The Textual World of the Bible (Studies in Biblical Literature) [New ed.] 9781433122682, 9781453910757, 1433122685

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The Textual World OF THE Bible

Studies in Biblical Literature

Hemchand Gossai General Editor Vol. 156

PETER LANG

New York y Washington, D.C./Baltimore y Bern Frankfurt y Berlin y Brussels y Vienna y Oxford

MICHAEL B. SHEPHERD

The Textual World OF THE Bible

PETER LANG

New York y Washington, D.C./Baltimore y Bern Frankfurt y Berlin y Brussels y Vienna y Oxford

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Shepherd, Michael B. The textual world of the bible / Michael B. Shepherd. pages cm. — (Studies in biblical literature; v. 156) Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Bible—Introductions. I. Title. BS475.3.S54 220.6—dc23 2012047229 ISBN 978-1-4331-2268-2 (hardcover) ISBN: 978-1-4539-1075-7 (e-book) ISSN 1089-0645

Bibliographic information published by Die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek. Die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the “Deutsche Nationalbibliografie”; detailed bibliographic data is available on the Internet at http://dnb.d-nb.de/.

The paper in this book meets the guidelines for permanence and durability of the Committee on Production Guidelines for Book Longevity of the Council of Library Resources.

© 2013 Peter Lang Publishing, Inc., New York 29 Broadway, 18th floor, New York, NY 10006 www.peterlang.com All rights reserved. Reprint or reproduction, even partially, in all forms such as microfilm, xerography, microfiche, microcard, and offset strictly prohibited. Printed in Germany

To Abbi, Anna, and Audrey

Table of Contents

Editor’s Preface.............................................................................................. ix

Introduction..................................................................................................... 1 Chapter One: Past, Present, and Future........................................................... 5 Chapter Two: Moses and the Prophets.......................................................... 15 Chapter Three: The Writings ........................................................................ 47 Chapter Four: The New Testament............................................................... 83

Appendix One: Torah Piety in the Pentateuchal Targums............................ 97 Appendix Two: Beauty and the Bible......................................................... 109 Bibliography ............................................................................................... 121 Index ........................................................................................................... 125

Editor’s Preface

More than ever the horizons in biblical literature are being expanded beyond that which is immediately imagined. Important new methodological, theological, and hermeneutical directions are being explored, often resulting in significant contributions to the world of biblical scholarship. It is an exciting time for the academy as engagement in biblical studies continues to be heightened. This series seeks to make available to scholars and institutions scholarship of a high order that will make a significant contribution to the ongoing biblical discourse. The series includes established and innovative directions, covering general and particular areas in biblical study. For every volume considered for this series, we explore the question as to whether the study will push the horizons of biblical scholarship. The answer must be yes for inclusion. In this volume, Michael Shepherd expands on his previous crafting of a biblical theology. The author begins with the bold premise that the Bible is not simply a worldview or template, but indeed that the Bible is the real world. On this basis, this study explores a series of biblical texts which the author argues in themselves provide the platform and summaries of biblical theologies. Rather than what he sees as the narrowly construed conventional and traditional Heilsgeschichte, he argues that the texts themselves are exegetical works, and thus “require an account of their interpretive relationship to the Pentateuch and other compositions.” In this volume Michael Shepherd seeks to expand the angle of biblical theology, and as is the case with imaginative scholarship, in the best sense, the discourse is bound to continue. The horizon has been expanded. Hemchand Gossai Series Editor

Introduction

The Bible’s claim to truth is not only far more urgent than Homer’s, it is tyrannical—it excludes all other claims. The world of the Scripture stories is not satisfied with claiming to be a historically true reality—it insists that it is the only real world, is destined for autocracy. All other scenes, issues, and ordinances have no right to appear independently of it, and it is promised that all of them, the history of all mankind, will be given their due place within its frame, will be subordinated to it.1

The Bible is the real world. It is not a worldview or a template set over against the real world and in competition with other worldviews. It is the biblical authors’ representation of reality. The Bible does not merely document a period of history. It seeks to encompass all of history from creation to new creation and does this by means of a pattern of figuration based on the sequence of events narrated in Genesis–Kings. This pattern is developed by the biblical authors’ themselves and does not require an interpreter’s imposition upon the text. The biblical authors are in the business of world making, and they insist that theirs is the only real world.2 Biblical theology is theology of the Bible and its representation of reality. This may sound obvious, but it is often not clear from the works of those who claim to practice the discipline. The Bible is a text. Therefore, biblical theology, if the word “biblical” is to be meaningful at all, must be theology of the biblical text. The title of volume one of Gerhard von Rad’s Old Testament Theology is The Theology of Israel’s Historical Traditions. But this is not biblical theology strictly speaking. According to von Rad, “The primary sources for the history of the religion and worship of ancient Israel lie within the Old Testament exclusively.”3 Thus, for von Rad, the Bible is a source for something else. In contrast, Rolf Rendtorff states, “The Old Testament is a theological book.”4 This means that the text is already theological. An explanation of the composition of the text in its present shape is at the same time an explanation of the Bible’s theology. There is no need to bring a separate discipline of theology to the Bible. Biblical theology is often contrasted with systematic theology, and rightly so. But once again the contrast is rarely evident in attempts to practice biblical theology. By definition systematic theology does not deal with the biblical text on its own terms. The theologian sets the agenda with categories for the Bible to address such as God, man, and salvation. In other words, the

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systematic theologian is not content with what the Bible says. He or she wants to know what the Bible says about something. This is not materially any different from so-called biblical theologies that trace selected topics or themes through the Bible. The only difference is the choice of topics. “Biblical theologians” tend to avoid traditional systematic categories such as soteriology in favor of less conventional and seemingly more biblical ones like “covenant.”5 Simply put, biblical theology is exegesis done faithfully. It is often said that biblical theology lays the groundwork for other disciplines such as systematic theology or Christian philosophy. But this is only true if the goal of Bible study is something other than the meaning or theological message of the Bible according to its own presentation. It is only possible to be biblical in the purest sense of the term if the present form of the Bible (and not some other arrangement) is allowed to speak and to dictate what is important. The constitution of the biblical texts given them by their prophetic authors is the unique revelation of God (Deut 33:1–5; 2 Tim 3:15–17; 2 Pet 1:19–21). Explanation or use of the Bible in any other format is a departure from the intended verbal meaning of the Bible itself. The present author has already made one attempt at biblical theology according to the above definition and with special attention to Daniel.6 That book gives a concise exposition of the way in which the biblical texts in their present shape communicate theology by means of composition and intertextuality. The current volume is an effort to read the interpretations of the biblical texts given by the biblical authors themselves in the form of biblical-theological summaries: Deut 6:20–25; 11:1–7; 26:5–9; 32; Josh 24:1–15; Judg 2:1–5; 6:7–10; 10:11–16; 1 Sam 12:6–17; Jer 2:1–13; Ezek 20; Amos 2:6–3:2; Mic 6:1–8; Pss 78; 105; 106; 135; 136; Neh 9; Acts 7; 13:13–41; Heb 11. Such texts have in the past been understood in terms of tradition criticism.7 That is, the summaries represent various traditions about Israel’s so-called “salvation history” (Heilsgeschichte). But the publication of Michael Fishbane’s book, Biblical Interpretation in Ancient Israel, has forced the field in a new direction.8 It is no longer acceptable to look past the biblical texts’ own presentations of themselves as exegetical works (Deut 1:5; Josh 1:8; Ps 1:2; Dan 9; Neh 8:1–8; Chr). The careful wording of the texts cited above require an account of their interpretive relationship to the Pentateuch and other compositions. The end result of such an account reveals a keen familiarity with something close to, if not identical to, the final form of the Tanak (as opposed to its pre-history). It is this rendering of the present arrangement of the Scriptures that establishes the framework of the real world into which the reader must fit.

Introduction

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Notes 1

Erich Auerbach, Mimesis: The Representation of Reality in Western Literature, trans. Willard R. Trask, 50th anniversary ed. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2003), 14–15. See also Meir Sternberg, The Poetics of Biblical Narrative: Ideological Literature and the Drama of Reading (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987), 23–35. 2 In his opening comments on precritical interpretation of the Bible, Hans Frei observes, “…since the world truly rendered by combining biblical narratives into one was indeed the one and only real world, it must in principle embrace the experience of any present age and reader. Not only was it possible for him, it was also his duty to fit himself into that world in which he was in any case a member, and he too did so in part by figural interpretation and in part of course by his mode of life. He was to see his disposition, his actions and passions, the shape of his own life as well as that of his era’s events as figures of that storied world” (The Eclipse of Biblical Narrative: A Study in Eighteenth and Nineteenth Century Hermeneutics [New Haven: Yale University Press, 1974], 3). 3 Gerhard von Rad, Old Testament Theology, vol. 1, The Theology of Israel’s Historical Traditions, trans. D. M. G. Stalker (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2001), 3. 4 Rolf Rendtorff, The Canonical Hebrew Bible: A Theology of the Old Testament, trans. David E. Orton (Leiden: Deo, 2005), 1. 5 E.g., Walther Eichrodt, Theology of the Old Testament, vol. 1, trans. J. A. Baker (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1961). 6 Michael B. Shepherd, Daniel in the Context of the Hebrew Bible (New York: Peter Lang, 2009). 7 E.g., Martin Noth, A History of Pentateuchal Traditions, trans. Bernhard W. Anderson (Chico, Cal.: Scholars Press, 1981). 8 Michael Fishbane, Biblical Interpretation in Ancient Israel (Oxford: Clarendon, 1985).

Chapter One Past, Present, and Future

The constant reuse of a very familiar sequence of events to depict the past, present, and future is what makes the very fabric of biblical historiography and prophecy. The biblical authors depend upon their readers’ knowledge of the narrative sequence from Genesis–Kings when they describe events in their own day or cast images of the future. The following serves to illustrate the point:

Creation: Flood: Covenant: Moses: Exodus: Egypt/Wild.: Land: Judges: Kings: Captivity: Return:

Past

Present

Future

Gen 1–2 Gen 6–7 Gen 9 Exod 2ff Exod 14 Exod 1ff Joshua Apostasy David, etc. Egypt Joshua

Gen 8–9 Gen 19; Judg 19 Gen 15; etc. Josh, Elijah, Jer Josh 3; 2 Kgs 2 Assyria/Babylon Ezra-Nehemiah Pss 78; 106 et al. Zerubbabel Babylon, etc. Ezra-Nehemiah

Isa 65:17; 66:22 Isa 26:20; 2 Pet 3 Jer 31:31–34 Deut 18:18; 34:10 Num 24:8 et al. Ezek 20:33–44 Isa 40ff; Zechariah Neh 10–13 Messiah Gog (Ezek 38–39) Isa 40ff; Ezek 40ff

This is but a small sample of what takes place in the biblical text. A brief explanation of each part of the sequence beginning with creation-floodcovenant will show how the biblical authors fit their world into the framework of the biblical narrative. The opening verses of Genesis (Gen 1:1–2) provide the background for the preparation of a special land of blessing for humanity (Gen 1:26–28).1 This blessing is lost in Gen 3:24 when the man and the woman are driven from the Garden. The story of the Bible thus becomes the story of the restoration of the lost blessing. The first sign of this restoration occurs in the

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post-flood re-creation/preparation account of Genesis 8–9 where the specific terminology of Genesis 1 recurs: And the Spirit (xwr) of God was hovering over the surface of the water (Gen 1:2b). And God caused wind (xwr) to pass over the land, and the water abated (Gen 8:1b). And God blessed them, and God said to them, “Be fruitful and multiply and fill the land and subdue it” (Gen 1:28a). And God blessed Noah and his sons and said to them, “Be fruitful and multiply and fill the land” (Gen 9:1).

The author uses the language of the original creation/preparation of the land to describe the current state of affairs in the post-flood era. But there is another, new creation yet to come in the future for which Genesis 1–11 serves as a model: In the beginning God created the sky and the land (Gen 1:1). For look, I am about to create a new sky and a new land (Isa 65:17a; cf., 66:22).2

This new creation also involves a new Jerusalem (Isa 65:18). Its description in Isa 65:25 parallels that of the messianic kingdom in Isa 11:6–9. Thus, the biblical text has taken the reader from creation past to creation present and to creation future without change in the original terminology. The accounts of creation, the flood, and the exodus all share the theme of making dry land in the midst of water (Gen 1:9–10; 8:13–14; Exod 14:21– 22). The flood account (Gen 6–7) is the first example of worldwide judgment after Genesis 3 and thereby becomes paradigmatic for other accounts of divine judgment in Scripture. For instance, the story of the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah (Gen 19) employs distinctive terminology from the flood account, in effect presenting the judgment as a new flood, though a flood of fire rather than a flood of water (Gen 9:15): And the LORD saw that great was the evil of mankind on the earth, and every intent of the thoughts of his mind was only evil all the time (Gen 6:5). And the LORD said, “The outcry against Sodom and Gomorrah, indeed it is great; and their sin, indeed it is very heavy. I will go down to see if they have acted completely according to the outcry against them, which has come to me; and if not, I will know” (Gen 18:20–21). “For in yet seven days I am about to cause rain upon the earth for forty days and forty nights, and I will strike every living thing that I have made from upon the surface of the ground” (Gen 7:4).

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And the LORD caused to rain upon Sodom and Gomorrah sulfur and fire from the LORD from the sky. And he overturned those cities and all the Jordan valley and all the inhabitants of the cities and the sprout of the ground (Gen 19:24–25). And God remembered Noah (Gen 8:1a1). And God remembered Abraham (Gen 19:29a2).

Sodom and Gomorrah in turn become the model for other accounts of wickedness and judgment, especially in Judges 19 where Benjamin is the new Sodom and Gomorrah (see also Isa 1:9, 10). Thus, there is a mix of material from the stories of the flood and Sodom and Gomorrah in depiction of future and final judgment: And the LORD shut [the door] behind him (Gen 7:16b). And they shut the door (Gen 19:10b). “Go, my people, enter your rooms and shut your door(s) behind you. Hide for a little while until the indignation passes” (Isa 26:20).

The final judgment will be a judgment by fire like that of Sodom and Gomorrah (e.g., Isa 66:15–17, 24; Dan 7:9–12; 2 Pet 3). It will essentially be a new flood. The restoration of the lost blessing comes by means of covenant (Gen 9). There are three major covenants in the Pentateuch, not counting the priestly covenant in Num 18:19. The covenant with Noah in Genesis 9 is basically a covenant with humanity. The covenant with Abraham (Gen 15:18) specifies that the restoration of the blessing to the nations will come through Abraham and his seed. These covenants are unconditional in nature. The covenant with Moses or the Sinai covenant, on the other hand, is temporal and conditional (Exod 24:8), added because of transgression (Exod 19:16b; Gal 3:19). It offers blessings for obedience, which is impossible, and threatens to curse for disobedience, which is inevitable (Lev 26; Deut 28). And so the conclusion to the Pentateuch looks forward to a covenant “apart from” the covenant that was made at Horeb (Deut 28:69 [Eng., 29:1]). Central to this covenant is the spiritual circumcision of the heart (Deut 30:6; cf., Gen 17; Lev 12). The prophets understand this not in terms of a covenant renewal but in terms of a new covenant relationship distinct from the Sinai covenant (Jer 4:4; cf., Rom 2:28–29):3 “Look, days are coming,” says the LORD, “and I will make a new covenant with the house of Israel and the house of Judah, not like the covenant that I made with their fathers when I grasped their hand to bring them out of the land of Egypt, my covenant which they broke even though I was a husband among them,” says the LORD. “For this is the covenant that I will make with the house of Israel after these

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The Textual World of the Bible days,” says the LORD: “I will put my instruction (hrwt) within them, and on their heart/mind I will write it; and I will be their God, and they will be my people. And they will no longer teach each his friend and each his brother saying, ‘Know the LORD,’ for all of them will know me from the least to the greatest,” says the LORD, “for I will forgive their iniquity and no longer remember their sin” (Jer 31:31–34; cf., Luke 22:20; Heb 8). “And I will give them one (LXX: another; Mss: new) heart/mind, and a new Spirit I will put within them. And I will remove the heart of stone from their flesh and give them a heart of flesh in order that they might walk in my statutes and keep my ordinances and do them. And they will be my people and I will be their God” (Ezek 11:19–20; cf., Ezek 36:26–27; Rom 8:4).

The new covenant is “not like the covenant” that God made with the fathers. The hrwt of the Sinai covenant was written on tablets of stone and ineffective to the hearts of the people (Exod 31:18). The new covenant is effective because the hrwt is written on the very hearts of the people. It is a work of the Spirit of God in which the hard hearts of the people are made soft and receptive to God’s instruction. The wording of the covenant with David (2 Sam 7; 23:5) is closely linked to that of the covenant with Abraham: “And I will make you into a great nation and bless you and make your name great so that you will be a blessing” (Gen 12:2). “And I will make for you a great name like the name of the great ones who are on the earth” (2 Sam 7:9b). “To your seed I will give this land from the river of Egypt to the great river, the Euphrates river” (Gen 15:18b). “And I will give a place to my people Israel and plant them, and they will live in their place” (2 Sam 7:10a1). And look, the word of the LORD came to him saying, “This one will not be your heir, but one who will go forth from your inner parts will be your heir” (Gen 15:4). “When your days are over, you will lie down with your fathers, and I will raise up your seed after you, one who will go forth from your inner parts, and I will establish his kingdom” (2 Sam 7:12).

Both covenants speak of an individual seed (Gen 15:4; 2 Sam 7:13) and a plurality of descendants (Gen 15:5; 2 Sam 7:11b). The individual seed of Abraham is the coming king from the tribe of Judah (Gen 12:3; 27:29; 49:8– 12; Num 24:7–9; Jer 4:2; Ps 72:17; Gal 3:16). The covenant with David narrows this focus to a king from the lineage of David (1 Kgs 1–11; Isa 9:5– 6 [Eng., 9:6–7]; 11:1–10; Jer 23:5–6; Ezek 34:24; Hos 3:5; Zech 6:12–13; Pss 2; 72; 110). This hope of an everlasting messianic kingdom is

Past, Present, and Future

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unconditional, but the application of the language of the covenant to each successive son of David is conditional (Ps 89).

Moses, the Exodus, and the Wilderness The depiction of Moses in the pentateuchal narratives finds a sequel in the book of Joshua. Joshua is said to be the successor of Moses already within the Pentateuch (Num 27:15–23; Deut 34:9), but it is in the book of Joshua that he becomes the new Moses who relives the stories of Moses (Josh 1:5, 17; 3:7; 4:14):

Presence of God Sending of Spies Exodus Encounter w/Angel Staff/Javelin & Torah Doubt the People Servant of the LORD

Joshua

Moses

Deut 31:7–8, 23 Joshua 2 Joshua 3 Josh 5:15 Josh 8:18, 32 Josh 24:19–20 Josh 24:29

Exod 3:12 Numbers 13 Exodus 14 Exod 3:5 Exod 17:8–13; Deut 31:24 Deut 31:29 Deut 34:5

Because Moses is the model prophet (Deut 18:15, 18), the sign of a true prophet in biblical narrative is often the correspondence of the prophet to the description of Moses in the Pentateuch (i.e., the portrayal of the prophet as a new Moses). For example, the word of the LORD came to Elijah at Mount Horeb (1 Kgs 19:9)—the place where it came to Moses (Deut 5:2, 5). Elijah, like Joshua, led a new exodus through the Jordan River (2 Kgs 2:8), which is cast in terms of the original exodus through the Sea of Reeds (Exod 14:21– 22). Jeremiah too is a new prophet like Moses: “And the LORD said to me, ‘Look, I have put my words in your mouth’” (Jer 1:9b; cf., Deut 18:18b). But the conclusion to the Pentateuch looks beyond the history of Israel’s prophets to a future prophet like Moses: “And never again did a prophet rise in Israel like Moses whom the LORD knew face to face” (Deut 34:10). The use of this syntactical construction (dw(…)l) elsewhere in the Hebrew text of the Tanak suggests that this statement reflects the perspective of someone in the post-exilic period looking back over the history of Israel’s prophets and concluding that the prophet like Moses (Deut 34:15, 18) never actually came.4 Also, the conclusion to the Prophets looks forward to a prophet like

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Elijah who will prepare the way (Mal 3:1, 23 [Eng., 3:1; 4:5]; cf., Exod 23:20; Isa 40:3; Mark 1:2; Luke 1:17).5 The above description of the new Moses motif in the Joshua and Elijah stories already features recapitulation of the exodus (Exod 14; Josh 3; 2 Kgs 2:8). Because the exodus is the central act of deliverance in the history of the people of God (Deut 26:8; Josh 24:6; Judg 2:1; 1 Sam 12:6, 8; Jer 2:6; Ezek 20:10; Mic 6:4; Pss 78:13; 105:37; 106:8–10; 136:11–15; Neh 9:11; Acts 7:36; 13:17; Heb 11:29), the new exodus is the primary way of depicting God’s future deliverance of his people (Isa 11:16; 43:15–21; Ezek 20:33; Hos 2:16–17 [Eng., 2:14–15]; Mic 7:14–15; Luke 9:31). This pattern of figuration is already well established in the composition of the Pentateuch. Even as early as the patriarchal narratives Abram’s departure from Egypt is cast in terms of the later plundering of the Egyptians by his descendants (Gen 12:16; 13:2; Exod 11:2–3; 12: 35–36). Balaam’s second and third oracles feature the new exodus in a subtle shift of pronouns: God brings them out of Egypt (Num 23:22a) God brings him out of Egypt (Num 24:8a1)

The second oracle speaks of the historical exodus and compares the people to a lion (Num 23:24). The third oracle speaks of a new exodus and compares God’s king (Num 24:7) to a lion (Num 24:9; cf., Gen 49:8–12). This serves as the basis for Hosea’s exegesis of the Pentateuch (Hos 11:1, 5, 11), which in turn influences Matthew’s exegesis of Hosea (Matt 2:15).6 The sojourn in Egypt and the subsequent wilderness experiences are said to be times of hardship and judgment (Gen 15:13; Exod 1:8–22; Num 14), even though God is faithful to provide for his people (Exod 2:23–25; 16–17; Num 11; 20). Thus, prophecies about future judgment speak of a new wilderness experience (Hos 2:5 [Eng., 2:3]) or a return to Egypt (Hos 8:13; 9:3; 11:5 [LXX]). The text of Ezek 20:33–44 reveals a new exodus followed by a new wilderness experience in which God will judge his people and purge the rebels.

The Land, the Judges, and the Kings The conquest of the land in the book of Joshua initially appears to be the fruition of the gift of the land in the covenant with Abraham (Gen 15:18; Josh 11:23; 21:43–45), but then there are very clear statements that indicate the conquest was incomplete (Josh 13:1; Judg 1:27–33; Heb 4:1–9). And so the story continues. The extent of the boundaries of the kingdom during

Past, Present, and Future

11

Solomon’s reign approaches that of the land of the covenant (Gen 15:18; 1 Kgs 5:1 [Eng., 4:21]), but the kingdom soon divides, and the north and the south are lost to Assyria and Babylon respectively (1 Kgs 12; 2 Kgs 17; 25). The hope of restoration during the exilic period is expressed vividly in Second Isaiah (Isa 40–55), but the meagre picture of the post-exilic community in Third Isaiah (e.g., Isa 56–59), Malachi, and Ezra-Nehemiah does not match that of the prophet.7 And so, even though the people have returned to the land from Babylon, Third Isaiah (e.g., Isa 60–61; 65–66) and Zechariah look forward to a future work of God as if the people are still in exile, which is also the perspective of Jesus according to Luke 4:16–30.8 One of the first signs that Joshua’s conquest of the land is not the end of the story is the cycle of apostasy in the book of Judges (Judg 2:11–3:6). Each of the narratives about the six major judges in Judg 3:7–16:31 goes through this cycle. The people commit idolatry (Judg 3:7); God gives them over to foreign oppression (Judg 3:8); the people cry out (Judg 3:9a1); God raises up a deliverer (Judg 3:9a2–10); the land is quiet for a period (Judg 3:11); the cycle repeats (Judg 3:12). But this is not unique to the book of Judges. According to the rehearsals of the biblical narrative in Ezekiel 20, Psalm 78, Psalm 106, and Nehemiah 9, there never was a time when Israel was faithful (Deut 9:24). Even after the Babylonian invasion the people still refuse to listen to prophets like Jeremiah (Jer 40–44). The failure of the people continues after the return from Babylon narrated in Ezra-Nehemiah (e.g., Ezra 9–10). The agreement to keep the law (Neh 10:1 [Eng., 9:38]), which occurs after the reading and exposition of the Torah in Nehemiah 8–9, includes a list of specific laws to be kept (Neh 10:29–40 [Eng., 10:28–39]). Each one of these laws Nehemiah finds broken in chapter 13. The book of Samuel-Kings is driven by the theme of the LORD’s anointed (1 Sam 2:10). After the failed kingship of Saul, the focus becomes David and the covenant with David (2 Sam 7). Solomon initially appears to be the Davidic son of whom the covenant speaks, someone who will build the temple and reign over an everlasting kingdom, but then his kingdom comes to an abrupt and disappointing conclusion (1 Kgs 1–11). Other kings like Hezekiah and Josiah are promising, but no one matches the description of the Davidic son in 2 Samuel 7. The book ends with a pitiful picture of Jehoiachin in Babylonian exile (2 Kgs 25:27–30), pointing the reader to the future. In the post-exilic community Zerubbabel appears to be a good candidate for the long-awaited Messiah (Hag 2:20–23; Ezra 2:2; 5:2). After all, he is of Davidic descent, the grandson of Jehoiachin (1 Chr 3:19). But Zechariah makes it clear that the messianic Branch (Jer 23:5–6), the servant of the LORD, is someone other than a contemporary of Joshua the high priest

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(Zech 3:8; 6:12–13). Indeed, the prophets look forward to a new David who will appear in the last days (Isa 9:5–6 [Eng., 9:6–7]; 11:1–10; Jer 23:5–6; 30:9 Ezek 34:24; 37:24; Hos 3:5; Amos 9:11; Zech 9:9–10). His kingdom will be like that of Solomon (Mic 4:4 [cf., 1 Kgs 5:5 (Eng., 4:25)]) but without the problems (see David and Solomon in Chr). Incidentally, the Solomon stories are the means by which the wisdom literature is incorporated into the framework of the biblical narrative. It is often said that the wisdom literature does not fit particularly well into Old Testament theology precisely because it does not concern itself with the sequence of narrated events discussed in this book. But the wisdom literature has been rather deliberately associated with the Solomon stories (Prov 1:1; 10:1; 25:1; Song 1:1; Eccl 1:1) in order to communicate to the reader that the type of wisdom advocated by the literature is not merely skill or intellect but the kind of God-given wisdom that Solomon receives in 1 Kings 3, wisdom defined theologically as the fear of the LORD (Job 28:28; Prov 1:7; 9:10; 31:30; Eccl 12:13; cf., Deut 31:13; Ps 19:10 [Eng., 19:9]).

Captivity and Return The servitude in Egypt serves as the paradigm for descriptions of future experiences of captivity and exile (Exod 1:13). As cited above, Assyria is the new Egypt for the northern kingdom of Israel in Hosea (Hos 8:13; 9:3; 11:5). Babylon is the new Egypt for the southern kingdom of Judah (Isa 14:3). Persia and Greece are the new Egypt for the post-exilic community (Dan 8; Ezra 9:9; Neh 9:32, 37). Jeremiah’s prophecy of seventy years of captivity (Jer 25:11 [LXX]; 29:10) is extended in Dan 9:1–2, 24–27 to include everything from the decree of Cyrus to the cutting off of the Messiah, the defeat of the final enemy, and the establishment of the messianic kingdom. This fits well with Ezekiel’s identification of Jeremiah’s enemy from the north (Ezek 38:17). He is the otherwise unknown Gog who will appear in the last days (Ezek 38:14–16). In many ways the theme of return from captivity parallels that of the exodus and the land. The exodus from Egypt and the conquest of the land mark the return to the land of the patriarchs. The new exodus from Babylon is yet another return to the land (Ezra 1). Deuteronomy 30:3 and many other texts like it look forward to a future return when God will “restore the fortunes” of his people. This goes beyond the return from Babylonian captivity (Neh 1:9). Each return features a new sanctuary for the people of God. The pattern for the construction of the tabernacle is modeled on the

Past, Present, and Future

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original sanctuary—the Garden of Eden (Gen 1:1–2:3; Exod 25–31). Solomon’s temple then follows the model of the tabernacle (1 Kgs 6–8). The Second Temple follows the model of Solomon’s temple (Ezra 3–6). But the vision of the new temple in Ezekiel 40–48 takes matters in a new direction. It symbolizes an ideal restoration period (Ezek 33–39) from the perspective of a priest-prophet (Ezek 1:3; cf., Zeph 3:9–20; Hag).9 It will be the new Garden of Eden (Ezek 36:35; Rev 22:2).

Conclusion The above survey is not intended to be exhaustive or particularly groundbreaking. Much more will be said about other events such as the giving of the law. But for now the table has been set for detailed discussion about the biblical authors’ exegesis of the narrated sequence of events that forms the basis for a pattern of figuration. This pattern establishes the framework of the biblical world. The composition of the biblical narrative is the past, present, and future for the biblical authors and their readers.

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Notes 1

See Alviero Niccacci, Syntax of the Verb in Classical Hebrew Prose, trans. W. G. E. Watson (Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1990), 37–38; John H. Sailhamer, Genesis Unbound (Sisters, Ore.: Multnomah, 1996). 2 See also 2 Peter 3; Revelation 21–22. 3 “The Moab covenant may even be likened to the new covenant (Jer. 31:31–34), because, while maintaining the standards of Horeb/Sinai, it opens on to a future lying even beyond what should be the final defiance of that covenant, incurring its full sanctions (Deut. 28), and conceives of a new beginning, with a new enabling by Yahweh. This is more than covenant renewal; it is the establishment of a pattern of grace after failure that reaches all the way to the resurrection (cf. also N. Lohfink 1998)” (J. G. McConville, Deuteronomy, AOTC 5 [Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity, 2002], 37). 4 E.g., Gen 8:21; 9:11, 15; 17:5; 32:29; Exod 10:29; 14:13; Num 18:22; Deut 11:16; 13:17; 17:16; 18:16. See also Matt 17:5b; Mark 9:7b; Luke 9:35b (cf., Deut 18:15b); Acts 3:22; 7:37. 5 Joseph Blenkinsopp, Prophecy and Canon: A Contribution to the Study of Jewish Origins (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1977), 86–95, 120–23. 6 See Michael B. Shepherd, The Twelve Prophets in the New Testament (New York: Peter Lang, 2011), 17–24. 7 “Yet what is different is that the expected promise of the new age has been radicalized in terms of its eschatology. In contrast to Second Isaiah, the deliverance from Babylon is not seen as concurrent with the inbreaking of the new age, but as only an illustration, a foretaste, of God’s promise, which is increasingly identified with a new creation of heaven and earth (65:17ff.)” (Brevard S. Childs, Isaiah, OTL [Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2001], 447). 8 “The exile, then, has continued long after the ‘return’, long after the work of Ezra and Nehemiah” (N. T. Wright, The New Testament and the People of God [Minneapolis: Fortress, 1992], 270). 9 It may be significant that the completion of the Second Temple in Ezra 6:15 is the only completion of a sanctuary not accompanied by the appearance of the glory of God (Exod 40:34; 1 Kgs 8:11; Isa 6:4; 66:1–2; Ezek 43:1–5; Hag 2:3, 9; Ezra 3:12; John 1:14).

Chapter Two Moses and the Prophets The composition of Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings (the Former Prophets) remains a subject of scholarly interest and debate. The older theory, which saw a continuation in the Former Prophets of the sources of the pentateuchal documentary hypothesis, has long since given way to the newer theory, which sees an organic connection between the Former Prophets and the language and theology of Deuteronomy in particular. Three questions are still unsettled: (1) What is the precise relationship of the Former Prophets to the Pentateuch? (2) What are the identifiable compositional seams of the Former Prophets? and (3) What traceable compositional strategy (and theological message) emerges from the final shape of the Former Prophets? The present work argues that Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings constitute one prophetic composition. This composition primarily relates to the Pentateuch through the lens of Deuteronomy. It is the product of authorship/composition according to the same text model evident in other books of the Hebrew Bible. That is, it consists of pieces of texts from different times and places. These pieces have been put together in such a way that the final form of the book communicates a unified message. Thus, the first task is to locate the various compositional seams of the book (i.e., the places where the major pieces join together) and the passages that serve to interpret large blocks of text at critical junctures in the composition. From there it will be possible to discuss what consistently occurs where the activity of the final composer is most evident. Contrary to the theory of a Hexateuch (or, for that matter, an Enneateuch), the composition of the Pentateuch does not continue into the book of Joshua, but not necessarily for the reasons usually adduced.1 The question of whether or not the pentateuchal sources continue in Joshua is not the main concern here. Rather, the matter at hand has to do with whether or not the final composer of the Pentateuch intended Joshua to function as a continuation/conclusion of his work or not. Thus, it will be necessary to look for signs of composition in the Pentateuch at the highest level and not merely at the level of individual sources.

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The Pentateuch certainly has more than one compositional structure cutting across the whole of the work. Hans-Christoph Schmitt, for example, has proposed the “faith theme” (Glaubensthematik) of the Pentateuch.2 Others have focused on the central role of the Sinai pericope (Exod 19–24) and the parallel narratives on opposite sides of the collections of law (e.g., Exod 16–17; Num 11; 20).3 But most pertinent to the present issue is the strategic placement of poetic seams designed to interpret the large blocks of narrative that precede them (Gen 3:14–19; 49:1–28; Exod 15:1–21; Num 23– 24; Deut 32–33). The discovery and exposition of this compositional strategy is the unique contribution of John Sailhamer. This structure extends across the composition of the Pentateuch as a whole and does not continue into the book of Joshua: At three macrostructural junctures in the Pentateuch the author has spliced a major poetic discourse onto the end of a large unit of narrative (Ge 49; Nu 24; Dt 31). A close look at the material lying between and connecting the narrative and poetic sections reveals the presence of a homogeneous compositional stratum. It is most noticeably marked by the recurrence of the same terminology and narrative motifs. In each of the three segments, the central narrative figure (Jacob, Balaam, Moses) calls an audience together (imperative: Ge 49:1; Nu 24:14; Dt 31:28) and proclaims (cohortative; Ge 49:1; Nu 24:14; Dt 31:28) what will happen (Ge 49:1; Nu 24:14; Dt 31:29) in “the end of days” (Gen 49:1; Nu 24:14; Dt 31:29).4

These poetic seams not only interpret the narratives that precede them (e.g., Gen 27:29; 37:7, 9; 42:6, 9; 49:8), but also they are linked to one another by specific terminology (e.g., Gen 49:9; Num 24:9). They make the Pentateuch into a messianic (Gen 3:15; 49:8–12; Exod 15:18; Num 24:7–9, 17; Deut 33:5, 7, 20) and eschatological document (Gen 49:1; Num 24:14; Deut 31:29), casting the events of the preceding narratives as images of things to come in a manner not unlike that of the books of the Prophets.5 The fact that the poetic seams do not continue in Joshua would seem to argue against a Hexateuch (or Enneateuch). It would also argue against a Tetrateuch. Deuteronomy is an integral part of the overall composition of the Pentateuch and not merely an introduction to Joshua–Kings as Martin Noth had it.6 But Deuteronomy must remain part of the Pentateuch in the minds of interpreters not only because it contributes the final poetic seam but also because of its own explanation of its purpose within the Pentateuch: “On the other side of the Jordan in the land of Moab, Moses undertook to explain this Torah” (Deut 1:5). It is evident from what follows that this involves both explanation of the narratives (Deut 1–11), particularly those in Exodus and Numbers, and explanation of the laws (Deut 12–26). Thus, Deuteronomy is a commentary on the Pentateuch within the Pentateuch itself.7 This would

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explain why the language and theology of Deuteronomy is so pervasive in Joshua–Kings (e.g., the centralization of worship in Deut 12–26 and Kings) without detaching Deuteronomy from the Pentateuch. In other words, Joshua–Kings is the product of reading the Pentateuch as it was intended to be read—through the lens of its commentary in Deuteronomy. Several objections to the above presentation may arise at this point. Is not Joshua a sequel to the Pentateuch? Does not Josh 24:32 take the reader back to Gen 50:24–25? Do not the “canonical” seams (Deut 34:10; Josh 1:8; Mal 4:5 [3:23]; Ps 1:2) connect Joshua to the end of the Pentateuch? It is true that the narrative of Joshua presupposes that of the Pentateuch and continues the land theme. It is also true that Joshua is the new Moses in the book of Joshua (e.g., Josh 1:5, 17; 3:7; 4:14; 5:13–15). But these are not compositional ties to the Pentateuch. By definition a sequel is a separate entity from the original on which it is based. The text of Josh 24:32 is an intertextual link to Gen 50:24–25, but again the question is whether or not this is compositional in nature. Because Josh 24:32 does not relate to any compositional strategy that cuts across the whole of the Pentateuch it is best to regard it as a piece of editing or redaction in the older sense of the term. There was a time in the nineteenth century when the term redaction in Old Testament scholarship was used with reference to the joining of texts on a small scale (e.g., the use of Gen 2:4a to join Gen 1:1–2:3 with Gen 2:4bff). The term began to be used in New Testament scholarship with reference to the overall composition and theological message of the Gospels. It then made its way back into Old Testament scholarship with this sense, resulting in a terminological failure to distinguish small-scale relations (redaction) from large-scale relations (composition). The “canonical” seams (Deut 34:10; Josh 1:8; Mal 4:5 [3:23]; Ps 1:2) have been noted by Joseph Blenkinsopp and Sailhamer in particular.8 The expectation of a messianic prophet like Moses (Deut 18:15, 18; 34:10) is followed by instruction given to the wise Joshua to meditate in the Torah day and night (Num 27:18; Deut 34:9; Josh 1:8). Likewise the Prophets conclude with the expectation of a forerunner prophet like Elijah (Mal 3:1; 4:5 [3:23]) followed by a description of a wise and blessed person who meditates in the Torah day and night (Ps 1:2). But this is composition on the level of the Tanak (4QMMT; Luke 24:44) and not merely on the level of the Pentateuch and the Former Prophets. The Pentateuch has been fitted to the Tanak.

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The Textual World of the Bible The Materials of the Former Prophets

Several sources are explicitly cited in the Former Prophets: “the book of Jashar” (Josh 10:13; 2 Sam 1:18), the chronicles of Solomon (1 Kgs 11:41), the chronicles of the kings of Israel (1 Kgs 14:19 et passim), and the chronicles of the kings of Judah (1 Kgs 14:29 et passim). The book of Jashar or the book of “the upright” (r#yh) should perhaps be the book of song (ry#h), given the fact that each text cited from the book in the Hebrew Bible is a poetic text (see also 1 Kgs 8:53 LXX [3 Kgdms 8:53a]). The reference to the chronicles of Solomon occurs at the conclusion of the Solomon narratives (1 Kgs 1–11). The references to the chronicles of the kings of Israel and the chronicles of the kings of Judah occur at the conclusion of individual narratives about the kings after the division of the kingdom (1 Kgs 12–2 Kgs 25). These sources can be compared to those in Chronicles (1 Chr 29:29; 2 Chr 9:29; 12:15; 13:22; 16:11; 20:34; 24:27; 25:26; 26:22; 27:7; 28:26; 32:32; 33:18–19; 35:26–27; 36:8). This leaves the narratives of the possession of the land (Josh 1–12) and the distribution of the land (Josh 13– 22), the speeches of Joshua and Samuel (Josh 23–24; 1 Sam 12:6–25), the narratives in the book of Samuel about Samuel, Saul, and David, and the large poetic units in Samuel (1 Sam 2:1–10; 2 Sam 22 [//Ps 18]; 23:1–7) without any explicit source citation. The extant textual witnesses to the Former Prophets are by no means uniform. The LXX of Joshua is about four to five percent shorter than the MT. Its arrangement also differs from the MT. It places Josh 8:30–35 after Josh 9:2. 4QJosha also represents a shorter text, but it is not identical to the Hebrew text behind the LXX. 4QJudga is a shorter text for the book of Judges than that of the MT. It does not include Judg 6:7–10. The LXX of Samuel and Kings divides into two groups: (1) the Old Greek (1 Sam; 2 Sam 1:1–11:1; 1 Kgs 2:12–21:29) and (2) proto/kaige-Theodotion (2 Sam 11:2–1 Kgs 2:11; 1 Kgs 22:1–2 Kgs 25:30). 4QSama often agrees with the Old Greek of Samuel against the MT. Furthermore, there are places where the substratum of the Lucianic recension of the LXX preserves the Old Greek of the second group in agreement with 4QSama and against the MT and LXX.9 The text(s) represented by 4QSama, the Old Greek, and proto-Lucian is/are very close to the Hebrew text of Samuel used by the Chronicler and the Greek text of Samuel used by Josephus.10 But this is not the end of the story. The LXX of 1 Kings apparently translates a Hebrew Vorlage that constitutes a secondary edition in comparison and contrast with the MT.11 Two examples from Samuel and Kings will have to suffice. There are two editions of the story of David and Goliath: (1) the shorter, earlier edition

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of the LXX, which does not include 1 Sam 17:12–31, 41, 48b, 50, 55–58; 18:1–6a and (2) the longer, later edition of the MT. It is possible that the MT has simply combined two versions of the story. The LXX translator of 1 Samuel was generally faithful to his Hebrew Vorlage. Therefore, it is unlikely that he deliberately shortened his text. The Hebrew text behind the LXX of 1 Kings, however, does not have priority over the MT. This is apparent from its rearrangement of the final chapters, which puts the Elijah stories together (1 Kgs 17–19, 21 = 3 Kgdms 17–20 ) so that the Aram stories appear together (1 Kgs 20; 22 = 3 Kgdms 21–22). It is much easier to explain a move from the MT to the LXX in this example than it is to explain a move from the LXX to the MT.

Compositional Seams It is very difficult to tell where Joshua ends and where Judges begins. The book of Judges begins with a reference back to the death of Joshua (Judg 1:1), which is narrated in Josh 24:29 (see also Judg 2:8). The opening chapter of Judges also picks up on the theme of the failed conquest from Josh 13:1 (Judg 1:27–33; cf., Heb 4:9). The LORD had brought the people into the land (Josh 11:22–23; 21:43–45), but much land remained to be possessed after the death of Joshua. According to Judg 1:2, the tribe of Judah is the new leader. Thus, the text already anticipates that the restoration of the lost blessing of life and dominion in the land (Gen 1:26–28) will come through the tribe of Judah (see Gen 12:3; 27:29; 49:8–12; Num 24:7–9). Perhaps the most telling indication of a compositional connection between Joshua and Judges is the additional text at the end of Josh 24:33 in the LXX: On that day the children of Israel took the ark of God and carried it around in their midst. And Phineas served as priest in the place of Eleazar his father until he died, and he was interred in Gabaath, which was his own. And the children of Israel departed each to their place and to their own city. And the children of Israel worshiped Astarte, Astaroth, and the gods of the nations round about them. And the Lord delivered them into the hands of Eglom, the king of Moab, and he dominated them for eighteen years.

This text anticipates the problem of idolatry in the book of Judges (Judg 3:7) and the cycle of apostasy (Judg 2:11–23; 3:7–16:31). It also anticipates the story of Ehud and Eglon in Judg 3:12–30.12 Given the fact that the LXX of Joshua is about four to five percent shorter than the MT, any text of the LXX that constitutes a plus in contrast to the MT must receive the benefit of the

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doubt. In this case it is possible that the plus was actually original and subsequently deleted due to the fact that it appeared out of sequence once the first two chapters of Judges were added. Whatever the situation may have been, it is clear that the present compositional seamwork of Joshua–Judges is concerned with the failure of the people, the possession of the land, and the leadership of Judah. English Bibles follow the very old tradition of combining the book of Ruth with the book of Judges. After all, the very first verse of Ruth sets the events of the book within the time period of the judges. It has also been suggested that the Davidic genealogy at the end of Ruth is a fitting introduction to the book of Samuel. But it is questionable whether or not there is really anything compositional about the placement of Ruth between Judges and Samuel. The brief reference to David at the end of Ruth would likely go unnoticed by anyone not already familiar with him. Furthermore, David does not appear in Samuel until 1 Samuel 16. How then does Ruth introduce the book of Samuel in any sort of helpful way? The placement of Ruth after Proverbs and among the Megilloth (Ruth, Song, Eccl, Lam, Est) in the Leningrad Codex is much more appropriate compositionally. Each one of these books features a feminine singular subject (Ruth, Shulammite, Qoheleth [fem sg ptc], Daughter of Jerusalem, Esther) and provides either a real life example of the virtuous woman from Prov 31:10–31 or an example of her wisdom. The book of Ruth has a very deliberate verbal link to the first and last verses of the acrostic poem in Prov 31:10–31. There the woman is a “virtuous woman” (lyx t#)) (Prov 31:10) whose works will praise her in the gates (Prov 31:31). Boaz uses these very words to describe Ruth: “for all the gate of my people knows that you are a virtuous woman (lyx t#))” (Ruth 3:11b). Samuel the character is a transitional figure between the period of the judges and that of the prophets and kings (1 Sam 3:20; 7:15; 10:1; 16:13). But there is much more that connects the book of Judges to that of Samuel. The narratives at the end of Judges focus on men from the hill country of Ephraim (Judg 17:1; 19:1). This is how the story of Samuel begins (1 Sam 1:1). More importantly, the refrain at the end of Judges—“in those days there was no king in Israel” (Judg 17:6; 18:1; 19:1; 21:25)—communicates both the problem and the solution to the cycle of apostasy. Israel needs her king but not a king like those of the nations (1 Sam 8:5). Israel needs the ideal king of the Davidic covenant who will reign over an everlasting kingdom (2 Sam 7). Thus, the author of Samuel opens with a reference to the anointed king in the prayer of Hannah (1 Sam 2:10), in whose days there was no king in Israel.

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The major poetic units in the book of Samuel provide an interpretive framework for the narratives: 1 Samuel 1–12 1 Samuel 13–31 2 Samuel 1–10 2 Samuel 11–18 2 Samuel 19–24

Samuel & Saul Saul & David David’s Rise David’s Fall David’s Return

Poem (1 Sam 2:1–10) Covenant (2 Sam 7) Poems (2 Sam 22:1–23:7)

Hannah’s prayer introduces the central theme of the book, the LORD’s anointed. The narrative then is clear enough that Saul is not the ideal king. David initially appears to be the ideal king, but the covenant with David indicates that there is still one to come who will build the temple and reign over an everlasting kingdom (2 Sam 7:13; cf., Zech 6:12–13). The final poems of the book revisit the language of Hannah’s prayer (2 Sam 22:3, 14, 32, 51) and the Davidic covenant (2 Sam 22:51; 23:1–7 [see 4QSama]) to confirm that the hope of the king is still alive even after David’s failures. The so-called “Succession Narrative” (2 Sam 9–20) continues with 1 Kings 1–2. The fulfillment of the Davidic covenant (or the lack thereof) is the central theme of Kings. Solomon initially appears to be the fulfillment (1 Kgs 1–10), but then his life ends rather ingloriously (1 Kgs 11). The kingdom divides (1 Kgs 12), and Judah has its share of righteous kings (Asa, Jehoshaphat, Hezekiah, Josiah), but no one matches the description of 2 Samuel 7. The book of Kings then concludes with a snapshot of Jehoiachin in Babylonian exile (2 Kgs 25:27–30). This is the low point for the Judean monarchy to be sure, but it also means that the fulfillment of the Davidic covenant is yet to come. Such an inference is what sparks the messianic hope of the Prophets.

Speeches and Reflections The final four chapters of the Pentateuch feature Moses’ last words to the people (Deut 31), the Song of Moses (Deut 32), the final blessing of Moses (Deut 33), and Moses’ death account (Deut 34). In his last words, Moses informs the people that Joshua will be the one to lead them into the land (Deut 31:1–6). He also gives the priests and elders instructions for regular reading of the Torah to the people (Deut 31:9–13). But chapter 31 also includes the LORD’s instructions to Moses about the upcoming song in chapter 32 (Deut 31:16–22). This song will serve as a witness to the LORD’s

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faithfulness and the people’s rebellion (Deut 31:19). Thus, Moses expresses his doubt about the people’s future faithfulness beyond his death and expects that calamity will befall them “at the end of the days” (Deut 31:27–29). After the introduction to the Song of Moses (Deut 32:1–6), the song briefly reviews the LORD’s faithfulness to his people (Deut 32:7–14) before focusing almost entirely on the rebellion of the people and their judgment (Deut 32:15–33). The song concludes, however, with a look forward to the LORD’s final vindication of his people, which will consist of believers from all the nations (Deut 32:34–43). This contrast between the LORD’s faithfulness and the people’s rebellion then becomes the great theme of the speeches and reflections in the Former Prophets. It finds its resolution in the hope of the Davidic covenant. Much like the speeches in the book of Acts, the speeches from the major characters in the Former Prophets are the mouthpiece of the author. They provide theological interpretation of the narratives that precede them. It is significant then that a deliberate theme runs through these speeches: the failure of the people. Joshua’s final words in Josh 24:19–20 conclude much the same way Moses’ did in Deut 31:27–29. After rehearsing the biblical narrative with the people (Josh 24:2–13), Joshua requires them to make a choice about whom they will serve (Josh 24:14–15). The people affirm that they will serve the LORD (Josh 24:16–18; cf., Exod 19:8), but Joshua doubts that this will ever take place (Josh 24:19–20). The following book of Judges proves Joshua to be correct. Samuel also offers a rehearsal of the biblical narrative before stating his negative outlook on the people’s future (1 Sam 12:6–25). This comes after the people’s request for a king “like all the nations” (1 Sam 8:5) has been granted in the form of king Saul—what will prove to be a kind of judgment for their request. Samuel is clear that there will be consequences for failing to fear the LORD and obey his voice (1 Sam 12:14–15, 25). The display of thunder and rain strikes fear in the people, and they acknowledge that their request for a king was sinful (1 Sam 12:18–19; cf., Exod 19:16b; 20:18–21). Samuel comforts them with the thought that the LORD will act for the sake of his name and not forsake his people (1 Sam 12:22). Solomon’s temple dedication speech/prayer in 1 Kings 8 primarily focuses on the model prayer to be used by the people in dire circumstances of the future. It culminates with the expectation that the people will eventually land in exile (1 Kgs 8:46–50; cf., Dan 9:3–19). This is the same expectation from Deuteronomy 28 (and Lev 26). Thus, each one of the major speeches in the Former Prophets already anticipates the conclusion to the book: Assyrian and Babylonian exile. Yet there is also the assumption that

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the LORD will remain faithful and not forget his people. This is the tension with which the reader is left at the end of Kings where he/she finds a favored Jehoiachin in Babylonian exile. The reflections in Judg 2:11–22 and 2 Kings 17 complement the major speeches of the Former Prophets and reiterate the failure of the people. The Judges passage reflects on the state of the people after the death of Joshua and anticipates the cycle of apostasy. The idolatry of the people led to judgment at the hands of their enemies, and the subsequent outcry of the people led to deliverance from foreign oppression, but the people did not remain faithful to the LORD. They only continued to move in a downward spiral. 2 Kings 17 reflects on the downfall of the northern kingdom and offers a theological rationale. The people rejected the prophets and lacked faith in the LORD (2 Kgs 17:13–14; cf., Num 14:11; 20:12). This ultimately became the reason for the fall of the southern kingdom (Jer 25:4).

Chronicles The Chronicler’s ancient interpretation of Samuel and Kings can serve to affirm or deny the interpretation of a modern reader. The book of Chronicles itself has somewhat of an inglorious history. Its ancient Greek translation in the Septuagint bears the title “The Things Omitted,” giving the impression that the book is little more than an appendix. English Bibles place Chronicles directly after Samuel and Kings where it seems tedious, redundant, and superfluous to the average reader. But the Babylonian Talmud (b. B. Bat. 14b) puts Chronicles in a very prominent position at the conclusion of the Hebrew Bible. Likewise Jesus seems to have Chronicles at the end in Matt 23:35: “that all righteous blood poured out upon the land may come upon you from the blood of Abel the righteous [Gen 4] to the blood of Zechariah the son of Berechiah [2 Chr 24:20–21] whom you murdered between the temple and the altar.” According to Jesus, the scribes and Pharisees of his day were guilty of the blood of the righteous from Abel in Genesis to Zechariah in Chronicles—from the beginning of the Bible to its end. Chronicles has four major sections: Genealogies (1 Chr 1–9), David (1 Chr 10–29), Solomon (2 Chr 1–9), and Judah (2 Chr 10–36). The Chronicler provides a comprehensive account of biblical history from Adam (1 Chr 1:1) to the decree of Cyrus (2 Chr 36:22–23). The genealogies enable the author to cover large amounts of biblical material in a relatively small space. He makes a beeline for the Davidic monarchy, which is the central focus of the book. From 1 Chronicles 10 to the end of the book the two major sources for

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the Chronicler are Samuel and Kings. But he does not simply reproduce his sources. He interprets them and makes his own theological contribution. One major difference between Chronicles and Samuel-Kings is the latter part of 1 Chronicles where David makes preparations for Solomon’s temple. This narrative does not appear in Samuel-Kings (but see 1 Kgs 1:13, 30; 7:51). The inclusion of David’s temple preparations in Chronicles reflects an interest in the Second Temple during the lifetime of the Chronicler. This is not the only place where Chronicles fills a gap in Samuel-Kings. Another example is the mystery of the reign of Manasseh in 2 Kgs 21:1–17. Why did the worst Judean king of all reign for the longest period of time (55 years)? The answer comes only in 2 Chr 33:12–17: he repented. But Chronicles is not only unique for what it adds. The book also omits narratives that play major roles in Samuel-Kings. For instance, there is no mention in Chronicles of David’s adultery with Bathsheba and murder of Uriah (2 Sam 11). There is also no record of Solomon’s idolatry (1 Kgs 11). Furthermore, the Chronicler has almost a complete lack of interest in the history of the northern kingdom (1 Kgs 12–2 Kgs 17). This allows him to devote more time to Judean kings like Asa and Jehoshaphat whose narratives are significantly longer in Chronicles than in Kings. The section on Hezekiah (2 Chr 29–32) focuses on the king’s temple repairs, his celebration of the Passover, and his reforms (2 Chr 29–31) more than his struggles recorded in 2 Kings 18–20 and Isaiah 36–39. The surface impression is that the Chronicler has rewritten the history of Samuel and Kings in order to present the reader with a whitewashed version of the Davidic monarchy. But this is only a surface impression. The Chronicler always cites his sources (e.g., 1 Chr 29:29), and his readers have always been aware of the shortcomings of kings like David and Solomon. So why does he exclude such embarrassing moments? It is clear that the author does not intend merely to give an account of the past. Rather, he portrays the past in such a way that he gives his post-exilic readers a sense of hope for the future. He highlights the best and the brightest from the Davidic monarchy in expectation of the fulfillment of the Davidic covenant in the messianic kingdom. For the Chronicler, a highlight reel from the past is a means to anticipate the future. The conclusion to Chronicles is an important clue that the author is looking forward to the messianic future, which the past prefigures. The final verse in 2 Chr 36:23 is a truncated version of the decree of Cyrus (cf., Ezra 1:1–4). The point at which the text cuts the decree short is precisely the point where the reader can make an association with the messianic son of David who will build the temple (2 Sam 7:12–13; 1 Chr 17:12–13; Zech 6:12–13).

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It is significant then that the final three books of the Hebrew Bible are Daniel, Ezra-Nehemiah, and Chronicles. Daniel’s interpretation of Jeremiah’s prophecy of seventy years (Jer 29:10) in Dan 9:2 finds its fulfillment in the return to the land in Ezra-Nehemiah. But Gabriel’s interpretation of Jeremiah’s prophecy of seventy years (based on the Hebrew text behind the ancient Greek translation of Jer 25:1–13) in Dan 9:24–27 pushes the prophecy into the indefinite future (“seventy sevens”), which includes the appearance of the Messiah.13 The beginning of the countdown to the Messiah is the “word to restore and build Jerusalem” (Dan 9:1, 25) to which 2 Chr 36:23 refers. The composition of the Former Prophets is unified by its seamwork and its consistency of message, which is directly related to Deuteronomy’s exposition of the Torah. It highlights the failure of the people and the faithfulness of the LORD and looks forward to the future fulfillment of the Davidic covenant. This then becomes influential for the Chronicler who portrays David and Solomon not in terms of their sins from the past (omitting 2 Sam 11–18; 1 Kgs 11) but in terms of how their greatest moments prefigure the everlasting kingdom of the one who is to come.

Deuteronomy 6:20–25 and 26:5–9 Deuteronomy is Moses’ exposition of the Torah (Deut 1:5). This means that the explanations of narratives and laws from Exodus through Numbers are not merely representatives of variant traditions. In the final form of the Pentateuch they are intended to be read as examples of exegesis of the biblical material.14 After the introduction, the formal beginning of Moses’ exposition is Deut 4:44. The section on the law begins at Deut 12:1, and the conclusion to the book begins at Deut 28:69 (Eng., 29:1). The exposition thus begins and ends with concise rehearsals of the biblical narrative in Deut 6:20–25 and 26:5–9. These two texts provide the reader with theological reflection on the sequence of events narrated in the Pentateuch. Moses issues a call for the people of God to “hear” (Deut 4:1; 5:1; 6:4; 9:1), but they do not yet have ears to hear (Deut 29:3 [Eng., 29:4]; cf., Isa 6:10). The “words” (Deut 4:13) are to be on the people’s heart (Deut 6:6), but they do not yet have a heart to know (Deut 29:3 [Eng., 29:4]; cf., Deut 30:6; Jer 31:31–34; Ezek 11:19–20). They are to teach these words to their children (Deut 6:7) lest they follow after other gods (Deut 6:10–15) or test the LORD (Deut 6:16–19). This provides the context for Deut 6:20–25 where the child’s question about the laws gives the opportunity for the parent’s

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instruction: “When your child asks you in time to come saying, ‘What are the testimonies and the statutes and the judgments that the LORD our God commanded you?’” (Deut 6:20; cf., Exod 10:2; 12:26; 13:8; Josh 4:6). The answer to the child’s question comes in the form of an account of the biblical narrative that begins with the servitude in Egypt and quickly moves to the exodus: “then you will say to your child, ‘We were Pharaoh’s servants in Egypt, and the LORD brought us out of Egypt with a strong hand’” (Deut 6:21).15 For the biblical authors, the exodus is the central event of deliverance for the people of God in the past, present, and future. It is the one event that every rehearsal of the biblical narrative mentions. According to Deut 6:22, the “signs and wonders” (i.e., the plagues) in Egypt were part of the exodus experience.16 They were “against Pharaoh and the whole of his house.” The hardening of Pharaoh’s heart was the occasion for the LORD to put on such a display against the Egyptian gods and to make a name for himself (Exod 7:3–5; 9:16; 12:12). Verse 23 returns to the exodus itself by means of an “x + qtl” clause in order to give the purpose of the exodus: “‘in order to bring us in to give to us the land that he swore to our fathers.’” That is, the goal of the exodus was not Sinai or the law but the land of the covenant with the patriarchs (Gen 15:18)—the restoration of the lost blessing of life and dominion in the land. The omission of Sinai in the sequence of narrated events is remarkable given the fact that the child’s question has to do with the giving of the law. But the reality is that most rehearsals of the biblical narrative either omit Sinai (e.g., Deut 26:5–9; Josh 24:1–15) or view Sinai negatively (e.g., Ezek 20:25; Heb 11:29–30; 12:18–24). It is not enough to say that these texts represent a time when Sinai had not yet been incorporated into the traditions of Israel. Deuteronomy 6 is now part of the final form of the Pentateuch, and the question on the table concerns the giving of the law. The omission of Sinai is consistent with the Pentateuch’s view of the covenant made there. Already the need is felt to look beyond the Sinai covenant to a new covenant (Deut 28:69 [Eng., 29:1]). Verse 24, however, does refer to the commandment of the statutes about which the child has asked. But it is again important to understand this as exegesis in the context of the Pentateuch. The purpose of the statutes according to verse 24 is the fear of the LORD (Exod 20:20) and the good of the people. This is the same purpose given for the reading of the Torah in Deut 31:9–13, which, according to Nehemiah 8–9, is identical to the reading of the Pentateuch. Verse 25 adds that the people will be said to have righteousness if they keep the command. Only one person in the Pentateuch is ever said to have kept the law according to the terminology of

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Deuteronomy—Abraham: “because Abraham obeyed my voice and kept my charge, my commands, my statutes, and my instructions” (Gen 26:5).17 Abraham did not have the law, but he was credited the righteousness of the law by faith (Gen 15:6).18 The text of Deut 26:5–9 is very similar to that of Deut 6:20–25 (26:3 creates a link to 6:23), but the setting is quite different. Upon entry into the land (Deut 26:1) it is what the worshiper is to say when he/she brings the offering of firstfruits in conjunction with the Passover festival and the festival of Unleavened Bread in Jerusalem (Deut 26:2; cf., Lev 23:10–14; Deut 12:5).19 It is what everyone has in common—an acknowledgment of the source of the present blessing (Deut 26:10–15) recited by every subsequent generation as the story of all the people of God. The text in its present position in the composition of the Pentateuch does not function as a witness to a separable history of salvific events to be parsed into independent traditions. Von Rad believed that this passage represented an early tradition that grew into much larger complexes.20 But such an approach does not take into account the possibility that the text is a summary rather than a seed.21 Once again it is imperative to keep in mind Deuteronomy’s own presentation of itself as exposition of the Torah (Deut 1:5).22 The passage begins with Jacob and the sojourn in Egypt: “My father was a wandering Aramean, and he went down to Egypt and lived as a resident alien there with a small number of people and became there a great nation, mighty and abundant” (Deut 26:5). Jacob’s connections to Aram or Syria and his uncle Laban there are well known from the Genesis narratives (Gen 24:10; 25:20, 26; 31:41–42). Jacob’s family grew from a mere seventy members (Gen 46:27b; Exod 1:5) into a great nation in Egypt (Exod 1:7, 9, 12) in accordance with the words of the covenant with Abraham (Gen 17:2, 6). When the Egyptians afflicted the people (Exod 1:11–14), they cried out to the LORD (Deut 26:6–7a)—a pattern that surfaces time and again in the biblical narrative (e.g., Judg 2:18; 3:9; Jer 11:1; 33:3). The LORD “heard” their cry and “saw” their affliction (Deut 26:7b). According to Exod 2:24–25, he “heard” their cry and remembered his covenant with Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. He “saw” the children of Israel and acknowledged them (or, LXX: “was known to them”; cf., Exod 3:7). He brought the people out of Egypt “with a strong hand and an outstretched arm and with great fear (Sam.: “great spectacle”) and with signs and wonders” (Deut 26:8). The text then skips any reference to Sinai or the wilderness and moves directly to the culmination of the exodus—the gift of the land, “a land

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flowing with milk and honey” (Deut 26:9).23 The recital is thus a testimony to the faithfulness of God to the covenant with the patriarchs.

Joshua 24:1–15 Joshua’s final speech in chapter 24 overlays the speech in chapter 23 where he exhorts the people to take the land and not serve the gods of the nations. Chapter 24 sets this within the context of the biblical narrative. The response of the people to this speech is initially positive (Josh 24:16–18, 21; cf., Exod 19:8), but Joshua doubts their ability to serve the LORD (Josh 24:19–20). Joshua then makes an agreement with the people before his death and writes the words of the agreement in “the document of the instruction of God” (Josh 24:25–26). Much like Deut 1:5 for the book of Deuteronomy, the introduction in Josh 1:1–9 serves to remind the reader that texts like Josh 24:1–15 in the book of Joshua are not merely bearers of tradition. They are to be read as examples of exegesis of the Pentateuch. The text of Josh 1:7–8 makes a careful distinction between the hrwt (Josh 1:7) and the “book” or “document” (rps) of the hrwt (Josh 1:8). The LXX and Syriac make this distinction explicit by means of a copula (“and”) at the beginning of Josh 1:8. Joshua was to “murmur” (hgh) not in the hrwt alone but in the book of the hrwt (i.e., the Pentateuch; cf., Ps 1:2). Thereby he would prosper and become wise (lk#) (cf., Deut 34:9). Joshua’s final words in Josh 24:1–15 are presented as the product of such meditation in the book of the hrwt. God revealed himself in the events narrated by the Pentateuch, but the events, while inherently meaningful, are not self-interpreting. Thus, the text of the Pentateuch provides a theological interpretation of the events. Joshua 24 is exegesis of that interpretation. Revelation in the prophetic book of Joshua is then “exegesis of exegesis.”24 What follows here is an annotated translation of Josh 24:1–15 followed by commentary: (1) And Joshua gathered all the tribes of Israel to Shechem25 and summoned the elders of Israel and its heads and its judges and its officials, and they stood before God. (2) And Joshua said to all the people, “Thus says the LORD, the God of Israel, ‘On the other side of the River your ancestors lived long ago, Terah the father of Abraham and the father of Nahor, and they worshiped other gods. (3) And I took your ancestor Abraham from the other side of the River and walked him through all the land of Canaan and increased his seed and gave to him Isaac. (4) And I gave to Isaac, Jacob and Esau, and I gave to Esau Mount Seir to possess it, and Jacob and his sons went down to Egypt.26 (5) And I sent Moses and Aaron,27 and I struck Egypt when I acted in its midst, and afterwards I brought you out. (6) And I brought

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your fathers out of Egypt, and you came to the sea, and the Egyptians pursued after your fathers with chariots and horsemen into the Sea of Reeds. (7) And they cried out to the LORD, and he put darkness28 between you and the Egyptians, and he brought upon him the sea and covered him, and your eyes saw what I did against Egypt, and you lived in the wilderness for many days. (8) And I brought you to the land of the Amorites who were living on the other side of the Jordan, and they fought with you, and I gave them into your hand, and you possessed their land, and I destroyed them from before you. (9) And Balak the son of Zippor, the king of Moab, arose and fought against Israel, and he summoned Balaam the son of Beor to curse (lit., despise) you. (10) But I was not willing to listen to Balaam, and he blessed you continually, and I rescued you from his hand.29 (11) And you crossed the Jordan and came to Jericho, and the lords30 of Jericho, the Amorites and the Perizzites and the Canaanites and the Hittites and the Girgashites, the Hivites and the Jebusites,31 fought against you, and I gave them into your hand. (12) And I sent before you the hornet, and it drove them out from before you, the two32 kings of the Amorites, not by your sword and not by your bow. (13) And I gave to you land in which you did not toil and cities that you did not build, and you lived in them, vineyards and olive trees that you did not plant you are eating.’ (14) And now, fear the LORD and serve him completely and faithfully and remove the gods that your ancestors worshiped on the other side of the River and in Egypt and worship the LORD. (15) And if it is bad in your eyes to worship the LORD, choose for yourselves today whom you will worship, whether the gods that your ancestors who were on the other side of the River worshiped or the gods of the Amorites in whose land you are living, but as for me and my house, we will worship the LORD.”33

Joshua gathers the tribes to Shechem (see Gen 12:6; Deut 27; Judg 9; 1 Kgs 12:1) and summons the leaders to stand before God (Josh 24:1). The reference to Shechem anticipates Josh 24:32, which takes the reader back to Gen 33:19; 48:22. There was apparently a sanctuary at this location (Josh 24:26). Joshua begins his speech with the prophetic introductory formula “Thus says the LORD” (Josh 24:2; cf., Isa 7:7; 8:11; 18:4; Jer 2:2, 5; 4:27; 6:16; etc.). The reference to worship of “other gods” (Exod 20:3) by the family of Terah might come as something of a surprise even to the careful reader of the Pentateuch (Josh 24:2). According to Jubilees 11–12, Abraham abandoned the gods of Terah at an early age. According to b. Yoma. 28b, Abraham kept the law from the age of three.34 The text of Gen. Rab. 38:13 presents an account that has its basis in the story of the fiery furnace (Dan 3) and the ancient translation of Ur of the Chaldeans in Gen 11:31 as “the fiery furnace of the Chaldeans” (Tg. Neof.): R. Hiyya said: Terah was a manufacturer of idols. He once went away somewhere and left Abraham to sell them in his place. A man came and wished to buy one. ‘How old are you?’ Abraham asked him. ‘Fifty years,’ was the reply. ‘Woe to such a man!’ he exclaimed, ‘you are fifty years old and would worship a day-old object!’ At this he became ashamed and departed. On another occasion a woman came with

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The Textual World of the Bible a plateful of flour and requested him, ‘Take this and offer it to them.’ So he took a stick, broke them, and put the stick in the hand of the largest. When his father returned he demanded, ‘What have you done to them?’ ‘I cannot conceal it from you,’ he rejoined. ‘A woman came with a plateful of fine meal and requested me to offer it to them. One claimed, “I must eat first,” while another claimed, “I must eat first.” Thereupon the largest arose, took the stick, and broke them.’ ‘Why do you make sport of me,’ he cried out; ‘have they then any knowledge!’ ‘Should not your ears listen to what your mouth is saying,’ he retorted. Thereupon he seized him and delivered him to Nimrod. ‘Let us worship the fire!’ he [Nimrod] proposed. ‘Let us rather worship water, which extinguishes the fire,’ replied he. ‘Then let us worship water!’ ‘Then let us worship the clouds!’ ‘Let us rather worship the winds which disperse the clouds.’ ‘Then let us worship the wind!’ ‘Let us rather worship human beings, who withstand the wind.’ ‘You are just bandying words,’ he exclaimed; ‘we will worship nought but the fire. Behold, I will cast you into it, and let your God whom you adore come and save you from it.’ Now Haran was standing there undecided. If Abram is victorious, [thought he], I will say that I am of Abram’s belief, while if Nimrod is victorious I will say that I am on Nimrod’s side. When Abram descended into the fiery furnace and was saved, he [Nimrod] asked him, ‘Of whose belief are you?’ ‘Of Abram’s,’ he replied. Thereupon he seized and cast him into the fire; his inwards were scorched and he died in his father’s presence.35

Joshua 24:2, on the other hand, draws from the sense of the narrative in Genesis 11–12 where God brings Abram out of Babylon in a kind of foreshadow of the exodus from Egypt and the return from Babylonian captivity (Gen 15:7; Exod 20:2). God “took” Abram from the other side of the River (Josh 24:3a; cf., Neh 9:7).36 God walked Abram through the land and gave him Isaac (Josh 24:3; cf., Gen 13:17; 21:1–7). He gave to Isaac Jacob and Esau (Josh 24:4a). Jacob is listed before Esau in accordance with Gen 25:23, 33; 27:27–29. Esau’s gift was Mount Seir (Josh 24:4b; cf., Gen 36), while Jacob and his family left the land and went down to Egypt (Josh 24:4b; cf., Gen 46). The text of Joshua 24 does not dwell on the Joseph narratives. The LXX mentions oppression in Egypt at this point, but the MT moves straight to the mission of Moses and Aaron (Josh 24:5; cf., Exod 3:10). The LORD “struck” Egypt with plagues (Exod 11:1) and brought the people out. This is where the mingling of “you” (Josh 24:5b) and “your fathers” (Josh 24:6a) begins. The older members of the congregation would have been at the exodus but not the younger. The generation that died in the wilderness did not make it to this point. The biblical authors always see a connection between past and present generations (Heb 11). The people of God at any point in time can be spoken of as if they have experienced the entire biblical narrative. The wording of Josh 24:6–7 follows that of Exodus 14 very closely. There is no reference to Sinai or the giving of the law. There is also no reference to the wilderness experience (i.e., manna, quail, water from rock,

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murmuring, rebellion) apart from the Josh 24:7b, which says that the people lived in the wilderness “for many days.” When God says in Josh 24:8 that he brought the people into the land of the Amorites, it is apparently a reference to the conquest of the land east of the Jordan and the defeat of the two kings Sihon and Og (Num 21:21–35; Deut 2:26–3:17). Joshua 24:9–10 then follows the narrative of Numbers from the end of chapter 21 to the Balaam story and his oracles in chapters 22–24. The text focuses on how Balak summoned Balaam to “curse” (llq) Israel, but God made him bless them instead. The words for “curse” in Numbers 22–24 are rr) and bbq (Num 23:7–8), but the word in Josh 24:9 is llq. This comes from God’s original words to Abram in Gen 12:3a: “I will bless those who bless you and curse (rr)) each one who curses (llq) you.” At this point the text moves into the book of Joshua, the sequel to the Pentateuch. Verse 11 places the seven nations of Canaan in apposition to the lords of Jericho (Josh 2–6). The conquest of the land is depicted as if the first battle site, Jericho, had been the only one, where all the nations of Canaan fought against Israel. The point seems to be that the battle of Jericho was like a down payment on the ultimate conquest of the whole of the land. God sent the “hornet” before them (Josh 24:12), possibly a reference to an army (Deut 1:44; 7:20) or an angelic host (Exod 14:19; 23:20; 32:34; 33:4). Some understand the hornet to be a metaphor for terror (NET). The MT says the hornet drove out the two kings of the Amorites (i.e., Sihon and Og; Deut 4:46–47), but the LXX keeps the chronological order and says that the horn et drove out the twelve kings of the Amorites, “Amorites” being a term for the nations of Canaan (cf., Gen 15:16). The use of the number twelve instead of the number seven may be due to the count of Jericho, Ai, and the kings of the southern and northern coalitions (Josh 10:3; 11:1–2). It is clear from Josh 24:13 that the conquest and enjoyment of the land did not come by Israel’s military prowess and agricultural preparation. It was a ready-made gift from God (cf., Gen 1–2; Exod 14:14; Deut 6:10–11; Amos 9:13–15). Israel did not work for it or earn it. Israel’s greatness was not the reason for the gift of the land. The reason was God’s covenant loyalty (Deut 7:7–11). The conclusion to Joshua’s speech, marked by “And now” (Josh 24:14), is an exhortation to fear the LORD and worship him faithfully, removing the false gods. This is the goal of the pentateuchal narrative (Deut 31:9–13). Joshua presents it as a choice (Josh 24:15), even though Abraham was “taken” (Josh 24:3). That is, election and volition are not mutually exclusive. But the people are bound by sin (Deut 29:3 [Eng., 29:4]). Thus, the faith of Joshua remains in the minority just as it was among the twelve spies who first surveyed the land (Num 13).

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The Textual World of the Bible Judges 2:1–5; 6:7–10; 10:11–15

The cycle of apostasy is the primary pattern in which the narratives of Judges are presented (Judg 2:11–23). But the author also sees this cycle within the larger context of the biblical narrative. The three examples of this share a considerable amount of material and are apparently intended to be read in light of one another. Judges 2:1–5 is a speech from “the messenger of the LORD” who has come from Gilgal to Bokhim. The messenger is likely not an angel as in Judg 6:11 or 13:3 but a prophet as in Mal 3:1, 23 (cf., Judg 6:8). His speech begins with the exodus and the LORD’s affirmation that he would not ever break his covenant. There is no explicit reference to Sinai here (cf., Judg 5:5; Ps 68:9 [Eng., 68:8]), although the Sinai covenant is presumably in view. According to the terms of this covenant the people were not to join themselves to the inhabitants of Canaan, but they nevertheless disobeyed the voice of the LORD (Judg 2:2). Therefore, the LORD would allow the Canaanites to become a snare to them (Judg 2:3; cf., Exod 23:33). At this the people wept (hkb), and the place was called Bokhim (Judg 2:4–5). The new element here in comparison and contrast with Joshua 24 is the focus on the disobedience of the people, which is consistent with the overall theme of Judges and other rehearsals of the biblical narrative (e.g., Ezek 20; Pss 78; 106; Neh 9). Judges 6:7–10 is an addition to the text, which does not appear in 4QJudga. It appears in the MT between the introduction to the Gideon story (Judg 6:1–6) and the story itself. The passage consists of material drawn from Judg 2:1–5 and 10:11–15. Verse 7 opens with the macrosyntactic marker yhyw and repeats the outcry against Midian from verse 6b (> LXXB). The text then recounts how the LORD sent a prophet (Judg 6:8; cf., 2:1; 4:4) who said, “Thus says the LORD, the God of Israel, ‘I am the one who brought you up from Egypt and brought you forth from the house of servitude’” (cf., Exod 20:2; Deut 5:6; Judg 2:1; 10:11). Verse 9 then includes the conquest of the land (cf., Judg 2:3; 10:12). According to the prophet, the LORD instructed the people not to fear the gods of the Amorites, but they disobeyed (Judg 6:10; cf., 2:2; 10:13). The people’s disobedience is also the theme of Judg 10:11–15. The LORD had delivered the people from all their oppressors, but they abandoned him and worshiped “other gods” (Judg 10:11–13). Therefore, the LORD will no longer deliver them when they cry out to him. Rather, they should cry out to their chosen gods and see if they rescue them (Judg 10:14; cf., Jer 11:11– 12). At this the people confess their sin and remove their foreign gods (Judg 10:15–16).37

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1 Samuel 12:6–17 The central theme of the book of Samuel is the LORD’s anointed (1 Sam 2:10; 12:3). Samuel himself is a transitional figure—a prophet and a judge who anoints the first two kings of Israel (1 Sam 3:20; 7:15). The biblical hope for a king expressed in Hannah’s prayer has become a worldly one (1 Sam 8:5). Thus, the LORD gives the people what they want as a form of judgment. It is within this context that Samuel gives the people perspective on where they fit in the biblical narrative. The unanimous recognition of Samuel’s blameless character adds weight to his words (1 Sam 12:1–5): (6) And Samuel said to the people, “The LORD is the one who made38 Moses and Aaron and who brought up your ancestors from the land of Egypt. (7) And now, take your stand that I may enter into judgment with you before the LORD with all the righteous acts of the LORD that he has done with you and your fathers. (8) When Jacob came to Egypt, your ancestors cried out to the LORD, and the LORD sent Moses and Aaron, and they39 brought your ancestors out of Egypt and settled40 them in this place. (9) But they forgot the LORD their God, and he sold them into the hand of Sisera, the captain of the army of Hazor, and into the hand of the Philistines and into the hand of the king of Moab, and they fought against them. (10) And they cried out to the LORD and said, ‘We have sinned, for we have forsaken the LORD and worshiped the local manifestations of Baal and Ashtoreth. And now, rescue us from the hand of our enemies that we may serve you.’ (11) And the LORD sent Jerubbaal41 and Bedan42 and Jephthah and Samuel,43 and he rescued you from your surrounding enemies, and you lived in security. (12) And you saw that Nahash, the king of the Ammonites, came against you, and you said to me, ‘No, but a king will reign over us,’ even though the LORD your God was your king. (13) And now, look, the king whom you chose, whom you requested, and look, the LORD has set over you a king. (14) If you fear the LORD and worship him and obey his voice and do not rebel against the mouth of the LORD, and both you and the king who rules over you follow after the LORD your God…. (15) But if you do not obey the voice of the LORD and you do rebel against the mouth of the LORD, the hand of the LORD will be against you and your ancestors.44 (16) Also now, take your stand and see this great thing that the LORD is about to do before your eyes. (17) Is it not wheat harvest today? I will call to the LORD, and he will give thunder and rain. And know and see that your evil is great that you have done in the eyes of the LORD by asking for yourselves a king.”

The scene in 1 Sam 12:18–19 is reminiscent of Sinai (Exod 19:16; cf., Jer 15:1). Samuel exhorts the people to worship the LORD with all their heart (1 Sam 12:20–21). Both the LORD and Samuel will be faithful (1 Sam 12:22– 24), but there will be consequences if the people continue in their evil ways (1 Sam 12:25). Samuel begins his speech by identifying the LORD as the God of the exodus (1 Sam 12:6). Verses 7 and 16 form an inclusio. The expression “And

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now” serves to subdivide the passage into four sections (1 Sam 12:7, 10, 13, 16). The righteous acts of the LORD as narrated by Scripture stand in judgment of the people who currently do not stand in right relationship to the LORD (1 Sam 12:7). Verse 8 does not give the reason for the outcry of the ancestors in Egypt. Moses and Aaron are presented not only as leaders of the exodus but also as those who settled the people in the land.45 This is remarkable given the fact that both died east of the Jordan. Joshua (the new Moses) and Eleazar (the new Aaron) led the people into the land. But the people fell into the cycle of apostasy (1 Sam 12:9–10; cf., Judg 3:7–11). Verse 9 lists the oppressors to whom the LORD sold the people: Sisera (Deborah and Barak, Judg 4–5), the Philistines (Samson, Judg 13–16), and Moab (Ehud, Judg 3:12–30). Verse 11 lists their deliverers: Gideon (Midian, Judg 6–8), Bedan (?), Jephthah (Ammon, Judg 11), and Samuel. These two verses cover the stories of every major judge in the book of Judges with the exception of Othniel. This reflects familiarity with the text of Judges and not merely an awareness of traditions about a period of judges. The reference to Nahash in verse 12 presupposes that the Ammonite king attacked Israel before they made their request for a king in 1 Samuel 8, but the only story about Nahash appears in 1 Samuel 11. 4QSama, however, provides background information (x + qtl) about Nahash before 1 Sam 11:1 that seems to suggest that he had been a problem for some time prior to the story in 1 Samuel 11: “Now as for Nahash, the king of the Ammonites, he had oppressed the Gadites and the Reubenites viciously….” The text of 1 Sam 12:12 appears to have this background information in view. Nahash was also the king from whom Saul delivered the people. Saul initially appeared to be the charismatic military leader the people wanted (1 Sam 12:13), but he was not the king God wanted (1 Sam 13:14; 15:28). Verses 14 and 15 assume the terms of the Sinai covenant. Obedience leads to blessing, and disobedience leads to curse (Lev 26; Deut 28). Verse 14 lacks an apodosis.46 It is presumably the opposite of 1 Sam 12:15b. Samuel then concludes by calling the people to witness the sign of judgment that their request for a worldly king is evil—a thunderstorm in dry season (1 Sam 12:16–17).

Jeremiah 2:1–13 After the call of Jeremiah and introduction to the main themes of the book in Jeremiah 1, chapter 2 sets the prophecies of Jeremiah within the framework of the biblical narrative. Jeremiah 2:2–3 describes the wilderness as a time of

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betrothal when the LORD protected the people like the firstfruits of harvest (Lev 22:14–16; 23:10). This anticipates the use of the marriage metaphor in chapter 3. Many compare Jer 2:2–3 to Deut 32:10 and Hos 2:17 (Eng., 2:15) and speak of a time when Israel was faithful to the LORD, but it is likely that the text is talking about the LORD’s faithfulness given the fact that Israel never was faithful (e.g., Deut 9:24).47 The LORD then asks the question, “What injustice did your ancestors find in me that they went far from me and went after what was empty (lbh; i.e., l(b) and became empty” (Jer 2:5)? The LORD had brought them out of Egypt and provided for them in the wilderness and brought them into the land, but the people acted as if Baal had done all this for them, and thus they defiled the land (Jer 2:6–7; cf., Hos 2). This included the priests, those who handled the hrwt (Jer 8:8), the shepherds (i.e., kings), and the prophets who prophesied by Baal, which did not benefit them (Jer 2:8). And so the LORD will contend with the present generation and with future generations because they continue in the ways of their forefathers (Jer 2:9). He points out that the nations, whose gods are not really gods, nevertheless hold fast to their idols (Jer 2:10–11). His people, on the other hand, have exchanged their “glory” (i.e., the LORD) even though he is the one true and living God (Jer 2:11–12). It is as if those seeking water have forsaken a source of running water in favor of a broken water container (Jer 2:13).

Ezekiel 20 (1) In the seventh year, in the fifth month, on the tenth day of the month, men from the elders of Israel came to seek the LORD, and they sat before me. (2) And the word of the LORD came to me saying, (3) “Son of man, speak with the elders of Israel and say to them, ‘Thus says the Lord GOD, “Is it to seek me that you are coming? As I live, …if I allow myself to be sought by you,” says the Lord GOD.’ (4) Will you judge them? Will you judge, son of man? The abominations of their ancestors, cause them to know. (5) And you will say to them, ‘Thus says the Lord GOD, “When I chose Israel, I lifted up my hand to the seed of the house of Jacob, and I made myself known to them in the land of Egypt. And I lifted up my hand to them saying, ‘I am the LORD your God.’ (6) At that time I lifted up my hand to them to bring them out of the land of Egypt to a land that I spied48 for them flowing with milk and honey. It is beauty to all the lands. (7) And I said to them, ‘Each of you throw away the detestable things of your eyes and do not make yourselves unclean with the idols of Egypt. I am the LORD your God.’ (8) But they rebelled against me and were unwilling to listen to me. They did not throw away the detestable things of their eyes, and they did not forsake the idols of Egypt. And I considered pouring out my wrath upon them in order to spend my anger against

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The Textual World of the Bible them in the midst of the land of Egypt. (9) But I acted for the sake of my name lest it be profaned in the eyes of the nations in whose midst they were, to whom I made myself known before their eyes by bringing them out of the land Egypt. (10) And I brought them out of the land of Egypt, and I brought them into the wilderness. 11) And I gave to them my statutes, and my judgments I caused them to know, which, if someone does them, he will live by them.49 (12) And also my Sabbaths I gave to them to be a sign between me and them to know that I am the LORD who sets them apart. (13) But the house of Israel rebelled against me in the wilderness. In my statutes they did not walk, and my judgments they rejected, which, if someone does them, he will live by them,50 and my Sabbaths they profaned greatly. And I considered pouring out my wrath upon them in the wilderness to finish them. (14) But I acted for the sake of my name lest it be profaned in the eyes of the nations before whose eyes I brought them out. (15) And also I lifted up my hand to them in the wilderness not to bring them into the land that I gave flowing with milk and honey—It is beauty to all the lands—(16) because they rejected my judgments, and as for my statutes, they did not walk in them, and my Sabbaths they profaned, for after their idols their heart went. (17) But my eye had pity on them not to destroy them, and I did not make them a complete destruction in the wilderness. (18) And I said to their children in the wilderness, ‘In the statutes of your fathers do not walk, and their judgments do not keep, and with their idols do not make yourselves unclean. (19) I am the LORD your God. In my statutes walk, and as for my judgments, keep and do them, (20) and my Sabbaths set apart, and they will be a sign between me and you to know that I am the LORD your God.’ (21) But the children rebelled against me. In my statutes they did not walk, and my judgments they were not careful to do, which, if someone does them, he will live by them,51 and my Sabbaths they profaned. And I considered pouring out my wrath upon them in order to spend my anger against them in the wilderness. (22) But I caused my hand to turn, and I acted for the sake of my name lest it be profaned in the eyes of the nations before whose eyes I brought them out. (23) Also I lifted up my hand to them in the wilderness to disperse them among the nations and scatter them among the lands (24) because my judgments they did not do, and my statutes they rejected, and my Sabbaths they profaned, and after the idols of their fathers were their eyes. (25) And also I gave to them statutes that were not good and judgments by which they could not live. (26) And I declared them unclean because of their gifts in passing every firstborn through the fire, in order to destroy them so that they might know that I am the LORD.”’ (27) Therefore, speak to the house of Israel, son of man, and say to them, ‘Thus says the Lord GOD, “Still in this your ancestors reviled me in acting unfaithfully against me: (28) I brought them into the land that I lifted up my hand to give to them, and they saw every high hill and every leafy tree, and they sacrificed there their sacrifices52 and gave there the provocation of their offering and put there the scent of their soothing aromas and poured out there their drink offerings. (29) And I said to them, ‘What is the high place (hmb) to which you are coming?’ And its name has been called Bamah to this day.”’ (30) Therefore, say to the house of Israel, ‘Thus says the Lord GOD, “In the way of your ancestors are you making yourselves unclean, and after their detestable idols are you playing the harlot? (31) And when you lift up your gifts,53 when you pass your children through the fire,54 you make yourselves unclean with all your idols to this day. And as for me, will I allow myself

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to be sought by you, O house of Israel? As I live,” says the Lord GOD, “…if I allow myself to be sought by you. (32) And what goes up upon your spirit will never be, which you are thinking, ‘We will be like the nations, like the families of the lands serving wood and stone.’ (33) As I live,” says the Lord GOD, “With a strong hand and an outstretched arm and with outpoured wrath I will be king over you. (34) And I will bring you out from the peoples and gather you from the lands among which you are scattered with a strong hand and an outstretched arm and outpoured wrath. (35) And I will bring you to the wilderness of the peoples and enter into judgment with you there face to face. (36) Just as I entered into judgment with your ancestors in the wilderness of the land of Egypt so I will enter into judgment with you,” says the Lord GOD. (37) “And I will cause you to pass under the rod and bring you into the bond of the covenant. (38) And I will purge from you the rebels and those who trangress against me. From the land of their sojournings I will bring them out, but into the land of Israel they will not enter. And you will know that I am the LORD.” (39) And as for you, house of Israel, thus says the Lord GOD, “Each of you go, worship your idols, and afterwards, …if you do not listen to me, and my holy name you will never again profane with your gifts and your idols. (40) For on my holy mountain, on the mountain of the height of Israel,” says the Lord GOD, “there all the house of Israel will worship me each one of them in the land. There I will accept them, and there I will seek your contributions and the firstfruits of your offerings with all your holy things. (41) With a soothing aroma I will accept you when I bring you out from the peoples and gather you from the lands among which you are scattered, I will be set apart by you before the eyes of the nations. (42) And you will know that I am the LORD when I bring you into the land of Israel, to the land that I lifted up my hand to give to your ancestors. (43) And you will remember there your ways and all your deeds by which you made yourselves unclean, and you will loathe yourselves in your faces because of all your evils that you committed. (44) And you will know that I am the LORD when I deal with you for the sake of my name, not according to your evil ways or your corrupt deeds, O house of Israel,” says the Lord GOD.’”

Ezekiel 20 is the companion text to Ezekiel 16.55 Judah’s harlotry (i.e., idolatry) in chapter 16 is now set within the larger context of the biblical narrative in chapter 20 (cf., Jer 3; Ezek 23; Hos 1–3). Given the placement of chapter 20 among chapters 4–24, it is not surprising that the judgment theme is prominent. But the latter part of this passage also envisions a hope for restoration similar to that found in chapters 33–39. The text is among those dated in Ezekiel before the fall of Jerusalem and the destruction of the temple (Ezek 20:1). According to Ezek 20:1, the elders came to Ezekiel to seek the LORD (cf., Ezek 8:1; 14:1, 3). But a comparison with chapter 14 suggests that their search for the LORD was somewhat disingenuous (cf., Jer 42–43). Thus, the LORD will not allow himself to be sought by them (Ezek 20:3). Rather, he will judge them by recounting to them the abominations of their forefathers in which they have continued (Ezek 20:4).

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This reading of the biblical narrative does not begin with the patriarchs but with the descendants of the patriarchs in the land of Egypt. The LORD “chose” Abram (Neh 9:7), but he also “chose” the nation of Israel in Egypt and made himself known to them there (Ezek 20:5; cf., Exod 3:14–15; 4:31; 6:3, 7; 7:5, 17; 8:18; 9:14; 14:18, 31). He swore that he would bring them out of Egypt to the most beautiful of places (Ezek 20:6; cf., Exod 3:17; 6:8; Ezek 36:35; 38:12; Dan 11:41). They were already idolaters in Egypt, so he demanded that they put away their idols, but they rebelled (Ezek 20:7–8a; cf., Deut 9:24). The LORD considered judging the people in Egypt, but he acted for the sake of his name lest his actions be misinterpreted or misrepresented by the nations who witnessed the exodus (Ezek 20:8b–9; cf., Deut 32:27; Isa 48:9–11). God’s reputation is his primary motive for action, and so he proceeded with his plan to make his power known through his signs and wonders and the exodus (Exod 9:16). The LORD gave the people his statutes (Lev 26:46), judgments (Exod 21:1), and Sabbaths (Exod 31:12–17), which were added because of transgression (Ezek 20:11–12; see Exod 19:12, 13, 16 JPS; Gal 3:19; cf., Jer 7:21–23). Hypothetically the person who does them will gain life by them (Ezek 20:11b)—a quote from Lev 18:5. Targum Jonathan and the New Testament interpret this to mean eternal life (Matt 19:16–22; Mark 10:17–22; Luke 18:18–23).56 But this offer of life remains purely hypothetical because it is designed to expose the inability of fallen humanity to gain life by the works of the law.57 But the people rebelled against God’s statutes and rejected his requirements (Ezek 20:13a). They made his Sabbaths common (cf., Jer 17:21–27; Neh 13:15–18). The LORD again considered pouring out his wrath (Ezek 20:13b), but he acted for the sake of his name (Ezek 20:14) in response to Moses’ petition (Exod 32:11–14; Deut 9:25–29; cf., Dan 9:17– 19). Moses’ prayer was essentially an appeal to the covenant with the patriarchs and God’s own concern for his reputation among the nations. Nevertheless, that generation would die in the wilderness (Num 14:32). The LORD tried again with the next generation in the wilderness (Ezek 20:18–20), but they too rebelled like their fathers (Ezek 20:21a). This rebellion is well documented in the book of Numbers. Again the LORD considered pouring out his wrath, but he acted for the sake of his name instead (Ezek 20:21b–22). Yet he did swear to them already in the wilderness that he would scatter them among the nations (Ezek 20:23–24). A similar account is given in Ps 106:26–27: “And he lifted up his hand to them to fell them in the wilderness and to fell (Syr.: “scatter”) their seed among the

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nations and to scatter them among the lands.” This anticipation of Israel’s later history appears in Moses’ words (Deut 28:64). The syntax of Ezek 20:25 (x + qtl) indicates background information: “And also I, I gave to them statutes that were not good and judgments by which they could not live.” It is a reference back to the giving of the law in verse 11. Daniel Block argues that the use of the masculine form of “statutes” (Myqx) in verse 25 indicates that these are not the good statutes of verse 11, which are feminine plural (twqx), but the statutes (Myqx) of the fathers from verse 18 in which the children were not to walk.58 But the “judgments” of verses 11 and 25 are both masculine plural (My+p#m). Furthermore, the statutes of verses 11 and 25 are given by God. This cannot be said of the statutes in verse 18. The fact of the matter is that there is nothing negative semantically about the masculine form of “statutes.” Any good lexicon will show that both the feminine and masculine forms are commonly used to refer to God’s laws (e.g., Lev 26:46). Block’s view represents a long history of interpretation that has sought to avoid the conclusion that there could be something “not good” about God’s laws. The rendering of Ezek 20:25 in Targum Jonathan is another example: And also I, they rebelled against my word, and they were unwilling to receive my prophets. I rejected them and handed them over to their stupid inclination. They went and did decrees that were not good and laws by which they could not be established.

This rendering avoids the statement that God gave the people the laws that were not good. Certainly such an interpretation is unacceptable. The wording of Ezek 20:25 is intended to reflect that of the quotes from Lev 18:5 in verses 11, 13, and 21. Because the offer of life in Lev 18:5 is only hypothetical, humanity cannot actually gain life by the works of the law. The laws are good in and of themselves, but they are not good for humanity in the sense that they do not produce faith and obedience.59 Paul makes a similar point in Romans 7 apparently on the basis of this text (Rom 7:10). He says “the law is holy, and the command is holy and righteous and good” (Rom 7:12). Nevertheless, because of sin, the law became nothing more than an occasion for disobedience (Rom 7:13–23). It exposed by design the fact that humanity is bound to sin even if it wants to do good. Verse 26 of Ezekiel 20 provides an example of this. The people took what was a good law—the law of the firstborn (Exod 13:2, 12–13; Num 3:13, 40, 51; 8:16–17; 18:15–16)—and made it into the practice of child sacrifice (2 Kgs 21:6; 23:10; Jer 7:31). Thus, the LORD declared the people unfit for worship in his sanctuary and judged them in order to make himself known as Yahweh (cf.,

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Ezek 20:38, 44)—the God who is present with his people both to judge and restore them (Exod 3:12, 14).60 This view of the law is consistent with the pattern of the Pentateuch itself wherein the people “believe” before the giving of the law (Gen 15:6; Exod 4:31; 14:31) but do not “believe” after the giving of the law (Num 14:11; 20:12).61 The announcement of judgment comes in two parts, each beginning with “Therefore” (Ezek 20:27–29 and 30–32). The first actually continues the accusation. The LORD gave the people the land, but they practiced their alternative worship there on the high places in defiance of the instruction in Deut 12:5–7 (1 Kgs 12:31; Jer 2:20). Ezekiel’s contemporaries have continued this practice of idolatry in an effort to become like the nations (cf., 1 Sam 8:5, 20; Ezek 16:3). But the LORD will not allow himself to be sought by them. Verse 31 thus forms an inclusio with verse 3. The judgment itself is cast in terms of a new exodus—“with a mighty hand and an outstretched arm” (Ezek 20:33–34; cf., Deut 26:8). The LORD will gather his people from the nations and judge them in the wilderness as he did their ancestors (Ezek 20:35–36). He will separate the righteous from the wicked so that only the true remnant of the people of God remains (Ezek 20:37–38; cf., Jer 33:13; Ezek 34:11–16). There will be no more profanation of God’s name (Ezek 20:39). They will worship the LORD alone on his mountain, and the restoration of life and dominion in the land will be complete (Ezek 20:40–42). The people will remember their former deeds and acknowledge their wrongdoing (Ezek 20:43). They will know that the LORD acted by grace for the sake of his name and not according to what they deserved (Ezek 20:44).

Micah 6:1–8 The Book of the Twelve contains several brief accounts of the biblical narrative. For example, Hos 2:16–17 (Eng., 2:14–15) compares God’s future deliverance of his people to the exodus from Egypt.62 Amos 2:6–16 is the culmination of Amos’ oracles against the nations. The nations have committed war crimes (Amos 1:3–2:3), but Judah has rejected the Torah (Amos 2:4–5), and Israel has neglected social justice (Amos 2:6–8). Amos then sets this within the context of the biblical narrative, which begins with the conquest and moves back to the exodus and then on to the wilderness (Amos 2:9–10). The text then refers to the prophets, whose prophecy the people rejected, and the Nazirites (Num 6), whom the people caused to break their vows (Amos 2:11–12). Thus, in spite of the LORD’s faithful provision,

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the people acted as if he had done nothing for them (Amos 3:1–2). Nahum 1:2–9 and Habakkuk 3:3–15 (cf., Ps 77:17–21 [Eng., 16–20]) are theophanies cast in terms of God’s mighty deeds narrated in the Pentateuch and beyond.63 The book of Micah is the center of the Twelve (Mic 3:12), a composition whose message is both eschatological and messianic (Hos 3:4–5).64 Micah 6:1–8 begins the last of three major sections in Micah (Mic 1:2; 3:1; 6:1). The first section moves from a message of judgment to “the peoples” to a message of restoration for the remnant (Mic 2:12–13). The second section moves from judgment of the leaders to the hope of an ideal leader in the last days (Mic 4:1–5; 5:1–4a [Eng., 5:2–5a]). The final section also moves from judgment to restoration (Mic 7:14–20), but this time the address is more general and is placed within the larger framework of the biblical narrative (Mic 6:1–8): (1) “Hear what the LORD is saying: ‘Arise, contend with the mountains, And let the hills hear your voice.’ (2) Hear, O mountains, the LORD’s contention, And you perennial ones, earth’s foundations; For the LORD has a contention with his people, And with Israel he will argue. (3) ‘My people, what have I done to you,65 And how have I wearied you? Answer me (or, Testify against me). (4) When I brought you up out of the land of Egypt, And redeemed you from the house of servitude, I sent before you Moses, Aaron, and Miriam.66 (5) My people, remember what Balak the king of Moab advised, And how Balaam, the son of Beor, answered him; From Shittim (LXX: “the reeds”) to Gilgal,67 In order to know the righteous acts of the LORD.’ (6) ‘With what should I come before the LORD? How should I bow to the high God?68 Should I come before him with burnt offerings? …with year-old calves? (7) Will the LORD be pleased with thousands of rams? …with ten thousands of streams of olive oil? Should I give my firstborn for my transgression? …the fruit of my womb for the sin of my soul?’ (8) He has told you, O man, what is good, And what does the LORD seek from you, But to do justice and love covenant loyalty, And walk humbly with your God?”69

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After the general address (Mic 6:1a), the LORD calls on the people to plead their case with the everlasting witnesses of creation (Mic 6:1b; cf., Deut 4:26; 30:19; 31:28; 32:1; Isa 1:2; b. Rosh. Hash. 11a).70 The prophet calls on the same witnesses to hear the LORD’s case against the people (Mic 1:2). The LORD asks what wrong he has done that would make the people reject him (Mic 1:3; cf., Jer 2:5). After all, he brought the people out of Egypt (Mic 1:4). He turned Balak’s curse into Balaam’s blessing (Mic 1:5; see Gen 12:3; Num 22–24). In light of this, what is the appropriate response to the LORD in worship (Mic 1:6a)? The hypothetical worshiper assumes the standard rituals of sacrifice (Mic 6:1b–7), but the prophets speak with one voice about the fact that sacrifices are not at the heart of what the LORD requires (Mic 6:8; cf., Deut 10:12; 1 Sam 15:22; Isa 1:10–17; Jer 7:21–23; Hos 6:6; Amos 5:21–24; Pss 40:7 [Eng., 40:6]; 51:18–21 [Eng., 51:16–19]). He desires a life lived (“walk”) in right relationship to him and to others (Gen 5:24; 6:9; 17:1).71

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Notes 1

For an example of the Hextateuch view see Gerhard von Rad, Old Testament Theology, vol. 1, The Theology of Israel’s Historical Traditions, trans. D. M. G. Stalker (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2001). 2 Hans-Christoph Schmitt, “Redaktion des Pentateuch im Geiste der Prophetie,” VT 32 (1982):170–89. 3 See John H. Sailhamer, The Pentateuch as Narrative: A Biblical-Theological Commentary (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1992), 51–57, 278. 4 Ibid., 36; see also idem, The Meaning of the Pentateuch: Revelation, Composition, and Interpretation (Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity, 2009). 5 See Michael B. Shepherd, The Twelve Prophets in the New Testament (New York: Peter Lang, 2011). 6 Martin Noth, The Deuteronomistic History, JSOTSupp 15 (Sheffield: JSOT, 1981). 7 See, for example, Tracy J. McKenzie, Idolatry in the Pentateuch: An Innertextual Strategy (Eugene, Ore.: Pickwick, 2010) for analysis of the reading of Exodus 32 in Deuteronomy 9. 8 Joseph Blenkinsopp, Prophecy and Canon: A Contribution to the Study of Jewish Origins (Notre Dame: Notre Dame University Press, 1977), 86–95, 120–23; John H. Sailhamer, Introduction to Old Testament Theology: A Canonical Approach (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1995), 239–49. 9 See Emanuel Tov, The Greek and Hebrew Bible: Collected Essays on the Septuagint (Leiden: Brill, 1999; reprint, Atlanta: SBL, 2006), 277–79. 10 See Eugene Ulrich, The Qumran Text of Samuel and Josephus (Missoula, 1978). 11 See Emanuel Tov, “The Septuagint as a Source for the Literary Analysis of Hebrew Scripture,” in Exploring the Origins of the Bible: Canon Formation in Historical, Literary, and Theological Perspective, ed. Craig A. Evans and Emanuel Tov (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2008), 43–48. 12 It is not necessarily the case that this is evidence of an earlier version of Judges that began with the story of Ehud and Eglon. 13 See Michael B. Shepherd, Daniel in the Context of the Hebrew Bible (New York: Peter Lang, 2009). 14 “The great importance of the canonical role of Deuteronomy lies in its providing the hermeneutical key for understanding the law of Moses, that is to say, the Pentateuch, in its role as the sacred Scripture of Israel” (Brevard S. Childs, Introduction to the Old Testament as Scripture [Philadephia: Fortress, 1979], 224). 15 See the use of the phrase “with a strong hand” with reference to the exodus in Exod 3:19; 6:1; 13:9; 32:11; Num 20:20; Deut 4:34; 5:15; 6:21; 7:8; 9:26; 26:8; Jer 32:21; Ezek 20:33, 34; Ps 136:12; Dan 9:15. 16 See “signs and wonders” in Deut 4:34; 7:19; 26:8; 29:2; 34:11; Jer 32:20, 21; Ps 78:43; 105:27; 135:9; Neh 9:10. 17 Cf., Deut 4:44–45; 5:31; 6:1; 7:11; 8:11; 10:13; 11:1; 26:17; 30:10, 16. 18 See Sailhamer, The Pentateuch as Narrative, 66–78. 19 See Michael Fishbane, Biblical Interpretation in Ancient Israel (Oxford: Clarendon, 1985), 145–51.

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von Rad, Old Testament Theology, vol. 1, The Theology of Israel’s Historical Traditions, 121–28. 21 “It is impossible to isolate an actual ancient credo from these, or to say whether short credal statements preceded developed narrative or are—as indeed they seem—summaries of the latter. The fact that they are all tailored to their contexts suggests the latter” (J. G. McConville, Deuteronomy, AOTC 5 [Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity, 2002], 379). 22 This relationship between Deuteronomy and the rest of the Pentateuch was observed very early in the Samaritan Pentateuch’s careful comparison of Deuteronomy and Numbers (see Emanuel Tov, Textual Criticism of the Hebrew Bible, 3d ed. [Minneapolis: Fortress, 2012], 81). 23 See Exod 3:8, 17; 13:5; 33:3; Lev 20:24; Num 13:27; 14:8; 16:13, 14; Deut 6:3; 11:9; 26:15; 27:3; 31:20; Josh 5:6; Jer 11:5; 32:22; Ezek 20:6, 15. 24 “Prophecy, then, may be described as exegesis of existence from a divine perspective. Understanding prophecy is an understanding of an understanding rather than an understanding of knowledge; it is exegesis of exegesis” (Abraham J. Heschel, The Prophets [New York: HarperCollins, 1962; reprint, Peabody, Mass.: Prince Press, 2001], xii). 25 LXX: “Shiloh” (cf., Josh 18:1). 26 LXX adds: “and became there a great and abundant and powerful nation” (cf., Deut 26:5). 27 “And I sent Moses and Aaron” does not appear in the LXX. The Greek text has instead: “And the Egyptians treated them badly” (cf., Deut 26:6). 28 LXX: “cloud and darkness” (cf., Exod 14:20). 29 LXX: “And the Lord your God did not want to destroy you, and he blessed you and delivered you from their hands and handed them over.” 30 LXX: “inhabitants.” 31 LXX: “Amorites, Canaanites, Perizzites, Hivites, Jebusites, Hittites, Girgashites” (cf., Deut 7:1). 32 LXX: “twelve” (cf., Deut 3:8; Josh 5:1). 33 LXX adds: “for he is holy.” 34 This is based on the numerical value (172) of the first word of the Hebrew text of Gen 26:5. Abraham kept the law for 172 years. Since he died at the age of 175 (Gen 25:7), the assumption is that he began to keep the law at the age of three. 35 Midrash Rabbah: Genesis, vol. 1, trans. Rabbi Dr. H. Freedman, 3d ed. (London: Soncino, 1983), 310–11. 36 “Abraham did not emerge from profound ignorance and the abyss of error by his own virtue, but was drawn out by the hand of God. For it is not said that he sought God of his own accord, but that he was taken by God and transported elsewhere” (John Calvin, Commentaries on the Book of Joshua, trans. Henry Beveridge, Calvin’s Commentaries IV [reprint, Grand Rapids: Baker, 2005], 273). 37 See Daniel I. Block, Judges, Ruth, NAC (Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1999), 348– 49. 38 Tg. Jon.: “did powerful things by the hands of.” 39 LXXMss: “he.” 40 A multitude of medieval Hebrew manuscripts have a singular verb. 41 Tg. Jon.: “Gideon”; LXXB: “Jeroboam” (cf., 2 Sam 11:21). 42 Tg. Jon.: “Samson”; Rashi: Bedan is Samson who was “in Dan”; LXX, Syr.: “Barak.” Other possibilities include Ibzan and Abdon (Judg 12:8, 13). See S. R. Driver, Notes on the

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Hebrew Text and the Topography of the Books of Samuel, 2d ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1912; reprint, Eugene, Ore.: Wipf & Stock, 2004), 93. 43 Syr.: “Samson.” 44 LXX: “your king.” 45 Note again that there is no reference to the giving of the law at Sinai or the wandering in the wilderness. 46 See E. F. Kautzsch, ed., Gesenius’ Hebrew Grammar, trans. A. E. Cowley, 2d ed. (Oxford: Clarendon, 1910), 505. 47 John Calvin, Commentaries on the Book of the Prophet Jeremiah and the Lamentations, vol. 1, trans. John Owen, Calvin’s Commentaries IX (reprint, Grand Rapids: Baker, 2005), 70; William L. Holladay, Jeremiah 1: A Commentary on the Book of the Prophet Jeremiah Chapters 1–25, Hermeneia (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1986), 82–83. 48 LXX: “prepared.” 49 Tg. Jon.: “he will live by them in eternal life.” See Lev 18:5. 50 See v. 11. 51 See v. 11. 52 LXX adds: “to their gods.” 53 LXX: “In the firstfruits of your gifts in their delimitations.” 54 > LXX. 55 See C. F. Keil, Ezekiel, trans. James Martin, Keil & Delitzsch 9 (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1866–91; reprint, Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson, 2001), 152. 56 See Simon J. Gathercole, “Torah, Life, and Salvation: Leviticus 18:5 in Early Judaism and the New Testament,” in From Prophecy to Testament: the Function of the Old Testament in the New, ed. Craig A. Evans (Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson, 2004), 126–45. 57 “The hope of eternal life is, therefore, given to all who keep the Law; for those who expound the passage as referring to this earthly and transitory life are mistaken. The cause of this error was, because they feared that thus the righteousness of faith might be subverted, and salvation grounded on the merit of works. But Scripture therefore denies that men are justified by works, not because the Law itself is imperfect, or does not give instructions for perfect righteousness; but because the promise is made of none effect by our corruption and sin” (John Calvin, Harmony of the Pentateuch, trans. J. King [Grand Rapids: Baker, 1989], 2:165). 58 Daniel I. Block, The Book of Ezekiel Chapters 1–24, NICOT (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1997), 640. 59 See Kenneth Stevenson and Michael Glerup, eds., Ezekiel, Daniel, ACCS XIII (Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity, 2008), 86. 60 This recognition formula occurs throughout Ezekiel 5–39 in contexts of judgment and restoration (Ezek 5:13, 15, 17; 6:7, 10, 13, 14; 7:4, 9, 27; 11:10, 12; 12:15, 16, 20; 13:9, 14, 21, 23; 14:8–9; 15:7; 16:62; 17:21, 24; 20:5, 7, 12, 19, 20, 26, 38, 42, 44; 21:4, 10, 37; 22:16, 22; 23:49; 24:14, 24, 27; 25:5, 7, 11, 17; 26:6, 14; 28:22–24, 26; 29:6, 9, 16, 21; 30:8, 12, 19, 25, 26; 32:15; 33:29; 34:27, 30; 35:4, 9, 12, 15; 36:11, 23, 36, 38; 37:6, 13, 28; 38:23; 39:6–7, 22, 28). See also Exod 6:2, 6–8, 29; 7:5, 17; 8:18 (Eng., 8:22); 10:2; 12:12; 14:4, 18; 16:12; Lev 18:2, 4–6, 21, 30; 19:2–4, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 25, 28, 30–32, 34, 36–37; 20:7–8, 24, 26; 21:8, 12, 15, 23; 22:2–3, 8–9, 16, 30–33; 23:22; 24:22; 25:17, 55; 26:1–2, 44–45. 61 See Schmitt, “Redaktion des Pentateuch,” 170–89. See also Pss 78:22, 32; 106:12, 24. 62 See Michael B. Shepherd, “The New Exodus in the Composition of the Twelve,” in Text and Canon, ed. Paul J. Kissling and Robert L. Cole (Oregon: Pickwick, forthcoming). 63 See Michael B. Shepherd, “Compositional Analysis of the Twelve,” ZAW 120 (2008): 189.

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See Shepherd, The Twelve Prophets. LXX adds: “or how have I grieved you?” Tg. Jon. has: “My people, what good did I say I would do for you that I did not do?” 66 Tg. Jon.: “I sent before you my three prophets: Moses to teach tradition and judgments, Aaron to atone for the people, and Miriam to teach the women.” 67 Tg. Jon.: “Were mighty deeds not done for you from the valley of Shittim to the house of Gilgal…?” 68 Tg. Jon.: “the God whose dwelling is in the high heavens.” 69 LXX: “to be ready to walk with the Lord your God”; Tg. Jon.: “to be set aside to walk in the fear of your God.” 70 See Ralph L. Smith, Micah–Malachi, WBC 32 (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 1984), 50. 71 See Alberto Ferreiro, ed., The Twelve Prophets, ACCS XIV (Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity, 2003), 171. 65

Chapter Three The Writings Psalms The book of Psalms contains several examples of biblical-theological summaries in poetic form (Pss 78; 105; 106; 135; 136). The introduction to the book in Psalms 1 and 2 provides the reader with a guide to interpretation of these psalms.1 Psalms 1 and 2 both lack superscriptions and are joined by means of the inclusio in Ps 1:1 and Ps 2:12 and by means of numerous verbal links such as Pss 1:2; 2:1 and Pss 1:6; 2:12 (b. Ber. 9b–10a). Psalm 1 introduces the theme of reflection upon the Torah (cf., Pss 19; 119). Psalm 2 introduces the theme of the Davidic king (cf., Pss 18; 72; 89; 110; 118; 132). The Torah in Psalm 1 is not a law code or collection of laws but the Pentateuch.2 Psalm 1 was one of the last pieces to the final composition of the book of Psalms in the post-exilic period when the term hrwt took on the sense of “the book of Moses” (Neh 8:8; 9:6–31). This book brought delight (Ps 1:2) rather than fear (Exod 19:16b; 20:18–21; Deut 5:5). The biblicaltheological summaries in the book of Psalms are thus intended to be understood as examples of exegesis of the Pentateuch. The blessed/righteous person in Psalm 1 is the one who “murmurs in the Torah day and night” (Ps 1:2; cf., Josh 1:8). That is, he/she reads aloud privately the written text. This is for individual reading. For public reading, the reader “calls in the Torah” (i.e., reads aloud publicly; e.g., Neh 8:8). Such terminology is obviously not intended for the illiterate general populace of ancient Israel but for the elite class of scribes and scholars (Ezra 7:6, 10).3 With this kind of introduction it is puzzling to find so many scholars who insist that what appear to be summaries and interpretations of pentateuchal narrative are not based on the text of the Pentateuch at all. For instance, Artur Weiser comments that Psalms 105 and 106 have no direct literary dependence on the Pentateuch due to the fact that they vary in details.4 He suggests that the psalms and the Pentateuch share a “common cultic, liturgical tradition.” The problem with this view is that there is no direct access to this supposed tradition against which to test the theory. Furthermore, Weiser’s view does not explain the overwhelming number of

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verbal links and examples of exegesis that appear to presuppose the compositional arrangement of the present form of the Pentateuch.5 As shown below, the variation in details observed by Weiser is actually a means of expressing an author’s interpretation of the Pentateuch.

Psalm 78 Psalm 78 is part of the Asaph collection (Pss 73–83) at the beginning of book three (Pss 73–89) of the book of Psalms. It is a lyk#m (Ps 78:1; cf., Ps 44) with a wisdom introduction that sets forth the importance of the passing of instruction from the older generation to the younger generation (Ps 78:1–8; cf., Deut 6:4–9; Prov 1–9).6 This instruction consists of the “wonders” performed by the LORD (Ps 78:4; see Ps 77:12–21 [Eng., 77:11–20]). Elsewhere the term “wonders” refers to the great acts of God narrated in the Pentateuch (e.g., Ps 78:11; Neh 9:17), and that is the sense it has here. The purpose of teaching the Pentateuch is to help subsequent generations put their confidence in God and not forget what he has done the way their ancestors did (Ps 78:7–8; cf., Deut 31:9–13). Verse 9 sets up a contrast between Ephraim in Ps 78:10–67 and Judah in Ps 78:68–72. The failures of the forefathers are depicted as failures of the northern kingdom of Israel. According to this reading of the biblical narrative, these failures made way for the election of Judah and the Davidic kingship. This interest in the Davidic kingship also surfaces at nearby strategic locations such as the conclusion to book two (Ps 72) and the end of book three (Ps 89). The ancestors (i.e., Ephraim) did not keep the covenant (Ps 78:10). They forgot the works of God (Ps 78:11). The account of these deeds of God begins with the wonders in Egypt and the exodus (Ps 78:12–14). Use of wyyqtl forms in poetry is normally rare, but here the intent is to imitate the style of biblical prose. The specific terminology of this account matches that of the Pentateuch itself (e.g., Ps 78:13 and Exod 14:21b; 15:8; Ps 78:14 and Exod 13:21–22). Verses 15 and 16 recount God’s provision of water from the rock (cf., Exod 17; Num 20) in terms that highlight the abundance of the provision (“depths,” “streams,” “rivers”). The psalmist’s rehearsal of the pentateuchal narrative is punctuated with references to the sin and unbelief of the people. Verse 17 is the first example of this. According to verse 18, the people “tested” God by asking him for food in the wilderness. This would appear to be out of order in comparison with the Pentateuch. Both Exodus (Exod 16–17) and Numbers (Num 11; 20) place the story of God’s provision of manna and quail before the story of the

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water from the rock. But closer examination of the terminology reveals the fact that the psalmist is aware of the pentateuchal arrangement and has manipulated it in order to bring out his interpretation of it. The verb “test” appears in the introduction to the manna/quail story in Exod 16:4, but there God is the subject of the verb, and the people are the object. The same verb appears in the introduction to the water from the rock story in Exod 17:2 with the people as the subject and the LORD as the object. It appears then that the psalmist has switched the order of the stories in order to present both as examples of the people’s testing of God (Num 14:22). The people challenged God’s ability to “prepare a table” with meat in the wilderness (Ps 78:19–20; cf., Exod 16:3; Num 11:4). Verse 21 says that the LORD was “furious” and sent fire against the people to express his anger in judgment. The word for the burning of the fire in Num 11:1 is r(b. The word for “furious” in Ps 78:21 is rb(. This technique is known in rabbinic literature as Kph (“metathesis” or “transposition”).7 It is used to create an association between two passages (e.g., Gen 38:7; Exod 32:9, 25; Hab 1:5; 2:4; 3:2; Ps 78:33). This is yet another example of the psalmist’s careful exegesis based on the written text of the Pentateuch. Verse 22 punctuates the treatment of Numbers 11 with a reference to the people’s lack of faith—that is, their failure to trust in God (cf., Num 14:11). Nevertheless, God gave them what they wanted (Ps 78:23–28). Verses 24 and 25 mention the Nm (“what”), also known as “grain from heaven” and “bread of mighty ones” (i.e., angels; cf., Ps 103:20).8 God brought the quail by means of the wind (Num 11:31), which Ps 78:26 calls an east wind and a south wind. Verse 27 does not use the term for “quail” from Exod 16:13 and Num 11:31. Rather, it calls the quail “flying creatures with wings.” This verse also uses a new metaphor to describe the abundance of the quail. Whereas Num 11:31 speaks of two cubits of quail in every direction for a day’s journey (cf., Ps 78:28), verse 27 says that the quail were as numerous as dust particles and the sand on the seashore. Here it seems that the psalmist takes some poetic license. Verse 29 indicates that the people “ate” and were “very satisfied” and that God brought them their “desire” (Num 11:4). But this was actually their judgment (Num 11:34; cf., 1 Sam 8; Ezek 14; Rom 1:18ff). Before they were “strangers” (rwz) to their desire, while their food was still in their mouth, God’s anger came up against them (Ps 78:30–31). According to Num 11:20, the food was to become “loathsome” ()rz) to the people—thus the choice of rwz (“to be strange”) in Ps 78:30. While it was still between their teeth he struck them (Num 11:33). Yet they persisted in their unbelief (Ps 78:32). God completed their days in lbh (“emptiness”) and their years in hlhb

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(“terror”) (Ps 78:33; cf., Jer 2:5). That generation died in the wilderness (Num 14:33). As in the cycle of apostasy in the book of Judges, only if God slew them would they seek him (Ps 78:34–35). But their remembrance of God was disingenuous (Ps 78:36–37; cf., v. 8).9 God, however, acted according to his character as revealed to Moses in Exod 34:6–7 (Ps 78:38; cf., Num 14:18; Ps 106:45–46; Neh 9:17). He was gracious and compassionate and did not arouse the whole of his wrath (cf., Amos 9:8). He remembered that they were merely flesh (Ps 78:39a; cf., Gen 6:3), spirits that go and do not return (Ps 78:39b; cf., Gen 3:19; 2 Sam 12:23; Hos 6:4; Jas 4:14). The account of the plagues in Egypt in Ps 78:44–51 is not out of chronological order. The context is the discussion of the people’s repeated rebellion and their failure to remember the power by which God redeemed them in the past (Ps 78:40–43). The list of plagues here appears on the surface to be at variance with the presentation in Exodus, but this is a good example of variation that presupposes the arrangement in the Pentateuch. There are seven plagues listed in Ps 78:44–51 rather than the ten given in Exodus, but both numbers are used throughout Scripture as symbols of completeness (e.g., Num 14:22; 2 Kgs 4:35). Both Exodus and Psalm 78 begin with the transformation of the water of the Nile into blood and end with the death of the firstborn. Psalm 78:45 then has plagues four (swarm) and two (frogs), perhaps presupposing plague three (gnats) by association. Verse 46 then skips to the eighth plague (locusts) perhaps again by association with the swarm and the gnats. Verses 47 and 48 then move back to the seventh plague (hail), but it is also possible that verse 48 is a reference to the fifth plague (rbd; see Ps 78:50b).10 Verses 49–51 conclude with the death of the firstborn (cf., Exod 12:23). According to verse 50, God “did not withhold their soul from death.” The choice of the verb “withhold” (K#ox) could have been based on its similarity to “darkness” (K#$x), the key word of the ninth plague. This leaves only the sixth plague (boils), which also does not appear in the account of the plagues in Psalm 105. Verses 52 through 55 continue the remembrance of the LORD’s past redemption of his people. They speak of the exodus (cf., v. 13) and the gift of the land. Verses 52 and 53 employ the shepherd metaphor (cf., Mic 7:14–15; Ps 77:21 [Eng., 77:20]). Verse 54 says that the LORD brought the people into the holy land, the place of the sanctuary on Mount Zion. This was already anticipated in Exod 15:17 (cf., 1 Kgs 8:13). He drove out the nations of Canaan (Josh 1–12) and distributed the land to the tribes of Israel (Josh 13– 22) (Ps 78:55; cf., Deut 33:27–28). But the people continued to rebel and test God (Ps 78:56). According to verse 57, they acted unfaithfully like their

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fathers who died in the wilderness. They were like an unreliable bow to an archer. This is probably an allusion back to verses 8 and 9. The hope was expressed in verse 8 that subsequent generations would not be rebellious like their forefathers. But the sons of Ephraim in verse 9 are said to be archers who turned away in war (i.e., they were unreliable).11 This prepares the reader for the more explicit references to the northern kingdom in verses 58– 67. The “high places” mentioned in verse 58 are primarily a problem after the division of Solomon’s kingdom in 1 Kings 12. Thus, the high place in 1 Sam 9:12 does not have a negative connotation, but the high places in 1 Kgs 12:31 are part of “the sins of Jeroboam” that characterize each of the kings of the north. They also prove to be a nagging problem in the south, even for some of the righteous kings (e.g., 1 Kgs 15:14; 22:44; but 2 Kgs 18:4). For the psalmist, however, this issue had its roots at an earlier time in Ephraim. God “heard” about it and “was furious” (Ps 78:59; cf., v. 21). He forsook the tabernacle at Shiloh in Ephraim (Ps 78:60; cf., Josh 18:1), presumably because of the wicked sons of Eli (1 Sam 2:11–36). Jeremiah uses the rejection of Shiloh to describe the failure of the northern kingdom in general (Jer 7:12–15). The tabernacle was supposed to be the place where God dwelt among mankind (Exod 29:45–46), but God chose the temple in Jerusalem to be the central place of worship that would bear his name (Deut 12:5; 1 Kgs 8).12 The MT of Ps 78:61 says God gave “his strength” into captivity and “his beauty” into a foe’s hand. The Syriac says that he gave “his people” into captivity (see also Isa 28:1, 4), which would suggest a reference to the fall of the north to the Assyrians in 722 B.C. (2 Kgs 17). But the subsequent verses point rather to the narrative of the Philistines’ capture of the ark in 1 Samuel 4 (see Rashi). In an address to the LORD in Ps 132:8, the ark is called “the ark of your strength.” Furthermore, the Hebrew word behind “beauty” is in the same semantic field as dwbk (“glory”), which is used to describe the ark in 1 Sam 4:21–22. Verses 62 and 63 might seem to support the Syriac rendering of verse 61, but verse 64 fits better with 1 Samuel 4 where the priests, Hophni and Phineas, die and leave behind their widows (1 Sam 4:11, 19). It is possible that the psalmist understands the story in 1 Samuel 4 to prefigure the ultimate fate of the northern kingdom. The psalmist uses a bold image in verse 65 to describe the supposed inactivity of God during the loss of the ark to the Philistines (cf., 1 Kgs 18:27). God awoke like a mighty warrior from a drunken stupor. He reclaimed the ark from the Philistines (Ps 78:66; 1 Sam 5–7). At the same time he rejected Joseph, the father of Ephraim (i.e., the tabernacle at Shiloh,

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the northern kingdom of Israel) (Ps 78:67). This is the culmination of the whole exposition up to this point (Ps 78:9). Those who failed to follow God’s instructions throughout the biblical narrative have been identified with the people of Ephraim. The true remnant is the chosen people of the tribe of Judah (Ps 78:68). David brought the ark to Mount Zion (2 Sam 6), and Solomon installed it in his temple (1 Kgs 8) (Ps 78:69). The psalm concludes with a focus on the election of David and God’s covenant with him (Ps 78:70–72; cf., Neh 9:7). Saul had represented the choice of the people (1 Sam 8:5, 20), and the house of Saul had represented the north, including Ephraim (2 Sam 2:9). But David was in accordance with God’s heart (1 Sam 13:14; 28:15; 1 Kgs 11:4; Ps 78:72a) to be his chosen one from the tribe of Judah (1 Sam 16:1–13).13 God “took” him from the sheepfolds (Ps 78:70b; cf., Josh 24:3). This language comes directly from the account of the covenant with David (2 Sam 7:8). God made him a shepherd of his people instead (Ps 78:71; cf., Ps 77:21 [Eng., 77:20]; 78:52), a metaphor that also surfaces in descriptions of the new David (e.g., Ezek 34:23–24). David led the people as a skilled warrior (Ps 78:72b; cf., 2 Sam 22:35; Ps 18:35). It is of some interest to note in this context that the following psalm, Psalm 79, is a lament over the destruction of Jerusalem at the hands of the Babylonians. Thus, neither Ephraim, which fell earlier to the Assyrians, nor Judah was able to escape God’s judgment. Nevertheless, the psalm concludes with the affirmation that the people are the sheep of God’s pasture (Ps 79:13; cf., Pss 74:1; 95:7; 100:3), an affirmation that finds an echo in the messianic hope of the prophets (Jer 23:1–6; Mic 5:1–4a [Eng., 5:2–5a]; 7:14–15).

Psalm 105 (1) Give thanks to (or, praise) the LORD, call on (or, proclaim) his name,14 Make known among the peoples his deeds. (2) Sing to him, make music to him, Talk about (or, think about) all his wonderful acts. (3) Praise his holy name, Let the heart of those who seek the LORD rejoice.15 (4) Seek the LORD and his strength (LXX: be strengthened), Seek his face continually. (5) Remember his wonderful acts that he has done, His wonders and the judgments of his mouth, (6) O seed of Abraham (1 Chr 16:13: Israel), his servant (11QPsa: servants), O sons of Jacob, his chosen ones (11QPsa: chosen one). (7) He is the LORD our God,

The Writings In all the land (or, earth) are his judgments. (8) He remembers (1 Chr 16:15: Remember) forever his covenant, A word he commands to a thousand generations, (9) Which he made with Abraham, And his oath to Isaac. (10) And he made it stand for Jacob as a statute, For Israel as an everlasting covenant, (11) Saying, “To you I give the land of Canaan, The territory of your inheritance.” (12) When they were men of number, Like a few and resident aliens in it, (13) They walked from nation to nation, From kingdom to another people. (14) He did not allow anyone (or, mankind) to oppress them, And he rebuked kings for them. (15) “Do not touch my anointed ones, And to my prophets do not bring harm.” (16) And he called a famine upon the land (or, a famine occurred), Every staff/support of bread he broke. (17) He sent before them a man (Tg.: wise man), As a servant Joseph was sold. (18) They afflicted his feet with fetters, His life entered iron, (19) Until his word entered, The word of the LORD refined him. (20) The king sent and set him free, A ruler of peoples sent and released him.16 (21) He made him lord of his house, And ruler over all his acquisition, (22) To bind (LXX: discipline/instruct) as he pleased, And make his elders wise. (23) And Israel entered Egypt, And Jacob lived as a resident alien in the land of Ham. (24) And he caused his people to be very fruitful, And he made him mightier than his foes. (25) He turned their heart (or, their heart turned) to hate/reject his people, To plot against his servants. (26) He sent Moses his servant, Aaron whom he chose. (27) They put among them the words/things of his signs, And wonders in the land of Ham. (28) He sent darkness and caused it to be dark, And they did not rebel against his word(s). (29) He turned their water into blood, And he killed their fish. (30) Their land swarmed with frogs, In their royal chambers.

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The Textual World of the Bible (31) He spoke, and a swarm came, Gnats throughout their border. (32) He gave their rains hail, Fire of flames in their land. (33) And he struck their grapevines and fig trees, And shattered the trees of their border. (34) He spoke, and locusts came, And locusts without number. (35) And they devoured all the herbage in their land, And they devoured the fruit of their land. (36) And he struck every firstborn in their land, The firstfruits of all their vigor. (37) And he brought them out with silver and gold, And there was not among his tribes a stumbler. (38) Egypt rejoiced when they departed, For dread of them had fallen upon them. (39) He spread a cloud for a cover, And fire to light the night. (40) He (or, they) asked, and he brought quail, And with bread from heaven he satisfied them. (41) He opened a rock, and water gushed, It went in dry places like a river. (42) For he remembered his holy word, With Abraham his servant. (43) And he brought forth his people with rejoicing, With a shout for joy his chosen ones. (44) And he gave to them land(s) of nations, They possessed the product of the toil of the peoples, (45) That they might keep his statutes, And maintain his instructions. Hallelujah (> LXX, Syr.).

Psalms 105 and 106 form the conclusion to book four of the book of Psalms (see Ps 106:48). Unlike the endings to the first three books (Pss 40–41; 72; 89; cf., Ps 2), neither Psalm 105 nor 106 is messianic. The messianic psalm appears instead at the beginning of book five (Ps 110). Book four concludes with poetic rehearsals of the biblical narrative in accordance with the model provided in Psalm 1. Psalm 104 provides an account of creation. Psalm 105 begins with Abraham and ends with the wilderness. Psalm 106 begins with the exodus and ends with the judges, although the perspective of the psalmist is that of someone in exile (Ps 106:47). The Chronicler (1 Chr 16:8–33) combines Ps 105:1–15 with Ps 96:1– 13a, adding material from Ps 106:1 (1 Chr 16:34) and Ps 106:47–48 (1 Chr 16:35–36). On the surface it appears that the Chronicler has drawn from book four of the Psalms.17 The material in Chronicles appears without

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introduction in the midst of an account of David’s transportation of the ark to Jerusalem. It is at least easier to imagine a mosaic here than a division of 1 Chronicles 16 and expansion of two separate psalms in book four of Psalms. For the Chronicler, the combination of Psalms 105 and 106 sets the momentous occasion of the arrival of the ark in Jerusalem within the larger context of the biblical narrative, but in a way that fits the worship setting. It is possible that the Chronicler understood “his strength” in Ps 105:4 to be a reference to the ark (cf., Pss 78:61; 132:8). And although 1 Chr 16:23 does not use the term “new song,” it is possible that Psalm 96 was chosen because of the use of this term in its first verse. “New songs” in Scripture typically celebrate new works of God (e.g., Isa 42:10; Rev 5:9–10). Psalm 105 opens with a call to give thanks and praise (vv. 1–6). It is a call to proclaim the name of the LORD (cf., Exod 33:19), that is, to make known outside of Israel what he has done (v. 1). It is a call to do this in the form of song (vv. 2–3). Thus, to “seek the LORD” (v. 4) in this context means to remember what he has done (v. 5). It will become apparent in the main body of the psalm that this primarily involves reading the Torah. It is not merely a matter of memory or tradition. The remembrance of God’s great acts of covenant faithfulness requires exegesis. This is for “the seed of Abraham” (v. 6), the people of God (Gen 17:5; Rom 4:11; Gal 3:28–29). The LORD remembers “his covenant forever” (v. 8). Therefore, it is an “everlasting covenant” (v. 10). This is specifically the land covenant with Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob (vv. 7–11; Gen 17:7, 13, 19) and not the Sinai covenant. It depends upon the LORD’s faithfulness and not upon the people’s ability to keep the law. When Abraham and his descendants were few in number and sojourners in the land (vv. 12–13; cf., Deut 26:5), the LORD protected them from potential oppression and rebuked kings like Pharaoh (Gen 12:10–20) and Abimelech (Gen 20; 26:6–11) for their sake (v. 14). He protected Jacob and his sons from the expected aftermath of the slaughter at Shechem (Gen 34:30; 35:5). Abraham was a prophet and a king (Gen 20:7; 23:6 LXX), and his descendants would be so too (Gen 17:6, 16; 18:19) (Ps 105:15). Psalm 105 and Stephen’s speech in Acts 7 (vv. 9–16) have the most extensive representation of the Joseph story of any of the inner-biblical summaries of the pentateuchal narrative. Verse 16 of Psalm 105 refers to the famine in Gen 41:54, which was anticipated by Joseph in his interpretation of Pharaoh’s dreams (Gen 41:27). For the psalmist, this famine reference is the connection to the rebuke of Pharaoh and Abimelech (Ps 105:14) where a famine was in each case the reason for the patriarch’s sojourn (Gen 12:10; 26:1). According to Ps 105:17, the sale of Joseph by his brothers (Gen 37)

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was also the mission of God. God “sent” Joseph. This theological interpretation of the story has its basis in the narrative itself. At two critical junctures in the composition the main character, Joseph, declares that God sent him and that God intended the evil of his brothers for good (Gen 45:7; 50:20).18 The bronze shackles mentioned in Ps 105:18 are not part of the Genesis narrative. They are an artist’s depiction of what prison life was like for Joseph initially (Gen 39:20). But Joseph eventually obtained a position similar to the one he had under Potiphar (Gen 39–40). Verse 19 speaks of “the time of the coming of his word” when “the word of the LORD refined him.” This is apparently a reference to “the word established from God” in Gen 41:32—that is, the interpretation of Pharaoh’s dreams—which proved Joseph to be one in whom was the Spirit of God (Gen 41:38; cf., Exod 31:3; Dan 4:5, 15 [Eng., 4:8, 18]; 5:11). The next few verses of the psalm thus give the account of the arrival of this word from God beginning with the summons and release of Joseph by Pharaoh upon learning of his abilities from the chief cupbearer (Ps 105:20; cf., Gen 41:14, 16). Pharaoh appointed him over his house as Potiphar had done before (Ps 105:21; cf., Gen 39:2–6, 22–23; 41:40). Verse 22 draws the logical implication of Joseph’s superior wisdom (Gen 41:38–39), namely, that he would teach others (cf., Dan 1:20). The psalm then skips Joseph’s interplay with his brothers and moves directly to Jacob’s sojourn in Egypt, the land of Ham (Ps 105:23; cf., Gen 9:25–27; 10:6; 46), where the people of God became fruitful and mightier than their foes (Ps 105:24; cf., Gen 15:5; 41:52; Exod 1:7).19 It is possible that Ps 105:25 is intended to say that “their heart turned,” but given the repetition of the divine hardening of Pharaoh’s heart in the Exodus narrative it is more likely that this verse is meant to say that God turned the heart of the Egyptians against his people (Exod 1:8–14; 7:3; 14:5). According to Exod 1:10, the new Pharaoh sought “to act wisely/craftily” with them, but Ps 105:25 uses a term (“to plot against”) that comes from the Joseph narrative where Joseph’s brothers plotted to kill him (Gen 37:18). Why did God turn the Egyptians against his people and harden Pharaoh’s heart? The design was to put his power on display and make himself known (Exod 7:4; 9:16; Rom 9:17). But just as God “sent” Joseph to Egypt (Ps 105:17), so he “sent” Moses to bring the people out of Egypt (Ps 105:26; cf., Exod 3:10). Moses was a servant of the LORD and a prophet (Ps 105:26; cf., Deut 18:15, 18; 34:5, 10) like Abraham (Ps 105:6, 15). And Aaron was God’s chosen one (Exod 4:15–16; 7:1; cf., Ps 106:23). They performed the “words (yrbd) of his signs” (Ps 105:27)—that is, the plagues (rbd)—in the sense

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that each plague came with a set of instructions to follow. God’s display of his power inspired the faith of the people (Exod 14:31), made him known among the nations (Exod 7:5), and shamed the Egyptian pantheon (Exod 12:12; Num 33:4). Verse 28 of Psalm 105 begins with the next to last plague—darkness—probably because the parallel clause refers to the “word(s)” of verse 27. From there verses 29 and 30 follow the order of the first two plagues in the Exodus narrative. Verse 31 then switches the order of the third and fourth plagues. There is perhaps an allusion to the fifth plague in verse 27. Neither Psalm 78 nor Psalm 105 mentions the sixth plague (boils). Verses 32–35 have the seventh and eighth plagues in the order of the Exodus story. Verse 36 concludes with the tenth and final plague. Thus, apart from the displacement of the ninth plague, Psalm 105 generally follows the arrangement of the Exodus account. It is too much to require the psalmist to repeat the Exodus version verbatim. There would have been no need simply to retell the story. The variation in detail is a way for the psalmist to introduce interpretation. The exodus is represented primarily in terms of the plundering of the Egyptians (Ps 105:37; cf., Gen 12:16; 13:1–2; Exod 12:35–36). After the last plague, the Egyptians were glad to see the Israelites go (Ps 105:38; cf., Gen 12:19–20; Exod 12:33). According to Exod 13:21–22, the cloud and fire each formed a pillar to lead the way for the people, but according to Num 9:15, the pillar “covered” the tabernacle by day and by night. This is apparently the basis for Ps 105:39. The summary of God’s provision in the wilderness in Ps 105:40–41 comes from Exodus 16 and 17 rather than Numbers 11 and 20 (cf., Ps 78). The order of the quail and manna in verse 40 follows that of Exodus 16 rather than Numbers 11, and there is no reference to judgment. The LORD’s faithfulness was based on his covenant with Abraham (Ps 105:8–9, 42; cf., Exod 2:23–25), not the Sinai covenant. He brought forth his people with “rejoicing” (Ps 105:43; cf., Isa 12:3). He gave them the lands of the seven nations of Canaan (Ps 105:44; Deut 7:1), which were prepared beforehand like the Garden of Eden (Deut 6:10–15; Neh 9:25). The reference to the law in the final verse of the psalm indicates the purpose of the gift of the land under the terms of the Sinai covenant (Deut 28). This remained a hypothetical possibility never realized except by faith (Gen 15:6; 26:5). John Goldingay puts it well: Sinai was omitted from the story the psalm narrated, but at its close it becomes allimportant. The problem with Israel’s occupation of the land is that keeping Yhwh’s statutes and observing Yhwh’s teachings is exactly what Israel did not do, and this is the basis of the promise that they will come into possession of the nations; hence their loss of the land. The context of those references to the peoples of the lands is

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Psalm 106 (1) Hallelujah (> pc Mss, Syr.). Give thanks to (or, praise) the LORD, for he is good, For his covenant loyalty lasts forever. (2) Who can speak the mighty acts of the LORD?21 Who can cause the whole of his praise to be heard? (3) Blessed are those who keep justice, Those who do righteousness at all times. (4) Remember me, O LORD, in the good pleasure of your people, Visit me in your salvation,22 (5) To look upon the good of your chosen ones, To rejoice in the joy of your nation, To boast with your inheritance. (6) We have sinned with our ancestors, We have committed iniquity, we have acted wickedly. (7) Our fathers in Egypt, They did not consider your wonderful acts; They did not remember the abundance of your covenant loyalty, And they rebelled by the sea, by the Sea of Reeds. (8) But he delivered them for the sake of his name, To make known his might. (9) And he rebuked the Sea of Reeds, and it was dry, And he walked them through the depths like the wilderness. (10) And he delivered them from hater’s hand, And he redeemed them from enemy’s hand. (11) And water covered their foes, Not one of them was left. (12) And they believed in his words, They sang his praise. (13) They quickly forgot his works, They did not wait for his counsel. (14) And they wanted something desirable in the wilderness, And they tested God in the waste place. (15) And he gave them their request, And he sent leanness into their soul. (16) And they became jealous of Moses in the camp, Of Aaron, the LORD’s holy one. (17) The ground opened and swallowed Dathan, And covered over the congregation of Abiram. (18) And a fire consumed (or, was burning in) their congregation,

The Writings A flame set ablaze the wicked. (19) And they made a calf at Horeb, And they bowed to a molten image. (20) And they exchanged their glory, For a pattern of a grass-eating ox. (21) They forgot the God who delivered them, The one who did great things in Egypt, (22) Wonderful acts in the land of Ham, Awesome things by the Sea of Reeds. (23) And he considered destroying them, If it were not for Moses his chosen one; He stood in the breach before him, To turn back his wrath from destroying. (24) And they rejected desirable land, They did not believe his word. (25) And they murmured in their tents, They did not obey the voice of the LORD. (26) And he lifted up his hand to them, That he would cause them to fall in the wilderness, (27) And cause their seed to fall among the nations, And scatter them among the lands. (28) And they joined themselves to Baal of Peor, And they ate sacrifices of non-living gods (or, for the dead). (29) And they provoked him with their deeds, And a plague broke out against them. (30) And Phineas stood and intervened, And the plague was restrained. (31) And it was reckoned to him for righteousness, To generation and generation forever. (32) And they provoked him by the waters of Meribah, And it was bad for Moses because of them. (33) For they rebelled against (LXX: embittered) his spirit, And he spoke rashly with his lips. (34) They did not destroy the peoples, Which the LORD said to them. (35) And they mixed themselves with the nations, And they learned their works. (36) And they worshiped their idols, And they became a snare to them. (37) And they sacrificed their sons, And their daughters to idols.23 (38) And they poured out innocent blood, The blood of their sons and daughters whom they sacrificed to the idols of Canaan, And the land was polluted with bloodshed. (39) And they were unclean in their works, And they played the harlot in their deeds. (40) And the anger of the LORD burned against his people,

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The Textual World of the Bible And he loathed his inheritance. (41) And he gave them into the hand of the nations, And those who hated them ruled over them. (42) And their enemies oppressed them, And they were humbled under their hand. (43) Many times he rescued them, But they rebelled in their counsel (Ms: against his counsel; cf., v. 13), And they were low (Ms: rotted) in their iniquity. (44) Yet he looked upon their distress, When he heard their cry. (45) And he remembered his covenant with them, And he relented according to the abundance of his covenant loyalty. (46) And he gave them compassion, Before all their captors. (47) Deliver us, O LORD our God, And gather us from the nations,24 To give thanks to your holy name, To boast in your praise. (48) Blessed be the LORD, the God of Israel, From everlasting to everlasting; And all the people say, Amen. Hallelujah.

This psalm opens with a call to praise (vv. 1–2) like Psalm 105. It concludes with a doxology (v. 48). Thus, the poetic exposition of the biblical narrative that forms the heart of the psalm is an act of worship. The narrative itself is the reason for the praise. The beatitude in verse 3 speaks of those who keep justice and do righteousness (cf., 1 Sam 2:10 LXX; Isa 56:1). It seems that the psalmist sees himself as one of the faithful remnant whom God will remember in his covenant loyalty (cf., Ps 105:8, 42). His prayer in verses 4 and 5 presupposes a situation in which there is need for deliverance, but this situation is not made explicit until verse 47. He finds comfort in recounting the mercies of God from the past. Nevertheless, he identifies himself with the people of God in general when he says, “We have sinned with our ancestors” (Ps 106:6; cf., Dan 9:5; Ezra 9:7). The sin of the forefathers began in Egypt when they failed to consider carefully the wonderful acts that God performed there (Ps 106:7; cf., Ezek 20:8). As a result of the fact that they lacked insight into what happened in Egypt, they forgot quickly and did not learn trust. They rebelled as soon as circumstances became dire (Exod 14:12). This appears to be at least part of the psalmist’s purpose in writing—to keep the biblical narrative in front of the reader lest he or she forget or fail to learn the fear of the LORD. This, after all, was the purpose of reading the Pentateuch on a regular basis (Deut 31:9–13; Neh 8–9).

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The LORD delivered them anyway in the exodus because his deliverance was not based on the merit of the people (Ps 106:8). His motive for action was his own reputation (cf., Isa 48:9–11; Ps 23:3; Ezek 20:9). He wanted to make known his power (Exod 7:5; 9:16). According to Calvin, The prophet here teaches what any one could easily learn from the preceding sentence, that the Israelites were saved, not on account of their deserving to be so, but because God had a regard to his own glory. That obstacle being removed, God went on to accomplish that deliverance which he had commenced, in order that his holy name might not become a reproach among the heathen. Besides, we must not overlook the antithesis between the name of God and the merits of men, because God, out of a regard to his own glory, can find in us no cause wherefore he should be moved to save us.25

And so God rebuked the sea as if he were angry with it (Ps 106:9; cf., Exod 14:21–22; 15:8; Nah 1:4; Hab 3:8). He led them through the sea and defeated their enemies (Ps 106:10–11; cf., Exod 14:28; 15:5, 10). Psalm 106:12 states that the people “believed in his words, they sang his praise.” Like Ps 78:22, 32, Psalm 106 follows closely the faith theme of the Pentateuch.26 Verse 12 highlights the juxtaposition of the last verse of Exodus 14 (“they believed”) with the first verse of Exodus 15 (“they sang”). But the people quickly forgot what God had done and became impatient (Ps 106:13; cf., Exod 15:22–24). They wanted something more than the bread from heaven that God provided for them in the wilderness (Ps 106:14; cf., Num 11:4). They tested God in the sense that they challenged his ability to provide something more (cf., Ps 78:18–19). He gave them what they wanted as a form of judgment (Ps 106:15). The choice of “leanness” in verse 15 is ironic. The people desired satisfaction, so the psalmist describes the LORD’s striking of the people (Num 11:33) as “leanness.” He struck them before they could enjoy the meat, while it was still between their teeth. The psalmist characterizes the rebellion against the leadership of Moses and Aaron in Numbers 16 as jealousy (Ps 106:16; cf., Num 12). It was essentially a rebellion of the levitical priesthood (Num 3–4; cf., Jer 33:14– 26), represented by Korah, against the Aaronic priesthood (Num 16:10). But Psalm 106 only mentions Dathan and Abiram who represented the tribe of the firstborn Reuben. According to the documentary hypothesis, the narrative of Numbers 16 is a combination of two stories from JE (Dathan and Abiram) and P (Korah). It would then be possible to suggest that the psalmist was only familiar with the JE version of the story. But since this remains a hypothetical reconstruction, it is desirable to seek an explanation for this omission from the extant texts. In Num 16:31–32, the text says that the ground split open and swallowed “them and their houses (or, households)

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and all Korah’s men and all their possessions.” They went down to Sheol alive, and the ground covered them (Num 16:33). A fire then consumed the 250 men from Num 16:2 (Num 16:35; cf., Ps 106:17). What is the antecedent for the pronoun “them” in Num 16:32? It would appear to be Dathan and Abiram (Num 16:27; Ps 106:16). But why does Ps 106:16 mention only Dathan and Abiram? The clue perhaps comes from the psalms of the sons of Korah (Pss 42–49; 84; 85; 87; 88).27 Only Dathan and Abiram lost their houses/households (Num 16:32). The sons of Korah survived. Psalm 49, which is “of the sons of Korah” (Ps 49:1), even speaks of redemption from Sheol (v. 16 [Eng., v. 15]).28 Thus, the writer of Psalm 106 omits Korah from his account (cf., Deut 11:6). Verse 19 of Psalm 106 (the molten calf; Exod 32; Deut 9) initially appears to be out of order, but the wilderness narratives before and after Sinai are parallel in the composition of the Pentateuch (Exod 16–17; Num 11; 20). The story of the failure of the Aaronic priesthood and the success of the levitical priesthood in Exodus 32 fits thematically with the rebellion of the Levites against Aaron in Numbers 16. Verse 20 of Psalm 106 says that “they exchanged their glory for a pattern of a grass-eating ox.” This is reminiscent of Jer 2:11: “Does a nation exchange gods, and they are not gods? But my people have exchanged their glory for what does not benefit them.” In other words, the nations hold on to their non-gods, but God’s people have exchanged the one true, living God for non-gods. They have forsaken the fountain of running water in favor of broken cisterns (Jer 2:13). So it was with Israel at Sinai. They preferred a lifeless image (Exod 20:3–6). The ox was probably intended to represent strength, but the psalmist simply refers to it as a grass eater. The people forgot their true deliverer and his wonders (Ps 106:21–22). The LORD considered destroying the people in order to start a new people with Moses (Ps 106:23; Exod 32:10). But Moses stood in the gap (cf., Ezek 22:30) to turn back his wrath. He prayed that God would remember his covenant with the patriarchs (Ps 105:8, 42) and act for the sake of his reputation among the nations (Exod 32:11–14; Deut 9:26–29; cf., Deut 32:26–27). The LORD was merciful, but the people did not learn to trust him. Even after the exodus and the defeat of the Egyptians, they were unwilling to believe that they could possess the land of Canaan, and so they rejected God’s good gift (Ps 106:24; Num 13–14). They murmured in their tents (Num 14:2; Deut 1:27) and disobeyed (Ps 106:25). God swore that they would fall in the wilderness (Num 14:28–38) and that their offspring would be scattered among the nations (Ps 106:26–27; cf., Deut 28:64; Ezek 20:23). The statements of faith in the Pentateuch all occur before Sinai and the

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giving of the law (Gen 15:6; Exod 4:31; 14:31; Ps 106:12). The statements of unbelief all occur after Sinai (Num 14:11; 20:12; Ps 106:24). Here already is the “Pauline” contrast between faith (Abraham) and the works of the law (Moses). The people were joined to Baal of Peor, that is, the local manifestation of the Canaanite fertility god Baal at Peor (Ps 106:28; cf., Num 25). The psalmist says they ate “the sacrifices of the dead.” It is possible that this means sacrifices offered to or for the dead, but Num 25:1–2 says that these were the sacrifices of the gods (i.e., non-living gods) of the daughters of Moab with whom the Israelites “played the harlot”—a metaphor for their idolatry (cf., Jer 3; Ezek 16; Hos 1–3) but also an indication of the sexual activity that took place in the Baal fertility cult. The LORD was the true husband of Israel, and Baal was the husband of another woman (Canaan). Israel’s worship had already become confused and syncretistic. They provoked the LORD, and a plague broke out (Crp; cf., “breach” in v. 23) against them (Ps 106:29; cf., Num 25:4–9). But the plague was restrained when Phineas, the son of Eleazar and grandson of Aaron, intervened and speared the Israelite man and the Midianite woman who were acting in complete disregard for the situation (Ps 106:30; cf., Num 25:6–8). The psalmist says that this was reckoned to Phineas as righteousness (Ps 106:31a). This does not come from the story of Numbers 25 (but see Num 25:13 and Ps 106:31b) but from the statement about Abraham’s faith in Gen 15:6: “And he believed in the LORD, and he reckoned it to him righteousness.” Thus, the psalmist characterizes Phineas’ act as one that represented his faith, faith that counted as righteousness.29 The people also provoked the LORD at Meribah (Num 20) where things went badly for Moses (Ps 106:32–33). The psalmist seems to think that the people were to blame for Moses’ rash speech and subsequent disallowance into the land. Deuteronomy is also aware of a version of the story in which the people are responsible for Moses’ penalty (Deut 1:37; 3:26; 4:21–22). But according to Num 20:12 Moses was kept from the land because of a lack of faith.30 There is a gap in the story of Numbers 20 that the composer of the Pentateuch has employed for the purposes of his faith theme. This is similar to the gap in the story of 2 Samuel 24 where there is no explicit mention of a sin committed by David before he says in verse 10, “I have sinned greatly in what I have done.” This creates a link with the Bathsheba story (2 Sam 12:13) and sets up the account of David’s restoration as a reversal of his earlier downfall. David, who once took another man’s wife, is now no longer willing to take what does not belong to him (2 Sam 24:24).

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Verse 34 of Psalm 106 continues into the narrative of the book of Joshua. The people did not complete the conquest of the land. This is noted in Joshua-Judges (Josh 13:1; Judg 1:27–33; cf., Heb 4:9), even though the text also affirms that the LORD was faithful to bring the people into the land (Josh 11:22–23; 21:43–45). Deuteronomy 7:22 explains that the conquest of the land would take place little by little so that the wild animals would not overrun the small population of Israel. Judges 2:21–3:5 adds that the LORD left some of the nations of the land so that the Israelites could learn warfare. But as a result of their failure to dispossess the nations of Canaan, the people of Israel became like those nations. They became idolaters (Ps 106:36). They even practiced child sacrifice (Ps 106:37–39), which was a perversion of the law in Exod 13:2, 12–13 (cf., Jer 7:31; Ezek 20:26). According to texts like 2 Kgs 23:10, this was specifically sacrifice to Molech, the god of the Ammonites (1 Kgs 11:7). Their spiritual prostitution resulted in profanation of the holy land (Num 35:33–34). The LORD considered his people an abomination (Ps 106:40) because of their abominations (i.e., their idolatrous practices). He thus gave them over to the very nations they imitated (Ps 106:41–42). This led to the well-known and vicious cycle of apostasy from the book of Judges (e.g., Judg 3:7–11) in which the LORD would remember his covenant upon hearing the cry of his people, but the people never changed (Ps 106:43–46). Nevertheless, the psalmist in his final prayer depends upon this mercy of God, which is so evident throughout the biblical narrative (Ps 106:47). He asks God to gather his people from the nations that they might praise him again. This prayer presupposes that the people are in exile and in need of deliverance. And so the psalm as a whole is an example of how one believer learned to understand the plight of his people through rehearsal of the biblical narrative.

Psalms 135 and 136 11QPsa places Psalm 119 after Psalms 120–132.31 Psalms 135 and 136 follow Psalm 119. A catena of material from Psalm 118 then follows Psalms 135 and 136. This arrangement invites the reader to make an association between Psalms 135 and 136 on the one hand and Psalms 118 and 119 (the framework) on the other. In particular, the acrostic poem of Psalm 119 in which the psalmist expresses his devotion to the Torah is an appropriate introduction to the exposition of the Torah found in Psalms 135 and 136. There is a reason why Psalms 135 and 136 remain together in the MT and 11QPsa. They were apparently intended to be read together. When

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viewed side by side, it is evident that the psalms are complementary. When one psalm is lacking part of the sequence of the pentateuchal narrative, the other fills it in. Only when the two psalms are read together does the full picture of the biblical story emerge. Psalm 135

Psalm 136

Praise (1–3)

Praise (1–3) Creation (4–9)

Election of Jacob/Israel (4–7) Striking of Egypt’s Firstborn (8) Signs and Wonders in Egypt (9)

Striking of Egypt’s Firstborn (10)

Exodus (11–15) Walk through Wilderness (16) Slaughter of Sihon and Og (10–11) Slaughter of Sihon and Og (17–20) Gift of the Land (12–14) Gift of the Land (21–25) Idols of the Nations (15–18) Praise (19–21) Praise (26)

Ezra-Nehemiah The subject of Ezra’s role in the Aramaic letter of Ezra 7:12–26 continues to be an area of debate for those who have an interest in the place of the Mosaic law in the post-exilic community of Jerusalem. The relationship between this text and Ezra 7:1–11, 27–28; 8:31–36; Neh 8–9 raises a host of questions about composition and meaning. Much of the discussion has rightly focused on the nature of Ezra’s commission from the Persian king Artaxerxes. The working assumption among most scholars has been that Ezra’s responsibility was essentially political and that he had the task of enforcing the Mosaic law in some form. Ulrich Kellermann, for example, suggested that Ezra’s law book was a form of the Deuteronomic code.32 Hugh Williamson, however, has argued for the presence of at least parts of D and P in the book of the law, “in which case it was similar to, if not fully identical with, our Pentateuch.”33 The question is whether or not Ezra’s role is the same in Ezra 7:12–26 and Neh 8:1–12 and whether or not the text itself explicitly identifies his role as political. In the present shape of Ezra-Nehemiah, these two passages do not refer to the same event as some have suggested. Rolf Rendtorff has argued for a distinction between these two texts, suggesting that Ezra’s role

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is political in Ezra 7:12–26 and religious in Neh 8:1–12.34 The other option would be to see a religious role for Ezra in both texts, an alternative that has received very little attention in the literature and therefore is the focus of the present discussion. What follows here will take Rendtorff’s work as an important starting point. The latter part of the discussion will then argue for the religious role of Ezra and its implications for understanding the identity, function, and purpose of Ezra’s “book of the law” and its exposition in Nehemiah 9. Rendtorff begins with a terminological distinction between the Aramaic/Persian word td (“law”) in Ezra 7:12–26 and the Hebrew word hrwt (“law/instruction”) in Nehemiah 8.35 He points out that most uses of td in the Hebrew Bible refer to royal law. In three passages td has a religious connotation (Est 3:8; Dan 6:6; 7:25), but according to Rendtorff td does not serve in these texts as a specific designation for Jewish religion or law. In Est 3:8 and Dan 6:6 the term occurs in the discourse of foreign enemies (Haman [Est 3:8] and the Babylonian overseers and satraps [Dan 6:6]). Its usage in Dan 7:25 is part of the phrase “times and law,” which the little horn will intend to change. Thus, while td can have a broadly religious meaning, this is not its most common meaning, and no biblical passage outside of Ezra 7 explicitly identifies td with hrwt. Nevertheless, the inclusion of religious meaning in the semantic range of td does allow for the possibility of this identification within Ezra 7.36 If there were to be a reference to hrwt in an Aramaic letter such as Ezra 7:12–26, the term would be td rather than hrwt (cf., the use of no/mov to translate hrwt in the 37 LXX). Rendtorff then turns to Ezra’s title in Ezra 7:12, 21: yd )td rps )nhk )ym# hl) (“the priest, the scribe of the law of the God of heaven”).38 For the designation )nhk (“the priest”) Rendtorff appeals to Ezra’s introduction in Ezra 7:1–5 where the reader learns that Ezra’s lineage goes back to Aaron the high priest. It is odd then that Rendtorff does not refer to the description of Ezra in Ezra 7:6 (h#m trwtb ryhm rps [“a scribe skilled in the Torah of Moses”]) for his explanation of the remainder of Ezra’s title. This seems to be highly selective use of the introduction to Ezra in the opening verses of chapter 7. Why does Rendtorff employ the introduction to determine the first part of the title but not the second part? Is not the design of the introduction in Ezra 7:1–11 to provide a context for the reader’s understanding of the letter in Ezra 7:12–26? Rendtorff decides instead to define the rest of Ezra’s title in terms of the framework of the letter in Ezra 7:14, 25, 26. In his view, while Ezra 7:15–24 speaks of a religious aspect to Ezra’s mission, the outer verses outline Ezra’s

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role in terms of his responsibility to the royal law, which is also said to be from God. The problem, of course, is that Ezra 7:14 is rather ambiguous about Ezra’s purpose: “to inquire about Judah and Jerusalem in the law of your God, which is in your hand.”39 According to Rendtorff, Ezra fulfills his role as judge (Ezra 7:25) in Ezra 9 and 10, but this is far from clear.40 Furthermore, Ezra 7:26 appears to make a distinction between “the law of your God” and “the law of the king” by means of the waw conjunction (cf., Ezra 8:36). It is not simple apposition. Rendtorff argues that the references to the Torah in Ezra 7:6, 10 have more to do with Nehemiah 8 than they do with Ezra 7:12–26.41 For Rendtorff, there is a careful distinction in terminology between Ezra 7:6, 10 (“the Torah of Moses,” “the Torah of the LORD,” and “statute and judgment”) and Ezra 7:11 (“the words of the judgments of the LORD and his statutes”). Only the latter has to do with Ezra 7:12–26. But this overlooks the synonymous relationships among hrwt, qx, and +p#m in texts like Pss 19:8–10 (Eng., 19:7–9); 119; Neh 9:13–14. Rendtorff’s view does not explain why only parts of Ezra’s introduction would apply to Ezra 7:12–26 and why other interwoven parts would only apply to a distant passage in Nehemiah. This would seem to be a rather awkward form of introduction. Another way to put it would be to ask how the introduction could have identified more clearly the hrwt of Ezra 7:1–11 with the td of Ezra 7:12– 26 if that in fact had been its purpose. Rendtorff concludes that Ezra’s role in Ezra 7:12–26 is political and according to the mandate of the Persian king. His role in Nehemiah 8, however, is a religious one to which there is only a brief reference in Ezra 7:6. John Sailhamer has more recently taken this to be an important distinction between a unique collection of laws (td) approved by the Persian authorities on the one hand and the Pentateuch (hrwt) on the other, which was not designed to govern a theocracy but to serve as Scripture for religious and theological instruction.42 This is an important distinction if in fact Rendtorff’s assessment of Ezra 7 is correct. But it remains to be seen if the distinction is necessary at all and whether or not Ezra’s “book of the law” in Ezra 7 or Nehemiah 8 is something like the Pentateuch. It is entirely possible that Ezra had no political role at all and that Nehemiah 8 and 9 provide us with the exact nature of his role and his “book of the law.” There is no indication in Ezra 7:1–6 that Ezra is to have a political role in what follows. The first five verses inform the reader of Ezra’s priestly lineage back to Aaron. Ezra 7:6 indicates that he came up from Babylon, a “scribe skilled in the Torah of Moses.” Ezra was no ordinary scribe such as a chronicler in a royal court (2 Kgs 18:18). He was a biblical scholar.

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According to 2 Kings 22, where it is said that the book of the Torah was “found” during the reign of Josiah, the priests and in particular the Levites had neglected their responsibility to preserve and teach the Torah of Moses (Deut 31:24–27; 33:10; Jer 2:8; 2 Chr 17:7–9). Consequently that task fell to the prophets (Dan 9:10; Ezra 9:10–11). Ezra, however, was determined to study, compose, and teach the Torah (Ezra 7:6; cf., Eccl 12:9, 10, 12) rather than engage in the cultic activities of the high priesthood to which he was heir (cf., Ezek 44:15, 23).43 The king’s willingness to grant Ezra his every request is said to be providential in Ezra 7:6b, 9 (cf., Ezra 8:22, 31; Neh 2:8–9). This is very much like the description of the decree of Cyrus in Ezra 1:1–4 and Darius’ response to Cyrus’ decree in Ezra 6. Part of keeping the peace among the subjects of the Persian empire was the policy that supported the building of sanctuaries and the worship of the people. This was the opposite approach of the Babylonian kings (Dan 1). Thus, the king’s support of Ezra had very little to do with enforcement of law. It appears on the surface to be more like the situation in 2 Kgs 17:27, 28. At the very least, this introduction to Ezra is quite unlike the introduction to Nehemiah, whose role was political rather than religious (Neh 2). Ezra’s title in Ezra 7:11 differs slightly in the LXX. The MT has “the priest, the scribe, the scribe (sōfēr) of the words of the commands of the LORD and his statutes to Israel.” The LXX, however, reflects “the priest, the scribe of the book (sēfer) of the words of the commands of the Lord and his statutes to Israel.” Rendtorff’s argument in part depends upon a distinction between the Masoretic version of this title and Ezra’s title in Neh 8:1 where he is “the scribe” who brings “the book of the Torah of Moses, which the LORD commanded Israel.”44 But the LXX version brings the title in Ezra 7:11 closer to the one in Neh 8:1 so that Ezra is a scribe of a particular book from the LORD in both texts. What could this be other than the Torah? In favor of the Masoretic version of the title in Ezra 7:11 is the redundancy “the scribe, the scribe.” The LXX looks at first glance like an attempt to smooth out a difficult text. But the point here is not to argue for the priority of the LXX. Rather, the LXX represents a very early interpretation of Ezra 7:11 that does not make the same distinction between Ezra’s role in the king’s letter and his role in Ezra 7:6 and Nehemiah 8 as Rendtorff does. The letter from the Persian king also gives very little indication that Ezra was to establish a theocracy on the basis of the Torah or that he was to pass off Persian law as divine law. His deliverance of the royal laws to the authorities in Ezra 8:36 does not change this. There is no indication that Ezra had any further involvement with these laws. In fact, Ezra’ role in

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Artaxerxes’ letter is entirely religious and in accordance with the purpose of the laws in the final form of the Pentateuch. His title in Ezra 7:12—“the priest, the scribe of the law of the God of heaven”—does not determine Ezra’s role either way, but the introduction in Ezra 7:6 strongly suggests that the author intends Ezra to be seen in his commission from the king as a leading biblical scholar who guides the reestablishment of worship in Jerusalem in accordance with the decree of Cyrus. The language of Ezra 7:13 comes directly from that decree (Ezra 1:3). According to Ezra 7:14, Ezra was “to seek/inquire” (rqb) in the law of his God which was in his hand about Judah and Jerusalem. Nothing in Ezra’s introduction fits better with this than Ezra 7:10 where it is said that Ezra established his heart “to seek/study” (#rd) the Torah of the LORD. Ezra 7:25 then refers to the “law” (td) of Ezra’s God that was in his hand as the “wisdom” (hmkx) of God that was in his hand. Ezra was to appoint judges in accordance with this wisdom. This is the best clue within the letter itself that the td is the hrwt. Elsewhere in the Hebrew Bible hrwt is equal to hmkx (Ps 19:8–10 [Eng., 19:7–9]). In the final form of the Pentateuch, the hrwt is hmkx—“the fear of the LORD”—for the reader (Deut 4:6, 8; 31:9– 13; Job 28:28; Prov 1:7; 9:10). Ezra’s commission here is similar to the wise advice from Jethro to Moses in Exodus 18, which serves as a wisdom introduction to the giving of the Mosaic law and is at least in part the basis of the statement about the law in Deut 4:6.45 Jethro, a Gentile like Artaxerxes, advised Moses to seek out “virtuous men who fear God” (y)ry lyx y#n) Myhl)) to judge the people (Exod 18:21–22). These men correspond to the “virtuous woman” (lyx t#)) who has “the fear of the LORD” (hwhy t)ry) in Prov 31:10, 30. Historically the people already had laws (Exod 12; 15:25, 26), but compositionally the juxtaposition of Exodus 18 and 19 extends the significance of Jethro’s administrative counsel to the level of the Pentateuch as a whole. Thus, the laws of the Pentateuch teach wisdom and give the reader a healthy sense of justice and righteousness much like the sayings in the book of Proverbs.46 According to Ezra 7:15–24, Ezra also had the responsibility of bringing silver and gold from the king, his advisers, and the general populace in order to make purchases for sacrifices and offerings in the Jerusalem temple (see Ezra 8:25–28, 31–35). Again the points of contact with the decree of Cyrus (Ezra 1:1–4; cf., Exod 12:32) and the subsequent reestablishment of the cult (Ezra 3 and 6) are unmistakable.47 The king’s purpose in this part of the commission is not political, but religious: “Why should there be anger against the kingdom of the king and his sons” (Ezra 7:23b)? Much like Darius upon his hearing of the decree of Cyrus (Ezra 6:10), Artaxerxes

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wanted to appease the foreign gods in hopes of covering his religious bases. This is not to say that the king was unconcerned with enforcement of Persian law. It is only to point out that his letter to Ezra has to do with another side to his administration. Ezra’s take on this letter in Ezra 7:27–28 has nothing to do with political involvement or the establishment of a theocracy on the basis of the Pentateuch as an official lawbook. Rather, he rejoices that God has put it into the mind of the king to beautify the temple. All of this is perfectly consistent with Ezra’s introduction in Ezra 7:1–11 and the picture of Ezra in Nehemiah 8. Even Ezra’s role in Ezra 9 and 10 is not so much about enforcement of the law as it is with preservation of the faith of the post-exilic community. The point of the law in Deut 7:3–4; 23:4 was not merely ethnocentrism but the prevention of idolatry among the people, to which Solomon succumbed when he married foreign women (1 Kgs 11:1–10). This distinction is clear in the acceptance of Ruth, a Moabite woman who said that Naomi’s God would be her God (Ruth 1:16). As will be seen, the real shift between the text of Ezra and that of Nehemiah is not one between a political role and a religious role but one between an emphasis on the cult and an emphasis on the reading of the Torah.48 Ezra appears on the scene in Nehemiah 8 in the role outlined for him in Ezra 7:6, 10, 14, and 25. He is a biblical scholar who reads and interprets the Torah before the people with the help of the Levites (Neh 8:1–8; cf., 2 Chr 17:9). The response to this is initially like that of Josiah (2 Kgs 22:11; Neh 8:9; cf., Neh 9:1–3), but it soon becomes a celebration (Neh 8:10–12) for which the feast of booths serves as a timely expression (Neh 8:13–18).49 Nehemiah 9 indicates the scope of what is meant by “Torah” in this context. It is not merely a collection of laws as some have suggested for Ezra 7. It begins with creation (Neh 9:6) and moves on through the patriarchs (Neh 9:7–8), the exodus (Neh 9:9–12), Sinai (Neh 9:13–14), the wilderness (Neh 9:15–21), and the conquest (Neh 9:22–25). In other words, the shape of this text is very much like that of the Pentateuch. The text of Nehemiah 8 and 9 comes at a decisive juncture in the composition of Ezra-Nehemiah. It follows the list in Nehemiah 7 of those who returned to the land under the leadership of Zerubbabel and Joshua. This list is repeated from Ezra 2: Ezra 2: First List

Nehemiah 7 :

Second List

Ezra 3: Reestablishment of Cult

Nehemiah 8–9: Scripture

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The repetition serves to mark a fundamental shift from the Temple setting and the sacrifical system to what would become the synagogue setting and a redefinition of the role of the priest (Ezra) from that of a cultic functionary to that of a teacher of Scripture (Ezra 7:6, 10; cf., Deut 33:10; but Ezra 7:17).

Nehemiah 9 Nehemiah 9 is one of several summaries of biblical history in the Hebrew Bible discussed up to this point (e.g., Deut 26:5–9; Josh 24:1–15; Ezek 20; Pss 78, 105, 106, 136; cf., Acts 7:1–53; 13:16–41; Heb 11). Once again, these do not merely rehearse the history of ancient Israel. They provide interpretations of biblical texts on which they depend. Nowhere is this clearer than in the relationship between Nehemiah 8 and 9 (Neh 8:8). It is worth noting again that the one common element in all of these summaries is the exodus and not the law. The positive reference to the law in Neh 9:13–14 is an exception to the generally silent or negative treatment of the law elsewhere. This positive reference likely reflects the view of the law in Ezra 7:25 where it is not merely the law at Sinai but the law as wisdom within the composition of the Pentateuch. It is also reminiscent of Ezekiel 20 wherein the law is said to be the means of gaining life (Lev 18:5), and yet this is only a hypothetical offer (Ezek 20:11, 13, 21, 25; Rom 7:10). (6) “You are the LORD alone.50 You made the sky, The highest sky and all its host, The land and all that is on it, The seas and all that is in them; And you preserve all of them, And the host of heaven worships you. (7) You are the LORD God, Who chose Abram, And brought him out of Ur (the fire) of the Chaldeans,51 And made his name Abraham, (8) And found his heart believing before you, And made with him the covenant, To give the land of the Canaanites, Hittites, Amorites, and Perizzites and Jebusites and Girgashites, to give to his seed; And you established your words, Because you are righteous. (9) And you saw the affliction of our ancestors in Egypt, And their cry you heard by the Sea of Reeds. (10) And you put signs and wonders against Pharaoh, And against all his servants and all the people of his land;

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The Textual World of the Bible For you knew that they acted presumptuously against them, And you made for yourself a name as it is this day. (11) And the sea you split before them, And they passed through the sea on dry ground; But their pursuers you threw into the depths, Like a stone in strong water.

After the Levites’ doxology in Neh 9:5, Ezra’s exposition of the Torah begins in the form of a prayer, but the petition itself is only implicit at the end of the chapter (Neh 9:32–37). His exposition contains elements of praise and confession of sin. The terminology of Neh 9:6 comes directly from Genesis 1. It is an affirmation that the LORD “made” the sky, the land, and the seas. He prepared the land of the covenant (Gen 1:3–2:3, 8–14; 15:18).52 And so Ezra moves directly from the preparation of the land of the covenant to the language of the covenant itself in Genesis 12, 15, and 17 (Neh 9:7–8). Ezra understands Genesis 1 not to be an isolated account of creation but an introduction to the central themes of the Pentateuch. The statement in Neh 9:7 that God “chose” Abram is a theological interpretation of Gen 11:27–12:3. The election of the nation of Israel began with the unmerited election of an individual. There is no reason given for the call of Abram in Gen 12:1–13. That is, there is no reason why he was chosen rather than someone else. Ezra moves from this to the change of Abram’s name to Abraham in Gen 17:5 (Neh 9:7b). According to the Genesis text, the reason for the change was the soundplay between “Abraham” and Nwmh b) Mywg (“father of a multitude of nations”). This meant that Abraham would be more than a literal patriarch. He would be the spiritual father of all those who would be blessed in him and in his seed (Gen 12:3; 22:18). Thus, Paul invents his own play on Abraham’s name and calls him “the father of all those who believe” (Mynym)mh lkl b)) (Rom 4:11). The framework of Neh 9:8 appears to come from Gen 15:6, 18, although the list of the nations of Canaan does not occur there (cf., Deut 7). The background statement in Gen 15:6 about Abram’s faith has traditionally been understood to mean that God reckoned Abram righteous by faith: “And he [Abram] believed in the LORD, and he [the LORD] reckoned it to him righteousness” (cf., Rom 4:3; Gal 3:6). But Rendtorff and others, following medieval Jewish interpretation, understand Abram to be the subject of both verbs.53 Abram reckons the LORD righteous. Rendtorff thinks Neh 9:8b supports this when Ezra says to the LORD, “You are righteous.” But this is not without its problems. The primary issue is the antecedent of the pronoun “it” in Gen 15:6b. This is a third feminine singular suffixed pronoun in the Hebrew text. It is possible that this is a proleptic pronoun that anticipates the

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following feminine singular noun “righteousness,” but it is more likely that it refers back to the preceding statement about Abram’s faith. This is a common use of the third feminine singular pronoun.54 If this is correct, then the LORD would have to be the subject of the verb “reckon.” Otherwise it would be a nonsensical statement about Abram reckoning his own faith to the LORD as righteousness. The traditional understanding of Gen 15:6 finds support in biblical texts based on the verse. For example, the wording of Hab 2:4b and Ps 106:31 comes from Gen 15:6. And in both cases the believer, not the LORD, is the one counted righteous. In order for Rendtorff’s interpretation to be correct, the reader would have to leap over the immediate antecedent of the pronoun in Gen 15:6b and take the preceding verse(s) as the referent. Furthermore, Neh 9:8b seems not to support Rendtorff upon closer examination. It does not say that Abram reckoned the LORD righteous. Rather, it is Ezra’s declaration on the basis of what he reads in the Torah about the LORD’s faithfulness to the covenant. The other issue in Neh 9:8 is the meaning of the niphal participle Nm)n. Does it mean “faithful” or “believing”? Those who think Neh 9:8 is a reinterpretation of Gen 15:6 understand it to be a description of Abram’s faithfulness rather than his faith. But those who take Neh 9:8 to be an accurate reading of Gen 15:6 will define the niphal participle according to the meaning of the hiphil verb of the same root in Gen 15:6. It is true that the niphal of this root usually means “confirmed,” “faithful,” or “reliable,” but the niphal participle is also the only adjectival choice available to the writer to describe someone who is “of faith” or “believing” (cf., Deut 1:32). Ezra’s exposition then fasts forward to the central act of deliverance in the pentateuchal narrative—the exodus. God saw the affliction of his people and heard their cry (Neh 9:9; cf., Exod 3:7). He brought the plagues upon the Egyptians because of their presumption (Neh 9:10; cf., Exod 18:11). He acted for the sake of his name and made a name for himself among the nations (Neh 9:10b; cf., Exod 7:5; 9:16). Ezra’s retelling of the exodus itself in Neh 9:11 draws from the narrative of Exod 14:21–22 and the poetry of Exod 15:5. (12) And with a pillar of cloud you led them by day, And with a pillar of fire by night, To light for them the path on which they were to walk. (13) And on Mount Sinai you came down, And spoke with them from the sky; And you gave to them upright judgments, And reliable instructions, And good statutes and commands. (14) And your holy Sabbath you made known to them,

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The Textual World of the Bible And commands and statutes and instruction you commanded to them by the hand of Moses your servant. (15) And bread from heaven you gave to them for their hunger, And water from a rock you brought forth for them for their thirst; And you told them to enter to possess the land, Which you lifted up your hand to give to them. (16) But they, our ancestors, acted presumptuously, And they hardened their neck, And they did not listen to your commands. (17) And they refused to listen, And they did not remember your wonderful acts that you did with them; And they hardened their neck, And they appointed a leader to return to their servitude in their rebellion;55 But you are a God of forgiveness, Gracious and compassionate, Slow to anger and abounding in covenant loyalty, And you did not forsake them. (18) Also they made for themselves a molten calf, And they said, ‘This is your God who brought you up out of Egypt’; And they committed great spurnings. (19) But you in your great compassion did not forsake them in the wilderness; The pillar of cloud did not turn aside from upon them by day to lead them on the path, The pillar of fire by night to light for them the path on which they were to go. (20) And your good Spirit you gave to give them insight; And your ‘what’ you did not withhold from their mouth, And water you gave to them for their thirst. (21) And for forty years you sustained them, In the wilderness they were not lacking; Their clothes did not wear out, And their feet did not swell. (22) And you gave to them kingdoms and peoples, And you divided them to corner; And they possessed the land of Sihon, And the land of the king of Heshbon, And the land of Og, the king of Bashan. (23) And their sons you increased like the stars of the sky. And you brought them into the land that you told their fathers to enter to possess. (24) And the sons came and possessed the land, and you humbled before them the inhabitants of the land, the Canaanites, and you gave them into their hand and their kings and the peoples of the land to do with them according to their good pleasure. (25) And they captured fortified cities and fertile land, and they possessed houses full of every good thing, wells cut, vineyards, and olive trees, and trees with food in abundance. And they ate and were satisfied and became fat and delighted themselves in your great abundance. (26) But they were rebellious and they rebelled against you and threw your instruction behind their back. And your prophets they slew who admonished them to turn them to you. And they committed great spurnings. (27) And you gave them into the hand of their foes, and they caused distress for them. And in the time

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of their distress they would cry out to you, and you from heaven would hear, and according to your great compassion you would give to them deliverers, and they would deliver them from the hand of their foes. (28) But as soon as they had rest, they would turn to do evil before you. And you would leave them in the hand of their enemies, and they would rule over them. And they would cry out to you again, and you would hear from heaven and rescue them according to your compassion many times. (29) And you admonished them to turn them to your instruction, but they acted presumptuously and did not listen to your commands. And against your judgments they sinned, which, if someone does them, he will live by them. And they gave a stubborn shoulder, and their neck they hardened, and they did not listen. (30) And you prolonged covenant loyalty56 to them for many years, and you admonished them by your Spirit by the hand of your prophets, but they did not listen, and you gave them into the hand of the peoples of the land(s). (31) But in your great compassion you did not make a complete destruction of them, and you did not forsake them, for you are a gracious and compassionate God.

These verses set up a contrast between the rebelliousness of the people and the faithfulness of God (cf., Ezek 20; Pss 78; 106; Acts 7). The references to the pillars in verses 12 and 19 depend upon Exod 13:21–22. The explicit reference to Sinai in verse 13 is a rarity in the Tanak outside of the Pentateuch (Judg 5:5; Ps 68:9). Verse 16 characterizes the people’s rebellion using the same verb that describes the presumption of the Egyptians in verse 10. Verse 17 refers to the attempt narrated in Num 14:4 to appoint a new leader in Moses’ place and return to Egypt. The Leningrad Codex of Neh 9:17, however, reads “in their rebellion” or “with Miriam” (Myrmb) rather than “in Egypt” (Myrcmb). The reading “with Miriam” may have its basis in Numbers 12 where Miriam leads the rebellion against Moses (Num 12:1, 4, 10).57 The second half of Neh 9:17 draws from Num 14:18 (cf., Exod 34:6–7). Verse 18 of Nehemiah 9 provides yet another excellent example of careful exegesis. Ezra quotes the words from the account of the molten calf in Exod 32:4 (cf., 1 Kgs 12:28). But when he quotes these words he clarifies the meaning by his choice of singular forms. The text of Exod 32:4 could be read as “These are your gods, O Israel, who brought you out of the land of Egypt” or “This is your God, O Israel, who brought you out of the land of Egypt.” The grammatically plural form Myhl) allows for the flexibility to use plural forms with plural or singular meaning. But the context is clear that the calf is an object of worship intended to represent the LORD in clear violation of Exod 20:2–6. Thus, Ezra employs the singular demonstrative and singular verb in order to remove the ambiguity. The structure of Neh 9:12–31 features an interchange between the gift of the law (Neh 9:13–14) and the gift of the Spirit (Neh 9:20a):

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Nehemiah 9:20a is likely not a reference to Josh 1:8 but a reference to Num 11:24–30.58 Numbers 11 is part of the parallel structuring of narratives on opposite sides of the Sinai account (e.g., Exod 16–17; Num 11; 20). The Exodus 16 account of provision in the wilderness anticipates the Sabbath law, the sign of the Sinai covenant (Exod 31:12–17). But the account in Numbers 11 focuses instead on the gift of the Spirit (cf., Isa 63:10–11; Eph 4:30).59 Following both gifts (law and Spirit) in Nehemiah 9 then is mention of bread from heaven or manna (Neh 9:15, 20b). This sequence in particular seems to be influential for John 6:22–71. In John 6:31, Jesus cites a biblical text that speaks of the bread from heaven that the fathers ate. Jesus states that the bread of God is the one who comes down from heaven and gives life to the world (John 6:33). He subsequently declares that he is the bread of life (John 6:35). But much later in the chapter Jesus teaches that the Spirit is the one who gives life (John 6:63).60 Verse 21 of Nehemiah 9 depends upon Deut 8:4; 29:4 (Eng., 29:5). Verses 22–24 draw from the accounts of the conquests east of the Jordan (Num 21:21–35) and west of the Jordan (Josh). Verse 25 contains a verbatim quotation from Deut 6:11 (see also Deut 32:15). Verses 26–28 refer to the now familiar cycle of apostasy from the book of Judges (Judg 2:11ff; see also 1 Kgs 14:9). Ezra’s exposition of the “Torah” or the “book of Moses” thus includes exposition of Joshua and Judges. This anticipates the use of “Torah” in the sense of “Scripture” (m. Qidd. 4:14). Finally, the people are said to have rejected the admonishment of the Spirit and the prophets with a stiff neck (cf., 2 Kgs 17:13–14; Jer 25:4). This has a clear echo in Stephen’s speech (Acts 7:51–53). The people presently (“And now”) find themselves in a position of servitude again and in need of deliverance (Neh 9:32–37). The return to the land from Babylon has proven not to be the restoration of the lost blessing of life and dominion in the land (cf., Isa 56–66; Zech 1–6). But they still have

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not learned their lesson (Deut 29:3 [Eng., 29:4]). The final agreement to keep the law (the Levites’ portion, the Sabbath, avoidance of foreign marriage) in Nehemiah 10–13 turns out to be a major disappointment not unlike the failure to keep the law in the Pentateuch and the Prophets. Such a misguided commitment misses the whole point of the exposition in Nehemiah 9 with its emphasis on the faith of Abraham (Neh 9:8), the work of the Spirit (Neh 9:20), and the ministry of the prophets (Neh 9:30). It is highly unlikely then that the final composer of Ezra-Nehemiah wanted to portray Ezra as anyone other than a teacher of the Torah as theological instruction. It would be contradictory to present him as enforcer of the Torah as a lawbook on the one hand and a teacher of Scripture and faith on the other. The books Daniel, Ezra-Nehemiah, and Chronicles stand at the end of the composition of the Hebrew Bible (Matt 23:35; b. B. Bat. 14b; Codex L). Each one puts the reading and interpretation of Scripture in the foreground. Daniel reads and interprets Jeremiah (Dan 9). Ezra reads and interprets the Torah (Ezra 7:6, 10; 8–9). Chronicles is a comprehensive biblical history from Adam (1 Chr 1:1) to the decree of Cyrus (2 Chr 36:23) and is in large part a reading and interpretation of Samuel and Kings. Thus, the point of emphasis at the conclusion to the Tanak is very much like that of its canonical seams. At the conclusion of the Pentateuch and the beginning of the Prophets the wise man Joshua (Deut 34:9 [cf., Num 27:18]) receives instruction to “murmur” in the Torah day and night (Josh 1:8) in expectation of the messianic prophet like Moses (Deut 34:10 [see Deut 18:15, 18]). At the conclusion of the Prophets and the beginning of the Writings the wise reader is to “murmur” in the Torah day and night (Ps 1:2) in expectation of the forerunner prophet like Elijah (Mal 3:1, 23 [Eng., 4:5]). Psalm 1 features the same contrast between the righteous and the wicked as Hos 14:10 (Eng., 14:9).61 This instruction to the reader comes at the highest level of composition and puts the focus squarely on Bible study and messianic hope (Pss 1 and 2): Pentateuch Prophet like Moses (Dt 34:10)

Prophets Murmur in Scripture (Josh 1:8)

Prophet like Elijah (Mal 3:23)62

Writings Murmur in Scripture (Ps 1:2)

Reading of Scripture (Dan/Ezra-Neh/Chr)63

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Notes 1

“The most important signal for the understanding of the book as a whole is given in its introduction. Psalm 1 begins with a blessing for those who live their lives entirely with reference to the Torah” (Rolf Rendtorff, The Canonical Hebrew Bible: A Theology of the Old Testament, trans. David E. Orton [Leiden: Deo, 2005], 319). 2 “If the reference is to intensive study of the Torah (1.2), then this certainly means an available written text, whether the Pentateuch or an earlier stage of it, to which the highest authority is ascribed” (Ibid.). 3 See Christopher A. Rollston, Writing and Literacy in the World of Ancient Israel: Epigraphic Evidence from the Iron Age (Atlanta: SBL, 2010); Karel van der Toorn, Scribal Culture and the Making of the Hebrew Bible (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2007); William M. Schniedewind, How the Bible Became a Book: The Textualization of Ancient Israel (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004). 4 Artur Weiser, The Psalms, trans. Herbert Hartwell, OTL (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1962), 674, 681. 5 With regard to Psalm 78, Franz Delitzsch comments, “The psalmist, moreover, keeps very close to the Tôra in his reproduction of the history of the Exodus, and in fact so close that he must have had it before him in the entirety of its several parts” (Psalms, trans. Francis Bolton, Keil & Delitzsch 5 [Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1866–91; reprint, Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson, 2001], 525). With regard to Psalm 105, he says, “Its source is likewise the Tôra as it now lies before us” (Ibid., 661). 6 See Hermann Gunkel, Introduction to the Psalms: The Genres of the Religious Lyric of Israel, completed by Joachim Begrich, trans. James D. Nogalski (Macon, GA: Mercer University Press, 1998), 299–300. 7 Wilhelm Bacher, Die exegetische Terminologie der jüdischen Traditionsliteratur (Hildesheim: Georg Olms, 1965), 56. 8 The Greek word manna is a neologism found in the Septuagint (see Emanuel Tov, The Greek and Hebrew Bible: Collected Essays on the Septuagint [Leiden: Brill, 1999; reprint, Atlanta: SBL, 2006], 139). 9 Verse 36 is the middle of the book of Psalms according to the Masora parva. 10 One medieval Hebrew manuscript and Symmachus have “plague” (rbd) in verse 48 instead of “hail” (drb). 11 Note the use of Kph (“metathesis/transposition”) in verses 9 and 57. 12 See the difference between the MT and LXX of Ps 78:60b. 13 See Benjamin J. M. Johnson, “The Heart of YHWH’s Chosen One in 1 Samuel,” JBL 131 (2012): 455–66. 14 Before this line 4QPse has: “Give thanks to the LORD, for he is good, for his covenant loyalty lasts forever” (cf., Pss 106:1; 118:1; 136). 15 “Let the heart that seeks his good pleasure rejoice” (1 Chr 16:10 LXX; cf., 11QPsa). 16 Syr.: “And made him ruler over his people.” 17 Ralph W. Klein, 1 Chronicles, Hermeneia (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2006), 361–62. 18 Verse 17 refers to Joseph as “a man” (#y)). This is the way his brothers refer to him before he reveals his identity (e.g., Gen 43:3).

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It is also worth noting that the psalmist does not treat the prominent role of Judah in Gen 37:26–27; 38; 43–44; 49:8–12. The assumption is that an exposition of Judah’s place in the story would take the psalmist too far afield for the purposes of his writing. 20 John Goldingay, Psalms, vol. 3, Psalms 90–150 (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2008), 216–17. 21 It is possible that this is an expression of desire: “Who will speak the mighty acts of the LORD (= O that someone would speak the mighty acts of the LORD!)?” Cf., Num 11:29. See E. F. Kautzsch, ed., Gesenius’ Hebrew Grammar, trans. A. E. Cowley (Oxford: Clarendon, 1910), 476–77. 22 2 Mss and LXX have “us” instead of “me” in this verse, but this runs contrary to the context where the voice of the psalm sees itself “with” the chosen people of God (v. 5). Only in verses 6 and 7 does the psalmist begin to speak on behalf of the people (see also v. 47). 23 The Hebrew word translated “idols” here is often rendered “demons.” The only other occurrence of this word in the Hebrew Bible is in Deut 32:17 where it refers to strange gods (Deut 32:16), which are not gods at all. Verse 38 of Psalm 106 calls them “the idols of Canaan.” The Hebrew Bible knows of evil spirits (e.g., 1 Sam 16:14), but demonic activity primarily surfaces in the New Testament Gospels. It was apparently aroused in response to the incarnation of Christ. Note that the New Testament epistles revert back to the pattern of the Hebrew Bible and mention demonic activity very little. 24 1 Chr 16:35: “Deliver us, O God of our salvation, and gather us and rescue us from the nations.” 25 John Calvin, Commentary on the Book of Psalms, vol. 4, trans. James Anderson, Calvin’s Commentaries VI (reprint, Grand Rapids: Baker, 2005), 214. 26 Hans-Christoph Schmitt, “Redaktion des Pentateuch im Geiste der Prophetie,” VT 32 (1982): 170–89. 27 See David C. Mitchell, “‘God Will Redeem My Soul from Sheol’: the Psalms of the Sons of Korah,” JSOT 30 (2006): 365–84. 28 “Sheol” is a term used primarily in poetic texts for “death” or “the grave” (e.g., Pss 16:10; 30:4 [Eng., 30:3]; 89:49 [Eng., 89:48]; Prov 5:5; 7:27; Song 8:6). Because this term occurs primarily in poetic texts, it is sometimes accompanied by imagery of an underworld (e.g., Isa 28:9–11). But this is metaphorical or figurative language. It is not a literal view of the afterlife (contra Philip S. Johnston, Shades of Sheol: Death and Afterlife in the Old Testament [Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity, 2002]). The context of Psalm 49 suggests that it speaks of resurrection from the dead (cf., Dan 12:2): “This statement can hardly be referred to anything other than a life after death, for the thought of the whole psalm revolves, in the sense of the problem of theodicy, around the question of the grace of Jahweh in the life of the individual, and comes to the conclusion that the proud rich must remain in death” (Gerhard von Rad, Old Testament Theology, vol. 1, The Theology of Israel’s Historical Traditions, trans. D. M. G. Stalker [New York: Harper & Row, 1962], 406). 29 See Calvin, Psalms, vol. 4, 232–33; Delitzsch, Psalms, 671. 30 It does not say that the reason was that Moses took credit for the water from the rock (Num 20:8b, 10b) or that he spoke harshly to the people (Num 20:10b; cf., Num 14:11) or that he struck the rock twice (Num 20:8, 11; cf., Exod 17:6). 31 There is some question about whether or not this scroll is a “biblical” scroll, an alternative edition to the one found in the MT (see Eugene Ulrich, The Dead Sea Scrolls and the Origins of the Bible [Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1999], 30). It contains a different arrangement of material from the second half of the Psalter along with “non-biblical” material. The scroll does use the paleo-Hebrew script for the divine name, which is not the usual

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practice for biblical scrolls from Qumran (Emanuel Tov, Textual Criticism of the Hebrew Bible, 3d ed. [Minneapolis: Fortress, 2012], 205). 32 Ulrich Kellermann, “Erwägungen zum Esragesetz,” ZAW 80 (1968): 373–85; on the other hand, Cornelis Houtman argued for a no longer extant book of law (“Ezra and the Law,” OTS 21 [1981]: 91–115). 33 H. G. M. Williamson, Ezra, Nehemiah, WBC 16 (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 1985), xxxix. 34 Rolf Rendtorff, “Esra und das Gesetz,” ZAW 96 (1984): 165–84; “Noch einmal: Ezra und das Gesetz,” ZAW 111 (1999): 89–91. 35 Rendtorff, “Esra und das Gesetz,” 166–69. 36 “The Hebrew word ‘Torah’ could be identical in meaning to the Aramaic expression ‘laws of God.’ The two words also could refer to altogether different sets of laws” (John H. Sailhamer, The Meaning of the Pentateuch: Revelation, Composition, and Interpretation [Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity, 2009], 294). 37 Greek no/mov (“custom,” “civil law”) and Hebrew hrwt (“instruction”) do not have the same semantic range. No/mov is essentially a symbol for hrwt in the LXX and NT (Tov, Greek and Hebrew Bible, 90). 38 Rendtorff, “Esra und das Gesetz,” 169–73. 39 Williamson suggests that this primarily involved investigation into adherence to the Mosaic law in temple worship (Ezra, Nehemiah, 101). 40 Rendtorff, “Ezra und das Gesetz,” 176–78. 41 Ibid., 173–76. 42 Sailhamer, The Meaning of the Pentateuch, 297. 43 See Michael Fishbane, Biblical Interpretation in Ancient Israel (Oxford: Clarendon, 1985), 29–32. See also van der Toorn, Scribal Culture, 107. 44 A few medieval Hebrew manuscripts have “the priest” instead of “the scribe” (cf., Neh 8:2, 4, 5, 9, 13). Aquila has “the priest and reader.” 45 “It is of great significance that this openness to the world which emerges in the relation with Jethro is found already deeply within the Pentateuch and is not a later development which occurs from the spread of wisdom literature. In a sense, the basic problem of relating the divine law as given in the Pentateuch with the knowledge of God as found in wisdom has already been posed within Ex. 18” (Brevard S. Childs, The Book of Exodus, OTL [Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1974], 335). 46 “While in the Code of Hammurabi—and to an even greater extent in the Hittite and Assyrian laws—juristic technique is much more highly developed and there is a striving after as plentiful a distinction and classification of the various cases as possible, Israelite law on the whole contents itself with applying a few basic dicta fairly freely over and over again. These dicta are, however, inculcated as the divine will and thus impressed on the heart and conscience. Application to individual concrete instances is then left in many cases to a healthy feeling for justice” (Walther Eichrodt, Theology of the Old Testament, vol. 1, trans. J. A. Baker [Philadelphia: Westminster, 1961], 77). 47 The Aramaic version of the decree in Ezra 6:3–5 speaks more in terms of the gold and silver that Nebuchadnezzar brought from the temple in Jerusalem. 48 Michael Fishbane has suggested that the king’s decree was not without some political self-interest due to the need at the time for a loyal buffer between the Persian center and the Egyptian revolt (Biblical Interpretation in Ancient Israel, 107–108). But this does not make Ezra’s role political. It only suggests that the king might have used Ezra’s religious role as a means to a political end.

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This is not necessarily an effort to keep the law as law (contra C. F. Keil, Nehemiah, trans. Sophia Taylor, Keil & Delitzsch Commentary on the Old Testament 4 [Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1866–91; reprint, Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson, 2001], 146–47). It is perhaps not a citation at all (Ernst Bertheau, Esra, Nechemia und Ester, [Leipzig: Hirzel, 1887], 277–80). See also Fishbane, Biblical Interpretation, 109–13. 50 The LXX introduces this verse with: And Ezra said. 51 LXX: “the land of the Chaldeans” (cf., Gen 11:28; 15:6). 52 See John H. Sailhamer, Genesis Unbound (Sisters, Ore.: Multnomah, 1996). 53 Rendtorff, Canonical Hebrew Bible, 27. 54 Kautzsch, Gesenius’ Hebrew Grammar, 440–41. 55 Or, “with Miriam”; LXX: “in Egypt” (cf., Num 14:4). 56 Cf., Jer 31:3; Pss 36:10 (Eng., 36:9); 109:12. 57 See Michael B. Shepherd, “The Compound Subject in Biblical Hebrew,” HS 52 (2011): 117–18. 58 Keil, Nehemiah, 152–53 (contra Williamson, Ezra, Nehemiah, 313–14). The copula at the beginning of Josh 1:8 in the LXX preserves a distinction between the law and the book of the law. 59 It is significant then that Joshua emerges in Num 11:28. The succession of leadership from Moses to Joshua is one that moves from a prophet and lawgiver to a Spirit-filled wise man and military tactician (Num 27:18; Deut 34:9). 60 The contrast between the law and the Spirit also influences the Pentecost account in Acts 2. Pentecost was the traditional date for the giving of the law at Sinai (Exod 19), but in Acts 2 it is the time when God gives his Spirit. See also Rom 7:6; 8:4; 2 Cor 3:6. 61 See John H. Sailhamer, Introduction to Old Testament Theology (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1995), 239–49; Joseph Blenkinsopp, Prophecy and Canon: A Contribution to the Study of Jewish Origins (Notre Dame: Notre Dame University Press, 1977), 86–95, 120–23. 62 Eng., 4:5. 63 Along with this is the messianic hope of Dan 2:44–45; 7:13–14; 9:2, 24–27; 2 Chr 36:23.

Chapter Four The New Testament In a sense the New Testament Gospels—Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John— are like theologies of the Hebrew Scriptures in story form.1 The authors explain the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus according to the theology of their Bible (John 20:30–31).2 The same can be said and has been said of the New Testament epistles, although their theology is in the form of exposition rather than story.3 And certainly no one would object that the book of Revelation speaks in the language and theology of the Hebrew Bible. But for the presentation of biblical and theological summaries, perhaps the best place to begin is the book of Acts. The speeches of Acts play a crucial role in the theological and geographical program outlined in Acts 1:8: “but you will receive power when the Holy Spirit comes upon you, and you will be witnesses of me in Jerusalem and in all Judea and Samaria and to the end of the earth.” When the Holy Spirit comes in chapter 2, Peter’s speech explains the gift of the Spirit from the Hebrew Scriptures. The persecution following Stephen’s biblical and theology summary in Acts 7 pushes the church beyond Jerusalem to Judea and Samaria (Acts 8:1, 4) and beyond (Acts 11:19). Paul’s speech in Acts 13—a biblical-theological summary—comes at the beginning of the first of his three missionary journeys, which would ultimately take him to Rome and to the end of the known world (Acts 28; Rom 15:24; Col 1:23). Peter’s speech in Acts 3 and James’ speech at the Jerusalem council in Acts 15 explain the gospel and the inclusion of the Gentiles in God’s kingdom from the Hebrew Scriptures. Even Paul’s later defenses before Felix and Agrippa appeal to Moses and the Prophets (Acts 24:14–15; 26:22–23). It would seem that Luke intends to present Christianity as the legitimate heir to the Hebrew Scriptures. Both volumes of his work conclude with presentations of the gospel from the Hebrew Scriptures by his two main characters—Jesus and Paul (Luke 24; Acts 28).

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The immediate context of Stephen’s speech in Acts 7 begins in chapter 6. The table fellowship incident involving the Hellenists and the Hebrews serves to set up the introduction of Stephen—“a man full of faith and the Holy Spirit” (Acts 6:5).4 The context is further set in Acts 6:11–14 by the accusations from false witnesses who say that Stephen has spoken against Moses, the temple, and the law (cf., Mark 14:57–58). Stephen clarifies his views on Moses (Acts 7:17–43), the temple (Acts 7:46–50), and the law (Acts 7:38, 53), but he does so by couching them within the larger framework of the biblical narrative, providing examples of exegesis along the way. In this he follows the Tanak model of orientation to the biblical world. The speech begins with the patriarchal history (Acts 7:2–16), specifically Genesis 12; 15; 17; 37–50.5 This selection follows Neh 9:7–8 and Ps 105:17– 23 most closely. From here there is close adherence to the outline of Deut 26:5–9 (Acts 7:15, 17–19, 34, 36, 45). The lion’s share of material is dedicated to Moses (Acts 7:20–38 [Exod 1–14; Deut 18:15]), including a few non-pentateuchal details (e.g., Acts 7:38 [cf., Jub. 47:9]). Acts 7:38 mentions Sinai explicitly (cf., Neh 9:13–14). Stephen then seizes upon the account of the golden calf incident to make his point about the rebellion of generations both past and present (Acts 7:39–41 [Exod 32; Deut 9]). He drives the point home with a quote from Amos 5:25–27 (Acts 7:42–43).6 The use of “tent” (skhnh/) in Acts 7:43 connects to “the tent of the testimony” in Acts 7:44 and “the dwelling place” (skh/nwma) in Acts 7:46. Stephen then offers a critique of the people’s dependence upon the institution of the temple (Acts 7:47–50). This is based upon Isa 66:1–2 (see also 1 Kgs 8:27; Jer 7:4; Ps 11:4). The conclusion to Stephen’s exposition in Acts 7:51–53 follows that of Neh 9:29–31. He calls his accusers “stiff-necked” (sklhrotra&xhloi; cf., e0sklh/runan to\n tra&xhlon au0tw~n [LXX Neh 9:16–17, 29]) and “uncircumcised in heart” (Deut 30:6; Jer 4:4). He says that they have resisted the Holy Spirit and are the sons of the prophets’ persecutors (cf., Neh 9:30). They are the murderers of the righteous one and have not kept the law (cf., Neh 9:29, 34). The reaction to Stephen’s speech leads to the introduction of Saul/Paul (Acts 7:58; 8:1–3; 22:20), the man who gives the next biblicaltheological summary in Acts 13:13–41.

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Acts 13:13–41 Paul’s speech occurs in the synagogue at Antioch of Pisidia. It follows the reading of Scripture mentioned in Acts 13:15. Paul begins in Acts 13:17 with the election of the fathers (cf., Neh 9:7) and the exodus. He moves quickly through the wilderness (Acts 13:18), the land (Acts 13:19), and the period from the judges through Samuel and Saul (Acts 13:20–21). Paul then makes the genealogical connection from David to Jesus, speaking also of John’s preparatory ministry (Acts 13:22–25). This connection is revisited in Acts 13:32–37, but Paul makes an application before he continues with his exposition. He says that the Jews have neither recognized their own Savior nor understood their own Scripture (Acts 13:26–27, 29; cf., Matt 22:29). Their hearts are covered when Scripture is read (2 Cor 3:15). Paul goes on to speak of Pilate, the crucifixion, the resurrection, and the post-resurrection appearances (Acts 13:28–31). He then promptly returns to Scripture in Acts 13:32–41 (Ps 2:7; Isa 55:3; Ps 16:10), making sure that the Son of David is understood to be greater than David due to the fact that he is also the resurrected Son of God (Ps 110; Matt 22:41–46). Such a focus on Scripture in the heart of an argument is not uncommon for Paul (e.g., Gal 3–4). In response to David Wenham’s emphasis on the continuity between Jesus and Paul, Andreas Köstenberger argues: With Wenham, it is granted that Paul did not set himself in contrast to Jesus but operated in essential continuity with him. It is less certain that it best served Paul’s purposes in proclaiming the gospel to do so by alluding to or echoing Jesus’ teaching. For during Paul’s ministry, Jesus’ identity as the OT-promised Messiah still had to be demonstrated. This could be accomplished not by quoting Jesus’ words but by furnishing proof that the events in Jesus’ life, especially his crucifixion and resurrection, fit the pattern laid out in the OT. Thus the OT, not Jesus, was Paul’s primary theological source.7

Paul concludes his speech with a call to faith from Hab 1:5.8 When Paul and Barnabas speak on the following Sabbath at the request of the people (Acts 13:42–47), the Gentiles believe (Acts 13:47–48; Isa 49:6).

Hebrews 11 The faith chapter of Hebrews 11 follows the final warning passage of the epistle (Heb 10:19–39), which concludes with a call to faithfulness from the LXX of Hab 2:3–4. The writer exhorts his audience to hold fast to Christ in the midst of persecution and the temptation to turn back to Judaism. He

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demonstrates the superiority of Christ and the new covenant from the Hebrew Scriptures—Christian Scripture. The topic of discussion coming into chapter 11 is not simply faith, but faith that endures (Heb 3:19–4:2). After a “definition” of faith in Heb 11:1, the author begins his account of the faith of the ancients (Heb 11:2). The world of faith provided by the Hebrew Scriptures serves as the framework in which the readers are to understand their own faith (Heb 12:1–2). The exposition/summary (see Acts 13:15; Heb 13:22) begins with creation (Heb 1:3; cf., Ps 136; Neh 9; 2 Macc 7:28). Verses 3–7 of Hebrews 11 represent Genesis 1–11 (Cain and Abel [also Heb 12:24], Enoch, and Noah), and verses 8–22 represent Genesis 12–50 (Abraham, Isaac, Jacob and Esau [also Heb 12:16], and Joseph). This section shows particular interest in a city built by God (Heb 11:10, 16), an interest that resurfaces in Heb 12:22. In the section on Moses (Heb 11:23–29) there is mention of the Passover and the exodus. Verse 26 says that Moses was “looking for the reward.” This identifies Moses as a man who believed that God is a rewarder of those who seek him (Heb 11:6; cf., Gen 15:1–6). Both Abraham and Moses are depicted as “pre-Christian” Christians (Heb 11:13, 26; cf., John 8:56). Their faith is considered the same as that of the Christian church (cf., Rom 4). Following the exodus in verse 29, there is a huge leap to Jericho and Rahab in verses 30–31 (Josh 1–6). There is no reference to Sinai until Heb 12:18–29. From this point the summary accelerates: Gideon, Barak, Samson, Jephthah, David, Samuel, the prophets, and the women (Heb 11:32–35). It has been suggested that the “others” of verses 36–38 are the Maccabean martyrs (2 Macc 6:18–7:42). Verses 39–40 form an inclusio with verse 2 (cf., Heb 6:15, 17; 11:13, 17, 33). The author resumes his exhortation from chapter 10 in Heb 12:1–2, yet he also reaches the goal of his exposition: the cross of Christ. He is now prepared to return to the gap in his summary between Heb 11:29 and 11:30. He contrasts the fire, darkness, and sound of Sinai (Heb 12:18–21) with Mount Zion—the city of God, the heavenly Jerusalem (Heb 12:22–24).9 This is a decidedly negative view of Sinai. The author does not point his readers to the law but to the new covenant mediated by Jesus (Heb 12:24; see also Heb 8).

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Some Practical Implications Scripture Has a Specific Shape Throughout the history of biblical interpretation readers of the Bible have struggled to come to the text on its own terms. Theologians want the Bible to address doctrinal issues. Preachers want the Bible to speak to “practical” matters. Scientists, ethicists, et cetera all have an agenda for the Bible. They all claim to be “biblical” because they have found texts to prove the particular point they want to make. But if the word “biblical” is to retain any distinctive meaning at all, it must describe something specific to the given shape of Scripture apart from the plethora of questions its readers bring to the table. There are basically two types of readers of the Bible: (1) those who want to see what the Bible says about something and (2) those who want to see what the Bible says. It almost goes without saying that the first type represents the vast majority of Bible readers. People have their own concerns, and they want the Bible to provide insight into what they consider to be important in life. Relatively few readers reach the point where they are content to let the Bible raise its own set of questions. Few are willing to set aside what they think is relevant in order to allow their reading of the Bible to reorient their minds to what is central to the biblical authors. The books of the Bible have a particular arrangement to their composition, yet readers of the Bible are all too willing to rearrange the text into more manageable categories. The common chronological rearrangement of Hosea–Malachi in the commentaries is a good example. It is quite foreign to many commentators to think that the present arrangement of the Twelve Prophets has a theological purpose that supersedes the presentation of a mere timetable of prophecies. If the author/composer had wanted to provide a simple chronology or documentary of events, he could have done so. But he did not. What the biblical authors do offer is a mosaic of narratives, poems, laws, letters, and more. This mosaic paints a textual portrait of the world from creation to new creation. It is a theological representation of the world. The authors also provide a model for their readers in the way they read and interpret the biblical narrative (e.g., Deut 26:5–9; Josh 24:1–15; Ezek 20; Pss 78; 105; 106; 136; Neh 9:6–31; Acts 7:1–53; 13:13–41; Heb 11). They do not bypass the arrangement of the biblical text in favor of their own plans. Rather, their interpretations of the biblical narrative are based on the form and sequence of the biblical text itself.

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The specific shape of Scripture invites questions such as: Why does Jesus understand the Bible in the order of “the Law of Moses and the Prophets and Psalms” (Luke 24:44)? Why are the collections of laws in the book of Moses framed by narrative units? Why do major poetic units (e.g., Gen 49:1–27) follow the large blocks of narrative in the book of Moses? Are the books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings simply character studies, or do they develop something more central to the theological message of the Bible? Are the Prophets, Psalms, and wisdom literature merely collections or anthologies of sayings and songs? Is there some overarching purpose to their composition? Why are there four Gospels? These are the questions of bookmaking. How do the parts fit into the whole? What does it all mean? What is the author’s strategy? Reorientation in the local church to the specific shape of the biblical books must take place on two levels: the individual and the corporate. Individual readers of the Bible need to take up the task of reading the Bible for its own sake (Josh 1:8; Ps 1:2). The average reader can find help in this task from scholarly resources made for the general public, resources such as commentaries and guides to biblical interpretation. Unfortunately the most readily available resources in local bookstores are very often the least helpful. They are written by unqualified authors who have little or no expertise in working with the original text of Scripture. This requires the reader to do some fairly extensive research before purchasing resources. On the corporate level, the local church needs a regular teaching setting in which someone with expertise in the original text of Scripture leads an interactive discussion about the composition of the biblical books (Neh 8). The common sermon setting is not conducive to this type of instruction. It lacks interaction and depends upon illustrations and minimal detail to sustain the audience’s attention. Sunday school is also inappropriate given the fact that the average Sunday school teacher lacks sufficient training in biblical languages. If the pastoral staff also lacks this education, then they should acquire it if possible. Otherwise the staff may be able to contact a local institution of higher education for assistance from biblical studies professors. (Of course, it will be necessary to make sure that the professor is qualified.) Whatever the case may be, the congregation as a whole needs the opportunity for exposure to this kind of teaching to complement their personal reading of the Bible. This combination of individual and corporate Bible reading will likely result in more textually-oriented church members.

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Scripture Is the Locus of Revelation It is not unusual to hear someone in the church say, “God spoke to me,” without any reference to the Bible. But sufficient consideration of the weight of such a statement rarely, if ever, accompanies the claim. The average church member reads or hears about biblical characters who receive visions (e.g., Gen 15:1) and assumes that experiences of personal and private revelation are commonplace for the believer. This approach to the text of Scripture fails to distinguish between what the biblical authors simply depict and what they actually commend to their readers. In order to discern where the biblical authors direct their readers to seek God’s revelation it is necessary to examine the composition of the Bible from the top down. That is, the reader must begin with the highest level of authorial activity—the composition of the Bible as a whole. The Bible Jesus (and Paul) read was not understood in the arrangement of the modern English Old Testament. It consisted of three sections (Luke 24:44): the Law of Moses (Gen–Deut), the Prophets (Josh, Judg, Sam, Kgs, Isa, Jer, Ezek, Hos–Mal), and Psalms (Pss, Job, Prov, Ruth, Song, Eccl, Lam, Est, Dan, Ezra-Neh, Chr). Analysis of what connects Moses to the Prophets (Deut– Josh) and what connects the Prophets to Psalms (Mal–Pss) should reveal what is of central importance to the final composer. The final passage of the book of Moses states that Joshua, Moses’ successor, was filled with the Spirit of wisdom (Deut 34:9; cf., Num 27:18). It also states that a prophet never arose in Israel like Moses (Deut 34:10; cf., Deut 18:15, 18; Acts 3:22; 7:37). Thus, the book of Moses ends with the thought that Joshua would be a different kind of leader—a wise man and a military figure rather than a prophet and a lawgiver. The expectation of a prophet like Moses would have to wait for the future. This text is followed by the LORD’s words to Joshua in Josh 1:1–9 where he instructs the new leader to “murmur” in the book of the Torah day and night (Josh 1:8). It is striking then to find similar language at the conclusion of the Prophets and the beginning of Psalms. Malachi 3:1a says, “Look, I am about to send my messenger, and he will prepare a path before me” (cf., Exod 23:20; Isa 40:3; Matt 11:10, 14; 17:10–11; Mark 1:2; 9:11–12; Luke 1:17; 7:27). The end of Malachi looks forward to a prophet like Elijah: “Look, I am about to send to you Elijah the prophet before the coming of the great and terrible Day of the LORD” (Mal 4:5 [Heb., 3:23]). Psalm 1 follows this passage and says that the wise person is the one who “murmurs” in the Torah day and night (Ps 1:2). This can hardly be a coincidence.

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The last three books of the Hebrew Bible (Dan, Ezra-Neh, Chr) also show a marked interest in the reading and interpretation of Scripture. To cite a few examples, Daniel 9 narrates the reading and interpretation of Jeremiah’s prophecy of seventy years (Dan 9:2, 24–27). Ezra, a scribe “skilled in the Torah of Moses” (Ezra 7:6, 10), leads the reading and interpretation of the book of Moses in Nehemiah 8–9. The book of Chronicles provides a comprehensive account of biblical history from Adam to the decree of Cyrus, offering theological commentary on biblical sources such as Samuel and Kings. At every major juncture in the composition of the Hebrew Bible (Moses–Prophets, Prophets–Pss, Dan–Chr) the message is the same: read Scripture to find revelation of the future work of God in Christ. Some readers will likely raise at least two questions in objection to the above presentation: (1) What about natural revelation or revelation in history? (2) What about God’s will for someone’s choice of job, choice of spouse, et cetera (i.e., things not stated explicitly in Scripture)? In response to the first question, nature and history are not self-interpreting, although they are inherently meaningful. This is the point of Psalm 19. God’s creation is saying something (Ps 19:1–2; cf., Rom 1:18ff), but there is no speech, there are no words (Ps 19:3). Therefore, the psalmist turns to Scripture (Ps 19:7–14). In response to the second question, God’s will is not primarily about what people think is important. The believer’s task is to set aside his or her personal issues and orient himself/herself to the central concerns of the biblical authors. That said, it is also true that God’s word equips the reader with wisdom, which he or she can apply in a wide variety of situations (Prov 1:1–7). The Bible is God’s revelation of Christ. It is sufficient for the believer (2 Tim 3:15–17) and the church (1 Tim 4:13).

Scripture Is Clear but Hard Well-meaning Bible teachers often give the impression that interpretation of Scripture is easy. This is usually done in an effort to encourage Bible reading, but sometimes it is based on a faulty understanding of what the Reformers meant by the “perspicuity” or clarity of Scripture. According to 2 Pet 3:16, there are some things in Paul’s letters “difficult to understand.” Many would consider Paul’s writings a walk in the park in contrast to other biblical texts. Therefore, it is necessary to formulate a more balanced view of Scripture’s accessibility. In the words of Martin Luther, “Scripture belongs to all and is clear enough insofar as one needs salvation but also dark enough for those who

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want to study and know more.” Scripture belongs to all in the sense that it is not reserved for the intelligentsia of the church or the academy. The gospel is clear in passages like Isa 52:13–53:12 and Rom 3:21–26, but the Bible as a whole is designed for a lifetime of careful study. Its meaning is not something that can be read directly off the surface in one sitting. It is understandable, but it requires hard work. The biblical authors have put their texts together in such a way that they reward multiple rereadings. For example, only in the rereading of a verse like Gen 42:6b, after having read Gen 49:8b, can the reader fully appreciate the implications of the text (see Gen 12:3; 27:29; Num 24:9). The truth is that shortcuts in interpretation lead to error. The Bible is not merely a straightforward list of things to do, and it is wrong to assume that believers automatically know the Bible’s meaning and can simply skip to the correct practice of their faith. The Bible is literature composed of a wide variety of genres. With this in mind it is helpful to comprehend the central role of Psalm 1 in the composition of the Hebrew Bible. This text stands at the head of the third division of the Hebrew Bible (Luke 24:44): “Blessed is the person…his delight is in the Torah of the LORD, and in his Torah he murmurs day and night” (Ps 1:1–2; cf., Josh 1:8). How does the reader “do” Psalm 1? He or she must read and study Scripture diligently and carefully. The plague of anti-intellectualism has always been a threat to the church and to Christian institutions of higher education. It is thought by many that scholarship is somehow unspiritual. But this view creates a false dichotomy between the word and the Spirit. Others contend that education should only go so far. They prefer to put all the cookies on the bottom shelf and do not see the value of pushing church members or students to new horizons. They also argue that the church has more important things to do. But all of this misses the basic fact that the Hebrew Bible in particular was composed by scholars for scholars. In antiquity only the scribes and scholars were able to read and compose large texts. The general populace was illiterate (or without access to biblical texts) and dependent upon this scholarly guild for oral reading and interpretation (Neh 8–9). Thus, Ezra the scribe (Ezra 7:6) “fixed his mind to study the Torah of the LORD and to compose it (cf., Eccl 12:12), and to teach…” (Ezra 7:10). Such a mind would be well equipped to navigate the intricate web of intertextual connections that constitute the composition of the Hebrew Scriptures and discern the intent or verbal meaning of the final composer(s). I sometimes give students a sense of the importance of learning biblical Hebrew by taking them through a few of the main hermeneutical issues in Gen 1:1: (1) Is this verse a heading/title or a separate section in Hebrew? (2)

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Is this verse an independent or dependent clause in Hebrew? (3) What are the meanings for the different Hebrew words that translate “beginning”? (4) Why does the ancient Greek translation use the verb “to make” instead of the verb “to create”? (5) What is the meaning of the merism “the sky and the land” in the Hebrew Bible? An English translation or commentary would not necessarily raise these questions. And this is only the first verse of the Bible! It is like this for the rest of the way. God could have given the ancient equivalent of a Max Lucado book for Scripture, but he did not. He gave us the Bible in all of its complexity. To meditate in Scripture “day and night” (Josh 1:8; Ps 1:2) is a way of life, not a “quiet time.” Reading (and interpretation) of Scripture is an act of faith and obedience, not merely a means to another end. According to Ps 1:3, it is where the blessed and wise person finds spiritual nourishment and bears spiritual fruit. It is an act of worship both on the individual and the corporate levels. The apostle Paul could have instructed Timothy to do all sorts of things until his (Paul’s) arrival in Ephesus. He could have catered to various personal preferences, but instead he made his instruction straightforward: “Until I come, give attention to the reading of Scripture, to encouragement, to instruction” (1 Tim 4:13; cf., Acts 2:42; Eph 4:11–13). This is precisely because the church was and is to be “the pillar and support of the truth” (1 Tim 3:15). We would do well to heed this and embrace both the clarity and the difficulty of the Bible (Ps 119:18).

Scripture Is Applicable Bible teachers and preachers feel an incredible amount of pressure to make the Bible relevant and practical. For many, a Bible lesson or sermon is a failure unless it comes complete with a set of instructions or list of things to do. Every verse or paragraph of the Bible must have three or four such applications whether or not the biblical author himself makes them explicit. The danger, of course, is that those who hear this kind of Bible teaching leave with the impression that the application produced by the teacher/preacher is the word of God when in fact it is the biblical text that constitutes the word of God. The problem begins with an overly simplistic hermeneutical approach that pastors usually learn in their seminary training. They are told that the first step in interpretation is to determine what the biblical text meant to the original readers. The second step is to determine what the text means today, which is application. In other words, their task is to contextualize the Bible to

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the readers. But this approach overlooks the clues within the biblical text that suggest the books were intentionally put together in such a way that they would remain relevant beyond the lifetime of the original readers to future generations of faith. The primary means of accomplishing this was to give the books an eschatological framework so that anyone could read the Bible and learn how to live in light of the future work of God in Christ. Thus, the task today is to determine what the text has always meant. It is not to contextualize the Bible to the readers but to contextualize the readers to the Bible. In Moses’ final speech to the people he gives specific instructions about reading his book on a regular basis (Deut 31:9–13; see also Neh 8–9). The stated purpose of these instructions is to teach every subsequent generation of faith how to fear the LORD. Within the book of Moses the events of the past have already been recast into images of the future (e.g., Num 23:22; 24:8) so that the text maintains its relevance beyond the time of those who first read the book. The same is true of the books of the Prophets. Isaiah says to bind up the Testimony and seal the Torah among his disciples. He then resolves to wait on the future work of God in Christ (Isa 8:16–9:7). The text of Scripture serves as a reminder of the light at the end of the tunnel in the midst of dark times. This is no less the case with the book of Psalms whose individual psalms often appear without their historical moorings precisely because they are to become the prayers, praises, and thanksgivings of every reader. The Gospels likewise are lasting portraits of Christ, explanations of the life, death, and resurrection of Christ in light of the Hebrew Scriptures. Even the Pauline epistles, which were written to particular churches on particular occasions, were collected very early and widely circulated (2 Pet 3:16) because the early church recognized that they were written in such a way that their value extended well beyond their original audience. Paul’s theology of the Hebrew Scriptures benefits every believer. In fact, Paul’s model of addressing theology (e.g., Eph 1–3) before practice (e.g., Eph 4–6) is a helpful one. Biblical application is not just about doing something or performing an activity. It is also about understanding and believing correctly. Right practice follows right faith, which is why it is important not to jump to the list of things to do too quickly. It is thus imperative for the reader to wait on the author to provide the application. The book of Daniel is a good exercise for readers to learn patience. The stories in the first six chapters of the book are very tempting for teachers/preachers who like to make up all sorts of things for people to apply to their lives. But the patient reader will be rewarded with an all-

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encompassing application at the end of the book bolstered by a robust theology of things to come. On the other hand, the hasty reader who rushes to application is likely to run roughshod over the author’s intention and miss the point entirely. The Hebrew portions of the book (Dan 1:1–2:4a; 8–12) form an interpretive framework around the Aramaic section (Dan 2:4b–7:28). Chapter 1 introduces the main characters and themes of the book. The visions in chapters 8 and 10–12 explain the sequence of kingdoms in chapters 2 and 7. Chapter 9 explains chapters 2 and 7 from the perspective of Jeremiah’s prophecy of seventy years. The final chapter of the book reveals that the unwavering faith of the three friends in the fiery furnace (Dan 3) and Daniel in the lions’ den (Dan 6) is anchored in a hope in the resurrection. The center of the Aramaic section (Dan 4–5) focuses on the reality that the kingdom belongs to God who gives it to whomever he pleases (Dan 4:17). Ultimately the Son of Man (Dan 7:13–14) and the saints (Dan 7:18, 27) receive the kingdom. The final verse of the book presents Daniel as a model for what the reader is to do with the message of the book: “And as for you, go to the end. And you will rest, and you will stand to your allotment at the end of the days” (Dan 12:13; cf., Hab 3:17–19). In other words, the future work of God in Christ should shape the way the reader believes, thinks, and acts today (cf., 2 Pet 3), enabling him or her to live and die in a way that is pleasing to God.

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Notes 1

James Barr objects to the idea that story is theology (The Concept of Biblical Theology [Philadelphia: Fortress, 1999], 354–61). He considers theology to be abstract reflection expressed in expository form. The Bible is thus theological but not theology. Why this limited view of theology should be the case is not clear. It seems to be a rather arbitrary decision. 2 See D. A. Carson, “Syntactical and Text-Critical Observations on John 20:30–31: One More Round on the Purpose of the Fourth Gospel,” JBL 124 (2005): 693–714. 3 See G. F. Oehler, Theology of the Old Testament (New York: Funk & Wagnalls, 1883), 23. 4 This text also introduces Philip for the story in Acts 8. 5 Acts 7:4 assumes the reading of Gen 11:32 found in the Samaritan Pentateuch. For Acts 7:16, see the discussion in James L. Kugel, “Stephen’s Speech (Acts 7) in Its Exegetical Context,” in From Prophecy to Testament: The Function of the Old Testament in the New, ed. Craig A. Evans (Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson, 2004), 206–18. 6 See Michael B. Shepherd, The Twelve Prophets in the New Testament (New York: Peter Lang, 2011), 38–40. 7 Andreas J. Köstenberger, “Diversity and Unity in the New Testament,” in Biblical Theology: Retrospect and Prospect, ed. Scott J. Hafemann (Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity, 2002), 145–46. 8 See Shepherd, The Twelve Prophets, 47–54. 9 Idem, 54–55.

Appendix One Torah Piety in the Pentateuchal Targums It is well known that the targums (and rabbinic literature) often depict biblical characters in terms of torah piety.1 This was a way to portray prominent biblical figures in contemporary language. For those for whom the targums were intended, torah piety was the essence of faith and worship. Therefore, anyone said to study the Torah was automatically identifiable as a person whose life was devoted to the one true God. One aspect of this targumic practice, however, has received minimal attention. It is the question of whether or not the targumists actually had warrant for their renderings. Did they import something into the biblical text, or did they draw something out? Given the fact that the Pentateuch received its final shape in the Persian and Greek periods, it is possible that pious descriptions of biblical characters were already part of the biblical text when the targumists began their work (e.g., 2 Chr 6:16; 17:9). This appendix surveys the references to torah piety in the pentateuchal targums and examines the biblical text to see what gave impetus to such references.

Genesis 2:15b Modern translations usually give the impression in Gen 2:15b that the LORD God “put” the man in the Garden of Eden “to work it and to keep it.” That is, the man had a God-given responsibility to tend and cultivate the land. But this interpretation immediately runs into the problem of lack of agreement between the pronouns translated “it” and the supposed antecedent “the Garden of Eden.” The pronouns in the Hebrew text are feminine singular, but the noun Ng (“Garden”) is masculine. It is perhaps possible that the assumed referent is the feminine singular noun hmd) (“ground”). After all, the passage begins with the comment that there was not yet anyone to work the ground (Gen 2:5). But the description of the land in Gen 2:5–6 does not set up cultivation of the ground in Gen 2:15b. Rather, it indicates that the time to work the ground (among other things) had not yet come. It serves to give a “pre-fall” image of the land: (1) before hd#h b#( (Gen 3:18b), (2) before

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the LORD God caused rained (Gen 7:4), and (3) before man worked the ground (Gen 3:17).2 Targum Neofiti (and Ps.-J.) thus takes the text of Gen 2:15b in a very different direction: “And he gave him rest in the Garden of Eden to worship in the Torah and keep its statutes.” The main verb in Neofiti and in the original Hebrew text probably does not mean “to put” but “to give rest.”3 The LORD God already “put” the man in the Garden in Gen 2:8b. The Aramaic word xlp (“worship”) can mean “serve,” but when followed by the phrase “in the Torah” most likely takes the sense “study” or “worship.” The Palestinian Targum has interpreted the antecedent of the pronouns to be the feminine singular “Torah” and its statutes. This “Torah” is likely not a specific law code or the Sinai law in particular but the book of Moses (Deut 31:9–13; Josh 1:8 [LXX]; Neh 8–9) or Scripture in general (Pss 1; 19; 119; m. Qidd. 4:14). Thus, Neofiti understands the Garden of Eden to be a sanctuary of worship (or place of rest [see Gen 2:1–3]) where the man studies the Bible. Of course, this does not mean that the man literally had a scroll to read in the Garden, but from the vantage point of the targumist there was no higher act of worship by which to represent the man’s activity. What prompted the targumist(s) to understand the text this way? Was this entirely the creation of those responsible for the Palestinian Targum? The pronominal suffixes in Gen 2:15b probably demanded the attention of the early readers. It is also significant that use of db( and rm# together elsewhere in the Hebrew Bible offers a clue. For example, they appear together in the Numbers passages about the Levites’ tabernacle duties (Num 3:7, 8; 8:26; cf., 18:7). The tabernacle was in effect a new Garden of Eden or sanctuary of worship (cf., Gen 1:1–2:3 and Exod 25–31). They also appear together in Josh 22:5 as part of Joshua’s instruction to do “the command and the torah” and serve/worship the LORD (see also Deut 11:16; 12:30; 13:5; 1 Kgs 9:6; Jer 16:11; Hos 12:13; Mal 3:14). They never appear together with reference to cultivation of the ground. The Pentateuch’s depiction of the man in the original creation is thus remarkably similar to Isaiah’s portrayal of the nations in the new creation (Isa 2:1–5; 66:18–24): “And many peoples will go and say, ‘Come and let us go up to the mountain of the LORD, to the house of the God of Jacob; and he will teach us his ways, and we will walk in his paths; for from Zion Torah will go forth, and the word of the LORD from Jerusalem’ (Isa 2:3).” In both cases worship is understood in terms of the central role of the Torah.

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Genesis 3:15 The Palestinian Targum (Tgg. Neof. and Ps.-J.) contains a significant expansion in its rendering of Gen 3:15, which says that when the sons of the woman keep the Torah they will be striking the serpent on the head, but when they fail to do so the serpent will be biting “him” on the heel. There will be healing for “his son” but not for the serpent in the day of King Messiah.4 Once again the targum depicts the faithful in terms of keeping the Torah. But this time there seems to be little in the original Hebrew text to prompt such a rendering. The reference to the day of King Messiah, however, does tie the poem of Gen 3:14–19 to the “messianic” passages of other major poetic units within the Pentateuch: Gen 49:1–27 (see 49:8–12 in Tgg.); Num 23–24 (see 24:7–9, 17 in Tgg. and LXX); Deut 32–33 (see 33:5, 7, 20). According to Gen 3:22 of Targum Neofiti (see also Tg. Ps.-J.), Adam would have lived forever if he had kept the commands of the Torah. But because he did not keep them, God drove him from the Garden of Eden. The Palestinian Targum’s interpretation of Gen 3:24 states that God created the Torah two thousand years before he created the world. He prepared the Garden of Eden for the righteous (those who would keep the commands of the Torah) and Gehenna for the wicked (those who would not).5 The Torah is the tree of life to all who labor in it and keep its commands. Whoever keeps its commands will be like a tree of life in the world to come. The Torah is good to those who study (xlp) it. The latter part of Gen 3:24 in the Palestinian Targum finds warrant in a number of biblical texts. The phrase “tree of life” resurfaces in Prov 3:18 where “wisdom” (hmkx) is said to be a tree of life. According to Deut 4:6– 8, the Torah is hmkx—the technical term for “wisdom” in the wisdom literature. Both Job and Proverbs define wisdom in terms of the fear of the LORD (Job 28:28; Prov 1:7; 9:10; also Ps 111:10). It is thus noteworthy that one of the synonyms for the Torah in Psalm 19 is “the fear of the LORD” (Ps 19:10 [Eng., 19:9]). According to Psalm 1, whoever meditates in the Torah day and night will be like a tree planted by streams of water (cf., Jer 17:5– 8).6

The Patriarchs Targum Onkelos of Gen 12:5 understands “the people whom they acquired in Haran” to be “the people they subjected to the Torah.” The Palestinian

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Targum renders, “the people they converted.” This is decidedly not the meaning of the Hebrew expression (w#( r#) #pnh), but the portrayal of Abram is consistent with Genesis 12–26 where the reader learns not only that Abraham kept the law (Gen 26:5) but also that he openly practiced his faith in the land of Canaan (Gen 12:8; 13:4, 18; 21:33; 22:9) and engaged the inhabitants of the land (Gen 14:13). The patriarchs are sometimes said to have studied in “the house of midrash” (a place to learn exposition of Torah). For example, the angel in Gen 22:19 (Tg. Ps.-J.) took Isaac and brought him to the house of midrash of Shem the Great (see Gen 9:27 Tg. Ps.-J.) where he stayed for three years. The rendering of Gen 24:62 in Targum Pseudo-Jonathan says Isaac was coming from the house of midrash of Shem the Great. This has little to do with the context, although the next verse narrates that Isaac went out to meditate (?) in the field. Targum Neofiti of Gen 25:27 says that Jacob was a man “perfect” (Ml# for Heb. Mt) in good work, sitting in the house of midrash (rather than tents).7 This obviously serves to contrast Jacob (the pious) with his brother Esau (the hunter). The older will serve the younger, if the sons of the younger keep the commands of the Torah (Gen 25:23 Tg. Ps.J.; see also 30:18). In a text reminiscent of Gen 3:15 (Tg. Neof.), Gen 27:40 (Tgg. Neof., Ps.-J., Onk.) says that when Jacob’s descendants labor in the Torah and keep the commands they will be placing the yoke of their burden on Esau’s neck. But when they fail to do this Esau will rule over “him” and remove the yoke. Once again, this has little to do with the Hebrew text. Joseph is also said to have studied in the house of midrash. According to Gen 37:2 (Tg. Ps.-J.), he departed the house of midrash at the age of seventeen.8 In the Onkelos version of Jacob’s words to Joseph (Gen 49:22– 26), Joseph’s “prophecy came back at them because he fulfilled the Torah in secret” (Gen 49:24). Onkelos also refers to the Torah in Gen 49:11 where it is said that the doers of the Torah will be with the messianic king (cf., Gen 49:10, 14, 15 [Pal. Tg.]). It is noteworthy then that Gen 49:24 of Onkelos also mentions that Joseph took possession of the kingdom. Jacob’s words to Judah (Gen 49:8–12) and Joseph (Gen 49:22–26) are considerably more substantial than his words to the other brothers. It is also well known that Jacob’s words to Judah in Gen 49:8b identify Joseph in the preceding narrative to be a prefiguration of the coming king (see Gen 37:8, 10; 42:6, 9). In light of the fact that the Judean king is to write a copy of the Torah (Deut 17:18), it is quite possible that the Onkelos renderings of Gen 49:11, 24 are based on a complex web of intertextual connections.

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Exodus In Exodus, Onkelos only uses “torah” to translate “torah” except in 34:7 where it says that God forgives those who return to his Torah. Neofiti is similar to Onkelos, although it sometimes uses “torah” to translate hqx (Exod 12:43; 13:10). One exception in Neofiti is Exod 15:25a: “And he prayed before the LORD, and the LORD showed (ywx) him a tree. And the word of the LORD took from it a word of the Torah and threw it into the water, and the water became sweet.”9 The MT here says the LORD “taught him” (whrwyw) an C(, and he (?) threw it into the water.10 Neofiti and Pseudo-Jonathan both translate the first verb with ywx, but Neofiti’s addition—“And the word of the LORD took from it a word of the Torah”— seems to play upon the MT’s verb since “teach” and “torah” (instruction) come from the same root (hry). There are other reasons to see Neofiti’s version of Exod 15:25 as well grounded in the Hebrew text. The unusual expression “the LORD taught him a tree” suggests that the word C( actually stands for the Torah (see the above discussion on Gen 3:24 [Pal. Tg.]). The C( made the water sweet, just like the scroll was sweet in Ezek 3:3. Another clue is the reference to qx +p#mw in Exod 15:25b, which elsewhere are terms for the Torah (e.g., Deut 4:44–45).11 The Hebrew text of Exod 16:4 uses the word “test” (hsn) from Exod 15:25b and the word “torah.” Furthermore, the image of Exod 15:27 is similar to that of Psalm 1, a torah psalm.12 Pseudo-Jonathan tends to add “torah” in places that fit the context (Exod 3:5, 12; 17:1; 19:25; 20:6; 23:8; 24:18; 26:9; 33:7; 36:16; 40:5). For example, the Hebrew text of Exod 19:25b introduces discourse, but no discourse follows (cf., Gen 4:8a). The targum adds: “Draw near, receive the Torah with the ten words” (cf., Exod 34:28; Deut 4:13; 10:4). This obviously sets up the content of Exodus 20. Another interesting example comes from Exod 40:5 where the LORD instructs Moses to set up the altar of gold for incense before the ark of the testimony (Exod 40:5a) and to put in place the cover of the entrance for the tabernacle (Exod 40:5b). Pseudo-Jonathan makes an addition at the end of each clause: “…due to the wise who are busy in the Torah and whose scent spreads like the incense (Exod 40:5a).…due to the righteous who cover the house of Israel with their merit” (Exod 40:5b). These additions are remarkably similar to the language of Dan 12:3, which speaks of the wise who bring many to righteousness. They are the ones who give the people understanding (Dan 11:3), probably understanding in Scripture (Josh 1:8; Neh 8:8).13

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Onkelos primarily uses “torah” to translate “torah” in Leviticus and Numbers with the exception of Lev 19:32; 26:25; Num 14:18 (cf., Tg. Ps.-J. and Exod 34:7 [Tg. Onk.]). Its rendering of Lev 19:32aa reads: “Before one who understands [i.e., a scholar] in the Torah you will rise” (cf., Tg. Ps.-J.: “Before an elder who understands in the Torah…”; Tg. Neof.: “Before wise men greater than you in the Torah…”). Onkelos uses rbs (“understand”) for hby# (“gray head” or “old age”). Those who reach old age are not necessarily wise, nor are the young always foolish, but a life spent in the Torah demands respect (cf., Prov 16:31). Neofiti contains several uses of “torah” outside of translation of “torah” in Leviticus and Numbers (Lev 18:4: 19:19 [cf., LXX], 32; 22:27, 31 [also 22:31 Tg. Ps.-J.]; 26:3, 14, 15, 18, 21, 27 [also 26:14, 18, 21, 27 Tg. Ps.-J.]; Num 9:14; 12:16 [also Tg. Ps.-J.]; 15:15, 16; 21:14 [also Tg. Ps.-J.]; 24:6ab; 27:21 [htyrw) (“the Torah”) for Myrw)h (“the Urim”)]). Uses of “torah” outside of translation of “torah” in Pseudo-Jonathan apart from parallels with Onkelos and Neofiti include: Lev 7:35; 14:32, 57; 15:32; 25:55; 26:29, 43; Num 6:25; 14:14ba; 21:20, 27–29 (“one who meditates [xy#m] in the Torah” for “Sihon” [Nwxys]); 33:14, 46. The expansion of Num 6:25 in Pseudo-Jonathan builds on the close relationship between the Torah and the wisdom literature (Deut 4:6): “May the LORD make the expression of his face give light to you when you are busy in the Torah and may he reveal to you hidden things and care about you.” According to Prov 6:23a, “command is a lamp and instruction [‘torah’] is a light.” This rendering also draws upon the language of Deut 29:28 (“The hidden things belong to the LORD our God, but the revealed things belong to us and to our children forever to do all the words of this Torah”)14 and Ps 119:18 (“Open my eyes that I may see wonderful things [or, ‘things difficult to comprehend’] from your Torah”). The rendering of Num 24:6ab in Neofiti says that Israel’s tents/dwellings are “like gardens planted by springs of water, thus their cities bring forth the wise and the sons of the Torah.” This is part of Balaam’s third oracle. The poetic image of watered plants has yet again prompted reference to the Torah (see Exod 15:25–27 [Tg. Neof.] and Ps 1). It is significant then that the preceding verse in Neofiti understands the tents/dwelling places of Jacob/Israel to be houses of midrash (see also Num 24:2, 6 [Tg. Ps.-J.]). This goes back to the interpretation of Gen 25:27 in Neofiti, which has Jacob sitting in the house of midrash rather than tents.

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Deuteronomy Onkelos uses “torah” apart from translation of “torah” in Deuteronomy only in the final two poems, chapters 32 and 33. It renders “foolish people” (M( lbn) in Deut 32:6ab with “people who received the Torah” (for Nwbn M(?) (cf., Tg. Ps.-J.). The privilege of the Torah came with greater responsibility (Deut 4:8; Amos 3:2). The Onkelos interpretation of Deut 32:10ba features the teaching of the Torah in the wilderness: “He made them dwell all around his Shekinah; he taught (for Nyb) them the words of his Torah” (cf., Tg. Ps.J.). Interpretation of Deut 33:2b is especially difficult given the problems surrounding the word td#) (“fiery law”? “foundation/slope”? “angels” [LXX]?). The context, however, is clear that the giving of the Torah at Sinai (mediated through angels) is in view (Deut 33:2a, 4; Acts 7:53; Gal 3:19; Heb 2:2). Onkelos translates, “The writing of his right hand from the midst of the fire is the Torah he gave us.” This translation refers to God’s writing on the tablets (Exod 31:18; 34:1, 28; Deut 4:13; 10:2). It also takes the word “fire” (#)) from td#) and refers to the fiery display of thunder, lightning, and smoke on Sinai (Exod 19:16; 20:18). This has its basis in Deuteronomy’s own characterization of Sinai in Deut 5:4: “Face to face the LORD spoke with you on the mountain from the midst of the fire (#)).” Neofiti (see also Tg. Ps.-J.) begins Deuteronomy with a large expansion of the first verse in which Moses begins his discourse, “Was it not in the wilderness, on Mt. Sinai, that the Torah was given to you, O sons of Israel, and in the plains of Moab it was explained to you?” Of course, this draws upon the words of Deut 1:5 where the reader learns that Deuteronomy is an exposition of the Torah. Elsewhere in Deuteronomy Neofiti tends to use the phrase “the teaching of the Torah of the LORD your God” for “the LORD your God” (Deut 4:4; 6:5, 12; 8:11, 14, 19; 10:12, 20; 11:1, 13, 22; 13:4, 5; 19:9; 28:20; 30:2, 6, 16, 20). This is a circumlocution designed to avoid making the LORD the direct object of verbs like bh). According to Neofiti, the Torah is where the people meet with God. It is the answer to the question, “How do I show devotion to the LORD?” Neofiti also prefers to make “his commands” more specific with the phrase “the commands of his Torah” (Deut 4:40; 5:10, 29; 6:2, 17; 7:9; 8:2, 6; 11:13; 17:20; see also Deut 11:2; 15:4, 11; 29:19, 26 [cf., 29:20 MT]).15 Neofiti also mentions the house of midrash in Deut 28:6: “Blessed will you be…when you come into the midst of your house of midrash, and blessed will you be…when you go out from your synagogue.” The language of coming in and going out found in the Hebrew text here probably refers to

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going out to war (e.g., Josh 14:11), but Neofiti sees it more in terms of Deut 6:7 (i.e., at all times). Life revolves around the Torah. Something similar occurs in Deut 33:18 of Neofiti and Pseudo-Jonathan where Zebulun “goes out” for business (MT war? cf., Deut 28:19 Tg. Ps.-J.), and Issachar sits in his houses of midrash (MT “tents”; cf., Gen 25:27b [Tg. Neof.]). This may have its basis in 1 Chr 12:33, 34 where the sons of Issachar are said to have “understanding” (hnyb) of the times, and those from Zebulun are those who “go out” to war. The images of going up to the sky and crossing over the sea in Deut 30:11–14 lend themselves to a variety of interpretations: Moses on Sinai and in the Sea of Reeds, Moses on Sinai and Jonah in the Sea (Tg. Neof.), Christ’s incarnation and resurrection (Rom 10:6, 7), et cetera. Neofiti understands the pronoun )whi in Deut 30:12, 13 to refer to the Torah (see Deut 30:10). The “command” or the “word” in this context is the Torah. It is near to the believer (Deut 30:14; Rom 10:8), just as Abraham believed (Gen 15:6) and was said to have kept the law by faith (Gen 26:5). Neofiti makes several references to the Torah in Deuteronomy 32 and 33. According to the rendering of Deut 32:4 (also Tg. Ps.-J.), Moses said, “I have seen the Master of all the ages dividing the day and making it into four portions.” For the first three hours he studies the Torah. This is perhaps the pinnacle of all references to torah piety in the pentateuchal targums. God himself studies the Torah. In contrast to other statements about torah piety, which usually mark the character(s) as faithful, this statement says more about the Torah itself than it does about God. That is, if God makes time to study the Torah, then it is that much more important for everyone else to study it. The text of Deut 32:7b exhorts those who hear the song to ask the older generation about the faithfulness of the LORD (cf., Ps 78:1–8). Neofiti refers to the older generation as the “fathers who are greater than you in Torah” (cf., Tg. Ps.-J.). If Israel would only study the Torah and the keep the commands, they would enjoy God’s blessing (Deut 32:14b [Tgg. Neof. and Ps.-J.]). If only Israel had been wise, they would have learned the Torah (Deut 32:29 [Tgg. Neof. and Ps.-J.]; cf., Josh 1:8 [lk# “to be wise”; see Deut 34:9]). According to Deut 32:30 of Neofiti, one person will be able to chase a thousand when Israel labors in the Torah and keeps the commandments. This is obviously contrary to the sense of the Hebrew text, but the view expressed in Neofiti is very much like that of its rendering of Gen 3:15. It also surfaces in Deut 33:29bb: “But you, my people, children of Israel, when you study the Torah and do the commandments, you will tread on the joint of the necks

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of their kings” (cf., Gen 49:8). The Torah was to be Israel’s special possession (Deut 33:4), given to them at Sinai but rejected by the children of Esau and Ishmael (Deut 33:2–3 [Tgg. Neof. and Ps.-J.]; see also Deut 33:9b [Tg. Neof.]). There are several “torah” renderings of Deuteronomy unique to PseudoJonathan (Deut 1:6; 4:6; 17:10, 16; 18:16; 23:17; 27:26; 28:19 [cf., 28:6 Tg. Neof.], 35; 29:3, 5; 30:19 [cf., 32:47], 20; 32:47, 50; 34:5).16 Of particular interest here are the renderings of Deut 29:3, 5; 30:19, 20. According to Deut 28:69, these are the words of the covenant “besides” (dblm) the covenant made at Horeb (cf., Deut 1:1; 4:44; 12:1). The text of Deuteronomy 29 and 30 does not actually narrate the making of a covenant (cf., Gen 15:18). Rather, it speaks more in terms of the future work of God beyond exile. Up to this point the LORD had not given the people “a heart to know and eyes to see and ears to hear” (Deut 29:3). Pseudo-Jonathan reverses the sense of Deut 29:3 and adds “but you forgot the Torah…” (despite the fact that the Torah was in their “schools” Deut 29:5 Tg. Ps.-J. [see Deut 8:3]). In other words, the people failed to keep the external rules and regulations of the Torah. Likewise Jeremiah concludes that the people’s problems are their uncircumcised hearts (Jer 4:4; 9:25 [cf., Deut 30:6]) and their need for the Torah to be written not on tablets of stone (Exod 31:18) but on the tablets of their hearts (Jer 31:31–34; also Ezek 11:19–20). For Jeremiah, this is the new covenant besides the covenant at Horeb. The Hebrew text of Deut 30:19ba reads, “And you will choose life.” Pseudo-Jonathan has, “And you will choose the path of life, that is, the Torah.” Likewise Pseudo-Jonathan renders Kyyx )wh yk in Deut 30:20b as “because the Torah in which you are busy is your life in this world.” Again, the Torah is life. It is where the people learn about God and hear from God. It is the real world, the framework into which they fit their lives (i.e., creation/new creation, exodus/new exodus, covenant/new covenant, etc.).

The Torah of Deuteronomy in the Pentateuch Already within the narrative of the Pentateuch biblical characters act in accordance with the Torah of Deuteronomy. Like the “torah” renderings of the targums, this feature of the composition of the Pentateuch depicts the biblical characters as faithful. For example, when Abram goes to war against the eastern coalition in Gen 14:13–24, he does so in accordance with the rules for warfare in Deut 20:1–15.17 Another instance occurs in Gen 17:18 where Abraham pleads the case of his firstborn Ishmael in light of the news

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that Sarah will have a son (Gen 17:16). This is in accordance with the instruction found in Deut 21:15–17. Thus, once again the practice of the targums finds a precedent within the biblical texts themselves.

Conclusion The “torah” renderings of the pentateuchal targums are an integral part of their makeup from beginning to end. Not only do they provide insight into the unique perspective of those who produced the targums, but also they serve as an important part of the early history of interpretation, often guiding readers of the Pentateuch to see features within the biblical text itself, features that were intended by those responsible for the final form of the text. This was done by means of a variety of creative methods designed for the careful reader.18 Those who follow their work reap a rich reward.

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Notes 1

See Michael B. Shepherd, “Targums,” in Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels, rev. ed., ed. Joel B. Green (Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity, forthcoming). 2 See John H. Sailhamer, The Pentateuch as Narrative: A Biblical-Theological Commentary (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1992), 97. 3 The hiphil of xwn with a daghesh forte in the first root letter ordinarily means “to put,” but this is a feature of the Masoretic Text, not the original, consonantal text. The verb without daghesh forte ordinarily means “to cause to rest.” 4 Martin McNamara makes a connection between this text and Rev 12:17 (The New Testament and the Palestinian Targum to the Pentateuch [AnBib 27; Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute, 1966], 221–22). 5 See also the Palestinian Targum of Gen 15:17. 6 The only person ever said to have kept the Torah in the Hebrew Bible is Abraham (Gen 26:5; cf., Deut 5:31; 6:1, 20; 10:13; 11:1; 26:17; 30:10, 16), a man who was declared righteous by faith (Gen 15:6). 7 See Gen. Rab. 63:10. Jacob also built a house of midrash (Gen 33:17; 47:27 Tg. Ps.-J.). 8 Targum Neofiti attributes Joseph’s supposed shortcoming in Gen 40:23 to his failure to remember what was written in the Torah about not trusting in man. The Hebrew text, however, simply notes that the cupbearer forgot Joseph. 9 Pseudo-Jonathan says the LORD wrote on the wood “the great and honored name.” 10 The Samaritan Pentateuch has wh)ryw (“he showed him”; cf., LXX, Syr., Vulg.). 11 Note also that Pseudo-Jonathan uses “torah” in Exod 15:26. 12 Neofiti also uses “torah” in Exod 19:4bb (see also Exod 34:32, 33): “and I brought you near to the instruction of my Torah” (Ps.-J.: “and I brought you to the place of the house of the sanctuary to do there the Passover, and on that night I turned you to Pelusium, and there I brought you near to the instruction of my Torah”). 13 See Michael B. Shepherd, Daniel in the Context of the Hebrew Bible (New York: Peter Lang, 2009), 102, 104. 14 See Dan 2:22; Sir 3:22; 42:19. 15 Neofiti does not use “torah” to translate “torah” in Deut 17:19. 16 Deut 5:10; 11:2; 15:4, 11 are like Tg. Neof. (see also 15:7). Ps.-J. does not have “torah” from Deut 29:20. Deut 28:6 and 30:14 [Tg. Ps.-J.] mention the house(s) of midrash. 17 See Sailhamer, The Pentateuch as Narrative, 147–48. 18 Of course, targumic renderings were oral in the synagogue, but the writing down of such renderings was done not merely to preserve the oral but also to benefit the reader in specifically textual ways.

Appendix Two Beauty and the Bible In volume one of his Old Testament Theology, which was originally published in German in 1957, Gerhard von Rad states, “No aesthetic of the Old Testament or of the ancient East has as yet been written.”1 Over fifty years later the statement still holds true. Articles and essays have appeared. Dissertations with extensive word studies related to the subject have been produced. And philosophical discussions of aesthetics within a JudeoChristian context have not been lacking.2 But no one has offered a truly biblical-theological treatment in full monograph form. Beauty and realism play significant roles in the composition of the Hebrew Bible. If it were only a matter of word studies, topical categorization, or philosophy, then aesthetics would have no place in a biblical theology. But a compositional approach, which according to Rolf Rendtorff makes “the texts themselves, in their present ‘canonical’ shape, the point of departure for the account,” requires attention to biblical aesthetics.3 In this approach, the primary task of the biblical theologian is to allow “the intentions of those who gave the texts their present shape to come into their own.”4 This appendix seeks to demonstrate the role of beauty in three compositional techniques, roughly corresponding to the three divisions of the Hebrew canon. The first is that of thematization in which pre-figuration is employed from the Pentateuch through the Prophets to develop the theme of a beautiful sanctuary. The second is characterization—the use of beautiful characters at key junctures in the composition of the Pentateuch and the Former Prophets. The third and final technique is that of the strategic placement of particular forms, such as the use of torah psalms, lament psalms, and the Arabian was9f in the Writings.

Thematization The Bible begins with a description of the Garden of Eden (Gen 2:8–14), which is filled with the lushness of trees, water, and gold:

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The Textual World of the Bible And the LORD God planted a garden in Eden eastward, and he put there the man that he fashioned. And the LORD God caused to sprout from the ground every tree desirable to sight and good for food, and the tree of life in the middle of the garden, and the tree of knowing good and evil. And a river went out from Eden to water the garden, and from there it was divided and became four heads. The name of the one was Pishon. That was the one that went around all the land of Havilah where there was gold. And the gold of that land was good. Bdellium and the precious stone were there. The name of the second river was Gihon. That was the one that went around all the land of Cush. The name of the third river was Hiddekel. It went the east of Assyria. And the fourth river was Perath.

The name “Eden” means “luxury” or “delight,” and clearly a sanctuary of rest and worship has been prepared for mankind here in the narrative.5 Although the river Pishon and the land of Havilah are unknown, the mention of gold in that land is not without significance. Gold is the main feature of two other biblical sanctuaries—the tabernacle (Exod 25–27) and the temple (1 Kgs 7:48–50).6 Temple imagery in turn is used in the prophetic writings to depict the future restoration of God’s people (Ezek 40–48; Hag 2:1–9). Thus, the beauty and aesthetic quality of the original garden repeatedly appear before the reader’s eyes.7 After the description of the region of the Pishon river (Gen 2:11–12) are three rivers whose identities can be made from the biblical texts themselves. The Gihon river is the river of Cush, the river of Egypt (Gen 10:6; Jer 2:18 [LXX]). The Hiddekel and the Perath are the Tigris and the Euphrates respectively. It is difficult to tell how these four rivers were four heads from a single river, but it is not difficult to see the importance of such geographical markers in the narrative of the Pentateuch. These rivers form the boundaries of the land of the Abrahamic covenant “from the river of Egypt to the great river, the river Euphrates” (Gen 15:18).8 This land is at the heart of the covenants of the Hebrew Bible: the Noahic covenant (Gen 9:1–17), the Abrahamic covenant (Gen 15:18), the Sinai covenant (Exod 23:20–24:8), the Davidic covenant (2 Sam 7:10), and the new covenant (Ezek 20:33–44; 34:11–31; 36:22–38; 37:11–28; Hos 2:14–23). Within the composition of the Pentateuch, the pre-figuration of the tabernacle in the Garden of Eden and the identification of the Garden of Eden as the Promised Land are integral to the covenant with the patriarchs and the Sinai covenant. The presence of God is of utmost importance when it comes to land and sanctuary themes in the Hebrew Bible. Communion with God in the garden (Gen 2:15–25), which is said to have been lost in Gen 3:24, is in a sense restored through covenant. This can be seen in the statements made about the presence of God with the patriarchs, Moses, and Joshua (Gen 17:4; 26:3;

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28:15; 31:3; 32:10; 39:2, 21; Exod 3:12; Deut 31:23; Josh 1:5). But more important to the present discussion is the fact that the presence of God is an essential feature of the tabernacle (Exod 40:34–38) and the temple (1 Kgs 8:11; Ezek 43:2), marked by the appearance of God’s glory. Thus, von Rad comments, “[T]he highest beauty in all creation was Jahweh’s condescending to and entering into Israel’s historical existence.”9 For von Rad, this primarily has to do with theophanies, but it is also true of God’s sanctuaries.10 The lushness of the garden and the lavishness of the tabernacle and the temple are meaningless apart from the beauty and glory of God’s presence. The trees, water, and gold of the Garden of Eden are presented as God’s blessing—the preparation of a “good” (inhabitable and beneficial) place for his people. It is no surprise then that a new Garden of Eden is anticipated in the Prophets as the place of God’s restored relationship with his people: For the LORD has comforted Zion, He has comforted all her desolate places; And he has made her wilderness like Eden, And her desert like the garden of the LORD; Rejoicing and joy will be found in her, Thanksgiving and the sound of a song (Isa 51:3; cf., Ezek 36:35).

Texts such as this provide the hope of a better pleasure than what could be offered by the enticements of sin and idolatry (Isa 44:9–20). The placement of the delightful Garden of Eden at the beginning of the Pentateuch proves to be programmatic for the composition as a whole and for the remainder of the Hebrew Bible. Not only does it prefigure the tabernacle and the temple, but also it constitutes the land of the covenant. The real, aesthetic quality of the garden as the place of God’s presence is by no means on the periphery of the composition of the Pentateuch. Restoration of the blessing of life and dominion in the land remains throughout the Bible one of the most central biblical-theological themes.11

Characterization It is striking how often the biblical authors take note of outward beauty, especially with regard to major characters. For example, the three matriarchs in Genesis—Sarah, Rebekah, and Rachel—are all described as beautiful women. Abram says that Sarah is “beautiful of appearance” (h)rm tpy) in Gen 12:11. The narrator in Gen 24:16 calls Rebekah “very good of

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appearance” (d)m h)rm tb+). And Rachel is said to have been “beautiful of form and beautiful of appearance” (h)rm tpyw r)t tpy) (Gen 29:17). Female beauty, both external and internal, is extolled throughout the Hebrew Bible.12 In 1 Sam 25:3, Abigail is not only “beautiful of form” (tpy r)t) but also “good of insight” (lk# tbw+).13 Indeed, internal beauty is exalted above the external in the acrostic poem about the “virtuous woman” (Prov 31:10–31): “Charm is deception, and beauty is vanity; a woman with the fear of the LORD, she shall be praised” (Prov 31:30). It appears that the Megilloth occur after Proverbs (in Codex L) in order to give examples of this ideal feminine figure and her wisdom.14 The “virtuous woman” (Prov 31:10) is one whose “works will praise her in the gates” (Prov 31:31).15 This is exactly how Boaz describes Ruth: “All the gate of my people knows that you are a virtuous woman” (Ruth 3:11b; cf., Ruth 4:11). Proverbs 31:28 says, “Her children rise up and bless her, her husband praises her.” This is comparable to what is said of the Shulammite in Song 6:9b: “The daughters see her and bless her, the queens and concubines praise her.” But beauty is not limited to the major female characters. Joseph, for instance, is “beautiful of form and beautiful of appearance” (Gen 39:6). He is also a wise person (Gen 41:38) not unlike the virtuous woman (Prov 31:26).16 Moses’ appearance in Exod 2:2 is “good” (cf., Heb 11:23). The entire book of Samuel focuses on a cast of “beautiful” male characters: Samuel and Saul (1 Sam 1–12), Saul and David (1 Sam 13–31), David’s Rise (2 Sam 1–10), David’s Fall (2 Sam 11–18), and David’s Return (2 Sam 19– 24).17 Saul, the first king of Israel, is said to have been “…young and good (bw+), and no one from the sons of Israel was better than him (wnmm bw+), from his shoulder and above he was taller than all the people” (1 Sam 9:2). David, Saul’s successor, is “ruddy, with beauty of eyes (Myny( hpy), and good of appearance (y)r bw+)” (1 Sam 16:12a). Likewise, David’s temporary usurper, Absalom, was “a beautiful man” (hpy #y)) unlike any other in Israel (2 Sam 14:25).18 It is significant then for the narrative and composition of Samuel that David is “better than” Saul. After the second failure of Saul (cf., 1 Sam 13), Samuel says, “The LORD has torn the kingdom of Israel from you today; and he will give it to your neighbor who is better than you (Kmm bw+h)” (1 Sam 15:28). At this point the reader realizes that bw+ is much more than “handsome.” Meir Sternberg observes, “David establishes himself as good, though anything but simple, by all biblical standards of devoutness, humanity, and kingship. Indeed, we conclude, God ‘sees into the heart,’ whether concealed or reflected by man’s outer shell.”19

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Strategic Placement of Forms Torah Psalms The first major section in the Psalter is the collection of Davidic psalms in Pss 3–41. A key piece in the final composition of the Psalter is the placement of Pss 1–2 before this first collection, serving as the gateway to the overall work. Such a combination of torah psalm (Ps 1) and royal psalm (Ps 2) is found two more times in the Psalter: Pss 18–19 and Pss 118–119. This compositional strategy overlaps the significant placement of royal psalms elsewhere at the end of Book 2 (Pss 42–72) and at the end of Book 3 (Pss 73–89).20 Psalm 1 is also known as a wisdom psalm because of its opening beatitude and because of its contrast of the righteous and the wicked.21 The one who is blessed, wise, and righteous is the one whose “delight is in the Torah of the LORD, and in his Torah he murmurs day and night” (Ps 1:2). This person is “like a tree planted by streams of water”—finding constant nourishment and bearing plentiful fruit (Ps 1:3). For the psalmist, the greatest personal satisfaction and the highest act of worship is Torah study. This is the view of other biblical authors (Deut 31:9–13; Josh 1:8; Neh 8:1–12) as well as the rabbinic literature: R. Nehorai says, “I should lay aside every trade in the world and teach my son only Torah. For a man eats its fruits in this world, and the principal remains for the world to come. But other trades are not that way. When a man gets sick or old or has pains and cannot do his job, lo, he dies of starvation. But with Torah it is not that way. But it keeps him from all evil when he is young, and it gives him a future and a hope when he is old. Concerning his youth, what does it say? ‘They who wait upon the Lord shall renew their strength’ (Isa 40:31). And concerning his old age what does it say? ‘They shall bring forth in old age’ (Ps 92:14). And so it says with regard to the patriarch Abraham, may he rest in peace, ‘And Abraham was old and well along in years, and the Lord blessed Abraham in all things’ (Gen 24:1). We find that the patriarch Abraham kept the entire Torah even before it was revealed, since it says, ‘Since Abraham obeyed my voice and kept my charge, my commandments, my statutes, and my laws’ (Gen 26:5)” (m. Qidd. 4:14).22

Rabbi Nehorai understands “Torah” to include Moses (Gen 24:1; 26:5), the Prophets (Isa 40:31), and the Psalms (Ps 92:14). In the final form of the Psalter, the torah psalms take on this meaning as well: Torah equals Scripture.23 The other torah psalms also carry the theme of personal delight in Scripture with the language of aesthetic pleasure:

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The Textual World of the Bible They are more desirable than gold, and much fine gold; and sweeter also than honey, and a honeycomb’s drippings (Ps 19:10). Open my eyes and let me see wonderful things from your Torah (Ps 119:18). The Torah of your mouth is better to me than thousands of gold and silver (Ps 119:72).

The strategic placement of Psalms 1, 19, and 119 makes this theme key to the composition of the Psalter as a whole.

Lament Psalms The most common form in the Psalter is the lament or petition psalm. The highest concentration of these psalms comes at the front end. The latter half of the Psalter features more collections of praise psalms (e.g., Pss 111–118 and Pss 146–150). This thematic progression from lament to praise complements the messianic and eschatological emphases of the overall composition.24 Thus, the lament psalms not only have quantitative significance but also qualitative placement. Perhaps more than any other form in the Hebrew Bible, the lament psalm has the capacity to plumb the depths of the human soul—not unlike its modern American equivalent, the blues. This is what gives it such an enduring aesthetic value. The full range of emotions is on display, and nothing is held back. But this is not to be confused with pure emotionalism or lack of thought. Rather, the psalmists show a keen artistic sensitivity in their ability to combine feeling with form. They know that true artistic freedom involves boundaries. A lament psalm generally possesses the following elements: opening cry, petition, and expression of trust. Psalm 13 is a good example. After the superscription, the psalmist cries four times in the first two verses, “How long?” The psalmist expresses the experience of what seems like God’s abandonment, but the psalm is not over yet. The petition of verse 3 is a request for God to answer; and this petition is coupled with a motivation in verse 4: that his enemies not rejoice over him. The psalm then concludes with a deep expression of trust: “And I trust in your kindness, my heart rejoices in your salvation; let me sing to the LORD, for he has dealt bountifully with me.” Hermann Gunkel observed that the original historical situation of a given lament psalm is not easy to reconstruct, suggesting two possibilities: (1) the genre originates from cultic formulas; or (2) the psalms have been reworked

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for general use by the community.25 The second option appears to be closer to the function of these psalms within the final form of the Psalter. The aesthetic quality and devotional value of the lament psalms are intended for the reader. The psalmist’s cry is the reader’s cry. The psalmist’s petition is the reader’s petition. And the psalmist’s trust is the reader’s trust. Song of Songs26 Song of Songs is best understood not as allegory or drama but as a collection of love poems.27 These poems have been woven together by means of three series of threefold repetition, each spanning the book as a whole. The first is the repetition of the admonition, “Neither awaken nor arouse love until it desires” (Song 2:7; 3:5; 8:4). The second is the refrain, “My beloved is mine and I am his” (Song 2:16; 6:3; 7:11). These are examples of the woman’s wisdom (cf., 1 Cor 7:4; Eph 5:25–29). The final series consists of similar descriptions (Arabian was9f) of the woman’s physical features (Song 4:1–7; 6:4– 9; 7:2–10; cf., Sir 51:13–30).28 The emphasis on outward beauty in the descriptions of the woman’s physical features is reminiscent of what is said about the wives of the patriarchs in Genesis. In fact, the poetic description of Sarah in 1Qap Genar 20:2–8a—in which the loveliness of her face, breasts, and limbs are celebrated—is not unlike the passages found in Song of Songs.29 For the author of Song of Songs, outward beauty is not superfluous. It is not something to suppress, but something to enjoy. The aesthetic pleasure in which the lovers delight is clearly something positive. And so this appendix has now come full circle from the all-satisfying Garden of Eden, in which the man and the woman enjoyed sexual union and nakedness without shame (Gen 2:23–25), to the Song of Songs where the ideal appears once again. To put it in terms of the book of Proverbs, the author points to lady wisdom and away from lady folly (Prov 5, 7, 9): “Drink water from your cistern, and flowing water from the midst of your well…and get pleasure from the wife of your youth” (Prov 5:15, 18b).

Conclusion A compositional approach to the Hebrew Bible reveals a marked interest in aesthetics that spans the Pentateuch, the Prophets, and the Writings. This finds expression through a variety of techniques including thematization,

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characterization, and placement of forms. Of course, the biblical authors are not interested in aesthetics for its own sake (ars gratia artis). Rather, beauty in the Bible is always related to more central concerns: the sanctuaries and pleasures of God, inner and outer human beauty, delight in Scripture, human love, et cetera. Aesthetics remains in the foreground for the biblical authors because it is integral to what they present as the reader’s relationship to God. Thus, enjoyment of God’s presence is depicted through extended metaphor: “As a deer longs for streams of water, so my soul longs for you, O God. My soul thirsts for God, for the living God; when can I come and appear before God” (Ps 42:1–2; cf., Ps 63:1)? The future kingdom of God is a fertile new creation for those who have trusted in him (e.g., Isa 65:17; 66:22; Amos 9:14–15; Mic 4:4). And the inner beauty of wisdom is acquired through delight in God’s Torah (Ps 1). Aesthetics thus has a rightful place in a biblical theology of the Hebrew Bible—a much needed corrective to the Platonic dualism that has plagued much of church history. The biblical authors do not pit the spiritual against the material. They are realists. For the biblical theologian, recognition of this requires exegetical attention that goes beyond word studies to the level of compositional analysis in which the parts are understood in light of the whole.

Addendum: The New Testament Appreciation for aesthetic quality is not nearly as pronounced in the New Testament writings as it is in the Hebrew Bible. No doubt this is due in part to the apologetic and occasional nature of the documents. Where the New Testament authors do express an interest in beauty they are clearly dependent on the Hebrew Scriptures. This can be seen in their views of glory, the marriage relationship, and the new creation. The discussion here is limited to passages that play a significant role in the overall composition of texts. The outline of the Synoptic Gospels follows three major events in the life of Christ: baptism (Matt 3:13–17; Mark 1:9–11; Luke 3:21–22), transfiguration (Matt 17:1–13; Mark 9:2–13; Luke 9:28–36), and crucifixion (Matt 27:45–56; Mark 15:33–41; Luke 23:44–49). This outline has particular importance for the Gospel of Mark—the Gospel of the Son of God (Mark 1:1)—because Jesus is declared to be the Son of God precisely at these three critical junctures in the narrative (Mark 1:11; 9:7; 15:39). At the center of this three-part outline is the transfiguration at which Jesus appears in his

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glory along with Elijah and Moses. However inappropriate Peter’s suggestion to make tents might have been at the time (Matt 17:4; Mark 9:5; Luke 9:33), his association of glory with sanctuaries or places of worship is perfectly aligned with the above observations about the tabernacle (Exod 40:34–38) and the temple (1 Kgs 8:11). Moving to the Pauline corpus, it is noteworthy that Paul understands the marriage relationship in terms of the Garden of Eden scene (Gen 2:24; Eph 5:31). In his epistle to the Ephesians, Paul’s overarching message is the headship of Christ (Eph 1:10, 22–23), which he develops in two main sections: (1) the riches of God’s grace to the praise of God’s glory (Eph 1–3) and (2) walking in a manner worthy of the calling (Eph 4–6). His treatment of the husband-wife relationship comes as part of a series (the Haustafel) that includes the parent-child and master-slave relationships. Having given the imperatives to walk wisely and to be filled by the Spirit (Eph 5:15–18), Paul lets loose a string of participles: speaking, singing, giving thanks, and submitting (Eph 5:19–21). It is this last participle (“submitting to one another”) that provides the specific context for Paul’s instructions on the husband-wife relationship. Furthermore, the teaching is set firmly within the overall theme of the headship of Christ: “…wives to your own husbands as to the Lord, for a man is the head of his wife just as Christ is head of the church…. Husbands, love your wives just as Christ loved the church…” (Eph 5:22, 23, 25; cf., 1 Cor 11:3).30 The rationale for this connection is the sexual union of the man and the woman as stated in Gen 2:24. The man and the woman are joined together, so also Christ and the church are joined. Thus, both Paul and Song of Songs draw on the Garden of Eden scene for a depiction of the ideal relationship, albeit for different purposes. The Garden of Eden scene is also the source for the description of the new creation and the New Jerusalem in Rev 21:1–22:9. The New Jerusalem has precious stones, gold (Gen 2:11–12; Rev 21:10–21), and the presence and glory of God (Isa 60:19; Rev 21:22–27). It also has the river of life and the tree of life (Gen 2:9–14; Rev 22:1–2). The hope of the Pentateuch and the Prophets (Isa 50:3; 65:17; 66:22; Ezek 47:8–12) is thus also the future hope of the book of Revelation. It is the hope of a very real place of immeasurable beauty and aesthetic pleasure in unbroken fellowship with the Lord and other believers.31

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Notes 1

Gerhard von Rad, Old Testament Theology, vol. 1, The Theology of Israel’s Historical Traditions, trans. D. M. G. Stalker (Edinburgh and London: Oliver and Boyd, 1962), 364, n. 18. 2 E.g., William Paul Jones, “Aesthetics and Biblical Hermeneutics,” Religion in Life 31 (1962): 394–408; John Boone Trotti, “Beauty in the Old Testament” (Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1964); Frank E. Gaebelein, “Toward a Biblical View of Aesthetics,” in Christian Imagination, ed. Leland Ryken (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1981), 47–54; William A. Dyrness, “Aesthetics in the Old Testament: Beauty in Context,” JETS 28 (1985): 421–32; Donnie Glenn Auvenshine, “The Theological Significance of Beauty in the Old Testament” (Ph.D. diss., Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary, 1987); Herbert Rand, “The Biblical Concept of Beauty,” JBQ 30 (2002): 213–15; Jo Ann Davidson, “Toward a Scriptural Aesthetic,” AUSS 41 (2003): 101–11; F. Gerald Downing, “Environment, Beauty, and Bible,” Ecotheology 7 (2003): 186–201; idem, “Aesthetic Behavior in the Jewish Scriptures: A Preliminary Sketch,” JSOT 28 (2003): 131–47; Yossi Feintuch, “Beauty in the Bible,” JBQ 31 (2003): 249–51. 3 Rolf Rendtorff, The Canonical Hebrew Bible: A Theology of the Old Testament, trans. David E. Orton (Leiden: Deo, 2005), 1. 4 Ibid., 3. 5 See the rendering of Gen 2:15 in Targum Neofiti: “And God took man and gave him rest (yr#)w) in the Garden of Eden to worship (xlp) in the Torah and to keep the statutes.” 6 See Gordon J. Wenham, “Sanctuary Symbolism in the Garden of Eden Story,” Proceedings of the World Congress of Jewish Studies 9 (1986): 19–25; John H. Sailhamer, The Pentateuch as Narrative (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1992), 100. In the New Testament, the New Jerusalem is also characterized by gold (Rev 21:9–22:5). 7 “The temple was covered with precious stones for beauty. There was no pragmatic reason for the precious stones. They had no utilitarian purpose. God simply wanted beauty in the temple. God is interested in beauty” (Francis A. Schaeffer, Art and the Bible [Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1973], 26). 8 See also the river in the new Jerusalem (Ezek 47:8–12; Zech 14:8; Ps 46:5; Rev 22:1–2). 9 Von Rad, Old Testament Theology, vol. 1, 366. God’s desire to dwell among his people is expressly seen in Exod 29:45–46. 10 The psalmist proclaims, “Better is one day in your courts than a thousand elsewhere” (Ps 84:10). 11 See Walther Eichrodt, Theology of the Old Testament, vol. 1, trans. J. A. Baker (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1961), 49–69. 12 See Chaim W. Reines, “Beauty in the Bible and the Talmud,” Judaism 24 (1975): 103– 106: “Thus, it was stated that after Job was restored to his former good fortune, he was blessed with three daughters of exceptional beauty, the like of whom was not to be found throughout the whole country” (ibid., 102). 13 See also Esther who is described as “beautiful of form and beautiful of appearance” (Est 2:7).

Beauty and the Bible 14

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In the Hebrew Bible, only the five books of the Megilloth have a feminine singular subject: Ruth, the Shulammite, Qoheleth (grammatically feminine singular), the Daughter of Zion/Judah/Jerusalem (Lam 1:6, 15; 2:1, 4, 5, 8, 10, 11, 13, 15, 18), and Esther. 15 Note that this forms an inclusio around the acrostic poem. 16 The books of Esther and Daniel, which have a great deal in common with the Joseph narratives, feature two beautiful and wise characters (Est 2:7; Dan 1:4). 17 “A basic theme to be discerned in 1 Samuel and functioning as a cornerstone of its structure is the transference of leadership from Eli to Samuel, from Samuel to Saul and from Saul to David” (S. Bar-Efrat, “Some Observations on the Analysis of Structure in Biblical Narrative,” VT 30 [1980]: 169); “This theme is a determining factor in the overall composition of the book” (ibid.). 18 Absalom’s sister, Tamar, is also called beautiful (2 Sam 13:1a); it is noteworthy that the woman of David’s downfall, Bathsheba, is called “very good of appearance” (2 Sam 11:2b). 19 Meir Sternberg, The Poetics of Biblical Narrative (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987), 356; Sternberg’s comments on aesthetics in Samuel are particularly insightful: “There is nothing arbitrary about the Bible’s choice to cast good looks and old age—rather than stoutness, say—in the role of Janus-faced metonymies. It is a device anchored fast in both world and world view” (ibid., 362); “Rarely does the marriage of aesthetics and ideology show to such advantage as in the artful discontinuities between the outside and the inside of character” (ibid.). 20 “There can be no doubt that at this stage they [i.e., Pss 72, 89] were understood in messianic terms; the praise of God is not only directed to the past and the present, but also includes the messianic future” (Rolf Rendtorff, The Old Testament: An Introduction, trans. John Bowden [Philadelphia: Fortress, 1986], 249). 21 See Hermann Gunkel, An Introduction to the Psalms, completed by Joachim Begrich, trans. James D. Nogalski (Macon: Mercer University Press, 1998), 293–305. 22 The Mishnah: A New Translation, trans. Jacob Neusner (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988). 23 “Certainly in its final stage of development, Ps. 1 has assumed a highly significant function as a preface to the psalms which are to be read, studied, and meditated upon. The Torah of God which is the living word of God is mediated through its written form as sacred scripture. With the written word Israel is challenged to meditate day and night in seeking the will of God. Indeed, as a heading to the whole Psalter the blessing now includes the faithful meditation on the sacred writings which follow” (Brevard S. Childs, Introduction to the Old Testament as Scripture [Philadelphia: Fortress, 1979], 513). The reading of the Torah in Neh 8:8 spans Genesis–Judges (Neh 9:5b–31). 24 See Gerald H. Wilson, “Psalms and Psalter: Paradigm for Biblical Theology,” in Biblical Theology: Retrospect and Prospect, ed. Scott J. Hafemann (Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 2002), 105–109. 25 Gunkel, Introduction to the Psalms, 130. 26 See F. W. Dobbs-Allsopp, “The Delight of Beauty and Song of Songs 4:1–7,” Int 59 (2006): 260–77. 27 See Tremper Longman III and Raymond B. Dillard, An Introduction to the Old Testament, 2d ed. (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2006), 290–97. 28 A description of the man’s physical features is found in Song 5:10–16. The sexuality of these passages and others in the book have caused readers both ancient and modern to blush with embarrassment: “Rabbi Akiba (died A.D. 137) cursed those who used to sing passages from the Song of Songs in the wine-shops—evidently still understanding it in its literal sense”

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(Otto Eissfeldt, The Old Testament: An Introduction, trans. P. R. Ackroyd [New York: Harper and Row, 1965], 485). 29 See James C. Vanderkam, “The Poetry of 1 Q Ap Gen, XX, 2–8a,” RevQ 10 (1979): 57–66. 30 “Paul, via the Haustafel, is laying out a manifesto for the New Humanity, painting in broad strokes a vision for how believers ought to conduct themselves in new creation communities, thus epitomizing the triumph of God in Christ” (Timothy G. Gombis, “A Radically New Humanity: The Function of the Haustafel in Ephesians,” JETS 48 [2005]: 319). 31

It is possible that the scene in John 21:1–14 anticipates and foreshadows the realism of things to come. It is far from a mystical union or merely spiritual existence.

Bibliography Auerbach, Erich. Mimesis: The Representation of Reality in Western Literature. Translated by Willard R. Trask. 50th anniversary ed. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2003. Auvenshine, Donnie Glenn. “The Theological Significance of Beauty in the Old Testament.” Ph.D. diss., Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary, 1987. Bacher, Wilhelm. Die exegetische Terminologie der jüdischen Traditionsliteratur. Hildesheim: Georg Olms, 1965. Bar-Efrat, S. “Some Observations on the Analysis of Structure in Biblical Narrative.” Vetus Testamentum 30 (1980): 154–73. Barr, James. The Concept of Biblical Theology. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1999. Bertheau, Ernst. Esra, Nechemia und Ester. Leipzig: Hirzel, 1887. Blenkinsopp, Joseph. Prophecy and Canon: A Contribution to the Study of Jewish Origins. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1977. Block, Daniel I. The Book of Ezekiel Chapters 1–24. NICOT. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1997. ———. Judges, Ruth. NAC. Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1999. Calvin’s Commentaries. Reprint, Grand Rapids: Baker, 2005. Carr, David M. The Formation of the Hebrew Bible: A New Reconstruction. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011. Carson, D. A. “Syntactical and Text-Critical Observations on John 20:30–31: One More Round on the Purpose of the Fourth Gospel.” Journal of Biblical Literature 124 (2005): 693–714. Childs, Brevard S. The Book of Exodus. OTL. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1974. ———. Introduction to the Old Testament as Scripture. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1979. ———. Isaiah. OTL. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2001. Davidson, Jo Ann. “Toward a Scriptural Aesthetic.” Andrews University Seminary Studies 41 (2003): 101–11. Dobbs-Allsopp, F. W. “The Delight of Beauty and Song of Songs 4:1–7.” Interpretation 59 (2006): 260–77. Downing, F. Gerald. “Environment, Beauty, and Bible.” Ecotheology 7 (2003): 186–201. ———. “Aesthetic Behavior in the Jewish Scriptures: A Preliminary Sketch.” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 28 (2003): 131–47. Driver, S. R. Notes on the Hebrew Text and the Topography of the Books of Samuel, 2d ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1912. Reprint, Eugene, Ore.: Wipf & Stock, 2004. Dyrness, William A. “Aesthetics in the Old Testament: Beauty in Context.” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 28 (1985): 421–32. Eichrodt, Walther. Theology of the Old Testament, vol. 1. Translated by J. A. Baker. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1961. Eissfeldt, Otto. The Old Testament: An Introduction. Translated by P. R. Ackroyd. New York: Harper and Row, 1965. Feintuch, Yossi. “Beauty in the Bible.” Jewish Bible Quarterly 31 (2003): 249–51. Ferreiro, Alberto ed. The Twelve Prophets. ACCS XIV. Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity, 2003. Fishbane, Michael. Biblical Interpretation in Ancient Israel. Oxford: Clarendon, 1985.

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Frei, Hans. The Eclipse of Biblical Narrative: A Study in Eighteenth and Nineteenth Century Hermeneutics. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1974. Gaebelein, Frank E. “Toward a Biblical View of Aesthetics.” In Christian Imagination, ed. Leland Ryken, 47–54. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1981. Gathercole, Simon J. “Torah, Life, and Salvation: Leviticus 18:5 in Early Judaism and the New Testament.” In From Prophecy to Testament: the Function of the Old Testament in the New, ed. Craig A. Evans, 126–45. Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson, 2004. Goldingay, John. Psalms, vol. 3. Psalms 90–150. Grand Rapids: Baker, 2008. Gombis, Timothy G. “A Radically New Humanity: The Function of the Haustafel in Ephesians.” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 48 (2005): 317–30. Gunkel, Hermann. Introduction to the Psalms: The Genres of the Religious Lyric of Israel. Completed by Joachim Begrich. Translated by James D. Nogalski. Macon, GA: Mercer University Press, 1998. Heschel, Abraham J. The Prophets. New York: HarperCollins, 1962. Reprint, Peabody, Mass.: Prince Press, 2001. Holladay, William L. Jeremiah 1: A Commentary on the Book of the Prophet Jeremiah Chapters 1–25. Hermeneia. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1986. Houtman, Cornelis. “Ezra and the Law.” Old Testament Studies 21 (1981): 91–115. Johnson, Benjamin J. M. “The Heart of YHWH’s Chosen One in 1 Samuel.” Journal of Biblical Literature 131 (2012): 455–66. Johnston, Philip S. Shades of Sheol: Death and Afterlife in the Old Testament. Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity, 2002. Jones, William Paul. “Aesthetics and Biblical Hermeneutics.” Religion in Life 31 (1962): 394– 408. Kautzsch, E. F., ed. Gesenius’ Hebrew Grammar. Translated by A. E. Cowley, 2d ed. Oxford: Clarendon, 1910. Keil & Delitzsch Commentary on the Old Testament. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1866–91. Reprint, Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson, 2001. Kellermann, Ulrich. “Erwägungen zum Esragesetz.” Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 80 (1968): 373–85. Klein, Ralph W. 1 Chronicles. Hermeneia. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2006. Köstenberger, Andreas J. “Diversity and Unity in the New Testament.” In Biblical Theology: Retrospect and Prospect, ed. Scott J. Hafemann, 144–58. Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity, 2002. Kugel, James L. “Stephen’s Speech (Acts 7) in Its Exegetical Context.” In From Prophecy to Testament: The Function of the Old Testament in the New, ed. Craig A. Evans, 206–18. Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson, 2004. Longman, Tremper, and Raymond B. Dillard. An Introduction to the Old Testament, 2d ed. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2006. McConville, J. G. Deuteronomy. AOTC 5. Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity, 2002. McKenzie, Tracy J. Idolatry in the Pentateuch: An Innertextual Strategy. Eugene, Ore.: Pickwick, 2010. McNamara, Martin. The New Testament and the Palestinian Targum to the Pentateuch. AnBib 27. Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute, 1966. Midrash Rabbah: Genesis, vol. 1. Translated by Rabbi Dr. H. Freedman, 3d ed. London: Soncino, 1983. The Mishnah: A New Translation. Translated by Jacob Neusner. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988.

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Mitchell, David C. “‘God Will Redeem My Soul from Sheol’: the Psalms of the Sons of Korah.” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 30 (2006): 365–84. Niccacci, Alviero. Syntax of the Verb in Classical Hebrew Prose. Translated W. G. E. Watson. Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1990. Noth, Martin. A History of Pentateuchal Traditions. Translated by Bernhard W. Anderson. Chico, Cal.: Scholars Press, 1981. ———. The Deuteronomistic History. JSOTSupp 15. Sheffield: JSOT, 1981. Oehler, G. F. Theology of the Old Testament. New York: Funk & Wagnalls, 1883. Rand, Herbert. “The Biblical Concept of Beauty.” Jewish Bible Quarterly 30 (2002): 213–15. Reines, Chaim W. “Beauty in the Bible and the Talmud.” Judaism 24 (1975): 103–106. Rendtorff, Rolf. “Esra und das Gesetz.” Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 96 (1984): 165–84. ———. The Old Testament: An Introduction. Translated by John Bowden. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1986. ———. “Noch einmal: Ezra und das Gesetz.” Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 111 (1999): 89–91. ———. The Canonical Hebrew Bible: A Theology of the Old Testament. Translated by David E. Orton. Leiden: Deo, 2005. Rollston, Christopher A. Writing and Literacy in the World of Ancient Israel: Epigraphic Evidence from the Iron Age. Atlanta: SBL, 2010. Sailhamer, John H. The Pentateuch as Narrative: A Biblical-Theological Commentary. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1992. ———. Introduction to Old Testament Theology: A Canonical Approach. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1995. ———. Genesis Unbound. Sisters, Ore.: Multnomah, 1996. ———. The Meaning of the Pentateuch: Revelation, Composition, and Interpretation. Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity, 2009. Schaeffer, Francis A. Art and the Bible. Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity, 1973. Schmitt, Hans-Christoph. “Redaktion des Pentateuch im Geiste der Prophetie.” Vetus Testamentum 32 (1982): 170–89. Schniedewind, William M. How the Bible Became a Book: The Textualization of Ancient Israel. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004. Shepherd, Michael B. “Compositional Analysis of the Twelve.” Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 120 (2008): 184–93. ———. Daniel in the Context of the Hebrew Bible. New York: Peter Lang, 2009. ———. The Twelve Prophets in the New Testament. New York: Peter Lang, 2011. ———. “The Compound Subject in Biblical Hebrew.” Hebrew Studies 52 (2011): 107–20. ———. “The New Exodus in the Composition of the Twelve.” In Text and Canon, ed. Paul J. Kissling and Robert L. Cole. Oregon: Pickwick, forthcoming. ———. “Targums.” In Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels, rev. ed., ed. Joel B. Green. Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity, forthcoming. Smith, Ralph L. Micah–Malachi. WBC 32. Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 1984. Sternberg, Meir The Poetics of Biblical Narrative: Ideological Literature and the Drama of Reading. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987. Stevenson, Kenneth, and Michael Glerup, eds. Ezekiel, Daniel. ACCS XIII. Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity, 2008. Tov, Emanuel. The Greek and Hebrew Bible: Collected Essays on the Septuagint. Leiden: Brill, 1999. Reprint, Atanta: SBL, 2006.

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———. “The Septuagint as a Source for the Literary Analysis of Hebrew Scripture.” In Exploring the Origins of the Bible: Canon Formation in Historical, Literary, and Theological Perspective, ed. Craig A. Evans and Emanuel Tov, 31–56. Grand Rapids: Baker, 2008. ———. Textual Criticism of the Hebrew Bible, 3d ed. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2012. Trotti, John Boone. “Beauty in the Old Testament.” Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1964. Ulrich, Eugene. The Qumran Text of Samuel and Josephus. Missoula, 1978. ———. The Dead Sea Scrolls and the Origins of the Bible. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1999. Vanderkam, James C. “The Poetry of 1 Q Ap Gen, XX, 2–8a.” Revue de Qumran 10 (1979): 57–66. van der Toorn, Karel. Scribal Culture and the Making of the Hebrew Bible. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2007. von Rad, Gerhard. Old Testament Theology, vol. 1. The Theology of Israel’s Historical Traditions. Translated by D. M. G. Stalker. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2001. Weiser, Artur. The Psalms. Translated by Herbert Hartwell. OTL. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1962. Wenham, Gordon J. “Sanctuary Symbolism in the Garden of Eden Story.” Proceedings of the World Congress of Jewish Studies 9 (1986): 19–25. Williamson, H. G. M. Ezra, Nehemiah. WBC 16. Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 1985. Wilson, Gerald H. “Psalms and Psalter: Paradigm for Biblical Theology.” In Biblical Theology: Retrospect and Prospect, ed. Scott J. Hafemann, 100–110. Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity, 2002. Wright, N. T. The New Testament and the People of God. Minneapolis: Fortress, 1992.

Index

Abraham covenant with, 7, 8, 9, 10, 55, 57 departure from Egypt, 10 faith of, 63, 77 and firstborn Ishmael, 105–6 and the law, 27, 44 n34, 100, 104 name change from Abram, 73 and “other gods,” 29 as “pre-Christian,” 86 “taken,” 32 goes to war, 105 Apostasy, cycle of, 19–20, 23, 32, 34, 50, 64 Artaxerxes, 65, 69 Baal, 35, 63 Babylon, 11, 12, 21, 22–23. See also EzraNehemiah; Jerusalem, destruction by Babylonians Balak, 31, 42 Balaam, 10, 31, 42, 102 Beauty, biblical, 109–117 characterization of, 111–12 less prevalent in the New Testament, 116–17 in Song of Songs, 115 and strategic placement of forms in, 113–15 thematization of, 109–10 and the daughters of Job, 118 n12 Hebrew word behind, 51 adorning the temple, 118 n7 Bible as applicable, 92 beauty and realism in, 109 as clear but hard, 90–92 Hebrew final three books of, 25, 77, 90 idols/demons in, 79 n23 as interpretive framework, 94 poetic text in, 18 and prophetic composition, 15 reference to royal law in, 66

and language of Revelations, 83 of Jesus and Paul, 89 pre-critical interpretation of, 3 n2 as locus of revelation, 89 as real world, 1 as restoration of lost blessing, 5–6 shape of, 87–88 study, 77 as theological work, 1 as theology but not theological, 95 n1 two types of readers of, 87–88 See also Chronicles; Nehemiah 9; Rendtorff, Rolf; von Rad, Gerhard; Theology, biblical Biblical Interpretation in Ancient Israel, 2 Biblical theological summaries, 2 Blenkinsopp, Joseph, 17 Block, Daniel, 39 Boaz, 20, 112 Chronicles, 23–25 compared to chronicles of kings, 18 as comprehensive biblical history, 77, 90 and Psalms, 54–55 Covenant with Abraham, 7, 8, 10, 27–28, 111 with David, 8–9, 11, 21–22, 24, 25, 52 as part of creation sequence, 5 God’s loyalty to, 31, 32, 55, 57, 60, 62, 73 of Moab, 14 n1 with Moses, 7, 26, 32, 38 new, future, 7, 8, 86, 105 with Noah, 7 with patriarchs, 26, 28, 38, 62, 110 and restoration of lost blessing, 7 Sinai in Acts 7:38, 84 central role of, 16 faith before/unbelief after, 62–63 in Nehemiah 13, 75

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omitted in response to child’s question, 26, 27 and the Sabbath law, 76 written on stone, 8 temporal and conditional, 7–9, 55 terms of, 34 Creation, 5–6, 54, 65, 70, 86, 105 Criticism, tradition, 2 Daniel, 2, 25, 77, 90, 94 David and the ark, 55 and Chronicles, 23, 24–25 covenant with, 8–9, 11, 21, 52 fall of, 21, 64 genealogy of in Ruth, 20 and Goliath, 18–19 a “new,” 12, 52 Paul on genealogy of, 85 and Psalms, 48, 52, return of, 21, 64, 113 rise of, 21 and Saul, 21 See also Kings Deuteronomy, 103–5 Abraham as keeper of laws of, 26–27 anticipation of exile in, 22 canonical role of, 43 n14 and Moses’ penalty, 63 as exposition of the Torah, 25, 27, 105 and Former Prophets, 15 and the Pentateuch, 15, 16–17, 44 n22 looking to future restoration, 13 Torah of in the Pentateuch, 105–6 Eden, Garden of, 13, 97, 99, 109–11, 115 Egypt Abraham’s departure from, 10 descendants of the patriarchs in, 38, 48 exodus from, 27, 30, 41 Jacob in, 56 Moses sent to, 56 plagues in, 50, 56–57, 73 rivers of, 110 servitude in, 12, 26 sin of the forefathers in, 60 sojourn in, 10, 27 striking of firstborn in, 65

See also Exodus Exodus (book of) advice to Moses (Exodus 18), 69 and Deuteronomy, 16, 25 Exodus 14, 30–31 failure of levitical priest (Exodus 32), 62 and Moses and the wilderness, 9–10 and Pharaoh’s heart, 56 plagues in, 50, 57 See also Ezra-Nehemiah Exodus, 101 culmination of, 27–28 from Egypt, 26, 30, 38, 40–41, 48 Lord’s motive for, 61 and plundering of the Egyptians, 57 and God’s reputation, 38 messenger of the Lord in, 32 Paul on, 85 theme of, 6, 12 last verse of 14 and first of 15, 61 See also Ezra-Nehemiah Ezekiel Ezekiel 20, 35–40 new temple in, 13 rehearsal of biblical narrative in, 11 See also Gog Ezra-Nehemiah, 11, 25, 65–77 and post-exilic community, 11–13 and the Decree of Cyprus, 24 and the return to the land, 25 and book of the law, 66–67 and Nehemiah 9, 71–77 and sins of ancestors, 60 and terminology for the elite, 47 See also Kellermann, Ulrich; Rentdorff, Rolf; Sailhamer, John Fishbane, Michael, 2 Flood, 5–6, 7 Former Prophets beauty in, 109 consistency of message of, 25 contrast of Lord’s vs. people’s behavior in, 22 debate on composition of, 15–17 materials of, 18–19 Frei, Hans, 3 n2

Index Garden of Eden and “God put man in it,” 97 and the nations of Canaan, 57 as the tabernacle pattern, 13, 98 Targum Neofiti on, 98 Genesis 215b, 97–98 3:15, 99 Abraham portrayed in, 100 beauty in, 115 and covenant with Noah, 7 and the three matriarchs, 111–12 narratives and Jacob, 27 narrative and Joshua, 30 opening of, 5–6 post-flood era in, 6 no bronze shackles in, 56 and Stephen’s Acts speech, 84 terminology of Nehemiah 9:7 in, 72 Genesis–Kings, 5–6 Gog, 5, 12 Goldingay, John, 58 Hannah, 20, 21, 33 Historiography, biblical, 5 Idolatry of Ezekiel’s contemporaries, 40 and Garden of Eden, 111 Judah’s harlotry as, 37 in Judges, 11, 20, 23 law to prevent, 70 “playing the harlot” as, 63 Solomon’s, 24 Isaac, 27, 30, 55, 100 Jacob, 27, 30, 55, 56, 65, 100 Jehoiachim, 11, 21, 23 Jeremiah 2:1–13, 34–35 Daniel interprets, 77 as new prophet, 9, 11 on seventy years of captivity, 12, 25, 90, 94 problems from uncircumscribed hearts, 105 and rejection of Shiloh, 51

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Jerusalem the ark in, 55 Daughter of, 20 destruction of by Babylonians, 52 fall of, 37 festival of Unleavened Bread in, 27 as God’s choice for place of worship, 51 James’ speech at council of, 83 as new messianic kingdom, 6, 117 post-exilic community of, 65 See also Ezra Jesus and order of Bible, 88, 89 on bread from heaven, 76 mediated new covenant in Hebrews 12:24, 86 Paul on genealogy of, 85 perspective of in Luke 4:16–30, 11, 83 on scribes and Pharisees, 23 transfiguration of, 116–17 See also Wenham, David Joshua 24:1–15, 28–31 conquest of the land in, 10, 11 debate on composition of, 15–28, 88 as Moses’ successor, 9, 10, 81 n59, 89 and the presence of God, 110 and the Torah, 77, 98 See also Former Prophets Joshua–Kings, 16, 17 Judges 2:1–5, 6:7–10, 10:11–15, 32 apostasy in, 11, 19, 64, 76 Benjamin in, 7 as prophetic composition, 15 and the conquest of the land, 64 and the failure of the people, 23 on Israelites and warfare, 64 begins with end of Joshua, 19, 20 and Samuel, 20 See also Former Prophets; Ruth Judgment flood as, 6 theme in Ezekiel, 37–41 Moses of his people, 22 in the Psalms, 49, 52, 57, 61

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Kellermann, Ulrich, 65 Kings debate on composition of, 15, 88 and downfall of the north, 23 Jechoiachin’s exile, 21, 23 and Solomon, 12, 21, 51 and the Succession Narratives, 21 and the Torah, 68 See also Chronicles; Former Prophets Köstenberger, Andreas, 85 Lament Psalms, 114–15 Leviticus and Numbers, 102 Luther, Martin, 90–91 Micha 6:1–8, 40–42 Moab, 14 n3, 34, 63. See also Ruth Moses and Aaron, 30, 33, 34 covenant of, 7 and Deuteronomy, 25 and the exodus, 9–10 Joshua as sequel to, 9–10, 17, 34, 81 n59, 89 law of, 88, 89 petition of, 38 penalty of, 63 portrayed in the Pentateuch, 9 as “pre-Christian,” 86 and the prophets, 15, 17 rebellion against, 61, 75 and Samuel, 33 “sent” by God, 53, 56 Song of, 22 in Stephen’s speech, 84 and the Torah, 16, 66, 67–68, 76, 90 last words of, 21–22, 93 Nehemiah. See Ezra-Nehemiah Nehorai, Rabbi, 113 Noah, covenant of, 7, 110 Noth, Martin, 16 Numbers and Deuteronomy, 16, 25, 44 n22 and the gift of the spirit, 76 and Joshua, 31

the Levites’ tabernacle duties in, 98 and Leviticus, 102 and order of stories in, 48–49, 57 and people’s lack of faith, 49 and people’s rebellion, 38, 61, 62, 75 Old Testament Theology, 1, 109 Patriarchs, 99–100. See also under Covenant Paul on Abraham’s name, 72 contrast of faith and law, 63 and instruction to Timothy, 92 on the laws, 39 letters of “difficult to understand,” 90 on marriage relationship, 117 after reaction to Stephen’s speech, 84 speech of in Acts 13, 83, 85 approach to theology of, 93 Pentateuch beauty in, 109–17 and Bible study, 77 compositional structure of, 16 covenants in, 7, 26, 27 and Deuteronomy, 16–17, 26, 44 n22 exegesis of, 47 and the Former Prophets, 15 goal of narrative of, 31 God revealed in, 28 Hoseah’s exegesis of, 10 and the Joseph story, 55 and Joshua, 17 and the law, 4, 69, 70, 71, 77 Moses in, 9, 21, 25 and gap in Numbers 20, 63 “other gods” in, 29 pattern of figuration in, 10 and Psalm 78, 48, 49 and Psalm 106, 61, 62 and the Tanak, 1, 17 and Torah piety in the targums of, 97– 106 teaching, 48 the term wonders in, 48 See also Ezra-Nehemiah; Rendtorff, Rolf; Sailhamer, John; Weiser, Artur; Williamson, Hugh

Index Plague in Egypt, 26, 30, 50, 56–57, 63 of anti-intellectualism, 91 Psalms, 47–65 Psalm 1, 78 n1, 119 n23 Psalm 78, 48–52, 78 n5 Psalm 105, 52–58 Psalm 106, 58–64 Psalms 135 and 136, 64–65 See also Lament Psalms; Torah Psalms; Weiser, Artur Redaction, defined, 17 Rendtorff, Rolf, 1, 65–66 Ruth, 20, 70, 112 Sailhamer, John, 16, 17, 67 Salvation history, 2 Samuel the ark captured in, 51 beauty in, 112 biblical narrative and future prospects in, 22 and David and Goliath, 18–19 debate on composition of, 15, 88 and Davidic genealogy, 20 Davidic son in, 11 gap in story in 2 Samuel 24, 63 1 Samuel 12:6–17, 33–34 major poetic units in, 21 narratives without source citation, 18 as transitional character, 20 transference of leadership in, 119 n17 See also Chronicles; Former Prophets; Ruth Samuel-Kings division of, 18 lord’s anointed theme, 11 See also Chronicles Schmitt, Hans-Christoph, 16 Seams “canonical,” 17, 77 compositional, 15, 19–21 poetic, 16 Scripture. See Bible Sinai faith before/unbelief after, 62–63 giving of the Torah at, 103, 105

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law at (Nehemiah 9), 71 Moses on Mount, 104 omitted or viewed negatively, 26, 27, 86 and the Sabbath law, 76 fire and darkness and sound of, 86, 103 See also under Covenant Sodom and Gomorrah, 6–7 Solomon chronicles of, 18 and the Davidic covenant, 21 idololatry of, 24, 70 division of kingdom of, 51 reign of, 11 temple of, 13, 22, 24, 52 and the wisdom literature, 12 Song of Songs, 115, 117, 119 n28 Stephen, 55, 76, 83, 84 Succession narrative, 21 Targum Jonathan, 38, 39 Targum Neofiti, 98, 101–5 passim Targum Onkelos, 99–103 passim Targums, Pentateuchal, 97–106 Theology biblical, 1, 2, 109, 116 of Deuteronomy, 15, 17 communicated by composition and intertextuality, 2 and New Testament authors, 83 of Paul, 93 Old Testament and wisdom literature, 12 as story, 95 n1 systematic, 1–2 Theology of Israel’s Historic Traditions, 1 Torah of Deuteronomy in the Pentateuch, 105–6 and Ezra, 67–69, 70, 72, 76–77 Hebrew word, 80 n36 Isaiah on, 93 Judah’s rejection of, 40 in Nehemiah 8–9, 11 Piety in the Pentateuchal Targums, 97– 106 passim Psalms, 113–14

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reflection upon in Psalms, 15, 47, 55, 64, 89 See also Deuteronomy; Moses; Rendtorff, Rolf Torah psalms, 113–14 Tradition criticism, 2 von Rad, Gerhard, 1, 27, 110, 111 Weiser, Artur, 47–48 Wenham, David, 85 Williamson, Hugh, 65 Wisdom literature, 12, 80 n45, 88, 99 Zechariah, 5, 11, 23 Zerubbabel, 5, 11, 70

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