The Southeastern Indians 9780870492488, 9780870491870

Drawing upon oral traditions, historical documents, and accounts by observers and scholars made over a four-hundred-year

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English Pages 573 [591] Year 1976

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Table of contents :
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
PREFACE
ORTHOGRAPHIC NOTE
Contents
Chapter One: Introduction
Chapter Two: Prehistory and Early History
Chapter Three: The Belief System
Chapter Four: Social Organization
Chapter Five: Subsistence
Chapter Six: Ceremony
Chapter Seven: Art, Music, and Recreation
Chapter Eight: A Conquered People
Notes
Bibliography
Index
Recommend Papers

The Southeastern Indians
 9780870492488, 9780870491870

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THE SOUTHEASTERN INDIANS

crabs, clams, mussels, and oysters, were used for food and for other purposes. In late prehistoric times the Southeastern Indians probably conceived of the coastal plain as consisting of several distinct regions.

The lower Mississippi River with its deep alluvial soils and its oak-gum-cypress forests is distinctive; the richest alluvial soils are here, but flint and other kinds of stone useful to the Indians were usually missing, and periodic flooding must have been a problem. The lower Mississippi River has the highest flood potential of any part of interior North America.®° De Soto's soldiers were told by an old woman that the Mississippi River had a great flood every four-

teen years. And the river did in fact flood while they were there. According to one account the river began to rise in mid-March of 1543, and it did not crest until forty days later, the water covering everything except the tops of the trees. The river did not return to its banks until the end of May.®! This account may have been colored by the well-known Biblical event, though not by much, judging from

the flooding in this area in more recent times. Other rivers in the coastal plain must have had similar periodic flooding along their lower courses. On the upper Mississippi River the Indians would have had the advantage of the rich alluvial soils without the disadvantage of such severe flooding. The disadvantage of the upper Mississippi River, on the other hand, was that this area did not enjoy

the longer growing season of the region further south. The Indians probably also distinguished the Atlantic and Gulf coasts and all of northern Florida from the rest of the coastal plain. Along the coast the land is swampy, much of it covered with standing

water. It evidently was not ideal for Indian agriculture, although both the Apalachees and the Timucuans grew the same crops as were grown elsewhere in the Southeast, though perhaps less intensively. The advantage of the coastline itself was that it was capable of providing abundant food in the form of fish, shellfish, and along the eastern coastline of Florida, whales, which the Indians occasionally killed and ate. Perhaps for this reason the aboriginal population was

denser around coastal lagoons than in the interior of the coastal plain. The greatest disadvantage of the coast was the great swarms of mosquitoes during the warm part of the year. Alvar Nunez Cabeza de Vaca, marooned on the Gulf Coast in the sixteenth century, wrote that three kinds of mosquitoes infested the coast, “all very bad and 18

Introduction

troublesome.” On the islands along the Gulf Coast the Indians would build big fires out of damp and rotten wood, and even though the smoke from these fires was often so thick as to keep them from sleeping, it was worth the discomfort if it kept the mosquitoes away. Cabeza de Vaca says that the Indians were sometimes so badly bitten

they looked like lepers. South Florida, below a line drawn from south of Tampa Bay to the Cape Kennedy (Canaveral) region, is also distinct. Here the land is

decidedly swampy, with as much as 50 percent of it covered by standing water. Great portions are covered by everglades, palmetto prairie, and mangrove swamp. Here the climate is nearly tropical, with 300 to 330 freeze-free days per year.°3 As we have already seen, the Indians living in this region were marginal to the Southeastern Culture Area. The second important region for the Southeastern Indians was the piedmont, a band of hilly uplands between the Appalachian Mountains on the one side and the coastal plain on the other. The piedmont is separated from the coastal plain by the “fall line,’ an imaginary line drawn through the shoals and rapids of the rivers as they fall abruptly from the uplands to the flat coastal plain. The territory

lying immediately to either side of the fall line was an important region in itself. Some of the most populous societies in the prehistoric Southeast lay along this line, the reason being that from this vantage point the Indians could exploit the natural resources of the coastal plain, the piedmont, and the fall line itself. The best freshwater fishing in the Southeast was at the fall line, where in certain seasons fish could be taken in vast numbers as they swam upstream to spawn.*4

The dominant trees in the piedmont were oak and hickory, but also abundant were the short-leaf pine and many hardwoods, such as

sassafras, poplar, hackberry, sycamore, sweet gum, and persimmon. Contrary to popular opinion, many parts of the Southeast were not virgin forest when Europeans first arrived. The Indians actually

modified the forest cover far out of proportion to their numbers. They repeatedly burned off large portions of the forest to create grazing lands, artificially stimulating the number of deer. Large herds of deer are mentioned in the earliest accounts of the Southeast.3°> The Indians also used fire as a hunting technique to concen-

trate game so that it could be killed easily, and they burned their 19

THE SOUTHEASTERN INDIANS

agricultural fields in late winter in preparation for planting. As a consequence of all this burning, the forest cover of the piedmont was:

broken by large expanses of grassland containing scattered giant oaks and large herds of deer.*® Bison are occasionally mentioned in the early historical records of

the Southeast. De Soto, for example, reports having seen “cow horns” in a village in northern Georgia, but he does not report actually seeing bison on the hoof until he crossed the Mississippi River. Bison did occur in the Southeast, but so infrequently that they were more a curiosity than a dependable source of food." Many of the animals of the coastal plain also lived in the piedmont.

One important piedmont bird was the passenger pigeon, now extinct, but formerly existing in vast flocks that darkened the sky when they flew.

The southern end of the densely forested, rugged Appalachian Mountains was the third region included in the Southeastern Cul-

ture Area. These mountains were the homeland of the historic Cherokees, who hunted in the mountain forests and farmed in the narrow, alluvial river valleys. The mountains provided an abundance of turkey, deer, bear, and a variety of other animals. The mountains were a favorite habitat of the eagle, whose feathers were prized above those of all other birds. This region was particularly rich in wood and tree products. Poplar trees, which grew to enormous size, were used to make dugout canoes. The mountains provided inexhaustible supplies of chestnuts, hickory nuts, hazelnuts, walnuts, butternuts, chinquapins, and other nuts, all rich in food

value. The mountains were also the source of various kinds of minerals used by the Indians, including mica, steatite, and several kinds of quartz crystals. Most of the Southeastern Culture Area enjoys a mild climate. In most of the area the average July temperature is between 80°F. and go°F., while the average January temperature is 35°F. to 4o°F. in

the extreme northern part of the area and 55°F. to 65°F. in the southern part.28 Southwesterly winds prevail in the Southeast, bringing in abundant rainfall averaging 48 to 64 inches per year in most places, but with the piedmont getting only 40 to 48 inches per year. In the western part of the Southeast annual precipation falls off

very sharply, setting off the dry plains and forming the western boundary of the Southeastern Culture Area. With few exceptions, 20

Introduction

the Southeastern Culture Area falls within the area of the eastern United States getting over 40 inches of rainfall per year.?° The Southeast enjoys quite a long growing season—from 240 days along the fall line to as many as 270 days along the Gulf and south Atlantic

coasts—a factor of great importance in aboriginal agriculture. Further north in the piedmont the growing season shortens to about 210 days per year. The northern limit of the Southeast was generally set at the region where the growing season is less than 180 days per year.?° The exception to these conditions is the Appalachian Moun-

tains, where it is cooler, averaging only about 70°F. in July, and wetter, averaging 64 to 96 inches of rainfall per year. In fact, the southern part of the Appalachians is the wettest place in the eastern United States. Summer rains, particularly in the mountains, are accompanied by vivid flashes of lightning and awesome thunderclaps, all of which, as we shall later see, had their place in the religious beliefs of the Southeastern Indians. A good description of one of these summer storms comes to us from William Bartram. He describes a storm that came up as he was traveling on horseback in what is now northeastern Georgia, near the present town of Clayton. It was now after noon; I approached a charming vale, amidst sublimely high forests, awful shades! darkness gathers around, far distant thunder rolls over the trembling hills; the black clouds with august majesty and power, moves slowly forwards, shading regions of towering hills, and threatening all the destructions of a thunder storm; all around is now still as death, not a whisper is heard, but a total inactivity and silence seems to pervade the earth; the birds afraid to utter a chirrup, and in low tremulous voices take leave of each other, seeking covert and safety; every insect is silenced, and nothing heard but the roaring of the approaching [storm]; the mighty cloud now expands its sable wings, extending from North to South, and is driven irresistibly on by the tumultuous winds, spreading its livid wings around the gloomy concave, armed with terrors of thunder and fiery shafts of lightning; now the lofty forests bend low beneath its fury, their limbs and wavy boughs are tossed about and catch hold of each other; the mountains tremble and seem to reel about, and the ancient hills to be shaken to their foundations: the furious storm sweeps along, smoaking through the vale and over the resounding hills;

the face of the earth is obscured by the deluge descending from the firmament, and I am deafened by the din of thunder; the tempestuous scene damps my spirits, and my horse sinks under me at the tremendous peals, as I hasten on for the plain.4! 21

THE SOUTHEASTERN INDIANS

Bartram’s language is too extravagantly romantic for modern tastes, but he does succeed in describing a feeling for weather that few of us

can today appreciate. Our technology has insulated us from the weather. Our houses and buildings protect us from it, and we usually travel in vehicles which also protect us. Only people who are frequently exposed to the weather and its effects—such as hunters, fishermen, backpackers, gardeners, bird watchers, and cyclists— can appreciate something of the Indians regard for weather.

It should be clear that these three regions of the Southeast are here defined primarily according to criteria used by modern geographers. The differences we have observed among and within the three regions were probably important to the Southeastern Indians,

but they need not have coincided in any simple way with the categories and concepts with which they conceptualized their natural surroundings. The aspects of the natural world which interested the Southeastern Indians were no doubt different from those which interest us. Perhaps in the future, through additional historical, ecological, and archaeological research, we may come to have a more accurate appreciation of the natural regions of the Southeast as the Indians themselves conceived of them. LANGUAGES

Many languages were spoken by the Indians of the aboriginal Southeast. In fact, linguistic diversity in the Southeast was comparable to that in the California-Oregon and Northwest Coast area, the most linguistically diverse area in North America.42 Some of the

languages spoken in the Southeast were closely related to each other, some of them as closely as English is to German, so that a person speaking one of the languages could easily learn the other and in so doing discover many similarities between them. Other languages in the Southeast were more distantly related to each other but were still in the same language family, as, for example, English and Russian are in the same language family. Still other languages belonged to different language families, and they were as different from each other as English is different from Japanese. Quite a few of the languages that were once spoken in the South-

east are now extinct. For some of these—such as the languages spoken by the Avoyels, Taensas, Koroas, Grigras, Tious, Yamasees, 22

Introduction

Ais, Tequestas, Calusas, and many, many others—we have no record at all.42 For others, such as Timucua, we have record of only a small number of words or a few pages of text; too little, in fact, to

allow us to relate them to other languages with confidence. Still other languages, such as Catawba, are more fully documented, but one wishes that more had been learned about them before they

became extinct. | Most of the adequately documented languages of the Southeast

can be classified into five language families: Algonkian, Muskogean,

Iroquoian, Siouan, and Caddoan. The Algonkian family includes languages spoken over a vast area of the central and northeastern parts of the United States, along the northern Atlantic Coast, and far into central Canada, including such languages as Cree, Menominee,

Fox, Delaware, and Penobscot. One language of the Algonkian family, Shawnee, was present in the Southeast proper, but unfortunately the role of the Shawnees in the Southeast is not as clear as one would wish. Also speaking Algonkian languages were the Powhatans and Pamlicos of Virginia, who were marginal to the Southeast; but other Algonkian-speakers may have lived further south along the Carolina coast. The Muskogean family, on the other hand, was the most important language family in the Southeast. Once spoken in Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, and adjacent areas, it includes five

closely related groups of languages: Choctaw-Chickasaw, Apalachee, Alabama-Koasati, Mikasuki-Hitchiti, and MuskogeeSeminole. Some of these languages, such as Muskogee (Creek), are

today spoken by several thousand people, while others, such as Alabama-Koasati, are spoken by only a few hundred people. Still others are extinct. In addition we know of four language isolates— Tunica, Natchez, Atakapa, and Chitimacha—that are remotely related to the Muskogean family. All four of them are extinct or nearly so. Many place-names in Alabama, such as Tuscaloosa, Tuskegee,

and Talladega, are derived from Muskogean words. The word Alabama itself is, of course, Muskogean. Also, many names of rivers in Alabama and Georgia are derived from Muskogean words, including Tombigbee, Coosa, Tallapoosa, Chattahoochee, and Ocmulgee.

In its number of contemporary speakers the Iroquoian family is second in importance to the Muskogean family, though it may not have been so in the late prehistoric period. It includes Cherokee, 23

THE SOUTHEASTERN INDIANS

which in historic times had several closely related dialects with thousands of speakers, and Tuscarora, which was once spoken by a

much smaller number of people in the coastal plain of North Carolina. Many place-names in Tennessee and Georgia are derived

from Cherokee words. Examples are Chilhowee, Conasauga, Chickamauga, Tellico—all in Tennessee—and the word Tennessee itself; in Georgia we have Kennesaw, Coosawatee, Hiawassee, Tallulah, Toccoa, and Dahlonega, to name just a few. The Siouan language family embraces an extensive series of languages that were spoken in historic times in the plains. More pertinent here is a group of closely related Siouan languages—Osage,

Omaha, Ponca, Quapaw, and Kansa, the Dhegiha languages— which were spoken on the western fringe of the Southeastern Culture Area. At the time of European contact, the speakers of these languages were more in the Southeastern sphere of influence than they were later, after they acquired the horse and took up life on the plains. Languages in the Southeast which were definitely Siouan were Tutelo, Biloxi, and Ofo. Two language isolates, Yuchi and Catawba, clearly belong in the Southeast, but their linguistic status is not altogether clear. Many linguists have concluded that Catawba is more closely related to Siouan than to any other language family, and some linguists have concluded that it is Siouan. Yuchi appears to be distantly related to Siouan. The Caddoan languages were spoken in the southwestern fringe of the Southeast.44 The Caddoan family is composed of four major languages: Caddo, Pawnee, Wichita, and Kitsai. The Caddo language itself was spoken by basically Southeastern people who lived in Louisiana and Arkansas. In the past Caddo consisted of several dialects, though they were probably all mutually intelligible. The other Caddoan languages—Pawnee, Wichita, and Kitsai—were spoken by people whose cultures were similar to the Indians of the

eastern plains. Caddo is the most divergent of all the Caddoan languages, perhaps because the Caddos were so much in the Southeastern sphere of influence. In addition to their mother tongues, some Southeastern Indians

also used a lingua franca called the Mobilian trade jargon or the Chickasaw trade jargon. This was used as a means of communication by the speakers of different Indian languages, and it was also used in

24

Introduction

historic times as a means of communication between Indians, on the one hand, and white and black speakers of European languages on

the other. This jargon was formed by using words mainly from Choctaw (perhaps from the Chickasaw dialect) along with a few words from Alabama or Koasati. Like most other jargons it used a simplified grammar. The time when the Mobilian trade jargon first came into use is not known. Perhaps it dates back to prehistoric times, or perhaps it was devised during the days of early European exploration and trade.*®

One further linguistic development by Southeastern Indians must be mentioned, namely Sequoyah’s invention of a syllabary for writing Cherokee. Judging from how rarely systems of writing have been invented in the history of mankind, this was truly aremarkable

achievement. Sequoyah, who spoke no English, worked on his syllabary for several years before finally perfecting it in 1819. He used a few letters from the Roman alphabet, and perhaps a few from

Greek and possibly from the Fraktur alphabet of the Moravian missionaries, but the linguistic values he assigned to them were his own. He initially used eighty-six symbols, but later abandoned one of them to make a total of eighty-five symbols: one symbol represents the English s sound, six symbols represent vowel sounds, and the rest of them represent various combinations of consonants and vowels (fig. 2). For example, Sequoyah signed his own name:

aahy~2t) Literally, this has the value s—si-gwo-ya.

With great wisdom, Sequoyah realized that one of the most important advantages of the whites over the Indians was their ability to put their words down on paper. He poured all of his energy into

inventing this system of writing. He let his farm go to waste, neglected his family, and began to be seen as a deviant in the eyes of his

own people. So aberrant was his behavior in accordance with conventional Cherokee standards, he was eventually tried for the crime of witchcraft. But in 1819 he exonerated himself by proving before a

group of Cherokee elders that any speaker of Cherokee could quickly learn to read and write the language using his syllabary. Within a few years thousands of Cherokees became literate. With 25

THE SOUTHEASTERN INDIANS

EID ED iD D-DD EHEC» E> i i> CD +

. CHEROKEE ALPHABET. ° § CHARACTERS SYSTEMATICALLY ARRANGED WITH THE SOUNDS. a

$§Da iv 8 ga ®R ka Cc k ge yTgi1A & go J0gueu E gv

& oF ha > he A hi r ho r hu & hv 6

8 w la é le eli G lo M lu 4 |v 8 @7™ me nah H mi @ nat oi hnagG » ne3hmo ni Zynomu Q nu Q~ nV § 7. qua & que 6 qui wv quo 2 quu & quv 8 ® 3 U sa 4 se B Si SO y su R sv v da w ta & de % te a di a ti V to s du oe dv

& dla ¢c tla L tle c th ¥ tlo ~ tlu Pp tlv

& G tsa v tse ir tsi K tso g tsu C= tsv @ wa % we ® wi @ wo § wu 6 wv @® ya $ ye % yl & yo G@ yu: B yy § SOUNDS REPRESENTED BY VOWELS. $

a asa in father, orshort as a in rival, $

as a in hate, or short as e in met, & 1 as t in©e€aso pique, or short as 7 in pin, & in note, but as approaching to aw in law,

@ U as 00 in moon, or short as uin pull, 6

6 v as ein but, nasalized. é & CONSONANT SOUNDS. & 8 g is sounded hard, approaching to k; sometimes before e, i, 0, u and v, its & sound is k. d has asound between the English d and t; sometimes, before o, 8 u and v, its sound is t, when written before | and s the same analogy prevails. g All other letters as in English.

e Sylables beginning with g, except ga, have sometimes the power of k; syl- é

e ables written with tl, except tla, sometimes vary to dl. §

5 SPD GPP > PLP ED -S PP IE GIOS Figure 2. Sequoyah’s syllabary. Courtesy, University of Georgia Libraries.

some help from outside, the Cherokees established a press in 1828 and began publishing their own newspaper, The Cherokee Phoenix, in English and Cherokee. Between 1828 and 1835 they published portions of the Bible translated into Cherokee, the laws passed by

their council, political pamphlets, a hymnbook, and other documents.*® This was the syllabary used by Swimmer and other Cherokee wise men to write down their religious formulas (fig. 3). Clearly, the Cherokees had the beginnings of a sacred literature. 26

Figure 3. A page from the notebook of Gahuni, a Cherokee medicine man. He died around 1858. An English translation of this formula for treating

arthritis may be seen in James Mooney's “Sacred Formulas of the Cherokees,” pp. 349-51. Negative no. g98—b—1. Courtesy, Smithsonian Institution, National Anthropological Archives. 27

THE SOUTHEASTERN INDIANS

THE INDIANS AND THEIR ANCESTORS For reasons that are not well understood, archaeologists have been able to unearth very few finds of old skeletal remains in the New World. None of those which have been found are much older than about 10,000 B.C., and none of them are significantly different

from living Indian populations.47 However, although truly old skeletal remains are lacking, we shall see in the following chapter that archaeologists have discovered what are taken to be tools that may indicate that man first came to the New World as long ago as 30,000 Or 40,000 B.C.

We usually think of the native peoples of North and South America as a single racial stock, and with some justification. They are, in fact, an unusually homogenous population, and this assumption is consistent with the recency with which they entered the New World and their subsequent isolation from genes in the Old World. But small differences do exist among the Indians, and some of these were observed by the very first European observers. For example, in 1524, Giovanni da Verrazzano describes the Indians of the Atlantic Coast, from the South Carolina—North Carolina boundary northward, as being“. . . rather broad in the face: but not all, for we saw many with angular faces. 48 Some of these differences undoubtedly arose as a result of random change and natural selection after they came to the New World. However, some anthropologists feel that

there are too many differences among the Indians to be wholly accounted for in this way. They argue that there must have been more than one migration of people to the New World, and these migrations may have consisted of people who belonged to significantly different populations. Until fairly recently it was thought that the American Indians were a variety of Asiatic Mongoloids. We shall see in the next chapter that there is little doubt that American Indians are descended from men who came over from Asia; and, in fact, the Eskimos, who were the last people to come over from Asia, do bear a strong resemblance to Asiatic Mongoloids. The same is true of the

Athapaskan-speaking Indians of interior Alaska, western Canada, and a small portion of the Southwestern United States; but they, too, are relatively recent arrivals. In other places, including the Southeast, American Indians do not resemble modern Asiatic Mongoloids very strongly. This difference is understandable, however, in view 28

Introduction

of generally accepted evidence that the Asiatic Mongoloids did not

emerge as a racial type until relatively late times. Thus the first people who came to the New World were of a racial stock that was either ancestral to the Asiatic Mongoloids or that coexisted with the

stock which was ancestral to them. | The skeletons uncovered by archaeologists in the Southeast can be classified into two varieties, an earlier “Iswanid” type and a later “Walcolid” type.4® Both of these types are thought to have evolved from the racial stock of the earlier migrants. The Iswanid type had a

relatively long, narrow cranium, and the skull and other features were rather small. Many have been recovered from early prehistoric sites, such as Indian Knoll in Kentucky and Eva in Tennessee. Since all of the old human remains in the New World are long-headed, it is

probable that the Iswanid type in the Southeast is genetically descended from the earliest inhabitants. In contrast, the Walcolid type had a round, broad cranium, large in size, with a smaller nose anda rather large, rugged face. These Walcolid types occurred in late prehistoric times. Apparently, this Walcolid type is not a new migration from Asia, but rather a form that gradually evolved out of the

earlier long-headed type. The skeletons that archaeologists have recovered from historic sites on the Virginia coast and adjacent areas and from the piedmont of North Carolina are generally Iswanid, while those from sites further south and west are generally Walcolid. There are, however, many exceptions. At the late prehistoric site at Moundville, Alabama, most of the skulls were roundheaded, while a minority were long-headed.*° Early European observers in the Southeast often remarked on the large size of male Indians. They described them as being frequently over six feet tall and seldom below five feet eight or ten inches. This

was quite large by European standards of the time because Europeans then were smaller than they are today. On the other hand, several observers commented on the small stature of Creek women, who were said seldom to exceed five feet. James Adair noted that the Chickasaws were much taller than the Choctaws, a surprising differ-

ence in light of the fact that they lived near each other, were culturally similar, and spoke mutually intelligible languages. William Bartram, writing in the late eighteenth century, described the Cherokees as being the tallest of all, and as having skin of a lighter color than the Creeks. The skin color of the Southeastern Indians 29

THE SOUTHEASTERN INDIANS

was described in colors that ranged from olive to dark-copper. The fact is that the Indians are not heavily pigmented, but they have the capacity to tan darkly with exposure to sunlight, and this undoubt-

edly explains why the Cherokees in their cloudy country were lighter in color than the Creeks in sunny Alabama and Georgia. The

hair of the Southeastern Indians was straight and black or dark brown, and their noses were often aquiline. In addition to admiring the large size of the Indians, early Europeans often admired the physical development and endurance of the

men. Their limbs were well proportioned, and their legs were particularly strongly developed. Clay McCauley, writing in the latter part of the nineteenth century, tells of an eleven-year-old Seminole boy who went out hunting, killed a deer which dressed down to fifty pounds, and carried gun, equipment, and deer several miles back to camp. Europeans were also impressed with the Indians’ bearing: they stood straight, walked with dignity and confidence, and possessed a good sense of balance. Like people everywhere, the Southeastern Indians tried to improve on nature. The men in particular were fond of painting designs on their bodies and faces (see fig. 62), and both sexes made extensive use of body tattooing (see figs. 48, 56, 73, 79). This was especially practiced by Creek and Cherokee warriors, who tattooed on their bodies the figures of scrolls, flowers, animals, stars, crescents, and the sun, with the latter usually placed in the center of their chests. The serpent was frequently used as a design. The Creek chiefs, in particular, were elaborately tattooed with well-executed designs around their legs, arms, and body, dividing them into zones (see fig. 27). Along the lower Mississippi River tattooing was not only an ornament but a mark of distinction or social standing. Some of the Indians made tattoos by pricking the flesh with garfish teeth dipped in soot from pitch pine, thus imparting a black or dark-blue color. They used the mineral cinnabar (mercuric sulphide) for red designs. In some places tattooing was done with five or six needles tied to a small piece of wood in such a way that all the points were aligned like

the teeth of a comb; the design was first traced on the body in charcoal, then the pigment pricked in with this instrument. In the recent past the Southeastern Indians used an instrument like this not to tattoo, but to administer ritual scratching before participation

30

Introduction

in important events like the ball game, as described in chapter 7 (see fig. 98).>1

For Europeans the most striking way in which Indians modified their bodies was by artificially flattening their heads. They did this by binding their infants to cradle boards made of wood or basketry in such a way that they were perfectly immobile. A child was bound to his cradle board until he was about one year old, though he spent more and more time free each day until at last he was left off the

cradle board altogether. The head of the infant was flattened by binding it back against the cradle board (fig. 4).52 This practice flattened both the back of the skull and the forehead, making it slope backward and, in John Lawson's words, making “the Eyes stand a prodigious Way asunder, and the Hair hang over the Forehead like the Eaves of a House, which seems very frightful.”5? Some of the Indians explained the custom by saying that they believed it improved eyesight, making a man a better hunter (fig. 5). Others did it because they thought it looked handsome. They contemptuously referred to Europeans as “long heads.” This artificial head-shaping was so extensively practiced in the late prehistoric period that it has been argued that it was this rather than biology that produced the “Walcolid” physical type.54 If so, then these round-headed indi-

viduals were simply Iswanids whose heads had been culturally modified. This custom of head-flattening strikes us as bizarre, even disgusting, confirming perhaps for some the expectation that savages, after

all, are savages. But is this really so different from our use of orthodontics? Do we not send our children to practitioners who sometimes pull out perfectly healthy teeth to make room for the others, binding them all in outlandish metal and rubber contraptions, inflicting considerable discomfort and even pain, all for the

purpose of producing unnaturally straight teeth? After the Southeast was invaded by whites from Europe who also brought in blacks from Africa, genetic admixture with Indians began, and it continues today (see figs. 62, 110). According to one study, present-day Cherokees show a substantial genetic mixture with whites, and present-day Catawbas show about 50 percent white admixture. In contrast, the Seminoles of Florida are predominantly Indian, with some individuals having small amounts of white and

31

P : a‘y /. :i‘

,A | eoS eS : ‘ee Ties os f : H / 2 1 gator Set

: < bec. es | i ths se Si e |ieoa 4 . : ‘tad tt eee ogxs Sa ae Figure 4. Baked clay effigy of an infant on a cradle board. Recovered from a Mississippian stone box grave near Nashville, Tennessee. The infant's skull

shows frontal cranial deformation. Courtesy, Thruston Collection, Vanderbilt University.

e 2) =

fi eo See ee oe ee eS a Se 2RE Ste Wa,egere oe aS Be eeA. agSal enere :54 aeaes ae feRe S27 Be : éurd aS ;3: "ae i 2ma -oat me ah “4 ie gl a. " |

Pag ye a hey Pao. « Gi An © hese i pe, Be ; ‘ . ye aieke: aeOBO

yt,;.-ta

err ‘ Soe a a : a fSed: Pa a eee ~~ os é ue , ee > ie Fas ‘ee

| ; ae vy os A

iy ee re

Pe —: ter Takk Aus a -

410A sss teat A i Pere ta

Figure 5. Cranial deformation. Left: a skull showing occipital flattening, from a Mississippian stone box grave néar Nashville. Right: anormal Indian

skull from a late-eighteenth-century site in Walworth County, South Dakota. Courtesy, Dr. William M. Bass, Department of Anthropology, University of Tennessee. 32

Introduction

black admixture. Indian genes also show up in many of the unusual

“racial isolates’ or “little races” of the Southeast, groups like the Brass Ankles, the Haliwas, and the Melungeons.*°

33

CHAPTER TWO

PREHISTORY AND EARLY HISTORY Our earliest information on man in the Southeast comes from the

archaeologists. Because the prehistoric people of the Southeast lacked writing, we can never know much about such intangible parts of their culture as the languages they spoke, the way they reckoned kinship, or the deities they believed in. But by digging into the earth and recovering their material remains—the traces of their houses,

their tools, and especially the remains of their garbage— archaeologists can make careful inferences and tell us much about the way they obtained their food, something about how they lived, and especially how their cultures developed and changed through several millennia of prehistory. In some cases, particularly in the late prehistoric period, archaeologists can even tell us something about the ideology or world view of the Southeastern Indians. In the Southeast, archaeologists have not only had the difficult task of reconstructing the prehistory of the Southeastern Indians and their ancestors, they have also had to correct some extremely persistent myths about the prehistory of the Southeast. The landscape of the Southeast is dotted with many large mounds and earthworks.

Although Hernando de Soto and a few other Europeans in the Southeast at an early date observed the Indians using these mounds, subsequently these observations were more or less forgotten, and

when the mounds were rediscovered in the popular press in the early nineteenth century, the authorities of the day attempted to explain where they came from. Few people believed that they could have been built by the ancestors of the Indians who still lived in the Southeast at that time. Some of the mounds are truly enormous in 34

Prehistory and Early History

size, and almost everybody assumed that Indians were lazy by nature. By around 1830 the most widely accepted interpretation was

that the mounds had been built by a more or less civilized race of “Mound Builders’ who had come to the Southeast from elsewhere. According to different theories, these Mound Builders were immigrant “Tyrian Phoenicians, Assyrians, ancient Egyptians, Canaanites, Israelites, Trojans, Romans, Etruscans, Greeks, Scythians, Tartars, Chinese Buddhists, Hindus, Mandingoes or other Africans, Madagascans, the early Irish, Welsh, Norsemen, Basques, Portuguese, French, Spaniards, Huns, or survivors of the Lost Continents of Mu or Atlantis, the last a uniquely difficult theory to debate, since their alleged great civilizations conveniently sank beneath the ocean some eleven thousand or more years ago, with Plato possibly the earliest authority we have for their existence.” In several of the theories the Mound Builders are said to have lived by tilling the soil until they were killed off by the Indians, who were said to be a horde

of savages who subsisted mainly by hunting and gathering wild foods.”

The reasons why these Mound Builder theories became so popular are not entirely clear, but they obviously fulfilled some need in nineteenth-century American thought. The Mound Builder theme was taken up by poets of the day, and also by novelists and pseudoscientists who created around the Mound Builders an early form of

science fiction. The details of the Mound Builder theories were argued by learned scholars and by clergymen. It has been suggested that one reason why the Mound Builder theories became so popular was that they could be used as a justification for the way the Southeastern Indians were treated in the early decades of the nineteenth

century. “Removing” them and seizing their lands seemed less unjust when viewed against the story of their having done the same thing to the Mound Builders.? The Mound Builder myth began to decline in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, when scientific archaeology began. But it is not dead even today; it still lives in science fiction, and in recent years yet another attempt has been made to prove that the Southeastern Indians are descended at

least in part from Mediterranean people who sailed across the Atlantic in the second millennium B.c.* The archaeologist has a most

difficult time combating such spectacular and curiously popular theories, no matter how ill-founded they actually are. 35

THE SOUTHEASTERN INDIANS

Even though the archaeologist can tell us a surprising amount about the past, he can rarely describe known societies with definite names. Extracting his information from particular “sites” (maps 3 and 4)—the physical remains of campsites, villages, ceremonial centers, and so on—the archaeologist usually talks in terms of general cultural forms or patterns. Thus the archaeologist is not so much

interested in particular artifacts as he is in “types of artifacts, including such diverse things as the shapes in which javelin points

were made, the floor plans of houses, and patterns of religious symbolism. When the archaeologist can describe several of these types and prove that they are associated with each other, he can speak in terms of cultures and phases, and these can be lumped into a “tradition’—a general cultural pattern which endured for some time in a particular location. In the Southeast, archaeologists distinguish four traditions: Paleo-Indian, Archaic, Woodland, and Mississippian.® These traditions followed each other through time, though earlier ones lingered on in marginal places as new ones took shape elsewhere.

THE FIRST MEN IN THE NEW WORLD No remains of extinct forms of men (like Homo sapiens neandertalensis) have been found in the New World, nor is there much expectation that any will ever be found, although it is not prudent to rule out this possibility altogether. However, the evidence we now

have indicates that all of the fundamental biological and cultural events in human evolution occurred in the Old World. By about 30,000 years ago every part of the Old World was peopled by races of

men who were physically similar to races of men living today. Culturally, they were Upper Paleolithic, using a variety of specialized, well-made stone and bone tools, and subsisting by hunting large animals, many of which are now extinct. Consistent with this evidence is the fact that all of the earliest skeletal remains that have been discovered in the New World are similar to living races of men. The first men in the New World came out of Siberia and across the Bering Strait land bridge into Alaska during the Pleistocene geologi-

cal period—the Ice Age. The Pleistocene period lasted about two million years, and during this time the ice advanced and retreated at least four times. Each time the ice advanced, glaciers moved down from the northern and mountainous regions of North America, 36

Prehistory and Early History

temperatures fell, and in some places precipitation increased, so that areas which had been deserts became covered with swamps and

lush meadows of grass. At the same time, because of the huge quantities of water locked in the glaciers, the sea level fell and the Bering Strait land bridge became exposed, forming an avenue as much as 1,300 miles wide connecting Siberia and Alaska. When the glaciers retreated, the water was again released, the Bering Strait land bridge was slowly inundated, and the swamps reverted back to deserts and dry plains. The last advance of the ice began about 70,000 years ago and lasted until about 10,000 years ago, when climatic conditions similar to those prevailing today began to occur. Man first came to North America during this last advance of the ice. During this 60, o00-year period the temperature warmed and cooled several times, fluctuating, with the glaciers advancing and retreating, and with the sea level rising and falling. It is known that the Bering Strait land bridge was exposed at least twice during this last glacial period: it was exposed between 50,000 years ago and 40,000 years ago and again between 28,000 and 10,000 years ago. During the first of these land bridges the weather was only moderately cold, but the land bridge

was narrow; during the second exposure of the land bridge the weather was colder, but the land bridge was wider. Archaeologists have established beyond a reasonable doubt that men were widespread in the Americas in the latter years of this second land bridge; there is some evidence that they were present during the early years of the second land bridge, and that they could

have traveled from Alaska to North America through an ice-free corridor.* More recently the archaeologists are turning up indications that men may also have come to North America across the first

land bridge—that is, around 50,000 to 40,000 years ago. The evidence for this first migration is a series of what appear to be crude tools—flakes, scrapers, and pebble-choppers—that were presumably formed by striking and flaking stone. None of these tools appear to have been hafted to a handle or shaft, hence they have come to be

known as the “pre-projectile point complex.” These objects have been found in several places in North America and South America, but unfortunately they have been found mainly on the surface of the ground, making it difficult for archaeologists to determine how old they are. A number of these stone objects—the “Lively complex” 37

THE SOUTHEASTERN INDIANS

—have been found on the surface of the ground in northern Alabama.’ In a few places they have been found in the same general

vicinity as the bones of animals which lived in the Pleistocene period.

Some of the best evidence uncovered so far on the extreme antiquity of man in the New World has come from Flea Cave in highland Peru. At the deepest level of this cave archaeologists have found a series of crude stone sidescrapers, choppers, cleavers, and spokeshave scrapers which have been carbon—14 dated to about 20,000 years ago. Above this level archaeologists have found several distinct tool complexes along with the bones of extinct animals such as Megatherium, a large, ground-dwelling sloth. What this discov-

ery may mean is that if men were in Peru 20,000 years ago, they must have been in North America at an earlier date. These tools are

similar to those found in China and Siberia at an earlier date. The most intriguing “pre-projectile” find so far in North America is the Calico site in San Bernardino County, California. This site, found under a deep overburden of sand and gravel, contains stone objects which some have interpreted as a hearth, hammerstones, stone flakes with edges which were apparently worked, and pieces of “exotic jasper, agate, and quartz which originated at some distance from the Calico site. But the site is controversial. For one thing, geological estimates of its antiquity range from 30,000 to as much as 500,000 years ago— immensely older than any other prehistoric site in the New World. More important, all of the flaking and chipping of the pieces of stone

could have been produced by ordinary geological processes—the action of wind, water, gravity, lightning, and so on. The “hearth” could also have been produced by natural forces, and so too the presence of the seemingly “exotic” jasper, agate, and quartz. The stone objects exhibit a continuous transition between what some consider to be artifacts, to probable artifacts, to possible artifacts, to non-artifacts. This is precisely the kind of variation natural causes would have produced.? The Calico site, and indeed the argument for the extreme antiquity of man in the New World, must be regarded as hypothetical until more conclusive evidence is found.

THE PALEO-INDIAN TRADITION If the evidence for man’s presence in the New World at a very early 38

Prehistory and Early History

date is not yet convincing, the evidence for man’s presence in North America at 11,000 to 11,500 years ago is overwhelming. Evidence from many archaeological sites indicates that North America was

populated at this time by people whom we call Paleo-Indians, people whose culture was reminiscent of Old World Upper Paleolithic cultures which had spread across central Asia all the way to Japan by 15,000 years ago. One of the questions archaeologists ask is whether the skillfully made lance-shaped spear points used by the

Paleo-Indians were invented in North America or whether the technology was brought here from the Old World. All of these points are bifacial—shaped on both sides—and many of them are “fluted, ” with shallow grooves chipped along their lower faces. Many archae-

ologists now feel that they were an indigenous New World development, but that some of their features may have come from the

Old World.!° For example, some spear points at the Upper Paleolithic site at Kostyenki in the western U.S.S.R. have thinned,

concave bases with some fluting like those on the lance-shaped points of the New World. The Paleo-Indians lived in the grassy and swampy plains of North America at the close of the Pleistocene period. Much of their livelihood was gained from the specialized hunting of such large animals as the mammoth, camel, horse, and an archaic form of bison (Bison antiquus), all of which are now extinct. The earliest example of the lance-shaped points used by the Paleo-Indians is the Clovis point, widely found east of the Rocky Mountains (see fig. 7). This is a large point with grooves running from the base up one-half or less the length of the point. The edges on both sides near the base of the point were purposefully dulled, probably to keep them from cutting through the bindings with which they were attached to the spear shaft. In fact, it now appears that Clovis points were hafted to a bone foreshaft (fig. 6). At the Anzik site in southwestern Montana archaeologists discovered several fluted points along with slender

shafts made of mammal bone. The ends of these foreshafts are beveled and inscribed with cross hatching. A black material, probably resin, still adheres to some of the foreshafts, suggesting that the points were both bound and glued to them. These foreshafts were probably set into a socketed wooden spear handle, so that it could be

thrust into an animal and then pulled free, leaving the foreshaft imbedded in the animal's flesh. Each hunter probably carried sev39

THE SOUTHEASTERN INDIANS

——————

SO eA ae po ae 4 7g epee CS 1a OE. iaS WL —— Figure 6. Clovis point and bone foreshaft. The socket in the wooden spear shaft is conjectural. Science, vol. 186 (11 October 1974), p. 149, fig. 3A. Copyright 1974 by the American Association for the Advancement of Science. Courtesy, Robson Bonnichsen and Science.

eral of these foreshafts along with a single spear handle, so that the handle could be repeatedly armed and thrust into an animal. The foreshafts, with their sharp stone blades, may have also been used as knives in butchering the animal.!4

The Paleo-Indians either threw their spears at the animals or thrust them in at close range. Probably it was the latter, for the skill of most simple hunting people lies not in hitting the animal from a distance, but in getting so close to the animal that they cannot miss. A favorite strategy of most people of simple technology who hunt

large game animals is to wound the animal and then follow and harass it until it wearies to the point that they can get close enough to kill it. One technique for wounding a large animal was to creep up on

it while it was drinking water. Ambush seems to have been the principal Paleo-Indian means of attack. They very often set up their camps on ridges or slopes of hills overlooking watering spots, thus

allowing them to keep these places under constant surveillance. They apparently made little use of caves or rock shelters. Other camp sites were located near natural traps, such as cliffs or box canyons. /?

Another effective big-game hunting technique of the later PaleoIndians was to stampede a herd of animals over a precipice or into a gully to their deaths. A Paleo-Indian site in Colorado gives us an amazingly complete picture of one such kill which took place around

6,500 B.C., just at the end of the Paleo-Indian tradition. Ar40

Prehistory and Early History

chaeologists studied the arrangement and condition of the bison bones found at the site and were able to draw the following conclusions. It was in late May or early June when hunters from a band of perhaps 150 people crept up on a large herd of bison. They probably approached from the north, downwind from the herd, and their plan was to stampede the bison south into a gully which would lie across their path from east to west. The gully was at its deepest and widest part about 7 feet deep and 12 feet wide; the bison would be killed as they fell on top of one another, crushing and disabling all but the

ones near the top. Some of the hunters formed east and probably west flanks near the gully to keep the bison from veering around the trap. The Indians were successful in their strategy, and about 200 bison were killed in the trap. The butchering took place on the spot, and the hunters seem to have followed very much the same procedure as was used by the Plains Indians in the historic past. Some of the tongues and probably some of the internal organs were eaten on

the spot, and the rest of the meat was probably taken back to the camp to be consumed in the next couple of weeks or to be dried for future use. About 75 per cent of the kill was butchered. The band probably would not have had to kill more game for another month or more. 18

There can be no doubt that the Paleo-Indians were good at hunting large animals. The mammoth, the horse, and the camel all disappeared from North America around 9,000 to 8,000 B.C. Bison antiquus survived for about one thousand years longer, when it too became extinct. It is possible that the Paleo-Indians played a role in the extinction of these large animals. In coming to the New World,

the Paleo-Indians entered a vast hunter's paradise in which the animals had had no experience with men and hence had not had through the ages the chance to develop defensive behavioral adaptations against them. Also there were few ecological pressures to hold down the human population. Most important in this regard was the

fact that the Paleo-Indians’ long, cold trek through the Arctic had acted as a disease filter: most of the illnesses which afflicted men in the Old World were left behind. The Paleo-Indian population may have increased very rapidly, perhaps reaching saturation in 500 to 800 years, and they may have swept through the Americas in a kind of front, killing large numbers of Pleistocene animals along the way. It may have taken no more than one thousand years for them to reach 41

THE SOUTHEASTERN INDIANS

the utmost southern tip of South America. As the population “front” moved through, smaller numbers of men would likely have been left behind to occupy niches throughout the American continents. 14

In contrast to the rather detailed evidence on the Paleo-Indian way of life in the western United States, where erosion and sparse vegetation expose sites for easy discovery, the picture of the eastern

United States is much less complete. Many thousands of Clovis points have been found in the east, particularly in an area that includes most of what is today Kentucky, Tennessee, and Ohio.'* Unfortunately, almost all of these were found on the surface of the ground or in the beds of streams so that their dating remains in doubt. Also, in the Southeast no fluted points have been found in direct association with the bones of extinct animals. It has been established, however, that in the Southeast these fluted points are found in areas where mammoth bones are frequently found. Large lance-shaped points, some of which resemble Clovis points, have been found in better archaeological contexts in Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, and Virginia. In the later part of the Paleo-Indian period

in the Southeast, the projectile points began to take on a new appearance as the flutes became less prominent and the bases became increasingly concave, often producing widely flaring ears. Examples are the Cumberland, Quad, and Dalton points (fig. 7). Although they have not been able to prove it, many archaeologists believe that all of these types of points were derived from the earlier Paleo-Indian points. All of this talk about projectile points does not mean that these were the only kind of tools the Paleo-Indians possessed. It is just that these are the most easily recognizable tools both on the surface of the

ground and at the kill sites, where the Paleo-Indians killed and butchered large animals. But at sites where the Paleo-Indians presumably lived, such as the Williamson site in Virginia, archae-

ologists have found a variety of tools, such as small scrapers,

42 |

spokeshave scrapers, knives, and gravers. The Paleo-Indians also used bone to make tools, but bone does not survive the passage of time nearly as well as does stone.}® It is almost certain, moreover, that these people that we characterize as hunters of big game had sources of food other than large animals. But here again it is a matter of preservation of the evidence, for the remains of smaller game and wild vegetable foods do not endure as well as the remains of larger

Prehistory and Early History

Figure 7. Paleo-Indian projectile points. From bottom to top: Clovis (6.56 cm. long); Cumberland; Quad; Dalton. Courtesy, Frank H. McClung Museum, University of Tennessee.

animals. It is possible, in fact, that the Paleo-Indians relied on small game and vegetable foods rather heavily. Apart from the way they made their living, we know relatively little about the Paleo-Indians. But new facts are being discovered all

the time. At the Anzik site, along with Clovis points and bone foreshafts, archaeologists unearthed the skeletal remains of two subadults. A large number of artifacts were interred with them, and 43

THE SOUTHEASTERN INDIANS

the bodies and the artifacts had been sprinkled with red ocher (hematite). The bone foreshafts show signs of having been intentionally broken before they were laid in the graves. We can infer from

this that the Paleo-Indians had ritual means of coping with death, and that they may have had some notion of an afterlife. All of these burial customs—the use of red ocher, the interment of material

objects with the corpse, and the intentional breaking of grave goods—existed in the Southeast throughout the prehistoric period.

THE ARCHAIC TRADITION At the close of the Pleistocene period the ice receded and the large cold-adapted animals became extinct. As this happened the PaleoIndian hunting tradition gradually declined. In its place, at around 8,000 B.C., a new tradition—the Archaic—began to take shape in the eastern United States.” Instead of a primary reliance on hunting

large animals, the Archaic tradition was both diversified and efficient, being based on the gathering of vegetable foods, particularly acorns and hickory nuts, fishing, and the hunting and trapping of small woodland animals. People in the Archaic became increasingly sedentary, making their living in smaller and smaller territories, and they became increasingly efficient in exploiting all the food resources the environment had to offer. The Archaic tradition left its mark on all subsequent cultures in the Southeast. The Archaic tradition was more complex than the Paleo-Indian tradition. Archaic projectile points were made in a wide variety of shapes, but frequently they had stemmed bases, notches for attachment to shafts, and barbs (fig. 8). Choppers and scrapers of chipped stone continued into the Archaic with relatively little change from

Paleo-Indian contexts.18 It was in the Archaic tradition that the Indians began making artifacts out of polished stone (fig. 9). Some of

these artifacts were purely practical, such as milling stones for grinding seeds, stone adzes for working wood, gouges, and grooved axes; others were artistically pleasing as well as utilitarian, such as finely polished stone objects used as weights on weapons (see fig. 12); and late in the Archaic quite a few stone artifacts—like pendants, plummets, and beads—were purely for decoration, pleasure, or ritual. The variety of these polished stone tools and ornaments increased as time went on in the Archaic.!9 The Archaic tradition eventually dominated a vast area of North 44

Prehistory and Early History

Oe 7 4d -i e“avise a om = Pepe Ry Figure 8. Archaic chipped stone artifacts. Left: chopper (11.6 cm. long). Above center: end scraper. Upper right: stemmed point, side-notched point. Below center: adze. Lower right: Eva type point. Courtesy, Frank H. McClung Museum, University of Tennessee.

America from the plains eastward to the Atlantic Coast, and from central Canada southward to the Gulf Coast. The Archaic does not seem to have been introduced by anew group of people coming from elsewhere. But the details of the origin and early development of the Archaic tradition are not altogether clear. Some archaeologists believe that the Archaic developed out of an early unspecialized hunt-

ing and gathering tradition. Other archaeologists believe that the Archaic developed gradually out of the Paleo-Indian tradition, pointing out that with the exception of the projectile points, many of

the tools remained the same.?° Archaeological evidence for the latter argument has been found in sites in Alabama, Florida, and North Carolina in which late Paleo-Indian artifacts have been found at the bottom of deeply stratified Archaic sites.24 Russell Cave in Alabama, a site which has been preserved as a national park, is an 45

THE SOUTHEASTERN INDIANS

a 9| A| iE oe 4 ; >: y ae : ££ = oe es ees 7 : z

Sa > 8 aN

Figure g. Archaic polished stone artifacts. Left: pestle (25.5 cm. long). Upper row, left to right: grooved axe; stone pendant; muller; nut stone. Below: mortar. Courtesy, Frank H. McClung Museum, University of Tennessee.

example of a habitation site that was favored by Indians through all

the phases of Southeastern prehistory. In this large cave some materials related to late Paleo-Indian cultures have been found beneath a deep layer of Archaic materials. While Paleo-Indian sites are always thin, deep Archaic sites have been discovered in several caves and rock shelters, along rivers and streams, and along the old shores of lakes.

It should be understood that the change from Paleo-Indian to Archaic did not happen suddenly. Some evidence indicates that early Archaic people continued to hunt large animals where they could. And in the West particularly, some people persisted unchanged in the Paleo-Indian tradition after the Archaic tradition had

begun. 46

Prehistory and Early History

Eva, a shell and earth midden located on an old channel of the lower Tennessee River, is a particularly rich Archaic site.2* Beginning around 5,000 B.C., this site was occupied for a period of several

thousand years, although perhaps not continuously. The Archaic people hunted and gathered a wide variety of foods seasonally; this means that some of them moved from one site to another during the year, fishing and collecting shellfish in one place, collecting nuts in another, and hunting in still another. They made great use of freshwater mussels, and they caught fish using well-formed bone fishhooks (fig. 10). They also ate a variety of vegetable foods, such as berries, several kinds of nuts, and certain roots. The people used specialized tools to process their vegetable foods, including nutstones for cracking nuts, and mortars and pestles for grinding up seeds and other foods (see fig. 9). The people who lived at the Eva site hunted a great many animals,

including deer, elk, bear, fox, wolf, squirrel, raccoon, opossum, beaver, otter, turkey, and other birds. Of these, the deer was by far the most important food source; around go percent of all the mammal bones in the site were from deer. The deer was obviously the most important game animal, and it continued to be most important

throughout the entirety of Southeastern prehistory. The Archaic people killed large animals with javelins or short spears ejected from spear-throwers. The spear-thrower is a wooden shaft about two feet long with a hook on one end. This hook, often carved out of deer antler, was placed behind the end of the spear so that both the spear

and the spear-thrower were held in the throwing hand. When the spear was hurled, this spear-thrower effectively increased the length of the hunter's arm, greatly increasing the force with which the spear

could be thrown (fig. 11). These spear-throwers frequently had weights (“bannerstones’ and “boatstones ’) of finely polished stone attached to their shafts (fig. 12). The function of these weights is uncertain. They may have enhanced the velocity of the spears which

were cast from them, or they may have made the spear-thrower suitable for secondary use as a war club. The darts, or spears, were

tipped with rather large stone points with stemmed or notched bases. After the kill, game was dressed and cut up with large stone

knives, and the hides were processed with scrapers and further worked with bone awls and needles. These awls and needles may 47

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prerarn eteeeeeeeee ate 0 5 eee 0 010 010 0FOS 00 FSS 0 0180010 60 0 6 e 8HEHEHE ee ee Oe HHH oO ebHEHE 88 oOo Oe oa ee HHH eee ow ee te eeHHO 8 8 8HH 8 8OTHER eee 88 eer etotere ‘eee ee Ce eS FOF HHEHEHTSHSHHEH HTHH HHH HOHE HOHE oF e888 8 ee ee SOOO OC RO CO O010 BE Beeleeew Be8 8Be ae dd88 eoehe heOe8eoe dh d8hd e oon tet ettootEOS eeeerate ececeece 290 eter eee 8 0OO 018ete00 018 0 0OC 0 8eet6O 8O0 tain ee OTe elete 0ane 0ad 88 ee 8a Ole 0tet8ahd 8ate 8 eee eleete tere etree Po eaee ee ec ecarererere cc ee ec eee ete ete ete te ee ete e0 tata a ata tetera aaa tate arate tet tate tateHH ete a ee eta 8ata eta tn te”.ee© ata ererero ete tana ee t ete *** CCHS HETHEEEHHEHSHHHHEAHSEHE HHO OHHH HEHEHE HEHH HEHEHE HESS eS8 Eeeeeseesaoasne Pio oeHESS 0.0.0.0. 00.0.0 0.0.8 0HEHEHE 0 0 0 0 00 0 06HHHHEHHEHHEHESHRHESHHSHSHH 00 60000000 600 000 0 0 68 0HEHE 000 HHHE 00 6 6HEHEHE 0 8 0 6 0HEHE 8 0 0HHH 8 0HHRHHHHOHHH 4HHH 08 00 8 0 0 a 6HEHEHE 6 6 0 0 SE 6HEHE eo 8 008 oeeee8 oe 8 6eeeeee 6 6 eee OOO E HH EHH ESTEE HHHHEHHEHHEHEHSHEHHEHHEHHH HSHEHHE SH7FH HO Dee Pete ee eeooo ete ete ec eteOOo ee eeOooo ete ete ete0etc ete ete ects te00 ete00ete006 a ete ee 0 cere eee ote eeO08 ee ee0a8ce08ee00ete6 etc ete ete ete ete Oe ee ae 0 ete ee e® OO©.'ete OOOO OOOO 000ee Oe 0 60.0 00 00 08 06ete 06 00.0 000 0.8 0.0 68 8FOO 80 e8OO OOO eeeeee Ore eet eteee PP. 0.0.8 © 0 0 6 8 0 6 8 08 6 08 6 8 00 6 6 6 6 6 6 0 8 6 8 60 8 oOo 6 0 6 6 0 6 8 8 0 6 0% 6 8 6% 6 8 2 6 8 8 0 6 0 0 8 6 6 8 8 8 8 e we 8 oe ee ee eetete® eee OOo ee SESE EHH EER EHSETHEHSHEHEEHHHHEHEHSHEHHHSHEHRHERSHSHEHSHEHEHHEHEHHHHHHEHEHSHHEHEHHEHEH HEHE HHHEHH HEH HEHEHE FF OSTEO eH eee Pre 01070 0 0.0.0.0. 0. 60.00.00. 0.0.0. 0.0 00.0000 6000.06.00 0.0 60000008 608 00 080 0 000 8 00 0.0 0 60 06 0 0 0 oe 2 eo eo ee oo 0 0 0 0 8 0 0 0 0 0eeeeeeaae 8 oe #000 0 6.0 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 8 0 0 oe 6 oe oe 8 6 8 8 6 8 0 8 6 6 8 6 8 Oo 8 6 8 6 8 8 oo oe 8 0 oo 8 to oe 8 6 8 6 8 8 0 8 0 0 0 0 6 6 8 0 8 ta en ee ee ee ee ep en e*

THE SOUTHEASTERN INDIANS

Figure 10. Archaic bone artifacts. Left: antler projectile point. Center:deer ulna awl. Right: needle, fishhook. Courtesy, Frank H. McClung Museum, University of Tennessee.

50

Prehistory and Early History

have been used to make basketry as well (see fig. 10).24 The skeletons of rather large dogs—possibly hunting dogs—have also been discovered at the Eva site.

The Archaic people are thought to have exploited a definite territory, and they were therefore more closely tied to a particular area than the Paleo-Indians were. Because they adapted to local resources, regional differences developed and led to several distinct

se ee Se BES eee eeeee gues: eee te ae.

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Po eSgh OeSR, oe Se Beech, ce he SS ee Nr| ener eS 2° of Figure 11. Use of the spear thrower. Courtesy, South Carolina Wildlife. 51

THE SOUTHEASTERN INDIANS

PME esc a

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Figure 12. Polished stone spear thrower weights. Courtesy, Frank H. McClung Museum, University of Tennessee.

cultural variations within the broad Archaic tradition. Some of these differences were important. For example, some of the earliest pottery in North America has been found at the important Archaic site

of Stallings Island, located in the Savannah River near Augusta, Georgia. Like the Eva site, Stallings Island contains a shell midden of enormous size; it is about 500 feet wide, 1,500 feet long, and from

6 to 12 feet deep. At the lower levels archaeologists have found typical Archaic grooved axes, spear-thrower weights, mortars for grinding food, and projectile points, along with decorative bone pins, shell beads, and bone and stone pendants. But in the upper levels of the midden, they have found pottery dating to about 2,000

B.C. Subsequently, additional finds of the same sort of pottery turned up at sites along the lower Savannah River and on islands along the Georgia coast. The pottery is in the form of open bowls, with thick walls decorated with incised lines and punched indentations made by pressing a small pointed tool into the wet clay before firing. This is fiber-tempered pottery, which means that fibers from grass, roots, Spanish moss, and other materials were placed in the clay, and the clay was thereby strengthened for firing (fig. 193). 52

Prehistory and Early History

Archaeologists are not sure of the precise point of earliest occurrence of this fiber-tempered pottery. It could have been the Savannah River area, or it could have been the area of the St. Johns River in Florida.*° The St. Johns River area was extraordinarily rich in the kinds of food preferred by the Archaic people, and they made good use of it. Extensive shell middens contain a full array of Archaic artifacts, including fiber-tempered pottery. The pottery of the St. Johns area was more elaborately decorated than the Stallings Island ware, with incised chevrons, diamonds, or squares on the outside of the bowls. Fiber-tempered pottery also shows up along the Tennes-

see River at a somewhat later date, where it was decorated with stamped designs of one kind or another. The phase of the Archaic tradition that prevailed along the Savan-

nah River area also reached somewhat further northward into the piedmont. In general, however, the Archaic people of the northern piedmont were more similar to people to the west and to the north of them than to those in the southern piedmont. Indeed, in the Archaic period people in the piedmont from South Carolina to southern New

England were generally similar to each other. They used similar

banana-shaped or prism-shaped spear-thrower weights, large stemmed or notched projectile points, and a semilunar knife. The technique of making fiber-tempered pottery never went very far northward in the piedmont. Instead, people in the northern piedmont continued making containers out of steatite or soapstone, a soft, easily worked mineral, long after the occurrence of pottery

further south. From this time forward, people in the northern

| 53

Figure 13. Fiber-tempered potsherds. The irregular markings on the surfaces were caused by the fibers. Courtesy, Frank H. McClung Museum, University of Tennessee.

THE SOUTHEASTERN INDIANS

piedmont region remained somewhat distinct from people further south in the southern piedmont and coastal plain. When pottery did abruptly appear around A.D. 400 in the northern piedmont, it resembled pottery in the northeast. Until about A.D. 1500, new ideas from the Southeast were adopted slowly in the northern piedmont, if at all.26

To summarize, the Archaic tradition represents the successful adaptation of the people of the Southeast to the warmer weather and forest flora and fauna that marked the close of the Pleistocene. As the large animals disappeared, these people learned to make their living by using all that their environment had to offer: fish, fresh-water mussels, nuts, seeds, and a wide variety of woodland animals. In addition to these purely practical innovations, the Archaic people apparently invented the technique of polishing stone (see fig. 9). This technique was also used in Asia and in South America, but the Archaic people of the Southeast seem to have come up with it on their own. They did, of course, make practical imple-

ments out of polished stone, but the craftsmanship that went into some of the spear-thrower weights, for example, exceeded mere utility. In addition, they may also have invented fiber-tempered pottery independently. The increasingly efficient hunting and gathering techniques which developed in the Archaic allowed the Indians time for other pursuits. A number of objects used for personal adornment were unearthed at the Eva site. In the early period these were beads made out of bird bones, perforated dog, bobcat, and bear canine teeth, and stone pendants. One burial had with it a necklace made from the vertebrae of a large rattlesnake strung together in place. Tubular stone pipes which were presumably used for smoking show up in the later occupation of the Eva site (fig. 14). This does not, however, necessarily mean that they smoked tobacco in these pipes. The tobacco (Nicotiana rustica L.) used by the Southeastern Indians was native to the central Andes, and we do not know when it first reached the eastern United States. We do know that the Indians

of the upper Great Lakes smoked twenty-seven different native plant substances, including shining willow bark (Salix lucida Muhl.),

red willow bark (Cornus amonmum Mill.), smooth sumac leaves (Rhus glabra L.), staghorn sumac leaves (Rhus typhina L.), fragrant goldenrod flowers (Solidago graminifolia [L.] Salisb.), Philadelphia 54

Prehistory and Early History

{eer

Figure 14. Archaic tubular stone pipe. Courtesy, Frank H. McClung Museum, University of Tennessee.

fleabane flowers (Erigeron philadelphicus L.), and others. In historic times the Indians believed that many of these aroused the scent glands in does, and they were thus smoked by men who hunted deer.?7 In the Archaic era, proper burial of the dead became an important matter. At the Eva site, adult corpses were bound in a tightly flexed position and placed in small pits, and they were probably wrapped in

some kind of covering. Children and infants were treated in the same way, except that very young infants were apparently bound to their cradle boards, in an extended or partly flexed position. And about one third of the burials were accompanied by such things as red ocher, weapons, tools, and the bodies of their dogs. This grow-

ing concern with proper burial of the dead was a prelude to the impressive mortuary practices which characterize the next era in aboriginal Southeastern prehistory.

THE WOODLAND TRADITION This new tradition—the Woodland—began to take shape in the eastern United States, most notably along the Mississippi and Ohio rivers, around 1,000 B.C.; it lasted, with modifications, until around

A.D. 700. The Woodland tradition entailed both a change in the ideology of the Indians and a change in their subsistence pattern, but in both cases the changes appear to have gradually developed out of antecedents in the Archaic tradition. This tradition was a combination of new culture traits into a pattern peculiar to eastern North America; in fact, it was probably the most distinctive, the most completely indigenous culture ever to exist in eastern North America.” All other cultures, earlier and later, were either present 55

THE SOUTHEASTERN INDIANS

elsewhere or influenced from elsewhere. | The people of the Woodland tradition followed the same hunting and gathering way of life that their ancestors had established earlier.

In the Woodland tradition, however, they developed more and more refinements in ways of doing things as they learned to exploit particular foods of their local regions more efficiently. In the deciduous forest region of the middle Southeast, for example, the collection and use of nuts evidently became increasingly important. Ex-

tensive use was made of underground pits, probably to store nuts and seeds which the people were gathering in large quantities.?® Such storage must have allowed a somewhat more sedentary life, and it is during this time that we have the first clear evidence for sturdy, relatively permanent houses. The people must have continued to move about exploiting their environment in some kind of seasonal cycle, for even in much later times Europeans observed whole villages moving in search of better hunting. However, it does seem that Woodland people lived in small settlhements which were

more permanent than before. _ The several innovations which characterize the Woodland tradition evidently grew out of the established patterns of the Archaic, although some of them may have been prodded along the way by indirect influences from Mesoamerica. During this time pottery became widespread, and its form and decoration became locally stylized. The rudiments of agriculture began to emerge as a supplement to the old established hunting and gathering way of life. And burial customs which were gaining importance in the Archaic tradition were followed in the Woodland tradition by amazingly elaborate burials of certain individuals. These elaborate mortuary cus-

toms included the most impressive of all the innovations of the Woodland people, the building of a great many monumental earthworks, some of them truly enormous in size. The earthworks built by the Indians in the Woodland tradition varied both in form and function. Some were only a few feet high while others were immense; one instance of these is the Poverty Point site in Louisiana, a site so huge and complex that its full extent was not wholly recognized until the days of aerial observation. Many

of the Woodland mounds were burial mounds which were constructed over human bones or cremated remains, or in other cases over bodies buried in substantial log tombs. Sometimes the mounds 56

Prehistory and Early History

covered only one burial, sometimes several, and sometimes there were dozens of burials scattered throughout the mounds. Earth was carried to the mounds a basketful at a time as the mounds were built. The burials were usually accompanied by elaborate grave goods, such as pottery, jewelry, and sheets of mica cut in various shapes. After about 100 B.C. these burial mounds became very widespread in the eastern United States. Other earthworks were not burial mounds, and in fact we do not know what they were for. In some cases the earth was piled high into mounds, in other cases it was built up into shapes of animals, and in still other cases it was used to make large enclosures. These enclo-

sures are sometimes geometric, and they sometimes surround groups of burial mounds. Some formations found from this period were made by piling up rocks rather than dirt.

Many of these earthworks which were not burial mounds are scattered throughout the eastern United States today and are usually regarded by the local people as great mysteries. Many stories exist about their origin, one of the most popular being that they were made by the Mound Builders, who, as we have already seen, were

believed to have been a mysterious race of men who somehow appeared and then disappeared from this continent ages ago. The most widespread popular belief about the function of these earthworks is that they served as forts, since most of them consist at least in part of some kind of enclosure. However, the embankments are

rarely, if ever, substantial enough to keep anyone out, and it is doubtful that they served this purpose. One rather imposing structure of this sort is Old Stone Fort near Manchester, Tennessee (fig. 15). This site resembles sites found in Georgia, Alabama, Kentucky, and Missouri, and also to the north along the Ohio River. Archaeological research has established that it was built in the first three or four centuries of the Christian era. The site is situated on a natural plateau where the two forks of the Duck

River come together. It comprises an area of about fifty acres bounded on two sides by steep cliffs and on the other sides by rambling walls made of loosely piled stone covered with earth. Altogether the several segments of the wall measure 4,600 feet in length. The enclosure has only one entrance, a complex structure consisting of a corridor of parallel earthen walls leading in to a wall across the end of the corridor with an exit to the side. The function or 57

THE SOUTHEASTERN INDIANS

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Prehistory and Early History

purpose of this complex entrance is not understood. The purpose of

the enclosure is also unknown. No pottery and only a handful of stone artifacts have been found in the enclosure, and none of these were definitely made by the people who built the walls. Since no refuse has been found within the enclosure, it evidently was not used as the site for acommunity. The walls are only four or five feet high, and therefore would have had limited effectiveness as a defensive fortification. Most archaeologists believe instead that the enclosure must have been used seasonally, perhaps only once a year, for

ceremonial purposes, though it must be admitted that no direct evidence for ceremonial activity has ever been found.?° Some of the animal effigy mounds that were built by Indians of the Woodland tradition can still be seen today. One of the most impressive is the Serpent Mound, built atop a steep bluff in southern Ohio

(fig. 16). This is a carefully constructed earthen structure built to represent the body ofa snake, complete with several curves, acoiled tail, and a rather complex head. From head to tail it measures 737 linear feet. The body of the serpent averages about 20 feet wide and 4or5 feet high. Because of its great length and the curves of its body,

a man standing at one end of the serpent cannot see the other end. Archaeologists do not know why the Indians built this mound. Another effigy mound that can still be seen is at the Rock Eagle

site in Georgia. Here rocks were piled into the shape of a bird, perhaps an eagle or a buzzard. Here again archaeologists have no clue to its use. We know so little about these “mystery” mounds because the Indians left little or nothing in the vicinity of each of them for archaeologists to work with. For some of the other areas of life in the Woodland period, however, our knowledge and understanding are relatively good. The evidence that we have shows that the Woodland tradition was a time of transition from an exclusively hunting and gathering way of life to a way of life in which agriculture played a larger role. In the

Woodland tradition the Indians were exploiting two kinds of plants—native and tropical. The native plants—all exploited for their seeds—were sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.), sumpweed (Iva annua L.), chenopodium (possibly Chenopodium bushianum), pigweed (Amaranthus sp.), knotweed or smartweed (Polygonum sp.), giant ragweed (Ambrosia trifida L.), and maygrass or canary grass (Phalaris caroliniana Walt.). Seeds of all of these (except giant 59

THE SOUTHEASTERN INDIANS

ma a eee % : Es fe FF re , Fe ae ihe ep 5 eae aes) Sie ce ane. Mas, ae Cie ee er, See ae 1 a pig pee PO ete a PC Sabai me Oe Re a? ft fr" be as ee : a I, Lah aadcs, Re rigc” ae *7Sy Yeeelm =Ra ee,=iaiPe 5i ye F f?ee 5._.

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Figure 23. Adenatubular pipe. It is thought to representa dwarf. Note the ear spools. Courtesy, Ohio Historical Society.

70

Prehistory and Early History

7, €_— .a“ Fa ae i , - o”-© '| | :fe h at es ‘ =, “f 4FEj )i,, oa, See‘aA - r €. sy A

f crenata oy x " y i

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Figure 24. Stone Adena tablets. Both show representations of stylized birds of prey. Upper: the Wilmington tablet, Sparks Mound, Clinton County, Ohio. Lower: the Berlin Tablet, Jackson County, Ohio. Courtesy, Ohio Historical Society. 71

THE SOUTHEASTERN INDIANS

The Hopewell culture evidently took shape in Illinois and Ohio, and from there it spread widely in all directions, including southward into the Southeast.4! Hopewell people built elaborate earthworks, some of them enclosing as many as eighty acres, with earthen

embankments as high as twelve feet. Often these enclosures were built in geometric patterns—squares, circles, and octagons—which sometimes were connected by pairs of parallel earthen walls. The burial mounds contained a greater variety of grave goods than those left by the Adena people, including quantities of fresh-water pearls, pan pipes, ear spools, effigy platform pipes, and pottery. Also included were figures cut out of sheets of mica and copper and other objects made from such imported materials as sea shells, grizzly bear

teeth, fossilized shark teeth, and obsidian. There is little evidence

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Figure 26. Kolomoki pottery effigies. Top: horned owl. Bottom: crested bird. Both are coated with red pigment. Courtesy, Laboratory of Archaeol-

ogy, University of Georgia. | 74

Prehistory and Early History

Figure 27. Indian man of Florida. John White drawing probably copied from an original painting by Jacques Le Moyne de Morgues. The man wears a metal gorget about his neck and metal cymbals attached to his arms

and legs. Courtesy, Trustees of the British Museum.

| 795

THE SOUTHEASTERN INDIANS

The temple mound at Kolomoki is entirely surrounded by a large open space, or plaza. Although little definite information is known about the Kolomoki houses themselves, they are thought to have been arranged in a semicircle around the plaza. One smaller mound to the south of the temple mound apparently served as the foundation for a huge post, two to three feet in diameter, probably like those used in a game played by the Timucuans and other Southeastern Indians. No direct evidence for agriculture has been found at Kolomoki; it is possible that it was absent, though agriculture was definitely practiced somewhat later, in historic times, in this area. There is, however, ample evidence of hunting, with deer and turkey being the favorite game animals.* The Gulf culture lasted into historic times. The chroniclers of the de Soto expedition described several groups of Indians, including

the Timucuans, who had some features in common with it. The Calusas of southwestern Florida are perhaps an even better example of a people who represented the last cultural remnants of the early Gulf culture. Clearly outside the Mississippian sphere of influence,

the Calusas did no farming, but lived instead by gathering wild foods, particularly by fishing and collecting shellfish which are so abundant in this area. Huge shell middens occur throughout the Calusa area. One of these, a shell midden on Key Marco, measured 1,700 feet by 1,g00 feet, reaching a height of 12 to 15 feet. The Calusas used the bow and arrow, but they also retained the spearthrower, and according to the Spanish they were accurate at throwing their darts. By a remarkable accident of preservation, several spear-throwers and many other wooden objects were recovered from the muck at Key Marco. The main Calusa village was Calos, located on Mound Key in Estero Bay, whence their head chief wielded some sort of dominance over about fifty villages from Lake Okeechobee southward to the Keys. The chiefs of these villages paid the head chief at Calos “tribute” in the form of exotic feathers, mats, deerskins, food, and precious metals and captives from wrecked Spanish ships. The head chief had several wives and at least some of his wives came from villages which were subject to him. He wore special regalia and expected deference from all his people. The Calusas built large mounds and other unusual earthworks with semicircular ridges, corridors between parallel ridges, and ditches which are at least 76

Prehistory and Early History

mildly reminiscent of the complex earthworks of Adena-Hopewell. In one early account a Spaniard describes standing atop one of the mounds from which place he observed a group of Calusas wearing animal masks moving in procession through one of the corridors (see fig. 81). On some of the mounds they built temples in which they kept masks and other paraphernalia. Like the Natchez, and presumably the people at Kolomoki, the Calusas practiced retainer burial. When a chief or the wife of a chief died, their “servants (often these were war captives) were sacrificially killed and interred with the person who had died.** Though the Gulf culture lingered on among some people of the Gulf Coast, the Woodland tradition began to fade in the interior of

the Southeast.44 For reasons unknown to us, the people stopped participating in the elaborate mortuary cult and presumably were no longer involved in the widespread trade network. But they no doubt went about their day-to-day lives much as before, gathering nuts, seeds, berries, and roots, fishing, hunting deer and small game, and cultivating several native and tropical plants.

THE MISSISSIPPIAN TRADITION The Mississippian tradition began taking shape between A.D. 700

and A.D. goo along the middle course of the Mississippi River between present-day St. Louis, Missouri, and Vicksburg, Mississippi. It developed early and most spectacularly at Cahokia in the tremendously rich American Bottoms, where the Missouri River empties into the Mississippi River. At the height of its development the Cahokia site comprised five and one-half square miles and had an

estimated population of 38,000 people. It was the largest, most densely populated site in aboriginal North America. From here the Mississippian tradition spread in all directions, but principally southeastward and southwestward along river systems to almost all parts of the Southeast and never much outside it, though it did send tenuous strands of influence northward up the Mississippi River and its tributaries. It did not spread to the Great Lakes, the

Northeast, the Middle Atlantic states, nor the glades of southern Florida.4* The Gulf culture did not cease to exist, but rather continued alongside the Mississippian tradition right up to the historic period. At the apex of its development, the Mississippian tradition was 77

THE SOUTHEASTERN INDIANS

the highest cultural achievement in the Southeast, and for that matter in all of North America. The population increased, and towns

grew up that were larger, more permanent, and more secularized than the large religious centers of the Woodland tradition. Some Mississippian towns, such as Cahokia in Illinois and Moundville in Alabama, were larger than even the huge Poverty Point site. This is not to say that all Mississippian sites were large, for archaeologists have excavated many small ones, but there are more large sites found for the Mississippian period than for any previous time.*® Perhaps the most characteristic feature of the Mississippian tradition was the building of flat-topped, pyramidal earthen mounds that served as the foundations for temples or mortuaries, chiefs houses, and other important buildings. De Soto and his men observed the manner in which these mounds were built. According to his chroniclers, dirt was carried up a basketful at a time, emptied out, and then stamped down with great force until it had the desired consistency. They noted that the sides of the mounds were so steep that it was difficult for a man to climb them. Therefore, a more gently sloped earthen ramp was usually built up the face of a mound to give easy access to the top (see fig. 31). De Soto and his men had no difficulty riding their horses up these ramps, which they described as being

from fifteen to twenty feet wide, with log steps laid crosswise. Archaeological research has shown that the buildings atop these mounds were periodically destroyed, either intentionally or by accident, and a mantle of earth was then laid over the entire mound, thus enlarging it; some mounds were enlarged as many as eight or ten times, or even more. The mounds frequently faced a large open

plaza which served as a playing field, a ceremonial area, and a village commons. One of these mound and plaza complexes may be seen today at the reconstructed Chucalissa village near Memphis, Tennessee.*” Around the boundaries of Mississippian plazas were additional mounds, public buildings, and houses.*® Priests sometimes stood on the mounds to address crowds of people who assembled on important occasions, as for example, to deliver a eulogy on the occasion of re-interring the bones of a dead person.*? Not all Mississippian mounds were truncated pyramids. Some of them had a circular ground plan; others were’ long and ridge-shaped. One characteristic of Mississippian sites was that they were invariably built near the courses or old channels of rivers and streams 78

Prehistory and Early History

where the best soil for their kind of agriculture was found. They were also frequently surrounded by defensive structures. Ditches were often dug around the perimeter of the town, presumably for defense, and in some cases they were filled with water. As described by the de Soto chroniclers, the town of Pacaha, on the west bank of

the Mississippi River, was almost completely surrounded by a man-made ditch filled with water from a canal cut to the river.*° With or without ditches, many Mississippian towns were sur-

rounded by palisades made of large posts set vertically into the | earth. Other poles were attached to these horizontally, and the whole thing was covered with a thick coating of mud and straw plaster. Built into the walls at regular intervals were defensive towers manned by sentinels, or in time of battle, by seven or eight archers (fig. 28). According to the de Soto chroniclers, the town of the Alabamas was laid out in a perfect square, with walls four hundred feet long; on one side this fort was entered via three doors so low a horse could not get through, and the other side by a gate opening onto a steep river bank which was difficult to climb. The Alabama fort also contained interior defensive walls so that ifone was taken by the enemy the next one could be defended.*! Other towns had palisades built according to more irregular plans which incorporated advantageous features of the terrain.

aa ie hat IP io al “7

3 * » NE eee AE ss

eT ae Me vials Lhe ate Werk | s ~ Figure 28 . Town Creek. A reconstructed South Appalachian Mississippian site with palisade, defensive towers, and a temple mound. A stream runs behind the trees in the left background. Courtesy, North Carolina Division of Archives and History.

79

THE SOUTHEASTERN INDIANS

Within particular regions Mississippian sites are often differentiated both in size and in social function. Typically, a single large site

with one or more mounds served as the center of the society. In some cases, as at Cahokia, this large site served both as a ceremonial center and a population center. In other cases, as at Spiro or Town Creek, the large site was only a ceremonial: center with a small resident population. Most of the members of the society lived within a few miles of the large site in small villages that were sometimes

fortified. Still other members of the society lived out near the agricultural fields in small, unfortified homesteads. The temple mounds and defensive structures indicate that the Mississippian tradition entailed new religious and social elements, and that there were also important economic changes. The Mississippian people began to rely on agriculture—particularly the cultivation of corn, beans, and squash—for a large portion of their food, even though hunting and gathering remained important. Following precedents set in the Woodland period, Mississippian people practiced agriculture along the river valleys, always with their villages and towns located nearby. Their main agricultural tools were the digging stick and a short-handled hoe with a blade made of chipped flint (fig. 29) or the shoulder blade of a large mammal, such as an elk or bison. Woodland people cultivated small-eared, many-rowed, tropical flint corn between about 200 B.C. and A.D. 400, about which time

corn disappears or becomes exceedingly scarce in the eastern United States. Tropical flint grows best in a dry climate with a moderately long growing season. A moist, cool climate in the late Woodland period could have made its cultivation difficult. Corn reappears in the early Mississippian period, around A.D. 800 to A.D.

1000. Though the Mississippian people resumed. cultivation of a corn descended from the early tropical flint, by about A. D. 1200

most of the corn grown in the eastern United States was a new variety. This new variety, eastern flint, has its kernels in paired rows, usually with eight rows in all but sometimes with ten or twelve. Eastern flint is thought to have been domesticated in highland Guatemala, whence it presumably spread northward to the Southwest and thence to the Southeast. The advantage of this corn was that it would thrive in moist soil and in a relatively cool climate.

This made it ideal for cultivation in the eastern United States. 80

Prehistory and Early History SOs EASE RG Fg eee, SEE cern es gee CM tated:

PIS SERRA Fo i rcs a lane ten ae eh ee al :

Figure 29. Mississippian flint hoe. The wide end of the blade was polished

through use. Courtesy, Frank H. McClung Museum, University of Tennessee.

Present-day commercial corn is a relatively recent hybrid developed from this eastern flint and a many-rowed dent corn native to Mexico. Beans showed up in Mississippian sites at about the same time the

eastern flint corn does. And the Indians continued cultivating gourds and squashes which were presumably descended from vari-

eties cultivated throughout the Woodland tradition. The precise nature of the differences between Woodland and Mississippian agriculture are not well understood. The new hardy variety of corn was undoubtedly more productive than the older tropical flint. Perhaps 81

THE SOUTHEASTERN INDIANS

more important was the combination of corn and beans, whose nutrients complement each other. Together they provide a reasonably good vegetable diet; separately they do not. After this Mississippian agricultural complex took shape, the cultivation of the old

native plants—sunflower, sumpweed, and others—apparently declined. In addition to corn, beans, and squash, Mesoamerican affinities were apparently present in Mississippian religious architecture, but how they came to be there is not clear. The difficulty is that there are no temple mounds in a vast area between central Mexico and the Southeast, and in fact the absence of large rivers and alluvial soils in the western coastal plain may have constituted an ecological barrier between central Mexico and the Southeast. Also, no evidence has been found of direct Mesoamerican intrusion into the Southeast.

The influence must have come from occasional immigration of people and the diffusion of ideas from Mesoamerica. At the same time, archaeological evidence indicates that the Mississippian tradition itself was spread within the Southeast partly by diffusion of ideas but also by intrusive movements of people out from the Mississippi valley, and distinguishing between these two kinds of diffusion is by

no means easy.°” |

Evidence of intrusive movements of Mississippian people has been found at several sites on the periphery of the area that came under Mississippian domination. Around A.D. goo, for example, a group of Mississippian people moved up the Illinois River and displaced Woodland people occupying the Dickson Mounds site. They remained here until about A.D. 1300, when they abandoned the site for reasons that have not yet been explained. Perhaps their agricultural practices exhausted the soil, or they may have run out of convenient firewood, or perhaps the climate was not entirely suitable for successful Mississippian agriculture. Much the same thing

seems to have happened at the Aztalan site in Wisconsin, the northernmost extension of the Mississippian tradition. The area was settled around A.D. 1000 by people coming up from further south. They selected a site on a tributary of the Rock River. Here they built

a village surrounded by a strong, fortified palisade with walls measuring from 12 to 19 feet high; it surrounded not only the village but the ceremonial center and agricultural fields as well. In addition,

the village contained several inner palisades (like those at the 82

Prehistory and Early History

Alabama fort), so that the village could be defended one area at a time. The people remained here for about 200 years, at which time the entire village burned down and was never rebuilt. Additional evidence of a movement of people exists at several other sites in the Southeast. For example, at the Town Creek site near Mount Gilead, North Carolina, on a tributary of the upper Pee Dee River, we have evidence that Mississippian people settled the site around A. D. 1300, building villages and tilling fields of corn (see

fig. 28). They built their villages up and down the river, fortifying them with palisades, and they built a palisaded ceremonial center with a temple mound with a square building on top. (This small ceremonial center, now reconstructed for the public, is an excellent example of Mississippian architecture.) They remained in this territory for a century or so after which time it reverted back to its original inhabitants, a number of small Woodland hill tribes.** Another possible example of an intrusive Mississippian community, here intruding into the area of the Gulf culture, is the Fort Walton culture in northwest Florida. The Fort Walton site itself contains a low mound which probably served as a ceremonial center for a number of small villages in the area. The Fort Walton culture may be that of one of the ancestors of the Lower Creeks, who are believed

to have invaded the area in the sixteenth century.*4 Another intrusive Mississippian population settled at what is now Ocmulgee National Park at Macon, Georgia. It is located on the Ocmulgee River, on the fall line. Here at about A.D. goo a group of people bearing the early Mississippian cultural tradition came in and displaced the people of the late Woodland tradition who were living

there. We are fairly sure that this was indeed an invasion because the pottery and many other artifacts that belonged to the new people were so completely different from those of the former inhabitants that it is unlikely that they evolved from them. These new Mississippian people built a large town on a bluff beside the Ocmulgee River and encircled it with two ditches for fortification. Their fields,

of course, were in the bottoms along the river. They built several mounds, one of which was a large burial mound and two others of which were large temple mounds. One interesting feature of the Macon Plateau site is an “earth lodge, a men’s winter council house, which has been reconstructed from the archaeological evidence and can be seen today by visitors to 83

THE SOUTHEASTERN INDIANS

the park. It is a circular building about forty-two feet in diameter, made of pine logs and covered with earth so that from the outside it looks like a small mound. On the floor of the council house and located opposite the entrance is an earthen platform in the shape of a hawk or falcon, its head oriented toward the circular fire basin in the

center of the building. A low clay bench is built around the wall containing seats for forty-seven people. Three more seats are located on the tail of the earthen platform, which is also against the wall, thus

completing the circle of seats. Presumably, these three seats were reserved for important men. For reasons unknown to us, the Macon Plateau people suddenly disappeared from the area around A.D. 1100. The site remained unoccupied until the late prehistoric period, when around A.D. 1400 a town which archaeologists call Lamar was set up about three miles south of the abandoned town. The artifacts left by the inhabitants of Lamar reveal a continuity with the people whom the Macon Plateau

intruders had originally pushed out. Their earlier culture had not been destroyed by the invaders, but it had been changed to incorporate many Mississippian elements. Their town, located on a hammock deep in the river swamp, was palisaded, and their agricultural fields were situated in the river bottoms. In the town were two temple mounds which faced each other across an open plaza. One of

these was circular and was mounted by means of a spiral ramp running counterclockwise around its perimeter. The Mississippian tradition reached a high development around A.D. 1200, influencing almost all the cultures in the Southeast. As time went on, the territory of the Mississippian tradition expanded,

and some of the large ceremonial sites were made even larger. Monk's mound at the Cahokia site, for example, was enlarged until it finally stood 100 feet high with a base of 710 feet east-west and about

1,000 feet north-south, containing almost 22 million cubic feet of earth fill. Monk’s mound was built between A.D. goo and 1200. Over 100 smaller mounds are situated within five square miles of the large mound, and many other even smaller mounds have been destroyed in recent years by farmers, builders, and developers. Many of these

mounds appear to have been built in clusters in accordance with a plan. A series of culturally similar but smaller sites are strung along the Mississippi River in Missouri, Tennessee, and Arkansas. For84

Prehistory and Early History

tified Mississippian sites were also built along the banks of the Ohio River, as may be seen at the Angel site near Evansville, Indiana.*°

In central and western Tennessee and northern Georgia, the Mississippian tradition had the familiar temple mounds with ramps. The towns were generally fortified, enclosing clusters of rectangular houses. The most elaborate stone work in the Southeast comes from this area. These people made large ceremonial flints in the shape of swords or knives, “batons,” and several other intriguing shapes (see fig. 88). Complete axes carved out of a single piece of stone were obviously used for ceremonial purposes (see fig. 89). In addition, several stone statues of men and women have been found. These are rather realistic depictions of sitting or kneeling figures, averaging about two feet in height. Particularly fine examples of these statues

representing a man and a woman have been found at the Etowah mounds in northern Georgia (see fig. 92). Indeed, some of the finest examples of Southeastern art have been recovered from the Etowah

site.°° In addition to the statues, archaeologists at Etowah have recovered fine monolithic axes, a polished stone disc with scalloped edges, an elaborate headdress made from pieces of copper, and large copper plaques with men impersonating falcons embossed on them

(see fig. 93). Later the people of Etowah made a kind of pottery called Lamar, whose dominant forms were bowls and large jars with complicated-stamp patterns, often with incising and other decora-

tions on the rims (fig. 30). This Lamar pottery also occurs at the previously mentioned Lamar site near Macon, at the Naccoochee mound in northern Georgia, at the Hollywood mound near Augusta, Georgia, at the Irene mound near Savannah, Georgia, and northward into the Carolina piedmont.®” Second in size only to Cahokia, Moundville is a large Mississippian site situated south of Tuscaloosa, Alabama, on a high bluff overlooking the Black Warrior River (fig. 31). The site covers around 300 acres, including twenty flat-topped pyramidal mounds grouped in and around a plaza and with a village area surrounding this. Like

other Mississippian sites it had a defensive palisade around it. Smaller sites, villages and homesteads, culturally related to Moundville extend up and down the river for several miles. All of these sites are located near rich, easily tilled sandy soils in the flood plain of the river. A rich collection of artifacts has been recovered at Mound-

85

THE SOUTHEASTERN INDIANS

Figure 30. Lamar plain ware. Bartow County, Georgia. Courtesy, Laboratory of Archaeology, University of Georgia.

ville, including shell gorgets with etched designs, embossed copper pendants (see fig. 60), monolithic axes, engraved stone discs, and exquisite pottery in such forms as jars (see fig. 85), beakers, smallmouthed water bottles, and elbow-form pipes.*® Similar artifacts and a strikingly similar series of symbolic forms appear in several sites in the Southeast in the late prehistoric period. They are collectively referred to as the Southern Cult or the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex because they presumably imply a set

of shared religious beliefs which were held by Mississippian people. ®? This complex includes similar ceremonial costumes, ritual

objects, and religious symbols. This symbolism shows up particularly on pottery and shell gorgets. The designs include the Greek cross (usually enclosed in a circle) (see figs. 37, 38), the swastika, a circle with scalloped or rayed edges, human hands with eyes in the

86 |

Figure 31. The mound complex near Moundville, Alabama. Note the ramps up the sides of the mounds. From Clarence B. Moore, “Moundville Revisited.’ Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, second series, vol. 13, pt. 3 (1907), frontispiece.

87

THE SOUTHEASTERN INDIANS

palms (see fig. go), the feathered serpent (see fig. 45), the forked eye—a human eye embellished with a chevron, zig-zag, or other V-shaped design (figs. 32, 34, 36), the spiral, an oval with a bar through its center (see fig. 35), a curious “bi-lobed arrow’ (fig. 32), and human skulls and long bones. The Southeastern Ceremonial Complex also entailed the use of ritual objects, such as a bi-pointed knife (see fig. 46), monolithic axes (see fig. 89), “batons” chipped out of flint (fig. 32), several kinds of exquisitely made stone and copper celts (see fig. 58), trophy heads (fig. 32), scalloped stone discs (see fig. go), and large ceremonial flints in several unusual shapes (see fig. 88). The human figures in Southeastern Ceremonial Complex art are

depicted wearing ear spools, necklaces with pendants made from columellas taken from large conch shells (see fig. 35), forelocks with one or more large beads threaded on them (fig. 32), hair knots at the

backs of their heads (fig. 32), belts with tassels on the ends, and peculiar pointed pouches or aprons (fig. 32). These symbolic elements are most often found at the large Mississippian sites, such as Etowah, Moundville, and as far away as the Spiro site in Oklahoma.

Smaller amounts of Southeastern Ceremonial Complex materials have been found at lesser towns, such as Hiwassee Island in Tennessee. Each of these towns seems to have been the center of a political entity perhaps comparable to the Creek tdlwa of historic times, to

be described in chapter 4. The undeniable similarity of some of the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex symbols to symbols used in Mesoamerica suggests that

Mesoamerican influences in the Southeast went beyond corn, beans, squash, temple mounds, and a few additional items of mate-

rial culture. Most of the similarities involve symbols which in Mesoamerica are associated with agriculture and fertility, and may in fact have come to the Southeast along with corn and beans.®© But whether these symbols retained their original meanings after adop-

tion in the Southeast is uncertain. Many of the symbols in the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex, perhaps most of them, were related not to fertility, but to war and conjury. The bearers of some elements of Mesoamerican culture may have been pochtecas, traveling Aztec traders, whose presence in North America may be supported by the fact that curious shell and copper masks of a “long-nosed god” have been discovered at many Mississippian sites (fig. 33). It so happens that the god of the pochtecas was 88

Prehistory and Early History

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Figure 32. Mississippian shell gorget with Southeastern Ceremonial Complex motifs. The man wears a beaded forelock, forked-eye design, a bi-lobed arrow stuck through his hair knot, and a pointed pouch. In his right hand he holds a trophy head; in his left a “baton” war club. Courtesy,

Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation.

Yacatecuhtli, who is often portrayed with a long nose.*! The adventures of the Spaniard Cabeza de Vaca suggest the way in which such long distances could have been traveled. As Cabeza de Vaca made his way along the Gulf Coast from Florida to Mexico he had two roles open to him as he encountered new people: priest (and healer) and

trader. And there is no reason why the pochtecas could not have combined the two roles, enabling them to pass in safety through 89

THE SOUTHEASTERN INDIANS

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Figure 33. Miniature Long Nose God mask made of shell. Sumner County, Tennessee. Courtesy, Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation.

societies which were at war with each other. After enduring incredible hardship among the Indians at Galveston Bay, Cabeza de Vaca escaped and set out across Texas, northern Mexico, and down the

west coast to what is now Sinaloa. At times he was followed by hundreds of Indians in a remarkable procession. When Cabeza de Vaca healed people, they gave him all their possessions, which he in turn distributed among his followers. The more he cured, the more

wealth he was given for redistribution and the more the Indians were in awe of him. © As archaeologists accumulate more and more detailed information about the Mississippian tradition, they are realizing that it was more complex than it at first seemed. It is now obvious, for example, that the Mississippian tradition was not everywhere the same. Its highest

development was in the environs of where it first developed, the Middle Mississippi area. This includes what is now southern Illinois, southwestern Indiana, eastern Missouri, western Kentucky, most of

Tennessee, northeastern Arkansas, northern Mississippi, and northern Alabama. Middle Mississippian sites are large, covering many acres, and were permanently inhabited. Some of the sites go

Prehistory and Early History

have as much as ten feet of midden. The houses were generally rectangular with wattle and daub construction and wall trenches (wall posts set in trenches instead of individual holes), and they were

frequently built in rows, as if along streets. Middle Mississippian pottery is characteristically tempered with pulverized shell, smooth surfaced, and decorated by painting or incising. A variant, South Appalachian Mississippian, occurred in Georgia, South Carolina, and the western fringe of North Carolina. Here the familiar Mississippian flat-topped pyramidal mounds were built, but

the pottery is quite distinctive, with complicated-stamp surface decoration. The South Appalachian Mississippian variant was evidently a local Woodland culture which was modified by borrowing from the Mississippian cultures to the west. Another variant, Caddoan Mississippian, occurred in western Louisiana and Arkansas, and in eastern Texas and Oklahoma. Here again the familiar temple mounds were built, but burial mounds were also important. Caddoan pottery is distinctive in that shell-tempering was not used until very late in the prehistoric period. The Caddoan people lived not in large villages, but in scattered, small hamlets, as did their descendants, the Caddoans of the historic period. The large mound sites in the Caddoan area were evidently ceremonial centers rather than habitation sites. Still another variant of the Mississippian tradition —Plaquemine—existed in southern Mississippi. Here the pottery

was not shell-tempered and the settlements were small and dispersed. Plaquemine mound sites are quite large, but they were evidently limited to ceremonial functions because no substantial population lived on the site throughout the year. To the north the influence of the Middle Mississippian tradition was more tenuous. After A.D. 1100 the Oneota culture developed on

the upper tributaries of the Mississippi River and along the upper course of the Missouri River. Oneota people made shell-tempered

pottery, but they built no mounds, and their villages were not fortified. Agriculture was evidently less important here because of the northerly climate. The Oneota culture is thought to have been

ancestral to the culture of the Chiwere Sioux—the Iowa, Oto, Winnebago, and Missouri Indians of the historic period. The ancestors of the Dhegiha Sioux—the historic Poncas, Omahas, Osages, Quapaws, and Kansas—were possibly Middle Mississippian peoples. The Dhegiha Sioux lived in the Great Plains in historic times,

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93

THE SOUTHEASTERN INDIANS

but there is evidence that they had previously lived to the east near the Mississippi River. The Middle Mississippian culture also influenced the Fort Ancient culture that existed in northeastern Kentucky, southern Ohio, and western West Virginia from about A.D. 1400 to about A.D. 1650. Here the pottery was tempered with shell or grit, and the surfaces of

the vessels were either smooth or cord-marked. Fort Ancient sites have turned up a few large flint “swords” along with other materials related to the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex. The Fort Ancient

people are thought to have been ancestral to the Shawnees of the historic period. In the latter half of the seventeenth century, the Shawnees lived in several scattered bands further south and west,

perhaps because they were driven from their homeland by the Iroquois.

It is far easier to establish linkages between late Mississippian archaeological complexes and named historic groups of Indians around the margins of the Southeast than in the Southeast proper. When Hernando de Soto explored the Southeast in 1539-43, he saw

full-blown Mississippian cultures. But the precise route de Soto followed is by no means certain, and the names of places and peoples

noted down by his chroniclers cannot always be tied in with later social and linguistic groups. Almost one and one-half centuries passed between de Soto's entrada and the time when the Southeastern Indians—the Cherokees, Catawbas, Creeks, Chickasaws, Choctaws, and smaller groups—entered the historic era. At this time they no longer built mounds; the old Mississippian religion and social order was a thing of the past; and many groups of people had been uprooted from their homelands. Archaeologists and ethnohistorians are now making some headway in establishing linkages between archaeology and history in the Southeast, but for the present little more can be said with certainty than that most of the Southeastern Indians described in this book are the descendants of South Appalachian and Middle Mississippian ancestors. It can almost be said that the more archaeologists learn about the

Mississippian tradition the less they understand. Once it was thought that the Mississippian tradition was based on intensive agriculture, and that it got its initial push from a strong influence from Mesoamerica. But it now appears that while agriculture was important to Mississippian people, so was hunting and gathering. 94

Prehistory and Early History

The relative importance of agriculture versus hunting and gathering

probably varied from time to time and from one Mississippian culture to another, and we may never be able adequately to measure this variability. All things being equal, Mississippian sites tend to occur where there were (1) substantial areas of riverine soil (i.e., well-drained, sandy loam soils, particularly where these soils were annually renewed by inundation); (2) a long, moist growing season;

and (3) good hunting, particularly for deer and turkey. Several Mississippian settlements in marginal locations—e.g., Aztalan, Dickson, and Town Creek—appear to have been short lived. Perhaps they were short lived because one or more of these variables was found wanting. But even if agriculture did not rule the hearts and souls of Missis-

sippian people, it was important to them. Indeed, the relative scarcity of riverine soil may help to explain the process by which the

Mississippian tradition took shape and expanded. The theory that the Mississippian tradition was the consequence of a Mesoamerican push is no longer acceptable. The borrowing of eastern flint corn and

beans was important, but it now appears that the Mississippian tradition was largely built out of local cultural materials. What was new in the Mississippian tradition was a more centralized political structure, and it is almost certain that this was a local development and not an import from Mesoamerica.

How did it happen that Woodland communities relinquished some of their autonomy to become part of a centralized chiefdom? One theory that has been proposed is that after the Indians began to specialize in the cultivation of scarce riverine soils, they became environmentally circumscribed. In many parts of the world, it has been observed that environmental circumscription of this sort has led to political centralization, namely chiefdoms or states. To the Indians of the Woodland tradition, this riverine soil was desirable, but evidently not crucial. Thus if Village A came into conflict with a stronger Village B, A could simply move away to safety. But once riverine soil became all important, and particularly after most of the riverine soil in any particular area was already under cultivation, Village A could not so easily remove itself from B’s proximity. An alternative for A might be to secure itself beneath the mantle of a chief powerful enough to effect harmony between the conflicting villages. The result would be a welding together of A and B under 95

THE SOUTHEASTERN INDIANS

the influence of the chief, enabling all involved to stand more strongly against mutual outside foes.

It could also happen that entire chiefdoms might come into conflict with each other, and if as a consequence they fell under the

sway of a single strong chiefdom, they would then have attained something approaching state organization. If this latter development actually occurred anywhere in the Mississippian tradition, it would have been at Cahokia. The American Bottom was a rich area where Mississippian people could flourish, but here environmental circumscription was especially great. Expansion was limited on the north, east, and west by climatic conditions too cold or dry for Mississippian agriculture and by decreasing availability of large areas of the necessary riverine soil. There may have been some migration to the south, but by and large the river bottoms here were already occupied by thriving late Woodland or early Mississippian peoples. With such pressures on a burgeoning population, it was likely no accident that the great Cahokia political entity developed where it did. ® It should not be inferred from this that the Mississippian tradition spread solely by Mississippian people pushing each other to new riverine frontiers. This did sometimes happen, as we know from Mississippian sites that are clearly intrusive. But there was a second

way in which the Mississippian tradition could have spread. All things being equal, centralization breeds centralization. Because centralization confers a military advantage, anywhere Mississippian societies impinged on Woodland societies, it would have been to the latter's advantage to become more centralized, and in so doing they may have adopted aspects of the Mississippian tradition. The South Appalachian cultures may have developed in this fashion.

The Mississippian tradition did not reach into every part of the Southeast. Indeed, at the time of early European contact, there were parts of the Southeast in which the material culture was much like that of Woodland or even Archaic peoples. This was particularly true of territory adjacent to the Texas Gulf Coast, an area whose soil

was unsuitable for Mississippian agriculture and an area that was marginal to the spread of new ideas and practices. ®4 The people of the northern piedmont and the coast of the Middle Atlantic states were similarly isolated. And as the survivors of the de Soto expedition neared the mouth of the Mississippi River, they were attacked 96

Prehistory and Early History

by people who still used the spear-thrower and the javelin. The Woodland tradition lingered on in other places, as in the culture of the Menominees of Wisconsin and the Iroquois of New York State. And as we have already seen, the cultures in Florida and along parts of the Gulf Coast persisted into historic times with only relatively minor Mississippian influence. The Natchez of the lower Mississippi River were basically Mississippian, but perhaps with vestiges of the old Gulf culture. ©

EUROPEAN EXPLORATION When Christopher Columbus set foot on the shores of the New World, paving the way for European adventurers to invade and colonize the Americas, the consequences proved great both for the Europeans and for the native people of the New World. Never in the history of the world have cultures so different and so unprepared for

each other come into such ineluctable collision. On the one side were the Europeans, with a centuries-old literate tradition behind them, able to accumulate massive quantities of knowledge and to disseminate it through the printed word, to create complex social organizations with precisely specified tasks, and to plan complicated

social strategies far into the future. On the other side were the Indians, relying on delicately structured oral traditions, living out their lives in tautly organized social structures, and making their livings in balanced ecological systems worked out over centuries of intensive experience in their home territories. The American Indians and their homeland were so new to the Europeans, so outside the realm of their best knowledge, that it took over one and one-half centuries for anything approaching a full realization of the new reality to sink in. Africa and Asia were poorly known to Europeans, but they were not new, and when new knowledge of Africa and Asia began reaching Europe it did not challenge

fundamental assumptions in the European world view. But there

was too much in the New World to comprehend. For the first century or so after the colonization of the New World began, Europeans were little interested in reading about it, preferring instead to read about Turks and Asians.®* When compared to their accumulated knowledge of people and places in the Old World, the infor-

mation from the New World seemed weird, unbelievable, 97

THE SOUTHEASTERN INDIANS

irrelevant—it could not be accommodated in familiar categories of understanding. In many ways the European mind was closed against experience. To a surprising degree, the first Europeans in the New World saw what they expected to see. ®"

The first extensive reports from the New World came from the Spanish friars who had to learn native languages and inquire into native cultures and religions in order to be effective missionaries. As

these reports reached Europe, intellectuals not only had to fit America as a geographical entity into their image of the physical world, they also had to find a place for the Indians among their categories of human beings, and they had to fit America as a historical entity into the European conception of world history. They were able to make none of these intellectual adjustments immediately. The classical geography of Greece and Rome held on for a remarkably long time while fresh knowledge from the New World eroded it bit by bit.

The problem of where the Indians fitted in as human beings—

indeed whether they were human beings at all—was argued throughout the sixteenth century. Since the Indians could not be directly accounted for in Judeo-Christian or classical works, Europeans tried to categorize them in terms of two general classifications

of mankind: (1) Christian/heathen and (2) civil/barbarian, with “civil” meaning having benefit of European literate knowledge and social graces, and “barbarian” meaning not having benefit of these. ®° Skin color was at this time relatively unimportant as a way of classify-

ing people. In time it became clear that the Indians of North America were human beings, but they were neither Christian nor civil. In time the Europeans realized that barbarians were of many sorts, ranging from people only a little less civil than Europeans to rude forest-dwellers. Heathens also were of several sorts, in that some of them were more amenable to Christianity than others. The debate continued. Some argued that even if the Indians seemed unintelligent and stupid, this could merely be a product of their upbringing, in much the same way that European peasants were made stupid. A more serious conceptual problem arose when they realized that a European peasant could be a Christian but a barbarian at the same time. And by the same token, an Indian convert could be a barbarian

but also a Christian. Obviously, the two sets of categories did not 98

Prehistory and Early History

coincide in any satisfying way, and the Europeans were forced to examine some of their basic assumptions. In the end, they generally decided that people could be rational without being Christian and that higher and lower grades of civilization existed in the world, in different stages of development, ranging from the Chinese on the high end to the savage whose dwelling-place was like that of an animal on the low end. Ultimately, they succeeded in devising a new frame of reference, the forerunner of what anthropologists today call the theory of social evolution. © What the Indians thought of the invading Europeans is far more difficult to determine. Because the Indians lacked writing, the only documentation for the early period is European, and we find only a tantalizing bit of evidence here and there. In general, though, when the Indians first met Europeans, they were friendly and curious, but

sometimes apprehensive; they evidently became hostile through experience. In 1524, Giovanni da Verrazzano explored the eastern coast of North America from the Carolinas all the way northward to Newfoundland. When he encountered Indians who had no previous contact with Europeans, they would sometimes run into the woods and hide, but more often they came out to marvel at the Europeans and their white skins and strange clothing. But Verrazzano himself helped change their initial attitudes. At one point in his narrative he casually mentions that his men seized an eight-year-old boy to take him back to France as a specimen. It was not until he reached the coast of Maine, which had previously been visited by English and

Portuguese explorers and fishermen that Verrazzano met Indians who were “full of crudity and vices, and were so barbarous that we could never make any communication with them, however many signs we made to them.’ Evidently, these Indians had already had some experience in trading with Europeans, because they would only accept “knives, hooks for fishing, and sharp metal” in exchange for their goods, refusing the more useless trifles which were offered

to them. When Verrazzano's men tried to go inland, the Indians of the coast of Maine shot arrows at them.7° From accounts of the de Soto expedition a few years later, we

learn that the Indians at first regarded the Spaniards as human beings who would react in predictable, human ways. In one incident, while de Soto was marching northward through Florida, some Indians came peaceably into his camp. Suddenly, one of them took 99

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THE SOUTHEASTERN INDIANS

his bow and struck a Spaniard across the back, and then ran away into the woods. His intention was not to kill or injure the Spaniard, but to challenge him to give chase and possibly to do combat, and of course the Spaniard, if he should fail to catch him, would be angered and humiliated, this being counted a victory in Indian warfare. This

was evidently an indigenous warfare pattern, and the Indian expected the Spaniard to understand it as any human being would. But the Spaniard sent a huge Irish hound after the Indian either to maim

or to kill him.71 By the time de Soto's men reached Mabila in southern Alabama the Indians, profiting from bitter experience, had

redefined them. In an elaborately planned surprise attack, the Indians tried to crush the expedition in one bold stroke, and they very nearly succeeded. At times the Indians appear not to have appreciated the enormity

of the advantage the Europeans gained from their science and technology. When John Lawson was traveling to the back country of South Carolina in 1699-1700, he met a trader who told him about an

incident in which some Sewee Indians equipped a fleet of dugout canoes with sails and set out for England, where they expected to get a better rate of exchange for their furs and skins. But before they had

gotten far their canoes foundered. Some of them drowned while others were picked up by an English ship and sold into slavery in the

West Indies. 7 On other occasions the Indians were uncomfortably accurate in their appraisal of European beliefs and values. When John Wesley, the founder of Methodism, visited Georgia in 1735-37 to convert the | Indians to Christianity, he asked Chicoli, an old Creek chief, what he thought he was made for, implying that his earthly existence was short as compared to eternity. To this Chicoli replied: He that is above knows what he made us for. We know nothing. We are in the dark. But white men know much. And yet white men build great houses, as if they were to live for ever. But white men cannot live for

ever. In a little time, white men will be dust as well as I.”

John Wesley returned to England without having converted the Southeastern Indians to Christianity. Early Explorers. Although the Norse voyagers visited the northern coast of North America between 1000 and 1013, there is no evidence 102

Prehistory and Early History

that any of them visited the southern coast, and it is unlikely that any of those who visited the northern coast had any effect on the South-

eastern Indians, unless, of course, they introduced diseases which reached the Southeast.74 Neither Christopher Columbus (1492) nor John Cabot (1497-98) had any contact with the Southeastern Indians. The first meeting between Europeans and Southeastern Indians for which we have adequate documentation came in 1513 with the Spaniard, Juan Ponce de Leon, who landed on the Florida Coast and got a decidedly hostile reception from the Indians. In fact, the hostility of the Indians suggests that they either had some previous

experience with Europeans, or else some knowledge of their motives.7> When Ponce de Leon returned to Florida in 1521 to establish a colony, possibly near Charlotte Harbor, the Indians again attacked, driving his party off and mortally wounding him.7® All of the early Spanish explorers in the Southeast were dominated by a single motive—to acquire something they could take away as wealth. The first salable objects they could lay their hands on

were human beings, and in 1521 a party led by a captain of Lucas Vazquez de Ayllon came ashore on the south Atlantic coast in the vicinity of Winyaw Bay, South Carolina, where they were greeted by the Indians. Inviting the Indians out to visit their two ships, the Spaniards promptly enslaved them and then embarked for Santo

Domingo. One ship foundered and sank en route, killing all on board, and many of the prisoners on the other ship fell ill and died, refusing to eat Spanish food. In an act of mercy, Spanish authorities forced the captors to set the survivors free, but most of the Indians later died. Only one managed both to survive and later to rejoin his own people. This was a man whom the Spaniards named Francisco of Chicora. Ayllon took him to Spain where he met and was interviewed by the great historian Peter Martyr (Pietro Martire d’Anghi-

era). Largely from what he learned from Francisco, Martyr put together the first lengthy description of a North American Indian group, including it in his book De Orbe Novo. Although parts of this description are distorted, either through Martyr's inability to comprehend what Francisco told him, or through Francisco’s deliberate

distortion, the main features of the description accord with subsequent descriptions of Southeastern Indians.77 The next explorer of any consequence was Giovanni da Verraz-

zano, who set sail from France in January, 1524, in search of a 103

THE SOUTHEASTERN INDIANS

southwest passage to the Pacific Ocean. After fifty days en route he touched the coast of North America near 34 degrees north latitude, just south of Cape Fear. Verrazzano realized that he had landed not upon the coast of Asia, but on the coast of a “new land.” From here he sailed up the coast, occasionally going ashore for short visits. He mapped the coast all the way to the Cape Breton—Newfoundland area, and he wrote a brief but valuable account of the people and the land he observed. Even though Verrazzano and his men could not communicate with the Indians through language, he nevertheless felt justified in coming to the following conclusion: We think they have neither religion nor laws, that they do not know of a

first Cause or Author, that they do not worship the sky, the stars, the sun, the moon, or other planets, nor do they even practice any kind of idolatry; we do not know whether they offer any sacrifices or other prayers, nor are there any temples or churches of prayer among their peoples. We consider that they have no religion and that they live in absolute freedom, and that everything they do proceeds from Ignorance; for they are very easily persuaded, and they imitated everything that they saw us Christians do with regard to divine worship, with the same fervor and enthusiasm that we did.7®

This account must rank as one of the most extravagant examples of European ethnocentrism ever. It is tempered only by the fact that it

does come early, before Europeans had begun to come to grips intellectually with the New World and its people. The Spanish continued attempting to establish colonies in the Southeast, and they continued to fail. In 1526, Lucas Vazquez de Ayllon with about 500 settlers attempted to establish a colony on the south Atlantic Coast, probably near Winyaw Bay. The Indian, Francisco of Chicora, acted as a guide for Ayllon, but he soon escaped and

presumably returned to his own people. Within six months the settlement failed; many of the Spaniards sickened and died, including Ayllon. About 150 people survived to return to the West Indies. Any of several diseases could have caused the deaths of Ayllén’s colonists. Smallpox first broke out on Santo Domingo in the Caribbean in December 1518 or January 1519. Along with it came other

diseases, such as measles, typhus, tuberculosis, chicken pox, and influenza. The Europeans had been exposed to these diseases for many centuries, and they had acquired a resistance to them, so that when they fell ill from them, they frequently recovered. But given 104

Prehistory and Early History

the inadequate food supply and the crowded conditions in Ayllon’s colony, these illnesses would have produced a higher than average mortality rate. As we have seen, the ancestors of the Southeastern Indians left

the diseases of the Old World behind as they entered the New World in the late Pleistocene. But there was no escaping the ultimate consequence, and when Old World diseases did at last reach their shores, the people of the New World met with disaster. Smallpox was the most terrible of the new diseases. It is caused by a virus that is communicated through the air by means of droplets or dust particles, entering any new host who happens to breathe them

into his lungs. It is extremely communicable, especially under crowded conditions. Among the previously unexposed New World populations it would have infected almost every single individual, and 30 percent or more of those infected would have died. After an

incubation period of about twelve days, the victim of smallpox suffers from high fever and vomiting, and three or four days later his body becomes covered with skin eruptions. For those who survive the disease, the eruptions dry up in about a week or ten days, and the scabs fall off leaving disfiguring pockmarks, particularly if the eruptions have been scratched. Some are made blind by the disease. Those who survive are immune for a period of several years.7? By any measure, the initial damage done to the Southeastern Indians by European diseases was far greater than anything Europeans could have inflicted with weapons and military suppression. Another attempt to colonize the Southeast came in 1528 when Panfilo de Narvaez attempted to conquer the Indians living on the west coast of the Florida peninsula. He landed with a party of about three hundred in Timucuan territory, near Tampa Bay. Narvaez and his men did not find this location to their liking, however, and they

began moving northward toward the territory of the Apalachee Indians. The Indians to the south had told them that here they would find great quantities of gold and ample crops of corn in the fields.

As soon as they entered Apalachee territory they did indeed find much larger supplies of corn than they found to the south, but they

also encountered determined resistance from the Apalachee Indians.8° The houses of the Apalachees were scattered throughout

the countryside. What the Spaniards supposed to be the main 105

THE SOUTHEASTERN INDIANS

village contained forty houses built in an open space sheltered by large trees. All through this country their travel was made difficult by large trees that had been felled by some great storm, probably a hurricane. Narvaez appropriated the main village—from which the Apalachees had fled—for his own use. The Apalachees stepped up their raids, picking off Narvaez s men and horses one by one. Narvaez explored the territory to the north of the village and found it thinly populated. When it became obvious that their colony could not succeed, the Spaniards pulled themselves together and marched southward toward the Gulf. In nine days they reached the village of Aute, where they found that the Indians had burned down all their houses to keep the Spaniards from using them, though they did not burn their fields of corn, beans, and squash, all newly ripe and ready for harvest.8! The Indians of Aute kept Narvaez’s party under constant attack. Many of the Spaniards were ill. In desperation they abandoned Aute and marched southward along the course of a river toward the Gulf Coast. Using improvised materials and tools, they built five barges. They boarded these and set sail to the west, attempting to skirt the Gulf Coast and return to Mexico. But soon they began to run short on food and water. The Indians they met along the coast were apparently hunters and gatherers who lived “poor and miserable’ lives as

compared to the agriculturalists in the interior. Gradually the Spaniards died—some from disease, others from starvation, others from periodic attacks by the Indians, and still others were drowned when their barges foundered and sank. In time several men, including the remarkable Cabeza de Vaca, found themselves marooned on an island off the coast of Louisiana or Texas. In all probability it was

Galveston Island. Here their lives with the Indians (probably Karankawas) were incredibly hard, with frequent periods of famine.

The Indians more or less forced them to become medicine men. As such they combined Indian techniques of breathing on the sick person, making small incisions and sucking out small amounts of blood, using massage, and applying fire, with Catholic prayers and ritual actions, such as making the sign of the cross and reciting the

106 |

Pater Noster, the Ave Maria, and other prayers. In return, the Indians took care of them.®? Cabeza de Vaca later became a trader and was allowed to move freely among the various groups, most of whom were at war with each other.

Prehistory and Early History

After six years, Cabeza de Vaca and three other survivors— Andrés Dorantes, Alonso del Castillo Maldonado, and Estévanico, a black man—escaped and journeyed all the way across what is now Texas and Mexico to Culiacan on the western coast of Mexico, where they rejoined their countrymen. It was an amazing journey, one of the great adventure stories of all times. For anyone interested in keeping a body count, it would seem that up to this time roughly equal loss of life through combat was suffered on both sides, with the Spanish perhaps suffering somewhat greater losses. However, though the evidence is not conclusive, it is probable that even at this early time the Indians were suffering considerable loss of life from new diseases. Narvaez found some evidence of depopulation in West Florida, and even better evidence was found

by the next Spanish explorer, Hernando de Soto. Hernando de Soto. Of all the early exploratory expeditions into the Southeast, the most important by every measure was the expedition of Hernando de Soto. Having attained the rank of captain by the time he was twenty years old, de Soto played an active role in the conquest of the Inca Empire in Peru. He became wealthy from this adventure, but not content; he wanted more. Early explorers had found occasional evidence of gold in the Southeast, and this proof

whetted de Soto’s appetite for another Inca Empire and accomplishments equal to those of Pizzaro and Cortes. On May 18, 1539, he set sail from Havana with an army of 600 men

along with a contingent of camp followers, servants, and slaves, numbering perhaps an additional hundred. The expedition was outfitted with about 220 horses, a large herd of hogs to be used as food, some mules, and several large, savage Irish hounds to hunt down and kill Indians. He had men and materials sufficient to equip an army and to found a new colony. ~ De Soto landed at Tampa Bay and immediately came upon virtually the only stroke of good fortune he had on the entire expedition.

His party happened upon a Spaniard, Juan Ortiz, who had been a member of the Narvaez expedition, and who had been captured by Indians. He had lived with them for eleven years and was able to speak fluently one of their languages—probably a Timucuan language. He served as de Soto’s interpreter as they traveled through Timucuan territory, and later on he served as the last link in a chain 107

THE SOUTHEASTERN INDIANS

of interpreters. For example, when they entered Apalachee territory they had to locate an Indian who could translate Apalachee into

Timucuan, and Ortiz could then translate from Timucuan into Spanish. Later in the expedition there were three or more links in the chain of translation. ®* In addition to serving as interpreter, Ortiz

probably served as a kind of anthropological advisor to de Soto, although his knowledge of Timucuan Florida was probably not an infallible guide to what they encountered in the interior. Not finding the Tampa Bay region attractive, de Soto immediately

began moving north. As they passed through a series of small Timucuan groups, they encountered increasing resistance from the Indians. This was probably a consequence of de Soto's brutality. He

burned villages needlessly, and when his Indian guides did not perform to his liking, he threw them to the Irish hounds to be torn

apart and killed.84 Generally speaking, the further they moved north and inland, into the Mississippian heartland, the more populous and the more strongly centralized were the societies they encountered. The territories of these groups were frequently separated by large rivers and by unpopulated areas. The expedition was barely under way when they reached northern Florida, but already they were beginning to run low on the supplies of cheese and biscuit they brought along for food, and so they began to rely on the stores of corn and vegetables they could plunder from the Indians. They were meat-hungry for the duration of the expedition. Early in the expedition they took to killing and eating every dog they could find in the Indian villages. §5

Some of the Indians simply abandoned their villages and let de

Soto pass through. Others harassed his expedition as it moved through their territory. In early October, de Soto entered the territory of the Apalachee Indians, who had so successfully driven out the Narvaez expedition eleven years earlier. Like Narvaez, de Soto did not find adequate supplies of native food until he entered Apalachee territory, and this was also where his soldiers met their first serious military challenge. Having constructed ingenious fortified impediments against the Spaniards and thereby slowing down their movements, the Apalachees launched a well organized attack against them as they moved through a difficult swamp crossing. The Apalachees fought the Spaniards every step of the way to the tribe's main town. The Spaniards retaliated by killing everybody they could 108

Prehistory and Early History

lay their hands on. But the Apalachees continued to harass them day

and night, never allowing them to rest. The territory of the Apalachees lay on an ecological frontier. De Soto’s men found the terrain to the north of the Apalachees free of swamps and heavy forest, but to the south the swamps were so dense that they were difficult to penetrate.®® Perhaps this explains why they found a greater abundance of deer here than further south.

They spent the winter of 1539-40 in Apalachee territory, even though the Indians continued to put constant pressure on them, harassing them and picking them off one by one. The Spaniards were

deeply impressed with the reckless courage of the Indians. In early March, de Soto and his men again began moving northward, entering the southwestern corner of Georgia. Their goal was to reach the province of Cofitachequi, where the Indians had told

them they would find precious metals. Traveling rapidly, they passed through several villages without resistance. When they approached the village of Ichisi, they were met by women clad in skirts and mantles made out of white mulberry fiber, who gave them corn cakes and bunches of small green onions to eat.8” Where they could, they forced the Indians into service carrying their gear and supplies. But even so, when they entered the town of Ocute, which is thought

to have been on the Ocmulgee River, they were welcomed by the Indians. De Soto learned that the territory of Ocute bordered that of Cofitachequi, but that a vast wilderness (possibly the territory from the Ocmulgee River to beyond the Savannah River) lay in between and required two weeks to cross. A chief, Patofa, supplied guides and burden bearers, and he proposed that he would bring along a large number of warriors and the two would ally in an assault against Cofitachequi.

However, as their travels through the wilderness progressed, it became clear that the Indians were somewhat confused about the best route. De Soto and his Indian companions soon became unsure in their movements, their food ran out, and their way was impeded because the streams and rivers were flooded, making it necessary for them to build bridges and barges. The forests were very dense and difficult to get through.

When they reached the first small town in Cofitachequi, Patofa

and his men robbed the temple, desecrated it, and killed and scalped every person they could catch. Patofa repeated these actions 109

THE SOUTHEASTERN INDIANS

in several additional towns, and then he and his men returned home. ®8

It would appear that the Indians of Ocute were seeking revenge from Cofitachequi (see chap. 4). When they were satisfied with the

vengeance they had wreaked, they left. The fact that they were unsure of the way to Cofitachequi suggests that in their conflict with that province they were more often the attacked than the attackers, and that de Soto provided them with arare chance to turn the tables. The main town of Cofitachequi is thought to have been located at Silver Bluff, near Augusta, Georgia, on the South Carolina side of the Savannah River, or else on the headwaters of the Santee River in

South Carolina. Cofitachequi was apparently an unusual society.

For one thing, the official welcome to de Soto was given by a woman—the “ Lady of Cofitachequi.’ She was carried to the river on

a litter covered with delicate, white cloth and then taken across to the Spaniards in a large, ornate dugout canoe. One of the Indians carried a special stool for her to sit on as she talked with de Soto, and

a Spaniard of the expedition romantically compared her to Cleopatra, noting that she was “brown but well proportioned. 8? She told

de Soto that there was little food because her people had been afflicted by a terrible plague that had caused many deaths. Perhaps this was from diseases introduced by Ayllon’s people fourteen years earlier. De Soto expected to find gold and silver, but when he asked for it, the people brought him the closest thing they had—pieces of copper and large slabs of mica. The only articles they possessed of any value were quantities of fresh-water pearls, and even these were much inferior to salt-water pearls.

Cofitachequi was one of the most impressive Indian societies de Soto encountered. When the Spaniards crossed the river, the people of Cofitachequi gave them presents of well tanned skins, “blankets,” strips of venison, dry wafers, and a large quantity of “very good salt.” The people wore unusual leggings and moccasins, and they wore matchcoats made of “sable” and “wild cat” (probably cougar) skins. They were described by the Spaniards as being “clean

and polite.” In one of their temples the Spaniards found beads, rosaries, and “Biscayan’ axes, which had evidently been carried inland from Ayllon’s ill-fated colony. °° About three or four miles from the main village lay Talomico, the

religious center and perhaps political center of the society, a town 110

Prehistory and Early History

said to contain five hundred houses built on a bluff overlooking a gorge of a river. This town contained one of the most impressive examples of native architecture that de Soto witnessed. The town itself was deserted, probably because of the depopulation caused by

the plague. The buildings were larger and more carefully constructed than buildings in other villages in Cofitachequi. The main temple was particularly impressive. Situated on a high mound, it was 100 feet long and 40 feet wide, with a lofty roof covered with finely made cane mats. Inside and out the roof was decorated with conch shells and strings of fresh-water pearls. 91 Entrance to the temple was through large doors. Just inside, the entrance was lined with paired rows of massive, life-like wooden statues. There were six pairs in all. The first pair carried maces with

diamond-shaped heads, reminiscent of the “batons” depicted in Southeastern Ceremonial Complex motifs.9? The second pair held wooden “broadswords” like those in the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex. %? The third pair held clubs made of two parts connected with a swivel, like flax swingles. 94 The fourth pair held “battle-axes’ ; the fifth pair held bows and arrows; and the sixth pair held pikes with

copper spear points. All of the statues held their weapons threateningly, as if they were about to use them on intruders. The room also contained numerous statues of men and women. Carved wooden

chests containing the remains of dead notables rested on low benches along the walls. The room also contained “breastplates like corselets and head pieces made of rawhide” (see fig. 91), round and oval-shaped shields, chests filled with pearls, and bundles of furs and skins.9° Around the temple there were eight small “annexes.”

These annexes were filled with different kinds of weapons and shields. Many of these weapons were decorated with strands of pearls, strips of colored leather, or with strips of copper. After plundering the temple of all its pearls, de Soto and his men left, heading northwest and taking with them by force the Lady of Cofitachequi. They traveled along the banks ofa river and came next

to a territory called “Chalaque,” perhaps the Muskogean word Cilo-kkitd, “people of a different speech.” This and several other settlements they passed through seem to have been affiliated in some way with Cofitachequi. In all of them there was a scarcity of corn.®? This may have been owing to the disruption of the plague. In late May of 1540, the de Soto expedition crossed the Blue Ridge 111

THE SOUTHEASTERN INDIANS

Mountains into Cherokee territory. The surprising ease and rapidity

with which their Indian guides led them across the mountains suggests that they traveled a trail that provided frequent and probably friendly contact between the Indians on the eastern side of the

mountains and the Cherokees on the western side. In fact, it is probable that then as later the Cherokees were living on both sides of the mountains. The ease with which the Spaniards moved through this area may also indicate that the Cherokees had been weakened by smallpox or some other European disease. In Cherokee territory the expedition is thought to have followed the course of the Hiwassee River to the village of Canasoga. Then they swung southward to Chiaha and Coste and southward again to the upper reaches of the Coosa River in northern Alabama, where they once more encountered Muskogean-speaking people. Here they found plenty of corn.

Chiaha and Coste seem to have been frontier towns that helped protect the Muskogean-speakers from the Cherokees in the mountains. According to one of de Soto’s chroniclers, Chiaha was the first

place they encountered a palisaded village, and both Chiaha and Coste were built on islands. %8

In mid-July, de Soto entered the province of Coosa (whose descendants were the Upper Creeks of later times). Here his party was met by the principal chief, who was carried on a litter in great state, accompanied by several hundred warriors. Coosa at this time was one of the most powerful social entities in the Southeast. The dense population suggests that European diseases had not yet reached this

far into the interior. De Soto had heard of the existence of Coosa several months earlier. The expedition remained there for about one month while their relations with the Indians steadily deteriorated. In the end they seized the chief and several of his men, putting them

in iron collars and chains and forcing them to serve as burden bearers, and then they slowly moved southward during September, visiting towns and villages of Muskogean-speaking people along the banks of the Coosa River. At each town they demanded bearers and women. Talisi, the last town in Coosa, was fortified with a wood and earth palisade, and it lay surrounded by fields of corn in a sharp bend of the river, so that it was almost completely encircled by water. In early October they entered the territory of Tascalusa, an Indian leader more imposing than any de Soto had previously encountered.

Entering the town of Atahachi, they found Tascalusa seated on 112

Prehistory and Early History

cushions on a “kind of balcony” atop a mound on one side of the plaza. He wore a kind of coif or turban, which signified his authority, and a handsome feather cape that reached all the way to his feet. An

attendant stood by holding a sunshade in the form of a very large round “fly fan” decorated with a white cross on a black field. The Spaniards described it as being like the emblem of the Knights of the

Order of St. John of Rhodes. When de Soto walked up to meet Tascalusa, he remained seated “as if he had been a king.” After a while a number of Indians came into the plaza to dance. % Later, de Soto placed Tascalusa under arrest and demanded four hundred burden bearers and one hundred women. Tascalusa gave him the bearers and told him he would have the women once they reached the town of Mabila. On the way they came to a village where they learned that a Greek and a black man from Narvaez's expedition had been killed when they put ashore during their attempt to reach

Mexico.!°° All along the way, Tascalusa was accompanied by an

attendant shielding him from the sun with a sunshade. As they approached Mabila some Indians came out and gave Tascalusa some

chestnut bread to eat. Although the exact site of Mabila has not been discovered, it is thought to have been located between the lower Alabama and Tombigbee rivers. The town was situated on a clear, level plain, surrounded by a strong palisade that stood “as high as three men. ’ It was built of heavy vertical posts with smaller poles tied to these in horizontal courses on both sides, and the whole thing plastered with mud mixed with grass. Defensive towers that could each hold seven or eight warriors were situated at fifty-foot intervals along the wall.

Inside there was a plaza with houses and buildings around it. The Indians evidently had planned for some time to attack de Soto at Mabila. It was a surprise attack with the Indians suddenly swarming from their hiding places in great numbers and driving most of the Spaniards outside the gates. The Indians killed all the horses they

could lay their hands on, and a pitched battle raged for several hours. Then the Spaniards managed to counterattack and to regain entry to the town. They fell on the Indians and killed most of them,

burning many to death by setting fire to the houses. Here, as throughout the expedition, it was the horses that won the battle for the Spaniards. The Indians were superior to Spanish foot soldiers,

but they were no match against the cavalry. Even though the 113

THE SOUTHEASTERN INDIANS

Indians had “pikes,” they did not know how to use them effectively against the horses. As the fight at Mabila progressed and the Spaniards gained the upper hand, the Indians fought even more furiously, and eventually suicidally. More than 20 Spaniards died in the battle, most of them struck by arrows in the face or in the neck, where their armor of quilted cotton left them unprotected. Another 20 or so died later of wounds they sustained in the battle. In addition, more than forty horses were killed. Virtually all of de Soto's men were wounded, many of them more than once. The Indians suffered a staggering loss that is variously estimated at from 2,500 to 5,000 dead. Tascalusa’s son (or, what is more likely, his sister's son) was killed, and perhaps Tascalusa himself was killed. The battle of Mabila was the turning point in the de Soto expedition. His soldiers were wounded almost to a man, they had lost the pearls they stole from Cofitachequi, they lost most of their clothing, and they were short on food. They had found no wealth to speak of, and they were coming to realize that the Southeastern Indians were not like the Indians of Mexico and Peru: “They [began to think] that it was impossible to dominate such bellicose people or to subjugate men who were so free, and that because of what they had seen up until that time, they felt they could never make the Indians come under their yoke and dominion either by force or by trickery, for rather than do so these people would all permit themselves to be slain. 102

De Soto's men grew mutinous, and even though he knew that he

was within one hundred miles of the Gulf Coast and safety, he determined to turn north once again in a desperate attempt to salvage something from the expedition. He realized that he was on the verge of losing everything. If his army disintegrated, he would never command another. After pausing to allow the wounds of his men to heal, he again struck out northward, burning Indian villages as he went through Choctaw territory in the middle of November. De Soto continued northward and then westward through what is now Mississippi, entering Chickasaw country in late December.

Here they camped for the winter. But by now the Indians had figured out more effective tactics. They could not raid the Spanish as they could other Indians; and it was foolhardy for them to mount a

massive attack against the Spanish and their horses, as at Mabila. 114

Prehistory and Early History

What the Chickasaws did was to harass the expedition continually, attacking mainly in the night. In one particularly severe night attack,

the Chickasaws dealt them a near-mortal blow. About one dozen Spaniards were killed and fifty or sixty of their precious horses were lost.

In late April 1541, de Soto and his men set out once more toward the west. In early May they came upon a village they called Quizquiz

(possibly Tunica-speakers), on the eastern bank of the Mississippi River. Here they stopped long enough to build barges, which they

used to cross the river into what is now Arkansas; and as they worked, thousands of Indians gathered on the opposite shore to threaten them. Across the river, in the town of Casqui, they saw the remains of buffalo for the first time. Casqui and the nearby town of Pacaha had the strongest fortifications of any town they had seen. 1° As they moved further west and south they encountered the Tulas, who lived on the western margin of the Southeastern Culture Area. Their main source of food was the buffalo, and unlike the Indians the Spaniards encountered all through the Southeast, they raised little

corn. In November they settled in Utiangue, a palisaded town in southern Arkansas, where they spent a hard, cold winter. Here, Juan Ortiz, their interpreter, died. In early March 1542, they again began to move south. In late March, at a place called Anilco, in eastern Louisiana, they found larger stores of corn than they had found at Coosa or at Apalachee. It was also the most densely populated region they had seen. De Soto destroyed several towns along the western bank of the Mississippi River. Then, according to the chroniclers, he became despondent, caught fever, fell progressively more ill, and died in May 1542. Luis de Moscoso de Alvarado assumed command. The previous summer and winter the Indians had told them that they had heard of another Spanish expedition conquering Indians to the west. Evidently, the Indians had got word of Coronado and his exploration of the Southwest, which began in 1540. Desiring to join up with his countrymen, Moscoso set out due west. They again encountered Caddoan-speaking Indians and eventually the Tonkawas. The land grew progressively arid, and they were soon forced to eat grass and roots. They began encountering Indians who did not live in large, compact villages, but rather in small huts with no more than four or five huts to a community. They grew no corn, subsisting mainly by 115

THE SOUTHEASTERN INDIANS

hunting buffalo. Moreover, by constantly lying in ambush for the Spaniards, they inflicted painful losses on them. They would prepare a careful ambush, rise up and shoot arrows, and then run away to safety. These attacks were constant, day and night. Now desperate, Moscoso determined to return to the Mississippi

River, where he knew he could get Indian corn. They returned there to spend their final winter. They built seven small boats and began sailing down the river in early July. A few days later they were attacked by the chief of the Quigualtams, who had formed an alliance

with other Indians, laying aside for this occasion their traditional hostilities. Some of them were probably ancestors of the Natchez. An immense fleet of Indians in large canoes followed the Spaniards down the river harassing them for over one week and doing consid-

erable damage. When they reached the Gulf Coast, they were attacked for the first time by people who used six-foot javelins thrown from spear-throwers.!°? On July 18 they departed the Southeast for Mexico, and on September 10, 1543, about three

Mexico. |

hundred survivors reached the port of Panuco. From here, some of them returned to Spain, others went to Peru, and some remained in

Later Explorers. Other men explored the Southeast after de Soto, but none with such drama nor with such telling consequences for the

Indians. In July 1559, Tristan de Luna led an expedition of 300 soldiers along with 1,200 women, white retainers, and Indian servants from Mexico. They established a post at the Indian village of Ochuse near Pensacola Bay. De Luna was supposed to explore westward to the Mississippi River and to find a route linking Coosa

with the Atlantic Coast, but he succeeded in none of this. The de Luna expedition began running short on food, and in February 1560 they moved inland, where some of them reached the Coosa Indians and got corn, beans, and squash from them. According to de Luna and his men, the Indians all along the Alabama River were depleted as a result of their encounter with de Soto and probably from diseases as well. The de Luna expedition soon failed, and most of the survivors returned home in April 1561.1% In the 1560s the Spanish became fearful that the French were planning to establish colonies on the eastern seaboard of North America, whence they could both attack Spanish shipping and ex116

Prehistory and Early History

plore the interior, perhaps finding an overland route to the Spanish silver mines in northern Mexico. In 1565 the Spanish founded St. Augustine, and in 1566 they strengthened their tiny outpost at Santa Elena, near Beaufort, South Carolina, and they commissioned Captain Juan Pardo to explore, missionize, and secure the interior. In November 1566, Pardo set out with 300 men, along with another contingent of 125 men under Sergeant Hernando Boyano. For seven days they traveled through the coastal plain, for some go to 100 miles, through territory which was evidently only sparsely populated. Then they reached Guiamae (de Soto’s Aymay), and a few miles further they found Cofitachequi. From here they moved northward into the piedmont, where they found meadowlike country with many springs. They passed through Tagaya, Issa (later called Essaw), and finally Xuala, previously visited by de Soto. From the site of Xuala, they could see the Blue Ridge Mountains. Here they built a small garrison, naming it San Juan de Xuala. Leaving Boyano and his detachment at the garrison, Pardo set out eastward and southward along the stream on which Xuala was located. They passed through the village of Quihanaqui and thence to Guatari, a seat of power, evidently governed by two female chiefs. Here they built another small outpost. Then, getting word that Santa Elena might be in danger, Pardo returned to the coast.

In the meantime, Boyano aligned himself with the Xuala Indians and began attacking the Cherokees in the mountains. One of the Cherokee leaders sent word that he was coming over to kill and eat the Spaniards and Boyano’s dog as well. Boyano and his men then traveled through the mountains for four days, finding and attacking the Cherokees in a palisaded town. They destroyed the town, killing many. From here Boyano moved on past the town of Cauchi, past the town of Tanasqui, which was protected on one side by a strong palisade with towers and presumably by a river on the other sides. From here they went to Chiaha, previously visited by de Soto. Here the soil was unusually fertile, and there were many villages on the creeks and rivers.

Then Pardo returned from Santa Elena and joined Boyano at Chiaha. Together they set out again traveling south and west to the towns of Chalaume and Satapo, but here they met opposition from

the Indians and they turned back. However, Pardo’s interpreter 117

THE SOUTHEASTERN INDIANS

continued on until he reached a town in Coosa, where he found drawings of Spaniards and horses on the walls of Indian houses, as well as coats of mail and Spanish weapons. They built small garrisons

at Chiaha, Cauchi, and Guiamae, leaving from fifteen to twenty soldiers in each. But the Spanish were subsequently unable to maintain these outposts, and they were either destroyed by the

Indians or abandoned.

Although de Soto discovered the Mississippi River for the Euro-

peans, the French explored it. In 1673, Joliet and Marquette traveled by canoe down the Mississippi River to a Quapaw town near the mouth of the Arkansas River. And in 1682, La Salle descended all the way to the mouth of the river, taking possession of the land in the name of the king of France. In 1690, Tonti came down the river, stopping at the Taensa village on Lake St. Joseph, and crossing over

to the town of Natchitoches on the Red River. The British were far more prosaic in their exploration than were the Spanish and French. Sir John Hawkins sailed along the Florida and Carolina coast in 1565, writing a brief account of his observations. After Jamestown and other settlements were finally established, John Lederer explored the Virginia back country in 1669 and 1670, going southward into the piedmont for some distance, although the true extent of his exploration is controversial. In 1671, Thomas Batts and Robert Fallam of Virginia also explored southward into the piedmont. And in 1673, James Needham and Gabriel Arthur, also from Virginia, penetrated even further into the back country and into the Appalachian Mountains, where they visited the Cherokees, finding that they possessed some European goods they had evidently acquired from the Spanish. These explorations paved the way for the Virginia traders, who followed very aggressively on their heels. By 1700, English traders penetrated all the way to the Quapaw country on the banks of the Mississippi River.1°

What did the Europeans gain from their exploration and the carnage that went along with it? They learned, first of all, that there was no easy avenue to wealth in North America. De Soto apparently

found evidence of the gold deposits in northern Georgia, but it would have to be mined. They also learned that the Indians could not be conquered and pacified in the way that the Spanish were able

to conquer Mesoamerica and South America. Perhaps the most important gain for the Europeans from this early exploration, small 118

Prehistory and Early History

as it now seems, was that they were able gradually to put together a cartographic conception of eastern North America. By about 1700 reasonably good descriptive maps were available for the Southeast,

although truly modern mapping with refined instruments did not begin until after 1750.19 And what, we may ask, did the Southeastern Indians gain? Salvation for their souls? A desire for enlightenment? An appreciation of the achievements of European civilization? None of these. What they got was their first taste of a people so reckless with human lives that they were willing to pit entire armies against each other, in open combat, with fearful losses of life on both sides. They got their first taste of a people who would kidnap, enslave, and burn their villages out of pique because their sheets of copper and slabs of mica were

not precious enough. They got their first taste of a people who wished to take from them everything they possessed and who would one day dig up their very graves for the value of what they contained.

119

CHAPTER THREE

THE BELIEF SYSTEM Like all other people in the world, the Southeastern Indians interpreted most of the humdrum, everyday events in their lives in terms of ordinary, common sense beliefs and knowledge. This does

not mean that the common sense beliefs and knowledge of the Southeastern Indians resembled our own common sense beliefs and knowledge in a point-by-point fashion, but rather that it was know}edge which was generally shared by all normal adults. At the same time, again like all other people, the Southeastern Indians encountered in the course of their lives some events and conditions which

they could not explain in terms of common sense, and these are precisely the events and conditions their belief system explained. It is useful to think of this Southeastern Indian belief system as a kind of theory. Just as a theory in our natural sciences explains a certain range of phenomena, a belief system explains unusual events in everyday life, though it is expressed in terms we generally call religious or magical. But to regard the belief system of the Southeastern Indians as being merely religious or magical is to fail to appreciate it. The fact is, the categories and beliefs of the Southeastern Indians represented the world as they believed it existed, and this included both the natural and the supernatural, the normal and the abnormal, and the sacred and the profane. The social arrangements, customary practices, and rituals of the Southeastern Indians make sense only when viewed against the ideological background of their belief system. Anthropologists who have studied the belief systems of living preliterate people have found that the spiritual beings they believe in often display a dazzling complexity. But it is a complexity that has a system behind it, so that complex appearances can often be ac-

counted for in terms of a few basic categories and principles. 120

The Belief System

Moreover, these categories and principles usually fit together in a way that is more complete and ordered than anything in our own experience. In a rather literal sense, in preliterate belief systems everything is related to everything else. The interrelated structure of the Southeastern Indian belief system is the key to understanding their almost obsessive concern with purity and pollution. We will

see in chapter 6 that most of their rituals and ceremonies were means of keeping their categories pure and of ridding them of pollution after it occurred. Moreover, like other preliterate and protoliterate peoples, the Southeastern Indians placed a special value and meaning on the anomalies and abominations that occurred along the margins and in the interstices of their classification system,

the things and creatures which happened to have the attributes of two or more categories.! If there is a single word which epitomizes the Southeastern Indian belief system, it is “order.” They insisted that things be the way they thought they were supposed to be. Unfortunately, we cannot hope to reconstruct the Southeastern

belief system in the fullness of its original form. Unlike anthropologists who may spend up to ten or even twenty years analyzing the belief system of a single living preliterate people, we who study the Southeast are largely limited to what we can learn from the documentary information collected by early naturalists, historians,

and anthropologists. When an anthropologist working with living preliterate people is puzzled about the precise nature of a category or belief, he can ask someone to explain it to him. But fieldwork with

contemporary Southeastern Indians cannot supply the information that we need about their ancestors who lived so long ago, and so to answer our most important questions we must rely on historical documents. Although we shall be forever in the dark about some details, enough information was collected by early observers like

John Lawson, James Adair, and William Bartram, and by anthropologists like James Mooney and John R. Swanton to allow us at least to reconstruct the outlines of the Southeastern belief system.

It is regrettable that we can never know how much diversity existed among the belief systems of various Southeastern societies. We do know from the archaeological record and from accounts left by the earliest Europeans who had contact with the Southeastern Indians that there were in fact substantial cultural similarities among these societies in late prehistoric and protohistoric times. We also 121

THE SOUTHEASTERN INDIANS

know that when some of the Southeastern Indians began to be dislocated by European diseases, slave-raiders, and wars, they took

up residence with other Southeastern peoples with considerable ease, and this implies that they thought in much the same terms even when they spoke different languages. The Natchez, for example, after being driven out of the lower Mississippi valley by the French went to live with Creeks, Chickasaws, Catawbas, and Cherokees. And it is notable that James Mooney and John Swanton

who collected Southeastern oral traditions in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries often remarked on the large number of motifs and stories that were common all over the Southeast. In some cases, the Indians with whom Mooney and Swanton worked explicitly said that they learned some of their oral traditions from storytellers who were from other Southeastern societies.”

THE COSMOS: BASIC CATEGORIES AND CONCEPTS The Southeastern Indians conceived of This World as a great, flat

island resting rather precariously on the surface of the waters, suspended from the vault of the sky by four cords attached at each of

the cardinal directions. Most of them evidently thought that the island was circular in shape, but that it was crosscut by the four cardinal directions, and it is reasonable to assume that each Southeastern society conceived of itself as occupying the center of the circle. It is also reasonable to assume that the circle and cross motif of the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex represents This World, the four directions, and the center (fig. 34).4 Above This World was the sky vault, an inverted bow] of solid rock which rose and fell twice each day, at dawn and at dusk, so that the sun and moon could pass beneath it.5 When the sun passed up and under the inside of the sky vault it was day; while it was returning back to its starting place in the east it was night. The Southeastern cosmos consisted of three worlds: in addition to This World, an Upper World existed above the sky vault, and an Under World existed beneath the earth and the waters. This World was believed to have seven levels. Although the way in which these levels were arranged probably varied in different parts of the South-

east, the Cherokees evidently thought they all existed in This World, between the Under World and the Upper World, with the 122

The Belief System

—— ions :

SS

- |e XS} (2 \F|: a X*ee ; elp PVRS)

Pde oséie m Ceras NT fa eee Y\\ €e a St { rn. a ee oh? RA ed . yf ae Ff ee rt. _ i Bs ‘(ues oe . ee ae” a BAA + ee ~ » : “ay

ee 4 a ace Re NS _—we —. .

—_— at’ Po ml ¥: 4. | . ~mex)oeees deo> vii: ' ~~

aN wy OT 13 ah ae XY on e

Figure 34. Shell gorget with the circle and cross motif. Spiro, Oklahoma. Courtesy, Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation.

first level nearest the Under World and the seventh level nearest the Upper World. Thus, the Cherokees may have conceived of the sky vault as not a spherical bowl, but rather as a bowl whose sides were composed ofa series of concentric, stepped levels.® This stepped sky

vault may be represented above a bird-man engraved on a shell drinking cup found at Spiro (fig. 35). Perhaps it represents a birdman deity flying above the earth.” In the beginning, just two worlds existed: the Upper World and the Under World. This World, the world on which the Indians lived, was created later. The Upper World epitomized order and expecta123

THE SOUTHEASTERN INDIANS

oN a ee we

s / A oe : ak Co ae \ xe ro staeere é - , ' ae " ~N

> ;y™ ee oe es~f \a+ . A pdt SOSY RY \\ mm 4 yhPoe OX MW

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Bee Vy eTLEWY 1 AS y

ee ae = Ta ete XY fT

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Figure 35a. Conch shell drinking cup with incised design. Spiro, Oklahoma. Courtesy, Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation. 124

The Belief System

Ca Ted

“fi Ye ZN ) oy S at Qa KL) tS Hats gSUD BON

ORIEN! aR ANNI S NWS A WEIS DAYANA WIS HS (ST) Freee WVU ¥\ NV \ SHY (Ru ) AK Y\ |

|W? y Vin NVA Ke Za AV WN y "3315 ENS ZN it!

| iF

px “2 : OAs f/f SS.

AAT Figure 35b. Bird-man deity or a man costumed as a bird. Drawn from the conch shell cup in Figure 35a. Note the conch shell columella necklace and barred ovals. Courtesy, Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation.

bleness, while the Under World epitomized disorder and change, and This World stood somewhere between perfect order and complete chaos. In the Upper World things existed in a grander and purer form

than they did in This World. We will probably never entirely understand the precise nature of the more remote Southeastern deities who dwelled in the Upper World. The Sun and the Moon, for 125

THE SOUTHEASTERN INDIANS

example, were of the Upper World, but their sexual identities are inconsistent. The Sun, the source of all warmth, light, and life, was one of the principal gods, but whereas some of the Southeastern Indians regarded the Sun as male, the Cherokees generally consid-

ered the Sun to be female. The Cherokees called the Sun “the apportioner, referring to her dividing night and day, and perhaps life and death as well. The Creeks called their principal deity “the master of breath.”® The earthly representative and ally of the Sun was sacred fire, the principal symbol of purity. If anyone did anything wrong in the presence of sacred fire, it would immediately inform the Sun of this wrongdoing, and the Sun might punish the offender.® The Choctaws believed that the Sun watched them with its great blazing eye, and so long as the eye was on them they were all

right, but if the eye was not on them they were doomed. The Cherokees believed that sacred fire, like the Sun, was an old woman. Out of respect, they fed her a portion of each meal; if neglected, they thought she might come at night in the guise of an owl or whippoorwill and take vengeance on them.!° Successful hunters would throw into the fire a piece of meat (usually liver) from any game they killed. One could be stricken by disease as a consequence of urinating into a fire, spitting into it, or throwing into it anything that had saliva on it. The Cherokees addressed fire by the epithets “Ancient White” and “Ancient Red. 11 Some Southeastern Indians built their sacred fire by resting four logs together in the shape of a cross, so that the fire burned in the center; others built sacred fire by arranging small pieces of wood or dry cane ina circle or

spiral, so that the sacred fire burned in a circular path. Thus the circle and cross motif also symbolized sacred fire.” The Cherokees believed that the Moon was the Sun’s brother, with the clear implication that an incestuous relationship existed between them.!* In the Southeastern belief system the Moon was sometimes associated with rain and with menstruation, and with fertility generally, but it was not as important a deity as the Sun. When an eclipse of the Moon occurred, the Indians believed that it was being swallowed by a giant frog in the Upper World. They would all run out of their houses yelling and making noise to frighten away the frog.!4 It goes without saying that they always succeeded,

thereby saving the moon from destruction. The Cherokees addressed both the Sun (and sacred fire) and the 126

The Belief System

Moon as ‘our grandparent.” As we shall see in chapter 4, the kinship

system of the Southeastern Indians was more than just a means of ordering social relationships among kinsmen. It was a conceptual model which shaped their thinking about relationships in other realms. By addressing the Sun and Moon as “our grandparent,’ the Cherokees meant that the Sun and Moon stood in a relationship of respect and affection, as their remote ancestors. Their metaphorical use of “elder brother,” “younger brother,’ “mother,” and so on also implied relationships modeled on kin relationships in their social world.

_ Another important Cherokee deity was Thunder or Kanati, the Red Man, who lived above the sky vault in the east. The Red Man's voice was heavy, rolling crashes of thunder, while lighter, metallic sounding thunder was the voice of his two sons, the Thunder Boys, also called the Little Red Men. The Indians regarded the Red Man as their friend. He sometimes killed white men with lightning, but never Indians, unless of course they treated him disrespectfully.. The Red Man was opposed to the Black Man, who lived above the sky vault in the west. Although the Red Man was usually a source of aid and comfort, he became angry when men took his name in vain by calling him “red” in everyday speech; consequently, in everyday speech the Cherokees called him “white,” calling him by his real name only on ceremonial occasions. 1*

Creatures in the Upper World were much larger than those in This World, and although the Upper World had many of the same features that were found in This World, such as chiefs, councils, and town houses, the beings of the Upper World were not subject to all of the rules that limited ordinary people in their behavior. They could therefore do remarkable things, such as transforming themselves into other shapes. In contrast, beings in the Under World were often ghosts or monsters, and things in the Under World often had inverted properties—just the opposite of normal things in This World. The seasons, for example, were the opposite of seasons in This World, so that when it was warm in This World it was cold in the

Under World. Under World beings sometimes wore rattlesnakes around their necks and wrists instead of necklaces and bracelets. The Under World was peopled by cannibals, ghosts, man-killer witches, monsters, and various thunder spirits.

The Upper World represented structure, expectableness, 127

THE SOUTHEASTERN INDIANS

boundaries, limits, periodicity, order, stability, and past time. The Under World represented inversions, madness, invention, fertility, disorder, change, and future time. The Southeastern Indians lived in between, in This World, trying to strike a balance.1® For example,

sacred fire, which represented the Sun and the Upper World, was thought to be opposed to water, especially water in springs and rivers, which represented the Under World, and it was up to man to see that these two substances were always kept apart. Therefore, it was forbidden to pour water onto sacred fire. The Cherokees regarded the river as a deity, calling him the Long Man, “.. . a giant with his head in the foothills ofthe mountains and his foot far down in the lowland, pressing always, resistless and without stop, to a certain

goal, and speaking in murmurs which only the priest may interpret. 17 The Southeastern Indians believed that things were not always as they are now, and in early times many of the large animals and beings of the Upper World came down to live in This World. But This World grew to be progressively a less ideal place to live, and one by one the great animals and beings went back to the Upper

World, leaving their inferior images behind to be the ordinary animals and spirits with which the Southeastern Indians were familiar. As this happened, This World became populated by three great

categories of nonspiritual beings: men, animals, and plants. Men

and animals were opposed to each other, with enmity existing between them, while plants were the friends of man. We shall presently see that this triad of men, animals, and plants figured prominently in the Cherokee theory of disease and medicine. There were three major categories of animals: the four-footed animals, epitomized by the deer; the birds, who because of flight were associated with the Upper World, and who were epitomized by the bald eagle; and thirdly, vermin, such as snakes, lizards, frogs, fish, perhaps insects, and other animals associated with the Under World and epitomized by the rattlesnake. The position of insects in this scheme is uncertain: if they were not a separate order, they were probably categorized with the vermin. Each of these major categories was broken down into subcategories to such a degree that the Indians had names for all of the species that were important to them. Many animals had specific symbolic values in Southeastern think-

ing. Birds were especially important, and this importance is re128

The Belief System

flected in the many bird motifs in the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex. Most important of all were the falcons, and probably the peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus) in particular, the swiftest of all the birds, who flies high and dives down at its prey with partly folded wings at an estimated speed of 180 miles per hour. Unlike the hawk,

which kills by grasping and impaling its prey with its talons, the keen-eyed falcon dives down on its unsuspecting prey and strikes so powerful a blow with its feet or talons that the prey is often killed outright, much as an enemy would fall beneath the blow of a war-

riors war club. Representations of peregrine falcons on sheets of thin copper have been found at several Mississippian sites, and the forked-eye design of the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex evidently is modeled after falcon eye markings (fig. 36).18 Within the memory of John Swanton’s informants,-Creek hunters used to carry a buckskin pouch containing a sacred crystal (to be discussed pre-

sently) and some red ocher pigment. They would take out this pouch, open it up to the rays of the sun, and then take the pigment and make horizontal and vertical marks about their eyes—what must have been a forked-eye design—the purpose being to improve their vision.19 This falcon also served as the model of the Tlanuwa, the monstrous bird of prey in Cherokee oral traditions, who was said to swoop down and kill its victims with its sharp breast.2° Some of the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex motifs of men, possibly dancers, dressed as birds may in fact represent this Tlanuwa.?4 The Cherokees saw nothing inconsistent in the fact that the bald eagle (Haliaetus leucocephalus leucocephalus L.), the near relative of the falcon, symbolized peace, the perfect order of the Upper World. Perhaps they thought of the bald eagle, who flies serenely above all other creatures, as the white-haired grandparent of the falcons. Their word for the red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis borealis Gmelin) literally means “love-sick,’ because to the Chero-

kees his call is a lonely sounding whistle. Perhaps because the kingfisher (Megaceryle alcyon alcyon L.) is able to fly down to the water and reach beneath it to pluck up a fish, Cherokee priests or

conjurers would invoke it to pluck out objects which had been magically intruded into their patients’ bodies, making them ill. While for us the turkey buzzard (Cathartesaura septentrionalis Wied) symbolizes death, for the Cherokees it symbolized healing, because the turkey buzzard is able to expose itself to dead things 129

THE SOUTHEASTERN INDIANS

Wak S AM ie: nw). e

i PE} QSTS —— Vee)cv}ue SShsA} O 4OTA O(

\|M

Nk OWN ! il iY ()“Ayu fa CO)s CO ws O

EO x} | 4mi OJ) ws ) Sf Ke aN x:CMS |e mar ‘ RNY) ! INC ‘ \| | iaAn

irae ae eee 5 EE c

Figure 36. Spotted falcons with the forked-eye motif embossed on copper plates.a. An anthropomorphic falcon from Dunklin County, Missouri. b. A spotted falcon from Dunklin County, Missouri. c. A spotted falcon from near Peoria, Illinois. From Charles C. Willoughby, “History and Symbolism of the Muskhogeans,” in Etowah Papers, Phillips Academy, edited by Warren K. Moorehead. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1932, fig. 8, p. 22. Courtesy, Yale University Press and R. S. Peabody Foundation for Archaeology.

with impunity. The long-eared owl (Asio otus wilsonianus Lesson), whom the Cherokees call tskieli, was an ill omen, a witch, a repulsive

being. The red-bellied woodpecker (Centurus carolinus carolinus L.), whom the Cherokees call dalala, was a swift and cunning bird who symbolized war, perhaps because his red head looks as if it had been scalped.?? The pileated or ivory-billed woodpecker depicted in the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex motifs may have had a similar meaning (figs. 37, 58).2% Another bird that occasionally shows up in the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex, the turkey, whose black hair-like neck feathers resemble a human scalp, was also associated with men and with warfare. One of the war whoops of the Southeast-

ern Indians was an imitation of a turkey gobble.” This World was sometimes frequented by Under World monsters who came out of the rivers, lakes, waterfalls, and mountain caves, all

of these being entrances to the Under World. They lurked around 130

The Belief System

lonely spots like mountain passes, making mischief or even causing

great misfortunes for people. There were giant frogs and giant lizards among these monsters, but the most horrible of all was the monster the Cherokees called Uktena, a creature combining features of all three categories of normal animals. It had the scaly body of a large serpent, as big around as a tree trunk, with rings or spots of color along its entire body, but it had deer horns on its head, and it

Oe ge ee ee

LO FU Ed ep — eee Ps Sn? + i. en ae> fie xis - Saal pao 17 od er =~Se Ses Sdae>wes ey ae

"HN fia Eas OE Pe YS ee bed Ee eee 3 >a = Nie Pee RE Se ee oe ee oo AY Pen nmi iW ao [>ne SOPep ee ae anette eSROai~ Se BetT Sr osee

SET |e SVSfog ees =ee ye eae tel A ee

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Aidt Gel ME. es) rr aL he Rel diet eesti, SS > PPA SRDd ie as yeieigs eee. Poet ANAS | ANOS, bess EeED Ne ee i OP Mx ce fb ad iB cre NN - fan» DerEaPate - ES te —*oN aeeee j~ \e 7 1h ee PY 4] == pie — = Aes i S S eS a " -~ we ry os Sa 3] = = Da . . : -

Med Ng dS Be ee —an i + oS s 3 = A a4 a = i? = SSS a ~ mee wer — ——= =~ %

“ eee at hah = 2— — >= -* 2Pe Nee ee < ~ hoe > =- SSS SS eae ee ad ee brn OR Se, * Se

Yom Se GieseaeAfeeae Sey >* ae =ees Rae —:

oe De Te N= ae ae ae - SS: SS ee ee —— =a EA F

Figure 37. Shell gorget with pileated or ivory-billed woodpecker motif. From William H. Holmes, “Artin Shell of the Ancient Americans. Second Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology. Washington, D. C., 1883, opp. p. 282. 131

THE SOUTHEASTERN INDIANS

had wings like a bird. On its forehead it had a bright diamondshaped crest that gave off blinding flashes of light. A similar monster existed in the beliefs of most Southeastern Indians. The Koasatis, for

example, called him “snake-crawfish,” a snake with horns. The symbolic significance of the Uktena will be discussed a few pages hence. In many parts of the Southeast the Indians believed that the streams were inhabited by “tie-snakes.” These were believed to be | powerful snakes that would crawl up on land to wrap themselves around their victims and pull them under the water. The Cherokees attached much significance to the four cardinal directions, associating each of them with a series of social values. Actually, these seem to have been two sets of opposites. In one opposition, the east was the direction of the Sun, the color red, sacred fire, blood, and life and success; its opposite, the west, was associated with the Moon, the souls of the dead, the color black, and death. In the other opposed pair, the north was associated with cold, the color blue (and purple), and trouble and defeat; while its opposite, the south, was associated with warmth, the color white, peace,

and happiness. The Cherokees also gave a propitious value to brown, assigning it to the upward direction, and yellow, like blue, was associated with trouble, though the direction to which it was assigned is not clear. A full complement of spiritual beings dwelt in the Upper World in each of the four quarters. Thus there was a Red Man, Red Bear, Red Sparrow Hawk, and so on in the east; a Black Man, Black Bear, Black Sparrow Hawk, and so on in the west.?5 The

Creeks used the same four cardinal colors with much the same values, but the directions with which they were associated were somewhat different. As with the Cherokees, black was associated with the west, but white was associated with the east, red (and yellow) with the north, and blue with the south.?6 These, then, are the broad categories of the belief system of the Southeastern Indians—their mental furniture. In the following story, collected by James Mooney, the Cherokees tell how their world began. How the World was Made. The earth is a great island floating in a sea of

water, and suspended at each of the four cardinal points by a cord hanging down from the sky vault, which is of solid rock. When the world grows old and worn out, the people will die and the cords will break and

132

The Belief System

let the earth sink down into the ocean, and all will be water again. The Indians are afraid of this. When all was water, the animals were above in [the Upper World], beyond the arch; but it was very much crowded, and they were wanting more room. They wondered what was below the water, and at last. . . “Beavers Grandchild,” the little Water-beetle, offered to go and see if it could learn. It darted in every direction over the surface of the water, but could find no firm place to rest. Then it dived to the bottom and came up with some soft mud, which began to grow and spread on every side

until it became the island which we call the earth. It was afterward fastened to the sky with four cords, but no one remembers who did this.

At first the earth was flat and very soft and wet. The animals were anxious to get down, and sent out different birds to see if it was yet dry,

but they found no place to alight and came back again to [the Upper World]. At last it seemed to be time, and they sent out the Buzzard and told him to go and make ready for them. This was the Great Buzzard, the

father of all the buzzards we see now. He flew all over the earth, low

down near the ground, and it was still soft. When he reached the Cherokee country, he was very tired, and his wings began to flap and

strike the ground, and whenever they struck the earth there was a valley, and where they turned up again there was a mountain. When the animals above saw this, they were afraid that the whole world would be mountains, so they called him back, but the Cherokee country remains full of mountains to this day. When the earth was dry and the animals came down, it was still dark, so they got the sun and set it in a track to go every day across the island

from east to west, just overhead. It was too hot this way, and... the Red Crawfish had his shell scorched a bright red, so that his meat was

spoiled; and the Cherokee do not eat it. The conjurers put the sun another hand-breadth higher in the air, but it was still too hot. They raised it another time, and another, until it was seven hand-breadths high and just under the sky arch. Then it was right, and they left it so. This is why the conjurers call the highest place . . . “the seventh height,” because it is seven hand-breadths above the earth. Every day the sun goes along under this arch, and returns at night to the upper side to the starting place. There is another world under this, and it is like ours in everything— animals, plants, and people—save that the seasons are different. The streams that come down from the mountains are the trails by which we reach this underworld, and the springs at their heads are the doorways by which we enter it, but to do this one must fast and go to water and

133

THE SOUTHEASTERN INDIANS

have one of the underground people for a guide. We know that the seasons in the underworld are different from ours, because the water in the springs is always warmer in winter and cooler in summer than the outer air. When the animals and plants were first made—we do not know by whom—they were told to watch and keep awake for seven nights, just as young men now fast and keep awake when they pray to their medicine. They tried to do this, and nearly all were awake through the first night, but the next night several dropped off to sleep, and the third night others

were asleep, and then others, until, on the seventh night, of all the animals only the owl, the [cougar], and one or two more were still awake. To these were given the power to see and to go about in the dark, and to make prey of the birds and animals which must sleep at night. Of the trees only the cedar, the pine, the spruce, the holly, and the laurel were awake to the end, and to them it was given to be always green and to be greatest for medicine, but to the others it was said: “Because you have not endured to the end you shall lose your hair every winter. ”

Men came after the animals and plants. At first there were only a brother and sister until he struck her with a fish and told her to multiply, and so it was. In seven days a child was born to her, and thereafter every seven days another, and they increased very fast until there was danger

that the world could not keep them. Then it was made that a woman should have only one child in a year, and it has been so ever since.??

The numbers four and seven occur repeatedly in Cherokee myths and rituals. As such, they are not merely magic numbers but expressive of the Southeastern belief system. Perhaps it could be said that

four represented everything in the known world, all the familiar forces in the cosmos. Seven, on the other hand, represented the highest degree of ritual purity and sacredness to which anything could aspire. In fact, it represented a degree to which most men, animals, and plants could not attain. As we have just seen, it was a level which only the owl and the cougar attained, and it should be noted that both had special significance for the Cherokees as for most Southeastern Indians; and it was a level attained only by cedar,

pine, spruce, holly, and laurel, all of which were important in Cherokee ceremonials.28 Cedar, an aromatic, rot resistant wood with a distinctive red and white color, was most sacred of all. It was

the wood used to make the litters on which the honored dead at Cahokia and Spiro were carried. In the next Cherokee story, man acquires fire and sets himself 134

The Belief System

apart from the animals. His ally and intermediary in this exploit is the little water spider, who frequently shows up in Southeastern Ceremonial Complex motifs, often with a circle and cross on her back representing sacred fire. The First Fire. In the beginning there was no fire, and the world was

cold, until the Thunders. . . , who lived up in the Upper World, sent their lightning and put fire into the bottom of a hollow sycamore tree which grew on an island. The animals knew it was there, because they could see the smoke coming out at the top, but they could not get to it on account of the water, so they held a council to decide what to do. This was a long time ago. Every animal that could fly or swim was anxious to go after the fire. The Raven offered, and because he was so large and strong they thought he could surely do the work, so he was sent first. He flew high and far

across the water and alighted on the sycamore tree, but while he was wondering what to do next, the heat had scorched all his feathers black,

and he was frightened and came back without the fire. The little Screech-owl . . . volunteered to go, and reached the place safely, but while he was looking down into the hollow tree a blast of hot air came up

and nearly burned out his eyes. He managed to fly home as best he could, but it was a long time before he could see well, and his eyes are

red to this day. Then the Hooting Owl . . . and the Horned Owl... went, but by the time they got to the hollow tree the fire was burning so fiercely that the smoke nearly blinded them, and the ashes carried up by the wind made white rings about their eyes. They had to come home again without the fire, but with all their rubbing they were never able to get rid of the white rings. Now no more of the birds would venture, and so the little . . . snake, the black racer, said he would go through the water and bring back some fire. He swam across to the island and crawled through the grass to the tree, and went in byasmall hole at the bottom. The heat and smoke were too much for him, too, and after dodging about blindly over the hot ashes until he was almost on fire himself he managed by good luck to get out again at the same hole, but his body had been scorched black, and he has ever since had the habit of darting and doubling on his track as if trying to escape from close quarters. He came back, and the great blacksnake. . . “The Climber,” offered to go for fire. He swam over to the island and climbed up the tree on the outside, as the blacksnake always does, but when he put his head down into the hole the smoke choked him so that he fell into the burning stump, and before he could climb out again he was as black as [the black racer]. 135

THE SOUTHEASTERN INDIANS

Now they held another council, for still there was no fire, and the world was cold, but birds, snakes, and four-footed animals, all had some excuse for not going, because they were all afraid to venture near the burning sycamore, until at last. . . (the Water Spider) said she would go. This is not the water spider that looks like a mosquito, but the other one, with black downy hair and red stripes on her body. She can run on top of the water or dive to the bottom, so there would be no trouble to get over to the island, but the question was, How could she bring back the fire? “Tll manage that,” said the Water Spider; so she spun a thread from her body and wove it into a tusti bowl, which she fastened on her back (fig. 38). Then she crossed over to the island and through the grass to where the fire was still burning. She put one little coal of fire into her bowl, and came back with it, and ever since we have had fire, and the Water Spider still keeps her tusti bowl.?9

The Southeastern Indians lived between two worlds that were neither wholly friendly nor wholly hostile toward them. But the Upper World and the Under World were opposed to each other. This is why the Tlanuwa and the Uktena were mortal enemies. The Indian often found himself in the middle of this cosmic conflict, and could sometimes play one side off against the other. The Nest of the Tlanuwa. On the north bank of the Little Tennessee River, in a bend below the mouth of Citico Creek in Blount County, Tennessee, is a high cliff hanging over the water, and about halfway up the face of the rock is a cave with two openings. The rock projects outward above the cave, so that the mouth can not be seen from above, and it seems impossible to reach the cave either from above or below. There are white streaks in the rock from the cave down to the water. The

Cherokee call it . . . “the place of the Tlanuwa,” or great mythic hawk, 3°

In the old time, away back soon after the creation, a pair of Tlanuwas

had their nest in this cave. The streaks in the rock were made by the droppings from the nest. They were immense birds, larger than any that live now, and very strong and savage. They were forever flying up and down the river, and used to come into the settlements and carry off dogs and even young children playing near the houses. No one could reach the nest to kill them, and when the people tried to shoot them the arrows only glanced off and were seized and carried away in the talons of the Tlanuwas. At last the people went toa great medicine man, who promised to help them. Some were afraid that if he failed to kill the Tlanuwas they would take revenge on the people, but the medicine man said he could fix that. 136

The Belief System

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Bureau of American Ethnology. Washington D. C., 1883, opp. p. 288. He made a long rope of linn bark, just as the Cherokee still do, with loops in it for his feet, and had the people let him down from the top of the cliff

at a time when he knew that the old birds were away. When he came opposite the mouth of the cave he still could not reach it, because the rock above hung over, so he swung himself backward and forward several times until the rope swung near enough for him to pull himself into the cave with a hooked stick that he carried, which he managed to fasten in some bushes growing at the entrance. In the nest he found four young ones, and on the floor of the cave were the bones of all sorts of animals that had been carried there by the hawks. He pulled the young ones out of the nest and threw them over the cliff into the deep water below, where a great Uktena serpent that lived there finished them. Just 137

THE SOUTHEASTERN INDIANS

then he saw the two old ones coming, and had hardly time to climb up again to the top of the rock before they reached the nest. When they found the nest empty they were furious, and circled round and round in the air until they saw the snake put up its head from the water. Then they darted straight downward, and while one seized the snake in his talons and flew far up in the sky with it, his mate struck at it and bit off piece after piece until nothing was left (fig. 39). They were so high up that when the pieces fell they made holes in the rock, which are

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