The Thraco-Roman Villa Rustica near Chatalka, Stara Zagora, Bulgaria 9780904531602, 9781407332932

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The Thraco-Roman Villa Rustica near Chatalka, Stara Zagora, Bulgaria

Dimitur Nikolov translated from the Bulgarian by Michael Holman

BAR Supplementary Series I 7 1976

British Archaeological Reports 122, Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 78P, England

GENERAL EDITORS A. C. C. Brodribb, M.A. Mrs. Y. M. Hands

A. R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D. R. Walker, M.A.

B.A.R. Supplementary Series 17, 1976: "The Thraco-Roman Villa Rustica near Chatalka, Stara Zagora, Bulgaria." © Dimitur Nikolov, e/o Jusautor, Sofía, Bulgaria, 1976. The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted.

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780904531602 paperback ISBN 9781407332932 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780904531602 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

CONTENTS

Page L is t o f Abbrev ia t ions I n troduct ion I I

1 De l i monyovo Ka le

4

D e l i monyovo N iva

2 6

I I

The Br ick K i lns

3 6

I V

F urnaces f or Househo ld p o t tery

3 6

The S epara te Ba th Bu i ld ing

3 8

The S ite i n L a mba ta

4 0

The Necropo l is o f L arge T u mu l i

4 8

The Kara l iets s i tes

5 1

The V il lage Necropo l is

5 3

V V I V II V I I I I X S u m mary

5 5

P o l it ica l a nd S oc ia l Organ isa t ion

5 8

T he Cha ta lka V il la a nd t he L arge L anded Es ta tes i n Ro man T hrace

6 7

C onc lus ion

7 2

N otes

7 5

F igures

8 5

L IST OF ABBREV IAT IONS

IM

I zves t iya i nst itu ta a rcheo log iya ( I ns t itute o f Archaeo logy )

I AD

I zvest iya A r cheo log icheskovo o bshches tva ( Archaeo log ica l S oc iety )

I B ID

I zvest iya Bo lgarskovo a rcheo log icheskovo o bshchestva ( Bu lgar ian Archaeo log ica l S oc iety )

I BM

I zvest iya b o lgarsk ich muzeev ( Bu lgar ian Museu ms )

I N MSh

I zves t iya Narodnovo muzeya v S hu men ( Na t iona l Museu m i n S hu men )

GN M

Yeshegodn ik n arodnovo muzeya ( Na t iona l Museu ms Y ear Book )

GN MAP I

Yeshegodn ik N arodnoy b ib l io te ld imuzeya v P levene ( Year Book o f t he Na t iona l L ibrar ies a nd Museu ms i n P leven )

GMPO

Y eshegodn ik muzeev P lovd ivskovo o kruga ( Year Book o f t he Museums i n t he P lovd iv a rea )

GNB MP

Yezhegodn ik Narodnoy b ib l io tek i imuze i vP lovd ive ( Year Book o f t he Na t iona l l i brary a nd museu ms i n P lovd iv )

RP

Raskop i ii ss ledovan iya ( Excava t ions a nd Research )

B ID

Bo lgarskoye i s tor icheskoye o bshches tvo ( Bu lgar ian H is tor ica l S oc ie ty )

B IB

Bo lgarskaya i s tor icheskaya b ib l io teka ( Bu lgar ian H istor ica l L ibrary )

M.Sb.

S born ik M in is tersk i ( M in ister ia l Co l lect ion )

S b. BAN

S born ik B o lgarskoy Akade m i i n auk ( Co l lec t ion o f t he Bu lgar ian A cade my o f S c ience )

EG

Estes tvennaya i s tor iya ig eogra f iya ( Na tura l H is tory a nd G eography )

I NTRODUCT ION

FORE WORD F ol low ing a d ec is ion t aken b y t he Counc i l o f M in is ters o f t he P eop le 's Repub l ic o f Bu lgar ia work w as b egun i n 1 963 o n t he c ons truc t ion o f al arge r eservo ir a t Cha ta lka , 1 8 km t o t he w es t o f S tara Z agora.

T he r eservo ir was

t o b e f i l led b y t he t wo sma l l r ivers Mog ilovska a nd Cha ta lka , wh ich j o in a nd t hen , t o t he w est o f t he v i l lage o f K ir i lovo , f l ow i n to t he r iver S uz l i ika.

T hey

p ass t hrough a c harm ing v a l ley i n t he c en tra l r eg ion o f t he S redna G ora mount a ins , a nd t h is v a l ley was t o f or m t he b ed o f t he f u ture r eservo ir , wh ich was t o c over l and b e long ing t o t he v i l lages o f E lhovo , S laduk K ladenets , Yavorovo a nd Mog i lovo. I n a ccordance w ith Decree N o. 1 65 o f t he Counc i l o f M in is ters t he D istr ict Museu m i n S tara Z agora w as p erm it ted t o s tudy t he a rchaeo log ica l s i tes i n t he immed ia te v ic in ity .

I t was d ec ided b y t he Archaeo log ica l I nst itu te o f t he

Bu lgar ian A cade my o f S c iences t ha tb im itur N iko lov , Hr isto Bouyuk l iev a nd M incho D im itrov , a l l t hree w ork ing a t t he S tara Z agora Museum , s hou ld b e r espons ib le f or c arry ing o u t t he e xcava t ions w ith t he a ss istance o f t wo t echn ica l a dv isers , Vass ilka D im i trova a nd Margar ita N estorova. p repared t he p ub l ished i l lus tra t ions.

T he l a t ter

An i n it ia l i nspect ion o f t he s i te r esu l ted i n t he d iscovery o f f our g roups o f b u i ld ings h av ing a rchaeolog ica l i n teres t a nd s even l arge b ur ia l mounds. T he b u ild ings w ere s i tua ted a t D e l i monyovo Ka le , De l i monyova N iva a nd L a mba ta , w ith t he b ur ia l mounds i n b e tween .

S ubsequen t f inds i nc luded t wo f ur ther l arge

b ur ia l mounds wh ich w ere e xcava ted , an u mber o f s i tes i n Kara l ie ts a nd c lose b y an ecropo l is c ons is t ing o f t we lve sma l l g raves.

T es t e xcava t ions w ere a lso

c arr ied o ut a t Yavorovsko Ka le , s i tua ted o n al arge h i l l t o t he e ast o f t he a rea d escr ibed. Work c o m menced i n t he a utu mn o f 1 963.

I n Nove mber a nd Dece mber o f

t ha t y ear t he d ense d ec iduous v ege ta t ion wh ich c overed s o me o f t he s i tes w as c leared . F ur ther t es t e xcava t ions w ere made o n t he g roups o f b u i ld ings b o th i n o rder t o d e term ine t he ir e x ten t a nd n a ture a nd i n o rder t o d ec ide u pon t he c haracter o f t he work wh ich w ou ld h ave t o b e c arr ied o u t.

T hese t es t e xcava-

t i ons r evea led t he f o l low ing p icture. I n De l i monyovo Ka le , wh ich i s s i tua ted a t t he c onf luence o f t he t wo sma l l r ivers a nd f or ms a n e longa ted p la teau , t here was a n o ccupa t ion l ayer o f a pprox i ma te ly 5 m e x tend ing c hrono log ica l ly t hrough t he Cha lco l ith ic Age , t he Bronze Age , t he Ear ly I ron Age a nd t he H e l len is t ic a nd Ro man p er iods. T h is s i te h ad n ever b een c u l t iva ted a nd h ad o n ly b een d is turbed b y t reasure 1

h un ters , w hereas b o th i n D e l i monyova N iva a nd L amba ta t he l and h ad b een c u l t iva ted . I n t he l a t ter t wo s i ts t he o ccupa t ion l ayer was n o more t han 6 0 cm a nd t he t op 2 0 cm h ad b een d isturbed b y p lough ing . T he o n ly c u l tura l r e ma ins d iscovered w ere ma ter ia ls f rom t he Roman p er iod . I tw as t hese f ac ts w h ich d e term ined t he n a ture o ft he s pec if ic r esearch p rob lems t o b e s o lved a nd t he g enera l o rgan isa t ion o ft he e xcava t ion w ork . W ith r egard t o t he s pec if ic r esearch p rob lems w e s e t o urse lves t he f o l low ing t asks : : 1 .

T o i nves t iga te t he n a ture a nd t he h is tory o f a l l t he v ar ious s i tes .

2 .

T o e s tab l ish t he r e la t ionsh ip b e tween t he v ar ious s i tes a nd i fp oss ib le t he w ay i n w h ich t hey s ucceeded o ne a no ther .

3 .

T o e s tab l ish w he ther t here e x isted h ia tuses b e tween t he d i f feren t h istor ica l p er iods o r w he ther t here w as a p er iod o fu n in terrup ted o ccupa t ion .

4 .

T o d iscover t he p lace a nd r o le o f e ach o f t he s i tes i n t he h istory o ft he c oun try a nd f ur thermore t o e va lua te t he i mp or tance o f t he h is tor ica l e v idence t hey p rov ided . T he s i te a s aw ho le f urn ished a r ich s tore o f e v idence f or t he s o lut ion o f a l l t hese p rob le ms . Al i nk b e tween a l l t he d i f feren t s i tes w as p rov ided b y t he Roman l ayer ,

a nd f or t h is r eason i t was d ec ided f i rs t t ou nder take a n e xhaust ive e xamina t ion o ft h is l ayer i n a l l t hree s i tes a nd t hen t o c ommence w ith t he s tudy o f t he e ar l ier l ayers a t D e l i monyovo K a li . T he f i rs t s i te t o b e e xcava ted w as a t D e l i monyovo K a l, f o l lowed b y t he s i te a tD e l i monyova N iva a nd f i na l ly t he s i te a t L amba ta . Wh i le t hese e xcava t ions w ere b e ing c arr ied o u t f ur ther e xc ava t ions w ere a lso b e ing made i n t he l arge b ur ia l mounds . When t hese were c omp le ted , e xcava t ions w ere c ommenced i n K ara l ie ts a nd t he r e la ted n ecropo l is w i th i t s sma l l g raves . Wh i le t h is w ork w as g o ing o n we a lso c arr ied o u t t est e xcava t ions o n t he med ieva l s i te a t Y avorovsko K a le . I tw as o n ly a f ter a f u l l s tudy h ad b een made o f ma ter ia l f rom t he R oman p er iod t ha t work b egan o n t he p reh is tor ic l ayers a t D e l i monyovo K a le . I n v iew o f t he e x tens ive work t o b e c arr ied o u t a nd t he s hor t p er iod a t o ur d isposa l , e xcava t ions w ere c on t inued a lmos t u n in terrup ted t hroughou t t he w ho le y ear b y a n a verage o fb e tween 5 0 a nd 6 0 workers . I n a dd i t ion t o manua l e xcava t ions , w ork was a lso c arr ied o u t u s ing mach ines , b u t o n ly i n t he b ur ia l mounds , u s ing s hove l d iggers , b u l ldozers a nd s crapers, f or t he s i ze o ft hese p ar t icu lar s i tes p rec luded t he ir manua l e xcava t ion i n t he t ime a va i lab le t o u s . P rac t ice s howed t ha t t he r isk i ncurred b y w ork w i th mach ines was n o g rea ter t han w ork ing b y h and . O n ly o ne o f t he e igh t b ur ia ls was d isturbed , a nd t h is c ou ld w e l l h ave h appened u s ing manua l l abour , f or t he b ur ia l was s i tua ted i n ap lace w e h ad h ard ly e xpec ted , i n t he c en tre o f t he Roshava D ragana mound . I n l i ne w i th e s tab l ished p rac t ice a r ecord was k ep t o f t he e xcava t ions a s t hey p rogressed . G raph ic r epresen ta t ions w ere made b y at eam o f a rch itect ura l ly q ua l if ied s pec ia l ists , s t i l l p ho tographs w ere t aken a nd a er ia l p ho tography was a lso u sed .

C er ta in s tages o ft he e xcava t ions w ere r ecorded o n f i lm , a s 2

w ere t he v ar ious s i tes w hen , work o n t he m h ad b een c omp le ted .

A s h ad b een

t he c ase w ith t he A z mashka ta Mound e xcava t ions , h ere t oo t hose i n c harge o f t he work d id e very th ing p oss ib le t o e nsure t ha t t he v ar ious c u ltura l f i nds were c leaned a nd s or ted o n t he s i te i t se lf . ma ter ia l was r estored o n t he s po t .

I n t h is way a l most a l l t he c eram ic Ad iary was r egu lar ly k ep t a s was a f i e ld

i nven tory . T h is mean t t ha t t he c o mp le t ion o f e xcava t ions c o inc ided w i th t he c omp le t ion o f t he b as ic d ocu men ta t ion a nd t he p re l im inary p rocess ing o f t he o b jects d iscovered . A s h as a lready b een men t ioned , a t Cha ta lka s i tes s pann ing t he p er iod f rom t he C ha lco l ith ic Era ( 5 th m i l len iu m B .C . )t o t he 1 4th c en tury A .D . were e xcava ted a nd s tud ied .

E ach a rchaeo log ica l e ra y ie lded a r ich v ar ie ty o f

ma ter ia l w h ich n ow n eeds t o b e p rocessed a nd p ub l ished . T h is s tudy s e ts o u t t o d escr ibe a nd i n terpre t t he a rch itectura l s i tes f rom t he Ro man P er iod a nd t he v ar ious c onc lus ions wh ich may b e d rawn f rom t he m . Bo th t he f i nds made i n t he c ourse o ft he work a nd t he v ar ious b ur ia ls w i l l f or m t he s ub jec t o f s epara te s tud ies . O n ly t hose f i nds wh ich h ave a d irec t b ear ing o n t he p rob le ms o u t l ined a bove w i l l b e c i ted h ere . B efore embark ing o n o ur d escr ip t ion a nd i n terpre ta t ion o f t he C ha ta lka s i tes we w ou ld l i ke t o men t ion t ha t t h is a rea i s n o t a l toge ther u nknown t o B u lgar ia n a rchaeo log ists .

T he a n t iqu it ies i n t he v icin ity o f t he v i l lage o f

E lhovo h ave b een d escr ibed b y I van Ve lkovl a nd N iko la S ubchev 2. Marb le t ab le ts w ith r e l iefs o ft he T hrac ian h orse m a n3 h ave b een f ound n ear Yavorovo . An a nc ien t c har io t4 r ich ly d ecora ted w ith sma l l b ronze s ta tues , a nd a n u mber o f v o t ive t ab lets 5 h ave b een f ound i n t he v ic in ity o f Mog i lovo .

I n a n t iqu i ty

t he r oad f ro m Ph i l ippopo l is t o B eroea 6 r an n o t f ar f rom Yavorovo .

I t was

h ere t ha t a n i nscr ip t ion was f ound n am ing t he T hrac ian p r iest D in ts a s t he b u i lder o ft he S abazi i S anctuary 7. S ix k i lome tres t o t he e ast o f Cha ta lka i s s i tua ted t he v i l lage o f K ir i lovo ( Sve t i K ir i lovo ) , f a mous f or i t s s e t t le men tmound e xcava ted i n 1 910 b y A cade m ic ian G . K a tsarov a nd a ga in i n 1 941 b y K ur t B ite 1 8. T he G er man e xped it ion a lso e xcava ted a n u mber o f t u mu lus b ur ia ls d a t ing f rom t he Ro man p er iod 9 . O n t he v i l lage s e t t le men t- mound Ka tsarov a lso d iscovered a T hrac ian s anctuary a nd a c ons iderab le n u mber o f v o t ive t ab lets 1° . DESCR IPT ION OF THE GROUPS OF BU ILD INGS

On t he p lan ( f ig . 1 ) t he s i tes a re i nd ica ted a s f o l lows : A .

D e l i monyovo Ka le

B .

D e l i monyovo N iva

C .

T he L a mbata s i te

D .

T he s eparate b a th b u i ld ings

E . F .

K i lns f or f ir ing b u i ld ing ma ter ia ls K i lns f or h ouseho ld p o t tery

G . H .

S i tes i n Kara l ie ts Y avorosko Ka le

T he b ur ia l mounds a re i nd ica ted b y an u mber w ith in a c irc le. The l arge mounds n u mbered 1 -8 a re t hose o f t he owners o f t he v i l la , whereas t he r ema inder f orm t he v i l lage n ecropo l is. 1 3

I .

DEL I MONYOVO KALE ( f ig. 1 A )

T he s i te i s i n t he f or m o f a n e longa ted t errace f a l l ing away s teep ly t o t he sma l l r ivers p ro tect ing i tf rom t he s ou th , e as t a nd n or th ( f igs . 2 ,3 ,4 ,5) . T he r iver C ha ta lka p asses t o t he n or th , w h i le t he r iver Mog i lovska p asses t o t he s ou th .

T hese t wo r ivers merge o n t he e astern s ide o f De l i monyovo Ka le .

T he t o ta l l eng th o f t he t errace i s 1 20 m a nd i t s g rea test w id th 4 5 m . T he s teep b anks o f t he t errace r ise t o ah e igh t o f 2 0 m a nd c ons t i tute a n a tura l s yste m o f f ort if ica t ion . T he f i rst i t e ms o f a rch i tec tura l i n teres t t o b e d iscovered a t De l imonyovo K a le w ere wa l ls v ary ing i n t h ickness b e tween 5 0 a nd 8 0 cm a nd c ons tructed o f s tones s e t i n mud . P ieces o f b r ick , t i le , e ar thenware p o t tery a nd e ven s ect ions o f c o lu mns a nd c ap ita ls h ad b een u sed a s b u i ld ing ma ter ia l . I n e ssence t hese wa l ls w ere mere ly t he f ounda t ions o f r a ther f l i msy mud a nd wa t t le s tructures wh ich h ad c o l lapsed l eav ing v ery l i t t le i n t he way o f a ny mound . I n c erta in c ases t he wa l ls w ere p laced b es ide more mass ive wa l ls, r e ma in ing f rom e ar l ier s tructures , t o f orm a dwe l l ing . I n o ther c ases t hese wa l ls h ad b een b u i l t o n t op o f t he more s o l id wa l ls ( f ig . 6 ) . T here w ere a lso c ases o f t he w a l ls h av ing b een b u i l t a bove t he mass ive wa l ls b u t n o t r each ing d own t o t he m ( f ig . 1 0 ). I n a l l c ases t he w a l ls e nc losed sma l l r ooms measuri ng o n a n a verage 4 m2. S o me o f t he r ooms w ere a rranged i n r ows , w hereas o thers w ere s eparate ( f igs. 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 1 0 ). I n a l mos t a l l t he r ooms r ec ta ngu lar h ear ths p aved w ith b r icks a nd h av ing a s urround o f smal l b r icks l a id o n e dge w ere f ound. F or t he most p ar t t hese h ear ths were s quare i n s hape measur ing 1 .20 x 1 .20 m. On t he b ea ten c lay f l oors n ex t t o t he h ear ths d isc over ies w ere made o f v ar ious a gr icu l tura l i mp le men ts, s tones f or m i l l ing , c eram ic ware a nd c o ins f ro m t he 4 th a nd 5 th c entury . I n many o f t hese r ooms p o t tery was a lso f ound ( f igs. 7 , 2 4 ). Qu i te c lear ly t hese r oo ms w ere dwe l li ngs f orm ing a v i l lage i n w h ich e ach f am i ly c onst itu ted a n i ndependen t s oc ia l a nd p roduc t ive u n it . The p resence o f t he h ear ths , m il l-stones , p o t tery a nd a gr icu ltura l i mp le men ts i nd ica tes t ha t e ach dwe l l ing was i nhab ited b y a s eparate f am i ly . I n c onc lud ing o ur r e marks o n t hese l a te c onstruct ions, men t ion must b e made o f t he f act t ha t i n t he e astern p ar t o ft he t errace t he f ounda t ions o f a sma l l s ing le n ave b as i l ica w ere d iscovered a nd n earby a n u mber o f g raves , s ome o f wh ich w ere d a ted b y means o f s i lver c o ins o f al ow d enom ina t ion f rom t he r e ign o f I van A lexander a nd h is s on M iha i l . I t must b e a ssu med t ha t t h is c hurch was a c e me tery c hurch b u i lt l ong a f ter De l i monyovo K a le h ad c eased t o b e i nhab ited . Bo th t he n ecropo l is a nd t he c hurch c an b e a ssoc ia ted w i th t he med ieva l Yavorovsko K a le ' ( f igs . 1 ,3 ) , w h ich i s s i tua ted o n t he h igh h i l l t o t he e ast o f De l i monyovo K a le . O nce t he c ond it ion o ft he l ayer d escr ibed a bove h ad b een a scer ta ined , t he e xcava t ions were c on t inued i n d ep th i n o rder t o u ncover a nd s tudy t he b u i ld ings f or med b y t he mass ive wa l ls a lready men t ioned .

4

O nce t hese s truc tures h ad

b een c omp le te ly c leared i tw as p oss ib le t o s ee t ha t a l most t he who le t errace h ad b een t aken u p b y as ing le ' a nd u n if ied a rch t tectura l c omp lex s urrounded b y as tone w a l l 2m t h ick . T he t o ta l a rea o ccup ied b y t hese b u i ld ings w as i n t he r eg ion o f 1 ,300 m 2 ( f ig . 1 2) . I ti s e v iden t t ha t t he c omp lex w as c once ived a nd c ons truc ted a ccord ing t o ap rev ious ly p repared p lan .

I tc ons ists o ft wo

p ar ts - a n e astern a nd a w es tern p ar t -w h ich a re d i f feren t i n c harac ter . T he w es tern p ar t i s o n ag rander s ca le . T he s tructures a re l arger a nd more s o l id a nd a re a rranged a round t hree c our tyards , t wo o f w h ich h ave l arge p oo ls . A long t he f acades o f s ome o f t he b u i ld ings t here o nce s tood D or ic c o lonnades . F ro m t he 2m h igh r ema in ing s ec t ion o ft he w a l l i tc an b e c onc luded t ha t a l l t he wa l ls o ft he b u i ld ing were c ons tructed w ho l ly i n s tone . I n t he e astern p ar t e xcava t ions r evea led a r ow o f e igh t a l mos t i den t ica l r ooms a rranged a long t he n or thern o uter wa l l , aw e l l i n t he c en tre o f t he c our tyard a nd ab a th b u i ld ing i n t he s ou th-eastern c orner . T he b a th b u i ld ing i n a l l p robab i l i ty h ad l arge s o l id w a l ls , b u t t he r ema in ing r ooms w ere c ons truc ted o f t h in wa l ls o f s und r ied b r icks o n as tone f ounda t ion . I ts eems l i ke ly t ha t t h is f ounda t ion was , i n f act , as oc le , f or i tr ose s ome 6 0 cm a bove t he g enera l l eve l o ft ha t p er iod . T he t wo p ar ts a re s epara ted f ro m o ne a no ther b y as tone wa l l , l i ke t he o uter w a l l h av ing a t h ickness o f 2m . C ommun ica t ion b e tween t he t wo p ar ts w as b y w ay o f an arrow d oor ( f igs . 1 2 N o . 1 3 ) . O n t he n or thern s ide o ft he d oor , i n t he e as tern p ar t a nd a dher ing t o t he o u ter wa l l , a sma l l r oom o f i rr egu lar d imens ions was d iscovered ( f ig . 1 2 N o . 1 4 ) . T he e v idence s ugges ts t ha t t h is w as u sed b y t he p erson w ho c on tro l led movemen t b e tween t he t wo p ar ts . T h is d iv is ion c lose ly f o l lows t he n a tura l c on tour o ft he l and , f or t he d iv id ing w a l l marks ab end i n t he t errace a nd t he t wo p ar ts a re , i n a dd i t ion , o n d i f feren t l eve ls . T h is d i f ference i n l eve ls i s o vercome b y w ay o f t hree s tone s teps a t t he d oor ( f igs . 1 2 ,36 ,37 ) . A c ursory g lance a t t he p lan o ft he w ho le c omp lex wou ld s eem t o s ugges t t ha t i t s t wo p ar ts w ere b u i l t s ide b y s ide a t d if feren t t imes , Ac arefu l e xam in a t ion o ft he b oundary w a l l a t t he b end i n t he t errace , h owever , r evea led n o t race o f a ny j o in , a nd t he f ac t t ha t t he e astern s ec tor h ad n o s epara te e n trance , e n try b e ing b y w ay o f t he w estern s ec tor , wou ld s im i lar ly s eem t o s uggest t ha t t he c o mp lex w as n o t c ons truc ted i n t wo s epara te p ar ts a dher ing o ne t o t he o ther . F ur ther e v idence t o s uppor t t he t heory o f t he c omp lex ' su n if ied c onstruc t ion i s p rov ided b y t he b u i ld ing t echn iques emp loyed i n b o th s ec tors . F or t he most p ar t b roken s tone a nd mor tar w ere u sed , t he o n ly e xcep t ion b e ing t he b oundary w a l l , i t s t h ickness p er m i t t ing t he u se o f ad i f feren t t echn ique . I t s o u ter s urf aces a re f ormed b y i nd iv idua l ly s e lected b roken s tones j o ined w i th mor tar , w h i le i t s c en tra l p or t ion ( t he c ore ) c ons ists o f sma l l s tones w i th n o b ind ing a gen t ( f ig . 1 4) . T he f acade o f o ne o f t he b u i ld ings ( f ig . 1 2 N o . 1 a nd f i g . 1 5 ) c ons i s ts o f c are fu l ly h ewn l imestone b locks w i th r oughened s urfaces . S pec ia l ly h ewn b locks w ere a lso u sed f or t he c orners o f a l l t he b u i ld ings a long w h ich o ne w ou ld h ave p assed o n o ne ' sway f rom t he n or thern g a te ( f ig . 1 6) , f or a l l t he d oor j ambs a nd t he f acade o f r ooms a a nd b i n t he e astern s ect ion . T he w e l l i nt he e as tern s ec t ion w as a l so c ons truc ted o f as im i lar ma ter ia l . T he l imestone b locks c ons t i tu te t he f ac ing o f t he w a l ls a nd a re h e ld i n p lace b y mor tar , n o t l ron b racke ts . I n a dd i t ion t o t h is c omp lex o fb u i ld ings e nc losed b y t he s tone w a l l , i n t he 3 rocess

o f e xcava t ion t he r e ma ins o ft wo f ur ther b u i ld ings o u ts ide t he w a l l b u t 5

n o t a dher ing d irect ly t o i tw ere a lsp d iscovered . I n t he s ou th-wes tern c orner o f t he c o mp lex a sma l l p la tfor m c ons ist ing o f an u mber o f c arefu l ly f ash ioned l imestone b locks j o ined w ith mortar was a lso d iscovered , a nd n ear t o i t , i n a f urther c ourtyard b u i l t i n t he western s ec t ion o f t he c omp lex , f ragmen ts o f s ome t en t ab lets d ep ict ing t he T hrac ian H orse man a nd o ther d e it ies 1 2 . I ti s o ur o p in ion t ha t t h is p la tfor m r epresen ts t he r ema ins o f aT hrac ian s anc tuary . I n t he s ou th-eastern c orner o f t he c omp lex d iscovery was made o f af ur ther sma l l b as i lica w ith a s ing le n ave a nd c onstruc ted i n t wo d if feren t p er iods . T here n ow f o l lows a d escr ip t ion o f e ach o f t he i nd iv idua l p arts o ft he c omp lex . THE WESTERN S ECTION T h is h as t hree e n trances ( f ig . 1 2 Nos . 1 ,2 ,3) , l ead ing i n to a sma l l r ear western c our tyard a nd t wo f ur ther more i mpos ing c our tyards ( f ig . 1 2 Nos . 4 ,5,6) . Each o f t he l arger c our tyards h as ap oo l ( f ig . 1 2 Nos . 7 ,8 ) . I n t he s ou th-western c orner t here o nce s tood a l arge t wo-storey b u i ld ing ( f ig . 1 2 No . 9 ) , w ith a l arge s quare g round f l oor ( f ig . 1 2 No . 1 0) . I n t he s ou th-eastern c orner t here s tood a f urther t wo-roo med b u i ld ing ( f ig . 1 2 No . 1) w i th a f acade o f c arefu l ly f ash ioned l imestone b locks . T o t he wes t o f t h is t here i s a sma l l r oom wh ich i n a l l p robab i l i ty was c onnec ted t o t he sma l l r ear c our tyard a nd t he wes tern a nd n orthern e n trances . 1 .

T he Western E n trance ( f ig . 1 2 No . 1 ) T h is i s s i tua ted i n t he n orth-western c orner o f t he c o mp lex a nd i s 2 .3 0 m

i n w idt h . A s i t s u pper s ect ion i s n o l onger s tand ing , i ti s imposs ib le t o s ay w ith a ny c er ta in ty w he ther i to r ig ina l ly h ad a n a rch o r al i n te l , b u t i t s g rea t w id th wou ld s ee m t o s peak i n f avour o f a n a rch .

T he d oor j ambs w ere o f

l imestone b locks a nd o ne o f t hese h ad , i n al a ter p er iod , b een u sed t o f or m a d oorstep ( f ig . 1 7) . B y means o f t h is b lock i t was p oss ib le t o c a lcu la te t ha t t he o r ig ina l h e igh t o f t he e n trance was a pprox i ma te ly 2 .5 0 m . T he d oor i t se lf was i n t wo p arts a nd t he h o les i n wh ich t he h inges r evo lved c an s t i l l b e s een . T hese h o les a re 6 cm i n d ia me ter a nd h ad a t t he ir b ase sma l l i ron p la tes t o r educe f r ict ion a nd make t he m sw ing more e asi ly . b een p reserved , e ach o n d if feren t l eve ls .

Two p a irs o f h o les h ave

T he d if ference i n l eve ls i s a pprox-

ima te ly 3 0 cm a nd c an b e e xp la ined b y t he g enera l r a is ing o f t he l eve l o f t he who le c o mp lex r esu lt ing f ro m t he p rocess o f i t s d ecay a nd d estruc t ion . T he g rea t w id th o f t he e n trance wou ld s eem t o s uggest t ha t i tw as i n tended f or h orse d rawn v eh ic les . T hese v eh ic les w ere e v iden t ly d r iven i n to t he r ear c our tyard n o tw i thstand ing i t s sma l l d i mens ions . I n f ron t o f t he e n trance t here was a w ide a nd we l l l a id o ut a pproach f or med b y ab end i n t he b oundary wa l l . A t al a ter p er iod , when t he f i na l s ect ions o ft he b oundary wa l l were c onstructed , t h is a pproach , t oge ther w ith t he s pace t o t he w es t o f t he c omp lex , w as c onv er ted i n to a n a dd it iona l c ourtyard .

6

2 .

T he N or thern E n trance ( f ig . 1 2 No . 3 )

T h is i s 1 .2 5 m w ide a nd t he j a mbs a re f ormed o f s quare d ressed l imes tone b locks. I tw as i n tended f or u se b y p edes tr ians ( pos tern ) a nd i n t he f i rs t p lace l ed i n to t he l arge e as tern c our tyard .

T h is e n trance w as a lso r econstruc ted

t o ma tch t he n ew h igher l eve l . O nce a ga in i ti s n o t c lear w he ther i t was c rowned b y a n a rch o r al i n te l , b u t al i n te l w ou ld s eem more p robab le ( f igs . 1 8 ,1 9) . 3 .

T he S ou thern G a te ( f ig . 1 2 N o . 2 )

The s ou thern e n trance ( pos tern ) i s s i tua ted a l mos t i n t he c en tre o f t he s ou thern w a l l i n t he w es tern s ec t ion . I ti s 1 .75 m w ide a nd p rov ided a ccess t o b o th t he l arge c our tyards. H ere a ga in i th as b een i mposs ib le t o e s tab l ish w he ther i tw as c rowned w ith a l i n te l o r a n a rch . I t s j a mbs a re a lso made o f h ewn l imes tone b locks , a nd t he s ewer f rom t he w es tern p oo l ( f ig . 2 0 ) p asses d irect ly b enea th i t . Bo th t he p osterns w ere s ecured b y s ing le d oors . 4 .

T he L arge Wes tern C our tyard ( f ig . 1 2 N o . 4 )

T h is i s s i tua ted i n t he s ou th-wes tern s ec t ion , i s r ectangu lar i n s hape a nd measures 9x 1 2 . 5m . I ti s e nc losed b y r ooms 9 a nd 1 0 a nd a lso b y t he b oundary w a l l . No t races o f t he p av ing w ere d iscovered . S i tua ted a l most c en tra l ly w i th in t he c our tyard o n an or th-wes t a x is i s t he p oo l ( f ig . 1 2 N o . 7 ) h av ing e x terna l measure men ts o f 8 .10 x 4 .8 0 m . T he w a l ls o f t he p oo l a re c ons truc ted o f d ressed l imestone b locks w h ich , a l though f i t t ing v ery c lose ly t oge ther , a re s e t i n w h i te mor tar ( f ig . 2 1) . T he r im o f t he p oo l i s 6 0 cm w ide , a nd 3 0 cm b e low i ta nd 3 0 cm a bove t he b o t tom o f t he p oo l t here i s aw e l l d ef ined s tep 3 0 cm w ide . T he o vera l l d ep th o f t he p oo l was , t herefore , 6 0 cm . I t was i mposs ib le t o e stab l ish t he o r ig ina l n a ture o f t he b o t tom o f t he p oo l , f or i th ad b een c omp le te ly d estroyed o ver i t s w ho le a rea a nd a l l t ha t r e ma ined w as a c ons iderab le q uan t i ty o f w h i te mor tar . T hree t ypes o f f ac ing c ou ld , h owever , h ave b een u sed -b r icks , s tone s labs o r s imp ly a l ayer o f mor tar . B enea th t he wa l ls o ft he p oo l s o l id f ounda t ions o fb roken s tone a nd w h i te mor tar c an b e s een , a nd i ti s p oss ib le t ha t as im i lar d ra inage s ys te m was u sed f or t he b o t tom o ft he p oo l . T he o u tf low p ipe ( f ig . 2 2 )b eg ins a t t he b o t tom o f t he p oo l , c u ts a cross t he e astern h a lf o f t he c ourtyard a t a n o b l ique a ng le a nd emerges b enea th t he s outhern e n trance . T h is p ipe h as a r ectangu lar s ect ion a nd i s c onstruc ted o f s tones a nd b r icks s e t i n w h i te mor tar . I t was c overed w i th b r icks a nd measures 2 5 cm f rom t op t ob o t tom a nd 1 4 cm a cross . T he f ac t t ha t t he o u t f low p ipe b eg ins d irec t ly b enea th t he b o t tom o ft he p oo l w i th n o f orm o f i n terven ing s topp ing-o f f d ev ice i nd ica tes t ha t t he p oo l w as i ndeed a n i mp luv iu m i n tended t o c o l lec t t he r oo f r a inwa ter a nd c hanne l i t a way f rom t he c our tyard a nd b u i ld ings . T he l arge w es tern c our tyard w as l a id o u t a s at yp ica l p er is ty le. A long t he r ims o f t he p oo l w ere d iscovered t he l ower s ec t ions o f s ix c o lu mns ( f igs . 2 2 , 2 3 ) -t hree a long e ach o ft he l onger s ides .

T he c o lu mns l ack ab ase a nd s tand

d irec t ly o n t he r im o f t he p oo l , w h ich h as t he a dd it iona l f unct ion o f as ty loba te . T he c ap i ta ls a re Dor ic ( f ig . 2 4 ) . T he l ower s ec t ions o f t hese c o lu mns a re 7

6 0 cm h igh a nd h ave a d iame ter o f 5 0 cm . We c an a ssu me t ha t t he c o lu mns f o l lowed t he g enera l D or ic p a t tern a nd h ad a n o vera l l h e ight o f 3 .30 m . Amongst t he r u ins o ft h is c our tyard a n umber o f c o lu mns w i th a sma l ler d ia me ter a nd o r ig ina l ly b e long ing t o t he c o lonnade o n t he s econd f l oor o fb u i ld ing No . 9w ere d iscovered , a nd i n t he n or th-wes tern c orner o f t he c our tyard p ar t o ft he s tone s ta ircase l ead ing t o t he s econd f l oor h as a lso b een p reserved ( f ig . 2 5 ) . O n ly t he l ower p ar t o ft h is s ta ircase was c onstruc ted o f s tone , t he u pper p or t ion b e ing made o f wood . I tl ed o n to t he t errace wh ich a f forded a ccess t o r ooms o n t he s econd f l oor . T he s tone s ta ircase h ad u ndergone a c er ta in amoun t o f r econstruct ion , i t s b o t tom s tep h av ing b een p laced 3 0 cm a bove t he r im o f t he p oo l . T he h igher l eve l c an a lso b e s een a t t he e n trance t o b u i ld ing N o . 9w h ich h ad a n a dd it iona l d oorstep 3 0 cm h igh . A ccess f rom t he l arge w es tern c our tyard t o t he o ther western c ourtyard was b y way o f a sma l l d oor 1m w ide . 5 .

T he L arge E astern C our tyard ( f ig . 1 2 N o . 5 )

T h is o ccup ies t he s outh-eastern s ec t ion a nd i s i rregu lar i n s hape . I t s l eng th f rom e ast t o w es t i s 1 8 .50m , a nd w hereas i t s w id th a t t he w estern e nd i s 1 4 .50 m a t t he e stern e nd i ti s 1 2 m ( f ig . 2 6) . A long i t s e astern a nd s ou thern s ides i ti s e nc losed b y ab oundary w a l l , a long t he w estern s ide b y b u i ld ing N o . 1 0 a nd a long t he n or thern s ide b yb u i ld ing N o . 1. H ere t oo n o t races o fp av ing w ere f ound . T he g rea ter p ar t o f t he c our tyard i s t aken u p b y t he p oo l ( f ig . 1 2 N o . 8 )w hose g enera l l ayou t c lose ly r ese mb les t ha t o ft he p oo l i n t he western c our tyard . I t s w a l ls a re s im i lar ly c ons tructed o f h ewn l imestone b locks a nd i th as a s im i lar s tep h a lfway d own . O r ig ina l ly i t was o ft he s ame d ep th a s t he f i rs t p oo l , b u t a t al a ter p er iod t he f l oor w as r emoved a nd l owered b y a pproxima te ly 5 0 cm ( f ig . 2 7 ) . T h is s econd f l oor w as l i ned w i th b r icks ( f ig . 2 8 ) . A s t he f ounda t ions o ft he p oo l ' s wa l ls w ere b roken s tone a nd mor tar , t here e x is ted ad anger o f wa ter l oss , a nd i n o rder t o a vo id t h is h appen ing a s econd wa l l w as c ons truc ted i ns ide t he s tone w a l ls u s ing a n o pus m ix tum t echn ique w i th a l terna te l ayers o f s tones a nd b r icks s e t i n a mix ture o f mor tar a nd b roken b r icks . T h is s econd wa l l w as b u i l t r ound t he l ower d rums o ft he c o lu mns a nd t hereby i ncreased t he d ep th o f t he p oo l . I n t he i n ter-co lu mn i s ect ion p ar t o f t he p las ter f ac ing o f t h is w a l l w as d iscovered . I tc ons is ts p ar t ly o fp owdered b r ick g iv ing i t ar ed c o lour . T he r eason f or t he d eepen ing o ft he p oo l a nd t he c ons truc t ion o ft he s econd wa l l w i th i t s w a terproo f f ac ing b ecame c lear w hen d iscovery was made i n t he n or th-wes tern c orner o f t he p oo l o f al ead p ipe l ead ing i n to awa ter p ipe w h ich p assed a long t he r im o f t he p oo l . T he p oo l w as f i l led w i th a c onstan t s upp ly o f r unn ing w a ter f rom t h is p ipe ( f ig . 2 9) . A t t he s ame t ime t he f unc t ion o f t he l ower s ec t ions o f v ar ious p i tchers s e t i n t he a dd it iona l w a l l w i th t he ir mou ths o pen ing i n to t he p oo l b ecame c lear ( f ig . 2 8 ) , f or t he p oo l must h ave b een c onver ted f rom a n i mp luv iu m i n to a f i shpond 1 3 . T he o u tf low p ipe , c onstructed i n t he smae w ay a s t he p ipe l ead ing f rom t he w estern i mp luv iu m , w as s t i l l o n t he f ormer l eve l o ft he p oo l a nd w as i n a l l p robab i l i ty u sed w hen t he o verf low was c ons tructed a bove i t .

T h is o verf low t ook t he w a ter f rom t he p oo l o u t b eyond

t he b oundar ies o ft he c omp lex p ass ing b enea th t he b oundary wa l l ( f ig . 3 0 ) . When t he l ead p ipe was l a id t he r im o f t he p oo l w as b roken - a f ur ther i nd ica t ion o f t he f ac t t ha t t he l ead p ipe a nd t he w a ter p ipe i t se lf w ere o f l a ter c onstruc t ion .

8

A s was t he c ase w i th t he f i rs t p oo l d escr ibed , t he r im o ft h is p oo l a lso s erved a s as ty loba te . A long 't he n or thern e dge t he l ower d ru ms o f s ix c o lu mns w ere d iscovered ( f igs . 8 ,26 ,28 ) . T he h e igh t o f t hese d ru ms i s a lso 6 0 cm b u t t hey h ave ad ia me ter o f 6 0 cm , i nd ica t ing t ha t t hese c o lu mns w ere o r ig ina l ly 4m h igh .

E igh t D or ic c ap ita ls w ere d iscovered i n a nd a round t he p oo l , s how ing

t ha t t he c o lonnade o nce c on t inued r igh t r ound t he p oo l o r a t l eas t a long i t s w es tern s ide . No t o n ly d o t hese c o lu mns h ave a d iame ter d i f feren t f rom t ha t o ft he c ap i ta ls i n t he w estern c our tyard b u t t hey a re f l u ted . T he u pper d ru ms o ft he c o lumns w ere a lso f l u ted -a no ther t yp ica l f ea ture o f t he D or ic s ty le ( f ig . 3 1) . T he s i ze a nd l ayou t o f t he e as tern c our tyard a re t ru ly i mpress ive . T he magn if icen t c o lonnades t o t he w es t a nd n or th a nd t he s quare f acade o fb u i ld ing N o . 1 must h ave b een a mos t i mpos ing s igh t . E v iden t ly t h is c our tyard f u lf i l led as pec ia l f unc t ion , f or t he p a th l ead ing t o i tf r om t he w es tern a nd n or thern e n trances i s made o f l imestone b locks . A n i n terest ing a dd i t ion t o t he e astern c our tyard i s t he sma l l e nc losed s pace b e tween t he e astern wa l l o fb u i ld ing N o . 1 a nd t he b oundary wa l l d iv id ing t he e astern a nd w es tern s ec tors o f t he c omp lex . T h is s pace i s r a ised s ome 6 0 cm a bove t he l eve l o f t he c our tyard - p assage f rom o ne l eve l t o t he o ther b e ing b y way o ft wo s teps . Wha t t he p rec ise f unct ion o f t h is sma l l t errace was , w e h ave b een u nab le t o a scer ta in . T he t wo d i f feren t p er iods o f c onstruc t ion w i tnessed i n o ther p ar ts o ft he c omp lex a re n o t , i n t h is i nstance , e v idenced i n t he t wo d i f feren t l eve ls . I n a l l p robab i l i ty r uins o f f or mer b u i ld ings w ere c leared away . T he c onvers ion o ft he p oo l f rom a n i mp luv iu m i n to a f i shpond i s b ound u p w i th t he p resence o f t he wa ter p ipe , w h ich , a s w i l l b e s een b e low , was l a id i n ap er iod p os t-da t ing t he c onstruc t ion o f t he c omp lex a s aw ho le . T h is c ou ld , h owever , h ave t aken p lace b efore t he b u i ld ings f e l l i n to r u in . E v idence o f t he s econd c ons truct ion p er iod i s h ere p rov ided b y t he f acade o fb u i ld ing No . 1 w here t he l imes tone b locks h ave b een r ep laced b y b roken s tones a nd b r icks ( f ig . 3 2) . 6 .

T he Sma l l R ear C our tyard ( f ig . 1 2 N o . 6 )

T h is o ccup ies t he n or th-wes tern c orner o f t he c omp lex a nd was p robab ly u nroo fed . I t measures 1 0x5 m , a n i nd ica t ion t ha t t he c ar ts w h ich w en t i n a nd o f i tr ema ined t here o n ly f or a v ery s hor t t ime . T he s pace t o t he e ast o ft h is c our tyard w as o nce r oo fed a nd f ormed a p assage l ead ing i n to t he e astern c our ty ard . T he sma l l r oom b y t he n or thern e n trance ( No . 3 ) c an b e a ssu med t o h ave b een t he g a tekeeper ' sq uar ters . B o th t h is r oom a nd t he p assage w ere o r ig ina l ly c overed b y t he r oo f o fb u i ld ing N o . 1. O ne o b ta ins t he i mpress ion t ha t move men t b e tween t he r ear c our tyard a nd t he l arger e astern c our tyard w as u nrestr icted , af ac t f ur ther u nder l ined b y t he s quare s hape o f t he o pen ings a nd c orners . c our tyard was r estr ic ted b y aw ooden d oor . 7 .

A ccess t o t he l arger w estern

B u i ld ing N o . 9( f ig . 1 2 No . 9 )

T h is o ccup ies a p os i t ion i n t he s ou th-western p ar t o f t he c omp lex . A l though i l l t ha t r e ma ins o f i tt oday i s o ne l arge c ommuna l r oom , i t must b e c ons idered

9

t o h ave o nce b een a s epara te b u ild ing , f or i th ad a n u pper s torey d iv ided i n to an u mber o f r oo ms . I t s n or thern , western a nd s outhern wa l ls a re f or med b y t he b oundary wa l l a nd i t s e astern wa l l i s , l i ke t he b oundary wa l l , 2m t h ick . T he t h ickness o f t he e astern wa l l i s o ne o ft he f actors l ead ing u s t o a ssu me t ha t t he b u ild ing o nce h ad a n u pper s torey .

T h is wes tern c ommuna l r oom

measures 1 3 x9 .20 m a nd a ccess t o i tf rom t he l arge western c our tyard was b y way o f ad oor 1 .50 m w ide ( f ig . 3 3 ) . T he f l oor o f t h is r oom i s n o t p aved . I n i tt en l imestone b locks were d iscovered s tand ing o n s o l id f ounda t ions o f s tones a nd wh ite mortar ( f ig . 3 4 ) . A l l t he e v idence s uggests t ha t t hese b locks f or med t he b ase o f c o lu mns s upport ing t he u pper s torey a nd t he r oof o f t he b u ild ing .

T he c o lu mns were o f wood a nd s upported wooden j o ists .

T he p os it ion

o f t he b locks p rov ides a n i nd ica t ion o f t he r oo m a rrange men t o n t he u pper f l oor , wh ich h ad o ne l arge r oo m a nd t wo o r t hree sma l ler r ooms , p robab ly u sed a s s leep ing q uarters . A l though t he w a l ls s t il l s tand ing a re 3 m i n h e igh t , n o e v idence o f a ny s teps l ead ing t o t he u pper s torey was f ound . T he h e igh t o f t he c o lu mns o u ts ide t he f acade o f t h is b u i ld ing wou ld s ee m t o i nd ica te t ha t t he u pper s torey b egan 3 .30 m a bove g round l eve l .

I ti s t herefore imposs ib le t o

s ay wha t i ta ctua l ly l ooked l i ke . I t wou ld b e r easonab le t o a ssu me , h owever , t ha t i th ad a wooden f l oor a nd wa l ls c ons iderably t h inner t han t hose o n t he g round f l oor , g rea t ly i ncreas ing t he a va ilab le l i v ing s pace .

Whether t he o ut-

s ide wa l ls o f t he u pper s torey were s o l id o r c onstructed o f wa t t le a nd p laster , i ti s d if f icul t t o s ay , b ut t he i n terna l d iv id ing wa l ls c er ta in ly w ere made o f wa t t le a nd p laster . T he s ta ircase l ead ing t o t he u pper s torey was e x terna l ( f ig . 2 5) .

I t s

l ower s ec t ion , c ons ist ing o f s tone s teps , i s s i tua ted i n t he n or th-western c orner o f t he l arge western c our tyard .

I t s u pper s ec t ions b eyond t he c orner w ere

most p robab ly made o f wood a nd l ed o n t o t he v erandah , whence a ccess was g a ined t o t he ma in r oo m . T he r oof o f t he b u ild ing c an b e a ssumed t o h ave b een e i ther t wo o r f our s ided , t he p os it ion ing o f t he l imestone b locks o n t he g round f l oor p er m it t ing e i ther p oss ib il ity . T iles a nd f rag men ts o f imbrex b o th o f wh ich were f ound i n g rea t q uan t it ies , were u sed a s r oof ing ma ter ia ls . I n a l l p robab il ity , t he l arge r oo m o n t he g round f l oor was i n tended f or s torage p urposes. T he a sym metr ica l ly p os it ioned e n trance , t he s i mp le c lay f l oor a nd t he d iv is ion o f t he i n terna l s pace b y t he c o lu mns make i t most u nl i ke ly t ha t t he r oo m was u sed f or a ny g rander s oc ia l f unct ions . T he h o les i n t he wa l ls o f t h is r oo m a re o f p ar t icu lar i n terest , f or t hey a re r em in iscen t o f t he h o les i n wa l ls o f Ro man b u i ld ings g enera l ly a ssu med t o h ave b een s ocke ts f or s caf fo ld ing .

T he h o les i n t h is r oo m , h owever , a re o f d if fer ing s izes a nd

a re s i tua ted a t d if feren t h e igh ts a nd v ar ious d istances o ne f ro m a no ther ( f ig . 3 3 ) . One c an , moreover , s ee q u ite c learly t ha t t he b locks o f wood wh ich r ested i n t he h o les were smeared w i th mor tar , mak ing i t imposs ib le t o r e move t he m .

A l though i ti s n o more t han a h ypo thes is, w e f ee l t ha t t here

c an b e o n ly o ne e xp lana t ion f or t hese h o les , n a me ly t ha t t he b locks o f wood were b u il t i n to t he wa l l a s s uppor ts f or w ooden p ane l l ing o r p erhaps s o me k in ( o f s he lv ing o r c upboards u sed f or s torage p urposes . B u ild ing No . 9 , t herefore , c an b e c ons idered a s h av ing s erved a s l i v ing q uar ters .

1 0

8 .

R oom N o . 1 0 ( f ig . 1 2 N o r 1 0 ) R ec tangu lar i n s hape , t h is i s s i tua ted b etween t he t wo l arger c our tyards

w ith i t s l onger s ide l y ing a long an or th-sou th a x is . I t s i n terna l d i mens ions a re 7 .40 b y 8 .50 m . T he w a l ls a re c on struc ted o fb roken s tone a nd w h i te mor tar w ith t he e xcap t ion o f t he n or th-eastern c orner w h ich i s b u i l t o f h ewn b locks . T he wa l ls a re 9 0 cm t h ick , t he t a l lest s ect ions s t i l l s tand ing r is ing t o at o ta l h e igh t o f 2m , af act w h ich l eads u s t ob e l ieve t ha t k i ln-f ired b r icks were n o t u sed i n t he ir c onstruc t ion . D oor o pen ings w ere n o l onger i n e v idence a nd f or t h is r eason i ti s i mposs ib le t o s ay w he ther t h is r oom o pened o n to b o th c our tyards o r o n ly o n to o ne . I n s p i te o ft he f ac t t ha t t h is r oom s tands o n i t s own , t here c an b e n o d oubt t ha t i tf ormed p ar t o f t he o r ig ina l c ons truc t ion p lan a nd w as b u i l t a t t he s ame t ime a s t he o ther s truc tures , f or w i thou t i tt here wou ld h ave b een mere ly a n e x treme ly l arge c our tyard h av ing n o n eed f or t wo p oo ls c ons tructed a long d if feren t a xes . T h is r oom was n ecessary i n o rder t o f orm t he t wo p er isty les, w h i le i t s r oo f mus t h ave j u t ted o u t o ver t he t wo p ort i cos r unn ing f ro m e as t t o w es t . T he r oo f i t se lf was f our s ided . N o t races o f a ny p av ing w ere f ound o n t he f l oor o ft h is r oom , a nd i ti s t o b e p resu med t ha t t he p av ing was d estroyed i n t he f our th c en tury w hen i t was c onver ted i n to l i v ing q uar ters . W i th in t h is r oom w e d iscovered t races o f t wo dwe l l ings o f al a te p er iod h av ing b r ick h ear ths . I ti sd i f f icu l t t o d e ter m ine t he p rec ise f unc t ion o f t h is r oom . I t s l arge d imens ions wou ld s uggest t ha t i tw as n o t u sed a s l i v ing a ccommoda t ion . We a re t here fore l e f t w i th a c ho ice b e tween u sage f or s ome k ind o fp roduct ive a ct iv i ty o r a s as torehouse f or g ra in ( h oreu m ) . I ti s d i f f icu lt , h owever , t o i mag ine t ha t ag ranary wou ld h ave ap lace a t t h is p ar t icu lar p os i t ion i n t he o vera l l c omp lex , a nd t he most l i ke ly e xp lana t ion w ou ld s eem t ob e t ha t t h is r oom s erved a s a k itchen i n w h ich f ood f or e veryone l i v ing i n t he c omp lex was p repared . I n t h is e ven t w e c an a ssu me t ha t t he r oom o pened o n to b o th t he c our tyards i n o rder t o f ac i l i ta te t he f ood d istr ibut ion . 9 .

B u i ld ing N o . 1 ( f ig . 1 2 N o . 1) T h is i s s i tua ted i n t he n or th-ea stern c orner o f t he w es tern s ect ion a nd c on-

s is ts o ft wo r ooms o f d i f fer ing s i zes . T he l arger w estern r oom measures 7 .60 b y 8m a nd t he sma l ler e astern r oom 4 .50 b y 5m . T he n or thern w a l l o f t he wes tern r oom i s f ormed b y t he b oundary w a l l , w hereas t here i s as pace o f 1 .8 0 mb e tween t he n or thern w a l l o f t he e astern r oom a nd t he b oundary wa l l . I ti s i n teres t ing t o n o te t ha t t h is s pace b eh ind t he s econd r oom f or ms a t h ird s epara te r oom , a lbe i t w i thou t a ny means o f a ccess a nd s o n arrow a s t o p rec lude i t s u sage . T he s urv iv ing wa l ls h ere r ise t o ah e igh t o f 2m a nd n owhere a re t here t here i nd ica t ions o f a ny o pen ings i n to t h is t h ird sma l l r oom , w h ich may w e l l h ave s erved a s s ome k ind o f a ir c ush ion a ga inst t he c o ld o f t he n or th s ide . T he wa l l o ft he e astern r oom o fb u i ld ing N o . 1 was s e t b ack f rom t he b oundary w a l l f or a no ther v ery i mpor tan t r eason . I tw as t h is wa l l , a nd o ther wa l ls e x tend ing t o t he w es t o f i t , t ha t s uppor ted t he r idge o f t he c ommon r oo f , ( f ig . 5 7 ) . H ere a ga in t he w a l ls w ere c onstruc ted o f s im i lar ma ter ia ls a nd i n s im i lar f ash ion t o t he o t her w a l ls , o n ly t he s ou thern f acade b e ing o fh ewn l imestone b locks w i th r oughened s urfaces ( f ig . 1 5) . I n a ctua l f act , a s h as a lready b een men t ioned e ar l ier , t hese b locks w ere o n ly f ac ing , t he s pace b e tween t he m b e ing f i l led w i th

1

sma l l s tones s e t i n mor tar .

A lthough t here was n o f l oor i n t he e as tern r oom ,

t he f l oor i n t he western r oom was ' made o fb r icks ( f ig . 3 5) .

A t o ne t ime t he

f acade o f t he western r oom h ad o bv ious ly b een d estroyed a nd t hen r econstruc ted w ithou t t he u se o f mortar a t al a ter p er iod , f or t here was n o p art icu lar s yste m i n t he a rrange men t o f t he b locks, many o f w h ich h ad s ubsequen t ly b een p laced w ith t he ir r us t ica ted s urfaces t o t he i ns ide .

T he o pen ing s hown o n t he d iagram

was c onstructed i n t he f ourth c en tury w hen t he western r oo m was u sed a s a dwe l l ing .

T he l eve l o f t h is d oorway c orresponds t o t he l eve l o f t he

h ear th d iscovered i n t he r oo m ( f ig . 3 5) . we l l p reserved t o ah e igh t o f 2m .

T he f acade o f t he e astern r oo m i s

Equa l ly w e l l p reserved i s t he d oorway

wh ich l eads t o t he p or t ico i n f ron t o f t he f acade . a nd a bu ts o n t he b oundary wa l l .

T he d oorway i s 1 .65 m w ide

I to nce h ad a d oub le wooden d oor , a nd i n t he

s tone t hresho ld t here c an s t i l l b e s een t he h o les f or t he h inges, a nd a s ing le c en tra l ly p laced s quare h o le i n wh ich t he c los ing mechan is m was o r ig ina l ly f i xed .

T he s tone o f t h is t hresho ld i s c u t i n s uch a way a s t o f or m a l i p i n i t s

o u ter s ide , t hus mak ing a t igh t j o in b e tween d oor a nd s tone a nd e l im ina t ing d raugh ts .

T he t wo h o les a t e i ther e nd o f t he t hresho ld were i n tended f or t h in

l a ths wh ich c overed t he g ap b e tween t he d oor a nd t he wa l l -af urther p ro tec t ion a ga inst d raughts .

I n b o th r oo ms t he l ower s ect ions o f w indows f acing s outh

o ver t he c ourtyard were d iscovered .

T hese w indows a re 8 0 cm w ide a nd a re

s e t 1 .20 m a bove t he f loor o n t he i nner s ide o f t he wa l l .

F or t he r est o f i t s

t h ickness t he wa l l i s b eve l led t owards t he f l oor , at echn ique o f w indow c onstruct ion w h ich we h ave n o t f ound e lsewhere , t he o n ly o ther e xa mp le b e ing i n t he G reek t e mp le i n De ir E l Med ine i n Egyp t ( f ig . 3 6) . T h is w ho le b u i ld ing , t oge ther w ith t he b oundary wa l l a nd t he p assage o n t he western s ide , was c overed w ith a d oub le-s ided r oo f wh ich d escended t owards t he s ou th , c over ing t he p ort ico i n f ron t o f t he b u i ld ing a nd r each ing t o t he imp luv iu m ( f ig . 5 7 ) .

T he t o ta l h e igh t o f t hese b u i ld ings , i f o ne i s t o j udge b y t he

4m h igh c o lu mns wh ich s tood i n f ron t o f t he m , must h ave b een i n t he r eg ion o f 4 .50 m . I ti s n o t d if f icu lt t o a scerta in t he f unct ion o f t h is s tructure , f or t he g rand n ature o f i t s f acade , i t s c our tyard a nd i t s a pproachway c lear ly i nd ica tes t ha t i t s erved a s ar ecept ion r oo m f or t he h ouse , ar oo m w h ich i n Ro man v i l las, a l though a rranged r a ther d if feren t ly , was k nown a s t he t ab l inu m . T hus, i n t he western s ect ion o f t he c omp lex we h ave b een a b le t o d iscern , i n a dd it ion t o d oorways a nd c our tyards, t he b as ic r oo ms o f ah ouse i n a n t iqu i ty : af ood s tore a nd a bove i ts leep ing a cco m moda t ion , ak i tchen a nd a r ecep t ion r oom .

A l l t ha t i s l acking i s ab a throo m , w h ich , a s w e w i l l s ee , was s i tua ted

e lsewhere .

T he g enera l a rrange men t o f r ooms d oes n o t a ccord w i th t he u sua l

Roman mode l .

T hey a re more f ree ly a rranged , a t ten t ion h aving b een p a id t o

t he mc s tr a t iona l u se o f t he s pace a va i lab le a nd , wha t i s more i mpor tan t s t i l l , w ith a v iew t o c rea t ing t wo s epara te c en tres .

The f i rst , n ear t he w estern

c our tyard , i s o f a more i n t i ma te n a ture , w hereas t he s econd , n ear t he e astern c our tyard , i s o f g rander d i mensions . T h is a rrange men t was c er ta in ly n o t t he work o f c hance . p lan .

I t was c once ived a nd c arr ied o ut a ccord ing t o aw e l l p repared

A s w i l l b e made c lear l a ter , i n t he c onstruct ion o f t he h ouse a s w e l l a s

t he v i l la a s a who le , a t ten t ion was p a id t o t he r eco m menda t ions made b y t he a grono m ists a nd b u i lders o f a n t iqu ity s uch a s Ca to 1 4 ,V arro 1 5 ,V itruv ius i 6

1 2

a nd Co lu me l la ,

1 7

b u t i n t he t wo c ourtyards we s ee a t yp ica l ly o r ienta l e le men t .

T hese c ourtyards c orrespond t o t he d iv ision o f h ouses i n t he O r ien t i n to t wo s epara te p ar ts , o ne f or t he wo men ( gyn iceu m ) a nd t he o ther f or t he men ( andre ion ) .

No o ther e xa mp le o f t h is f ea ture h as s o f ar c o me t o l i ght o n

B ulgar ian t err itory . THE EASTERN S ECT ION I n a dd i t ion t o t he e n trance ( f ig . 1 2 No . 1 2 ) , a nd t he s teps t o o verco me t he d if ference i n l eve ls , ( 13) , i n t he e astern s ect ion o f t he c o mp lex , t he f o l low ing d iscover ies were made :

a sma l l r oo m f or a d oor k eeper ( 14) , as er ies o f

dwe l l ings ( 15) , al arge o pen c ourtyard ( 16) , a we l l ( 17) , ab a th b u i ld ing ( 18) , a nd a f oun ta in ( 19 ).

I t was t h is f oun ta in t ha t l ed t o t he d iscovery o f t he wa ter

p ipe ( 20) , wh ich we s ha l l h ave o ccas ion t o d escr ibe h ere , a l though we c a me a cross i ta t o ther p laces i n t he v i l la a t ad istance o f s evera l k i lo metres f ro m t he c o mp lex i t se lf .

I n c onc lus ion we w i ll a lso d escr ibe t he p agan s anctuary

( 22) a nd t he e ar ly Chr ist ian b asi l ica , wh ich , a l though s i tua ted o uts ide t he wa l ls o f t he c o mp lex , a re b o th c onnected w ith i t . I .

T he G a teway ( f ig . 1 2 No . 1 2) T h is i s s i tua ted i n t he wa l l d iv id ing t he t wo s ect ions o f t he c o mp lex .

I ti s

1 .30 m w ide a nd h as b een p reserved t o ah e igh t o f 1 .65 m. As i s t he c ase w ith t he o ther e n trances, t he d oor j a mbs a re made o f d ressed l imestone b locks. I th ad a s ing le d oor o r ig ina l ly moun ted o n t he b ot to m s tep o f t he s ta irway a nd l a ter r a ised t o t he s econd s tep ( f ig . 3 7) . b o th s teps . 2 .

Ho les f or t he h inges c an b e s een o n

T he d oor o pened t owards t he s ou th .

T he S ta irs J o in ing t he Two L eve ls ( f ig . 1 2 No . 1 3) A s h as a lready b een ment ioned , t he e astern s ect ion o f t he c o mp lex was o n

al ower l eve l t han t he western s ect ion .

T he d if ference i n l eve ls was 6 0 cm a nd

was o vercome b y way o f a sma l l s ta ircase c ons ist ing o f t hree s tone s teps ( f ig . 3 7) .

Each s tep i s 1 .50 m w ide , 3 0 cm d eep a nd 2 0 cm h igh .

T he s teps a re

w e l l worn a nd must h ave b een i n u se f or a c ons iderab le l eng th o f t ime .

When

t he wa ter p ipe was l a id , t he t h ird s tep was b roken a nd a f terwards n ever p roper ly r epa ired .

I ndeed a r epa ir p roved t o b e u nnecessary , f or t he l eve l o f t he e astern

s ect ion r ose t o t he h e igh t o f t he s econd s tep t o wh ich t he d oor was e ventua l ly moved . 3 .

T he Doorkeeper ' sL odge ( f ig . 1 2 No . 1 4) T h is sma l l i rregu lar ly s haped r oo m w i th a f l oor o n t he l eve l o f t he s econd

s tep o f t he s ta ircase ( f ig . 3 8) c an o n ly h ave s erved a s al odge f or t he d oorkeeper . I t s g rea test l eng th measures a pprox i ma te ly 4 .20 m a nd i t s g rea test w id th 1 .60 m . T he wa l l i s o f s tone , b onded w ith wh i te mortar a nd t he r oof o ver i tf or med p ar t o f t he p or t ico s itua ted t o t he e ast o f t he b oundary wa l l ( f ig . 3 9) . T he f ac t t ha t t h is p orter ' sl odge was s i tua ted i n t he e astern s ect ion , wh ich h ad n o e x it o ther t han t he d oorway h ere d escr ibed , s uggests t ha t i t was t he p eop le l i v ing i n t he e astern s ec t ion who were s ub jected t o s o me k ind o f c on tro l .

1 3

4 .

T he Dwe l l ings ( f ig . 1 2 No . 1 5) T here c an b e n o d oub t t ha t t hese r ooms w ere u sed f or h ab ita t ion .

T hey a re

s quare , a l most i den t ica l r oo ms, a d jo in ing o ne a no ther a nd a rranged i n as ing le l ine a long t he n orthern b oundary wa l l .

I ts hou ld b e men t ioned t ha t r ooms a a nd

ba re s epara te f rom t he r est , a but o n to t he b oundary wa l l a nd a re o f i rregu lar s hape a nd sma l ler d i mens ions . T he r e ma in ing r ooms measure 4 b y 4 .50 m a nd a re s e t s l igh t ly away f ro m t he b oundary wa l l ( f ig . 4 0) . A s i n b u i ld ing No . 1 i n t he w estern p ar t o f t he c o mp lex , t he s pace b e tween t hese r ooms a nd t he b oundary wa l l i s d iv ided i n to i nd iv idua l n arrow r ooms w ith n o o pen ings e i ther t o t he e ast o r t o t he w est o r i ndeed i n to t he r oo ms t hemse lves . I n o ur o p in ion t he b u i lders p ro longed t he wa l ls o f t he i nd iv idua l r ooms o f t h is s u i te o f dwe ll i ngs r igh t u p t o t he b oundary wa l l o n a cco tm t o f t he r oof wh ich c overed b o th t he dwe l l ings a nd t he b oundary wa l l i t se lf .

T he r idge o f t he r oo f r an a long

t he western wa l l o f t he dwe l lings, wh i le t he n or thern s lope r ested o n t he p rol onga t ion o f t he i nd iv idua l wa l ls b efore r each ing t he a ctua l b oundary wa l l ( f ig . 5 7 ) . W ith t he e xcep t ion o f t he n ex t t o l ast r oom f rom t he western e nd , wh ich h ad af l oor c onsist ing o f ap laster a nd mortar m ix ture , n one o f t hese r ooms h ad a ny f l oor ing .

I ti s p oss ib le , h owever , t ha t a t o ne t ime t hey d id h ave a f l oor

c ons ist ing o f s im i lar ma ter ia l . T he w a l ls o f t he r ooms a re o f b roken s tone b ound w ith wh ite mor tar a nd a re p reserved t o ah e igh t o f 6 0 cm f ro m t he f l oor ( f ig . 4 0 ) .

No a dd it iona l s tones were d iscovered b e tween t he i nd iv idua l wa l ls,

af ac t w h ich i nd ica tes t ha t i n t he o r ig ina l b u i ld ing , s tone c onstruc t ion d id n o t c on t inue a bove t h is h e igh t , a nd s uggests t ha t t he u pper s ect ions were o f al i gh t wat t le c onstruct ion . I t wou ld s ee m t ha t o n ly t he t wo s epara te r ooms a t t he w estern e nd o f t he r ow w ere c onstruc ted w ho lly o f s tone a nd mortar , f or t he s outh-eastern c orner o f t hese r ooms i s b u i lt o f h ewn l imestone b locks, g iv ing a more imposing a ppearance ( f ig . 4 1) .

I n a dd it ion , i n f ron t o f t hese t wo r ooms

were d iscovered f ragmen ts o f r ed a nd b lack p laster . r oo ms were most p robab ly l i ned w ith mud .

T he wa l ls o f t he o ther

Runn ing a long t he f ron t o f t he s u ite o f dwe l l ings a t ad istance o f 3m f rom t he wa l ls a nd s et 1 .50 m o ne f ro m a no ther , ar ow o f s tone s oc les was f ound ( f ig . 4 2) . S im i lar s oc les were d iscovered a long t he d iv id ing wa l l b e tween t he t wo s ect ions o f t he c o mp lex

( f ig . 4 3) , i nd ica t ing t ha t ap ort ico r an r ound t he f ron t

o f a l l t he dwe l l ings a nd e x tended t o p ar ts o f t he d iv id ing wa l l . T he l ayou t o f t he i nd iv idua l r oo ms i s o fp art icu lar i n terest .

T hey a re

g rouped i n p a irs , w i th o n ly o ne o f t he r ooms o f e ach p a ir h aving a n e x it t o t he c our tyard . T he s econd r oom i n e ach p a ir mere ly o pens i n to t he a d jo in ing r oo m .

Wha t we h ave h ere , t herefore , a re d oub le-roomed dwe l l ings, e ach

i n tended , w ithou t a ny d oubt , f or a s epara te f am i ly . B ear ing i n mind , h owever , t he s uperv ision e xerc ised a t t he l odge , w e must c onc lude t ha t t hese w ere t he dwe l l ings o f s laves .

T he work o f t hese s laves was c lose ly c onnected w i th t he

dwe l l ing i n t he w estern s ect ion o f t he c omp lex , a nd i n o ur o p in ion t he t wo-roomed dwe l l ings b e longed t o t he h ouseho ld s ervan ts o f t he master o f t he h ouse .

T hese

s ervan ts w i l l h ave b een c oncerned w ith k eep ing t he h ouse c lean a nd t idy , p repar in i a nd s erv ing t he f ood a nd a t tend ing t o v ar ious d ut ies i n t he b a ths .

T hus, a l though

t hese s ervan ts were i n f act s laves, t hey l i ved u nder v ery f avourab le c ond it ions, h av ing a r igh t t o l i ve w ith t he ir f am i lies .

We a re i nc l ined t o b e l ieve t ha t t he

t wo r ooms a a nd b f or m a s epara te dwe l l ing f or t he o verseer w ho a t tended t o t he d isc ip l ine a nd o rgan ised t he work o f t he s ervan ts . 1 4

5 .

T he C our tyard ( f ig . 1 2 N o . 1 6)

T h is i s av ery l arge c our tyard w i th n o t race o f a ny f or m o fp av ing . Whe ther t he c our tyard was u sed f or a ny k ind o f manufacturing p rocesses , w e h ave b een u nab le t o a scer ta in . I ti s q u i te c lear , h owever , t ha t i tc ou ld n o t h ave b een u sed f or t he s torage o f a gr icu ltura l p roducts , f or i t wou ld h ave b een n ecessary t o c arry t he m t hrough t ha t s ect ion o f t he c omp lex i nhab i ta ted b y t he v i l la o wner . T he o n ly p iece o f e qu ip men t i n t he c our tyard i s t he w e l l ( f ig . 4 4) . 6 .

T he We l l ( f ig . 1 2 No . 1 7 )

I tw as impossib le t o e stab l ish t he p rec ise d ep th o f t he w e l l , f or w e w ere u nab le t o c lear i tb e low a d ep th o f 6 .60 m . H owever , i tc er ta in ly d id r each d own t o t he w a ter l eve l . T he d iame ter o f t he w e l l was 1 .70 m . I n c lear ing t he w e l l w e d iscovered a s e t t lemen t l ayer o f 4 .60 m . T o t h is d ep th t he w e l l i s c ons tructed o f smoo th-faced l imestone b locks j o ined w i th w h i te mor tar , b u t b e low t h is i ti s c u t i n to s o l id r ock . T he n eck o f t he w e l l i s c onstructed o f l arger l imestone b locks l y ing o n t he l eve l o f t he Roman l ayer . I n t wo b locks p laced o ppos i te e ach o ther t here a re h o les f or w ooden p os ts h o ld ing t he h o ist a round w h ich t he r ope f or t he b ucke t w ou ld h ave b een wound .

A s w e h ave

i nd ica ted , t he w e l l i s o f s im i lar c onstruct ion t o t he o ther b u i ld ings a lready d escr ibed a nd was c er ta in ly b u i l t a t t he s ame t ime . I ti s t ob e p resu med t ha t i tp rov ided wa ter f or t he w ho le c omp lex b efore t he w a ter p ipe was l a id . No o ther s im i lar w e l l h as b een f ound o n B u lgar ian t err i tory . A lthough i t c anno t h ave b een a n e asy t ask , t he b u i lders w ere a b le t o s ink t he w e l l t hrough s o lid r ock . S im i lar w e l ls h ave b een f ound i n P ompe i i , s ome o f w h ich w ere s unk t hrough s evera l l ayers o f l ava a nd a t ta ined a d ep th o f 4 0 m ( c f M . E . S ergeenko , P o mpe i i , Moscow 1 949 , p . 5 4 a nd f i g . 9 ) . 7 .

T he B a th B u i ld ing ( f ig . 1 2 N o . 1 8 ) T h is i s s i tua ted i n t he s ou th-eastern c orner o f t he c our tyard a nd a buts o n to

t he b oundary wa l l t o t he s ou th a nd e ast . A t t h is p o in t t he b oundary w a l l h as b een d estroyed a nd t oge ther w i th i tp ar t o ft he b a th b u i ld ing . P erhaps i tw as f rom h ere h ere t ha t t he ' square a nd r ound b r icks ', o f wh ich N . S ubchev 1 8 mak es men t ion , w ere r emoved . Happ i ly , h owever , s u f f ic ien t s ec t ions o f t he wa l ls r e ma in t o p erm it u s t o a scer ta in t he r oom d ispos i t ion ( f ig . 4 5 ). T he b a th b u i ld ing c ons i sts o f f i ve s epara te r ooms , f our o f w h ich a re i n as ing le r ow w i th t he f i f th a dhering t o t he n or thern s ide o ft he f i rst r oom . I n r oom c s ect ions o f t he h ypocaus t w ith a c hanne l-hear th l ead ing t o r oom d w ere f ound ( f ig . 4 6 ) . T h is sma l l c omp lex h as t he u sua l r oom a rrangemen t f ound i n Roman b a ths .

A ccess

w as f rom t he w est , t he f i rst r oom a i s t he d ress ing r oom , t he s econd r oom b t he t ep idar iu m , t he t h ird c t he c a ldar iu m , a nd f our th d t he p raefurn ium . T he p raefurn ium c on ta ined t he f ue l s tore a nd t he f urnace p rov id ing t he h ea t f or t he h ypocaust a nd t he c a ldar iu m . I ts eems l i ke ly t ha t i th ad n o o pen ing t o t he c a ldar iu m b u t h ad a s epara te e x i t t o t he n or th o n to t he c our tyard . s erved a s af r ig idar iu m . The w a l ls o f t he b a th o pus m ix tum t echn ique. a l low u s t o a scer ta in t he p ieces o f b roken b r ick . made o f b r ick .

Room e

b u i ld ing a re c ons truc ted o f s tones a nd b r icks u s ing t he Un for tuna te ly , i nsu f f ic ien t o f t he b u i ld ing r e ma ined t o n u mber o f c ourses o f b r ick . I n t he mor tar t here a re T he sma l l c o lumns f orm ing t he h ypocaus t w ere a lso

The f l oor b enea th t he m i s made o f b r icks s et i n r ed mor tar . 1 5

We a re o f t he o p in ion t ha t t he r oo f o f t he b a th b u i ld ing was d oub le-s loped , f or t o t he s ou th i tc overed t he b oundary w a l l a nd t o t he n orth i tf ormed a n o verhang r unn ing a long t he l i ne o f t he f r ig idar iu m . b enea th t h is o verhang ( f ig . 5 7 ) . 8 .

T he f oun ta in w as s i tua ted

T he F oun ta in ( f ig . 1 2 N o . 1 9) T he f oun ta in , ( f igs . 4 7 , 4 8 ) i s o f c ons iderab le i n terest .

I tc ons ists o f a

sma l l l imestone b lock w i th a h o le p assing t hrough i ta t r igh t a ng les , e n tering o n ah or izon ta l p lane a nd emerg ing v er t ica l ly . Ac lay wa ter p ipe e n ters t he s tone o n t he h or izon ta l p lane , w hereas a sma l l l ead p ipe w i th a d iame ter o f 5 cm emerges f rom t he s tone i n av er t ica l p lane .

T he j o in ts b e tween t he t wo

p ipes a nd t he s tone a re f i l led w ith a m ix ture o f l ime a nd g ypsu m . I tp roved i mposs ib le t o a scer ta in t he o r ig ina l l eng th o ft he l ead p ipe , f or i t s u pper s ec t ion h ad b een s evered i n a n t iqu i ty . I tw as t here fore imposs ib le t o d e ter m ine w he ther t he wa ter f l owed c on t inuous ly f rom i to r w he ther t here o r ig ina l ly e x isted s ome k ind o f s topp ing-o f f mechan is m s uch a s at ap . T he f oun ta in may a lso h ave b een c onnected w i th t he b o i ler i nt he b a th b u i ld ing , a s w as t he c ase w i th t he f a mous v i l la a t B oscorea le n ear P ompe i i1 9 . T he c onnec t ion b e tween t he b a ths , t he w a ter p ipe a nd f oun ta in i s c lear , f or w ithout t hem t he b a ths c ou ld n o t h ave e x is ted . I t must , t herefore , b e c onc luded t ha t t he b a ths a nd t he wa ter p ipe w ere c onstructed a t o ne a nd t he s ame t ime , t he wa ter p ipe e nab ling u s t o d a te t he c ons truc t ion o f t he b a ths . A s was ment i oned i n t he d escr ip t ion o ft he s ta irway j o in ing t he t wo s ect ions o ft he c omp lex , t he wa ter p ipe w as l a id d ur ing t he s econd p er iod o f c onstruc t ion w hen t he d oor was moved f rom t he f i rst t o t he s econd s tep . I tw as a t t h is t ime , t hen , t ha t t he b a ths w ere b u i l t . We must p resu me t ha t t hey w ere b u i l t i n t he e astern s ec t ion o ft he c omp lex b ecause t here was s pace t here , whereas t he s pace i n t he w estern s ect ion h ad a lready b een t aken u p t he t he b u i ld ings a lready d escr ibed . 9 .

T he Wa ter P ipe

T h is was f ound a t s evera l p laces b o th i ns ide a nd o u ts ide t he v i l la . I ti s c ons tructed o f c lay p ip ies 6 0 cm l ong a nd w i th a n i n terna l d iame ter o f 1 0 cm . T he wa l ls o ft he p ipes a re 2 cm t h ick . E ach p ipe i s s l igh t ly n arrowed t owards o ne e nd , a nd t h is e nd f i ts i n to t he a d jo ining p ipe , t he j o in b e ing f i l led w i th a m ix ture o fl ime a nd g ypsu m . Wa ter p ipes o f a n i den t ica l c ons truc t ion h ave b een d iscovered a t many s i tes b o th i n B u lgar ia a nd o ther p rov inces o f t he R o man Emp ire 2 0 . T he wa ter p ipe was e xcava ted o ver t he w ho le a rea o f t he c omp lex . I tw as f ound t o p ass r ound t he a lready e x ist ing b u i ld ing ( f igs . 2 9 , 3 1, 4 9) , b enea th t he t hresho ld o ft he g a teway i n to t he w es tern e nd o ft he c omp lex a nd a ga in b enea th t he t hresho ld o ft he d oor b e tween t he t wo s ec t ions , ( f igs . 3 7 , 4 9 , 5 0) .

T he s ame

w a ter p ipe c u ts a cross t he D e l i monyova N iva c omp lex f rom w es t t o e ast s ome 1 0 m t o t he w est o f t he c omp lex h ere d escr ibed . I t was a lso f ound i n t he f i e lds t o t he w est o f t he D e l i monyova N iva c omp lex . H ere , h owever , i t was o f a d if feren t c onstruc t ion , b e ing b u i lt o f s tones , c overed w i th b r icks ( f ig . 5 1) a nd j o ined w ith a r ed w a terproo fed mor tar . T he c ross-sect ion w as r ectangu lar , measur ing 1 0 cm i n d ep th a nd 2 0 cm i n w id th . B o th i n t he v icin i ty o f t he D e l i monyova N iva s i te a nd b e tween i ta nd t he s i te u nder d iscuss ion h ere t he

1 6

w a ter p ipe p assed b eneath r ogd f ounda t ions, a nd a t t hese p o in ts, c lay p ipes w ith t h icker wa l ls ( 4 cm) a nd a sma l ler i n terna l d iame ter ( 6 cm ) w ere u sed ( f ig . 5 2) . T he w a ter p ipe was e xcava ted f or a d istance o f s ome 3km t o t he w est o f t he v ar ious s i tes . I tp assed t he b ur ia l mounds 4 , 5 , 6a nd 7 , g o ing r ound mound N o . 5a nd c ut t ing a cross p arts o f i t s embankmen ts . T o t he w est i t c urved t hrough t he f i e lds, f o l low ing t he c on tours t owards a s pr ing w h ich l i es o n l and b e long ing t o t he v i l lage o f Mog i lovo s ome 6 km away o n t he w estern s ide s ide o f D e l i monyovo K a le . T he g en t le g rad ien t o f t he wa ter p ipe a s i tf o l lowed t he c on tours a cross a n a rea t ha t i s f ar f rom f l a tg uaran teed a s teady f l ow o f w a ter a nd s peaks f or t he c ons iderab le t echn ica l a b i l it ies o f t hose w ho were i nvo lved i n t he p ipe ' sp lann ing a nd c onstruct ion .

A lthough i ti s o ur b e l ief

t ha t t here must o r ig ina l ly h ave b een s o me f or m o f s pec ia l wa ter-re ta in ing s haf t a t t he p o in t w here t he wa ter p ipe c hanged f rom a t ubu lar t o ar ectangu lar b r ick c onstruct ion , n o s uch s ha f t w as d iscovered , f or i tl ay o utside t he e scav a ted a reas . B ut w e must r eturn t o t he D e l i monyovo K a le s i te a nd t o ad escr ip t ion o f t he p agan s anctuary a nd t he e ar ly C hr ist ian c hurch . 1 0 .

T he Pagan S anctuary ( f ig . 1 2 N o . 2 2 )

A s h as a lready b een men t ioned , i n t he s outh-western c orner o f t he s i te a sma l l p la tfor m c ons ist ing o f smoo th l imestone b locks was f ound . T o t he n orth o f t h is p la tfor m ( i n t he y ard b u i lt o n t o t he h ouse) w ere d iscovered f ragmen ts o f v o t ive t ab le ts d ep ict ing t he T hrac ian H orse man , .Apo l lo a nd D aphne a nd H er mes 2 1 . O n c er ta in o f t hese t ab le ts t here a re d ed ica tory i nscr ip t ions i n Greek w h ich c on ta in c erta in T hrac ian n ames . S ome o f t he t able ts d isp lay c arefu l ly e xecuted h igh r e l iefs, t he h eads a nd e ven , i n s ome c ases, e n t ire f i gures b eing r a ised f rom t he b ackground a nd e xh ib it ing ah igh l eve l o f a r t ist ic a bi l ity .

T he

manner i n wh ich t he h a ir i s p or trayed , t oge ther w ith c er ta in o ther s ty l is t ic e le men ts make i tp oss ib le t o d a te t he r e l iefs w ith s o me a ccuracy t o t he m idd le a nd t he l a t ter h a lf o f t he s econd c entury A .D . We c anno t s ay f or c er ta in t ha t t he sma l l p la t for m i s i n a ny way c onnected w ith t he v o t ive t ab le ts, b ut o n t he o ther h and w e a re c onv inced t ha t t hey o r ig ina ted f rom a p lace n o t f ar f ro m w here t he f ragmen ts w ere d iscovered . We t herefore c ons ider t he e x istence o f ap agan s anctuary i n t he im med ia te v ic in i ty o f t he dwe l l ing p lace o n D e l i monyovo K a lb t o b e e stab l ished b eyond a ny r easonab le d oub t . F urther g rounds f or s uch a v iew a re p rov ided b y t he C hr ist ian c hurch w h ich c on t inues t he r e l ig ious t rad i t ion o f t he p lace .

T he t ab le ts w ere a l most

c er ta in ly b roken when t he p agan f a i th was a bandoned a nd t he C hr ist ian r e l ig ion a dop ted i n i t s p lace . 1 .

T he E ar ly Chr ist ian C hurch ( f ig . 1 2 N o . 2 3 ) T h is i s s i tua ted o u tside t he b oundary wa l l o f t he dwe l l ing c omp lex c lose t o

t he s outh-east c orner .

T he c hurch i s n o t p os i t ioned a long t he u sua l a xes f or

C hr ist ian c hurches, b ut f o l lows t he l i ne o f t he b oundary wa l l . Two c onstruct ion p er iods a re i n e v idence a nd i n b o th p er iods t he c hurch was a sma l l s ing len ave b as i l ica w ith o ne a pse . T he o r ig ina l b u i ld ing was 6 m w ide . I t s p rec ise

1 7

l eng th h as b een impossib le t o a scer ta in , f or t he w es tern e nd o f t he c hurch h as b een c omp le te ly d estroyed , b u t i t s t o ta l l eng th was n o t l ess t han 8 .50 m .

T he

c hurch d a t ing f ro m t he s econd c onstruct ion p er iod measures 7 .50 b y 4m ( f ig . 5 3) . T he c onstruct ion t echn iques a nd .t he ma ter ia ls u sed i n b o th c hurches a re i den t ica l . T he c hurches a re made o fb r ick s e t i n mor tar w i th a m ix ture o f b roken b r ick .

T he a pse i n t he e ar l ier c hurch was 4 m w ide a nd 2 .30 m d eep ,

w hereas t he a pse i n t he l a ter c hurch w as 2 .50 m w ide a nd 1 .60 m d eep .

T he

l a ter c hurch o r ig ina l ly h ad a p orch r est ing o n t wo w ooden p i l lars, t he s tone b ases o f w h ich h ave b een p reserved . T he f l oor o f t h is p orch c overs a n a rea o f a pprox i ma te ly 4m 2 a nd i s made o fb r icks . T he l a ter b asi l ica a lso h as a b r ick f l oor , t he b r icks measur ing 3 0 b y 3 0 cm .

T h is b as i l ica o r ig ina l ly h ad

ad oor o n t he w estern s ide measur ing 1 .60 m . Runn ing r ound t he wa l l o f t he a pse t here i s al ow b ench 6 0 cm w ide a nd p reserved t o ah e igh t o f4 0 cm . N o t races o f a ny p ar t it ion s epara t ing t he a pse f rom t he ma in b ody o f t he c hurch w ere d iscovered . T he c hurch o r ig ina l ly h ad a d oub le s loped r oo f , wh i le t he a pse h ad a s epara te r oo f , a s d id t he p orch a t t he d oorway . B y f ar t he most i n terest ing f ea ture o ft he c hurch i s t he mura l p a in t ing o n t he n or thern wa l l ( f igs . 5 4 , 5 5) . T he mura ls t he mse lves h ave b een p a in ted o n a mor tar b ase w h ich i n t urn a dheres t o t he mud c over ing o n t he w a l l . I n t he s ing le r e ma in ing f ragmen t o ft he mura l o ne c an d iscern a s oc le 4 5 cm h igh made u p o f as er ies o f v er t ica lb lue a nd g reen s tr ipes . T he t op o ft he s oc le i s i nd ica ted b y aw ide , d eep r ed l i ne .

I n a l l p robab i l i ty , a bove t h is l i ne t here

was o nce a f r ieze o f f i gures o f s a in ts , b ut o ft h is f r ieze o n ly a v ery sma l l f ragmen t i n t he n or th-western c orner o ft he c hurch h as b een p reserved , h av ing s ty l ised p lan t mo t ifs i n t he s ame b lue a nd g reen t ones a s t he s oc le ( f ig . 5 5 ) . . Amongst t he r u ins o f t he c hurch a s ing le f rag men t o f ac lay b ow l w as f ound w ith ac ross h av ing a r ms o f e qua l l eng th d ep ic ted i n r e l ief a t t he b o t tom . A round t he c ross a nd b e tween t wo c oncen tr ic l i nes t here a ppears ab and o f wavy l i nes ( f ig . 5 6) . T he f ac t t ha t t he c hurch was b u i l t o u ts ide t he ma in l i v ing c omp lex a nd a l igned w i th t he b oundary wa l l i nd ica tes t ha t i tw as b u i l t a t at ime w hen t he w ho le c omp lex was s t i l l i n u se . B efore a t te mp t ing t o d a te t he s i te a nd mak ing s ome g enera l r e marks a bou t t he c omp lex a s aw ho le , w e w ou ld l i ke t o p rov ide ab r ief i nven tory o f t he v ar ious sma l l o b jec ts , e spec ia l ly c o ins ,wh ich w ere d iscovered i n t he c ourse o f i t s e xc ava t ion . T hese f i nds c an b e g rouped u nder f our ma in h ead ings : t oo ls a nd i mp le men ts o f work , a r t ic les o f e veryday u se , a r ms a nd weaponry a nd c o ins . T oo ls a nd Imp le men ts o f Work B y f ar t he most n u merous w ere c lay l oom-we igh ts, i n a l l 3 50 b e ing f ound . I n a dd i t ion w e e xcava ted 5 0 m i l lstones , 6 1 c lay a nd s tone s p ind le-whor ls , 9 r ^.;

i ron c h ise ls , 2i ron h oes , 6i ron s aws , o ne p a ir o f i ron c ompasses, 9 i ron s ick les a nd s cy thes a nd 1i ron a dze . A r t ic les o f E veryday U se H ere w e f ound a pprox i ma te ly 1 40 sma l l c lay v esse ls o f d i f feren t s hapes a nd s izes , 1 5 c lay l a mps , 3 1 i ron k n ives a nd 8 i ron a nd b ronze k eys. O ther a r t ic les

1 8

t o b e i nc luded i n t h is g roup a re v ar ious o rna men ts, i nc lud ing 6b ronze c o mbs, 6r ings , 7b ronze b uck les a nd 6 f i bu lae . Ar ms a nd Weaponry These were f or t he most p art f ound amongst t he r uins o f t he sma l l h ouses d a t ing f ro m t he f our th a nd f i f th c entury .

I ndeed b o th t he s ty le a nd t he f unct ion

o f t he a r t ic les d iscovered wou ld l ead u s t o d a te t he m t o t h is p er iod . Co ins I n t he s i te a s aw ho le we d iscovered 2 30 c o ins, most ly b ronze , wh ich a re l i sted b e low 1 .

Ph i l ip o f Macedon ( 359 - 3 36)

1

2 .

A lexander I I ( 336 - 3 23)

3

3 .

S euthes I I ( 323 - ? )

2

4 .

Barbar ian im i ta t ions ( 2nd - i st c en tury B .C. )

1

5 .

Rhoe meta lces a nd Augus tus ( 11 B .C. - 1 2 A . D.)

2

T o ta l

9

RO MAN 1 .

C laud ius I( 4 1 -5 4)

1

2 .

Nero ( 54 - 6 8)

1

3 .

Vespas ian ( 69 - 7 9)

1

4 .

T ra jan ( 98 - 17)

2

5 .

Hadr ian ( 117 - 1 38 )

1

6 .

L uc ius Verus ( 161 - 1 69)

1

7 .

Marcus Aure l ius ( 161 - 1 80)

2

8 .

Faust ina ( w ife o f Marcus Aure l ius)

3

9 .

S ep t i mus S everus ( 193 - 2 11)

2

1 0 .

Caraca l la ( 196 - 2 17)

1 6

1 1 .

Caraca l la a nd G e ta

1

1 2 .

Macr inus ( 217 - 2 18)

2

1 3 .

D iadu men ian ( 217 - 2 18 )

1

1 4 .

E lagaba lus ( 2 18 - 2 22)

1

1 5 .

A lexander S everus ( 222 - 2 35)

4

1 6 . 1 7 .

J u l ia Ma maea Max im inus ( 235 - 2 38 )

1 1

1 8 .

G ord ian I I ( 238 - 2 44)

1 0

1 9 .

T ranqu i l l ina ( Gord ian ' sw ife)

2 0

2 0 .

Ph i lippus Arabus ( 244 - 2 49)

4

2 1 .

Va ler ian ( 254 - 2 60 )

2

2 2 .

G a l l ienus ( 254 - 2 68)

2 3 .

C laud ius G o th icus ( 269 - 2 70)

1 0 3

2 4 .

Qu in t il ius ( 270 )

1

2 5 .

A ure l ian ( 270

2 6 .

T ac itus ( 275 - 2 76)

1

2 7 .

Probus ( 277 - 2 82)

2

2 8 .

D ioc le t ian ( 284 - 3 05)

2

2 75)

1 1

1 9

2 9 .

Max im inus Daza ( 305 - 3 13 )

1

3 0 .

G a ler ius Va ler ius ( 305)

1

3 1 .

Constan t ine I( 306 - 3 37)

3

3 2 . 3 3.

L ic in ius I( 307 - 3 23) C onstan t ine I ( 323 - 3 41 )

2 3

3 4. 3 5 .

C onstan t ius I ( 333 - 3 60 ) Va lens ( 364 - 3 78)

1 1

3 6 .

Va len t in ian ( 364 - 3 75)

3 7 .

T heodos ius I( 379 - 3 95)

3 8 .

A rcad ius ( 394 - 4 08 )

3 9 .

E udox ia ( 404)

4 0 .

Honor ius ( 395 - 4 23 )

3 1

4 1 .

U n iden t if ied f ro m t he 4 th a nd 5 th c entury

4 6

7 3 4 2

T o ta l

2 21

A s i s c lear f rom t h is t ab le , t he c o ins i nd ica te a n u n in terrup ted p er iod o f o ccupa t ion f ro m t he He l len is t ic p er iod t o t he f irs t h a l f o f t he f i f th c en tury A .D. A s im i lar p icture i s p rov ided b y p o t tery f ound o n t he s i te . No t as ing le c o in o f r u lers f ro m t he s ix th c en tury A .D . was f ound o n t he s i te i n s p i te o f t he f act t ha t , a s i s we l l k nown , d ur ing t ha t p er iod n u merous c o ins were s truck a nd t he c ircu la t ion o f money was b r isk a nd l ive ly .

T h is l eads u s t o c onc lude t ha t

o ccupa t ion o f t he s i te was d iscon t inued t owards t he m idd le

o f t he f if th c en tury

A .D . a nd c erta in ly b efore t he r e ign o f Anastastus ( 4 91 - 5 18) . T he mone tary r efor ms c arr ied o u t b y Anastas ius g rea t ly s t i mu la ted t he c ircu la t ion o f c o ins b o th d ur ing h is r e ign a nd i n t he r e ign o f t hose who s ucceeded h im . T he a bsence o f c o ins o f t he p er iods b e tween V espas ian a nd T ra jan , b e tween Hadr ian a nd Marcus Aure l ius a nd b etween Marcus Aure l ius a nd S ep t im ius S everus i s f ortu i tous a nd d oes n o t i nd ica te t ha t t he s i te was n o t o ccup ied b e tween t hese p er iods .

I ndeed , t here a re n o h istor ica l r easons why t h is s hou ld b e s o ,

f or d ur ing t he g rea t u pheava ls i n t he midd le o f t he t h ird a nd d ur ing t he s econd h a lf o f t he f our th c entury t here was n o b reak i n t he u se o f money . T he c o ins f ound o n t he s i te c an g ive u s n o r ea l i nd ica t ion o f t he l eve l o f e conom ic a ct iv ity d ur ing t h is p er iod . I n t he f i rst p lace , w e h ave n o i dea wha t p roport ion o f money i n c ircu la t ion a t t ha t t ime was l ost a nd t herefore r e ma ined i n t he g round f or u s t o f i nd , a nd s econd ly we d o n o t k now h ow many o f t he l ost c o ins we a ctua l ly f ound a nd h ow many r e ma ined u nd iscovered i n t he p rocess o f c lear ing t he s o i l f rom t he s i te . However , we c anno t b ut b e impressed b y t he l arge n u mber o f c o ins f ro m t he p er iods c overed b y Caraca l la , Gord ian I I , G a l l ienus a nd Aure l ian .

Here , o f c ourse , t he e xp lana t ion may we l l l i e i n t he f act t ha t

i n t hese p er iods t here was h e ightened mone tary a ct iv ity r esu lt ing f ro m a c r is is i n t rade a nd g enera l i nf la t ion . T he c ons iderab le i ncrease i n t he n u mber o f c o ins d a t ing f ro m t he e nd o f t he f our th a nd b eg inn ing o f t he f i f th c entury c an b e e xp la ined b o th b y i nf la t ion a nd t he d eepen ing e conom ic c r isis a nd b y t he f ac t t ha t i n t he p reced ing p er iod a c onsiderab le n u mber o f sma l l c om mod ity p rod ucers r es iden t o n t he s i te a nd p rev ious ly work ing a s au n i t s p l i t u p a nd b egan work ing o n t he ir o wn .

2 0

S ITE DATING AND H ISTORY , I n o ur d escr ip t ion o f t he i nd iv idua l e le men ts wh ich g o t o make u p t he c o mp lex i n De l t monyoyo K ali ! we i nd ica ted t he e x istence o f t wo d ist inct p er iods o f d eve lopmen t .

Dur ing t he f i rst p er iod , t he c omp lex was a s ing le u n i t , c on-

s tructed a ccord ing t o ap rev iously c once ived p lan . D ur ing t he s econd p er iod i t was t ransfor med i n to a v i l lage i n w h ich t he i nd iv idua l h ouses were b u i lt a ccord ing t o t he t aste , p references a nd e conom ic p ossib i l it ies o f t he s epara te f am i l ies . F ro m wha t h as b een s a id s o f ar i tw i l l b e c lear t ha t d uring t he f i rst p er iod t he c o mp lex was f undamen ta l ly a n o ut-o f-town h ouse a nd t he c en tre o f ac ountry e sta te ( v i l la r ust ica ) .

I n s ay ing t h is i t must b e men t ioned t ha t , a s w i l l l a ter

b eco me c lear , t hese were o n ly t he l i v ing q uar ters ( pars u rbana ) , i nhabi ta ted b y t he o wner h i mse lf , h is f am i ly a nd h is h ouseho ld s ervants . S im i lar dwe l l ings h ave b een f ound i n B u lgar ia , f or e xa mp le n ear Madara ,2 2 a t I va l lovgrad 2 3 a nd a lso p oss ib ly a t O be lya .2 4 S im i lar dwe l l ings f or l andowners h ave b een d isc overed i n t he v i l las i n I ta ly , where .

2 5

i n Pannon ia ,

2 6

i n E ng land ,

2 7

S yr ia 2 8 a nd e lse-

I n a n t iqu i ty w r iters c ons idered s uch dwe l l ings b e long ing t o t he l and-

owner t o f or m a n i n tegra l ( i .e . n o t i ndependen t ) p ar t o f t he o vera l l a rch itec tura l c o mp lex o ft he v il la . 2 9 Wha t must b e s a id , h owever , i s t ha t among a l l t he v i l las k nown t ou s we h ave d iscovered n o e xac t p ara l le l f or t he dwe l l ing i n Cha ta lka .

C ha talka i s d ist ingu ished n o t o n ly b y t he f act t ha t i ti s i ndependen t

a nd s epara ted f ro m t he o ther b u i ld ings n o t u sed f or a cco mmoda t ion p urposes, b ut a lso o n a ccoun t o f i t s p lan a nd g enera l l ayout .

I ndeed i ti s h ig h ly u n like ly

t ha t av i l la i ndent ica l t o t he o ne a t Cha ta lka w i l l e ver b e f ound , f or a l though o ut-of-town h ouses d o i n g enera l f o l low t he o vera l l p a t tern o f h ouses i n t he c i t ies, t he ir p lan a nd l ayou t a re more f ree ly c once ived , f or t he ir owners were u nrestr icted i n t he amoun t o f s pace t hey c ou ld o ccupy a nd t he b u i lders h ad t o t ake i n to a ccoun t a ny p ecu l iar it ies i n t he t erra in u nder c onstruc t ion .

T he ma in

d ist ingu ish ing f ea ture o f t he C ha ta lka h ouse i s t he way i n wh ich i ti s p lanned r ound t wo c our tyards, a f ea ture wh ich i nv ites c ompar ison w i th h ouses i n t he O r ien t , a l though , when t aken i nd iv idua l ly , t he t wo c ourtyards i n C ha ta lka a re a rranged a long t he l i nes o f t he G reek o r Roman p er isty le h ouse .

3 0

T he G reek

o r Ro man p er isty le h ouse , h owever , d if fers f rom Cha ta lka i n t ha t i ti s b ui lt a long a s ing le a x is, a nd t he p er isty le c an o n ly b e r eached b y c rossing t he a tr iu m . When w e s peak o f d at ing t he h ouse , we a re p r i mar i ly c oncerned w ith t he t ime o f t he h ouse ' sc onstruc t ion a nd d estruct ion a nd , i n a dd it ion , w i th t hose p er iods when i tu nderwen t ma jor r ebu i ld ing . I n a t te mpt ing t o d e ter m ine t he i n it ia l c onstruct ion p er iod we must b ear i n mind t wo t h ings i n p ar t icu lar :

f i rst ly t ha t t he h ouse i s b ui lt o n t he s i te o f a n

o lder s e t t le men t a nd , s econd ly , t ha t i ti s w i thout p ara l le l i n Bu lgar ia b o th i n wha t c oncerns i t s p lan a nd i n w ha t c oncerns i t s c onstruct ion t echn iques .

We

w i l l n eed , t herefore , t o r e ly h eav i ly o n t he sma l ler f i nds, i n p art icu lar t he c o ins, a nd o n t he s tra t if ica t ion l ayers . When e xcava t ing t he wa l ls o ft he b u i ld ing we d iscovered t ha t t he f ounda t ions c ut t hrough t he H e l len ist ic a nd H a l lstat t l ayers .

We c an s ta te q u ite u nequ ivo-

c a l ly t ha t o n ly Ro man ma ter ia ls a nd c o ins were t o b e f ound a bove t he s teps i n

2 1

t he wa l ls .

The p re-Roman f i nds ment ioned i n o ur l i st were r e moved f rom

d eeper l ayers e i ther d ur ing t he p rocess o f e xcava t ion o r d ur ing t he a ctua l b u i ld ing o f t he h ouse . I t was a h appy c o inc idence i ndeed t ha t t he s et t le men t w h ich e x isted b efore t he c onstruct ion o f t he h ouse o ccup ied o n ly t he e astern s ec t ion o ft he t errace . T he western s ect ion o f t he h ouse was b ui lt o n v irg in g round a nd h ere n o p re-Roman ma ter ia ls w ere d iscovered .

T h is r u les o ut

t he p oss ib i li ty o f t he h ouse b e ing p re-Roman u n less, o f c ourse , t he western s ec t ion was a l a ter a dd it ion . Th is, h owever , i s impossib le f or i ti s p rec ise ly i n t he western s ec t ion t ha t t he dwe l ling o f t he l andowner h i mse lf i s t o b e f ound , a nd t h is wou ld h ave b een b u i lt b efore t he a ccom moda t ion f or t he h ouse s ervan ts . T here c an , t herefore , b e n o d oub t t ha t t he h ouse was b ui lt af ter T hrace h ad b ecome a Ro man p rov ince . A more p rec ise d a t ing o ft he h ouse o n t he b asis o f t he f i nds a lready ment ioned i s n o t p oss ib le , b ut w e w i l l e ndeavour t o a rr ive a t ad a te o nce we h ave e xa m ined i n more d e ta i l t he r esu lts o bta ined f ro m e xcavat ions c arr ied o u t a t t he o ther s i tes .

T he c o ins c anno t h ere b e o f a ny

g rea t a ss istance , f or t hey c ou ld we l l h ave b een d epos i ted i n t he s et t le men t wh ich e x is ted b efore o ur p ar t icu lar b u i ld ing , a s h ad b een t he c ase w ith t he G reek c o ins . A more h e lpfu l g u ide i s t he u se o f wh i te mor tar a nd t he a bsence o f f i red b r ick i n t he f i rst c onstruct ion p er iod , a l though t h is q uest ion h as n o t b een s uf f ic ien t ly s tud ied a nd i ti s n o t y e t k nown p rec ise ly when f i red b r ick 3 1 a nd t he a dd it ion o f f i red b r ick t o mortar made i t s a ppearance i n b u i ld ings i n T hrace . Many a re o ft he o p in ion t ha t t h is o ccurred d ur ing t he r e ign o f T ra jan , i .e . a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he s econd c entury . 3 2 For t he p resent , t herefore , i t wou ld s ee m l i ke ly t ha t t he h ouse was b u i l t b efore t he s econd c en tury . T he d a te o f t he v i l la s t o ta l d estruc t ion a nd i t s f i na l a bandonmen t c an b e d e ter m ined w ith g rea ter p rec is ion . Men t ion h as a lready b een made o f t he f ac t t ha t a who le v i l lage was s ubsequen t ly b u i lt o n t he s i te o f t he r u ined v i l la a nd t ha t t he h ouses i n t h is v i l lage were c onstructed w ithou t a ny r egard f or t he p lan a nd g enera l a rrange men t o f t he f or mer h ouse . C erta in o f t hese h ouses were b u i lt i n t he c our tyards a bove t he imp luv ia , o thers i n r ooms wh ich w ere b et ter p reserved ( No . 1 0 ) , a nd o thers h ave t he ir f ounda t ions a bove t he r u ins t he mse lves, a l though t hey a re o n ly s epara ted f rom t he mass ive w a l ls o f t he f or mer s t ructure b y s o me 1 0 cm ( f ig . 1 0) . Dwe l lings f rom t h is l a ter p er iod a re a lso f ound a bove t he b oundary wa l l , af act wh ich i nd ica tes t ha t t h is t oo was d estroyed . I ndeed i t may we l l b e t ha t t he b oundary wa l l i t se lf p rov ided b u i ld ing ma ter ia ls f or t hese n ew h ouses . O n t he b as is o f c o ins a nd o ther ma ter ia ls f ound i n t hese n ew h ouses, w e c an d a te t he ir c onstruct ion t o t he e igh t ies o f t he f our th c en tury . I t was o n ly t hen t ha t t hese c o ins b egan t o c ome i n to w ide c ircu la t ion , ( c f . t he a ppended l i s ts) a s ac onsequence o f t he l arge n umber o f sma l l c o m mod ity p roducers a c t ive i n t he v i l lage . More t han t wo c en tur ies l i e b e tween t he b u i ld ing o f t he h ouse a nd i t s d est ruct ion a nd a bandon men t .

D ur ing t h is p er iod , Chr ist ian ity was a dop ted i n

p lace o f t he p agan r e l ig ion .

I tw i l l b e r emembered t ha t t he p agan s anctuary

was d estroyed a nd a bandoned .

T he C hr ist ian c hurch i n t urn a lso d isappeared .

O ver t h is l ong p er iod i ti s q u ite n a tura l t ha t t here w ere c er ta in a l tera t ions made t o t he h ouse a s we l l .

T he r e ma in ing wa l ls a nd r oo ms, h owever , p rov ide

n o e v idence a s t o t he v ar ious r epa irs c arr ied o ut o r t o t he a l tera t ions made o n ' t he o r ig ina l p lan o f t he h ouse .

Repa irs may we l l h ave b een made t o t he u pper 2 2

s ec t ions o ft he b u i ld ing -b o th t o t he s o l id a nd t he l ess s o l id p ar ts -b o th o f w h ich a re n o l onger i n e x istence .

T he wa l ls , h owever , a re o f s uch mass ive

p ropor t ions a nd s ound c onstruc t ion t ha t t hey c ou ld we l l h ave s urv ived w i thout a ny f undamen ta l r epa ir work , h ad t hey n o t b een w i lfu l ly d estroyed . T he ma in e le men ts a l ter ing t he o r ig ina l p lan c f t he h ouse a re t he wa ter p ipe a nd t he r es u l t ing r econstruc t ion o f t he i mp luv iu m i n t he e astern c our tyard , a nd a lso t he c onstruc t ion o f t he b a th b u i ld ing i n t he e astern p ar t o f t he h ouse . We h ave , h owever , a lready made men t ion o f t he f ac t t ha t t he t hresho lds o f a l most a l l t he d oors w ere r a ised b y a pprox ima te ly 3 0 cm . O ne wonders w he ther t h is m igh t h ave r esu l ted f rom a n a tura l r a is ing o ft he l eve l i n t he c our tyards o f t he h ouse . I fw e r emember t ha t n o c ar ts w ere d r iven i n to t he c our tyards a nd t ha t n o manufac tur ing p rocess l i ke ly t o l eave a ny k ind o f d ebr is was c arr ied o u t t here , a nd f ur thermore t ha t t he p av ing i n t he c our ty ards wou ld c er ta in ly h ave b een r egu lar ly c leaned b y t he s ervan ts, t hen we must c onc lude t ha t a ny n a tura l r a is ing o f t he l eve ls i s t o b e r u led o u t . T he r a is ing o ft he l eve ls c an o n ly h ave c ome a bou t a s ar esu l t o ft he t o ta l d estruct i on o ft he h ouse , t he r u ins o fw h ich were n ever p roper ly c leared away . E v idence o f t h is c an b e c lear ly s een i n t he n or th-western c orner o f t he l arge c our tyard b enea th t he s ta ircase t o t he u pper s torey ( f ig . 2 5) .

T h is s ta ircase

w as c omp le te ly d es troyed a nd t hen r ebu il t o n ah igher l eve l . B enea th t he l ower s tep o ft h is s ta ircase a l ayer o f mor tar a nd sma l l s tones , w h ich c anno t b e c ons idered t ob e an a tura l o ccupa t ion l ayer , was d iscovered . Had i tb een an a tura l o ccupa t ion l ayer , t hen i tw ou ld h ave c overed t he s tep a nd n o t n ecess i ta ted i t s r e mova l t o ah igher l eve l . Thus , o ver i t s t wo c en tury p er iod o f e x is tence t he h ouse was o nce p art ia l ly d estroyed a nd t hen l a ter r estored . E xact ly w hen t h is h appened i s n o t e asy t o s ay , b u t i t was c er ta in ly we l l b efore i t s f i na l d es truct ion a nd a bandonmen t . T h is i s c lear ly w itnessed b y t he f ac t t ha t t he t hresho lds a nd s teps ( f igs . 3 7 , 5 0 ) , wh ich w ere u sed a f ter t he h ouse ' sr estora t ion , h ave b een c ons iderab ly w orn d own b y c onstan t u se . I ti s d if f icu l t t o s ee w hy t he v i l la s hou ld h ave b een d estroyed i n t he s econd c en tury o r i n t he f i rst h a lf o f t he t h ird c en tury , f or t h is was a p er iod o fp eace a nd c ons iderab le e cono m ic d eve lopmen t , b o th i nt he Roman Emp ire a s aw ho le a nd i n T hrace i n p ar t icu lar . T he mos t l i ke ly e xp lana t ion , t herefore , i s t ha tt he h ouse was d estroyed b y t he G o ths w hen t hey i nvaded i n t he m idd le o f t he t h ird c entury . The r estora t ion o f t he h ouse must most c er ta in ly b e l i nked w i th t he l ay ing o ft he wa ter p ipe a nd t he c onstruc t ion o ft he b aths . A s h as a lready b een men t ioned , t he wa ter p ipe w as l a id w hen .the b o t tom s tep o ft he s ta ircase j o in ing t he w estern a nd t he e as tern s ect ion o ft he h ouse ( f igs . 3 7 , 5 0 ) was b ur ied b enea th r ubb le a nd t he d oorway r e moved t o t he s econd s tep . T he r ec ons truct ion o f t he e astern i mp luv iu m , t here fore , mus t a lso h ave t aken p lace i n t he s econd h a lf o f t he t h ird c en tury when t he b oundary wa l l was e x tended t owards t he w es t i n o rder t o f or m a n e x tra c our tyard ( 2 1a ) . As t o t he c hurch , t h is t oo h as i t s o wn h is tory a nd d eve lopmen t .

Q u i te

c lear ly i tc ou ld n o t h ave b een b u i l t b efore t he p ene tra t ion o f C hr is t ian ity t o t h is a rea . A s h as a lready b een men t ioned , i t was b u i lt o u ts ide a nd i n l i ne w i th t he b oundary wa l l . A smal l t errace w as l eve l led o u t i n t he s ide o ft he h i l l t o a ccommoda te t he c hurch , af act w h ich s hows t ha t i t was b u i l t a t a

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t ime when t he h ouse was s t i l l i n e x istence .

Had t h is n o t b een t he c ase , t hen

i t wou ld most c erta in ly h ave b ee n b u i lt o n t he ma in t errace o n t he r u ins o f t he e astern s ector , a s i ndeed h appened w ith t he f ourteen th c en tury c hape l o f wh ich men t ion was made e ar l ier . We c an t herefore s ay t ha t t here was a c lose l i nk b e tween t he h ouse a nd t he c hurch . I ndeed t he c hurch c ou ld n o t h ave b een b u i lt s o n ear t o t he h ouse w ithou t t he owner ' sk now ledge a nd a gree men t . More t han t ha t , i t was t he owner o f t he h ouse w ho p rov ided t he money f or t he c hurch ' sc onstruc t ion .

T h is b e ing s o , t he c hurch c ou ld n o t h ave b een b u i l t

b efore t he a dop t ion o f Chr ist ian ity a s t he s ta te r e l ig ion ,

f or t h is p owerfu l

l andowner , w ho h ad p rev iously ma in ta ined t he p agan s anctuary i n t he s ou thwestern c orner o f h is h ouse ( aga in o u ts ide i t s wa l ls) , c ou ld h ard ly h ave h ad a ny r eason t o c hange h is r e l ig ion b efore t h is c hange h ad r ece ived o f f ic ia l s anc t ion a t t he h ighest l eve l .

T he d estruc t ion o f t he p agan s anctuary a nd t he

c onstruct ion o ft he c hurch may , i n o ur o p in ion , b e c onsidered a s ad emons tra t ion o f l oya lty t o t he c en tra l a uthor i t ies , most p robab ly a s e ar ly a s t he r e ign o f Constan t ine t he G rea t .

T he c onstruct ion o f t he c hurch must , t here-

f ore , h ave t aken p lace i n t he p er iod immed ia te ly a f ter A . D . 3 25 , b ut i tw i l l b e r e me mbered t ha t t here w ere t wo p er iods o f c onstruct ion . T he d es truct ion o f t he c hurch c anno t h ave c o inc ided w i th t he f i rst d estruc t ion o f t he h ouse, c irca A .D . 2 00 , f or a t t ha t t ime t he c hurch h ad n o t b een b u i l t . On t he o ther h and we h ave n o r easons t o t h ink t ha t t he c hurch c on t inued i n e x istence a f ter t he d isappearance o ft he v i l lage i n t he f i f th c entury . I ti s t herefore r easonab le t o a ssu me t ha t i t was b u i l t , d estroyed a nd t hen r estored b e tween A .D . 3 25 a nd t he midd le o f t he f if th c entury .

B ear ing i n mind t he s o l id c onstruct ion

o f t he wa l ls ( 90 cm t h ick ) we c an h ard ly i mag ine t ha t t he c hurch b ecame a t o ta l r u in mere ly t hrough l ack o fu sage i n ap er iod o f o ne h undred y ears . I f t h is h ad b een t he c ase , t hen i ti s r easonab le t o a ssu me t ha t i t wou ld h ave b een r estored o n i t s f or mer f ounda t ions . Q u i te c lear ly t he c hurch was r ansacked a nd w i lfu l ly d estroyed , a nd o ne must t hen a sk t he q uest ion who i t was t ha t c omm it ted t h is a ct o f v anda l is m . AC hr ist ian p opu la t ion wou ld , f or o bv ious r easons , n o t h ave d ared t o c omm it s uch a n a c t .

N e ither t he s urround ing

C hr ist ian p opu la t ion n or C hr ist ian i nvaders wou ld h ave h ad a ny r eason t o d o s uch a t h ing , t he more s o a s i n t h is v i l lage c hurch t here wou ld h ave b een n o th ing worth s tea l ing .

I ndeed , t h ieves w ou ld c er ta in ly h ave d irected t he ir

a t ten t ions t owards t he h ouse i t se lf .

T he G o ths, who , i n o ur o p in ion , d e-

s troyed t he h ouse i n a n u pr is ing i n A .D . 3 78 , were t he mse lves Chr is t ians a nd wou ld , t herefore , n o t h ave d estroyed t he c hurch . And e ven i fi tw as t he G o ths who d estroyed i t , most c erta in ly t he f ar f rom r ich l oca l p opu la t ion , w h ich was n o t i n ap os it ion e ven t o e rect s o l id ly b u i lt h ouses f or t he mse lves, wou ld n o t h ave b een a b le t o r estore t he c hurch a nd d ecora te t he wa l ls w ith mura l p a in t ings .

I n o ur o p in ion t he d est ruct ion o f t he f i rst c hurch was t he

work e i ther o f r e l ig ious f ana t ics o r o f p eop le w ith ap o l it ica l mo t ive . T he l a t ter s ee ms t he more l i ke ly . T he c hurch was most c er ta in ly d estroyed i n t he r e ign o f J u l ian t he Apos ta te ( 361 t o 3 63) who , a s i s we l l k nown , r e jected C hr ist ian ity a nd r ever ted t o t he f or mer p agan t rad it ions . I ft h is was i n f act s o , t hen t he p erson w ho was r espons ib le f or b u i ld ing t he c hurch a l lowed i t t ob e d estroyed; i ndeed h e may w e l l h ave o rdered i t s d estruct ion h i mse lf a nd t hen r ebu i l t i tf o l low ing t he d ea th o f J u l ian t he Apos ta te .

T he c hurch was

n o t r ebu i lt o n i t s o ld f ounda t ions , f or e ven t he f ounda t ions o n t he s outhern a nd western s ide were d ug u p a nd r e moved , a n a ct ion w h ich wou ld n o t h ave b een

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c arr ied o u t b y o rd inary t h ieves .

I ft he f i rst c hurch was d estroyed i n A .D .

3 61, t hen i t s c onstruc t ion c an b e d a ted t o t he p er iod b e tween A .D . 3 23 a nd 3 61 .

T he s econd c hurch was d estroyed , a long w ith t he v i l lage , i n t he f i rst

h a lf o f t he f i f th c en tury . T hus a n a na lys is o f t he e v idence p rov ided b y t he s i te e xcava ted b y u s a t De l i monyovo Ka le s hows t ha t w e h ave h ere a n o u t-of-town h ouse b e long ing t o ar ich l andowner b u i lt i n t he s econd c en tury o n t op o f a n o ld Hel len is t ic s e t t lemen t . I t was c onstructed i n t wo s epara te p er iods . T he f i rst p er iod c o mes t o ac lose i n t he t h ird c entury when t he h ouse was d estroyed b y t he G o ths,

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wh ile t he s econd p er iod c o mes t o a n e nd i n t he e igh t ies o f t he f ourth c en tury when i t was a ga in d estroyed , t h is t ime b y t he H uns o r b y t he V is igo ths .

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D ur ing t he s econd c onstruct ion p er iod t he h ouse was improved b y t he a dd it ion o f a wa ter p ipe , ab a th b u i ld ing , af urther c ourtyard o n t he western s ide , a nd a longs ide t he h ouse , o n t he s i te o ccup ied i n t he f i rst p er iod b y ap agan s anctuary d ed ica ted t o t he T hrac ian Horse man , aC hr ist ian c hurch was b u i l t . T h is c hurch was b u i l t b e tween A . D . 3 23 a nd 3 61, d estroyed b e tween A .D . 3 61 a nd 3 63 a nd t hen , f o l low ing t he d ea th o f J u l ian t he Aposta te , r ebu i l t . Fo l low ing t he d estruct ion o f t he h ouse t owards t he e nd o f t he e igh t ies o f t he f our th c en tury i t was a bandoned b y i t s o wner , a nd s ubsequen t ly t he imp over ished l oca l r ura l p opu la t ion moved i n t o make t he ir h o mes among t he r u ins . T hese p eop le were ma in ly e ngaged i n a gr icu lture a nd l i ved i n s epara te h ouseho lds, e ach f am i ly i nhab i t ing a sma l l s ing le r oo med h ouse .

I t wou ld

a ppear t ha t t he c hurch s erved t h is p opu la t ion t oo a nd was d es troyed a long w ith t he h uts i n wh ich t hey l i ved e i ther d ur ing t he f i rst h a lf o f t he f if th c entury b y t he O strogo ths o r b y t he Huns 3 5 t owards t he m idd le o f t he c entury . I n v iew o f t he f ac t t ha t t he s i te y ie lded n e ither c o ins n or o ther ma ter ia ls f ro m t he s ix th c en tury , i tc an b e c onc luded t ha t i tc eased t o b e i nhab i ted f ro m t he f i f th c entury o n .

I t was n o t u n t i l t he f ourteen th c entury A . D . t ha t

t he e astern p ar t o f t he t errace , wh ich i n a n t iqu ity w as n o t o ccup ied b y a ny p ar t icu lar ly l arge o r s o l id b u i ld ings, was t ransfor med i n to a g raveyard a nd a sma l l c hape l b u i lt n earby .

I ti s p erhaps o f i n terest t o men t ion t ha t t h is was

aB u lgar ian g raveyard , a s i s e v idenced b y t he s i lver c o ins o f a sma l l d eno mi na t ion s truck i n t he t ime o f I van A lexander a nd h is s on M iha i l a nd f ound i n t he g raves .

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I .

DE L I MONYOVA N IVA ( f ig . 1 /B)

T h is i s s i tua ted s ome 1 0 m t o t he w es t o f t he p ars u rbana o f D e l i monyovo K a le ( f igs . 2 , 3 ) a nd o ccup ies t he t errace w h ich b roadens o u t b e tween t he t wo sma l l r ivers .

Ag u l ly s ome 6 m w ide c on ta in ing t he b ed o f a n a nc ien t r oad ,

( f ig . 5 9) r uns b e tween D e l i monyova N iva a nd De l i monyovo Ac ons iderab le q uan t ity o f Roman p o t tery , f rag men ts o f t i les a nd s tones w ith mortar a dher ing t o t he m was f ound o n t he s urface o f t he meadow , w h ich , p r ior t o t he c o m mence men t o f e xcava t ions , h ad b een u nder r egu lar c u lt iva t ion . We t herefore h ad g ood r eason t o s uppose t ha t t h is was t he s i te o f a n a nc ien t v i l lage , a nd i ndeed , a t t he b eg inn ing o f o ur w ork t h is i s h ow we r eferred t o i t . A s t he meadow h ad o n ly b een c u l t iva ted b y h and a nd n o t b y mach ines , t he s o i l h ad o n ly b een d isturbed t o ad ep th o f b e tween 3 0 a nd 4 0 cm .

I n t he s ou th-

e astern p art o f t he t errace a l arge , s o l id ly c onstruc ted b u i ld ing h ad c lear ly a t tracted t he a t ten t ion o ft reasure h un ters w ho h ad c omp le te ly r emoved s ome o ft he wa l ls r igh t d own t o t he f ounda t ions . A t n u merous p o in ts o n t he s i te t he l ower s ect ions o f c lay p i tchers w ere d iscovered , p resu mab ly b e long ing t o t he f our th c entury dwe l l ings a s o n D e l i monyovo K a le .

T he r e ma ins o f t hese dwe l l ings were d estroyed b y

c u lt iva t ion , b ut e v idence o f t he ir e x istence w as p rov ided b y t he p ot tery a nd c o ins d iscovered i n t he u pper c u l t iva ted l ayer .

Nowhere w ere e i ther wa l ls

o r h ear ths b e long ing t o t hese b u i ld ings f ound . O nce t he who le o ccupa t ion l ayer , wh ich n owhere e xceeded 6 0 cm , h ad b een r e moved , i t was d iscovered t ha t a l most t he w ho le t errace h ad o nce b een t aken u p b y au n if ied a rch itectura l c omp lex .

T h is f or med a n a l most r egu lar

r ectang le 1 35 m l ong a nd 5 6 m w ide - a t o ta l a rea o f a pprox i ma te ly 6 ,500 m 2 ( f ig . 5 8) . A wa l l w ith f ounda t ions 5 0 cm t h ick a nd c onstructed o f s tones s e t i n w h ite mor tar e nc loses t he w ho le c o mp lex . T he r e la t ive t h inness o f t he wa l l c omb ined w ith t he f act t ha t n o a ccu mu la t ion o f d ebr is was i n e v idence i nd ica tes t ha t t he u pper s ect ions o f t he w a l l were o f af l i msy wa t t le c onstruct ion . A ccess t o t he c omp lex was b y way o f as ing le e n trance o n t he s ou the astern s ide w here a pproach i s o n t he l eve l . Unfor tuna te ly , a t t h is p o in t t he wa l l h ad b een t o ta l ly d estroyed a nd n o t races o f t he g a teway w ere d iscovered . O n t he r e ma in ing t hree s ides t he t errace f e l l away s harp ly r ender ing a pproach e x tre me ly d if f icu l t .

However , o ne c anno t r u le o u t t he p oss ib le e x istence a t

o ne t ime o f sma l l p os terns o n t he e astern a nd western s ide f ac i l ita t ing c on tact w ith De l i monyovo K a le ' a nd w i th s i tes t o t he w est o ft he c omp lex , o f wh ich more w i l l b e s a id l a ter . T he c omp lex i s d iv ided i n to t wo s ect ions o fu nequa l s ize , t he e astern s ect ion b e ing sma l ler a nd h av ing a g rea ter n u mber o f b u i ld ings, w h i le t he w estern s ect ion i s made u p o f al arge c our tyard w ith a n u mber o f b u i ld ings a rranged a round i t s p er i me ter .

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THE EASTERN S ECTION T h is i s j o ined t o t he western s ect ion b y ad oor 2 .3 0 m w ide a nd f l anked b y b u t tresses p ro ject ing t owards t he e ast .

I ti s t herefore t o b e a ssu med t ha t

t he e n trance o nce h ad i t s own d ouble d oor . T he e astern s ect ion c on ta ined t he f o l low ing i nd iv idua l s tructures :

i n t he

s ou th-wes tern c orner , ab u i ld ing o f s o l id c onstruct ion h av ing f our r oo ms , t wo o fw h ich h ad a h ypocaust ( 1 ) , af urther b u i ld ing i n t he s ou th-eastern c orner ( 2 ) , al arge o pen p oo l ( 3 ) ab u i ld ing w i th t wo r oo ms a t tached t o t he e astern b oundary wa l l ( 4 ) a nd a l arge r ectangu lar b u ild ing i n t he n orthern p ar t s tand ing i n i t s o wn c our tyard a nd s epara ted f ro m t he l arger p art o f t he e as tern s ect ion b y a wa l l . 1 .

B u i ld ing No . 1( f ig . 5 8 No . 1 )

T h is i s t he l argest , most s o l id ly b u i l t a nd b y f ar t he most impress ive s truct ure i n t he e astern s ect ion o ft he c o mp lex , t wo o f i t s r oo ms b e ing e qu ipped w ith a h ypocaust .

I n a l l i th as f our r oo ms , al arge n orthern r oo m ( a ) , t wo

sma l ler r oo ms(b & c ) s i tua ted t o t he s outh o f t he f i rst r oo m a nd a f our th r oo m ( d ) o n t he e astern s ide o f r oo m c . The s ou thern wa l l o f r ooms c a nd d i s f or med b y t he b oundary wa l l o ft he c o mp lex , af act t ha t i nd ica tes t ha t b o th wa l l a nd b u i ld ing were c once ived a nd c onstructed a s as ing le u n i t . T he w a l ls a re 6 0 cm t h ick a nd c ons truc ted o f s tone a nd wh ite mortar .

On ly

t he e as tern wa l l o f t he n orthern r oo m i s c onstructed o fb r ick a nd r ed mortar , t h is b e ingdue t o t he f act t ha t a n o utf low c hanne l was s i ted i n t he l ower s ec t ion o f t h is wa l l ( f igs . 6 0 , 6 1, 6 2) .

I n a ctua l f act we h ave h ere t o d o w ith a n a l-

t era t ion made t o t he wa l l a t al a ter d a te , f or t he wa l l i s w ider a t t h is p o int a nd e xtends b eyond t he l i ne o f t he o r ig ina l wa l l . T h is c an c lear ly b e s een o f f ig . 6 2 . T he l ower p ar t o ft h is wa l l i s a lso c onstruc ted o f s tone a nd wh ite mortar . A l though t he v ar ious r ooms d if fer i s s ize a nd a rrange men t , t he l i nk b et ween t hem , a s e v idenced b y t he ir f l oors, i s i n t i ma te a nd e ssen t ia l . T he f l oor i n t he n or thern r oo m , wh ich was n o t e qu ipped w ith a h ypocaust , i s l eve l w ith t he u pper f l oor o ft he h ypocaust i n r oo ms b a nd c , wh ile t he f l oor i n r oo m di s l eve l w ith t he l ower f l oor o ft he h ypocaust ( f ig . 6 5) . Roo m a ( f ig . 6 2) T h is f or ms a r egu lar r ectang le 1 0 m l ong a nd 7m w ide . I tc on ta ined t he l ower s ec t ions o f t wo t i le k i lns, o ne o pen h earth p aved w i th b r icks a nd t hree p i ts d ug o u t o ft he s o l id g round b enea th t he f l oor .

T he t wo k i lns a re o n d if-

f eren t l eve ls a nd c learly b e long t o d if feren t p er iods o f t he b u i ld ing ' se x istence . T he k i ln n ear t he n orthern wa l l i s o f g rea ter d ep th a nd was f i l led w ith s tones a nd mor tar .

T he f l oor o f t he b u i ld ing wh ich c ons is ts p ar t ly o f mortar f i l l ing

a nd p ar t ly o fb roken b r ick a nd t i le a rranged i n n o p art icu lar o rder a nd h av ing n o b ind ing a gen t was l a id a bove t he l eve l o f t he k iln .

T he f urnace , wh ich h as b een

p reserved , i s o va l i n s hape , o pens t owards t he s ou th ( f ig . 6 3) a nd h as a max i mu m d ia me ter o f 2m . T he u pper c ha mber o f t he k i ln i s s upported b y ac o lumn r unn ing n or th/sou th a nd s i tua ted a t t he mou th o f t he f urnace .

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T he f urnace o f t he s econd k iln I s s i tua ted a ga inst t he wes tern w a l l ;

i ndeed

i tc u ts i n to t he wa l l . E v iden t ly a n a t te mp t was made t o c hanne l smoke f rom t he k i ln o u t o ft he r oo m . T h is k i ln i s o f g rea ter d i mens ions ( 3 .30 b y 3 m) a nd h as t hree c o lu mns t o s upport t he g r i l l b etween t he f urnace a nd t he u pper c ha mber . T he mouth o ft h is f urnace f aces e ast . T here i s ad if ference o f a pprox i ma te ly 4 0 cm b etween t he l eve ls o f t he t wo f urnaces . T he h earth ( f igs . 6 2 , 6 4) c ons ists o f a sma l l p la t for m made p ar t ly o f c aref u l ly a rranged b r icks a nd p ar t ly o f s tone b locks . T he d i mens ions o f t h is p la tfor m a re q u ite s urpr is ing , f or i t measures 2b y 1 .8 0 m a nd c ou ld h ave b een u sed f or a v ar iety o fp urposes, a s w i l l b e e xp la ined l a ter .

T he p la t for m i s o n

t he s a me l eve l a s t he s econd f l oor . T he p its, t wo o f wh ich a re s i tua ted i n t he e astern p art o f t he r oo m wh i le t he t h ird i s c lose t o t he h earth ( f igs . 6 2 , 6 4 ) a re a l l c ircu lar i n s hape . We o we t he ir d isccvery t o t he f ac t t ha t t hey were f i l led w ith p ot tery f ragmen ts a nd o ther ma ter ia ls wh ich p er m it ted t he m t o b e d i f feren t ia ted f ro m t he r ocky g round i n wh ich t hey h ad b een d ug . Approx i ma te ly 1 .30 m w ide a t t he ir p er i me ter , t hey n arrow t owards t he b o t to m . T he ir max i mu m d ep th i - "prox i ma te ly 1 .50 m . A s t he p ho tograph c learly s hows , t he o pen ing o f L w es tern p it was c overed o ver b y t he s econd f l oor , whereas t he o pen ings o f t he e as tern p its a re l eve l w ith i t , i nd ica t ing t ha t t he western p i t i s t he e arl ier o ne a nd c eased t o b e u sed f o l low ing t he e xcava t ion o f t he o ther t wo .

I n o ur o p in ion t h is o ccurred

when t he k i ln was moved , f or t he western p i t wou ld h ave b een t oo c lose t o t he mouth o f t he f urnace a nd wou ld h ave r endered i t s u se e x tre me ly a wkward . B efore p roceed ing t o ad iscussion o f t he p urpose o f t he f ea tures d escr ibed a bove a nd t herefore o ft he u se t o wh ich t he r oo m a s a who le was p ut , we wou ld l i ke t o r e turn b r ief ly t o t he c hanne l i n t he e astern wa l l . T he c hanne l , i n f act , b eg ins i n t he n or thern wa l l , t he b end c orrespond ing w i th t he c orner o f t he wa l l b e ing f or med b y as ing le imbrex . A t t he b eg inn ing o f t he c hanne l a sma l l mortar c overed p la t for m was f ound , g o ing t hrough t he wa l l a nd c on t inu ing b eyond i t . T h is p la t for m c ou ld we l l h ave b een t he d oor o f t he r oom , b ut i ti s a l most 4 m i n w id th , f ar w ider t han a ny d oor i n to s uch a r oo m w ou ld n eed t o h ave b een . As c an c lear ly b e s een i n f ig . 6 1, t he c hanne l , wh ich was a pprox i ma tely 4 0 cm d eep a nd 2 0 cm w ide d id n o t c on t inue f or t he who le h e igh t o f t he w a l l.

I t s

d i mens ions, moreover , i nd ica te t ha t i t was d es igned t o c op t, w i th a c ons iderable q uan t ity o f wa ter . Pass ing a long t he who le l eng th o f t he e astern wa l l o f t he r oo m , i ti s j o ined b y t wo f urther o utf low p ipes , o ne f ro m r oom a a nd o ne f ro m r oo m b , t hen , c on t inu ing r ound r oo m d , i tp asses o u t o f t he c omp lex b enea th t he b oundary wa l l , ( f igs . 5 8 , 6 5) .

T he C hanne l t oo u nderwen t ac er ta in amoun t

o f r econstruc t ion d ur ing t he s econd p er iod , when i t was r e la id o n ah igher l eve l t ak ing a d if feren t d irect ion b eyond t he c orner o f r oom d . T here c an b e n o d oubt t ha t t h is c hanne l i n t he wa l l o f r oo m aw as a n o u tf low c hanne l n o t i n tended f or c lean wa ter . We must t herefore c onc lude t ha t wha te ver wen t o n i n t h is r oo m r equ ired c ons iderable q uan t it ies o f wa ter .

T he

p resence o f t he k i lns s uggests t ha t t he r oom c ou ld p oss ibly h ave b een u sed a s ak itchen , f or o vens u sed f or b ak ing b read d if fered l i t t le i n t he ir c onstruct ion f ro m p ot tery k i lns 3 6 . H owever, a k itchen a nd a b akery wou ld h ard ly h ave

2 8

p roduced s uch l arge q uan t i t ies o f o ut f low wa ter .

Ak itchen , moreover , wou ld

h ave h ad n o n eed o f s uch a n O u tf low c hanne l s o c lever ly c onstruc ted w ith in t he wa l l i t se l f .

Our i nvest iga t ions l ead u s t o c onc lude t ha t a long t he who le l eng th

o f t he wa l l a bove t he c hanne l t here o nce e x isted s o me k ind o f a dd it iona l s tructure o n wh ich work r equ ir ing t he u se o f wa ter was c arr ied o u t a nd f ro m wh ich wa ter c onstan t ly f l owed i n to t he c hanne l t hrough o pen ings i n t he wa l l . T he p roduct ion o f p o t tery wou ld s ee m t o b e t he o n ly p rocess r equ ir ing t he u se a nd d isposa l o f s uch l arge q uan t it ies o f wa ter , a nd i ndeed t he v ar ious p ieces o f a ppara tus f ound i n r oo m a wou ld s uggest t ha t i t was i n f act u sed a s ap o t tery workshop .

T he p its wou ld h ave s erved a s v a ts f or t he emu lsif icat ion o f t he

c lay a nd t he r e mova l o f f ore ign b od ies .

T he p ot ter ' s whee ls c ou ld we l l h ave

b een moun ted o n t he sma l l r a ised p la tfor m wh ich we e arl ier r eferred t o a s a h ear th .

B ut h ere a ga in we h ave t o a sk o urse lves whe ther t he p roduct ion o f

p ot tery wou ld h ave n ecess ita ted a c hanne l w ith in t he wa l l . s ure ly b e n o .

T he a nswer must

I n t ha t c ase wha t was t he p rec ise n a ture o f t he a ct iv ity c arr ied

o ut a long t he wa l l?

T he a nswer t o t h is q uest ion i s p rov ided b y a n o b ject f ound

i n t he immed ia te v ic in ity o f t he b u ild ing .

T h is i s ac lay mou ld u sed t o make

c asts f or t he p roduct ion o f c lay a pp l ique 's i n h igh r e l ief ( f ig . 6 6) .

3 7

T he wa l l

must h ave b een e qu ipped w ith a w ide wooden b oard o n wh ich t he p o t ters p roduced r e l ief a pp l iques f or l a mps a nd o ther c lay v esse ls .

S uch c lay a pp l ique 's t oge ther

w ith p laques, t oys, a nd mou lds f or t he ir p roduct ion h ave b een d iscovered n ear t he v il lage o f Boutovo i n t he V e l ikoturnovo D istr ict .

3 8

We c an t herefore s ay t ha t r oo m a s erved a s a workshop f or a p ot tery . Roo ms b a nd c ( f ig . 6 5) Here o n ly t he l ower p or t ions h ave b een p reserved .

Bo th r oo ms were

e qu ipped w ith a h ypocaust o f wh ich t he s upports a re s t il l i n e v idence .

T he l ower

f l oor o f t he h ypocaust i s made o fb r ick , wh ile t he c o lu mns a re c onstructed o f r ound b r icks h av ing a d ia me ter o f 2 2 cm . a re c onstructed o f h a l f b r icks .

On ly t he c o lu mns a long t he wa l ls

T he d istance b e tween t he c o lu mns i s 1 7 cm ,

wh ile t he d istance b e tween t he c en tre o f o ne c o lu mn a nd t he c en tre o f t he n ex t i s 3 4 cm . We c an t herefore s ay t ha t t he b r icks u sed i n t he c onstruct ion o f t he f l oor o f t he r oo ms measured 3 0 b y 3 0 cm .

B etween t he f l oors o f t he t wo

r oo ms t here i s a n o pen ing ( a c hanne l ) 6 0 cm w ide .

None o f t he c o lu mns i n t he

h ypocaust h as b een p reserved i n i t s e n t ire ty , b u t t he l eve l o f t he f l oor i n t he a d jo in ing r oo m a i nd ica tes t ha t t he ir o r ig ina l h e igh t must h ave b een 6 0 cm . T he r oo ms a re o f d if feren t s izes, r oo m b b e ing 4 .80 m l ong a nd 2 .40 m w ide , wh i le r oo m c measures 4 .80 b y 4m .

We c anno t b e c erta in whether ,

i n f act , we h ere h ave t o d o w ith t wo s epara te r oo ms o r w i th a s ing le r oo m w i th t he h ypocaust d iv ided .

E ven i f we a re d ea l ing h ere w ith t wo s epara te r oo ms,

h owever, t he h ypocaust b enea th t he m i nd ica tes t ha t t hey were u sed f or t he s a me p urpose , n a me ly d ry ing o u t t he p o t tery made i n t he a d jo in ing workshop , f or , a s i s w e l l k nown , p ot tery h as t o b e t horough ly d r ied b efore b e ing f i red .

Natur-

a l ly t h is d ry ing p rocess c ould we l l h ave b een c arr ied o ut i n t he o pen a ir , b ut i t wou ld s ee m t ha t i n t h is p ar t icu lar c ase t hose i n c harge o f t he workshop d id n o t w ish t o b e d ependen t o n t he v agar ies o f t he c l i ma te .

2 9

Roo m d ( f ig . 6 5) T h is i s s itua ted o n t he e ast s ide o f r oo m c a nd measures 5b y 3 .40 m . T he f l oor i s o fb ea ten c lay a nd l i es o n t he l eve l o f t he l ower f l oor i n t he a d jo ini ng r oo ms b a nd c . r oo m c .

An o pen ing 6 0 cm w ide j o ins i tw ith t he h ypocaust i n

C lear ly t h is r oo m s erved a s ap raefurn iu m where t he l ogs were

s tored a nd t hen b urned t o p rov ide h ea t f or t he h ypocaust i n t he a d jo in ing r oo ms . T h is b u i ld ing , t herefore , s erved a s ap ot tery workshop wh ich h as n o p rec ise p ara l le ls e i ther i n B u lgar ia o r i n o thvr p rov inces o i t ue r r I ti s u t , o f t he T rost i l e rp r,tIrt p arts o f t he D e l i monyovo N iva c o mp lex , a s i nd ica ted b y t he f act t ha t i ti s s i tua ted i n as epara te c ourtyard .

T he p roduct ive

c apac ity o f t he workshop wou ld n o t h ave b een v ery l arge , b ut o ne must s e t a ga inst t h is t he f act t ha t i t was i n o pera t ion t hroughou t t he y ear , s u m mer a nd w in ter , a nd p roduced p ot tery o f av ery h igh q ua l ity .

One o ugh t , p erhaps, t o

men t ion t ha t t h is was n o t t he o n ly p o t tery k iln i n t he im med ia te v ic in ity o f t he c o mp lex . A s w il l b e i nd ica ted b e low , k i lns f or t he p roduct ion o f h ouseho ld p o t tery were d iscovered s o me 2 00 m t o t he n orth-west o f t he workshop i n t he c ourse o f e xcava t ion work o n b ur ia l mound N o . 4 .

One may c onc lude f ro m

t h is t ha t t he p roduct ion o f p o t tery h ere was e x tre me ly we l l d eve loped .

T he

o rgan isa t ion o f t he workshop t o f unct ion a l l t he y ear r ound a nd t he n a ture o f t he wares p roduced i nd ica te t ha t i to pera ted o n ac o m merc ia l b as is t o s a t isfy t he n eeds n o t o n ly o f t he e sta te i t sel f . A s h as a lready b een men t ioned , t he w orkshop was b u il t i n t wo s epara te p hases c orrespond ing w ith t he t wo c onstruct ion p er iods o f t he p ars u rbana o f De l i monyovo K a le . 2 .

T he Open Poo l ( f ig . 5 8 No . 3 ) T h is i s s i tua ted 2 5 m t o t he n or th o f t he p ot tery workshop .

I ti s d ug i n to

t he g round a nd i t s wa l ls a re l i ned w ith b r icks a nd s tones b onded w ith a wa terimperv ious r ed mortar . h eavy a ggrega te .

T he b o t to m o f t he p oo l i s f or med o f mortar a nd

T he o vera l l l eng th o f t he p oo l i s 1 0 m a nd i t s w id th 4 .40 m

I ti s 9 0 cm d eep ( f ig . 6 7) a nd h e ld a pprox i ma te ly 4 00 r f o f wa ter . s outhern wa l l t he p oo l h ad a n o verf low .

I n i t s

B y means o f ac hanne l c ut i n to t he

g round s urp lus wa ter f ro m t he p oo l was t aken t o t he o u tf low c hanne l o f t he workshop ( f ig . 5 8 ) . T he p oo l was f i l led w ith wa ter d rawn f ro m t he wa ter p ipe l ead ing t o t he p ars u rbana o n D e l i monyovo K a le-. T he wa ter p ipe p assed immed ia te ly t o t he n orth o f t he p oo l , b ut i t wou ld s ee m t ha t i t was n o t d irect ly c onnected t o i t , f or i n o ur o p in ion t he c apac ity o f t he wa ter p ipe wou ld n o t h ave b een s uf f ic ien t t o s upp ly b o th t h is p oo l a nd t he p oo l a nd f o-n ta in i n t he p ars u rbana .

I n a l l

p robab i l ity t he s ect ion o f t he p ipe n earest t o t he p oo l was o nce e qu ipped w ith s o me f or m o f a pparatus p er m it t ing wa ter t o b e d rawn o f f , a l mos t c erta in ly d ur ing t he n igh t . T he p oo l was n o t a n imp luv iu m , f or i ti s t oo l arge a nd t oo d eep a nd , moreover , i th as n o a dd it iona l s tructures n ear i t .

Nor c ou ld i th ave b een a

f i shpond , f or i tl acked t hose p ieces o f e qu ip men t wh ich we d escr ibed i n c onnect ion w ith t he f i shpond i n t he p ars u rbana .

I ti s a lso d if f icu l t t o imag ine

t ha t i t wou ld h ave s erved a s a wa ter ing p lace f or c a t t le .

3 0

T he most l i ke ly

e xp lana t ion s ee ms t o b e t ha t i t was c onnec ted w i th t he p o t tery workshop , f u lf i l l ing t he f unct ion o f ar eservo ir w i th a r eady s upp ly o f a dd it iona l wa ter .

T he

sma l l c apac ity o f t he p ipe wou ld h ave p rec luded t he d irect s upp ly o f wa ter t o t he workshop , a nd we must p resu me t ha t wa ter f rom t he p oo l was c arr ied t o t he workshop b y h and . T he d a te o f t he p oo l ' sc onstruc t ion must c lear ly b e l i nked t o t he l ay ing o f t he w a ter p ipe , w ithou t wh ich i tc ou ld n o t h ave e x isted . I n o ur o p in ion t he wa ter p ipe was l a id i n t he s econd h a l f o f t he t h ird c en tury a nd , i ndeed , t he b u i ld ing t echn iques u sed i n t he c onstruc t ion o f t he p oo l wou ld l ead u s t o d a te i tt o t h is p er iod . A s we h ave a lready men t ioned , t he wa l ls o f t he p oo l a re made o f s tones a nd b r ick i n a l terna t ing l ayers ( opus m ix tu m ) . F ur ther more t he mor tar c on ta ins a n a dm ix ture o fb roken b r ick . Q u ite c lear ly i n t he s econd p er iod t he c apac ity o ft he p o t tery workshop was e x tended ( t he l a ter k i ln i s l arger t han t he e ar l ier o ne ) r esu l t ing i n t he n eed f or a n i ncreased wa ter s upp ly . I t was t h is n eed t ha t l ed t o t he c onstruct ion o f t he p oo l . T he R ec tangu lar B u i ld ing N o . 5( f ig . 5 8 N o . 5 ) T h is i s s i tua ted i n t he n or thern p ar t o f t he e astern c our tyard a nd s epara ted f ro m t he p oo l b y a wa l l . S tand ing i n i t s o wn c ourtyard , a l l t ha t r ema ins o f t h is b u i ld ing t oday i s as ing le r oom measur ing 1 3 .50 b y 7 .50 m . I t s c ons idera ble s i ze l eads u s t o b e l ieve t ha t t h is b u i ld ing o nce h ad a n u pper s torey d iv ided i nto i nd iv idua l b edrooms . E n try t o t he b u i ld ing was f rom t he s ou th w here t wo sma l l s hor t p erpend icu lar wa l ls, p robab ly b u t tresses f or t he e n trance , a re s t il l i n e v idence . T he s ect ions o f t he wa l ls s t i l l s tand ing a re o f b roken s tone a nd o fw h i te mortar . We p resu me t he s upers truc ture t o h ave b een o f wa t t le a nd p laster , n o s tone d ebr is h av ing b een f ound i n t he immed ia te v ic in i ty . T he p os it ion o f t he e n trance wou ld s eem t o i nd ica te t ha t t he f ron t o f t he b u i ld ing was t o t he s ou th , f ac ing t he p o t tery workshop . T he b u i ld ing was c learly i n t i ma te ly c onnected w ith t he w orkshop , a nd we wou ld p resu me t ha t i to nce p rov ided l i v ing q uar ters f or t he p erson i n c harge o f work i n t he p ot tery . Immed ia te ly t o t he n or th o f t he w orkshop w e d iscovered a s ect ion o f af ur ther b u ild ing w i th a n u mber o f sma l l r ooms , p resu mab ly p rov id ing l i v ing a cco mmoda t ion f or t he workers t hemse lves . B u i ld ing No . 5u nderwen t t wo p er iods o f c onstruc t ion , t he l a ter p er iod b e ing i nd ica ted o n t he p lan b y ad oub le l i ne . T he b u i ld ing was n o t r econstruc ted o n i t s e ar l ier f ounda t ions , b u t r ebu i l t f ur ther t o t he n orth a nd e ast . T he p res erved s ect ion o f t he f ounda t ions i s o f d ry s tone n o t s e t i n mortar .

T he

n orthern wa l l o f t he b u i ld ing i s f or med b y t he b oundary wa l l o f t he c omp lex , i nd ica t ing t ha t i n t he s econd p er iod o f c onstruc t ion t he b u i ld ing was a ccorded l ess a t ten t ion . I ti s o n ly l og ica l t o p resu me t ha t t he f i rst b u i ld ing was b o th d estroyed a nd r econstruc ted a tt he s ame t ime a s t he p ars u rbana o n De l i monyovo 4 .

B u i ld ings Nos . 2& 4 ( f ig . 5 8 N os . 2& 4 ) T hese b u ild ings were c once ived a nd c onstruc ted a t t he s ame t ime a s t he

b oundary wa l l , f or n o t o n ly a re t hey b onded t o i tb u t t hey a re o f as im i lar c ons truc t ion . T he ir f ounda t ions a re o fb roken s tone a nd wh ite mortar , wh i le t he ir s uperstructure was o f wa t t le a nd p laster .

3 1

T hese b u ild ings w ere u sed

a s dwe l l ings a nd s torehouses . I fw e p resu me t ha t t he p ot tery w orkshop f unc t ioned a s as epara te u n i t , t hen i ti s n o t i mposs ib le t ha t o ne o ft he b u i ld ings s erved a s ak i tchen . T he e astern s ect ion o f t he D e l i monyovo N iva c omp lex c an t hus b e s een t o h ave b een a s epara te u n it f or t he p roduc t ion o f h ouseho ld a nd d ecora t ive p o t tery d iv ided o f f f ro m t he r e ma inder o f t he c omp lex a nd e qu ipped w i th d we l l ing h ouses , s torage r ooms a nd a p oo l . I t was p lanned a nd b u i l t a t t he s a me t ime a s t he r e ma inder o f t he c o mp lex a nd u nderwen t t wo c onstruct ion p er iods w h ich c orrespond w ith t he c onstruct ion p er iods o f t he p ars u rbana o n D e l i monyovo K a le . T he b u i ld ing ma ter ia ls a nd t echn iques u sed i n t he c onstruc t ion o ft he b u i ld ings d a t ing f rom t he f i rst p er iod a re i den t ica l w ith t hose f ound i n t he f i rst p er iod i n t he e astern s ector o f D e l i monyovo K a le . I ti s t here fore r easonab le t o p resu me t ha t t hey w ere b o th c onstruc ted a t t he s ame t ime i .e . b e fore t he s econd c en tury . F ur ther more , a s t races o f dwe l l ings d a t ing f rom t he f our th a nd f if th c en tury w ere d iscovered i n t he immed ia te v ic in i ty o f t he workshop , we c an a ssu me t ha t t he h istor ica l d evelop men t o fb o th s i tes i s i den t ica l . THE WESTERN S ECT ION T h is i s l arger t han t he e as tern s ec t ion o ft he D e l i monyovo N iva c o mp lex a nd d isp lays a l l t he s igns o f h av ing b een at yp ica l f ar myard . T he c en tra l p or t ion i s al arge u nroofed c our tyard w ith v ar ious f ar m b u i ld ings a nd dwe l l ings a rranged a round t he p er i me ter . Two l arge r ooms , ( 9 &1 0 ) wh ich most c er ta in ly must h ave s erved a s s heds f or c a t t le , a dhere t o t he s ou thern wa l l . T o t he e ast o f t he m i s af ur ther b u i ld ing c ons ist ing o f f i ve r ooms ( 1 1) . T o t he wes t a nd e x tend ing a l most a long t he f u l l l eng th o f t he wes tern b oundary wa l l i s as u ite o f s ix a l most i den t ica l r ooms ( 8 ) . Af ur ther t wo-roo med s truc ture ( 7 ) a dheres t o t he n or thern wa l l a nd f i na l ly , i n t he n or th-eastern p ar t o ft he c ourtyard , t here s tands a f urther l arge b u i ld ing o f ah igh ly i nd iv idua l n a ture ( 6 ) . I n o rder t o a vo id r epe t i t ion i n t he i nd iv idua l s ect ions d evo ted t o t he v ar ious b u i ld ings , l e t i tb e s a id h ere t ha t t he ma ter ia ls a nd c onstruc t ion t echn iques emp loyed i n a l l t hese b u i ld ings a re i den t ica l . T hey h ave s tone f ounda t ions b ound w i th w h ite mor tar a nd t he l ower p ar ts o f t he wa l ls a re a pprox i ma tely 5 0 cm t h ick . T he s uperstructure w ou ld p robab ly h ave b een o f wa t t le a nd p laster . T he b u i ld ings were r oo fed w i th t i les , a s i nd ica ted b y t he n u merous t i le f ragmen ts d iscovered i n t he immed ia te v ic in i ty . 1 .

T he Ca t t le S heds ( f ig . 5 8 N os . 9& 1 0 ) T he f i rst ( 9 ) a dheres d irec t ly t o t he b oundary wa l l ( f ig . 6 8 ) a nd i s 2 7 .30 m

l ong a nd 5 .30 m w ide . a n ima ls s uch a s o xon .

We c ons ider t ha t t h is s hed was u sed f or d raugh t

T he s econd s hed i s s horter a nd w ider t han t he f i rst , measur ing 1 9 .20 b y 6 .20 m . I t was u sed f or s tabl ing t ranspor t a n i ma ls s uch a s h orses a nd d onkeys .

3 2

2 .

L iv ing A cco mmoda t ion ( f ig . 5 8 N o . 8 )

T hese a re o f e qua l w id th ( 4 m) b ut o f d i f feren t l eng th . T he ir t o ta l l eng th measures 3 2 m . A long t he f ron t o ft h is who le r ow o fb u i ld ings , 8s tone b ases f or w ooden c o lu mns s i tua ted a lmost e qu id is tan t o ne f ro m a no ther , were d isc overed . I tc an t herefore b e c onc luded t ha t t h is r ow o f dwe l l ings h ad a c o mmon o verhang . T he dwe l l ings t he mse lves w ou ld h ave b een o ccup ied b y t he workers e ngaged o n t he e s ta te . 3 .

B u ild ing No . 7( f ig . 5 8 N o . 7 )

T h is c ons is ts o f t wo r oo ms , t he l arger o ne measur ing 1 0.20 b y 6 .70 m a nd t he sma l ler o ne 3 b y 2 .30 m. T o t he w es t o f t he sma l ler r oo m t here i s ac overed o verhang e nc losed o n t he w es tern s ide .

I ts hou ld a lso b e

men t ioned t ha t t he e astern a nd t he w estern wa l ls a re e ach s treng thened b y a s ing le b u t tress . We a ssume t ha t t h is b u i ld ing t oo was a f ar m s hed o f s o me k ind , t he l arger r oom p robab ly b e ing u sed a s ab arn ( horeu m ) wh i le t he sma l ler o ne was u sed t o s tore t oo ls a nd v ar ious f ar myard imp lemen ts ( f ig . 6 9) . 4 .

B u ild ing No . 6( f ig . 5 8 N o . 6 )

T h is i s t he most impos ing b u i ld ing i n t he who le D e l i monyovo N iva c o mp lex . I tc ons ists o f as ing le s quare r oom a t t he c en tre measur ing 8 .50 b y 8 .50 m a nd h av ing o n b o th t he e astern a nd w estern s ides t wo i den t ica l r ooms 8 .50 m l ong a nd 4 .25 m w ide . T he t wo sma l ler r ooms h ave a t o ta l s urface a rea i den t ica l w i th t ha t o f t he c en tre r oom . T he who le b u i ld ing i s e nc losed w i th in a s epara te b oundary wa l l b u i l t o f t he s a me ma ter ia ls a nd i n t he s ame s ty le , ( f ig . 7 0 ) . T he d istance b e tween t he b u i ld ing a nd t he b oundary wa l l i s 2 .50 m a nd i s e qua l o n a l l s ides . I n o ur o p in ion we h ave t o d o h ere n o t s o much w i th ab oundary wa l l b u t w i th a s ty loba te wh ich o nce h ad c o lumns s upport ing a n o verhang c on t inu ing r igh t t he way r ound t he b u ild ing . I ft h is was t he c ase , t hen t he b u i ld ing h ad a c overed v erandah a nd n o t ac our tyard . E v idence t o s uppor t t h is h ypo thes is i s p rov ided b y t he f ac t t ha t o n i t s s ou thern s ide t he s ty loba te h as a n o pen ing f or a g a teway i n f ron t o f wh ich t here i s a sma l l b r ick p la t for m ( f ig . 7 1) . I ti s p oss ib le t ha t t he c en tre p or t ion o f t h is b u i ld ing h ad a n u pper s torey . We a re o f t he o p in ion t ha t t h is s truc ture s erved a s a dwe l l ing h ouse f or t he v i l l icus f ro m where h e wou ld b e a ble t o o bserve a l l p ar ts o f t he f ar myard . A s was t he c ase w ith b u i ld ing N o . 5t h is b u i ld ing l i kew ise u nderwen t t wo p er iods o f c onstruc t ion . H ere a lso t he l a ter b u i ld ing was n o t c onstruc ted o n t he f ounda t ions o f t he e ar l ier o ne b u t was moved b ackwards s o t ha t i ta dhered t o t he b oundary wa l l . I t was r ebu i l t w i thou t av erandah , a nd a s w i th b u i ld ing N o . 5 , t he l ower s ec t ions a re o f d ry-stone c onstruc t ion . 5 .

B u i ld ing No . 1 ( f ig . 5 8 N o . 1) T h is b u i ld ing c ons ists o f av est ibu le a nd f our r oo ms o fu nequa l s ize a nd

p robab ly o nce c on ta ined t he k i tchen , t he d in ing r oom a nd p erhaps a lso a w inemak ing a nd s torage-room w ith a p ress f or e x tract ing o i l f ro m wa lnu t k erne ls . 3 3

B efore p roceed ing t o as u m mary o f t he c onc lus ions we r eached c oncern ing t he De l i monyovo N iva c o mp lex , we wou ld l i ke h ere t o i nclude a s hort l i st o f t he c o ins a nd m inor f i nds d iscovered o n t he s i te , a ga in g rouped u nder f our h ead ings: 1 .

T oo ls a nd Imp le men ts o f Work T hese i nclude 8m il lstones, 4 5 l oo m-we igh ts, 7 s p ind le-whor ls, 6 whe t-

s tones a nd 2 c h ise ls . 2 .

Ar t icles o f Everyday U se T hese c o mpr ised 3b ronze a nd i ron k eys , 1 sma l l c lay l a mp , 1 2 i ron

k n ives, 3b ronze r ings, 1 i ron f i bu la , 1b one c o mb a nd 1 4 u nbroken c lay v essels . Ar ms a nd Wex innry Here t he o n ly f i nds were 2 i ron a rrow h eads . 4 .

Co ins A t De l i monyovo N iva o n ly 4 1 c o ins were f ound , most ly b ronze .

T hese

f a l l i n to t he f o l low ing h istor ica l c a tegor ies : 1 .

Mesa mbr ia , 4 th c entury B .C .

1

2 . 3 .

Nero ( 54-68 ) Marcus A ure l ius ( 161-180)

2 1

4 .

S ep t im ius S everus ( 1 93-211)

2

5 .

Caraca l la ( 198-217)

1

6 .

Macr inus ( 2 17-218)

1

7 .

A lexander S everus ( 222-235)

1

8 .

Max im inus ( 235-238)

1

G ord ian I I ( 238-244)

1

1 0 . 1 1 .

9 .

O tac il ia ( 244-249) C laud ius G o th icus ( 269-270)

1 2

1 2 .

Aure l ian ( 270-275)

6

1 3 .

D iocle t ian ( 284-305)

1

1 4 .

Constan t ine I ( 306-337)

4

1 5 . 1 6 .

L ic in ius I( 307-323 ) Cr ispus ( 3 17-326)

4 1

1 7 .

Arcad ius ( 394-408 )

2

1 8 .

H onor ius ( 395-423 )

1 9 .

I l leg ible c o ins

8 T o ta l

4 1

Here a lso t he c o ins i nd ica te a nu n in terrup ted h is tor ica l t rad it ion f or t he who le o f t he Ro man p er iod u p t o t he f i rst h a lf o f t he f if th c en tury . The s ing le c o in f ro m Mesambr ia was c learly a c hance f i nd o r ig ina t ing f ro m t he n earby He l len ist ic s e t t le men t .

T he f act t ha t n o c o ins were f ound f or t he p er iod f ro m

Nero t o Marcus Aure l ius s hou ld n o t b e t aken t o i nd ica te t ha t t he c o mp lex was n o t i n e x istence d ur ing t h is p er iod a nd was o n ly b u il t i n t he r e ign o f Marcus

3 4

A ure l ius .

E v idence t o d ispe l a ny s uch c la im h as a lready b een c i ted a nd

f urther e v idence w i l l b e g iven b e low . T he r ema in ing f i nds d o n o t p rov ide u s w ith a ny f ur ther i mpor tan t i nforma t ion , a nd i ti s o ur impress ion t ha t , a s was t he c ase w ith D e l i monyovo K a le , t hey d a te p r i mar i ly f rom t he f our th a nd f i f th c en tury . T hus t he s i te a t D e l i monyovo N iva c ons ists o f as ing le e cono m ic u n i t c oncen tra t ing p ar t ly o n a gr icu l ture a nd p ar t ly o n t he p roduc t ion o fp o t tery . T here c an b e n o d oubt t ha t t h is u n i t f or med a n i n tegra l p art o ft he c omp lex o n D e l i monyovo K a le , f or w hereas we d iscovered t he l i v ing q uar ters ( pars u rbana ) o n D e l i monyovo K a le , h ere we h ave t o d o w ith t he p roduc t ive s ect ion ( pars r ust ica ) o f al arge l anded e sta te ( v i l la r ust ica ) . B o th p ar ts were b u i l t a t t he s ame t ime , f or o ne c ou ld n o t h ave e x isted w i thou t t he o ther . I n t he works o f a l l a nc ien t a uthors d ea l ing w i th a gr icu l tura l p roduc t ion i n a n t iqu i ty men t ion i s a lways made o f t hese t wo s epara te p ar ts o ft he v i l la .

3 9

B o th p ar ts u nderwen t a n i den t ica l h istor ica l d eve lop men t . T he v ar ious s tages o f t hz p ars u rt . a re p ara l le led i n p ars r ust ica . O ne r ece ives t he i mpress ion t ha t a f ter t he f i rst p er iod o f d estruct ion t he e sta te b u i ld ings were r ebu il t o n a more amb i t ious s ca le . C er ta in improvemen ts w ere e f fected , s uch a s t he l ay ing o f t he wa ter p ipe a nd t he c onstruct ion o f t he p oo l e nabl ing t he c apac ity o f t he p ot tery w orkshop t o b e i ncreased . T he l ayout o ft he p ars r us t ica ( f igs . 5 8 , 7 2 ) d oes n o t d if fer g rea t ly f ro m o ther p ars r ust ica i n v i l las d iscovered i n B u lgar ia , I t a ly a nd o ther p rov inces . I tc on ta ins t he mos t e ssent ia l f ar m b u i ld ings a nd dwe l l ings f or t he f ar m h ands . T he most o r ig ina l s truc ture i nt he C ha ta lka v i l la i s most c er ta in ly b u i ld ing No . 6w i th i t s c overed v erandah e x tend ing r ound t he h ouse . I t s o ther d is t ing u ish ing f ac tor i s t he s epara te s ec t ion g iven o ver t o t he p roduc t ion o f h ouseh o ld a nd d ecora t ive p o t tery . T h is workshop wou ld , h owever , h ard ly s ee m t o b e u n ique , f or w e a re o f t he o p in ion t ha t t he p o t ter ies d iscovered b y B . S ou l tov n ear B ou tovo , H o tn i tsa a nd Pav l iken ' a lso b e longed t o v i l las . 40 Nor wou ld w e s ay t ha t o ur v il la i s e xcep t iona l i n t ha t i t s t wo p ar ts a re n o t j o ined i n as ing le a rch itec tura l u n it , f or t he s ectors a re s im i lar ly d iv ided i n t he v il las a t Madara a nd I va l lovgrad ( f igs . 1 8 , 9 , 1 0 ) . B efore p roceed ing t o ad escr ip t ion a nd a n i n terpre ta t ion o f t he s i te i n L amba ta ( f ig . 1N o . 8 ) , w e w ou ld l i ke t o d irec t o ur a t ten t ion t o s i tes i n t he immed ia te v ic in ity o f t he p ars r ust ica o f t he v il la , a nd i n t i ma te ly c onnec ted w i th i t . T hese s i tes c on ta in t wo b r ick k i lns ( f ig . 1 E) , k i lns f or h ouseho ld p ot tery ( f ig . 1 F) a nd a s epara te b a th b u i ld ing ( f ig . 1 D ) .

3 5

I I.

THE BR ICK K ILNS ( f ig. 1 :E )

T hese were d iscovered s o me 1 5 m t o t he west o f t he p ara r ust ica . One h ad b een c o mp le te ly d estroyed , o n ly a p a tch o fb aked e arth i nd ica t ing i t s o r ig ina l p os it ion , wh i le i n t he o ther t he f urnace a nd sma l l s ect ions o f t he g ra te h ad b een r e la t ive ly we l l p reserved . Bo th i n c onstruct ion a nd l ayou t t h is k i ln d oes n o t d if fer f unda men ta l ly f ro m o ther p o t tery k i lns o f t he Roman p er iod d iscovered i n g rea t a bundance t hroughou t t he who le Emp ire 4 1 . T he l ower c hamber ( t he f urnace ) h ad b een h o l lowed o u t f ro m t he g round a nd b y i t s mou th t here was a p it e nab l ing t he f i re t o b e f ed , ( f ig . 7 3) . T he f urnace i s o va l , i t s g rea test d ia me ter b e ing a pprox i ma te ly 4 m a nd i t s d ep th 7 0 cm . T he t h ickness o f t he g r il l wh ich r ested o n t wo r ows o f sma l l c o lu mns p osit ioned o ne o ppos i te t he o ther , f i ve o n e ach s ide , i s 1 2 cm .

T he t h ickness o f e ach c o lu mn i s 3 0 cm

a nd t he d istance b e tween t he m 6 0 cm . T he u pper c hamber o f t he k i ln was a bove t he g round , af act wh ich , t aken t oge ther w i th t he c onsiderable s ize o f t he k i ln a s a who le , l eads u s t o t h ink t ha t i t was u sed t o f i re b r icks . 42 A s h as a lready b een men t ioned , b aked b r ick b egan t o b e u sed i n t he c onstruct ion o f t he v i l la i n t he s ecoad p er iod i .e . i n t he m idd ?, o f t he t h ird c entury . We must t herefore a ssu me t ha t i t was d ur ing t h is p er iod t ha t t he k i ln d escr ibed h ere was b u i l t . I V.

FURNACES FOR HOUSEHOLD POTTERY ( f ig . 1 : F )

T hese were d iscovered d ur ing t he e xcava t ion o fb ur ia l mound N o . 4 , b o th w ith in t he mound i t se lf a nd i n i t s im med ia te v ic in i ty . T hey a re s i tua ted s ome 6 0 t o 7 0 m f ro m t he p ars r ust ica a nd were i n u se b e fore t he b ur ia l mound was c onstructed .

B enea th t he a ccu mu la t ion o f t he mound , s evera l p i les o f b roken

p o t tery , c lear ly r e jec ts f ro m t he k i lns, were a lso f ound .

T hese f ragmen ts

c ons isted l arge ly o f sma l l s aucers a nd sma l l p i tchers w i th s tands a nd were o f al i gh t y e l low ish c o lour . Par t icu lar ly i n t he ir c o lour t hey d if fer c ons iderab ly f rom t he p o t tery d iscovered o n t he s i te o f t he v i l la . T hese k i lns were n o t l arge , b e ing f or t he most p ar t c ircu lar i n s hape w i th ad ia me ter o f a pprox i ma te ly 1m .

Unfortuna te ly t he g rea ter p ropor t ion o f t hem

h ad b een c o mp le te ly d estroyed a nd a l l t ha t r ema ined was a c irc le o fb aked c lay . One s ing le k i ln , h owever , h ad b een we l l p reserved , ( f igs . 7 4 , 7 5) . T h is t oo i s r ound a nd h as a d iameter o f 9 0 cm . I th as b een p reserved t o ah e ight o f 1 m a nd c ons ists o f t he c o mp le te l ower c hamber a nd p ar t o f t he u pper c ha mber . O n ly t he g ra te b e tween t he t wo c ha mbers i s m issing . Ac lear i nd ica t ion o f t he h e igh t o ft he g ra te i s p rov ided b o th b y t he s uppor ts o n wh ich i tr ested a nd b y t he mouth o ft he f urnace t hrough wh ich t he f i re was f ed .

Worthy o fn ote h ere

i s t he f act t ha t wa ter p ipes w ith a l eng th o f 6 0 cm were u sed t o f or m t he s upport f or t he g ra te .

T he mouth o f t he f urnace was s ome 6 0 cm h igh a nd 4 0 cm w ide .

We c an t herefore c onc lude t ha t t he g ra te was s i tua ted 6 0 cm a bove t he f l oor o f 3 6

t he f urnace.

The r e ma in ing 4 0 cm b e tween t he g ra te a nd t he t op o f t he k i ln

w as o ccup ied b y t he u pper c hamber .

T h is t oo w as b e low g round l eve l a nd h ad

n o l a tera l o pen ings , af ac t t ha t i nd ica tes t ha t i t was l oaded f rom a bove .

T he

sma l l d i mens ions o f t he k i ln , t oge ther w ith t he p o t tery f ragmen ts d iscovered n earby , i nd ica te t ha t t hese k i lns w ere u sed p r i mar i ly f or t he f i r ing o fh ouseh o ld p o t tery . I fo ne w ere t o b e a sked whe ther t hese k i lns w ere i n u se a t t he s ame t ime a s t he p o t tery w orkshop , o ne w ou ld c er ta in ly h ave t o a nswer i n t he a f f ir ma t ive . I t may w e l l b e t ha t p o t tery f ro m t he workshop was f i red h ere d ur ing t he s u m mer mon ths . I tc anno t , h owever , b e r u led o u t t ha t t here o nce e x isted o ther w orkshops i n t he i mmed ia te v ic in ity o f t he k i lns . I ft h is w ere t he c ase , t he p roduc t ion o fp o t tery i n t he v i l la must h ave a t ta ined a v ery h igh l eve l o f s pec ia l isa t ion , t he p ot tery workshop i n t he c ourtyard p roduc ing o n ly d ecora t ive a r t ic les , w hereas t he o ther k i lns p roduced a r t ic les o f e veryday u se . B e t ha t a s i t may , t he e x is tence o f t hese a dd i t iona l k i lns a dds f ur ther w e igh t t o o ur b e l ie f t ha t t he p roduc t ion o f p o t tery p layed a v ery l arge p ar t i n t he e conom ic l i fe o f t he v i l la . When w e c o me t o d a t ing t he k i lns, w e a re g rea t ly a ss isted b y t he b ur ia l mound b enea th wh ich s ome o ft hem w ere d iscovered . I n t h is mound t he b ur ia l o f awo man d a t ing f rom t he e nd o f t he s econd a nd t he b eg inn ing o f t he t h ird c en tury43 w as f ound . T he k i ln w h ich w e h ave d escr ibed a bove , h owever , was d iscovered n o t w ith in t he mound i t se lf b u t v ery c lose t o i t , af ac t wh ich e xp la ins i t s r e la t ive ly g ood s ta te o fp reserva t ion . T h is k i ln c anno t h ave b een b u i l t b efore t he t h ird c entury f or t he s i mp le r eason t ha t wa ter p ipes w ere u sed i n i t s c ons truc t ion , a nd t hey c ou ld n o t h ave b een emp loyed b efore t he p er iod w hen t he w a ter p ipe was l a id . C onsequen t ly t he b r ick k i lns n ear b ur ia l mound N o . 4 must h ave c on t inued t o f unc t ion b eyond t he t h ird c en tury . I ti s o ur b e l ief t ha t t he p a le y e l low p o t tery men t ioned a bove was p roduced i n t he f i rst h a l f o f t he s econd c en tury . S im i lar p o t tery was d iscovered b enea th t he b ed o f t he r oad i n B eroea w h ich i s c ons idered t o h ave b een l a id i n t he t ime o f Marcus A ure l ius 44 . We must t herefore c onc lude t ha t t he p o t ter ies o u ts ide t he c our tyard w ere i n u se t hroughout t he who le p er iod o ft he v i l la ' se x istence .

3 7

V .

THE S EPARATE BATH BU ILD ING ( f ig . 1 : D )

T h is was d iscovered o n t he r igh t b ank o f t he r iver Mog ilovska s o me 4 0 t o 5 0 m t o t he s ou th o f t he c o mp lex o f f ar m b u i ld ings . I ti s a n a l most s quare s tructure measur ing 1 7 .30 b y 1 4 .80 m a nd i s d iv ided i n to e igh t s epara te r oo ms ( f ig . 7 6) . E n try was f ro m t he n orth i n to a sma l l a n te-roo m ( 1 ) l ead ing i n to an arrow c orr idor ( 2 ) .

On e i ther s ide o f t he c orr idor a re t wo a l most i den t ica l

r ooms ( 3 &4 ) , n e ither o f wh ich h ave a h ypocaust .

T he f l oor o f t he c orr idor

i s i n la id w ith a mosa ic made o f l arge f ragmen ts o fb roken b r ick s e t i n a mortar b ase . T he f l oor o f r oo m N o . 3i s i n la id w i th a mosa ic made o f l arge f ragments o fb roken s tone ( opus s ec t ile) . T he b ase i s wh ite a nd t he c en tre o ccup ied b y al arge r ho mbo id f i l led w ith p a le b lue s tones f ound l oca l ly . T he f our r e ma in ing r ooms i n t he b a th b ui ld ing were a l l e qu ipped w ith a h ypocaust . A l l t he wa l ls a re b u il t o f l oca l b roken s tone s et i n wh ite mor tar .

T he h ypo-

c aust h as b o th sma l l c o lu mns made o f s quare a nd r ound b r icks a nd s pec ia l c lay p ipes o f at ype f ound e x tens ive ly e lsewhere ( f ig . 7 7 ) , i nd ica t ing t ha t t he b a ths were i n u se o ver a l ong p er iod a nd were r epa ired o n an u mber o f d if feren t o ccas ions . T he b a ths a re n o t i n av ery g ood s ta te o f p reserva t ion . T he n orth-western c orner l i es i n t he r iver a nd h as b een wahed a way b y i t s wa ters, wh ile o ther s ec t ions h ave b een d ug u p a nd r e moved b y t reasure h un ters .

N everthe less t here

i s s t il l s uf f ic ien t o f t he s tructure r e ma in ing t o e nable u s t o d e ter m ine t he b u i ldi ng ' sl ayout a nd p urpose . T he l arge n u mber o f r oo ms, e spec ia l ly t hose e qu ipped w ith a h ypocaust , i nd ica tes t ha t t he b a ths h ad b o th a ma le a nd f e ma le s ect ion wh ich were u sed s i mu l taneously .

O n ly t he a n te-roo m a nd t he c orr idor wou ld h ave b een s hared .

Rooms 3 a nd 4 a re d ress ing r oo ms, r oo ms 5 a nd 8 a re t ep idar ia , wh ile r ooms 6a nd 7 a re c a ldar ia .

T hese c a ldar ia e i ther b e long t o b o th s ect ions o f t he b a ths

o r o ne s ec t ion c onsisted o f r oo ms 4 , 5a nd 6wh ile t he o ther o f r oo ms 3 , 7a nd 8 . B enea th t he wa l l b e tween t he e n trance a nd r oom No . 8a n o verf low c hanne l was d iscovered t ak ing t he d ir ty wa ter u nder t he t hresho ld o f t he d oorway a nd f ro m t here away i n to t he r iver . I n v iew o f t he f act t ha t t he b a th b u i ld ing i s s i tua ted o n t he b ank o f t he r iver , we w ere o r ig ina l ly o f t he o p in ion t ha t i t made u se o f t he r iver wa ter . S ubseq uen t ly , h owever , we d iscovered i n f ron t o f t he e n trance t o t he b u i ld ing a s tone b lock p ierced b y ar ound h o le wh ich c hanged d irect ion w ith in t he b lock b y a n a ng le o f 9 0 d egrees . I tw il l b e r e me mbered t ha t t he f oun ta in i n t he b a th b u i ld ing b e long ing t o t he v i l la o wner ' sh ouse ( f igs . 4 7 , 4 8) was s ur moun ted b y as im i lar s tone . One must t herefore c onc lude t ha t t h is s epara te b a th b u i ld ing r ece ived i t s wa ter b y way o f a wa ter p ipe c onnected t o as pr ing . T here i s as pr ing s upp ly ing g ood d r ink ing w a ter o n t he s a me s ide o f t he r iver s o me 1 50 m t o t he west a nd i t was p robably t h is s pr ing t ha t p rov ided t he b a ths w ith wa ter . Whe ther t he wa ter p ipe was l a id when t he b a ths were b u i l t o r a t al a ter d a te , we h ave b een u nab le t o e stab l ish . 3 8

Both t he u se o f wh ite mor tar i n t he c onstruc t ion o f t he b a ths a nd t he p res ence o f t he r ough mosa ic emp loy ing t he o pus s ept ile t echn ique - a t echn ique a bandoned i n t he s econd c entury - g ive u s g rounds t o a ssu me t ha t t he b a ths were b u il t i n t he f i rst c entury .

T he o pus s ee t he t echn ique i s f ound i n mosa ics

i n I t a ly a nd t hroughou t t he H e l len ist ic wor ld f ro m t he f i rst c entury B . C . a nd t he f irs t c entury A .D .

T he b a ths u nder d iscuss ion h ere were p robab ly t he

e sta te ' so r ig ina l b a ths c ons tructed b efore t he b a ths i n t he e sta te owner ' sh ouse a nd b efore t he wa ter p ipe .

B u t , a s h as a lready b een men t ioned , t hese o r ig ina l

b a ths were i n e x istence f or a c ons iderab le p er iod o f t ime a nd c on t inued t o b e u sed a f ter t he c onstruct ion o f t he b a ths i n t he e sta te owner ' sh ouse .

T hey

were p robab ly u sed p r i mar i ly b y workers emp loyed i n t he f ar m c o mp lex , b ut o thers wou ld h ave u sed t he m t oo .

C lear ly t he d iv is ion o f t he b a ths i n to t wo

s epara te s ect ions would h ave b een n ecess ita ted b y t he emp loymen t o n t he e sta te o f l arge n u mbers o f p eop le o f b o th s exes .

I ti s q u ite p oss ible t ha t many

o f t hese p eop le d id n o t f or m p art o f t he p er manen t s taf f o f t he e sta te , b ut l i ved i n t he immed ia te v ic in ity a nd s o ld s o me o f t he ir p roduce t o i t .

A s e t t le men t i n

wh ich t hese p eop le c ou ld i ndeed h ave l i ved was i n f act f ound a t Kara l ie ts , o f wh ich more w il l b e s a id l a ter . T hus t he v ar ious i t e ms d escr ibed i n t h is s ec t ion c an b e s a id t o c o mp l iment t he e cono m ic a ct iv it ies o f t he e sta te .

T he e x istence o f ac lose l i nk b e-

t ween t he m a nd t he e sta te I s a bundan t ly c lear , n o t o n ly o n a ccoun t o f t he ir p rox im ity t o i t , b u t a lso o n a ccoun t o f t he ir p urpose a nd f unc t ion .

T hey r evea l

f ur ther a spec ts o f t he e cono m ic a ct iv it ies o f t he e sta te , p rov id ing e v idence n o t o n ly o f i t s c ons iderab le p roduc t ive c apac it ies , b ut a lso o f t he p ower a nd i nf l uence o f i t s owner .

3 9

V I.

THE S ITE I N LA M I 3ATA ( f ig . I : C )

T h is i s s i tua ted s o me 7 00 t o 8 00 m t o t he n or th-west o f De l i monyovo K a leo n t he l ef tb ank o f t he r iver Cha ta lka o n at errace wh ich s lopes g en t ly away t o t he s outh .

As ha l low g u l ly w i th a sma l l s trea m p asses c lose t o t he s i te ,

a nd i t was h ere t ha t s o me y ears a go t he marble h ead o f ab u l l was d iscovered , af act t ha t l ed u s t o a ssu me t ha t t h is was t he s i te o f ar u ined p agan s anctuary . H ere t oo t he o ccupa t ion l ayer was n o t v ery d eep .

On ly i n t he western p art

o f t he s i te , where a l arge b u ild ing o f v ery s o l id c onstruct ion was d iscovered , d id i tr each a d ep th o f 1 .2 0 m .

U n l ike t he r e ma in ing p ort ion o f t he s i te wh ich

f or med p art o f af i e ld , t h is s ect ion h ad n o t b een c u l t iva ted .

Over i t s who le

s urface were n u merous f ragmen ts o f Ro man p o t tery , b r icks a nd t i les .

A s i n

t he o ther t wo s i tes, t wo d ist inct l eve ls were l i kew ise d iscovered h ere .

I n t he

u pper l ayer we d iscovered t races o f dwe l l ings w ith d rystone wa l ls, h ear ths, l arge e ar thenware p o ts, l oo m-we igh ts a nd o ther i te ms d a t ing f ro m t he f our th a nd f i f th c en tury .

A s o n t he o ther t wo s i tes, t he h ear ths c onsist o f sma l l

p la tfor ms c onstructed o f b r icks a nd s urrounded b y sma l ler b r icks l a id o n t he ir s ide ( f ig . 7 8) .

T hey d o , h owever , d if fer f ro m t he p rev iously d escr ibed h earths

i n t ha t a t e i ther e nd o f t he s ou th f ac ing s ide - t he s ide f ro m wh ich t he h ear th wou ld h ave b een t ended , s evera l h ad a s ing le v ert ica l ly p os it ioned wa ter p ipe . I n o ne o f t he dwe l l ings we d iscovered a g roup o f l oo m-we igh ts ( f ig . 7 9) wh ich h ad p robably b een a t tached t o t he l oo m when t he b u i ld ing was d estroyed , i nd ic a t ing i t s s udden a nd v io len t d estruct ion . F o l low ing t he c o mp le te r e mova l o f t he o ccupa t ion l ayer i t was p ossib le t o e stabl ish t ha t t he L a mba ta s i te c ons ists o f au n if ied a rch itectura l c o mp lex a rranged a round a s ing le i nner c our tyard .

( f igs . 8 0 , 8 1) .

T he c o mp lex

measures a pprox i ma te ly 6 0 b y 4 0 m a nd o ccup ies a n a rea o f s o me 2 ,400 m 2 . T he c o mp lex c an b e d iv ided i n to t he f o l low ing p arts :

an or thern w ing c on-

t a in ing r oo ms 1 - 6 , as outh-eastern w ing c on ta in ing r oo ms 7 - 1 4 a nd a s epa ra te b u i ld ing o f s o l id c onstruct ion ( 15) .

T he g a teway p rov id ing a ccess t o t he

c our tyard i s s itua ted b e tween t he n or thern a nd t he s ou th-eastern w ing ( 16) . T he who le c o mp lex was s upp l ied w ith a wa ter p ipe t er m ina t ing i n af oun ta in ( 17) .

C lose t o t he b oundary wa l l o f t he s ou thern w ing , al ime k i ln was d is-

c overed ( 18) . 1 .

T he N or thern Wing ( Roo ms 1 - 6 ) T he c en tra l p or t ion o f t h is w ing i s f or med b y as quare r oo m ( 1 ) measur ing

7 .20 b y 7 .20 m .

A long t wo o f i t s s ides t h is r oo m h as a c orr idor p rov id ing

a ccess t o r oo m No . 3 , wh ich measures 1 9 m i n l eng th a nd 5 m i n w id th .

T he

western r oo m ( 2 ) measures 1 7 b y 6 m, wh i le t he e astern r oo m ( 4 ) measures 1 4 b y 6m . 2 .2 0 m .

Roo m No . 5 measures 5 .50 m s quare , wh ile r oo m No . 6i s 5 .50 b y T he wa l ls o f a l l t hese b u ild ings w ere o f wa t t le a nd p laster r est ing o n

s tone a nd mor tar f oundat ions .

T he f l oor i n r oo m No . 2e x tends t owards t he

4 0

s outh w ithout a ny j o in , b u t i th as n o t b een p reserved a nd i td oes n ot q u ite r each u i ld ing N o. 1 5.

I n a l l p robab i l ity t h is p ar t icu lar p ar t o f t he c o mp lex e x is ted

sa s epara te e n t ity b efore t he o ther t wo w ings were b u i lt .

The wa l l p robab ly

) nce b en t t o t he e as t t o f orm a c losed c our tyard i n f ron t o f r oo m N o. 1 .

I t i s

a lso q u ite p oss ib le t ha t t here o nce e x isted o ther sma l l b u i ld ings a s w e l l. I t i s n o t d if f icu l t t o s ee t ha t t h is who le c o mp lex o nce f or med a p ars r us t ica. The l arge r oo ms 2 , 3a nd 4 s erved a s s tab les f or a n i ma ls , wh i le r oo ms 1 were dwe l l ings a nd r oo m 6 w as u sed f or s torage. b y r oo m 6 .

T he e n trance w as p robab ly

A lthough t he c our tyard h ere i s sma l ler t han t he c our tyard i n

D e l i monyovo N iva , i th as t hree a nd n o t t wo s ets o f s tab les.

Th is i s p robab ly

d ue t o t he f act t ha t w hereas t he work o f t he De l i monyovo N iva p ars r ust ica was p r i mar i ly c onnec ted w ith a gr icu l ture a nd p rov ided s tab l ing f or t he w ork a nd t ranspor t a n i ma ls ( horses , mu les a nd d onkeys ) h ere t he p ars r us t ica p rov ided s tab l ing f or t he p roduc t ive a n i ma ls s uch a s s heep , g oa ts , p igs a nd p ou l try .

I f

t h is was t he c ase , t hen r oo m N o. 1 s erved a s t he dwe l l ing f or t he mag is ter p ecor is a nd r oo m N o. 5 f or t he h erds men .

We c an p resu me t ha t r oo m No. 6

was u sed f or t he s torage o f c oncen tra ted f odder , a nd s traw w ou ld h ave b een k ep t i n t he l of ts a bove t he s tab les. 46 t he y ards o u ts ide.

L ea f f odder wou ld h ave b een p i led u p i n

The ma ter ia ls a nd b u ild ing t echn iques emp loyed i n t he

f ounda t ions o f t h is w ing a re v ery s im i lar t o t hose emp loyed i n t he De l i monyovo N iva y ard a nd we a re i nc l ined t o c ons ider t ha t b o th b u i ld ings w ere e rected a t t he s a me t ime. 2 .

The S ou thern W ing ( f ig . 8 0 , Roo ms 7 - 1 4 ) Here w e c an d is t ingu ish a l arge r oo m measur ing 2 3 b y 6 m, wh ich must

c er ta in ly h ave s erved a s as tab le , a nd 7 a l most i den t ica l r oo ms w ith a mean measure men t o f 5b y 4 m.

T hese r oo ms wou ld s ee m t o h ave b een dwe l l ings ,

f or c o ins , h ear ths a nd p o t tery f rag men ts w ere d iscovered i n t he m. T he b u ild ing t echn iques u sed i n t h is w ing d if fer c ons iderab ly f ro m t hose f ound i n t he n or thern w ing.

T he f ounda t ions h ere a re a lso o f s tone, b u t t hey

h ave n o b ind ing a gen t a nd among t he s tones o ne f inds f ragmen ts o f d ressed l i mes tone b locks o bv ious ly p rev ious ly u sed e lsewhere a nd c lose ly r ese mb l ing t he r us t ica ted b locks u sed i n t he f acade o f b u i ld ing No. 1 1 a t D e l i monyovo Ka le.

A who le b lock , moreover , w ith i t s r us t icated s ide t owards t he wa l l ,

h as b een u sed a s ad oor j a mb i n r oo m N o. 7 ( f ig . 8 2 ).

We c an t herefore c on-

c lude t ha t t h is w ing was b u i l t f o l low ing t he i n i t ia l d estruct ion o f D el i monyovo Ka le wh ich p rov ided p ar t o f t he b u i ld ing ma ter ia ls u sed h ere.

An i nd ica t ion

o f t he f act t ha t t h is w ing was b u i lt a f ter t he n or thern w ing i s p rov ided b y t he c ons truc t ion o f t he e n trance t o t he c our tyard .

T h is o nce h ad i t s own d oub le

d oor s uspended b etween a sma l l a dd it iona l wa l l b u il t a long t he e dge o f r oo m No. 6 a nd t he e x tens ion o f t he w es tern w a l l i n t he e astern w ing .

T he e n trance

( 16 ) was 2 .60 m w ide, h ad a d oub le wooden d oor a nd a t hresho ld c ons tructed o f l arge s andstone b locks ( f ig . 8 3 ) i n wh ich h inge h o les f or t he d oors c an s t il l b e s een . d ence.

T he sma l l i ron p la tes u sed t o r educe f r ict ion a re a lso s t i l l i n e v iT he f act t ha t t he e as tern s ide o f t he e n trance i s f or med b y a n e x tens ion

o f t he w a ll i n t he e astern w ing wou ld s ee m t o i nd ica te t ha t t he g a teway was b u i lt a t t he s a me t ime a s t he e as tern w ing .

4 1

3 .

Bu i ld ing N o. 1 5 T h is b u i ld ing , wh ich h as a c o mp lex g round p lan w ith a pses e x tend ing t o t he

n or th a nd wes t , c loses t he c our tyard o n t he western s ide.

T he wa l ls a re o f

s o l id c ons truct ion , b e ing s o me 6 0 t o 7 0 cm t h ick a nd a re b u i l t o f s tone b onded b y mor tar c on ta in ing a n a dm ix ture o f b roken b r icks.

The c ons iderab le a ccu-

mu la t ion o f s tones i n t he im med ia te v ic in ity o f t he b u ild ing i nd icates t ha t t he wa l ls w ere o f s o l id c onstruc t ion t hroughout . The t h ickness o f t he wa l ls a nd t he c ons iderab le q uan t ity o f s tone d ebr is p reven ted t he g round h ere f rom b e ing c u lt iva ted a nd i t was t herefore n eg lec ted a nd b eca me o vergrown w ith b ushes. The b u i ld ing c ons is ts o f 8s epara te r oo ms , t he o r ig ina l c ons truct ion c ompr is ing r oo ms a , b , c , d , e , fa nd g , wh i le r oom h was b u i lt o n a t al a ter p er iod . Roo ms d , e , fa nd g a re e qu ipped w ith a h ypocaus t ( f ig . 8 4 ). T he h ypocaust was s uppo r ted b y sma l l b r ick c o lu mns t erm inat ing i n a rches ( f ig. 8 5 ). T he f urnace p rov id ing h ea t f or t he h ypocaus t i s s i tua ted o n t he n or thern s ide o f r oo m d a nd i s i n t he f orm o f ac hanne l s ome 5 0 cm w ide c ons tructed o f l arge s andstone b locks a nd p aved w ith b r icks ( f ig . 8 4 ).

T he f urnace p ro jected f ro m

t he o vera l l p lan o f t he b u i ld ing a nd was p robab ly o nce c overed b y a n o verhang. T he f l oor o f t he a dd it iona l r oo m h i s o n t he l evel o f t he u pper f l oor o f t he h ypocaus t a nd b enea th i tp asses t he c hanne l wh ich o nce t ook t he o u tf low w a ter f ro m t he a d jo in ing r oo m g away f ro m t he b u i ld ing t o t he west. T he p lan , t he l ayou t a nd t he mass ive c onstruct ion o f t h is b u i ld ing c lear ly i nd ica tes t hat i t was o nce a b a th b u i ld ing . T he e n trance was o n t he e as tern s ide b y way o f t he c our tyard ( f ig . 8 6 ).

T he o pen ings f or t he d oors o f r ooms

aa nd b a re p reserved a nd a re c ons tructed o f r us t ica ted l imes tone b locks w h ich h ad o bv ious ly b een p rev ious ly u sed e lsewhere. T he b a th b u i ld ing c o mpr ises a v est ibu le ( a ) ad ress ing r oom ( b ) at ep idar iu m ( c ), a nd a n u mber o f c a ldar ia ( d-g ). T he d i mens ions o f t he o ther r oo ms l ead u s t o c ons ider t ha t t he c a ldar iu m ( d ) d id n o t f orm p ar t o f t he s upers tructure o f t he r e ma in ing r oo ms. The p ecu l iar c harac ter o f r oo m ( d ) a nd t he c hanne l l ike f urnace wh ich p asses b enea th i t wou ld s ee m t o s ugges t t ha t i to nce c on ta ined s o me k ind o f b o i ler i n wh ich water f or t he b a ths was h ea ted .

Ab o iler o f t h is

t ype w ith a s pec ia l s er ies o f p ipes f or t he p rov is ion o f warm a nd c old wa ter was d iscovered i n t he v ila a t Boscorea le n ear P o mpe i i. 4 7 T h is w ou ld a ccord we l l w ith t he p resence o f t he f oun ta in ( 17 ) w h ich i s s i tua ted a f ew metres a way t o t he w est .

We a re n o t c er ta in o f t he f unc t ion o f r oo m h .

I tm igh t p oss ib ly

h ave b e longed t o t he b a ths b u t h ave b een u sed f or o ther p urposes a s wel l . T he i n tr icate p lan o f t he b u i ld ing , t he p resence o f b roken b r ick i n t he mor tar u sed i n t he c onstruc t ion o f t he wa l ls a nd t he o bv ious p red i lect ion f or s em ic ircu lar a pses a nd e xcedr ia i nd ica te t ha t t he b a ths w ere n ot b u i lt b efore t he s econd h a lf o f t he s econd c en tury . Whether t hey w ere d estroyed i n t he t h ird c entury i s n o t c lear , b u t w e a re o f t he o p in ion t hat r oo m h was b u i lt a t t h is t ime.

I tg oes w ithout s ay ing t ha t t he b a ths w ere u sed b y t he p eop le who l i ved

a nd worked w ith in t he L a mbata c o mp lex . 4 .

T he Wa ter P ipe a nd F oun ta in ( 17 )

T he c o mp lex i n L a mbata was s upp l ied w ith water f ro m i t s own s epara te wate . p ipe. Th is w a ter p ipe c ou ld h ard ly h ave b een l a id b efore t he c ons truct ion o f t he b a ths , f or i ti s d irec t ly c onnec ted w ith t he m b y way o f t he f oun ta in . I fi t 4 2

h ad b een l a id e arl ier w i th a d if feren t e nd i n v iew , t hen i t wou ld h ave c er ta in ly l ed t o t he c our tyard a nd n o t t o ap o in t o uts ide .

A l though i tp asses b enea th t he

wa l ls i n t he n or th-western c orner o f t he n orth w ing , i t must h ave b een l a id a f ter t he c onstruc t ion o f t h is w ing , f or o ne c an c learly o bserve t ha t ah o le h ad t o b e made i n t he wa l ls f or t he p ipe t o p ass t hrough .

T he wa ter p ipe p robably b egan

c lose t o t he s pr ing wh ich f eeds t he sma l l s trea m p assing t o t he e ast o f t he c o mp lex .

T h is s pr ing i s s itua ted s o me 5 00 m t o t he n orth o f t he c o mp lex .

The

c lay p ipes u sed h ere h ave a l onger s leeve a nd a re s hor ter t han t he p ipes u sed i n t he De l i monyovo K a le wa ter p ipe .

T hey a re 4 0 cm l ong a nd j o ined w ith a

s im i lar m ixture o f l ime a nd g ypsu m ( f ig . 8 7) .

T hey a re f ur ther more d is-

t i ngu ished b y t he f ac t t ha t t hey n arrow t owards t he c entre a nd w iden a t e i ther e nd . T he wa ter p ipe s k irts t he n or thern w ing o f t he c o mp lex a nd t er m ina tes 3m f ro m t he b a ths i n as tone s im i lar t o t he s tones f ound o n t he f oun ta ins a t tached t o t he o ther t wo b a ths ( f ig . 8 8) .

We d id n o t f i nd t he l ead p ipe , b ut

t he u pper o pen ing i n t he s tone i s o f ad ia me ter wh ich wou ld h ave e xact ly f i t ted s uch a p ipe . Ad ist ingu ish ing f ea ture o f t he wa ter p ipe a t C ha ta lka i s t he f ac t t ha t i n s p i te o f t he wa ter ' sl ime c onten t , n o l ime d epos its were f ound i ns ide t he p ipes . 5 .

T he L i me K i ln ( 18) T h is i s s i tua ted o u ts ide t he c o mp lex u p a ga inst t he s ou thern wa l l i n t he

s outh-eastern w ing .

I n f ac t t he wa l l i s s l igh t ly c urved a t t h is p o in t i n o rder

t o a cco m moda te t he k i ln , af act t ha t p o in ts t o t he k i lns e arl ier c onstruct ion a nd t he l a ter a dd it ion o f t he s ou th-eastern w ing . T he k iln c onsists o f ac ircu lar h o le h o l lowed o ut i n t he g round w ith a d ia me ter o f 3m a nd a t o ta l d ep th o f a pprox i ma te ly 4 m ( f igs . 8 9 , 9 0 , 9 1) .

T he d o me

o f t he k iln , wh ich must o nce h ave p ro truded a bove g round l eve l , h as n o t b een p reserved .

A t t he b ase o f t he k i ln a c hanne l a pprox i ma te ly 5 0 cm d eep a nd

6 0 cm w ide a nd l ined w ith b r icks h as b een h o l lowed o ut .

T he s ides a re a lso

l i ned w ith b r icks, a nd t he c hanne l c uts a cross t he k i ln f ro m n or th t o s outh h av ing i t s o pen ing i n t he k iln ' ss ou thern wa l l . b ab ly o nce s upported b y a n a rch .

T he wa l l a t t h is p o in t was p ro-

A t t he mouth o f t he k i ln t here i s ar ec tangu lar

s haped p it p er m it t ing f ue l t o b e f ed i n to t he f urnace ( f ig . 9 1) .

A t t he b ot to m

o f t he p it v ar ious p ieces o f l imestone a nd f rag men ts o f marb le d ecora t ions f or b u i ld ings w ere f ound - most p robably r aw ma ter ia ls f or t he p roduc t ion o f l ime . I t was o n ly a t t h is p o in t t ha t t he p urpose o f t he most impress ive f rag ments o f b u i ld ings a nd p ieces o f s tatues f ound a t v ar ious p o in ts o n t he s i te b eca me c lear . T he g rand iose p ropor t ions a nd d es ign o f s o me o f t hese i t e ms p rec luded t he ir b e ing i n a ny way c onnected w i th t he wa t t le a nd p laster s tructures i n t he c o mp lex . O f p art icu lar i n terest a re t he marble c orn ice d ecora ted w ith g arlands a nd b ul ls h eads ( f ig . 9 2) , af ur ther c orn ice o r d oor f ra me ( f ig . 9 4) a nd t he h ead o f a s ta tue ( f ig . 9 3) . T he wa l ls o f t he k i ln a re b aked e x tre me ly h ard , i nd ica t ing t ha t i t was i n u se f or a c ons iderable p er iod o f t ime . T h is k i ln i s s tr ik ing ly s im i lar t o t he l ime k iln d escr ibed b y Ca to 48 when h e g ives t he f o l low ing a dv ice :

" the l ime k i ln s hou ld b e made 1 0 f eet w ide a nd 4 3

2 0 f ee t h igh a nd i n t he u pper p or t ion i t s w id th s hou ld n arrow t o 3f ee t . I ft he l ime i s t o b e h ea ted b y as ing le f urnace , t hen d ig ad eep p it i ns ide t he k i ln t o c o l lec t t he a shes wh ich w il l t hen n o t n eed t ob e r e moved " S evera l l ime k i lns o f av ery s im i lar c onstruct ion a re s t il l i n o pera t ion t oday a mere 5t o 6km t o t he west o f C ha ta lka , n ear t he v i l lage o f S urneve ts ( f ig . 9 5 ) . t he d i mens ions r eco mmended b y C a to h ave h ere b een p reserved .

Even

( I t w i l l b e

r e membered t ha t aRoman f oo t was a pprox i ma te ly e qu iva len t t o 3 0 cm )4 9 . T he d iame ter o f t he l ime k i ln u nder d iscuss ion h ere , t herefore , c orresponds e xac t ly t o t he d iame ter r eco mmended b y C a to . T he o ther d i mensions w ere p robab ly a lso v ery s im i lar , b u t w e c anno tb e a bso lu te ly c er ta in o f t h is , f or t he u pper s ec t ion o f t he k i ln wh ich p ro truded a bove t he g round w as n o l onger i n e x istence . B ear ing i n m ind t he e x tens ive u se made b y t he R omans o f l ime a nd mor tar i n t he ir b u ild ings , we must a lso a ssu me t ha t l ime k i lns must h ave b een w ides pread t hroughou t t he Emp ire , o r a t l east i nt hose p laces where s upp l ies o f r aw ma ter ia ls w ere r ead i ly a va i lab le . C a to c erta in ly c ons iders t he c onstruct ion o f s uch a l ime p i t t o b e n a tura l a nd i ndeed o b l iga tory i n a ny l arge e sta te . A lt hough we d id h ave o ccas ion s o me y ears a go t o s ee a s im i lar p i t t raversed b y ag u l ly n o t f ar f rom H issar , n o l ime k i lns o ft h is n a ture o n B u lgar ian t err i tory h ave s o f ar b een p ub l ished . T he l ime k i lns wou ld h ave b een u sed i n away n o t v ery d iss im i lar f rom t he l ime k i lns i n o pera t ion t oday . I t wou ld h ave b een f i l led w ith l arge p ieces o f l imestone , t he p ieces immed ia te ly a bove t he f urnace p i t b e ing more c are fu l ly a rranged s o a s n o t t o f a l l i n to t he h o le b e low . T he o pen ing a t t he t op , w h ich , a ccord ing t o C a to was s o me 9 0 cm i n d iame ter , wou ld h ave b een f i lled w ith l oose e ar th t o r e ta in t he h ea t a nd t o a l low t he smoke t o e scape . Na tura l ly o ne c anno t p resu me t ha t t he k i ln u nder d iscuss ion h ere o n ly made u se o fp ieces o f marb le f rom d ere l ic t b u i ld ings . T h is t ype o f r aw ma ter ia l wou ld o n ly h ave b een u sed i n t he p roduc t ion o fh igh q ua l i ty l ime f or s tucco a nd f ac ings, o rd inary l imestone b e ing u sed f or t he p roduc t ion o f l ime f or more r un-o fthe- m i l l c ons truc t ion p urposes. " F i l l t he k i ln w ith h igh q ua l ity s t one ," a dv ises C a to , " let i tb e w h ite w ith n o d ivers ity o f c o lour". T here a re l imes tone q uarr ies n o t 5 km . d is tan t f ro m Cha ta lka . T he marb le o b jec ts men t ioned a bove w ou ld o nce h ave b e longed t o l arge p ub l ic b u i ld ings a nd were i n a l l p robab i l ity b rough t t o C ha ta lka f ro m t he t own , af ac t t ha t s uggests t ha t i n t he t h ird c en tury t he t own t oo h ad b een s ub jec ted t o c ons iderab le d estruc t ion . T he h igh q ua l i ty l ime p roduced f rom t he marb le p ieces c ou ld c erta in ly n o t h ave b een u sed i n t he c onstruct ion o fb u i ld ings o n t he c omp lex i t se l f ; a nd w hen o ne c ons iders t he c ons iderab le c ost i n t ime a nd l abour o f t ransport ing t hese b locks o ver a d istance o f 2 0 km , i tb ecomes c lear t ha t t h is k i ln was u sed f or t he p rod uc t ion o f l ime f or c o mmerc ia l p urposes a nd n o t mere ly t o mee t t he immed ia te n eeds o f t he e sta te i t se l f . H ere o n ly v ery f ew sma l l f i nds w ere made ; 1 .

t hese c ompr ise :

T oo ls a nd Imp le men ts o f Work 6 8 l oom-we ights , 8s p ind le-whor ls , 4i ron c h ise ls a nd 9 i ron k n ives .

4 4

2 .

Art ic les o f Everyday U se 4b ronze a nd i ron k eys, 1 sma l l c lay l a mp , 2f i bulae a nd

6c lay v esse ls .

2i ron a rrowheads a nd a s ing le sma l l b ronze f i gure o f ah orse man were a lso f ound . Among o ther o b jects f ound , men t ion o ugh t t o b e made o f as tone a xe o f t he Cha lco l ith ic p er iod . 3 .

Co ins A c ons iderably l arger n u mber o f c o ins was f ound o n t h is s i te , t he t o ta l

n u mber b e ing 1 85, w ith b ronze c o ins p redo m ina t ing .

T he c o ins f a l l i n to t he

f o l low ing p er iods: 1 .

N ero ( 54-68 )

1

2 .

C araca l la ( 196-217)

1

3 .

G e ta ( 198-211)

2

4 .

Max im inus ( 235-238)

1

5 .

T ranqu il l ina ( w ife o f G ord ian I I )

6 .

P h i l l ip I( 244-249)

1

7 .

G a l l ienus ( 254-268 )

1

8 .

C onstan t ine I ( 306-337)

4 5

9 .

L ic in ius I ( 307-323 )

1 0

1 0 .

C onstant ine I ( 317-337 )

1

1 1.

C ons tan t ius I ( 323-361)

8

1 2 .

C onsta .ns I ( 335-350)

4

1 3 .

J u l ian ( 355-363 )

5

1 4 .

H e lena ( h is w ife)

1

1 5 .

V a lens ( 364-378 )

3

1 6 .

V a len t in ian I ( 375-392)

3

1 7 .

T heodos ius I( 379-395)

6

1 8 .

F lac il la ( h is w ife)

1

1 9 .

A rcad ius ( 394-408)

2 0 .

H onor ius ( 395-423)

2 1.

T heodos ius I ( 408-450)

2 2 .

5 1 0 1

O fu ncerta in o r ig in , p r i mar ily o f 4 th a nd 5 th c en tury T o ta l

7 4 1 85

T he c o ins f ound o n t h is s i te i nd ica te a n u n in terrup ted t rad it ion c on t inu ing r igh t t hrough t he Ro man p er iod .

Aga in t he a bsence o f c o ins f or t he p er iod

b e tween N ero a nd Caraca l la must b e r egarded a s p ure ly f ortu itous .

A s c an

b e s een f rom t he l i st , t he c o ins o f Emperors u p t o t he f ourth c en tury a re s o f ew i n n u mber t ha t t he ir a bsence c ou ld we l l b e e xp la ined b y ac erta in l ack o f c are a nd a t ten t ion o n t he p ar t o f t he workers e ngaged i n t he e xcava t ions . Worthy o fn o te o nce a ga in i s t he c ons iderable q uant i ty o f c o ins f ro m t he f ourth

a nd f i f th c entury .

I n o ur o p in ion t h is c an b e p ut d own t o t he i ncrease i n t he

n u mber o f c o ins i n c ircu la t ion among t he p eop le who l i ved i n t he c o mp lex a t t ha t t ime .

T he Nero c o in a lso mer its s pec ia l men t ion f or , i n o ur v iew , i t

c ou ld n o t h ave f ound i t s way i n to t he c o mp lex h ad t he c o mp lex n o t e x isted a t

4 5

t ha t p er iod .

O f e qua l importance i s t he T heodos ius I c o in , wh ich s im i lar ly

s hows t ha t t he c o mp lex was i n u se •un t i l t he m idd le o f t he f i f th c en tury . I tw il l h ave b eco me c lear f ro m wha t h as b een s a id t ha t t he g rea ter p rop or t ion o fb u ild ings o n t he L a mba ta s i te a re o f at ype t yp ica l o f ap ars r ust ica . I n t he c ourse o f e xcava t ions n o t as ing le b u ild ing o f as uf f ic ien t ly s o l id c ons truc t ion t o mer it i t s c ons idera t ion a s ad we l l ing o f t he v il la owner was d iscovered .

A l though t he g round p lan a nd t he n u mber o f s tables o n t he

L a mba ta s i te d if fer f ro m t he De l i monyova N iva s i te , b o th s i tes a re v ery s im ilar i n c haracter .

T here c an , t herefore , b e n o d oubt t ha t t he L a mba ta

s i te was a lso ap ars r ust ica ( f ig . 9 6) . I tc ons ists o f t hree p ar ts c onstruc ted a t d if feren t t imes .

T he f irst p ar t

t o b e b u il t was t he n or thern w ing a rranged r ound a sma l l c ourtyard .

B o th t he

p lan o f t he b a th b u i ld ing , wh ich s uggests t ha t i td a tes f ro m t he s econd c en tury , a nd t he c onstruc t ion o f t he a dd it iona l r oo m h wh ich c loses o f f t he n ew ly c rea ted c our tyard f ro m t he west , l ead u s t o b e l ieve t ha t t he b a th b u i ld ing w as c onstruc ted b efore t he s outh-eastern w ing .

T he a dd it iona l w ing was, i n o ur

v iew , b u i l t a t t he s ame t ime a s t he s outh-eastern w ing .

T he p reserved s ec t ion

o f t he wa l l o f r oo m 2 e x tend ing t owards t he s outh wou ld s uggest t ha t t he b a ths were i ncluded i n t he o r ig ina l c our tyard . b e n o ted , was f ro m t h is c ourtyard . d a te f ro m t he s a me t ime .

T he e n trance t o t he b a ths, i tw i l l

B o th t he l ime k i ln a nd t he w a ter p ipe

T ha t t he wa ter p ipe was l a id a f ter t he c onstruc t ion

o f t he n or thern w ing i s s hown b y t he f ac t t ha t ah o le h ad t o b e made i n t he wa l l i n o rder f or i tt o p ass b enea th t he n or th-western c orner o ft he w ing . A f act s uggest ing t ha t t he s outh-eastern w ing was t he l ast t o b e b u i l t i s t he v ery o r ig ina l c onstruct ion o f t he e n trance ( 16) a nd t he wa ll p assing t he l ime k i ln .

T he k iln , n a tura l ly , c ou ld n o t h ave e x is ted i ndependen t ly o f t he

dwe l l ings a nd f ar m b u ild ings .

I ti s p oss ib le , h owever , t o d a te t he c onstruct ion

o f t h is w ing r a ther more p rec ise ly , f or , a s we h ave s een , d ressed l imes tone b locks w ith r ust ica ted s urfaces r ese mbl ing t he b locks u sed i n t he c onstruc t ion o f t he f acade o f b u ild ing 1 1 a t D e l i monyovo Ka le w ere u sed h ere.

These b locks

c ou ld o n ly h ave c o me f ro m D e l i monyovo K a le ' , a nd we must t here fore c onc lude t ha t t h is w ing was b u i l t n o e ar l ier t han t he m idd le o f t he t h ird c en tury .

N o

t races were f ound o f a ny r u ins d a t ing f ro m t he t ime b e tween t he f i rst a nd t he s econd c onstruct ion p er iod .

T h is i s p erhaps d ue t o t he f act t ha t t he wa t t le

a nd p laster wa l ls o f t he b u ild ings f ro m t he f i rst p er iod were c leared away r igh t d own t o t he ir f ounda t ions o n wh ich t he n ew b u ild ings were t hen e rec ted . S im i lar ly , o n ly t he l ower s ec t ions o f t he wa l ls i n t he b a th b u i ld ing , wh ich was p robably n o t d estroyed , were r e ta ined .

I th as n ot b een p oss ib le t o d a te t he

c onstruct ion o f t he b a th b u i ld ing w ith a ny a ccuracy , a l though i tc ou ld we l l h ave b een b u i l t a t t he s a me t ime a s t he s outh-eastern w ing i n t he t h ird c entury . Wha t i s c er ta in , h owever , i s t ha t b o th t imes t he c o mp lex was r ebu il t i t was o n al arger s ca le w ith a n i ncreased p roduct ive c apac ity . Ev idence p rov ided b y t he c o ins i nd ica tes t ha t t he c o mp lex was i n e x istence b e tween t he f i rst a nd t he f i f th c entury , b u t we h ave a lready men t ioned t ha t h ere a lso t here were o nce sma l l h ouses c onstruc ted o f mud a nd s tone wh ich y ie lded f i nds o f c o ins a nd o ther ma ter ia ls d a t ing f ro m t he f ourth a nd f i f th c entury .

We

must t herefore c onc lude t ha t t h is c o mp lex t oo was d estroyed i n t he f our th c entury a nd a v i l lage i nhab i ted b y sma l l c o m mod ity-producers w as c onstruc ted o n t he r u ins . 4 6

We h ave a lready men t ioned t ha t t he ma in d if ference b e tween t he De l i monyova N iva a nd L a mba ta s i tes c ons ists i n t he n u mber o f s tables .

T h is

d if ference c an a l most c erta in ly b e e xp la ined b y t he d if feren t f unct ions o f t he t wo c o mp lexes, f or whereas o ne was p r i mar ily c oncerned w ith a gr icu lture , t he o ther was c oncerned w ith a n i ma l h usbandry .

An a dd i t iona l a ct iv ity e n-

g aged i n a t t he L a mba ta p ars r ust ica was t he p roduct ion o f l ime .

T he t wo

c o mp lexes , t herefore , wou ld s ee m t o c o mp l i men t o ne a no ther ' sa ct iv it ies, a nd t h is f act l eads u s t o b e l ieve t ha t t hey b e longed t o o ne a nd t he s a me v i l la . I ti s t rue t ha t t he p ars r ust ica i n L a mba ta c ould h ave b e longed t o ad if feren t v i l la , b ut o ther f actors l ead u s t o b e l ieve t ha t t h is was n o t s o .

I n t he f i rst

p lace , b o th c o mp lexes a re s i tua ted i n t he im med ia te v ic in ity o f t he v il la o n De l i monyovo K a le .

S econd ly t here i s a n u nm istakable s im i lar i ty b e tween t he

o vera l l d a t ing a nd t he h istor ica l f a te o f t he t hree c o mp lexes .

F ina l ly we h ave

t he n ecropo l is o f t u mu l i b etween t he s i tes wh ich , a s we w il l s ee , u nderwen t a s im i lar d eve lop men t .

A l though i ti s t rue t ha t t he n ecropo l is i s c u t i n t wo b y

t he r iver Mog ilovska , wh ich s epara tes t he p ars r ust ica i n L a mba ta f ro m t he o ther t wo s i tes, t he r iver p asses a t t he b ot to m o f t he t errace o n wh ich t he v i l la owner ' sh ouse i s s itua ted a nd c ou ld n o t p oss ib ly f or m t he b oundary b et ween t wo s epara te e sta tes .

Moreover , t he l argest o f t he b ur ia l mounds ,

t he s o-ca l led Roshava Dragana Mound , wh ich i s most d ef in ite ly h istor ica l ly l i nked t o t he h ouse , s tands i n t he im med ia te v ic in i ty o f t he De l i monyovo K a le p ars u rbana o n t he o ppos ite b ank o f t he r iver Mog i lovska .

Even more c on-

v inc ing e v idence o f t he l i nk b e tween De l i monyovo K a le a nd t he p ars , r ust ica i n L a mba ta i s p rov ided b y t he d ressed l imestone b locks wh ich d isappeared f ro m t he De l i monyovo Ka le- s i te f o l low ing i t s i n it ia l d estruct ion a nd were l a ter u sed i n t he c onstruct ion o f t he s outh-eastern w ing i n t he p ars r ust ica i n L a mba ta .

O ne o ugh t a lso t o c i te t he C ha lco l i th ic s tone a xe wh ich c ou ld o n ly

h ave o r ig ina ted i n a Cha lco l ith ic s et t le men t b enea th t he v i l la o n De l i monyovo K a le , f or n o o ther p reh istor ic s et t le men t h as b een d iscovered i n t he immed ia te v ic in i ty o f t he L a mba ta s ite . One c an t hus s ay t ha t t he Cha ta lka v i l la was p art o f al arge l anded e sta te w ith o ne d we l l ing c o mp lex ( t he p ars u rbana ) a nd t wo f ar m c o mp lexes, ( t he p ars r ust ica ) .

I n a dd it ion t o a gr icu l ture a nd a n i ma l h usbandry , work c arr ied

o ut o n t he e sta te i ncluded a n u mber o f p roduct ive p rocesses s uch a s p ot tery a nd t he p repara t ion o f l ime . B efore p roceed ing t o t he e stabl ish men t o f ad ef in ite c hrono logy f or t he d eve lop men t o f t he e sta te a nd t o a n a ssess men t o f i t s p roduct ive c apac it ies, we wou ld f i rst l i ke t o c ons ider t he r esu l ts o f e xcava t ions c arr ied o ut o n t he b ur ia l mounds s itua ted c lose b y .

4 7

V I I.

THE NECROPOL IS OF LARGE MOUNDS Nos. 1 -8

No t f ar f ro m t he a rch itectura l c o mp lexes a lready d escr ibed w e d iscovered e igh t l arge b ur ia l mounds ( f ig . 1 Nos . 1 -8 ) .

S ubsequen t ly we d iscovered o ne

f ur ther mound , wh ich a l most merged w ith t he a d jo in ing s i te N o . 2 0 a nd wh ich was f ound t o c on ta in a n u mber o f l a te b ur ia ls w ith v ery meagre c onten ts n o t mer it ing o ur a t ten t ion h ere .

O f t he f i rst e igh t mounds, t hree a re s itua ted o n

t he n or thern s ide o f t he r iver Mog i lovska , wh ile t he r e ma inder a re o n t he t errace t o t he west o f t he De l i monyova N iva s i te b etween t he t wo sma l l r ivers . T he n earest mounds a re s o me 4 0 t o 5 0 m f ro m t he b u i ld ings, wh ile t he most d istan t i s s o me 6 00 m away .

Nowhere i s t he d istance b e tween a ny t wo mounds

more t han 2 00 m, a nd we must t herefore c onc lude t ha t t he mounds a l l b e long t o o ne s ing le n ecropo l is .

T he mounds t o t he n orth o f t he c o mp lex a re n o t

a rranged i n a ny p ar t icular o rder , b ut t hose o n t he western s ide a re a rranged i n as ing le l i ne a nd were p robably c onstruc ted a longs ide a n a nc ien t r oad . I n a dd it ion t o t he s pec if ic p roble ms c onnected w ith b ur ia l c usto ms a nd t he a na lys is o f t he g rave g oods, we were a lso f aced w ith t he p rob le ms o f e stabl ish ing t he l i nk b etween t he t u mu l i a nd t he v il la d escr ibed a bove .

H ere ,

h owever , we w il l b e c oncerned o n ly w ith t he l a t ter p roble m , f or , a s was e xp la ined i n t he i n troduct ion , t he p roble ms c onnected w ith t he b ur ia l mounds t he mse lves w il l f or m t he s ubstance o f as epara te p ubl ica t ion . I n wha t c oncerns t he p oss ible l i nk b e tween t he b ur ia l mounds a nd t he v il la , t wo s epara te h ypo theses p resen ted t he mse lves : f i rst ly t ha t t he mounds d a te f ro m t he s a me p er iod a s t he v i l la a nd t herefore c on ta in t he r e ma ins o f t he v il la ' s owners, a nd s econd ly t ha t t hey d a te f ro m a c o mp le te ly d if feren t p er iod a nd h ave n o th ing t o d o w ith t he v i l la wha tsoever . B e tween 1 965 a nd 1 967 a l l t he l arge b ur ia l mounds were e xcava ted . Two o f t he m t urned o u t t o b e c eno taphs ( Nos . 3a nd 8 ) , wh ile t he r ema in ing s ix t u mu l i were f ound t o c on ta in e igh t b ur ia ls o f wh ich f our were o f ma les a nd f our o f f e ma les . "

I n t he Roshava Dragana Mound , wh ich was s o me 2 0 m

h igh ( f ig . 9 7 ) , t hree b ur ia ls were d iscovered - t wo o f ma les a nd o ne o f a f e ma le - wh i le e ach o f t he r e ma in ing mounds c on ta ined a s ing le b ur ia l ( f igs . 9 8 , 9 9 , 1 00) .

I n a l l c ases t he b od ies h ad b een c re ma ted , t he c re ma t ion

h av ing t aken p lace e i ther i n t he g rave i t se lf o r o u ts ide . ma le b ur ia ls f o l lowed t he s a me p a t tern .

A l most a l l t he f e-

B efore t he mound was b u il t a

r ectangu lar p it o n a n e ast-west a x is was d ug i n t he g round a nd a f ur ther sma l ler p it o f t he s a me s hape was e xcava ted a t t he b o t to m .

T he sma l ler

p it wou ld h ave s erved a s a n u rn i n wh ich t he a shes o f t he c re ma ted b ody were c o l lected t oge ther w ith t he v ar ious o rnamen ts wh ich h ad b een p laced w ith i t . T he g rave-goods ( f igs . 1 01, 1 02) were a rranged o n t op o f t he a shes a round t he " urn" a t t he b o t to m o f t he l arger o f t he t wo p its . d if feren t r itua l was o bserved .

I n ma le b ur ia ls a

I n t wo o f t he m t he a shes h ad b een g a thered

i n a sma l l s tone s arcophagus w ith a s epara te l i d ( f ig . 1 03 ) ;5 1

4 8

o n t he t op o f

t he l i d b e long ing t o t he s arcophagus s hown i n f ig . 1 03 a wrea th o f f i ne g o ld f o il i n t he s hape o f o ak l eaves ' ( f ig . 1 04) h ad b een p laced . c overed i n mound No . 652

I n t he b ur ia l d is-

as em i-cy l indr ica l a rch h ad b een b u il t o ver t he

r e ma ins o f t he b ody a nd t he g rave g oods . c overed e i ther w ith b ea ms o r b oards .

I n a l l c ases t he g raves h ad b een

I n t he f e ma le b ur ia ls , i n a dd it ion t o

v ar ious v esse ls a nd t o ilet a rt ic les, we d iscovered a c ons iderable q uan t ity o f g o ld j ewe l lery ( f igs . 1 05, 1 06) , w h i le i n t he ma le b ur ia ls v ar ious weapons a nd s tr ig i ls ( f ig . 1 07 ) were f ound .

G rea t e xc ite men t was c aused b y t he d is-

c overy o f t he b ronze h e l me t ( f ig . 1 08 ) a nd t he p iece o f g o ld j ewe l lery w ith S arma t ian h ierog lyph ics ( f ig . 1 09) .

Among t he a shes i n t he v ar ious u rns

5 3

we c ame a cross f ru its, wa lnuts a nd v ine t w igs . T he g rea ter p ar t o f t he b ur ia l g oods, e spec ia l ly t he j ewe l lery , i s o f Eastern He l len ist ic o r ig in .

C er ta in o b jects a re o f l oca l o r " Scy tho-Sar ma t ian"

p roduc t ion , wh ile t he b ronze v esse ls, t he l a mps a nd c and le-ho lders a re o f S ou th I t a l ian p rovenance , a s i s i nd ica ted b y as ta mp o n t he h and le o f a n amphora where t he n a me o f t he maker c an b e c learly r ead a s T/ ITVS/ MANN/ r VS/ I V IART IANVS .

5 4

T he d iscovery o f c o ins a nd o ther o b jec ts i n t he g raves makes i tp oss ib le t o d a te t he c onstruct ion o f t he b ur ia l mounds w ith c ons iderab le a ccuracy . Thus t he Roshava Dragana Mound ( t u mu lus No . 1 )b ur ia ls c an b e d a ted a s f o l lows :

t he o ldest b ur ia l ( i n t he f ounda t ions o f t he mound ) d a tes f ro m t he

midd le o f t he f i rst c entury A . D . ,5 5 t he s econd f ro m t he e nd o f t he f i rst c en tury ,

5 6

wh i le t he t h ird b e longs t o " the f i rst h a l f o f t he s econd c en tury" .57

T he b ur ia l i n mound N o . 3d a tes f ro m t he f i rst c entury ,

5 8

t he b ur ia l i n mound

No . 4f ro m t he e nd o f t he s econd a nd t he b eg inn ing o f t he t h ird c en tury ,

5 9

t he

b ur ia l i n mound No . 5f ro m t he e nd o f t he s econd c entury ° a nd t he b ur ia l i n mound N o . 6f ro m t he s econd p ar t o f t he f i rst c entury .

6 1

T he b ur ia l i n

mound N o . 7wou ld s ee m t o d a te f ro m t he e nd o f t he f i rst c en tury .

6 2

B road ly

s peak ing t he b ur ia ls, t herefore , d a te f ro m t he p er iod b etween t he midd le o f t he f i rst c en tury a nd t he b eg inn ing o f t he t h ird i .e . f ro m a p er iod c o inc id ing w ith t he e x istence o f t he v il la .

I ndeed i ti s b enea th t hese mounds t ha t t he

owners o f t he v i l la l i e b ur ied .

T he mounds t he mse lves wou ld h ave b een

s itua ted o n t err itory b e long ing t o t he v i l la a nd , a s h as a lready b een men t ioned , i n a dd i t ion t o p rov id ing a n atura l l i nk b e tween t he s epara te a rch itectura l g roup ings, t hey p rov ide a r ough i nd ica t ion o f t he t o ta l a rea b e long ing t o t he v il la . T he c ons iderable n u mber o f o b jects f ound i n t he d if feren t g raves ( so me c on ta ined u pwards o f o ne h undred i t e ms) a nd t he f act t ha t ac ons iderable p rop or t ion o f t hese o b jec ts were made o f p rec ious meta ls , p rov ide a n i nd ica t ion o f t he c ons iderable e cono m ic p ower o f t he p eop le b ur ied h ere a nd o f t hose w ith w ho m t hey were c onnec ted .

O f t he c e me ter ies d at ing f ro m t h is p er iod

s o f ar e xcava ted , t he n ecropo l is u nder d iscuss ion h ere must c erta in ly b e c ons idered o ne o f t he r ichest .

C learly t he v i l la owners, c on tro l l ing a s t hey

d id a n e cono m ic u n it p roduc ing av ar ie ty o f g oods o n ac o m merc ia l b asis, were a ble t o i ncrease t he ir wea l th c ons iderab ly .

A rt ic les p roduced o n t he

e sta te wou ld h ave b een e xchanged f or c ost ly g oods l arge ly o f f ore ign p rovenance .

4 9

I n t he g raves f ur ther c oncre te e v idence o f t he a ct iv it ies c arr ied o u t i n t he v i l la was d iscovered i n t he f or m o f c harred f ru its, wa lnuts a nd v ine t w igs . T he b ur ia l mounds p rov ided a n a nswer t o af urther v ery impor tan t q uest ion , n ame ly t he i den t i ty o f t he v i l la owner .

T h is q uest ion h as, o f c ourse , a lready

b een r a ised i n t he s ect ion d ea l ing w i th De l i monyovo K a le- v il la w i th i t s T hrac ian Horse men s anctuary , b u t t he g raves p rov ide f urther s uppor t f or t he t heory a dvanced t here . T he t yp ica l ly T hrac ian r i tes o fb ur ia l b y c re ma t ion a nd t he e rect ion o fb ur ia l mounds c lear ly i nd ica te t he T hrac ian o r ig in o f t he n ecropo l is . I tc anno t b e d en ied t ha t t he g rea ter p ar t o ft he g rave g oods a re o f f ore ign o r ig in , b ut c er ta in i t e ms were p roduced l oca l ly .

L oca l ly p roduced i t ems o f p ar t icu-

l ar impor tance a re t he sma l l p ieces o f g o ld f o il ( f ig . 1 05) , t wo o f wh ich h ave h a m mered o ut o n t he m h u man h eads a nd g ryphons 6 4 ,r em in iscent o ft he T hrac ian g o ld p ectora ls o f t he H e l len ist ic p er iod 6 3 .

5 0

V I I I.

THE KARAL IE T S S ITE ( f ig . 1 : G )

T he K ara l ie ts s i te l i es o n t he l e f t b ank o f t he r iver Mog i lovska im med ia te ly o ppos i te t he l arge mounds Nos . 4 , 5 , 6a nd 7 .

Ap re l im inary i nspect ion o f

t he s i te e nabled u s t o s ing le o ut an u mber o f s epara te p lo ts where t here was ap ar t icu lar ly l arge c oncen tra t ion o f p o t tery f ragmen ts a nd s tones p rev iously u sed a s b u i ld ing ma ter ia ls l y ing o n t he s urface .

I t was t hese p lots we d ec ided

t o e xcava te , f i rst c u t t ing l ong t renches t hrough t he m a nd t hen , a t t he p o in ts where wa l ls were d iscovered , e x tend ing t he t renches s ideways . O n t hree o f t he p lo ts sma l l s quares o f c obbles made w ith s tones f ro m t he r iver w ere f ound , a nd n ex t t o t he m s ect ions o f wa l l . I t was n o t p oss ible , h owever , t o p ro ject ac o mp le te g round p lan . T he b est p reserved a rea ( f igs . 10 , 1 11, 12 ) c ons ists o f al arge r ec tangu lar c our tyard measur ing 5 0 b y 3 0 m, a nd ab u i ld ing h aving t wo l arge r oo ms a nd o ne sma l ler r oo m .

T h is b u i ld ing f or med t he

western wa l l o f t he c our tyard ( f ig . 11) . B y t he s outh-eastern c orner o f t he c our tyard a nd j ust o u tside i tt he f ounda t ions o f as epara te b u i ld ing w i th a most i n terest ing g round p lan were d iscovered .

T h is b u i ld ing i s b asica l ly a r ectan-

g u lar r oo m measur ing 1 0 b y 4m a nd h av ing r ounded c orners, ( f igs . 10 , 13) . N o e v idence i sk nown t o u s o f a ny b u i ld ing w ith a s im i lar g round p lan e ver h av ing b een d iscovered e lsewhere . The ma ter ia ls a nd c onstruct ion t echn iques h ere a re s im i lar t o t hose f ound e lsewhere a t Cha ta lka . T he b oundary wa l l a nd t he wa l ls o f t he b u i ld ings w il l h ave b een o f wa t t le a nd p laster o n ab ase o f s tone a nd wh ite mor tar . T he f ounda t ions a re b etween 6 0 a nd 7 0 cm t h ick . A l though t he g round p lan o f t h is c ourtyard i s s im ilar t o t he g round p lan o f t he f arm b u i ld ings i n t he v i l la , h ere we h ave t o d o w ith a sma l ler n u mber o f r oo ms wh ich a re n o t a rranged s o a s t o r ing t he c ourtyard .

I n o ur o p in ion

t h is c our tyard d id n o t b e long t o t he v i l la . We a re l ed t o t h is c onc lusion n o t o n ly b y t he sma l l n u mber o f dwe l l ings a nd f ar m b u i ld ings, b u t a lso b y t he f act t ha t i ti s d if f icu l t t o b e l ieve t ha t t he n on-residen t ia l p arts o f t he v i l la s hould h ave b een s pread o ver s uch a w ide a rea a nd d iv ided i n to s o many d if feren t i nd iv idua l u n i ts , e spec ia l ly when t here was n o g ood r eason why t he e x ist ing u n i ts s hou ld n o t h ave b een e x tended . I to ugh t t o b e men t ioned h ere , t ha t w h i le we d id n o t i nvest iga te t he who le a rea t horough ly , i n K ara l ie ts we d id d iscover f our s im ilar c o mp lexes s i tua ted u pwards o f 1 00 m d istan t f ro m o ne a no ther a nd s how ing u p f ro m t he a ir a s l i gh ter i n c o lour t han t he s urround ing t erra in ( f ig . 1 10 ) . I n o ur o p in ion t he s i te a t K ara l ie ts must h ave b een a f ar myard w ith h ouse a nd o utbu i ld ings a l l o f v ery f l i msy c onstruc t ion l eav ing l i t t le t race o f t he ir e rs twh i le e x istence.

T he c ourtyard i nd ica tes t ha t t he v i l lager ' s dwe l l ing

w ou ld n ot h ave c onsisted o f ah ouse a lone . I n t he y ard h e wou ld h ave h ad v ar ious f ar m o utbu i ld ings a nd a lso p erhaps e ven s ome k ind o f k i tchen g arden . T he c ons iderab le d istance b etween t he m would h ave b een d iv ided u p i n s o me

5 1

way a nd wou ld h ave b e longed t o t he ,v ar ious f ar myards .

On ly i ft h is was t he

c ase c an t he p resence o f t he s em i-e l l ip t ica l s tructure n ex t t o t he y ard d esc r ibed a bove b e e xp la ined , f or t h is was, i n o ur o p in ion , af or m o f o pen o r o n ly p art ia l ly c overed s tab le f or sma l ler c a t t le s uch a s s heep a nd g oa ts . I n t he c ourse o f e xcava t ions c arr ied o u t o n t hese b u i ld ings we d iscovered h ear ths , m il lstones, l arge e arthenware p o ts a nd a w ide v ar ie ty o f a gr icult ura l imp le men ts i nclud ing p ickaxes, h oes, s pades, s cy thes, c h isles, s hears, f orks a nd k n ives, c lear ly i nd ica t ing t ha t e ach h ouse b e longed t o as epara te f ar mstead .

T hese f ar msteads p robably s pec ia l ised i n a gr icu l tura l p roduct ion

b acked u p b y a sma l l amoun t o f a n i ma l h usbandry . E ach h ouseho ld wou ld h ave p ossessed i t s own d raf t a n i ma ls a nd t oo ls, b u t i t s p roduct ive c apac i ty q u ite o bv iously c ou ld n o t h ave c o me a nywhere n ear t o r iva l l ing t ha t o f t he v i l la n earby . I n a dd it ion t o t hese a gr icu ltura l imp le men ts, i n t he c ourse o f e xcava t ing t he y ards, v ar ious p o t tery f ragmen ts f ro m t he f i rst t o t he f if th c en tury c a me t o l i gh t , i nclud ing b o th h and made v esse ls a nd v esse ls t hrown o n ap ot ter 's whee l . I n a l l 9c o ins were f ound d a t ing f ro m t he f o l low ing p er iods: 1 .

Maronaea ( 2nd c en tury B .C . )

1

2 .

Caraca l la ( 196 - 2 17)

3 . 4 . 5 . 6 .

Max i mus Caesar ( 235 - 2 38) G ord ian I I ( 238 - 2 44) O fu nknown o r ig in 2 nd - 3 rd c en tury M in i ms ( 5 th c en tury )

1 2 1 3

T hus t he b u ild ing t echn iques, t he p ot tery a nd t he c o ins a l l i nd ica te t ha t t he s i tes i n K ara l ie ts were i n e x istence a t t he s ame t ime a s t he v il la . O ne i s i ndeed s truck b y t he ir p rox im i ty t o t he v i l la - t he n earest i s o n ly 2 00 m a nd t he f urthest a pprox i me te ly 5 00 m d istan t ( f ig . 1 , G ) -a nd we a re o f t he o p in ion t ha t t he f ar ms were b u il t o n t err itory b e long ing t o t he v il la 6 4 a . I ft h is was t he c ase, t he i nd iv idua l f ar msteads n ever the less e n joyed a c erta in d egree o f i ndependence , e ach f am i ly p ossess ing p roperty o f i t s own i n t he f or m o f ah ouse a nd f ar myard t ogether w ith o u tbu i ld ings, v ar ious t oo ls, d raf t a n ima ls a nd a sma l l amoun t o f o ther l i vestock . I ti s h igh ly u n l ike ly t ha t t hey wou ld h ave owned t he l and o n wh ich t hey w orked , f or e ven t he h ouses w ere b u i lt o n l and t ha t d id n o t b e long t o t he m.

T he l and w ou ld h ave c er ta in ly b een

r en ted f ro m t he o wners o f t he e sta te. F ur ther e v idence o f t he j ud ic ia l i ndependence o f t he v il lage p opu la t ion i s p rov ided b y i t s n ecropo l is wh ich was e xcava ted a t t he s a me t ime a s t he h ouses i n K ara l ie ts .

5 2

I X . THE V ILLAGE NECROPOL IS ( F ig . 1 GRAVES 9 -19)

T h is i s s i tua ted o n t he r igh t b ank o f t he r iver Mog i lovska im med ia te ly o pposite t he K ara l iets s i te a nd t he l arge b ur ia l mounds Nos . 4 , 5 , 6a nd 7 . T he n ecropo l is c onsisted o f s even sma l l mounds o fb etween 5 0 cm a nd 1m i n h e igh t . B o th b enea th t he mounds a nd i n t he ir immed ia te v ic in ity a t o ta l o f s o me 5 0 b ur ia ls were d iscovered 6 5 . O f t hese 1 4 were c re ma t ions, wh i le t he r e ma inder were s i mp le i nhu ma t ions .

T he c re ma t ion b ur ia ls c on ta ined p r i-

manly sma ll c lay a nd b ronze v esse ls, most ly b roken , d a t ing f ro m t he f i rst t o t he e nd o ft he s econd c entury .

T he e ar l iest c o in f ound b e longs t o t he

F lav ians wh i le t he l a test d a tes f ro m t he p er iod o f C o mmodus . b ur ia l was marked b y as ing le sma l l mound .

Each c re ma t ion

( I n o ne o f t he mounds t here were

t hree b ur ia ls . ) T he b ur ia l r i tes o bserved i n t he c ase o ft he l arge mounds h ave q u ite c lear ly b een f o l lowed h ere t oo , t he o n ly d if ference b e ing t he q uant i ty a nd v a lue o f t he g rave g oods, ( f ig . 1 14) .

T here c an b e n o d oubt t ha t t he

b uria ls i n b o th n ecropo l i a re t hose o f p eop le b e long ing t o o ne a nd t he s ame e thn ic g roup . T he b ur ia ls b y s i mp le i nhu ma t ion c an b e d iv ided i n to t wo s epara te g roups, t he f i rst e xh ib i t ing n o p art icu lar p osit ion ing o f t he b ody a nd n o c rossing o f t he h ands o ver t he c hest , wh i le i n t he s econd we f i nd t he s ke letons a lways a rranged w ith t he h ead t ot he west a nd t he h ands c are fu l ly c rossed o ver t he c hest .

T he f i rst g roup o f g raves must b e c ons idered t o b e p agan , whereas

t he s econd , i n wh ich c o ins d at ing f ro m t he p er iod o f T heodos ius, Honor ius a nd Ar cad ius w ere f ound , q u ite c lear ly b e longs t o t he Chr ist ian p er iod. F ro m wha t h as b een s a id , i tw il l b e c lear t ha t t he n ecropo l is was i n c ons tan t u sage b etween t he f i rst a nd t he f i f th c en tury . T he c hange i n t he r i tua l must b e a t tr ibuted t o ac hange i n t he r e l ig ious a l leg iance o f t he p eop le b ur ied t here a nd n o t t o a ny c hanges i n t he e thn ic makeup o f t he p opu la t ion . H ad t here b een a ny e thn ic c hanges, i t wou ld b e d if f icu l t t o i mag ine t he g raveyard b e ing k ep t i n t he s ame p lace .

Wha t we h ave h ere i s a n e xa mp le o f t he o bserva t ion

o f a nc ien t f am i ly t rad it ions b ound u p w ith a d eep s ense o f r espect f or o ne ' s a ncestors, a nd we c an t here fore a ssu me t ha t t he e thn ic makeup o f t he p opu la t ion d id n o t c hange g rea t ly d ur ing t he C hr ist ian p er iod e i ther . T h is o bservance o f t rad it ion i n t he g raveyard i s an a tura l r ef lect ion o f t he s et t le men t ' sT hrac ian o r ig in .

N o tw ithstand ing t he g rea t h istor ica l u pheava ls o f t he p er iod , t he

s et t le men t ma inta ined i t s f undamenta l ly T hrac ian e thn ic makeup a nd e ventua l ly i n t he f our th c en tury , j o ined f orces w ith t he s laves l i bera ted f ro m t he v i l la a nd e rec ted n ew v i l lages o n t he r u ins . T he g raveyard c ou ld n ot p oss ibly h ave b e longed t o as e t t le men t o ther t han t he o ne d escr ibed , f or i ti s o n ly s o me 2 00 m d istan t f ro m i ta nd t he l ower s lopes o f t he moun ta ins r ise u p im med ia te ly o n i t s s outhern s ide .

5 3

We c an n ow s ee why , i n c on trast t o t he b a ths i n t he v i l la i t se l f , t he b a th b u i ld ing o n t he b ank o ft he r iver Mog i lovska h as a s epara te s ec t ion f or ma les a nd f e ma les . C lear ly f ewer workers w ere emp loyed i n t he v i l la , wh ich t heref ore n eeded n o d iv ison i n i t s b a ths , wh i le t he b at hs b y t he r iver s erved t he who le v i l lage w i th i t s much l arger p opu la t ion o fb o th s exes .

5 4

S U M MARY

T hus a n a na lys is o f t he v ar ious s i tes d a t ing f rom t he Roman p er iod d isc overed n ear t he C ha ta lka r eservo ir s hows t ha t t hey a re a l l c lose ly l i nked i n f unc t ion a nd p urpose a nd r epresen t t he c en tra l b u i ld ings o f al arge l anded e sta te . T he e sta te c o mpr ised l i v ing q uar ters ( t he p ars u rbana ) ( f ig . 1 A ) t wo p ars r ust ica ( f igs . 1 B a nd C ) , as epara te b a th b u i ld ing ( f ig . 1 D ) , p ot tery k i lns ( f igs . l E a nd F ) , l ime k i lns , wa ter p ipes a nd f oun ta ins, a T hrac ian v i l lage ( f ig . 1G ) aT hrac ian p agan s anctuary a nd a C hr ist ian c hurch ( f igs . 1 2 N os . 2 2 a nd 2 3 ) a nd t wo s epara te n ecopo l i o fb ur ia l mounds ( f ig . 1 , mounds 1 -8 a nd 9 -20 ) . T he e sta te was i n c on t inuous u se f ro m t he f i rst t o t he f i f th c en tury a nd i t s d eve lop men t c an b e d iv ided i n to t wo ma in p er iods : t he f i rst e x tends f rom t he f i rst t o t he f our th c en tury w h i le t he s econd , when o ne o r more v i l lages e x isted o n t he s i te , e x tended f ro m t he m idd le o ft he f our th t o t he f i f th c entury . I n v iew o ft he f ac t t ha t w e d iscovered n o n ecropo l i f or t he v i l lages o n D e l i monyovo K a le a nd i n L amba ta , we a re o ft he o p in ion t ha t i n t he l a t ter p er iod t he p opu lat i on o f a l l t hree c omp lexes w ere i n f ac tu n ited i n as ing le v i l lage . I n t he h istor ica l d eve lopmen t o f t he v i l la i t se lf o ne c an a lso d ist ingu ish t wo p er iods, i n t h is c ase s epara ted b y c omp le te a nd t o ta l d estruc t ion i n t he m idd le o ft he t h ird c en tury . T he v i l la was o r ig ina l ly c once ived a s a n e conom ic u n i t p roduc t ing aw ide v ar ie ty o fg oods, t o w h ich p urpose f rom t he v ery b eg inn ing i t was e qu ipped w ith a v ar ie ty o fb u i ld ings a nd w orkshops . I n a dd i t ion t o t he f ar m b u i ld ings ( pars r ust ica ) c oncerned w i th w ork i n t he f i e lds a nd w i th a n i ma l h usbandry , t he v i l la i nc luded p o t tery workshops , p o t tery k i lns a nd a l ime k i ln . I n t he f i rst p er iod t he v i l la ' sp roduct ive c apac i ty was o f more modest p roport ions . I to bta ined i t s w a ter f rom w e l ls a nd s pr ings , t he p o t tery k i ln was o f sma l ler d i mensions a nd s o was t he p ars r ust ica . I n t he s econd p er iod , h owever , t he v i l la o wner was c lear ly ap erson d ispos ing o f g rea ter e cono m ic p ower a nd h e r ebu i l t a ccord ing ly . A l l t he b u i ld ings w ere r econstruc ted , t he wa ter p ipe was l a id , t he b a th b u i ld ing was e rec ted i n t he p ars u rbana a nd t he p oo l e xcava ted i n t he f i rst p ars r ust ica , wh i le o ne o f t he e ar l ier p oo ls i n t he p ars u rbana was c onver ted i n to a f i shpond , t he c apac i ty o f t he p ot tery works hop was i ncreased a nd t he s econd p ars r ust ica was e x tended b y t he a dd i t ion o f t he s ou th-eastern w ing . Whereas i n t he f i rst p er iod t he who le c omp lex was s erved b y as ing le b a th b u i ld ing , i n t he s econd p er iod t here w ere t hree s uch b u ild ings .

F o l low ing t he c ons truct ion o f t he b a ths i n t he p ars u rbana a nd i n

t he s econd p ars r ust ica t he b a th b u i ld ing b y t he r iver Mog ilovska c ame t o b e u sed b y workers e ngaged i n t he f i rst p ars r ust ica a nd i n t he v i l lage . T he o wner o f t he v i l la mus t h ave b een a T hrac ian a r istocra t . T h is i s i nd ica ted n o t o n ly b y t he b ur ia l mounds , b u t a lso b y t he h igh ly i nd iv idua l l ayou t o ft he h ouse a nd b y t he e x istence o f t he T hrac ian p agan s anctuary i n t he i mmed ia te v ic in ity .

5 5

T he i nhab itan ts o f t he v il lage w il l a lso h ave b een Thrac ian .

I n a l l p roba-

b il ity i t was t he ir a ncestors who i nhab ited t he s e t t le ments o n De l i monyovo K a le b efore t he o r ig ina l c onstruct ion o f t he v i l la .

I f we p resu me t h is t o h ave

b een t he c ase , t hen t here must a lso h ave b een a n e arly l i nk b e tween t he m a nd t he v i l la owner .

I ndeed we a re o f t he f i rm c onv ict ion t ha t t he p erson t o who m

t he v il la b e longed owned t he s urround ing l and we l l b efore h e embarked o n t he c onstruct ion o f t he v il la i t se lf .

T he l and wou ld h ave f or med p art o f o ld f am i ly

e sta tes d a t ing b ack t o t he H e l len ist ic p er iod a nd r e ma in ing i n t he f am i ly ' s p ossess ion e ven a f ter t he c onquest o f t he a rea b y t he Ro mans .

P ro mpted b y

t he e f fects o f t he o vera l l e cono m ic p o l ic ies p reva il ing i n t he Ro man emp ire i n t he f i rst c entury , t he l andowner must h ave d ec ided t o r eorgan ise t he way work was c arr ied o ut o n t he e sta te a nd b u ild t he v ar ious c o mp lexes d escr ibed a bove . E v idence o f t he e x istence o f s uch a h ered itary a r istocracy i s p rov ided b y t he f i rst c en tury i nscr ip t ion men t ioned e ar l ier a nd d iscovered s o me 4 km t o t he s outh o f t he v il la .

6 6

T here i s a wea l th o f e v idence i nd ica t ing t ha t t he v i lla was i ndeed c onstructed i n t he f i rst c entury .

Much o f t h is e v idence h as a lready b een men t ioned i n t he

v ar ious s ect ions d ea l ing w ith t he i nd iv idua l s i tes , s o we w il l r estr ict o urse lves h ere t o l i st ing o n ly t hose f actors wh ich w e c ons ider t o b e o f t he g rea tes t imp or tance . 1 .

T he s teps i n t he wa l ls a t De l i monyovo Ka le , t he o n ly s tructure s tand ing

o n t op o f t he more a nc ien t He l len ist ic s e t t le men t , l i e a bove t ha t s e tt le men t . I n t he western s ect ion o f t he h ouse o n ly f i nds d a t ing f ro m t he Ro man p er iod were made . 2 .

I n a l l b u ild ings d a t ing f ro m t he f i rst p er iod , i nclud ing t he s tone f ounda-

t i ons o f t he wa t t le a nd p laster s tructures , u se was made o f wh ite mor tar .

I n

a l l b u ild ings d a t ing f ro m t h is p er iod t here was n o t as ing le c ase o f f i red b r ick b e ing u sed . 3 .

T he d ressed l imestone b locks a re o n ly u sed a s f ac ing ma ter ia l a nd i n

t he c onstruct ion o f d oor j a mbs .

T hey a re n o t u sed t hroughou t t he who le t h ick-

n ess o f t he wa l ls a nd t hey a re b onded w ith mortar i nstead o f b e ing j o ined b y meta l b racke ts . 4 .

T he b oundary wa l l o f t he D el i monyovo K a le- dwe l l ing i s c onstruc ted

u s ing t he s o c a l led _ o pus c e men t icu m t echn ique , g enera l ly h e ld t o b e t yp ica l o f Ro man s tructures . 5 .

6 7

T he c ore c ons ists o f sma l l s tones .

Dor ic c o lu mns , whose s evere l i nes , a s Beno it 68

s ays , d id n o t c orres-

p ond t o t he Ro mans ' i dea l o f wea l th , were u sed i n t he c onstruct ion o f t he p er isty les i n t he v i l la . 6 .

T he e ar l iest b ur ia l mounds i n t he im med ia te v ic in i ty o f t he v i l la d a te

f ro m t he m idd le o f t he f i rst c entury . 7 .

I f we e xclude t he G reek c o ins, t hen t he e ar l iest Ro man c o ins t o b e

f ound o n t he s i tes d a te f ro m t he f i rst c en tury .

Among t he Ro man s i lver c o ins

f ound i n b ur ia l No . 7was a c o in d a t ing f ro m t he t ime o f t he Emperor G a lba ( A .D . 6 8-69 ) ,

6 9

wh ile i n g rave No . 6a c o in d a t ing f ro m t he t ime o f Vespas ian

( A .D . 6 9-79) was f ound .

7°

5 6

The t o ta l d estruc t ion o f t he C ha ta lka v il la i n t he t h ird c en tury c anno t h ave b een t he r esu l t o f mere l oca l d isturbances .

We p resu me i tt o h ave b een

t he r esul t o f t he G o th ic i nvas ion i n t he m idd le o f t he c en tury , f or , a s i s we l l k nown , t he G o ths p assed d own t he B eroea r oad a nd d estroyed v i l las i n t he v ic in ity a s t hey wen t .

7 1

T he s econd d estruc t ion o f t he v il la a nd i t s u l t i ma te a bandon men t a t t he e nd o f t he f ourth c en tury must c er ta in ly h ave b een t he work o f t he G o ths who r ose i n r evo l t i n 3 77-78 . T he c o in d a t ing f ro m t he r e ign o f T heodos ius I ( 408-450 ) l eads u s t o t h ink t ha t t he d estruct ion a nd f i na l a bandon men t o f t he v i l lage h uts c ons truc ted o n t he r u ins o f t he v i l la t ook p lace i n t he m idd le o f t he f i f th c en tury f o l low ing t he i nvas ion o f t he Huns . T he r el ig ious b u i ld ings s i tua ted n ear t he v il la h ave t he ir own i nd iv idua l h istory .

Prec ise ly when t he p agan s anctuary was b u i l t , i th as b een im-

p oss ib le t o a scerta in , b ut when o ne r e me mbers t ha t t he i nscr ip t ion ment ioned e arl ier r ecords t ha t t he p r iest D in is b u i l t as anctuary i n S abaz i l i n t he f i rst c entury , o ne c an s ee l i t t le r eason why t he C ha ta lka s anctuary s hou ld n o t h ave b een b u il t i n t he s ame p er iod .

C erta in ly a n e xa m ina t ion o f t he v o t ive t able ts

i nd ica tes t ha t t he s anctuary was a lready i n e x istence i n t he s econd c entury . I t s d estruct ion mus t h ave t aken p lace s oon a f ter t he a dop t ion o f Chr ist ian ity a s t he o f f ic ia l S ta te r e l ig ion . s tructed .

S hort ly af ter t h is t he f i rst c hurch was c on-

T h is was d estroyed a nd t hen r ebu il t , b u t o n d if feren t f ounda t ions .

T he s econd c hurch was d estroyed a long w ith t he v il lage i n t he f i f th c entury , a nd we c an t herefore d a te i t s c ons truc t ion t o t he p er iod b etween t he d estruct ion o f t he f irst c hurch a nd t he m idd le o f t he f i f th c entury .

S ince we c anno t

imag ine t ha t t he c hurch wou ld h ave b een r ich e nough t o a t tract t he a t ten t ion o f r obbers , a nd a s we c anno t s ee wha t c ou ld p ro mp t aC hr is t ian p opu la t ion t o d estroy t he c hurch , we a re o b l iged t o c onclude t ha t i t s d estruct ion was t he work o f r e l ig ious f ana t ics o r , more l i ke ly s t il l , r epresen ted a n a t te mp t t o c urry p ol it ica l f avour d ur ing t he b r ief p er iod when J ul ian made a n a t te mp t t o r e ject C hr ist ian ity a s t he o f f ic ia l r e l ig ion .

5 7

POL ITICAL AND S OCIAL ORGANISATION I n i t s g enera l l ayout t he C ha ta lka v i l la d oes n o t d i f fer g rea t ly f ro m o ther v i l las t ha t h ave b een s tud ied i n I t a ly a nd t he p rov inces .

I n t hese , a s i n t he

Cha ta lka v i l la , o ne c an o bserve h ow t he r ecommenda t ions made b y t he a nc ien t Ro man a gr icul tura l ists a nd b u ilders h ave b een p ut i n to p ract ice . O f c ourse t here e x ists a v ast l i terature d ea l ing w ith t he s oc ia l o rgan isa t ion a nd e cono m ic p roduc t ion o f s uch v il las i n a n t iqu ity . Part o f t h is l i terature h as t o d o w ith we l l e xcava ted v i l las , 7 4 p art w i th a n a na lys is o f t he works o f a nc ien t L a t in a uthors ,

7 5

a nd p ar t w ith t he s tudy o f a gr icul ture i t se lf i n a n t iqu i ty .

7 6

I n o ur a t te mp t t o p a i . i t ap ic ture o ft he e conom ic a nd s oc ia l l i fe o f t he C ha ta lka v i l la we w i l l r e ly p ar t ly o n e v idence p rov ided b y a nc ien t a uthors a nd p art ly o n t he f i nd ings o f s pec ia l ists work ing i n t he f i e ld t oday . A s r eco m mended b y t he a nc ien ts , t he C ha ta lka v i l la h as t wo s epara te s ect ions - t he p ars u rbana a nd t he p ars r ust ica . I ti s s i ted p rec ise ly a s r eco m mended b y C a to ( 1 ,3 ) i n a n a rea o f av ar ied s o il a nd c on tour , c lose t o wa ter a nd n o t f ar f ro m a t own . The r oad l i nk ing Ph il ippopo l is a nd t he t own o f Beroea , wh ich i s j us t 1 8 km d istan t ,passes a mere 4 km f rom t he v i l la. T he v i l la f ur ther more a ccords w ith t he p recep ts o f C a to a nd o ther a nc ien t a uthors i n t ha t i te n joyed a d ivers if ied p roduc t ion c oncentrat ing o n g oods f or t he c o mmerc ia l marke t . Anc ien t a u thors were c lear ly o f t he b el ief t ha t t he c ore o f a gr icul tura l p roduc t ion i n t he Ro man emp ire must b e t he l arge e sta te ( i n t he ir wr i t ings t hey r efer o n ly t o l arge e sta tes emp loy ing s lave l abour ) p roduc ing p r i mar ily f or t he c o m merc ia l marke t .

B as ing t he ir a rgu men ts o n

c ond it ions i n I t a ly , t hey a l l r egard t he p roduct ion o f o l ives a nd o l ive o i l a s t he p r i mary c ons idera t ion . I ti s i ndeed v ery r igh t a nd p roper t ha t t h is s hou ld h ave b een s o , f or v cg •e table o i l , p roduced a lmost e xclus ively f rom o l ives , p layed a v i ta l p art i n p eop le ' se veryday l i fe i n a n t iqu ity . I t was a s ource o f f ood , l i gh t a nd med ic ine . T he p roduc t ion o f o l ive o i l was l im ited g eographi ca l ly t o t he Med iterranean a rea , a nd i t was f or t h is r eason t ha t i ta ssu med s uch g rea t c o mmerc ia l i mportance i n t hese r eg ions . B ut , a s t he S ov ie t a uthors S ergeenko 7 7 a nd K uz ishch in 7 8 s o r igh t ly p o in t o ut , t h is s hou ld n o t l ead u s t o c onc lude t ha t t he I t a lian e sta tes s pec ia l ised e xclus ive ly i n t he p roduc t ion o f o l ive o i l a nd t o ta l ly n eg lec ted t he p roduct ion o f g ra in . Ca to a nd h is f o l lowers r eco m mend l andowners t o p roduce a nd s e l l w ine , av ar iety o f f ru i t , mea t , m i lk a nd mi lk p roducts, p ou l try

s k ins , woo l a nd e ven wood f or

l opp ings a nd f ue l ( Ca to 3 8 :4 ) . The a nc ien t a u thors who d ea lt w ith a gr icu l tura l ma t ters i n t he ir wr it ings were t hus c oncerned t ha t t he l arge l anded e sta tes s hou ld p lan t he ir p roduct ion t o c a ter b o th f or t he l oca l marke t a nd f or markets f ur ther a f ie ld . T here c an b e l i t t le d oubt t ha t t he v i l las i n T hrace were p lanned a ccord ing t o s im ilar p recep ts . A l though t he o l ive d oes n ot g row i n Thrace , wa lnuts , a l monds , g rapes , f ru it a nd a w ide v ar ie ty o f v ege tables d o . A s n u merous G reek a nd L a t in a uthors h ave p o in ted o ut , T hrace a lso e n joys e xc e l len t c ond it ions f or a n i ma l h usbandry .

5 8

T he C ha ta lka v i l la wen t f urther t han

t h is , h owever , f or , a s w e h ave s een , i t was a lso c oncerned w ith v ar ious b ranches o f i ndustr ia l p rodäc t ion s uch a s p o t tery a nd l ime- mak ing , o rgan ised o n ac ommerc ia l b as is . T h is t oo i s q u i te u nderstandab le , f or t he l arge l anded e sta te c ou ld n o t h ave f ormed av iab le e conom ic u n it w i thou t s o me f or m o f c o mmod ity p roduc t ion . I n w ha t c oncerns b u i ld ing t oo , t he p recep ts o f t he a nc ien t a uthors h ave b een a dhered t o . T he f ar m b u i ld ings a re o f as ize c o mmensura te w ith t he e conom ic n eeds o f t he e sta te a nd , a l though t he e sta te o wner ' sh ouse i s s epara te f rom t he p ars r us t ica , i ti s o f as evere a nd s tra igh tf orward d es ign , u nd ist ingu ished b y a ny p ar t icu lar e x travagances .

A l though

t he h ouse was r estored i n t he t h ird c en tury , i tw as n o t g rea t ly a l tered a nd i t s r oo ms l ack b o th mosa ics a nd ah ypocaust . I n w ha t c oncerns a ctua l c onstruc t ion t echn iques , t he g u idel ines l a id d own b y C a to h ave b een f o l lowed w i th r e markab le a ccuracy , ( Ca to 1 4 :15 ) . T he wa l ls o f t he v i l la o wner ' sh ouse a re c onstruc ted o fb roken s tone a nd mor tar , wh i le o n ly t he d oors a nd w indows , s evera l c orners a nd o ne s ing le f acade a re o f d ressed s tone b locks . A l l t he f ar m b u i ld ings , i nclud ing t he f ar m workers ' h ouses t hey c on ta in , a nd t he b oundary w a l ls e nc los ing t he f ar myards , a re o f s un-dr ied b r ick r es t ing o n f ounda t ions o f s tone a nd mor tar , ( Ca to 1 5) . C a to ' s r eco mmended d i mens ions - a t h ickness o f o ne a nd a h a l f f ee t ( c irca 4 5 cm ) a nd ah e igh t o f s ix f ee t ( be tween 1 .80 a nd 2m ) -h ave a lso b een p reserved . C a to ' s r eco mmenda t ions f or t he c ons truc t ion a nd l ayou t o f t he l ime k iln h ave b een c arr ied o u t a l most t o t he l e t ter ( Ca to 3 8 ) . T he l ayou t o f t he i nd iv idua l r ooms s im ilar ly f o l lows t he p a t tern r eco mmended b y t he a nc ien ts . T h is i s p ar t icu lar ly t rue o f t he h ouses o ccup ied b y t he o verseers a nd o ther r espons ib le p ersons ( t he v i l l ic i) i n t he i nd iv idua l f ar myards . T hese a re s o p os i t ioned a s t o p er m it a l l p ar ts o f t he y ard t o b e c lear ly s een a nd t he a c t iv it ies o ft he w orkers e ngaged t here t o b e s ub jected t o s tr ict c on tro l . T he s ame c an b e s a id o f t he h ouses o ccup ied b y t hose e ngaged i n a n i ma l h usbandry . T hese h ouses a re c lose t o t he s tab les , t hus f ac il i ta t ing c onstan t s urve i l lance o ft he a n ima ls q uar tered t here . T he q u i te r e markab le c orrespondence b e tween Ca to ' sr ecommenda t ions a nd t he r ea l ity o f t he C ha ta lka v i l la l ead u s t o t h ink t ha t t he v i l la ' so wner was w e l l a cqua in ted w i th c on te mporary a gr icu l tura l t heory , e i ther f rom p ub l ished l i tera ture o fb y way o f a n a ccura te o bserva t ion o f e stabl ished p rac t ice . N o t f or n o th ing d oes C a to a dv ise h is r eaders t o " observe a nd n eg lec t n o t t he e xper ience o f o thers !" T here c an b e l i t t le d oub t t ha t " the e xper ience o f o thers" was made g ood u se o f i n t he o rgan isa t ion o f w ork c arr ied o u t o n t he e sta te . C lear ly t he n a ture o f t h is work d i f fered f rom t he w ork o f t he e sta tes w h ich C a to h ad i n m ind when h e was w r it ing , a nd h is r ecommenda t ion t ha t 1 00 i ugera s hou ld b e p u t d own t o g rapes a nd 2 50 t o o l ives c ou ld n o tb e o bserved . A s c an b e s een f rom t he d ispos i t ion o fb u i ld ings , t he C ha ta lka e sta te w as c oncerned ma in ly w ith a gr icu l ture , a n i ma l h usbandry a nd t he p roduc t ion o f c er ta in c ommod ity g oods . Ac ons idera t ion o f t he n a tura l r esources o f t he a rea l eads u s t o b e l ieve t ha t f ur ther e qu ipmen t , s uch a s f l our a nd f u l l ing m i l ls , f or t he i n i t ia l p rocess ing o f g oods p roduced o n t he l and were p robably d isposed a long t he b anks o f t he r ivers .

5 9

I n h is q u ite o utstand ing s tudy o f t he d eve lop men t o f a gr iculture i n I t a ly f ro m t he s econd c en tury B .C . t o t he f i rst c en tury A .D . K uz ishch in d rew o n t he works o f c lass ica l a uthors 7 9 t o c o mp i le a l i s t o f a l l t he v ar ious c rops c u lt i va ted i n t he a rea .

T he g rea t ma jor i ty o f t hese c rops w i l l a lso h ave b een

c ul t iva ted i n T hrace . C erta in ly whea t , m i l le t , r ye , b arley a nd o a ts were g rown t here . O ther c rops i ncluded f l ax a nd h e mp , p eas, b eans , o n ions , g ar l ic , p u mpk ins a nd p robab ly wa ter me lons t oo .

T he most i mportan t o f t he i n tens ive

c rops was most c er ta in ly t he g rape , a nd a s w e h ave s een , t he C ha ta lka s i te p rov ided c oncre te p roof o f t he g rape h av ing b een c u l t iva ted o n t he e sta te .

I n

wha t c oncerns f ru it g row ing , men t ion o ugh t t o b e made o f a pp les , p ears a nd wa lnuts . When i tc o mes t o a scer ta in ing t he t o ta l a rea u nder c ul t iva t ion o n t he C ha ta lka e sta te we h ave t o u se a s o ur b as is t he n u mber o f work ing a n i ma ls i n u se a t a ny o ne t ime .

T h is f i gure c an i n t urn b e a rr ived a t b y c ons ider ing

t he d i mens ions o f t he s tables i n wh ich t he a n ima ls were k ep t . V itruv ius " r eco m mends t ha t s tables f or work ing o xen s hould b e a t l east 1 0 f eet ( 3 m) a nd n o t more t han 1 5 f ee t ( 4 .5 m) w ide a nd t he ir l eng th s hould b e s uch t ha t e ach p a ir o f o xen s hou ld b e g iven a t l east 7 f eet ( 2 .10 m) . I f we r e member t ha t t he s tab le f or o xen i n t he f i rst p ars r ust ica a t C ha ta lka i s 5 .3 0 m w ide a nd 2 7 .30 m l ong t hen we

a n s ee t ha t i t would h ave h e ld b e tween 1 0 a nd 1 2 p a irs o f o xen .

A ccord ing t o bazerna a s q uo ted b y V arro ( 1 : 1 9 , 1 ) af i eld o f 2 00 i ugera c an b e c ul t iva ted a nd g enera l ly ma in ta ined b y s ix workers , t wo p loughmen a nd t wo p a irs o f o xen . S im i lar f i gures a re s i ted b y C o lu me l la ( I I : 1 2 , 7 )8 1 . T hese f i gures a re , a s K uzishch in 8 2 r igh t ly r e marks , o n t he h igh s ide , f or i n a ctua l f act a s ing le s lave was c apable o f p lough ing 6 5 i ugera .

We c an t herefore

a ssu me t ha t t he t o ta l a rea u nder c ul t iva t ion o n t he C ha ta lka e sta te was i n t he r eg ion o f 6 50 i ugera o r a pprox i ma te ly 1 60 h ectares . T h is f i gure i s i ndeed a ga in o n t he h igh s ide a nd c ons iderab ly e xceeds t he n or ms o f 1 00 i ugera f or v ineyards a nd 2 50 f or o l ives , a s e labora ted b y C a to . However , we c anno t b e s ure whe ther C a to was s peak ing o f t he t o ta l a rea o f t he e sta te a s a who le o r o n ly o f t he a rea p u t d own t o t he marke t c rops o f g rapes a nd o l ives . Moreover , a s i s i nd ica ted b y K uz ishch in 8 3 i n t he f i rst c entury A .D . t he a verage s ize o f v i l las i ncreased c ons iderably . T he e sta te o f P l iny t he Younger , f or e xa mp le , h ad a t o ta l a rea o f s o me th ing i n e xcess o f 1 ,000 i ugera 8 4 . B ut i t must r o t b e f orgo t ten t hat t he C ha ta lka e s ta te d id n o t c onsist mere ly o f l and u nder c u l t iva t ion .

I n t he i m med ia te v ic in ity t here was f urther l and

wh ich was l e t o ut a s p asture a nd wood land , mak ing u p at o ta l a rea o f s ome th ing b e tween 2 00 a nd 3 00 h ectares . I ndeed , s uch a f i gure wou ld s eem q u ite c red ible when o ne c ons iders t he n ature o f t he t err itory i n wh ich t he v i l la was b u il t a nd t he d ispos it ion o f t he v ar ious f ar m b u ild ings . T he t o ta l a rea o f t he l and e nc losed b y t he v ar ious i nd iv idua l a rch itectura l c o mp lexes, f or e xamp le , i s s o meth ing i n t he r eg ion o f 9 5 h ectares . A s f or a n i ma l h usbandry , h orses , d onkeys, s heep , g oa ts , p igs , b ees a nd av ar ie ty o f f ow l wou ld h ave b een k ep t o n t he e sta te . I ti s impossible t o a sc erta in t he t o ta l n u mber o f h orses a nd d onkeys , b u t i fo ne r emembers t he r o le p layed b y t hese a n i ma ls a t t ha t t ime f or g enera l p urposes o f t ransporta t ion , o ne w i l l r ea l ise t ha t t he ir n u mber must h ave b een c ons iderable .

6 0

A t o ta l o f

f i f ty h orses a nd d onkeys c ou ld h ave b een k ep t i n t he s tables , wh ich , i n o ur o p in ion , were s e t a s ide f or t he m o n t he f ar m . Mov ing o n t o s heep a nd g oa ts we f i nd t ha t V itruv ius i n De Arch itectura , I I r ecom mends t ha t s tables s hou ld b e b u i l t i n s uch a way t ha t "e ach a n i ma l i s a pport ioned a m in i mu m o f 4 A - f ee t a nd a max i mu m o f 6f eet ."

I f we p resu me

t h is t o h ave b een a s quare measure men t , t hen e ach a n i ma l wou ld h ave b een a l lo t ted a pprox i ma te ly 1 .5 m 2 . A s t he s tables i n t he s econd p ars r ust ica o ccupy a n a rea o f s o me th ing o ver o ne h undred s quare me tres , we may c onclude t ha t t hey c ould h ave p rov ided q uar ters f or b etween 7 5 a nd 8 0 s heep o r g oa ts . O ur a ccoun t o f t he e cono m ic l i fe o f t he v i l la wou ld n o t b e c o mp lete i f we d id n o t a t te mp t t o c a lcula te h ow many p eop le were emp loyed o n t he e s ta te a nd t o s ay s o meth ing o f t he way i n wh ich t he ir work was o rgan ised . Q uo t ing f ro m S aserna , C o lu me l la wr ites :

"a f i e ld o f 2 00 i ugera c an b e

c ul t iva ted w ith t wo p a irs o f o xen , t wo p loughmen a nd s ix g enera l workers, i f i th as u pon i tn o t rees :

i ft here a re t rees g row ing u pon i t , a nd i fg rapev ines

g row r ound t he t rees" ,t hen S aserna i s o f t he o p in ion t ha t "a f i e ld o f t h is s ize c an b e c u l t iva ted w ith t he a dd it ion o f t hree f urther workers ." ( Co lu me l la I , 1 2 :

7 ) .

T hus t o t he 1 0 p loughmen emp loyed o n t he C ha ta lka e sta te we

would n eed t o a dd a f ur ther 3 0 g enera l workers p lus a no ther 1 5 i ft here were t rees w ith g rapev ines g row ing r ound t he m i n t he f i e ld .

We k now f or c er ta in

t ha t g rapes were g rown o n t he C ha ta lka e sta te , b ut wha t we d o n o t k now i s whe ther t hese g rapes were p roduced b y v ines wh ich g rew r ound t rees o r b y v ines s e t o ut i n r ows .

I ft he v ines were a rranged i n r ows, we would n eed t o

a dd s t il l more workers , f or i n v ineyards o f t h is n a ture a s ing le worker c ould c u l t iva te o n ly 1 0 i ugera . We w i l l a ssu me , h owever , t ha t 1 0 p loughmen a nd 3 0 +1 5 g enera l f ar mhands were emp loyed o n t he C ha ta lka e sta te . L e t u s n ow t urn t o t he n u mber o f f ar mhands o ccup ied w ith a n i ma l h usbandry . A ccord ing t o Varro ( I : 2 , 2 0 ) b e tween 8 0 a nd 1 00 s heep p roduc ing c oarse woo l r equ ired o ne s hepherd whereas t he s a me n u mber o f s heep p roduc ing f i ne woo l r equ ired 2 s hepherds ( I I :

1 0 , 1 0-12 ) .

As ing le s w ineherd was a b le t o

c are f or 1 00 p igs, b u t h e n eeded 2 e x tra h e lpers t o a ss ist h im ( I :

4 , 2 2 ) .

I n

c er ta in a reas a s ing le g oa therd w as s uf f ic ien t f or 1 00 g oa ts , wh ile i n o thers t wo were r equ ired f or a s im ilar n u mber ( I I :

3 , 9 -10 ) .

Ad rove o f 5 0 h orses ,

o n t he o ther h and , r equ ired t wo men t o l ook a f ter i t ( I I :

1 0 , 1 0-11) .

T he amoun t o f l i v ing a ccom moda t ion i n t he s econd p ars r ust ica l eads u s t o b el ieve t ha t t hese n or ms were n o t i n f ac t a dhered t o . We c an d ist ingu ish 8 s epara te s epara te r oo ms a nd i f we p resu me t ha t 2p eop le l i ved i n e ach r oom we a rr ive a t at o ta l o f 1 6 .

T he l ast t wo r oo ms ( 13 a nd 1 4 ) , h owever , were , we b e l ieve ,

o ccup ied b y w orkers emp loyed i n t he l ime k i ln .

T he r ema in ing 1 2 workers

c ould h ave c ared f or 2 00 s heep ( 4 men ) , 1 00 g oa ts ( 2 men ) a nd 1 00 p igs ( 3-4 men ) . 2 men were p robab ly o ccup ied i n l ook ing a f ter t he b ees a nd f ow l . T hus t he t o ta l n u mber o f men o ccup ied i n a n i ma l h usbandry wou ld s ee m t o h ave b een s o mewhere b etween 1 2 a nd 1 4 . A s f ar a s we k now , n o p recep ts r e la t ing t o t he n u mber o f workers t o b e emp loyed i n p o t tery workshops w ere e ver r ecorded .

T he n u mber o f workers

p robably d epended l arge ly o n t he s ize o f t he p o t tery .

B ear ing i n m ind t he

n u mber o f i nd iv idua l p rocesses w h ich h ave t o b e g one t hrough i n t he p roduct ion 6 1

o f p o t tery ( d igg ing a nd t ransport ing t he c lay , emu ls if ica t ion , t he s hap ing o f o b jects b y h and a nd o n ap o t ters ' whee l , d ry ing o ut a nd f i r ing ) we h ave t o c onc lude t ha t t he p o t tery emp loyed n o t l ess t han 5 o r 6workers . T he o pera t ion o f t he l ime k i ln wou ld h ave o ccup ied n o t l ess t han 4 men . One must , f ur ther more , r e me mber t ha t s uch a l arge e sta te would h ave r equ ired ac ons iderable n u mber o f a dd it iona l workers s uch a s a mi l ler , af u l ler , mu le teers a nd p eop le t o l ook a f ter t he t oo ls a nd a gr icu l tura l imp le men ts , t o ma in ta in t he b a ths a nd t o p repare f ood f or a l l t he emp loyees . T here wou ld , h owever , h ave b een s t il l more workers o n t he e sta te , f or , a s we h ave s een , t he p ars u rbana c on ta ins l i v ing a cco m moda t ion f or 4 f am il ies . T hese f am il ies , i fo ne c oun ts t he c h i ldren a s we l l , would h ave a ccoun ted f or s o meth ing b e tween 1 6 a nd 2 0 e x tra p eop le . A l l t hese emp loyees wou ld h ave h ad t o b e s ub jected t o s o me k ind o f g u idance a nd c on tro l .

I tw il l b e r e me mbered t ha t i n e ach o f t he t hree f ar m c o mp lexes

we o bserved 4 dwe l l ings s e t a par t f ro m t he r est a nd p rov id ing a cco m moda t ion f or t he r e levan t o verseer .

T hese o verseers , wh ich , a ccord ing t o Ca to c ou ld

we l l b e marr ied t o t he d oorkeepers, wou ld h ave made u p a manage men t o f s o me 1 0 p eop le p lus c h i ldren . T hus t he t o ta l n u mber o f workers a nd d ependen ts would h ave l ooked s omet h ing l i ke t h is : 1 .

Manage men t

1 0

2 .

Agr icu l tura l work

4 5

3 .

An i ma l h usbandry

1 4

4 .

Po t tery p roduct ion

5 . 6 . 7 .

P repara t ion o f l ime Add t iona l h e lpers House s ervan ts

6 4 3 1 6 T o ta l

9 8 -1 00 p ersons

A s we h ave s een , t he amoun t o f l i v ing s pace a va ilable c ould e as ily h ave a cco m moda ted t h is n u mber o f p eop le . A t f i rst s igh t t h is f i gure m igh t s ee m s omewha t i ncred ib le ,

H owever , i f

we make a c o mpar ison w ith t he p recep ts r eco m mended b y Ca to , w e w il l s ee t ha t i ti s i n f act v ery r ea l ist ic . F or 1 00 i ugera o f v ineyard Ca to r eco mmends t he f o l low ing emp loyees :

1v i l l icus , 1d oorkeeper , 1 0 g enera l w orkers , 1

p lough man , 1d onkey d r iver , 1 man t o t end t he o s ier-beds ( o s iers were u sed f or t y ing t he v ines ) a nd 1 sw ineherd - a t o ta l o f 1 6 workers ( Ca to 1: 1 ) . B ut , a s h as a lready b een men t ioned , av ineyard w ith t he v ines a rranged i n r ows r equ ired a g rea ter n u mber o f workers . We c an t herefore c a lcu la te t ha t a f i e ld o f 6 50 i ugera would h ave r equ ired 6 .5 t imes a s many h ands t o t end i to r p erhaps j ust s l igh t ly l ess . I ts hould b e r e me mbered t ha t t he f i gure q uo ted a bove d oes n o t i nclude t he v i l lage p opula t ion , whose t o ta l n u mber c anno t b e a ssessed .

T he v il lage p opu-

l a t ion , must , h owever , b e b orn i n m ind w hen we a sk o urse lves wha t i t was t ha t l ed t he v i l la owner t o s pend wha t mus t h ave b een q u ite c ons iderab le s u ms o n t he c onstruct ion o f t hree s epara te b a th b u i ld ings. T h is e xpense c ou ld o n ly b e 6 2

j ust if ied i ft here were , i n f act , al arge n u mber o f workers p ermanen t ly emp loyed o n t he e sta te . I n a ssess ing t he t o ta l p er manen t p opula t ion o f t he v i l la we must a lso a sk o urse lves whe ther t he v il la owner l i ved t here p er manen t ly .

I ti s o ur b e l ief

t ha t t he o wner s pen t o n ly t he s u m mer mon ths o n t he e sta te , f or , a s we h ave s een , h is v i l la i s n o t e qu ipped w ith a ny means o f h ea t ing .

I tc annot b e t ha t

h e was u naware o f t he e x istence o f h ea t ing s yste ms , f or b o th t he b a th b ui ld ing a nd t he p o t tery workshop were e qu ipped w ith t he m .

I ft he v i l la h ad b een h is

p er manen t p lace o f r es idence , h e would c er ta in ly h ave i ns isted o n i t s b e ing p rov ided w ith a means o f h ea t ing , a nd we must t herefore c onclude t ha t h e s pen t t he w in ter e lsewhere . t own o f B eroea .

I ti s o ur b e l ief t ha t h e w in tered i n t he n earby

We must a lso a ssu me t ha t wh i le h e was a bsen t h is h ouseho ld

s ervan ts d id n o t r e ma in o n t he e sta te .

C lear ly h e must h ave ma in ta ined

a no ther h ouse i n t he t own wh ich wou ld h ave b een k ep t u p b y h is p ersona l h ouses ervan ts ( f am il ia u rbana ) .

D ur ing t he s u m mer mon ths , when h e moved o ut

t o h is c oun try v il la , h e w ou ld a lso h ave t aken h is t own h ouseservan ts w ith h im . I n a dd it ion t o a t tend ing t o t he ir master ' sp ersona l n eeds, t hese s ervan ts wou ld a lso h ave b een a b le t o a ssist w ith s easona l work i n t he f i e lds .

D ur ing t he w in ter ,

t he c oun try h ouse wou ld h ave b een l e f t u nder t he s uperv is ion o f t he v i l l icus . We c an t herefore c onclude t ha t t he Cha ta lka v il la r epresen ted a l arge l anded e sta te w i th a t o ta l a rea o fb e tween 2 00 a nd 3 00 h ectares, p ar t o f wh ich was c u l t iva ted b y t he owner w ith t he a ss istance o f h is emp loyees a nd p art b y t enan ts w ho l eased t he l and f ro m h im .

Work c arr ied o ut o n t he e sta te was v ery v ar ied

a nd i ncluded a n i ma l h usbandry , a gr icu l ture , a nd c er ta in s em iindustr ia l p roc esses .

T h is work d e manded a c erta in d egree o f s pec ia l ised k now ledge o n t he

p art o f t he e sta te emp loyees a s i s s hown b y t he d iv is ion o f t he l i v ing a cco m mod a t ion i n t he p ars r ust ica 8 5 . T he e sta te h ad s o me th ing i n t he r eg ion o f 1 00 p er manen t emp loyees a l l l odged i n dwe l l ings e rected b y t he v il la owner .

T he

v i l la owner a nd h is t own-house s ervan ts o n ly s pen t p ar t o f t he y ear o n t he e s ta te , h is p er manen t p lace o f r es idence b e ing t he t own o f B eroea ( f ro m t he s econd c en tury A ugusta Tra jana ) . We wou ld l i ke t o s ay a f ew w ords a bout t he s oc ia l g roup ings i n to wh ich t he v i l la ' so ccupan ts m igh t b e d iv ided .

C lass ica l a uthors c anno t c once ive o f a

l arge l anded e sta te w ithout t he emp loymen t o f s lave l abour . Wherever t hey make men t ion o f p er manen t emp loyees o n l anded e sta tes t hey i ndeed r efer t o t he m a s s laves .

F urther more , t hey e xpressly s ta te wha t d u t ies a re r equ ired

o f t enan ts a nd d ay l abourers ( Ca to 5 :

4 ;

1 4 ;

1 :

1 6) .

T he h ir ing o f ap er m-

a nen t l abour f orce i s af ea ture f ound o n ly i n c ap ita l is m , a nd i n a n t iqu i ty p er ma nen t ly emp loyed l abourers c ou ld o n ly b e s laves .

I ndeed n o f ur ther e v idence

i s r equ ired t o p rove t ha t t he p er manen t emp loyees a t t he C ha ta lka v il la were j ust s uch s laves .

T hey wou ld n o t h ave owned a ny p roper ty a nd would h ave

o ccup ied a cco m moda t ion wh ich t he e sta te owner h ad b u il t f or t he m .

T hey d id

n o t p ossess t he r igh t t o marry , a nd t he o n ly p aymen t t hey r ece ived f or t he ir w ork was i n t he f or m o f f ood , c lo th ing a nd a cco m moda t ion .

Ca to d oes, h owever ,

r e mark t ha t t he s laves s hou ld n o t b e i l l t rea ted a nd s hou ld n o t s uf fer f ro m c o ld o r h unger ( 5 :

2 ) .

H e t hen g oes o n t he e labora te wha t t ypes a nd q uan t it ies o f

f ood a nd c lo th ing s hou ld b e p rov ided f or t he m .

I t was n o d oub t t h is c oncern f or

h is "t a lk ing c at t le" t ha t p ro mp ted t he owner o f t he C ha ta lka v i l la t o c onstruc t

6 3

t hree s epara te b a th b u ild ings , i n tended , b eyond a l l s hadow o f d oubt , f or u se b y h is s laves . A s we h ave r e marked a lready , o n ly o ne o f t he b a th b u i ld ings w as d iv ided i n to s ect ions f or ma les a nd f e ma les , a nd t h is b u ild ing was i n tended f or u se b y t he f am il ies o f t he v ar ious o verseers a nd f ree p easan ts .

A s f or t he

v i l l icus , Ca to h as t he f o l low ing a dv ice t o o f fer : " take g ood c are t hat t he d oork eeper a t tends t o h er d ut ies . I ft he master h as g iven h er t o y ou a s aw ife , t hen make s ure t ha t y ou a re s a t isf ied w ith h er" ( Ca to 1 43 :

1 ) .

s ervan ts , who were a lso s laves, d id h ave t he r igh t t o marry ,

8 6

T he h ousea nd i ti s f or

t h is r eason t ha t t he l iv ing a cco m moda t ion o ccup ied b y t he m i n t he e astern h a l f o f t he h ouse o n De l i monyovo K a le- i s d iv ided i n to t wo s epara te r ooms . A l l o ther a cco m moda t ion c ons ists o f as ing le r oom wh ich p rov ided l i v ing s pace f or n o t l ess t han t wo p eop le i n e ach c ase . T he v ery c ons iderab le n u mber o f workers-cu m-slaves emp loyed o n t he e sta te c ou ld n o t p oss ibly h ave b een d irected a nd c on tro l led b y t he v i l la owner h i mse lf . Accord ing t o C a to , t he v i l la owner ' sr igh t h and man o n t he e sta te was t he v i l l icus .

T he v i l l icus h ad t o b e we l l v ersed i n a gr icul tura l t heory a nd

p rac t ice a nd i t was h e who a pport ioned t he work t o b e d one , s uperv ised t he h arvest ing a nd s torage o f c rops , o versaw t he s laves , a t tend ing t o t he ir h ea l th , c lo th ing a nd f ood , a nd h ea led s ickness i n man a nd b east ( Ca to 5 :

1 -2 a nd 1 42 ) .

H is e qua l o n t he a n i ma l h usbandry s ide was t he c h ief h erds man ( mag ister p ecoru m ) , whose q ua l it ies a nd r espons ib i l i t ies a re d escr ibed b y V arro ( I I : T he h ouseservan ts a lso h ad t he ir own v i l l icus i n c harge o ver t hem .

1 0 ) .

There

wou ld a lso h ave b een s o meone i n c harge o f t he p ot tery workshop . I n av i l la t he s ize o f Cha ta lka , t he v ar ious o verseers wou ld h ave h ad a ss istan ts k nown a s t he mag istr i s ingu loru m o f f ic ioru m a nd who would h ave b een p ut i n c harge o f t he v ar ious s pec ia l ised j obs c arr ied o u t o n t he e sta te .

I n a dd it ion t o t hese p osts,

wh ich were c lear ly l arge ly c oncerned w ith t he o rgan isa t ion o f t he v ar ious p rod uct ive a ct iv i tes , c lass ica l a uthors a lso men t ion o ther p osts wh ich were o f a p ure ly d isc ip l inary n a ture 8 7 . A l l t hese p osts , h owever , i nclud ing t ha t o f t he v i l l icus , were h e ld b y s laves : t ha t t he v il l icus t oo was a s lave i s made a bunda n t ly c lear b y C a to i n h is l i sts o f r igh ts a nd d ut ies . A s h as a lready b een ment i oned , t he v i l l icus d id n o t e ven h ave t he r igh t t o c hoose h is own w ife . T he p rec ise n a ture o f t he j ud ic ia l p osi t ion o f t he p easan ts b ound t o t he e sta te i s n o t c lear .

I n t he ir s oc ia l p os it ion t hey o bv iously owned t he ir o wn h ouses w ith

l arge f ar myards , h ad t he ir own t oo ls a nd t herefore a lso t he ir own d o mest ic a nd d raf t a n i ma ls . T hey l i ved i n f am il ies, a nd t he ir ma ter ia l c ond i t ion c an b e a scerta ined f ro m a n e xa m ina t ion o f t he ir b ur ia ls . T he o ne t h ing t hey d id n o t own , i ts ee ms, was t he l and wh ich t hey c u l t iva ted. T he f ac t t ha t t hey l i ved o n t he t err itory owned b y t he v il la a nd made u se o f s o me o f t he v i l la ' s amen it ies s uch a s t he b a ths a nd t he p agan s anc tuary a nd l a ter t he C hr ist ian c hurch i nd ica tes , h owever , t ha t t hey were i n s o me way d ependen t , n o t o n ly ma ter ia l ly , o n t he v i l la owner .

T he ir p os it ion c ou ld , p erhaps , b est

b e d escr ibed a s t ha t o f at ype o f c o lony . A s f or t he v i l la o wner h i mse lf , o ne c an s ta te q u ite c a tagor ica l ly t ha t h e was a me mber o f t he a r istocracy wh ich w ie lded p o l it ica l p ower w ith in t he t own , ( t he d ecur ions) .

H is ma ter ia l wea l th c orresponds w ith h is e leva ted s oc ia l p os it ion ,

f or h is h uge e sta te would h ave p rov ided h im w ith a v ery h andsome i nco me .

T he

e x ten t o f h is wea l th c an f urther more b e s een i n t he t u mulus-bur ia ls c on ta in ing 6 4

t he r e ma ins t o t he v ar ious v il la o wners a nd t he ir w ives .

Ag rea t p ar t o f t he

b ur ia l g oods a re , f or e xa mp le , o f f ore ign o r ig in , b ough t o n t he o pen marke t n o t o n ly i n B eroea b ut i n o ther t owns b o th n earby a nd f urther a f ie ld .

T he

b ur ia ls , f ur ther more , c on ta ined i t e ms p roduced i n t he East , e spec ia l ly j ewe l lery , g lass , p erfu mes a nd f abr ics , a nd a lso a rt icles o f I t a l ian p rovenance s uch a s b ronze b ow ls , l a mps a nd c ande labra .

C lose t o o ne o f t he b ur ia ls, t wo

amphorae were d iscovered , o ne o f wh ich h ad t he s ta mp o f t he Ro man T itus Mannus Mar t ianus o n t he h and le .

T he v i l la owner o bv iously b ough t imported

I t a l ian o l ive o i l o r w ine t o s upp lemen t t he p roduce o f h is own e sta te .

T he

w herew itha l t o p urchase t hese e xpens ive imported g oods was o b ta ined f ro m t he s a le o f g oods p roduced o n t he e sta te .

I n a dd it ion t o g ra in p roducts , l i ve a n i-

ma ls a nd mea t , s k ins , w ine a nd a lso p erhaps wa lnut o i l , wh ich were d isposed o f i n n earby a nd more d istan t marke ts , t he v il la was a lso i n ap os it ion t o p rov ide t he B eroea marke t , o n ly 1 8 km d istan t , w ith r egular s upp l ies o f f ru it , v ege tab les , p oul try , e ggs, f lowers a nd o ther p roduce . T he v ar ious weapons a nd a rt ic les o f war d iscovered i n t he g raves i nd ica te t ha t t he v i l la o wners o ccup ied p osts o f s o me c ons iderable importance i n t he a r my , most l i ke ly i n t he a ux i l iary t roops .

I n b ur ia l No . 2 , i n t he Roshava

D ragana Mound a who le s u it o f a r mour was d iscovered 8 8

s how ing t ha t i t s o wner

b e longed t o t he we l l-ar med h eavy c ava lry , ( Ca ta fractar i i) .

Var ious g o ld

o rna men ts w orked i n a" Scy tho-Sar ma t ian" s ty le w ith S ar ma t ian T a mg i ( f ig . 1 07 ) were d iscovered i n t he s a me t o mb .

O b jects s uch a s t hese a re r are ly f ound

i n a reas s ou th o f t he B a lkan moun ta ins a nd t he most l i ke ly e xp lana t ion f or t he ir p resence h ere i s t ha t t hey were b oo ty b rough t b ack f ro m t he war .

I ti s k nown ,

f or e xamp le , t ha t T hrac ian u n i ts f ough t o n t he s ide o f t he Ro mans i n t he wars a ga inst M ithr idades 8 9 . T he h e l me t ( f ig . 1 08 ) d iscovered i n t he s a me b ur ia l r epresen ts , i n o ur o p in ion , at oken o f s pec ia l d ist inct ion won o n t he f i e ld o f b a t t le .

H e lme ts s uch a s t hese a re n ot f ound i n I t a ly , t he ir ma in p rovenance

b e ing t he Rh ine a nd Danube a reas 9 ° a nd , made b o th o f s i lver a nd o f b ronze ,they d a te l arge ly f ro m t he f i rst c en tury B .C .

T h is g ives u s g rounds t o a ssu me t ha t

t hey were a warded t o s en ior o f f icers i n t he a ux il iary t roops a s as ign o f s pec ia l f avour .

T he g o ld wrea ths 9 1

a nd p robab ly a lso t he g o ld p ectora ls 92 must , i n

o ur o p in ion , s im ilar ly b e c ons idered a s t okens o f s oc ia l d ist inct ion .

I ti s

i n terest ing t o n o te t ha t o ne o f t he g o ld wrea ths was d iscovered i n t he t o mb o f a f e ma le i n t he Roshava D ragana Mound , i nd ica t ing t ha t e ven t he w ives o f v i l la owners c ould b e awarded s uch t okens o f s oc ia l d ist inct ion f or s erv ices r endered t o t he s ta te .

I ndeed t he i nscr ip t ion d iscovered i n t he Ro man b a th a t tached t o

t he S tara Z agora m inera l b a ths 93 s hows q u ite c learly t ha t wo men t oo p layed a p ar t i n t he p o l i t ica l l i fe o f B eroea i n t he s econd c entury .

T he i nscr ip t ion r e-

c ords t ha t f or h is s erv ice t o s oc ie ty t he b u i lder o f t he b a ths was awarded t he t i t le t i t le o f Arch iereus wh i le h is w ife was made a n I ereus. We c an a ssu me t ha t o n t he b as is o f o ld t r iba l l i nks t he owners o f t he Cha ta lka v i l la were t he m il itary c o m manders o f t he who le a rea .

I n a l l p robab i l ity t hey

f u lf i l led t he f unc t ion o f S tra teg i , ap ost wh ich was c on t inued u p u n t i l t he t ime o f i n ton inus P ius 9 4 . A n i nscr ip t ion d iscovered n ear t he v i l lage o f S h ipka 9 5

s hows

h a t o ne s uch S tra tegus was i n c harge o f a n a rea c o inc id ing w ith t ha t o f B eroea nt he t ime o f An ton inus P ius .

U nfortuna te ly , h owever , t he s ect ion where t he

l a me o f t he S tra tegus a ppeared i s m iss ing .

6 5

T he S tara Z agora m inera l b a ths i nscr ip t ion a id t he s anctuary a t tached t c t he v i l la s uggest t ha t .the e sta te owners b e longed t o t ne p r iest c lass .

F ur ther

s treng th i s a dded t o t h is b e l ief b y t he f act t ha t D in ts , t he b u i lder o f t he s anctuary o n S abaz i i n ear Yavorovo , 96 was a n h ered itary Arch iereus . A s C ato w r ites c oncern ing t he d ut ies o ft he d oorkeeper i n v i l las f or wh ich s he i s r espons ib le , "s he s hou ld k nown t ha t t he master o f fers s acr if ices f or e very o ne o f h is s laves" ( Ca to 1 43 :

1 ) .

T hus , n o t o n ly was g rea t e conom ic p ower c oncen tra ted i n t he h ands o f t he v i l la owners , b ut a lso c ons iderab le p o l it ical , m il itary a nd r el ig ious p ower a s we l l . T hey must h ave b een o re o f t he most i nf luen t ial f am i l ies i n B eroea a nd would most c er ta in ly h ave b een me mbers o f t he t own ' sr u l ing c ounc il , t he b ou le .

6 6

THE CHATALKA V ILLA AND THE LARGE LANDED E STATES I N RO MAN THRACE Un t il v ery r ecen t ly t he n umber o f v i l las d iscovered i n Ro man T hrace a nd Moes ia w as n ot v ery g rea t . 97 T h is h ad g iven c erta in a nc ien t h istor ians c ause t o a ssu me t ha t t he t rad it ion o f t he l arge l anded e sta te was n o t p ar t icul ar ly we l l d eve loped i n t h is a rea .

I t was t he ir b e l ief t ha t Ro man T hrace was

ap rov ince made u p o f p e t ty l andowners i n wh ich t he b as ic f or m o f a gr icul ture was c ommuna l . 98 H owever , t he a cce lera ted c onstruct ion o f h ydro-e lec tr ic s ta t ions a nd t he i ncreas ing u se o f h igh ly mechan ised e arth- mov ing e qu ipmen t s ince t he a dven t o f S oc ia l is m i n B ulgar ia h ave r esul ted i n t he d iscovery o f a c ons iderable n u mber o f a nc ien t v i l las o n B ulgar ian t err itory ( f ig . 15 ) .

9 9

T o

t he s i tes a lready we l l k nown f ro m p ubl ished ma ter ia ls we would l i ke t o a dd a f urther 3 3 v i l las d iscovered b y t he a uthor a nd h is c o l leagues i n t he S tara Z agora D istr ict a lonej ( f ig . 16 ). A l l t hese s i tes were d iscovered b y c hance , f o l low ing d eep p lough ing , a nd a l though t hey h ave n o t b een e xcava ted , i ti s q u ite c lear t ha t t hey a re a l l u n if ied g roups o fb u ild ings , u sua l ly d isposed a round o ne i nner c our tyard . 99 T here c an b e l i t t le d oub t t ha t t hese b u i ld ings a re t he r e ma ins o f v i l las, a nd we a re f ur ther more o f t he o p in ion t ha t t h is a pparen t c oncen tra t ion o f v i l las i n t he B eroea a rea r esu l ts p r i mar ily f ro m t he f act t ha t t he i n terest o f t hose work ing i n t he f i e ld h as l ed t o t he ir e x istence b e ing r ecorded . S im ilar v i l las, we a re s ure , must h ave e x isted o ver t he who le t err itory o f Ro man T hrace . I ndeed , i n o ur r epor t t o t he F irst Congress o n T hrac ian S tud ies , we d irected a t ten t ion t o t he l i nk b etween t he v i l las a nd t u mulus-necropol i i n B ulgar ia a nd a t t he s a me t ime p rov ided d e ta ils o f t he ir a pprox i ma te n u mber a nd s ize . 1 00 B o th h ere a nd i n o ur r eport t o t he F irst C ongress o f t he B ulgar ian H istor ica l S oc iety we a t te mp ted t o a ssess t he r e lat i ve r o le p layed b y t he l arge l anded e sta te i n t he e cono m ic l i fe o f Ro man T hrace a nd we would n ow l i ke t o a dd s o me f ur ther o bservations t o wha t we t hen h ad t o s ay . Ag lance a t t he map o f v i l las s o f ar d iscovered i n B u lgar ia ( f ig . 1 15) w il l s how t ha t t he g rea ter p ropor t ion o f t he m a re s i tua ted i n s em i- moun ta inous a reas we l l s u ited t o i n tens ive a gr icultura l p roduct ion s uch a s v ineyards , f ru it g row ing , v ege tables a nd a n i ma l h usbandry . I n t h is we c an o bserve t he p rac t ica l a pp l ica t ion o f t he p recep ts a dvanced b y t heore t ic ians wr it ing o n a gr icu lture i n s lave own ing s oc ie t ies , f ro m Ca to t o P l iny , n ame ly t ha t s uch v i l las c an o n ly p ay t he ir way i ft hey d o i n f act c oncen tra te o n i n tens ive c o mmod ity p roduc t ion . Af ea ture t yp ica l o f t he T hrac ian v i l las i s t he a t ten t ion t hey p a id t o c er ta in i ndustr ia l p rocesses. P av l iken i v i l las ,

1 02

f or e xa mp le , t he p roduct ion o f p o t tery was o rgan ised

o n ac o mmerc ia l b as is . i n as im i lar f ash ion .

I n t he B outovo , Ho tn itsa a nd

I n C ha ta lka , b o th t he p o t tery a nd al ime-k i ln o pera ted

T he v i l la r ecen t ly d iscovered n ear t he v i l lage o f

K a l i man i tsa i n t he M iha i lovgrad D istr ic ti " s pec ia l ised i n t he p roduct ion o f a l tars a nd av ar ie ty o f o ther a rch itec tura l d e ta i ls .

6 7

I ti s d if f icu l t t o s ay h ow t he , Cha ta lka v i l la c o mpares w ith o ther T hrac ian v i l las f or t he v ery s i mp le r eason t ha t n o t o ne o f t hese h as s o f ar b een e xcava ted i n t o to . I n s o me o f t he v i l las o n ly t he p ars u rbana h as b een e xcava ted , w h i le i n o thers o n ly t he p ars r ust ica , ( f igs . 1 17 , 18 ) . O n t he b as is o f e v idence p rov ided b y c lass ica l a uthors a nd b y t he C ha ta lka e xcava t ions w e a re i nc l ined t o s uggest t ha t t he s i tes n ear t he v il lage o f K o lyo Mar inovo ( Radom ir) i n t he S tara Z agora D istr ict ( f ig . 1 18 N . 1 1) , i n P r issovo ( f ig . 1 17 N o . 5 ) a nd Mog ile ts ( f ig . 1 18 No . 1 2 ) a l l r epresen t o n ly t he p ars r ust ica o f v i l las.

T hey

a l l c on ta in s tables a nd l i v ing q uar ters f or t he emp loyees b ut n o b u ild ings o f a s o l id c onstruct ion wh ich c ou ld h ave s erved a s a cco mmoda t ion f or t he v i l la owners . On t he o ther h and i n t he v i l las n ear Madara ( f ig . 1 18 N o . 9 ) a nd I va ilovgrad ( f ig . 1 18 No . 1 0 ) o n ly t he p ars u rbana h as b een e xcava ted . I n t he Madara v il la sma l l s ect ions o f t he p ars r ust ica h ave n ow b een e xcava ted ,1 04 wh ile t he p ars r ust ica i n t he I va i lovgrad v i l la i s b e ing e xcava ted a t t he p resen t mo men t . None o f t he o ther s i tes i n wh ich t he g round p lans h ave b een p ub l ished h as s o f ar b een f u l ly e xcava ted . T he b a th b u ild ings d iscovered i n t he g rounds o f t he A leksandrovska Hosp ita l i n S of ia ( f ig , 1 17 No . 6 ) a nd i n K a iluka n ear t he t own o fP leven ( f ig , 1 17 No . 7 ) c ou ld we l l h ave b e longed e i ther t o t he p ars r ust ica o r t o t he p ars u rbana o f av i l la .

I ts ee ms more l i ke ly t ha t t hey i n f act

b e long t o t he p ars r ust ica , f or i n t h is s ec t ion o n ly t he b a th b u i ld ing wou ld h ave b een o f as o l id c onstruc t ion . A l l t he o ther b u ild ings wou ld h ave b een o f wa t t le a nd p laster , a nd i t was f or t h is r eason t ha t t he p eop le e ngaged i n t he ir e xcavat ion p a id l i t t le a t ten t ion t o t he m , p rov id ing u s w ith p lans o f t he b a th b u i ld ings a lone . T he s i tes i n O r landov ts i a nd B istr itsa ( f ig . 1 17 No . 8 )p resen t as pec ia l c ase . T he ir sma l l d i mens ions a nd t he d ispos it ion o f r oo ms f or t if ied w i th t owers wou ld h ard ly s ee m t o j ust ify t he ir b e ing c a l led a gr icu ltura l s i tes o f a n on-warl ike n a ture . We f ee l t ha t t hese must h ave b een s tructures w ith a mi l itary p urpose :

sma l l c ast les o r f orts o f wh ich men t ion i s made i n a t l east

f our i nscr ip t ions d iscovered o n B ulgar ian t err itory . "5 T hese f or ts were b u il t d ur ing t he t ime o f An ton inus P ius . P erhaps i t would b e n o t a l toge ther o ut o fp lace t o men t ion h ere t ha t t he t er m " fort if ied v i l la" " 6 i s i n many ways mislead ing .

B o th i n a nt iqu ity a nd i n l a ter t imes , ab u ild ing w ithou t s ome f or m

o fb oundary wa l l o r f ence was i nconce ivab le .

Ca to , we f i nd , d evo tes awho le

c hap ter ( 15) t o b oundary wa l ls a nd f ences f or v i l las .

T hus, i fb y f or t if ica t ions

we mean mere ly b oundary wa l ls a nd f ences , t hen a l l v il las were i ndeed f or t if i ed a nd we s hou ld n o t make a s pec ia l c a tegory o u t o f t he m , much l ess s hould o ne t a lk o f v i l las o f am il itary n a ture . I ti s f or t h is r eason t ha t i n t he p resen t work we h ave a lways r eferred t o b oundary wa l ls a l though t he w a l l o f t he p ars u rbana o n De l i monyovo K a le- i s a l l o f 2m t h ick . I n t h is c onnec t ion i t wou ld b e a s wel l t o men t ion t ha t i ti s s im i lar ly i ncorrect t o c ons ider t ha t s o-ca l led f ort if ied v i l las b egan t o a ppear i n t he t roub led t imes o f t he t h ird a nd f our th c entury .

T he C ha ta lka v i l la must s ure ly c ause u s t o r e ject a ny s uch c la im

a s b e ing t o ta l ly u nfounded . I n wha t c oncerns t he l ayout o ft he C ha ta lka v i l la , i ti s q u ite imposs ible t o make a ny mean ing ful c o mpar ison w ith o ther v i l las o n B u lgar ian t err itory . A l though i ti s q u ite t rue t o s ay t ha t t he l ayout o f v i l las, e spec ia l ly t he l ayou t o f t he p ars u rbana , f o l lowed t he g enera l p a t tern o f t own h ouses , t he n ature o f t he l and o n wh ich t he c oun try v i l las w ere b u i lt , w ith i t s v ar ied r e l ief a nd

6 8

c on tours , mean t t ha t a l l l i nks w ith t he o r ig ina l mode l were l ost .

I n f act t here

n ever d id e x ist a ny s tandard p a t tern f or t he v il la , f or e very v i l la was d if feren t i n i t s o wn p ar t icular way a nd n o mean ing fu l c lass if ica t ion o f v il las i s r ea l ly p oss ib le .

T he owners o f v i l las i n T hrace wou ld c er ta in ly h ave h ad a w ide

v ar ie ty o fd if feren t mode ls f rom wh ich t o c hoose , d rawn f ro m G reece , t he East a nd I t a ly a nd t o t hese models t hey wou ld h ave a dded f ea tures o f t he ir own d rawn f rom t he ir o wn t rad it ions . I ti s s im ilarly n o t e asy t o make a ny c o mpar ison b e tween t he v ar ious T hrac ian v il las o n t he b as is o ft he ir c onstruc t ion d a tes .

V il las e xcavated

b efore 1 944 were d a ted o n t he b as is o f t he sma l l f i nds t hey y ie lded i n t he way o f p o t tery , c o ins a nd o ther i t ems . No a t ten t ion wha tsoever was p a id t o t he f act t ha t t hese i t e ms c ou ld we l l h ave

f ound t he ir way o n t o t he s i tes a t at ime

much l a ter t han t he p er iod o f a ctua l c onstruct ion .

T he c orrect ly d a ted v i l las

a re l arge ly t hose o f t he f i rst a nd s econd c en tury , t he C ha ta lka v i l la d a t ing f ro m t he f i rst c entury , t he v i l la n ear Madara f ro m t he e nd o f t he f i rst c en tur y , a nd t he I va ilovgrad v i l la f ro m t he f i rst h a lf o f t he s econd c ent ury , 1 08 wh ile t he v i l las n ear P r issovo a nd Mog i letsl° 9 d a te f ro m t he e nd o f t he s econd c en tury .

T he v il las i n t he S of ia r eg ion 1 1 °s im i lar ly d a te f ro m t he s econd

c en tury , wh ile ma ter ia ls f ound i n t he v il la a t Kad in Most a l low u s t o d a te i t s c onstruct ion t o t he e nd o f t he f i rst c entury . 1 11 One o ugh t n ot , h owever , t o a t te mp t t o d a te t he e stab l ishmen t o f al arge l anded e sta te b y t he c onstruct ion d a te o fb u ild ings e rected o n i t , f or t he b u ild ings w ere c onstructed a t al a ter d a te . C a to , f or e xamp le , g ives t he f o l low ing a dv ice : " in h is e ar ly y outh t he p ropr ietor s hou ld p lan t h is e sta te . C oncern ing t he c onstruct ion o fb u i ld ings h e s hou ld t h ink much . Concern ing t he p lan t ing o f c rops h e s hould t h ink n o t ab it : h e s hould a ct . And when y ou r each t he a ge o f s ix a nd t h irty , i fy our e sta te i s p lan ted , t hen y ou wou ld b u ild" ( Ca to 3 :1) . I ti s o ur b e l ief t ha t t he e sta tes owned b y T hrac ians were h anded d own t hrough s uccess ive g enera t ions a nd were i n e xistence b efore t he i ncorpora t ion o f T hrace a s ap rov ince o f t he Ro man Emp ire . T he b u ild ing work o n t hese e sta tes , h owever , was c arr ied o u t i n t he f i rst c entury p r i mar ily i n c onnect ion w ith t he ir t ransfor ma t ion i n to t yp ica l e sta tes f unct ion ing w ith s lave l abour . Th is r eorgan isa t ion t ook p lace b o th i n a ccordance w ith t he w ishes o f t he e sta te owners t hemse lves a nd a s ac onsequence o f t he g enera l marke t f orces i n o pera t ion a t t ha t t ime i n t he Ro man Emp ire . A c o mpar ison o f t he p roduct ive c apac i ty o f t he v ar ious v i l las i n T hrace w ou ld n o t o n ly b e v ery d if f icu l tb ut a lso e x treme ly i naccura te. S uch a c o mp ar ison c ould o n ly b e made o n t he b as is o ft he v ar ious p ars r ust ica , b ut , a s w e h ave a lready men t ioned , t hese h ave n o t b een who l ly e xcava ted .

A s was

t he c ase w ith t he Cha ta lka v i l la , a n a na lys is o f t he o ther p ars r ust ica would h ave made i tp oss ible t o a scer ta in t he n u mber o f p er manen t workers , t he t o ta l a rea u nder c u l t iva t ion a nd t he p roduct ive c apac ity .

Ac o mpar ison o f t he

p ars r us t ica i n t he Cha ta lka , Madara a nd I va ilovgrad v i l las wou ld s im i lar ly y ie ld l i t t le i n for ma t ion o f a ny r ea l v a lue .

I n t he C ha ta lka a nd Madara v i l las ,

b o th b u i l t i n t he f i rst c en tury , t he o r ig ina l c oncep t a nd t he f i n ished p roduc t a re a t o nce more s evere a nd s i mp le t han i n t he v il la a t I va ilovgrad . T he I va ilovgrad v i l la impresses o ne p ar t icular ly b y v irtue o f i t s mosa ics a nd marble f ac ings, b o th o f wh ich were p robab ly t yp ica l f or t he s econd c en tury .

6 9

Ca to ' sa dv ice i s t ha t t he " overal l c onstruct ion s hou ld c orrespond t o t he e sta te , a nd t he e sta te t o t he b u ild ings"

( 3 :4) , wh i le Varro i s more e xp l ic it when h e

s ays : " an a bundance o f l arge b u ild ings c osts much , a nd t he ir u pkeep d e mands c ons iderable f i nanc ia l r esources . Yet i ft hey a re o fp ropor t ions more modest t han r equ ired b y t he e sta te , t he h arvest w il l b e l ost a nd g o t o waste ."

( 1 :11,1) .

I ti s n o t imposs ib le , h owever , t ha t t he I va i lovgrad v i l la was b u il t n ot i n a ccordance w ith t he r equ ire men ts o f t he e sta te b ut i n o rder t o f l a t ter t he v an ity o f i t s owner . " Our a ncestors ," w r ites Varro " bu il t i n a ccordance w ith t he d e mands o ft he h arvest , wh ile n ow u nbr id led wh im a nd f an tasy h o lds smay . F or merly t he p ars r ust ica wou ld c ost more t o b u ild t han t he h ouse o f t he master , b ut n ow t he r everse i s t rue i ti s n ow t he p ract ice t o b u ild t he master ' ss ect ion a s l arge a nd a s l uxur ious a s p oss ible , a nd i n t h is t o v ie w ith Me te l lus a nd L ucul lus , who b u il t t he ir v i l las w ith money t ha t b e longed t o t he s ta te"

( 1 :13 , 6 , 7 ) .

F ina l ly we wou ld l i ke t o a t te mp t t o d raw a c o mpar ison b e tween t he h istor ica l f a te o f t he v ar ious v i l las i n T hrace .

T he we l l-excava ted a nd

t horough ly r esearched v i l las i nd ica te t ha t t he ir p er iod o f g rea tes t p rosper ity , i ndependen t o f t he ir c onstruct ion d a te , l ay b efore t he midd le o f t he t h ird c en tury i .e . b efore t he G o th ic i nvas ion .

A s a l l t he s ources 1 12

i nd ica te ,

a t t ha t t ime t he g rea ter p ar t o f t he v i l las i n T hrace were p il laged a nd d es troyed . T h is f act i s f ur ther s ubstan t ia ted b y t he e xcava t ions . Reconstruc t ion was c arr ied o ut v ery s oon a f ter t he w ithdrawa l o f t he G oths, a t ten t ion b e ing c oncen tra ted o n t he p roduct ive s ide o f t he e sta te - e nl arg ing t he p o t tery workshop a nd t he s econd p ars r ust ica a t C ha ta lka - i n a l l p robab il ity i n o rder t o make g ood t he l osses s usta ined d ur ing t he i nvas ion . I n c erta in i nstances , a s was t he c ase w i th t he v il las i n P r issovo a nd Mog i le ts , t he p ars r ust ica were n o t r ebu il t . T he T hrac ian l anded e sta te s uf fered a f urther s er ious b low a t t he e nd o f t he f ourth c en tury a s ar esul t o f t he G o th ic r ebe l l ion o f 3 76-378 . Am m ianus 1 13

As

i nd ica tes, i t was p r i mar i ly t he l arge l anded e sta tes wh ich

s uf fered a s ar esul t o f t h is r ebe l l ion .

I n a dd it ion t o t he d estruc t ion o f t he

v i l las i n t he Adr ianop le a rea men t ioned b y Am m ianus, t he v i l las i n t he S of ia a rea 1 14

a t Madara a nd a t C ha ta lka were a lso d estroyed i n t he s ame p er iod .

T he impor tan t t h ing t o n o te h ere i s t he f ac t t ha t s ubsequen t ly n one o f t hese v i l las were r ebu il t .

T he s i mp le a nd b y n o means wea l thy r ura l p opu la t ion

moved i n t o make t he ir h o mes among t he r u ins , b u i ld ing sma l l s ing le-roo m dwe l l ings o f mud a nd s tone .

T hese dwe l l ings were f ound t o c on ta in a gr i-

c ultura l imp le men ts , m i l lstones a nd v ar ious l arge c lay v esse ls .

Qu ite

c lear ly , e ach s epara te h ouse was o ccup ied b y as ing le f am i ly w h ich f unc t ioned a s a n i ndependen t s oc ia l a nd e cono m ic u n it .

These p eop le were p et ty c o m-

mod ity p roducers who d iv ided u p t he r u ined b u ild ings a nd t he l and , wh ich h ad f or ma l ly b e longed t o t he v i l la , among t hemse lves . Here t he q uest ion c ert a in ly a r ises whe ther t he p eop le who h ad f or ma l ly f ar med t h is l and l ost t he ir r igh t t o i t s p ossess ion a nd whe ther t he e sta te was d iv ided u p b y s o me p ower wh ich emerged among t he v i l lagers . h as c o me d own t o u s .

N o r ecord o f a ny s uch r evo lut ionary a ct

On t he c on trary , r ecords f ro m t h is p er iod s how q u ite

u na mb iguously t ha t l arge l anded e sta tes c on t inued t o e x ist .

1 15

Ro man l aw

d id n o t p er m i t a ny s uch d iv is ion o f t he l and e ven when n o h e irs a t l aw e x isted .

7 0

I t migh t b e s uggested t ha t t he e sta te was p il laged b y t he r ura l p opu la t ion t he ms e lves , b u t t h is a ga in h ard ly s ee ms l i ke ly .

A s h as a lready b een men t ioned ,

t he v il lages c on t inued i n e x istence r igh t u p t o t he i nvas ion o f t he

H uns i n t he

m idd le o f t he f i f th c entury , a nd i t was mere ly a c ase o f t he f or mer a u thor it ies n o t h av ing h ad s uf f ic ien t t ime t o r easser t a nd r e-establ ish t he ir p ower . An e d ict p rocla i med b y T heodos ius Ii n 3 92 , b ind ing t he v il lagers t o t he p lots wh ich t hey c ul t iva ted , makes i tq u ite c lear t ha t t hese p easan ts were n ot t he owners o f t he l and .

As b e fore t he l and r e ma ined i n t he h ands o f t he l arge

l andowners , b ut t hey n o l onger d irect ly s uperv ised t he work .

I n c on trast t o

p rev ious v i l la owners , who s uperv ised a nd g u ided t he work o n t he ir e sta tes , b u ild ing h ouses a nd l i v ing t here t he mse lves , v i l la owners f ro m t he f ourth c entury o n l i ved p er manen t ly i n t he t owns a nd h ad n o n eed o f t he ir c oun try h ouses .

Nor d id t hey t ake a ny p ar t wha tsoever i n t he work o f t he e sta te , a s

p rev ious v i l la owners h ad d one , a nd t herefore b eca me mere a bsen tee l andl ords, r ece iv ing r en t f ro m t he ir p easan t t enan ts who a ctua l ly c u l t iva ted t he l and .

T he e d ict o f T heodos ius Imere ly c onf ir med i n l aw t he s em i-co lon ia l

l and lord/ tenan t r e la t ionsh ip wh ich , a s V e lkov 1 16

s o r igh t ly o bserves , h ad

a lready l ong b efore b eco me t he e stabl ished p ract ice i n T hrace .

7 1

CONC LUS ION T he C ha talka v il la i s t he f i rst l arge s lave-own ing e sta te t o h ave b een c o mp le te ly e xcava ted a nd t horough ly s tud ied i n B u lgar ia .

I tp rov ides u s w ith a

v ery c lear p icture o f t he o rgan isa t ion , a rch itecture , a nd c o m merc ia l a nd a gr ic ul tura l p roduct ion i n t he l arge e sta tes o f R o man T hrace .

A t t he s a me t ime

i tp rov ides u s w ith a f und o f c oncre te e v idence a pperta in ing t o t he l i fe a nd g enera l c u lture o f t he n a t ive T hrac ian p opu la t ion a nd i t s r e l ig ious a nd b ur ia l t rad it ions . A s as lave-own ing e sta te i td if fers l i t t le f ro m t he l arge e sta tes i n I t a ly a nd t he p rov inces .

I t s ma in d ist ingu ish ing f ea ture , a nd o ne wh ich s e ts i ta par t

f ro m sma l ler e sta tes , i s t he f act t ha t i t s o wner a nd h is f am i ly t ook n o p ar t i n t he a ctua l p roduct ive p rocesses, b ut mere ly f u lf il led t he r o le o f manager a nd g enera l o rgan iser .

T he work f orce

c ons isted t o ta l ly o f s laves .

T he e sta te

owner c on tro l led a nd d irected work i n h is v i l la b y means o f v il l ic i a nd v ar ious o verseers who t he mse lves were a lso s laves . T he p roduct ive c apac ity o f t he v i l la must h ave b een c ons iderab le .

H owever

u nre l iab le o r i ndeed e xaggera ted o ur f i gures may b e , t hey d o i nd ica te t ha t t he t o ta l a rea o f t he v il la must h ave b een measured i n h undreds o f h ectares , a nd t he t o ta l n u mber o f s lave workers p er manen t ly a t tached t o t he e sta te must h ave r eached s evera l s core. T h is i s c lear b o th f ro m t he d i mensions o f t he f ar m a nd l iv ing a cco m moda t ion i n t he v il la , a nd f ro m t he c ons iderable r ichness o f t he g rave-goods i n t he v i l la owners ' b ur ia ls .

T he e cono m ic impor tance o f t he

v il la i s f ur ther more e v idenced b y t he amoun t o f t ime t ha t must h ave b een s pen t i n k eep ing u p t he v ast b ur ia l mounds , wh ich , t o a l l i n ten ts a nd p urposes , r epres en t ac ons iderab le i nvest men t w ith n o c o m merc ia l r eturn . T he v il la e ngaged i n t he p roduct ion o f a gr icu l tura l g oods t yp ica l o f T hrace , c oncen tra t ing o n marke tab le p roduce s uch a s v ege tables , g rapes , f ru it a nd a v ar ie ty o f d if feren t a n i ma ls . o f p ot tery a nd l ime .

I n a dd it ion t he v il la s pec ia l ised i n t he p roduc t ion

F or s evera l c entur ies t he owners o f t he v i l la , wh ich was h anded d own f ro m o ne g enera t ion t o t he n ex t , were me mbers o f ah igh ly i nf luen t ia l T hrac ian a r istocra t ic f am ily .

I ti s q u ite p oss ible t ha t t h is f am ily was a b le t o t race i t s

o r ig ins b ack t o p re-Ro man t imes .

U p u n t i l t he f i rst c en tury A .D . t he e sta te

was o rgan ised a long s l igh t ly d if feren t l i nes , p robab ly w ith f ewer

s laves a nd

more d ependen t p easan ts, b ut i tt hen u nderwen t ap er iod o f r ad ica l r eorgan isat i on , b e ing t urned i nto a t yp ica l s lave-ho ld ing v il la c on for m ing t o t he e cono m ic s tructure a nd g enera l o rgan isa t iona l p a t tern o f t he Ro man Emp ire .

Par t o f

t he e sta te was managed w ith t he a ss istance o f s laves work ing u nder t he p ersona l d irect ion o f t he v i l la owner , a nd we t here fore f i nd c lear ly d e l inea ted f ar m b u ild ings a nd a s epara te c oun try h ouse f or t he owner .

C erta in f ea tures o f t he

p rev ious o rgan isa t iona l s tructure o f t he e sta te were p reserved i n t he f or m o f s em iindependen t p easan ts who l i ved o n l and b e long ing t o t he v i l la a nd r en ted p lo ts f or c ul t iva t ion f ro m i t .

7 2

I n a dd it ion t o t he ir c ons iderab le e cono m ic s treng th , t he v i l la owners a lso p ossessed g rea t p o l it ica l , m i l itary a nd r e l ig ious p ower .

T hey w i l l h ave f u l-

f i l led t he r o le o f p r iests , b een h igh r ank ing o f f icers a nd were c er ta in ly me mb ers o f t he B eroea b oule . Apar t f ro m t he v i l la , t hey w i l l a lso h ave owned a t own h ouse wh ich was t he ir p er manen t p lace o f r es idence . I n l i ne w ith we l l e stabl ished t rad it ion me mbers o f t h is f am ily were b ur ied n o t i n t he t own n ecropo l is b u t o n t he ir own e sta te i n t he c oun try . T h is g ave t he m a n a dded s ense o f t he ir own importance a s e sta te owners a nd a s h e irs t o al ong f am i ly t rad it ion a nd would h ave s treng thened t he ir b e l ief i n t he p er manence o f t he ir p ower a nd ma ter ia l wea l th . T he l osses s usta ined b y t he v i l la o wners i n t he midd le o f t he t h ird c entury a s ar esul t o f t he t ra il o f d estruc t ion l ef tb y t he G o ths h ad n o l ast ing d e tr imen ta l e f fect o n t he ir ma ter ia l p rosper ity , a nd t he v i l la was r e-bu il t a long e ven more amb it ious l i nes .

T i mes c hange , h owever , a nd i nner c on trad ict ions

l ed q u ite n a tura l ly t o t he d ecay o f t he s lave-own ing s yste m .

T he s lave-

h o ld ing e sta te c eased t o b e p rof itab le , a nd t he G o th ic d isturbances t owards t he e nd o f t he f our th c en tury f ur ther c on tr ibu ted t owards t he g a ther ing c r is is . T he e sta te owners d ec ided a ga inst r estor ing t he v il la a long t he l i nes o f i t s p rev ious p a t tern o f o rgan isa t ion , p referr ing t o l ease t he who le a rea t o p easan t t enants .

Ac er ta in p roport ion o ft hese p easan ts , we must a ssu me , h ad

p rev iously worked a s s laves o n t he e sta te . T he v il la a nd t he b u ild ings o f ad evo t iona l n a ture s tand ing i n t he i m med ia te v ic in ity p rov ide u s w ith i nfor ma t ion c oncern ing t he c hanges i n r e l ig ious o bserva nces wh ich t ook p lace i n T hrace o ver t h is p er iod .

A s h as a lready b een

men t ioned , t he p agan s anctuary a nd t he Chr ist ian c hurch were b u il t v ery n ear t o o ne a no ther b ut o u ts ide t he v i l la owner ' sh ouse . T h is would s ee m t o s uggest t ha t whereas t he v il la o wner p rov ided t he means f or t he c onstruct ion o fb o th t hese b u ild ings , t hey d id n o t s erve h is f am i ly a lone , b ut a lso c a tered f or t he n eeds o ft he s urround ing p opu la t ion a nd t he i nhab i tan ts o f t he v i l la a s a who le .

I n t h is way t he owner o f t he v i l la was q u ite c lear ly a ble t o e xerc ise

d irec t p ressure o n t he n a ture o f t he l oca l i nhab i tan ts ' r e l ig ious p ersuas ions. T here c an b e n o d oub t t ha t f o l low ing t he a dop t ion o f C hr ist ian ity a s t he o f f ic ia l s ta te r e l ig ion , t he c hurch was b u i l t o n t he i n it ia t ive o f t he v i l la owner a nd C hr ist ian b e l iefs were imposed " f ro m a bove" o n t he l oca l p opu la t ion . F urthermore , t he v i l la owner was i n ap os it ion t o " re jec t" C hr ist ian ity d ur ing t he r e ign o fJ u l ian a nd t hen t o r e-e mbrace C hr ist ian b e l iefs f o l low ing J ul ian ' sd ea th . T hus , i fi n t he f i rst c en tur ies o f R o man r u le i n T hrace t he r e la t ive i ndependence o f p agan c u l ture a nd b e l iefs was p reserved , t h is was d ue i n t he f i rst i nstance n o t t o t he p opula t ion a s a who le b u t t o t he l oca l a r istocracy .

I n a ccordance

w ith i t s c lass i n terests t h is a r istocracy ma in ta ined i t s t rad it ions, b u ild ing t e mp les a nd s anctuar ies a nd p rov ided t he f i nanc ia l s uppor t f or t he p roduct ion o f av ar ie ty o f v o t ive t able ts .

I ndeed i t was t he a r istocracy wh ich c rea ted

t hose c ul tura l monu men ts wh ich p er m it u s n ow t o t a lk o f a n i ndependen t T hrac ian c u lture . F ur ther more , t he a r istocracy p reserved t he G reek a lphab e t a nd t he G reek l anguage a nd t hereby p reven ted t he a dop t ion o f L a t in a nd L a t in c ulture i n T hrace .

7 3

T he c o mpar ison o f t he C ha ta l l sa v i l la w ith o ther v i l las wh ich we h ave d isc overed p er m i ts u s t o make t he f o l low ing g enera l o bserva t ions . L arge l anded e sta tes were more w idespread i n T hrace t han h as s o f ar b een c ons idered t o b e t he c ase .

Moreover , t he p art t hey p layed i n t he e cono m ic l i fe o f t he p rov ince

h as t o b e measured n o t o n ly o n t he b as is o f t he ir t o ta l n u mber , b u t a lso , a nd more importan t ly , i n t he l i gh t o f t he ir e conom ic v iab il ity a nd o vera l l e f f ic iency i n s upp ly ing s uf f ic ien t g oods t o s a t isfy t he v ery l i ve ly marke t t hroughout t he Emp ire .

I n t he s lave-ho ld ing e cono my o f t he Ro man Emp ire t he sma l l f ar m

p roved n o l onger p ro f itab le, a nd i t was p robab ly a s ar esu l t o f ac en tra l ly i ssued d irect ive t ha t t he f ormer e sta tes w ere r eorgan ised s o a s t o c onform w ith t he g enera l s lave-ho ld ing p a t tern. I tw as f or t h is r eason t hat t he s laveh o ld ing s ys te m i n T hrace a ch ieved a f u l l f l ower ing i n t he v ery e ar ly y ears o f t he Emp ire . S ubsequen t ly d eve lop men ts i n T hrace were i n l i ne w ith t hose t hroughou t t he r e ma inder o f t he Emp ire . T he t owns o f T hrace a lso o we t he ir p er iod o f p rosper ity t o t he s uccess o f t he l arge l anded e sta tes .

K uz ishch in 1 17

q u i te c orrect ly o bserves t ha t

i n

p recap ita l ist ic s oc iet ies , i n p ar t icu lar i n t he s lave-own ing s oc iety , i ti s n o t t he l eve l o f d eve lop men t o f a rt isan s k il ls t ha t d e ter m ines t he l eve l o f d eve lopmen t o f a gr icu lture , b ut t he r everse , f or t he d eve lopmen t o f a gr icu l ture d et er m ines t he e vo lut ion o f a r t isan s k i l ls" . We h ave a lready ment ioned t ha t a p roport ion o f t h is s em i-art isan , s em i i ndustr ia l" p roduct ion was c onducted o n t he l anded e sta tes t he mse lves , b u t i t was a t t he markets i n t he t owns t ha t t he g oods a c tua l ly c hanged h ands .

I t was i n t he t owns t oo t ha t t he o wners o f

l arge c oun try e sta tes b u il t t he ir p er manen t p laces o f r es idence .

T hey were

c oncerned t o i ncrease t he t own ' sp ower a nd t o c on tr ibute t owards i t s g enera l we l l-be ing b y f i nanc ing t he c onstruct ion o f p ubl ic b u ild ings a nd ma in ta in ing t he p ubl ic h ighways .

T he l arge l andowners p art ic ipa ted i n t he t own b ou le

a nd d e mos r eso lv ing q uest ions o f l oca l i mportance , o rgan is ing s ports c o mpet i t ions a nd e ven ts o f ag enera l c u ltura l a nd r ecrea t iona l n ature . I t was t he owners o f l anded e sta tes, moreover , who w ere r espons ible f or t he o rgan isa t ion o f r e l ig ious f est iva ls a nd c ere mon ies . I tc an t herefore b e s a id t ha t t he l arge l anded e sta tes h ad a n e f fect o n v irt ua l ly e very a spec t o f s oc ia l a nd c ul tura l l i fe o f t he p er iod , a nd i ti s p rec ise ly f or t h is r eason t ha t i n t he f uture t hey o ugh t t o f or m t he o b jec t o f af ar g rea ter v o lu me o f r esearch .

7 4

NOTES

1 .

I . V e lkov , S tar in i o ko lo s e lo E lhovo , S tarozagorsko , B IB, V , 1 9321 933 , I , p . 1 80.

2 .

N . S ubchev , Ch irpansk i d revnost i , Ch irpan , 1 906 : E tnogra f iya n a g rad Ch irpan , 1 938.

i de m , I stor iya i

Men t ion i s made o n p . 2 6 o f

D e l i myonovo Ka le , t he Roshava Dragana Mound a nd Yavorovsko to Ka le. 3 .

G . Ka tsarov , Pr inos k um r e l ig iya ta n a mnogog lav ite b ozhes tva , I A I , XV I I , 1 950 , p . 1 :

i de m , D ie Denk mä ler d es Thrak ischen Re itergo t tes

i n Bu lgar ien , Budapes t , 1 938. 4 .

B . Dyakov ich , Trak i iska k o lesn itsa p r i s e lo Mog i lovo , GPNB, 1 923, p . 1 51;

A . Kozhouharov , An t ichn i p a metn its i vS tarozagorsk iya mouze i ,

I A I , I , 1 923-24 , p . 2 12. 5 .

G . Ka tsarov , D ie Dank mä ler d es Thrak ischen Re itergo t tes i n Bu lgar ien , B udapest , 1 938.

6 .

D . T sonchev , R i ms idya t p u t Carassura-Beroe , I zs l. v p a me t n a K . S hkorp i l , S of ia , 1 961, p . 2 71.

7 .

H . Bouyuk l iev , Nov p a metn ik z a k ou l ta n a S abaz i i v Trak iya , Arheo log iya , V II , 1 965 , 2 , p . 5 0.

8 .

G . Kazarov , Vorgesch ich t l iche Funde a us S vet i K ir iovo , PZ, 1 914 , 6 7 : P . D etev , S e l ish tna ta mog ila v S vet i K ir i lovo , S tarozagorsko , GN M , V II , 1 942, p . 2 37.

9 .

T . G erass i mov , Razkop l k i n a mog il i p r i s e lo S v. K ir i lovo , I A I , XV , 1 946, p . 1 80.

1 0.

G . Ka tsarov , D ie Dank mä ler d es Thrak ischen Re itergot tes i n Bu lgar ien , Budapest , 1 938.

1 1.

F or p re l im inary r epor ts o n t he t u mu lus-bur ia ls a t Cha ta lka s ee :

D .

N iko lov iH . Bouyuk l iev , Trak i isk i mog i ln i g robove o t Cha ta lka , S tarozagorsko , Arheo log iya , I X , 1 967 , V o l. 1 , p . 2 1;

i de m , N ov i

t rak i isk i mog i ln i p ogreben iya o t Cha ta lka , S tarozagorsko , Arheo log iya , I X , 1 967, V o l. 3 , p . 1 0 ;

i de m , Razkopk i n a mog i len n ekropo l p r i

Cha ta lka p rez 1 967, Arheo log iya , X [ I, 1 970, Vo l. 2 , p . 5 2. 1 2.

H . Bouyuk l iev , Vot ivn i p a metn its i o t Cha ta lka , Mouze i ip a me tn its i n a k ou l toura ta , V , 1 965 , V o l. 4 , p . 7 .

1 3.

S im i lar f eatures were d iscovered i n a n e ar ly Chr ist ian monas tery e xcav a ted b y H . Bouyuk l iev n ear S tara Zagora. They h ave a lso b een f ound i n t he s o-ca l led " a th le te 's" h ouse i n Po mpe i i a nd i n t he S er t ius h ouse i n T i mgad .

S ee :

Cagna t e t Chapo t , Manuel d 'Archeo log ie r o ma ine , Par is ,

1 916, I , p . 2 86. 7 5

14 •

De Archi.tectura, ITI and fo\lowing.

15.

De Re Rustica, I, IT and following.

16.

De Architectura, VI, 8.

1 7.

De Re Rustica, I, 4 and following.

18.

N. Subchev, Istoriya i Etnografiya na gradChirpan.... p. 26.

-

19.

M. E. Sergeenko, Pompei, Moscow, Leningrad, 1949, p. 252, fig. 91. See alsoCagnat etChapot, Manuel d 'Archeologie romaine, I, 211, fig. 212.

20.

M. Biernatska-Lyubanska, Nyakoi Problemi vurhou izsledvaniyata na rimskite vodoprovodi v Dolna Miziya i Severna Trakiya, Arheologiya, XIII, 1971 , VoI. 2 , p. 1 •

21.

See above note 12.

22.

Ts. Dremsizova, Novi danni za ikonomikata na Dolna Miziya pres rimskata epoha, Izv. na Narodniya muzei Kolarovgrad, I, 1960, p. 1; idem, Villa romaine aux environs de Madara, Acta antiqua Philippolitana, Studia archeologica, S, 1963, p. 111.

23.

J. Mladenova, La villa romaine d'Ivajlovgrad, Actes du I congres international des etudes Balkaniques et Sud-est-Europeennes, s. 1969, II, p. 527: idem, Razkopki na vilata pri Ivailovgrad prez 1964, Arheologiya, VII, 1965, Vol. 1, p. 20.

24. 25.

M. Stancheva, Rimska mozaika, Sofia, 1962. Vol. 10, p. 282. M. E. Sergeenko, _2.E.cit., p. 282: Cagnat etChapot, Manuel d'Archeologie romaine, I, p. 300ff; K. Swoboda, Rtlmische und Romanische PaHtste, Wien, 1919; R.C.Carrington, Studies in the Campanian villae rusticae, J RS, v. 21, 1931; A. Sirago, L'Italia agraria sotto Traiano, Louvain, 1958; M. Rostovtzev, Storia economica e sociale dell'Impero, Firenze, 1933.

26.

E. Thomas, Rtlmische villen in Panonien, Budapest, 1964.

27.

R. Writh, Roman Britain in 1938, J RS, XXIX, 1939, p. 211.

28 �

Cagnat etChapot, Manuel d'Archeologie romaine, I, 308.

29.

Cat. 3, 2 and 4: Varr. I, 13, 6-7.

30.

Cagnat etChapot, Manuel d'Archeologie romaine, I, 279.

31.

We are referring here to the extensive use of fired brick in civic build­ ings and not to exceptional cases such as the Thracian burials near Seuthopolis. See M.Chichikova, Poyava i oupotreba na touhlata kato stroitelen material ou Traikite v kraya na IV i nachaloto na III v. pr. n. e., IAI, XXI , 195 7 , p • 12 9 .

32 .

The earliest buildings to use fired brick in the Beroea area are the Roman baths in the Stara Zagora baths and the recently discovered civic baths in the centre of the modern town dating from the time of Marcus Aurelius. For the Roman baths see: D. Nikolov, Stroitelen nadpis ot 76

r imska b anya p r i S tarozagorsk ite minera ln i b an i , Arheo log iya , X , 1 968, V o l. 1 , p . 4 3. 3 3.

F or t he p i l lag ing a nd d es truct ion o f v i l las i n t he Ph i l ippopo l is a rea s ee : D ex ippus , FHG , I I, f r . 2 6. p . 4 68 a nd f r . 2 7 ( 20 ) , p . 4 70.

3 4.

F or t he d estruc t ion o f v i l las i n t he Adr ianop le a rea s ee : XXX I, 6 , 1 -8.

3 5.

Am m. Marc.

V . V e lkov , Gradu t is e lo to v Trak iya iDak iya p rez I V-V , v . o t n . e ., I s tor ichesk i p reg led , 1 955 , V o l. 4 , p . 3 2.

3 6.

M . E . S ergeenko , Po mpe i i , Moscow , L en ingrad , p . 1 08, f ig . 3 1.

3 7.

H . Bouyuk l iev , Pa metn its i n a Hermes o t S tarozagorsko, I A I, 3 3, 1 972 , p . 1 89.

3 8.

B . S ou l tov , Ed in z anaya tch i isk i t sen tur v Do lna M iz iya , Arheo log iya I V , 1 962, V o l. 4 , p . 3 0 ;

i de m

Od in r e mes lenny i t sen tr v N izhne i

Mez i i , Actes d u Ic ongr6s i n terna t iona l d es e t udes Balkan iques e t S ude s t-Europ6ennes , S , 1 969 , I , p . 4 79. 3 9.

S ee n ote 2 9.

4 0.

B . S ou l tov , o p .c it., f or t he wa l ls o f t he b u i ld ings e xcava ted s ee p . 3 1. T he Ho tn itsa a nd Pav l iken i f inds h ave n o t y et b een p ub l ished .

4 1.

K i lns f or t he p roduct ion o f b u i ld ing ma ter ia ls a nd h ouseho ld p ot tery h ave b een d iscovered a t n u merous s i tes i n Bu lgar ia. N ovootkr it i s tar in i , I A I , V I I, 1 932-33, p . 4 05 ;

S ee I . V elkov , G . Kozhouharov , Pesh t

z a k era m ichn i s udove v B e logradch ik , I A I , XV I I , 1 950 , p . 3 9 ;

D .

M itova-Dzhonova , P esh t z a k era m ichn i p ro izveden iya o t Novo s e lo , V id insko , Arheo log iya , 1 , 1 959 , Vo l. 1 -2 , p . 7 9 ;

B . N iko lov , Gruncharska

p esh t p r i s e lo A l t im ir , Arheo log iya , I I , 1 961, Vo l. 4 , p . 5 1;

D .

D zhonova , Pesh t i z a k eram ika ik ere m id i o t N ove , Arheo log iya , V I I I, 1 966 , V o l. 1 , p . 3 8 ;

V . V u lov , P esh t z a s tro itelna k era m ika o t Nove ,

Arheo log iya V I I I , 1 966 , V o l. 1 , p . 4 6 ;

E . Ba tsova , An t ichn i p esh t i

z a s tro ite lna k era m ika o t S l iven , Mouze i ip a metn its i n a k ou ltoura ta , I X , 1 969, Vo l. 4 , p . 7 ;

B . S ou l tov ,

. c i t .;

G . Toncheva , Kera m ichna

r abot i ln itsa k ra i s e lo Kranevo , I zv. n a Arheo log ichesko to d rouzhestovo Varna ( S ta l in ), 1 953, p . 8 1. 4 2.

D . D zhonova , P esh t i z a k era m ika ik era m id i o t N ove , Arheo log iya , V I I I , 1. p . 4

4 3.

D . N iko lov iH . Bouyuk l iev , Trak i isk i mog i ln i g robove o t Cha ta lka , S tarozagorsko ,

4 4.

Arheo log iya , I X , p . 3 1.

D . N iko lov , Avgous ta T rayana-Vereya , Arheo log iya , V I I, 1 965 , Vo l. 3 , p . 1.

4 5.

F or o pus s ex-t i le s ee : I , 3 3 :

Cagnat e t Chapot , Manuel d 'Archeo log ie r o ma ine ,

Darenberg-Sag l io , D ic t ionna ire... Mosa ique.

4 6.

Cagna t e t Chapo t , Manue l d 'Archeo log ie r o ma ine, I , p . 3 01 :

4 7.

M. E . S ergeenko , P o mpe i i , Moscow ,L en ingrad , p . 2 53 , f ig . 9 1.

7 7

V itr. V I , 8 .

4 8.

Ca t. 3 8, 1 .

4 9.

Cagna t e t Chapot , Manue l d 'Archgo log ie r o ma ine , I , p . 2 63.

5 0.

S ee n ote 1 1.

5 1.

D . N iko lov iH . Bouyuk l iev , Trak i isk i mog i ln i g robove o t C ha ta lka , S tarozagorsko , Arheo log iya , I X , p . 20.

5 2.

I de m , N ov i t ra ld .ssk i mog i ln i p ogreben iya.... p . 1 9.

5 3.

I de m , T rak i isk i mog i lno g robove o t Cha ta lka , S tarozagorsko , Arheo log iya , I X , p . 2 0.

5 4.

I de m , N ov i Trak i isk i mog i ln i p ogreben iya.... p . 2 0.

5 5.

I b id., p . 1 4.

5 6.

I de m , Trak i isk i mog i ln i g robove o t Cha ta lka , S tarozagorsko , Arheo log iya , p . 2 8.

5 7.

I b id., p . 2 0.

5 8.

I de m , Nov i Trak i isk i mog i ln i p ogreben iya.... p . 2 4.

5 9.

I de m , Trak i isk i mog iln i g robove o t Cha ta lka , S tarozagorsko , Argeo log iya , I X , p . 3 1.

6 0.

I de m , Razkopk i n a mog ilen n ekropo l

p . 5 9.

6 1.

I de m , N ov i Trak i isk i mog i ln i p ogreben iya.... p . 2 3.

6 2.

I b id., p . 1 5.

6 3.

L . Ognenova , A lcune n o taz ion i s u l l l am ine d 'oro e s u i p e t ora h ir invenu t i i n Thrac ia e Macedon ia , A t t i d e l S et t i mo c ongresso i n ternaz iona le d i a rcheo log ia c lass ica , Ro ma , 1 961, I I, p . 1 21 ;

I . Vened ikov , Preda-

h e men idsk i I ran iTra ld .ya , I A I , XXX I , 1 969 , p . 1 . 6 4.

D . N iko lov iH . Bouyuk l iev , Nov i T rak i isk i mog iln i p ogreben iya.... p . 1 2, f ig . 6 .

6 4a.

S im i lar h ouses h ave b een d iscovered i n t he v i l la n ear Kad in Most . Y . I vanov , O tchet z a r azkopk ite p r i Kad in most ( Kyustend i lsko ), I AD , I , 1 910 , p . 1 63 ( see t he d iagra m a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he a r t ic le ).

6 5.

D . N iko lov iH . Bouyuk l iev , Razkopk i n a mog i len n ekropo l.... p . 6 2.

6 6.

S ee n ote 7 .

6 7.

Cagna t e t Chapot , Manue l d 'Arch6o log ie r o ma ine , I , p p. 2 0-21.

6 8.

Fr . Beno it , L 'Arch itec ture , An t iqu ite , Par is , 1 911, p . 5 00.

6 9.

D . N iko lov iH . Bouyuk l iev , Nov i T rak i isk i mog iln i p ogreben iya.... p . 1 6.

7 0.

I b id., p . 2 3.

7 1.

S ee n o te 3 3.

7 2.

S ee n ote 7 .

7 8

7 3.

S ee n otes 1 4 , 1 5 , 1 6 a nd 1 7.

7 4.

T he l i s t o f p ub l ica t ions i s e x tre me ly l ong . n o tes 2 5 , 2 6 a nd 2 7. An t iqu i 1 923;

F or s o me o f t he m s ee :

S ee a lso M. De l la Cor te , Not iz ie d eg l i S cav i d i

A . Ma iur i , V i l la d e i m ister i i , Ro ma , 1 931;

T he v il la o f P l iny t he Younger , New York , 1 924 ;

E . T anzer ,

f or v i l las i n Bu lgar ia

s ee n ote 9 7 b e low . 7 5.

S ee :

M. S ergeenko , S azerna ie go f rag men ty , VD I, 1 964 , Vo l.

i dem , Mark P or ts i i Ka ton , Z em lede l ie , Moscow , L en ingrad , 1 950 ; i de m , Varron , S e l 'skoe k hozyastvo , Moscow , 1 963. r eferred t o b y S ergeenko.

S ee a lso works

V . I . Kuz ishch in , 0d a t irovke Ka tonovskogo

" Ze m ledel ie", VD I, 1 966 , V o l. 2 , p . 5 4. 7 6.

B . H . G u m merus , Der r öm ische Gu tsbe tr iebt a ls Wir tscha f t l i ches Organ is mus n ach d en Werken d es Ca to , Varro u nd Co lu mel ,Le ipz ig , 1 905 ;

M. Ros tow tsev , T he S oc ia l a nd Econo m ic H istory o f t he Ro man

Emp ire , Ox ford , 1 926 ; F irenze , 1 933 ;

I b id ., S tor ia e cono m ica e s oc ia le d e l l Impero ,

T . Frank , An Econo m ic S urvey o f Anc ien t Ro me ,

Ba l t i more , 1 940 ;

W. Wes termann , The S lave s ys te ms o f Greek a nd

Ro man An t iqu ity , Ph ilade lph ia , 1 955 ; T ra iano , L ouva in , 1 958 ; Moscow , 1 941;

A . S irago , L 'I ta l ia a grar ia s o t to

A . Va l lon , I s tor iya r abs tva v a n t ichno m mire ,

M. E . S ergeenko , I z i s tor i i s ePskogo k hozya istva v

d revne i I ta l i i , VD I, 1 953, Vo l. 3 ; i s tor iya I ta l i i, Moscow , 1 954 ;

Dzh. Lu tsato , Ekono m icheskaya

M. E . S ergeenko , Ocherk i p o s ePsko mu

k hozya is tvu d revne i I ta l i i , Moscow , 1 958;

V . I . Kuz ishch in ,

Khozya istvo I ta l i isko i l a t ifund i i Iv . dn . e . VMGU , 1 958 ;

i de m ,

O cherk i p o i s tor i i z em lede l i i I ta l i i L Ev . d o n . e . - Iv . n . e ., Moscow , 1 966 ; E . M. S h taerman , Rastsve t r abov ladePchesk ikh o tnoshen i i v r imsko i Respub l ike , Moscow , 1 964 ; Yu. B . Ko losovskaya , Rabstvo vd una isk ikh p rov in ts iya ld i R i msko i i mper i i, VD I, 1 962 , Vo l . 3 ; Z ab lo tska , K v oprosu o

g orodakh I II I v ., VD I , 1 971, Vo l. 1 ; d ea l w ith t hese p rob le ms :

I n Bu lgar ia t he f o l low ing works

B . G erov , Proouchvan iya v urhou p oze m-

l en ite o tnoshen iya v n ash ite z em i p rez r i msko v re me 5 0 , 2 , 1 95 ,p . 1 7 ;

Yu.

o tnoshen iyakh ma loaz i isk ikh

v .), GSOuFF ,

V . V e lkov , Gradut is e loto v Trak iya iDak iya p rez

I V-V v ., I stor iches ld . p reg led , 1 955 , Vo l. 4 ; i de m , Robs tvoto v Trak iya iM iz iya p rez a n t ichnos t ta , S of ia , 1 967 ; A l. F o l , De mogra fska i s o ts ia lna s trouk toura n a d revna Trak iya , S of ia , 1 970 ;

i de m , De mo-

g ra fska is o ts ia lna h arak ter ist ika n a d neshn ite b u lgarsk i z em i o t Id o v . v us o snova n a n adp is ite e x tra f ines p rov inc iaru m , i b id ., XXV , 1 967 , p . 1 17 ;

M. Tacheva , Za p oyava ta n a k o lona ta v Do lna M iz iya

iT rak iya , Troudove n a VP I " Bra tya K ir i l iMe tod i", V . Turnovo , I , 1 963-64 , p . 1 99 ;

D . N iko lov , P oze m len ite o tnoshen iya v R i mska

T rak iya , Purv i k ongres n a B ID , I , 1 972 , p . 3 69 ; V . Dre ms izovaN e lc inova , La v i l la r o ma ine e n Bu lgar ie , Actes d u Ic ongres i n terna-

t i ona l d es e tudes Balkan iques.... p . 5 03. 7 7.

M . E . S ergeenko , Ocherk i p o s ePsko mu k hozya istvu d revne i I ta l i i i de m , Ka ton ie go " Ze mede l ie" v M. P . Ka ton-Ze mede l ie....

7 8.

O cherk i p o i stor i i Ze mede l i i ... p p . 6a nd 7 .

7 9

;

7 9.

2e. c i t . ,

p p . 8 4 e t s eq.

I n t h is work q uest ions c oncern ing y ie lds a nd

c rop r o tat ion a re d iscussed. 8 0.

A . Cho isy , H isto ire d e l 'Arch itecture , Par is , 1 889 , p . 2 10 .

8 1.

Two c en tur ies l a ter .

8 2.

Ocherk i p o i s tor i i z e mede l i i

8 3.

I b id ., p . 2 48.

8 4.

E . Tanzer ,

8 5.

For s pec ia l isa t ion a nd c oopera t ion i n w ork c arr ied o u t o n t he v il las s ee :

p . 2 23.

2 2 .c i t

Kuz ishch in , Ocherk i p o i stor i i.... p p. 2 27 e t s eq.

I n c hap. I V ,

1 , h e e stab l ishes n or ms f or v ar ious t ypes o f a gr icu l tura l w ork . 8 6.

Kuz ischch in , o p.c it ., p . 2 94.

8 7.

For t he a dm in istra t ion o f s lave l abour i n t he v i l las s ee :

K uz ishch in ,

p p. 2 52 e t _ s eq. 8 8.

D . N iko lov iH . Bouyuk l iev , Trak i isk i mog iln i g robove

o t Cha ta lka ,

S tarozagorsko , p . 2 1. 8 9.

9 0.

V . F . Ga idukev ich , Bosporskoe t sars tvo , Moscow , 1 949 , p p. 2 98 e t s eq. Or p erhaps Caesar 's Par th ian War i n B .C. 4 7. 0 . Bendor f , An t ike G es ich the l me u nd S epu lkra l masken , W ien , 1 878 ; I v. Vened ikov , Der G es ich t maskenhe l me i n T hra ld .en , E irene I , 1 960 , p . 1 43.

9 1.

D . N iko lov iH . Bouyuk l iev , Trak issk i mog i ln i g robove o t Cha ta lka , S tarozagorsko , p . 2 0 ;

i de m , Nov i t rak i isk i mog i ln i g robove o t

Cha ta lka , S tarozagorsko , p . 1 2 ;

i b id ., p . 2 4.

9 2.

S ee n ote 6 3.

9 3.

D . N iko lov , S tro ite len n adp is o t r i mskata b anya p r i S tarozagors id .te m inera ln i b an i , Arheo log iya , X , 1 968 , Vo l. 1 , p . 4 3.

9 4.

D . P . D im itrov , Za s tra teg i ite iz a n yako i g radsk i t er itor i i vR i mska Tra ld .ya , GN M , 1 932-34 , p p. 1 23 e t s eq .

9 5.

H . Bouyuk l iev iL . G e tov , Dva n ov i e p igra fsk i p a metn ika z a s tro ite lna ta d e inost n a An ton in P i i v Trak iya , Arheo log iya , V I, 1 964 , V o l. 1 , p p. 2 9 e t s eq .

9 6.

S ee n ote 7 .

9 7.

Deta ils o f t he v ar ious v i l las h ave b een p ub l ished a s f o l lows : 1 .

KAD IN MOST , KYUSTEND ILSKO ( Y . I vanov , O tchet z a r azkopk ite p r i Kad in most , Kyus tend ilsko , I AD , I , 1 910 , p . 1 63 ) ;

2 .

S OF IYA, ALEKSANDROVSKATA BOLN ITSA , ( I . Ve lkov , An t ichn i p a metn its i i z Bu lgar iya , GN M , 1 922-25 , p . 1 45 );

3 .

B ISTR ITSA, S OF I ISKO ( N. S . Dodov , Razva l in i v mes to Kyoshko n ad s e lo B istr itsa , I A I , I V , 1 926-27 , p . 3 00 );

4 .

KARL IEVO , P IRDOPSKO , ( K . M iya tev , An t ichna s grada p r i s e lo Kar l ievo , I A I , I V , 1 926-27 , p . 2 98 ) ; 8 0

5 .

KOLYO MAR INOVO ( Rado m ir ), STAROZAGORSKO , ( I . Ve lkov , Novootkr it i s tar in l , I A I, V I I , 1 933 , p . 4 13 );

6 .

GARA I SKUR , ( I . V e lkov , R i mska v ila p r i g ara I skur , I A I , X I I , 1 938 , p . 4 07 );

7 .

ORLANDOVTS I , S OF I ISKO , ( I . V e lkov , Kusnor i mska v ila p r i Or landovts i , I A I , X [ I , 1 938 , p . 4 09 );

9 8.

8 .

KONSKA, KYUSTEND ILSKO, ( IA I, X IV , 1 942-44 , p . 2 67 , f ig . 3 61 );

9 .

PLEVEN ( KA ILUKA ), ( IA I, X IV , 1 942-44 , p . 2 75 , f ig . 3 78 ).

M. Rostov tzev , The s oc ia l a nd Econo m ic H istory o f t he Ro man Emp ire a nd t he o ther a uthors men t ioned i n n ote 7 7.

9 9.

1 .

MADARA ( Ts. Dre ms izova , Nov i d ann i z a i kono m ika ta n a Do lna M iz iya p rez r i mska ta e poha , I zv. NM - Ko larovgrad , I , 1 960 , p . 1 ;

V . An tonova , N ovootkr it i o bek t i o t r i mska ta e poha v

Madara , t he s a me e d it ion , p . 1 9 ; 2 .

F IL IPOVTS I , S OF I ISKO , (M. S tancheva , Novootkr ito r i msko imen ie , S of iya , 1 961, V o l. 1 0 , p . 2 0 );

3 .

OBELYA , S OF I ISKO , (M. S tancheva , S of iya , 1 961, Vo l. 8 , p . 1 24 ; i de m , Epanou isse men t e t d ispar it ion d es d eux v il lae r us t icae p res d e S erd ica , Actes d u Ic ongres i n terna t iona l d es e tudes Ba lkan iques I , p . 5 35

4 .

S OF IYA, Kv. STEFAN KARADZHA, (M . S tancheva , Za t rak i iskoto n ase len ie v S of i isko p rez I V-V v ., I B ID , XXV II , 1 970 , p . 2 55 ; i de m , Epanou isse men t ....;

5 .

S H ISH MANOVTS I , S OF I ISKO , ( A. M i lchev iN . P etkov , Arheo log ichesk i r azkopk i vc hasha ta n a y azov ir " Iskur" , GSOuF IF , 1 962, I , p . 2 26 );

6 .

PR ISOVO , VEL IKOTUR ,NOVSKO , ( B. S ou ltov , Edna v il la r us t ica k ra i s e lo Pr isovo , V . T urnovs ld . o krug , T O M -V . T urnovo , 1 964 , p . 4 9 );

7 .

I VA ILOVGRAD ( Yaz. Arm ira ), ( Ya. Mladenova , Razkopk ite n a v i la ta p r i I va i lovgrad p rez 1 964 , Arheo log iya , V I I, 1 965 , Vo l. 2 , p . 2 0 ;

i de m , L a v i l la r o ma ine d ' Iva jlovgrad , Ac tes d u Ic ongr6s

i n terna t iona l d es e tudes Ba lkan iques... I , p . 5 27 ; 8 .

CHATALKA , STAROZAGORSKO , ( D. N iko lov , Une v i l la r ust ica t hrace p res d e S tara Z agora , Actes d u Ic ongres i n terna t iona l d es e tudes Ba lkan iques... I , 5 13 ;

9 .

GOROTSVET , RAZGRADSKO ,

( Cv. Dre ms izova-Ne l tch inova , L a

v i l la r o ma ine e n Bu lgar ie , Ac tes d u Ic ongres i n terna t iona l d es e tudes Ba lkan iques... 1 969 , I , 5 05. Fro m p ub l ica t ions i n t he p ress a nd a lso f ro m c o l leagues work ing i n r ela ted f i e lds w e h ave h eard o f t he f o l low ing v i l las :

8 1

1 0.

MOG /LETS , TURGOV ISHKO ( D. Ovcharov , V i la r oust ika d o s e lo Mog i lets , T urgov ishkO , Arheo log iya , 1 969 , I , p . 2 6 );

1 1.

' V ITBOL , V ID INSKO ;

1 2.

KAL I MAN ITSA , M IHA ILOVGRADSKO ( v . Narodna mladezh , N o. 2 00 , 2 1 ( V I I I ) 1 972 );

1 3.

KR ,ALEV DOL , PERN ISHKO ;

1 4.

MALASHEVTS I, S OF I ISKO ;

1 5.

KAZANLUK ( nex t t o t he I ns t itu te f or Vo la t ile O il Products ).

T o

t hese we o ugh t a lso t o a dd t he s i tes i n Bou tovo , Ho tn i tsa , Pav l iken i , a nd Bya la Cherkva i n t he Ve l iko Turnovo D istr ic t . 9 9a.

These a re f ound i n t he f o l low ing p laces : 1 .

BRATYA DASKALOV I -n ear t o t he s choo l i n t he n or thern p ar t o f t he v i l lage.

2 .

CHERNA GORA - t o t he wes t o f t he v il lage.

3 .

SURNEVETS - t o t he s ou th o f t he v i l lage n ear t he s et t le men tb ur ia l mound .

4 .

MOG ILOVO - n ear t he g raveyard .

5 .

K IR ILOVO - n ear t he r iver S uz l i ika , n ex t t o t he Kour tev Mi l l.

6 .

SLADUK KLADENETS - t o t he s ou th o f t he v il lage, n ear t he r iver Cha ta lka .

7 .

YAVOROVO - t o t he s ou th o f t he v i l lage i n t he v ege tab le g arden .

8 .

MALKA VEREYA - i n Pandak l i isk i Pu t .

9 .

MALKA VEREYA - i n "K lyunka".

1 0.

BOGOMILOVO - i n Ha tyuren .

1 1.

G ITA - t o t he wes t o f t he v i l lage.

1 2.

KALOYANOVETS - t o t he w es t o f t he v i l lage.

1 3.

PA MOUKCH I I -t o t he wes t , t owards t he v il lage o f Ka loyanovets.

1 4.

OSTRA MOG ILA - t o t he e as t o f t he v i l lage, n ear t he r iver .

1 5.

STARA ZAGORA - t o t he wes t o f t he Bash Chardak Mound a nd Boboo lou.

1 6. 1 7.

STARA ZAGORA - t o t he w es t o f t he t own , i n Bo icho Bounar . S TARA ZAGORA - t o t he n or th o f t he t own , i n t he c our tyard o f t he b arracks.

1 8.

STARA ZAGORA - a t Tr ite Mog i l i.

1 9.

S TARA ZAGORA - n ex t t o t he I nst itu te f or An i ma l Husbandry .

2 0.

MUDRETS - n ex t t o t he s et t le men t b ur ia l mound b y t he c oo pera t ive f ar m.

8 2

2 1.

MALKA DETEL INA - i n Pa mou ts i te , t o t he s ou th o f t he v il lage.

2 2.

S TA MOVO - n ear t o t he s et t le men t b ur ia l mound i n t he v ege tab le g ardens.

2 3.

KOLENA - i n Boko i Cha l t o t he s ou th o f t he v il lage.

2 4.

BRATYA KOUNCHEV I -t o t he s ou th o f t he v il lage , t owards t he v i l lage o f Pods lon.

1 00.

2 5.

DULBO K I -t o t he w es t o f t he v il lage.

2 6.

ARNAOUT ITO - t o t he e as t o f t he v il lage , n ear t he r iver .

2 7.

V INAROVO - t o t he w es t o f t he v i l lage.

2 8.

GRAN IT - i n t he v i l lage i t se lf .

2 9.

KAZANKA - t o t he e as t o f t he v i l lage.

3 0.

RA K ETN ITSA - t o t he s ou th o f t he v il lage b y t he r iver .

3 1.

TOULOVO - t o t he s ou th o f t he r a i lway s ta t ion.

3 2.

CH IRPAN - t o t he s ou th o f t he t own n ear t o t he S ta te F arm b u i ld ing .

3 3.

S H IP KA - t o t he s ou th o f t he t u mu lus.

D . N iko lov , Edr ite p oze m len i v laden iya v R i mska Trak iya , Mouze i i p a metn its i n a k ou ltoura ta , 1 975 , Vo l. 1 -2, p . 3 .

1 01.

Poze m len ite o tnoshen iya v R i mska Trak iya , Mouze i ip a metn its i n a k ou l toura ta , 1 975 , V o l. 1 2.

1 02.

S ee n ote 3 8.

1 03.

A r epor t was p resen ted t o t he 1 8th Na t iona l Archaeo log ica l Con ference i n 1 973.

1 04.

Bo th s arcophag i a nd g raves tones w ere p roduced h ere.

V . An tonova , 9 _ 2 .c i t .a nd t he a ppended g enera l g round p lan .

S ee o ur

f ig. 1 18 No. 9 . 1 04a . S ee n ote 9 7 No. 7 a nd C . Dre ms izova-Ne lc inova , L a v ila r o ma ine e n Bu lgar ie , Ac tes d u Ic ongrgs i n terna t iona l d es e t udes Balkan iques , I , 1 969 , p . 5 04 , f ig . 9 . 1 05.

G . Ka tsarov , An t ichn i p a me tn its i i z Bu lgar iya , I A I , I V , 1 926-27 , p . 1 07 ;

V . Beshev l iev , Ep igrafsk i p r inos i , S o f ia , 1 952 , p . 3 3 ;

M.

M irchev , Nov i e p igra fsk i p a metn i ts i o t Cherno mor ieto , I VAD , MI , 1 961, p . 1 5 ;

H . Bouyuk l iev iL . G etov ,

1 06.

Cv Dre ms izova-Ne lc inova , 2 2 .c i t ,p . 5 10.

1 07.

T s. Dre ms izova , N ov i d ann i z a i kono m ika ta n a .... p . 1 7.

1 08.

Ya. Mladenova , Razkopk ite n a v ilata p r i I va ilovgrad .... p . 3 2.

1 09.

S ee n ote 9 9.

1 10.

M. S tancheva ,

.c i t.

11. Y . I vanov , 22 .c it. a nd e spec ia lly p p. 1 91-192.

8 3

1 12.

S ee n ote 3 3.

1 13.

S ee n ote 3 4.

1 14.

M. S tancheva , Za t rak i isko to n ase len ie v S of i isko ... i de m , Epanou iss e men t e t d ispar it ion d e d eux v i l lae r ust icae....

15.

V . V e lkov , S eloto ig radu t ....

1 16.

I de m , Robs tvoto v Trak iya iM iz iya ... p . 1 26.

1 17.

V . I . Kuz ishch in , O cherk i p o i s tor i i z e mede l i i ... p . 2 72.

8 4

F ig . 1 .

G enera l P lan o f t he S i tes a t Cha ta lka.

A .

De l i monyovo Ka le

B .

De l i monyova N iva

C . D . E .

T he L amba ta s i te T he s epara te b a th b u ild ings K ilns f or f i r ing b u ild ing ma ter ia ls

F .

K i lns f or h ouseho ld p o t tery

G . H .

S i tes i n Kara l iets Y avorosko Ka le

T he b ur ia l mounds a re i nd ica ted b y an u mber w ith in ac irc le. T he l arge mounds n u mbered 1 -8 a re t hose o f t he owners o f t he v i l la , whereav t he r e ma inder f orm t he v i l lage n ecropo l is.

Fig. 2. Aerial view of the sites at Delimonyovo Kalé, Delimonyova Niva and the separate bath building (D).

Fig. 3. Aerial view of Delimonyovo Kalé and Delimonyova Niva from east.

Fig. 4. Delimonyovo Kalé before excavations were begun.

F ig . 5 .

F ig . 6 .

A er ia l v iew o f D e l i monyovo Ka le i n t he c ourse o f e xcava t ion .

Re ma ins o f l a te c lass ica l b u i ld ings ( IV-V c en tury ) a bove t he p oo l i n t he l arger e as tern c our tyard o f t he h ouse.

F ig . 7 .

A dwe l l ing o f t he l a te c lass ica l p er iod i n t he e astern c our tyard w ith t he r e ma ins o f al arge c lay v esse l.

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F ig . 1 4.

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F ig . 3 2.

o f t he p oo l i n t he e astern c our tyard

An a lterat ion t o t he f açade

i n b u ild ing No. 1 1.

s k ir ted b y t he wa ter p ipe. In t he u pper p ar t o f t he p ic ture t wo c ap ita ls f ro m t he c o lonnade.

1 04

MU M

F ig . 3 3.

T he l ower s torey o f b u i ld ing No . 9( oppos ite t he e n trance ) i n t he p rocess o f e xcava t ion . On e i ther s ide o f t he e n trance o ne c an s ee i n t he wa l ls h o les l ef t b y w ooden s uppor ts b u il t i n to t he m.

F ig . 3 4.

T he b ases o f c o lu mns i n t he f l oor o f r oo m N o. 9 .

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s uppor t ing t he u pper s torey o r ig ina l ly r es ted o n t hese b ases.

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