop a nd t herefore h ad h is own i n terests t o c ons ider . The b ureaucra ts were n u merous . O n t he who le t he " presence" o f t he s a in t was ap os it ive a id t o t he m , a nd t he m irac les s howed t he m o f f t o a dvan tage .

Examp les a re t he

much-quo ted wedd ing c ere mony ( c f . C h . 1a nd 2 ) , t he " nob le" h ostage ( c f . C h . 2 ) , a nd t he c ure o f t he n otab le ' sh orses a t t he m iracu lous s pr ing . mirac les, h owever , d isrup t t h is p icture o f i dy l l ic h armony .

Two

9

O ne was t he c ase

o ft he c ounc i l me mber who a bused h is r espons ib i l ity f or c onvey ing t he g ra in r a t ions t o t he n earby m i l itary t roops . ( c f . C h . 1 ) . T he o ther was t he c ur ious i ns tance wh ich t he s a in ts p reven ted f ro m b e ing p laced i n h er s anctuary .1 0 Af re indsh ip p at tern r e la t ing t he b ureaucracy , a r istocracy a nd e p iscopacy was t hus r evea led . I ta lso h as s o me th ing t o s ay o f a t t itudes t o d ea th a nd t o t he s anc t ity o f t rad it iona l s i tes . Ord inary men ' sc orpses were s o i led i n d ea th a s h o ly r e l ies c ou ld n ot b e . T o b ury t he m i n as acred l oca t ion was t o p o llu te b o th i ta nd r e la t ions w ith t he s a in t .

The a ura o f r est fu l s anct ity o f t he s i te i s

d escr ibed b y t he h ag iographer , a nd was a pparen t t o p eop le o ther t han t he s a in t ' sp r i mary d evotees .

F or i nstance , ap agan p rofessor was s ens it ive t o

i ta nd a t tr ibu ted h is c ure t o t h is, amongst o ther b enef ic ia l f actors .1 1 O n ly o ne w orker o f S e leuce ia a ppears, a s we l l a s a mot ley c rew b r igands a nd s inn ers f ro m o u tside t he c i ty .

O therw ise t he b a lance i s t i pped h eav i ly t owards

t he l oca l b ureaucra t ic c lass w ith i t s a r istocra t ic a nd p rofess iona l a ssoc ia tes a nd h angers-on . U n l ike N iko laos o f Myra , Theodore d id n ot a n tagon ise t he c o mbined p owers o f t he S ykeon a rea .

T he r z poT C xTopEg o f Ancyra a nd t he s urround ing r eg ion

were n o t d isappo in ted i n h i m when t hey r equested a id i n a n e p ide m ic . I n r et urn , t he p owerfu l c i t izens s uppor ted h is e lect ion t o h is u nsuccessfu l b ishopr ic .1 2 ( see s ect ion B ) . H e , l i ke o ther s a in ts, h ad i l lustr ious f r iends a nd p a trons . ( c f . C h . 3 ) . The a ssoc ia t ion w i th Phocas ' n ephew i n troduces a nother f ace t o f r e la t ions b etween s a in ts a nd b uvoc rol

( or t he wea l thy) .

T h is was t he s ig-

n if icance o ft he g iv ing o r e xchange o f v a luab le a nd/or s acred g if ts .

S a in ts

were i nh ib ited b y t rad it ion f ro m a ccep t ing p aymen t f or t he ir h e lp . A ccept ing g if ts , of ten i n t he f or m o f v a luab le a nd h o ly o b jects t o a dorn t he s i te , was a c onven ien t l oopho le . T heodore a lso h ad d ea l ings w ith t he r ura l a dm in istra tors a nd e lders o f h is r eg ion .

On t he who le t he ir r appor t was s a t isfactor i ly h armon ious .

s et t led d ispu tes a s r equ ired .

He

Never the less h e r ebuked a g reedy T c poTt " ,xtc oo .

f or o ppress ing p easan ts, a nd i n tervened o n b eha lf o f a mistrea ted w ife o f a v i l lage p ropr ie tor .

1 3

Paradox ica lly , t hese a ct ions were a ccep tab le .

Wh i le

o ppos ing i nd iv idua ls o f t he g overn ing c lass, h is a ct ion was i n s uppor t o f t he d efence less, a s t rad it iona l , b ib l ica l a nd p h i lan throp ic c onven t ions d e manded .

6 3

The s ame j ust if ica t ion was t rue o f h is o n ly t ru ly i nf lamma tory a ct ion .

T o

f ree a p r isoner f ro m h is c ha ins a ga inst t he o rders o f h is m i l itary e scor t was h ard ly l aw-ab id ing .1 4 B ut i t was p h i lan throp ic a nd merc ifu l . F ur ther p ower was g iven t o t he a rgu men t b y t he f act t ha t t he r e lease was d e manded t o e nab le t he p r isoner t o r ece ive t he Euchar ist .

Aga inst t h is n o o f f icer d ared r e ma in

i n trans igen t. Hypa t ius ' s tand a ga inst t he l aw was n ot s uch a m inor ma t ter . T o c oncea l e scap ing s laves f ro m t he ir p ursu ing master , e spec ia l ly f ro m s uch a n a ugus t p ersonage a s a n e x-consu l , was b oth h igh ly i l lega l a nd d ar ing .1 5 Eu thy m ius a lso v eered f ro m s tr ict a dherence t o c en tra l g overnmen t p o l icy . H is r e moteness f ro m t he c ap ita l a nd p rox im ity t o h arsh f ron t ier r ea l i ty d ic tat ed a more p rag ma t ic a pproach t o n o mad ic Arab p opu la t ions .

H e b ap t ised

s evera l Bedou in , a nd r escued a S aracen c ap ta in f ro m c ap t iv i ty i n t he l oca l b ishop ' sh ands . 1 6 H e a lso a l lowed a t en t-quar ter f or S aracens t o e x ist a round h is s i te .1 7

T h is was r azed t o t he g round a f ter h is d ea th , s upposed ly b y

" barbar ia ns". Bu t t he r eader may b e e xcused f or s usp ic ion r egard ing t he t rue o r ig in o f t he a t tack . S a in ts ' r eact ions t o f ron t ier e ne m ies were b y n o means u n iversa l ly c a lm a nd e n l igh tened . Hypa t ius a ppea led t o t he i , XXi . )o-c po t .o f C onstan t inop le a nd was g iven s ubstan t ia l a id a ga inst b arbar ians a nd a dverse c ond it ions . 1 8 I n A lexa ndr ia a nd An t ioch t he t hrea t was l ess c onstan t t han i n t he "wi ld" b u t i t was s t i l l r ea l a nd p oten t ia l ly more d evasta t ing . J ohn t he A l msg iver h ad t o n ego t ia te w ith Pers ians o ver p r isoner e xchange .

S ymeon e ncouraged a nd a ided B yzan-

t ine t roops a ga inst A lamandouros, "t he p ersecu tor o f C hr ist ians" w ith t he a ppar it ion o f af i re-ba l l . H e a lso r epor ted t he v ic tory i n An t ioch .1 9 T he a l lo r-none s i tua t ion o f ac i ty f ac ing a n e ne my i n p itched b at t le d id n ot b reed t he s y mpa thy a nd e asy-go ing c on tacts o ft he i so la ted a nd r ura l f ron t ier r eg ions . T he s a ints o f t he e astern f r inge were a lso c oncerned w ith c en tra l ma t ters t o s o me e x ten t , p ar t icu lar ly w i th r e l ig ious o nes.

F or i nstance , t hey a l l v oc i-

f erous ly c onde mned Nestor ius . Eu thy m ius e p ito m ised t he ir p os it ion . F or a l l h is Arab s y mpa th ies, h e b lessed t he Do mest icos o f t he Eastern a rm ies f or t he f or thco m ing c ampa ign .

2 0

I n r eturn h e e xpected , a nd d oubt less r ece ived ,

w idespread p ub l ic ity " back h o me" . S o me d egree o fp ar t ic ipa t ion i n l oca l a dm in istra t ive a f fa irs b rough t r ea l a dvantages . 2 .2 S oc ia l Groups I n t he ir r esponse t o o ther s oc ia l c lasses, t he s a in ts s howed a c o mparab le v ar iety i n t he ir e ncoun ters. I n C onstan t inop le a nd A lexa ndr ia b o th " l ive" a nd " dead" s a in ts c oncen tra ted o n t he b uvaTol. Th is i nc luded b oth t he b ureaucracy a nd t he e x tre me ly wea l thy a nd p rofess iona l ly I n f luen t ia l .

The h ea l ing s a in ts h ad t he ir e nerg ies most e ven ly s pread o ver t he

s oc ia l s pectru m , a l though t ypes o f i l lness a nd t he c ures a dm in istered v ar ied a ccord ing t o i nd iv idua l c ircu mstances o f t he c l ien t . ( c f . C h . 5 .) L it t le a t ten t ion was p a id t o t he mercan t i le c lasses b y t he s a in ts o f t he g rea t c i t ies — e xcep t J ohn t he A l msg iver . H is e f for ts were d irected a ga inst monet ary a buses fa l l k inds o n b eha lf o ft he d own trodden a nd o f t he e xpand ing t rade o ft he c i ty .

N iko laos o f Myra ' sb iographer a lso c hose t o p or tray c on tac ts b e-

t ween s a in t a nd s ea farers i n af avourab le l i gh t .

Tak ing i n to a ccoun t t he ir

Impor ta nce t o Myra a s we l l a s t he s a in t ' sb ad r e la t ions w ith t he a u thor it ies , t he a u thor ' sd es ire t o i dent ify h i mse lf w ith a l oca l a ud ience c an b e i n terpre ted

6 4

a s aw e l l-adv ised p o l it ica l p loy . Apar t f ro m t hese e xamp les, c lose c on tact w ith t he mercan t i le c lasses w ou ld a ppear t o h ave b een u nreward ing t o h ag iog raphers . Whe ther t h is was a s y mp ton o f a ctua l a l iena t ion o r o n ly o f mu tua l d isregard a nd s e lf-suf f ic iency , t here i s i nsuf f ic ien t e v idence t o s ay . T he l i fe o f S ymeon t he Y ounger I s o ne o f t he most d iverse ly i n forma t ive s ources .

He t ook a ct ion a ga inst An t ioch ' s mora l d ecay w ith c o-opera t ion

f ro m a n imper ia l j ud ic iary , w h i le a t t he l oca l l eve l h e was a bused b y c i t izens o f wea l th a nd i nf luence . T h is o ppos it ion was t yp if ied i n s evera l i nc iden ts . " Imp ious r eve l lers" who h ad l e isure t o i ndu lge i n t he l earned b ut f orb idden a r t o f a stro logy were a lso a du lterous a nd b lasphe mous .

2 1

( c f . C h .1,2 . 2 1. )

A mag istr ianos h ad t o b e o verru led when t he s a in t r estored a c h i ld t o l i fe . On a no ther o ccas ion a g roup o f wea l thy c i t izens mocked t he s a in ts .

2 2

They were

p un ished b y t he l oss o f t he ir p ossess ions. T he i nd iv idua l i nc iden ts may h ave b een p e t ty , b u t t oge ther t hey a dded u p t o g rue l l ing o dds. F ew o ft he mu l t itude o f i nd iden ts c an b e s a id t o r e la te t o t he i n terests o f s oc ia l g roups n o t a lready e xam ined . N iko laos ' p reoccupa t ion w i th t he Myra s ea farers h as b een e xp la ined a bove . Another g roup wh ich r eta ined h is i n terest was t he r ura l v i l lage p opu la t ions o f h is a rea .

They were a t t he mercy o f t he c l i mate a s we l l a s o f t he l and-

owners a nd t ax-co l lectors .

T he a ppearance o f s tarv ing i n fer t i le c oup les, a nd

v i l lagers a fra id o f d e mons, p unctuates t he t ex t a s ar em inder o f p reva i l ing c ircumstances. I n t he mirac les o f S . T hec la most a t ten t ion i s d evoted t o t he n otab les . On ly o ne a r t isan-worker i s men t ioned . Even h e was c hanged t hrough m iracul ous c ure i n to a n " i l lustr ious p erson." ( c f . Ch. 1 , 3 .1.) 2 .3

O n t he who le , a r t isans r ece ived w ider a nd more f avourab le c overage

t han t he mercan t i le c lass i n a l l s ources . d if ference .

A r eason s uggests i t se lf f or t h is

Ar t isans were a n e stab l ished , r espectable g roup , b ound b y t rad i-

t ions a nd w i th r e la t ive ly l i t t le s oc ia l mobi l ity .

T hey r anged f ro m wea lthy

p er fumers a nd g o lds m iths t o p e t ty c ra f ts men a nd s em i-sk i l led i mm igran ts f ro m t he c oun try . Bu t t here was l i t t le c hance o f ab as ic c hange i n b road s oc ia l p os it ion .

F or t he c o m merc ia l mercan t i le c lass t he c hange o f f or tune c ou ld b e

r ap id a nd d ra ma t ic . A n u nderstand ing o f t he a r t isan i s a ided b y a n e xam ina t ion o f t he r o le o f c ity a nd c oun try c rowds i n h ag iography . T hese were ma in ly c o mposed o f t he a r t isans a nd " the p oor". T he s a in t was o ne a t tract ion wh ich c aused t he m t o g a ther . S ymeon t he Younger was a t tended b y a n h ab itua l c rowd o f men , wo men a nd c h i ldren who wa tched a nd wa i ted f or t he mirac les h e " per formed t hrough h is i n tercess ion" .23 H e f ound p hys ica l e scape f ro m t he m i nto t ranqu il l ity e ssen t ia l , a nd r e t ired t o at en t f ur ther u p t he moun ta in . Even t h is r e moteness d id n ot d efea t t he c rowd , who " d id n ot f i nd h im a t t he monastery a nd wen t u p t he moun ta in when t hey l earned h e was u p t here" .2 4 I ns ide t he t own t he s a me e le men t e x isted , a nd f or t he m t he s a in t h e ld t he s ame f asc ina t ion .

When D an ie l e n tered C onstan t in ip le , " everybody l e f t wha t

6 5

t hey h ad i n h and .... a nd r an .... t o s ee t he man o f G od ."

2 5

H is e scape i n to t he

n earby S tud ite monastery was n ot k ind ly r ece ived b y t he mob . They t hrea tened t o b urn d own t he c hape l o f h is c hosen s anctuary . T he ir v iew o f h is r o le was t ha t h e s hou ld , a bove a l l , b e c onstan t ly a va i lab le : " free ly h ave y ou r ece ived , a nd t herefore f ree ly g ive" .2 6 S uch a n a ud ience was a p oten t ia l ly d isrup t ive e lemen t , a nd t he a u thor i t ies were a pprehens ive ly aware o ft h is .

When D an ie l u rged a p ub l ic d isp lay o f

p enance a nd i n tercess ion f or C onstan t inop le ' ss ins t he emperor a nd p a tr iarch r efused , o n t he g rounds t ha t" t he p rayers o f i n tercess ion w ou ld d isrup t t he p eop le a nd s pread s orrow i n t he t ime o f af est iva l" .2 7 S a in ts may n ot h ave r e l ished t he p ower o f t he mob , b u t i t s c orpora te p resence s erved s evera l p urposes . N iko laos i n p ar t icu lar d e monstra tes h ow n urtured p opu lar ity w ith t he c o m mon c i t izens c ou ld b e u sed t o ma in ta in t he s a in t ' sp os it ion i n t he b a lance o f p ower . S y mpa the t ic c on tact b etween s a in t a nd t he l ower s oc ia l c lass g roups i n t he c ourse o f h is o rd inary a ct iv it ies p u t h im i n ap os it ion t o a ct a s a mon itor o n t he c urren ts o f t he ir t hough t a nd a ct ions . I n t h is c apac ity h e was u sefu l t o t he g overnmen t . He was a means t o c on tact i n t he s trugg le t o c on tro l T he masses a lso g ave a n o ppor tun i ty f or al arge-sca le d e monstra t ion o f s acred a nd

Ee cu lar

p h i lan thropy i n a ct ion .

T h is was a r espected a nd e xpected p heno menon i n B yzan t ine d a i ly l i fe — o n b o th s ides .

T he d own trodden a pproached t he s a in t i n t he c er ta in e xpec ta t ion

o f a id , " as i ti s a ccorded t o t he p oor" . D onors a nd r ec ip ien ts were n ecessary t o e ach o ther , a nd b oth were e nr iched b y t he p rocess. Ye t a nother i n terest ing l i gh t i s s hed o n r e la t ions b etween s a in ts, e stabl i shed g overn men t a nd t he mob b y t he ir r espect ive a t t itudes t o t he p ub l ic g a mes . Hag iographers, a ga in r epresen t ing t he " en l igh tened" v iew t o a mode rn way o f t h ink ing , s e t o u t t o c ast s uch p ub l ic e n ter ta inmen t i n av ery =f avourab le l i gh t . C os mas a nd D am ian d evoted o ne o f t he ir most c arefu l ly p lanned a nd i nvo lved c ures t o t he h ippodro me f ana t ic .2 8 ( c f . Ch .5 , 3 .12 .) Hypa t ius a lso e xpressed a w ish t o s ee t he O lymp ic G a mes d iscon t inued .

2 9

I n n e ither c ase c an t he ir a t t itude b e a ssu med t o h ave b een i n l i ne w ith g enera l p ub l ic o p in ion — o r w ith t he w ishes o f t he g overnmen t i n i t s methods o f c rowd c on tro l .

A l though t he i nd iv idua l f ana t ic c ou ld b e c ured , h ag iography ' sg enera l

i n f luence o n t he p opu lar i ty o f t he h ippodro me was n on-ex isten t . 2 .3 Profess iona l g roups F ew p rofess iona l g roups a re f ea tured i n h ag iog raphy , a l though s evera l p rofess iona l p ersons a ppeared a s i nd iv idua l c l ien ts o r o pponen ts .

( c f . C h .3 .) T hese l a t ter were c h ief ly d octors o r s orcerers,

whose p rofess iona l v iab i l ity a nd l oca l d om inance w ere n ecessar i ly e roded b y t he p resence o f al oca l s a in t . o n h is l i fe b y o ne s orcerer . 3 0

T heodore o f S ykeon n arrow ly e scaped a n a t te mp t T he t enac ious a nd p ervas ive h o ld o f t he d is-

c red ited a nd p agan b u t t rad it iona l f orce a l lowed e ven a c oun try c ler ic t o p ract i se s orcery p art-t i me .

3 1

Hypa t ius ' s trugg le i n h ea l ing was a lso c harac ter ised

a s b e ing " a ga inst s orcerers a nd w itch-doctors" . T he more r ura l s urroundi ngs o f t hese c ases i nd ica te t he e nv iron men t i n wh ich s orcery u sua l ly , b u t n ot e xc lus ive ly , s urv ived . S cho last ics, l awyers a nd m i l itary o f f icers f ared r a ther b et ter . S ymeon wa r ned t wo s cho lars a ga inst b lasphe my . O ne h e " l iked" ,t he o ther h e s pec ia l ly s ough t o u t f ro m h is b a th-house h aun t where h e was i n t he c o mpany o f t wo 6 6

f r iend lyi ,XXüGTpo L . S y meon a lso p rophes ied t he r ise o f al oca l s cho last ic t o p a tr iarcha l o f f ice .3 2 C os mas a nd Da m ian h e lped a c oun try p edagogue s eek ing w ork a s at u tor i n C onstan t inop le , i n s p ite o f h is p rev ious a bus ive i nd igna t ion . S cho last ics were r egarded b y h ag iographers a s b e ing i n ab r idg ing p os it ion b e tween s oc ia l ly a nd p rofess iona l ly i nf luen t ia l p ersons a nd t he s a in ts. By c on trasts, S e leuce ia ' ss cho lars were o f ten p agan .

Thec la h erse lf was h igh ly

e duca ted a nd was f r iend ly t o p agan p rofessors a s we l l a s t o t he g rammar ian w i th who m s he e xchanged H o mer ic q uota t ions. 3 3 Basi l ' sp o le m ic was a i med a t aw or ld i n wh ich a n i deo log ica l s epara t ion o f l earn ing a nd h o l iness s t i l l h ad t o b e d isso lved . Advoca tes r ece ived h e lp f ro m b oth S . T hec la a nd S . Dan ie l . T he l a t ter c ured a nd b ap t ised a l awyer ' ss on , t he c h i ld c on t inu ing t o v is it h i m when g rown u p .

Bu t t he g roup d oes n ot e n joy p or traya l a cross t he f u l l s pectru m

o f s ources . L ega l a ct ion was n o tor ious ly s low a nd c ost ly . J ohn t he A l msg iver a t te mp ted t o r eform t he e cc les iast ic c our ts t o mee t l oca l n eeds, b u t h ag iography d id n o t emphas ise t he ma t ter . 34 F ree d iv ine a rb itra t ion a nd j us t ice wh ich c ircu mven ted t he p rob le ms o f c iv i l a ct ion p osed n o t hrea t t o t he l ega l p rofess ion .

T he l ack o f a t ten t ion t o l awyers i s , n ever the less, s urpr is ing .

M i l itary o f f icers f ound t he s a in ts ' b less irg u pon t he ir c ampa igns a b oost t o mora le . Both H erac l ius a nd a n Eastern D o mest icos were g lad o f t he s erv ice — f or t he mse lves, t he ir t roops, a nd , n o d oubt , f or t he i nf luence o n l oca l p ub l ic o p in ion . Dan ie l ' si n f luence w ith t he t roops g uard ing C onstan t inop le was s uch t ha t t he u surper Bas i l iscos c o mp la ined t ha t t he s a in t h ad t urned t he c i ty a ga inst h im , a l iena ted t he a rmy f ro m h im a nd i nsu lted h im w i th i mpun ity .

3 5

( The o rder i n wh ich t hese i t e ms were l i sted was n ot e n t ire ly f or tu itous ' .) T here were o ther i nstances o f s a in t ly k indness t o t he mi l itary .

T hec la made

n o a t te mp t t o p un ish a n a du l terous g enera l, a nd s he h e lped t roops i n d anger o fb e ing c hea ted o u t o f t he ir g ra in r a t ions . C os mos a nd Dam ian a greed t o t he h usband ' st er ms when c ur ing t he w ife o f ap rov inc ia l o f f icer . ( c f . C h .5 , 3 .11.) Many o ther p rofess iona ls a nd h igh ly s k i l led a r t isans, s uch a s ac orpora t ion s tonemason , c a me t o t he s a in ts w ith h igh ly i nd iv idua l ised c ases . 2 .13 .)

( c f . C h .3 ,

T he e xa mp les g iven a bove r epresen t o n ly p rofess iona l g roups w ith a

c ons isten t r esponse t o a nd f ro m s a in ts . 3 .

T he r e la t ions o f s a in ts a nd s ecu lar i nst itu t ions t hrow a n i n terest ing

l i gh t , h i ther to u nre marked , o n t he s a in ts ' p os it ion .

The b ias o f h ag iography

i n f avour o ft he g overn ing c lass r evea ls i nsu f f ic ien t ly e xa m ined a spects o f b oth p ar t ies ' s i tua t ion a nd r o le .

S um m ing u p t he r e ma inder o f t he s a in ts '

r e la t ions p rov ides a c on tex t f or t h is v ery i ssue . S a in ts a nd emperors h ad a c o mp l ica ted a nd f orma l r appor t . Whereas " bad" emperors h ad much t o l ose , " good" o nes h ad e very th ing t o g a in f ro m s k i lfu l man ipu la t ion o f s a in ts a nd h ag iography . T hey were p rov ided a t o nce w ith awe l linfor med , b a lanced b u t c onserva t ive a nd p a tr iot ic s ource o f a dv ise a nd a med ium f or measur ing a nd c on tro l l ing t he ma jor ity o f t he c i ty p opul a t ion . T he s a in t was a lso a n e xpress ion o f t he emperor ' sp ub l ic image a nd r e la t ions . He was av is ib le s anct ion o r p enance f or t he i nd iv idua l emperor t o r efer t o i n o rder t o h e lp ma in ta in t he e qu i l ibr ium a nd p rotect t he a ura o f t he I mper ia l o f f ice .

B oth were c hosen r epresen ta t ives o f G od a nd were e xpected

t o a ct ( and b e) i n h armony .

C on tact w ith a nd p rotec t ion b y t he emperor f or

6 7

h is s erv ices were u nden iab ly i nva luab le t o t he s a in t . T hey g ave a p ower fu l c har is ma wh i le i mpos ing l im i ta t ions a tt he s ame t ime . T he f orma l ity o ft he p roceed ings mere ly a dded t o t he ir myst ique . T he g overn ing c lass, t he 5 UVO CTO[ ,p rov ided mos t o f t he s a in ts ' " fr iends" a nd a lso most o f t he ir r ecorded c l ien ts . T he t ypes o f c on tac t c orrespond t o t he c a tegor ies o f a id d ef ined i n C hap ter 3 . I n t h is t hey w ere u n l ike t he emperor , who o n ly u sed t he r e la t ionsh ip f or a dv ice a nd a rb itra t ion — h owever s uccessfu l ly . T he s uccess o f t hese o pera t ions was v ar iab le . A who l ly u rban o r r ura l e nv ironmen t was t ha t most l i ke ly t o g ive a s a in ts uccess . Where h is a t ten t ion was d iv ided b e tween t own a nd c oun try , t here was t ens ion , b u t i ts ee ms t ha t t he l a t ter was l i ke ly t o b e t he more s uccessfu l s ec tor . N iko laos a nd S ymeon b o th i l lustra te t h is t endency . T heodore w i th l ess o f ad ef in i te d ichoto my o n h is h ands was more s uccessfu l i n ma in ta in ing ä pp ,ov C . a. A p oss ib le s ide i ssue i n f luenc ing t h is was t he s oc ia l b ackground o f e ach s a in t h i mse lf . Most w ere o f h igh r ank a nd w ou ld n a tura l ly a ssoc ia te more e as i ly w i th t he ir s oc ia l p eers . T he l ower h a lf o f t he s oc ia l s ca le f a l ls i n to t wo d ist inct p ar ts .

T he a t ten-

t i on t he mercan t i le c lasses r ece ived f rom — a nd , a rguab ly , p a id t o — s a in ts a nd h ag iography , was s l igh t . T he mass o f a r t isans a nd p oor mak ing u p t he b a lance o f t he p opu la t ion a re , o n t he c on trary , f ea tured a g rea t d ea l . I n s i tua t ions w here t he mob was an ecessary i ngred ien t i n t he b a lance o f p ower , t hey a ppear more . D an ie l a nd N iko laos i l lus tra te t h is — f or d if feren t r easons . B o th t he p oor a nd t he a r t isans were we l l e stab l ished i n u rban s oc ie ty a nd k new t he ir l im i ta t ions a nd d eser ts . T hey w ere b o th r ece ivers o f s a in t ly b ene fac t ions, whe ther i n t he s hape o f f orma l p h i lan throp ia o r n o t . T hrough t h is t hey e nr iched

b oth t he n arra t ive a nd t he e thos o f c p1 . X c xv O p o 7 tC a— a nd t hemse lves .

T he

v ar ious g roups o f p rofess iona ls f ea tured ma in ly a s f r iends o r o pponen ts o f s a in ts . E cc les iast ics a nd b ureaucra ts, a l though p rofess iona ls i n t he ir o wn r igh t , w ere i mpor tan t t o t he s tudy i nt he c on tex t i n w h ich t hey a re t rea ted . Each g roup men t ioned h ad r easons f or i n terp lay w i th s a in ts .

G a in was

mu tua l , a nd t he d egree o f s uccess v ar iab le i n t hese i n terac t ions, b u t t he ir c on t inua t ion was i nva luab le a nd v i ta l t o b o th p ar t ies .

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S ECT ION B :

THE ECCLES IAST IC I NST ITUT IONS

I n troduct ion Wea lth o f i n for mat ion a nd f actors c o m mon t o b o th s ect ions 1 Method D iv is ions o f t he t op ic f or e as ier c o mprehens ion i n to p ersona l , p hys ica l a nd s p ir itua l mat ters, a nd t he i nst itu t iona l is m o f t he s a in t 2 Ev idence

2 .2

2 .3

2 .1i

Re lat ions w ith t he h igher c lergy

2 .12

The l ower c lergy

2 .13

Deacons

2 .14

Monks a nd a ssorted h er m its , e tc.

A t t itudes t o t he p hys ica l p ossess ions o f t he Church 2 .21

Bu ild ings

2 .22

Co m merc ia l i n terests

A t t itudes t o t he Church 's s p ir itua l a t tr ibu tes 2 .31

S acra men ts a nd c ere mon ia l

2 .32

Pub l ic mora ls a nd b ehav iour

3 The s a in t a s a n i nst itu t ion 3 .1

Background a nd t ra in ing

3 .2

S ite, e stab l ish men t a nd a ct iv it ies

4 S um mary

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S ECTION 1 3 : THE ECCLES IASTIC I NSTITUT IONS T he i n forma t ion h ag iography o f fers o n t he e cc les iast ic i nst i tu t ions i s b o th more d e ta i led a nd more c oncre te t han t ha t c oncern ing t he ir s ecu lar c oun terp ar ts . Many c harac ter ist ics c onnect t he t wo s ect ions , b u t t he d iv is ion i s h e lp fu l t o t he o rgan isa t ion a nd c omprehens ion o ft he t op ic a s awho le . 1 . T he c ons idera t ion o f t he ma ter ia l f a l ls i n to t he f o l low ing s ub-d iv is ions c oncern ing t he s a in ts ' r e la t ions w i th t he e cc les iast ic e stab l ishmen t : i ) r e lat i ons w i th e cc les iast ic p ersonne l ; i ) a t t itudes t o t he p hys ica l p ossess ions o ft he c hurch ; i i) a t t i tudes t o t he s p ir itua l a t tr ibu tes o ft he c hurch . F ina l ly , s a in ts a re e xam ined t o d e term ine t he e x ten t t o wh ich t he ir c on tact w ith o ther i nst itu t ions a f fec ted t he ir b ehav iour b o th b e fore a nd a f ter " recogn i t ion" . 2 .11

T he C lergy

T he h igher c lergy ' sr e la t ions w i th t he s a in ts h ad many

a f f in it ies w i th t hose w i th t he s ecu lar b uvaTo t . Re la t ions b e tween s a in ts a nd p a tr iarchs may b e r egarded a s t he t h ird s ide o f at r iang le f ormed b y t hese t wo p owers a nd t he emperor . T hey were a lso c ircumscr ibed b y f ormu lae . "Good" o r o r thodox p a tr iarchs c ou ld c oun t u pon s a in t ly s uppor t when t he c hurch was p ersecu ted o r r epressed b y t he s ta te . t h is a l ignmen t was l ess s tra igh t forward .

When t he s ta te was i n g ood h ands ,

As a in t c ou ld c ounse l ap a tr iarch , e spec ia l ly , a s T heodore d id , a t t he b eg inn ing o f h is o f f ice . S ymeon h ad a s tronger h o ld o ver o ne s uch i ncumben t whose e lec t ion h e h ad p rophes ied . B u t t he r e la t ionsh ip was amb iva len t . T heodore o f S ykeon was i nv ited t o C onstan t inop le b y emperor a nd p a tr iarch a c t ing t oge ther . T hey were a lso a b le t o a ccep t h is r es igna t ion f ro m ab ishopr ic wh i le a l oca l s uper ior r efused t o t ake t he r espons ib i l ity .

1

Dan ie l , h owever , was o n t he d oorstep o f p ower . H is p resence w i th in t he immed ia te s phere o f t he p a tr iarch ' si n f luence made t he s i tua t ion b e tween t hem more d e l ica te . S hor t o f a n h ere t ica l c on troversy , t hey c ou ld n ot b e s een t ob e i n c on f l ic t . B u t t here were many s ubt le t r ia ls o f s treng th . There was t he q uest ion o f wh ich o f t hem s hou ld a ddress t he b less t he c rowd . T he p a tr iarch e ndorsed t he emperor ' sr efusa l t o o rder t he p ub l ic mourn ing a nd i n tercess ion a dv ised b y Dan ie l. More c o mp l ica ted s t i l l was t he q uest ion o f D an ie l ' s o rd ina t ion . T he p a tr iarch u nw i l l ing ly p er formed t he t ask a nd o n ly a t t he emperor ' si ns is tence . H e was o n ly p erm it ted t o moun t t he s a in t ' sl adder a f ter c o mp le t ing t he s acre men t .2 L eo , b y c on trast , a lways h ad a ccess t o i t . A s w ith t he emperor , i t was n ot a q uest ion o f e qua l i ty .

T he t wo p ar t ies w ere

d if feren t a nd c ou ld n o tb e measured a ga ins t e ach o ther . I n t he f ace o f o ppos it i on f rom o u ts ide , t here was immed ia te u n i ty , bu t when o ppos it ion was l ack ing as ub t le g ame o f ö ne-up- mansh ip was p layed . T he r eg iona l me tropo l i tans a nd b ishops f ea tured f requen t ly i n h ag iography . T he ir r e la t ions w i th s a in ts v ar ied f ro m h ost i l i ty t o c lose c o-opera t ion a nd w ere i n f luenced b y s uch f ac tors a s d istance f ro m t he c ap i ta l a nd t he p ar t icu lar b rand o f t he l oca l b a lance o fp ower . B ishops , l i ke p a tr iarchs a nd emperors, w ere n ot c and ida tes f or ma ter ia l o r med ica l a id , b u t t hey d id s eek s a in ts ' b less ings , a nd , l i ke wea lthy a nd i n f luen t ia l s ecu lar p ersons, t hey g ave r ich a nd r e l ig io us ly s ign i f ican t p resen ts.

7 0

I nt he f irst g roup o f c i t ies, J ohn t he A l msg iver p resen ts a n i n terest ing c omb ina t ion . He was b o th s a in t a nd A lexandr ian p a tr iarch , a nd b y v ir tue o f h is p owerfu l c haracter a nd h is o f f ice , h is f irm c on tro l was u ncha l lenged . N ice tas, h is o n ly p oss ib le r iva l i n p ower , was r epresen ted i n s ub m iss ion a nd c o-opera t ion w ith t he s a in t o n s ecu lar mat ters.

J ohn ' sc ase i s e ven more

r evea l ing when c o mpared w ith o ther s a in t-b ishop r e la t ionsh ips, e spec ia l ly t hose o f T heo r dore o f S ykeon . I n t he l i fe o f S y meon , men t ion o f t he h igher c lergy i s c onsp icuous ly a bsent . Ab ishop who o pposed t he s a in t a t ad istance was c oncerned a s much , i fn ot more , w ith a l oca l p r iest who h ad s et u p ah ea l ing s i te w ith t he a id o f al ock o ft he s a in t ' sh a ir . 3 Th is b ishop was won o ver e ven tua l ly a nd imp igned l i t t le o n S ymeon ' so ther a c t iv it ies . I n t he s econd g roup o f c i t ies, r e la t ions were e qua l ly d iverse .

A t Myra

t he b ishop j o ined t he a rchon a nd e parch i n v io len t h ost i l ity t o N iko laos .

He

t oo h ad b een d isappo in ted i n t he s a in t ' sp er for mance o f h is "d u t ies". Basi l ' s r e la t ionsh ip w ith S . Thec la was a h armon ious o ne a nd h is a ch ieve men t g ives s o me i dea o f ab ishop ' s( and h ag iographer ' s ) g rea test e xpec ta t ions o f as a in t . H e h ad l i t t le o ppos it ion f ro m t he " dead" T hec la who c ou ld n ot r e ta l ia te a ga inst h is man ipu la t ion . Bas i l ' si n terpre ta t ions i s t herefore s o mewha t o ne-sided . H e s aw T hec la a s p a tron n ot o n ly o f S e leuce ia a nd i t s c i t izens, b u t a lso o f h is o f f ice a nd t he i nd iv idua l h o ld ing i t .

S he was h is s h ie ld a ga inst t oothache ,

i nar t icu lacy a nd l oss o f f ace i n h is q uarre l w ith t he me tropo l itan o f Tarsus. I n c on trast t o J ohn t he A l msg iver , T heodore o f S ykeon f a i led t o s usta in t he t asks o f s a in t a nd b ishop s i mu l taneously. As h e w as n o t a pparen t ly l ack ing I n d e term ina t ion , r easons f or h is f a i lure must b e s ough t e lsewhere . The o ther b ishops who a ppear i n t he n arra t ive s uggest a n a nswer . The s ee o f G erm ia was n ot f ar away , a nd t he b ishop t here was o n e xce l len t t erms w i th T heordore a nd s en t h im g if ts .4 T he me tropo l itan o f Ancyra was g ra tefu l t o t he s a in t f or h e lp i n af am ine-cr is is.

Bu t a l though h e c ou ld i n f luence t he

c i ty ' sd ign i tar ies a nd c i t izens i n f avour o f Theodore ' se lect ion t o ab ishopr ic, h e c ou ld n ot a ssu me s uf f ic ien t r espons ib i l ity t o a ccep t h is r es igna t ion .5 B ishops ' s ees w ere sma l l a nd i n c lose p rox im ity , c on ferr ing l i tt le r eal a bso lu te a u thor ity a nd p ower o n t he ir h o lder .

T h is f act , c o mb ined w ith t he d u t ies

a t tached t o t he o f f ice , made T heodore ' sp osi t ion a s a minor b ishop u n tenab le . 2 .12

T he l ower c lergy were d en ied n o t o n ly p ower a nd r esponsib i l ity ,

b u t a lso money a nd of ten e duca t ion a s we l l .

Hypa t ius wen t s o f ar a s t o c a l l

r ura l c ler ics s tup id b y n a ture . S y rneon h ad t o r epr i mand a v i l lage p r iest f or " lack o f f a ith", a nd J ohn t he A l msg iver f ough t c orrup t ion among h is l ower c lergy w ith i ngenu ity a nd d e ter m ina t ion .

He s aw t he r oot o f t he mat ter t o b e

l ow wages, wh ich e ncouraged a ccep tance o fb r ibery . T h is s itua t ion h e t r ied t o i mprove — w ith o n ly mixed s uccess, a s h is b iographer wry ly r ecorded .6 T h is n ot a l toge ther e qu itab le p os i t ion made f or v ery mixed f ee l ings b et ween t he l ower c lergy a nd s a in ts. Wh i le s o me o f t he l ower c lergy f eared e ros ion o f t he ir p os it ion b y s a in ts, o thers r eacted b e t ter . O ne , t rave l l ing i n t he c o mpany o f a monk , h ad t he p resence o f mind a nd s uf f ic ien t f a ith t o t hrow a s ouven ir i con o verboard w hen t hreatened b y as tor m .7

V il lage

p r iests h e ld a p os it ion i n t he l oca l h ierarchy b u t i ns ide c i t ies t he ir s oc ia l r o le was l ess we l l d ef ined . T he s a in t c ou ld b e b oth h e lpfu l a nd f rustra t ing t o t hem . 7 1

T here was a g rea t g u lf b e tween h igher a nd l ower c lergy , p o lit ica l ly , s oc ia l ly , a nd e cono m ica l ly . t he a r t isans .

T he c losest p ara l le l i n t he s ecu lar s ector wou ld b e

T hey a pproached s a in ts f or t he s ame r easons a nd t he ir t rea t-

men t i n h ag iography was o n much t he s a me l eve l . I t was n ot i n f luenced b y an eed t o g ive a p ub l ic d e monstra t ion o f h armony w i th s a in ts . 2 .13 B e tween t hese t wo b ranches o f t he h ierarchy were t he d eacons . T hey l acked a l l t he d isab i l it ies o f t he l ower c lergy , a l though t he ir a ctua l p os it ion was n ot o verwe l l d ef ined i n l aw , o r e lsewhere .

A t te mpts t o l im i t

t he ir p r iv i leges h ad b een t o l i t t le a va i l , a s h ag iography makes o n ly t oo p la in . T he ir r e la t ions w ith s a in ts were u sua l ly s oc ia l ly p leasan t a nd p rof itab le . V ir tuous d eacons were c ured r ap id ly b y t he h ea l ing s a in ts , o ne w i th " unprec eden ted s peed" .8 T he ir p os it ion i n s oc ie ty was n o t s uch a s wou ld d ebar t hem f ro m s eek ing med ica l a id w ith s uccess. Bu t t here were misunderstand ings a nd a buses . Cu lt-s ites were f ar f ro m immune t o a l l-pervas ive c lass s tra t if i ca t ion a nd p r iv i lege a nd t he p o in t was emphas ised b y t he e x istence o f t he " strat um d iaconu m" a t S y meon ' ss anctuary . C orrup t ion i s ment ioned i n c onj unc t ion w ith d eacons i n J ohn t he A l msg iver ' sl i fe , a nd i s c orrobora ted b y t he s ame l i nk i n t he t ex t o f Andreas S a los, a nd b y K orykos e p itaphs . 2 .14

9

A lthough n o t s oc ia l ly d ef inab le l i ke most c lergy , monks a nd o ther

a ssor ted r e l ig ious p ersonages o f Byzan t ium a lso f ound s a in ts t o b e a mixed b less ing . T he S tud ite monks f ound t he ir own s anctuary i n d anger when t hey r escued D an ie l f ro m t he e ager C onstan t inop le mob . Monks t oo h ad b een t he f i rst g roup who a ct ive ly s ough t t o d is lodge h im .

T hey c o mp la ined t o t he p a t-

r iarch t ha t h e was u nor thodox a nd s poke S yr iac, a nd t ha t "a l l t he wor ld g oes t o h im a nd we i n c onsequence h ave n oth ing t o d o ." 1 0 A s anctuary a nd c u l ts i te - e ven i f , a nd p erhaps b ecause , f ounded o n monast ic l i nes - c ha l lenged a ny l oca l e stab l ish men t a lready i n e x istence a s at our ist a nd p i lgr im a t tract i on .

I nside a nother monastery , af e l low monk f ound t he y oung S ymeon a

d isturb ing c ause o f j ea lousy , a nd a t tacked h im .

1 1

T he f ear o f r iva lry f ro m a

c har is ma t ic h o ly i nd iv idua l i n t he v ic in i ty was o f ten g round less . n ot i n tend t o e c l ipse monast ic c o m mun i t ies .

S a in ts d id

T he ir own f o l lowers o f ten f ormed

an ew e stab l ish men t , o r t he s a in t migh t a t tach h i mse lf t o a n e x ist ing c en tre , s uch a s S . S abas ' c o m mun i ty , wh ich made a h o me f or J ohn H esychaste f or many y ears w ithou t a ny s ign o f c on f l ict b e tween t hem.

O ther monks s howed

r everence f or T heodore o f S ykeon b y p a in t ing h is p or tra it f or i nsp ira t ion i n t he ir monastery .

J ohn t he A l msg iver a lso s howed h i mse lf ab enefactor t o

monks when , af ter a misunderstand ing o ver a f e l lowtrave l ler , h e p rov ided ah oste l f or t he m .1 2 Fr inge e le men ts s uch a s h erm its, a sce t ics a nd e ven o ther s a in ts a ppear i n t he s ources .

T he ir r e la t ions w ith t he s a in ts s ee m t o h ave b een i nvar iab ly

f r iend ly a nd mu ta l ly r espect fu l .

R itua l ist ic f ee t-wash ing was a cco mpan ied

b y a dv ice f ro m a v is it ing h er m it , l ead ing t o T heodore ' sd ec ision t o r es ign h is b ishopr ic . 1 3 The e ncoun ters a re r ecorded i n r a ther more f orma l t erms t han c on tacts w ith o rd inary monks a nd mor ta ls . H owever much f r iend ly i ns pr ia t ion was d er ived f ro m t he mee t ing , i t was b e tween t wo s o l itary f igures w ith t he ir own a ura . 2 . 2 T he C hurch a nd i t s Ma ter ia l P ossessions

Ev idence i s l ess p len t ifu l

o n t he q uest ion o f s a in ts ' a t t itudes t o t he p hys ica l p ossess ions o f t he c hurch . 7 2

A s a in t s truck t wo e ne my s o ld iers d ead when t hey a t te mp ted t o l oot a c hape l . 1 4 Th is r egard f or e cc les iast ic p roper ty a nd b u i ld ings was p erhaps n atura l i n s a in ts who a ccu mu la ted r ound t he m b u i ld ings f or f o l lowers a nd v is itors, c hap e ls a nd t he t rapp ings f or c onduct ing s acra men ts a nd mirac les .

Dan ie l h ad

s uch f ac i l it ies p rov ided b y L eo , who e ven b u i lt h i mse lf a sma l l p a lace i n o rder t o b e n ear t he s a in t . S y meon ' sb iographer s poke o f a monast ic s e t t le men t a nd e ven o f a" lower monastery . "1 5 T he t rapp ings wh ich were a cqu ired h ad t o u n ta in ted .

T heodore o f S ykeon

r e jec ted a s i lver v esse l f or h is c hape l b ecause i th ad p rev ious ly b een u sed a s

ap rost itu te ' sc hamber-pot .

( c f . C h . 2 , 5 .3 ) .

1 6

C o l lect ing r e l ics was a nother way o f a ccumu la t ing p roper ty , Dan ie l r ec e ived r e l ics o f S y meon S ty l ites d ur ing h is l i fe t i me , a nd " ho ly c h i ldren" were among t he r e ma ins i ncorpora ted i n to t he c o mp lex o f h is t o mb . 1 7 Theodore o f S ykeon ' sg i f to fag o ld c ross f ro m t he g ra tefu l n ephew o f Phocas ( c f . C h . 3 , 2 .2) was e nr iched b y t he p rec ious f ragmen t o f t he t rue c ross a dd ed t o i tb y t he b ishop o f G erm ia .

1 8

Add i t ions l i ke t hose t o t he c u lt-s i te e n-

h anced i t s r eserve f und o f h o ly p ower a s we l l a s a c t ing a s as trong a t tract ion t o p i lgr i ms a nd v is itors . 2 .22

These g row ing e stab l ish men ts a nd t he i n ma tes t hey a t tracted n eces-

s ita ted t he s e t t ing u p o fb asic s erv ieces . N iko las o f Myra f o l lowed C hr ist ' s e xamp le a nd miracu lous ly f ed a c rowd w ith l oaves a nd f i shes -b u t more r eg u lar s ources h ad t o b e e stab l ished . T he r esu l t was l and-ho ld ing a nd c u lt iv a t ion . V ineyards, g ra in c rops, h erb g ardens a nd o rchards a re men t ioned , b u t o ther n eeds c ou ld o n ly b e s erved b y r egu lar a nd l ong-d istance c o m merc ia l s upp ly , f or wh ich monaster ies emp loyed vaimX i ipo L a nd t he ir s h ips.

J ohn

t he A l msg iver n ot o n ly i ndu lged i n c o m merc ia l s pecu la t ion o n al arge s ca le , b u t h is a ct iv it ies a lso t hrow l i gh t o n e cc les iast ica l s hop-keep ing. 3 .1) . 2 .3 The Church a nd i t s S p ir i tua l A t tr ibu tes

( c f . C h . 1 ,

The s a in ts ' a t t itudes t o t he

s pr itua l a t tr ibu tes o f t he c hurch a ppear n o more i nnova tory o r r evo lu t ionary t han t hose t o t he c hurch 's ma ter ia l p ossess ions.

Church c ere mon ies, s ac-

r amen ts a nd c onven t ions were r espected a nd e ven r eproduced . r ec iproca ted w ith r i tua l o n s a in ts ' f east d ays .

T he c hurch

S uch was t he S e leuce ian e x-

t ravaganza c e lebra ted a nd r ecorded b y Bas i l . 2 .31

F or r easons wh ich h ave a lready emerged a bove , s a in ts were o f ten

i nvo lved i n t he b ap t is m o f t he o f fspr ing o f i nf luenct ia l p ersons . r amen ts f ea ture i n h ag iography a s we l l .

O ther s ac-

T he r igh t t o a dm in ister s acramen ts

was i mpor tan t t o s a in ts a nd was d ependen t u pon t he ir own o f f ic ia l o rd ina t ion . Through t h is t hey c ou ld o rda in t he ir f o l lowers, wh ich was a s trong a t tract ion t o r ecru it men t . One o rd inand e ven r efused t he c ere mony f ro m h is b ishop a nd p referred t o b e o rda ined b y Hypa t ius. 1 9 The r i tua l o f t he l ast r i tes was me t icu lous ly o bserved b y s a in ts a nd h ag iographers. C e lebra t ion o f t he Euchar ist a nd c ere mon ia l b less ing was e ssen t ia l . T he r i tua l ised p rocess o f c onfess ion a nd c o m mun ion was t he l i nk b e tween t he o r inary o r thodox c i t izen a nd h is G od . The s a in t was p ar t icu lar ly w e l l q ua l if ied t o h ear c on fess ions . "s ee ing i n to

H is g if t o f

t he h earts o f men" r e moved b oth t he p oss ib i l ity o f c oncea l men t

a nd t he n eed f or embarrass men t .

I n a dd it ion h is p rox im ity t o G od g ave h im

7 3

g rea t p ower i n i n tercess ion .

T h is p ar t icu lar c o mb ina t ion o f p owers was o n ly

f ound i n t he o rda ined s a in t , wh ich i ncreased h is a t tract ion a s ac on fessor a nd c e lebran t o f t he Euchar ist . One s acramen t n ot a ctua l ly p erformed b y s a in ts was marr iage .

There

c an b e , h owever , l i t t le d oubt o f t he ir a t t itude t owards i t . I t was i n i t se lf a n i nst itu t ion s uppor ted b y t he s tate , t he e stab l ished c hurch a nd t he s a in ts. T he f orm a nd c on ten t o f marr iage h ave b een e xhaust ive ly e xam ined a lready . ( c f . C hs . 1a nd 2 ) . S a in ts h e lped r edress a buses s uch a s w ife-bea t ing a nd f ound s o lu t ions f or a du ltery , b u t n every a dvoca ted c hange i n t he c onven t ions o f ma tr i mony wh ich p erm it ted s uch l apses , a nd t hey s anct ioned t he c on t inuat i on o f s exua l i nequa l i ty .

C os mas a nd Dam ian a rb i tra ted b e tween a s usp ic ious

h usband a nd h is w ife , a nd at u mour p a t ien t was "more s ick i n s ou l t han i n b ody" b ecause h is marr iage was u nso le mn ised .2 0 L eg it i ma te Chr ist ian marr iage a nd p rocrea t ion were a dvoca ted a nd f ac i l ita ted b y s a in ts i n e very way . 2 .32

S a in ts ' s uppor t o f t he i nst itu t ion o f marr iage i nd ica tes t he ir a t t itude

t o c onven t iona l p ub l ic mora l b ehav iour .

I n p ro mo t ing s tandard mores, s a in ts

were a id ing i n t he p ro ject ion o f h armony o f p urpose b e tween s ta te a nd c hurch . Byzan t ine i deo logy d e manded c on t inuous e xpans ion o f p opu la t ion .

Marr iage

a nd c h i ld-bear ing were t herefore d es irab le . S a in ts a nd t he d ivorce l aws u phe ld t he s oc ia l b e l ief t ha t i n fer t i l ity was a c ause f or s hame a nd s ou l-search ing -p ar t icu lar ly f or t he wo man . Bu t t hey k ey t o t he s a in ts p os i t ion a s g uard ian o f p ub l ic mora ls was h is p ower o f p ub l ic a nd p r iva te i n tercess ion . T h is was t he l ast r esor t when t ransgress ions h ad o ccas ioned h o ly wra th .

T he f i re a nd a t tendan t s courge o f

C onstan t inop le o ccurred b ecause b oth emperor a nd p ar t iarch i gnored D an ie l ' s r eco m menda t ions . T he s a me i nc iden t i l lustra tes t he s a in t ' sd ua l f unct ion i n c iv ic mora l ity .

T hey were a p ub l ic e ar ly-warn ing s ystem .

Hurr ied a tone-

men t c ou ld h ave a ver ted t he worst r esu lts o f t he c i ty ' ss ins . v a lve o pera ted a t ap ersona l l eve l i s d iscussed e lsewhere ;

How t h is s a fe ty-

h ere we s ee i t

t ransfor med i n to p ub l ic i nsurance p o licy . 3 T he S a in t a s a n I nst itu t ion The p rev ious p o in ts make a n e xa m ina t ion o f t he s a in t i n t he s a me way b oth n ecessary a nd v a luab le . T here a re t wo s tages t o b e c ons idered :

( i )

t he b ackground a nd t ra in ing o f t he s a in t ;

( i)

t he ir a ct iv it ies a f ter t hey were " est a b l ished" . T he p a t tern o f t h is d eve lopmen t w ith r espect t o s a in ts ' r eac t ion t o s i te , d isc ip les, a n a ud ience , r evea ls t he s teng th o f t he i nst itu t iona l . Trad it iona l p ub l ic e xpecta t ions a s we l l a s t he v ic iss itudes o f i nd iv idua l c ircu mstances s trong ly i n f luenced t he i ssue .

O n ly " dead" s a in ts e scaped

t he n eed f or c lose s oc ia l d ef in it ion b y t he ir h ag iographers . t he " co mfor tab le m idd le c lass ;" were o f t he h ighest p rov inc ia l

Most were a bove

J ohn t he A l msg iver a nd J ohn Hesychas te

a r istocracy .

T heodore o f S ykeon a nd S ymeon

were u nusua l i n h av ing , r espect ive ly , i l leg i t i ma te a nd a r t isan ( i f r espec tab le) b ir th . u sua l .

J ohn Hesychaste h ad a lso a more v ar ied c areer b ackground t han was He h ad b een i n i mper ia l s erv ice a s s o ld ier a nd mag istra te a nd h ad a

n ine-year e p iscopa te b eh ind h i m when h e s ought t ranqu i l l ity i n t he c o mmun i ty r ound S . S abas .

7 4

T he more u sua l p a th t o as a in t ' sl i fe was t hrough l eng thy a nd r igorous t ra in ing .

O u tstand ing p ie ty a nd s treng th o f c haracter were u sua l ly e xpected

t o man ifest t he mse lves i n p rospect ive s an ts a t at ender a ge .

F or t he n ecessary

d isc ip l ine a nd t ra in ing i n a sce t ic is m , t he monastery p rov ided t he b est a nd most c onven ien t f ac i l it ies.

O f t h is p ar t o f t he p rocess, S y meon t he Younger ' s

b iographer g ives a l eng thy a nd d e ta i led a ccoun t . S ymeon , l i ke o thers, was u nder t he s pecia l g u idance o f ar e markab le t u tor , i n t h is c ase a n a bbot , who r ecogn ised a nd n ur tured t he p rod igy ' sp oten t ia l .

L aws g overn ing t he m in i-

2 1

mum a ge f or monast ic r ecru i ts s ee m t o h ave b een t o ta l ly d isregarded , e xcept i n t he c ase o f Dan ie l .

He was t urned a way a t f irst b ecause t he a bbot f e lt h e

was n ot o ld e nough f or s epara t ion f ro m h is p aren ts .

2 2

When t he s a in t h ad a bsorbed a l l t he monastery c ou ld t each h im , t here c ame ap er iod o f i nd iv idua l t r ia l a nd c on te mp la t ion i n t he w i lderness . d one e i ther a lone o r u nder t u te lage o f a n e stab l ished s a in t .

T h is was

J ohn Hesychaste

s tayed w ith S . S abas ; D an ie l wen t o n p i lgr i mage t o h o ly p laces a nd v is ited S y meon S ty l ites . N iko laos o f Myra a lso wen t o n a n e x tended t our o f n umerous h o ly p ersons a nd p laces a f ter h is c onfron ta t ion w ith t he Myra a u thor it ies . Ga ther ing s uppor t a nd s e lf-assurance a s we l l a s g a in ing i nsp ira t ion t hrough o bserva t ion s ee m t o h ave p ro mp ted t hese v is its .

T he w i lderness, d eser ts

a nd moun ta ins h e ld p ar t icu lar s y mbo l ic s ign if icance . ( c f . C h . 6 ) . T he t ime c orresponded a lso t o Chr ist ' st e mp ta t ion i n t he w i lderness . S a in ts ' s treng th was t es ted a ga inst d e mons a nd w i ld a n i ma ls . o f f d emons f ro m a d eser ted c hape l , o ccur e lsewhere .

2 3

D an ie l, f or e xamp le , f ough t

b u t more e x tre me b ib l ica l p ara l le ls

2 4

T he n ex t s tage , t he " forma l g radua t ion" o f t he s a in t , i sa ga in b est d esc r ibed i n S y meon t he Younger .

Av ision a t t he e nd o f h is " appren t icesh ip"

r evea led a n a nge l t o a no in t h im a nd c o mmand h im t o u se t he p ower t o h ea l a nd e xorc ise wh ich h e n ow p ossessed .

2 5

S uch l eng thy t ra in ing was c ircu mven ted

b y t hose who c ame t o h o l iness l a ter i n l i fe . s p icuous ly "o u ts ide"

Bu t s ome t ime i n ap lace c on-

s oc ie ty a nd s pen t i n o bv ious a sce t ic s e lf-d isc ip l ine was

n ecessary f or s oc ia l a ccep tance i n t he p ursu it o f as er ious s a in t ly v oca t ion . Ar appor t w ith t he s ecu lar a nd e cc les iast ic e stab l ishmen t was a nother I ngred ien t i n t h is a ccep tance .

S pec tacu lar s uccess i n t he f i e lds i n wh ich t he

s a in t was e xpected t o b e q ua l if ied was a lso r equ ired . These h ad a lso t o b e b roadcast -b y word o f mou th b e tween f r iends a nd a ssoc ia tes, a nd t o t he w ider a ud ience b y h ag iography . 3 .2

T he c ho ice o f as i te was t he f i rst a ct i n t he e stab l ishmen t o f as a in t .

O f ten t he s i te h ad t rad it iona l ( pagan ) r e l ig ious a ssoc ia t ions a nd was i n a n i sol a ted p os it ion o u ts ide , b u t c lose t o, t he c i ty i n q uest ion . S y meon , N iko laos a nd T heodore i l lustra te t h is t endency among " l ive" s a in ts ; T hec la a nd Cyrus a nd J ohn , b e ing "d ead" ,h ad t he ir s i tes c hosen f or t he m . Many s a in ts p ract i sed a t t he ir h o me t own . i n ar e markab le f ash ion .

T he l oca t ion o f Mt. S ion was r evea led t o S . N iko laos I t was t o b e a "s econd J erusa le m" a nd t he c o m-

mun i ty h e was t o e stab l ish t here was p rescr ibed a nd was c o mpared t o t he me taphor ica l s h ip o f s ta te .

2 6

D an ie l was d irected t o C onstan t inop le a s t he

" second J erusa le m ' ." 2 7 T hese e p i thets a re t hey k ey t o t he i dea l ised n a ture o f m in i-co m mun it ies, u sua l ly monast ic, wh ich g a thered a round t he s a in t . A s ab as is f or a sce t ic t ra in ing a nd d isc ip l ine , monast ic c o m mun it ies were 7 5

t he s a in ts ' n a tura l s tandby , d rawn f ro m t he ir own e xper ience . A s econd r eas on f or a s a in t ' sd isc ip les t o f o l low t h is t rad it ion was t ha t a monastery o f fered t he most c onven ien t f or m o f e asy c on tro l a nd a dm in istra t ion o f ap oten t ia l ly e xp los ive s i tua t ion . A r epresen ta t ive p a t tern o f e ven ts wou ld b e t hose w h ich o ccurred i n S y meon ' sc ase . Ag roup o f c l ien ts f ro m I ber ia , who h ad b een c ured a nd h ad w itnessed s o me o f h is m irac les , " asked t o s tay w ith h im ...and p ract ised t he monast ic l i fe i n t he s ame b u i ld ing ." 2 8 S o me o rgan ised f orm o f c o m muna l l i fe was e ssen t ia l t o a cco m moda te i n ma tes o f s uch d i f feren t b ackg round .

T heore t ica l ly , t he c o m mun i ty was w ithou t t he t e mp ta t ions a nd c or-

r up t ions o f t he c i ty a nd , t herefore , c loser t o p er fec t ion .

J ea lous ies a nd p e t ty

c r i mes a s p or trayed i n t he s ources r ef lect t he f a i lure o f t he r ea l ity t o k eep p ace w ith t he i dea l. N ever the less s uch c o m mun i t ies s erved o ne v ery i mport an t f unct ion b y r e mov ing c er ta in p ressures f ro m t he c i ty . Trea t men t o f t h is p o in t h as t o r e ma in l arge ly h ypothe t ica l s ince n o s ta te men t o f i tc an b e e xpect ed .

N ever the less i ti s f eas ib le t ha t a n a l terna t ive , t hough s t i l l imperfect ,

c o mmun ity a par t f ro m b u t v is ib le t o t he c i ty a nd i n a we l l-de f ined t rad it ion c ou ld a bsorb e le men ts t ha t h ad n o p lace i ns ide t he u rban s oc ie ty . Ac har isma t ic s a in t was o ne s uch e le men t i n h i mse lf . T h is a l terna t ive i nst itu t ion e x ist ing s ide b y s ide w ith t he s ecu lar a nd e cc les iast ic o nes, w ithou t r iva lry , r e moved f ro m t he c i ty a nd i t s i nst itu t ions t he p ressure t owards t he c hange a nd r efor m a r is ing f ro m t he n eed t o a cco m moda te a l l k inds o f m isf its. 4 S um mary A s u m mary o f t he p oin ts made i n t h is s ect ion r evea ls a s i tua t ion wh ich was o f ten p aradox ica l a nd s tra ined .

T he s a in t , h owever much a l one

o u ts ider , was p ar t o f t he f abr ic o f s ecu lar a nd e cc les iast ic s oc iety . H is p ersona l c haracter a nd b ackground g overned t he s uccess w ith wh ich h e p erf ormed i n t h is mu tua l ly d ependen t r e la t ionsh ip . T he d e mands imposed o n h im b u i lt u p a round h is image t he r ec iproca l p owers a nd q ua l it ies f ro m wh ich h e d er ived i n t urn c er ta in immun i t ies . w or ld ly h ierarch ies .

H e h ad n o n ea t n iche i ns ide t he e stab l ished

A t t he s ame t ime h e was f u l ly c ogn isan t o f t he m a nd o f

t he r esu l t ing r e la t ions b e tween t he ir me mbers a nd h is own r o le . Wi th t he h igher c lergy many o f t he o bserva t ions p erta in ing t o t he h ighest s ecu lar r ank h e ld g ood . T ypes o f a id g iven , s uch a s a dv ice a nd b less ings , a nd t he p ub l ic ity g iven t o h armon ious r e la t ions, were a l l c o mparab le . F ro m t h is l eve l o f t he h ierarchy a lso c ame most o f t he c ases c hosen f or " ind iv idua l" t rea tmen t . T he n umber o fb ishops, c o mparab le t o t ha t o f b ureaucra ts, c ont r ibu ted t o t he emp t iness o f t he ir p os it ion a nd t o s quabb les b e tween t he m . The g ap b etween t he h igher a nd t he l ower c lergy p ara l le ls t ha t c aused b y t he a bsence i n s ecu lar s oc ie ty o f t h is p er iod o f a more v o la t i le mercan t i le c lass . A lthough t here was l i t t s epara t ion b e tween r egu lar a nd o ther e cc lesi ast ics i n t he Byzan t ine c hurch , t he f ormer ' sr e la t ions w ith s a in ts were more v ar iab le . T he l a t ter g roup were a l most u n iform ly f r iend ly . T he l ower c lergy h ad much t o c o mp la in o f i n t he ir own c ircu mstances a nd o f ten b egrudged t he s a in ts t he ir p os it ion a nd r appor t w i th t he a u thor i t ies, a s we l l a s t he ir c har isma t ic a ppea l t o f o l lowers a nd c rowds . T he s a in t ' sr o le d oes n ot s ee m t o h ave i nc luded a ct ing a s ab r idge b e tween t he v ar ious e cc les iast ic l eve ls, e xcep t i n o ccas iona l a d mon it ion o fv i l lage p r iests who f e l l s hor t o f t he ir e xpected d u t ies . I n t h is i td if fered f ro m h is r o le 'in t he s ecu lar s ec tor , where h e h ad ap ar t t o p lay a s ag o-be tween f or c hurch a nd s ta te , where h e was u sefu l i n p ub l ic r e la t ions o f l oca l r ea lpo l it ik . 7 6

C ircu mscr ibed a s h is own p os it ion was b y t rad it iona l b ackground a nd d emand , t he s a in t ' sa t t itudes t o t he p reserva t ion o f p roper ty a nd t he s ta tus q uo were p red ictab le a nd a i med a t s tab i l ity .

Wh i le h e p rov ided a n a l terna t ive ,

h e b o th p ro moted t he i dea ls o f s oc iety a nd a ided i tt o p ers ist i n l ess-thanidea l f orm . S oc ie ty a nd i t s i nst itu t ions b enef ited f ro m t he s a in t a s b oth a c onsc ience a nd a s a fe ty-va lve .

I n ma t ters o f s p ir itua l r ect itude , a rb itra t ion a nd p ub lic

b ehav iour , t he s a in t , a s a n " i mpar t ia l" o uts ider w ith s pec ia l G od-g iven p owers, h ad more t o o f fer c l ien ts t ha n s ta te o r c hurch .

H is p os it ion , d ependen t o n

h is i nd iv idua l c haracter , was s treng thened b y i nst itu t iona l isa t ion .

T he s tan-

d ard ised t ra in ing h ad a p ar t t o p lay i n s hap ing t he c onduct o f a n e stab l ished s a in t ' sa f fa irs a nd r e la t ionsh ips .

S oc ie ty a nd s a in t ' si n terdependence was a

g uaran tee o f t he ir c on t inu i ty .

7 7

NOTES 1 .

T heodore o f S ykeon , p ara . 1 28 .

2 .

S . Dan ie l, p ara

3 .

I b id ., p ara . 5 1.

4 .

I b id ., p ara . 5 4 .

5 .

i b id ., p aras . 4 4 , 5 0 , a nd T heodore o f S ykeon , p aras . 1 52 , 1 63 .

6 .

i b id .

7 .

S . N iko laos, p aras, 5 2-3 .

8 .

S . N iko laos, p aras . 5 2-3 .

9 .

S . Thee la , mir . n o . 2 2 .

1 0 .

i b id . ,mir . n os . 2 0-22 .

1 1.

i b id . ,m ir . n os . 2 5-6 .

1 2 .

T heodore o f S ykeon , p aras . 6 2-3 .

1 3 .

I b id ., p ara . 1 50 .

1 4 .

I b id ., p ara . 1 25 .

1 5 .

Mo ines d ' Or ien t , v o l . I , p ar t ( i i) c hap . XX I .

1 6 .

Where s ecu lar a dm in istra t ion was f or a ny r eason d efect ive , t herefore ,

8 2 .

p ara . 7 8 .

ab ishop e xerc ised c ons iderab le a u thor ity .

I n f ron t ier a reas s uch a

s itua t ion was more l i ke ly t o p ers ist t han i n a more u rban s itua t ion . 1 7 .

Mo ines d ' Or ien t , v o l . 3 , p ar t ( 1 ) c hap XV .

1 8 .

I b id ., v o l . I , p ar t ( 1 ) .

1 9 .

S y meon , p aras, 1 86-7 .

2 0 .

Mo ines d ' Or ien t , v o l . 3 , p ar t ( I ) .

2 1,

S y meon , p ara . 1 57 .

2 2 .

i b id . ,p ara . 1 44 .

2 3 .

I b id ., p ara . 5 6 .

2 4 .

I b id ., p ara . 6 7 .

2 5 .

S . Dan ie l, p ara . 7 3 .

2 6 .

I b id ., p ara . 7 8 .

2 7 .

I b id ., p ara . 4 1.

2 8 .

C os mas a nd Da m ian , mir . n o . 1 1.

2 9 .

Mo ines d ' Or ien t , v o l I , p ar t ( 1 ) .

3 0 .

T heodore o f S ykeon , p ara . 3 7 .

3 1.

i b id ., p ara . 1 59 .

3 2 .

S y meon , p aras, 2 33 , 2 24 , 2 02 .

Chap V I .

7 8

Chap X ) s . 'X I I I

3 3 .

S . Thec la , m ir . n os . 2 4-6 .

3 4 .

J ohn t he A l msg iver , p ara . ( i i) 4 .

3 5 .

S . Dan ie l, p ara . 7 1.

S ECTION B 1 .

Theodore o f S ykeon , p ara . 7 7 .

2 .

S . Dan ie l, p aras . 4 1, 4 2-3 .

3 .

S y meon , p ara . 1 30 .

4 .

T heodore o f S ykeon , p aras . 7 1, 1 01b .

5 .

i b id . ,p aras, 7 7-8 .

6 .

J ohn t he A l msg iver , p ara . ( i i) 4 .

7 .

S y meon , p ara . 2 35 .

8 .

Cos mas a nd Da m ian , mir . n o . 8 8 .

9 .

J ohn t he A l msg iver , p ara . ( 1) 4 ; Andreas S a los, p ara . 1 07 ;

K orykos,

s ee b ib l iography . 1 0 .

S . Dan ie l, p ara . 1 7 .

1 1.

S y meon , p ara . 1 4 .

1 2 .

J ohn t he A l msg iver , p ara . ( i) 2 4 .

1 3 .

Theodore o f S ykeon , p ara . 7 3 .

1 4 .

S y meon , p ara . 1 31.

1 5 .

Thus f ar , a rchaeo logy h as r evea led o n ly o ne .

1 6.

T heodore o f S ykeon , p aras . 4 1-1.

1 7 .

S . Dan ie l, p ara . 9 2 .

1 8 .

T heodore o f S ykeon , p aras, 1 29-130 .

1 9.

Mo ines d ' Or ien t , v o l Ip ar t ( I ) , c hap

2 0 .

C os mas a nd Da m ian , m ir . n os . 2 5 , 3 2 .

2 1.

S y meon , p ara . 1 1.

2 2 .

S . Dan ie l, p aras . 3a nd 4 .

2 3 .

i b id . ,p aras, 1 4-15.

2 4 .

T he most h eavy-handed e xamp les o ccur i n t he l i fe o f Andreas S aks .

2 5 .

S ymeon , p aras 4 0-1.

2 6 .

S . N iko laos, p aras 4 , 1.

7 9

27.

S. Daniel, paras, 9-10.

28.

Symeon, para. 103.

80

CHAPTER V :

PHYS ICAL I LLNESS AND THE HEAL ING OF THE SOUL : METHODS OF D IV INE MEDICINE

I n troduct ion Hea l ing t he ma joe o ccupa t ion o f s a in ts Why were s a in ts i nvo lved i n h ea l ing? Hypotheses i )

s oc ia l e xpec tat ion

i )

t rad it iona l a nd s uccessfu l , a ided b y p ropaganda

1 Method 1 .1

Ana lys is o f e v idence : i )

i l lnesses — s ources d iv ided a s p rev ious ly

i ) 1. 2

c ures — d iv ided b y c a tegory Hea l th — s oc ia l p reoccupa t ion .

The p h i losophy o f a

h ea l thy m ind a nd b ody 2 The i l lnesses 2 .1

The f i rst g roup o f c i t ies

2 .2

The s econd g roup o f c it ies

3 The c ures 3 .1

The c ategor ies 3 .11

Med ica l , s urg ica l , t rad it iona l o r f o lk ; d iet a nd emet ics

3 .12

Psycho log ica l o r s hock ;

3 .13

Touch o r s ymbo l ic ; o f b ib l ica l p ara l lels

4

The p rocess o f h ea l ing

5

The s oc ia l i mp l icat ions S u m mary

8 1

f a ith

e xorc is m, r esurrect ion ;

t he u se

CHAPTER F IVE PHYS ICAL I LLNESS AND THE HEAL ING OF THE SOUL : METHODS OF D IV INE MEDICINE

Byzan t ine s a in ts w ere d iv ided i n to c ategor ies b y De lehaye i n 1 925. 1 The f i rst t wo o f t hese c ategor ies w ere ( i ) t hose s a in ts a l most e xc lus ive ly c oncerned w ith h ea l ing ; a nd ( i) t he a l l-rounders. L ook ing a t t he s econd c ategory i n more d eta il , w e f ind t hat t he g reates t p roport ion o f t he ir t ime t oo i s t aken u p w ith m in ister ing t o t he s ick . O f Thee la 's 3 1 m irac les , f or i nstance, s o me 4 0% a re t o d o w ith h ea l ing. S o , c learly , a nyone i n terested i np ortray ing t he r e lat ionsh ip o f s a in t a nd s oc ie ty a t t h is p er iod mus t i nclude t h is p art o ft he ir work . Most o f t he s ources u sed i n t h is s tudy f a l l i n to t he s econd g roup. On ly Cos mas a nd Dam ian a t Constan t inop le , a nd Cyrus a nd J ohn n ear A lexandr ia , q ua l ify f or t he f i rst c ategory. Much o f t h is p art icu lar c hap ter i s c oncerned w ith t hese t wo s ources , b ut t he o thers a re e ssen t ia l f or c o mpar ison .

The r eason " doctor s a in ts" w ere a t tached o n ly t o t he

g reatest u rban c en tres w il l b e t ouched u pon l at er. The b as ic q uest ion i s : WHY w ere s a in ts i nvo lved i n h ea l ing a t a l l? There w ere , i ti s c lear f rom t he s ources, a g rea t n umber o f d octors a nd e ven s ome s ort o f h ierarchy o r g u i ld-type o rgan isa t ion. I ti s e qua l ly c lear t ha t t he ir s oc ia l s ta tus was h igh.

They m ixed w ith h igh-rank ing b ureaucra ts a nd c iv ic

a nd i mper ia l d ign itar ies. I tw as a mark o f a man 's w ea lth a nd s tand ing t ha t h e h ad a t tended , o r b een a t tended b y , p hys ic ians o ver a l ong p er iod o f t ime. S uch a n o ccupat ion — o r p ast i me — r equ ired l e isure a nd w ea lth o n t he p art o f t he p a t ien t . D iv ine med ic ine f or t he p oor wou ld t hus f u lf il a n u nderstandab le d e mand. Bu t i n p oorer o r r e moter a reas t here w as a lready a n a l terna t ive a nswer i n t he f or m o f wander ing h ea lers , i atrasoph ists a nd q uacks o f v ar ious k inds.

Why t hen d id t he s a in ts e n ter t he f ray?

And why d id t he r ich a nd

i n f luen t ia l f or m a l arge p roport ion o f t he s a in ts ' c l ien tele? The work ing h ypo theses a dvanced a re a s f o l lows : i ) t ha t as oc ia l e xpectat ion o f d iv ine h ea l ing i s a pparen t.

Fur ther more ,

t ha t t h is i s c ons isten t w ith Byzan t ine s oc iety 's c oncep t ion o f t he s a in ts ' c o mp lete r o le ; i ) t ha t d iv ine med ic ine was a l ong-stand ing t rad it ion , n o t c on f ined e xc lus ively t o Byzan t ine c u l ture, a nd w as man ifest ly s uccessfu l , p sycho log ic a l ly a nd o therw ise.

The s uccess r ate, p opu lar ised b y t he s p lend id p ropa-

g anda o f h ag iography a nd g oss ip , e nab led i tt o c on t inue. 1 .1

The method a dop ted i n t h is c hapter i s t o d iv ide t he s ources i n to

c i ty-groups a s b efore.

The d iv is ion i s s trong ly v ind ica ted b y t he a na lys is o f

e v idence r ela t ing t o i l lnesses, wh ich r evea ls i n terest ing c on trasts a nd c o mpar isons.

The s a me i s t rue i n c ons ider ing t he c ures, a lthough f or

8 2

t hese a d i f feren t d iv is ion i s emp loyed.

The c ures a re e xam ined i n c atego-

r ies a s t hey a ppear i n F igure I , b u t t he d iv is ion o f c i ty g roups i s s t i l l k ep t i n m ind. 1 .2 F irst o f a l l , t he l i teracy a nd s oc ia l p reoccupa t ion w ith h ea lth must b e t aken i n to a ccoun t. I n t he e ducat iona l p lans o fb oth P lato a nd Ar isto t le p hys ica l e xerc ise w as h e ld t o b e o f e qua l i mpor tance t o l earn ing. I t s p urpose w as t o p roduce a s ound b ody — t he n ecessary c oun terpart t o as ound m ind.

By t he t ime o f

P lutarch t he r elat ionsh ip o fb ody a nd s ou l w as f or mu lated r ather d if feren t ly . I n t he De t uenda s an ita te p raecep ta o f t he Mora l ia , w e r ead t hat " the s ou l p ays h igh r en t t o t he b ody". 2 Th is i s t he i deo logy u nder ly ing t he Byzan t ine p reoccupa t ion w ith h ea l th. " The b ody ," P lu tarch s a id i n a dd it ion , " con ta ined t he b est s ources o fh ea l ing i n i t sel f". Here h e r efers , o f c ourse , t o t he h umours o f w h ich c lass ica l a nd med ieva l med ic ine h eld t ha t t he b ody w as c omposed. When t hey were b a lanced , g ood o rder a nd h ea l th w ere t he r esu l t. " Har mony c auses b eau ty , a nd b eau ty i s n ot c oncea led ," w rote S a l lust ius, 3 t o wh ich P lu tarch a dded t he a x ioms t hat " hea l th i s n ot g a ined v ia i d leness" a nd t ha t e xcess o f a ny k ind w as t o b e a vo ided. These s en t i men ts w ere n ot c on f ined t o t he c lass ica l o r p agan wor ld , a s e x tracts f rom t he s ources d e mo nstrate. Thus w e s ee a s oc iety b el iev ing ( a ) t hat t he b ody i s ar ef lec t ion o f t he s ou l , o r o f t he c onsc ience;

a nd ( b ) t ha t h ea lth was ma in ta inab le b y c onsc ious e f-

f ort a nd d isc ip l ine. As a p arel lel , o r p erhaps a n e f fect o f t h is, p reven t ive med ic ine w as t o ta l ly a bsen t . The c lose i n terconnec t ion o f o c 7 )µa a nd ( P uf r i i s s tressed i n h ag iography . T h is i s t o b e e xpected , a s i tw as t he k ey t o t he s a in ts ' i nvo lve men t a nd s uccess, p art icu lar ly i n t he f i eld o f d iagnosos , i nt ercess ion a nd a bso lut ion . I ta cted a s ag uaran tee i n a no ther way . I ft he m isde meanours o f t he s ou l w ere r ef lected i n t he v is ita t ion o f h o ly wrath u pon t he b ody i n i l lness, a ccess t hrough t he s a in t t o e xp lanat ion , c on fess ion , r ep en tance a nd f org iveness w as a lways a va i lab le. I f warn ings w ere h eeded , t herefore, r e turn t o t he p ath o f r igh teousness was p oss ib le i n t ime t o p reven t i rrevocab le d a mna t ion .

Thus w e f ind a c l ien t o f Cosmas a nd Da m ian b e ing

p ro m ised g ood h ea l th i n r eturn f or " a b et ter l i fe a nd g ood w orks". 4 The s ame u nder ly ing o pt im is m, b ased o n k now ledge o f aj ust b u t u l t i ma tely merc ifu l God , f inds e xpress ion i n a t t itudes t o c iv ic d isaster. The Byzan t ine c i t izens i nS . De metr ios o f Thessa lon ika a nd t hose d escr ibed i n t he l i fe o f S ymeon t he Younger w ere c onf iden t t ha t when t he w ra th o f God was s at isf ied a nd t he l esson l earned , t he v ic tor ies o f t he e nemy , b e i tS lav o r e arthquake , wou ld c ease. 2 . The i l lnesses. Th is s ect ion a tte mpts t o p resen t a nd a na lyse t he more f actua l e v idence c oncern ing t he i l lnesses t he mse lves. The g raphs o f F igure I s hou ld p rove h elpfu l i n c lar ify ing a ny o bscur it ies i n t he t ex tua l r e marks. My c lass if icat ion o f t he ma lad ies i s , o f c ourse, o pen t o q uest ion a nd i mprovemen t f rom a med ica l p o in t o f v iew . 2 .1

The f i rst g roup o f c i t ies ( F igure 1 .A ).

The t wo ma jor s ources a re

a ga in t he l i ves o f Dan ie l t he S ty l ite a nd o f t he l ong-dead Cosmas a nd Dam ian . F or t he p urposes o f t h is c hap ter t he l a ter s ource, t he l i fe o f Andreas S a los,

8 3

a part f rom a f ew c omparat ive p o in ts, h as l i t t le i n format ion t o a dd. Cos mas a nd Da m ian , l ater c a l led t he d octor-sa in ts, d iffer f rom t he ir w estern c oun terp arts a nd e ven f rom e astern s a in ts s uch a s Arte m ios , who was s pec if ica l ly e f fect ive a ga inst b o i ls. Any i l lness a nd a g reat many o ther c omp la in ts w ere b rought t o Cos mas a nd Dam ian 's c u lt-s ite s anctuary . Access t o t he s a in ts was a t t he ir c hurch , i ns ide t he c i ty , a l though o n o ccas ion t hey made t he ir a ppearance e lsewhere, u nder s pec ia l c ircumstances. Dan ie l , o n t he o ther h and , was w e l l o uts ide t he c i ty , t hough w ith in r each f or p o l it ical a nd o ther t ypes o f c onsu l ta t ion .

Both h is s em i-rura l s i tua t ion a nd e ar l ier d ates must

b e t aken i n to a ccoun t w hen c ompar ing t he e v idence. Cos mas a nd Da m ian 's r ecorded m iracles s pan s evera l c en tur ies a nd r ef lect c hang ing a t t itudes t owards d octors a nd c lass ica l med ic ine a s w el l a s c lass b arr iers. Aga in t he c onnec t ion o f c c 7 . )p .a a nd d a )x r i was s tressed a nd t he e xpectat i on o fh e lp emphas ised b y marked i nd ignat ion o n t he p art o f o ne c l ien t a f ter i n it ia l l ack o f s uccess h ad l ed h im t o b el ieve t he s a in ts i nd if feren t. The t ravel l ing p edagogue r equ ired n o t o n ly b od i ly a nd men ta l c osset ing b u t f inanc ia l a id t o s tay i n t he c i ty a nd f i nd w ork :5 Tr 4 5

46V0V

TN

( i ) uxLxäg c wµoc c o ag &Ma x al x pnµ cc r o ag

e cpaTEf )ovTL x pc[ag. Even tua l ly a l l h is d es ires w ere met . The f i rs t t h ing t hat s tr ikes t he r eader l ook ing a t t he g raph i s t he g reat v ar iety o f c o mp la in ts i n t he r ecords o fb oth s ets o f d octor-sa in ts. The i l ln esses a re of ten n amed o r d escr ibed v ery p rec ise ly .

Th is i nd ica tes a v ery

h igh s tandard o f med ica l k now ledge o n t he p art o f t he p ersonnel o f t he s anct uary o r c u lt-s ite. Whatever t he ir a l leged a t t itude t o c lass ica l med ic ine, t hey s ee m a lso t o h ave b een w el l-versed i n d iagnos is a ccord ing t o i t s d ic tates. I n o ther r espec ts Byzan t ine s ources d if fered f rom more a nc ien t o nes. There i s n one o f t he g rueso me l abour ing o f d eta ils o f s ymp to ms a nd c ase-h istor ies i nvo lv ing r um ina t ions o n y e l low a nd b lack b ile s uch a s a re f ound i n H ippocra tes ' Prognost ics . Compar ing Constant inop le w ith o ther c i t ies t hrough t he e v idence o f Cosmas a nd Da m ian , w e f ind a v ery l ow i nc idence o f b oth d e mon-possess ion a nd u ns pec if ied i l lnesses.

Th is r ef lects t he p o in t made p rev ious ly a bou t t he g reater

v ar iety o f n a med ma lad ies.

P sycho log ica l a nd men ta l d isorders a re a lso

s eparated f rom d e mon-possess ion , wh ich s uggests a n awareness o f ad ist incti on l ack ing e lsehwere. T urn ing t o o ther c ategor ies o f i l lness , d iges t ive d isorders a nd t u mours f igured e spec ia l ly g reat ly i n Constan t inop le ;

ap oss ib le c ause w as " urban

s tress". Th is p robab i l ity i s s upported n o t o n ly b y t he l ower i nc idence o f s uch c omp la in ts i n r ura l d istr icts , b ut a lso b y t he s oc ia l b ias wh ich t hey d isp lay. The ir p roc l iv ity f or t he p rofess iona l b ureaucracy a nd t hose most l ike ly t o b e i nvo lved i ng overnmen ta l i n tr igue i s marked. By c ompar ison , g enet ic d isorders a re l i t t le i n e v idence i n t he c ases b rough t t o e i ther Cos mas a nd Da m ian o r Cyrus a nd J ohn . The s ame c an b e s a id o f d efor m it ies. The w ithered h ands a nd d efor med f eet wh ich a bound i n t he s ources w ith l ess u rban b ackgrounds a re l ack ing i nb o th Constan t inop le a nd A lexandr ia , where t he n umber a nd v ar iety o f d iagnosed d iseases, i n fect i ons a nd f evers o f as er ious n a ture b ears w itness t o t he e xpert ise o f t he p ersonne l i nb oth c i t ies. 8 4

I n s p ite o f many s im i lar it ies , A lexandr ia, s een t hrough t he m irac les o f Cyrus a nd J ohn , d oes h ave f eatures d ist ingu ish ing i tf rom Constan t inop le. The h igh o ccurrence o f e ye c o mp la in ts i s t he most o bv ious. S e leuce ia 's c it izens s uf fered i n t he s a me way. I n b oth i nstances t he p rob le m w ou ld s ee m t o h ave b een t he n earby marshy e s tuar ies. The c lass if ica t ion o f t hese e ye c omp la in ts i s more d eta i led i n t he A lexandr ian s ource, where c a taracts , t rachoma a nd o ther p rob le ms a re d i f feren t ia ted. F ina l ly , i n c ons ider ing t he t wo ma jor c i t ies f rom t he e v idence o f t he med ica l s a in ts, t here i s t he t horny p rob le m o f d e mon-possess ion . The s eparat ion o f p ossess ion f ro m men ta l a nd p sycho log ica l d isorders h as a lr eady b een c om men ted u pon . I n t h is ma t ter , An t ioch f orms a n i ns truc t ive c on trast.

The i nc idence o f d e mons i n t he m irac les o f S ymeon t he Y ounger

i s p henomena l ly h igh.

De mons i n Cos mas a nd Dam ian a re a lways r e la ted t o

o ther , s pec if ied a i lmen ts, a nd a re f ew a nd f ar b etween . A ma l ignan t Tumour t roub l ing a l ady whose p hys ic ian i s s cept ica l o f t he s a in ts ' p owers i s s a id t o b e c aused t hrough " an e v i l d e mon" ; " due t o t he e ne my i nb a tt le w i th h uman ity". 6

ap ara ly t ic 's s uf fer ings a re The word ing i t se lf i s i nd icat ive

t ha t t he d e mon ic i s c ons idered a mere a gen t o f a ff l ict ion , n ever e qua ted w ith i t .

I n Cyrus a nd J ohn 's p at ien ts t he d e mon ic e le men t i s a ga in l im ited , u sua l-

l y a ssoc iated w ith a nother a i l men t , a nd r estr icted t o ac erta in p art o f t he b ody. Thus a c l ien t w ith a f oot i n fect ion " saw t he e v il d e mon l eav ing h is f oot" i n a d ream. 7 A d e mon a ppeared i n ad rea m t o t he b oy w ith a t ongue d efor m ity , p r ior t o h is r ecovery. 8 O f t he man s i mp ly s a id t o b e p ossessed , t he r eader i s t o ld t ha t h e was c ourageous b u t r es igned , a nd was l i berated v io len t ly. 9 Th is l ast p iece o f i n for ma t ion a pproaches c loser t o t he s p ir it o f S ymeon t he Younger a nd t he r e ma inder o f t he s ources. Dan ie l w as a t war w ith t he f orces o f e v il i n as im i lar way.

Apart f rom t he e p isode where h e h e ld a c hapel

a ga inst d e mon ic s iege f or d ays o n e nd , h e e xorc ised a d e mon who a ppears s evera l t imes i n s ick c h i ldren b rough t t o t he s a in t. A t h is l ast a ppearance h e c a me o ut i n to t he o pen a nd r ev i led t he s a in t f or h is d iv ine s treng th , s uccessf u l ly emp loyed a ga inst h is own e v il p ower .1 ° b etween t he c it ies :

Th is i s ac lue t o t he d i f ference

t he g reater s oph ist ica t ion o f t he l argest u rban c en tres

v ersus t he n a iver a t t itudes o f t he a u thors, c l ien tele a nd a ud iences o f t he more r ura l c en tres. By t h is c r iter ion , An t ioch s tands a part f rom t he g roup i n wh ich i t s s ize wou ld p lace i t . As h in ted i n e arl ier c hap ters, i tf a l ls b etween t he t wo g roups d ist ingu ished h ere. S ome e xp lanat ion o f t h is may b e f ound i n t he c ircumstances o f t he c i t ies. A lexandr ia was n ear t he s cene o f o perat ions a ga inst t he P ers ians. N evert heless , c om merce a nd l i fe w en t o n u n in terrupted a nd o rthodoxy w as , a t l east f or t he p urposes o f h ag iography , t r iumphan t .

The c on t inu ity o f u rban l i fe i s

made a pparen t i n t he l i fe o f J ohn t he A l msg iver, f rom w h ich , i nc iden ta l ly , d e mons a re c onsp icuous ly a bsen t. F ro m t he l i fe o f S ymeon t he Younger, h owever , w e c an s ee t hat An t ioch w as v ery d if feren t. a nd s orcery was b y n o means won .

The war a ga inst h eresey

Abuses o f a l l k inds w ere r ife a nd S ymeon 's

b a t t le a ga inst t he m n ot c rowned w ith t he s pectacu lar s uccesses a ccorded t o t he A lmsg iver. N o t o n ly d id t he s a in t wage c onstan t war a ga inst t hese p rob le ms , b u t t he emperor f ound i tn ecessary t o s end a n i mper ia l j ud ic iary t o t ake t he c i t izens a nd c iv ic d ign itar ies t o t ask .1 1

Geograph ica l ly , t oo ,

c onnect ions b etween An t ioch a nd Constan t inop le w ere l ess e as ily ma in ta ined

8 5

t han t hose b etween t he c ap ita l a nd A lexandr ia , a lthough t he c i t ies w ere n o f urther a part . I n a l l t hese o bserva t ions, n o r ea l a t tack h as b een made s o f ar o n t he q ues t ion o f t he f unc t ion o f t he d e mon ic.

F or t he most s ucc inc t a nswer , w e

t urn t o a nother , s em i-rura l s ource. I n t he l i fe o f N iko laos o f Myra , t he d e mon ic i s of ten p erson if ied w ith n atura l e lemen ts — t he water o f t he w e l l a nd t he wood o f t he c ross , w h ich , t he v i l lagers a daman t ly ma in ta ined , " has e yes a nd e ars". 1 2 Was t h is w itness t o as urv iv ing p agan f ear o f n a ture s p ir its?

O r f ear o f t he u nknown a nd i nexp l icab le t o wh ich a l abel h as b een

a t tached i n o rder t o f am i l iar ise a nd t hus r educe i ti n s tature? Th is e xp lanat i on wou ld t a l ly w ith f ur ther e ncoun ters w ith t he d emon ic i n t he s a me s ource. Ap art icu lar i nstance b rough t t o m ind h ere i s t he s tory o f as ing le s a i lor w ho b raved t he w ea ther t o s ecure a s afeguard ing c ross t o t he mast .

The r es i-

d en t d e mon w ho i s , o f c ourse, r espons ib le f or t he t urmo i l , v en ts h is t e mper b y i ncreas ing t he s tor m.

Bu t t he r esourcefu l mar iners s urrounded , o ver-

c ame a nd f ina l ly q uenched t he s ource o ft roub le .1 3 The p erson if ica t ion o f f orces o therw ise b eyond c omprehens ion a nd c on tro l p rov ided a f ocus f or c oun ter-ef forts wh ich , i fc oncer ted , c ou ld t r iumph. 2 .2

The s econd g roup o f c i t ies ( Figure I .B ).

Hav ing a lready i nev itab ly

t ouched u pon s ome a spec ts o f t he i l lnesses r ecourded f or t he s econd g roup o f c i t ies a nd s ources, w e must n ow s a mp le t he r est . H ere t he o vera l l n umber o f r ecorded c ases a nd t he a l terna t ive c oncerns o f t he l oca l s a in t s hou ld n ot b l ind u s t o t he f act t hat a p roport iona l v iew o f t he f igures i s t hat wh ich i s l ikely t o p rove s ign if ican t. The l ack o f d emons a t S eleuce ia i s o n ly a pparen t b ecause t he a u thor r elates t he ir a ct iv it ies e xc lus ive ly t o g iv ing a id t o mara ud ing b r igands a nd t h ieves.

The r espons ib il ity f or t h is r ests w ith h is own

p urpose o fp ortray ing t he c i ty a s ah aven o f p eace a nd o rder a nd e x il ing a l l l aw lessness a nd b ruta l ity . The o ccurrence o f e ye t roub les, men t ioned a bove, r eached e p ide m ic p roport ions i n S eleuce ia. The r e ma in ing c a tegory o f i l lnesses t o wh ich a tt en t ion must b e d irected g enera l ly i s t hat o f g ene t ic d isorders. T he i nc idence o f t hese i s f ar h igher i n An t ioch a nd t he c i t ies o f t he s econd g roup. S easona l s tarva t ion a nd f am ine, s een most c lear ly i n t he l i fe o f N iko laos o f Myra , were s pectres h aun t ing t he c o m mun it ies o f t he h arsh Med iterranean s eaboard. Ma lnu tr it ion i n v ary ing d egrees must h ave b een a c onstan t c ompan ion a nd h azard.

I n a dd it ion , t he v i l lage c o m mun it ies a round Myra , S ykeon a nd

An t ioch a re r evea led a s v ery i n-bred. v i ta l w ays t hey h ad t o b e s e lf-rel ian t .

F or amuse men t , g oss ip , a nd i n more O u ts ide c on tact amoun ted t o q uarrels

w ith n e ighbour ing v i l lages, t r ips t o t he l arge r eg iona l t own f or market o r o ther r easons , a nd p i lgr i mages t o t he s a in t.

These f actors i n c on junct ion

may a t l east b e p ostu lated a s s o me e xp lanat ion o f g enet ic p rob lems. F ur ther i n for mat ion a bou t t he o ccurrence o f i l lnesses c an b e g leaned b y merely l ook in g a t t he g raphs o f F igure I .

We h ave e xam ined a bove t he s ig-

n i f ican t c on trasts r ather t han e very i t em o f a va ilab le i nfor mat ion .

I n a d-

d i t ion t o t he o r ig ina l p ropos it ions , t herefore, must b e a dded t he f o l low ing : t hat t he c on trasts s hou ld b e i n terpreted i n t he l i gh t o f o ther k nown d eta ils o f t he b ackground o f t he c i ty c oncerned , a nd a re t hen f ound t o r evea l s ign if ican t i n for ma t ion r e levan t t o t he o vera l l p ortra it o f t hat c ity-com mun ity . 8 6

3 .

The c ures ( F igures I LA a nd I .B ).

Yet more i n for ma t ion i n t h is

d irect ion may b e p ieced t ogether b y a n e xa m ina t ion o f t he c ures a nd t he methods u sed i n a dm in ister ing t he m. I ti s t h is u pon wh ich t he h ag iographer migh t b e e xpected t o dwel l.

C erta in ly t he l anguage i s empha t ic a nd r epet i-

t ive, b u t t echn ica l d eta i l i s o f ten s urpr is ing ly l ack ing.

The c a tegor ies a nd

f i gures u sed i n t h is s ect ion o f t he c hapter w i l l b e c lar if ied b y l ook ing a t t he g raphs o f F igure I . The l ength o f t ime i nvo lved i n t he c ure i s a lso c ons ide red i mportan t a nd f requen t ly men t ioned i n t he s ources.

Th is d oes n ot

a ppear o n t he g raphs b u t w il lb e d iscussed i n more d eta i l l a ter. 3 .11

The c ases t reated b y med ica l o r s urg ica l means a re most ly c on-

f ined t o a ccoun ts o f t he med ica l s a in ts, i n wh ich h osp ita ls a re o ccas iona l ly men t ioned. One a ppears t o h ave b een s i tuated a t Ancyra , where t he b ishop s en t a n i n jured p i lgr i m .1 4

J ohn t he A l msg iver, who a lone p erformed n o

h ea l ing m irac les i n t he u sua l s ense, a lthough h e i s d escr ibed a s t he " true p hys ic ian" , p rov ided l y ingin a nd o ther h osp ita ls f or t he p oor a nd s ick o f A lexandr ia. 1 5 I ti s n ot a t a l l c lear w hether t he l abour f orce mann ing t hese i nst i tu t ions was e cc les iast ica l , o r p rov ided a t t he e xpense o f t he d onor o r a nother p h ilan throp ist. Th is p o in t i s i n n eed o f c lar if ica t ion , b u t t he s ources o f h ag iography a nd o rd inar i ly c orrobora t ive mater ia l a re u nhe lpfu l. O f t h is f i rst c ategory o f c ures, t he g rea t ma jor ity a re med ica l r a ther t han s urg ica l. F ear o f t he k n ife p ers isted. Th is i s n ot s urpr is ing , c ons ideri ng a ccoun ts o f s o me o f t he c ases. P rofess iona l d octors ' e xper i men ts i n t h is d irect ion h ad t o b e c orrected b y s a in t ly i n terven t ion i n t he c ase o f o ne ma l ignan t t u mour .1 6 I n o thers, g angrene s et i n a nd h ad t o b e a verted b y more t imely i n terference. I n a nother, a p rotect ive h usband f orbad e ven s a in t ly s urgery , a nd ma ize o in tmen t was s ubst itu ted a s t reatmen t. 1 7 I n c ons ider ing c ures w h ich c on ta in a t rad it iona l , h erbal o r f o lk e le men t , t here i s wha t a t f i rst a ppears t o b e ap aradox. Tha t i s , t he o n ly t rue o ccurr ences o f t h is t ype a re a t tached t o t he t wo g reat c it ies.

I tm igh t b e e xpected

t ha t r el ics o f t h is k ind o f med ic ine wou ld l i nger l ongest i n t he c oun try.

I ti s

p oss ib le t ha t i td id , b u t t hat i t was p ract ised more i n t he h ome, a nd t hen more a s a mat ter o f c ourse t han p ub l icly. I n t he m iracles o f Cosmas a nd Dam ian we f ind a c ord ia l o f m in t a nd s quashed b eet le-essence r ecom mended f or ab ad p regnancy. 1 8 r idd le a s ac ure.

On a nother o ccas ion t he s a in t p rescr ibed a h umourous

Ap a lace o f f ic ia l w as t o ld t o d r ink i n w ater t he g round

g en ita l h a ir o f Cos mas — t hat i s , o f Cos mas t he l a mb, a r ecen t g if t t o t he s anc tuary. 1 9

The p rob lems t he p a t ien th ad i n u nravel l ing t he r idd le c an b e

l ef t t o t he i mag inat ion , b u t o ther f eatures a re worth c ons ider ing.

F irst ly ,

t he d rea m:r idd le f or mat i s r em in iscen t o f c lass ica l o racles a nd o f O ld Tes tamen t p rophecy f rom d rea ms.

S i tes o f o racles h ad b ecome c en tres o f

p i lgr i mage i n t he p ast — n ot o n ly f or s eekers o f a dv ice, b u t f or t he s ick a s w el l. To a v ery g reat e x ten t , t he s a in t , w ith h is p owers o f s ee ing i n to t he h ear ts o f men , o f e xeges is , c lar if ica t ion a nd p rophecy , h ad c onsc ious ly t aken o n t he f unc t ion o fb oth p rophet a nd o racle o f p agan t imes. Another a spect o f t h is c ase n eeds t o b e emphas ised : t he u se o f t he c u lts ite 's mascot a n i ma l. A s M. Ha m il ton p o in ted o u t i n h er e xcel len tb ut l i t t le-used work , t he i nstrumen ta l r ö le o f t he mascot o r " ho ly" a n i ma l , n orma l ly smake o r g oat , a t Asc lep ian c en tres o f h eal ing i s w e ll a t tes ted. 2°

8 7

Accoun ts o f i ncubat ion a re w idespread i n t he s ources. 2 1 T he d irect d er ivat i on f ro m Asc lep ian methods i s a dm it ted. Th is i s i n c omp lete c on trast t o a ny b orrow ing f ro m H ippocrat ic med ic ine a nd t he w r it ings o f Ga len , w h ich i n a l most a l l c ases was d en ied most s trenuous ly . Cyrus a nd J ohn 's b iographer s peaks o f H ippocrat ic med ic ine a s a" v it iat ing a id" i n ac ase o f ad octor a tt e mpt ing t o c ure u lcers. 2 2 Ad ropsy p at ien t , i ti s s tressed d iv ine med ic ine a nd NOT b y t ha t o f H ippocra tes a nd Ga len .2 1 5

i s c ured b y T he i a traso-

p h ist G ess ios i s c arefu l ly d etached f rom h is l oya lty t o t he p agan t rad it ion i n al eng thy b at t le o f w its a nd r eason ing i n wh ich C osmas a nd Da m ian a re c a l led i n t o h e lp t he ir A lexandr ian c o l leagues. H ippocrat ic med ic ine was t hat p ract ised b y t he d octors.

A lthough t hey

w ere h igh ly p a id a nd m ixed w ith t he u pper c lasses o f s oc iety , d octors w ere v ery d ef in itely o u t o f f avour i n t he s a in t ly c amp. F rom t he s afely r emoved f ocus-po in t o f t he c u l t-s ite , t he h ag iographer o f Cyrus a nd J ohn s p its a buse a nd d enunc iat ions a t t he d octors i ns ide t he c i ty a nd i t s s oc ia l a nd p rofess iona l s tructure. The ir f requen t i nef fec tua l ity i s t o b e i n ferred f rom t he n umerous p a t ien ts who d espa ir i n d octors ' h ands a nd r esort t o t he s a in ts. A d eacon w ith a ma l ignan t f i stu la h ad b een t o many d octors o ver a c ons iderab le p er iod o f t ime. Before h is c ure, i nvo lv ing s urgery a nd a d ish o f g reen o l ives , h e h ad t o p ro m ise n ever t o a t tend a p rofess iona l p hys ic ian a ga in . Another c ase , a n u nquenchab le f ever, was b eyond t he p ower o f t he c h ief d octors a nd s oph ists : 2 5

i x (Tp c lv b c c o c p ixTaI x al f i yof . )µcvoi . T b k aw cpbv

T gxvng

c i nö cveLcµa . Another c l ien t , w ith a h eart c ond it ion , w en t t o t he s a in ts when t here w as " no h elp l e f t i n man". 26 The e le men t o f d esperat ion a s a n i mmed ia te p rec ursor t o s eek ing d iv ine a id i s o f ten r epeated. c uss ion o f t he p rocess o fh ea l ing.

I tw i l l f i gure l a ter i n t he d is-

T he d octors ' f eel ings f or t he s a in ts a re n o t s o p red ictab le. I n t he m irac les o f Cyrus a nd J ohn , l i t t le s pace i s g iven t o t h is s ide o f t he q uest ion . I n t hose o f Cos mas a nd Dam ian , h owever, s evera l h in ts a re g iven — n o t a lways c onsi sten t o nes.

On a n umber o f o ccas ions t he s a in ts i n tervened i n ac ase t he

d octor was b us ily b ung l ing.

I n o ne p art icu lar i nstance, t he s et t ing o f a

b roken l eg , t he d octor 's r espect f or t he d iv ine p ract i t ioners c aused h im t o r efuse t o medd le f urther . 2 7 I n t he v ery n ex t mirac le, a n i rreveren t d octor l aughed a t ap at ien t who h ad d ared t o s ugges t t ha t s he s hou ld r esort t o t he s a in ts. 2 8 He t hreatened t ha t s uch a ct ion wou ld o n ly make h er worse. A man w ith a n a bscess o n at ooth wh ich t hrea tened t o s pread t o h is e ar w as a ctua l ly a dv ised ly h is p hys ic ian t o t ry t he d iv ine a l ternat ive . 2 9

Th is d id

h ave m it igat ing c ircu mstances. The p hys ic ian k new h is c l ien t w el l e nough t o s ay t ha t t he i l lness w as "more i n t he s ou l t han i n t he b ody". A f u l ler d iagnos is b y t he s a in ts r evea led t ha t t h is r eferred t o t he p a t ien t 's i rregu lar marr iage s i tuat ion.

Th is h ad t o b e a t tended t o b efore t he a bscess f rom

wh ich h e s uf fered c ou ld b e c ured. 30 I n s ources o ther t han Cyrus a nd J ohn 's m irac les , a buse l evel led a t d octors a nd H ippocrat ic med ic ine i s l ess v iru len t , b ut i s s t i l l p resen t , a t l east b y imp l icat ion . c hange.

On ly i n t he v ery l ast s ec t ion o f Cosmas a nd Da m ian d oes t he t one

There, a monk , f reed f rom u nwarran ted i mpr isonmen t , i s s en t t o

8 8

a monastery f or t rea tmen t f or h is s ickness , " accord ing t o H ippocra tes a nd Ga len". 3 1 The d at ing o ft h is l ast g roup o f Cosmas a nd Da m ian 's m irac les, wh ich a re v ery d ifferen t i n s oc ia l o vertones f rom t he r est , i s a rgued c onv inc ing ly b y F estug i ' ere t o b e t wel f th o r t h irteen th c en tury. By t hen , s oc ia l c ond it ions a nd a tt itudes p rov ided a d i f feren t b ackground. Constan t inop le h ad t aken o ver f ro m A lexandr ia a s t he c en tre f or med ica l s tud ies ( ou ts ide t he Arab wor ld ) — a s h as b een p o in ted o ut b y 0 . Te mk in .3 2 was n o l onger s trugg l ing a ga inst t he c lass ica l p agan a rt :

D iv ine med ic ine

i th ad a ss im i la ted

i t . Asc lep ian t rad it ion , i n c on trast t o H ippocra t ic, w as n ot r e jected. As s tated a lready , t he u se o f i ncuba t ion a nd s i te p ersonne l , i nc lud ing a n i ma ls, was a n e stab l ished a nd r ecogn ised p art o f p rocedure. The h ag iographer o f Cyrus a nd J ohn e ven g oes s o f ar a s t o t er m t he s anctuary a n " Asclepedar ium" , a nd t he d octor d em i-god i s men t ioned e lsewhere i n n o t u nfavourab le t erms. The l ong t rad it ion o f h ea l ing a t t he s i te, " taken o ver" b y Cyrus a nd J ohn f rom Castor a nd Po l lux , may w e l l b e r espons ib le f or t h is a t t itude. s a in ts w ere p art icu larly amenab le t o " transportat ion" o f t h is k ind.

Dead T hey

a lso h ad , o r c ou ld e as ily b e g iven , al egendary s trength a nd e f fec t iveness t r i mmed t o meet l oca l r equ ire men ts. S uch a c onnect ion w ith a " go lden" p ast o f martyr-sa in ts w as a mat ter f or s at isf ied c on te mp lat ion a nd a n e terna l t hread o f h ope a nd e ncourage men t i n a n i n trospec t ive s oc iety w h ich l i on ised i t s p ast a ccord ing t o l i terary t rad it ion . S uch a n o u t look c ou ld a ccommoda te t he r a ther more r o man t ic a nd mys t ica l methods o f Asc lep ian h ea l ing , b u t b aulked a t t he " sc ien t if ic" a sp irat ions o f H ippocrates a nd Ga len . T he c on t inu ity o f t he Asclep ian t rad it ion makes c omprehens ib le a no ther t en ta t ive p o in t p rev ious ly l ef t u nreso lved.

Th is i s t he q uest ion o f h erba l a nd

f o lk-type c ures b e ing d ocumen ted a s u rban s urv iva ls.

An h ypothes is wh ich

may b e a dded t o p rev ious s pecu la t ion i s t hat s uch med ic ine w as c lose t o Asc lep ian method a nd s o w as r ecorded a nd r e membered. Thus i ts urv ived i n c en tres w ith s uch a t rad it ion , r a ther t han i n r e moter a reas. 3 3 The n ex t c ategory i n t h is g roup o f c ures h as s ome c onnect ions w ith t he t rad it ions o f h ea l ing. A modera te d iet w ith med ic ina l b u t n ot e xcess ive amoun ts o f w ine a ppears s tandard t rad it iona l a dv ice.

P lu tarch c omb ined

t h is w ith a r e jec t ion o f c a thart ic o r eme t ic p urges o f t he s yste m. P oss ib ly h e f e l t t hat t hey migh t i n terfere w ith t he n atura l r eba lanc ing o f t he h umours — o f wh ich h e b e l ieved t he b ody t o b e most c apab le i n i t se l f . D iv ine med ic ine s hows n o s uch s hyness. The f avour ite r ec ipe f or i nduc ing s uch a p urge s ee ms t o h ave b een f e t id o i ls s uch a s t he o i l o f c edar.

T h is s ingu larly u n-

a ppet is ing med ic ine was t he f ate o f t he h ippodrome f anat ic a nd o ther p at ien ts o fb oth s ets o fh ea l ing s a in ts. The " v io lence o f l i berat ion" h ad a p art t o p lay i n t he p sychoso mat ic f eel ing o f r e l ief wh ich was w e l l u nderstood t o b e a n importan t a ccompany ing f actor o f d iv ine c ure . 3 4

I n a dd it ion , a nd n ot ice-

a b ly f ro m t he h ag iographer 's p o in t o f v iew , i t made a f ar more s at isfy ing a nd s pectacu lar e nd t o t he t a le. Magou l ias, i n ap ioneer ing a rt ic le o n s a in ts a nd Byzan t ine med ic ine, w r it ten i n 1 964, p o in ts o u t t he p reference f or v egetab le p rescr ipt ions i n c ura t ive med ic ine. 35 O l ives , l en t ils, a nd m ixed v egetab le c oncoct ions a re t hose men t ioned h ere. I ti s w orth p o in t ing o u t i n p ass ing t hat a l l t he s a in ts

8 9

f o l lowed s ome f or m o f f ruga l v egetar ian d ie t a s p art o f t he ir own a scet ic t ra in ing. Most o f t he m w ere v ery l ong-l ived — c erta in ly t hey e n joyed more t han t he a verage l i fe-expectancy . Vegetab les may w e l l h ave b een g enera l ly s a fer f or h uman c onsu mpt ion t han mea t. An i rasc ib le s u f ferer f rom f ood a nd b lood p o ison ing was f u l l o f i nd igna t ion a t d e lay — a nd d e monstrated t he i mportance o f f r iends.

H is c ure

was t o b e e f fected b y ac essat ion o fh is b lasphemous i nd igna t ion a nd o f h is e at ing p ou l try. 36

I n a nother c ase meat w as a ctua l ly a dvoca ted a s ac ure —

b ut c h ief ly a s a n i nduce men t t o c onvers ion f rom J uda is m t o o rthodox-y .3 7 T o r eturn momen tar i ly t o t he s ub ject o f t he p at ien ts ' f r iends, Ae l ius Ar ist ides made t he most u sefu l s um mary .

H e r eferred t o t hose who c on t in-

u a l ly h e lped a nd e ncouraged h im a s b e ing i n a" consp iracy o f h is f r iends a nd Asclep ius". 3 8 F r iends must h ave b een i nva luab le f or t ransport ing t he s ick , g iv ing t he m s oc ia l a nd p ersona l e ncourage men t , a nd t o lera t ing t he ir d emands. 3 .12 T he s ame h umour a nd k indness a re r evea led i n t he n ex t c ategory o f c ures.

Aga in t hey w ere ma in ly l im ited t o t he g reatest c i t ies, a nd , o f t hose,

An t ioch was e xc luded. To s o me e x ten t t he f i gures o n t he g raph a re mis leadi ng i n t h is c ase. G iven t he u nderly ing t heory o f i l lness a nd c ure i n t he s oc iety , e very c ase h ad a p sycho log ica l e le men t , b u t t hose w ith a n o bv ious a nd f a ir ly s oph ist icated u se o f t h is t ype o f t reatmen t a re v ery l im ited. The most i n terest ing o ccur i n Constan t inop le among t he m irac les o f Cos mas a nd Da m ian . One w as t he h ippodrome f anat ic w ith a n a bscess. The o i l o f c edar h e h ad t o d r ink w as s i mp ly a n emet ic, b u t t he method b y wh ich h e was p ers uaded t o d r ink i tw as s ubt le.

I n ad ream-v is ion h e f ound h i mse lf i n t he

b eloved h ippodrome. There t he g lasses o f o i l , b y n ow i ncreased i n n umber t o t hree, p resen ted t he mse lves f or c onsump t ion. The o f f icers o f t he watch t hen a ppeared t o a ccuse t he n igh t v is itor o f b lack mag ic a nd t he f ou lest f or ms o f s orcery a nd i do latry. On wak ing , h e g u lped t he r equ ired med ic ine, v om ited a nd w as c ured — o fb o th t he a bscess a nd t he u nc iv il ised a nd b ruta l is ing o bsess ion .3 9 The s econd i nstance i s more a n e xa mp le o f s tra igh tforward s hock t rea tmen t. A p ara ly t ic was o rdered t o l i e d own i n wha t w ou ld b e c ons idered o ff ens ive p rox im ity t o ad umb l ady-pat ien t . t hree c o m mands , h e d id a s h e was t o ld.

A f ter much men ta l d istress a nd The l ady s crea med l oud ly a nd ,

a fra id o f d etect ion a nd d isgrace, h e l eaped u p a nd r an away . I th as t o b e r ecorded t ha t t o s at isfy t he d e mands o f c onven t iona l mora l ity , t hey t hen g o t marr ied The c a tegory -somewhat i nadequately t er med c ures b y f a ith-hea l ing, o r " unexp la ined" m irac les, f igures l arge ly i n a l l t he s ources.

I n t he f i rst

g roup o f c i t ies t he b a lance i s b et ter k ep t b etween t hese a nd t he c ures g iven s ome k ind o f l og ica l e xp lana t ion . Th is i s more t rue o f C onstan t inop le a nd A lexandr ia t han o f An t ioch , w h ich i s i n l ine w ith p rev ious f ind ings. I t s hou ld b e b orne i n m ind t ha t ag reat n u mber o f t he o therw ise " unspec if ied" c ures s hou ld p erhaps f a l l i n to t h is c ategory. I n many i ns tances i ti s c lear t hat h ea l ing b y " fa ith" mean t n o th ing more o r l ess t han a c onvers ion f rom p agan is m o r h eresy t o o r thodoxy .

Two c l ien ts

i n Cyrus a nd J ohn 's m irac les , o ne a p ara ly t ic , o ne w ith e ye t roub le, t urned 9 0

f rom d espa ir t o c ure v ia o rthodoxy • 41

The d egree o f f a ith a lso a f fected t he

l eng th o f t ime f or wh ich a p a t ien t w as l e f t t o i mprove t hrough s uf fer ing u n t i l worthy o fh ea l ing. A p oor man w as d epr ived o fh is l ive l ihood b y i l lness , a nd c ured sw if t ly b ecause t he s a in ts " loved t he p oor a nd t hough t h im w orthy o f h ea l ing". A p art icu larly v irtuous d eacon w ho w en t s tra igh t t o t he s a in ts when a i l ing was h ea led "w i th u npreceden ted s peed". c ure w as s een t o b e o f ma jor importance.

4 2

The t im ing o f t he

I ft he f a ith was s ound a nd u nshaken

b y m isfortune, a sw if t a nswer c ou ld r e inforce i ta s ar eward. I ff a ith wavere d — a nd s uf fer ing was s omet i mes p urpose ly p ro longed t o t est i t— t he w a it ing p er iod was made i n to a l esson .

I t was o f ten p ortrayed a nd c ons idered a s a

f orma t ive p reparat ion , a nd t he i ncreased d ramat ic e le men t made t he f i na l c ure more s tunn ing f or t he p a t ien t a nd t he a ud ience. O n ly t he e xcep t iona l c l ien t c ou ld g et away w ithou t t h is p art o f t he p rocess. For t he r est , t he i mpor tance o f ap er iod o f s e lf-exam ina t ion , l ead ing t o c onf ess ion a nd r epen tance, i s o f ten s tressed.

Th is d ev ice a ppears f requen t ly

i n t he t wo ma in med ica l s ources. A b l ind Roman h ad t o a gree t o c ease c onsu l t ing p rofess iona l d octors a nd t hen w a it , p ay ing f or t he f au l t , f or e igh t y ears un t i l d ee med wor thy o f h ea l ing . 4 3 Dur ing t h is wa it ing p er iod a no ther p at ien t was s aved t he embarrassmen t o f r eturn ing t o s oc iety b y b e ing c ommanded t o s erve i n t he s anctuary f or s o me y ears. c ase w i l l b e d iscussed l a ter.

The s oc ia l r am if icat ions o f s uch a

There was a no ther p oss ib le b enef it o f t he p er iod

o f " t i me o u t". I tw as a t ime o f r ecupera t ion . When t he l ast s tage o f d espera te r es ignat ion was r eached , a ided b y p sycho log ica l s tress a nd s hame , an ew s ta te c ou ld s et i n .

Th is w as a s tate i n wh ich n o s tandards w ere i mposed

u pon t he p a t ien t a nd a c er ta in r e laxat ion c ou ld b e g a ined f rom t ota l a bandonmen t t o " s lu m m ing" i n t he n eu tra l t err itory o f t he s anctuary .

Th is " eye o f

t he h urr icane" g ave t ime f or v i ta l r ecovery i n a n o therw ise c rowded l i fe where s oc iety 's d e mands w ere f or m idab le. F rom t h is n eu tra l g round , a f ter h um il iat i on h ad d one i t s w orst —or b est — t here was o n ly t he way u p a ga in . 3 .13 Many o f t he c ures o f ap ure ly m iracu lous n ature c on ta in a l arge e lemen t o f s ymbo l is m. T h is i s ma in ly i n t he f or m o f t he i nstru men t o f c ure, f requen t ly h o ly b read o r t he s ign o f t he c ross. o r l ucky n u mbers i s ar ecurren t t he me.

I n a dd it ion , t he u se o f s ymbo l ic

F irst ly , h owever, w e must r ev iew

t he u se o f h ea l ing t ouch , w h ich d rew o n aw ide c u ltura l h er itage. Touch h ere means n ot o n ly t ha t o fh ands b u t a lso c on tact w ith g ar men ts a nd h a ir o f t he s a in t. Two i nstances o f t he l a t ter k ind o f t ouch o ccur i n t he l i fe o f S y rneon t he Younger. Once, a p iece o f h is t un ic i s e f fec t ive ly u sed i n e xorc ism. Another t ime a h er m it-pr iest b egged a l ock o f s a in t ly h a ir a nd s et u p ak ind o f h ea l ing r elay s tat ion . 44

I n a reas where t he s a in t was t oo f ar away o r

o verworked , s uch a s econdary c on tact w as u sefu l.

I t was a lso i n l ine w ith

t he model s et b y t he l i fe o fJ esus, t o wh ich e ach s a in t d id h is u tmost t o a dh ere. A d if feren t a pproach was t hrough t he i con . An a r my o ff icer a ppea led t o t he i con o f Cos mas a nd Da m ian o nb eha lf o fh is b r ide. An i con was a lso i nstrumen ta l i n c ur ing Theodore o f S ykeon a f ter t he f i rst a t te mpt t o p o ison h im . 4 5

I tp rov ided a c hanne l o f a ccess when more d irect c on tact b ecame i m-

p oss ib le.

The i mportance o f t he j ourney t o t he p lace o f s anctuary was u n-

d im in ished. S uch a r esor t e l im ina ted t he f or ma t ive p er iod o f s uf fer ing a nd o f r ecuperat ion o u ts ide s oc iety 's b ounds. I t was a s econd b es t. I ft he j ourney , w h ich a lways g ets a s eparate men t ion , w ere i mposs ib le, t h is w as a n a l ternat i ve.

Ano ther w as t he o ccas iona l p rogress b y s a in ts t o Cons tan t inop le o r 9 1

o ther g reat c en tres.

I ti s n o teworthy t hat p at ien ts c a tered f or o n s uch o cca-

s ions i nc luded a l arge p roport ion o f g overnmen t a nd c our t o f f ic ia ls who m ight n ot o therw ise h ave b een f ree t o r evea l t he ir p rob le m o r t o i ndu lge i n h av ing i tt rea ted. T he t ouch o ft he h and was u sua l ly a ccompan ied b y ab less ing a nd/or t he s ign o ft he c ross. There s ee ms t o h ave b een n o p art icu lar t ype o f c ase i n w h ich t h is o ccurred , b u t i ti s f ound most f requen t ly i n t he m irac les o f C osmas a nd Da m ian . S ymbo ls a re f requen tb u t n o t e spec ia l ly emphas ised i n t he t ex ts.

P re-

s umab ly t he a ud ience was e xpected t o b e w e l l a t tuned a nd r ecep t ive t o r efere nces o bscure t o t he modern r eader. They i nc lude t he u se o f n umbers , l i turg ica l d ev ices s uch a s h o ly b read , a nd , l ess o bv ious ly i n t h is c on tex t , r el ics.

The u se o f t he s ign o f t he c ross, w ith o r w ithout b less ing , i s u n i-

v ersa l.

The u se o fb read , p art icu larly h o t b read , i s most c om mon i n t he

m irac les o f Cyrus a nd J ohn , b u t o ccurs o nce a lso i n t he l i fe o f S ymeon . I n t he wr it ings o f H ippocra tes ( t he P rognos t ics ) i ti s s tated t hat t he f our th a nd s even th d ays a re i mportan t i n f orete l l ing t he o u tcome o f a n i l lness.

I n

t he c ases b rough t t o S . Dan ie l we a re a lways i n for med o f t he p at ien t 's s ta te a t t he e nd o f o ne o r t wo w eeks.

The p rognost ic s ign if icance o f t he n u mera l

f our was r ep laced b y t hat o f t hree.

References t o t hrees w ere f requen t.

S evera l o f t hose a lready q uo ted h ere c ou ld b e ar ephras ing o f " on t he f ourth d ay" a s " af ter t he t h ird d ay". Bu t t here i s i nsu f f ic ien t e v idence t o s ay w hether t he c onnec t ion w as made, e ven i n h istory . n o d oub t.

The u se o f t hree i s i n

I ti s s tated most e xp l ic it ly i n ac ase o f Cosmas a nd Da m ian 's

w here a n o f f ic ia l t urned u p f or h ea l ing f rom s trange swe l l ings w ith h is w ife a nd s isterin-law.

The h ag iographer a ctua l ly c a l ls t he c ase a " tr in ity o f

h ea l ings". 46 F ur ther r ecourse t o t he s ymbo l is m o f b ib l ica l e xamp le c an b e f ound. S a ints ' m irac les o fh ea l ing , a s w e l l a s o f f eed ing t he p oor, h o ld e choes o f Chr ist a nd t he D isc ip les ' a id , p art icu larly t o l epers, t he b l ind a nd t he p ossess ed. N evertheless , t here i s a n i mpor tan t d ist inct ion wh ich a dds t o t he v a lue o f a n i nd iv idua l h ag iograph ica l t rad it ion .

The g reater med ica l d eta i l a nd

t he i n terest d isp layed i n t he s oc ia l r am if ica t ions o f a ff l ict ion a nd c ure a re a l ien t o t he Gospe ls. Re l ics ,

a s s ymbo ls o f t he s treng th o f d ead s a in ts, w ere a ccumu lated b y

" l ive" s a in ts.

I n t he Eas t , r e l ics d o n ot s ee m t o h ave p layed a l arge p art

i nh ea l ing o n t he ir own.

On ly when a s a in t d ied , d id h is s arcophagus c on t inue

t o work t he mirac les e xpected o f i ta nd t o d raw p i lgr i ms t o t he s ite. Exorc is m , f o l low ing t he p a ttern s et b y t he o ccurrence o f d e mons, w as more i n e v idence i n An t ioch a nd t he s econd g roup o f c i t ies. Th is i s o ne f i e ld i n w h ich t he s a in t i nev itab ly t r iumphed o ver t he d octor.

Exorc is m, a s i s

made a bundan t ly c lear , was a mat ter o f c on f l ict b etween d iv ine a nd e v il p owers. N o d oc tor c ou ld match t h is. When S ymeon was, a s i t were, c omm iss ioned a t t he e nd o f h is a scet ic t ra in ing , h e was t o ld t ha t h e h ad , a nd mus t t herefore u se, t he p ower t o h ea l a nd t o e xorc ise . 4 7

Th is i s n eat ly s ummed

u p b y Gregory o f Tours, who wr ites a bou t Cosmas a nd Da m ian , " They d isp el led t he i n f ir m it ies o f t he s ick mere ly b y t he mer it o f t he ir v irtues".

9 2

T ha t

i s, t he s a in ts h ea led a nd e xorc ised b ecause o f t he ir p owers t o d o s o , n ot b ecause t hey n urtured t hose p owers i n r esponse t o an eed f or t hem. L ook ing b r ief ly a t t he s econd g roup o f c i t ies, w e f ind t hat l i tt le r e ma ins t o b e a dded.

The p a t tern s e t b y t he o bserva t ions c oncern ing i l lnesses h o lds

g ood f or c ures.

Al ower p roport ion o f t he c ases b rough t t o t he s a in t w as

f or med ic ina l a id i n l ess u rban a reas, b u t t he c ategor ies a nd t he ir d istr ibut ion r evea l t he s ame o vera l l i n format ion a s b efore. T he f igures a re s el fe xp lanatory. Most o f t he d ev iat ing f actors s uch a s t he a pparen t l ack o f t rad it iona l a nd h erba l c ures h as b een a dequa tely d iscussed a lready.

The

u se o f s ymbo l ic d ev ices i s l ow , e xcep t a t Myra a nd S e leuce ia, where i t may h ave d epended u pon t he a u thors ', p art icu larly Bas i l 's, c lass ica l k now ledge. I n S e leuce ia t here o ccurs a lso t he o n ly i t em o f m iracu lous y et t rad it iona l h ea l ing , wh ich i s o f p art icu lar i nterest i n t h is g roup , i .e., t he m iracu lous p rov is ion o f t he h ea l ing s pr ing i n t ime o f p est i lence among t he l ivestock . 48 One f ac tor wh ich t ends f urther t o d if feren t ia te An t ioch a nd t he s econd g roup o f c i t ies f ro m A lexandr ia a nd Constan t inop le i s t he o ccurrence o f r esurr ec t ion . One p oss ib le e xp lanat ion d epends o n l oca l med ica l e xper t ise among t he s i te p ersonne l a nd t he a ud ience.

Where e xpert ise w as o f ah igher l evel ,

r esurrec t ion migh t ( a ) n o t b e n ecessary s ince t he v ict im w ou ld n ot h ave b een s o q u ick ly a ccoun ted d ead , a nd ( b ) n ot b e p oss ib le w ithou t o verstretch ing t he c redu l ity o f t he a ud ience. I n o ther d eta i ls t h is g roup i s h ard ly r e markab le. The t im ing o r r hy thm o f t he c ures i s a ga in s uch a s t o a l low f or n atura l r ec upera t ion a nd t hough t. I n r ura l a reas b oth t he s oph ist ica t ion o f t he t reatmen t a nd t he d escr ip t ion o f t he c ures a re d im in ished. 4 . The p rocess o fh ea l ing. F or a f u l ler u nders tand ing o f i l lnesses a nd t he ir c ures, t wo more f ace ts o f t he t op ic must b e c ons idered. Both h ave b een i nev itab ly t ouched u pon a lready .

We s ha l l n ow e xam ine f i rst t he p rocess o f

h ea l ing a s a n e stab l ished r i tua l , a nd s econd ly t he s oc ia l i mp l icat ions o f i l ln ess a nd c ure, w h ich n ecessar ily f or m a b ackground t o t he e n t ire c hap ter. The t wo f actors a re c onnec ted. The p rocess o f d iv ine h ea l ing i nvo lved s evera l s tages. F irst t here was t he j ourney o f h um i l iat ion . I t was h um il iat i ng b ecause i tw as a p ub l ic a dm iss ion o f n eed , g u il t a nd i nadequacy . A t t he s anctuary t here w as t he w a it ing p er iod , d ur ing wh ich d iagnos is a nd s u itab le s u f fer ing t ook p lace. a nd r epen tance.

F u l l d iagnos is a nd p rescr ip t ion r equ ired f u l l c on fess ion

Th is s tage w as a bso lutely v i ta l f or t he s uccess o f t he c ure.

Ag roup o fI saur ians t rave l led t o S ymeon t he Younger o n p i lgr i mage f or h ea li ng. They were b lessed w ith t he s ign o ft he c ross b u t r e ma ined u ncured b ec ause t hey h ad om it ted t o c on fess . 4 9 t o p o in t o ut t he mora l.

Thus t he h ag iographer emp loyed t he m

The c on tr ibu t ion made b y s uf fer ing t owards w orth i-

n ess was a d ev ice f or a dd ing t o t he d ra mat ic v a lue o f t he i nc iden t — af acu l ty w e l l e xp lo ited b y h ag iographers o n t he ir a ud iences ' b eha lf .

I n c om mon w ith

t he s elf-d isc ip l ine o f a scet ic is m, s u f fer ing h ad t he v irtue o f s trengthen ing c harac ter. Once t he p rob le m h ad b een i den t if ied a nd e xp la ined , i tc ou ld b e i so lated a nd e rad ica ted. Th is p rocess was c om mon t o b oth h ea l ing a nd e xorc is m — af ter i t , t hepa t ien t c ou ld r e-en ter n or ma l l i fe a nd work , t o ta l ly " c leansed". Theoret ica l ly h e w as a lso i mmun ised a ga inst r epet it ion o f t he s ame a ff l ict ion . Th is i s made c learest i n t he c ase o f t reatmen t f or a j ea lous d e mon , a ga inst w ho m t he p at ien t w as f or thw ith p rom ised p rotect ion f or t he r est o fh is l i fe. 5 0 9 3

The who le o f t h is p rocess c an b e s ummar ised i n t he f o l low ing d iagram , wh ich i ti s h oped w i l l b e ap rof itab le c lar if icat ion f or t he r eader.

a dven t a nd a dm iss ion o f i l lness

a nx iety a nd g row ing s ense o f g u ilt

s u f fer ing

t he j ourney/p i lgr i mage

t he w a it ing :

c on fess ion a nd

r epen tance : d iagnos is a nd p rescr ip t ion ( poss ib le r idd le )

1 .

t he c ure

a nd

a ) d esperat ion

h um il iat ion

b ) h ope a nd e xpectat ion

r el ief , r enewed i nnocence a nd s treng th

5 . The s oc ia l i mp l icat ions. I l lness was a n i n terrup t ion o f l i fe a nd w ork . Tha t i t was a lso , i n v ary ing d egrees, s ha mefu l , i sb y n ow , Ih ope, a pparen t. Bu t t he s ha me w as n ot e ven ly d istr ibuted. I l lnesses wh ich w ere s oc ial ly h and icapp ing o r i m med iate ly o bv ious t o t he s pectator c arr ied a h igher b urden t han o ther a i lmen ts. Those i n s oc ia l p os it ions w ith most t o l ose w ere more e as i ly s ha med t han t hose a lready c ons idered " un touchab le". I n fert i l ity w as a n o bv ious c and ida te f or c ons idera t ion a s as hamefu l i l ln ess.

I ti n terfered w ith t he c on t inu ity o f t he f am i ly a nd w ith t he d u t ies o f

marr ied Chr ist ian c oup les t o p rocreate.

As men t ioned a bove , t he s oc ia l

s t ig ma a t tached i t self a lways t o t he w ife ( c f . Ch. 2 , 3 .2 ). An i nd icat ion o f t he d espa ir i n fert i l ity c ou ld b r ing t o a man i s c on ta ined i n t he c ry o f s uch a n u n fortunate i nt he more o r l ess c onte mporary s ource, J ohn o f Ephesus :

" I

h ave n o h e ir a nd n o h ope o f my h ouse". Defor m it ies, wh ich i nc lude d e mon-possess ion , a nd d eafness, d umbness a nd b l indness a lso b ore a h eavy s oc ia l b urden o f s hame. F or e xa mp le, t here i s t he d eaf- mu te l ady o f Constan t inop le, d escr ibed a s a f f l icted b y " a s hamef u l i l lness s ince s he c ou ld n o l onger c onverse w ith o thers o f h er own k ind". 5 2 I t was t he c ut t ing o f f f rom o ne 's p eers t ha t was s o d amag ing. Another c ause f or t he s hame o f d efor m ity w as t hat i t was v is ib le. When t he d aughter o f t he emperor J ust in was p ossessed , t he s i tuat ion was e spec ia l ly c r it ica l. Imper ia l f am il ies h ad t o b e o n p ub l ic v iew f .5 3

x al T oUTo 4 1 CX 1 ' )VOUTO c p avcp ( Ica t , L eprosy w as a nother d isease wh ich i nvo lved s oc ia l a l iena t ion . w ere g ood , b ut i t was n ot o n ly t he r isk o f i n fect ion w h ich c oun ted.

The r easons A p re-

v iously p opu lar s o ld ier s uf fer ing f ro m t he d isease h ad b ecome u napproachab le. H is f r iends c ou ld n ot b ear t o b e i n h is p resence o r e ven t o l ook a t h i m. 5 4 Ap at ien t o f Cyrus a nd J ohn w ith d ropsy a nd a g row ing t u mour was c a l led ah orr ib le s igh t :5 5

o i .5Acaca

TE

a toLov x al c p pLxTbv ü nC cpxoyca e caµa.

H is c ure w as s a id t o b e ar es torat ion t o h ea lth a nd s an ity , w h ich may i nd ica te t he e f fec ts o f s oc ia l a l iena t ion . 9 4

C onversely , t he r esu lts o fp art ic ipat ion i n ac ure b y d iv ine h ea l ing c ou ld b e s oc ia l ly b enef ic ia l. Thus, a k ind o f s tatus i mprovemen t i s s hown i n t he c ase o f Paus ikakos , t he S e leuce ian f erry man who b eca me " i l lustr ious" t hrough h is c ure. ( See Chs. 1a nd 2 ) I n l ess r e markab le e xamp les t he m iracu lous i n terven t ion i s r egarded a s mere ly " streng then ing". Ad if feren t s oc ia l a spect o f t he c ure i s t he w ay i n w h ich i tw as i nd iv idua l ly " ta i lor- made" a ccord ing t o t he p at ien t 's s oc io-econo m ic c ircumstances. Th is i s a n e x tens ion o f t he s a in ts ' e ssen t ia l g oodw i l l t owards o ther morta ls a nd a lso o f t he ir r o le a s a l l-see ing s p ir itua l f a thers.

A p a ir o f mirac les i l lustra-

t i ng t he p o in t o ccur among Cyrus a nd J ohn 's c ases , r e lated c onsecu t ive ly f or a dded d ra ma t ic i mpact. Y et a no ther s oc ia l r am if ica t ion o f o ne p erson 's c ure was t ha t i tc ou ld a ch ieve s ometh ing q u ite d i f feren t f or a nother c l ien t. A w ife s uspected o f b e ing a du l terous w as b rough t f or s a in t ly a rb itra t ion b y h er h usband. They w ere t o ld b y Cos mas a nd Dam ian t ha t t he m ilk o f ap ure woman wou ld c ure t he e yes o f a nother c l ien t , a n o f f ic ia l c onven ien t ly p resen t a t t he s a me t ime. By t he o ne mirac le, t he e yes o f t he t h ird p arty w ere c ured , t he w ife 's r eput a t ion p reserved a nd t he f ace o f ap oten t ia l c ucko ld s aved f rom s oc ia l s corn .5 6 6 . S u m mary . I n s umm ing u p , ag enera l r ep ly t o t he o pen ing q uest ion a nd h ypotheses may b e s uggested. H ea l ing was a p ar t o f t he make-up o f t he c onven t iona l a t tr ibu tes o f as a in t.

I t was a p ower h e was h e ld t o p ossess

a nd was t herefore e xpected t o e xerc ise. Expectat ion was s upp le men ted b y ac erta in s oc ia l n eed a nd a g reat p sycho log ica l d e mand f or a c hannel f or r ep en tance, p enance a nd t he means t o a bso lu t ion .

A l l t hese f unct ions w ere

g iven w ide p ub l ic a ppea l b y a n a dm irab ly a rranged a nd b roadcast p ropaganda. T he p rocess o f s uch h ea l ing was f or ma l ised i n to a r ecogn isable p at tern , t he c omp let ion o f wh ich was a s much p art o f t he c ure a s t he p rescr ibed med ic ine. T h is c on tr ibu ted t o t he l ack o f ad evelop men t o f p reven t ive med ic ine. The p rescr ip t ions o f c urat ive med ic ine b orrowed much f rom c lass ica l a nd t rad it iona l methods ; t he s c ien t if ica l ly l earned p ort ion o f t hese wh ich was u sed b y t he d octors , a nd t hus p osed a d oub le t hreat , was c ons idered u naccep ta b le b y t he h ag iograph ica l c a mp.

Asc lep ian methods , wh ich w ere d irec t ly

a dap tab le t o t he s a in ts ' s anctuary , a nd s uf f ic ien t ly myst ica l t o s at isfy t he p at ien t a nd t he a ud ience , w ere p erfect ly a ccep tab le. Exa m in ing t he a ctua l e v idence o f t he i l lnesses a nd c ures s uggests a c lear d iv is ion b etween med ica l s a in ts a nd t he r est , a nd a lso b etween t he r equ iremen ts o f t he c i t ies.

Dub ious s an itat ion a nd d iet a nd u rban s tress a s w e k now

i tt oday c a i ' ib e p os tu la ted a s f ac tors b eh ind t he f igures f or many c a tegor ies o f i l lness. Among t hese a re d igest ive a nd g enet ic d isorders, g row ths a nd d efor m it ies o f v ar ious k inds , i n fect ions a nd e p ide m ics. Ex terna l i n jur ies w ere most ly t o b e a n t ic ipated f rom t ravel l ing m ishaps o u ts ide t he c i ty. The c ures r eveal i n t he s ame way a s t he i l lnesses t he s oph ist ica t ion o f t he t wo g reatest c it ies a nd t he ir d octor s a in ts. As t hey a re t he o n ly l ocat ions w ith s uch s pec ia l ist s a in ts, t h is c an b e s een b est i n t er ms o f s upp ly a nd d e mand. The v iru lence o f t he o ppos it ion t o t he p rofess iona l p hys ic ians r es u lted b oth f ro m t he r iva lry t hey p rov ided a nd f rom t he g reater t hrea t f ro m s c ien t if ic med ica l s tud ies , e spec ia l ly i nA lexandr ia. c anno t b e a ssessed s eparate ly. 9 5

The c ures t hemselves

An a pprec iat ion o f t he i deo logy u nder ly ing t he t reatmen t o f s ickness a nd ac ons idera t ion o f i t s s oc ia l i mp l icat ions i s e ssen t ia l f or a ny u nderstand ing o f t he s a in ts ' med ica l r o le.

9 6

Alexandria

Constantinople

12

�S.Daniel

IZls.John the DAlmsgiver LJsS.Cyrus and John

rzl SS.Cosmas and Damian

10

ab cdefgh

klm

a bcdefgh

k I m

16 14

fig.IA

Antioch S. Symeon the younger

the illnesses

12

:see 18for key

10 8

6

4 2

abcdefgh

k I m

Myra and Seleuceia 12

ts:Js. Nikolaos f.21S.Thecla

10

Sykeon and the rest

(./) Cl) Cf) co

u

(SIS.Theodore

ci

0the rest

'+-

C

8 6

42 abc d ef g h

kl m

abc d ef g h

Jkl m

type of i 11 ness

fig.I B

KEY: a - unspeci fied b-demons c - mental disorders d - digestive disorders e - genetic disorders f - paralysis g - dea f/dum b/other de formity

h - eye complaint i - leprosy/serious disease j - cancers/growths k - infection/epidemic I -injury m-other

16 14

Constantinople 12:Js.Daniel

12

D SS. Cosmas and

'I I

Dss. Cyrus and John

Alexandria

�S.John the Almsgiver

Damian

10 8 6 4 2 abcdef gh 16 14

Antioch S.Symeon the younger

a bcdef gh

I

fig.llA

the cures

12 :see 11Bfor key

10 8 6

4 2 abcdefgh

Myra and Seleuceia 0S.Thecla � S. Nikolaos

Sykeon and the rest

(/') (1.)

D S.Theodore

(/)

C'O (.)

'+0

0the rest

10

6

a b c d ef g h

a b c d ef g h

type of cure

fig.II B

KEY: a - medical/surgical b-folk/herbal c - diet/emetic d - psychological/ shock e -faith

f -touch g - symbolism h -exorcism i -resurrection j - unspecified

NOTES 1 .

H . De lehaye, s ee b ibl iography .

2 .

P lu tarch , Mora l ia , v o l. 2 , L oeb e dn .

3 .

S a l lust ius, e d. N ock , 1 926 , Bk . V I.

4 .

Cos mas a nd Da m ian , m ir. n o. 3 7.

5 .

Cos mas a nd Da m ian , m ir. n o. 1 8.

6 .

Cos mas a nd Da m ian , p ara. 3 .

7 .

Cyrus a nd J ohn , p ara. 3 5.

8 .

I b id., p ara. 4 1 .

9 .

I b id., p ara. 5 7.

S ee b ib l iography .

S ee a lso 3 6.

1 0.

L ife o f S . Dan ie l S ty l i te, p aras. 2 9, 3 1, 3 3.

1.

S ymeon t he Younger, p ara. 1 61.

1 2.

N iko laos o f Myra , p aras. 1 6 , 1 8, 2 0.

1 3.

I b id., p aras. 3 0-1.

1 4.

L ife o f S . Dan iel S ty l ite, p ara. 8 7.

1 5.

L ife o f J ohn t he A l msg iver , p ara. ( i ) 1 6 , a nd 7 .

1 6.

Cos mas a nd Da m ian , mir. n o. 5 .

1 7.

I b id., mir. n o. 1 3.

1 8.

I b id., mir. n o. 8 .

1 9.

I b id., mir. n o. 3 .

2 0.

M. Ha m ilton , s ee b ib l iography.

2 1.

The methods a re d escr ibed i n t he S acred Ta les b y Ae l ius Ar ist ides, a nd d iscussed b yb oth M. Ha m il ton ( 1906 ) a nd Deubner ( 1900 ).

2 2.

Cyrus a nd J ohn , p ara. 1 5.

2 3.

I b id., p ara. 4 3.

2 4.

I b id., p ara. 3 0.

2 5.

Cyrus a nd J ohn , p ara. 8 0.

2 6.

I b id., p ara. 4 .

2 7.

Cos mas a nd Da m ian , mir. n o. 2 7.

2 8.

I b id., mir. n o. 2 8.

1 01

2 9.

I b id., m ir. n o. 3 2.

3 0.

I b id., m ir. n o. 2 1.

3 1.

Cos mas a nd Da m ian , mir. n o. 4 8.

3 2.

0 . Te mk in , s ee b ib l iography.

3 3.

H ippocrat ic med ic ine a lso i ncorporated h erba l k now ledge, wh ich m igh t p art ia l ly i nva l idate t h is o bserva t ion .

3 4.

S ee p art icu lar ly Cos mas a nd Da m ian , m ir. n o. 1.

3 5.

S ee b ib l iography.

3 6.

Cos mas a nd Da m ian , mir. n o. 6 .

3 7.

I b id., m ir. n o. 2 .

3 8.

S acred Ta les, s ee b ib l iography.

3 9.

Cos mas a nd Da m ian , mir. n o. 1 1.

4 0.

I b id .,m ir. n o. 2 4.

4 1.

Cyrus a nd J ohn , p aras, 3 8-9.

4 2.

I b id., p ara. 5 6, a nd Cos mas a nd Da m ian , m ir. n o. 3 8.

4 3.

Cyrus a nd J ohn , p ara. 6 9.

4 4.

S ymeon t he Younger, p aras, 4 2, 1 30.

4 5.

Cos mas a nd Da m ian , mir. n o. 1 3;

4 6.

Cos mas a nd Da m ian , mir. n o. 1 6.

4 7.

S ymeon , p aras , 4 0-1.

4 8.

S . Thec la , m ir. n os. 2 1-2.

4 9.

S y meon , p ara. 1 88.

5 0.

S ymeon , p ara. 2 25.

5 1.

J ohn o f Ephesus , Pa tr. O r ien t . 1 7. i v.67-70.

5 2.

Cos mas a nd Da m ian , mir, n o. 7 .

5 3.

S y meon , p ara. 2 08.

5 4.

I b id., p ara. 2 19.

5 5.

Cyrus a nd J ohn , p ara. 2 0.

5 6.

Cos mas a nd Da m ian , mir. n o. 2 5.

1 02

Theodore o f S ykeon , p aras , 3 7-9.

C f . Ch. 1 , 2 .1.

CHAPTER V I :

THE S AINT AND C IVIC UN ITY

I n troduct ion 1 Method 1 .1

S um mary o f p o in ts made i n Parts Ia nd I

1 .2

O ther i ssues a r is ing

—

c ity g roups

—

l anguage a nd s ymbo l is m

—

a l ternat ives a nd s tab i l ity

2 E v idence 2 .1

2 .2

Part I 2 .11

Ma le r o les, c areer, f am ily

2 .12

F e ma le r o les, f am ily , h ouseho ld , r e l ig ion

2 .13

Va lues a nd e duca t ion , l ack o f c ond it ions f or c hange

Part I 2 .21

I nd iv idua ls, f r iends a nd o pponen ts

2 .22

I nst itu t ions, s tate, c hurch , s oc ia l c lasses

2 .23

The s a in t a s i nd iv idua l a nd i nst itu t ion

2 .24

Med ic ine a nd t he d e mon ic

3 I n terpre tat ion 3 .1

S a in ts a nd c onven t ion , s a in ts a nd t he a lternat ive s oc iety , t he ir mu tua l d ependence

3 .2

Types o f u n i ty , o pt im is m a nd u top ia

3 .3

D if ferences o f l oca t ion a nd t ime

3 .4

S ymbo l is m a nd t he u se o f l anguage

3 .5

The h ag iographer

4 P oss ib le f urther i nvest igat ions :

t he d ecl ine o f t he u rban s a in t

1 03

CHAPTER S IX CONCLUS ION :

THE S AINT AND C IV IC UN ITY

Certa in c o m mon f eatures h ave a lready emerged f ro m t he e xa m inat ion o f a spects o ft he s oc iety a nd o f i nteract ions b etween t hese a nd t he u rban s a in ts. S uch c om mon c harac ter ist ics c oncern t he s tructure o f s oc iety a nd i t s i n terna l d iv is ions, a nd a lso t he c on tro ls e xerc ised w ith in a nd e xerted f ro m o u ts ide , g iv ing e i ther c on t inu ity o r c hange. Th is l ast c hap ter a i ms t o d raw t ogether t he p o in ts a nd , w ith s o me i nev it ab le r e iterat ion , p u ts f orward t he a rgumen ts i n s upport o f t he h ypo thes is t ha t t he s a in ts f unct ioned d el iberately a s a n i nstrumen t o f p o l i t ical a nd s oc ia l c ohes ion .

The emphas is o n t he p urposefu l n a ture o f t he s a in t 's r o le r a ises

o ther q uest ions : f or e xa mp le , whether t he a c t ive i mp l ied b y " un if ica t ion" i s n ot a more a p t t han p ass ive " un ity" , a nd wha t w ere t he r ea l i n terests o f t he h ag iographers.

These t wo q uest ions 'a re i n terconnected , t he l ink ing f ac tor

b e ing t he d egree o f c o l lus ion o n t he p ar t o f t he Byzan t ine p opu lace. However f a ithfu l h e was t o t he i nd iv idua l s a in t , h is me mory a nd t he r e l ig ious a nd a scet ic p r inc ip les wh ich h e r epresen ted , t he h ag iographer w as i n e very c ase c onsc iously a im ing a t ac erta in a ud ience f or c erta in r easons. He was, t herefore, o f ten o pen t o t he a ccusat ion o f c onn ivance w ith l oca l a nd/ o r n at iona l a u thor it ies a nd t he ir i n terests. Th is must b e k ep t i n m ind a nd a lso b e c lar if ied t hrough a r ev iew o f t he r e levan t p o in ts made i n p rev ious c hap ters. I n a dd it ion t o t h is r ev iew , a nother s lan t i s c ons idered.

The u se o f

l anguage a nd s ymbo l is m a nd emot ive p aral lels h as a lready b een men t ioned . Here i ti s e xa m ined more f u l ly i n t he c on tex t o f a n a t te mpt t o p in d own t he r ö le o f t he h ag iographer a nd h is r ela t ion t o t he s oc iety wh ich p roduced b o th h im a nd t he s a in t.

Cons idered t ogether, t hese f acets s hou ld p rov ide s uf-

f i c ien t c oheren t e v idence t o

s uppor t an ew v iew o f t he u rban s a in t.

2 .1 The p ers istence o f t he f ra mework wh ich g overned ma le a nd f e ma le r ö les a nd v a lues b ears w itness t o t he l ack o f i ncen t ive f or c hange i n s oc ie ty , a nd t h is c on t inu ity was i n i t se lf o ne k ind o f u n ity. The d a i ly s oc ia l f unct ions a nd l i fe o f Byzan t ine men a nd wo men h ad many a spects wh ich t ouched u pon t he s a in ts, e ven i ft hey were n o t c en tra l ly c oncerned w ith t he m.

F or t h is

r eason h ag iographers g ave t he r eaders many i t e ms o f u sefu l i n for mat ion , s o met i mes o n ly l oose ly c onnected t o t he t he me o f t he mo men t. The i nc ident a l n ature o f s uch i t e ms u sua l ly r e l ieved t he m o f t he h ag iograph ica l b ias f ound i n most o f t he mater ia l.

I n t he s econd s ect ion t he t reatmen t , p art icu lar ly o f

s a ints ' a ct iv it ies, w as l ess h aphazard. 2 .11 The ma le r o le, l ike t he f e ma le, was d iv ided b etween f am i ly a nd s oc iety , b u t s oc iety a nd c areer w ere more s epara te f ro m t he f am i ly f or t he

1 04

man.

A t h o me h is f unc t ion w as more o ne o f ap ass ive b ackground f igurehead

w i th u l t i mate e xecu t ive p ower wh ich w as , i n most i nstances, a dm in istered b y t he w ife.

There w ere mod if ica t ions t o t h is d iv is ion o f p ower a nd l abour.

V ita l d ec is ions c oncern ing t he w ife a nd mother h erse lf w ere r eso lved b y t he p eterfam il ias , who a lso c on tro l led t he c h ildren 's h igher e duca t ion a nd c ho ice o f c areer a t l east f or h is ma le o f fspr ing. The s ources p rov ide amp le i l lus tra t ion o f a n e xe mp lary p icture o f d u t ifu l a nd r espec tfu l y outh. They s how a lso t he l ike l ihood o f as on 's f o l low ing a s im ilar c areer t o h is f ather 's , b u t t h is c onservat is m s hou ld n ot b e o ver-e mphas ised b ecause o f t he o pen ings a f forded t o t he g if ted o pportun ist.

C lass c ons idera t ions a lso h ad a p art t o p lay.

Those a t t he t op o f t he s oc ia l s ca le w ith w el l-estab l ished p ro fess ions h ad more t o l ose b y a t te mpt ing a d if feren t t ack .

I n e stab l ished a rt isan f am i l ies

a lso t here w ere s ound p ract ica l a nd e cono m ic r easons b oth f or c on t inu ity a nd f or a ppren t icesh ip w ith in t he f am i ly c irc le. 2 .12 The s eparat ion b e tween c areer a nd f am i ly f or men l e f t wo men d om inan t a nd u nmo lested i n t he h ouseho ld. I dea l ly , smooth r unn ing was t hus e nsured i nb oth s ec tors. The man 's c areer s uccess r ef lected b ack o n t he f am i ly . The man made t he ma jor d ec is ions f or h usband a nd w ife , b u t s he s uperv ised b udget ing , h ouseho ld p ersonnel a nd t he c h ildren .

The h igh v a lue

a t tached t o h er c o mpetence i n t hese a reas a nd t he c oncep t o f f e ma le v irtues h ad c hanged l i t t le f ro m C lass ica l models, a l though t he mo ther-ch i ld b ond w as s tressed b y Chr ist ian d octr ine. I n t he d el icate r ea lm o f mar ita l r elat ions, t he s ub m iss ive rA o le o f t he w oman a nd d iscr im inat ion a ga inst h er i n mat ters s uch a s a du l tery h ad a ga in c hanged l i t t le. The k eep ing o f mistresses a nd p hys ica l a buse o f as pouse w ere d iscouraged b u t n ot p roh ib ited b y a ct ive r enunc ia t ion o f l aw. I n c ases o f a du ltery t he w oman was a lways p ortrayed a s b o th t he p rovocateur a nd t he b earer o f t he s hame a t tached.

The s o l idar ity o f t he f am ily a nd o f l eg it i ma te

p rocreat ion w ere s een a s s oc ia l ly d es irab le.

P rost itu tes d id n ot p ose a

t hreat t o t h is s tab i l ity i n t he s a me way a s m istresses , a nd p rost itu t ion was t herefore a h igh ly s uccessfu l i ndustry a nd was n o t d iscouraged , e ven b y h ag iographers. Th is s ame s o l idar ity o f t he f am ily w as b ased o n i t s i n terna l h ierarchy a nd was i ncreased b y t he e xtended n ature o f t he f am ily c ircle, w h ich i ncluded v ar ious r e la t ions a nd e ven t he ir a ssoc iates. Af urther a spect o f t he f e ma le r o le i n r e lat ion t o b o th f am i ly a nd s oc iety w as r el ig ious. C lass ica l a ncestor-worsh ip h ad b een t rans mogr if ied i n to a d eep , i nst i l led r everence f or t he f am i ly a nd i t s h er itage. R espons ib i l ity f or t h is f acet o f t ra in ing i s n ever d ef in ite ly a pport ioned b u t c er ta in ly f a l ls most e as i ly i n to t he f e ma le s phere. F o l low ing f rom t h is t rad it ion w as t he f e ma le r espons ib i l ity f or ma in tenance o f a dequa te f am i ly r e l ig ious o bservance. The s ources amp ly i l lustra te t h is i n t he f or m o f c are f or t he mora l a nd p hys ica l w e l l-be ing o fb o th s pouse a nd o f fspr ing.

The emo t iona l a spect o f r el ig ion

a nd i n p art icu lar o f t he s a in t v ersus t he e stab l ished c hurch i s a dequate ly d isc ussed e lsewhere, a nd b ears s ign if ican t ly u pon t he t op ic. 2 .13 The r easons f or t h is s eparat ion o f t asks w ere b ased o n ac oncep t o f ma le a nd f e ma le a t tr ibu tes w h ich i s a l most o r ien ta l i n i t s d ua l is m a nd i t s r am if ica t ions.

Th is i n t urn r evea ls t he c rux o f t he mat ter — t he d iv is ion

w h ich was p aradox ica l ly i n tended t o p roduce h ar mony a nd u n ity . 1 05

Educat ion , u nchang ing v a lues a nd c areer s im i lar it ies f rom g enera t ion t o g enera t ion h ave a lready b een a dvanced a s methods o f ma in ta in ing t he s tatus q uo. Thus f ar w e h ave s een t h is i n r e lat ion t o t he f am ily , b ut t he r el iance o f t he s a in ts u pon c onven t iona l mores m ixed w ith s imp le p rac t ica l it ies a lso r ef lects a c onserva t is m i n t he g enera l Byzan t ine o u t look .

I n p art , s uch

u n ity was a rt if ic ia l ly i mposed o n men a nd w omen a l ike — b u t e spec ia l ly u pon t he l at ter —by t he e xclus ively ma le w r iters d raw ing o n t he ir own e xper ience, i n t he ir own i n terests, f or a n a ud ience t hus d epr ived o f means t o r eor ien t i t s v a lues. I n t hese o bserva t ions t here i s l i t t le t o d ist ingu ish Byzan t ine s oc iety f rom a l l o thers; n evertheless, n o h ar m c an b e d one b y s tat ing t he o bv ious w here i th as n ot r ece ived much p rev ious a t ten t ion . 2 .2 S o much f or men a nd w omen . When c ons ider ing s oc iety i n more d irec t r ela t ion t o t he s a in t , t he ma in i ssues r a ised b y t h is s tudy c o me more s trong ly t o t he f ore.

I n t h is s ect ion , ad ist inct ion s hou ld b e made b etween

ap art icu lar s a in t w ith h is a b i l ity t o make h is p resence f e lt , a nd t he g enera l e thos, r e l ig ious, p o l it ica l a nd s oc ia l , w h ich e ncompassed e very s a in t a nd h ag iographer. The t heme o f " sa in ts a nd i nd iv idua ls" d oes n ot a t f i rst s ight o f fer i n terpret a t ions i n t er ms o f u n ity , b u t t he h ag iographers ' s e lect ion a nd a rrange men t o f c ases i n away t ha t i s f ar f rom r ando m , h owever , g ives a n o pen ing , a nd t he ir r ecords o r man ipu la t ion o f " dead" a nd " l ive" s a in ts a re t herefore l i ab le t o s usp ic ion .

Desp ite t he d if feren t " f lavour" o f e ach s ource, t he mu lt itud in-

o us c ases a nd o bservat ions a re c lass if iab le w ith e ase. 2 .21 F r iends w ere t he f i rst c ategory o f i nd iv idua ls t o b e i den t if ied. I n a l l c ases s a in ts w ere e spec ia l ly l ikely t o h ave a s f r iends t hose w ith p ower i n t he i m med ia te v ic in ity. Both s ides h ad r easons f or t h is a ssoc ia t ion . T he s a in t c ou ld g a in w ide p ub l ic ity a nd r ecogn it ion , was p rotected , a nd , b y v ir tue o f h is own s oc ia l b ackground , was l ike ly t o b e a t trac ted t o p ersons i n h igh p os it ions.

The s a in t was a lso a n a t trac t ive p a tron/pro tAge f or t he p owerfu l.

S uch h ar mon ious p ersona l r ela t ions c ou ld o n ly b e h e lpfu l t o smooth l oca l g overnmen t. The e xchange o f g if ts a nd b less ings w as a p art o f t hese r e la t ions a nd s erved a s g ood c urrency i n d e monstrat ing t he h ar mony t o t he p opu lace. S uch f r iend ly r e lat ions , p art icu lar ly f or t he i nst itut ions o f c hurch a nd s ta te, w ere a lso a s troke o nb eha lf o f p o l it ica l u n ity w ith in a n a rea. Th is b ias i n f r iendsh ip , h owever, was n ever a l lowed t o o bscure t he c la i ms o f o ther s oc ia l c lasses u pon t he s a in t.

H is s pec ia l r espons ib i l ity f or t he p oor,

d own trodden a nd t hose s uf fer ing m isfortune r e ma ined .

S a in ts w ere n ot a l-

ways b en ign , a nd o ccas iona l ly t hey , o r t he h ag iographer, d ec ided t o make a n e xa mp le o f ap art icu lar ly r eca lc itran t p erson .

A s ense o f t he d ra mat ic a s

w e l l a s h ope o f f r igh ten ing t he a ud ience i n to r igh teousness s upp l ied t he a uthor w ith h is mot ive. S uch f i erce t ac t ics may h ave i nduced Byzan t ine c onsc iences t o s eek a way o u t o f t he s in fu l s tate. T o t h is e nd , t wo c haract ers were v is ited w ith a cu te p hys ica l a ff l ict ions a s ar esu lt o f t he ir i mp ious o bst inacy.

( These w ere d ist inct f ro m t he c l ien ts s eek ing med ica l a id.)

S uch t act ics w ere p a ten t ly a i med a t a ch iev ing o vera l l c on for m ity t o r igh teous b ehav iour.

Hag iography emp loyed a no ther s trategy i n t h is c ause :

t he i den-

t i f icat ion o f d es irab le o rthodox b ehav iour a nd b el ief w ith r a t iona l ity. 1 06

Heres ies, p agan is m , t rad it ions o f H ippocrat ic med ic ine a nd g roups s uch a s t he i a trasoph ists w ere al i den t if ied w ith t he i rrat iona l a nd t he r oad t o c haos. The s a in ts t ended , n atura l ly , t o emphas ise l oca l p rob lems i n t he ir s e lec t ion o f c ases f or more d rast ic e xe mp lary t rea tmen t , i n a n a t te mp t t o p roduce l oca l c on for m ity t o more c en tra l ised mores.

Constan t inop le w as

t he most i nf luen t ia l s ource o f s ecu lar a nd r e l ig ious s tandards o f t hough t a nd b ehav iour — a l though , a s s een a bove, t he e n l igh tenmen t o f t he c ap ita l d id n o t p ervade t he emp ire 's more f ar-f lung r ura l c orners. I n a dd it ion t o t he t rad it iona l a id f ro m s a in ts t o t he d own trodden , t here w as a w el l-tr ied s yste m o f i n terna l s oc ia l c ompensa t ion a nd r el ief .

Imper ia l

a nd o ther w ea l thy p h ilan throp ists c onst ituted t he ma in s ources o f t h is , b ut t ax-a ids f or med a no ther i mportan t p art o f t he s ame e veryday s erv ice. A c lass o f p atron-en trepreneur- money-lenders w as t hus e stab l ish ing i t se lf i n a nswer t o c o m mon n eed.

S uch a s tructure may h ave e ncouraged p aras ites,

b u t i ta lso c reated c lass c ohes ion t hrough mutua l d ependence. I n t he c ause o f p o l it ica l u n ity a t c ourt , Dan ie l w as p art icu larly a ct ive. H e s he ltered more t han o ne o ff ic ia l f rom t he w ra th o f t he emperor L eo a nd i n ma jor i n tr igues s uch a s t he u surpa t ion b y Bas i l iscos h e h ad s u f f ic ien t p ersona l p ower a nd i m mun ity t o i n terfere. U s ing t he p opu lar p reference f or l eg it i mate s uccess ion i n t he i mper ia l h ouse, h e t urned a r my a nd p opu lace a ga inst Bas i l iscos.

I n t h is i nstance , t he c hurch was u n ited w ith t he p opu lar

c ause a ga inst t he u surper who h ad o ppressed i t .

Much t he s ame c haracter-

i st ics a nd d iv is ions a re d etectab le i n t he r e lat ions o f s a in ts a nd i nst itu t ions. Except ions t o t he n or ma l p o l it ica l c a lm b etween s a in ts a nd l oca l a u thor it ies w ere N iko laos o f Myra a nd S ymeon t he Younger, a nd t he c auses f or t h is i n t he ir p ersona l ity , b ackground a nd p ecu l iar l oca l c ircumstances h ave b een d iscussed.

Bas il d e monstrates t he r o le o f t he h ag iographer a s s yn thes ist

a nd l oca l p ropagand ist . The c onven ience o f a man ipu lab le c u l t o f ad ead s a in t a nd martyr a ided h im i nh is e xpos it ion o f t he n ecess ity o f i n terna l c iv ic u n ity i n t he f ace o f w ildness a nd s in o uts ide t he wa l ls.

I nd iv idua l i nstances

w ere u sed t o b u i ld u p t h is p icture o f t he h ost ile o u ts ide wor ld , a nd t he c ont rast was h e igh tened b y t he o rgan isa t ion o f t he b ureaucracy a nd t he c u lture a nd b reed ing o f t he Chr ist ian a nd p agan c l ien ts. J ohn t he A lmsg iver a nd Theodore o f S ykeon , t he t wo s a in ts w ith o f f ic ia l e cc les iast ic p osts, s erve t o i l lustrate a no ther a spect o f t he r e lat ions o f s a in t a nd e stab l ish men t , a nd a lso o ne o f t he ma in t he mes o f t h is s tudy , v iz., t ha t s a in ts p rov ided a n a l ternat ive a nd s upp le men tary , b u t s epara te, s erv ice t o s oc iety. .

J ohn 's

s uccessfu l A lexandr ian p a tr iarcha te w as d iscussed i n

c on trast t o Theodore 's m iserab le e p iscopate, a nd p ersona l it ies a nd c ircumst ances were a dvanced a s a n e xp lanat ion . The A l msg iver p os it ive ly e rupts f rom h is b iographer 's t ex t a s n o o ther s a in t d oes, a nd h e was i n ap os it ion o f s upre me p ower where Theodore was r ela t ively p ower less. The c r iter ia o f " appo in t men t" t o t he s a in ts ' f ratern ity p oss ib ly c onst itu ted a n a dd it iona l f actor. J ohn a ch ieved h is p os it ion b y o utstand ing p ersona l ity , g eneros ity a nd h is f i gh t a ga ins t . t rad it iona l a buses a nd c orrup t ion o nb eha lf o f t he " have-nots" , a nd t hus a dded t he a cco lade o f s a in t l iness t o h is a lready c onsi derab le p os it ion t hrough p opu lar r ecogn it ion o f h is u n ique q ua l it ies.

1 07

The most o bv ious e xa mp les, h owever , o f t he s a in t 's r o le i n p romo t ing u n ity o f s ta te a nd c hurch a re t he i n teract ions o f s a in ts w ith emperors a nd p a tr iarchs a t t he h eart o f e ven ts, i n Constan t inop le.

The h ag iographer i s

a lways a t p a ins t o r epresen t t he i n terp lay t o t he a ud ience a s ap ersona l ised f or mu la f or smooth p rogress. " Bad" emperors w ere i nev itab ly o ppressors o f t o f t he c hurch a nd b rought t he emp ire t o t he b r ink o f u n th inkab le c haos. T he t ru th o f t h is s ecu lar a nd e cc les iast ic p artnersh ip i s , o f c ourse, q uest ionab le, b u t i ts erved i t s p urpose. I n t imes o f c r is is a nd f r ict ion , t he s a in t p o in ted t he way t o as o lu t ion —usua l ly w ith p opu lar b ack ing. F or t h is r eason , t he s a in t a lso h ad n o a l ternat ive b u t t o c omp ly when t he emperor a nd p a tr iarch made a p ub l ic r equest t o h im i nu n ison . With t he l ower g rades o f s ta te a nd e cc les iast ic p ersonne l , t he v ar iab i l ity o f r e lat ions i ncreased. The most g enera l o bserva t ion wh ich c an s afely b e made i s t hat t he s a in t r epresen ted a c omp letely s ound s ource o f a dv ice , l ead ing t o h ar mony a nd s uccess o n al oca l l evel when m isunderstand ings o cc urred o n ap ersona l a nd a more g enera l s ca le a nd t he s a in t h ad t o a rb itra te b etween who le v i l lages a s w el l a s i nd iv idua l me mbers o f t he p opu la t ion . On t he s ecu lar s ide, t he a dm in istra t ive c lasses c onst i tu ted t he l argest s ection o f t he s a in t 's c l ien te le a s we l l a s o f h is f r iends. D isrupt ive me mbers o f t h is g roup d id e x ist , p art icu lar ly a t Myra a nd An t ioch , p resen t ing N iko laos a nd S ymeon w ith s er ious t hreats t o t he v iab il ity o f t he ir min istr ies.

I nb o th

c ases t he s a in t a nd h ag iographer f ound i tn ecessary t o l ook f or s ubst itu te s ources o f s upport . S y rneon s ee ms t o h ave b een a ble t o w ithstand t he o pprob r iu m o f t he i n f luen t ia l b y means o f t ak ing sw if t a nd d rast ic a c t ion a ga inst s e lected o pponen ts, a nd w ith t he mora l a nd p ract ica l s upport o f t he i mper ia l o f f ic ia l who a ppeared i n t he n ick o f t ime t o a dd w e igh t t o t he s a in t 's c ondemnat ion o f t he l oca l p opu lace. N iko laos ' b iographer c hose a d if feren t method. The s a in t 's j ourney af ter h is c on fron tat ion w ith t he l oca l a uthor it ies e nab led h im t o e n l ist a f or m idab le a rray o f " ho ly" s upport.

T he a ppea l t o t he s ea-

f ar ing ma jor ity o f Myra 's p opu la t ion w as a c a lcu lated a nd p resu mab ly s uccessf u l manoeuvre. Th is p loy c on travened t he n or ma l h ag iograph ic p ract ice o f l argely i gnor ing t he merchan t c lass — a n eg lec t wh ich may w el l h ave b een mu tua l. The r ema in ing s oc ia l g roups, t he a rt isans a nd t he p oor, h ad s tronger c la i ms u pon t he s a in t a nd f igured i n c ons iderab le n umbers i n t he s ources.

The a rt isans

w ere t rad it iona l ly , a nd i ndeed i n t he s ources, l ess v o lat ile t han t he merchan t c lass. Trade was t he b as is o f o n ly a sma l l p art o f t he Byzan t ine e conomy , a nd t he merchan ts may t herefore a ppear s o i n frequen t ly b ecause o f t he ir sma l l n umbers. The u rban mob, o n ly a r ea l c ons iderat ion i n t he g reatest c i t ies, was a f urther e le men t i n t he s a in ts ' r elat ions w ith s oc iety . The a l ignmen t o f t he s a in t w ith t he f orces o f o rder was h ere p art icu lar ly r elevan t.

As s een a l-

r eady , i n t ime o f c r is is a nd s epara t ion o f s tate, c hurch a nd s a in t , t he mob was impor tan t a s ap ower b eh ind t he c ause o f l eg it imacy a nd r eturn f rom t he b r ink o f c haos. I n more n or ma l c ircumstances, t he s a in t c ou ld b e u sed a s ag o-between a nd mon itor o n t he mood a nd b ehav iour o f t he mob e ven when emperor a nd p atr iarch w ere i n f ear o f i t .

A l ive s a in t , a nd e spec ia l ly S .

Dan iel , w as i n t h is i nstance more h elpfu l t o t he a u thor it ies t han a d ead o ne.

1 08

S a in ts w ere o n f r iend ly t er ms w ith mos t p rofess iona ls who w ere r especta b le a nd o r thodox , p art icu larly i ft hey w ere o f g ood s oc ia l s tand ing.

Doctors

w ere a n e xcep t ion when a nd where t hey c onst i tuted a s er ious c ha l lenge t o d iv ine med ic ine , a s a t Abouk ir.

S orcerers a nd o ther d ark p owers w ere s een

a s p rofess iona l o ppos it ion — a nd w ere i den t if ied w ith t he i rra t iona l. The l ega l p rofess ion a nd t he g overnmen t b ureaucracy o n t he o ther h and w ere o n t he s ide o f o rder, a s w ere s cho lars, who a l l e n joyed g ood r e lat ions w ith s a in ts. I n t he ir r egard t o n on-human o b jects s uch a s p roperty o r c onven t ions o f b ehav iour, s a in ts v . r ;re u n ifor m ly c on for m ist. Th is was s trong ly p ract ica l a nd was f ac i l itated b y c lose c on tact w ith l oca l p ersons a nd p rob le ms. S ome t echn ica l it ies o f t he l aw a nd o f r el ig ion must t hus h ave b een r endered more u nderstandab le a nd a ccep tab le f or t he i nd iv idua l.

Y et a ga in t he s a in t i n tro-

d uced f l ex ib il ity o n p ract ica l l ines wh ich h e lped ma in ta in t he s tatus q uo. O ccas iona l ly t he s a in t w as s een c omm it t ing a cts o f c lemency wh ich w ere n o t i n l i ne w ith t he n arrow c oncep t o f l aw a nd o rder o r t he n at iona l i n terest. Thus t hey wou ld s omet i mes i gnore l aws r elat ing t o r unaway s laves, c ou ld t a mper w ith s ta te p r isoners a nd s et a s ide t he d e mands o f f am ily t i es. 2 .23 I n t he c onduct o f t he ir own l ives a nd t he a ct iv it ies a round t he ir own l ives a nd t he a ct iv it ies a round t he ir s i te, t h is c onven t iona l a pproach , m it igated b y c lose c on tact w ith l oca l p ract ica l it ies , w as a lso a k eystone. The r easons f or a nd manner i n wh ich s a in ts f o l lowed r egu lar monast ic l ines i n t he ir t ra in ing a nd i n t he ir l ater a f fa irs h ave b een d iscussed a bove ( c f . C h. 4 .B ).

The p roc la ma t ion o f a n i dea l , h owever f ar f rom t he r ea l ity ,

p rov ided a s erv ice t o s oc iety b y g iv ing i t av is ib le a lternat ive t o i t s own i mperfec t ions. The d isc ip l ine o f o bed ience , p overty a nd s e lf-den ia l h ad a p red ictab le f u ture , a nd , h owever a f f l ic ted t he m ino-commun ity o f as a in t 's e stab l ish men t m igh t b e b y c orrup t ion , t he s ca le when c ompared t o o rd inary s oc iety was sma l l.

A l though i t was v a luab le t o " ins ide" s oc iety t ha t s uch

c ommun it ies s hou ld e x ist , t hey were n o t g reeted w ith u na l loyed d e l igh t b y a l l s ect ions o ft he l oca l p opu lace. O b ject ions w ere v o iced b y o pponen ts who i nc luded c ler ics, p rofess iona l r iva ls a nd o thers who s aw t he s a in t a nd h is g roup o f f o l lowers a s ap o ten t ia l t hreat.

Where t he s a in t s urv ived , s uch

o ppos it ion was p ub l ic ly o verco me, b u t many s a in ts must h ave f a i led t o r each t he r equ ired g rade o f s treng th a nd t hus b een l ost t o p oster ity . 2 .24

The e v idence a va i lab le o n d iv ine med ic ine b ears o u t t he o ther

o bservat ions o f t he s a in ts ' s oc ia l r elat ions a nd f unct ion .

The u rban b ureau-

c racy a nd b et ter-of f midd le c lasses f eature p rom inen t ly i n t he h o ly s urger ies. The p ressures u pon t he m a nd t he ir a b i l ity t o t ake c oun ter ing a ct ion w ere r ef lec ted i n t he t ypes o f i l lness t hey c on tracted a nd i n t he c ures g iven . Women f or med a l arge s ect ion o f t he c l ien tele —both o n t he ir own a ccoun t a nd o nb eha lf o f t he ir c h i ldren a nd h usbands.

Types o f c ure a s w el l a s o f

i l lness f i t ted t he c l ien t — wh ich e nab led t he h ag iographer t o d e monstrate t he s a in t 's q ua l it ies a s ac la irvoyan t , a s ak ind b enefactor, a nd a s a n e f fec t ive med ium o f d iv ine mercy. Th is l ast p o in t w as p ar t icularly v ita l b ecause o f t he t heory a t tached t o t he p rocess o f c ure. Rel ief f rom s ickness i nvo lved p enance f or wha tever s in h ad c aused t he i l lness i n t he f i rst p lace a nd f or t h is r eason d iv ine h ea l ing was s uper ior t o p rofess iona l med ic ine.

1 09

S oph ist icat ion

a nd med ica l k now ledge were more e v iden t b o th i n d iagnos is a nd i n t rea tmen t o ft he i l lnesses i n C onstan t inop le a nd A lexandr ia , a nd t he more p r im it ive a pproach was p ara l le led i n more r ura l a reas b y t he i ncrease o f s uperst i t ion a nd t he men t ion o f d emons . T he d emon ic i s u sed i n t he s ources a s al abe l . T he i nc iden t q uo ted f ro m t he m irac les o f S . N iko laos i l lustra tes t he b e l ief i n a n a b i l i ty t o weaken a f oe , e ven w hen s uperna tura l , b y n am ing h im . T he u se o ft he d emon ic a s al abe l f or b ehav iour wh ich was i nexp l icab le o r "wrong " i n a sma l l c o m mun i ty g roup i s f ar h arder t o d e tect , b u t i ti s e x tre me ly p rob ab le . T he more u rban c en tres , a s we l l a s b e ing l ess r idd led w i th s uperst it i on , p reserved more s trong ly t he A sc lep ian med ica l t rad i t ion . T he p ro m ine nce o f t rad i t iona l a nd h erba l c ures a nd t he u se o f i ncuba t ion a nd o ther A sc lep ian p rac t ices b e tray t he b as is o f B yzan t ine d iv ine med ic ine a s o nce a ga in a m ixt ure o f c o mmon s ense a nd c on form i ty t o t rad it ions -t h is t ime p agan o nes w here t hey d id n ot c on travene C hr ist ian mores . Before t he s a in t , w ith h is p ract ica l i ns igh t , c ou ld d ispense med ica l a nd o ther a dv ice t o members o f s oc ie ty , t rad i t ion d emanded n ot o n ly t ha t h e s hou ld h ave s o me a sce t ic t ra in ing i n amonastery o r s im i lar c o mmun i ty , b u t a lso t ha t h e s hou ld h ave a p er iod i n t he w i lderness , e i ther a lone o r a ppren t iced t o s ome o ther h o ly f i gure . T he b ib l ica l s ymbo l is m w ou ld n o t e scape a ny o bserver , b u t ad eeper p r inc ip le was i nvo lved ; t he i dea o f c loseness t o G od was o ne , i l lustra t ion o f as a in t ' ss epara teness f ro m s oc ie ty was a nother . P erhaps t h is p er iod a lso g ave p erspec t ive a nd t he c hance t o k now t he s cr iptures i n ab e t ter way t han b y r ote . 3 . A s we l l a s s a t isfy ing a c u ltura l c onven t ion a nd p rov id ing ap sycho log ic a l p repara t ion , t h is p er iod i n as a in t ' sl i fe p a t tern a ided h im t o r e ta in s epa ra t ion f ro m t he p edestra in w or ld d esp i te h is p rac t ica l i nvo lvemen t . A s a n i nd iv idua l i tp u t t he s a in t a lmost i n t he c lass o f at rad i t iona l h ero w i th c har isma a nd i n f in ite r esourcefu lness . I ta lso e ndowed t he s a in t ly p resence a nd h is c u l t-s i te w ith a n u top ian a t mosphere s u f f ic ien t t o w i ths tand t he t a in t o f i t s o wn i mper fec t ions . 3 .2 B o th t he h ero ic t rad i t ion a nd s a in ts ' i nst i tu t iona l p owers were i mp or tan t t o Byzan t ine s oc ie ty , wh ich b a lanced o n am ix ture o f o p t im is m , g u i l t a nd v enera t ion o f t he ir own c u l tura l h er i tage .

S uch b e l ief o r c onf idence p romp-

t ed h ope f or ap resen t a nd a f u ture g o lden a ge u s ing t he v a lues o f t he p as t u nreformed . T he i n terconnec t ion o f c oncep ts o fu top ia a nd t he h ero ic h as b een i nsu f f ic ie n t ly c ons idered i n t h is c on tex t a nd mer its f ur ther s tudy , b u t a lready t hey a id u nderstand ing o ft he s a in t a s a n o u ts ider a nd a l terna t ive wh i le s t i l l b e ing i nt egra l t o Byzan t ine s oc ie ty . Much o ft he ma ter ia l s uppor t ing t h is p o in t i s c on ta ined i n t he l anguage o f h ag iography . ( c f . s ec t . 3 .4) . Bu t t he impor tance o f t hese b e l iefs was t he ir c on tr ibu t ion t o t he ma in tenance o fu n i ty w i th c er ta in t rad i t ions . T he s a in t t hus was ap os i t ive f ac tor i n p o l i t ica l , s oc ia l a nd r e l ig ious h armony ac onsc iousness o f c on t inu ity w i th t he p as t . H is e f fec t u pon s oc ie ty , d esp i te h is a ir o fb e ing " apar t " f ro m i t , was a ny th ing b u t a n i nnova tory f orce .

10

3 .3 T he most c ons isten t a id t o o rgan isa t ion t hroughou t t h is s tudy h as b een t he s epara t ion o f t he c i ty g roups . I ti s t ime t o e xam ine t he r esu l ts a nd i mp l ica t ions o ft h is .

F ro m t he t est i mony o f a l l t he s ources, C onstan t inop le a nd

A lexandr ia were c i t ies i n ac lass o f t he ir own .

T hey o f fered more v ar ie ty ,

s oph is t ica t ion a nd o ppor tun i ty i n c areers a nd amen i t ies . C onstan t inop le i n p ar t icu lar f ound r ef lect ion f or i t s i n terna t iona l p os i t ion i n i t s c os mopo l i tan a t mosphere a nd e n l igh tenmen t a nd i n t he a t t itudes e xpressed b y i t s wr i ters . T he s ources a va i lab le f or C onstan t inop le s pan a c ons ider b le p er iod a nd r ev ea l d e ta i ls o f c hang ing c lass s tructures a nd s oc ia l a t t itudes wh ich a re most i l lum ina t ing t hough n o t w i th in t he d irec t s cope o f t he p resen t s tudy . T he d eg rees o f c o-opera t ion b e tween s ta te , c hurch a nd s a in t a nd t he r e la t ions o ft hese t o t he r es t o ft he c i ty p opu la t ion h as a lready b een amp ly d iscussed , a s h as t he c lass d is tr ibu t ion o f t he s a in ts a nd t he ir c l ien ts p er s e . Bu t r e la ted t o t h is i s e v idence wh ich c oncerns t he c hang ing c lass b arr iers o f wh ich t he c learest i nd ica t ion i s f ound i nt he l a ter s er ies o f t he m irac les o f C os mas a nd Dam ian . T he h ag iographer was n ot o n ly f ar more c oncerned w ith t he r ank o f h is s ub jec ts a nd t he ir p rox im i ty t o t he emperor b u t was p a ten t ly s hocked when p oor a nd l ow c lass c l ien ts w ere g iven p recedence o r were i nstrumen ta l i n t he c ures o f " those who w ou ld n orma l ly emp loy t he m ." T he p o l i t ica l a nd s oc ia l f ra mework s ee ms t o h ave b een b o th more s et t led a nd more r ig id a t t h is d a te t han i n S . D an ie l ' sd ay . A tb o th C onstan t inop le a nd A lexandr ia , t he c onform i ty o f t he a r t isan a nd p rofess iona l c lasses a nd t he ir f requen t r ecourse t o b o th t he med ica l a nd o ther s a in ts a re n ot iceab le . A lexandr ia d if fers f ro m C onstan t inop le b y a ppear ing l ess a s a n a dm in istra t ive c en tre a nd w i th p ropor t iona l ly more emphas is o n c o mmerce . A bouk ir i s s o mewha t l im i ted i n c lass s tructure , b u t d oes r evea l t he a nx ious e nergy e xpended u pon r e ta in ing a h ea l thy b ody a nd s ou l -b y t hose a b le t o a f ford t he l uxury . T he p lace o f A n t ioch i n t he f i rst g roup i s l ess c lear . A lthough w e l ack b read th a nd c hrono log ica l v ar ie ty i n t he a va i lab le s ources , i ti s s t i l l f a ir t o d raw a t ten t ion t o t he d if ferences i nd ica ted b y t he l i fe o f S ymeon t he Y ounger . T hese , n a tura l ly , o n ly h o ld g ood f or t he p er iod s urround ing t he wr it ing o f h is l i fe .

T he d if feren t c harac ter ist ics a re n o t iceab le i n s evera l s pheres :

f i rst ly ,

S ymeon t sr e la t ions w i th t he l oca l 5 uv cv uol s howed n one o ft he r e laxed g ive a ndtake r ea lpo l it ik wh ich was i n e v idence e lsewhere . T he h ag iographer t rea ted t he p ersonne l o f a u thor ity d if feren t ly . T he a bsence o fb ishops a nd o f aw e l l-def ined b ureaucracy was t he mos t o bv ious e xamp le . T he g rea t w ea l th o f c iv ic amen it ies f ound i n C onstan t inop le a nd A lexandr ia were h ere c onsp icuo us b y t he ir a bsence , d esp i te t he t ag o f " grea t me tropo l is" a t tached t o t he c i ty a nd s o me e v idence o f c iv ic b u i ld ing p ro jects . T he d istance f ro m A n t ioch t o t he c ap ita l i s v ery n ot iceab le i n away q u i te u n true o f A lexandr ia , where c o mmerce a nd i t s r egu la t ion , a nd t he p ower o ft he c en tra l ised g overnmen t , were much more i n e v idence . T he i mper ia l o f f ic ia l who v is ited An t ioch was i n h armony w ith t he s a in t b u t n o t w i th t he c i ty ' si n f luenct ia l c i t izens . H e was, moreover , a n i mper ia l t roub le-shoo ter l a te ly r eturned f ro m d efea t ing S a mar itan h ere t ica l r ebe ls .

An t ioch was , i n o ther w ords, b e ing t rea ted b y C onstan t inop le

a s ap rov inc ia l c i ty i n n eed o fu rgen t c orrect ive measures . T here were a lso p et ty p ower s trugg les a nd t ens ions w i th in t he s a in t ' ss phere o f a c t iv i t ies .

T h is h as b een i n terpre ted i n t he a bove c hap ters a s s tra in b e tween

u rban a nd r ura l d e mands a nd r espons ib i l i t ies . 11

T h is p heno menon was a lso

i den t if ied i n t he l arger t owns o f t he s econd g roup . A t Myra i t was t rans la ted I n to s harp c onf l ict o f i n terests i n t ime o f c r is is. T he p aras i t ic q ua l it ies o f t he c i ty wh ich d ra ined t he s urround ing h in ter land a nd r endered i td ependen t u pon t he c i ty i n t imes o f t roub le was n e ither n ew n or u nrecogn ised .

A n a d-

d i t iona l i rr itan t were t he T r poT L x .7 : ( 1pr Ig whose d epreda t ions a nd a buses w ere p la in ly r evea led b y t he h ag iographers .

T he p resence o f t h is imposed a dm in i-

s tra t ion w ith c en tra l ised r espons ib i l it ies w ithou t r egard t o t he l oca l a u thor i t ies wh ich h ad e vo lved more n a tura l ly a nd wh ich were i n e x istence , c an h ave d one l i tt le t o make amends . T hese p rob le ms a s we l l a s t he p rox im ity o f e nemy f orces a ff l icted An t ioch . B ecause o f i t s s ize i tc annot b e d is m issed t o t he s econd g roup o u t o f h and , b u t t he e v idence o f h ag iography s uppor ts t he v iew t ha t i n l i fe-sty le An t ioch was c loser t o t he m . T he e v idence f ro m S ykeon g ives u s c overage o f t he l ast p ar t o f t he p er iod . I n many ways i to n ly r epea ts a r id e x tends t he o bserva t ions made f or An t ioch . T he me thods o f r ura l r eg iona l g overn men t h ad t he s ame i n-bu i lt p rob lems . S ykeon was n ot , h owever , as uf f ic ien t ly h ungry o r i nf luen t ia l c onurba t ion t o p roduce t he amoun t o f s tra in e v iden t a t A n t ioch o r Myra .

I n o ne ma t ter ,

S ykeon d if fered r ad ica l ly f ro m An t ioch ; h igh-rank ing p ersonne l were s upera bundan t a nd most ly f r iend ly t o t he s a in t . T h is p ro l ifera t ion c aused weakness o f e ach b ishopr ic a nd may h ave r esu lted f ro m d e l ibera te c en tra l p o l icy .

T he

i mpress ion g iven i s o f ar eg ion c overed i n sma l l-c i ty b ishopr ics, e ach w i th a f r inge o r r ura l, v i l lage-dot ted h in ter land . Ma jor s trugg les f or p o l it ica l o r r e l ig ious s upre macy s ee m t o h ave b een i n t he b ackground . The e xac t o ppos ite was t rue o f S e leuce ia , wh ich makes S . T hee la ' sm irac les av a luab le c on trast b oth i n c on ten t a nd i n t he ir c overage o f t he v ery b eg inn ing o ft he p er iod .

T he c onsc ious a nd c o mpe t i t ive c iv ic p r ide i n t he a d-

min istra t ion a nd i t s p ersonne l , i n t he s tandard o f l earn ing a nd i n c o mmerc ia l a nd p o l it ica l d om inance may b e a n i dosyncrasy o f Bas i l ' s wr it ing , b u t i s s t i l l s y mp to ma t ic o f ad if feren t o u t look f ro m t ha t e xpressed i n t he l a ter s ources . N owhere were t he o pposing f orces o f o rder i ns ide a nd c haos o u ts ide made more e xp l ic i t .

( These a l terna t ives a re c lear ly d ep icted i n l a ter t ex ts wh ich v ar ied

much i n d e ta i l b u t l i t t le i n t he ir c en tra l t he me) . 3 .4 S uch a s tark c on trast b e tween t he i ns ide a nd t he o u ts ide o f c i t ies w as o ne r a ther c rude f orm o f s ymbo l is m . T he t ex ts a re r idd led w i th mot ifs a nd p hrases u sed w i th c unn ing a nd p rec ision b y t he h ag iographers f or emot ive e f fect u pon t he a ud ience . E choes o fb ib l ica l a nd o ther my tho log ies e n liven t he n arra t ive a nd g ive t he a ud ience s o me th ing f am i l iar t o i den t ify a nd a round wh ich t o s hape t he r e ma inder o f t he s aga .

T h is a nd t he p rocess o f "i nd iv id-

u a l isa t ion" d iscussed e ar l ier s how h ag iography d irected a t a n a ud ience o f v ar ious l i terary l eve ls, i nc lud ing t he f a ir ly b as ic . A n t ic ipa ted a ud ience r esp onses v ar ied f ro m a pprec ia t ion t o a ct ion p ro mp ted b y p o le m ics a nd s k i lfu l r he tor ic . T he Byzan t ine h er itage i nc luded many k ey words a nd images, o f wh ich t ha t o f t he t ime i n t he w i lderness h as b een men t ioned a lready . Dur ing t h is t est ing p er iod t he s a in t was l i ke ly t o mee t o ppos i t ion f ro m a ssor ted w i ld b easts .

T o

o verco me t hese b y s treng th o f h is p ersona l ity a nd o f h is c lose c on tact w ith t he A lm igh ty was a n e ssen t ia l p roof o f h is f i tness f or t he t asks a head .

T he c ho ice

o f a moun ta inous ( or i n s o me c ases d esert) s i te was a nother f requen t mo t if . 12

F or S ymeon a nd N iko laos t h is i so la t ion f ro m c iv i l isa t ion was i nex tr icab ly b ound u p w ith t he c oncep t o f t he ir own more p er fect c o mmun i t ies . F or N iko laos a nd Dan ie l t h is was e xpressed a s " the s econd J erusa le m" a nd was c o mpared t o t he " sh ip o f s ta te ."

T he d if f icu lt ies o f t he t ra in ing p er iod may h ave e ncouraged

t he u se o f t he e p ithe t ? x 6Xry c c

T O

8 Eoi 3 t o s ign ify t he s a in t ' ss uccessfu l

e xper ience o f o ne-ness w ith h is G od , a s d ist inct f ro m t he s uper f ic ia l k now ledge o f h is t each ing b eforehand . B ib l ica l p ara l le ls make v ar ious m irac les more memorab le , f or e xamp le , t he f eed ing o f t he c rowd w ith f i shes a nd l oaves b y N iko laos .

T he u se o f n u mbers, p ar t icu lar ly t he n u mber t hree , h as b een men-

t i oned p rev ious ly . ,

( c f . C h . 5s ect . 3 .13 ) .

O ther s ymbo ls c an b e f ound i n t he

s ources a nd r a ise i n terest ing p o in ts, b u t s pace p reven ts t he f ur ther i nvest ig a t ion h ere wh ich t he s ub ject mer its .

S y mbo l is m a nd t erm ino logy a re n ot

a lways e as i ly s eparab le . T he u se o f t he d e mon ic, f or i nstance , c an b e s een b o th ways . F aced w ith a h arsh e x terna l e nv ironmen t , s uch l abe ls p rov ided a way o f s ee ing t he c onf l ict o fg ood a nd e v i l ( wh ich was a pparen t ) w ithou t a ct ua l ly s ubscr ib ing t o a n h eret ica l d octr ine . 3 .5

T he l ast s ect ion o ft h is r ev iew i s r eserved f or t he h ag iographer who

h e ld a t h is mercy b oth c on te mporary a nd modern a ud iences . i n terpre t t he h ag iographer?

H ow a re we t o

Was h e ac a lcu la t ing v i l la in o f t he p iece?

A

w i l l ing o r i nnocen t t oo l o f t he a uthor it ies? Or mere ly a r esponse t o h is p o l it i ca l , s oc ia l a nd r e l ig ious e nv iron men t? Even t he most e x tre me o f t hese v iews a l lows f or i nd iv idua l d if ferences a nd v ary ing c ircumstances, a nd l eaves r oo m f or d egrees o f c onn ivance . Ah ag iographer c ou ld n ot f a i l t o r espond t o h is e nv ironmen t a nd t o t he c har is ma t ic q ua l it ies o f e ach s ub ject . On t he o ther h and , i ti s a n i nadequa te e xp lana t ion t o r e lega te t he s a in ts a nd t he ir b iographers t o t he r ank o f a mere r esponse t o l oca l n eeds a nd d issa t isfact ions .

T he r e la-

t i onsh ip o f s a in t a nd h ag iographer a nd o f c i ty a nd c u lt-s ite was g ood ma ter ia l f or e xp lo ita t ion b y t he wr iter i n h is own o r h is c i ty ' sf avour . Bas i l ' s own p os i t ion a nd s ta ture , p ersona l a nd o f f ic ia l , were g rea t ly s treng thened b y h is own p ecu l iar r e la t ion t o t he s a in t , h er l egend , h er s i te a nd i t s p ersonne l . I n o ther ways t oo t he h ag iographer was a s yn thes ist .

T he a ss im i la t ion o f

p agan my ths, v a lues a nd t rad i t ions s uch a s t he r e l iance o n p rophe ts a nd o rac les, h as a lready b een men t ioned , a nd t he s im i lar ity o f c lassica l a nd t he Byzan t ines ' " v ir tues" a re b u t o ne d e monstra t ion o f t he c on t inu ity p roduced . T he s a in ts were l i v ing r em inders o f ag o lden a ge o f h eroes a nd o f G od ' s mercy wh ich c ou ld b r ing s uch a n e ra t o f u ture r ea l ity . The l ack o f s tr ict ly i nd igenous my tho logy r esu lted i n ah igh t o lerance f or a nd a dop t ion o f t he h er itage o f o thers . T he c iv ic i dea l was o ne e xa mp le o f t h is ;

a no ther , more t r iv ia l b u t r evea l ing ,

was t he c o mpu ls ion o f C yrus a nd J ohn ' sb iographer t o t race t he l i neage o f a n e p i lep t ic p a t ien t b ack t o P to le my , C leopatra a nd O s ir is. 4 .

The g rea t amoun t o f e v idence wh ich h as b een u sed i n t h is s tudy o n ly

p ar t ia l ly a nswers t he h ypotheses p u t f orward a nd t he q uest ions r a ised .

Maybe

t hey a re o n ly p ar t ly a nswerab le , b u t t here a re o pen ings f or f ur ther w ork . Aw ider s amp le o f s ources o f d if feren t l oca t ions a nd t imes i s n eeded a nd may h e lp t o e stab l ish o r d e mo l ish t he i deas p u t f orward o n t he b as is o f t he p resen t s ta te o f r esearch . T hus f ar t h is h as s hown t he h istory o f s oc iety a nd o f t he s a in t i n a nd a round t he s ix th c entury t o b e i n terwoven o n v ar ious l eve ls . I n e ach c ase t he s a in t was f ound d eep ly i nvo lved i n l oca l p o l it icas a nd e cc les iast ic

13

a nd s oc ia l a f fa irs .

H is a ct iv ites i n t hese mat ters were s e lected , a rranged

a nd u sed b y t he h ag iographer i n a way t ha t was b o th p ract ica l a nd p urposefu l . C er ta in d if ferences were e v iden t when c o mpar ing e ar l ier a nd l a ter s ources f ro m g rea ter a nd sma l ler u rban c en tres . Where migh t w ider s tudy l ead?

T o e x tend t he p er iod i s t o c ons ider t he

d ec l ine o ft he u rban s a in t a nd t he c on trovers ia l ma t ter o f c i t ies i n a nd a f ter t he s even th c en tury .

M igh t t here b e ac onnect ion?

We h ave , a f ter a l l ,

c ons idered t he c onnect ions o f s a in t a nd c i ty i n t he p er iod o f t he ir s uccessfu l s urv iva l . I cons were men t ioned o ccas iona l ly i n h ag iography a nd were o bv io us ly more e as i ly c on tro l lab le t han s a in ts w ith t he ir c har is ma , t he ir f o l lowers a nd t he ir t endency t o b e o bst ina te .

More g enera l p roduct ion a nd p ossess ion

o f i cons c ou ld h ave r endered t he s a in ts u nnecessary , e ven u ndesirab le , f or b oth t he a u thor it ies a nd t he i nd iv idua l . L a te s a in ts were a t tached t o monas t ic c o mmun i t ies a nd were i nstru men ta l i n t he ir p o l it ica l s trugg les a nd l and f euds, b u t l i t t le e v idence e x ists o f " l ive" u rban s a in ts o ft he t ype a nd s ta ture s een I n t he p resen t s tudy .

More manageab le "d ead"

p urpose s uch a s t he h ea l ing s a in ts p ers isted .

s a in ts a nd t hose w ith s pec if ic

T he ir c onf l ict w i th t he med ica l

p rofess ion h ad a l most d isappeared . ( c f . C h . 5 ) . T he p oss ib le c onnect ions o f s uccess a nd d ec l ine f or c i ty a nd s a in t i s c ons isten t w ith t he h ypothes is o f a l terna t ives wh ich h as b een e xhaust ive ly p resen ted . The e v idence wh ich i s a va i lab le a nd wh ich h as b een u sed f or t he t ime a nd a rea u nder c ons idera t ion s uppor ts , Ib e l ieve , t he i deas p ostu la ted h ere . T h is I s n ot t o d eny t he s a in t a sce t ic f ervour o r "h o l iness" b u t i td oes warran t a n ew a pproach t o e ar ly Byzan t ine s a in ts i n u rban c on tex ts wh ich c annot b e i so la ted f ro m r ef lect ions u pon t he s oc iety i n wh ich t hey e x isted .

1 14

S ELECT B IBL IOGRAPHY PR I MARY SOURCES Anr ich, G ., Hag ios N iko laos, 1 913-17 . Dawes a nd Baynes,* Three Byzan t ine S a in ts, 1 948 . t he A l msg iver ;

1 ., The L ife o f J ohn

i ., The L ife o f S . Dan ie l t he S ty l ite .

Festug iere, A ., L a V ie d e Theodore d e S ykeon , 1 970 . Festug iere, A ., C o l lect ions Greques d e M iracles, 1 971. S . Thee le ;

1 ., M iracles d e

i ., M irac les d e S s . C o me e t Da m ien .

F estug iere, A ., L es Mo ines d ' Or ien t , 1 961-5 . i ., V ie d e S . Eu thyme v o l . I I ( 1 ) ,

1 ., V ie d ' Hypa t ios v o l . 1 ( 1) ,

1 1., V ie d e S . J ean

Hesychaste ,

i v ., V ie d e S . Theodosios v o l . I I ( il) . S ophron ius, S s. Cyr i e t J oann is M iracu la B ib . Pa tru m Graeca , 8 7 ( 3 ) 3 427-3675. V an Den Yen , P ., La V ie d e S . S y meon S ty l ite l e J eune . g raph ica , 3 2 .

S ubs id ia Hag io-

1 962-70 .

S ECONDARY SOURCES K e i l a nd Wi lhe lm ,

'Korykos ' i n Monu men ta Asiae Minor is An t igua 3 .1931

p p . 1 18-213 . N icephorus, S . Andreae S a l l V ita

B ib . Pa tru m Graeca 1 11, 6 27-888 .

OTHER READ I NG G enera l Ar mstrong a nd Markus, Chr ist ian Fa ith a nd Greek Ph i losophy 1 960 . B ehr , C ., Ae l ius Ar ist ides a nd t he S acred Ta les 1 968 . B owra , C ., The Greek Exper ience ( Ch . 2 .) 1 957 . Braude' , F ., The Med iterranean a nd t he Med iterranean Wor ld i n t he Re ign o f Ph i lip I , v o l. I .

*

Th is e d it ion i s u sed f or r eference s ince i ti s much t he c learest t o

f o l low a nd a vo ids t he c onfus ion wh ich wou ld a r ise f ro m u s ing t he L ife o f S . Dan ie l i n L es Moines d ' Or ient .

1 15•

Brown , P ., The Wor ld o f L a te An t iqu i ty , 1 971. Brown , P ., The R ise a nd F unct ion o f t he H o ly Man i n L a te An t iqu i ty , J ourna l o f Ro man S tud ies, 6 1.

1 971.

p p . 8 0-101.

Ceran , W., S tagna t ion o r F luctua t ion i n Ear ly Byzan t ine S oc iety? Byzan t ino-S lav ica XXX I ( 2 ) 1 971, p p . 1 92-203 . De lehaye , H ., L es L egends Hag iograph iques 1 905 . De lehaye , H ., L es Recue i ls An t iques d e S a in ts A na lec ta Bo l land iana , 4 3 . 1 925. De lehaye , H ., Pass ions d es Mar tyrs e t l es G enres L i t tera ires 1 966 . Dodds, E ., Pagan a nd Chr ist ian i n a n Age o f A nx iety 1 965 . F erguson , J ., Mora l Va lues i n t he Anc ien t Wor ld 1 958 . F estug iere , A ., Cu lture o u S a in te te :

L es Mo ines d ' Or ien t V o l . I . ( i ) 1 961.

Garnsey , P ., S oc ia l S tatus a nd L ega l Pr iv i lege i n t he Ro man Emp ire 1 970 . G erne t a nd Bou langer , L e g en ie g rec d ans l a r e l ig ion 1 932 . Ha lk in , F ., I , ' Hag iograph ie b yzan t ine a u s erv ice d e l 'h isto ire , Proceed ings o f t he X I I I th I n terna t iona l Congress o f Byzan t ine S tud ies 1 967 , p p . 3 45-54 . L iebesh i l tz, An t ioch . Mac Mu l len , R ,, Ene m ies o f t he R o man Order 1 967 . Mo m ig l iano, A ., L ' e ta d e l t rapasso f ra s tor iogra f ia a n t ica e s tor iograf ia med ioeva le .

R iv ista S tor ica I t a l iana 1 969, p p . 2 96-303 .

Mu mford . L ., The C ity i n H istory ( Chs . I -V I I) 1 973 . Murray , S ., A s tudy o f t he l i fe o f Andreas ;

F oo l f or t he s ake o f Chr ist 1 910 .

Pa t lagean , E ., Anc ienne h ag iograph ie b yzan t ine e t h isto ire s oc ia le

Anna les 2 3 .

1 968 , p p . 1 06-124 . Per ist iany , J ., ( ed . )Con tr ibu t ions t o Med iterranean S oc io logy 1 968 . Per ist iany , J ., ( ed . )Honour a nd S ha me : t he v a lues o f Med i terranean S oc ie ty 1 965 . P lu tarch ( ed . Babb itt .) Mora l ia v o l . I , p p . 2 14-343 1 928 . OTHER READING - s pec if ic t o c er ta in c hap ters Men a nd Careers J ones, A ., The Caste S yste m i n t he L a ter Ro man Emp ire E irene 8 , 1 970, p p . 7 9-96 . Redf ie ld , R ., Peasan t S oc ie ty a nd C u lture 1 956 . Rugg in i , L ., L e a ssoc iaz ion i p rofess iona l i n e l mondo Ro mano-B izan t ino 1 971. Wipszycka , G ., L ' Eg l ise d ans l a c hora Egyp t ienne e t l es Ar t isans Aegyptus 4 8 , 1 968 , p p . 1 30-139 .

1 16

Byzan t ine Wo men Ba i ley , F . ,( ed . )G if ts a nd P o ison : t he p o l it ics o f r epu ta t ion 1 971. Ba lsdon , J ., Ro man Wo men 1 963 . F in ley , M ., A spects o f An t iqu ity ( Ch . 2 .) 1 973 . L ew is , I . , Ecsta t ic Re l ig ion 1 971. Murray , ( ed . ) The Odyssey 1 966 . Rober t , L ., i n He l len ica X I I I , p p . 3 5f f . S a in ts, I nd iv idua ls a nd I nst itu t ions C lugne t , L ., L es o f f ices e t l es d ign ites e cc les iast iques d ans l 'e g l ise g recque , R evue d e l ' Or ien t C hre t ienne Dvorn ik , F ., T he I dea o f A posto l ic i ty i n Byzan t ium 1 958 . S tevens , C ., Agr icu lture a nd Rura l L ife i n t he l a te R o man Emp ire , C ambr idge E cono m ic H istory , v o l . I , 1 966 . S a in ts a nd Hea l ing Bou te i l ler , M ., C haman is m e t G uer ison Mag ique 1 950 . C lendenn ing , L ., S ource B ook o f Med ica l H istory 1 960 . Dawson , G ., Hea l ing ;

p agan a nd c hr ist ian 1 935 .

Deubner , L ., De I ncuba t ione ' i n D isser ta t ions o n Aryan My tho logy 1 900 . Ham i l ton , M ., I ncuba t ion o r t he c ure o f d isease i n p agan t e mp les a nd C hr ist ian c hurches 1 906 . Magou l ias, H ., T he l i ves o f t he s a in ts a s s ources o f d a ta f or t he h istory o f B yzan t ine med ic ine i n t he 6 th a nd 7 th c en tur ies . Byzan t in ische Z e itschr if t , 5 7 , 1 964, p p . 1 27-50 . S a l lus t ius, ( ed . N ock .) C oncern ing t he G ods a nd t he Un iverse 1 926 . T emk in , 0 ., Byzan t ine Med ic ine : Trad it ion a nd Emp ir ic is m . Papers, 1 6 , 1 962 , p p . 9 5-115 .

1 17

Dunbar ton Oak