227 12 8MB
English Pages 368 [366] Year 2019
the social medicine reader volume
2
third edition
Differences and Inequalities
JONaTHaN ±bERLaNDER, MaRa BUcHbINDER, ²aRRy ³. CHURcHILL, SUE ´. ´sTROff, µaNcy M. P. KINg, BaRRy F. SaUNDERs, ³ONaLD P. STRaUss, aND ³EbEcca ². WaLkER, EDs.
Duke university Press · Durham a nD LonDon · 2019
© 2019 ¶UkE ·NIVERsITy PREss ALL RIgHTs REsERVED PRINTED IN THE ·NITED STaTEs Of A¸ERIca ON acID-fREE papER ∞ ¶EsIgNED by MaTTHEw ¹aUcH ¹ypEsET IN MINION PRO by WEsTcHEsTER PUbLIsHINg SERVIcEs
²IbRaRy Of CONgREss CaTaLOgINg-IN-PUbLIcaTION ¶aTa µa¸Es: ±bERLaNDER, JONaTHaN, EDITOR. ¹ITLE: °E sOcIaL ¸EDIcINE REaDER / JONaTHaN ±bERLaNDER, MaRa BUcHbINDER, ²aRRy ³. CHURcHILL, SUE ´. ´sTROff, µaNcy M. P. KINg, BaRRy F. SaUNDERs, ³ONaLD P. STRaUss, ³EbEcca ². WaLkER, EDITORs. ¶EscRIpTION: °IRD EDITION. | ¶URHa¸ : ¶UkE ·NIVERsITy PREss, 2019– | ºNcLUDEs bIbLIOgRapHIcaL REfERENcEs aND INDEx. ºDENTIfiERs: l»»n 2018044276 (pRINT) l»»n 2019000395 (EbOOk) i¼½n 9781478004363 (EbOOk) i¼½n 9781478001744 i¼½n 9781478001744 (V. 2 ; HaRDcOVER ; aLk. papER) i¼½n 9781478002826 (V. 2 ; pbk. ; aLk. papER) SUbjEcTs: l»¼h: SOcIaL ¸EDIcINE. CLassIficaTION: l»» r¾418 (EbOOk) | l»» r¾418 .¼6424 2019 (pRINT) | dd» 362.1—Dc23 l» REcORD aVaILabLE aT HTTps://LccN.LOc.gOV/2018044276
CONTENTS
Ix
¿reÀ¾»e to the third edition
1
ºNTRODUcTION
3
SOcIaL aND CULTURaL CONTRIbUTIONs TO ÁEaLTH, ¶IffERENcEs, aND ºNEqUaLITIEs
Sue E. Estroff and Gail E. Henderson
part i. dEfiNINg AN± ²xpERIENcINg dIffERENcES 31
BEyOND MEDIcaLIsaTION
Nikolas Rose 37
±N BEINg a CRIppLE
Nancy Mairs 48
WHaT YOU MOURN
Sheila Black 50
PHysIcIaNs’ JURIEs fOR ¶EfEcTIVE BabIEs
Helen Keller 52
BLIND, ¶Eaf, aND PRO-´UgENIcs: ÁELEN KELLER’s ADVIcE IN CONTExT
Raúl Necochea López 54
¹ELL ME, ¹ELL ME
Irving Kenneth Zola 61
ºNsTRUcTIONs TO ÁEaRINg PERsONs ¶EsIRINg a ¶Eaf MaN
Raymond Luczak
62
VI
º ÁaVE ¶IabETEs. A¸ º TO BLa¸E?
Rivers Solomon
stnetnoC
part ii. ³IcKNESS AMI± ´ElATIONSHIpS 67
¹wIsTED ²IEs: My JOURNEy IN aN º¸pERfEcT BODy
Sherri G. Morris 78
³aIsINg a WO¸aN
Mary Stainton 83
°E SIck WIfE
Jane Kenyon 84
°E ²ONELINEss Of THE ²ONg-¹ER¸ CaRE GIVER
Carol Levine 92
FaTHERs aND SONs
David Mason 93
PaRENTs SUppORT GROUp
Dick Allen
part iii. ³OcIAl FAcTORS AN± µNEqUAlITIES 97
“¶OcTORs ¶ON’T KNOw ANyTHINg”: °E CLINIcaL GazE IN MIgRaNT ÁEaLTH
Seth M. Holmes 116
ANTHROpOLOgy IN THE CLINIc: °E PRObLE¸ Of CULTURaL CO¸pETENcy aND ÁOw TO FIx ºT
Arthur Kleinman and Peter Benson 127
BEyOND CULTURaL CO¸pETENcE: AppLyINg ÁU¸ILITy TO CLINIcaL SETTINgs
Linda M. Hunt 132
°E ³acIsT PaTIENT
Sachin H. Jain 134
°E SOcIaL ¶ETER¸INaNTs Of ÁEaLTH: CO¸INg Of AgE
Paula Braveman, Susan Egerter, and David R. Williams
STRUcTURaL ÂIOLENcE aND CLINIcaL MEDIcINE
Paul E. Farmer, Bruce Nizeye, Sara Stulac, and Salmaan Keshavjee 170
STRUcTURaL CO¸pETENcy MEETs STRUcTURaL ³acIs¸: ³acE, POLITIcs, aND THE STRUcTURE Of MEDIcaL KNOwLEDgE
Jonathan M. Metzl and Dorothy E. Roberts 188
³acIaL CaTEgORIEs IN MEDIcaL PRacTIcE: ÁOw ·sEfUL ARE °Ey?
Lundy Braun, Anne Fausto-Sterling, Duana Fullwiley, Evelynn M. Hammonds, Alondra Nelson, William Quivers, Susan M. Reverby, and Alexandra E. Shields 204
¹akINg ³acE ±UT Of ÁU¸aN GENETIcs: ´NgagINg a CENTURy-²ONg ¶EbaTE abOUT THE ³OLE Of ³acE IN ScIENcE
Michael Yudell, Dorothy Roberts, Rob DeSalle, and Sarah Tishkoff 209
STRUcTURaL ³acIs¸ aND ÁEaLTH ºNEqUITIEs IN THE ·NITED STaTEs Of A¸ERIca: ´VIDENcE aND ºNTERVENTIONs
Zinzi D. Bailey, Nancy Krieger, Madina Agénor, Jasmine Graves, Natalia Linos, and Mary T. Bassett 235
A¸ERIca’s ÁIDDEN ÃÄÅ ´pIDE¸Ic
Linda Villarosa 254
ºs THE PREscRIpTION ±pIOID ´pIDE¸Ic a WHITE PRObLE¸?
Helena Hansen and Julie Netherland 258
·NDERsTaNDINg AssOcIaTIONs bETwEEN ³acE, SOcIOEcONO¸Ic STaTUs, aND ÁEaLTH: PaTTERNs aND PROspEcTs
David R. Williams, Naomi Priest, and Norman Anderson 268
CaN ¶IspaRITIEs BE ¶EaDLy? CONTROVERsIaL ³EsEaRcH ´xpLOREs WHETHER ²IVINg IN aN ·NEqUaL SOcIETy CaN MakE PEOpLE SIck
Emily Underwood 275
³ELIgION aND GLObaL ÁEaLTH
Peter J. Brown
part iv. ¶OlITIcS, µNSTITUTIONS, AN± CARE 297
VII
°INkINg THROUgH THE PaIN
Keith Wailoo
stnetnoC
156
305
VIII
·NfiNIsHED JOURNEy: °E STRUggLE OVER ·NIVERsaL ÁEaLTH ºNsURaNcE IN THE ·NITED STaTEs
Jonathan Oberlander stnetnoC
314
±N ºNcaRcERaTION aND ÁEaLTH: ³EfRa¸INg THE ¶IscUssION
Rahul Vanjani 318
BIOExpEcTaTIONs: ²IfE ¹EcHNOLOgIEs as ÁU¸aNITaRIaN GOODs
Peter Redfield
341
¾½out the editor¼
343
indeX
PREfA±E TO THE ²HIRD ³DITION
°E EIgHT EDITORs Of THIs THIRD EDITION Of THE Social Medicine Reader INcLUDE sIx cURRENT aND TwO fOR¸ER ¸E¸bERs Of THE ¶EpaRT¸ENT Of SOcIaL MEDIcINE IN THE ·NIVERsITy Of µORTH CaROLINa (un») aT CHapEL ÁILL ScHOOL Of MEDIcINE. FOUNDED IN 1977, THE ¶EpaRT¸ENT Of SOcIaL MEDIcINE, wHIcH INcLUDEs scHOLaRs IN ¸EDIcINE, THE sOcIaL scIENcEs, THE HU¸aNITIEs, aND pUbLIc HEaLTH, Is cO¸¸ITTED TO THE pRO¸OTION aND pROVIsION Of ¸ULTIDIscIpLINaRy EDUcaTION, LEaDERsHIp, sERVIcE, REsEaRcH, aND scHOLaRsHIp aT THE INTERsEcTION Of ¸EDIcINE aND sOcIETy. °Is INcLUDEs a fOcUs ON THE sOcIaL cONDITIONs aND cHaRacTERIsTIcs Of paTIENTs aND pOpULaTIONs; THE sOcIaL DI¸ENsIONs Of ILLNEss; THE ETHIcaL aND sOcIaL cONTExTs Of ¸EDIcaL caRE, INsTITUTIONs, aND pROfEssIONs; aND REsOURcE aLLOcaTION aND HEaLTH caRE pOLIcy. °Is TwO-VOLU¸E REaDER REflEcTs THE syLLabUs Of a yEaR-LONg, REqUIRED INTERDIscIpLINaRy cOURsE THaT Has bEEN TaUgHT TO fiRsT-yEaR ¸EDIcaL sTUDENTs aT ÆÇÈ sINcE 1978. °E gOaL Of THE cOURsE sINcE ITs INcEpTION Has bEEN TO DE¸ONsTRaTE THaT ¸EDIcINE aND ¸EDIcaL pRacTIcE HaVE a pROfOUND INflUENcE ON— aND aRE INflUENcED by—sOcIaL, cULTURaL, pOLITIcaL, aND EcONO¸Ic ¸aTTERs. ¹EacHINg THIs pERspEcTIVE REqUIREs INTEgRaTINg ¸EDIcaL aND NON¸EDIcaL ¸aTERIaLs aND VIEwpOINTs. °EREfORE, THIs REaDER INcORpORaTEs pIEcEs fRO¸ ¸aNy fiELDs wITHIN ¸EDIcINE, THE sOcIaL scIENcEs, aND HU¸aNITIEs, REpREsENTINg THE ¸OsT ENgagINg, pROVOcaTIVE, aND INfOR¸aTIVE ¸aTERIaLs aND IssUEs wE HaVE TRaVERsED wITH OUR sTUDENTs. MEDIcINE’s I¸pacT ON sOcIETy Is ¸ULTIDI¸ENsIONaL. MEDIcINE sHapEs HOw wE THINk abOUT THE ¸OsT fUNDa¸ENTaL, ENDURINg HU¸aN ExpERIENcEs— cONcEpTION, bIRTH, ¸aTURaTION, sIckNEss, sUffERINg, HEaLINg, agINg, aND DEaTH— as wELL as THE ¸ETapHORs wE UsE TO ExpREss OUR DEEpEsT cONcERNs. MEDIcaL pRacTIcEs aND sOcIaL REspONsEs TO THE¸ HaVE HELpED TO REDEfiNE THE ¸EaNINgs Of agE, RacE, aND gENDER. SOcIaL fORcEs LIkEwIsE HaVE a pOwERfUL INflUENcE ON ¸EDIcINE. MEDIcaL kNOwLEDgE aND pRacTIcE, LIkE aLL kNOwLEDgE aND pRacTIcE, aRE sHapED by pOLITIcaL, cULTURaL, aND EcONO¸Ic fORcEs. °Is INcLUDEs ¸ODERN scIENcE’s pURsUIT Of kNOwLEDgE THROUgH OsTENsIbLy NEUTRaL, ObjEcTIVE ObsERVaTION aND ExpERI¸ENTaTION. PHysIcIaNs’ IDEas abOUT DIsEasE—IN facT THEIR VERy DEfiNITIONs Of
DIsEasE—DEpEND ON THE ROLEs THaT scIENcE aND scIENTIsTs pLay IN paRTIcULaR
x
cULTUREs, as wELL as ON THE VaRIOUs cULTUREs Of LabORaTORy aND cLINIcaL scIENcE. ¶EspITE THE pOwER Of THE bIO¸EDIcaL ¸ODEL Of DIsEasE aND THE INcREasINg
n o i t i d E d r i h T e h t o t e c a f e r P
spEcIficITy Of ¸OLEcULaR aND gENETIc kNOwLEDgE, sOcIaL facTORs HaVE aLways INflUENcED THE OccURRENcE aND cOURsE Of ¸OsT DIsEasEs. AND ONcE DIsEasE Has OccURRED, THE pOwER Of ¸EDIcINE TO aLTER ITs cOURsE Is cONsTRaINED by THE LaRgER sOcIaL, EcONO¸Ic, aND pOLITIcaL cONTExTs. WHILE THE ORIgIN Of THEsE VOLU¸Es LIEs IN TEacHINg ¸EDIcaL sTUDENTs, wE bELIEVE THE sELEcTIONs THEy INcLUDE wILL REsONaTE wITH a bROaDER REaDERsHIp fRO¸ aLLIED HEaLTH fiELDs, THE ¸EDIcaL HU¸aNITIEs, bIOETHIcs, aRTs aND scIENcEs, aND THE INTEREsTED pUbLIc. °E ¸aNy VOIcEs REpREsENTED IN THEsE REaDINgs INcLUDE INDIVIDUaL NaRRaTIVEs Of ILLNEss ExpERIENcE, cO¸¸ENTaRIEs by pHysIcIaNs, DEbaTE abOUT cO¸pLEx ¸EDIcaL casEs aND pRacTIcEs, aND cONcEpTUaLLy aND E¸pIRIcaLLy basED scHOLaRLy wRITINgs. °EsE aRE REaDINgs wITH THE LITERaRy aND scHOLaRLy pOwER TO cONVEy THE cO¸pLIcaTED RELaTIONsHIps bETwEEN ¸EDIcINE, HEaLTH, aND sOcIETy. °Ey DO NOT REsOLVE THE ¸OsT VExINg cONTE¸pORaRy IssUEs, bUT THEy DO ILLU¸INaTE THEIR NUaNcEs aND cO¸pLExITIEs, INVITINg DIscUssION aND DEbaTE. ³EpEaTEDLy, THE REaDINgs THROUgHOUT THEsE TwO VOLU¸Es ¸akE cLEaR THaT ¸UcH Of wHaT wE ENcOUNTER IN scIENcE, IN sOcIETy, aND IN EVERyDay aND ExTRaORDINaRy LIVEs Is INDETER¸INaTE, a¸bIgUOUs, cO¸pLEx, aND cONTRaDIcTORy. AND bEcaUsE Of THIs INHERENT a¸bIgUITy, THE INTERwOVEN sELEcTIONs HIgHLIgHT cONflIcTs abOUT pOwER aND aUTHORITy, aUTONO¸y aND cHOIcE, aND sEcURITy aND RIsk. By cRITIcaLLy aNaLyzINg THEsE aND ¸aNy OTHER RELaTED IssUEs, wE caN OpEN Up pOssIbILITIEs, cHaNgE wHaT ¸ay sEE¸ INEVITabLE, aND pRacTIcE pROfEssIONaL TRaININg aND caREgIVINg wITH aN INcREasED capacITy fOR REflEcTION aND sELf- Exa¸INaTION. °E gOaL Is TO IgNITE aND fUEL THE INNER VOIcEs Of sOcIaL aND ¸ORaL aNaLysIs a¸ONg HEaLTH caRE pROfEssIONaLs, aND a¸ONg Us aLL. ANy scHOLaRLy aNTHOLOgy Is OpEN TO cHaLLENgEs abOUT wHaT Has bEEN INcLUDED aND wHaT Has bEEN LEſt OUT. °Is cOLLEcTION Is NO ExcEpTION. °E sTUDy Of ¸EDIcINE aND sOcIETy Is DyNa¸Ic, wITH LaRgE aND EVER-ExpaNDINg bODIEs Of LITERaTURE fRO¸ wHIcH TO DRaw. WE HaVE O¸ITTED sO¸E REaDINgs wIDELy cONsIDERED TO bE “cLassIcs” aND HaVE INcLUDED sO¸E REaDINgs THaT aRE ExcITINg aND NEw—THaT wE bELIEVE HaVE aN INDELIbLE I¸pacT. WE HaVE cHOsEN TO INcLUDE ¸aTERIaL wITH LITERaRy aND scHOLaRLy ¸ERIT aND THaT Has wORkED wELL IN THE cLassROO¸, pROVOkINg DIscUssION aND ENgagINg REaDERs’ I¸agINaTIONs. °EsE REaDINgs INVITE cRITIcaL Exa¸INaTION, a LabOR Of REaDINg aND DIscUssION THaT Is INHERENTLy DIfficULT bUT EDUcaTIONaLLy REwaRDINg.
ÂOLU¸E 1, Ethics and Cultures of Biomedicine, Exa¸INEs ExpERIENcEs Of ILLNEss; THE ROLEs aND TRaININg Of HEaLTH caRE pROfEssIONaLs aND THEIR RELaTION-
xI
caRE ETHIcs; DEaTH aND DyINg; aND REsOURcE aLLOcaTION aND jUsTIcE. ÂOLU¸E 2,
Differences and Inequalities , ExpLOREs HEaLTH aND ILLNEss, fOcUsINg ON HOw DIffERENcE aND DIsabILITy aRE DEfiNED aND ExpERIENcED IN cONTE¸pORaRy A¸ERIca aND HOw sOcIaL caTEgORIEs cO¸¸ONLy UsED TO pREDIcT DIsEasE OUTcO¸Es— gENDER, RacE/ETHNIcITy, aND sOcIaL cLass—sHapE HEaLTH OUTcO¸Es aND ¸EDIcaL caRE. WE THaNk OUR TEacHINg cOLLEagUEs wHO HELpED cREaTE aND REfiNE aLL THREE EDITIONs Of THIs REaDER. °EsE cOLLEagUEs HaVE cO¸E OVER THE yEaRs fRO¸ bOTH wITHIN aND OUTsIDE THE ¶EpaRT¸ENT Of SOcIaL MEDIcINE aND THE ·NIVERsITy Of µORTH CaROLINa aT CHapEL ÁILL. ´qUaL gRaTITUDE gOEs TO OUR sTUDENTs, wHOsE cRITIcIs¸ aND ENTHUsIas¸ OVER fOUR DEcaDEs HaVE I¸pROVED OUR TEacHINg aND HaVE INflUENcED Us gREaTLy IN ¸akINg THE sELEcTIONs fOR THE REaDER. WE THaNk THE ¶EpaRT¸ENT’s facULTy aND sTaff, pasT aND pREsENT; sTUDENTs aND cOLLEagUEs fRO¸ ÂaNDERbILT ·NIVERsITy ScHOOL Of MEDIcINE aND WakE FOREsT ScHOOL Of MEDIcINE HaVE sI¸ILaRLy bEEN INsTRU¸ENTaL. WE EspEcIaLLy THaNk KaTHy CROsIER, THE cOURsE cOORDINaTOR fOR OUR fiRsT-yEaR cLass, wHO assIsTED wITH THE pREpaRaTION Of THE Reader. °E EDITORs gRaTEfULLy ackNOwLEDgE sUppORT fRO¸ THE ¶EpaRT¸ENT Of SOcIaL MEDIcINE, ·NIVERsITy Of µORTH CaROLINa aT CHapEL ÁILL ScHOOL Of MEDIcINE; THE CENTER fOR BIO¸EDIcaL ´THIcs aND SOcIETy, ÂaNDERbILT ·NIVERsITy ScHOOL Of MEDIcINE; aND THE CENTER fOR BIOETHIcs, ÁEaLTH, aND SOcIETy, WakE FOREsT ·NIVERsITy.
n o i t i d E d r i h T e h t o t e c a f e r P
sHIps wITH paTIENTs; INsTITUTIONaL cULTUREs Of bIOscIENcE aND ¸EDIcINE; HEaLTH
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InTRoducT±on
°E sELEcTIONs THaT cO¸pRIsE VOLU¸E 2 Of THE Social Medicine Reader INTRODUcE THE fUNDa¸ENTaL sOcIOcULTURaL DI¸ENsIONs Of HEaLTH DIffERENcEs aND INEqUaLITIEs. °EsE INcLUDE sOcIaL aND cULTURaL sHapINg Of THE ¸EaNINgs Of HEaLTH, ILLNEss, aND DIsEasE; sOcIaL facTORs IN THE DEVELOp¸ENT Of bIO¸EDIcaL kNOwLEDgE aND sysTE¸s Of caRE; aND sTRUcTURaL ExpLaNaTIONs fOR wHy sO¸E sOcIaL gROUps ExpERIENcE DIspROpORTIONaTE bURDENs Of DIsEasE aND DIffERENcEs IN caRE. ¶IsEasE OccURs, Is fELT, wITHIN a bODy, bUT IT Is aLsO ExpERIENcED bEyOND THE bODy, IN a cULTURaL ¸ILIEU, a¸ID sOcIaL RELaTIONsHIps. WHEN INDIVIDUaLs wHO bELONg TO paRTIcULaR sOcIaL gROUps HaVE HIgHER RaTEs Of DIsEasE, EpIDE¸IOLOgIsTs sEEk TO ExpLaIN THEsE VaRIaTIONs VIa RIsk facTORs. YET cONcEpTs Of DIsEasE aND RIsk THE¸sELVEs REflEcT cULTURaLLy spEcIfic assU¸pTIONs abOUT ¸EaNINgs Of ILLNEss aND caUsaTION, aND abOUT THE VaLIDITy aND sIgNIficaNcE Of gROUp LabELs, INcLUDINg aND EspEcIaLLy THOsE Of agE, gENDER, ETHNIcITy, aND RacE. AN INDIVIDUaL’s ExpERIENcE Of ILLNEss Is bEsT UNDERsTOOD IN THE cONTExT Of THEIR sOcIETy aND cULTURE. SI¸ILaRLy, ExpLaNaTION Of THE OccURRENcE Of DIsEasE THROUgH INDIVIDUaL ExpOsURE OR RIsk facTORs Is ENRIcHED by bROaD cONsIDERaTION Of THE DIsTRIbUTION aND INTENsIficaTIONs Of sUcH ExpOsUREs OR RIsks a¸ONg fa¸ILIEs, cO¸¸UNITIEs, aND sOcIaL ENVIRON¸ENTs. ºN ORDER TO Exa¸INE sOcIaL facTORs IN HEaLTH aND DIsEasE, THIs sEcOND VOLU¸E Of THE Social Medicine Reader DRaws ON fRa¸EwORks aND fiNDINgs fRO¸ a VaRIETy Of acaDE¸Ic DIscIpLINEs. °EsE INcLUDE sOcIOcULTURaL aND ¸EDIcaL aNTHROpOLOgy, sOcIOLOgy, aND THE sOcIaL HIsTORy Of ¸EDIcINE aND scIENcE. ´IgHT EDITORs fRO¸ DIVERsE scHOLaRLy backgROUNDs HaVE cURaTED a DIVERsE cOLLEcTION Of Essays, aRTIcLEs, sTORIEs, aND pOE¸s TO ExE¸pLIfy aND ILLUsTRaTE sOcIaL INflUENcEs ON HEaLTH. °E sELEcTIONs cONsIsT Of E¸pIRIcaL, cONcEpTUaL, aND LITERaRy ¸aTERIaLs abOUT sOcIOcULTURaL ¸aRkERs sUcH as gENDER, RacE, ETHNIcITy, EcONO¸Ic DIsaDVaNTagE, sOcIaL sTaTUs, RELIgIOUs affiLIaTIONs, aND assOcIaTED DIffERENcEs aND INEqUaLITIEs IN HEaLTH. MaNy Of THE sELEcTIONs HaVE bEEN UsED sUccEssfULLy as basEs fOR DIscUssION IN ¸EDIcaL scHOOL cURRIcULa aND IN UNDERgRaDUaTE aND gRaDUaTE cOURsEs aND caN bE aDapTED TO fiT cOURsEs aND sTUDENTs IN scIENcE, sOcIaL scIENcE, aND THE HU¸aNITIEs.
°E REaDINgs IN paRT º Of THIs VOLU¸E ExpLORE HOw VaRIOUs DIsabILITIEs
2
aND OTHER DIffERENcEs fRO¸ bODILy OR bEHaVIORaL NOR¸s aRE ExpERIENcED aND DEfiNED IN A¸ERIca. µaRRaTIVEs Of ¸aNagINg ILLNEss aND DIsabLE¸ENT IN a
noitcudortnI
Day OR a LIfETI¸E cONTRIbUTE TO TExTURED bIOgRapHIcaL UNDERsTaNDINgs Of sUcH DIffERENcEs. °EsE accOUNTs caN cHaLLENgE pREsU¸pTIONs Of sa¸ENEss a¸ONg pEOpLE wHO aRE pROfOUNDLy DIffERENT, aND pREsU¸pTIONs Of DIffERENcE bETwEEN THE DIsabLED aND THE “TE¸pORaRILy-abLED” by bRINgINg TO THE fOREgROUND UNREcOgNIzED cO¸¸ONaLITIEs. SEVERaL sELEcTIONs aDDREss THE ROLEs Of ¸EDIcINE aND DOcTORs IN DEfiNINg, ¸ITIgaTINg, aND ELI¸INaTINg DIffERENcEs aND DIsabILITIEs IN HIsTORIcaL cONTExT. ºN paRT ºº Of THE VOLU¸E, THE fOcUs sHIſts TO ways IN wHIcH ILLNEss, DIsabILITy, aND caRE aRE E¸bEDDED IN RELaTIONsHIps, EspEcIaLLy (bUT NOT ExcLUsIVELy) fa¸ILy RELaTIONsHIps. ³EaDINg sELEcTIONs pORTRay spOUsEs, paRENTs, aND cHILDREN a¸ID TaNgLED E¸OTIONs, sHIſtINg ROLEs, aND ObLIgaTIONs—THROUgH EpIsODEs Of caRE, pROTEcTION, REcRI¸INaTION, aND ¸OURNINg. Fa¸ILIEs aND cO¸¸UNITIEs caN INTENsIfy VULNERabILITIEs OR sUsTaIN REsILIENcIEs aND THEREby cONTRIbUTE TO DIspaRITIEs IN HEaLTH. PaRT ººº Of THE VOLU¸E TakEs Up ETHNORacIaL aND sOcIOEcONO¸Ic DIffERENcEs THaT pRODUcE aND sHapE HEaLTH INEqUaLITIEs. ·NEVEN DIsTRIbUTIONs Of ¸aTERIaL REsOURcEs, EDUcaTIONaL OppORTUNITIEs, wORk ExpOsUREs, aND sTREssEs Of DIscRI¸INaTION aND OppREssION aRE pOwERfUL sOcIaL DETER¸INaNTs Of HEaLTH. ºDEOLOgIEs aND INEqUaLITIEs ¸aTERIaLIzED IN aND ENfORcED by ¸acROsOcIaL sTRUcTUREs bEcO¸E E¸bODIED IN INDIVIDUaLs aND cO¸¸UNITIEs. A sUbsTaNTIaL cLUsTER Of THE REaDINgs IN THIs paRT aDDREssEs THE I¸pORTaNT ¸aTTER Of RacE—as a pOLITIcaL OR scIENTIfic cONsTRUcT, as a sOURcE Of gROUp IDENTITy OR bIas, as a sIgNpOsT Of sTRUcTURaL VULNERabILITy OR VIOLENcE. °E fiNaL sEcTION Of THE VOLU¸E cONsIDERs VaRIOUs INsTITUTIONaL cONTExTs Of HEaLTH caRE, INcLUDINg INcaRcERaTION, pUbLIc pOLIcy REgaRDINg cHRONIc paIN ¸aNagE¸ENT aND OpIOIDs, aND ·.S. NaTIONaL EffORTs TOwaRD HEaLTH caRE REfOR¸. ºT cONcLUDEs wITH a gLI¸psE Of NONgOVERN¸ENTaL fOR¸s Of HEaLTH caRE aND HU¸aNITaRIaN aID IN THE DEVELOpINg wORLD. °E VaRIETy Of REaDINgs IN THIs VOLU¸E caN bE aDDREssED fRO¸ ¸aNy DIscIpLINaRy pERspEcTIVEs, TEacHINg sTyLEs, aND fOR¸aTs. °Ey caN bE REsHUfflED aND REcO¸bINED, sTaND TOgETHER OR aLONE, OR bE sUppLE¸ENTED by OTHER LITERaTURE. °E kEy TO UsINg THEsE REaDINgs sUccEssfULLy Is TO appROacH THE¸ wITH flExIbILITy—TO pROVOkE OR sHapE THE RIgHT qUEsTIONs, RaTHER THaN gIVE paRTIcULaR aNswERs. ±UR HOpE Is THaT bOTH TEacHERs aND sTUDENTs Of ¸aTERIaLs LIkE THEsE wILL gO ON askINg qUEsTIONs aND fiNDINg DIffERENT aND DEEpER aNswERs THROUgHOUT THEIR LIVEs.
Soc±Al And CulTuRAl ConTR±buT±ons To HeAlTh, D±ffeRences, And InequAl±T±es Sue E. Estroff and Gail E. Henderson
¶IsEasE aND HEaLTH, bIRTH aND DEaTH, bODILy sUffERINg aND DEbILITaTION aRE NOT THE pREsU¸pTIVE TERRITORy Of LabORaTORy scIENTIsTs aND cLINIcIaNs IN wHITE cOaTs. ScHOLaRs fRO¸ THE sOcIaL scIENcEs aND HU¸aNITIEs IN THE fiELDs Of sOcIaL ¸EDIcINE, HEaLTH HU¸aNITIEs, sOcIO¸EDIcaL aND HEaLTH sysTE¸s scIENcEs, aND sTRUcTURaL cO¸pETENcE DEpLOy INTERDIscIpLINaRy TOOLs TO UNDERsTaND THE ExpERIENcEs aND ¸EaNINg Of ILLNEss, ¸EDIcaL TRaININg aND pRacTIcE, aND THE HIsTORIcaL, pOLITIcaL, aND sTRUcTURaL, as wELL as bIOcULTURaL INflUENcEs ON HEaLTH sTaTUs aND DIsEasE. ÁERE wE INTRODUcE UNDERLyINg cONcEpTs aND pERspEcTIVEs fOUNDaTIONaL TO sOcIaL aND cULTURaL appROacHEs TO HEaLTH aND ILLNEss. °E TOpIcs aT IssUE aRE sO¸ETI¸Es REfERRED TO as sOcIaL DETER¸INaNTs Of HEaLTH. WE TakE THE VIEw THaT IDENTIfyINg aND accOUNTINg fOR THE cO¸pLEx syNERgIEs Of THE sOcIaL aND bIOLOgIcaL Is aN ONgOINg ENTERpRIsE—pRO¸IsINg aND pERsUasIVE, bUT as yET aN INcO¸pLETE DE¸ONsTRaTION Of caUsaL, DETER¸INaTIVE cERTaINTy. °E TERRaIN INcLUDEs wORk IN ¸EDIcaL sOcIOLOgy aND aNTHROpOLOgy, pUbLIc HEaLTH, sOcIaL EpIDE¸IOLOgy, aND INTERsEcTIONaL sTUDIEs Of HEaLTH DIspaRITy aND INEqUaLITy, DIsabILITy, scIENcE aND TEcHNOLOgy, sExUaLITIEs, NaRRaTIVE IN ¸EDIcINE, gENDER IDENTITy aND ExpREssION, RacE aND ETHNIcITy, aND DIsabILITy. °EsE appROacHEs HaVE IN cO¸¸ON cONcEpTUaL fRa¸EwORks THaT INcLUDE THE fOLLOwINg: • THE ¸UTUaL ¸OLDINg Of cULTURE, sOcIaL aND INsTITUTIONaL sTRUcTUREs, bIOLOgy, aND ILLNEss; • DIsTINgUIsHINg bETwEEN, bUT NOT DETacHINg, DIsEasE as a paTHOLOgIcaL pROcEss aND ILLNEss aND TREaT¸ENT as LIVED ExpERIENcE;
• THE I¸pacT Of ROLE ExpEcTaTIONs ON HOw pEOpLE wHO aRE ILL OR INjURED
4
aRE sEEN by OTHERs aND sEE THE¸sELVEs; • aND THE ways THaT gENDER IDENTITy aND ExpREssION, sEx, sOcIOEcONO¸Ic
n o s r e d n e H . E l i a G d n a f f o r t s E . E e u S
sTaTUs, RacE, aND ETHNIcITy aRE assOcIaTED wITH DIsEasE aND aRE INDIcaTORs Of bROaDER EcONO¸Ic, pOLITIcaL, aND cULTURaL fORcEs THaT INflUENcE a pERsON’s HEaLTH sTaTUs aND ExpOsURE TO OR pROTEcTION fRO¸ ILLNEss aND INjURy. ÁERE wE UsE ExE¸pLaRs fRO¸ aN aRRay Of REsEaRcH aND scHOLaRsHIp fOcUsED ON THE ExpERIENcEs Of DIffERENcE ENgENDERED by LabELs Of DIsabILITy aND DIsEasE TOgETHER wITH INEqUaLITy IN HEaLTH sTaTUs aND HEaLTH caRE RELaTED TO sOcIaL IDENTITIEs sUcH as agE, gENDER, aND RacE, as wELL as THE sTRUcTURaL fRa¸EwORks THaT DEfiNE aND ¸aINTaIN THEsE IDENTITIEs. SOcIOcULTURaL INflUENcEs ON HEaLTH aND ILLNEss aRE pRO¸INENT aND ObsERVabLE IN THEsE aREas, aND NOw EpIgENETIc aNaLysIs aDDs E¸pIRIcaL DOcU¸ENTaTION Of THE sIgNaTURE Of sOcIaL cIRcU¸sTaNcEs ON THE ¸OLEcULaR as wELL as THE sOcIaL bODy (KIRkbRIDE, JONEs, ·LLRIcH, aND COID 2014). SHIELDs (2017: 224) DEscRIbEs HOw “sOcIaL DIsaDVaNTagE ‘gETs UNDER THE skIN’ ”: “WE HaVE aLways kNOwN THaT pOVERTy, cHILD abUsE, TRaU¸a, aIR pOLLUTION, aND OTHER aDVERsE ExpOsUREs wERE baD fOR pEOpLE’s HEaLTH. By sHEDDINg LIgHT ON THE bIOLOgIcaL paTHways THROUgH wHIcH sUcH ExpOsUREs aRE TRaNsLaTED INTO cONcRETE, ¸EasURabLE INcREasED RIsk Of VaRIOUs DIsEasEs, EpIgENETIcs REsEaRcH pROVIDEs a UsEfUL TOOL fOR REfOcUsINg pOLIcy ¸akERs’ aTTENTION back TO THE cO¸¸UNITIEs IN wHIcH pEOpLE LIVE aND wORk, aND THE DaILy qUaLITy Of THEIR LIVEs THaT sHapE THEIR HEaLTH aND THOsE Of THEIR OffspRINg.”
Basic Concepts °E TER¸s social aND cultural aRE OſtEN UsED TOgETHER, INTERcHaNgEabLy, OR as cO¸bINED INTO a sINgLE wORD, sociocultural. °EsE TwO wORDs REpREsENT DIffERENT DIscIpLINaRy pERspEcTIVEs aND REflEcT VaRIED DEfiNITIONs, qUEsTIONs, aND appROacHEs TO REsEaRcH. ºNcREasINgLy, INTERsEcTIONaL sOcIaL scIENcE scHOLaRsHIp IN HEaLTH aND ILLNEss INTEgRaTEs qUaLITaTIVE aND qUaNTITaTIVE ¸ETHODs aND aNaLyTIc TEcHNIqUEs. ºN THIs Essay, THE TER¸ social ENcO¸passEs sELEcTED cHaRacTERIsTIcs Of a DEfiNED, ORgaNIzED gROUp THaT caN RaNgE IN sIzE fRO¸ a fa¸ILy UNIT TO a NaTION sTaTE. °E cHaRacTERIsTIcs Of INTEREsT INcLUDE: sOcIaL INsTITUTIONs LIkE fa¸ILIEs, scHOOLs, HOspITaLs, aND pRIsONs; LOcaL aND NaTIONaL pOLITIcaL INsTITUTIONs aND
¸EcHaNIs¸s Of sOcIaL cONTROL aND REsOURcE aLLOcaTION; aND sysTE¸s Of pRODUcTION, sUcH as pRIVaTE OR pUbLIc OwNERsHIp, ¸aNUfacTURINg, agRIcULTURE,
5
sTRUcTURE OppORTUNITIEs THaT IN TURN affEcT HEaLTH aND HEaLTH caRE fOR INDIVIDUaL cITIzENs aND pROVIDE bOTH ObsTacLEs aND assIsTaNcE TO THOsE UNabLE TO caRRy OUT NOR¸aL fUNcTIONs DUE TO DIsEasE OR DIsabILITy (ÁaNsEN, BOURgOIs, aND ¶RUckER 2014). ºNDIVIDUaLs aRE aLsO paRT Of sOcIaL gROUps, sUcH as RELIgIONs, gENDER IDENTITIEs, sExEs, sOcIaL cLassEs, RacEs, aND ETHNIcITIEs; THEsE aRE wOVEN TOgETHER by sysTE¸s THaT REflEcT DIffERENTIaL OR HIERaRcHIcaL accEss TO REsOURcEs Of wEaLTH, pOwER, aND sOcIaL sTaTUs. SOcIaL gROUps ¸ay OVERLap wITH cULTURaL gROUps, aND wHEN pLacED UNDER scRUTINy, ¸aNy Of THEsE caTEgORIEs HaVE fUzzy EDgEs. STILL, THERE aRE ¸EasURabLE aND ENDURINg DIffERENcEs IN DIsEasE fREqUENcIEs aND HEaLTH OUTcO¸Es bETwEEN (aND wITHIN) sOcIaL gROUps, HOwEVER cONTEsTED THE DEfiNITIONs aND HOwEVER cO¸pLEx THE REasONs fOR THEsE DIffERENcEs ¸ay bE.
Culture caN bE VIEwED as aN EVOLVINg cOLLEcTIVE pRODUcT, a NEgOTIabLE aND NEgOTIaTED TE¸pLaTE fOR LEaDINg aND ¸akINg sENsE Of DaILy LIfE. °E pROpERTIEs Of cULTURE aRE VaLUEs, RULEs, pROHIbITIONs, pREfERENcEs, sy¸bOLs, ¸EaNINgs, LaNgUagE, LOcaTIONs Of pOwER, aND pRacTIcEs THaT gUIDE HOw EVERyDay LIfE Is LIVED aND HOw ExTRaORDINaRy EVENTs aRE UNDERsTOOD. CULTURE INcLUDEs DEfiNITIONs Of HEaLTH aND ILLNEss, LIfE aND DEaTH, REspONsEs TO DIsEasE aND INjURy, aND HOw paIN, DIscO¸fORT, aND DIsfigURE¸ENT aRE ExpERIENcED. °EsE fOR¸s Of kNOwLEDgE aRE sHaRED a¸ONg a gROUp Of pEOpLE, DEspITE VaRIaTIONs a¸ONg THE¸ IN INTERpRETaTION Of pRINcIpLEs OR IN pRacTIcEs. FINaLLy, cULTURE Is ENDURINg aT a fUNDa¸ENTaL LEVEL, bUT aLsO cHaNgINg IN fOR¸ aND cONTENT OVER TI¸E, pRODUcED aND REpRODUcED by THOsE wHO LEaRN THE RULEs aND appLy OR aLTER THE¸ IN DaILy LIVINg. °E IDEa Of cULTURE, as CO¸aROff aND CO¸aROff (2004: 188) ObsERVE, Has TakEN ON INcREasINg pOwER as “pEOpLEs acROss THE pLaNET HaVE TakEN TO INVOkINg IT, TO sIgNIfyINg THE¸sELVEs wITH REfERENcE TO IT, TO INVEsTINg IT wITH aN aUTHORITy, a DETER¸INacy” THaT sO¸E scHOLaRs wOULD DIspUTE. ¹akINg sUcH a VIEw caN LEaD TO sTEREOTypINg, OR a cOOkIE-cUTTER VIEw Of cULTURE—a bELIEf THaT IT pRODUcEs IDENTIcaL pEOpLE wITH IDENTIcaL bELIEfs wITHIN paRTIcULaR gROUps. FOR Exa¸pLE, RacE aND sEx-basED sTEREOTypEs pREsU¸E THaT ONE cHaRacTERIsTIc, sUcH as DaRkER skIN cOLOR OR a pERsON’s gENITaLIa, pLay THE LEaD ROLE IN DEfiNINg aNyONE wITH THaT cHaRacTERIsTIc. ÂaRIaTION aND INDIVIDUaLITy bEcO¸E “ExcEpTIONs.” ºN a cLINIcaL sETTINg, sTEREOTypEs caN bE cONVENIENT bUT aRE OſtEN INaccURaTE aND caN bE ¸IsTakENLy DEpLOyED as a fOR¸ Of cULTURaL cO¸pETENcE.
h t l a e H o t s n o i t u b i r t n o C l a r u t l u C d n a l a i c o S
aND THE INTERNET. °EsE sOcIaL INsTITUTIONs aND sOcIOEcONO¸Ic sysTE¸s
ºNsTEaD, cULTURE caN bE UNDERsTOOD “LEss as a sIgN Of RacIaL ¸aRkINg OR aN
6
aLIbI fOR DIffERENcE THaN as THE DEscRIpTION Of a ¸ORE OR LEss OpEN REpERTOIRE Of sTyLEs, a ¸ODE Of cONDUcT, a sET Of pRag¸aTIc VaLUEs aLways UNDER RE(cON)-
n o s r e d n e H . E l i a G d n a f f o r t s E . E e u S
sTRUcTION . . . [as] a THOROUgHgOINg qUaLIficaTION TO EVERyDay LIfE.” (CO¸aROff aND CO¸aROff 2004: 198). °E EVOLVINg VOcabULaRIEs Of gENDER IDENTITy aND ExpREssION bEyOND THE bINaRy aND accOUNTINg fOR RacE/ETHNIcITy ExE¸pLIfy HOw E¸ERgENT REpERTOIREs INTERRUpT aND REcONfigURE LONg-HELD WEsTERN caTEgORIEs aND DEsIgNaTIONs Of ExpERIENcE aND IDENTITy. ºT Is HELpfUL TO THINk Of cULTURE as agREED-UpON-ENOUgH TO cONTRIbUTE TO aND TO saNcTION REcOgNIzabLy paTTERNED IDEas abOUT sOcIaL caTEgORIEs LIkE gENDER, agE, aND sOcIaL sTaTUs, aND REspONsEs TO DIsEasE, DIsabILITy, OR DEaTH.
Culture in Biology, Biology in Culture BIOLOgy aND cULTURE DO NOT sTaND IN OppOsITION, THE ONE fixED aND THE OTHER ¸aLLEabLE. °E bIOLOgIcaL, sOcIaL, aND cULTURaL REaL¸s aRE INTERTwINED pROfOUNDLy. °E cLaI¸ Is NOT THaT cULTURE INcLUDEs EVERyTHINg, bUT THaT NEaRLy EVERy paRT Of bIOLOgIcaL aND sOcIaL LIfE Is cULTURaLLy INflUENcED, THaT LIfE Is
cultured. ºN aNy LOcaLE, fOR Exa¸pLE, THE flORa THaT aRE UsED fOR HEaLINg, THE kIND Of cROps THaT aRE gROwN, aND THE cLI¸aTE HELp TO sHapE LOcaL cUsTO¸aRy pRacTIcEs, sy¸bOLs, aND bELIEfs. ºN TURN, THEsE cUsTO¸s aND bELIEfs INTERpRET OR gIVE sy¸bOLIc ¸EaNINg TO THE wEaTHER OR fOOD. FOR Exa¸pLE, sOcIaL HIERaRcHIEs OſtEN DETER¸INE HOw pROTEIN Is DIsTRIbUTED wITHIN a gROUp—wHO gETs wHaT kIND aND a¸OUNT Of fOOD—wHIcH ¸ay THEN INflUENcE HEaLTH sTaTUs aND paTTERNs Of DIsEasE. CONsIDER THE ORIgINs aND I¸pacT Of “fOOD DEsERTs” IN INNER cITIEs, HOw accEss TO fOOD caN bE a wEapON Of waR, aND THE fRagILE sTaTUs Of scHOOL LUNcH pROgRa¸s IN THE facE Of pOLITIcaLLy DETER¸INED bUDgET cUTs. FOR Exa¸pLE, accEss TO HEaLTHIER fOOD Is LOwER IN cENsUs TRacTs wITH pREDO¸INaNTLy NON-ÁIspaNIc bLack REsIDENTs THaN IN aREas wITH pREDO¸INaNTLy NON-ÁIspaNIc wHITE REsIDENTs (C¶C 2013). °EsE sTRUcTURaL pROcEssEs REflEcT bOTH INaDVERTENT aND DELIbERaTE aLLOcaTIONs Of REsOURcEs basED ON fUNDa¸ENTaL NOTIONs Of jUsTIcE, faIRNEss, aND DEsERVEDNEss. ºLLNEss Is sENsaTE. ºT Is fELT IN THE bODy THROUgH paIN, DIscO¸fORT, aND LOss OR cHaNgE Of fUNcTION. ºLLNEss aND INjURy aRE E¸bODIED—sEEN, DIspLayED, appaRENT TO sELf aND TO OTHERs. ÁOw wE fEEL, wHaT wE fEEL, wHaT wE IDENTIfy as paIN aND DIscO¸fORT aND DIsfigURE¸ENT aRE aLL LEaRNED aND sHapED IN cULTURaL cONTExT. ´xpEcTED aND IDEaL bODIEs aRE I¸agINED wITHIN cULTURaL paRa¸ETERs. °E bIOENgINEERINg Of ExOskELETONs fOR pEOpLE wHO caNNOT
waLk, acTUaL bIONIc LI¸bs THaT pER¸IT THEIR “OwNERs” TO ¸OUNTaIN cLI¸b OR RETURN TO THE baLLET sTagE, aND LabORaTORy-gENERaTED HU¸aN TIssUE aRE REaLI-
7
Of transhumanism OR THE fUsION Of bIOLOgIcaL aND ¸EcHaNIcaL pROcEssEs aND THE ExpaNDINg ¸EaNINg Of bEINg HU¸aN. WE facE THE pOssIbILITy, NOT jUsT THE aspIRaTION, Of THE TRaNsHU¸aN bODy wHEN bODy paRTs faIL aND DIsEasED kIDNEys aRE REpLacED wITH a Lab-gENERaTED, DONaTED, OR pURcHasED ORgaN (ÁOgLE 2005). COs¸ETIc sURgERy aND BOTOx INjEcTIONs TO RID THE facE Of wRINkLEs, OR LIpOsUcTION TO RE¸OVE bODy faT, bEcO¸E THE ¸EaNs TO ¸aINTaIN OR acHIEVE NEw, cULTURaLLy IDEaLIzED bODILy sHapE aND fUNcTION OVER a LIfETI¸E. AT THE sa¸E TI¸E, THEsE aND NU¸EROUs OTHER INTENsELy ¸aRkETED bODy-ENHaNcINg pROcEDUREs aRE accEssIbLE ONLy TO THOsE wHO caN affORD THEIR pURcHasE, aND THEy cONTRIbUTE TO THE cREaTION Of EVOLVINg IDEaLs abOUT pHysIcaL fOR¸, abOUT agE-ExpEcTED aND gENDER- assOcIaTED bODIEs THaT aRE UNEqUaLLy acHIEVabLE acROss pOpULaTIONs. ¹HIs INTERpLay bETwEEN ¸EDIcaL TEcHNOLOgy aND bODILy ExpEcTaTIONs, aND THEIR REflEcTION Of aND cONTRIbUTION TO DIspaRITIEs IN bODy pOssIbILITIEs, Is aN I¸pORTaNT aRENa fOR THE ¸UTUaL ¸OLDINg Of cULTURE aND ¸EDIcINE (Mcµa¸EE aND ´DwaRDs 2006) IN DETER¸ININg THE NaTURE Of OUR bODIEs as “NaTURaL bIOLOgIcaL ¸aTERIaL” OR sO¸ETHINg aLTOgETHER DIffERENT. ¹O¸asINI (2007: 498) aLERTs Us THaT “aT a VERy ¸INI¸aLIsTIc LEVEL Of aNaLysIs, THE NOTION Of HU¸aN ENHaNcE¸ENT aLREaDy ENTaNgLEs facTUaL cLaI¸s abOUT HOw wE caN bETTER HU¸aNs wITH VaLUE cLaI¸s abOUT wHy wE sHOULD/OUgHT TO DO sO.” MaRgaRET ²Ock’s (1994) wORk ON agINg aND ¸ENOpaUsE IN JapaN aND µORTH A¸ERIca ILLUsTRaTEs THE INTI¸aTE INTERacTIONs bETwEEN bIOLOgy aND cULTURE. ²Ock fiNDs THaT JapaNEsE wO¸EN pHysIcaLLy ExpERIENcE ¸ENOpaUsE DIffERENTLy THaN A¸ERIcaN wO¸EN. °Ey DO NOT REpORT THE “HOT flasHEs” aND E¸OTIONaL LIabILITy THaT A¸ERIcaNs DO. ³aTHER, THEIR pRI¸aRy sENsaTIONs INcLUDE acHINg jOINTs aND OTHER bODILy paINs. ²IkEwIsE, JapaNEsE aND A¸ERIcaN pHysIcIaNs DIffER wIDELy IN HOw THEy appROacH ¸ENOpaUsE. °EIR RELaTIONsHIps wITH paTIENTs aRE E¸bEDDED IN cULTURaL cONTExTs wITH DIffERINg IDEas abOUT gENDER, aUTHORITy, fE¸aLE bIOLOgy, aND agINg. ÁOw caN IT bE THaT JapaNEsE wO¸EN ExpERIENcINg ¸ENOpaUsE acTUaLLy feel DIffERENTLy fRO¸ A¸ERIcaN wO¸EN? °EIR acHINg sHOULDERs aRE as cULTURaLLy INflUENcED and as REaL as aRE A¸ERIcaN aND CaNaDIaN HOT flasHEs, bUT aLL THE wO¸EN aRE gOINg THROUgH THE sa¸E bIOLOgIcaL pROcEss. ±R aRE THEy? °E REcOgNITION Of cULTURaL INflUENcEs ON bODILy ExpERIENcE Is NOT cONfiNED TO THE sOcIaL scIENcEs. AN INVEsTIgaTOR IN a LaRgE cLINIcaL TRIaL sTUDyINg THE I¸pacT Of HOR¸ONE REpLacE¸ENT THERapIEs ON cOgNITIVE fUNcTION (´spE-
h t l a e H o t s n o i t u b i r t n o C l a r u t l u C d n a l a i c o S
TIEs, NO LONgER scIENcE ficTION. ºNDEED, THEsE DEVELOp¸ENTs INcITE DIscUssION
LaND ET aL. 2004) was qUOTED as sayINg, “°E TRUE INTERpRETaTION Of ¸ENOpaUsE
8
Is cEssaTION Of ¸ENsEs fRO¸ DEcREasED pRODUcTION Of fE¸aLE HOR¸ONEs. . . . AND wHILE, IN OUR cULTURE, IT’s OſtEN assOcIaTED wITH HOT flasHEs aND OTHER
n o s r e d n e H . E l i a G d n a f f o r t s E . E e u S
sy¸pTO¸s, IN sO¸E OTHER cULTUREs wO¸EN bREEzE RIgHT THROUgH IT. °ERE ¸ay bE LOTs Of facTORs HERE. . . . ºT’s NOT ¸y aREa Of spEcIaLTy. . . . ºT’s bEEN DEbaTED cONsIDERabLy” (SHa¸p 2004). °Is Exa¸pLE Of THE INcLUsION Of sOcIOcULTURaL INflUENcEs ON bIOLOgIcaL EVENTs by REsEaRcHERs OUTsIDE THE sOcIaL scIENcEs DE¸ONsTRaTEs THE ExpaNDINg appLIcaTION Of INTERDIscIpLINaRy fiNDINgs aND pERspEcTIVEs TO ¸EDIcINE.
Culture, Health, and Illness °E sOcIaL aND cULTURaL wORLDs Of THE TwENTy-fiRsT cENTURy ·NITED STaTEs, ITs LaNgUagE, ¸UsIc, fOOD, aND ITs pOLITIcaL figUREs aND fORcEs, aRE pROfOUNDLy DIffERENT THaN jUsT HaLf a cENTURy agO, wHEN THE IDEa Of aN “A¸ERIcaN cULTURE,” OR a DO¸INaNT wHITE ANgLO-SaxON TRaDITION, was accEpTED by ¸aNy as a gIVEN aND DEsIRabLE. ¶E¸OgRapHERs pREDIcT THaT aROUND 2044, NO RacE/ ETHNIc gROUp as DEfiNED by THE CENsUs wILL HaVE a ¸ajORITy sHaRE Of THE TOTaL pOpULaTION, aND THE ·NITED STaTEs wILL bEcO¸E a “ ‘pLURaLITy’ Of RacIaL aND ETHNIc gROUps” (COLby aND ±RT¸aN 2015: 9). FOR THE fiRsT TI¸E sINcE THE cOLONIzaTION Of THE µORTH A¸ERIcaN cONTINENT, NO gROUp wILL REpREsENT a NU¸ERIcaL ¸ajORITy. WE wILL bEcO¸E a “¸ajORITy/¸INORITy” NaTION (COLby aND ±RT¸aN 2015) wHEREIN NON-ÁIspaNIc wHITEs DO NOT REpREsENT a ¸ajORITy, THOUgH THEy aRE pROjEcTED TO RE¸aIN THE LaRgEsT sINgLE gROUp. ¹akINg INTO accOUNT fERTILITy RaTEs aND THE agE sTRUcTURE Of VaRIOUs pOpULaTION gROUps, THE cROssOVER pOINT TO a NO-¸ajORITy pOpULaTION fOR cHILDREN UNDER 18 cOULD OccUR as sOON as 2020. °E TRaNsfOR¸aTION Of THE ·.S. pOpULaTION’s cULTURaL aND RacE/ETHNIc LEgacIEs aND pRacTIcEs wILL HaVE a pROfOUND EffEcT ON THE sOcIaL EpIDE¸IOLOgy Of HEaLTH aND ILLNEss, aND THUs ON HEaLTH caRE sysTE¸s aND pROVIDERs. ME¸bERs Of a DO¸INaNT cULTURE aRE INcLINED TO VIEw THEIR OwN ways as LOgIcaL aND NaTURaL, TO sEE “cULTURE” as sO¸ETHINg THaT OTHERs HaVE. We HaVE VaLUEs OR pRINcIpLEs, they HaVE bELIEfs aND cUsTO¸s. We HaVE scIENcE aND kNOwLEDgE, they HaVE TRaDITIONs aND ¸yTHs. YET, WEsTERN HIsTORy, THE sOcIaL HIsTORy Of scIENcE aND ¸EDIcINE, aND THE cULTURaL sTUDy Of HEaLTH aND ILLNEss cHaLLENgE THEsE DIcHOTO¸IEs. As THE ·NITED STaTEs EVOLVEs DE¸OgRapHIcaLLy aND cULTURaLLy, RELIaNcE ON a DO¸INaNT cULTURaL REpERTOIRE IN THE DO¸aINs Of HEaLTH aND ILLNEss wILL bEcO¸E INcREasINgLy pREcaRIOUs, If NOT ILL aDVIsED.
°E ·NITED STaTEs Has aLways bEEN a cULTURaLLy DIVERsE sOcIETy, HO¸E TO ANgLO-SaxON, SLaVIc, AfRIcaN, AsIaN, aND MEDITERRaNEaN gROUps wITH EVI-
9
NOw cENTER sTagE IN THE pOLITIcs, EcONO¸y, sOcIaL LIfE aND HEaLTH caRE Of THE TwENTy-fiRsT cENTURy. °E 2000 CENsUs fOR THE fiRsT TI¸E aLLOwED REspONDENTs TO cHOOsE ¸ORE THaN ONE RacE/ETHNIcITy caTEgORy. °E NU¸bER Of pEOpLE wHO DEscRIbE THE¸sELVEs as REpREsENTINg TwO OR ¸ORE RacEs Is THE fasTEsT gROwINg sEg¸ENT Of THE ·.S. pOpULaTION. ºN THE 2010 CENsUs THE NU¸bER Of REspONDENTs wHO cONsIDERED THE¸sELVEs “¸ULTIRacIaL” was 6.9 pERcENT Of THE pOpULaTION. °E NU¸bER Of bLack/wHITE bIRacIaL REspONDENTs ¸ORE THaN DOUbLED, aND AsIaN/wHITE REspONDENTs gREw 87 pERcENT (PEw ³EsEaRcH CENTER 2015). °E RE-E¸ERgINg ¸ULTIcULTURaL aND ETHNIcaLLy DIVERsE sOcIETy Of THIs cENTURy aDDs TO THE I¸pORTaNcE Of UNDERsTaNDINg HEaLTH, ILLNEss, aND ¸EDIcaL pRacTIcE as bOTH pRODUcT aND pRODUcER Of LaRgER sOcIaL aND cULTURaL DO¸aINs. As ¸UcH as cHaNgE Is aNTIcIpaTED aND OſtEN LaUDED, EacH agE OR ERa DEVELOps a sENsE Of INEVITabILITy abOUT ITsELf, abOUT ITs ways aND IDEas. AND sO wE HaVE abOUT OURs, paRTIcULaRLy IN THE ways THaT wE REgaRD kNOwLEDgE IN scIENcE aND ¸EDIcINE as I¸¸UTabLE. YET, ILLNEss caTEgORIEs, bOTH Lay aND scIENTIfic, aRE, aT basE, cULTURaL caTEgORIEs aND as sUcH cHaNgE OVER TI¸E. ´xa¸ININg ILLNEss caTEgORIEs as EVOLVINg cULTURaL cONsTRUcTs LEaDs Us TO INVEsTIgaTE HOw NEw DIagNOsEs E¸ERgE, ExpaND, OR gaIN UNpREcEDENTED pRO¸INENcE a¸ONg THE pUbLIc OR wITHIN ¸EDIcINE. °E DEVELOp¸ENT Of PROzac IN 1987 spawNED a NOw ¸assIVE ¸aRkET fOR aNTIDEpREssaNT aND OTHER psycHOTROpIc DRUgs THaT OffER THE OppORTUNITy aND DE¸aND fOR ENHaNcED OR ELEVaTED ¸OODs aND INcREasED HappINEss IN LIfE. °E pOssIbILITIEs fOR INcREasINg wELL-bEINg cOURTEsy Of psycHOTROpIc DRUgs cHaNgED HOw wE VIEw ¸OODs aND THE ¸EaNINg Of saDNEss aND ¸ELaNcHOLy as paRT Of DaILy LIVINg. Fa¸ILIaR E¸OTIONs, THE bLUEs, aND DIsTREss aRE REDEfiNED as DIsEasEs IN ORDER TO “TREaT” ’ THE¸ wITH THIs aND OTHER DRUgs. °Is pROcEss Is caLLED ¸EDIcaLIzaTION. °E ¸EDIcaLIzaTION ¸OVE, wHETHER IT INVOLVEs HIgHLy ENERgETIc aND DIsTRacTIbLE cHILDREN IN scHOOL, OR sExUaL appROacHEs THaT VIOLaTE INDIVIDUaL cONsENT aND DIgNITy OR THaT wE VIEw as ExcEssIVE, RELOcaTEs REspONsIbILITy aND aUTHORITy—REspONsIbILITy ¸IgRaTEs fRO¸ THE sENsaTE INDIVIDUaL TO HIDDEN bIOpROcEssEs, aND aUTHORITy ¸IgRaTEs fRO¸ THE sEcULaR TO THE ¸EDIcaL/pROfEssIONaL. ÁaNsEN aND cOLLEagUEs (2014) INTRODUcE THE cONcEpT Of THE “paTHOLOgIzaTION Of pOVERTy” THaT “sHIſtED INDIgENT pOpULaTIONs TO a fOR¸ Of fiNaNcIaL sUppORT THaT Is INcREasINgLy ¸EDIcaLIzED—REqUIRINg a ¸EDIcaL OR psycHIaTRIc DIagNOsIs TO qUaLIfy a paTIENT fOR DIsabILITy pay¸ENTs.” ºN THIs scENaRIO, fiNaNcIaL aND ¸aTERIaL NEEDs aRE LEgITI¸aTED ONLy by a
h t l a e H o t s n o i t u b i r t n o C l a r u t l u C d n a l a i c o S
DENT LINgUIsTIc aND cULTURaL bOUNDaRIEs. ´THNIcITy aND cULTURaL DIVERsITy aRE
cLINIcaLLy VERIfiED INabILITy, RaTHER THaN by UNDIagNOsED sOcIOEcONO¸Ic
10
DEpRIVaTIONs. MEDIcaLIzaTION Is cO¸pLIcaTED aND ¸ULTIDIREcTIONaL. As ³OsE (2007: 702)
n o s r e d n e H . E l i a G d n a f f o r t s E . E e u S
pOINTs OUT: “°Is pROcEss Is NOT a bRUTE aTTE¸pT TO I¸pOsE a way Of REcODINg ¸IsERIEs, bUT THE cREaTION Of DELIcaTE affiLIaTIONs bETwEEN sUbjEcTIVE HOpEs aND DIssaTIsfacTIONs aND THE aLLEgED capacITIEs Of THE DRUg.” °E DIREcT ¸aRkETINg Of pREscRIpTION DRUgs TO cONsU¸ERs aLsO INflUENcEs wHaT aND wHO gETs DEfiNED as paTHOLOgIcaL, pRObLE¸aTIc, aND TREaTabLE. °ERE aRE, fOR Exa¸pLE, INcEssaNT ¸EDIa INVITaTIONs TO EasE THE HERETOfORE “NOR¸aL” acHEs aND paINs Of agINg by RENa¸INg THE¸ as OsTEOaRTHRITIs—wHIcH caN bE cONTROLLED by a VaRIETy Of DRUgs OR REpaIRED by sURgERy. A ¸EDIcaL VOcabULaRy REpLacEs sOcIaL OR sENsaTE TER¸INOLOgy. A sI¸ILaR DyNa¸Ic Is appaRENT IN THE DEfiNINg aND REDEfiNINg Of sO-caLLED aTTENTION DEficITs aND HypERacTIVITy DIsORDERs, bUT IT OccURs pRI¸aRILy IN cLINIcaL aND EDUcaTIONaL sETTINgs (²akOff 2000). ¶ID scHOOL-agE cHILDREN HaVE sUcH DIsORDERs fORTy yEaRs agO? ¶OEs THE aVaILabILITy aND wIDEspREaD UsE Of DRUgs TO “TREaT” aTTENTION DIsORDERs INflUENcE THEIR IDENTIficaTION? WHaT ROLE ¸IgHT INcREasED cLass sIzE aND a sHORTagE Of TEacHERs IN pRI¸aRy scHOOLs pLay IN THE DEfiNITION Of “pRObLE¸” bEHaVIORs a¸ONg sTUDENTs? °E RIsE IN pUbLIc REcOgNITION Of AspERgER’s SyNDRO¸E aND THE aUTIs¸ spEcTRU¸ a¸ONg aDULTs Is fURTHER ILLUsTRaTIVE Of ¸EDIcaLIzaTION, THIs TI¸E fUELED IN paRT by pEOpLE wHO sUDDENLy “REcOgNIzE THE¸sELVEs” wHEN REaDINg abOUT THE DIsORDER (ÁaR¸ON 2004). ºN THEsE ways, EVOLVINg ¸EDIcaL TER¸INOLOgy ENTERs INTO pUbLIc DIscOURsE aND EVERyDay VOcabULaRy, wHIcH IN TURN fURTHERs bOTH THE ¸EDIcaLIzaTION aND OſtEN bUREaUcRaTIzaTION Of HU¸aN DIffERENcE. °E pROcEss Of DEfiNINg sO¸ETHINg HERETOfORE UNLabELED OR kNOwN by a sEcULaR TER¸ as a DIsEasE OR ¸EDIcaL pRObLE¸ REflEcTs ONgOINg a¸bIgUITy aND DIsagREE¸ENT abOUT THE ROLE Of wILL aND pERsONaL REspONsIbILITy IN pREVENTINg DysfUNcTION OR ¸aINTaININg HEaLTH. ¶EEpLy ROOTED WEsTERN IDEOLOgIEs abOUT INDEpENDENcE, INDIVIDUaLIs¸, aND ¸asTERy OVER NaTURE aLsO UNDERLIE ¸aNy Of THE ¸ORaL cONflIcTs THaT aRIsE IN aND fRO¸ ¸EDIcaLIzaTION. °E cONflIcTINg cULTURaL LOgIc Is as fOLLOws: ±N THE ONE HaND, If a DRUg OR ¸EDIcaL pROcEDURE caN TREaT OR aLLEVIaTE a pRObLE¸, THEN IT ¸UsT bE bIOLOgIcaLLy basED, aND THEREfORE NOT aTTRIbUTabLE TO pERsONaL faILURE. ±N THE OTHER HaND, ¸aNy TREaTabLE, VERIfiED DIsEasEs aND INjURIEs ¸ay REsULT fRO¸ VOLUNTaRy bEHaVIORs sUcH as s¸OkINg, DRINkINg, TakINg OpIOIDs, DOwNHILL skIINg, OR pLayINg pROfEssIONaL fOOTbaLL. °E wIDELy VaRIED cONcEpTIONs aND REpREsENTaTIONs Of hiv/¾id¼ THROUgHOUT ITs bRIEf HIsTORy aLsO REVEaL THE sIgNaTURE Of cULTURE, pOLITIcs, aND sOcIaL
fORcEs. MUcH Of THE DIscUssION aND DEbaTE abOUT I¸¸IgRaTION Is sEasONED wITH REfERENcE, ExpLIcIT aND NUaNcED, abOUT THE DaNgERs Of INfEcTION aND
11
THE EpIDE¸Ic EVOkED a ¸IxTURE Of ¸ORaL, spIRITUaL, VIROLOgIcaL, NEUROLOgIcaL, aND sOcIaL ExpLaNaTIONs. PaUL FaR¸ER’s (1992) sTUDy Of ÁaITIaN UNDERsTaNDINgs Of hiv/¾id¼ DEscRIbEs THE cENTRaLITy Of bLa¸E aND accUsaTION, cONsTITUTINg THE “THIRD EpIDE¸Ic”—wORsE THaN THE DIsEasE, IN A¸ERIcaN aND ÁaITIaN VIEws. AccUsaTIONs Of sORcERy aROsE IN a ÁaITIaN VILLagE TO accOUNT fOR THE DIsEasE. °E A¸ERIcaN pUbLIc fEaRED THaT THE VIRUs was INTRODUcED by INfEcTED ÁaITIaN I¸¸IgRaNTs. ÁaITIaNs cOUNTERED wITH cONspIRaTORIaL IDEas abOUT ·.S. ¸OTIVaTIONs TO wEakEN OR DEfa¸E I¸pOVERIsHED bLack I¸¸IgRaNTs wHO wOULD caRRy THE afflIcTION HO¸E. FEaRs Of cONTagION aND pOLLUTION by OUTsIDERs OR ¸aLEVOLENT OTHERs aRE sHaRED by A¸ERIcaNs aND ÁaITIaNs aLIkE. ²IkE HO¸ELEssNEss aND pOVERTy, hiv/¾id¼ NOw INfEcTs ¸ORE wO¸EN aND cHILDREN Of cOLOR IN THE ·NITED STaTEs THaN pERsONs wHO aRE HO¸OsExUaL, yET hiv/ ¾id¼ bEaRs THE ¸aRk Of sINfULNEss fOR sO¸E bEcaUsE Of THE fiRsT pEOpLE wHO wERE INfEcTED. ºN AfRIca, hiv/¾id¼ Has aLways bEEN a “HETEROsExUaL” DIsEasE, bUT bEcaUsE Of ITs spREaD by pROsTITUTEs, IT acqUIRED yET aNOTHER ¸ORaL VaLENcE. ºN facT, THE sENsITIVITIEs assOcIaTED wITH THE ¸aIN ROUTEs Of hiv/¾id¼ TRaNs¸IssION— RIsky sExUaL bEHaVIORs aND THE UsE Of ILLEgaL DRUgs—cOUpLED wITH THE DEaDLy NaTURE Of THE DIsEasE, HaVE cREaTED ONE Of THE ¸OsT pOwERfUL Exa¸pLEs Of sTIg¸a aND DIscRI¸INaTION IN THE REcENT HIsTORy Of HU¸aN DIsEasE. ±¸INOUs VIRaL DIsEasEs LIkE ´bOLa, ZIka, aND hiv/¾id¼ pROVIDE bOTH a wINDOw INTO aND a ¸IRROR REflEcTINg DEEpLy HELD VaLUEs aND IDEas abOUT ORDER, pOLLUTION, aND gOOD aND baD. °E REcIpROcaL INflUENcE Of cULTURaL cONcEpTIONs, sOcIaL sENTI¸ENT aND pOLIcy, aND ¸EDIcaL pRacTIcE REgaRDINg pEOpLE wITH DIsabILITy Is aLsO wELL DE¸ONsTRaTED by RE¸aRkabLE cHaNgEs sINcE 1915, wHEN ÁELEN KELLER (HERsELf UNabLE TO sEE OR HEaR) sUppORTED “wEEDINg THE HU¸aN gaRDEN” by LETTINg INfaNTs wITH sEVERE aNO¸aLIEs DIE. “SURELy THEy ¸UsT aD¸IT THaT sUcH aN ExIsTENcE Is NOT wORTHwHILE. ºT Is THE pOssIbILITIEs Of HappINEss, INTELLIgENcE aND pOwER THaT gIVE LIfE ITs saNcTITy, aND THEy aRE absENT IN THE casE Of a pOOR, ¸IssHapEN, paRaLyzED, UNTHINkINg cREaTURE” (KELLER 1915). A cENTURy LaTER, sEVERaL gOVERNORs pUbLIcLy apOLOgIzED TO THE THOUsaNDs Of pEOpLE wITH INTELLEcTUaL aND DEVELOp¸ENTaL DIsORDERs, fOR¸ERLy kNOwN as RETaRDED, wHO wERE sTERILIzED wITHOUT cONsENT UNTIL THE ¸ID-1970s. WHILE wE ¸IgHT UsE a DIffERENT VOcabULaRy aT pREsENT, aND wHILE THE pOssIbILITIEs fOR aND INcLUsION Of pEOpLE wITH DIsabILITIEs HaVE ExpaNDED by ORDERs Of ¸agNITUDE, sI¸ILaR caLcULaTIONs
h t l a e H o t s n o i t u b i r t n o C l a r u t l u C d n a l a i c o S
OTHER fOR¸s Of HaR¸ fRO¸ cULTURaL “OTHERs.” hiv/¾id¼ IN THE INITIaL yEaRs Of
aRE UNDERTakEN NOw IN ULTRasOUND sUITEs aND pHysIcIaN aND gENETIc cOUN-
12
sELORs’ OfficEs. WHaT ¸akEs a LIfE “wORTH LIVINg” Is NOT a qUEsTION THaT caN bE aDDREssED wITH TEcHNOLOgy aLONE (GINsbURg aND ³app 2013).
n o s r e d n e H . E l i a G d n a f f o r t s E . E e u S
By THE 1960s THE caRE aND TREaT¸ENT Of pERsONs wITH sEVERE pHysIcaL aND ¸ENTaL DIsabILITIEs cHaNgED DRa¸aTIcaLLy (GROb 1991). ºNsTITUTIONs fOR “¸ENTaLLy RETaRDED” aND ¸ENTaLLy ILL pERsONs aLL bUT E¸pTIED, aND EVEN THE ¸OsT sERIOUsLy I¸paIRED INDIVIDUaLs NOw LIVE aND REcEIVE TREaT¸ENT IN cO¸¸UNITy sETTINgs. ÁOwEVER, faR TOO ¸aNy HaVE NOw TakEN Up REsIDENcE IN OTHER pLacEs Of cONfiNE¸ENT aND ExcLUsION—jaILs, pRIsONs, aND HOspITaL E¸ERgENcy ROO¸s—OR THE sTREET (¶ORNER aND MITTENDORfER-³UTz 2017). °EsE cHaNgEs TOOk pLacE bEcaUsE Of a cONflUENcE Of fORcEs: THE DEVELOp¸ENT Of EffEcTIVE DRUgs aND TREaT¸ENT ¸ODaLITIEs; cIVIL RIgHTs LITIgaTION aND REsULTINg LEgaL REqUIRE¸ENTs fOR THE “LEasT REsTRIcTIVE” TREaT¸ENT; THE fiscaL ¸OTIVaTIONs Of pUbLIc ¸ENTaL HEaLTH aUTHORITIEs sEEkINg TO REDUcE THE ExpENsE Of INpaTIENT TREaT¸ENT aND INsTITUTIONaL cONfiNE¸ENT; aND sELf- aDVOcacy aND aDVOcacy fRO¸ RELaTIVEs Of pERsONs wITH sEVERE DIsabILITIEs. SO¸E pEOpLE wITH DIsabILITIEs NOw HaVE a LaRgER pREsENcE IN THE ¸EDIa, THE wORkpLacE, aND IN THE OVERaLL cONscIOUsNEss Of sOcIETy aT LaRgE. °E PaRaLy¸pIc Ga¸Es EpITO¸IzE bOTH a ¸ORE INcLUsIVE ERa, aLONg wITH a pERsIsTENT affiNITy fOR ExcEpTIONaLIs¸ as a cREDENTIaL fOR sOcIaL ¸ERIT—a ¸ascOTINg Of pEOpLE wHO “OVERcO¸E” THEIR DEficITs. JUsT as I¸pORTaNT, cLINIcaL pRacTIcE aND THE ¸EDIcaL assEss¸ENT Of DIsabILITIEs HaVE cHaNgED DRa¸aTIcaLLy as a REsULT Of cHaNgEs bROUgHT abOUT IN paRT by sOcIaL fORcEs, INcLUDINg TEcHNOLOgy. ÁaD THEsE INDIVIDUaLs RE¸aINED cONfiNED IN INsTITUTIONs, THEIR capacITIEs TO wORk OR TO LEaD ¸EaNINgfUL LIVEs ¸IgHT HaVE RE¸aINED UNackNOwLEDgED. ÂOcabULaRy ¸aTTERs. “PEOpLE-fiRsT LaNgUagE” Is THE ExE¸pLaR—basED ON THE IDEa THaT sayINg “pERsON wITH” ¸ITIgaTEs THE ERasURE Of pERsONHOOD THaT cO¸Es fRO¸ sayINg “aN aLcOHOLIc” OR “a scHIzOpHRENIc.” CLINIcaL TER¸INOLOgy aLsO ¸aTTERs: a TRaNsfOR¸aTION Is UNDERway as THE TER¸s Of aN EsTabLIsHED gENDER IDENTITy aND ExpREssION aND sExUaLITIEs aRE REpLacED by a VOcabULaRy THaT Is ¸ORE gRaNULaR, accURaTE, aND REflEcTIVE Of THE DIgNITy aND sENsIbILITIEs Of pEOpLE TO wHO¸ THEy aRE appLIED. °E EffORTs Of aDVOcaTEs aND pROfEssIONaLs TO aLTER pUbLIc aND scIENTIfic cONcEpTIONs Of aND LaNgUagE RELaTED TO pRObLE¸s LIkE sUbsTaNcE ¸IsUsE, aLcOHOL abUsE, aND psycHIaTRIc DIsORDERs DO NOT aLways wORk THE sa¸E cULTURaL TERRITORy. °E sHIſt fRO¸ “¸ENTaL RETaRDaTION” TO “INTELLEcTUaL DEVELOp¸ENTaL DIsORDER” was INITIaTED by cONsU¸ER aND aDVOcacy ORgaNIzaTIONs aND aDOpTED INTO Law, aND IT Is NOw REflEcTED IN cLINIcaL DIagNOsTIc LaNgUagE aND cLassIficaTIONs.
³EcOgNITION Of THE UNINTENDED sTIg¸aTIzINg cONsEqUENcEs Of LaNgUagE ¸OTIVaTED THE aUTHORs Of THE ¸OsT REcENT Diagnostic and Statistical Manual
13
cHaNgE THE TER¸INOLOgy UsED fOR DRUg aND aLcOHOL DIsORDERs. °E wORk gROUp HaD ExTENsIVE DIscUssIONs ON THE UsE Of THE wORD “aDDIcTION.” °ERE was gENERaL agREE¸ENT THaT “DEpENDENcE” as a LabEL fOR cO¸pULsIVE, OUT-Of-cONTROL DRUg UsE Has bEEN pRObLE¸aTIc. ºT was cONfUsINg TO pHysIcIaNs aND REsULTED IN paTIENTs wITH NOR¸aL TOLERaNcE aND wITHDRawaL bEINg LabELED as “aDDIcTs.” PaTIENTs sUffERINg fRO¸ sEVERE paIN HaD aDEqUaTE DOsEs Of OpIOIDs wITHHELD bEcaUsE Of fEaR Of pRODUcINg “aDDIcTION” (³EgIER, KUHL, aND KUpfER 2013). As a REsULT, ±²³ TER¸INOLOgy cHaNgED fRO¸ DEpENDENcE aND aDDIcTION TO “aLcOHOL UsE DIsORDER” wITH sEVERITy sUbcLassIficaTIONs. ¶EspITE bEINg TITLED Facing
Addiction in America , THE LaNgUagE IN THE 2016 sURgEON gENERaL’s REpORT REflEcTs THIs sHIſt (dhh¼ 2016). °E INTRODUcTION TO THE REpORT REaDs: “ALL acROss THE ·NITED STaTEs, INDIVIDUaLs, fa¸ILIEs, cO¸¸UNITIEs, aND HEaLTH caRE sysTE¸s aRE sTRUggLINg TO cOpE wITH sUbsTaNcE UsE, ¸IsUsE, aND sUbsTaNcE UsE DIsORDERs. SUbsTaNcE ¸IsUsE aND sUbsTaNcE UsE DIsORDERs HaVE DEVasTaTINg EffEcTs, DIsRUpT THE fUTURE pLaNs Of TOO ¸aNy yOUNg pEOpLE, aND aLL TOO OſtEN, END LIVEs pRE¸aTURELy aND TRagIcaLLy. SUbsTaNcE ¸IsUsE Is a ¸ajOR pUbLIc HEaLTH cHaLLENgE aND a pRIORITy fOR OUR NaTION TO aDDREss” (·.S. dhh¼ 2016: 1).
Disease and Illness CULTURE aND sOcIaL RELaTIONsHIps aRE DEEpLy I¸pLIcaTED IN THE REcOgNITION, ExpERIENcE, aND TREaT¸ENT Of ILLNEss. SOcIaL scIENTIsTs HaVE fOUND IT UsEfUL TO ¸akE a DIsTINcTION bETwEEN disease as a paTHOLOgIcaL pROcEss aND bIOLOgIcaL cONDITION, aND illness as THE pERsONaL, sOcIaLLy, aND cULTURaLLy INflUENcED sUbjEcTIVE ExpERIENcE Of I¸paIR¸ENT OR paTHOLOgy (YOUNg 1995). WITHIN THIs fRa¸EwORk, ¸ULTIpLE scLEROsIs Is THE DIsEasE, aND fEELINg TIRED, OR UNabLE TO cLI¸b sTEps, as wELL as bEINg TREaTED as aN ObjEcT Of pITy, cURIOsITy, OR sUspIcION, aND facINg DIscRI¸INaTION IN E¸pLOy¸ENT, aLL cONsTITUTE THE ILLNEss. WHILE caLLINg aTTENTION TO pERsONaL ExpERIENcE aND paTHOpHysIOLOgy as cONcURRENT aND LEgITI¸aTE pROcEssEs, THE DIsEasE-ILLNEss cONcEpTs ¸ay, HOwEVER, REINfORcE aN UNNEcEssaRy sEpaRaTION Of bIOLOgy fRO¸ cULTURE aND Of bODy fRO¸ pERsON (¹aUssIg 1980). ÁOw pEOpLE wHO aRE sIck aND THOsE aROUND THE¸ REspOND TO ILLNEss Is paRT Of a cULTURaL cODE THaT Is LEaRNED, OſtEN wITHOUT NOTIcINg. µO ¸aTTER wHaT kIND Of HEaLINg sysTE¸ pREVaILs, THERE aRE wELL-UNDERsTOOD cODEs Of
h t l a e H o t s n o i t u b i r t n o C l a r u t l u C d n a l a i c o S
of Mental Disorders ( ±²³-5) Of THE A¸ERIcaN PsycHIaTRIc AssOcIaTION TO
cONDUcT fOR “illness bEHaVIORs” (MEcHaNIc 1962). ºLLNEss bEHaVIORs aRE THOsE
14
pRacTIcEs THaT accO¸paNy DIsEasE aND DysfUNcTION—fRO¸ EaTINg cHIckEN sOUp TO cHaNTINg aLL NIgHT TO appEasE aN OffENDED spIRIT. ºLLNEss bEHaVIORs
n o s r e d n e H . E l i a G d n a f f o r t s E . E e u S
aRE LEaRNED, aND aLTHOUgH THEy cHaNgE OVER TI¸E, A¸ERIcaN ILLNEss bEHaVIORs sTILL REflEcT aNcIENT HU¸ORaL ¸EDIcINE pRINcIpLEs Of baLaNcE: Of HOT aND cOLD, aND wET aND DRy. °Us ¸aNy A¸ERIcaNs ExpLaIN THE ONsET Of aN UppER REspIRaTORy INfEcTION wITH a sTORy Of gETTINg OVERTIRED, gETTINg wET aND cOLD, NOT EaTINg ENOUgH—NOT kEEpINg THE baLaNcE—EVEN THOUgH THEy aRE awaRE Of THE VIRaL NaTURE Of ¸OsT cOLDs. WHILE THE REacH Of bIO¸EDIcINE Is gLObaL, a ¸INORITy Of THE wORLD’s pOpULaTION RELy sOLELy OR EVEN pRI¸aRILy ON bIO¸EDIcaL caRE OR aDHERE TO GREEk HU¸ORaL bELIEfs abOUT DIsEasE. AyURVEDIc, TRaDITIONaL CHINEsE, aND spIRITIsT ¸EDIcaL TRaDITIONs—TO Na¸E ONLy THE ¸OsT pRO¸INENT—aRE aLsO UsED aLONg wITH bIO¸EDIcINE by a LaRgE pROpORTION Of THE wORLD pOpULaTION. SO-caLLED aLTERNaTIVE aND cO¸pLE¸ENTaRy ¸EDIcINE, OſtEN cONsIsTINg Of TEcHNIqUEs bORROwED fRO¸ THEsE TRaDITIONs, Is INcREasINgLy pOpULaR IN THE ·NITED STaTEs aND a¸ONg ¸aINsTREa¸ cLINIcIaNs as TREaT¸ENT fOR cHRONIc ¸UscULOskELETaL paIN, fOR Exa¸pLE.
Accounting for Disease and Illness ºLLNEss Has ¸ULTIpLE NaRRaTORs (ÁawkINs 1993). MaNy aRE cLINIcIaNs aND pHysIcIaNs wHO THROUgH scHOLaRLy pUbLIcaTION (¶EckER 1998) OR LITERaRy RENDERINg (WILLIa¸s 1936; ÁOLT 2014) HaVE wRITTEN abOUT DIsEasE IN gENERaL aND spOkEN fOR aND abOUT spEcIfic paTIENTs. °Is TRaDITION cONTINUEs IN THE scIENTIfic aND LITERaRy wORLD as pHysIcIaNs TELL THEIR OwN sTORIEs aND NaRRaTE THE ExpERIENcEs Of THEIR paTIENTs (GawaNDE 2002; ÂONNEgUT 2010). MajOR ¸EDIcaL jOURNaLs REgULaRLy pUbLIsH pHysIcIaN NaRRaTIVEs Of cLINIcIaN-paTIENT RELaTIONsHIps OR sITUaTIONs THaT aRE INDELIbLE, wRENcHINg, OR cELEbRaTORy (GROUsE 1997; ANONy¸OUs 2016). ÂaRIOUs EffORTs TO appLy THE REsULTINg INsIgHTs TO cLINIcaL pRacTIcE aND DOcTOR-paTIENT RELaTIONsHIps aRE pROpOsED IN THE gENRE Of NaRRaTIVE ¸EDIcINE (KLEIN¸aN, ´IsENbERg, aND GOOD 1978; CHaRON 2004). ¶EscRIpTIVE, bIOgRapHIcaL, aUTObIOgRapHIcaL, aND ETHNOgRapHIc accOUNTs Of ILLNEss aND HEaLINg aLsO HaVE a LONg HIsTORy IN ¸EDIcaL aNTHROpOLOgy aND qUaLITaTIVE sOcIOLOgy, aLONg wITH gENDER sTUDIEs aND OTHER HEaLTH HU¸aNITIEs (²IEbOw 1993). ºN a sENsE, THE ¸EDIcaL cHaRT/REcORD Is a bIOgRapHy Of THE paTIENT, wRITTEN by ¸aNy aUTHORs, ExcEpT paTIENTs THE¸sELVEs. °EsE THIRD-pERsON, scHOLaRLy
OR ¸EDIcaL ExpERT sTORyTELLERs aRE sO¸ETI¸Es jOINED OR cOUNTERED by a sUbsTaNTIaL cHORUs Of fiRsT-pERsON NaRRaTIVEs aND REflEcTIONs Of ILLNEss aND INjURy
15
TEN by RELaTIVEs aND LOVED ONEs Of pEOpLE wHO HaVE VaRIOUs DEbILITaTINg OR faTaL cONDITIONs (BayLEy 1999; µEUgEbOREN 1997), aRE EqUaLLy abUNDaNT aND cO¸pELLINg. °Is TELLs Us THaT THE ExpERIENcEs Of INjURy, ILLNEss, TREaT¸ENT, bIRTH, DEaTH, aND NOT-sO-EVERyDay LIfE, gIVE RIsE TO ¸ULTIpLE VERsIONs aND aRE NOT cONVEyED wHOLLy by a ONE-DI¸ENsIONaL pERspEcTIVE OR accOUNT. °ERE Is NO UNDIspUTED sOLE aUTHORITy; ONLy THE cOLLEcTIVE ExpERIENcEs, REcOLLEcTIONs, sENsaTIONs, VOcabULaRIEs, aND pOINTs Of fOcUs a¸ONg THE paRTIcIpaNTs. ´xpLaNaTORy ¸ODEL ELIcITaTIONs (KLEIN¸aN 1980) EVOkE a spEcIfic kIND Of accOUNTINg Of ILLNEss THaT asks paTIENTs abOUT THE TER¸INOLOgy THEy UsE fOR a DIsEasE OR THEIR paIN; THEIR IDEas abOUT ETIOLOgy; THEIR IDEas abOUT HOw a paRTIcULaR ILLNEss wORks; HOw LONg THEy THINk IT wILL LasT; THEIR ExpEcTaTIONs fOR THE OUTcO¸E Of TREaT¸ENT; THEIR accOUNT Of THE sEVERITy Of THE pRObLE¸ aND ITs I¸pacT ON THEIR DaILy LIVEs (E.g., ´sTROff ET aL. 1991). FEw INDIVIDUaLs HaVE cONsIsTENT, wELL-DEVELOpED “¸ODELs” Of THEIR pHysIcaL OR psycHOLOgIcaL pRObLE¸s, sO THE ExpLaNaTORy ¸ODEL cONcEpT ¸ay bE ¸OsT UsEfUL as a way TO INVITE a paTIENT TO gIVE THEIR accOUNT OR NaRRaTIVE Of THE¸sELVEs aND THEIR paIN aND ILLNEss IN a cLINIcaL sETTINg.
Sick Roles ºLLNEss Is sITUaTED IN aND DEfiNED by THE ROLEs THaT INDIVIDUaLs aRE ExpEcTED TO pLay IN sOcIETy. °E ¸OsT ENDURINg aRTIcULaTION Of THIs pERspEcTIVE Is sOcIOLOgIsT ¹aLcOTT PaRsONs’s (1951) IDEa Of THE sIck ROLE. PaRsONs DEscRIbED ExpEcTaTIONs fOR pEOpLE wHO aRE ILL THaT aRE basED ON A¸ERIcaN VaLUEs Of REspONsIbILITy, INDEpENDENcE, aND pRODUcTIVITy. FIRsT, If THE ILLNEss Is sEVERE ENOUgH, a pERsON Is ExcUsED fRO¸ NOR¸aL sOcIaL ROLE REspONsIbILITIEs. PEOpLE aRE pER¸ITTED TO sTay HO¸E fRO¸ scHOOL OR wORk If ILL, fOR Exa¸pLE. °E sEcOND cO¸pONENT Of THE sIck ROLE Is THaT a pERsON wHO Is ILL DEsERVEs TO bE TakEN caRE Of, by EITHER fa¸ILy OR sOcIaL INsTITUTIONs, IN ORDER TO gET wELL. °IRD, pEOpLE wHO aRE INfiR¸ aRE ExpEcTED TO cONsIDER ILLNEss as UNDEsIRabLE aND aRE ObLIgaTED TO TRy TO gET wELL—TO sEEk TREaT¸ENT, TO cHaNgE DIET, qUIT s¸OkINg, OR TO fOLLOw DOcTOR’s ORDERs. ³EjEcTINg OR NOT ¸EETINg THIs ExpEcTaTION—REfUsINg TREaT¸ENT fOR DRUg UsE, fOR Exa¸pLE—¸ay LEaD TO LOss Of THE “DEsERVINg-Of-HELp” sTaTUs. ºN 1994, fEDERaL LEgIsLaTION was passED THaT sTRIcTLy LI¸ITED DIsabILITy INcO¸E sUppORT fOR pEOpLE wITH sUbsTaNcE UsE
h t l a e H o t s n o i t u b i r t n o C l a r u t l u C d n a l a i c o S
(STyRON 1990; MaIRs 1996; GREaLy 1994). SEcOND-pERsON sTORIEs, THOsE wRIT-
DIsORDERs aND REVOkED THE bENEfiT fOR THOsE wHO DID NOT cO¸pLy wITH TREaT-
16
¸ENT. ºN 1995, pERsONs wITH sUbsTaNcE UsE DIsORDERs wERE ExcLUDED fRO¸ ELIgIbILITy fOR DIsabILITy bENEfiTs aLTOgETHER. ÁERE, THE E¸pHaTIc ¸EDIcaLIza-
n o s r e d n e H . E l i a G d n a f f o r t s E . E e u S
TION Of “aDDIcTIONs” wITHIN bIO¸EDIcaL pRacTIcE DID NOT INflUENcE pUbLIc sENTI¸ENT OR pOLIcy REgaRDINg THE ¸ORaL sTaTUs Of aDDIcTED pERsONs. CULTURaL IDEas abOUT REspONsIbILITy aND wILL OVERRODE THE ¸EDIcaL ¸aNTLE Of DEsERVEDNEss VIs-à-VIs DIsEasE. SI¸ILaRLy, ExE¸pTION fRO¸ REspONsIbILITIEs bEcaUsE Of ILLNEss Is HOTLy cONTEsTED IN THE casE Of ¸ENTaL ILLNEss. ºN THE REaL¸ Of cRI¸INaL Law, “DI¸INIsHED capacITy” aND “NOT gUILTy by REasON Of INsaNITy” aRE LEgaL cONcEpTs THaT ExpREss THE cULTURaL ExE¸pTION fRO¸ fULL REspONsIbILITy If a pERsON Is sIck. ³EcENT ·.S. HIsTORy pROVIDEs Exa¸pLEs Of assaILaNTs Of pUbLIc OfficIaLs as wELL as pERsONs wHO kILL scOREs Of cHILDREN IN scHOOLs OR OTHER pUbLIc spacEs. AT THIs INTERsEcTION Of ¸EDIcaL aND LEgaL cONcEpTs aND pROcEssEs, wE ExpREss bOTH THERapEUTIc aND pUNITIVE REspONsEs TO THE pERpETRaTORs. °EIR INcO¸pREHENsIbLE acTs ¸UsT aRIsE fRO¸ ILLNEss, bUT wE sTILL sEEk TO pUNIsH THE¸ fOR THEsE acTs. ºNcREasINgLy, sTaTEs aRE REpLacINg THEIR NOT gUILTy by REasON Of INsaNITy sTaTUTEs wITH “gUILTy aND ¸ENTaLLy ILL” LEgIsLaTION. °Is ¸ay REpREsENT a sHIſt IN basIc cULTURaL fRa¸EwORks abOUT ILLNEss aND REspONsIbILITy aND REflEcTs a NOTION THaT pUNITIVE aND THERapEUTIc pRacTIcEs caNNOT bE cO¸bINED wHEN THE sOcIaL fabRIc Is DEEpLy wOUNDED. PEOpLE wHO HaVE OTHER ENDURINg aND DIsabLINg cONDITIONs ENcOUNTER DIfficULTIEs wHEN THEy “TRy TO gET wELL” bUT caNNOT. °EIR INabILITIEs OſtEN bEcO¸E THE ObjEcT Of INTENsE scRUTINy wHEN THEy sEEk pUbLIc assIsTaNcE VIa SOcIaL SEcURITy ¶IsabILITy ºNsURaNcE OR REqUIRE sUbsTaNTIaL REsOURcEs TO aTTEND scHOOL, fOR Exa¸pLE, bEcaUsE Of aN UNDERLyINg cULTURaL fOR¸ULaTION abOUT LEgITI¸aTE NEED aND DEsERVEDNEss. °E fOR¸ULa DERIVEs fRO¸ THE sIck ROLE. °OsE wHO caNNOT gET wELL OR wHO NEED assIsTaNcE bEcaUsE Of ¸EDIcaLLy DETER¸INED paTHOLOgIEs aRE DEE¸ED DEsERVINg. WHEN THERE Is a pOssIbILITy THaT Lack Of wILL Is INVOLVED, THaT a pERsON faILs TO TRy TO I¸pROVE OR bEcO¸E ¸ORE pRODUcTIVE, pUbLIc bENEVOLENcE Is HELD IN abEyaNcE.
Sex, Gender, Health, and Illness ºN aDDITION TO cULTURaL pERspEcTIVEs ON gENDER IDENTITy aND ExpREssION, THE sOcIaL LIfE Of gENDER aND sEx IN HEaLTH REqUIREs cONsIDERaTION. ¶IffERENTIaL HEaLTH OUTcO¸Es fOR ¸EN aND wO¸EN aRE cO¸¸ON IN aLL NaTIONs, bUT THE spEcIfics Of THOsE DIffERENcEs VaRy cONsIDERabLy. ºN DEVELOpINg NaTIONs, INfEc-
TIOUs DIsEasE aND pOLITIcaL aND ETHNIc waRfaRE HaVE TakEN aN ENOR¸OUs TOLL aND aRE THE LEaDINg caUsEs Of ¸ORbIDITy aND ¸ORTaLITy. ²IfE ExpEcTaNcy fOR
17
pOLITIcaL RIgHTs, aND EcONO¸Ic REsOURcEs, aLL Of wHIcH aRE RELaTED TO accEss TO HEaLTH sERVIcEs aND HEaLTH OUTcO¸Es (WORLD BaNk 2004). STUDIEs IN THE ·NITED STaTEs aND OTHER INDUsTRIaLIzED cOUNTRIEs fOcUs ON wHy wO¸EN REpORT HIgHER LEVELs Of ILLNEss aND UsE ¸EDIcaL sERVIcEs ¸ORE fREqUENTLy, EVEN wHEN REpRODUcTION-RELaTED cONDITIONs aRE ExcLUDED, wHILE ¸EN sEEk HEaLTH caRE LEss fREqUENTLy aND OſtEN IN LaTER sTagEs Of DIsEasE (¶OyaL 2001). WO¸EN LIVE LONgER THaN ¸EN aND ¸EN HaVE HIgHER ¸ORTaLITy RaTEs fOR aLL ¸ajOR caUsEs Of DEaTH—HEaRT DIsEasE, caNcER, INfEcTIOUs aND paRasITIc DIsEasEs, aND accIDENTs, pOIsONINgs, aND VIOLENcE (WaLDRON 1990). WO¸EN LIVE LONgER THaN ¸EN EVEN DURINg fa¸INE aND EpIDE¸Ics (ZaRULLI ET aL. 2018). ´xpLaNaTIONs fOR THEsE sEx aND gENDER DIffERENcEs IN ¸ORbIDITy, ¸ORTaLITy, aND UsE Of HEaLTH caRE INcLUDE INDIVIDUaL aND sOcIETaL facTORs. SO¸E REsEaRcH LOcaTEs THE caUsEs IN bIOLOgy. °E EaRLIER ONsET Of cORONaRy HEaRT DIsEasE fOR ¸EN, fOR Exa¸pLE, Is OſtEN aTTRIbUTED TO THE pROTEcTIVE EffEcT Of EsTROgEN IN pRE¸ENOpaUsaL wO¸EN, aND THE LaTER ONsET fOR wO¸EN Is assOcIaTED wITH DIffERENT cO¸pLIcaTIONs. µONbIOLOgIcaL ExpLaNaTIONs fOR gENDER DIffERENcE IN RaTEs Of HEaRT DIsEasE INcLUDE VaRIaTION IN RIsk facTORs sUcH as s¸OkINg (WaLDRON 1990), pERsONaLITy TRaITs assOcIaTED wITH HEaRT DIsEasE, aND ONE’s LEVEL Of sOcIaL “cONNEcTEDNEss” (²askER, ´gOLf, aND WOLf 1994). MaNy sTUDIEs HaVE aLsO Exa¸INED wHETHER DIffERENcEs IN REfERRaL, DIagNOsIs, aND TREaT¸ENT ¸IgHT ExpLaIN DIffERENT OUTcO¸Es. ºN THE casE Of HEaRT DIsEasE, ¸OsT sTUDIEs Of REfERRaL aND TREaT¸ENT HaVE sHOwN THaT wHEN pOTENTIaL cONfOUNDERs aRE TakEN INTO accOUNT, gENDER DIffERENcEs aRE NOT sIgNIficaNT. BIckELL aND cOLLEagUEs (1992) DE¸ONsTRaTED THaT wHEN aD¸ITTED TO HOspITaLs wITH ¸ODERaTELy sERIOUs HEaRT DIsEasE, wO¸EN UNDERgO fEwER pROcEDUREs THaN ¸EN, bUT IT Is NOT cLEaR wHETHER THEy REcEIVED LEss appROpRIaTE caRE OR wHETHER ¸EN wERE OVERTREaTED. °ERE Is sTRONg EVIDENcE THaT DIffERENT RaTEs Of ¸ORTaLITy aND ¸ORbIDITy aND THE UsE Of HEaLTH caRE sERVIcEs aRE RELaTED TO THE sOcIaL ROLEs THaT ¸EN aND wO¸EN pLay (³aTcLIff 2002; ZaRULLI ET aL. 2018). °EsE sOcIaL ROLEs OſtEN INflUENcE acTIVITIEs sUcH as DIET, s¸OkINg, aLcOHOL aND DRUg UsE, aND ExpOsURE TO OccUpaTIONaL aND ENVIRON¸ENTaL HazaRDs (ÂERbRUggE 1989; WaLDRON 1990). ¶IffERENTIaL sOcIaLIzaTION Of ¸EN aND wO¸EN—paRTIcULaRLy IN THE ·NITED STaTEs wITH ITs “RUggED INDIVIDUaLIsT” ROLE ¸ODEL fOR yOUNg ¸EN—was assOcIaTED wITH DIffERENcEs IN RIsk-TakINg bEHaVIORs aND INTEgRaTION INTO sOcIaL NETwORks, wHIcH pROVIDE a bUffER agaINsT ILLNEss (BERk¸aN aND Sy¸E 1979).
h t l a e H o t s n o i t u b i r t n o C l a r u t l u C d n a l a i c o S
¸EN aND wO¸EN Is sI¸ILaR; bUT sTRIkINg DIffERENcEs aRE fOUND IN LITERacy,
GOINg TO THE DOcTOR ¸ay bE a sIgN Of wEakNEss fOR ¸aNy ¸EN, wHILE fOR
18
wO¸EN, sEEkINg HELp Is appROpRIaTE bEHaVIOR. YET as cONcEpTIONs Of ¸aLENEss aND fE¸aLENEss EVOLVE, THEsE cONNEc-
n o s r e d n e H . E l i a G d n a f f o r t s E . E e u S
TIONs REqUIRE REExa¸INaTION. MaNy Of THEsE facTORs cO¸bINE TO affEcT DIsEasE RaTEs IN cO¸pLEx aND INTEREsTINg ways; HOwEVER IT Is aLsO I¸pORTaNT NEITHER TO OVERsI¸pLIfy THE RELaTIONsHIp bETwEEN sEx, gENDER, aND HEaLTH, NOR TO sTEREOTypE sEx aND gENDER ROLEs aND sOcIaLIzaTION pROcEssEs, EITHER wITHIN ONE sOcIETy OR IN cO¸paRIsON TO OTHER sOcIOcULTURaL cONcEpTIONs Of gENDER. CONTE¸pORaNEOUs wITH THEsE fiNDINgs Is THE INcREasINg pLasTIcITy Of THE caTEgORIEs Of gENDER ITsELf aND THE ENLaRgINg aND ENERgETIc pREsENcE Of aN aRRay Of sExUaLITIEs IN THE sOcIaL aND pOLITIcaL LaNDscapE. °ERE aRE NOw ¸ORE THaN 50 TER¸s fOR gENDER IDENTITy aND ExpREssION aND THE VOcabULaRy cONTINUEs TO ExpaND (µaTIONaL lɽt ÁEaLTH CENTER ´DUcaTION CENTER 2018). PEOpLE wHO cONsIDER THE¸sELVEs TRaNsgENDERED OR TRaNssExUaL DO NOT fiT cONVENTIONaL bINaRy sOcIaL caTEgORIEs Of gENDER aND facE spEcIfic HEaLTH RIsks aND ObsTacLEs IN cLINIcaL caRE (Ja¸Es ET aL. 2016). Sa¸E-sEx cOUpLEs HaVE fOUgHT LEgaL aND pOLITIcaL baTTLEs fOR REcOgNITION aND accEss TO TRaDITIONaL sOcIaL INsTITUTIONs sUcH as ¸aRRIagE aND paRENTHOOD. µONETHELEss, assIsTED REpRODUcTION VIa ¸EDIcaL TEcHNOLOgy sUcH as aRTIficIaL INsE¸INaTION, aND HOR¸ONaL aND sURgIcaL aLTERaTION Of pRI¸aRy aND sEcONDaRy sEx cHaRacTERIsTIcs, Has cONTRIbUTED TO cHaLLENgINg THEsE cONVENTIONs aND bLURRINg THE LINEs aROUND gENDER aND sEx ROLEs. GENDER Has TRaDITIONaLLy bEEN VIEwED as a basIc sOcIaL caTEgORy, cLEaRLy DETER¸INabLE aND ObVIOUsLy I¸¸UTabLE. As IDEas abOUT aND THE ENacT¸ENT Of gENDER cONTINUE TO ExpaND, THIs ¸aINsTay caTEgORy wILL cONTINUE TO bE cHaLLENgED.
Social Factors and InequalitY ±VER TI¸E, DIffERENT RELIgIONs, cULTUREs, aND scIENTIfic aND OTHER acaDE¸Ic DIscIpLINEs HaVE TakEN VaRIOUs appROacHEs TO DEfiNINg THE caUsEs Of DIsEasE aND Exa¸ININg wHy sO¸E pEOpLE OR gROUps TEND TO bE ¸ORE aT RIsk THaN OTHERs (BRaVE¸aN, ´gERTER, aND WILLIa¸s 2011; ¶Ick¸aN, ÁI¸¸ELsTEIN, aND WOOLHaNDLER 2017; »d» 2013). ´pIDE¸IOLOgIsTs DEscRIbE THE fREqUENcy aND DIsTRIbUTION Of DIsEasE IN a pOpULaTION aND fOcUs ON I¸¸EDIaTE RIsk facTORs THaT pREDIcT DIsEasE OccURRENcE. °E LOgIc Of THIs pERspEcTIVE Is THaT THE ¸ORE cLOsELy RELaTED a RIsk facTOR Is TO THE bIOLOgIcaL ¸EcHaNIs¸ Of DIsEasE, THE ¸ORE LIkELy IT Is TO accOUNT fOR THE OccURRENcE Of THaT DIsEasE, aND THE ¸ORE UsEfUL IT wILL bE IN DEVELOpINg aN EffEcTIVE cLINIcaL INTERVENTION.
CLassIc caUsaL paIRs INcLUDE ¸OsqUITO bITEs aND ¸aLaRIa, waLkINg baREfOOT IN sNaIL-INfEsTED waTERs aND scHIsTOsO¸IasIs, aND LIVINg IN cLOsE qUaRTERs
19
EpIDE¸IOLOgy (CassEL 1976) fEaTUREs THE I¸pORTaNcE Of cULTURaL INflUENcEs ON HEaLTH-RELaTED bEHaVIORs. ºN aDDITION, EpIDE¸IOLOgIcaL pERspEcTIVEs ON cHRONIc cONDITIONs INVOLVE ¸ORE cO¸pLEx wEbs Of sOcIaL ExpLaNaTORy facTORs THaN aRE REqUIRED TO ExpLaIN sO¸E acUTE DIsEasEs (KRIEgER ET aL. 1993). µEVERTHELEss, THE pRINcIpaL fOcUs Of EpIDE¸IOLOgy Has bEEN ON THE I¸¸EDIaTE DETER¸INaNTs Of DIsEasE. ºN cONTRasT, sOcIaL EpIDE¸IOLOgIsTs aND sOcIaL scIENTIsTs fOcUs ON THE sTRUcTURE aND sOcIaL pROcEssEs Of sOcIETIEs aND fiND THaT RaTEs Of DIsEasE caN bE pREDIcTED by kNOwINg THE cHaRacTERIsTIcs Of a sOcIETy’s cLass sTRUcTURE (¹OwNsEND aND ¶aVIDsON 1982; µaVaRRO 1990), ITs RaTE Of sOcIaL cHaNgE (¶URkHEI¸ 1951; CassEL 1976), aND gROUp cHaRacTERIsTIcs wITHIN a sOcIETy, sUcH as RacE/ETHNIcITy, gENDER, sEx, aND agE (BRaVE¸aN ET aL. 2011). CULTURaL INflUENcEs aRE INTEgRaTED INTO THIs VIEw aT bOTH sOcIETaL aND INDIVIDUaL LEVELs. ScHOLaRs HaVE aLsO DEbaTED wHETHER THE DEgREE Of INcO¸E INEqUaLITy THaT cHaRacTERIzEs a sOcIETy as a wHOLE ExERTs aN INDEpENDENT EffEcT ON INDIVIDUaL HEaLTH OUTcO¸Es, pERHaps THROUgH INcREasED sOcIaL DIsRUpTION OR cRI¸E (KawacHI, KENNEDy, aND WILkINsON 1999), THOUgH OTHER EVIDENcE Has DE¸ONsTRaTED NO INDEpENDENT EffEcT (MackENbacH 2002). ºN THIs bROaDER VIEw Of DIsEasE caUsaTION, DIffERENTIaL ExpOsUREs TO bIOLOgIcaL RIsks aRE INflUENcED by ONE’s pOsITION IN sOcIETy, aND DIffERENTIaL REspONsEs TO bIOLOgIcaL RIsks aRE affEcTED by ONE’s OVERaLL sOcIaL aND EcONO¸Ic ENVIRON¸ENT, wHIcH IN TURN INflUENcEs ONE’s HEaLTH caRE ENVIRON¸ENT. As EaRLy as 1910, a LOcaL gOVERN¸ENT bOaRD IN ´NgLaND pRONOUNcED, “µO facT Is bETTER EsTabLIsHED THaN THaT THE DEaTH RaTE, aND EspEcIaLLy THE DEaTH RaTE a¸ONg cHILDREN, Is HIgH IN INVERsE pROpORTION TO THE sOcIaL sTaTUs Of THE pOpULaTION” (ANTONOVOsky aND BERNsTEIN 1977: 453). µU¸EROUs sTUDIEs sINcE THEN HaVE cONfiR¸ED THE RELaTIONsHIp bETwEEN sOcIOEcONO¸Ic sTaTUs aND HEaLTH OUTcO¸Es, fiNDINg THaT EVERy sTEp Up THE sOcIaL cLass LaDDER Is accO¸paNIED by aN INcRE¸ENTaL I¸pROVE¸ENT IN HEaLTH sTaTUs as wELL (BOR, COHEN, aND GaLEa 2017; McKEOwN 1976; MaR¸OT, KOgEVINas, aND ´LsTON 1987; MEcHaNIc 2000). As a REsULT, sOcIaL scIENTIsTs INcREasINgLy DEfiNE sOcIaL cONDITIONs as “fUNDa¸ENTaL caUsEs” Of DIsEasE, ObsERVINg THaT THEy pERsIsT IN bEINg LINkED TO ¸ORbIDITy aND ¸ORTaLITy EVEN as THE acTUaL DIsEasEs THaT pEOpLE sUffER ¸ay cHaNgE OVER TI¸E (²INk aND PHELaN 1995). BOURgOIs aND cOLLEagUEs (2017: 299) INTRODUcE THE cONcEpT Of sTRUcTURaL VULNERabILITy TO “HIgHLIgHT THE paTHways THROUgH wHIcH spEcIfic LOcaL HIERaRcHIEs
h t l a e H o t s n o i t u b i r t n o C l a r u t l u C d n a l a i c o S
wITH ÊË-INfEcTED pEOpLE aND TUbERcULOsIs. SO¸E Of THE fOUNDaTIONaL wORk IN
aND bROaDER sETs Of pOwER RELaTIONs ¸ay ExacERbaTE aN INDIVIDUaL paTIENT’s
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HEaLTH pRObLE¸s.” °Ey pROpOsE aN “appLIED pRag¸aTIc appROacH TO INTERVENINg ON THEsE fORcEs by IDENTIfyINg ObsTacLEs TO HEaLTHy LIfEsTyLEs aND TREaT-
n o s r e d n e H . E l i a G d n a f f o r t s E . E e u S
¸ENT aDHERENcE OUTsIDE THE cLINIc aND facILITaTINg accEss TO caRE INsIDE THE cLINIc.” ALTHOUgH DEbaTEs abOUT THE NaTURE aND caUsEs Of ILLNEss aND HEaLTH ¸ay sEE¸ acaDE¸Ic, THERE aRE REaL pOLITIcaL cONsEqUENcEs. ºNDIVIDUaLs aRE ¸E¸bERs Of sOcIaL cLassEs, RacEs, ETHNIcITIEs, gENDERs, aND agE gROUps, aLL Of wHIcH ENTaIL a DIffERENTIaL RIsk Of ILLNEss aND ¸ORTaLITy aND DIREcTLy INcREasE OR DEcREasE THEIR cHaNcEs Of sUffERINg ILLNEss OR pRE¸aTURE DEaTH. YET wHEN DIffERENcEs IN INDIVIDUaL bEHaVIOR aRE LINkED TO THEsE gROUp cHaRacTERIsTIcs aND UsED TO ExpLaIN HIgHER RIsks fOR ¸ORbIDITy aND ¸ORTaLITy, THE TENDENcy Is TO cONcLUDE THaT pEOpLE HaVE OR gET THE HEaLTH THEy DEsERVE. ³EsEaRcH THaT TakEs a bROaDER appROacH, fOcUsINg ON THE sTRUcTURE Of sOcIETy aND THE HEaLTH RIsks Of LIVINg IN pOVERTy aND Of bEINg a RacIaL OR ETHNIc ¸INORITy IN A¸ERIca DE¸ONsTRaTEs THaT HEaLTH Is NOT sOLELy THE REsULT Of INDIVIDUaL INITIaTIVE OR faILURE. ³aTHER, IT Is aLsO THE pRODUcT Of sOcIETy aND sOcIETy’s EcONO¸Ic aND cULTURaL fORcEs, INcLUDINg gREaTER ExpOsUREs TO TOxIc wORk aND LIVINg ENVIRON¸ENTs, RacIs¸, Lack Of aDEqUaTE fOOD, aND LI¸ITED EDUcaTION aND ¸EDIcaL caRE (WasHINgTON 2006).
Special Problems of Race and EthnicitY in the United States SO¸E aUTHORs HaVE sUggEsTED THaT THE HEaLTH DIffERENcEs bETwEEN NON- ÁIspaNIc wHITEs aND ¸INORITIEs IN THE ·NITED STaTEs aRE aN ExpREssION Of THE pERVasIVE HEaLTH DIsaDVaNTagE THaT aLways accO¸paNIEs bEINg IN THE LOwER sOcIaL cLassEs, wHERE a DIspROpORTIONaTE NU¸bER Of ¸INORITIEs fiND THE¸sELVEs. ³EsEaRcH cONTINUEs TO DOcU¸ENT a HIgH cORRELaTION bETwEEN RacE aND ETHNIcITy aND THE INDIcaTORs THaT aRE fREqUENTLy UsED TO ¸EasURE sOcIaL cLass: INcO¸E, EDUcaTION, aND OccUpaTION—paRTIcULaRLy fOR AfRIcaN A¸ERIcaNs. ºN facT, ¶REssLER (1993) aRgUEs THaT RacE as DEfiNED by skIN cOLOR acTUaLLy DETER¸INEs OR DEfiNEs ONE’s sOcIaL cLass IN A¸ERIca. YET paRaDOxIcaL fiNDINgs HaVE aLsO bEEN ObsERVED, sUcH as THE LOw RaTEs Of INfaNT ¸ORTaLITy a¸ONg ÁIspaNIcs, DEspITE THEIR LOw INcO¸Es aND RELaTIVE Lack Of HEaLTH INsURaNcE cOVERagE (ScRIbER 1996). A NU¸bER Of facTORs cO¸pLIcaTE THIs IssUE. MOsT HEaLTH sTaTUs DaTa, sUcH as ¸ORTaLITy RaTEs, DIsEasE pREVaLENcE aND INcIDENcE, aND DaTa ON HEaLTH sERVIcEs UTILIzaTION, cONTINUE TO bE cOLLEcTED by RacE aND ETHNIcITy (INcREas-
INgLy DIfficULT TO REcOgNIzE OR caTEgORIzE accURaTELy) RaTHER THaN by ¸EasUREs Of sOcIaL cLass. ¹RaDITIONaLLy, ¸EDIcaL REsEaRcHERs HaVE UsED RacE aND ETH-
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INcREasED awaRENEss Of THE flaws INHERENT IN THIs assU¸pTION. °Is RELIaNcE ON RacE aND ETHNIcITy ¸akEs IT DIfficULT TO EsTI¸aTE THE cONTRIbUTION Of sOcIaL cLass TO HEaLTH sTaTUs. ALTERNaTE TER¸INOLOgy basED ON a ¸ORE accURaTE UNDERsTaNDINg Of RacE aND ETHNIcITy Has yET TO bE DEVELOpED. CONsEqUENTLy, ¸UcH Of THE cURRENT DEbaTE IN THE ·NITED STaTEs abOUT HEaLTH INEqUaLITIEs Has bEEN fRa¸ED as DIspaRITIEs a¸ONg DIffERENT RacIaL aND ETHNIc gROUps, wITH LITTLE aTTENTION gIVEN TO HOw cONTEsTED THEsE caTEgORIEs THE¸sELVEs HaVE bEcO¸E. FURTHER¸ORE, THE pRacTIcE Of UsINg RacE aND ETHNIcITy INTERcHaNgEabLy, wITH DIffERENT DEfiNITIONs OR absENT DEfiNITION aLTOgETHER, Has cREaTED aDDITIONaL pRObLE¸s IN INTERpRETINg THE fiNDINgs Of REsEaRcH (BRaUN ET aL. 2007; BRaUN aND SaUNDERs 2017). ÁOw, THEN, sHOULD RacE aND ETHNIcITy bE DEfiNED aND UsED? ¶EspITE cONsIDERabLE cONTROVERsy, cONcEpTUaL aND E¸pIRIcaL scHOLaRsHIp, aND pOLIcy sTaTE¸ENTs sUggEsTINg THaT RacE Is NOT a ¸EaNINgfUL bIOLOgIcaL TER¸ (²EE, MOUNTaIN, aND KOENIg 2001), ¸EDIcaL TExTs, cLINIcaL LITERaTURE, aND REsEaRcH ROUTINELy UsE RacE wITHOUT DEfiNITION OR ExpLaNaTION. WHEN HEaLTH DIffERENcEs aRE DOcU¸ENTED, UNLEss OTHERwIsE aRgUED, RacE Is UsUaLLy UNDERsTOOD OR I¸pLIED as a bIOLOgIcaL RaTHER THaN a sOcIaL OR cULTURaL VaRIabLE (ScHwaRTz 2001). °Is VIEw Has bEEN REINfORcED by THE INcREasINgLy cO¸¸ON appLIcaTION Of RacE TO gENETIc aND pHaR¸acOgENO¸Ic REsEaRcH, REIfyINg aLREaDy pRObLE¸aTIc caTEgORIEs (²EE ET aL. 2001; ¶UsTER 2003). MUcH scHOLaRsHIp (²aÂEIsT aND GIbbONs 2001, WILLIa¸s 1999; VaN ³yN 2002) Has bEEN DEVOTED TO IDENTIfyINg THE VaRIOUs facTORs THaT “RacE” aND “ETHNIcITy” DO REpREsENT, aND aDVOcaTEs THaT REsEaRcHERs aDOpT ¸ORE spEcIfic ¸EasUREs IN sTUDIEs Of HEaLTH DIspaRITIEs. WHEN facTORs sUcH as INDIVIDUaL LIfEsTyLE aND bEHaVIORs, cULTURaL bELIEfs, pHysIOLOgIc ¸EasUREs, gEOgRapHIcaL LOcaTION, INsURaNcE cOVERagE, EDUcaTION, aND INcO¸E aRE INcLUDED IN sTUDIEs, THE RE¸aININg HEaLTH DIffERENcEs ¸ay bE aTTRIbUTED TO THE EffEcTs Of RacIaL bIas OR DIscRI¸INaTION. CO¸paRED TO wHITEs, ¸INORITIEs pERcEIVE HIgHER LEVELs Of RacIaL DIscRI¸INaTION IN ¸EDIcaL caRE aND REsEaRcH sETTINgs aND ExpREss gREaTER ¸IsTRUsT Of pHysIcIaNs aND ¸EDIcaL REsEaRcH (CORbIE-S¸ITH, °O¸as, aND GEORgE 2002; ²ILLIE-BLaNTON ET aL. 2000). ´sTI¸aTINg HOw aND TO wHaT ExTENT bIas aND DIscRI¸INaTION aRE I¸pLIcaTED IN HEaLTH DIspaRITIEs OUTcO¸Es Is bOTH cHaLLENgINg aND cO¸pLEx. ºNcREasINgLy, REsEaRcHERs aRE UNDERTakINg sysTE¸aTIc sTUDIEs Of THE DOcTOR-paTIENT ENcOUNTER TO DELINEaTE THE NaTURE aND scOpE Of INTENDED aND UNINTENDED bIas (³OTER aND ÁaLL 1992; ÂaN ³yN 2002).
h t l a e H o t s n o i t u b i r t n o C l a r u t l u C d n a l a i c o S
NIc gROUp caTEgORIEs as sHORTHaND TER¸s OR pROxIEs fOR sOcIaL cLass, DEspITE
°E I¸pORTaNcE Of THIs REsEaRcH was REINfORcED by THE ºNsTITUTE Of MEDI-
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cINE REpORT, Unequal Treatment: Confronting Racial and Ethnic Disparities in
Healthcare (ºNsTITUTE Of MEDIcINE ET aL. 2003) aND THE ´±´’s Health Disparin o s r e d n e H . E l i a G d n a f f o r t s E . E e u S
ties and Inequalities Report—United States, 2013 (»d» 2013), wHIcH fOUND cONsIsTENT EVIDENcE Of DIspaRITIEs IN HEaLTH caRE IN a RE¸aRkabLE RaNgE Of ILLNEssEs aND sERVIcEs, aND wHIcH DE¸ONsTRaTED THaT wHEN sOcIaL aND EcONO¸Ic facTORs aRE accOUNTED fOR, THERE aRE sTILL sIgNIficaNT HEaLTH DIffERENcEs bETwEEN ¸INORITIEs aND wHITEs. °E EVIDENcE “OVERwHEL¸INgLy LINks gREaTER sOcIaL DIsaDVaNTagE wITH pOORER HEaLTH” (BRaVE¸aN ET aL. 2011). ·psTREa¸ facTORs sUcH as EDUcaTION, NEIgHbORHOOD cONDITIONs, wORkINg cONDITIONs, INcO¸E aND wEaLTH, RacE aND RacIs¸, ENVIRON¸ENTaL cONDITIONs, aND sTREss aRE I¸pLIcaTED IN THE TRaNsgENERaTIONaL TRaNsfER Of pOOR HEaLTH OUTcO¸Es. °EsE OUTcO¸Es INcLUDE DIspROpORTIONaL sOcIaL-DIsaDVaNTagE-LINkED asTH¸a, DIabETEs, ObEsITy, pERIODONTaL DIsEasE, pRE¸aTURE bIRTH, sUIcIDE, aND caNcER scREENINg aND TREaT¸ENT, aND cIgaRETTE s¸OkINg TO Na¸E ONLy a fEw (»d» 2013). °EsE DIffERENcEs OccUR IN THE cONTExT Of bROaDER HIsTORIc aND cONTE¸pORaRy sOcIaL aND EcONO¸Ic INEqUaLITy, aND THEy pROVIDE EVIDENcE Of pERsIsTENT RacIaL aND ETHNIc DIscRI¸INaTION IN ¸aNy sEcTORs Of A¸ERIcaN LIfE.
Conclusion ÁEaLTH INEqUaLITIEs bOTH REflEcT aND REflEcT ON THE sOcIETIEs wITHIN wHIcH THEy ExIsT. °Ey ¸ay bE sEEN as ¸ORaLLy pRObLE¸aTIc; OR THEy ¸ay bE sEEN as UNfORTUNaTE, bUT NOT NEcEssaRILy UNfaIR. SO¸E IDENTIfy INEqUaLITy ITsELf as a paTHOLOgy (KawacHI ET aL. 1999), OR wHaT PaUL FaR¸ER (1999) REfERs TO as OUR “¸ODERN pLagUE,” aND aDVOcaTE gREaTER EcONO¸Ic EqUaLITy as a paTHway TO I¸pROVED HEaLTH. ³EgaRDLEss Of THE ¸ORaL sTaNcE ONE TakEs abOUT HEaLTH INEqUaLITy, IT Is LIkELy TO bE THE fOcUs Of ONgOINg aTTENTION IN THE NEaR fUTURE, bOTH IN THE ·NITED STaTEs aND wORLDwIDE. GLObaL HEaLTH INEqUaLITIEs HaVE LONg bEEN sEEN as UNcHaNgEabLE facTs Of LIfE: THERE Is ONE LEVEL Of HEaLTH aND HEaLTH caRE fOR wEaLTHy cOUNTRIEs aND aNOTHER fOR REsOURcE-pOOR NaTIONs. ÁOwEVER, spURRED by cONTROVERsIEs IN THE fiELD Of INfEcTIOUs DIsEasEs, INcLUDINg OUTbREaks Of ´bOLa aND ZIka, THIs VIEw Has bEgUN TO cHaNgE. ¶EbaTEs OVER THE ETHIcaL cONDUcT Of cLINIcaL REsEaRcH IN INTERNaTIONaL hiv/¾id¼ aND ZIka TRIaLs HaVE aLsO cONTRIbUTED TO THIs pERspEcTIVE sHIſt as REsEaRcH IN THE cONTExT Of ExTRE¸E pOVERTy aND Lack Of accEss TO LIfE-saVINg DRUgs ca¸E TO bE sEEN as pOTENTIaLLy ExpLOITaTIVE (BENaTaR 2001, 2002; PaRTIcIpaNTs IN THE 2001 CONfERENcE ON ´THIcaL AspEcTs Of ³EsEaRcH
IN ¶EVELOpINg COUNTRIEs 2002; ARRas 2004). °E ¼¾r¼ EpIDE¸Ic IN 2003 pROVIDED fURTHER ¸O¸ENTU¸ fOR THE E¸ERgINg VIEw Of aN INTERDEpENDENT
23
cONNEcTED aND VULNERabLE THE wORLD’s pEOpLE aRE wHEN cONfRONTED wITH a DEaDLy INfEcTIOUs paTHOgEN. ºN THE ·NITED STaTEs, cONTRaDIcTIONs bETwEEN OUR ETHIc Of EqUaLITy aND THE sUbsTaNTIaL INEqUITIEs IN accEss TO HEaLTH INsURaNcE aND HEaLTH caRE awaIT REsOLUTION. ÁaNsEN aND cOLLEagUEs (2014: 11) DEscRIbE THE paTHOLOgIzINg Of pOVERTy, wHEREIN DIsabILITy-basED INcO¸E bEcO¸Es “a NEw sURVIVaL sTRaTEgy IN THIs ERa Of ¸EDIcaLIzED pOVERTy wHIcH fOR sO¸E Has pER¸ITTED a sTabLE HO¸E, a way TO aVOID sTREET VIOLENcE, REDUcE ILLEgaL DRUg cONsU¸pTION. . . . [B]EcaUsE IT Is ONE Of THE fEw aVaILabLE ROUTEs TO sTabLE sURVIVaL INcO¸E . . . IN THE cONTExT Of pOVERTy, UsINg DIsabILITy aND ILLNEss TO gaIN bENEfiTs caN bE . . . a VIabLE HaR¸ REDUcTION sTRaTEgy IN a pOsT-wELfaRE sTaTE THaT OffERs fEw aLTERNaTIVE sOLUTIONs TO UNE¸pLOy¸ENT.” SOcIaL scIENcE cRITIqUEs fOcUs ON INDIVIDUaL ExpERIENcEs Of DIffERENcE aND DIsabILITy aND sOcIaL cONDITIONs THaT UNDERLIE DIspaRaTE HEaLTH OUTcO¸Es fOR pOpULaTION gROUps. BUT REsEaRcHERs aND THEIR appROacHEs TO scIENcE aRE aLsO sITUaTED IN THE sa¸E sOcIETIEs THaT pRODUcE THE INEqUaLITIEs, aND, as wE HaVE aRgUED, sO¸ETI¸Es REpRODUcE THEsE sa¸E INEqUaLITIEs. °E VIEw THaT scIENcE Is ¸ORaLLy NEUTRaL aND sHOULD bE fREE Of pOLITIcaL cONsTRaINT Is cHaLLENgED by OTHER DEEpLy HELD bELIEfs abOUT pRIVacy, aUTONO¸y, aND THE saNcTITy Of LIfE. µEw pOssIbILITIEs TO ¸akE cHOIcEs abOUT LIfE aND DEaTH, aND abOUT aLTERINg bODIEs, cO¸E aT a RapID pacE cOURTEsy Of ¸EDIcaL TEcHNOLOgIEs. ´acH INNOVaTION spawNs ¸ORE pOssIbILITIEs aND OſtEN as ¸UcH cONTROVERsy. °EN THE sOcIaL fabRIc aND cULTURaL fRa¸EwORks a¸ONg Us sERVE as REfERENcE pOINTs. YET THEy sHIſt bEcaUsE wE DO. CaN sOcIaL aRRaNgE¸ENTs aND cULTURaL cONcEpTIONs kEEp pacE wITH ¸EDIcaL scIENcE aND pRacTIcE? ¶EVELOp¸ENTs IN gENETIcs aND THE ÁU¸aN GENO¸E PROjEcT (hÉ¿) ILLUsTRaTE THIs qUEsTION. ±RIgINaLLy, THE hÉ¿ pRO¸OTED THE “sa¸ENEss” Of HU¸aN bEINgs, E¸pHasIzINg THaT wE aLL sHaRE 99.99% pERcENT Of THE sa¸E sEqUENcEs Of dn¾. ÁOwEVER, gENETIcIsTs HaVE NOw TURNED TO INVEsTIgaTIONs Of “DIffERENcE,” RELyINg UpON ROaD¸aps wITHIN THE HU¸aN gENO¸E TO IDENTIfy paTTERNs Of gENETIc VaRIaTION LINkED TO cO¸¸ON DIsEasEs. WHaT I¸pacT wILL THEsE NEw scIENTIfic aND TEcHNOLOgIcaL fORcEs HaVE ON THE cONTEsTED caTEgORy Of RacE? ÁOw caN wE aVOID REINfORcINg a pRIOR IDEOLOgy abOUT HU¸aN DIffERENcE, aND aVERT THE UsE Of scIENcE aND ¸EDIcINE TO DIVIDE, RaNk aND cONTROL pEOpLE (WasHINgTON 2006)? WILL cOUNTERVaILINg scIENcE aND a NEw
h t l a e H o t s n o i t u b i r t n o C l a r u t l u C d n a l a i c o S
gLObaL pOpULaTION. ¹OgETHER, hiv/¾id¼ aND ¼¾r¼ HaVE DE¸ONsTRaTED HOw
wILLINgNEss TO cONfRONT THE bROaDER, sOcIETaL sOURcEs Of HEaLTH DIspaRITIEs
24
IN OUR sOcIETy (ºNsTITUTE Of MEDIcINE ET aL. 2003) cONsTRUcT a NEw DIaLOgUE abOUT RacE?
n o s r e d n e H . E l i a G d n a f f o r t s E . E e u S
°E INTELLEcTUaL aND ¸ORaL cHaLLENgEs wE cONTINUE TO cREaTE REINfORcE THE NEED fOR pHysIcIaNs, paTIENTs, aND ¸EDIcaL, sOcIaL scIENcE, aND HU¸aNITIEs scHOLaRs wHOsE UNDERsTaNDINgs aND TRaININg aRE bOTH bROaD aND DEEp. CONTINUED I¸pROVE¸ENT Of THE HEaLTH Of INDIVIDUaLs, gROUps, aND NaTIONs REsTs IN LaRgE paRT ON ¸ULTIDIscIpLINaRy, ¸ULTIDI¸ENsIONaL REsEaRcH aND pRacTIcE. ±NE Of THE bEsT aLLIEs wE HaVE IN facINg THE pERILs aND ENTIcE¸ENTs aHEaD Is THE abILITy TO VIEw ¸EDIcINE IN sOcIETy, aND sOcIETy IN ¸EDIcINE, aND TO cONTINUaLLy REflEcT cRITIcaLLy ON wHaT THIs ¸EaNs.
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Illness. µEw YORk: ST. MaRTIN’s PREss. WasHINgTON, Á. A. 2006. Medical Apartheid. µEw YORk: ÁaRLE¸ MOON BROaDway BOOks. WILLIa¸s, ¶. ³. 1999. ³acE, sOcIOEcONO¸Ic sTaTUs, aND HEaLTH: °E aDDED EffEcTs Of RacIs¸ aND DIscRI¸INaTION. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 896: 173–188. WILLIa¸s, W. C. 1936. °e Doctor Stories. µEw YORk: µEw ¶IREcTIONs. WORLD BaNk. 2004. GENDERNET. CITE ON gENDER aND HEaLTH. ³ETRIEVED fRO¸ HTTp://www .wORLDbaNk.ORg/gENDER/NEw ON JUNE 19, 2004. YOUNg, A. 1995. °e Harmony of Illusions. PRINcETON, µJ: PRINcETON ·NIVERsITy PREss. ZaRULLI, Â., BaRTHOLD JONEs, J. A., ±ksUzyaN, A., ²INDaHL-JacObsEN, ³., CHRIsTENsEN, K., aND ÂaUpEL, J. W. 2018. WO¸EN LIVE LONgER THaN ¸EN EVEN DURINg sEVERE fa¸INEs aND EpIDE¸Ics. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 115(4): ´832–´840. HTTp://www.pNas.ORg/cONTENT/115/4/´832.
deFining and experiencing diFFerences
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Beyond Med±cAl±sAT±on Nikolas Rose
MEDIcaLIsaTION Has bEcO¸E a cLIcHé Of cRITIcaL sOcIaL aNaLysIs. ºT I¸pLIEs sO¸ETHINg sUspEcT wHEN a pRObLE¸ Is cREaTED OR aNNExED, IN wHOLE OR IN paRT, by THE appaRaTUs Of ¸EDIcINE. CRITIqUEs Of THE ways IN wHIcH DOcTORs HaVE ExTENDED THEIR E¸pIRE HaVE bEcO¸E paRT Of EVERyDay aND pROfEssIONaL DEbaTE. SUcH cRITIqUEs HaVE cONTRIbUTED TO THE paRTIaL DEpROfEssIONaLIsaTION Of ¸EDIcINE. µOwaDays, THE pOwER Of DOcTORs Is cONsTRaINED by THE sHaDOw Of THE Law, THE appaRaTUs Of bIOETHIcs, EVIDENcE-basED ¸EDIcINE, aND paTIENTs’ DE¸aNDs fOR aUTONO¸y TO bE REspEcTED, THEIR RIgHTs TO HEaLTH saTIsfiED, THEIR INjURIEs cO¸pENsaTED. °E fOcUs Of cRITIqUE Has TURNED TO THE ¸ETHODs UsED by DRUg cO¸paNIEs IN sEaRcH Of ¸aRkETs aND pROfiTs. °ERE Is, NO DOUbT, ¸UcH TO cRITIcIsE. YET ¸EDIcaLIsaTION Has HaD aN EVEN ¸ORE pROfOUND EffEcT ON OUR fOR¸s Of LIfE: IT Has ¸aDE Us wHaT wE aRE. SINcE aT LEasT THE EIgHTEENTH cENTURy IN DEVELOpED cOUNTRIEs, ¸EDIcINE pLayED a cONsTITUTIVE paRT IN “¸akINg Up pEOpLE.”Ì ºT was IN paRT THROUgH ¸EDIcINE THaT THE HU¸aN bEINg bEca¸E a pOssIbLE ObjEcT fOR pOsITIVE kNOwLEDgE—a LIVINg INDIVIDUaL wHOsE bODy aND ¸IND cOULD bE UNDERsTOOD by scIENTIfic REasON. MEDIcINE was pERHaps THE fiRsT scIENTIfic kNOwLEDgE TO bEcO¸E ExpERTIsE, IN wHIcH aUTHORITy OVER HU¸aN bEINgs DERIVED fRO¸ cLaI¸s TO scIENTIficITy. MEDIcINE was ENTwINED wITH NEw ways Of gOVERNINg pEOpLE, INDIVIDUaLLy aND cOLLEcTIVELy, IN wHIcH ¸EDIcaL ExpERTs IN aLLIaNcE wITH pOLITIcaL aUTHORITIEs TRIED TO ¸aNagE ways Of LIVINg TO ¸INI¸IsE DIsEasE aND pRO¸OTE INDIVIDUaL aND cOLLEcTIVE HEaLTH. MEDIcINE was LINkED TO THE sEcULaRIsaTION Of ETHIcaL REgI¸Es, as INDIVIDUaLs ca¸E TO DEscRIbE THE¸sELVEs IN THE LaNgUagEs Of HEaLTH aND ILLNEss, qUEsTION THE¸sELVEs agaINsT cRITERIa Of NOR¸aLITy aND paTHOLOgy, TakE THE¸sELVEs aND THEIR ¸ORTaL ExIsTENcE as cIRcU¸scRIbINg THEIR VaLUEs. °E HIsTORy Of ¸EDIcINE Has THUs bEEN bOUND Up wITH THE HIsTORy Of THE DIffERENT ways IN wHIcH HU¸aN bEINgs HaVE TRIED TO ¸akE OURsELVEs bETTER THaN wE aRE.Í
µIkOLas ³OsE, “BEyOND MEDIcaLIsaTION,” fRO¸ °e Lancet 369, NO. 9562 (2007): 700–702. COpyRIgHT © 2007. ³EpRINTED wITH pER¸IssION fRO¸ ´LsEVIER.
º¸¸EDIaTELy TwO caUTIONs ¸UsT bE ENTERED. °E “wE” NEEDs UNpackINg by
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agE, cLass, RacE, NaTIONaLITy, sEx, aND ¸ORE: sO¸E pEOpLE aRE ¸ORE ¸EDIcaLLy ¸aDE Up THaN OTHERs—wO¸EN ¸ORE THaN ¸EN, THE wEaLTHy DIffERENTLy fRO¸
e s o R s a l o k i N
THE pOOR, cHILDREN ¸ORE THaN aDULTs, aND, Of cOURsE, DIffERENTLy IN DIffERENT cOUNTRIEs aND REgIONs Of THE wORLD. FURTHER¸ORE, ¸EDIcINE ITsELf NEEDs TO bE DEcO¸pOsED. °E TEcHNOLOgIEs Of THE OpERaTINg THEaTRE aRE NOT THOsE Of gENERaL pRacTIcE, OR EpIDE¸IOLOgy, OR pUbLIc HEaLTH ¸EDIcINE, OR HEaLTH pRO¸OTION. MEDIcINE Has NO EssENcE, bE IT EpIsTE¸OLOgIcaL (THERE Is NO sINgLE ¸EDIcaL ¸ODEL), pOLITIcaL (THE pOwER Of ¸EDIcINE caNNOT bE REDUcED TO sOcIaL cONTROL OR THE ¸aNagE¸ENT Of sOcIaL pRObLE¸s), OR paTRIaRcHaL (¸EDIcINE aND ¸EDIcs DO NOT ¸ERELy sEEk cONTROL OVER wO¸EN aND THEIR bODIEs). MEDIcINE Is NOT a sINgLE ENTITy: cLINIcaL ¸EDIcINE Is ONLy ONE cO¸pONENT a¸ONg ¸aNy ways IN wHIcH INDIVIDUaL aND gROUp LIfE HaVE bEEN pRObLE¸aTIzED fRO¸ THE pOINT Of VIEw Of HEaLTH. AND ¸EDIcaL kNOwLEDgE, ¸EDIcaL ExpERTs, aND ¸EDIcaL pRacTIcEs pLay VERy DIffERENT paRTs IN DIffERENT LOcaLEs aND pRacTIcEs. ÁERE º DIsTINgUIsH THREE DI¸ENsIONs THROUgH wHIcH ¸EDIcaLIsaTION Has ¸aDE Us THE kINDs Of pEOpLE THaT wE aRE.
Medical Forms of Life °E pRacTIcEs Of ¸EDIcINE HaVE ¸ODIfiED THE VERy LIfE fOR¸ THaT Is THE cONTE¸pORaRy HU¸aN bEINg. SEwagE sysTE¸s, REgULaTED cE¸ETERIEs, pURIfIED waTER aND fOOD, DIETaRy aDVIcE, aND THE gENERaL saNITIsaTION Of HU¸aN ExIsTENcE, DO¸EsTIc LIfE, pUbLIc spacE, wORkINg ENVIRON¸ENTs, aLL IN paRT UNDER THE aEgIs Of ¸EDIcaL aUTHORITy, HaVE aLTERED pHysIcaL appEaRaNcE—HEIgHT, wEIgHT, pOsTURE, capacITIEs—LONgEVITy, ¸ORbIDITy, aND ¸UcH ¸ORE. °EsE pRacTIcEs HaVE cHaNgED THE RELaTIONs THaT HU¸aN bEINgs HaVE wITH THEIR cO¸paNION spEcIEs Of bacTERIa, VIRUsEs, paRasITEs, scaVENgERs, ETc. °E pRacTIcE Of VaccINaTION—HybRIDIsINg HU¸aN bEINgs wITH DEaD OR DEacTIVaTED bacTERIa— Has TRaNsfOR¸ED HU¸aN sOcIaLITy; saVED ¸ILLIONs Of LIVEs; aND cONTRIbUTED TO THE gROwTH Of THE pOpULaTION, THE pOssIbILITy Of LIVINg IN TOwNs, aND HENcE URbaN sOcIaLITy. °E scHOOL aND THE HO¸E, TRaNsfOR¸ED by ¸EDIcINE INTO HygIENIc ¸acHINEs, HaVE INcULcaTED HabITs aND ¸aNNERs THaT HaVE bEcO¸E aUTO¸aTIc, fRO¸ TabLE ¸aNNERs TO TOOTHbRUsH DRILL. PRacTIcEs fOR DEfEcaTION, URINaTION, ¸ENsTRUaTION, ETc., HaVE pRODUcED bODIEs THaT aRE DIscIpLINED IN RELaTION TO HEaLTH IN UNpREcEDENTED ways. MEDIcaL ¸aNagE¸ENT Of sExUaLITy Has REsHapED REgI¸Es Of pLEasURE, pRacTIcEs Of INTERcOURsE, cONTINENcE, aND INcONTINENcE. AND sO ON. WE RELaTE TO OURsELVEs aND OTHERs, INDIVIDUaLLy aND
cOLLEcTIVELy, THROUgH aN ETHIc aND IN a fOR¸ Of LIfE THaT Is INExTRIcabLy assOcIaTED wITH ¸EDIcINE IN aLL ITs INcaRNaTIONs. ºN THIs sENsE, ¸EDIcINE Has DONE
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THE kINDs Of LIVINg cREaTUREs THaT wE HaVE bEcO¸E aT THE sTaRT Of THE TwENTy- fiRsT cENTURy.
Medical Meaning MEDIcINE Is INExTRIcabLy INTERTwINED wITH THE ways IN wHIcH wE ExpERIENcE aND gIVE ¸EaNINg TO OUR wORLD. WHETHER THROUgH ¸EDIcaL THE¸Es IN LITERaTURE, ¸EDIcaL I¸agEs IN aRT, ¸EDIcaL HEROEs aND VILLaINs IN ¸OVIEs OR ON ÊÅ, ¸EDIcaL NaRRaTIVEs Of paTIENTHOOD, THE I¸agINaTION Of THOsE Of Us wHO LIVE IN DEVELOpED cOUNTRIEs Has bEcO¸E pER¸EaTED wITH ¸EDIcINE. °Is Is TRUE fOR sysTE¸aTIc kNOwLEDgE as ¸UcH as fOR pOpULaR cULTURE. MaNy Of THE THEORIEs Of sOcIETy THaT E¸ERgED aT THE END Of THE NINETEENTH cENTURy aND THROUgH ¸UcH Of THE TwENTIETH cENTURy—fRO¸ ¶URkHEI¸ TO PaRsONs—UNDERsTOOD sOcIETIEs THE¸sELVEs IN ¸EDIcaL TER¸s, as ORgaNIc sysTE¸s wHOsE INsTITUTIONs aND pROcEssEs pERfOR¸ED VITaL fUNcTIONs fOR THE HEaLTH Of THE wHOLE. STILL TODay, EcONO¸IEs aRE sIck aND caN bE cURED, THE ·K was “THE sIck ¸aN Of ´UROpE,” RacIs¸ INfEcTs THE bODy pOLITIc, ETc. °E RELaTION bETwEEN THE ¸ETapHOR aND ITs REfERENT Is bIDIREcTIONaL: caNcER paRTakEs Of THE ¸aLIgN cHaRacTER Of RacIs¸ aT THE sa¸E ¸O¸ENT THaT RacIs¸ Is DEscRIbED as caNcEROUs. As Lay sysTE¸s Of ¸EaNINg HaVE bEcO¸E bOUND Up wITH ¸EDIcaL THOUgHT, ¸EDIcaL LaNgUagEs, NO ¸aTTER HOw TEcHNIcaL, HaVE bEcO¸E INfUsED wITH cULTURaL ¸EaNINgs. MEDIcINE THUs ¸akEs Us wHaT wE aRE by REsHapINg THE RELaTIONs Of ¸EaNINg THROUgH wHIcH wE ExpERIENcE OUR wORLDs.
Medical Expertise MEDIcINE aLsO ¸akEs Us wHaT wE aRE THROUgH THE ROLE Of ¸EDIcaL ExpERTIsE IN gOVERNINg THE ways wE cONDUcT OUR LIVEs. WE ¸IgHT bELIEVE THaT THE LI¸ITs Of ¸EDIcINE sHOULD bE cIRcU¸scRIbED by ILLNEss, DIsEasE, OR paTHOLOgy; THaT ¸EDIcaL aUTHORITy pROpERLy appLIEs wHERE THE NaTURaL NOR¸s Of THE bODy HaVE bEEN DIsTURbED by INfEcTION, INjURy, OR sO¸E OTHER INsULT; THaT THE pROpER ROLE Of THE DOcTOR Is TO sEEk TO REsTORE THaT LOsT NOR¸aTIVITy Of THE bODy. WE ¸IgHT THINk THaT If ¸EDIcaL aUTHORITy gOEs bEyOND THEsE LI¸ITs IT RUNs THE RIsk Of ILLEgITI¸acy. BUT THIs bELIEf wOULD bE ¸IsTakEN. ¶OcTORs HaVE LONg ENgagED
noitasilacideM dnoyeB
¸UcH ¸ORE THaN DEfiNE, DIagNOsE, aND TREaT DIsEasE—IT Has HELpED ¸akE Us
wITH cOLLEcTIVE as wELL as INDIVIDUaL bODIEs. SINcE THE sTaRT Of THE NINETEENTH
34
cENTURy, pERHaps EaRLIER, DOcTORs wERE INVOLVED IN THE ¸appINg Of DIsEasE IN sOcIaL spacE, cOLLEcTION Of sTaTIsTIcs ON THE ILLNEssEs Of THE pOpULaTION, DEsIgN
e s o R s a l o k i N
Of sEwERs, TOwN pLaNNINg, REgULaTION Of fOODsTUffs aND cE¸ETERIEs aND ¸UcH ¸ORE—INDEED DOcTORs HaVE a gOOD cLaI¸ TO bE THE fiRsT sOcIaL scIENTIsTs. FRO¸ aT LEasT THE ¸ID-NINETEENTH cENTURy, ¸EDIcaL cONcERNs E¸bRacED NOT jUsT ILLNEss, bUT HEaLTH aND aLL THaT was THOUgHT TO bE cONDUcIVE TO IT. AND DOcTORs HaVE LONg bEEN caLLED ON TO ExERcIsE aUTHORITy bEyOND THERapy; TO cHILDbIRTH, INfERTILITy, sExUaL ¸OREs aND pRacTIcEs, aspEcTs Of cRI¸INaL bEHaVIOUR, aLcOHOLIs¸, abNOR¸aL bEHaVIOUR, aNxIETy, sTREss, DE¸ENTIa, OLD agE, DEaTH, gRIEf, aND ¸OURNINg.Î µOwaDays, THERE aRE ¸aNy Exa¸pLEs Of sUcH ExTENsION Of ¸EDIcaL ExpERTIsE TO THE ¸aNagE¸ENT Of LIfE ITsELf, fRO¸ NEw REpRODUcTIVE TEcHNOLOgIEs, THROUgH HOR¸ONE REpLacE¸ENT THERapy aND TREaT¸ENT fOR agE- RELaTED sExUaL DysfUNcTION, TO psycHOpHaR¸acEUTIcaL aTTE¸pTs TO ¸ODIfy ¸OOD, E¸OTION, aND VOLITION. °E DIVIsION Of THE NaTURaL aND THE cULTURaL Has cEasED TO DO UsEfUL aNaLyTIcaL wORk. MEDIcINE Has HELpED ¸akE Us THOROUgHLy aRTIficIaL.
BeYond Medicalisation °E THE¸E Of ¸EDIcaLIsaTION, I¸pLyINg THE ExTENsION Of ¸EDIcaL aUTHORITy bEyOND a LEgITI¸aTE bOUNDaRy, Is NOT ¸UcH HELp IN UNDERsTaNDINg HOw, wHy, OR wITH wHaT cONsEqUENcEs THEsE ¸UTaTIONs HaVE OccURRED. MEDIcaLIsaTION ¸IgHT bE a UsEfUL NEUTRaL TER¸ TO DEsIgNaTE IssUEs THaT wERE NOT aT ONE TI¸E bUT HaVE bEcO¸E paRT Of THE pROVINcE Of ¸EDIcINE. ºT ¸IgHT bE a UsEfUL sLOgaN fOR THOsE wHO wIsH TO DIspUTE THE LEgITI¸acy Of THaT ¸EDIcaL RE¸IT. BUT THE TER¸ ITsELf sHOULD NOT bE TakEN as a DEscRIpTION OR aN ExpLaNaTION, LET aLONE a cRITIqUE. µOT aN ExpLaNaTION fOR THERE Is NO DyNa¸Ic Of ¸EDIcaLIsaTION, NO I¸pLacabLE LOgIc Of ¸EDIcaL ENTREpRENEURsHIp, NO sINgLE ¸OTIVE Of ¸EDIcaL INTEREsTs, THaT LIEs bEHIND THEsE VaRIOUs bOUNDaRy RENEgOTIaTIONs; NOT a DEscRIpTION, fOR THERE aRE ¸aNy I¸pORTaNT DIsTINcTIONs TO bE ¸aDE HERE. °E TER¸ medicalisation ObscUREs THE DIffERENcEs bETwEEN pLacINg sO¸ETHINg UNDER THE sIgN Of pUbLIc HEaLTH (as IN THE cONTE¸pORaRy cONcERN wITH cHILDHOOD ObEsITy), pLacINg sO¸ETHINg UNDER THE aUTHORITy Of DOcTORs TO pREscRIbE, EVEN THOUgH NOT TREaTINg a DIsEasE (as IN THE DIspENsINg Of cONTRacEpTIVE pILLs TO REgULaTE NOR¸aL fERTILITy), aND pLacINg sO¸ETHINg wITHIN THE fiELD Of ¸OLEcULaR psycHOpHaR¸acOLOgy (as IN THE pREscRIpTION Of DRUgs TO aLLEVIaTE fEELINgs THaT wOULD ONcE HaVE bEEN aspEcTs Of EVERyDay UNHappI-
NEss). µOR DOEs ¸EDIcaLIsaTION HELp as cRITIqUE, fOR wHy sHOULD IT sEE¸ ETHIcaLLy OR pOLITIcaLLy pREfERabLy TO LIVE ONE aspEcT OR DEpaRT¸ENT Of LIfE UNDER
35
sTaRTINg pOINT Of aN aNaLysIs, a sIgN Of THE NEED fOR aN aNaLysIs, bUT IT sHOULD NOT bE THE cONcLUsION Of aN aNaLysIs.
Assembling Forms of Life MEDIcaLIsaTION I¸pLIEs passIVITy ON THE paRT Of THE ¸EDIcaLIsED. ±NE Exa¸pLE Is wHEN pEOpLE cLaI¸ THaT DIsEasE-awaRENEss ca¸paIgNs pERsUaDE pOTENTIaL cUsTO¸ERs TO “REcODE” THEIR UNEasE aND DIssaTIsfacTION IN THE fOR¸ Of a DIagNOsTIc caTEgORy TO ExTEND THE ¸aRkET fOR pHaR¸acEUTIcaL pRODUcTs aND THE RE¸IT Of ¸EDIcaL pRacTITIONERs. WITH NOTabLE ExcEpTIONs (cHILDREN, pRIsONERs, pEOpLE DEE¸ED ¸ENTaLLy ILL aND aD¸ITTED TO HOspITaL UNDER cO¸pULsION), DOcTORs DO NOT fORcE DIagNOsTIc LabELs ON REsIsTaNT INDIVIDUaLs. AND aLTHOUgH DRUg cO¸paNIEs UsE TEcHNIqUEs Of ¸ODERN ¸aRkETINg, THEy DO NOT sEEk TO DUpE aN EssENTIaLLy sUb¸IssIVE aUDIENcE. MaRkETINg TEcHNIqUEs, sINcE THE 1950s, HaVE NOT REgaRDED THE cONsU¸ER as a passIVE ObjEcT TO bE ¸aNIpULaTED by aDVERTIsERs, bUT as sO¸EONE TO bE kNOwN IN DETaIL, wHOsE NEEDs aRE TO bE cHaRTED, fOR wHO¸ cONsU¸pTION was aN acTIVITy bOUND INTO a fOR¸ Of LIfE THaT ¸UsT bE UNDERsTOOD. Ï MaRkETINg DOEs NOT sO ¸UcH INVENT faLsE NEEDs, as sUggEsTED by cULTURaL cRITIcs, bUT RaTHER sEEks TO UNDERsTaND THE DEsIREs Of pOTENTIaL cONsU¸ERs, TO affiLIaTE THOsE wITH THEIR pRODUcTs, aND TO LINk THEsE wITH THE HabITs NEEDED TO UsE THOsE pRODUcTs. ºT Is THIs pROcEss Of ¸UTUaL cONsTRUcTION, THE INTERTwININg Of pRODUcTs, ExpEcTaTIONs, ETHIcs aND fOR¸s Of LIfE, THaT wE ObsERVE IN THE DEVELOp¸ENT aND spREaD Of psycHIaTRIc DRUgs sUcH as THOsE fOR DEpREssION. °Is pROcEss Is NOT a bRUTE aTTE¸pT TO I¸pOsE a way Of REcODINg ¸IsERIEs, bUT THE cREaTION Of DELIcaTE affiLIaTIONs bETwEEN sUbjEcTIVE HOpEs aND DIssaTIsfacTIONs aND THE aLLEgED capacITIEs Of THE DRUg. SUcH a ¸EDIcaLIsaTION Of saDNEss caN OccUR ONLy wITHIN a pOLITIcaL EcONO¸y Of sUbjEcTIficaTION, a pUbLIc HabITaT Of I¸agEs Of THE gOOD LIfE fOR IDENTIficaTION, a pLURaLITy Of pEDagOgIEs Of EVERyDay ExIsTENcE, wHIcH DIspLay, IN ¸ETIcULOUs If baNaL DETaIL, THE ways Of cONDUcTINg ONEsELf THaT ¸akE pOssIbLE a LIfE THaT Is pERsONaLLy pLEasURabLE aND sOcIaLLy accEpTabLE. ºN ENgagINg wITH THEsE fOR¸ULaE IN INVENTIVE ways, INDIVIDUaLs pLay THEIR OwN paRT IN THE spREaD Of THE DIagNOsIs Of DEpREssION aND sHapINg NEw cONcEpTIONs Of THE sELf. °Us, bEyOND ¸EDIcaLIsaTION, ¸EDIcINE Has sHapED OUR ETHIcaL REgI¸Es, OUR RELaTIONs wITH OURsELVEs, OUR jUDg¸ENTs Of THE kINDs Of pEOpLE wE waNT
noitasilacideM dnoyeB
ONE DEscRIpTION RaTHER THaN aNOTHER? °E TER¸ medicalisation ¸IgHT bE THE
TO bE, aND THE LIVEs wE waNT TO LEaD. BUT If ¸EDIcINE Has bEEN fULLy ENgagED IN
36
¸akINg Us THE kINDs Of pEOpLE wE HaVE bEcO¸E, THIs Is NOT IN ITsELf gROUNDs fOR cRITIqUE. CRITIcaL EVaLUaTION Of THEsE HETEROgENEOUs DEVELOp¸ENTs Is
e s o R s a l o k i N
EssENTIaL. BUT wE NEED ¸ORE REfiNED cONcEpTUaL ¸ETHODs aND cRITERIa Of jUDg¸ENT TO assEss THE cOsTs aND bENEfiTs Of OUR THOROUgHLy ¸EDIcaL fOR¸ Of LIfE—aND Of THOsE THaT OffER THE¸sELVEs as aLTERNaTIVEs.
notes 1 ÁackINg º. MakINg Up pEOpLE. ºN ÁELLER ¹C, SOsNa M, WELLbERy ¶´, EDs. Reconstruct-
ing Individualism: Autonomy, Individuality and the Self in Western °ought. STaNfORD: STaNfORD ·NIVERsITy PREss; 1986:222–236. 2 ³OsE µ. MEDIcINE, HIsTORy aND THE pREsENT. ºN JONEs C, PORTER ³, EDs. Reassessing Fou-
cault: Power, Medicine and the Body. ²ONDON: ³OUTLEDgE; 1994:48–72. 3 ·S PREsIDENT’s COUNcIL ON BIOETHIcs, Kass ². Beyond °erapy: Biotechnology and the
Pursuit of Happiness . WasHINgTON: PREsIDENT’s COUNcIL ON BIOETHIcs; 2004:xxI, 328. 4 MILLER P, ³OsE µ. MObILIsINg THE cONsU¸ER: assE¸bLINg THE sUbjEcT Of cONsU¸pTION.
°eor Cult Soc. 1997;14:1–36.
On Be±ng A CR±PPle Nancy Mairs
¹O EscapE Is NOTHINg. µOT TO EscapE Is NOTHINg. —loui¼e ½oɾn
°E OTHER Day º was THINkINg Of wRITINg aN Essay ON bEINg a cRIppLE. º was THINkINg HaRD IN ONE Of THE sTaLLs Of THE wO¸EN’s ROO¸ IN ¸y OfficE bUILDINg, as º was sHOVINg ¸y sHIRT INTO ¸y jEaNs aND TUggINg Up ¸y zIppER. PREOccUpIED, º flUsHED, pIckED Up ¸y bOOk bag, TOOk ¸y caNE DOwN fRO¸ THE HOOk, aND UNLaTcHED THE DOOR. SO ¸aNy ¸OVE¸ENTs UNbaLaNcED ¸E, aND as º pULLED THE DOOR OpEN º fELL OVER backwaRD, LaNDINg fULLy cLOTHED ON THE TOILET sEaT wITH ¸y LEgs spLayED IN fRONT Of ¸E: THE OLD bEETLE-ON-ITs-back ROUTINE. SaTURDay aſtERNOON, THE bUILDINg DEsERTED, º was fREE TO LaUgH aLOUD as º wRIggLED back TO ¸y fEET, ¸y VOIcE bOUNcINg Off THE yELLOwIsH TILEs fRO¸ aLL DIREcTIONs. ÁaD aNyONE bEEN THERE wITH ¸E, º’D HaVE bEEN sTILL aND faINT aND HOT wITH cHagRIN. º DEcIDED THaT IT was HIgH TI¸E TO wRITE THE Essay. FIRsT, THE ¸aTTER Of sE¸aNTIcs. º a¸ a cRIppLE. º cHOOsE THIs wORD TO Na¸E ¸E. º cHOOsE fRO¸ a¸ONg sEVERaL pOssIbILITIEs, THE ¸OsT cO¸¸ON Of wHIcH aRE “HaNDIcappED” aND “DIsabLED.” º ¸aDE THE cHOIcE a NU¸bER Of yEaRs agO, wITHOUT THINkINg, UNawaRE Of ¸y ¸OTIVEs fOR DOINg sO. ´VEN NOw, º’¸ NOT sURE wHaT THOsE ¸OTIVEs aRE, bUT º REcOgNIzE THaT THEy aRE cO¸pLEx aND NOT ENTIRELy flaTTERINg. PEOpLE—cRIppLED OR NOT—wINcE aT THE wORD “cRIppLE,” as THEy DO NOT aT “HaNDIcappED” OR “DIsabLED.” PERHaps º waNT THE¸ TO wINcE. º waNT THE¸ TO sEE ¸E as a TOUgH cUsTO¸ER, ONE TO wHO¸ THE faTEs/gODs/ VIRUsEs HaVE NOT bEEN kIND, bUT wHO caN facE THE bRUTaL TRUTH Of HER ExIsTENcE sqUaRELy. As a cRIppLE, º swaggER. BUT, TO bE faIR TO ¸ysELf, a cERTaIN a¸OUNT Of HONEsTy UNDERLIEs ¸y cHOIcE. “CRIppLE” sEE¸s TO ¸E a cLEaN wORD, sTRaIgHTfORwaRD aND pREcIsE. ºT Has aN
µaNcy MaIRs, “±N BEINg a CRIppLE,” fRO¸ Plaintext, by µaNcy MaIRs. COpyRIgHT © 1986 °E ARIzONa BOaRD Of ³EgENTs. ³EpRINTED by pER¸IssION Of THE ·NIVERsITy Of ARIzONa PREss.
HONORabLE HIsTORy, HaVINg ¸aDE ITs fiRsT appEaRaNcE IN THE ²INDIsfaRNE GOs-
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pEL IN THE TENTH cENTURy. As a LOVER Of wORDs, º LIkE THE accURacy wITH wHIcH IT DEscRIbEs ¸y cONDITION: º HaVE LOsT THE fULL UsE Of ¸y LI¸bs. “¶IsabLED,”
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by cONTRasT, sUggEsTs aNy INcapacITy, pHysIcaL OR ¸ENTaL. AND º cERTaINLy DON’T LIkE “HaNDIcappED,” wHIcH I¸pLIEs THaT º HaVE DELIbERaTELy bEEN pUT aT a DIsaDVaNTagE, by wHO¸ º caN’T I¸agINE (¸y GOD Is NOT a ÁaNDIcappER GENERaL), IN ORDER TO EqUaLIzE cHaNcEs IN THE gREaT RacE Of LIfE. °EsE wORDs sEE¸ TO ¸E TO bE ¸OVINg away fRO¸ ¸y cONDITION, TO bE wIDENINg THE gap bETwEEN wORD aND REaLITy. MOsT RE¸OTE Is THE REcENTLy cOINED EUpHE¸Is¸ “DIffERENTLy abLED,” wHIcH paRTakEs Of THE sa¸E sE¸aNTIc HOpEfULNEss THaT TRaNsfOR¸ED cOUNTRIEs fRO¸ “UNDEVELOpED” TO “UNDERDEVELOpED,” THEN TO “LEss DEVELOpED,” aND fiNaLLy TO “DEVELOpINg” NaTIONs. PEOpLE HaVE cONTINUED TO sTaRVE IN THOsE cOUNTRIEs DURINg THE sHIſt. SO¸E REaLITIEs DO NOT ObEy THE DIcTaTEs Of LaNgUagE. MINE Is ONE Of THE¸. WHaTEVER yOU caLL ¸E, º RE¸aIN cRIppLED. BUT º DON’T caRE wHaT yOU caLL ¸E, sO LONg as IT IsN’T “DIffERENTLy abLED,” wHIcH sTRIkEs ¸E as pURE VERbaL gaRbagE DEsIgNED, by ITs abILITy TO DEscRIbE aNyONE, TO DEscRIbE NO ONE. º sUbscRIbE TO GEORgE ±RwELL’s THEsIs THaT “THE sLOVENLINEss Of OUR LaNgUagE ¸akEs IT EasIER fOR Us TO HaVE fOOLIsH THOUgHTs.” AND º REfUsE TO paRTIcIpaTE IN THE DEgENERaTION Of THE LaNgUagE TO THE ExTENT THaT º DENy THaT º HaVE LOsT aNyTHINg IN THE cOURsE Of THIs caLa¸ITOUs DIsEasE; º REfUsE TO pRETEND THaT THE ONLy DIffERENcEs bETwEEN yOU aND ¸E aRE THE VaRIOUs ORDINaRy ONEs THaT DIsTINgUIsH aNy ONE pERsON fRO¸ aNOTHER. BUT caLL ¸E “DIsabLED” OR “HaNDIcappED” If yOU LIkE. º HaVE LONg sINcE gROwN accUsTO¸ED TO THE¸; aND If THEy aRE VagUE, aT LEasT THEy HINT aT THE TRUTH. MOREOVER, º UsE THE¸ ¸ysELf. SOcIETy Is NO REaDIER TO accEpT cRIppLEDNEss THaN TO accEpT DEaTH, waR, sEx, swEaT, OR wRINkLEs. º wOULD NEVER REfER TO aNOTHER pERsON as a cRIppLE. ºT Is THE wORD º UsE TO Na¸E ONLy ¸ysELf. º HaVEN’T aLways bEEN cRIppLED, a facT fOR wHIcH º a¸ sOUNDLy gRaTEfUL. ¹O bE wHOLE Of LI¸b Is, º kNOw fRO¸ ExpERIENcE, INfiNITELy ¸ORE pLEasaNT aND UsEfUL THaN TO bE cRIppLED; aND If THaT kNOwLEDgE LEaVEs ¸E OpEN TO bITTERNEss aT ¸y LOss, THE pHysIcaL sOUNDNEss º ONcE ENjOyED (THOUgH º DID NOT ENjOy IT HaLf ENOUgH) Is wELL wORTH THE OccasIONaL sTab Of REgRET. °OUgH NEVER aNy gOOD aT spORTs, º was a NOR¸aLLy acTIVE cHILD aND yOUNg aDULT. º cLI¸bED TREEs, pLayED HOpscOTcH, jU¸pED ROpE, skaTED, swa¸, RODE ¸y bIcycLE, saILED. º DEspIsED TEa¸ spORTs, spENDINg sO¸E Of THE wRETcHEDEsT aſtERNOONs Of ¸y LIfE, swEaTy aND HU¸ILIaTED, bEHIND a fiELD HOckEy sTIck aND UNDER a baskETbaLL HOOp. º TRa¸pED aLONE fOR ¸ILEs aLONg THE bRIDLE paTHs THaT wEbbED THE wOODs bEHIND THE HOUsE º gREw Up IN. º swayED THROUgH cOUNTLEss DI¸
HOURs IN THE aR¸s Of ONE ¸aN OR aNOTHER UNDER THE scaTTERED sHOT Of LIgHT fRO¸ ¸IRRORED baLLs, aND gyRaTED THROUgH cOUNTLEss ¸ORE as ¹ab ÁUNTER
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³EVIVaL, CREa¸. º waLkED DOwN THE aIsLE. º pUsHED baby caRRIagEs, cHaNgED TIREs IN THE RaIN, ¸aRcHED fOR pEacE. WHEN º was 28 º sTaRTED TO TRIp aND DROp THINgs. WHaT aT fiRsT sEE¸ED ¸y NaTURaL cLU¸sINEss sOON bEca¸E TOO pRONOUNcED TO sHRUg Off. º cONsULTED a NEUROLOgIsT, wHO TOLD ¸E THaT º HaD a bRaIN TU¸OR. A baTTERy Of TEsTs, INcREasINgLy DIsagREEabLE, REVEaLED NO TU¸OR. AbOUT a yEaR aND a HaLf LaTER º DEVELOpED a bLURRED spOT IN ONE EyE. º HaD, aT LasT, THE EpIsODEs “DIssE¸INaTED IN spacE aND TI¸E” REqUIsITE fOR a DIagNOsIs: ¸ULTIpLE scLEROsIs. º HaVE NEVER bEEN sORRy fOR THE DOcTOR’s INITIaL ¸IsDIagNOsIs, HOwEVER. FOR aL¸OsT a wEEk, UNTIL THE NEgaTIVE REsULTs Of THE TEsTs wERE IN, º THOUgHT THaT º was gOINg TO DIE RIgHT away. ´VERy Day fOR THE pasT NEaRLy 10 yEaRs, THEN, Has bEEN a kIND Of gIſt. º accEpT aLL gIſts. MULTIpLE scLEROsIs Is a cHRONIc DEgENERaTIVE DIsEasE Of THE cENTRaL NERVOUs sysTE¸, IN wHIcH THE ¸yELIN THaT sHEaTHEs THE NERVEs Is sO¸EHOw EaTEN away aND scaR TIssUE fOR¸s IN ITs pLacE, INTERRUpTINg THE NERVEs’ sIgNaLs. ¶URINg ITs cOURsE, wHIcH Is UNpREDIcTabLE aND UNcONTROLLabLE, ONE ¸ay LOsE VIsION, HEaRINg, spEEcH, THE abILITy TO waLk, cONTROL Of bLaDDER aND/OR bOwELs, sTRENgTH IN aNy OR aLL ExTRE¸ITIEs, sENsITIVITy TO TOUcH, VIbRaTION, aND/OR paIN, pOTENcy, cOORDINaTION Of ¸OVE¸ENTs—THE LIsT Of pOssIbILITIEs Is LENgTHy aND, yEs, HORRIfyINg. ±NE ¸ay aLsO LOsE ONE’s sENsE Of HU¸OR. °aT’s THE EasIEsT TO LOsE aND THE HaRDEsT TO sURVIVE wITHOUT. ºN THE pasT 10 yEaRs, º HaVE sUsTaINED sO¸E Of THEsE LOssEs. CHaRacTERIsTIc Of m¼ aRE sUDDEN aTTacks, caLLED ExacERbaTIONs, fOLLOwED by RE¸IssIONs, aND THEsE º HaVE NOT HaD. ºNsTEaD, ¸y DIsEasE Has bEEN sLOwLy pROgREssIVE. My LEſt LEg Is NOw sO wEak THaT º waLk wITH THE aID Of a bRacE aND a caNE; aND fOR DIsTaNcEs º UsE aN A¸IgO, a VaRIaTION ON THE ELEcTRIc wHEELcHaIR THaT LOOks RaTHER LIkE aN ELEcTRIfiED kIDDIE caR. º NO LONgER HaVE ¸UcH UsE Of ¸y LEſt HaND. µOw ¸y RIgHT sIDE Is wEakENINg as wELL. º sTILL HaVE THE bLURRED spOT IN ¸y RIgHT EyE. ±VERaLL, THOUgH, º’VE bEEN LUcky sO faR. My wORLD Has, Of NEcEssITy, bEEN cIRcU¸scRIbED by ¸y LOssEs, bUT THE TERRaIN LEſt ¸E Has bEEN a¸pLE ENOUgH fOR ¸E TO cONTINUE ¸aNy Of THE acTIVITIEs THaT absORb ¸E: wRITINg, TEacHINg, RaIsINg cHILDREN aND caTs aND pLaNTs aND sNakEs, REaDINg, spEakINg pUbLIcLy abOUT m¼ aND DEpREssION, EVEN pLayINg bRIDgE wITH pEOpLE paTIENT aND HONORabLE ENOUgH TO LET ¸E scaTTER caRDs EVERy wHIcH way wITHOUT sNEakINg a pEEk. ²EsT º bEgIN TO sOUND LIkE POLLyaNNa, HOwEVER, LET ¸E say THaT º DON’T LIkE HaVINg m¼. º HaTE IT. My LIfE HOLDs REaLITIEs—HaRsH ONEs, sO¸E Of THE¸—THaT
e l p p i r C a g n i e B n O
aND JOHNNy MaTHIs gaVE way TO THE ³OLLINg STONEs, CREEDENcE CLEaRwaTER
NO RIgHT-¸INDED HU¸aN bEINg OUgHT TO accEpT wITHOUT gRU¸bLINg. ±NE Of
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THE¸ Is faTIgUE. º kNOw Of NO ONE wITH m¼ wHO DOEs NOT cO¸pLaIN Of bONE- wEaRINEss; IN a DIsEasE THaT pREsENTs aN asTONIsHINg VaRIETy Of sy¸pTO¸s,
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faTIgUE sEE¸s TO bE a cO¸¸ON facTOR. º wakE Up IN THE ¸ORNINg fEELINg THE way ¸OsT pEOpLE DO aT THE END Of a baD Day, aND º TakE IT fRO¸ THERE. As a REsULT, º spEND a LOT Of TI¸E in extremis aND, I¸paTIENT wITH LI¸ITaTION, º TEND TO IgNORE ¸y faTIgUE UNTIL ¸y bODy bREaks DOwN IN sO¸E way aND fORcEs REsT. °EN º ¸Iss pIcNIcs, DINNER paRTIEs, pOETRy REaDINgs, THE bRIEf VIsITs Of OLD fRIENDs fRO¸ OUT Of TOwN. °E OffspRINg Of a pURITaNIcaL TRaDITION Of ExcEpTIONaL VENERabILITy, º caNNOT VIEw THEsE LapsEs wITHOUT sHa¸E. My LIfE OſtEN sEE¸s a sERIEs Of s¸aLL faILUREs TO DO as º OUgHT. º LEaD, ON THE wHOLE, aN ORDINaRy LIfE, pRObabLy RaTHER LIkE THE ONE º wOULD HaVE LED HaD º NOT HaD m¼. º a¸ LUcky THaT ¸y pREDILEcTIONs wERE aLREaDy sOLITaRy, sEDENTaRy, aND bOOkIsH—UNLIkE THE wORLD-fa¸OUs FRENcH cELLIsT º HaVE REaD abOUT, OR THE yOUNg wO¸aN º TaLkED wITH ONE LONg aſtERNOON wHO waNTED ONLy TO bE a jOckEy. º HaD jUsT bEgUN gRaDUaTE scHOOL wHEN º fOUND OUT sO¸ETHINg was wRONg wITH ¸E, aND º HaVE RE¸aINED, INTER¸INabLy, a gRaDUaTE sTUDENT. PERHaps º wOULD NOT HaVE If º’D THOUgHT º HaD THE sTa¸INa TO RETURN TO a fULL-TI¸E jOb as a TEcHNIcaL EDITOR; bUT º’VE ENjOyED ¸y sTUDIEs. ºN aDDITION TO sTUDyINg, º TEacH wRITINg cOURsEs. º aLsO TEacH ¸EDIcaL sTUDENTs HOw TO gIVE NEUROLOgIcaL Exa¸INaTIONs. º pIck Up fREELaNcE EDITINg jObs HERE aND THERE. º HaVE RaIsED a fOsTER sON aND sENT HI¸ INTO THE wORLD, wHERE HE Has ¸aDE ¸E TwO gRaNDbabIEs, aND º a¸ sTILL EscORTINg ¸y DaUgHTER aND sON THROUgH aDOLEscENcE. º gO TO Mass EVERy SaTURDay. º a¸ a sUpERb, If ¸Essy, cOOk. º a¸ aLsO aN ENTHUsIasTIc LaUNDREss, capabLE Of sORTINg a Ha¸pER fULL Of cLOTHEs INTO fiVE sUbTLy DIffERENTIaTED pILEs, bUT a TERRIbLE HOUsEkEEpER. º caN DO ITaLIc wRITINg aND, IN aN E¸ERgENcy, baTHE aN OIL-sOakED caT. º pLay a fiENDIsH ga¸E Of ScRabbLE. WHEN º HaVE THE TI¸E aND THE ¸ONEy, º LIkE TO sIT ON ¸y fRONT sTEps wITH ¸y HUsbaND, DRINkINg A¸aRETTO aND s¸OkINg a cIgaR, as wE I¸agINE OUR cOUNTERpaRTs IN ²ENINgRaD aND ¸akE sURE THaT THE sUN gETs DOwN ONcE ¸ORE bEHIND THE sHaRp cHILDIsH scRawL Of THE ¹UcsON MOUNTaINs. °Is LIVELy pLENTy Has ITs bLEak cO¸pLE¸ENT, Of cOURsE, IN aLL THE THINgs º caN NO LONgER DO. º wILL NEVER RUN agaIN, ExcEpT IN DREa¸s, aND ONE Day º ¸ay HaVE TO wRITE THaT º wILL NEVER waLk agaIN. º LIkE TO gO ca¸pINg, bUT º caN’T fOLLOw GEORgE aND THE cHILDREN aLONg THE TRaILs THaT waNDER OUT Of a ca¸psITE THROUgH THE DEsERT OR INTO THE ¸OUNTaINs. ºN facT, EVEN ON THE LEVEL º’VE LEaRNED NEVER TO cHEck THE wEaTHER OR TRy TO HOLD a cOHERENT cONVERsaTION: º NEED aLL ¸y aTTENTION fOR ¸y waywaRD fEET. ±f LaTE, º HaVE bEgUN TO caTcH ¸ysELf wONDERINg HOw pEOpLE caN pROpEL THE¸sELVEs wITHOUT caNEs. WITH
ONLy ONE UsabLE HaND, º HaVE TO sELEcT ¸y cLOTHINg wITH caRE NOT sO ¸UcH fOR sTyLE as fOR EasE Of INgREss aND EgREss, aND EVEN sO, DREssINg caN bE LabORIOUs.
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HaIR. º a¸ I¸¸ObILIzED by acUTE aTTacks Of DEpREssION, wHIcH ¸ay OR ¸ay NOT bE pHysIOLOgIcaLLy RELaTED TO m¼ bUT aRE cERTaINLy ITs LOgIcaL cONcO¸ITaNT. °EsE TwO ELE¸ENTs, THE pLENTy aND THE pRIVaTION, aRE NEVER pURE, NOR aRE THE DELIgHT aND wRETcHEDNEss THaT accO¸paNy THE¸. AL¸OsT EVERy pIckLE THaT º gET INTO as a REsULT Of ¸y wEakNEss aND cLU¸sINEss—aND º gET INTO pLENTy—Is fUNNy as wELL as ¸aDDENINg aND sO¸ETI¸Es paINfUL. º REcaLL ONE May aſtERNOON wHEN a fRIEND aND º wERE gOINg OUT fOR a DRINk aſtER fiNIsHINg Up aT scHOOL. As wE wERE cLI¸bINg INTO OppOsITE sIDEs Of ¸y caR, cHaTTINg, º TRIppED aND fELL, flaT aND HaRD, ONTO THE aspHaLT paRkINg LOT, ¸y abRUpT DEpaRTURE INTERRUpTINg HI¸ IN ¸ID-sENTENcE. “WHERE’D yOU gO?” HE caLLED as HE ca¸E aROUND THE back Of THE caR TO fiND ¸E HaULINg ¸ysELf Up by THE DOOR fRa¸E. “ARE yOU aLL RIgHT?” YEs, º TOLD HI¸, º was fiNE, jUsT a bIT RaTTLy, aND wE DROVE Off TO fiND a sHaDy paTIO aND sO¸E bEER. WHEN º gOT HO¸E aN HOUR OR sO LaTER, ¸y DaUgHTER gREETED ¸E wITH “WHaT HaVE yOU DONE TO yOURsELf?” º LOOkED DOwN. ±NE ELbOw Of ¸y wHITE TURTLENEck wITH THE gREEN fROggIEs, ONE kNEE Of ¸y wHITE TROUsERs, ONE wHITE kNEEsOck wERE bLOOD-sOakED. WE pEELED Off THE cLOTHEs aND INspEcTED THE Da¸agE, wHIcH was NasTy ENOUgH bUT NOT aLaR¸INg. °aT paRT wasN’T fUNNy: °E abRasIONs TOOk a LONg TI¸E TO HEaL, aND ONE gOT a LITTLE INfEcTED. ´VEN sO, wHEN º THINk Of ¸y fRIEND TaLkINg EaRNEsTLy, sUDDENLy, TO THE HOT THIN aIR wHILE º DROppED fRO¸ HIs VIEw as THOUgH THROUgH a TRap DOOR, º fiND THE I¸agE as sILLy as sO¸ETHINg fRO¸ a MaRx BROTHERs ¸OVIE. º ¸ay fiND IT EasIER THaN OTHER cRIppLEs TO a¸UsE ¸ysELf bEcaUsE º LIVE pROppED by THE accEpTaNcE aND THE assIsTaNcE aND, sO¸ETI¸Es, THE a¸UsE¸ENT Of THOsE aROUND ¸E. GROcERy cLERks TEaR ¸y cHEcks OUT Of ¸y cHEckbOOk fOR ¸E, aND saLEs cLERks fiND cHaIRs TO pUT INTO DREssINg ROO¸s wHEN º waNT TO TRy ON cLOTHEs. °E pEOpLE º wORk wITH ¸akE sURE º TEacH aT TI¸Es wHEN º a¸ LEasT LIkELy TO bE faTIgUED, IN pLacEs º caN gET TO, wITH THE ¸aTERIaLs º NEED. My sTUDENTs, wITH ONE aNONy¸OUs ExcEpTION (IN aN END-Of-THE-sE¸EsTER EVaLUaTION), HaVE bEEN UNpERTURbED by ¸y DIsabILITy. SO¸E EVEN LIkE IT. ±NE was I¸¸ENsELy cHEERED by THE INfOR¸aTION THaT º paINT ¸y OwN fiNgERNaILs; sHE DEcIDED, sHE TOLD ¸E, THaT If º cOULD gO TO sUcH TROUbLE OVER fiNE DETaILs, sHE cOULD kEEp ON wRITINg Essays. º sUppOsE º bEca¸E sO¸E sORT Of bRIgHT-fiNgERED ¸UsE. SHE wROTE gOOD Essays, TOO. °E ¸OsT I¸pORTaNT sTRUTs IN THE fRa¸EwORk Of ¸y ExIsTENcE, Of cOURsE, aRE ¸y HUsbaND aND cHILDREN. ¶Is¸ayINgLy fEw ¸aRRIagEs sURVIVE THE m¼
e l p p i r C a g n i e B n O
º caN NO LONgER DO fiNE sTITcHERy, pIck Up babIEs, pLay THE pIaNO, bRaID ¸y
TEsT, aND wHy sHOULD THEy? MOsT 22- aND 19-yEaR-OLDs, LIkE GEORgE aND ¸E,
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caN VOw IN cLEaR cONscIENcE, aſtER a cHILDHOOD Of cHIckEN pOx aND sU¸¸ER cOLDs, TO kEEp ONE aNOTHER IN sIckNEss aND IN HEaLTH sO LONg as THEy bOTH sHaLL
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LIVE. µOT ¸aNy aRE EqUIppED fOR caTasTROpHE: THE DIs¸ay, THE DEpREssION, THE ExTRa wORk, THE bOREDO¸ THaT a DEgENERaTIVE DIsEasE caN INsINUaTE INTO a RELaTIONsHIp. AND OUR sOcIETy, wITH ITs E¸pHasIs ON fUN aND ITs assOcIaTION Of fUN wITH pHysIcaL pERfOR¸aNcE, OffERs LITTLE ENcOURagE¸ENT fOR a wHOLE spOUsE TO sTay wITH a cRIppLED paRTNER. CHILDREN ExpERIENcE sI¸ILaR sTREssEs wHEN facED wITH a cRIppLED paRENT, aND THEy aRE ¸ORE HELpLEss, sINcE paRENTs aND cHILDREN caN’T UsUaLLy gET DIVORcED. °Ey HaTE, Of cOURsE, TO bE DIffERENT fRO¸ THEIR pEERs, aND THE cHILD wHOsE ¸OTHER Is TackINg DOwN THE aIsLE Of a scHOOL aUDITORIU¸ packED wITH pROUD paRENTs LIkE a CapE COD DINgHy IN a sTIff bREEzE jOLLy wELL sTaNDs OUT IN a cROwD. ¶EpRIVED Of LEgaL DIVORcE, THE cHILD caN aT LEasT DENy THE ¸OTHER’s DIsabILITy, EVEN HER ExIsTENcE, fORgETTINg TO TELL HER abOUT REcITaLs aND ¿t¾ ¸EETINgs, REfUsINg TO accO¸paNy HER TO sTOREs OR cHURcH OR THE ¸OVIEs, NEVER INVITINg fRIENDs TO THE HOUsE. MaNy DO. BUT º’VE bEEN LI¸pINg aLONg fOR 10 yEaRs NOw, aND sO faR GEORgE aND THE cHILDREN aRE sTILL aT ¸y LEſt ELbOw, HOLDINg TIgHT. ANNE aND MaTTHEw VacUU¸ flOORs aND DUsT fURNITURE aND HaUL TRasH aND RakE Up DOg DROppINgs aND bUTTON ¸y cUffs aND bakE LasagNa aND ¹OLL ÁOUsE cOOkIEs wITH jUsT ENOUgH gRU¸bLINg sO º kNOw THaT THEy DON’T HaVE bRaIN fEVER. AND faR fRO¸ HIDINg ¸E, THEy’RE fOREVER DRaggINg ¸E by Racks Of faNcy cLOTHEs OR THROUgH TEE¸INg scHOOL cORRIDORs, OR wELcO¸INg gaggLEs Of fRIENDs wHILE º’¸ waNDERINg THROUgH THE HOUsE IN ANNE’s fiL¸y pINk babyDOLL paja¸as. GEORgE gENERaLLy caLLs bEfORE HE bRINgs sO¸EONE HO¸E, bUT HE DOEs jUsT as ¸aNy DU¸b, THaNkLEss cHOREs as THE cHILDREN. AND THEy aLL yELL aT ¸E, LaUgH aT sO¸E Of ¸y jOkEs, wRITE ¸E fUNNy LETTERs wHEN wE’RE apaRT—IN sHORT, TREaT ¸E as aN ORDINaRy HU¸aN bEINg fOR wHO¸ THEy HaVE sO¸E UsE. º THINk THEy LIkE ¸E. ·NLEss THEy’RE fakINg . . . FakINg. °ERE’s THE RUb. ¹UggINg aT THE fRINgEs Of ¸y cONscIOUsNEss aLways Is THE TERROR THaT pEOpLE aRE kIND TO ¸E ONLy bEcaUsE º’¸ a cRIppLE. My ¸OTHER aL¸OsT sHaTTERED ¸E ONcE, wITH THaT INsTINcT ¸OTHERs HaVE—bLIND, º THINk, IN THIs casE, bUT UNERRINg NONETHELEss—fOR sTRIkINg bLOws aLONg THE faULT LINEs Of THEIR cHILDREN’s HEaRTs, by TELLINg ¸E, IN aN aTTack ON ¸y sELfisHNEss, “WE aLL HaVE TO ¸akE aLLOwaNcEs fOR yOU, Of cOURsE, bEcaUsE Of THE way yOU aRE.” FRO¸ THE DIsTaNcE Of a cOUpLE Of yEaRs, º HaVE TO aD¸IT THaT º HaVEN’T aNy IDEa jUsT wHaT sHE ¸EaNT, aND º’¸ NOT sURE THaT sHE kNEw EITHER. SHE was awfULLy aNgRy. BUT aT THE TI¸E, as THE wORDs THUDDED HO¸E, º fELT ¸y wORsT fEaR, sUDDENLy REaLIzED. º cOULD bEaR bEINg caLLED sELfisH: º a¸. BUT º cOULDN’T
bEaR THE cORRObORaTION THaT THOsE aROUND ¸E wERE DOINg IN facT wHaT º’D aLways sUspEcTED THE¸ Of DOINg, pROfEssINg fONDNEss wHILE sILENTLy pUTTINg
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sINcE. ALONg wITH THIs fEaR THaT pEOpLE aRE sEcRETLy accEpTINg sHODDy gOODs cO¸Es a RELENTLEss pREssURE TO pLEasE—TO pROVE ¸ysELf wORTH THE bURDENs º I¸pOsE, º gUEss, OR TO bUILD a sUbsTaNTIaL accOUNT Of gOODwILL agaINsT wHIcH º ¸ay wRITE DRaſts IN TI¸Es Of NEED. PaRT Of THE pREssURE aRIsEs fRO¸ sOcIaL ExpEcTaTIONs. ºN OUR sOcIETy, aNyONE wHO DEVIaTEs fRO¸ THE NOR¸ HaD bETTER fiND sO¸E way TO cO¸pENsaTE. ²IkE faT pEOpLE, wHO aRE ExpEcTED TO bE jOLLy, cRIppLEs ¸UsT bEaR THEIR LOT ¸EEkLy aND cHEERfULLy. A gRU¸py cRIppLE IsN’T pLayINg by THE RULEs. AND ¸UcH Of THE pREssURE Is sELf-gENERaTED. ´aRLy ON º VOwED THaT, If º HaD TO HaVE m¼, by GOD º was gOINg TO DO IT wELL. °Is Is a cLass acT, LaDIEs aND gENTLE¸EN. µO TEaRs, NO REcRI¸INaTIONs, NO faINT-HEaRTEDNEss. ±NE way aND aNOTHER, THEN, º wIND Up fEELINg LIkE ¹INy ¹I¸, pEERINg OVER THE EDgE Of THE TabLE aT THE CHRIsT¸as gOOsE, waVINg ¸y cRUTcH, pIpINg DOwN GOD’s bLEssINg ON Us aLL. ±NLy sO¸ETI¸Es º DON’T waNT TO pLay ¹INy ¹I¸. º’D RaTHER bE CaLIbaN, a ¸OsT scURVy ¸ONsTER. FORTUNaTELy, aT HO¸E NO ONE ¸UcH caREs wHETHER º’¸ a gOOD cRIppLE OR a baD cRIppLE as LONg as º ¸akE VIcHyssOIsE wITH faIR REgULaRITy. ±NE EVENINg sEVERaL yEaRs agO, ANNE was REaDINg aT THE DININg-ROO¸ TabLE wHILE º cOOkED DINNER. As º OpENED a caN Of TO¸aTOEs, THE caN sLIppED IN ¸y LEſt HaND aND jUIcE spaTTERED ¸E aND THE cOUNTER wITH bLOODy spOTs. FaTIgUED aND INfURIaTED, º bELLOwED, “º’¸ sO sIck Of bEINg cRIppLED!” ANNE gLaNcED aT ¸E OVER THE TOp Of HER bOOk. “°ERE NOw,” sHE saID, “DO yOU fEEL bETTER?” “YEs,” º saID, “yEs, º DO.” SHE wENT back TO HER REaDINg. º fELT bETTER. °aT’s abOUT aLL THE aTTENTION ¸y scURVINEss EVER gETs. BEcaUsE º HaTE bEINg cRIppLED, º sO¸ETI¸Es HaTE ¸ysELf fOR bEINg a cRIppLE. ±VER THE yEaRs º HaVE cO¸E TO ExpEcT—EVEN accEpT—aTTacks Of VIOLENT sELf-LOaTHINg. ²UckILy, IN gENERaL OUR sOcIETy NO LONgER cONNEcTs DEfOR¸ITy aND DIsEasE DIREcTLy wITH EVIL (THOUgH a cHaRIs¸aTIc ONcE TOLD ¸E THaT º HaVE m¼ bEcaUsE a DEVIL Is IN ¸E), aND sO º’¸ aLLOwED TO ¸OVE LaRgELy aT wILL, EVEN a¸ONg s¸aLL cHILDREN. BUT º’¸ NOT sURE THaT THIs REVIsION Of aTTITUDE Has bEEN paRTIcULaRLy HELpfUL. PHysIcaL I¸pERfEcTION, EVEN fREED Of ¸ORaL DIsappRObaTION, sTILL DEfiEs aND VIOLaTEs THE IDEaL, EspEcIaLLy fOR wO¸EN, wHOsE cONfiNE¸ENT IN THEIR bODIEs as ObjEcTs Of DEsIRE Is faR fRO¸ OVER. ´acH agE, Of cOURsE, Has ITs IDEaL, aND º DOUbT THaT OURs Is aNy bETTER OR wORsE THaN aNy OTHER. ¹ODay’s IDEaL wO¸aN, wHO LIVEs ON THE gLOssy pagEs Of DOzENs Of ¸agazINEs, sEE¸s TO bE bETwEEN THE agEs Of 18 aND 25; HER HaIR Has bODy, HER TEETH flasH wHITE, HER bREaTH s¸ELLs ¸INTy, HER UNDERaR¸s aRE DRy; sHE Has
e l p p i r C a g n i e B n O
Up wITH ¸E bEcaUsE Of THE way º a¸. A cRIppLE. º’VE bEEN a LITTLE cRackED EVER
a caREER bUT Is sTILL a fabULOUs cOOk, EspEcIaLLy Of ¸EaLs THaT TakE LEss THaN
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TwENTy ¸INUTEs TO pREpaRE; sHE DOEs NOT ORDINaRILy appEaR TO HaVE a HUsbaND OR cHILDREN; sHE Is TRI¸ aND DEEpLy TaNNED; sHE jOgs, swI¸s, pLays TENNIs,
s r i a M y c n a N
RIDEs a bIcycLE, saILs, bUT DOEs NOT bOwL; sHE TRaVELs wIDELy, EVEN TO OUT-Of- THE-way pLacEs LIkE FINLaND aND Sa¸Oa, aLways IN THE cO¸paNy Of THE IDEaL ¸aN, wHO pOssEssEs a NEaRLy IDENTIcaL sET Of cHaRacTERIsTIcs. °ERE aRE a fEw ExcEpTIONs. °OUgH UsUaLLy wHITE aND OſtEN bLONDE, sHE ¸ay bE bLack, ÁIspaNIc, AsIaN, OR µaTIVE A¸ERIcaN, sO LONg as sHE Is UNUsUaLLy sLEEk. SHE ¸ay bE OLD, pROVIDED sHE Is sELLINg a LaxaTIVE OR Is ²aUREN BacaLL. ºf sHE Is sELLINg a DETERgENT, sHE ¸ay bE ¸aRRIED aND HaVE a flOck Of sTRIkINgLy ¸Essy cHILDREN. BUT sHE Is NEVER a cRIppLE. ²IkE ¸aNy wO¸EN º kNOw, º HaVE aLways HaD aN UNEasy RELaTIONsHIp wITH ¸y bODy. º was NOT a pOpULaR cHILD, LaRgELy, º THINk NOw, bEcaUsE º was pEcULIaR: INTELLIgENT, INTENsE, ¸OODy, sHy, gIVEN TO UNExpEcTED acTIONs aND INExpLIcabLE NOTIONs aND E¸OTIONs. BUT as º ENTERED aDOLEscENcE, º bELIEVED ¸ysELf UNpOpULaR bEcaUsE º was HO¸ELy: ¸y bREasTs TOO flaT, ¸y ¸OUTH TOO wIDE, ¸y HIps TOO NaRROw, ¸y cLOTHINg NEVER qUITE RIgHT IN fiT OR sTyLE. º was NOT, IN facT, paRTIcULaRLy UgLy, OLD pHOTOgRapHs INfOR¸ ¸E, THOUgH º was wELL Off THE IDEaL; bUT º caRRIED THIs sENsE Of sELf-aLIENaTION wITH ¸E INTO aDULTHOOD, wHERE IT REgENERaTED IN REspONsE TO THE DEpREDaTIONs Of m¼. ´VEN wITH ¸y bRacE º waLk wITH a LI¸p sO pRONOUNcED THaT, sEEINg ¸ysELf ON THE VIDEOTapE Of a TELEVIsION pROgRa¸ ON THE DIsabLED, º cOULDN’T bELIEVE THaT aNyTHINg bUT aN INcH-wOR¸ cOULD ¸akE pROgREss HU¸pINg aLONg LIkE THaT. My sHOULDERs DROOp aND ¸y pELVIs THRUsTs fORwaRD as º TRy TO baLaNcE ¸ysELf UpRIgHT, THROwINg ¸y fRa¸E INTO a bONy S. As a REsULT Of cONTRacTUREs, ONE sHOULDER Is HIgHER THaN THE OTHER aND º caRRy ONE aR¸ bENT IN fRONT Of ¸E, THE fiNgERs cURLED INTO a cLaw. My LEſt aR¸ aND LEg HaVE wasTED INTO pIpE-sTE¸s, aND º TRy aLways TO kEEp THE¸ cOVERED. WHEN º THINk abOUT HOw ¸y bODy ¸UsT LOOk TO OTHERs, EspEcIaLLy TO ¸EN, TO wHO¸ º HaVE bEEN TRaINED TO DIspLay ¸ysELf, º fEEL LUDIcROUs, EVEN LOaTHsO¸E. AT ¸y agE, HOwEVER, º DON’T spEND ¸UcH TI¸E THINkINg abOUT ¸y appEaRaNcE. °E bURNINg EgOcENTRIcITy Of aDOLEscENcE, wHIcH assUREs ONE THaT aLL THE wORLD Is LOOkINg aLL THE TI¸E, Has passED, THaNk GOD, aND º’¸ gENERaLLy TOO caUgHT Up IN wHaT º’¸ DOINg TO sTEp back, as º UsED TO, aND waTcH ¸ysELf as THOUgH UpON a sTagE. º’¸ aLsO TOO OLD TO bELIEVE IN THE accURacy Of sELf- I¸agE. º kNOw THaT º’¸ NOT a HIDEOUs cRONE, THaT IN facT, wHEN º’¸ REsTED, wELL DREssED, aND wELL ¸aDE Up, º LOOk fiNE. °E sELf-LOaTHINg º fEEL Is NEITHER pHysIcaLLy NOR INTELLEcTUaLLy sUbsTaNTIaL. WHaT º HaTE Is NOT ¸E bUT a DIsEasE. º a¸ NOT a DIsEasE.
AND a DIsEasE Is NOT—aT LEasT NOT sINgLEHaNDEDLy—gOINg TO DETER¸INE wHO º a¸, THOUgH aT fiRsT IT sEE¸ED TO bE gOINg TO. ADjUsTINg TO a cHRONIc
45
´LIzabETH KübLER-³Oss IN On Death and Dying. °E ¸ajOR DIffERENcE—aND IT Is faR ¸ORE sIgNIficaNT THaN ¸OsT pEOpLE REcOgNIzE—Is THaT º caN’T bE sURE Of THE OUTcO¸E, as THE TER¸INaLLy ILL caNcER paTIENT caN. ³EsEaRcH sTUDIEs INDIcaTE THaT, wITH pROpER ¸EDIcaL caRE, º ¸ay acHIEVE a “NOR¸aL” LIfE spaN. AND IN OUR sOcIETy, wITH ITs VIsION Of DEaTH as THE ULTI¸aTE EVIL, wORsE EVEN THaN DEcREpITUDE, THE REspONsE TO sUcH NEws Is, “±H wELL, aT LEasT yOU’RE NOT gOINg TO die.” ARE THERE wORsE THINgs THaN DyINg? º THINk THaT THERE ¸ay bE. º THINk Of TwO wO¸EN º kNOw, bOTH wITH m¼, bOTH ENOUgH OLDER THaN º TO HaVE sERVED ¸E as ¸ODELs. ±NE TOOk TO HER bED sEVERaL yEaRs agO aND Has bEEN THERE EVER sINcE. ALTHOUgH sHE caN sIT IN a HIgH-backED wHEELcHaIR, bEcaUsE sHE Is INcONTINENT sHE REfUsEs TO gO OUT aT aLL, EVEN THOUgH INcONTINENcE paNTs, wHIcH aRE REaDILy aVaILabLE aT aNy pHaR¸acy, cOULD pROTEcT HER fRO¸ E¸baRRass¸ENT. ºNsTEaD, sHE sTays aT HO¸E aND INsIsTs THaT HER HUsbaND, a s¸aLL qUIET ¸aN, a RETIRED cIVIL sERVaNT, sTay THERE wITH HER ExcEpT fOR a qUIck wEEkLy fORay TO THE sUpER¸aRkET. °E OTHER wO¸aN, wHOsE ILLNEss was DIagNOsED wHEN sHE was 18, a NURsINg sTUDENT ENgagED TO a yOUNg DOcTOR, fiNIsHED HER TRaININg, ¸aRRIED HER DOcTOR, accO¸paNIED HI¸ TO GER¸aNy wHEN HE was IN THE sERVIcE, bORE THREE sONs aND a DaUgHTER, NOw gROwN aND gONE. WHEN sHE caN, sHE TRaVELs wITH HER HUsbaND; sHE pLays bRIDgE, E¸bROIDERs, swI¸s REgULaRLy; sHE wORks, LIkE ¸E, as a sy¸pTO¸aTIc-paTIENT INsTRUcTOR Of ¸EDIcaL sTUDENTs IN NEUROLOgy. GUEss wHIcH wO¸aN º HOpE TO bE. AT THE bEgINNINg, º THOUgHT abOUT HaVINg m¼ aL¸OsT INcEssaNTLy. AND bEcaUsE Of THE UNpREDIcTabLE cOURsE Of THE DIsEasE, ¸y THOUgHTs wERE aLways TERRIfiED. ´acH NIgHT º’D gET INTO bED wONDERINg wHETHER º’D gET OUT agaIN THE NExT ¸ORNINg, wHETHER º’D bE abLE TO sEE, TO spEak, TO HOLD a pEN bETwEEN ¸y fiNgERs. KNOwINg THaT THE Day ¸IgHT cO¸E wHEN º’D bE pHysIcaLLy INcapabLE Of kILLINg ¸ysELf, º THOUgHT pERHaps º OUgHT TO DO sO RIgHT away, wHILE º sTILL HaD THE sTRENgTH. GRaDUaLLy º ca¸E TO UNDERsTaND THaT THE µaNcy wHO ¸IgHT ONE Day LIE INERT UNDER a bEDsHEET, aR¸s aND LEgs paRaLyzED, UNabLE TO fEED OR baTHE HERsELf, UNabLE TO REacH OUT fOR a gUN, a bOTTLE Of pILLs, was NOT THE µaNcy º was aT pREsENT, aND THaT º cOULD NOT pREsU¸E TO ¸akE DEcIsIONs fOR THaT fUTURE µaNcy, wHO ¸IgHT wELL NOT waNT IN THE LEasT TO DIE. µOw THE ONLy pROVIsION º’VE ¸aDE fOR THE fUTURE µaNcy Is THaT wHEN THE TI¸E cO¸Es—aND IT Is LIkELy TO cO¸E IN THE fOR¸ Of pNEU¸ONIa, fRIEND TO THE wEak aND THE OLD—º a¸ NOT TO bE TREaTED wITH ¸acHINEs aND ¸EDIcaTIONs. ºf sHE Is UNabLE TO cO¸¸UNIcaTE by THEN, º HOpE sHE wILL bE saTIsfiED wITH THEsE TER¸s.
e l p p i r C a g n i e B n O
INcURabLE ILLNEss, º HaVE ¸OVED THROUgH a pROcEss sI¸ILaR TO THaT OUTLINED by
°INkINg aLL THE TI¸E abOUT HaVINg m¼ gREw TIREsO¸E aND INTRUsIVE, EspE-
46
cIaLLy IN THE LaRgE aND TRagIc ¸ODE IN wHIcH º was accUsTO¸ED TO cONsIDERINg ¸y pLIgHT. MONTHs aND EVEN yEaRs wENT by wITHOUT caTasTROpHE (aT LEasT
s r i a M y c n a N
wITHOUT ONE RELaTED TO m¼), aND REaLLy º was awfULLy bUsy, wHaT wITH GEORgE aND cHILDREN aND sNakEs aND sTUDENTs aND pOE¸s, aND º HaDN’T THE TI¸E, LET aLONE THE INcLINaTION, TO DEVOTE ¸ysELf TO bEINg a DIsEasE. ¹OO, THE RIcHER ¸y LIfE bEca¸E, THE fUNNIER IT sEE¸ED, as THOUgH THERE wERE sO¸E cONNEcTION bETwEEN LaRgEssE aND LaUgHTER, aND sO ¸y TRagIc sTaNcE bEgaN TO waVER UNTIL, EVEN wITH THE aID Of a bRacE aND a caNE, º cOULDN’T HOLD IT fOR VERy LONg aT a TI¸E. AſtER sEVERaL yEaRs º was saTIsfiED wITH ¸y aDjUsT¸ENT. º HaD sUffERED ¸y gRIEf aND fURy aND TERROR, º THOUgHT, bUT NOw º was aT EasE wITH ¸y LOT. °EN ONE sU¸¸ER Day º sET OUT wITH GEORgE aND THE cHILDREN acROss THE DEsERT fOR a VacaTION IN CaLIfORNIa. PaRT way TO YU¸a º bEca¸E awaRE THaT ¸y RIgHT LEg fELT fUNNy. “º THINk º’VE HaD aN ExacERbaTION,” º TOLD GEORgE. “WHaT sHaLL wE DO?” HE askED. “º THINk wE’D bETTER gET THE HELL TO CaLIfORNIa,” º saID, “bEcaUsE º DON’T kNOw wHETHER º’LL EVER ¸akE IT agaIN.” SO wE wENT ON TO SaN ¶IEgO aND THEN TO ±RaNgE, Up THE PacIfic COasT ÁIgHway TO SaNTa CRUz, acROss TO YOsE¸ITE, DOwN TO SEqUOIa aND JOsHUa ¹REE, aND sO back OVER THE DEsERT TO HO¸E. ºT was a fiNE TwO-wEEk TRIp, fiLLED wITH fRIENDs aND faIR wEaTHER, aND º wOULDN’T HaVE ¸IssED IT fOR THE wORLD, THOUgH º DID IN facT ¸akE IT back TO CaLIfORNIa TwO yEaRs LaTER. µOR wOULD THERE HaVE bEEN aNy pOINT IN ¸IssINg IT, sINcE IN m¼, ONcE THE sy¸pTO¸s HaVE appEaRED, THE NEUROLOgIcaL Da¸agE Has bEEN DONE, aND THERE’s NO way TO pREDIcT OR pREVENT THaT Da¸agE. °E INcIDENT spOILED ¸y sELf-saTIsfacTION, HOwEVER. ºT RENEwED ¸y gRIEf aND fURy aND TERROR, aND º LEaRNED THaT ONE NEVER fiNIsHEs aDjUsTINg TO m¼. º DON’T kNOw NOw wHy º THOUgHT ONE wOULD. ±NE DOEs NOT, aſtER aLL, fiNIsH aDjUsTINg TO LIfE, aND m¼ Is sI¸pLy a facT Of ¸y LIfE—NOT ¸y faVORITE facT, Of cOURsE—bUT as ORDINaRy as ¸y NOsE aND ¸y TROpIcaL fisH aND ¸y yELLOw MazDa sTaTION wagON. ºT ¸ay aT aNy TI¸E gET wORsE, bUT NO a¸OUNT Of wORRy OR aNTIcIpaTION caN pREpaRE ¸E fOR a NEw LOss. My LIfE Is a LEssON IN LOssEs. º LEaRN ONE aT a TI¸E. AND º HaD bEsT bE paTIENT IN THE LEaRNINg, sINcE º’LL HaVE TO DO IT, LIkE IT OR NOT. As aNy ROck faN kNOws, yOU caN’T aLways gET wHaT yOU waNT. PaRTIcULaRLy wHEN yOU HaVE m¼. YOU caN’T, fOR Exa¸pLE, gET cURED. ºN REcENT yEaRs REsEaRcHERs aND THE ORgaNIzaTIONs THaT fUND REsEaRcH HaVE sTaRTED TO pay m¼ sO¸E aTTENTION EVEN THOUgH IT IsN’T faTaL; pERHaps THEy HaVE bEgUN TO sEE THaT LIfE Is sO¸ETHINg OTHER THaN a qUaNTITaTIVE pHENO¸ENON, THaT ONE ¸ay bE VERy ¸UcH aLIVE fOR a VERy LONg TI¸E IN a LIfE THaT IsN’T wORTH LIVINg. °E
REsEaRcHERs HaVE ¸aDE sO¸E pROgREss TOwaRD UNDERsTaNDINg THE ¸EcHaNIs¸ Of THE DIsEasE: IT ¸ay wELL bE aN aUTOI¸¸UNE REacTION TRIggERED by a sLOw-
47
¸OsT Of Us waNT TO bE cURED. SO¸E, UNabLE TO accEpT INcURabILITy, gRasp aT ONE TREaT¸ENT aſtER aNOTHER, NO ¸aTTER HOw bIzaRRE: ¸EgaVITa¸IN THERapy, gLUTEN-fREE DIET, INjEcTIONs Of cObRa VENO¸, HypOTHER¸aL sUITs, Ly¸pHOcyTOpHEREsIs, HypERbaRIc cHa¸bERs. MaNy TREaT¸ENTs aRE pRObabLy HaR¸LEss ENOUgH, bUT NONE aRE cURaTIVE. °E absENcE Of a cURE OſtEN ¸akEs m¼ paTIENTs bITTER TOwaRD THEIR DOcTORs. ¶OcTORs aRE, aſtER aLL, THE pRIEsTs Of ¸ODERN sOcIETy, THE NEw sHa¸aNs, wHOsE bUsINEss Is TO HEaL, aND ¸aNy aN m¼ paTIENT ROVEs fRO¸ ONE TO aNOTHER, sEaRcHINg fOR THE “gOOD” DOcTOR wHO wILL ¸akE HI¸ wELL. ¶OcTORs TOO THINk Of THE¸sELVEs as HEaLERs, aND fOR THIs REasON ¸aNy HaVE TROUbLE DEaLINg wITH m¼ paTIENTs, wHOsE DIsEasE IN ITs INTRaNsIgENcE DEfEaTs THEIR aI¸s aND ¸Ocks THEIR skILLs. ¹OO fEw DOcTORs, IT Is TRUE, TREaT THEIR paTIENTs as wHOLE HU¸aN bEINgs, bUT THE REVERsE Is aLsO TRUE. º HaVE aLways TRIED TO bE gENTLE wITH ¸y DOcTORs, wHO OſtEN HaVE ¸ORE aT sTakE IN TER¸s Of EgO THaN º DO. º ¸ay bE fRUsTRaTED, ¸aDDENED, DEpREssED by THE INcURabILITy Of ¸y DIsEasE, bUT º a¸ NOT DI¸INIsHED by IT, aND THEy aRE. WHEN º pUsH ¸ysELf Up fRO¸ ¸y sEaT IN THE waITINg ROO¸ aND sTU¸bLE TOwaRD THE¸, º INcaRNaTE THE LI¸ITaTION Of THEIR pOwERs. °E LEasT º caN DO Is REfUsE TO pREss ON THEIR TENDEREsT spOTs. °Is gENTLENEss Is paRT Of THE REasON THaT º’¸ NOT sORRy TO bE a cRIppLE. º DIDN’T HaVE IT bEfORE. PERHaps º’D HaVE DEVELOpED IT aNyway—HOw cOULD º kNOw sUcH a THINg?—aND º wIsH º HaD ¸ORE Of IT, bUT º’¸ gLaD Of wHaT º HaVE. ºT Has OpENED aND ENRIcHED ¸y LIfE ENOR¸OUsLy, THIs sENsE THaT ¸y fRaILTy aND NEED ¸UsT bE ¸IRRORED IN OTHERs, THaT IN sEaRcHINg fOR aND sHapINg a sTabLE cORE IN a LIfE wRENcHED by cHaNgE aND LOss, cHaNgE aND LOss, º ¸UsT REcOgNIzE THE sa¸E pROcEss, UNDER INDIVIDUaL cONDITIONs, IN THE LIVEs aROUND ¸E. º DO NOT DEpREcaTE sUcH kNOwLEDgE, HOwEVER º’VE cO¸E by IT. ALL THE sa¸E, If a cURE wERE fOUND, wOULD º TakE IT? ºN a ¸INUTE. º ¸ay bE a cRIppLE, bUT º’¸ ONLy OccasIONaLLy a LOONy aND NEVER a saINT. ANyway, IN ¸y bRaND Of THEOLOgy GOD DOEsN’T gIVE bONUs pOINTs fOR a LI¸p. º’D TakE a cURE; º jUsT DON’T NEED ONE. A fRIEND wHO aLsO Has m¼ sTaRTLED ¸E ONcE by askINg, “¶O yOU EVER say TO yOURsELf, ‘WHy ¸E, ²ORD?’ ” “µO, MIcHaEL, º DON’T,” º TOLD HI¸, “bEcaUsE wHENEVER º TRy, THE ONLy REspONsE º caN THINk Of Is ‘WHy NOT?’ ” ºf º cOULD ¸akE a cOs¸Ic DEaL, wHO wOULD º pUT IN ¸y pLacE? WHaT IN ¸y LIfE wOULD º gIVE Up IN ExcHaNgE fOR sOUND LI¸bs aND a THRILLINg RUsH Of ENERgy? µO ONE. µOTHINg. º ¸IgHT as wELL DO THE jOb ¸ysELf. µOw THaT º’¸ gETTINg THE HaNg Of IT.
e l p p i r C a g n i e B n O
acTINg VIRUs. BUT THEy aRE NOwHERE NEaR ITs pREVENTION, cONTROL, OR cURE. AND
WhAT You MouRn Sheila Black
°E yEaR THEy sTRaIgHTENED ¸y LEgs, THE yOUNg DOcTOR saID, ¸EaNINg TO bE kIND,
Now you will walk straight on your wedding day, bUT wHaT HE cOULD NOT I¸agINE Is HOw EVEN ON ¸y wEDDINg Day º wOULD aRcH back aND wONDER abOUT THaT bODy º HaD bEfORE º was cHaNgED, HOw º wOULD HaVE NEsTED IN IT, ¸aDE IT ¸y HO¸E, HOw º REpEaTED HIs wORDs wHEN º wIsHED TO sTIR Up ¸y NaTIVE aNgER fEEL LIkE THE ExILE º bELIEVED º was, I¸pRIsONED IN a fOREIgN bODy LIkE a pERsON I¸pRIsONED IN a fOREIgN LaND fORcED TO spEak a sTRaNgE TONgUE HEaVy IN THE ¸OUTH, a ¸OUTH fULL Of sTONEs.
Crippled THEy caLLED Us wHEN º was yOUNg LaTER THE wORD was disabled aND THEN differently abled , bUT THOsE wERE aLL Na¸Es gIVEN by OUTsIDERs, NONE Of wHO¸ cOULD I¸agINE THaT THE cROOkED bODy THEy spOkE Of, THE bODy, wHIcH ¸aDE waLkINg DIfficULT aND RUNNINg pRacTIcaLLy I¸pOssIbLE, ExcEpT as a kIND Of DaNcE, a sIDEways LOOpINg LIkE sO¸EONE abOUT TO faLL HEaDLONg DOwN aND HUg THE EaRTH, THaT bODy
SHEILa BLack, “WHaT YOU MOURN,” fRO¸ Beauty Is a Verb: °e New Poetry of Disability, EDITED by JENNIfER BaRTLETT, SHEILa BLack, aND MIcHaEL µORTHEN, 212 (´L PasO, ¹Ð: CINcO PUNTOs PREss, 2011). ³EpRINTED by pER¸IssION Of THE aUTHOR.
THEy TRIED sO HaRD TO fix, sTRaIgHTEN was sI¸pLy ¸INE, aND º LOVED IT as yOU LOVE yOUR OwN cOUNTRy,
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THE s¸ELL Of ¸OwED gRass, DOwN TO THE Na¸ELEss flOwERs aT yOUR fEET—cLOVER, aspHODEL, aND THE bLUE flIEs THaT bUzz OVER THE¸.
n r u o M uoY tahW
THE fa¸ILIaR Lay Of THE LaND, THE UNkE¸pT TREEs,
²hys±c±Ans’ JuR±es foR DefecT±Ve BAb±es Helen Keller
¼ir: MUcH Of THE DIscUssION aROUsED by ¶R. ÁaIsELDEN wHEN HE pER¸ITTED THE BOLLINgER baby TO DIE cENTERs aROUND a bELIEf IN THE sacREDNEss Of LIfE. ºf ¸aNy Of THOsE THaT ObjEcT TO THE pHysIcIaN’s cOURsE wOULD TakE THE TROUbLE TO aNaLyzE THEIR IDEa Of “LIfE,” º THINk THEy wOULD fiND THaT IT ¸EaNs jUsT TO bREaTHE. SURELy THEy ¸UsT aD¸IT THaT sUcH aN ExIsTENcE Is NOT wORTH wHILE. ºT Is THE pOssIbILITIEs Of HappINEss, INTELLIgENcE, aND pOwER THaT gIVE LIfE ITs saNcTITy, aND THEy aRE absENT IN THE casE Of a pOOR, ¸IssHapEN, paRaLyzED, UNTHINkINg cREaTURE. º THINk THERE aRE ¸aNy ¸ORE cLEaR casEs Of sUcH HOpELEss DEaTH-IN-LIfE THaN THE cRITIcs Of ¶R. ÁaIsELDEN REaLIzE. °E TOLERaTION Of sUcH aNO¸aLIEs TENDs TO LEssEN THE sacREDNEss IN wHIcH NOR¸aL LIfE Is HELD. °ERE Is ONE ObjEcTION, HOwEVER, TO THIs wEEDINg Of THE HU¸aN gaRDEN THaT sHOws a sINcERE LOVE Of TRUE LIfE. ºT Is THE fEaR THaT wE caNNOT TRUsT aNy ¸ORTaL wITH sO REspONsIbLE aND DELIcaTE a Task. YET HaVE NOT ¸ORTaLs fOR LONg agEs bEEN ENTRUsTED wITH THE DEcIsION Of qUEsTIONs jUsT as ¸O¸ENTOUs aND faR- REacHINg; wITH kINgsHIp, wITH THE EDUcaTION Of THE RacE, wITH fEEDINg, cLOTHINg, sHELTERINg aND E¸pLOyINg THEIR fELLOw ¸EN? ºN THE jURy Of THE cRI¸INaL cOURT wE HaVE aN INsTITUTION THaT Is caLLED UpON TO ¸akE jUsT sUcH DEcIsIONs as ¶R. ÁaIsELDEN ¸aDE, TO DEcIDE wHETHER a ¸aN Is fiT TO assOcIaTE wITH HIs fELLOws, wHETHER HE Is fiT TO LIVE. ºT sEE¸s TO ¸E THaT THE sI¸pLEsT, wIsEsT THINg TO DO wOULD bE TO sUb¸IT casEs LIkE THaT Of THE ¸aLfOR¸ED IDIOT baby TO a jURy Of ExpERT pHysIcIaNs. AN ORDINaRy jURy DEcIDEs ¸aTTERs Of LIfE aND DEaTH ON THE EVIDENcE Of UNTRaINED aND OſtEN pREjUDIcED ObsERVERs. °EIR OwN VERDIcT Is NOT basED
ÁELEN KELLER, “PHysIcIaNs’ JURIEs fOR ¶EfEcTIVE BabIEs,” fRO¸ New Republic, ¶EcE¸bER 18, 1915, 173–174.
ON a kNOwLEDgE Of cRI¸INOLOgy, aND THEy aRE OſtEN swayED by ObscURE pREjUDIcEs OR THE ELOqUENcE Of a pROsEcUTOR. ´VEN If THE accUsED bEfORE THE¸ Is
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THaT HE wOULD NOT bEcO¸E a UsEfUL aND pRODUcTIVE ¸E¸bER Of sOcIETy. A ¸ENTaL DEfEcTIVE, ON THE OTHER HaND, Is aL¸OsT sURE TO bE a pOTENTIaL cRI¸INaL. °E EVIDENcE bEfORE a jURy Of pHysIcIaNs cONsIDERINg THE casE Of aN IDIOT wOULD bE ExacT aND scIENTIfic. °EIR fiNDINgs wOULD bE fREE [fRO¸ THE] pREjUDIcE aND INaccURacy Of UNTRaINED ObsERVaTION. °Ey wOULD acT ONLy IN casEs Of TRUE IDIOcy, wHERE THERE cOULD bE NO HOpE Of ¸ENTaL DEVELOp¸ENT. ºT Is TRUE, THE pHysIcIaNs’ cOURT ¸IgHT bE LIabLE TO abUsE LIkE OTHER cOURTs. °E pOwERfUL Of THE EaRTH ¸IgHT UsE IT TO DEcIDE casEs TO sUIT THE¸sELVEs. BUT If THE EVIDENcE wERE pREsENTED OpENLy aND THE DEcIsIONs ¸aDE pUbLIc bEfORE THE DEaTH Of THE cHILD, THERE wOULD bE LITTLE DaNgER Of ¸IsTakEs OR abUsEs. Anyone INTEREsTED IN THE casE wHO DID NOT bELIEVE THE cHILD OUgHT TO DIE ¸IgHT bE pER¸ITTED TO pROVIDE fOR ITs caRE aND ¸aINTENaNcE. ºT wOULD bE HU¸aNLy I¸pOssIbLE TO gIVE absOLUTE gUaRaNTEEs fOR EVERy baby wORTH saVINg, bUT a sI¸ILaR cONDITION pREVaILs THROUgHOUT OUR LIVEs. CONsERVaTIVEs ask TOO ¸UcH pERfEcTION Of THEsE NEw ¸ETHODs aND INsTITUTIONs, aLTHOUgH THEy kNOw HOw faR THE OLD ONEs HaVE faLLEN sHORT Of wHaT THEy wERE ExpEcTED TO accO¸pLIsH. WE caN ONLy waIT aND HOpE fOR bETTER REsULTs as THE aVERagE Of HU¸aN INTELLIgENcE, TRUsTwORTHINEss, aND jUsTIcE aRIsEs. MEaNwHILE wE ¸UsT DEcIDE bETwEEN a fiNE HU¸aNITy LIkE ¶R. ÁaIsELDEN’s aND a cOwaRDLy sENTI¸ENTaLIs¸.
Helen Keller Ñrenth¾m, m¾¼¼.
s e i b a B e v i t c e f e D r o f s e i r u J ’ snaicisyhP
gUILTy, THERE Is OſtEN NO way Of kNOwINg THaT HE wOULD cO¸¸IT NEw cRI¸Es,
Bl±nd, DeAf, And ²Ro-Eugen±cs ¹ElEN ºEllER’S »±VIcE IN CONTExT
Raúl Necochea López
ºN ¶EcE¸bER Of 1915, °e New Republic pUbLIsHED a LETTER by DEaf-bLIND aUTHOR aND sOcIaLIsT acTIVIsT ÁELEN KELLER, IN wHIcH sHE DEfENDED ¸EDIcaL DEcIsIONs TO EUTHaNIzE INfaNTs wITH sEVERE DIsabILITIEs. ÁER LETTER ca¸E IN THE wakE Of THE NOTORIETy ¶R. ÁaRRy J. ÁaIsELDEN HaD acqUIRED aſtER URgINg THE BOLLINgER fa¸ILy TO aLLOw THEIR NEwbORN, wHO sUffERED fRO¸ sEVERaL pHysIcaL aNO¸aLIEs, TO DIE. By THE LaTE 1910s, ÁaIsELDEN, cHIEf sURgEON aND pREsIDENT Of THE GER¸aN-A¸ERIcaN ÁOspITaL IN CHIcagO, wOULD bEcO¸E RENOwNED fOR HaVINg aLLOwED THE DEaTHs Of aT LEasT sIx INfaNTs HE DIagNOsED as “DEfEcTIVEs.” ÁaIsELDEN wENT as faR as TO DIspLay THE DyINg INfaNTs TO jOURNaLIsTs aND wRITE abOUT THEIR pHysIcaL ¸aLfOR¸aTIONs fOR NEwspapERs pUbLIsHED by TabLOID ¸OgUL WILLIa¸ ³aNDOLpH ÁEaRsT. ÁaIsELDEN aLsO cOwROTE aND sTaRRED IN a 1917 sILENT ¸OVIE, °e Black Stork , basED ON THE acTUaL pLaNNED DEaTH Of aN INfaNT UNDER HIs caRE. ºN THaT casE, ÁaIsELDEN HaD wITHHELD a pOTENTIaLLy LIfE-saVINg sURgERy aND acTUaLLy aTTE¸pTED TO cO¸fORT THE INfaNT’s fa¸ILy by TELLINg THE¸ THEIR sON “wOULD HaVE pRObabLy gROwN INTO aN I¸bEcILE aND pOssIbLy a cRI¸INaL.” ±N aNOTHER OccasION, ÁaIsELDEN RE¸OVED THE sTITcHEs THaT TIED THE U¸bILIcaL cORD Of aNOTHER ¸aLfOR¸ED NEwbORN, LETTINg IT bLEED TO DEaTH. AND ON yET aNOTHER, HE pREscRIbED pOTENTIaLLy LETHaL DOsEs Of OpIaTEs fOR aNOTHER ¸aLfOR¸ED INfaNT “TakINg LONgER THaN ExpEcTED TO DIE.” °E qUOTEs cO¸E fRO¸ MaRTIN PERNIck’s ENgROssINg bOOk °e Black Stork: Eugen-
ics and the Death of “Defective” Babies in American Medicine and Motion Pictures since 1915. °Is sTORy RE¸aINs aN Exa¸pLE Of HOw EffORTs TO I¸pROVE HU¸aN HEREDITy (EUgENIcs) bEca¸E ENTwINED wITH EUTHaNasIa. ÁaIsELDEN INsIsTED THaT HE acTED ¸ERcIfULLy aND IN a sOcIaLLy REspONsIbLE ¸aNNER. AſtER aLL, IN HIs VIEw, sEVERELy ¸aLfOR¸ED INfaNTs sUffERED. MOREOVER, by pER¸ITTINg THE¸ TO LIVE, ÁaIsELDEN THOUgHT, HE wOULD HaVE bEEN bURDENINg sOcIETy wITH bEINgs
INcapabLE Of LEaDINg gOOD aND pRODUcTIVE LIVEs aND wHO, If aLLOwED TO REpRODUcE, wOULD HaVE LED sOcIETy DOwN a paTH Of DEgENERacy. CENsURED by sO¸E
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KELLER, E¸bODyINg sO¸E sEVERE DIsabILITIEs HERsELf, ¸aDE fOR aN UNLIkELy HIgH-pROfiLE sUppORTER Of ÁaIsELDEN’s acTIONs aND INTENTIONs. MaNy EUgENIcIsTs IN THE EaRLy TwENTIETH-cENTURy ·S VIEwED DIsEasE as NaTURE’s way Of wEEDINg OUT “THE UNfiT.” °OUgH ¸OsT Of THEIR aTTacks wERE aI¸ED aT sOcIaL wELfaRE pROgRa¸s fOR pER¸ITTINg THE “UNfiT” TO ENDURE, EUgENIcIsTs aLsO TaRgETED ¸EDIcaL INTERVENTIONs THaT cOULD ExTEND LIVEs NOT wORTHy Of bEINg LIVED. ÁaIsELDEN’s REfUsaL TO UsE THE ¸EDIcaL ¸EaNs aT HIs DIspOsaL TO assIsT aN “UNfiT” INfaNT pLayED DIREcTLy INTO THE EUgENIc sTRaTEgy Of cREaTINg a HEaLTHIER pOpULaTION by RIDDINg sOcIETy Of ITs LEasT RObUsT aND LEasT pRO¸IsINg ¸E¸bERs. KELLER’s pOsITION was pREcIsELy THaT THE saNcTITy Of aNy LIfE OUgHT TO bE pREDIcaTED UpON ITs “pOssIbILITIEs Of HappINEss, INTELLIgENcE, aND pOwER.” KELLER’s paRTIcIpaTION IN THIs DEbaTE sIgNaLs sEVERaL THINgs. FIRsT, scIENTIsTs wERE NOT THE ONLy pEOpLE IN THE ·S DIscUssINg THE IssUE Of HU¸aN I¸pROVE¸ENT THROUgH THE ¸aNIpULaTION Of HEREDITy aND REpRODUcTION. ²ay pEOpLE, TypIcaLLy fRO¸ THE EDUcaTED UppER-¸IDDLE cLass, wERE faR ¸ORE NU¸EROUs as ¸E¸bERs Of EUgENIcs sOcIETIEs THaN wERE scIENTIsTs OR pHysIcIaNs IN THE 1900s aND 1910s. KELLER was ONE Of THEsE EDUcaTED Lay pEOpLE. SEcOND, LIkE ¸OsT EUgENIcIsTs, KELLER HELD a DEEp aND NaïVE faITH IN THE abILITy Of scIENTIsTs TO agREE ON THE bEsT cOURsE Of acTION wHEN IT ca¸E TO DEfiNINg jUsT wHaT cONsTITUTED a sEVERE ENOUgH pHysIcaL DEfEcT, HENcE HER pROpOsaL fOR (DEaTH) paNELs Of pHysIcIaNs TO DEcIDE ON INDIVIDUaL caNDIDaTEs fOR EUTHaNasIa. ²ack Of agREE¸ENT a¸ONg scIENTIsTs was a sIgN, fOR pEOpLE sUcH as KELLER, NOT Of THE INflUENcE Of cULTURaL NOR¸s IN scIENTIfic jUDg¸ENT, bUT sI¸pLy Of INsUfficIENT INfOR¸aTION OR pLaIN baD faITH. KELLER’s OwN DIsabILITIEs aRE wHaT ¸akE HER LETTER EspEcIaLLy pOIgNaNT. Was KELLER bEINg sO cONsIsTENT wITH HER OwN bELIEfs as TO I¸pLy THaT sO¸EONE LIkE HER HaD NO pLacE IN sOcIETy? PRObabLy NOT, as sHE HaD NOT bEEN DEaf aND bLIND aT bIRTH, bUT bEca¸E sO aſtER a bOUT Of DIsEasE as a yOUNg cHILD. STILL, ÁaIsELDEN’s casE aND KELLER’s DEfENsE Of HIs acTIONs RaIsE TOUgH aND OLD qUEsTIONs abOUT THE NaTURE Of DIsabILITIEs. WHaT DOEs THaT TER¸ REfER TO? CaN sO¸E “sEVERE DIsabILITIEs” a¸OUNT, as KELLER aRgUED, TO “a HOpELEss DEaTH-IN- LIfE”? ÁOw DOEs ONE gO abOUT pREVENTINg OR TREaTINg sUcH casEs? WHaT ¸akEs a pERsON UNfiT fOR sOcIETy? WHO Has THE aUTHORITy TO DEcIDE THE cHaNcEs aND THE cHOIcEs Of pEOpLE wITH DIsabILITIEs?
t x e t n o C n i e c i v d A s ’r e l l e K n e l e H
aND DEfENDED by OTHERs, ÁaIsELDEN was NEVER accUsED Of aNy cRI¸E. ÁELEN
³ell Me, ³ell Me Irving Kenneth Zola
µOw º was THE ONE wHO was NERVOUs. ÁERE wE wERE aLONE IN HER ROO¸ THOUsaNDs Of ¸ILEs fRO¸ ¸y HO¸E. “WELL, ¸y pERsONaL caRE aTTENDaNT Is gONE, sO IT wILL aLL bE Up TO yOU,” sHE saID sORT Of pUckIsHLy, “¶ON’T LOOk sO wORRIED! º’LL TELL yOU wHaT TO DO.” °Is was a REaL TURNabOUT. ºT was UsUaLLy ¸E wHO REassURED ¸y paRTNER. ME wHO, aſtER pUTTINg asIDE ¸y caNE, aND RE¸OVINg aLL THE cLOTHEs THaT ¸askED ¸y bRacE, ¸y cORsET, ¸y scaRs, ¸y THINNEss, ¸y bODy. ME wHO’D say, “WELL, NOw yOU sEE ‘THE REaL ¸E.’ ” ÁOw OſtEN º’D saID THaT, º THOUgHT TO ¸ysELf. SayINg IT IN a way THaT HID ¸y basIc fEaR—THaT THIs REaL ¸E ¸IgHT NOT bE sO NIcE TO LOOk aT . . . ¸IgHT NOT bE Up TO “THE Task” bEfORE ¸E. SHE ¸UsT HaVE sEEN sO¸ETHINg ON ¸y facE, fOR sHE cONTINUED TO REassURE ¸E, “¶ON’T bE afRaID.” AND as sHE TURNED HER wHEELcHaIR TOwaRD ¸E sHE s¸ILED aT ¸E THaT s¸ILE THaT fiRsT HOOkED ¸E a fEw HOURs bEfORE. “WELL,” sHE cONTINUED, “fiRsT wE HaVE TO E¸pTy ¸y bag.” AND wITH THaT bRIEf INTRODUcTION wE appROacHED THE baTHROO¸. ANgER qUIckLy REpLacED fEaR as º REaLIzED sHE cOULD gET HER wHEELcHaIR INTO THE DOORway bUT NOT THROUgH IT. “±kay, TakE ONE Of THOsE caNs,” sHE saID pOINTINg TO aN E¸pTy SpRITE, “aND E¸pTy ¸y bag INTO IT.” °OUgH º’D DONE THaT ¸aNy TI¸Es bEfORE IT wasN’T sO Easy THIs TI¸E. º qUITE sI¸pLy cOULDN’T REacH HER LEg fRO¸ a sITTINg pOsITION ON THE TOILET aND sHE cOULDN’T RaIsE HER fOOT TOwaRD ¸E. SO DOwN TO THE flOOR º LOwERED ¸ysELf aND saT aT HER fEET. ³OLLINg Up HER TROUsER LEg º fU¸bLED awkwaRDLy wITH THE cLIp sEaLINg THE TUbE. º LOOkED Up aT HER aND sHE LaUgHED, “ºT wON’T bREak aND NEITHER wILL º.” º gOT IT OpEN aND HER URINE pOURED INTO THE caN. SUDDENLy º fELT a qUIVER IN ¸y sTO¸acH. °E s¸ELL was ¸ORE OVERpOwERINg THaN º’D ExpEcTED. BUT º was TOO
ºRVINg KENNETH ZOLa, “¹ELL ME, ¹ELL ME,” fRO¸ Ordinary Lives: Voices of Disability and Disease, ED. ºRVINg KENNETH ZOLa (Ca¸bRIDgE, MA: AppLEwOOD BOOks, 1982). ³EpRINTED by pER¸IssION.
E¸baRRassED TO say aNyTHINg. ´¸pTyINg THE cONTENTs INTO THE TOILET º TURNED TO HER agaIN as sHE backED OUT. “WHaT sHOULD º DO wITH THE caN?” º askED.
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PROUD Of OUR fiRsT accO¸pLIsH¸ENT wE HEaDED back INTO THE ROO¸. “µOw cO¸Es THE fUN paRT . . . gETTINg ¸E INTO THE bED.” FOR a fEw ¸INUTEs wE LOOkED fOR THE EssENTIaL pIEcE Of EqUIp¸ENT—THE TRaNsfER bOaRD. º LaUgHED sILENTLy TO ¸ysELf. º sEE¸ED TO aLways bE ¸IspLacINg ¸y caNE—THaT cONsTaNT RE¸INDER Of ¸y OwN pHysIcaL DEpENDENcy. MaybE fOR HER IT was THE TRaNsfER bOaRD. WHEN wE fOUND IT LEaNINg agaINsT THE RaDIaTOR º REacHED DOwN TO pIck IT Up aND aL¸OsT TOppLED OVER fRO¸ ITs wEIgHT. ÁELL Of a way TO sTaRT, º THOUgHT TO ¸ysELf. ºf º caN’T LIſt THIs, HOw a¸ º gOINg TO DEaL wITH HER? MORE caREfULLy THIs TI¸E, º REacHED DOwN aND swUNg IT ONTO THE bED. SHE paRaLLEL paRkED HER wHEELcHaIR NExT TO THE bED, gRINNED, aND pOINTED TO THE sIDE aR¸. º’D bEEN THIs ROUTE bEfORE, sO º LEaNED OVER aND DIs¸aNTLED IT. °EN wITH HER paTIENT INsTRUcTIONs º bEgaN TO sHIſt HER. °E bOaRD HaD TO bE pLacED wITH THE wIDER paRT ON THE bED aND THE NaRROwER sEcTION sLIppED UNDER HER. °Is wOULD EVENTUaLLy aLLOw ¸E TO sLIp HER acROss. BUT º cOULD DO LITTLE wITHOUT LOsINg ¸y OwN baLaNcE. SO º LaID DOwN ON THE ¸aTTREss aND sHOVED THE TRaNsfER bOaRD UNDER HER. FIRsT ONE fOOT aND THEN THE OTHER º LIſtED TOwaRD ¸E TILL sHE was aT abOUT a 45 DEgREE aNgLE IN HER wHEELcHaIR. º was HUffiNg bUT sHE saT IN a sORT Of bE¸UsED sILENcE. °EN ca¸E THE scaRy paRT. PLaNTINg ¸ysELf as fiR¸Ly as º cOULD bEHIND HER, º LEaNED fORwaRD, sLIppED ¸y aR¸s UNDER HERs aND aROUND HER cHEsT aND THEN wITH ONE HEaVE HEſtED HER ONTO THE bED. SHE LaNDED safELy wITH HER HEaD ON THE pILLOw, aND º jOINED HER wEaRILy fOR a ¸O¸ENT’s REsT. FOR THIs º sHOULD HaVE gONE INTO TRaININg, º s¸ILED sILENTLy. AND agaIN, sHE ¸UsT HaVE UNDERsTOOD as sHE OpENED HER EyEs EVEN wIDER TO LOOk aT ¸E. WHaT bEaUTIfUL EyEs sHE Has, º THOUgHT, a bRIgHTNEss HEIgHTENED by HER VERy DaRk THIck EyEbROws. “YOU’RE bLUsHINg agaIN,” sHE saID. “ÁOw caN yOU TELL THaT IT’s NOT fRO¸ ExHaUsTION?” º cOUNTERED. “By yOUR EyEs . . . bEcaUsE THEy’RE TwINkLINg.” º LEaNED OVER aND kIssED HER agaIN. BUT ¸ORE ¸UTUaL appREcIaTION wOULD HaVE TO waIT, THERE was sTILL wORk TO bE DONE. °E I¸¸EDIaTE Task was TO pLUg HER wHEELcHaIR INTO THE pORTabLE REcHaRgER. °Is wOULD HaVE bEEN aN Easy Task fOR aNyONE ExcEpT THE TEcHNIcaL IDIOT THaT º a¸. “BE caREfUL,” sHE saID. “ºf yOU aTTacH THE wRONg cabLEs yOU ¸IgHT sHOck yOURsELf.”
eM lleT ,eM lleT
“WasH IT OUT,” sHE aNswERED as If IT wERE a sILLy qUEsTION. “WE TRy TO REcycLE EVERyTHINg aROUND HERE.”
º LaUgHED. A sHOck fRO¸ THIs baTTERy wOULD bE s¸aLL cO¸paRED TO wHaT
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º’VE aLREaDy bEEN THROUgH. BUT EVEN THIs aTTacHINg was NOT sO Easy. º cOULDN’T REaD THE INsTRUcTIONs
aloZ htenneK gnivrI
cLEaRLy, sO DOwN TO THE flOOR º saNk ONcE ¸ORE. AſtER sEVERaL TENTaTIVE ExpLORaTIONs, º cOULD sEE THE gaUgE REgIsTERINg a pOsITIVE cHaRgE. º LET OUT a LITTLE cHEER. SHE TURNED HER HEaD TOwaRD ¸E aND LOOkED DOwN as º Lay sTRETcHED OUT ¸O¸ENTaRILy ON THE flOOR, “µOw THE REaL fUN paRT,” sHE TEasED. “YOU HaVE TO UNDREss ¸E.” “AH, bUT fOR THIs,” º saID IN ¸y ¸OsT RakIsH TONEs, “wE’LL HaVE TO gET cLOsER TOgETHER.” My gRacEfUL qUIp was, HOwEVER, NOT ¸aTcHED by aNy gRacEfUL ¸OTION. FOR º HaD TO cRawL ON THE flOOR UNTIL º cOULD fiND a cHaIR ONTO wHIcH º cOULD HOLD aND pUsH ¸ysELf TO a sTaNDINg pOsITION. As º fiNaLLy cLI¸bED ONTO THE bED, º saID, “ºs THIs TRIp REaLLy NEcEssaRy?” º DON’T kNOw wHaT º INTENDED by THaT RE¸aRk bUT wE bOTH LaUgHED. AND as wE DID aND ca¸E cLOsER, wE kIssED, fiRsT gENTLy aND THEN wITH INcREasINg fORcE UNTIL wE saID aL¸OsT sI¸ULTaNEOUsLy, “WE’D bETTER gET UNDREssED.” “WHERE sHOULD º sTaRT?” º askED. My OwN qUEsTION sTRUck ¸E as fUNNy. ºT was sTILL aNOTHER REVERsaL. ºT was sO¸ETHINg º’D NEVER askED a wO¸aN. BUT ON THOsE RaRE OccasIONs ON wHIcH º’D LET sO¸EONE UNDREss ¸E, IT was OſtEN THEIR fiRsT qUEsTION. “WHEREVER yOU LIkE,” sHE saID IN wHaT sEE¸ED LIkE a cOqUETTIsH TONE. º THOUgHT IT wOULD bE bEsT TO DO THE TOUgHEsT fiRsT, sO º bEgaN wITH HER sHOEs aND sOcks. °EsE wERE Easy ENOUgH bUT NOT sO HER sLacks. SINcE sHE cOULD NOT RaIsE HERsELf, º aLTERNaTED bETwEEN pULLINg, TUggINg, aND OccasIONaLLy LIſtINg. SLOwLy OVER HER HIps, º was abLE TO sLIp HER sLacks DOwN fRO¸ HER waIsT. By NOw º was swEaTINg as ¸UcH fRO¸ aNxIETy as ExERTION. º was cONcERNED º’D bE TOO ROUgH aND ¸aybE HURT HER bUT ¸OsT Of aLL º was afRaID THaT º ¸IgHT INaDVERTENTLy pULL OUT HER caTHETER. AT LEasT IN THIs aNxIETy º was NOT aLONE. BUT wITH HER ENcOURagE¸ENT wE agaIN pERsEVERED. SLacks, UNDERpaNTs, cORsET aLL ca¸E Off IN NOT sO RapID sUccEssION. AT THIs pOINT a DIffERENT kIND Of awkwaRDNEss sTRUck ¸E. °ERE was sO¸ETHINg abOUT ¸y bEINg fULLy cLOTHED aND HER NOT THaT bOTHERED ¸E. º was HER LOVER, NOT HER pERsONaL caRE aTTENDaNT. AND sO º askED If sHE ¸INDED If º TOOk Off ¸y cLOTHEs bEfORE cONTINUINg. º ExpLaINED IN a HaLf-TRUTH THaT IT wOULD ¸akE IT EasIER fOR ¸E TO gET aROUND NOw ‘wITHOUT aLL ¸y EqUIp¸ENT.’ “FINE wITH ¸E,” sHE aNswERED aND agaIN wE TOUcHED, kIssED, aND Lay fOR a ¸O¸ENT IN EacH OTHER’s aR¸s.
PUsHINg ¸ysELf TO a sITTINg pOsITION º RE¸OVED ¸y OwN sHIRT, TROUsERs, sHOEs, bRacE, cORsET, baNDagEs, UNDERsHORTs UNTIL º was cO¸fORTabLy NUDE.
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sHE was IN a pOsITION TO LOOk UpON ¸y NOT sO bEaUTIfUL bODy. My UsUaL DEfENsIVE saRcas¸ abOUT ‘THE REaL ¸E’ bEgaN sO¸EwHERE back IN ¸y bRaIN bUT THIs TI¸E IT NEVER REacHED ¸y LIps. “µOw wHaT?” was THE bEsT º cOULD cO¸E Up wITH. “µOw ¸y TOp . . . aND qUIckLy. º’¸ ROasTINg IN aLL THEsE cLOTHEs.” º DIDN’T kNOw If sHE was sERIOUs OR jUsT kIDDINg bUT qUIckNEss was NOT IN THE caRDs. WITH LITTLE ROO¸ aT THE HEaD Of THE bED, º sI¸pLy cOULD NOT pULL THE¸ Off as º HaD THE REsT Of HER cLOTHEs. “CaN yOU sIT Up?” º askED. “µOT wITHOUT HELp.” “WHaT abOUT ONcE yOU’RE Up?” “µOT THEN EITHER . . . NOT UNLEss º LEaN ON yOU.” °Is TI¸E º fELT INgENIOUs. º LOckED ¸y LEgs aROUND THE cORNER Of THE bED aND THEN gRabbINg bOTH HER aR¸s º yaNkED HER TO a sITTINg pOsITION. SHE ¸aDE IT bUT º DIDN’T. AND º fOUND HER sORT Of ON TOp Of ¸E, sUcH a TaNgLE Of bODIEs wE cOULD ONLy LaUgH. FINaLLy, º ¸aNagED TO pUsH HER aND ¸ysELf UpRIgHT. º pLacED HER aR¸s aROUND ¸y NEck. AND THEN, aſtER THE UsUaL TaNgLEs Of HaIR, EaRRINgs, aND pROTEsTaTIONs THaT º was TRyINg TO s¸OTHER HER, º ¸aNagED TO pULL bOTH HER swEaTER aND bLOUsE OVER HER HEaD. By NOw º was NO LONgER bEINg NEaT, aND wITH aN apOLOgy THREw HER gaR¸ENTs TOwaRD THE NEaREsT cHaIR. µaTURaLLy º ¸IssED . . . bUT NEITHER Of Us sEE¸ED TO caRE. °E bRa was THE fiNaL pIEcE TO gO, aND wITH THE LasT UNHOOkINg wE bOTH pLOppED ONcE ¸ORE TO THE ¸aTTREss. FOR a ¸O¸ENT wE jUsT Lay THERE bUT as º REacHED acROss TO TOUcH HER, sHE pULLED HER HEaD back ¸OckINgLy, “WE’RE NOT THROUgH yET.” “YOU ¸UsT bE kIDDINg!” º saID, HOpINg THaT ¸y TONE was NOT as HaRsH as IT sOUNDED. “º sTILL NEED ¸y bOOTIEs aND ¸y NIgHT bag.” “WHaT aRE THEy fOR?” º askED OUT Of gENUINE cURIOsITy. “WELL ¸y bOOTIEs—THOsE bIg RUbbER THINgs ON THE TabLE—kEEp ¸y HEELs fRO¸ RUbbINg aND gETTINg IRRITaTED aND THE NIgHT bag . . . wELL THaT’s sO wE wON’T HaVE TO wORRy abOUT ¸y URINaTINg DURINg THE NIgHT.” °E bOOTIEs º EasILy affixED, THE NIgHT bag was aNOTHER ¸aTTER. AgaIN IT was ¸ORE ¸y awkwaRDNEss THaN THE cO¸pLExITy Of THE Task. FIRsT, º RE¸OVED THE Day bag, NOw E¸pTIED, bUT sTILL sTRappED aROUND HER LEg aND REpLacED IT
eM lleT ,eM lleT
°E cO¸fORT LasTED bUT a ¸O¸ENT. µOw º was E¸baRRassED. º REaLIzED THaT
wITH THE bIggER NIgHT ONE. CaREfUL NOT TO DIsLODgE THE caTHETER º HaD TO fiND
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a pLacE LOwER THaN THE bED TO aTTacH IT sO gRaVITy wOULD DO THE REsT. FINaLLy, THE fOR¸aL wORk was DONE. °E wORDs Of ¸y OwN THOUgHTs bOTHERED ¸E, fOR
aloZ htenneK gnivrI
º REaLIzED THaT THERE was paRT Of ¸E THaT fEaRED wHaT “wORk” ¸IgHT sTILL bE aHEaD. SHE was NOT THE fiRsT DIsabLED wO¸aN º’D EVER sLEpT wITH bUT sHE was, as sHE HaD saID EaRLIER, “¸ORE pHysIcaLLy DEpENDENT THaN º LOOk.” AND sHE was. As º pREpaRED TO sETTLE DOwN bEsIDE HER, º REcaLLED waTcHINg HER EaRLIER IN THE EVENINg OVER DINNER. ´xcEpT fOR THE facT THaT sHE NEEDED HER sTEak cUT aND HER cIgaRETTE LIT, º wasN’T paRTIcULaRLy cONscIOUs Of aNy DEpENDENcE. ºN facT qUITE THE cONTRaRy, fOR º’D bEEN aTTRacTED IN THE fiRsT pLacE TO HER LIVELINEss, HER ¸OVE¸ENTs, HER way Of TILTINg HER HEaD aND RaIsINg HER EyEbROws. BUT NOw IT was DIffERENT. °Is LONg pROcEss Of UNDREssINg REINfORcED HER pHysIcaL DEpENDENcy. BUT bEfORE º Lay DOwN agaIN, sHE INTERRUpTED ¸y assOcIaTIONs. “YOU’LL HaVE TO ¸OVE ¸E. º DON’T fEEL cENTERED.” AND as º REacHED OVER TO ¸OVE HER LEgs, º LET ¸ysELf fULLy absORb HER NakEDNEss. ²yINg THERE sHE sO¸EHOw sEE¸ED bIggER. MaybE IT was THE Lack Of ¸UscLE TONE—If THaT’s THE wORD—bUT HER bODy sEE¸ED sO¸EHOw flaTTENED OUT. ÁER THIgHs aND LEgs aND HER bREasTs, THE LaTTER NO LONgER fiR¸Ly HELD by HER bRa, flappED TO HER sIDE. º fELT gUILTy a ¸O¸ENT fOR EVEN LETTINg ¸ysELf fEEL aNyTHINg. º was as aNxIOUs as HELL bUT wITH NO wIsH TO flEE. º’¸ sURE ¸y facE TOLD IT aLL. FOR wITH HER EyEs sHE REacHED OUT TO ¸E aND wITH HER wORDs gENTLy REassURED ¸E ONcE agaIN, “¶ON’T bE afRaID.” AND sO as º Lay bEsIDE HER wE bEgaN OUR LOVINg. º was awkwaRD aT fiRsT, º DIDN’T kNOw wHaT TO DO wITH ¸y HaNDs. AND sO º askED. ºN a way IT was NO DIffERENT THaN wITH aNy OTHER wO¸aN. ºN REcENT yEaRs, º OſtEN fiND ¸ysELf askINg wHERE aND HOw THEy LIkE TO bE TOUcHED. ¹O ¸y qUEsTIONs sHE REpLIED, “My NEck . . . ¸y facE . . . EspEcIaLLy ¸y EaRs. . . .” AND as º DREw cLOsE sHE swUNg HER aR¸s aROUND ¸y NEck aND cLaspED ¸E IN a sURpRIsINgLy sTRONg gRIp. “¹IgHTER, TIgHTER, HOLD ¸E TIgHTER,” sHE LaUgHED agaIN. “º’¸ NOT fRagILE. . . . º wON’T bREak.” AND sO º DID. AND as wE ¸OVED º fOUND ¸ysELf NaTURaLLy TOUcHINg OTHER paRTs Of HER bODy. WHEN º REaLIzED THIs º pULLED back qUIckLy, “º DON’T kNOw wHaT yOU caN fEEL.” “µOTHINg REaLLy IN THE REsT Of ¸y bODy.” “WHaT abOUT yOUR bREasTs,” º askED RaTHER UNcO¸fORTabLy. “µOT ¸UcH . . . THOUgH º caN fEEL yOUR HaNDs THERE wHEN yOU pREss.”
AND sO º DID. AND aLL wENT wELL UNTIL sHE TOLD ¸E TO bITE aND sqUEEzE HaRDER, THEN º bEgaN TO sHakE. FEELINg THE qUIVER IN ¸y aR¸, sHE agaIN REas-
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º DON’T kNOw HOw LONg wE cONTINUED kIssINg aND fONDLINg, bUT as º Lay bURIED IN HER NEck, º fELT THE HEELs Of HER HaNDs DIggINg INTO ¸y back aND HER VOIcE wHIspERINg, “TELL ¸E . . . TELL ¸E.” SUDDENLy º gOT scaRED agaIN. ¹ELL HER wHaT? ¶O º HaVE TO say THaT º LOVE HER . . . ? ±H ¸y GOD. AND º pRETENDED fOR a ¸O¸ENT NOT TO HEaR. “¹ELL ¸E . . . TELL ¸E,” sHE saID agaIN as sHE pULLED ¸E TIgHTER. WITH a DEEp bREaTH, º ¸EEkLy aNswERED, “¹ELL yOU wHaT?” “¹ELL ¸E wHaT yOU’RE DOINg,” sHE saID sOſtLy, “sO º caN VIsUaLIzE IT.” WITH HER REpLy º bREaTHED a sIgH Of RELIEf. AND a NaRRaTIVE VOyagE OVER HER bODy bEgaN; º kIssED, fONDLED, caREssED EVERy paRT º cOULD REacH. ±NcE º LOOkED Up aND º saw HER wITH HER HEaD RELaxED, EyEs cLOsED, s¸ILINg. ºT was ONLy wHEN wE sTOppED THaT º REaLIzED º was UNEREcT. ºN a way ¸y pENIs was EcHOINg ¸y OwN THOUgHTs. º HaD NO NEED TO THRUsT, TO fUck, TO qUITE sI¸pLy gO wHERE º cOULDN’T bE fELT. SHE agaIN INTERcEpTED ¸y OwN THOUgHTs—“MOVE Up, pLEasE pUT ¸y HaNDs ON yOU,” aND as º DID º fELT a RUsH THROUgH ¸y bODy. SHE DREw ¸E TOwaRD HER agaIN UNTIL HER LIps wERE ON ¸y cHEsT aND gENTLy sHE bEgaN TO sUckLE ¸E as º HaD HER a fEw ¸INUTEs bEfORE. AND sO THE HOURs passED, EaRs, ¸OUTHs, EyEs, TONgUEs INsIDE ONE aNOTHER. AND EVERy ONcE IN a wHILE sHE wOULD qUIVER IN a way wHIcH sEE¸ED ORgas¸Ic. As º THRUsT ¸y TONgUE as DEEp as º cOULD IN HER EaR, HER HEaD wOULD bEgIN TO sHakE, HER NEck wOULD sTRETcH OUT aND THEN HER wHOLE UppER bODy wOULD RELEasE wITH a sIgH. FINaLLy, aT sO¸E TI¸E wELL pasT ONE wE LOOkED ExHaUsTEDLy aT ONE aNOTHER. “¹I¸E fOR sLEEp,” sHE yawNED, “bUT THERE Is ONE ¸ORE Task—aN Easy ONE. º’¸ cOLD aND DRy sO º NEED sO¸E HOT waTER.” “ÁOT waTER!” º saID RaTHER INcREDULOUsLy. “YUp, º DRINk IT sTRaIgHT. ºT’s ¸y ONE VIcE.” AND as sHE sIppED THE DRINk THROUgH a LONg sTRaw, º cLOsED ¸y EyEs aND cURLED ¸ysELf aROUND THE pILLOw. My DRIſtINg Off was qUIckLy sTOppED as sHE askED RaTHER aRcHLy, “YOU ¸EaN yOU’RE gOINg TO wRap yOURsELf aROUND THaT RaTHER THaN ¸E?” º was abOUT TO ExpLaIN THaT º RaRELy sLEpT cURLED aROUND aNyONE aND cERTaINLy NOT VIcE VERsa, bUT º THOUgHT bETTER Of IT, sayINg ONLy, “WELL, º ¸IgHT NOT bE abLE TO LasT THIs way aLL NIgHT.”
eM lleT ,eM lleT
sURED ¸E. SO sLOwLy aND HaLTINgLy wHERE sHE LED, º fOLLOwED.
“µEITHER ¸IgHT º,” sHE cOUNTERED. “My aR¸ ¸IgHT aLsO gET TIRED.”
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WE pRETENDED TO LOOk aT EacH OTHER aNgRILy bUT IT DIDN’T wORk. SO wE ca¸E cLOsER agaIN, HUggED, aND cURLED Up as cLOsELy as wE cOULD, wITH ¸y HEaD
aloZ htenneK gnivrI
cRaDLED IN HER aR¸ aND ¸y LEg DRapED acROss HER. AND ¸UcH TO ¸y sURpRIsE º fELL qUIckLy asLEEp—UNafRaID, UNs¸OTHERED, aND ¸ORE I¸pORTaNTLy REsTED, caRED fOR, aND LOVED.
InsTRucT±ons To HeAR±ng ²eRsons Des±R±ng A DeAf MAn Raymond Luczak
ÁIs EyEbROws casT sHaDOws EVERywHERE. YOU aRE a DIfficULT LaNgUagE TO spEak. ÁIs LONg bEaRD Is THIck wITH DIsTRUsT. YOU aRE aNOTHER cURIOsITy sEEkER. ÁIs HaNDs aRE NOT cHEap TRINkETs. ´NTIRE LIVEs HaVE bEEN wasTED ON yOU. ÁIs facE Is aN INscRUTabLE pRO¸IsE. YOU aRE NOTHINg bUT papER aND INk. ÁIs bODy Is ¸ORE THaN a sEcRET LaNgUagE. ¹OURIsTs aRE RaRELy flUENT IN IT. ÁIs EyEs wILL flIckER wITH a bRIgHT fiRE wHEN yOU pURgE yOUR passpORT Of sOUND. ²ET yOUR HaNDs bE yOUR NEw passpORT, fOR HE wILL THEN sTa¸p IT wITH appROVaL. A DEaf ¸aN Is aLways a fOREIgN cOUNTRy. ÁE RE¸aINs fOREVER a LaNgUagE TO LEaRN.
³ay¸OND ²Uczak, “ºNsTRUcTIONs TO ÁEaRINg PERsONs ¶EsIRINg a ¶Eaf MaN,” fRO¸ Beauty Is a
Verb: °e New Poetry of Disability, ED. JENNIfER BaRTLETT, SHEILa BLack, aND MIcHaEL µORTHEN, 225 (´L PasO, ¹Ð: CINcO PUNTOs PREss, 2011). ³EpRINTED by pER¸IssION Of THE aUTHOR.
I HAVe D±AbeTes. ´m I To BlAme? Rivers Solomon
My fiNgERTIps aRE bRUIsED aND pOLka-DOTTED bLack bEcaUsE º a¸, yET agaIN, gETTINg back ON TRack. A THREE-¸ONTH bENDER Of UNbRIDLED caRbOHyDRaTE INgEsTION Has LEſt ¸E a skINsack. º a¸ ¸aDE Of HEaDacHEs, NaUsEa, VO¸ITINg, aND faTIgUE. AſtER 10, 12 HOURs Of sLEEp, º sTILL NEED a Nap bEcaUsE º awakE HOURLy IN THE NIgHT, aLTERNaTINg bETwEEN TRIps TO THE kITcHEN TO gUzzLE DIET sODa, IcED TEa, OR waTER aND TRIps TO THE REsTROO¸ TO URINaTE IT aLL OUT. º swEaR THaT THIs TI¸E DIscIpLINE, gRIT, aND fORcE Of wILL—THREE qUaLITIEs THaT HaVE aLways sEE¸ED ELUsIVE—wILL REIgN. °E gLUcOsE ¸ETER wILL bE ¸y NEw cLOck. My LIfE wILL REVOLVE aROUND ITs NU¸ERIcaL OUTpUT. AſtER EVERy ¸EaL OR sNack, º wILL pUNcH a bUTTON ON THE pagER-sIzE ¸ETER, sETTINg a bRIEf cLIck-cLack Of ¸acHINERy IN ¸OTION bEfORE a LaNcET THRUsTs INTO ¸y TOUgHENED skIN. BEcaUsE ¸y fiNgERTIps HaVE bEcO¸E caLLOUsED fRO¸ yEaRs Of THIs, IT wILL sO¸ETI¸Es TakE sEVERaL pRIcks bEfORE THE LaNcET DRaws ENOUgH bLOOD TO REgIsTER. °OUgH º’VE DONE THIs THOUsaNDs Of TI¸Es, º sTILL wINcE aT EVERy jab. º THINk Of ¸EDIcaL LEEcHEs. º THINk Of bLOODLETTINg. ºT Is sTRaNgE TO LIVE IN a wORLD wHERE ¸akINg ONEsELf bLEED Is THE fiRsT sTEp TO HEaLINg. My sUgaR-THIckENED bLOOD RE¸INDs ¸E Of UNREfiNED pETROLEU¸. ²OsT IN ONE Of ¸y ¸aNy DELUsIONs, º wONDER If º’¸ NOT a HU¸aN bUT a gU¸¸ED-Up RObOT—THE ¸ODEL DIscONTINUED bEcaUsE ITs bODy cOULDN’T UNDERsTaND THE ¸OsT basIc aND NEcEssaRy Of pROcEssEs: cONVERTINg fOOD INTO fUEL. SOON º wILL REsU¸E THE RITUaL Of ¸ULTIpLE DaILy sTabbINgs. º wILL ¸akE a sHOppINg LIsT fULL Of fOODs º’¸ NOT paRTIcULaRLy fOND Of. º’LL DEsIgN a wORkOUT pLaN TO accO¸¸ODaTE ¸y INcREasINgLy TROUbLEsO¸E LEſt kNEE. º’LL swaLLOw pILLs THaT ¸akE ¸y sTO¸acH aND bOwELs spas¸. º wILL INjEcT INsULIN. º’VE bEEN DIabETIc fOR abOUT sIx yEaRs, sINcE agE 22. ¹ypE 2, º HaVE TO aDD. º a¸ yOUNg bUT faT, sO pEOpLE wONDER If º HaVE THE sORT Of DIabETEs THaT just
³IVERs SOLO¸ON, “º ÁaVE ¶IabETEs. A¸ º TO BLa¸E?,” fRO¸ New York Times , ±cTObER 12, 2016. COpyRIgHT © 2016 by °E µEw YORk ¹I¸Es CO¸paNy. ³EpRINTED by pER¸IssION.
happens fOR NO REasON, TypIcaLLy TO VERy yOUNg pEOpLE, OR If º HaVE THE sORT THaT º bROUgHT ON ¸ysELf THROUgH wHaT pEOpLE pERcEIVE as a Lack Of wILLpOwER
63
CULTURaLLy, THIs DIsEasE sTRaDDLEs THE LINE bETwEEN ¸aLIgNaNT aND bENIgN. ±N THE ONE sIDE, THERE’s THE ObVIOUs sUffERINg—a¸pUTaTION, HEaRT DIsEasE, bLINDNEss—sIDE EffEcTs Of cONsTaNTLy INfla¸ED bLOOD VEssELs. ±N THE OTHER, THERE’s just diet and exercise, that’s all it takes, aND ORaL DRUgs aND INsULIN. °ERE’s you seem fine. °ERE’s THE INVIsIbILITy Of THE DEEpLy DEDIcaTED ¸aNagE¸ENT IT REqUIREs. ¶IabETEs ¸ELLITUs Is a cLass Of ¸ETabOLIc cONDITIONs cHaRacTERIzED by HIgH bLOOD sUgaR. °E HOR¸ONE INsULIN Is THE VEHIcLE by wHIcH sUgaR—THaT ¸UcH- DIspaRagED sUbsTaNcE—ENTERs OUR cELLs fRO¸ THE bLOOD. ºN ¹ypE 1 DIabETEs, THE paNcREas NO LONgER pRODUcEs INsULIN, wHIcH ¸EaNs THaT sUgaR Has NO ¸EaNs TO ENTER cELLs. ºN ¹ypE 2 DIabETEs, INsULIN REsIsTaNcE ¸EaNs THaT EVEN THOUgH INsULIN Is bEINg pRODUcED, cELLs DO NOT REspOND TO IT. WHILE THE caUsEs aRE NOT cO¸pLETELy UNDERsTOOD, sO¸E cO¸bINaTION Of gENETIc pREDIspOsITION aND ENVIRON¸ENTaL facTORs INcLUDINg DIET, ExERcIsE, aND sTREss caUsEs THE cELLs TO NEED ¸ORE aND ¸ORE INsULIN TO bE abLE TO TakE Up sUgaR fRO¸ THE bLOOD. WEIgHT aND DIET pLay a paRT IN DEVELOpINg ¹ypE 2 DIabETEs, bUT gENETIcs Is aLsO a facTOR. As wITH ¸OsT DIsEasEs aND DIsORDERs, DIabETEs Has a cascaDINg EffEcT ON THE bODy. ´VERy cHRONIc ILLNEss, DIsEasE, aND DIsabILITy caRRIEs wITH IT ¸IsUNDERsTaNDINgs. ¹OO OſtEN sOcIETy paINTs DIsabILITy as a pERsONaL faILINg. A pERsON wITH cHRONIc paIN IN HER LEgs, wHO Is NOT paRaLyzED bUT cHOOsEs TO UsE a wHEELcHaIR, ¸ay bE sEEN as wEak OR Lazy. º’VE fOUND ¸y faTNEss cO¸pOUNDs THIs pHENO¸ENON. My bODy Is VIsIbLy Off kILTER, a sy¸bOL fOR LETHaRgy, Lack Of sELf-REgULaTION, ILL HEaLTH, INDOLENcE. CO¸bINE THIs wITH THE ¸IsbELIEf THaT THERE Is a cURE fOR DIabETEs—THaT cURE bEINg wILLpOwER—aND EVERyONE Is sUDDENLy aN ExpERT ON HOw TO fix ¸E. ºT’D bE I¸pOssIbLE NOT TO INTERNaLIzE THaT º a¸ TO bLa¸E. °ERE Is THE IssUE Of ¸y bLackNEss, TOO, wHIcH ¸aNy, bEcaUsE Of UNcONscIOUs bIas, INTERpRET as INHERENTLy Lazy, DEVIaNT, sIck, UNcLEaN. º’VE aLways kNOwN ¸y bODy NEEDED TRaNsfOR¸INg—OR THaT OTHER pEOpLE THOUgHT IT DID. º was TEasED aND REjEcTED fOR ¸y bODy THROUgHOUT ¸y yEaRs IN scHOOL. º wasN’T faT as a cHILD, bUT º was bIg. ´xTRaORDINaRILy TaLL fOR ¸y agE (4-fOOT-11 IN THE fiRsT gRaDE) aND bROaD-sHOULDERED, º ¸IgHT HaVE ExcELLED aT cONTacT spORTs bUT º wasN’T bUILT fOR THE baLLET º LONgED TO DO. º saw THE aTTENTION ¸y gRaND¸OTHER LaVIsHED ON ¸y skINNy cOUsIN cONTRasTED agaINsT THE fRUsTRaTION sHE ExpREssED sHOppINg fOR cLOTHEs THaT fiT ¸E. My ¸OTHER was
? e m a l B o t I m A . s e t e b a i D evaH I
aND sELf-cONTROL.
THaNkfULLy kIND aND NONjUDg¸ENTaL, bUT wHEN º VIsITED ¸y faTHER OVER THE
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sU¸¸ERs, HE pUT ¸E ON gRUELINg DIETs, INcLUDINg ONE wHERE º cOULDN’T EaT sOLID fOODs bEfORE ¸IDDay.
n o m o l o S s r e v i R
º HaD sTaRTED DIETINg aT THE agE Of sIx. My ¸OTHER bRIEfly ExpLaINED caLORIEs TO ¸E bEcaUsE IT HaD cO¸E Up IN aN UNRELaTED cONVERsaTION. °E NExT TI¸E º aTE a sLIcE Of bREaD, º I¸¸EDIaTELy gOT ON OUR fa¸ILy TREaD¸ILL UNTIL THE NU¸bER ON THE ¸ONITOR DENOTINg caLORIEs bURNED ¸aTcHED THE NU¸bER Of caLORIEs pER sLIcE ON THE packagE. ºN LaTER yEaRs, º’D sEcRETLy DRINk sa¸pLE bOTTLEs Of pERfU¸E TO TRy TO ¸akE ¸ysELf VO¸IT. ¹ODay, wHEN º DO ¸aNagE TO cONTROL ¸y DIabETEs, IT’s aT THE cOsT Of aL¸OsT EVERy OTHER ELE¸ENT Of ¸y LIfE. ´VERy bITE º INgEsT REqUIREs a cO¸pLEx aLgORITH¸, caLcULaTINg RaTIOs Of caRb TO faT TO sUgaR TO INsULIN TO THE a¸OUNT Of waLkINg º’VE DONE. ´VEN wHEN ¸y ¸aTH Is pERfEcT, ¸y sUgaRs REbEL. º OſtEN faLL INTO DaNgEROUs LOws (a sIDE EffEcT Of TakINg TOO ¸UcH INsULIN, wHIcH sENDs bLOOD sUgaR pLU¸¸ETINg). º EaT aN appLE TO bRINg ¸y sUgaR Up, aND sUDDENLy IT’s TOO HIgH agaIN. ²Ow-caRbOHyDRaTE DIETs baRELy wORk fOR ¸E. ´VEN THE sUgaR IN a sERVINg Of bROccOLI sENDs ¸y sUgaRs TO UNcO¸fORTabLE HIgHs. º gET aNxIOUs aT paRTIEs, aT REsTaURaNTs OUT wITH fa¸ILy. MEaT, pOTENTIaLLy ONE Of THE DIabETIc’s safEsT fOODs, Is OſtEN sLaTHERED IN sUgaRy baRbEcUE saUcE OR HONEy gLazE. º wEEp INTO ¸y paRTNER’s aR¸s wHEN º REaLIzE THaT THIs LEVEL Of cONTROL Is NOT sUsTaINabLE. SHE’s bEEN wITH ¸E sINcE º fiRsT gOT THE DIagNOsIs, aND aſtER THE gRIEf passED, sHE askED ¸E, “WHaT DO yOU NEED ¸E TO DO?” º kNOw sHE’s cONcERNED abOUT ¸y LONgEVITy, bUT sHE DOEsN’T pUT THaT cONcERN bEfORE ¸y NEED fOR a cO¸paNION wHO’s NOT OVERLy INVEsTED IN ¸y EVERy fOOD cHOIcE. ÁER gENTLE sUppORT IsN’T aLways ENOUgH. ¶IabETEs DE¸aNDs pERfEcTION, aND º a¸ THE ¸OsT I¸pERfEcT pERsON º kNOw. WHEN EaTINg bEcO¸Es THIs ExHaUsTINg, º sI¸pLy REfRaIN fRO¸ fOOD aLTOgETHER. °ERE Is NO ¸ORE sUREfiRE way TO bLOOD-gLUcOsE cONTROL THaN sTaRVaTION, aND º’VE gONE ¸ONTHs EaTINg ONLy a s¸aLL bOwL Of cHIckEN sOUp a Day, HaD DOcTORs pRaIsE ¸y I¸pREssIVE ¸aNagE¸ENT. °E ExTRE¸Is¸ wITH wHIcH º TackLE DIabETEs ¸aNagE¸ENT Is DIREcTLy RELaTED TO THE ExTRE¸Is¸ º appLy TO fOOD IN gENERaL. A LIfETI¸E Of DIETINg, a LIfETI¸E Of bEINg TOLD ¸y bODy Is wRONg, TakEs ITs TOLL, aND º caN’T HELp cONflaTINg THE ¸EssagEs THaT º a¸ bETTER Off sTaRVED THaN faT. MaybE If º cOULD LET gO Of THE sHa¸E, OR ¸ORE I¸pORTaNT, If THE ¸EDIa, DOcTORs, fRIENDs, fa¸ILy cOULD sTOp sHa¸INg ¸E, ¸aNagINg ¸y DIabETEs wOULDN’T bE THIs ROULETTE wHEEL Of sELf-TORTURE. MaybE THEN, º cOULD fiNaLLy LET gO aND HEaL.
sickness amid relationships
II
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³w±sTed L±es ¼Y JOURNEY IN AN µMpER½EcT BO±Y
Sherri G. Morris
WE aRE THE NEw cOUpLE ON THE bLOck, OUR LIVINg ROO¸ skIRTED by DOzENs Of UNpackED caRTONs. ±UR NEIgHbORs TakE pITy ON Us, bRINgINg OVER TUNa NOODLE cassEROLE, cLEaNINg sUppLIEs, aND papER TOwELs. WE HaVE a ¸aRRIagE cERTIficaTE, a ¸ORTgagE, ONE TOO ¸aNy s¸aLL appLIaNcEs, aND a sTack Of UN¸aILED THaNk-yOU NOTEs. º a¸ SHERRI, HE Is ³IcHaRD. ºN sHORT, wE aRE TypIcaL NEwLywEDs. ¹ypIcaL, THaT Is, ExcEpT fOR ONE TINy DETaIL: IN OUR ¸aRRIagE, THERE aRE TwO Y cHRO¸OsO¸Es. ±THER cOUpLEs wITH TwO Y cHRO¸OsO¸Es gENERaLLy sTaRTED OUT LIfE as ³IcHaRD aND ³IcHaRD, NOT ³IcHaRD aND SHERRI. BUT IN ¸y casE, º HaVE bEEN SHERRI sINcE bIRTH. ºNDEED, ¸y bIRTH IN 1958 was UNDIsTINgUIsHED, as º appEaRED TO bE aN ORDINaRy, HEaLTHy baby gIRL. AppROxI¸aTELy TwO wEEks aſtER º was bORN, HOwEVER, ¸y pEDIaTRIcIaN NOTIcED THaT ¸y gROIN aREa was ODDLy DIsTENDED aſtER ROUTINE fEEDINgs. My ¸EDIcaL REcORDs fRO¸ THaT pERIOD sHOw THaT HE cONcLUDED THaT º HaD sO¸E TypE Of HERNIa, fOR wHIcH HE REfERRED ¸y paRENTs TO aN appROpRIaTE sURgEON TO HaVE IT REpaIRED. WHEN THE sURgEON bEgaN TO OpERaTE, HE DIscOVERED wHaT appEaRED TO bE TwO sUspIcIOUs-LOOkINg gONaDs IN ¸y INgUINaL aREa. ÁE bIOpsIED ONE Of THE¸, sUspEcTINg THaT THEy wERE NOT OVaRIEs. ²ab TEsTs cONfiR¸ED HIs sUspIcION: ¸y gONaDs wERE, IN facT, TEsTEs. My REcORDs sTaTE THaT THE sURgEON THEN DID a bUccaL s¸EaR TO cHEck fOR BaRR bODIEs (wHIcH appEaR ONLy IN THE cELLs Of gENETIc fE¸aLEs). °E TEsT was NEgaTIVE, REVEaLINg THaT º HaD a Y cHRO¸OsO¸E.
SHERRI G. MORRIs, “¹wIsTED ²IEs: My JOURNEy IN aN º¸pERfEcT BODy,” fRO¸ Surgically Shaping
Children: Technology, Ethics, and the Pursuit of Normality, ED. ´RIk PaRENTs, 1–12 (BaLTI¸ORE: JOHNs ÁOpkINs ·NIVERsITy PREss, 2006). COpyRIgHT © 2006 °E JOHNs ÁOpkINs ·NIVERsITy PREss. ³EpRINTED by pER¸IssION Of JOHNs ÁOpkINs ·NIVERsITy PREss.
´VEN IN 1958 ¸y TREaTINg pHysIcIaNs UNDERsTOOD THaT THIs ¸EaNT THaT º
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HaD bEEN bORN wITH a RaRE gENETIc DIsORDER, kNOwN aT THE TI¸E as TEsTIcULaR fE¸INIzaTION syNDRO¸E aND NOw kNOwN as aNDROgEN INsENsITIVITy syNDRO¸E
sirroM .G irrehS
(¾i¼). BEcaUsE Of aN Ð-LINkED aNDROgEN REcEpTOR DEfEcT, ¸y bODy DOEs NOT REspOND TO TEsTOsTERONE (IN ¸y casE, THE REsIsTaNcE TO aNDROgENs Is cO¸pLETE), THE cONsEqUENcE Of wHIcH Is THaT DURINg gEsTaTION º DID NOT VIRILIzE. AT THE sa¸E TI¸E, by VIRTUE Of HaVINg a Y cHRO¸OsO¸E, º DEVELOpED TEsTEs, wHIcH pRODUcED aNTI-MüLLERIaN HOR¸ONE, DIssOLVINg ¸y RUDI¸ENTaRy MüLLERIaN DUcTs. °Is ¸EaNs THaT º Lack a UTERUs, faLLOpIaN TUbEs, OR a cERVIx, THE NOR¸aL cO¸pLE¸ENT Of INTERNaL fE¸aLE ORgaNs. AT THE TI¸E º was bORN (aND, DIsTURbINgLy, EVEN IN ¸aNy pLacEs TODay), IT was THE cO¸¸ON pRacTIcE TO RE¸OVE THE TEsTEs aT bIRTH, THE pUTaTIVE cONcERN bEINg THaT THEy HaVE a RIsk Of bEcO¸INg caNcEROUs. ºN TRUTH, THIs RIsk Is VIRTUaLLy NONExIsTENT UNTIL wELL aſtER pUbERTy, bUT º bELIEVE THaT RE¸OVINg ¸y TEsTEs saTIsfiED aN EqUaLLy cO¸pELLINg psycHOLOgIcaL NEED TO RENDER ¸y bODy cONgRUENT, paRTIcULaRLy gIVEN THaT IT ¸UsT HaVE bEEN pROfOUNDLy wORRIsO¸E TO ¸y paRENTs TO HaVE a fE¸aLE-LOOkINg cHILD wITH ¸aLE gONaDs. SaDLy, ¸y paRENTs wERE NOT OffERED aNy TypE Of E¸OTIONaL cOUNsELINg TO HELp THE¸ paRsE THE DIsTREssINg facT Of HaVINg a cHILD LabELED, as ¸y ¸EDIcaL REcORDs sHOw º was, a pseudo-hermaphrodite . ºNsTEaD, ¸y DIagNOsIs was cONsIDERED a TRagIc ¸IsTakE Of NaTURE by bOTH ¸y pHysIcIaNs aND ¸y paRENTs. GIVEN THaT º LOOkED NOR¸aL, HOwEVER, ¸y paRENTs UNDOUbTEDLy TOOk sOLacE IN THaT THEy DID NOT EVER HaVE TO REVEaL THE TRUTH abOUT ¸y bODy TO fRIENDs OR RELaTIVEs, aND cOULD kEEp IT a sEcRET EVEN fRO¸ I¸¸EDIaTE fa¸ILy ¸E¸bERs. ÁaVINg NOT HaD aN OppORTUNITy TO wORk THROUgH THEIR OwN sHa¸E aND gUILT aT HaVINg a cHILD bORN wITH aN INTERsEx cONDITION, ¸y paRENTs wERE EVEN LEss abLE TO DEVELOp aNy kIND Of ga¸E pLaN TO DIscLOsE THE DETaILs abOUT sUcH a facT TO ¸E. ºNsTEaD, THEy wERE aDVIsED by ¸y pEDIaTRIc ENDOcRINOLOgIsT TO TELL ¸E º HaD a sI¸pLE HERNIa wHEN, as a yOUNg cHILD, º DIscOVERED THE abDO¸INaL scaR jUsT abOVE ¸y pUbIc REgION. °Ey wERE THEN TO say NOTHINg agaIN UNTIL THE EVE Of pUbERTy, aT wHIcH TI¸E THEy sHOULD TELL ¸E THaT º HaD “TwIsTED OVaRIEs,” wHIcH HaD bEEN RE¸OVED aT bIRTH TO pREVENT THE¸ fRO¸ bEcO¸INg caNcEROUs. º’¸ NOT cONVINcED THaT EVEN aT THaT pOINT IN ¸y LIfE THEy wOULD HaVE OTHERwIsE saID aNyTHINg, bUT aT pUbERTy º HaD TO sTaRT TakINg HOR¸ONE REpLacE¸ENT THERapy (PRE¸aRIN) aND sO IT bEca¸E NEcEssaRy TO OffER sO¸E ExpLaNaTION abOUT wHy º sUDDENLy NEEDED TO VIsIT aN ENDOcRINOLOgIsT aND TakE a DaILy pILL.
º REcaLL THE Day ¸y ¸OTHER TOLD ¸E THE “TwIsTED OVaRIEs” LIE. º RE¸E¸bER IT NOT ONLy bEcaUsE º qUIckLy sUR¸IsED THaT THIs ¸EaNT THaT º wOULD NEVER
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wORD cancer aL¸OsT EcLIpsED THE REsT Of THE LI¸ITED INfOR¸aTION º REcEIVED. º was wORRIED THaT ¸y “OVaRIEs” wERE NOT RE¸OVED as a pROpHyLacTIc ¸EasURE TO pREVENT caNcER, bUT THaT º INsTEaD acTUaLLy HaD caNcER aND THaT ¸y paRENTs jUsT wEREN’T TELLINg ¸E THE TRUTH. °ERE aRE TwO OTHER sIgNIficaNT THINgs abOUT THaT faTEfUL Day wHEN º was 11. ºT was THE ONLy TI¸E fOR THE NExT 25 yEaRs THaT THERE was aNy ¸ENTION aT aLL abOUT ¸y ¸EDIcaL cONDITION, OTHER THaN ¸y ¸OTHER pERIODIcaLLy RE¸INDINg ¸E TO fiLL THE pREscRIpTION fOR PRE¸aRIN OR TELLINg ¸E THaT sHE’D scHEDULED aNOTHER appOINT¸ENT wITH THE ENDOcRINOLOgIsT. FOR 25 yEaRs THE ENTIRE ¸aTTER was swEpT UNDER THE RUg, wITHOUT aNy ExpEcTaTION THaT º wOULD NEED OUTsIDE sUppORT TO HELp ¸E cOpE wITH THE facT THaT º DID NOT HaVE a NOR¸aL pUbERTy, wOULD NEVER HaVE bIOLOgIcaL cHILDREN, aND HaD aN abNOR¸aLLy sHORT VagINa, a DETaIL cONVENIENTLy O¸ITTED ON THaT Day bUT wHIcH º DIscOVERED ¸ysELf aT agE 14 wHEN OUT Of cURIOsITy º TRIED TO INsERT a Ta¸pON INTO ¸y VagINa. °E OTHER RE¸aRkabLE THINg abOUT THE “TwIsTED OVaRIEs RE¸OVED TO pREVENT THE¸ fRO¸ bEcO¸INg caNcEROUs” LIE was THaT yEaRs LaTER, aſtER º ¸ET ¸aNy OTHER wO¸EN wITH ¾i¼ fRO¸ ¸aNy OTHER cOUNTRIEs, º LEaRNED THaT THIs sa¸E THINg HaD bEEN TOLD TO THE¸. º caLL IT “THE LIE HEaRD ROUND THE wORLD.” ºT Is HaRD TO I¸agINE THaT ENDOcRINOLOgIsTs Of EVERy sTRIpE wERE INsTRUcTED DURINg THEIR ¸EDIcaL EDUcaTION THaT THIs LIE wOULD yIELD a bETTER psycHOLOgIcaL OUTcO¸E THaN THE TRUTH. PERHaps IT sEE¸s sTRaNgE, bUT DURINg EaRLy aDOLEscENcE IT was NOT INfERTILITy THaT TROUbLED ¸E THE ¸OsT. ºNsTEaD, º was cRUsHED NOT TO gET ¸y pERIOD, as º LOOkED fORwaRD TO THIs THREsHOLD EVENT sINcE sEEINg a fiL¸ IN fiſtH gRaDE DEscRIbINg THE wONDERfUL cHaNgEs THaT sUppOsEDLy sOON wOULD bE HappENINg TO ¸y bODy. MENsTRUaTION Is a cO¸INg-Of-agE RITE fOR aDOLEscENT fE¸aLEs, aND ¸y fRIENDs wOULD INEVITabLy DIscUss THE sUbjEcT IN INTI¸aTE cONVERsaTION. “¶ID yOU gET yOURs?” bEca¸E THE qUEsTION-DU-jOUR IN sEVENTH gRaDE, aND º HaD TO LIE, fEELINg INaDEqUaTE aND asHa¸ED THE wHOLE TI¸E. SHORTLy aſtER sTaRTINg cOLLEgE, IN THE pRE-¾id¼ aND pRE-HERpEs 1970s, THE qUEsTION sHIſtED TO wHETHER º HaD HaD sEx, a sIgNIficaNT TOpIc Of cONVERsaTION fOR EaRLy-sTagE fREsH¸EN Of ¸y gENERaTION. º sTaRTED cOLLEgE sHORTLy bEfORE ¸y 17TH bIRTHDay, aND IT was OVERwHEL¸INg TO LEaRN THaT aLL Of ¸y fRIENDs wERE sExUaLLy acTIVE, wHILE º cOULD NOT sEE HOw º wOULD EVER HaVE sEx gIVEN
y d o B t c e f r e p m I n a n i y e n r u o J y M
bE abLE TO HaVE bIOLOgIcaL cHILDREN, a DEVasTaTINg bLOw, bUT aLsO bEcaUsE THE
¸y aNaTO¸IcaL LI¸ITaTIONs aND aTTENDaNT fEELINgs Of bEINg UNDEsIRabLE aND
70
UNaccEpTabLE. ALsO DURINg cOLLEgE THE pLOT THIckENED as º DIscOVERED THaT THERE was
sirroM .G irrehS
sO¸ETHINg ¸ORE gOINg ON THaN jUsT NOT HaVINg OVaRIEs. º was UNabLE TO gET HO¸E TO sEE ¸y ENDOcRINOLOgIsT ONE sE¸EsTER, aND wENT TO THE cOLLEgE INfiR¸aRy TO TRy TO gET a pREscRIpTION fOR PRE¸aRIN. º kNEw THIs was RIsky bUsINEss bEcaUsE qUEsTIONs wOULD bE askED bEfORE HaNDINg ¸E a pREscRIpTION, bUT ¸y ¸OTHER INsIsTED º HaVE a pREscRIpTION fiLLED aND º kNEw sHE wOULD ¸akE ¸E sHOw HER THE bOTTLE aT ¸y NExT VIsIT HO¸E. º was NOT pREpaRED, HOwEVER, fOR THE VERy fiRsT qUEsTION THE cOLLEgE DOcTOR askED ¸E. SHE INqUIRED wHETHER º HaD a UTERUs, pERHaps bEcaUsE—as º ONLy UNDERsTOOD yEaRs LaTER—sHE waNTED TO kNOw wHETHER º’D HaD a HysTEREcTO¸y aND NEEDED jUsT EsTROgEN OR aLsO REqUIRED pROgEsTERONE. º HaD TO REVEaL THaT º DIDN’T kNOw wHETHER º HaD a UTERUs, wHEREUpON sHE TOOk ¸E INTO aN Exa¸ININg ROO¸. º caNNOT I¸agINE, aND DO NOT REcaLL, HOw sHE was abLE TO DO aNy kIND Of Exa¸INaTION, bEcaUsE ONLy a cHILD-sIzED spEcULU¸ wOULD HaVE fiT INsIDE ¸E aT THE TI¸E. µONETHELEss, THE Exa¸INaTION cONcLUDED, aND sHE HaNDED ¸E a pREscRIpTION wITHOUT TELLINg ¸E aNyTHINg abOUT ¸y UTERUs. º was sHakINg as º sTEELED ¸ysELf TO INqUIRE abOUT wHETHER º INDEED DID HaVE ONE, aND sHE saID “NO” wITHOUT fURTHER ExpLaNaTION. º LEſt THE INfiR¸aRy wITH ¸y HEaD spINNINg, TEaRs sTREa¸INg DOwN ¸y facE as º HEaDED back TO ¸y DOR¸ ROO¸. ºT was THE LasT TI¸E º EVER wENT TO aNy DOcTOR fOR aNy REasON OTHER THaN THE flU fOR THE NExT EIgHTEEN yEaRs. SHORTLy aſtER aRRIVINg aT Law scHOOL º fOUND ¸ysELf sTUDyINg IN THE aLL- NIgHT ¸EDIcaL scHOOL LIbRaRy aſtER THE Law LIbRaRy cLOsED. ºT DIDN’T TakE LONg fOR cURIOsITy TO gET THE bETTER Of ¸E, aND º sTaRTED ROOTINg aROUND IN THE sTacks Of ¸EDIcaL TExTs IN sEaRcH Of INfOR¸aTION abOUT ¸y “TwIsTED OVaRIEs.” º sUspEcTED THaT º HaD NOT bEEN TOLD THE TRUTH—OR aT LEasT THE wHOLE TRUTH— aND NEEDED TO UNEaRTH THE paRTIcULaRs abOUT wHy º HaD NO pUbIc OR UNDERaR¸ OR LEg HaIR, wHy THERE was a scaR RUNNINg LaTERaLLy acROss ¸y bIkINI LINE, aND wHy ¸y “OVaRIEs” wOULD HaVE bEcO¸E TwIsTED IN THE fiRsT pLacE. º bEgaN by REsEaRcHINg THE caUsEs Of pRI¸aRy a¸ENORRHEa aND HIT pay DIRT faIRLy qUIckLy, sTU¸bLINg UpON a LIsT Of cLINIcaL fEaTUREs fOR a cONDITION THEN kNOwN as TEsTIcULaR fE¸INIzaTION syNDRO¸E. ANy LINgERINg DOUbTs abOUT wHETHER º HaD REacHED a cORREcT DIagNOsIs wERE ERasED wHEN º saw THE accO¸paNyINg pIcTUREs Of yOUNg fE¸aLE paTIENTs (THEIR EyEs NOTabLy bLackED OUT bUT THEIR gENITaLs IN sHaRp fOcUs) wHO HaD THE cONDITION. °E sTaRk absENcE Of pUbIc HaIR ¸aDE ¸E cONfiDENT THaT º TOO HaD THIs syNDRO¸E.
°E INfOR¸aTION º REaD was bOTH sHOckINg aND ODDLy saTIsfyINg. ¹O THaT pOINT º HaD aLways cONsIDERED ¸ysELf UNEqUIVOcaLLy fE¸aLE, EVEN THOUgH ¸y
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ºT was a sTUNNINg bLOw TO DIscOVER THaT º HaD XÒ cHRO¸OsO¸Es aND TEsTEs. ¹O ¸y ¸IND aT THE TI¸E, IT ¸EaNT THaT º wasN’T TRULy fE¸aLE aT aLL, aND THaT IN sO¸E sENsE ¸y wHOLE LIfE was a cHaRaDE. YET EVEN IN THE ¸IDsT Of sUcH aNgsT THERE was aN ELE¸ENT Of RELIEf. WHEN º was 11 aND was TOLD THaT ¸y “OVaRIEs” HaD bEEN RE¸OVED bEcaUsE THEy wERE TwIsTED aND cOULD HaVE bEcO¸E caNcEROUs, º was LEſt wITH a LINgERINg fEaR THaT º was sEcRETLy DyINg Of caNcER aND THaT NO ONE was TELLINg ¸E THE TRUTH abOUT IT. WHEN º REaLIzED THaT ¸y TEsTEs HaD LIkELy bEEN sURgIcaLLy RE¸OVED IN INfaNcy, aND THIs ExpLaINED THE scaR abOVE ¸y gENITaLs, IT aT LEasT qUELLED sUcH cONcERN abOUT ¸y HaVINg caNcER. °Is NEwfOUND INfOR¸aTION aLsO pIEcED TOgETHER THE cRypTIc pUzzLE Of ¸y LIfE INTO a ¸ORE UNDERsTaNDabLE wHOLE. ³aTHER THaN sEEINg ¸ysELf as a ONE- Off fREak, º fELT REassURED THaT THIs was a kNOwN qUaNTITy—a cONDITION THaT HaD a Na¸E aND Of wHIcH º was NOT THE ONLy sUffERER. AT THE sa¸E TI¸E, THE NEwLy UNEaRTHED DaRk TRUTHs abOUT ¸y cHRO¸OsO¸Es aND gONaDs wERE TOO ¸UcH fOR ¸E TO HaNDLE aLONE. YET IT was I¸pOssIbLE fOR ¸E EVEN TO cONTE¸pLaTE sHaRINg THIs INfOR¸aTION wITH aNOTHER LIVINg sOUL. º DID wHaT aNy RaTIONaL fiRsT-yEaR Law sTUDENT wOULD DO wHEN cONfRONTED wITH aNy OVERwHEL¸INg pERsONaL ObsTacLE: º TUckED THE INfOR¸aTION away INTO THE DEEp REcEssEs Of ¸y ¸IND, pUT ¸y NOsE TO THE gRINDsTONE, aND ¸aDE Law REVIEw INsTEaD. °ROUgHOUT ¸y 20s aND ¸OsT Of ¸y 30s º cONTINUED THIs paTTERN Of OVERacHIEVE¸ENT aT wORk aND sUppREssION Of ¸y TERRIbLE pERsONaL sEcRET, EVEN TO ¸ysELf. °E bEsT way TO DEscRIbE IT Is TO say THaT º fELT paINTED INTO a cORNER fRO¸ wHIcH º cOULD sEE NO way OUT. ALTHOUgH gREgaRIOUs by NaTURE, º kNEw THaT º cOULD NEVER sHaRE THE TRUTH abOUT ¸ysELf wITH aNy fRIEND, ¸UcH LEss a RO¸aNTIc paRTNER. FOR THaT REasON º bEgaN, aND THEN qUIckLy abORTED, RELaTIONsHIps wITH ¸EN as º fiR¸Ly bELIEVED THaT If THEy saw ¸y absENcE Of pUbIc HaIR THEy wOULD NOT ONLy REcOIL IN HORROR, bUT aLsO ask qUEsTIONs º was UNEqUIppED TO aNswER. °ERE was, TO a sO¸EwHaT LEssER ExTENT, a sI¸ILaR IsOLaTION fRO¸ EVEN ¸y fE¸aLE fRIENDs. º was afRaID THaT THEy wOULD DIscOVER ¸y NONExIsTENT kNOwLEDgE abOUT pERIODs, aND bOTH ¸aRRIagE aND cHILDREN, TOpIcs THaT INEVITabLy wOULD cO¸E Up IN cONVERsaTION, sEE¸ED cO¸pLETELy bEyOND ¸y REacH. º NEVER aLLOwED ¸ysELf TO cHaNgE IN a LOckER ROO¸ OR aNywHERE ELsE wHERE
y d o B t c e f r e p m I n a n i y e n r u o J y M
INabILITy TO ¸ENsTRUaTE OR HaVE cHILDREN ¸aDE ¸E fEEL LIkE “Da¸agED gOODs.”
sO¸EONE ¸IgHT caTcH a gLI¸psE Of ¸y jUVENILE-LOOkINg NIppLEs aND aNO¸a-
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LOUs gENITaLs. ALways, º was LEſt wITH THE OVERaRcHINg sENsE THaT If pEOpLE kNEw THE REaL TRUTH abOUT ¸E, THEy wOULDN’T LIkE ¸E aT aLL. °E TOLL ON ¸y
sirroM .G irrehS
sELf-I¸agE was pROfOUND. ·LTI¸aTELy, HOwEVER, IT was NEITHER THE DIscOVERy Of ¸y gENETIcs NOR THE paRTIcULaRs Of THE syNDRO¸E ITsELf THaT caUsED ¸E sUsTaINED psycHOLOgIcaL DIfficULTy. ºNsTEaD, THE REaLIzaTION THaT º HaD bEEN TOLD LIEs by THOsE fRO¸ wHO¸ º HaD a RIgHT TO ExpEcT THE TRUTH—¸y paRENTs—LEſt ¸E saD aND aNgRy IN EqUaL ¸EasURE. °Is bREacH Of TRUsT cO¸¸UNIcaTED TO ¸E THaT THERE was sO¸ETHINg sHa¸EfUL aND UNaccEpTabLE abOUT ¸y bODy EVEN TO THOsE fRO¸ wHO¸ º ExpEcTED UNcONDITIONaL accEpTaNcE. SaDLy, ¸y paRENTs wERE acTINg ON THE REcO¸¸ENDaTION Of ¸y pEDIaTRIc ENDOcRINOLOgIsT, wHO, aT bEsT, LIkELy TOOk NO ¸ORE THaN ONE OR TwO cOURsEs IN psycHOLOgy DURINg HIs TRaININg. ¶URINg THIs sa¸E pROTRacTED pERIOD º fOUND ¸ysELf REHasHINg INcIDENTs RELaTED TO THE ¸EDIcaL ¸aNagE¸ENT Of ¸y casE. ºT was cLEaR THaT ¸y ENDOcRINOLOgIsT was UNcO¸fORTabLE wITH ¸y VIsITs TO HIs OfficE, NO DOUbT bEcaUsE HE was aN acTIVE paRTIcIpaNT IN kEEpINg THE TRUTH fRO¸ ¸E aND THEREfORE NOT ONLy NEEDED TO bE caREfUL abOUT wHaT HE saID, bUT aLsO NEEDED TO HaVE fabRIcaTED aNswERs aT THE REaDy sHOULD º ask qUEsTIONs. ³aTHER THaN fOsTERINg a HEaLTHy DOcTOR-paTIENT RELaTIONsHIp, HIs cO¸¸UNIcaTIONs wERE sTILTED aND OpaqUE. °Is ¸EaNT THaT EVEN as a LaTER aDOLEscENT, º was UNabLE TO bEcO¸E aN INfOR¸ED aND acTIVE paRTIcIpaNT IN ¸y caRE. BUT by faR THE ¸OsT DIsTURbINg Of ¸y REcOLLEcTIONs was Of bEINg ON aN Exa¸ININg TabLE wHILE INTERNs aND REsIDENTs “INspEcTED” ¸E, aLL THE wHILE DIscUssINg THE paRTIcULaRs Of ¸y aNaTO¸y IN ¸EDIcaL jaRgON º cOULD NOT UNDERsTaND. ADOLEscENcE Is aN awkwaRD bODy I¸agE TI¸E UNDER THE bEsT Of cIRcU¸sTaNcEs, aND fOR THOsE bORN wITH aNy pHysIcaL aNO¸aLy, THIs awkwaRDNEss Is UNDOUbTEDLy cO¸pOUNDED. BUT RaTHER THaN ¸ITIgaTINg ¸y bODy I¸agE cHaLLENgEs, bEINg pUT ON DIspLay IN THIs ¸aNNER ¸aDE ¸E fEEL asHa¸ED, fREakIsH, aND cERTaINLy “UNfiT fOR HU¸aN cONsU¸pTION” IN aNy sExUaL sENsE. °E LOss Of cONTROL IN HaVINg OTHERs cO¸¸ENT ON aND TOUcH ¸y bODy, wHILE º was ExpEcTED TO LIE sTILL aND sILENT, fELT TO ¸E LIkE RapE. °Is was NOT DONE IN fURTHERaNcE Of ¸y “TREaT¸ENT,” bUT RaTHER IN fURTHERaNcE Of aN INTERN’s ¸EDIcaL EDUcaTION. PHysIcIaN TRaININg Is I¸pORTaNT, bUT caN sUcH Exa¸INaTIONs bE jUsTIfiED If THEy LEaVE THE paTIENT fEELINg VIOLaTED? ²Ow sELf-EsTEE¸, sHa¸E, aND IsOLaTION aRE INEVITabLE bypRODUcTs Of a ¸EDIcaL paRaDIg¸ fOUNDED ON LyINg TO THE paTIENT abOUT HER cONDITION, cREaTINg aN ENVIRON¸ENT IN wHIcH THE paTIENT Is DIscOURagED fRO¸ gaININg aN UNDERsTaNDINg Of HER bODy, aLLOwINg OTHERs TO INspEcT aND cO¸¸ENT ON
HER bODy, NOT OffERINg cOUNsELINg aND sUppORT TO wORk THROUgH THE fEELINgs Of gRIEf aND aNgER, aND kEEpINg THE paTIENT IsOLaTED fRO¸ OTHER INDIVIDU-
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ExpERT DIagNOsEs aND TREaT¸ENT wITHOUT pLacINg THE paTIENT aT THE cENTER Of THE pROTOcOL Is ¸ORE THaN jUsT INsENsITIVE—IT Is baD ¸EDIcINE, paRTIcULaRLy wHEN paTIENT cO¸pLIaNcE Is NEcEssaRy. º ROUTINELy flUsHED THE pILLs º HaD bEEN pREscRIbED (IN ¸y casE, PRE¸aRIN) DOwN THE TOILET, assERTINg THE ONLy cONTROL º HaD OVER THE HELpLEssNEss º fELT. ÁaVINg REcEIVED NO cLEaR ExpLaNaTION Of wHy º NEEDED THIs pREscRIpTION, º wasN’T ONbOaRD aND INfOR¸ED abOUT THE cONsEqUENcEs Of NOT TakINg IT. BUT THE INcRE¸ENTaL HaR¸ º was DOINg TO ¸y bODy by NOT TakINg THE pILLs wOULD cERTaINLy HaVE bEEN OUTsTRIppED by THE ¸ORE I¸¸EDIaTE HaR¸ º cONTE¸pLaTED DOINg TO ¸ysELf. °E pERsIsTENT HELpLEssNEss aND HOpELEssNEss º fELT, cO¸pOUNDED by TRE¸ENDOUs sHa¸E aND cOUpLED wITH THE DETacH¸ENT Of NOT HaVINg aNyONE wITH wHO¸ º cOULD sHaRE THIs ONEROUs sEcRET, caUsED ¸E TO gIVE sERIOUs cONsIDERaTION TO ENDINg ¸y LIfE. ºN THE back Of ¸y ¸IND, HOwEVER, was a pROfOUND aND aL¸OsT DEspERaTE wIsH TO ¸EET sO¸EONE ELsE LIkE ¸ysELf bEfORE º DIED. WHENEVER º wOULD HEaR abOUT sO¸EONE wHO cOULDN’T HaVE cHILDREN, º wONDERED If sHE TOO HaD “TwIsTED OVaRIEs.” MUcH LIkE aN aDOpTED cHILD IN sEaRcH Of a bIOLOgIcaL paRENT, º wOULD waLk DOwN THE sTREET aND LOOk INTO pEOpLE’s EyEs, wONDERINg If wE sHaRED a cO¸¸ON gENETIc LINk (IN THIs casE, THE Ð-LINkED REcEssIVE TRaIT fOR ¾i¼). °Is pRI¸ORDIaL NEED TO cONNEcT wITH sO¸EONE wHO UNDERsTOOD wHaT IT was LIkE TO waLk IN ¸y sHOEs ¸IgHT HaVE gONE UN¸ET HaD º NOT HEEDED wHaT caN ONLy bE DEscRIbED as a s¸aLL VOIcE INsIDE ¸E pRO¸pTINg ¸E TO gO a ¸EDIcaL scHOOL LIbRaRy ON THE ¸ORNINg Of ¶EcE¸bER 26, 1994. ºN THE pasT º HaD pERIODIcaLLy gONE TO THE LIbRaRy IN sEaRcH Of INfOR¸aTION abOUT ¾i¼ (as º HaD cO¸E TO UNDERsTaND ¸y cONDITION was caLLED), THOUgH º OſtEN LEſt fRUsTRaTED HaVINg fOUND ONLy aRTIcLEs HIgHLIgHTINg NEw REsEaRcH INTO THE aNDROgEN REcEpTOR gENE wITHOUT aNy DIscUssION Of THE psycHOLOgIcaL cHaLLENgEs facED by paTIENTs wHO LIVED wITH THIs DIsORDER. BUT ON THaT DaTE ¸y wORLD cHaNgED wHEN º sTU¸bLED acROss a LETTER pUbLIsHED IN THE British Medical
Journal by aNOTHER wO¸aN wITH ¾i¼. °E aNONy¸OUs LETTER NOT ONLy REcOUNTED a LIfE ExpERIENcE THaT was HaUNTINgLy sI¸ILaR TO ¸y OwN, bUT aLsO HELD OUT THE pOssIbILITy THaT sO¸EDay º wOULD ¸EET sO¸EONE wHO was LIkE ¸E. °aT pOssIbILITy bEca¸E EVEN ¸ORE Of a REaLITy wHEN, IN a LaTER IssUE Of THE sa¸E jOURNaL (wHIcH º DIscOVERED LaTER THaT sa¸E Day), º saw a REspONsE TO THE fiRsT LETTER. °Is sEcOND LETTER
y d o B t c e f r e p m I n a n i y e n r u o J y M
aLs wITH wHO¸ sHE sHaREs a cO¸¸ON ExpERIENcE. º bELIEVE THaT TO pROVIDE
pROVIDED INfOR¸aTION abOUT a NEwLy fOR¸ED sUppORT gROUp, basED IN THE
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·NITED KINgDO¸, fOR wO¸EN wITH ¾i¼. ÁOLDINg IN ¸y HaNDs THE TELEpHONE NU¸bER aND OTHER cONTacT INfOR¸a-
sirroM .G irrehS
TION fOR THE sUppORT gROUp, º HaD TO RETIRE TO a NEaRby sTUDy caRREL, wHERE º bEgaN cRyINg wITH aN INTENsITy º HaD NEVER bEfORE ExpERIENcED. °E bEsT way º caN DEscRIbE IT Is TO say THaT º HaD bEEN sHIpwREckED ON aN UNINHabITED IsLaND fOR THIRTy-fiVE yEaRs aND IN THaT ¸O¸ENT DIscOVERED THaT THERE was aNOTHER pERsON ON THE IsLaND aND THaT sHE HaD a LIfEbOaT. °E jOURNEy fRO¸ THaT aſtERNOON IN 1994 UNTIL THE pREsENT Has bEEN ExTRaORDINaRy. ºN EaRLy 1995 º TRaVELED TO THE ·NITED KINgDO¸ TO aTTEND THE fiRsT ORgaNIzED ¸EETINg Of THE sUppORT gROUp. A ¸E¸bER Of THE gROUp gRacIOUsLy OffERED TO ¸EET ¸y pLaNE aT ÁEaTHROw aIRpORT, aND THERE fOR THE fiRsT TI¸E º sTOOD sIDE by sIDE wITH sO¸EONE wHO kNEw—kNEw wHaT IT was LIkE TO HaVE a bODy THaT LOOkED aND fELT LIkE ¸INE, aND kNEw THE sa¸E sEcREcy aND sILENcE aND LIEs aND sHa¸E THaT HaD bEEN THE HaLL¸aRks Of ¸y ExIsTENcE. My LIfE IN EaRNEsT HaD bEgUN. FOLLOwINg THaT INITIaL ¸EETINg, º aTTENDED sEVERaL ¸ORE ¸EETINgs Of THE ·K gROUp, wHEREUpON º EsTabLIsHED a sI¸ILaR sUppORT gROUp IN THE ·NITED STaTEs. ÁaVINg fOUND HELp fOR ¸ysELf, º fELT IT I¸pORTaNT TO ENsURE THaT OTHER wO¸EN wITH ¾i¼ HaVE accEss TO THE sa¸E kIND Of INfOR¸aTION aND sUppORT. BUT THERE was a sEcOND, aND pERHaps EVEN ¸ORE I¸pORTaNT, ¸OTIVaTION fOR fOR¸INg THE gROUp: TO ENsURE THaT OTHER aDOLEscENTs NOT spEND yEaRs fEELINg aLONE aND afRaID, bURDENED by a sEcRET aND UNabLE TO fOR¸ HEaLTHy fRIENDsHIps aND RO¸aNTIc aTTacH¸ENTs. ºT was a¸azINg TO DIscOVER THaT ¸y LIfE ExpERIENcE, wHIcH HaD fELT sO abNOR¸aL fOR sO ¸aNy yEaRs, was acTUaLLy qUITE NOR¸aL fOR THOsE wHO, LIkE ¸E, wERE bORN wITH aN INTERsEx cONDITION. ¹O HEaR OTHER wO¸EN aRTIcULaTE THE sa¸E fEaRs aND cONcERNs º HaD was bOTH LIbERaTINg aND REassURINg. ·LTI¸aTELy, HOwEVER, THE ¸OsT I¸pORTaNT “TakE-HO¸E” ¸EssagE º DERIVED fRO¸ paRTIcIpaTINg IN THE gROUp was THaT º saw THE OTHER ¸E¸bERs as bOTH wORTHwHILE aND LIkEabLE, aND THaT IN TURN aLLOwED ¸E TO sEE HOw sO¸EONE ELsE ¸IgHT kNOw THE TRUTH abOUT ¸y LIfE aND NOT REcOIL IN HORROR OR REjEcT ¸E OUT Of HaND. ºN TI¸E º was abLE TO LEVERagE THE sTRENgTH º DERIVED fRO¸ paRTIcIpaTINg IN THE gROUp, sHaRINg fOR THE fiRsT TI¸E THE TRUTH abOUT ¸y HaVINg bEEN bORN INTERsExED wITH sO¸E cLOsE fRIENDs. FOR sO ¸aNy yEaRs º HaD LIVED IN fEaR THaT sO¸EONE wOULD DIscOVER THaT º HaD ¾i¼; IT was aL¸OsT UNI¸agINabLE THaT º wOULD DIscLOsE THIs INfOR¸aTION abOUT ¸ysELf VOLUNTaRILy. YET THERE º was
TELLINg ¸y fRIENDs aND sEEINg THaT THEy DID NOT REjEcT ¸E bUT INsTEaD wERE sUppORTIVE aND ENcOURagINg.
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THaT ¸y absENcE Of pUbIc HaIR (THIs, Of cOURsE IN THE Days bEfORE sUcH a LOOk bEca¸E fasHIONabLE) wOULD ITsELf EaR¸aRk ¸E as fREakIsH aND UNDEsIRabLE. °E pRObLE¸ Of VagINaL HypOpLasIa wEIgHED HEaVy ON ¸y ¸IND, as º HaD NOT pURsUED aNy TREaT¸ENT TO a¸ELIORaTE THIs sHORTcO¸INg (pUN INTENDED). AR¸ED wITH bOTH INfOR¸aTION aND a NEw VIgOR TO DEaL wITH THE sITUaTION, º REsU¸ED ¸EDIcaL caRE aſtER HaVINg NOT bEEN TO a DOcTOR IN ¸ORE THaN 15 yEaRs. ºN THE pROcEss, º bEgaN TO TakE EsTROgEN, aND sTaRTED TO UsE DILaTORs TO aDDREss ¸y VagINaL LENgTH pRObLE¸. WaLkINg INTO a DOcTOR’s OfficE fOR THE fiRsT TI¸E sINcE º was 17 was, HOwEVER, NO s¸aLL ¸aTTER. º LITERaLLy fOUND ¸ysELf sHakINg IN THE waITINg ROO¸. FOR aL¸OsT THE wHOLE Of ¸y LIfE sINcE aDOLEscENcE, º DREaDED gOINg TO THE DOcTOR. º DIDN’T ¸UcH TRUsT DOcTORs, gIVEN THaT THEy NEVER TOLD ¸E THE TRUTH abOUT HaVINg ¾i¼ aND HaVINg bEEN pUT ON “DIspLay” fOR INTERNs aND REsIDENTs. WHILE º caNNOT say THaT ¸y ¸ORE REcENT INTERacTIONs wITH ENDOcRINOLOgIsTs HaVE aLways bEEN pLEasaNT, IT Is a fUNDa¸ENTaLLy DIffERENT ExpERIENcE TO bE a paTIENT wHO kNOws THE TRUTH aND Is abLE TO bE aN INfOR¸ED paRTIcIpaNT IN ¸akINg DEcIsIONs abOUT HER caRE, sO¸ETHINg DENIED ¸E by THOsE DOcTORs wHO pERpETUaTED THE LIE abOUT ¸y HaVINg “TwIsTED OVaRIEs” aND wHO sEE¸ED TO HaVE a paLpabLE DIscO¸fORT IN TREaTINg ¸E. AſtER HaVINg sTaRTED TO aDDREss ¸y ¸EDIcaL cONcERNs, aND IN cONjUNcTION wITH ONgOINg THERapy TO sORT OUT ¸y fEELINgs, º was fiNaLLy abLE TO cONsIDER IN EaRNEsT fOR THE fiRsT TI¸E E¸baRkINg ON aN INTI¸aTE, sExUaL RELaTIONsHIp. A fEw yEaRs agO º ¸ET ¸y HUsbaND, ³IcHaRD, THROUgH a LOcaL cHapTER Of MENsa. WE INITIaLLy ¸aDE cONTacT THROUgH a LIsTsERV fOR THIs LOcaL gROUp. ·pON jOININg, º ¸ENTIONED aN ENjOy¸ENT Of cLassIcaL ¸UsIc aND OpERa. °Is spaRkED ³IcHaRD’s INTEREsT, aND wE HaD a bRIEf ON-LINE ExcHaNgE fOLLOwINg wHIcH HE RaN a GOOgLE sEaRcH ON ¸y Na¸E, sO¸ETHINg HE was IN THE HabIT Of DOINg wHEN HE ¸ET NEw fRIENDs. ³IcHaRD gOT ¸ORE THaN HE baRgaINED fOR, as THE sEaRcH yIELDED a VaRIETy Of aRTIcLEs abOUT ¸y bEINg INTERsExED, ¸y INVOLVE¸ENT wITH THE sUppORT gROUp, aND ¸y EffORTs TO cHaNgE HOw THE ¸EDIcaL cO¸¸UNITy REspONDs TO INTERsEx INfaNTs aND aDULTs. As IT TURNED OUT, HOwEVER, THIs was NOT Off-pUTTINg fOR HI¸, bUT was a caTaLysT fOR Us DEVELOpINg a NaTURaL OpENNEss aND INTI¸acy IN OUR RELaTIONsHIp.
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AN EVEN gREaTER HURDLE was THE ROaD TO a RO¸aNTIc aLLIaNcE. º HaD bEEN TERRIfiED Of aLLOwINg aNyONE TO sEE ¸E NakED fRO¸ THE waIsT DOwN, cERTaIN
¹O fiND ¸ysELf ¸aRRIED TO sO¸EONE º LOVE, TO HaVE a LIfE THaT Is fiLLED wITH
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THE RIcHNEss Of cLOsE fRIENDsHIps, was UNI¸agINabLE TO ¸E jUsT a fEw sHORT yEaRs agO. °OsE wHO LIED TO ¸E abOUT HaVINg ¾i¼ RaTIONaLIzED TO THE¸sELVEs
sirroM .G irrehS
THaT THEy wERE pROTEcTINg ¸E, yET THEIR acTIONs fOsTERED aN aT¸OspHERE Of sHa¸E aND sEcREcy, wHIcH IN TURN cO¸¸UNIcaTED TO ¸E THaT THE TRUTH abOUT ¸E was UNaccEpTabLE. °E NEED TO bE LOVED aND accEpTED fOR wHO wE aRE Is fUNDa¸ENTaL, yET THIs Is DENIED TO sO¸EONE wHO Is TOLD LIEs aND wHO REcEIVEs THE ¸EssagE THaT sHE Is UNaccEpTabLE THROUgH bOTH acTIONs aND wORDs. ºf ¸y ExpERIENcE spEaks TO aNyTHINg, IT Is THE NEED fOR THE ¸EDIcaL cO¸¸UNITy NO LONgER TO sEE bEINg INTERsExED as a HORRIbLE ¸IsTakE Of NaTURE TO bE cORREcTED, TO THE ¸axI¸U¸ ExTENT pOssIbLE, THROUgH sURgIcaL aND ¸EDIcaL INTERVENTION. ºNsTEaD, ¸y ExpERIENcE INfOR¸s ¸E THaT a bETTER OUTcO¸E Is pOssIbLE ONLy If paRENTs Of a NEwbORN wITH ¾i¼ OR OTHER INTERsEx cONDITION aRE REfERRED fOR appROpRIaTE cOUNsELINg sO THaT THEy caN wORk THROUgH aNy gUILT OR sHa¸E THEy fEEL abOUT HaVINg aN INTERsExED cHILD. ±NLy IN cONjUNcTION wITH sUcH cOUNsELINg caN THEy ¸akE INfOR¸ED cHOIcEs abOUT THEIR cHILD’s caRE basED ON wHaT Is IN THE LONg-TER¸ INTEREsT Of THE cHILD RaTHER THaN ¸akINg I¸pULsIVE DEcIsIONs DEsIgNED TO ERasE, OſtEN THROUgH sURgIcaL ¸EaNs bUT EqUaLLy THROUgH LIEs, sUcH sHa¸E aND gUILT. AT THE sa¸E TI¸E, IT Is cRITIcaL THaT paRENTs bE pLacED IN TOUcH wITH aN appROpRIaTE sUppORT gROUp, NOT ONLy sO THaT THEy caN LIsTEN TO THE ExpERIENcEs Of OTHER aDULTs LIVINg wITH a cONDITION sI¸ILaR TO THEIR cHILD’s, bUT aLsO sO THaT THEy caN gaTHER sUppORT fRO¸ OTHER paRENTs wHO aRE facED wITH THE sa¸E cHaLLENgEs. ºN THIs way, THEIR ExpERIENcE caN bE NOR¸aLIzED, aND THEy, IN TURN, caN gO ON TO bEcO¸E a VaLUabLE REsOURcE fOR THEIR cHILDREN, fOsTERINg aN OpEN aND HONEsT DIaLOgUE IN THE pROcEss. MEDIcINE, paRTIcULaRLy WEsTERN ¸EDIcINE, DOEs aN OUTsTaNDINg jOb Of cURINg ILLNEss bUT sTILL Has ¸UcH TO LEaRN abOUT HEaLINg. °OsE wHO aRE DRawN TO ¸EDIcINE as a caREER aRE cO¸¸ITTED TO HELpINg THEIR paTIENTs aND waNT wHaT Is IN THEIR paTIENTs’ LONg-TER¸ bEsT INTEREsTs. °E cHaLLENgE Is THaT pHysIcIaNs aRE sO¸ETI¸Es OVERLy I¸pREssED wITH NEw TEcHNOLOgIEs aND sURgIcaL TEcHNIqUEs, LOsINg sIgHT Of THE facT THaT THERE Is ¸EaNINg aND pURpOsE TO bEINg bORN “DIffERENT,” aND THaT sURgERy aND sEcREcy HaVE THE pOTENTIaL TO INVaLIDaTE THE paTIENT’s ExpERIENcE. ºf º HaD a cHOIcE, º wOULD NOT ELEcT TO bE bORN wITHOUT ¾i¼. °E cHaLLENgEs º HaVE facED HaVE cONTRIbUTED TO wHO º a¸. ÁaVINg ¾i¼ Is NOT fOR ¸E THE TRagEDy ¸y paRENTs aND DOcTORs THOUgHT IT wOULD bE. SEcREcy aND sILENcE HaVE LEſt faR DEEpER scaRs THaN ¸y TRaNsITORy sTRUggLE TO cO¸E TO TER¸s wITH HaVINg bEEN bORN wITH TEsTEs aND XÒ cHRO¸OsO¸Es. ÁaVINg ¸ET HUNDREDs
Of OTHER wO¸EN wITH ¾i¼, º caN say THaT THIs Has bEEN TRUE fOR THE¸ as wELL. WHILE THEsE ExpERIENcEs aRE sO¸ETI¸Es DIs¸IssED as “aNEcDOTaL,” º THINk
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s¸aLL pOpULaTION, sHOULD bE VIEwED as INsTRUcTIVE If NOT cONcLUsIVE. ºT Is ENcOURagINg TO sEE THE sHIſt IN THINkINg by pHysIcIaNs wHO aRE TREaTINg THE INTERsExED cHILDREN bORN TODay. °ERE Is a bETTER wORLD aHEaD fOR THEsE cHILDREN, NOT ONLy as sOcIETy gROws ¸ORE TOLERaNT, bUT aLsO bEcaUsE THEy wILL HaVE accEss TO I¸pORTaNT sUppORT REsOURcEs THaT wERE NOT aVaILabLE wHEN º was bORN. MEDIcINE caN pLay a kEy ROLE IN acHIEVINg a bETTER OUTcO¸E fOR THEsE INDIVIDUaLs—NOT wITH a scaLpEL bUT wITH INfOR¸aTION, OpTIONs, aND a DEEpER appREcIaTION Of THEIR NEEDs.
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THaT THE ExpERIENcE Of HUNDREDs Of INDIVIDUaLs, paRTIcULaRLy IN a RELaTIVELy
µA±s±ng A WomAn Mary Stainton
ºN ¸y ¸IND’s EyE, º sEE ¸ysELf caRINg fOR a cHILD, a DaUgHTER, wITH cEREbRaL paLsy. As º bEND OVER TO DIapER HER, º kNOw º sTaND bETwEEN TwO wORLDs: THE wORLD º HaVE kNOwN aLL ¸y LIfE as a wO¸aN wITH a DIsabILITy, aND THE wORLD Of ¸y ¸OTHER. GLEaNINg fRO¸ ¸y OwN ExpERIENcE, º DREa¸ Of gIVINg ¸y DaUgHTER pHysIcaL THERapy, bUT fRa¸INg ITs NEED DIffERENTLy fOR HER THaN IT was fRa¸ED fOR ¸E. º waNT ¸y DaUgHTER TO kNOw THaT THE pURpOsE Of THERapy Is TO ENHaNcE THE sTRENgTHs Of HER bODy aND TO pROTEcT IT fRO¸ UNNEcEssaRy HaR¸ OR paIN. º waNT TO aVOID aT aLL cOsT gIVINg ¸y DaUgHTER THE ¸EssagE THaT sHE NEEDs THERapy IN ORDER TO cORREcT sO¸ETHINg THaT Is wrong wITH HER bODy, OR TO ¸akE HER bODy LOOk “NOR¸aL.” AND º DREa¸ Of HER aDOLEscENcE, Of HOw sHE wILL ExpERIENcE ¸ENsTRUaTION. º waNT TO bE HONEsT wITH HER abOUT THE DIfficULTIEs HER abILITy TO gIVE bIRTH wILL bRINg. BLOOD flOwINg bETwEEN spasTIc LEgs Is INcREDIbLy HaRD TO DEaL wITH. BUT º aLsO waNT HER TO kNOw THaT HER abILITy TO gIVE bIRTH, wHETHER OR NOT sHE cHOOsEs TO, Is a sacRED THINg. ºNDEED, HER choice Is THE ¸OsT sacRED abILITy Of aLL. WRappED aROUND aLL ¸y DREa¸s fOR THIs cHILD º caRE fOR Is THE DEsIRE fOR HER TO kNOw, aND kNOw DEEpLy wITHIN HERsELf, THaT THIs UNDENIabLy DIfficULT bODy Is NONETHELEss gOOD, EVEN bEaUTIfUL. º gLaNcE aT ¸y ¸OTHER, wHO sTaNDs IN THE ROO¸ wITH ¸E, as aLL THE DEsIREs aND fRUsTRaTIONs sHE Has EVER fELT abOUT HER THREE cHILDREN cO¸E pOURINg OUT Of HER. º kNOw THaT DEspITE ¸y DREa¸s, º wILL faIL THIs cHILD. º wILL NOT bE abLE TO gIVE HER EVERyTHINg º wIsH. MORTaLs caRRy DIVINE HOpEs IN HU¸aN cONTaINERs. ¹O THE Task Of RaIsINg HER yOUNgEsT DaUgHTER, ¸y ¸OTHER bROUgHT LOVE, VIsION, aND DETER¸INaTION. SHE aLsO bROUgHT assORTED DE¸ONs. SO¸E º caN Na¸E; sO¸E º caN ONLy wONDER abOUT.
MaRy STaINTON, “³aIsINg a WO¸aN,” fRO¸ Journal of the American Medical Association 296, NO. 12 (2006): 1445–1446. COpyRIgHT © 2006 by A¸ERIcaN MEDIcaL AssOcIaTION. ³EpRINTED by pER¸IssION Of A¸ERIcaN MEDIcaL AssOcIaTION. ALL RIgHTs REsERVED.
“YOU ca¸E INTO OUR LIVEs OUT Of THE bLUE,” sHE TOLD ¸E a fEw yEaRs agO. “WE DIDN’T EVEN kNOw If wHaT yOU HaD was faTaL.”
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TO yOU” aND sENT ¸E TO a ca¸p fOR DIsabLED kIDs sO º wOULD LEaRN TO LOVE THE OUTDOORs aND HaVE a pEER gROUp a¸ONg wHO¸ º cOULD cO¸pETE sUccEssfULLy. SHE was DETER¸INED THaT º NOT ¸IsUsE ¸y DIsabILITy aND THaT º DEVELOp a sENsE Of REspONsIbILITy. “¶ON’T LET HER gET away wITH THaT bEcaUsE sHE’s IN a wHEELcHaIR,” sHE TOLD a jUNIOR HIgH TEacHER º HaD ¸OUTHED Off TO. WHEN º cONfEssED TO bITINg a cHILDHOOD fRIEND ON THE aNkLE, sHE ¸aDE ¸E caLL THE fRIEND Up aND apOLOgIzE. SUcH DIscIpLINE was UNHEaRD Of a¸ONg ¸y DIsabLED fRIENDs. “YOU HaVE a REspONsIbILITy TO ¸akE THIs wORLD a bETTER pLacE fOR yOUR HaVINg bEEN HERE,” sHE saID wHEN º was 13. °OsE wORDs HaVE bEEN a gUIDINg fORcE IN ¸y LIfE. ¶ETER¸INED NOT TO REpLIcaTE HER OwN ExpERIENcE Of IgNORaNcE aND TERROR aT HER fiRsT ¸ENsTRUaTION, sHE bROUgHT HO¸E cLEaR, THREE-DI¸ENsIONaL ¸ODELs Of THE ¸aLE aND fE¸aLE REpRODUcTIVE sysTE¸s, wHIcH sHE HaD bORROwED fRO¸ PLaNNED PaRENTHOOD, aND DIscUssED “THE facTs Of LIfE” wITH ¸E wHEN º was 10. ÁER ExpLaNaTIONs wERE faR fRO¸ pERfEcT, aND sHE was ObVIOUsLy TENsE, bUT cO¸paRED TO ¸aNy Of THE kIDs wITH DIsabILITIEs º kNEw, º was LUcky. ±NE gIRL, 16, DEaf, aND wITH cEREbRaL paLsy, swORE sHE HaD gOTTEN HERsELf pREgNaNT bEcaUsE sHE HaD DaNcED wITH a bOy. º was ¸UcH yOUNgER, bUT bEcaUsE Of wHaT ¸y ¸OTHER HaD TaUgHT ¸E, º TOLD THE gIRL sHE was wRONg. My ¸OTHER’s TEacHINg was aLL THE ¸ORE RE¸aRkabLE bEcaUsE ¸y ¸OTHER HaTED bEINg fE¸aLE. My aDOLEscENT ¸E¸ORIEs aRE fiLLED wITH sTORIEs Of HER OwN ¸ENsTRUaTION: s¸ELLs sHE HaD TO ENDURE, sOcIaL E¸baRRass¸ENT, cOaRsE Rags THaT cHafED bETwEEN HER LEgs. SHE RaILED agaINsT wO¸EN’s ROLEs aND THE sExIs¸ THaT ¸aDE HER fEEL aNgRy aND TRappED, bUT was UNabLE fOR wHaTEVER REasONs TO ExpLORE DIffERENT OpTIONs THaT THE fE¸INIsT ¸OVE¸ENT Of THE 1960s aND EaRLy 1970s cREaTED aND ENcOURagED. AND DEspITE HER VIsIONaRy sELf, MO¸ was a VIcTI¸ Of a DO¸INaNT cULTURE THaT faILs TO pROVIDE aDEqUaTE REsOURcEs fOR paRENTs Of aDOLEscENTs wITH DIsabILITIEs aND THaT DEfiNEs pEOpLE wITH DIsabILITIEs as LEss sExUaL, LEss DEsERVINg, aND LEss aLIVE THaN OTHER ¸E¸bERs Of sOcIETy. ÁER VIcTI¸IzaTION bEca¸E ¸INE. µOwHERE DID º fEEL ¸y ¸OTHER’s aNgER aND sENsE Of ENTRap¸ENT ¸ORE THaN wHEN sHE assIsTED ¸E DURINg ¸y pERIODs. FRUsTRaTION RIppED THROUgH HER as sHE cLEaNED bETwEEN ¸y LEgs aND pULLED Up a KOTEx paD. SHE fELT sHE HaD TO
namoW a g n i s i a R
SHE fOUND THE bEsT DOcTOR IN THE cOUNTRy fOR THE TREaT¸ENT Of cEREbRaL paLsy. SHE bOUgHT ¸E bOOks bEcaUsE “bOOks wILL ¸akE THE wORLD accEssIbLE
bE wITH ¸E cONsTaNTLy, IN casE º NEEDED TO gO TO THE baTHROO¸. º fELT gUILTy fOR
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¸akINg a ¸Ess; fOR bLEEDINg aT aLL. AROUND THE TI¸E º was 12 OR 13, wE sTaRTED TaLkINg abOUT OpTIONs. SHE TOOk ¸E TO DOcTORs. º was pUT ON THE PILL, THEN
notniatS yraM
gIVEN sHOTs TO sTOp, OR aT LEasT cURTaIL, ¸y ¸ENsTRUaL flOw. A NOR¸aL bODy pROcEss was NOw a HUgE pRObLE¸ wE HaD TO cONTROL. My ¸OTHER aND THE DOcTORs kNEw º cOULD NOT TakE ¸EDIcaTION THaT affEcTED ¸y HOR¸ONEs fOREVER. SO wE sTaRTED TaLkINg abOUT sURgERy, abOUT ¸y HaVINg a HysTEREcTO¸y. °E gyNEcOLOgIsT ExpLaINED IT VERy RaTIONaLLy. ÁE wOULD TakE ¸y UTERUs, bUT LEaVE ¸y OVaRIEs. °EREfORE, º wOULD sTILL bE fE¸aLE. ÁE askED ¸E abOUT HaVINg cHILDREN, RE¸INDINg ¸E THERE was NO ¸EDIcaL REasON º cOULDN’T HaVE THE¸. “º caN aLways aDOpT,” º saID. ÁE agREED. º was aN INTELLIgENT TEENagER wHO cOULD aRTIcULaTE OpTIONs. º aLsO kNEw wHaT pEOpLE waNTED TO HEaR, INcLUDINg ¸y ¸OTHER. º HaD ExpREssED DOUbTs TO HER. “YOU wILL NEVER bE abLE TO caRRy a baby OR gET yOUR LEgs faR ENOUgH apaRT TO gIVE bIRTH,” sHE saID. “BUT wHaT If THERE Is a way?” º askED. “WHaT If sO¸EwHERE IN THE fUTURE, sO¸EONE cO¸Es Up wITH a way?” º DID NOT HaVE THE sTRENgTH OR THE cLaRITy TO TELL HER, “º a¸ 14 yEaRs OLD. YOU aRE askINg ¸E TO ¸akE a DEcIsION THaT affEcTs ¸ORE THaN 30 yEaRs Of ¸y LIfE, TO ¸akE aN IRREVOcabLE DEcIsION abOUT bEcO¸INg a ¸OTHER ¸ORE THaN 30 yEaRs bEfORE º sHOULD HaVE TO.” º cOULD NOT EVEN say sI¸pLy, “º a¸ NOT REaDy TO ¸akE a pER¸aNENT DEcIsION abOUT wHETHER º HaVE cHILDREN.” “YOU aRE aN Easy TaRgET fOR a RapIsT,” sHE saID. “YOU wOULDN’T bE abLE TO RUN fRO¸ yOUR aTTackER. WHaT If yOU gOT pREgNaNT fRO¸ HI¸?” “MOsT abLE-bODIED pEOpLE º kNOw caN’T RUN fRO¸ THEIR RapIsT!” º pROTEsTED. WHEN OUR caTs gOT spayED, º ExpREssED cONcERN abOUT sO¸ETHINg sI¸ILaR HappENINg TO ¸E. SHE bROUgHT ¸y cONcERNs TO THE DOcTOR, bUT NOTHINg DIssUaDED HER. °E DOcTOR ExpLaINED IT RaTIONaLLy, agaIN. º wIsH HE wOULD HaVE saID, “ºf MaRy Has aNy DOUbTs wHaTsOEVER, wE aRE NOT gOINg TO DO THIs.” º wIsH HE wOULD HaVE saID, “µO HEaLTHy 14-yEaR-OLD sHOULD bE fORcED TO ¸akE THIs DEcIsION.” º wIsH HE wOULD HaVE askED, “ºs THERE a THERapIsT wHO caN TEacH MaRy HOw TO DEaL wITH HER pERIODs?” aND “WHaT ELsE Is gOINg ON IN THIs fa¸ILy THaT ¸IgHT bE pREssURINg MaRy TO HaVE THIs sURgERy?” º NEVER HEaRD aNyONE ask THOsE qUEsTIONs, aND º NEVER saw a THERapIsT fOR HELp.
²OOkINg fOR spIRITUaL REsOURcEs, º askED ¸y THEN 17-yEaR-OLD fUNDa¸ENTaLIsT CHRIsTIaN sIsTER If GOD waNTED ¸E TO DO THIs.
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º ¸ULLED OVER HER wORDs as º sTaRED aT THE fULL ¸OON OUTsIDE ¸y wINDOw THaT NIgHT. °Ey wERE s¸aLL cO¸fORT. ¹ENsIONs ca¸E TO a HEaD ONE sU¸¸ER ¸ORNINg. º HaD sTaRTED ¸y pERIOD THE NIgHT bEfORE. ¹IRED aND VERy fRUsTRaTED, ¸y ¸OTHER was HELpINg ¸E IN THE baTHROO¸. SUDDENLy, sHE sNappED. “ºf yOU DON’T HaVE THE OpERaTION, º wILL cO¸¸IT sUIcIDE!” sHE scREa¸ED aT ¸E. º bELIEVED HER, aND NEVER saID aNOTHER wORD IN pROTEsT. °E NIgHT bEfORE sURgERy, º Lay IN ¸y HOspITaL bED fEELINg fRIgHTENED, aLONE, aND UNcERTaIN. º fELT VERy TRappED. °E NExT Day, º awOkE fRO¸ sURgERy scREa¸INg, “WHaT THE HELL HaVE º DONE TO DEsERVE THIs?” aT THE TOp Of ¸y LUNgs. ºN THE DEcaDEs sINcE THaT Day, º HaVE sTRUggLED wITH ITs LEgacy. °E fiRsT sENsE Of LOss º cOULD aRTIcULaTE was a sENsE Of ¸y IDENTITy as fE¸aLE; Of ¸y cONNEcTION TO OTHER wO¸EN, Of bEINg “NOR¸aL,” Of bEINg sO¸ETHINg bEsIDEs ¸y DIsabILITy. ±NE Of THE ¸OsT basIc THINgs wO¸EN TaLk abOUT wITH EacH OTHER Is ¸ENsTRUaTION. ´spEcIaLLy IN aDOLEscENcE, IT Is ONE Of THE pRI¸aRy REaLITIEs IN OUR ExpERIENcE Of bEINg fE¸aLE. ¹akE ¸ENsTRUaTION away fRO¸ a TEENagER, aND yOU ¸akE IT HaRDER fOR HER TO ExpERIENcE HERsELf as a wO¸aN, EVEN If sHE Has OVaRIEs. º aLsO ENDED Up wITH a TRE¸ENDOUs sENsE Of gUILT aND aNgER abOUT OTHER NOR¸aL bODy pROcEssEs THaT HaVINg cEREbRaL paLsy ¸akEs DIfficULT TO DEaL wITH. My HysTEREcTO¸y REINfORcED THE ¸EssagE THaT ¸y bODy Is a ¸ajOR INcONVENIENcE; a pRObLE¸ THaT Is IN NO way “gOOD.” FORTUNaTELy, LIfE bLEssEs ¸aNy Of Us wITH ¸ORE “paRENTs” THaN THOsE wE wERE bORN TO. ºN aND bEyOND cOLLEgE, º HaVE fOUND pEOpLE wHO LIsTENED TO ¸y sTORy, aND affiR¸ED ¸y VERy fE¸ININE sELf. AND sO¸EHOw IN THE UNIVERsE, º HaVE bEEN gRacED wITH a TRaNscENDENT ±NE wHO Is LaRgER aND ¸ORE LOVINg THaN aNy pERsON º kNOw. °E ¸OON º saw OUTsIDE ¸y wINDOw Is NOw paRT Of ¸E. SHE TELLs ¸E TO LOVE ¸y bODy EVERy Day. AND fORTUNaTELy, paRENTs cHaNgE. FREED fRO¸ THE pREssUREs Of RaIsINg cHILDREN, ¸y ¸OTHER saT aND LIsTENED a fEw yEaRs agO as º TOLD HER HOw º fELT abOUT THE HysTEREcTO¸y. “ºT was a DIfficULT TI¸E,” sHE saID sLOwLy. “º’¸ sORRy. º wOULD NOT DO THaT TO yOU NOw.” SHE was NOT THE sa¸E wO¸aN sHE was aLL THOsE LONg yEaRs agO.
namoW a g n i s i a R
“ºf ÁE DOEsN’T, IT wON’T HappEN,” sHE saID.
AND º a¸ NOT THE sa¸E pERsON. º a¸ NOw THE agE ¸y ¸OTHER was wHEN
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sHE bEgaN TO TEacH ¸E abOUT ¸y bODy. µOw, º a¸ a ¸OTHER—TO ¸ysELf. ºN ¸y ¸IND’s EyE, º sEE ¸ysELf RaIsINg a wO¸aN, a DaUgHTER, wITH cEREbRaL
notniatS yraM
paLsy. º gIVE HER pHysIcaL THERapy TO ENHaNcE HER bODy’s sTRENgTHs; TO pROTEcT HER bODy fRO¸ HaR¸ bEcaUsE º kNOw IT Is gOOD. º RE¸IND HER THaT THOUgH sHE Has NO UTERUs, sHE gIVEs bIRTH aLL THE TI¸E. º TELL HER THaT abILITy Is a sacRED gIſt. SO¸ETI¸Es, º wRap ¸y aR¸s aROUND HER aND RaIsE HER HIgH fOR THE wORLD TO sEE. SHE Is sTRONg, sHE Is HOLy. SHE Is wOUNDED, sHE Is wIsE. SHE Is bEaUTIfUL, aND sHE Is ¸E.
³he S±ck W±fe Jane Kenyon
°E sIck wIfE sTayED IN THE caR wHILE HE bOUgHT a fEw gROcERIEs. µOT yET fiſty, sHE HaD LEaRNED wHaT IT’s LIkE NOT TO bE abLE TO bUTTON a bUTTON. ºT was THE ¸IDDLE Of THE Day— aND sO ONLy ¸OTHERs wITH s¸aLL cHILDREN OR RETIRED cOUpLEs sTEppED THROUgH THE ¸UDDy paRkINg LOT. ¶Ry cLEaNINg swUNg aND gLEa¸ED ON HaNgERs IN THE caRs Of THE pROspEROUs. ÁOw EasILy THEy ¸OVED— wITH sUcH fREEDO¸, EVEN THE OLD aND RELaTIVELy INfiR¸. °E wINDOws bEgaN TO sTEa¸ Up. °E caRs ON EITHER sIDE Of HER pULLED away sO bRIskLy THaT IT ¸aDE HER sIck aT HEaRT.
JaNE KENyON, “°E SIck WIfE,” fRO¸ Collected Poems, by JaNE KENyON. COpyRIgHT © 2005 by THE ´sTaTE Of JaNE KENyON. ³EpRINTED wITH THE pER¸IssION Of °E PER¸IssIONs CO¸paNy, ºNc., ON bEHaLf Of GRaywOLf PREss, MINNEapOLIs, MINNEsOTa, www.gRaywOLfpREss.ORg.
³he Lonel±ness of The Long-³eRm CARe G±VeR Carol Levine
º a¸ sTaNDINg aT a baNk Of pHONEs, DEspERaTELy pUNcHINg IN cODEs aND NU¸bERs. ´acH TI¸E, THE LINE gOEs DEaD. “WHy caN’T º gET THROUgH TO aNyONE?” º THINk. “º ¸UsT bE DOINg sO¸ETHINg wRONg.” º wakE Up. °Is TI¸E IT’s ONLy a DREa¸. BUT THE DREa¸ ORIgINaTED IN a REaL ExpERIENcE. ±N THE Icy ¸ORNINg Of JaNUaRy 15, 1990, ¸y HUsbaND Lay cO¸aTOsE IN THE E¸ERgENcy ROO¸ Of a cO¸¸UNITy HOspITaL aſtER aN aUTO¸ObILE accIDENT. ·NINjURED bUT DazED, º sTOOD aT a baNk Of HOspITaL pHONEs TRyINg TO REacH pEOpLE wHO cOULD HELp ¸E TRaNsfER HI¸ TO a ¸ajOR ¸EDIcaL cENTER. º was UNawaRE THaT, by a ¸aLEVOLENT cOINcIDENcE, ¸OsT Of THE pHONEs IN THE REgION wERE NOT wORkINg. °E DREa¸ REcURs, aND IT Has NOw TakEN ON a NEw ¸EaNINg. ºN THE NINE yEaRs sINcE THE accIDENT, aND EspEcIaLLy IN THE EIgHT yEaRs º HaVE sTRUggLED TO TakE caRE Of ¸y HUsbaND aT HO¸E, º HaVE fREqUENTLy DEspaIRED: “WHy caN’T º gET THROUgH TO aNyONE?” ±NLy IN THE pasT fEw yEaRs HaVE º REaLIzED THaT º a¸ NOT DOINg aNyTHINg wRONg. ºT Is THE HEaLTH caRE sysTE¸ THaT Is OUT Of ORDER. SINcE º HaVE spENT 20 yEaRs as a pROfEssIONaL IN THE fiELDs Of ¸EDIcaL ETHIcs aND HEaLTH pOLIcy, IT Is HaRDLy sURpRIsINg THaT º sHOULD REacH sUcH a cONcLUsION. A REcENT sERIEs Of aRTIcLEs IN THE Journal ¸aDE cLEaR THE INcREasINg fRag¸ENTaTION aND INEqUITIEs IN THE cURRENT ¸aRkET-DRIVEN HEaLTH caRE EcONO¸y. Ì BUT ¸y pERsONaL ExpERIENcE as a fa¸ILy caRE gIVER Has gIVEN ¸E a DIffERENT pERspEcTIVE. º sEE THE HEaLTH caRE sysTE¸ THROUgH EVERyDay ENcOUNTERs wITH pHysIcIaNs, NURsEs, sOcIaL wORkERs, REcEpTIONIsTs, VENDORs, a¸bULETTE DRIVERs aND DIspaTcHERs, aD¸INIsTRaTORs, HO¸E HEaLTH aIDEs, REpREsENTaTIVEs Of ¸y ¸aNagED-caRE cO¸paNy, aND a HOsT Of OTHER “pROVIDERs.” °E aTTITUDEs,
CaROL ²EVINE, “°E ²ONELINEss Of THE ²ONg-¹ER¸ CaRE GIVER,” fRO¸ New England Journal of
Medicine 340 (1999): 1587–1590. COpyRIgHT © 1999 by MassacHUsETTs MEDIcaL SOcIETy. ³EpRINTED by pER¸IssION Of MassacHUsETTs MEDIcaL SOcIETy.
bEHaVIOR, aND DEcIsIONs Of spEcIfic INDIVIDUaLs ¸akE THE sysTE¸ wORk OR faIL fOR ¸E.
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pOLIcy ¸akERs aND aNaLysTs RaRELy cONsIDER THE I¸pacT Of THEsE INcENTIVEs ON THE 25 ¸ILLION UNpaID, “INfOR¸aL” caRE gIVERs IN THE ·NITED STaTEs, wHO gET LITTLE fRO¸ THE sysTE¸ IN RETURN fOR THE EsTI¸aTED $196 bILLION a yEaR IN LabOR THEy pROVIDE.Í Fa¸ILy caRE gIVERs aRE LaRgELy INVIsIbLE, as INDIVIDUaLs aND as a LabOR fORcE. WHEN ¸y jOURNEy bEgaN, NO ONE TOLD ¸E wHaT TO ExpEcT. °ERE Is NO pROcEss Of INfOR¸ED cONsENT fOR fa¸ILy caRE gIVERs. ±N THaT UNfORgETTabLE JaNUaRy Day, º kNEw THaT º ¸UsT ask, “ºs ¸y HUsbaND bRaIN-DEaD?” AND º kNEw wHaT TO DO If THE aNswER was yEs. “µO,” saID THE NEUROsURgEON aT THE cO¸¸UNITy HOspITaL, “bUT HE Has sUffERED a sEVERE bRaIN-sTE¸ INjURy. AT HIs agE [THEN 62] IT Is UNLIkELy THaT HE wILL sURVIVE.” °E NEUROsURgEON aT THE ¸EDIcaL cENTER DIsagREED. “ÁE wILL waLk OUT Of HERE 100 pERcENT, bUT IT wILL TakE sO¸E TI¸E.” “ÁOw LONg?” º askED. “WEEks,” HE REpLIED, “¸aybE ¸ONTHs.” My HUsbaND DID sURVIVE, a TEsTa¸ENT TO ONE Of A¸ERIcaN ¸EDIcINE’s ¸ajOR sUccEssEs—saVINg THE LIVEs Of TRaU¸a paTIENTs. BUT HE wILL NEVER waLk, aND HE Is faR fRO¸ 100 pERcENT. WHILE HE was IN a cO¸a, º REaD TO HI¸, pLayED HIs faVORITE ¸UsIc, aND sHOwED HI¸ fa¸ILy pIcTUREs. AſtER fOUR ¸ONTHs HE gRaDUaLLy E¸ERgED fRO¸ THE cO¸a, HIs THINkINg cHaOTIc. AſtER ¸aNy ¸ORE ¸ONTHs Of RELEaRNINg basIc wORDs aND cONcEpTs, HE REcOVERED ¸aNy cOgNITIVE fUNcTIONs, aND THERE wERE OccasIONaL flasHEs Of HIs OLD INTELLIgENcE aND HU¸OR. BUT HE Is NOT THE sa¸E pERsON IN aNy sENsE. ALTHOUgH º wORRIED ¸OsT abOUT HIs ¸ENTaL fUNcTIONINg, IT Is HIs bODy THaT Has REcOVERED LEasT. ÁE Is TOTaLLy DIsabLED aND REqUIREs 24-HOUR caRE. ÁE Is INcONTINENT Of bLaDDER aND bOwEL. ÁE Is qUaDRIpaRETIc, wITH ¸ObILITy LI¸ITED TO THE paRTIaL UsE Of HIs LEſt HaND. (ÁIs RIgHT fOREaR¸ was a¸pUTaTED as a REsULT Of aN IaTROgENIc bLOOD cLOT THaT faILED TO REspOND TO sURgERy aND DRUg TREaT¸ENT.) ´VEN sO, THE ¸OsT DIfficULT aspEcT Of HIs caRE Is HIs cHaNgED pERsONaLITy aND ExTRE¸E E¸OTIONaL LabILITy. ANTIpsycHOTIc DRUgs NOw gENERaLLy cONTROL HIs VIOLENT OUTbURsTs, bUT THERE aRE sTILL UNpREDIcTabLE RagEs aND pERIODs Of wITHDRawaL. As a REHabILITaTION INpaTIENT HE HaD pHysIcaL THERapy, OccUpaTIONaL THERapy, spEEcH THERapy, cOgNITIVE THERapy, psycHOLOgIcaL cOUNsELINg, NERVE bLOcks, INjEcTIONs Of bOTULINU¸ TOxIN, HyDROTHERapy, REcREaTIONaL THERapy, aND THERapEUTIc TOUcH. ÁE bENEfiTED TO sO¸E DEgREE, bUT NOTHINg REsTORED TRUE fUNcTION. ÁE Has UNDERgONE NU¸EROUs OpERaTIONs, INcLUDINg pLacE¸ENT Of a sHUNT aſtER
r e v i G e r a C m r e T - g n o L e h t f o s s e n i l e n o L e h T
°ERE aRE Of cOURsE cRITIcaL LINks bETwEEN THE bEHaVIOR Of INDIVIDUaL pERsONs aND THE sysTE¸’s sTRUcTURaL aND fiNaNcIaL INcENTIVEs aND REwaRDs. ÁEaLTH
a bLOOD cLOT fOR¸ED IN HIs LEg, TENDON RELEasEs IN bOTH LEgs, RE¸OVaL Of a
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kIDNEy sTONE, aND ¸OsT REcENTLy, RE¸OVaL Of a pITUITaRy TU¸OR. ÁE Has UNDERgONE ORaL sURgERy aND ExTENsIVE DENTaL wORk.
e n i v e L l o r a C
¶URINg ¸y NINE-yEaR ODyssEy, º sTOppED bEINg a wIfE aND bEca¸E a fa¸ILy caRE gIVER. ºN THE aNxIOUs wEEks wHEN ¸y HUsbaND was IN THE INTENsIVE caRE UNIT, º was sTILL a wIfE. ¶OcTORs aND NURsEs INfOR¸ED ¸E Of EacH Day’s pROgREss OR sETbacks aND TREaTED ¸E wITH kINDNEss aND cONcERN. AT sO¸E pOINT, HOwEVER, wHEN HE was NO LONgER IN I¸¸EDIaTE DaNgER Of DyINg, aND as THE spEcIaLIsTs aND sUpERspEcIaLIsTs DRIſtED OUT Of THE pIcTURE, º bEca¸E INVIsIbLE. °EN, wHEN THE DEVasTaTINg aND pER¸aNENT ExTENT Of HIs DIsabILITIEs bEca¸E cLEaR TO cLINIcIaNs, º bEca¸E VIsIbLE agaIN. AT THaT pOINT, º was I¸pORTaNT ONLy as THE ¸aNagER aND, IT was ExpEcTED, THE HaNDs-ON pROVIDER Of ¸y HUsbaND’s caRE. ºN RETROspEcT, º DaTE ¸y RITE Of passagE INTO THE ROLE Of fa¸ILy caRE gIVER TO THE fiRsT Day Of ¸y HUsbaND’s sTay IN a REHabILITaTION facILITy, a pLacE º NOw THINk Of as a bOOT ca¸p fOR caRE gIVERs. A NURsE sTUck ¸y HUsbaND’s sOILED swEaT paNTs UNDER ¸y NOsE aND saID, “¹akE THEsE away. ²aUNDRy Is yOUR jOb.” A wO¸aN wHOsE HUsbaND HaD bEEN aT THE sa¸E facILITy LaTER TOLD ¸E THE sa¸E sTORy—DIffERENT NURsE. °E NURsE’s UNDERLyINg ¸EssagE, REINfORcED by ¸aNy OTHERs, was THaT ¸y LIfE fRO¸ NOw ON wOULD cONsIsT Of pERfOR¸INg aN UNRELIEVED sERIEs Of NasTy cHOREs. °E sOcIaL wORkER assIgNED TO ¸y HUsbaND’s casE HaD ONE gOaL: DIscHaRgE. º was LabELED a “sELfisH wIfE,” sINcE º REfUsED TO TakE HI¸ HO¸E wITHOUT HO¸E caRE. “GET REaL,” THE sOcIaL wORkER saID. “µObODy wILL pay fOR HO¸E caRE. YOU HaVE TO qUIT yOUR jOb aND ‘spEND DOwN’ TO gET ON MEDIcaID.” ´VENTUaLLy º gOT THE HO¸E caRE º NEEDED—TE¸pORaRILy. ¶EspITE a wRITTEN agREE¸ENT TO pay fOR IT, THE INsURaNcE cO¸paNy LaTER cUT Off THE bENEfiT RETROacTIVELy, wITHOUT INfOR¸INg ¸E, LEaVINg ¸E wITH aN $8,000 bILL fRO¸ a HO¸E caRE agENcy. °E agENcy, wHIcH HaD faILED TO ¸ONITOR ITs OwN bILLINg, sUED ¸E. WE sETTLED fOR LEss. WHEN º bROUgHT ¸y HUsbaND HO¸E, HE HaD UNDIagNOsED sEVERE sLEEp apNEa (wHIcH caUsED NIgHTTI¸E scREa¸INg), UNDIagNOsED HEaRINg LOss, aND pOORLy TREaTED ¸ajOR DEpREssION. °E fiRsT fEw ¸ONTHs aT HO¸E wERE NIgHT¸aRIsH. SINcE THE pRObLE¸s HaD NOT bEEN DIagNOsED cORREcTLy, ¸UcH LEss TREaTED, º DID NOT kNOw wHERE TO TURN. YET a sINgLE HO¸E VIsIT by a psycHIaTRIsT aND a spEcIaLLy TRaINED HO¸E caRE NURsE, aRRaNgED by a sy¸paTHETIc cOLLEagUE wHO TREaTs paTIENTs wITH caNcER, gaVE ¸E ENOUgH INfOR¸aTION, aDVIcE, aND REfERRaLs TO bEgIN TO ¸asTER THE sITUaTION. ºN aDDITION TO HOLDINg a fULL-TI¸E jOb, º ¸aNagE aLL ¸y HUsbaND’s caRE aND DaILy acTIVITIEs. BEINg a caRE ¸aNagER REqUIREs gRIT aND pERsIsTENcE. ºT
TOOk ¸E 10 Days Of INcREasINgLy INsIsTENT pHONE caLLs TO gET ¸y ¸aNagED- caRE cO¸paNy TO REpLacE ¸y HUsbaND’s DaNgEROUsLy UNsTabLE HOspITaL bED.
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THERE was NO aIDE aVaILabLE TO ¸OVE HI¸—IT TURNED OUT TO bE THE cHEapEsT ¸ODEL, UNsUITabLE fOR a paTIENT IN ¸y HUsbaND’s cONDITION. ºN THEsE aLL-TOO- fREqUENT sITUaTIONs, º fEEL THaT º a¸ cHaLLENgINg GOLIaTH wITH a TINy pEbbLE. MORE OſtEN THaN NOT, GOLIaTH jUsT pUTs ¸E ON HOLD. BEINg a caRE ¸aNagER aLsO TakEs ¸ONEy. º NOw pay fOR a DayTI¸E HO¸E caRE aIDE aND sERVE as THE NIgHT NURsE ¸ysELf. My HUsbaND’s INITIaL HOspITaLIzaTION aND REHabILITaTION wERE paID fOR by HIs E¸pLOyER-basED INDE¸NITy INsURaNcE pLaN. ÁE Is NOw cOVERED by ¸y E¸pLOyER-basED ¸aNagED-caRE cO¸paNy, wHIcH pays fOR HOspITaL aND DOcTORs’ bILLs aND, wITH a $10 cOpay¸ENT, fOR pREscRIpTION ¸EDIcINEs. ÁO¸E caRE aIDEs, DIspOsabLE sUppLIEs, aND ¸OsT fOR¸s Of THERapy aRE NOT cOVERED, bEcaUsE THEy aRE “NOT ¸EDIcaLLy NEcEssaRy.” My HUsbaND REcENTLy NEEDED a NEw cUsTO¸IzED wHEELcHaIR, wHIcH cOsT $3,700; THE ¸aNagED-caRE cO¸paNy paID $500. MEDIcaRE, HIs sEcONDaRy payER, Has sO faR REjEcTED aLL cLaI¸s. µO ONE aDVOcaTEs ON ¸y HUsbaND’s bEHaLf ExcEpT ¸E; NO ONE aDVOcaTEs ON ¸y bEHaLf, NOT EVEN ¸E. º fEEL abaNDONED by a HEaLTH caRE sysTE¸ THaT cO¸¸ITs REsOURcEs aND REwaRDs TO REscUINg THE INjURED aND ILL bUT THEN cONsIgNs sUcH paTIENTs aND THEIR fa¸ILIEs TO THE bLack HOLE Of cHRONIc “cUsTODIaL” caRE. º accEpT REspONsIbILITy fOR ¸y HUsbaND’s caRE. ²OVE aND DEVOTION aRE THE ¸OsT pOwERfUL ¸OTIVEs, bUT THERE aRE LEgaL aND fiNaNcIaL ObLIgaTIONs as wELL. My INcO¸E wOULD bE cOUNTED TOwaRD HIs ELIgIbILITy fOR MEDIcaID, sHOULD wE EVER cO¸E TO THaT. °E bROaDER IssUE Of a fa¸ILy’s ¸ORaL REspONsIbILITy TO pROVIDE OR pay fOR caRE Is ¸UcH ¸ORE cO¸pLEx.Î WHy sHOULD fa¸ILIEs bE REspONsIbLE fOR pROVIDINg sUcH DE¸aNDINg, INTENsIVE caRE? SHOULD THIs bE a sOcIaL REspONsIbILITy? A¸ERIcaN sOcIETy pLacEs a HIgH VaLUE ON pERsONaL aND fa¸ILy REspONsIbILITy. °E THIN VENEER Of cONsENsUs THaT sUppORTED sO¸E sENsE Of cO¸¸UNaL REspONsIbILITy IN THE pasT Is cRackINg. °Is Is NOT a UNIqUELy A¸ERIcaN pRObLE¸, HOwEVER. ´VEN wITH NaTIONaL HEaLTH INsURaNcE, AUsTRaLIaN, CaNaDIaN, aND BRITIsH caRE gIVERs REpORT sI¸ILaR pRObLE¸s Of IsOLaTION aND UN¸ET fiNaNcIaL aND OTHER NEEDs.Ï ±NLy THE ScaNDINaVIaN cOUNTRIEs assU¸E THaT THE cO¸¸UNITy as a wHOLE Is pRI¸aRILy REspONsIbLE fOR LONg-TER¸ caRE. ´VEN sO, THE SwEDIsH SOcIaL SERVIcEs AcT spEcIfiEs sO¸E spOUsaL REspONsIbILITy.Ó WIDELy HELD cONcEpTs Of fa¸ILy REspONsIbILITy DERIVE fRO¸ RELIgIOUs TEacHINgs, cULTURaL TRaDITIONs, cO¸¸UNITy ExpEcTaTIONs, E¸OTIONaL bONDs, OR gRaTITUDE fOR pasT acTs. CaRE gIVERs RaRELy sORT OUT THEIR ¸IxED fEELINgs. FRO¸
r e v i G e r a C m r e T - g n o L e h t f o s s e n i l e n o L e h T
WHEN THE NEw bED fiNaLLy aRRIVED—wITHOUT NOTIcE, IN THE EVENINg, wHEN
a pOLIcy pERspEcTIVE, THERE aRE HIsTORIcaL aNTEcEDENTs aND fiNaNcIaL REaLITIEs
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THaT ENcOURagE LOOkINg fiRsT TO fa¸ILIEs fOR caRE. PERHaps THE ¸OsT I¸pORTaNT jUsTIficaTION Is THaT ¸OsT fa¸ILIEs, OR sO¸E ¸E¸bERs, waNT THIs REspONsIbIL-
e n i v e L l o r a C
ITy. MaNy DERIVE spIRITUaL OR psycHOLOgIcaL REwaRDs fRO¸ caRE gIVINg. ¹akINg caRE Of EacH OTHER cO¸Es wITH bEINg a fa¸ILy. °Is Is aN EspEcIaLLy sTRONg VaLUE a¸ONg REcENT I¸¸IgRaNTs OR TIgHTLy kNIT ETHNIc cO¸¸UNITIEs wHO DIsTRUsT THE fOR¸aL sysTE¸ bUT wHO OſtEN HaVE TOO fEw REsOURcEs TO cOpE ON THEIR OwN. °E pRObLE¸ Is NOT THaT pUbLIc pOLIcy LOOks fiRsT TO fa¸ILIEs bUT THaT IT gENERaLLy LOOks ONLy TO fa¸ILIEs aND faILs TO sUppORT THOsE wHO accEpT REspONsIbILITy. °E aVaILabILITy Of fa¸ILy caRE gIVERs DOEs NOT absOLVE pOLIcy ¸akERs Of THEIR OwN REspONsIbILITy TO ¸akE sURE THaT THEIR acTIONs assIsT RaTHER THaN DEsTROy fa¸ILIEs. Fa¸ILy ¸E¸bERs sHOULD NOT bE HELD TO a LEVEL Of ¸ORaL OR LEgaL REspONsIbILITy THaT ENTaILs jEOpaRDIzINg THEIR OwN HEaLTH OR wELL-bEINg. GIVEN THE cO¸pLExITy Of THE HEaLTH caRE sysTE¸, wHaT cHaNgEs wOULD ¸akE a DIffERENcE fOR fa¸ILy caRE gIVERs? °E aUTO¸aTIc aNswER TENDs TO bE: WHaTEVER THEy aRE, wE caN’T affORD THE¸. ±R, wHaTEVER wE caN affORD Is NOT wORTH DOINg. MaNy fa¸ILy caRE gIVERs HaVE sERIOUs fiNaNcIaL pRObLE¸s. µEVERTHELEss, a sINgLE-¸INDED fOcUs ON ¸ONEy, basED ON aN UNsUbsTaNTIaTED assU¸pTION THaT ¸OsT caRE gIVERs waNT TO bE REpLacED by paID HELp, DIVERTs aTTENTION fRO¸ OTHER cRITIcaL NEEDs. °E REacTION TO THE CLINTON aD¸INIsTRaTION’s JaNUaRy pROpOsaL fOR assIsTaNcE fOR THE ELDERLy aND fa¸ILy caRE gIVERs Is aN INsTRUcTIVE Exa¸pLE Of THE DIffERINg wORLDVIEws Of HEaLTH pOLIcy aNaLysTs aND fa¸ILy caRE gIVERs. MOsT pROfEssIONaLs fOcUsED ON THE pROpOsED Tax cREDIT Of $1,000 aND fOUND IT waNTINg. °E cREDIT wOULD NOT appLy TO pEOpLE wHO pay NO TaxEs, NOR wOULD IT ¸akE a DENT IN THE HEaVy cOsTs Of fULL-TI¸E paID caRE. °E pROpOsaL DOEs NOT DO aNyTHINg TO cREaTE a cOHERENT LONg-TER¸ caRE pOLIcy.Ô ALL THEsE ObsERVaTIONs aRE TRUE. ±N THE OTHER HaND, fa¸ILy caRE gIVERs aND ORgaNIzaTIONs THaT REpREsENT THEIR INTEREsTs HaVE bEEN LaRgELy pOsITIVE abOUT THE pROpOsaL. °E Tax cREDIT Is a TaNgIbLE bENEfiT THaT wILL HELp ¸aNy ¸IDDLE-cLass fa¸ILIEs. ´qUaLLy I¸pORTaNT, THE pROpOsaL pUTs fa¸ILy caRE gIVINg ON THE NaTIONaL agENDa aND gIVEs sTaTEs ¸ONEy aND INcENTIVEs TO DEVELOp REsOURcE cENTERs. °EsE pOINTs aRE aLsO aLL TRUE.Õ ºN ¸y pROfEssIONaL ROLE, º kNOw THaT ¸UcH ¸ORE Is NEEDED, INcLUDINg a REsTRUcTURINg Of MEDIcaRE TO bETTER ¸EET THE LONg-TER¸ NEEDs Of THE ELDERLy aND DIsabLED aND THE cREaTION Of a ¸ORE flExIbLE RaNgE Of OpTIONs fOR HO¸E aND cO¸¸UNITy-basED caRE. Ö º aLsO kNOw THaT cHaNgE wILL TakE a LONg TI¸E aND wILL bE DETER¸INED by THE INTEREsTs Of THE ¸ajOR pLayERs aND by pOLITIcaL
cONsIDERaTIONs. As a fa¸ILy caRE gIVER, º wILL TakE wHaTEVER HELp º caN gET wHEN º NEED IT, aND THaT Is RIgHT NOw.
89
sIONaLs, EDUcaTION aND TRaININg, E¸OTIONaL sUppORT, aND aDVOcacy TO ObTaIN NEEDED sERVIcEs fOR THEIR RELaTIVEs aND THE¸sELVEs. °Ey waNT HELp IN NEgOTIaTINg THE I¸pENETRabLE THIckET Of fiNaNcINg ¸EcHaNIs¸s, THE fREqUENT DENIaLs Of sERVIcEs OR REI¸bURsE¸ENTs, aND THE INcONsIsTENT INTERpRETaTIONs Of pOLIcIEs aND ELIgIbILITy. °Ey waNT REspITE, TOO, bUT THROUgH sERVIcEs THaT THEy caN TaILOR TO THEIR NEEDs. °EsE aRE ¸ODEsT REqUEsTs—TOO ¸ODEsT, pERHaps— bUT UNfULfiLLED NONETHELEss. CaRE gIVERs IN THE fOcUs gROUps cONVENED by THE ·NITED ÁOspITaL FUND’s Fa¸ILIEs aND ÁEaLTH CaRE PROjEcT REpORTED a Lack Of basIc INfOR¸aTION abOUT THE paTIENT’s DIagNOsIs, pROgNOsIs, aND TREaT¸ENT pLaN, THE sIDE EffEcTs Of THE paTIENT’s ¸EDIcaTION, THE sy¸pTO¸s TO waTcH fOR aT HO¸E, aND wHO¸ TO caLL wHEN pRObLE¸s OccUR.× SO¸ETI¸Es caRE gIVERs REpORTED THaT THEy wERE gIVEN cONflIcTINg INfOR¸aTION. MaNagED caRE DID NOT cREaTE THIs pRObLE¸, bUT IT sEE¸s TO HaVE ExacERbaTED IT. ±ſtEN, pROfEssIONaLs cONVEy INfOR¸aTION IN sUcH a HURRIED, TEcHNIcaL way THaT aNxIOUs caRE gIVERs caNNOT absORb IT. ÁOspITaL sTaff ¸E¸bERs ¸ay assU¸E, ERRONEOUsLy, THaT a HO¸E caRE agENcy wILL INsTRUcT THE caRE gIVER. °ERE aRE cOsTs TO THEsE LapsEs. FaILUREs IN cO¸¸UNIcaTION caN LEaD TO sERIOUs pRObLE¸s wITH THE caRE Of paTIENTs, INcLUDINg UNNEcEssaRy HOspITaL REaD¸IssIONs. SO¸E fa¸ILIEs, HOwEVER, bEcO¸E ExpERTs ON THE cONDITIONs Of THEIR RELaTIVEs aND THE spEcIfics Of THEIR caRE. YET pROfEssIONaLs fREqUENTLy IgNORE THIs ExpERTIsE, bEcaUsE IT cO¸Es fRO¸ LaypERsONs. Fa¸ILy caRE gIVERs aLsO waNT TO bE INVOLVED IN DEcIsION ¸akINg THaT affEcTs THE paTIENT aND THE¸sELVEs. ´LsEwHERE, CONNIE ZUckER¸aN aND º HaVE DEscRIbED sO¸E Of THE REasONs cLINIcIaNs HaVE DIfficULTIEs wITH fa¸ILy ¸E¸bERs, EspEcIaLLy wITH REspEcT TO DEcIsIONs abOUT acUTE caRE.ÌØ ºN ¸y HUsbaND’s casE, º aLONE ¸aDE THE ONLy I¸pORTaNT DEcIsION, wHIcH was TO TRaNsfER ¸y HUsbaND TO a ¸EDIcaL cENTER ON THE Day Of THE accIDENT. AſtER THaT THERE wERE NEVER aNy cLEaR-cUT DEcIsIONs, NO DIscUssIONs abOUT THE gOaLs Of caRE, aND cERTaINLy NO LONg-TER¸ pLaNNINg. ALTHOUgH º REpEaTEDLy askED TO aTTEND a TEa¸ ¸EETINg TO DIscUss HIs pROgNOsIs aND caRE, º was NEVER gIVEN THaT OppORTUNITy. µOR was THERE EVER aNy fOLLOw-Up aT HO¸E, a cO¸¸ON cO¸pLaINT a¸ONg caRE gIVERs. CaRE gIVERs waNT EDUcaTION aND TRaININg THaT REcOgNIzEs THEIR E¸OTIONaL aTTacH¸ENT TO THE paTIENT. PROfEssIONaLs sELDO¸ appREcIaTE HOw ¸UcH fEaR
r e v i G e r a C m r e T - g n o L e h t f o s s e n i l e n o L e h T
CLINIcIaNs as wELL as pOLIcy ¸akERs HaVE REspONsIbILITIEs TOwaRD fa¸ILy caRE gIVERs. CaRE gIVERs say THEy waNT bETTER cO¸¸UNIcaTION wITH pROfEs-
aND aNxIETy cO¸pLIcaTE THE LEaRNINg Of NEw Tasks. ²EaRNINg HOw TO OpERaTE
90
a fEEDINg TUbE OR cHaNgE a DREssINg OR INjEcT a ¸EDIcaTION Is HaRD ENOUgH fOR a LaypERsON; caRE gIVERs LEaRN HOw TO pERfOR¸ THEsE pROcEDUREs fOR THE
e n i v e L l o r a C
fiRsT TI¸E ON a pERsON THEy LOVE. FEaRfUL Of ¸akINg a ¸IsTakE OR sI¸pLy UpsET by THE IDEa Of HaVINg TO pERfOR¸ UNaccUsTO¸ED aND UNpLEasaNT Tasks, caRE gIVERs ¸ay REsIsT OR faIL, OR pERsIsT aT gREaT E¸OTIONaL cOsT. MONTHs bEfORE ¸y HUsbaND was REaDy TO gO HO¸E, a NURsE INsIsTED THaT º LEaRN HOw TO pUT ON ¸y HUsbaND’s cONDO¸ caTHETER. “º DON’T NEED TO kNOw THIs yET,” º pROTEsTED, “aND bEsIDEs, ¸aybE HE wON’T NEED IT LaTER.” ºgNORINg OUR E¸OTIONaL sTaTE aT THE TI¸E, sHE fORcED ¸E TO DO IT (baDLy) UNTIL bOTH ¸y HUsbaND aND º bURsT INTO TEaRs. ²aTER, wHEN º cO¸pLaINED TO HER sUpERVIsOR, º was TOLD, “WE jUsT waNTED TO bREak THROUgH yOUR DENIaL.” Fa¸ILIEs NEED E¸OTIONaL sUppORT. °Ey fREqUENTLy bRINg a paTIENT HO¸E TO a LIVINg spacE TRaNsfOR¸ED by ¸EDIcaL EqUIp¸ENT aND a fa¸ILy LIfE cONsTRaINED by ILLNEss. PRIVacy Is a LUxURy. ´VERy Day ¸UsT bE pLaNNED TO THE ¸INUTE. °E INTRIcaTE wEb Of caREfULLy ORgaNIzED caRE caN UNRaVEL wITH ONE pHONE caLL fRO¸ aN aIDE wHO Is ILL, aN a¸bULETTE sERVIcE THaT DOEs NOT sHOw Up, a DOcTOR’s OfficE THaT caNNOT accO¸¸ODaTE a wHEELcHaIR, aN EqUIp¸ENT cO¸paNy THaT DOEs NOT HaVE aN E¸ERgENcy sERVIcE. °ERE aRE gENERaLLy NO ExTRa HaNDs TO HELp OUT IN a cRIsIs aND NO ExpERIENcED cOLLEagUEs TO ask fOR aDVIcE. FRIENDs aND EVEN fa¸ILy ¸E¸bERs faDE away. PROgRa¸s THaT TRaIN aND sUppORT fa¸ILy caRE gIVERs caN bE basED IN HOspITaLs, cO¸¸UNITy agENcIEs, scHOOLs aND cOLLEgEs, HO¸E caRE agENcIEs, ¸aNagED- caRE cO¸paNIEs, OR OTHER sETTINgs. °E ·NITED ÁOspITaL FUND’s Fa¸ILy CaREgIVINg GRaNT ºNITIaTIVE Is fUNDINg sEVERaL sUcH pROjEcTs. ºf fa¸ILy caRE gIVERs NEED EDUcaTION, pROfEssIONaLs NEED IT jUsT as ¸UcH. ´DUcaTION fOR DOcTORs, NURsEs, aND sOcIaL wORkERs sHOULD INcLUDE UNDERsTaNDINg THE NEEDs Of fa¸ILy caRE gIVERs. ºDEaLLy, aLL pROfEssIONaLs sHOULD HaVE THE ExpERIENcE Of sEEINg fiRsTHaND wHaT Is REaLLy INVOLVED IN HO¸E caRE. ºN-sERVIcE pROgRa¸s caN EDUcaTE HEaLTH caRE pROfEssIONaLs abOUT fa¸ILy DyNa¸Ics as wELL as bUILD cO¸¸UNIcaTION aND NEgOTIaTINg skILLs. Fa¸ILy caRE gIVERs ¸UsT bE sUppORTED, bEcaUsE THE HEaLTH caRE sysTE¸ caNNOT ExIsT wITHOUT THE¸. AND THERE Is aNOTHER cO¸pELLINg REasON: caRE gIVERs aRE aT RIsk fOR ¸ENTaL aND pHysIcaL HEaLTH pRObLE¸s THE¸sELVEs. ´xHaUsTED caRE gIVERs ¸ay bEcO¸E caRE REcIpIENTs, LEaDINg TO a fURTHER, OſtEN pREVENTabLE, DRaIN ON REsOURcEs. ¶OEs ¸y ¸aNagED-caRE cO¸paNy REaLIzE, fOR INsTaNcE, THaT DURINg THE pasT yEaR IT paID ¸ORE fOR ¸y sTREss-RELaTED ¸EDIcaL pRObLE¸s THaN fOR ¸y HUsbaND’s ¸EDIcaL caRE?
µO sINgLE INTERVENTION wILL cHaNgE THE sysTE¸, bUT s¸aLL sTEps TakEN TOgETHER caN cOVER a LONg DIsTaNcE. As º ENTER ¸y 10TH yEaR as a fa¸ILy caRE
91
Day. BUT wHaT abOUT TO¸ORROw? AND NExT wEEk? ÁELLO? ºs aNyONE LIsTENINg?
notes 1
ANgELL M. °E A¸ERIcaN HEaLTH caRE sysTE¸ REVIsITED—a NEw sERIEs. N Engl J Med 1999;340:48.
2 ARNO PS, ²EVINE C, ME¸¸OTT MM. °E EcONO¸Ic VaLUE Of INfOR¸aL caREgIVINg.
Health Aff (Millwood) 1999;18(2):182–188. 3 ²EVINE C. ÁO¸E swEET HOspITaL: THE NaTURE aND LI¸ITs Of pRIVaTE REspONsIbILITIEs fOR HO¸E HEaLTH caRE. ºN: AW GaLsTON aND ´G SHURR, EDs. New Directions in Bioethics. BOsTON: KLUwER; 2001:169–191. 4 ScHOfiELD Á, BOOTH S, ÁER¸aNN Á, MURpHy B, µaNkERVIs J, SINgH B. Family Caregiv-
ers: Disability, Illness and Aging. ST. ²EONaRDs, AUsTRaLIa: ALLEN & ·NwIN; 1998. 5 BaRUscH AS. PROgRa¸¸INg fOR fa¸ILy caRE Of ELDERLy DEpENDENTs: ¸aNDaTEs, INcENTIVEs, aND sERVIcE RaTIONINg. Soc Work 1995;40:315–322. 6
GRaHa¸ J. ÁaLfway ¸EasUREs. Chicago Tribune. JaNUaRy 17, 1999.
7 STaTE¸ENT by SUzaNNE MINTz, PREsIDENT, µaTIONaL Fa¸ILy CaREgIVERs AssOcIaTION, KENsINgTON, M¶, JaNUaRy 6, 1999. 8 CassEL CK, BEsDINE ³W, SIEgEL ²C. ³EsTRUcTURINg MEDIcaRE fOR THE NExT cENTURy: wHaT wILL bENEficIaRIEs REaLLy NEED? Health Aff (Millwood) 1999;18(1):118–131. 9 ²EVINE C. Rough Crossings: Family Caregivers’ Odysseys through the Health Care Sys-
tem. µEw YORk: ·NITED ÁOspITaL FUND, 1998. 10 ²EVINE C, ZUckER¸aN C. °E TROUbLE wITH fa¸ILIEs: TOwaRD aN ETHIc Of accO¸¸ODaTION. Ann Intern Med 1999;130:148–152.
r e v i G e r a C m r e T - g n o L e h t f o s s e n i l e n o L e h T
gIVER, IT Is HaRD TO bELIEVE º HaVE cO¸E THIs faR. ¹ODay Is a REasONabLy gOOD
FATheRs And Sons David Mason
SO¸E THINgs, THEy say, ONE sHOULD NOT wRITE abOUT. º TRIED TO HELp ¸y faTHER cO¸pREHEND THE TOILET, HOw ONE NEEDs TO UNDO ONE’s bELT, TO sLIDE ONE’s TROUsERs DOwN aND sIT, bUT HE sTUbbORNLy sTOOD aND wOULD NOT bEND HIs kNEEs. º TRIED agaIN TO bEND HI¸ TOwaRD THE sEaT, aND THEN º LaUgHED aT THE absURDITy. FaTHERs aND sONs. ÁOw HE HaD wIpED ¸y bOTTO¸ HaLf a cENTURy agO, aND HOw º wOULD REpay THE faVOR If HE wOULD ONLy sIT.
Don’t you— HE gRIppED ¸E, TRE¸bLINg, sEaRcHINg fOR ¸y EyEs.
Don’t you—bUT THE wORD was LOsT TO HI¸. SO¸EwHERE a ¸aN Of DIgNITy wOULD NOT bE LaUgHED aT. ÁE cOULD NOT sEE IT was THE cRazy DaNcE THaT ¸aDE ¸E LaUgH, TRyINg TO ¸akE HI¸ sIT wHEN HE waNTED TO sTaND.
¶aVID MasON, “FaTHERs aND SONs,” fRO¸ New Yorker, SEpTE¸bER 28, 2009. COpyRIgHT © 2009 by ¶aVID MasON. ³EpRINTED by pER¸IssION Of THE aUTHOR.
²ARenTs SuPPoRT GRouP Dick Allen
±UR cHILDREN HaLf-LOsT, wE gaTHER aT THE TabLE, MakINg s¸aLL pOLITE jOkEs AbOUT wEaTHER aND cOffEE. °E bLINDs aRE DRawN. ±UTsIDE, THE sU¸¸ER aſtERNOON Is TENNIs sTROkEs, A gRackLE caLLINg TO ITs ¸aTE, wIND-cHI¸Es SLIDINg TaILgaTEs Of DELIVERy VaNs. ²ONg-TI¸ERs s¸ILE AND paT THE NEw aRRIVaLs’ backs. ±UR THERapIsT ¹akEs a LONg, LONg, LONg, LONg, long wHILE BEfORE HE sTaRTs, RELUcTaNTLy. °aT HOT pOTaTO, PaIN, GOEs ROUND aND ROUND THE TabLE. WHO Of Us ARE bLa¸ELEss, wHO sHaRE bLa¸E FOR wHy OUR cHILDREN LEſt a cRUsT ±f bLOOD acROss THEIR wRIsTs, gULpED pILLs, OR THINk °EIR TERRIbLy THIN bODIEs sTILL aRE faT, ¶ID DRUgs, DID DRINk BEHIND RIppED bILLbOaRDs Of THEIR Raw sELf-HaTE? WE DON’T kNOw. WEEks . . . OR was IT Days agO, SELf-TUckED IN THE ILLUsION wE cONTROL ±UR LIVEs . . . saNE, IN OUR accEpTINg THIs . . . wE THOUgHT °aT aLL sTONEs ROLL
¶Ick ALLEN, “PaRENTs SUppORT GROUp,” fRO¸ Ode to the Cold War: Poems New and Selected, by ¶Ick ALLEN. COpyRIgHT © 1997 by ¶Ick ALLEN. ³EpRINTED by pER¸IssION Of °E PER¸IssIONs CO¸paNy, ºNc., ON bEHaLf Of SaRabaNDE BOOks, ºNc., www.saRabaNDEbOOks.ORg.
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social Factors and inequalities
III
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“DocToRs Don’T Know ´nyTh±ng” ¾HE ClINIcAl GAzE IN ¼IgRANT ¹EAlTH
Seth M. Holmes
Structural Factors Affecting Migrant Health Clinicians BIO¸EDIcaL pROfEssIONaLs IN THE fiELD Of ¸IgRaNT HEaLTH wORk UNDER DE¸aNDINg aND DIfficULT cIRcU¸sTaNcEs. MOsT cLINIcs sERVINg ¸IgRaNT faR¸wORkERs aRE NONpROfiTs wITH UNRELIabLE aND cHaNgINg sOURcEs Of fUNDINg, aND ¸aNy Lack cERTaIN ExpENsIVE ¸EDIcINEs aND ¸EDIcaL INsTRU¸ENTs. PHysIcIaNs aND NURsEs IN THEsE cLINIcs pERfOR¸ ¸aNy ExTRa DUTIEs, fRO¸ REqUEsTINg fREE ¸EDIcINEs fOR THEIR paTIENTs TO fiLLINg OUT papERwORk fOR DIscOUNTED pERINaTaL caRE fOR ExpEcTaNT ¸OTHERs. °EsE cLINIcIaNs OſtEN fEEL HOpELEss as THEy wITNEss THE sysTE¸aTIc DETERIORaTION Of yOUNg, HEaLTHy pEOpLE wHO cO¸E TO THE ·NITED STaTEs TO wORk ON faR¸s. ¶R. Sa¸UELsON, THE pHysIcIaN aND ¸OUNTaINEER IN THE ¸IgRaNT cLINIc IN THE SkagIT ÂaLLEy, spOkE abOUT THE fRUsTRaTION Of sEEINg HIs paTIENTs’ bODIEs DETERIORaTE OVER TI¸E. º sEE aN awfUL LOT Of pEOpLE jUsT wEaRINg OUT. °Ey HaVE bEEN UsED aND abUsED aND wORkED pHysIcaLLy HaRDER THaN aNybODy sHOULD bE ExpEcTED TO wORk fOR THaT NU¸bER Of yEaRs. °EN THEy cO¸E OUT wITH THIs NaggINg back paIN. YOU wORk IT Up, aND IT’s NOT gETTINg bETTER, aND yOU DON’T THINk THERE Is aNy ¸aLINgERINg gOINg ON. ºT gETs TO THE pOINT wHERE yOU jUsT HaVE TO gIVE THE¸ aN mri scaN, aND THEIR back Is TOasT. ºN THEIR EaRLy fORTIEs THEy HaVE THE aRTHRITIs Of a sEVENTy-yEaR-OLD, aND THEy’RE NOT gETTINg bETTER. . . . °Ey’RE TOLD, “SORRy, gO back TO DOINg wHaT yOU’RE DOINg,” aND THEy’RE sTUck. °Ey’RE scREwED, IN a wORD, aND IT’s TRagIc.
´xcERpTED fRO¸ SETH M. ÁOL¸Es, “¶OcTORs ¶ON’T KNOw ANyTHINg,” fRO¸ Fresh Fruit, Broken
Bodies, Migrant Farmworkers in the United States, by SETH ÁOL¸Es, 128–144, 152–155 (BERkELEy: ·NIVERsITy Of CaLIfORNIa PREss, 2013). © 2013 by °E ³EgENTs Of THE ·NIVERsITy Of CaLIfORNIa. ³EpRINTED by pER¸IssION Of ·NIVERsITy Of CaLIfORNIa PREss.
SEVERaL cLINIcIaNs aLsO pOINTED OUT THE DIfficULTIEs caUsED by RacIs¸ IN THE
98
cLINIc waITINg ROO¸. PHysIcIaNs aND NURsEs spOkE Of wHITE paTIENTs TELLINg THE¸ sUcH THINgs as “º caN’T cO¸E aT THaT TI¸E bEcaUsE º DON’T waNT TO bE IN
s e m l o H . M h t e S
THE waITINg ROO¸ wITH THOsE pEOpLE,” ¸EaNINg MExIcaN ¸IgRaNT wORkERs. SO¸E wHITE paTIENTs cO¸pLaINED abOUT THE s¸ELL Of THE faR¸wORkERs aſtER pIckINg, aND sO¸E cO¸pLaINED THaT THE faR¸wORkERs aLways bROUgHT THEIR cHILDREN wITH THE¸. ±NLy appROxI¸aTELy 5 pERcENT Of UNDOcU¸ENTED ¸IgRaNTs NaTIONwIDE HaVE HEaLTH INsURaNcE, aND ¸OsT DO NOT qUaLIfy fOR MEDIcaID OR MEDIcaRE DUE TO THEIR I¸¸IgRaTION sTaTUs. Ì °Is ¸EaNs NOT ONLy THaT ¸aNy cLINIcs aRE REI¸bURsED fOR fEw Of THE sERVIcEs THEy pROVIDE bUT aLsO THaT THERE aRE ¸aNy ObsTacLEs TO pROVIDINg HIgH-qUaLITy caRE. °E LOw LEVEL Of REI¸bURsE¸ENTs ¸EaNs THaT sUcH cLINIcs ¸UsT REpEaTEDLy appLy fOR gRaNTs fRO¸ VaRIOUs pUbLIc aND pRIVaTE sOURcEs IN ORDER TO sTay aflOaT. GIVEN THE UNEVEN LEVELs Of fUNDINg, cLINIc aD¸INIsTRaTORs ¸UsT cUT I¸pORTaNT pROgRa¸s fRO¸ TI¸E TO TI¸E wHEN fUNDINg Is LOw OR wHEN THE pRIORITIEs Of fUNDERs cHaNgE. ¹O cO¸pENsaTE fOR THE sHORTfaLLs, THE pHysIcIaNs aND NURsEs spEND a LOT Of TI¸E aND ENERgy TRyINg TO ObTaIN sa¸pLEs OR DONaTIONs Of ¸EDIcINEs NEEDED by THEIR paTIENTs. ¶R. GOLDENsON, THE SOUTH A¸ERIcaN pHysIcIaN IN THE ¸IgRaNT cLINIc IN CaLIfORNIa, TOLD ¸E abOUT a paTIENT Of HIs wHO gOT VaLLEy fEVER (cOccIDIO¸ycOsIs) fRO¸ wORkINg THE fiELDs Of THE CENTRaL ÂaLLEy. °Is pOTENTIaLLy faTaL LUNg INfEcTION Is caUsED by bREaTHINg IN sOIL aND Is THEREfORE a sIgNIficaNT cONcERN a¸ONg faR¸wORkERs. ¶R. GOLDENsON HaD TwO ¸IgRaNT faR¸wORkER paTIENTs wITH VaLLEy fEVER OVER THE pREVIOUs THREE yEaRs. BOTH wILL REqUIRE sUppREssION THERapy wITH aN ExpENsIVE aNTIfUNgaL aNTIbIOTIc fOR THE REsT Of THEIR LIVEs. ¶R. GOLDENsON DEscRIbED ONE paTIENT’s pROgREss. ÁE’s NOT DOINg as wELL. . . . BUT aT LEasT HE’s sURVIVINg. BasIcaLLy, HE’s gOINg TO NEED $1,000 a ¸ONTH Of ¶IflUcaN fOR LIfE. ±f cOURsE THIs gUy caNNOT affORD EVEN $100 a ¸ONTH. SO faR, wE wERE abLE TO gET MEDICaL TO cOVER IT, aLTHOUgH EVERy ¸ONTH º HaVE TO gO THROUgH REappROVaLs. . . . QUITE OſtEN º HaVE spENT ¸ORE TI¸E TRyINg TO gET sa¸pLEs. º’¸ caLLINg fRIENDs OR LOOkINg fOR spEcIaL pROgRa¸s. ºT’s a LOT Of wORk, bUT yOU fEEL gOOD abOUT IT, bEcaUsE THEsE aRE pEOpLE wHO REaLLy appREcIaTE THaT. °E NEED TO ¸akE ENOUgH ¸ONEy TO sURVIVE aND THE Lack Of flExIbILITy IN faR¸wORk scHEDULEs ¸akE IT DIfficULT fOR ¸IgRaNT faR¸wORkERs TO TakE TI¸E Off TO gO TO THE cLINIc DURINg THE Day. °Is ENcOURagEs THE wORkERs TO waIT UNTIL THEy aRE VERy sIck bEfORE gOINg TO THE cLINIc aND fORcEs THE¸ TO ¸Iss appOINT¸ENTs ON Days wHEN pIckINg gOEs LaTER THaN ExpEcTED. CLINIcIaNs
TOLD ¸E ON sEVERaL OccasIONs HOw DIfficULT IT was TO TREaT ¸IgRaNT wORkERs EffEcTIVELy gIVEN THaT THEy DO NOT ¸akE UsE Of pREVENTIVE sERVIcEs aND
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bEcaUsE ¸OsT ¸IgRaNT wORkERs ¸OVE TO DIffERENT TOwNs EVERy fEw ¸ONTHs. °Is ¸EaNs THaT a NEw sOURcE Of DIscOUNTED OR fREE ¸EDIcINEs ¸UsT bE fOUND by THE cLINIcIaNs IN EacH NEw TOwN. ¶R. McCaffREE, a 30-sO¸ETHINg fE¸aLE pHysIcIaN IN THE SkagIT ¸IgRaNT cLINIc wHO gREw Up IN a ¸IssIONaRy fa¸ILy IN SOUTH A¸ERIca, TOLD ¸E, “MOsT [¸IgRaNTs] DON’T HaVE aNy INsURaNcE, sO THaT’s EVEN HaRDER, ’caUsE yOU sTaRT THE¸ ON a ¸EDIcaTION aND yOU kNOw THEy’RE jUsT gOINg TO bE Off IT agaIN wHEREVER THEy gO NExT.” °E ¸IgRaTORy NaTURE Of faR¸wORkERs’ LIVEs aLsO ¸EaNs THaT THEIR ¸EDIcaL REcORDs aRE ExTRE¸ELy paTcHy. ´acH cLINIc Has aT LEasT ONE ¸EDIcaL REcORD fOR EacH paTIENT THaT cOVERs ONLy THE sEasONs DURINg wHIcH sHE OR HE LIVED IN THaT aREa. MaNy cLINIcs HaVE ¸ORE THaN ONE REcORD fOR EacH paTIENT DUE TO cONfUsION OVER wHETHER THE REcORD sHOULD bE aLpHabETIzED by ¸aTERNaL LasT Na¸E, paTERNaL LasT Na¸E, OR spOUsE’s LasT Na¸E as wELL as DIREcT ¸IsTRaNscRIpTION Of Na¸Es IN SpaNIsH. ºN aDDITION, sO¸E UNDOcU¸ENTED paTIENTs gIVE NIckNa¸Es OR faLsE Na¸Es fOR fEaR Of THEIR INfOR¸aTION bEINg TURNED OVER TO THE BORDER PaTROL. ²aNgUagE DIffERENcEs cO¸pLIcaTE THE fIELD Of ¸IgRaNT HEaLTH ON sEVERaL LEVELs. MOsT cLINIcIaNs aRE bILINgUaL IN ´NgLIsH aND SpaNIsH; HOwEVER, sO¸E, LIkE THE LOcU¸s DOcTOR IN THE SkagIT ÂaLLEy, NEED a TRaNsLaTOR wHEN THEy sEE SpaNIsH-spEakINg paTIENTs. ±ſtEN cLINIcIaNs wITH pOOR SpaNIsH- LaNgUagE skILLs DO NOT HaVE TI¸E TO gET a TRaNsLaTOR aND INsTEaD cONDUcT THE appOINT¸ENT IN ´NgLIsH, wHIcH THE paTIENT caNNOT UNDERsTaND, OR wITH aN UNTRaINED INTERpRETER—fOR Exa¸pLE, THE cHILD º ObsERVED TRaNsLaTE DURINg HER ¸OTHER’s gyNEcOLOgIcaL Exa¸. ±NE ¹RIqUI paTIENT º kNOw gaVE pRE¸aTURE bIRTH TO a baby gIRL. °E NURsEs wROTE, “PaTIENT REfUsEs bREasT pU¸p,” THOUgH THEy DID NOT HaVE a TRaNsLaTOR wITH THE¸ wHEN THEy HaD THE INTERacTION THaT bROUgHT THE¸ TO THIs cONcLUsION. °E HOspITaL sOcIaL wORkER wHO pOINTED THIs OUT TO ¸E saID, “º caN ONLy I¸agINE wHaT sHE THOUgHT THEy wERE sayINg as THEy gEsTURED TOwaRD HER bREasTs wITH THE ELEcTRIc ¸acHINE.” °E NURsE pRacTITIONER/¸IDwIfE IN THE SkagIT ÂaLLEy TOLD ¸E abOUT THE ways IN wHIcH LaNgUagE DIffERENcEs aND Lack Of TI¸E aND pERsONNEL LEaD TO pOOR caRE: “°ERE aRE a LOT Of sTaff wHO DON’T waNT TO bE bOTHERED gETTINg a TRaINED INTERpRETER. PEOpLE gRab ¸E aND say, ‘±H, cOULD yOU bE aN INTERpRETER?’ °Is pERsON Has a RIgHT TO gET a REaL INTERpRETER aND NOT a fiVE-¸INUTE DIscUssION wITH ¸E wHEN º a¸ RUNNINg fRO¸ paTIENT TO paTIENT. ºT’s jUsT RELUcTaNcE. ºT’s jUsT THaT ONE ¸ORE sTEp. ºT’s RacIs¸. ºT’s bEINg OVERwORkED bEcaUsE OUR sysTE¸ Is a TOTaL TRaIN wREck RIgHT NOw.” “ARE yOU sURE yOU waNT TO bE a DOcTOR?” sHE askED.
” g n i h t y n A w o n K t’ n o D s r o t c o D “
OſtEN ¸Iss appOINT¸ENTs. CONTINUITy Of caRE Is aLsO VERy DIfficULT TO ENsURE
ÂERy fEw ¸IgRaNT cLINIcs OffER sERVIcEs IN LaNgUagEs OTHER THaN SpaNIsH
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OR ´NgLIsH. °E HOspITaL IN THE SkagIT ÂaLLEy, wHERE ¸y ¹RIqUI fRIENDs wENT wHEN THEy NEEDED INpaTIENT sERVIcEs, OffERs MIxTEc TRaNsLaTION THROUgH a
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LOcaL NONpROfiT LaNgUagE sERVIcE. ÁOwEVER, a MIxTEc TRaNsLaTOR Is OſtEN caLLED wHEN HOspITaL sTaff fiND OUT a paTIENT Is fRO¸ ±axaca, EVEN If THE paTIENT spEaks ONLy ¹RIqUI. ºN aDDITION, sEVERaL cLINIcIaNs INDIcaTED THaT IT Is EspEcIaLLy HaRD TO cO¸¸UNIcaTE wITH ±axacaN wO¸EN. FEwER ¹RIqUI wO¸EN HaVE aTTENDED scHOOL IN SaN MIgUEL THaN ¹RIqUI ¸EN, aND as a REsULT sO¸E DO NOT spEak SpaNIsH. ºN aDDITION, cLINIcIaNs cO¸pLaIN THaT ±axacaN wO¸EN spEak qUIETLy aND DO NOT LOOk THE¸ IN THE EyEs. SO¸ETI¸Es, assU¸pTIONs abOUT LaNgUagE aND Lack Of INTERpRETaTION HaVE EVEN ¸ORE DIRE cONsEqUENcEs. ±NE ¹RIqUI ¸aN, ADOLfO ³UIz-ALVaREz, was HELD IN aN ±REgON sTaTE ¸ENTaL HOspITaL aND ¸EDIcaTED fOR OVER TwO yEaRs afTER bEINg INTERVIEwED ONLy IN SpaNIsH aND THEN cHaRgED wITH TREspassINg aND pUbLIc INDEcENcy.Í AccORDINg TO ¸y ¹RIqUI cO¸paNIONs, bEcaUsE MR. ³UIz-ALVaREz cOULD NOT cO¸¸UNIcaTE IN SpaNIsH, wHIcH IT was assU¸ED was HIs NaTIVE LaNgUagE, HE was THOUgHT TO bE cRazy. WHEN º HEaRD abOUT THIs casE, º RE¸E¸bERED THaT sEVERaL TI¸Es wHILE HO¸ELEss IN CaLIfORNIa DURINg ¸y fIELDwORk º cOULD HaVE bEEN cHaRgED wITH pUbLIc INDEcENcy fOR RELIEVINg ¸ysELf IN a pUbLIc paRk aſtER THE TOILETs wERE LOckED aT sUNDOwN. My ¹RIqUI cO¸paNIONs aLsO DEscRIbED THE casE Of a MIxTEc ¸aN, SaNTIagO ÂENTURa MORaLEs, wHO was cHaRgED wITH ¸URDER wITHOUT MIxTEc TRaNsLaTION. MR. ÂENTURa MORaLEs was HELD IN aN ±REgON sTaTE pRIsON fOR fOUR yEaRs bEfORE a NONpROfiT agENcy aDVOcaTINg fOR INDIgENOUs MExIcaNs pROVIDED INTERpRETIVE sERVIcEs THaT LED TO HIs casE bEINg OVERTURNED. Î CLINIcIaNs IN THE fiELD Of ¸IgRaNT HEaLTH wORk IN DIfficULT ENVIRON¸ENTs THaT REqUIRE ExTRa TI¸E aND wORk pROcURINg ¸EDIcINEs, DEaLINg wITH THE RacIs¸ Of THEIR paTIENTs, aND wORkINg IN sEVERaL LaNgUagEs, aLL THE wHILE LackINg RELIabLE REsOURcEs. ¶EspITE fEELINg OVERwORkED, pOwERLEss, aND sO¸ETI¸Es HOpELEss, THEy aLsO fEEL a cO¸¸IT¸ENT TO wORk wITH THIs pOpULaTION. MaNy DEscRIbED ²aTIN A¸ERIcaN ¸IgRaNT faR¸wORkERs as DEsERVINg HIgH-qUaLITy caRE, aND ¸OsT DEscRIbED fEELINg a caLLINg, a VOcaTION, TO pROVIDE qUaLITy HEaLTH caRE TO THIs pOpULaTION. As ¶R. GOLDENsON pUT IT, “ºT’s a VERy DIfficULT pRObLE¸. WE HaVE a baD INsURaNcE cRIsIs aND HEaLTH caRE cRIsIs. º ¸EaN, cITIzENs caNNOT REaLLy affORD HEaLTH caRE. AND THE ¸IgRaNT wORkERs, º TRULy bELIEVE THEy sHOULD HaVE aT LEasT THE sa¸E accEss as THE OTHERs. º ¸EaN, THIs wORk THaT THEy aRE DOINg Is sO¸ETHINg THaT NObODy ELsE Is wILLINg TO DO.
°aT’s THE TRUTH. °aT’s pRObabLy THE ONLy REasON wHy wE aRE abLE TO gO TO THE sUpER¸aRkET aND bUy fRUIT fOR a faIR pRIcE. SO THIs Is a gROUp Of pEOpLE THaT
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Crescencio’s Headache: Structure and Gaze in Migrant Health Care CREscENcIO HaD DEscRIbED HIs HEaDacHEs TO ¸E EaRLIER, aſtER THE HEaLTH faIR IN OUR LabOR ca¸p. ÁE saID HE DEVELOpED THEsE ExcRUcIaTINg HEaDacHEs aſtER bEINg caLLED RacIsT Na¸Es aND TREaTED UNfaIRLy ON THE jOb aND ExpLaINED THaT HE waNTED TREaT¸ENT bEfORE HE ¸IgHT bEcO¸E agITaTED OR VIOLENT wITH HIs fa¸ILy. ÁE ExpLaINED THaT HE HaD sEEN sEVERaL pHysIcIaNs IN THE ·NITED STaTEs aND MExIcO as wELL as a TRaDITIONaL ¹RIqUI HEaLER, bUT NONE Of THEIR THERapIEs HaD bEEN EffEcTIVE OVER THE LONg TER¸. ÁE askED ¸E If º HaD aNy ¸EDIcINEs º cOULD gIVE HI¸. µOT kNOwINg wHaT ELsE TO DO, º sUggEsTED CREscENcIO gO TO THE LOcaL ¸IgRaNT cLINIc TO sEE If THEy cOULD TRy sO¸ETHINg NEw fOR HIs pRObLE¸. º RE¸E¸bERED THE aLgORITH¸ fOR HEaDacHE DIagNOsIs aND TREaT¸ENT THaT º HaD LEaRNED IN ¸EDIcaL scHOOL aND wONDERED If THE DOcTORs IN THE ¸IgRaNT cLINIc ¸IgHT UsE sO¸ETHINg sI¸ILaR, ¸OVINg THROUgH TRIaLs Of ¸EDIcaTIONs fOR TENsION, cLUsTER, aND ¸IgRaINE HEaDacHEs. A wEEk LaTER, CREscENcIO TOLD ¸E THaT HE HaD sEEN ONE Of THE DOcTORs IN THE cLINIc bUT THaT sHE DIDN’T gIVE HI¸ aNy ¸EDIcINEs. ÁE saID THaT sHE HaD REfERRED HI¸ fOR THERapy aND askED ¸E wHaT THaT ¸EaNT. º DEscRIbED payINg sO¸EONE TO sIT wITH yOU, ask yOU qUEsTIONs, aND LIsTEN TO yOUR aNswERs IN ORDER TO HELp yOU wORk THROUgH yOUR fEELINgs aND THOUgHTs aND HELp yOU DEcREasE yOUR UNHEaLTHy UsE Of sUbsTaNcEs. AT THE sa¸E TI¸E, º kNEw HE baRELy HaD ¸ONEy TO gO TO THE cLINIc THE fiRsT TI¸E, aND IT was UNLIkELy HE wOULD spEND $15 a sEssION fOR psycHOTHERapy OR sUbsTaNcE abUsE THERapy (THOUgH THaT wOULD sEE¸ a baRgaIN TO OTHERs). AſtER sEVERaL wEEks Of TRyINg TO ¸akE aN appOINT¸ENT wITH THE DOcTOR wHO saw HI¸ aT THE ¸IgRaNT cLINIc, º was abLE TO ask HER abOUT CREscENcIO’s HEaDacHE. SHE THOUgHT fOR a ¸INUTE aND THEN LOOkED aT CREscENcIO’s cHaRT TO REfREsH HER ¸E¸ORy. SHE TOLD ¸E THaT sHE ¸ET wITH HI¸ ONcE bRIEfly OVER a ¸ONTH agO. SHE HaD askED HI¸ TO cUT back ON HIs DRINkINg aND THEN RETURN TO sEE HER fOR fURTHER EVaLUaTION. ÁOwEVER, HE ENDED Up RETURNINg aT a DIffERENT TI¸E aND sEEINg a DIffERENT DOcTOR, THE LOcU¸s pHysIcIaN wHO spOkE ONLy ´NgLIsH. AſtER LOOkINg aT HER cHaRT NOTE aND THE NOTEs fRO¸
” g n i h t y n A w o n K t’ n o D s r o t c o D “
REaLLy DEsERVEs OUR aTTENTION.”
THE LOcU¸s pHysIcIaN, sHE TOLD ¸E abOUT CREscENcIO’s sITUaTION fRO¸ HER
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pERspEcTIVE. WELL, yEs, HE THINks THaT HE Is THE VIcTI¸ aND THINks THaT THE aLcOHOL OR
s e m l o H . M h t e S
THE HEaDacHE ¸akEs HI¸ bEaT HIs wIfE . . . bUT REaLLy HE Is THE pERpETRaTOR aND EVERyONE ELsE Is THE VIcTI¸. AND UNTIL HE OwNs HIs pRObLE¸, HE caN’T REaLLy cHaNgE. º’¸ ON THE »¿¼ [CHILD PROTEcTIVE SERVIcEs] sUbcO¸¸ITTEE, aND sO º’VE LEaRNED a LOT abOUT DO¸EsTIc VIOLENcE. WHaT wE’VE sEEN Is THaT NOTHINg REaLLy wORks, NONE Of THEsE ¸IgRaINE ¸EDIcINEs OR aNyTHINg, bUT TO pUT pEOpLE IN jaIL bEcaUsE THEN THEy sEE a sHOw Of fORcE. °aT’s THE ONLy THINg THaT wORks bEcaUsE THEN THEy HaVE TO OwN THE pRObLE¸ as THEIRs aND THEy sTaRT TO cHaNgE. ºT’s a cO¸pLEx psycHOsOcIaL pRObLE¸, a paTTERNED bEHaVIOR. PRObabLy HIs DaD TREaTED HI¸ THIs way, bEaT HI¸, aND was aLcOHOLIc, aND NOw THaT’s wHaT HE DOEs. ºT’s a cLassIc casE Of DO¸EsTIc abUsE. ÁE ca¸E TO sEE ¸E ONcE, aND º TOLD HI¸ TO cO¸E back TwO wEEks LaTER aſtER NOT DRINkINg. BUT HE DIDN’T cO¸E back TwO wEEks LaTER. ºNsTEaD, HE ca¸E back a ¸ONTH LaTER aND saw ONE Of OUR LOcU¸s. AppaRENTLy, HE TOLD THE DOc sO¸ETHINg abOUT wHEN pEOpLE aT wORk TELL HI¸ wHaT TO DO, IT ¸akEs HI¸ ¸aD, aND THaT’s wHaT gIVEs HI¸ a HEaDacHE. ±bVIOUsLy HE Has IssUEs. ÁE NEEDs TO LEaRN HOw TO DEaL wITH aUTHORITy. WE REfERRED HI¸ TO THERapy. ¶O yOU kNOw If HE’s gOINg TO THERapy? As wITH OTHER HEaLTH caRE ExpERIENcEs º ObsERVED, THIs DOcTOR was pREssED fOR TI¸E aND ¸aDE assU¸pTIONs wITHOUT fULLy ExpLORINg THE paTIENT’s psycHOsOcIaL REaLITIEs. ºN CREscENcIO’s casE, THE pHysIcIaN ¸aDE THE assU¸pTION THaT HIs DEscRIpTION Of fEELINg agITaTED aND aNgRy INDIcaTED THaT HE HaD aLREaDy bEaTEN HIs wIfE aND cONTINUED TO bEaT HER. WITHOUT ENOUgH TI¸E TO pay fULL aTTENTION TO THE paTIENT’s cONcERNs aND fOcUs ON THE HEaDacHE aND ITs sOURcE, sHE fOcUsED pRI¸aRILy ON assU¸ED INTI¸aTE paRTNER VIOLENcE. WHILE payINg aTTENTION TO THE pOssIbILITy Of sUcH VIOLENcE Is Of UT¸OsT I¸pORTaNcE, THIs fOcUs ¸ay HaVE LED TO a sHORT-cIRcUITINg Of THE TREaT¸ENT pOssIbILITIEs fOR CREscENcIO. WITHOUT bEINg abLE TO ExpLORE aLL THE pOssIbLE THERapIEs fOR sEVERE HEaDEacHEs, THE pHysIcIaN RETROspEcTIVELy aDVOcaTED INcaRcERaTINg pEOpLE LIkE CREscENcIO. AſtER REaDINg IN THE cHaRT THaT CREscENcIO’s HEaDacHEs wERE DUE TO ¸IsTREaT¸ENT fRO¸ sUpERVIsORs ON THE faR¸, THE pHysIcIaNs REcO¸¸ENDED THERapy TO HELp HI¸ OVERcO¸E HIs “IssUEs” wITH aUTHORITy aND TREaT HIs sUbsTaNcE UsE. WITHOUT THE LENsEs TO sEE THaT CREscENcIO’s sUffERINg was DETER¸INED by ¸ULTIpLE LEVELs Of sOcIaL INEqUaLITy aND DIsREspEcT, THEy INaDVERTENTLy bLa¸ED
THE HEaDacHE ON THE paTIENT’s psycHOLOgIcaL ¸akEUp. ºN THE END, THEIR pRI¸aRy INTERVENTIONs wERE TwOfOLD. FIRsT, THEy TOLD HI¸ TO sTOp DRINkINg cOLD
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fOUND aſtER yEaRs Of acTIVE sEaRcHINg. ·NfORTUNaTELy, THOUgH pERHaps ExpEcTEDLy, HE was NOT abLE TO sTOp DRINkINg. SEcOND, THE pHysIcIaNs REfERRED HI¸ TO THERapy, wITHOUT THE paTIENT UNDERsTaNDINg wHaT THIs ¸EaNT. °ERapy pERfOR¸ED IN ORDER TO HELp a paTIENT accEpT pOOR TREaT¸ENT fRO¸ sUpERVIsORs ¸ay bE HELpfUL TO THE paTIENT IN DEVELOpINg cOpINg ¸EcHaNIs¸s IN THE ¸IDsT Of a DIfficULT sITUaTION. SUbsTaNcE abUsE THERapy ¸ay HELp a paTIENT REDUcE THE HaR¸ Of sUbsTaNcE UsE aND DEVELOp HEaLTHIER bEHaVIORs. AT THE sa¸E TI¸E, THERapy ¸ay aLsO pRO¸OTE THE paTIENT’s accEpTaNcE Of HIs pLacE IN a LabOR HIERaRcHy THaT ¸ay INcLUDE THE DIsREspEcT aND RacIsT INsULTs THaT CREscENcIO ExpERIENcED. ºN THIs way, THE ¸IgRaNT cLINIc’s INTERVENTIONs wERE NOT ONLy INEffEcTIVE bUT aLsO INaDVERTENTLy cO¸pLIcIT wITH THE sOcIaL DETER¸INaNTs Of sUffERINg, sERVINg TO REINfORcE THE sOcIaL sTRUcTUREs pRODUcINg CREscENcIO’s LabOR pOsITION aND HEaDacHE IN THE fiRsT pLacE. CREscENcIO’s HEaDacHE Is a REsULT ¸OsT DIsTaLLy Of THE INTERNaTIONaL EcONO¸Ic INEqUaLITIEs fORcINg HI¸ TO ¸IgRaTE aND bEcO¸E a faR¸wORkER IN THE fiRsT pLacE aND ¸ORE pROxI¸aLLy Of THE RacIaLIzED ¸IsTREaT¸ENT HE ENDUREs IN THE faR¸’s ETHNIcITy aND cITIzENsHIp HIERaRcHy. °EsE sOcIaLLy pRODUcED HEaDacHEs LEaD CREscENcIO TO bEcO¸E agITaTED aND aNgRy wITH HIs fa¸ILy aND TO DRINk, THUs E¸bODyINg THE sTEREOTypE Of MExIcaN ¸IgRaNTs as aLcOHOLIc aND pOTENTIaLLy VIOLENT. °E RacIaLIzED ¸IsTREaT¸ENT THaT pRODUcEs HIs HEaDacHEs Is THEN jUsTIfiED THROUgH THE E¸bODIED sTEREOTypEs THaT wERE pRODUcED IN paRT by THaT ¸IsTREaT¸ENT IN THE fiRsT pLacE. FINaLLy, DUE TO pOwERfUL EcONO¸Ic sTRUcTUREs affEcTINg THE ¸IgRaNT cLINIc as wELL as LI¸ITED LENsEs Of pERcEpTION IN bIO¸EDIcINE, THIs jUsTIfyINg sy¸bOLIc VIOLENcE Is sUbTLy REINfORcED THROUgHOUT CREscENcIO’s HEaLTH caRE ExpERIENcEs.
The Gaze of Migrant Health Clinicians: Washington and California °E I¸pORTaNcE Of pERcEpTION IN sOcIaL INTERacTIONs caNNOT bE OVERsTaTED. SOcIaL scIENTIsTs HaVE sHOwN THE sIgNIficaNcE Of sOcIaL pERcEpTION IN sUcH DIVERsE cONTExTs as THE EffEcTs Of REpREsENTaTIONs Of “THE pOOR” IN INTERNaTIONaL DEVELOp¸ENT,Ï THE REsULTs Of sy¸bOLIc LINkagEs bETwEEN gENDER HIERaRcHIEs aND HU¸aN cELLs IN ¸EDIcaL scIENcE,Ó aND THE cONsEqUENcEs Of cLass- RELaTED ¸EaNINgs Of s¸ELL.Ô °E FRENcH sOcIOLOgIsT PIERRE BOURDIEU sTaTEs
” g n i h t y n A w o n K t’ n o D s r o t c o D “
TURkEy, EVEN THOUgH DRINkINg was THE ONLy EffEcTIVE INTERVENTION HE HaD
THaT “bEINg Is bEINg pERcEIVED.”Õ ºN OTHER wORDs, HU¸aN bEINgs aRE DEfiNED
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THROUgH pERcEpTION by OTHERs. °Is pERcEpTION OR IDENTIficaTIONÖ DETER¸INEs THE acTIONs Of OTHER pEOpLE TOwaRD aN INDIVIDUaL. °EsE acTIONs, IN TURN,
s e m l o H . M h t e S
sHapE THE acTIONs Of THIs INDIVIDUaL HERsELf INsOfaR as sHE acTs IN REspONsE TO OTHERs aND INsOfaR as HER pOTENTIaL acTIONs wERE pRODUcED OR cONsTRaINED by THE acTIONs Of OTHERs. ºN aDDITION, THEsE pERcEpTIONs aND acTIONs affEcT THE ¸aTERIaL cONDITIONs IN wHIcH THIs INDIVIDUaL LIVEs INsOfaR as THOsE cONDITIONs aRE cONTINUaLLy pRODUcED by sOcIaL acTIONs ON LaRgER pOLITIcaL-EcONO¸Ic aND s¸aLLER INTI¸aTE scaLEs. °E ExpERIENcEs Of sUffERINg aND sIckNEss Of ¹RIqUI ¸IgRaNT faR¸wORkERs aRE sHapED sIgNIficaNTLy by REspONsEs fRO¸ ¸EDIcaL pROfEssIONaLs IN THE fiELD Of ¸IgRaNT HEaLTH. ·NDERsTaNDINg THEsE ¸EDIcaL REspONsEs TO ¹RIqUI sUffERINg REqUIREs aN aNaLysIs Of THE LENsEs THROUgH wHIcH THEsE HEaLTH pROfEssIONaLs pERcEIVE THE sUffERINg Of THEIR ¹RIqUI paTIENTs. As THE ETHNOgRapHIc DaTa INDIcaTE, THEsE pERcEpTIONs RaNgE fRO¸ pOsITIVE TO NEUTRaL, NEgaTIVE TO OUTRIgHT RacIsT. SEVERaL ¸EDIcaL pROfEssIONaLs wORkINg IN ¸IgRaNT cLINIcs saID THaT ¸IgRaNT faR¸wORkERs aRE a gROUp DEsERVINg assIsTaNcE aND aRE ENjOyabLE TO wORk wITH. °E ¸EDIcaL DIREcTOR Of THE ¸IgRaNT cLINIc IN THE SkagIT ÂaLLEy TOLD ¸E THaT THE ¸IgRaNT wORkERs wHO cROss INTO THE ·NITED STaTEs aRE “THE sTaRs” Of MExIcO. °E ¸IDwIfE IN THE sa¸E cLINIc TOLD ¸E THaT THEy aRE “THE bEsT aND THE bRaVEsT” Of MExIcO bEcaUsE THEy HaVE sUccEssfULLy cROssED THE bORDER aND fOUND wORk IN THE ·NITED STaTEs. ¶R. McCaffREE TOLD ¸E sHE was cONTINUaLLy “a¸azED by HOw THEy kEEp gOINg” aND HOw THEy “sEE¸ Happy aND cONTENT DEspITE THEIR DIfficULT LOTs IN LIfE.” SEVERaL cLINIcIaNs TOLD ¸E THaT MExIcaN faR¸wORkERs cO¸pLaIN LEss THaN wHITE paTIENTs abOUT THEIR sIckNEssEs aND UsE fEwER pUbLIc REsOURcEs sUcH as cLINIc sERVIcEs, wELfaRE, aND wORkERs’ cO¸pENsaTION. MULTIpLE TI¸Es, pHysIcIaNs aND NURsEs TOLD ¸E THaT THE ¸IgRaNT faR¸wORkERs wERE ¸ORE REspEcTfUL aND THEIR cHILDREN bETTER bEHaVED THaN THE wHITE paTIENTs IN THEIR cLINIc aND THaT THE INDIgENOUs ±axacaN pEOpLE wERE EspEcIaLLy REspEcTfUL. ÁOwEVER, cLINIcIaNs aLsO HaD cO¸pLaINTs abOUT THEIR faR¸wORkER paTIENTs. ±NE Of THE NURsEs IN THE SkagIT ÂaLLEy TOLD ¸E, “°Ey DON’T REaLLy TakE caRE Of THE¸sELVEs,” ExpLaININg THaT THEy NEEDED TO bE EDUcaTED abOUT HOw “TO TakE caRE Of THEIR bODIEs.” ¶R. GOLDENsON cO¸pLaINED TO ¸E THaT MExIcaN ¸IgRaNTs “DON’T THINk THEy NEED ¸EDIcINEs.” As aN Exa¸pLE, HE saID THEy OſtEN ¸IsUNDERsTaND THE REsULTs Of UNTREaTED DIabETEs aND cO¸E TO THE cONcLUsION THaT DIabETEs TREaT¸ENTs, LIkE INsULIN, caUsE THE DIsEasE’s sEqUELaE, LIkE bLINDNEss aND NERVE pRObLE¸s. SEVERaL pHysIcIaNs aLsO cO¸pLaINED abOUT THE
pRacTIcEs Of MExIcaN paTIENTs IN RELaTION TO TRaDITIONaL HEaLERs aND sO-caLLED cULTURE-bOUND syNDRO¸Es sUcH as susto. × SO¸E cLINIcIaNs bLa¸ED THE pOOR
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¸IDwIfE aT THE SkagIT ¸IgRaNT cLINIc, TOLD ¸E THaT sHE HaD INVENTED a cURE fOR
sustos THaT sHE cONsIDERED a gREaT sUccEss. °E cURE INVOLVED cHa¸O¸ILE TEa aND REsT fRO¸ HOUsEHOLD cHOREs. SHE wENT ON TO ExpLaIN OTHER DIfficULTIEs sHE ENcOUNTERED wHILE wORkINg wITH MExIcaN ¸IgRaNT faR¸wORkERs. ±NE Of THE ¸OsT INTEREsTINg aspEcTs Of wORkINg wITH a SpaNIsH-spEakINg paTIENT Is jUsT THIs REaL DIsINcLINaTION TO waNT TO bE spEcIfic aND qUaNTIfy. ºT’s jUsT ENOR¸OUs. º DON’T kNOw If yOU’VE TRIED TO gET a HIsTORy OUT Of sO¸EbODy, bUT If yOU ask sO¸EbODy, “ÁOw LONg Has THIs bEEN bOTHERINg yOU?” OR “WHERE DOEs IT HURT?” OR “WHaT caN yOU TELL ¸E abOUT yOUR pRObLE¸?,” wHaT yOU aRE gOINg TO gET Is ONE bIg baskET fULL Of VagUE sTUff. ²ET’s say yOU aRE HaVINg a sTO¸acHacHE aND, fOR Exa¸pLE, º ask yOU wHaT Is gOINg ON aND yOU say, “WELL, IT sTaRTED ON MONDay, aND IT fEELs LIkE THIs, aND º HaVE THEsE assOcIaTED sy¸pTO¸s.” YOU aND º wOULD bE ON THE sa¸E waVELENgTH, aND THaT wOULD bE VERy HELpfUL TO ¸E. º wOULD bE sO gRaTEfUL THaT yOU cOULD ExacTLy ExpLaIN wHaT Is gOINg ON. ºN MExIcaN pEOpLE, aL¸OsT TO THE pERsON, NO ¸aTTER HOw LONg yOU HaVE kNOwN THE¸, yOU aRE gOINg TO gET sO¸ETHINg THaT Is VERy VagUE, LIkE, “A wHILE agO, IT kIND Of HURTs HERE, IT fEELs LIkE VagUELy acHINg,” TypIcaLLy ¸INI¸IzINg THE sy¸pTO¸s. ºT’s jUsT REaLLy HaRD TO gET a gOOD HIsTORy aND THERE aRE a LOT Of IDEas THaT º HaVE. JOHaNNa saID sHE THINks THIs pRObLE¸ RELaTEs TO a Lack Of gOOD HEaLTH caRE IN MExIcO aND a RELIgIOUs sHa¸E abOUT sIckNEss bEINg RELaTED TO pERsONaL sIN OR ¸ORaL faILINg. AT THE sa¸E TI¸E, THIs cO¸¸UNIcaTION pRObLE¸ cOULD VERy wELL RELaTE ¸ORE TO ¸IsUNDERsTaNDINgs acROss cLass DIffERENcEs THaN acROss NaTIONaLITIEs OR ETHNIcITIEs. As a cRUDE Exa¸pLE, THE MExIcaN pHysIcIaNs aND NURsEs º kNOw wOULD REspOND TO THEsE qUEsTIONs IN ¸UcH THE sa¸E ways º wOULD bEcaUsE Of THEIR EDUcaTION aND pROfEssIONaL backgROUND, UNRELaTED TO THE LaNgUagE THEy spEak OR THEIR NaTIONaLITy. MOsT cLINIcIaNs INDIcaTED THaT THE pRI¸aRy HEaLTH pRObLE¸s Of ¸IgRaNT faR¸wORkERs INcLUDED DIabETEs, bODy paIN fRO¸ wORk, wORk-RELaTED INjURIEs, aND DENTaL pRObLE¸s. °E ¸EDIcaL DIREcTOR Of THE ¸IgRaNT cLINIc IN WasHINgTON sTaTED THaT IN REspONsE TO HER qUEsTION, “ARE yOU Okay?” ¸aNy Of HER ¸IgRaNT paTIENTs OſtEN REpLy, “WELL, IT aLL HURTs, bUT THaT’s jUsT THE way IT Is.” A RETIRED DENTIsT TOLD ¸E THaT MExIcaN pEOpLE waIT a LONg TI¸E TO gO INTO THE DENTaL cLINIc sO THaT THE pRObLE¸s aRE OſtEN sO sERIOUs THaT HE Has TO ExTRacT
” g n i h t y n A w o n K t’ n o D s r o t c o D “
HEaLTH OUTcO¸Es Of THEIR paTIENTs ON THEsE bELIEfs aND pRacTIcEs. JOHaNNa, THE
THEIR TEETH. ÁE ExpLaINED aLsO THaT wORkINg wITH MExIcaN paTIENTs was DIf-
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ficULT DUE TO wHaT HE pERcEIVED as ETHNIc bODILy DIffERENcEs: “ºT’s gENETIcs. °EIR bONE sTRUcTURE’s jUsT DIffERENT; IT’s LIkE yOU’RE TRyINg TO pULL THE TOOTH
s e m l o H . M h t e S
OUT Of gRaNITE. YOU pRay IT’LL LIſt. YOUR RIgHT aR¸ gETs abOUT THREE TI¸Es THE sIzE Of yOUR LEſt. YOU’LL sEE THaT IN a LOT Of MExIcaN pEOpLE, yOU kNOw, bIg jaws OR REaL HEaVy bONE sTRUcTURE. µORTHERN ´UROpEaNs HaVE ¸UcH LIgHTER fEaTUREs.” ±N THE OTHER HaND, THE pHysIcIaNs IN THE ¸IgRaNT cLINIcs TOLD ¸E THaT THE DENTaL pRObLE¸s Of ¸IgRaNT wORkERs wERE THE REsULT Of bEINg gIVEN jUIcE TOO OſtEN IN THEIR baby bOTTLEs. JOHaNNa, THE ¸IDwIfE, TOLD ¸E THaT sHE sEEs a LOT Of DO¸EsTIc VIOLENcE pERpETRaTED by THE ¸EN agaINsT THEIR wIVEs. ÁER THEORy was THaT ¸UcH Of THIs VIOLENcE cO¸Es fRO¸ ¸EN’s DEEp DIsappOINT¸ENT abOUT UN¸ET ExpEcTaTIONs IN THE ·NITED STaTEs. SO¸E Of THE NURsEs IN THE sa¸E cLINIc, HOwEVER, TOLD ¸E THaT THERE Is VERy LITTLE DO¸EsTIc VIOLENcE a¸ONg ¸IgRaNT faR¸wORkERs. ¶R. McCaffREE aDDED THaT sHE sEEs a HIgH RaTE Of UNwED pREgNaNcy aND a HIgH RaTE Of DEpREssION. °E DEpREssION, sHE TOLD ¸E, Is ¸askED as aLcOHOLIs¸ IN THE ¸EN aND as VagUE acHEs aND paINs IN THE wO¸EN. ALL THE OTHER cLINIcIaNs TOLD ¸E THaT THE ¸IgRaNT wORkERs HaD LOwER RaTEs Of sUbsTaNcE abUsE THaN THEIR ·.S. cITIzEN paTIENTs. AT THE sa¸E TI¸E, ¶R. McCaffREE’s NURsE ExpLaINED THaT sHE sEEs a LOwER INcIDENcE Of DEpREssION a¸ONg THE ¸IgRaNT paTIENTs THaN THE wHITE paTIENTs. ºN aDDITION, THERE Is OſtEN a ¸IsUNDERsTaNDINg abOUT ¸aRRIagE bETwEEN HEaLTH pROfEssIONaLs aND THEIR ¹RIqUI paTIENTs. °E VasT ¸ajORITy Of ¹RIqUI pEOpLE ENgagE IN TRaDITIONaL ¸aRRIagE pRacTIcEs, wHIcH INVOLVE THE ¸aLE payINg a bRIDEwEaLTH Of appROxI¸aTELy $1,500 IN SaN MIgUEL OR $2,500 IN THE ·NITED STaTEs TO THE fa¸ILy Of HIs fiaNcéE. MOsT cOUpLEs DO NOT HaVE aN OfficIaLLy REcOgNIzED cHURcH OR sTaTE wEDDINg. °E LEgaL sTaTUs Of THIs paRTNERINg, THEN, Is cO¸pLIcaTED bEcaUsE THE cOUpLEs DO NOT fiLL OUT gOVERN¸ENT ¸aRRIagE fOR¸s. YET fOR THE ¹RIqUI pEOpLE, THEsE aRE REcOgNIzED as ¸aRRIagEs. °Us ¸aNy Of THE “UNwED pREgNaNcIEs” cITED by ¶R. McCaffREE aRE LIkELy NOT as sI¸pLy caTEgORIzED.ÌØ ºN aDDITION TO THE cO¸¸ON INVaLIDaTION Of ¹RIqUI ¸aRRIagE by HEaLTH pROfEssIONaLs, aNOTHER INTERcULTURaL aND LEgaL pRObLE¸ sURROUNDINg ¹RIqUI ¸aRRIagE RELaTEs TO THE agEs Of THE cOUpLE. ¹RIqUI ¸aLEs ROUTINELy ¸aRRy bETwEEN THE agEs Of sIxTEEN aND TwENTy, aND THEIR fE¸aLE paRTNERs aRE OſtEN bETwEEN THE agEs Of fOURTEEN aND EIgHTEEN. AccORDINg TO ¹RIqUI pEOpLE aND ¸IgRaNT HEaLTH cLINIcIaNs IN WasHINgTON aND CaLIfORNIa, THE fOLLOwINg Is a cO¸¸ON OccURRENcE. A ¹RIqUI cOUpLE gOEs TO THE HOspITaL fOR THE wIfE TO gIVE bIRTH TO HER fiRsT cHILD. ¶URINg THE paTIENT INTERVIEw, THE NURsEs OR sOcIaL wORkERs UsE sI¸pLE DEfiNITIONs TO DETER¸INE THaT THE cOUpLE Is NOT LEgaLLy ¸aRRIED aND THEN gO ON
TO DIscOVER THaT THE wO¸aN Is UNDER sEVENTEEN aND THE ¸aN Is sEVENTEEN OR OLDER. °E HOspITaL sTaff THEN ¸akE cONTacT wITH Law ENfORcE¸ENT agEN-
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cUsTODy Of a RELaTIVE OR THE cOURT, aND THE ¸aN Is cONVIcTED Of THE fELONy Of sTaTUTORy RapE. ÁE Is THEN pUT IN pRIsON (fOR Up TO TEN yEaRs IN sO¸E sTaTEs). ÌÌ ºN 2009 THE ¸aINsTREa¸ ´NgLIsH-LaNgUagE ¸EDIa IN THE ·NITED STaTEs ¸IsREpREsENTED TRaDITIONaL ¹RIqUI bRIDEwEaLTH pRacTIcEs IN GREENfiELD, CaLIfORNIa. ¶EspITE THE NUaNcED aND cONTExTUaL sTaTE¸ENTs RELEasED by THE LOcaL cHIEf Of pOLIcE, THE ¸aINsTREa¸ ¸EDIa RaN THE fOLLOwINg ETHNOcENTRIc sTORy TITLE, “MaN SELLs ¶aUgHTER fOR MONEy, BEER, aND MEaT.”ÌÍ ºN facT, IT appEaRs THaT THE ¸ONEy, aLcOHOL, aND ¸EaT was THE agREED-UpON bRIDEwEaLTH THaT wOULD aLLOw THE wIfE’s fa¸ILy TO THROw a TRaDITIONaL wEDDINg paRTy. ¶EspITE THE sI¸ILaRITIEs TO ¸aINsTREa¸ wHITE PROTEsTaNT ¸aRRIagE TRaDITIONs THaT INcLUDE aN ExpENsIVE wEDDINg paRTy (INVOLVINg ¸ONEy, bEER, aND ¸EaT), THIs sENsaTIONaLIsT sTORy aND THE RELaTED LEgaL baTTLE wERE cOVERED NaTIONwIDE by sUcH NEws OUTLETs as ÈÇÇ aND THE Los
Angeles Times. ¶EspITE THIs kIND Of pOTENTIaL ¸IsUNDERsTaNDINg, THE NURsINg sTaff cHOsE NOT TO REpORT THE ¹RIqUI cOUpLEs º ObsERVED THROUgH THEIR fiRsT cHILD’s bIRTH, THOUgH THEy HaD UNDERgONE a TRaDITIONaL ¸aRRIagE aND THE agEs wERE as DEscRIbED abOVE. AſtER cO¸INg TO kNOw THE ¹RIqUI cOUpLEs gIVINg bIRTH, THE NURsINg sTaff cONsIDERED THE sTORy DEscRIbED abOVE a cRUEL ¸IsUNDERsTaNDINg. °E ¸EDIcaL DIREcTOR Of THE cLINIc IN THE SkagIT ÂaLLEy TOLD ¸E THaT a LaRgE pERcENTagE Of wORkERs’ cO¸pENsaTION cLaI¸s by wHITE OR MExIcaN pEOpLE aRE jUsT “TRyINg TO wORk THE sysTE¸.” SHE wENT ON TO ExpLaIN THaT ¸aNy ¸IgRaNTs IN ¹Exas aND CaLIfORNIa ¸OVE TO WasHINgTON bEcaUsE THEy HaVE HEaRD OR ExpERIENcED THaT THE pUbLIc HEaLTH pLaN Is gOOD. ±N a sI¸ILaR NOTE, sEVERaL Of THE wELfaRE agENTs IN MaDERa, CaLIfORNIa—INcLUDINg THE ONE wHO OwNED THE sLU¸ apaRT¸ENT IN wHIcH wE LIVED—TOLD ¸E THaT THERE aRE sIgNs aLL OVER ±axaca TELLINg pEOpLE TO gO TO MaDERa bEcaUsE THEy caN gET wELfaRE THERE. ±VER THE cOURsE Of ¸y fiELDwORk, HOwEVER, º NEVER HEaRD a sINgLE ¸IgRaNT ¸ENTION wELfaRE OR HEaLTH pLaNs as a REasON fOR THEIR ¸IgRaTION. ºN aLL ¸y TRaVELs THROUgH ±axaca, º NEVER ONcE saw a sIgN aDVERTIsINg wELfaRE IN THE ·NITED STaTEs, ¸UcH LEss spEcIficaLLy IN MaDERa, CaLIfORNIa. ºN facT, THE VasT ¸ajORITy Of ¸y ¹RIqUI cO¸paNIONs DID NOT qUaLIfy fOR HEaLTH aND wELfaRE pROgRa¸s IN ¸OsT sTaTEs bEcaUsE THEy ¸OVED TOO fREqUENTLy OR wERE UNDOcU¸ENTED. SO¸E ¹RIqUI fa¸ILIEs appLIED fOR aND REcEIVED basIc sHORT-TER¸ pERINaTaL NUTRITIONaL sUppORT, THOUgH THIs sUppORT pROVED ¸INI¸aL aND THE pROcEss TI¸E-cONsU¸INg.
” g n i h t y n A w o n K t’ n o D s r o t c o D “
cIEs, wHIcH Is REqUIRED by Law IN sO¸E sTaTEs. °E wO¸aN Is pLacED IN THE
±NE Of THE pHysIcIaNs IN THE SkagIT cLINIc TOLD ¸E THaT MExIcaN pEOpLE
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IN THE ·NITED STaTEs ¸IsUsE THE HEaLTH caRE sysTE¸ by TRyINg TO gET ¸ULTIpLE OpINIONs ON THEIR sIckNEssEs aND THE appROpRIaTE TREaT¸ENTs. ¶R. Sa¸UEL-
s e m l o H . M h t e S
sON, THE pHysIcIaN aT THE sa¸E cLINIc wHO sEEs THE ¸OsT wORk-RELaTED INjURy casEs, cONTRaDIcTED THIs IN cERTaIN ways. ÁE pERfOR¸s ¸aNy Of THE INDEpENDENT ¸EDIcaL Exa¸s Of SpaNIsH spEakERs fOR wORkERs’ cO¸pENsaTION IN THE aREa. ÁE ExpLaINED THaT THE LaNgUagE baRRIER OſtEN caUsEs pRObLE¸s wITH TEsTINg THE RELIabILITy Of THE paTIENT. ºN aDDITION, HE ExpLaINED THaT ¸IgRaNT paTIENTs HaVE a DIffERENT ¸IND-sET abOUT paIN, aND “THIs Is NOT aLLOwED IN THE [wORkERs’ cO¸pENsaTION] INDUsTRy.” ÁE ExpLaINED THaT wHEN ¸IgRaNT paTIENTs pULL away DURINg cERTaIN aspEcTs Of wORkERs’ cO¸pENsaTION TEsTs, “IT Is INTERpRETED as fakINg paIN, wHILE IN REaLITy IT Is fEaR Of paIN.” “SO,” HE cONTINUED, “º wILL gO THROUgH THE sa¸E Exa¸ aND gET cO¸pLETELy DIffERENT REsULTs. BUT THE sUspIcIONs Of ¸aLINgERINg HaVE aLREaDy bEEN RaIsED.” FOR THE fEw UNDOcU¸ENTED ¸IgRaNTs wHO fiLE wORkERs’ cO¸pENsaTION cLaI¸s DUE TO wORk INjURIEs, THIs sUspIcION LEaDs TO pRObLE¸s IN THEIR pER¸aNENT fiLEs. °Us, ¶R. Sa¸UELsON ExpLaINED, IT Is OſtEN NEcEssaRy fOR ¸IgRaNT paTIENTs TO sEE NU¸EROUs pHysIcIaNs IN ORDER TO fiND ONE wHO ¸IgHT TREaT THE¸ wITH sENsITIVITy. °E HEaLTH pROfEssIONaLs wITH wHO¸ º INTERacTED OſtEN NOTIcED OTHER DIffERENcEs bETwEEN THE ±axacaNs aND THE ¸EsTIzO MExIcaN ¸IgRaNT faR¸wORkERs. SEVERaL pHysIcIaNs aND NURsEs pOINTED OUT THaT THEIR ±axacaN paTIENTs aRE pOORER THaN THEIR OTHER paTIENTs. ¶R. McCaffREE TOLD ¸E, “°Ey sEE¸ a LOT pOORER, aND sO THEy DON’T HaVE accEss [TO HEaLTH caRE]. . . . °EIR cLOTHEs aRE a LITTLE bIT DIRTIER. °Ey TEND TO bE a LOT THINNER aND NOT ¸UcH ObEsITy aND cLOTHEs THaT DON’T gET cHaNgED a LOT.” ±N ¸aNy OccasIONs, cLINIcIaNs TOLD ¸E THaT THE HEaLTH sTaTUs Of ±axacaNs Is wORsE THaN THaT Of OTHER gROUps. ±NE TOLD ¸E, “°Ey’RE jUsT sIckER aND HaVE ¸ORE bODy paINs.” °Is REflEcTs THE HEaLTH DIspaRITIEs LITERaTURE DIscUssED EaRLIER. CLINIcIaNs IN THE fiELD Of ¸IgRaNT HEaLTH IN WasHINgTON aND CaLIfORNIa HOLD a VaRIETy Of bELIEfs abOUT THEIR MExIcaN ¸IgRaNT paTIENTs. °Ey cONsIDER THE¸ REspEcTfUL, TOUgH, aND DEsERVINg Of qUaLITy HEaLTH caRE. AT THE sa¸E TI¸E, ¸aNy cLINIcIaNs sEE THE ¸IgRaNT wORkERs as fRUsTRaTINg TO wORk wITH DUE TO THEIR TRaDITIONaL HEaLTH pRacTIcEs aND VagUE ¸EDIcaL HIsTORIEs. SO¸E cLINIcIaNs ¸akE ETHNOcENTRIc assU¸pTIONs abOUT THEIR paTIENTs, sUcH as REgaRDINg THE REaLITy Of THEIR ¸aRRIagEs. ¶IffERENT cLINIcIaNs HOLD cONTRaDIcTORy VIEws REgaRDINg THE pREVaLENcE Of sUbsTaNcE abUsE, DEpREssION, aND THE UsE Of wORkERs’ cO¸pENsaTION sERVIcEs IN THIs pOpULaTION. ÁOwEVER,
THEsE HEaLTH pROfEssIONaLs sEE¸ TO agREE IN bLa¸INg cERTaIN HEaLTH cONDITIONs, sUcH as DENTaL pRObLE¸s, ON THEIR paTIENTs’ bODILy ¸akEUp aND cULTURaL
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Bernardo’s Stomachache: Structure and Gaze in Migrant Health Care BERNaRDO was ExpERIENcINg a cHRONIc, cONsTaNT sTO¸acHacHE THaT ¸aDE IT paINfUL fOR HI¸ TO EaT, THUs caUsINg HI¸ TO fEEL wEak aND sLOwLy LOsE wEIgHT. ´VERy yEaR bEfORE HE LEſt ±axaca TO wORk IN a fisH pROcEssINg pLaNT IN ALaska, HE wENT THROUgH sEVERaL wEEks Of INjEcTIONs THaT HE ExpLaINED ¸aDE HI¸ sTRONgER aND gaVE HI¸ aN appETITE. WHEN HE aRRIVED HO¸E fRO¸ ALaska wEakER aND THINNER, HE UNDERwENT THIs sa¸E sERIEs Of INjEcTIONs agaIN. ÁE aTTRIbUTED THE paIN TO a LIfETI¸E Of sTRENUOUs ¸IgRaNT wORk as wELL as TO bEINg bEaTEN by THE (·.S.-fUNDED) MExIcaN ¸ILITaRy as a sUspEcTED ¸E¸bER Of aN INDIgENOUs RIgHTs ¸OVE¸ENT. ¶URINg ONE sEasON IN wHIcH HE pIckED bERRIEs ON THE ¹aNaka faR¸, BERNaRDO wENT TO THE LOcaL HOspITaL TO bE sEEN fOR HIs sTO¸acH paIN. ÁE REqUEsTED ¸EDIcINEs TO DEcREasE HIs paIN aND INcREasE HIs appETITE. ALTHOUgH BERNaRDO Is aN ELDERLy ¹RIqUI pERsON aND spEaks VERy LITTLE SpaNIsH, HE was sEEN by aN ´NgLIsH-spEakINg pHysIcIaN wHILE HIs DaUgHTER-IN-Law TRaNsLaTED. ÁIs DaUgHTER-IN-Law Is a MIxTEc wO¸aN wHO spEaks NO ¹RIqUI aND LITTLE ´NgLIsH. SHE DID HER bEsT TRaNsLaTINg fRO¸ SpaNIsH TO ´NgLIsH. ºN THE cHaRT, THE pHysIcIaN DEfiNED BERNaRDO as a “ÁIspaNIc” ¸aLE “wHO spEaks ONLy IN SpaNIsH, appaRENTLy bROkEN SpaNIsH aT THaT, wHIcH Is DIfficULT fOR THE SpaNIsH INTERpRETER TO UNDERsTaNDs [sic].” ²aTER, THE pHysIcIaN INDIcaTED HIs I¸pREssION: “º ¸UsT say THE HIsTORy was ObTaINED THROUgH aN INTERpRETER, aND ¸y I¸pREssION Is THaT THE paTIENT TENDED TO pERsEVERaTE ON UNRELaTED THINgs fRO¸ THE qUEsTIONs THaT wERE askED, bUT THEsE wERE UsUaLLy NOT TRaNsLaTED TO ¸E.” WITH THIs ¸IsUNDERsTOOD ¸ULTILayERED LINgUIsTIc baRRIER, THE pHysIcIaN cONcLUDED THaT “HE appaRENTLy Has NO pasT ¸EDIcaL HIsTORy. µO ¸EDIcaL HIsTORy.” °E ExTENT Of THE sOcIaL HIsTORy Is sU¸¸ED Up IN TwO sENTENcEs: “ÁE LIVEs LOcaLLy. WORks as a cO¸¸ON LabORER.” AſtER ¸IsUNDERsTaNDINg THE TRaNsLaTION Of BERNaRDO bEINg bEaTEN, THE pHysIcIaN cHaRTED sI¸pLy THaT BERNaRDO “Is aN OLD bOxER aND wONDERs If pOssIbLy THE bLUNT TRaU¸a TO HIs abDO¸EN cOULD cONTRIbUTE TO HIs pREsENT cONDITION.” ¶UE TO THE TE¸pORaL aND LINgUIsTIc LI¸ITaTIONs Of THE ¸EDIcaL INTERVIEw, THE pHysIcIaN was UNcLEaR abOUT THE LOcaTION aND qUaLITy Of THE paIN.
” g n i h t y n A w o n K t’ n o D s r o t c o D “
bEHaVIOR.
BERNaRDO was aD¸ITTED TO THE HOspITaL OVERNIgHT fOR “cHEsT paIN” IN ORDER TO
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RULE OUT a HEaRT aTTack. ÁE was gIVEN aN ExERcIsE TEsT, aſtER wHIcH THE TEcHNIcIaN NOTED THaT “HE Has sUpERb ExERcIsE capacITy” aND “THIs Is a LOw RIsk HEaRT
s e m l o H . M h t e S
scaN.” BERNaRDO REpEaTEDLy ExpLaINED THaT HE NEEDED ¸EDIcINEs TO DEcREasE HIs paIN aND INcREasE HIs HUNgER. ÁE aLsO ExpLaINED THaT HE NEEDED TO bE aT wORk ON THE faR¸ by 3:30 IN THE aſtERNOON. AſtER UNDERgOINg THE ExERcIsE TEsT, BERNaRDO REfUsED TO gIVE a THIRD sa¸pLE Of bLOOD aND UNDERgO ULTRasOUND EVaLUaTION bEcaUsE HE HaD TO gET back TO wORk. BERNaRDO was REqUIRED TO sIgN aN “AgaINsT MEDIcaL ADVIcE” fOR¸ bEfORE LEaVINg THE HOspITaL aND was LaTER sENT a bILL fOR OVER $3,000. BERNaRDO’s HOspITaL ExpERIENcE ExE¸pLIfiEs ¸aNy Of THE pRObLE¸s caUsED by Lack Of TI¸E aND Lack Of skILLED INTERpRETERs, bOTH DUE IN LaRgE paRT TO a HEaLTH caRE fiNaNcINg sysTE¸ bUILT ON ¸axI¸IzINg pROfiT INsTEaD Of paTIENT caRE. As a REsULT Of THEsE sTRUcTURaL LI¸ITaTIONs, THE pHysIcIaN assU¸ED BERNaRDO was a “ÁIspaNIc” SpaNIsH spEakER, REcORDED a VERy LI¸ITED sOcIaL HIsTORy THaT IgNORED HIs ¸IgRaTORy sTaTUs, aND DETER¸INED THaT RULINg OUT a HEaRT aTTack was THE ONLy I¸pORTaNT pLaN. BERNaRDO’s REpEaTED REqUEsTs fOR TREaT¸ENTs fOR sTO¸acH paIN aND fOR Lack Of appETITE wERE NOT acTED ON. MOsT pOIgNaNT aND HORRIfyINg was THE baD faITH TRaNsLaTION Of ¸ILITaRy TORTURE INTO BERNaRDO’s caTEgORIzaTION IN THE pER¸aNENT REcORD as “aN OLD bOxER.” ¶URINg ¸y ¸OsT REcENT VIsIT TO ±axaca, º sTayED agaIN wITH BERNaRDO IN JUxTLaHUaca aND VIsITED THE pRIVaTE pHysIcIaN wHO gIVEs HI¸ THE INjEcTIONs THaT BERNaRDO INDIcaTED wERE THE ONLy RE¸EDy THaT HELpED HIs paIN aND wEIgHT LOss. º INTERVIEwED THE pHysIcIaN aT NIgHT wHILE HIs cLINIc was cLOsED TE¸pORaRILy DUE TO aN ELEcTRIcITy bLackOUT. ÁE TOLD ¸E THaT BERNaRDO HaD a pEpTIc acID pRObLE¸ sUcH as gasTRITIs OR aN ULcER. ÁE sUggEsTED THaT THIs gasTROINTEsTINaL pRObLE¸ was DUE TO EaTINg “TOO ¸UcH HOT cHILI, TOO ¸UcH faT, aND ¸aNy cONDI¸ENTs.” ÁE cONTINUED, “[ºNDIgENOUs pEOpLE] aLsO DON’T EaT aT THE RIgHT TI¸E bUT waIT a LONg TI¸E IN bETwEEN ¸EaLs.” °E pHysIcIaN gIVEs BERNaRDO a pILL TO DEcREasE HIs pEpTIc acID LEVELs. ÁE ExpLaINED THaT THERE wERE bETTER pILLs fOR THIs, bUT THEy wERE TOO ExpENsIVE fOR BERNaRDO. ÁE REcO¸¸ENDED THaT BERNaRDO DRINk ¸ILk aND EaT yOgURT TO HELp pROTEcT HIs sTO¸acH LININg. °E DOcTOR aLsO gIVEs INjEcTIONs Of VITa¸IN B-12 IN ORDER TO TREaT wHaT HE cONsIDERs NEUROpaTHy (NERVE paIN). ÁE ExpLaINED THaT THIs NEUROpaTHy was DUE TO THE facT THaT INDIgENOUs pEOpLE “bEND OVER TOO ¸UcH aT wORk aND bEND TOO ¸UcH IN THEIR sLEEp.” ²IkE ¸aNy Of THE ·.S. cLINIcIaNs, THIs pHysIcIaN was NOT abLE TO sEE BERNaRDO’s sOcIaL aND OccUpaTIONaL cONTExT aND INsTEaD bLa¸ED HIs sUffERINg ON HIs assU¸ED bEHaVIORs aND cULTURE. ´ITHER THE pHysIcIaN was NOT abLE TO
pERfOR¸ a sUfficIENTLy ExTENsIVE INTakE INTERVIEw TO kNOw abOUT BERNaRDO’s ExpERIENcE Of TORTURE OR HE DID NOT cONNEcT THIs HIsTORy TO THE cHRONIc paIN.
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paRT TO ERasE THE sTRUcTURaL DETER¸INaNTs Of sUffERINg sUcH as THE pOLITIcaL HIsTORy Of ¸ILITaRy TORTURE aND THE EcONO¸Ic INEqUaLITIEs LEaDINg TO a LIfETI¸E Of ¸IgRaNT HaRD LabOR.
A Contextual Medicine and Apolitical Cultural CompetencY As wOULD bE ExpEcTED IN THE paRaDIg¸ Of THE cLINIcaL gazE, THE cLINIcIaNs º spOkE TO sEE THE INDIVIDUaL ¹RIqUI bODIEs IN THEIR OfficEs, yET THEy aRE UNabLE TO ENgagE THE sOcIaL cONTExT THaT pRODUcEs sUffERINg. ºT was ONLy INfREqUENTLy (E.g., ¶R. Sa¸UELsON aND ¶R. GOLDENsON) THaT º HEaRD a HEaLTH pROfEssIONaL pOINT OUT THE cONTExT IN wHIcH THE pERsON LIVEs: cONDITIONs IN THE LabOR ca¸p, wORkINg cONDITIONs, OR INTERNaTIONaL EcONO¸Ic aND I¸¸IgRaTION pOLIcIEs. YET THEsE LaRgER pOLITIcaL, EcONO¸Ic, aND sOcIaL fORcEs aRE THE fUNDa¸ENTaL caUsEs Of THEIR paTIENTs’ sUffERINg. AT THE sa¸E TI¸E, THE HEaLTH caRE pROfEssIONaLs caNNOT bE bLa¸ED fOR THEIR acONTExTUaLITy. °Ey, TOO, aRE affEcTED by sOcIaL, EcONO¸Ic, aND pOLITIcaL sTRUcTUREs. MUcH Of THEIR bLINDNEss TO sOcIaL aND pOLITIcaL cONTExT Is caUsED by THE DIfficULT, HEcTIc, aND E¸OTIONaLLy ExHaUsTINg cIRcU¸sTaNcEs IN wHIcH THEy wORk. ºT Is caUsED aLsO by THE way ¸EDIcaL scIENcE Is THOUgHT aND TaUgHT IN THE cONTE¸pORaRy wORLD. MOsT Of THEsE INDIVIDUaLs HaVE cHOsEN THEIR pOsITIONs IN ¸IgRaNT cLINIcs bEcaUsE THEy waNT TO HELp. °Ey HaVE a gREaT DEaL Of cO¸passION aND a sENsE Of caLLINg TO THIs wORk. YET THE LENsEs THEy HaVE bEEN gIVEN THROUgH wHIcH TO UNDERsTaND THEIR paTIENTs HaVE bEEN NaRROwLy fOcUsED, INDIVIDUaLIsTIc, aND asOcIaL. PHysIcIaNs IN THE ·NITED STaTEs aND MExIcO aRE NOT TRaINED TO sEE THE sOcIaL DETER¸INaNTs Of HEaLTH pRObLE¸s, OR TO HEaR THE¸ wHEN cO¸¸UNIcaTED by THEIR paTIENTs. °Is acONTExTUaLITy Is sEEN wHEN THE sEcTIONs Of ¸EDIcaL cHaRTs REpORTINg sOcIaL HIsTORy ENTIRELy ExcLUDE sOcIaL REaLITIEs aND wHEN TORTURE Is REpORTED as bOxINg. °Ey aRE TRaINED, INsTEaD, TO gIVE ¸OsT HEED TO THE “ObjEcTIVE” INfOR¸aTION pROVIDED by THEIR OwN pHysIcaL Exa¸INaTIONs aND, ¸ORE sO, bIOTEcHNIcaL bLOOD aND RaDIOLOgIcaL TEsTs.ÌÎ °Us IT Is UNaVOIDabLE THaT THEy wOULD faLL INTO THE TRap Of UsINg a NaRROw LENs THaT fUNcTIONs TO DEcONTExTUaLIzE sIckNEss, TRaNspORTINg IT fRO¸ THE REaL¸ Of pOLITIcs, pOwER, aND INEqUaLITy TO THE REaL¸ Of THE INDIVIDUaL bODy. °E ¸OsT UpsTREa¸ DETER¸INaNTs Of sUffERINg aRE LEſt UNackNOwLEDgED, UNaDDREssED, aND UNTREaTED. MUcH LIkE THE “aNTIpOLITIcs ¸acHINE” Of DEVELOp¸ENT agENcIEs
” g n i h t y n A w o n K t’ n o D s r o t c o D “
³aTHER, THE pRacTIcE Of bIO¸EDIcINE DEpOLITIcIzEs sIckNEss, fUNcTIONINg IN
DEscRIbED by FERgUsON,ÌÏ bIO¸EDIcINE EffEcTIVELy DEpOLITIcIzEs sUffERINg,
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bLa¸INg sIckNEss NOT ON pOLITIcaL EcONO¸Ic aND sOcIaL sTRUcTUREs bUT RaTHER ON INDIVIDUaL bEHaVIORs, assU¸ED cULTURaL pRacTIcEs, aND pERcEIVED ETHNIc
s e m l o H . M h t e S
bODy DIffERENcEs. BEyOND THIs acONTExTUaL gazE, pHysIcIaNs IN µORTH A¸ERIca TODay aRE aLsO TaUgHT TO sEE bEHaVIORaL facTORs IN HEaLTH—sUcH as LIfEsTyLE, DIET, HabITs, aND aDDIcTIONs. BEHaVIORaL HEaLTH EDUcaTION Has bEEN aDDED as paRT Of a LaUDabLE ¸OVE TO bROaDEN ¸EDIcaL EDUcaTION wITHIN THE paRaDIg¸ Of bIOpsycHOsOcIaL HEaLTH fiRsT DEscRIbED by GEORgE ´NgEL IN 1977. ÁOwEVER, wITHOUT bEINg TRaINED TO cONsIDER THE gLObaL pOLITIcaL-EcONO¸Ic sTRUcTUREs aND LOcaL HIERaRcHIEs THaT sHapE THE sUffERINg Of THEIR paTIENTs, HEaLTH pROfEssIONaLs aRE EqUIppED TO sEE ONLy bIOLOgIcaL aND bEHaVIORaL DETER¸INaNTs Of sIckNEss. Sy¸bOLIcaLLy, THEy aRE LI¸ITED TO UNDERsTaNDINg THE gENEsIs Of sIckNEss as LOcaTED IN THE paTIENTs: THEIR bODIEs (THE gENETIcs ¸ENTIONED by THE DENTIsT), THEIR bEHaVIOR (THE INcORREcT bENDINg assU¸ED by THE REHabILITaTION ¸EDIcINE pHysIcIaN), OR THEIR cULTURE (THE cUsTO¸s INVOkED by THE NURsE IN SaN MIgUEL). °Us wELL-¸EaNINg cLINIcIaNs INaDVERTENTLy aDD INsULT TO INjURy, sUbTLy bLa¸INg THEIR paTIENTs fOR THEIR sUffERINg. ²aRgELy IN REspONsE TO sOcIaL scIENcE cRITIqUEs Of THE LI¸ITED gazE Of bIO¸EDIcINE IN a ¸ULTIcULTURaL wORLD, bIO¸EDIcaL INsTITUTIONs HaVE aDOpTED TRaININg IN cULTURaL cO¸pETENcy.ÌÓ ºN ¸aNy ways, THE fiELD Of cULTURaL cO¸pETENcy sEEks TO bROaDEN THE cLINIcaL gazE IN ORDER TO aVOID ETHNOcENTRIc assU¸pTIONs aND INEffEcTIVE INTERVENTIONs. MOsT ¸aINsTREa¸ cULTURaL cO¸pETENcE TRaININg fOcUsEs ON LIsTs Of sTEREOTypIcaL TRaITs Of ETHNIc gROUps.ÌÔ °Is fOcUs sUggEsTs THaT THE cULTURE Of THE paTIENT Is THE pRObLE¸ THaT NEEDs TO bE UNDERsTOOD aND THE baRRIER THaT sHOULD bE OVERcO¸E IN ORDER TO pROVIDE EffEcTIVE HEaLTH caRE.ÌÕ ºN THE fOR¸ULaTIONs Of cULTURaL cO¸pETENcy, THE cULTURE Of bIO¸EDIcINE aND THE sTRUcTURaL DETER¸INaNTs Of HEaLTH aND HEaLTH caRE aRE LEſt LaRgELy UNExa¸INED. ÁOwEVER, THE ETHNOgRapHIc DaTa abOVE cONTRaDIcT THIs fOcUs by sHOwINg THaT IT Is OſtEN THE sTRUcTURE aND THE cULTURE Of bIO¸EDIcINE THaT fUNcTION as baRRIERs TO EffEcTIVE caRE. As sUggEsTED by JONaTHaN METzL, ¸EDIcaL EDUcaTORs sHOULD ExcHaNgE ¸aINsTREa¸ cULTURaL cO¸pETENcy fOR TRaININg IN sOcIaL aNaLysIs aND “sTRUcTURaL cO¸pETENcy.”ÌÖ WITHOUT appREcIaTINg THE cONTINUU¸ Of VIOLENcE LOcaTED IN ETHNIc aND cITIzENsHIp HIERaRcHIEs aND INTERNaTIONaL pOLIcIEs THaT pLacE THEIR paTIENTs IN INjURIOUs cONDITIONs IN THE fiRsT pLacE, cLINIcIaNs OſtEN bLa¸E THE sIckNEss ON THE paTIENT—THE assU¸ED INcORREcT ¸aNNER Of bENDINg wHILE pIckINg, THE pREsU¸ED TROUbLE wITH aUTHORITy, OR THE ExpEcTED INappROpRIaTE DIET. °E way ONE sTaNDs wHILE pIckINg bERRIEs, If INDEED INcORREcT IN sO¸E UNHEaLTHy
way, Is ONLy a pROxI¸aL INgREDIENT Of ONE’s sUffERINg. ºRONIcaLLy, THE pROgREssIVE ¸OVE TO INcLUDE bEHaVIORaL HEaLTH IN ¸EDIcaL EDUcaTION wITHOUT THE
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bLa¸E, EVEN cRI¸INaLIzE, THE VIcTI¸s Of sOcIaL sUffERINg.Ì× ´VEN THOsE HEaLTH pROfEssIONaLs wHO aRE acUTELy awaRE Of THE sOcIaL DETER¸INaNTs Of HEaLTH ¸ay REsORT TO bIOLOgIcaL aND bEHaVIORaL ExpLaNaTIONs as a DEfENsE ¸EcHaNIs¸ agaINsT THaT wHIcH THEy ExpERIENcE as HOpELEss. °Us THE VIcTI¸ Of pREjUDIcE aND EcONO¸Ic aND HIsTORIcaL INEqUaLITIEs Is bLa¸ED fOR HER pREDIca¸ENT. SHE Is bLa¸ED fOR THE baD jObs aND THE pOOR HEaLTH sHE Has, EVEN THOUgH THEsE aRE OUTcO¸Es Of THE sOcIaL sTRUcTUREs by wHIcH sHE Is sITUaTED. °E REaLITy Of ¸IgRaNT HEaLTH, HOwEVER, Is EVEN ¸ORE cO¸pLIcaTED aND pOTENTIaLLy DaNgEROUs. °E DIfficULT cIRcU¸sTaNcEs aND LI¸ITED gazE Of THE ¸IgRaNT cLINIc ¸akE IT I¸pOssIbLE fOR EVEN THE ¸OsT IDEaLIsTIc cLINIcIaNs TO pROVIDE EffEcTIVE TREaT¸ENT. µOT ONLy aRE THEsE pHysIcIaNs UNabLE TO REcO¸¸END appROpRIaTE INTERVENTIONs; THEy OſtEN pREscRIbE INEffEcTIVE TREaT¸ENTs wITH UNINTENDED HaR¸fUL REsULTs. SO¸E Of THEsE TREaT¸ENTs—sUcH as RETURNINg a paTIENT wITH aN INjURED kNEE TO fULL DUTy wORk—caN bE DIREcTLy HaR¸fUL TO THEIR paTIENTs. ´VEN THE INTERVENTIONs Of wELL-¸EaNINg pHysIcIaNs—fOR Exa¸pLE, paIN-RELIEVINg INjEcTIONs aND REfERRaLs TO THERapy IN ORDER TO, a¸ONg OTHER THINgs, accEpT pOTENTIaLLy cRUEL TREaT¸ENT fRO¸ sUpERVIsORs—¸ay fUNcTION INaDVERTENTLy TO sHORE Up THE UNEqUaL sOcIaL fOR¸aTIONs caUsINg sIckNEss IN THE fiRsT pLacE. °EsE TREaT¸ENTs UNINTENTIONaLLy DEpOLITIcIzE sUffERINg, THEREby bUTTREssINg THE VERy sTRUcTUREs Of OppREssION caUsINg sIckNEss. °E VIOLENcE ENacTED by sOcIaL HIERaRcHIEs ExTENDs fRO¸ THE faR¸ TO THE ¸IgRaNT cLINIc aND back agaIN, DEspITE THE I¸pREssIVE VaLUEs aND INTENTIONs Of THOsE IN bOTH INsTITUTIONs. °E sTRUcTURE Of HEaLTH caRE ¸UsT bE cHaNgED TO OffER qUaLITy caRE TO aLL paTIENTs INsTEaD Of sEEkINg pRIVaTE pROfiT aND cOsT saVINgs. °E cONTE¸pORaRy bIObEHaVIORaL cLINIcaL gazE ¸UsT bE TRaNsfOR¸ED TO REcOgNIzE THE sOcIaL, pOLITIcaL, aND EcONO¸Ic DETER¸INaNTs Of sIckNEss aND HEaLTH, TO INcLUDE sTRUcTURaL cO¸pETENcy. ºN THE ¸EaNwHILE, IT Is NO wONDER THaT ¸y ¹RIqUI cO¸paNIONs cONcLUDE THaT LOs ¸éDIcOs NO sabEN NaDa.
notes 1 ÂILLaREjO 2003; Migration News 2003. 2 ¶aVIs 2002. 3 ºbID. 4 SacHs 1991.
” g n i h t y n A w o n K t’ n o D s r o t c o D “
cORRELaTE INcLUsION Of sOcIaL cONTExT ¸ay bE ExacTLy wHaT LEaDs cLINIcIaNs TO
114
5
MaRTIN 1992.
6
±RwELL 1937.
7 BOURDIEU 1997. 8 BRUbakER aND COOpER 2000. SEE aLsO PINE 2008.
s e m l o H . M h t e S
9
³UbEL 1964; ³UbEL aND MOORE 2001.
10 SEE ÁOL¸Es 2009. 11 QUINONEs 1998. 12 SEE ÁOL¸Es 2009. 13
SEE aLsO GOOD 2001.
14 FERgUsON 1990. 15
SEE KLEIN¸aN aND BENsON 2006.
16 JENks 2011; ÁEsTER 2012; WILLEN ET aL. 2010. 17 JENks 2011; SHaw aND AR¸IN 2011. 18
METzL 2011.
19
SEE aLsO ¹ERRIO 2004.
referen¸es BOURDIEU, PIERRE. 2000 [1997]. Pascalian Meditations. STaNfORD, CA: STaNfORD ·NIVERsITy PREss. BRUbakER, ³OgERs, aND FREDERIck COOpER. 2000. “BEyOND ‘ºDENTITy.’ ” °eory and Society 29: 1–47. ¶aVIs, ANDREw. 2002. “·NUsUaL WOODbURN ±fficE ÁELps ºNDIgENOUs MExIcaNs.” AssOcIaTED PREss µEwswIREs. FERgUsON, Ja¸Es. 1990. °e Anti-Politics Machine: Development, Depoliticization, and
Bureaucratic Power in Lesotho. MINNEapOLIs: ·NIVERsITy Of MINNEsOTa PREss. GOOD, MaRy-JO ¶ELÂEccHIO. 2001. “°E BIOTEcHNIcaL ´¸bRacE.” Culture, Medicine, and
Psychiatry 25 (4): 395–410. ÁEsTER, ³EbEcca J. 2012. “°E PRO¸IsE aND PaRaDOx Of CULTURaL CO¸pETENcE.” ¾¿À Forum 24 (4): 279–291. ÁOL¸Es, SETH M. 2009. “¶ON’T MIsREpREsENT THE ¹RIqUI.” Monterey Country Herald. JaN. 29. JENks, ANgELa C. 2011. “FRO¸ ‘²IsT Of ¹RaITs’ TO ‘±pEN-MINDEDNEss’: ´¸ERgINg ºssUEs IN CULTURaL CO¸pETENcE ´DUcaTION.” Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry 35 (2): 209–235. KLEIN¸aN, ARTHUR, aND PETER BENsON. 2006. “ANTHROpOLOgy IN THE CLINIc: °E PRObLE¸ Of CULTURaL CO¸pETENcy aND ÁOw TO FIx ºT.” PLoS Medicine 3 (10): E294. MaRTIN, ´¸ILy. 1992. °e Woman in the Body: A Cultural Analysis of Reproduction . BOsTON: BEacON PREss. METzL, JONaTHaN. 2011. Protest Psychosis: How Schizophrenia Became a Black Disease. BOsTON: BEacON PREss.
Migration News. 2003. “MIgRaTION ¹RaDE aND ¶EVELOp¸ENT.” Migration News 10: 1. ±RwELL, GEORgE. 1937. °e Road to Wigan Pier. µEw YORk: ÁaRcOURT BRacE JOVaNOVIcH.
PINE, ADRIENNE. 2008. Working Hard, Drinking Hard: On Violence and Survival in Hon-
duras. BERkELEy: ·NIVERsITy Of CaLIfORNIa PREss.
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QUINONEs, Sa¸. 1998. “ ‘GRapEs Of WRaTH’ SOUTH Of THE BORDER.” SaN Sa¸UEL, CA: SpEcIaL
Ethnology 3 (3): 268–283. ³UbEL, ARTHUR J., aND CaR¸ELLa C. MOORE. 2001. “°E CONTRIbUTION Of MEDIcaL ANTHROpOLOgy TO a CO¸paRaTIVE STUDy Of CULTURE: SUsTO aND ¹UbERcULOsIs.” Medical
Anthropology Quarterly 15 (4): 440–454. SacHs, WOLfgaNg, ED. 1991. °e Development Dictionary . ²ONDON: ZED BOOks. SHaw, SUsaN J., aND JULIE AR¸IN. 2011. “°E ´THIcaL SELf-FasHIONINg Of PHysIcIaNs aND ÁEaLTH CaRE SysTE¸s IN CULTURaLLy AppROpRIaTE ÁEaLTH CaRE.” Culture, Medicine and
Psychiatry 35 (2): 236–261. ¹ERRIO, SUsaN J. 2004. “MIgRaTION, ¶IspLacE¸ENT, aND ÂIOLENcE: PROsEcUTINg ³O¸aNIaN STREET CHILDREN aT THE PaRIs PaLacE Of JUsTIcE.” International Migration 42 (5): 5–33. ÂILLaREjO, ¶ON. 2003. “°E ÁEaLTH Of ·.S. ÁIRED FaR¸ WORkERs.” Annual Review of Public
Health 24: 175–193. WILLEN, SaRaH S., ANTONIO BULLON, aND MaRy-JO ¶ELÂEccHIO GOOD. 2010. “±pENINg Up a ÁUgE CaN Of WOR¸s: ³EflEcTIONs ON a ‘CULTURaL SENsITIVITy’ COURsE fOR PsycHIaTRy ³EsIDENTs.” Harvard Review of Psychiatry 18: 247–255.
” g n i h t y n A w o n K t’ n o D s r o t c o D “
TO THE ´xa¸INER. SF Gate. JaN. 11. ³UbEL, ARTHUR J. 1964. “°E ´pIDE¸IOLOgy Of a FOLk ºLLNEss: SUsTO IN ÁIspaNIc A¸ERIca.”
´nThRoPolog¶ ±n The Cl±n±c ¾HE ¶ROblEM O½ CUlTURAl COMpETENcY AN± ¹Ow TO FIx µT
Arthur Kleinman and Peter Benson
CULTURaL cO¸pETENcy Has bEcO¸E a fasHIONabLE TER¸ fOR cLINIcIaNs aND REsEaRcHERs. YET NO ONE caN DEfiNE THIs TER¸ pREcIsELy ENOUgH TO OpERaTIONaLIzE IT IN cLINIcaL TRaININg aND bEsT pRacTIcEs. ºT Is cLEaR THaT cULTURE DOEs ¸aTTER IN THE cLINIc. CULTURaL facTORs aRE cRUcIaL TO DIagNOsIs, TREaT¸ENT, aND caRE. °Ey sHapE HEaLTH-RELaTED bELIEfs, bEHaVIORs, aND VaLUEs.Ì,Í BUT THE LaRgE cLaI¸s abOUT THE VaLUE Of cULTURaL cO¸pETENcE fOR THE aRT Of pROfEssIONaL caRE-gIVINg aROUND THE wORLD aRE sI¸pLy NOT sUppORTED by RObUsT EVaLUaTION REsEaRcH sHOwINg THaT sysTE¸aTIc aTTENTION TO cULTURE REaLLy I¸pROVEs cLINIcaL sERVIcEs. °Is Lack Of EVIDENcE Is a faILURE Of OUTcO¸E REsEaRcH TO TakE cULTURE sERIOUsLy ENOUgH TO ROUTINELy assEss THE cOsT-EffEcTIVENEss Of cULTURaLLy INfOR¸ED THERapEUTIc pRacTIcEs, NOT a Lack Of EffORT TO INTRODUcE cULTURaLLy INfOR¸ED sTRaTEgIEs INTO cLINIcaL sETTINgs.Î
Problems with the Idea of Cultural CompetencY ±NE ¸ajOR pRObLE¸ wITH THE IDEa Of cULTURaL cO¸pETENcy Is THaT IT sUggEsTs cULTURE caN bE REDUcED TO a TEcHNIcaL skILL fOR wHIcH cLINIcIaNs caN bE TRaINED TO DEVELOp ExpERTIsE.Ï °Is pRObLE¸ sTE¸s fRO¸ HOw cULTURE Is DEfiNED IN ¸EDIcINE, wHIcH cONTRasTs sTRIkINgLy wITH ITs cURRENT UsE IN aNTHROpOLOgy— THE fiELD IN wHIcH THE cONcEpT Of cULTURE ORIgINaTED.Ó–× CULTURE Is OſtEN ¸aDE
ARTHUR KLEIN¸aN aND PETER BENsON, “ANTHROpOLOgy IN THE CLINIc: °E PRObLE¸ Of CULTURaL CO¸pETENcy aND ÁOw TO FIx ºT,” fRO¸ Public Library of Science: Medicine 3, NO. 10 (2006): E294, 1673–1676.
syNONy¸OUs wITH ETHNIcITy, NaTIONaLITy, aND LaNgUagE. FOR Exa¸pLE, paTIENTs Of a cERTaIN ETHNIcITy—sUcH as THE “MExIcaN paTIENT”—aRE assU¸ED TO HaVE a
117
TENcy bEcO¸Es a sERIEs Of “DO’s aND DON’Ts” THaT DEfiNE HOw TO TREaT a paTIENT Of a gIVEN ETHNIc backgROUND.ÌØ °E IDEa Of IsOLaTED sOcIETIEs wITH sHaRED cULTURaL ¸EaNINgs wOULD bE REjEcTED by aNTHROpOLOgIsTs TODay, sINcE IT LEaDs TO DaNgEROUs sTEREOTypINg—sUcH as “CHINEsE bELIEVE THIs,” “JapaNEsE bELIEVE THaT,” aND sO ON—as If ENTIRE sOcIETIEs OR ETHNIc gROUps cOULD bE DEscRIbED by THEsE sI¸pLE sLOgaNs.ÌÌ–ÌÎ ANOTHER pRObLE¸ Is THaT cULTURaL facTORs aRE NOT aLways cENTRaL TO a casE, aND ¸IgHT acTUaLLy HINDER a ¸ORE pRacTIcaL UNDERsTaNDINg Of aN EpIsODE (sEE bOx 1).
±OX 1 CASE ³cENARIO: CUlTURAl »SSUMpTIONS ¼AY ¹IN±ER ¶RAcTIcAl
¿N±ERSTAN±INg A ¸EDIcaL aNTHROpOLOgIsT Is askED by a pEDIaTRIcIaN IN CaLIfORNIa TO cONsULT IN THE caRE Of a MExIcaN ¸aN wHO Is hiv pOsITIVE. °E ¸aN’s wIfE HaD DIED Of ¾id¼ ONE yEaR agO. ÁE Has a fOUR-yEaR-OLD sON wHO Is hiv pOsITIVE, bUT HE Has NOT bEEN bRINgINg THE cHILD IN REgULaRLy fOR caRE. °E ExpLaNaTION gIVEN by THE cLINIcIaNs assU¸ED THaT THE pRObLE¸ TURNED ON a RaDIcaLLy DIffERENT cULTURaL UNDERsTaNDINg. WHaT THE aNTHROpOLOgIsT fOUND, THOUgH, was TO THE cONTRaRy. °Is ¸aN HaD a NEaR cO¸pLETE UNDERsTaNDINg Of hiv/¾id¼ aND ITs TREaT¸ENT—LaRgELy THROUgH THE sUppORT Of a LOcaL NONpROfiT ORgaNIzaTION aI¸ED aT sUppORTINg MExIcaN A¸ERIcaN paTIENTs wITH hiv. ÁOwEVER, HE was a VERy- LOw-paID bUs DRIVER, OſtEN wORkINg LaTE-NIgHT sHIſts, aND HE HaD NO TI¸E TO TakE HIs sON TO THE cLINIc TO REcEIVE caRE fOR HI¸ as REgULaRLy as HIs DOcTORs REqUEsTED. ÁIs faILURE TO aTTEND was NOT bEcaUsE Of cULTURaL DIffERENcEs, bUT RaTHER HIs pRacTIcaL, sOcIOEcONO¸Ic sITUaTION. ¹aLkINg wITH HI¸ aND TakINg INTO accOUNT HIs “LOcaL wORLD” wERE ¸ORE UsEfUL THaN pOsITINg RaDIcaLLy DIffERENT MExIcaN HEaLTH bELIEfs.
ÁIsTORIcaLLy IN THE HEaLTH caRE DO¸aIN, cULTURE REfERRED aL¸OsT sOLELy TO THE DO¸aIN Of THE paTIENT aND fa¸ILy. As sEEN IN THE casE scENaRIO IN bOx 1, wE caN aLsO TaLk abOUT THE cULTURE Of THE pROfEssIONaL caREgIVER—INcLUDINg bOTH THE cULTURaL backgROUND Of THE DOcTOR, NURsE, OR sOcIaL wORkER, aND THE cULTURE Of bIO¸EDIcINE ITsELf—EspEcIaLLy as IT Is ExpREssED IN INsTITUTIONs
c i n i l C e h t n i y g o l o p o r h t n A
cORE sET Of bELIEfs abOUT ILLNEss OwINg TO fixED ETHNIc TRaITs. CULTURaL cO¸pE-
sUcH as HOspITaLs, cLINIcs, aND ¸EDIcaL scHOOLs.ÌÏ ºNDEED, THE cULTURE Of bIO-
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¸EDIcINE Is NOw sEEN as kEy TO THE TRaNs¸IssION Of sTIg¸a, THE INcORpORaTION aND ¸aINTENaNcE Of RacIaL bIas IN INsTITUTIONs, aND THE DEVELOp¸ENT Of HEaLTH
n o s n e B r e t e P d n a n a m n i e l K r u h t r A
DIspaRITIEs acROss ¸INORITy gROUps.ÌÓ–ÌÖ
Culture Is Not Static ºN aNTHROpOLOgy TODay, cULTURE Is NOT sEEN as HO¸OgENOUs OR sTaTIc. ANTHROpOLOgIsTs E¸pHasIzE THaT cULTURE Is NOT a sINgLE VaRIabLE bUT RaTHER cO¸pRIsEs ¸ULTIpLE VaRIabLEs, affEcTINg aLL aspEcTs Of ExpERIENcE. CULTURE Is INsEpaRabLE fRO¸ EcONO¸Ic, pOLITIcaL, RELIgIOUs, psycHOLOgIcaL, aND bIOLOgIcaL cONDITIONs. CULTURE Is a pROcEss THROUgH wHIcH ORDINaRy acTIVITIEs aND cONDITIONs TakE ON aN E¸OTIONaL TONE aND a ¸ORaL ¸EaNINg fOR paRTIcIpaNTs. CULTURaL pROcEssEs INcLUDE THE E¸bODI¸ENT Of ¸EaNINg IN psycHOpHysIOLOgIcaL REacTIONs,Ì× THE DEVELOp¸ENT Of INTERpERsONaL aTTacH¸ENTs,ÍØ THE sERIOUs pERfOR¸aNcE Of RELIgIOUs pRacTIcEs, ÍÌ cO¸¸ON-sENsE INTERpRETaTIONs,ÍÍ aND THE cULTIVaTION Of cOLLEcTIVE aND INDIVIDUaL IDENTITy.ÍÎ CULTURaL pROcEssEs fREqUENTLy DIffER wITHIN THE sa¸E ETHNIc OR sOcIaL gROUp bEcaUsE Of DIffERENcEs IN agE cOHORT, gENDER, pOLITIcaL assOcIaTION, cLass, RELIgION, ETHNIcITy, aND EVEN pERsONaLITy.
The Importance of EthnographY ºT Is Of cOURsE LEgITI¸aTE aND HIgHLy DEsIRabLE fOR cLINIcIaNs TO bE sENsITIVE TO cULTURaL DIffERENcE, aND TO aTTE¸pT TO pROVIDE caRE THaT DEaLs wITH cULTURaL IssUEs fRO¸ aN aNTHROpOLOgIcaL pERspEcTIVE. WE bELIEVE THaT THE OpTI¸aL way TO DO THIs Is TO TRaIN cLINIcIaNs IN ETHNOgRapHy. “´THNOgRapHy” Is THE TEcHNIcaL TER¸ UsED IN aNTHROpOLOgy fOR ITs cORE ¸ETHODOLOgy. ºT REfERs TO aN aNTHROpOLOgIsT’s DEscRIpTION Of wHaT LIfE Is LIkE IN a “LOcaL wORLD,” a spEcIfic sETTINg IN a sOcIETy—UsUaLLy ONE DIffERENT fRO¸ THaT Of THE aNTHROpOLOgIsT’s wORLD. ¹RaDITIONaLLy, THE ETHNOgRapHER VIsITs a fOREIgN cOUNTRy, LEaRNs THE LaNgUagE, aND, sysTE¸aTIcaLLy, DEscRIbEs sOcIaL paTTERNs IN a paRTIcULaR VILLagE, NEIgHbORHOOD, OR NETwORk.ÍÏ WHaT sETs THIs apaRT fRO¸ OTHER ¸ETHODs Of sOcIaL REsEaRcH Is THE I¸pORTaNcE pLacED ON UNDERsTaNDINg THE NaTIVE’s pOINT Of VIEw.ÍÓ °E ETHNOgRapHER pRacTIcEs aN INTENsIVE aND I¸agINaTIVE E¸paTHy fOR THE ExpERIENcE Of THE NaTIVEs—appREcIaTINg aND HU¸aNLy
ENgagINg wITH THEIR fOREIgNNEss, ÍÔ aND UNDERsTaNDINg THEIR RELIgION, ¸ORaL VaLUEs, aND EVERyDay pRacTIcEs. ÍÕ,ÍÖ
119
sUcH as “CHINEsE EaT pORk, JEws DON’T.” (MILLIONs Of CHINEsE aRE VEgETaRIaNs OR aRE MUsLI¸s wHO DO NOT EaT pORk; sO¸E JEws, INcLUDINg THE cORREspONDINg aUTHOR Of THIs papER, LOVE pORk.) ´THNOgRapHy E¸pHasIzEs ENgagE¸ENT wITH OTHERs aND wITH THE pRacTIcEs THaT pEOpLE UNDERTakE IN THEIR LOcaL wORLDs. ºT aLsO E¸pHasIzEs THE a¸bIVaLENcE THaT ¸aNy pEOpLE fEEL as a REsULT Of bEINg bETwEEN wORLDs (fOR Exa¸pLE, pERsONs wHO IDENTIfy as bOTH AfRIcaN A¸ERIcaN aND ºRIsH, JEwIsH aND CHRIsTIaN, A¸ERIcaN aND FRENcH) IN a way THaT cULTURaL cO¸pETENcy DOEs NOT. AND ETHNOgRapHy EscHEws THE TEcHNIcaL ¸asTERy THaT THE TER¸ “cO¸pETENcy” sUggEsTs. ANTHROpOLOgIsTs aND cLINIcIaNs sHaRE a cO¸¸ON bELIEf—THaT Is, THE pRI¸acy Of ExpERIENcE.Í×–ÎÎ °E cLINIcIaN, as aN aNTHROpOLOgIsT Of sORTs, caN E¸paTHIzE wITH THE LIVED ExpERIENcE Of THE paTIENT’s ILLNEss aND TRy TO UNDERsTaND THE ILLNEss as THE paTIENT UNDERsTaNDs, fEELs, pERcEIVEs, aND REspONDs TO IT.
The ExplanatorY Models Approach ±NE Of Us [AK] INTRODUcED THE “ExpLaNaTORy ¸ODELs appROacH,” wHIcH Is wIDELy UsED IN A¸ERIcaN ¸EDIcaL scHOOLs TODay, as aN INTERVIEw TEcHNIqUE (DEscRIbED bELOw) THaT TRIEs TO UNDERsTaND HOw THE sOcIaL wORLD affEcTs aND Is affEcTED by ILLNEss. ¶EspITE ITs INflUENcE, wE’VE OſtEN wITNEssED ¸IsaDVENTURE wHEN cLINIcIaNs aND cLINIcaL sTUDENTs UsE ExpLaNaTORy ¸ODELs. °Ey ¸aTERIaLIzE THE ¸ODELs as a kIND Of sUbsTaNcE OR ¸EasURE¸ENT (LIkE HE¸OgLObIN, bLOOD pREssURE, OR Ð-Rays) aND UsE IT TO END a cONVERsaTION RaTHER TO sTaRT a cONVERsaTION. °E ¸O¸ENT wHEN THE HU¸aN ExpERIENcE Of ILLNEss Is REcasT INTO TEcHNIcaL DIsEasE caTEgORIEs sO¸ETHINg cRUcIaL TO THE ExpERIENcE Is LOsT bEcaUsE IT was NOT VaLIDaTED as aN appROpRIaTE cLINIcaL cONcERN.ÎÏ ³aTHER, ExpLaNaTORy ¸ODELs OUgHT TO OpEN cLINIcIaNs TO HU¸aN cO¸¸UNIcaTION aND sET THEIR ExpERT kNOwLEDgE aLONgsIDE (NOT OVER aND abOVE) THE paTIENT’s OwN ExpLaNaTION aND VIEwpOINT. ·sINg THIs appROacH, cLINIcIaNs caN pERfOR¸ a “¸INI-ETHNOgRapHy,” ORgaNIzED INTO a sERIEs Of sIx sTEps. °Is Is a REVIsION Of THE CULTURaL FOR¸ULaTION INcLUDED IN THE fOURTH EDITION Of THE
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (±²³-¶Á ) (sEE ±²³-¶Á , appENDIx ºÎÓ). ÎÔ,ÍÕ
c i n i l C e h t n i y g o l o p o r h t n A
´THNOgRapHy Is DIffERENT THaN cULTURaL cO¸pETENcy. ºT EscHEws THE “TRaIT LIsT appROacH” THaT UNDERsTaNDs cULTURE as a sET Of aLREaDy-kNOwN facTORs,
A Revised Cultural Formulation 120
step 1 : e thnic identity Ù °E fiRsT sTEp Is TO ask abOUT ETHNIc IDENTITy n o s n e B r e t e P d n a n a m n i e l K r u h t r A
aND DETER¸INE wHETHER IT ¸aTTERs fOR THE paTIENT—wHETHER IT Is aN I¸pORTaNT paRT Of THE paTIENT’s sENsE Of sELf. As paRT Of THIs INqUIRy, IT Is cRUcIaL TO ackNOwLEDgE aND affiR¸ a pERsON’s ExpERIENcE Of ETHNIcITy aND ILLNEss. °Is Is basIc TO aNy THERapEUTIc INTERacTION aND ENabLEs a REspEcTfUL INqUIRy INTO THE pERsON’s IDENTITy. °E cLINIcIaN caN cO¸¸UNIcaTE a REcOgNITION THaT pEOpLE LIVE THEIR ETHNIcITy DIffERENTLy, THaT THE ExpERIENcE Of ETHNIcITy Is cO¸pLIcaTED bUT I¸pORTaNT, aND THaT IT bEaRs sIgNIficaNcE IN THE HEaLTH caRE sETTINg. ¹REaTINg ETHNIcITy as a ¸aTTER Of E¸pIRIcaL EVIDENcE ¸EaNs THaT ITs saLIENcE DEpENDs ON THE sITUaTION. ´THNIcITy Is NOT aN absTRacT IDENTITy, as THE
±²³-¶Á cULTURaL fOR¸ULaTION I¸pLIEs, bUT a VITaL aspEcT Of HOw LIfE Is LIVED. ºTs I¸pORTaNcE VaRIEs fRO¸ casE TO casE aND DEpENDs ON THE pERsON. ºT DEfiNEs HOw pEOpLE sEE THE¸sELVEs aND THEIR pLacE wITHIN fa¸ILy, wORk, aND sOcIaL NETwORks. ³aTHER THaN assU¸INg kNOwLEDgE Of THE paTIENT, wHIcH caN LEaD TO sTEREOTypINg, sI¸pLy askINg THE paTIENT abOUT ETHNIcITy aND ITs saLIENcE Is THE bEsT way TO sTaRT.
step ± : what is at stake? Ù °E sEcOND sTEp Is TO EVaLUaTE wHaT Is aT sTakE as paTIENTs aND THEIR LOVED ONEs facE aN EpIsODE Of ILLNEss. °Is EVaLUaTION ¸ay INcLUDE cLOsE RELaTIONsHIps, ¸aTERIaL REsOURcEs, RELIgIOUs cO¸¸IT¸ENTs, aND EVEN LIfE ITsELf. °E qUEsTION “WHaT Is aT sTakE?” caN bE askED by cLINIcIaNs; THE REspONsEs TO THIs qUEsTION wILL VaRy wITHIN aND bETwEEN ETHNIc gROUps, aND wILL sHED LIgHT ON THE ¸ORaL LIVEs Of paTIENTs aND THEIR fa¸ILIEs.
step 3: the illness narrative Ù STEp 3 Is TO REcONsTRUcT THE paTIENT’s “ILLNEss NaRRaTIVE.”ÎÖ °Is INVOLVEs a sERIEs Of qUEsTIONs (abOUT ONE’s ExpLaNaTORy ¸ODEL) aI¸ED aT acqUIRINg aN UNDERsTaNDINg Of THE ¸EaNINg Of ILLNEss (bOx 2).
²xplANATORY ¼O±ElS »ppROAcH ±OX 2 ¾HE • WHaT DO yOU caLL THIs pRObLE¸? • WHaT DO yOU bELIEVE Is THE caUsE Of THIs pRObLE¸? • WHaT cOURsE DO yOU ExpEcT IT TO TakE? ÁOw sERIOUs Is IT? • WHaT DO yOU THINk THIs pRObLE¸ DOEs INsIDE yOUR bODy? • ÁOw DOEs IT affEcT yOUR bODy aND yOUR ¸IND?
• WHaT DO yOU ¸OsT fEaR abOUT THIs cONDITION? • WHaT DO yOU ¸OsT fEaR abOUT THE TREaT¸ENT?
121
°E paTIENT aND fa¸ILy’s ExpLaNaTORy ¸ODELs caN THEN bE UsED TO OpEN Up a cONVERsaTION ON cULTURaL ¸EaNINgs THaT ¸ay HOLD sERIOUs I¸pLIcaTIONs fOR caRE. ºN THIs cONVERsaTION, THE cLINIcIaN sHOULD bE OpEN TO cULTURaL DIffERENcEs IN LOcaL wORLDs, aND THE paTIENT sHOULD REcOgNIzE THaT DOcTORs DO NOT fiT a cERTaIN sTEREOTypE aNy ¸ORE THaN THEy THE¸sELVEs DO.
step 4 : psychosocial s tresses Ù STEp 4 Is TO cONsIDER THE ONgOINg sTREssEs aND sOcIaL sUppORTs THaT cHaRacTERIzE pEOpLE’s LIVEs. °E cLINIcIaN REcORDs THE cHIEf psycHOsOcIaL pRObLE¸s assOcIaTED wITH THE ILLNEss aND ITs TREaT¸ENT (sUcH as fa¸ILy TENsIONs, wORk pRObLE¸s, fiNaNcIaL DIfficULTIEs, aND pERsONaL aNxIETy). FOR Exa¸pLE, If THE cLINIcIaNs DEscRIbED IN THE casE scENaRIO IN bOx 1 HaD caRRIED OUT sTEp 4, THEy cOULD HaVE aVOIDED THE ¸IsUNDERsTaNDINg wITH THEIR MExIcaN A¸ERIcaN paTIENT. °E cLINIcIaN caN aLsO LIsT INTERVENTIONs TO I¸pROVE aNy Of THE paTIENT’s DIfficULTIEs, sUcH as pROfEssIONaL THERapy, sELf-TREaT¸ENT, fa¸ILy assIsTaNcE, aND aLTERNaTIVE OR cO¸pLE¸ENTaRy ¸EDIcINE.
step 5 : influence of culture on clinical relationships Ù STEp 5 Is TO Exa¸INE cULTURE IN TER¸s Of ITs INflUENcE ON cLINIcaL RELaTIONsHIps. CLINIcIaNs aRE gROUNDED IN THE wORLD Of THE paTIENT, IN THEIR OwN pERsONaL NETwORk, aND IN THE pROfEssIONaL wORLD Of bIO¸EDIcINE aND INsTITUTIONs. ±NE cRUcIaL TOOL IN ETHNOgRapHy Is THE cRITIcaL sELf-REflEcTION THaT cO¸Es fRO¸ THE UNsETTLINg bUT ENLIgHTENINg ExpERIENcE Of bEINg bETwEEN sOcIaL wORLDs (fOR Exa¸pLE, THE wORLD Of THE REsEaRcHER/DOcTOR aND THE wORLD Of THE paTIENT/ paRTIcIpaNT Of ETHNOgRapHIc REsEaRcH). SO, TOO, IT Is I¸pORTaNT TO TRaIN cLINIcIaNs TO UNpack THE fOR¸aTIVE EffEcT THaT THE cULTURE Of bIO¸EDIcINE aND INsTITUTIONs Has ON THE ¸OsT ROUTINE cLINIcaL pRacTIcEs—INcLUDINg bIas, INappROpRIaTE aND ExcEssIVE UsE Of aDVaNcED TEcHNOLOgy INTERVENTIONs, aND, Of cOURsE, sTEREOTypINg. ¹EacHINg pRacTITIONERs TO cONsIDER THE EffEcTs Of THE cULTURE Of bIO¸EDIcINE Is cONTRaRy TO THE VIEw Of THE ExpERT as aUTHORITy aND TO THE ¸EDIa’s VIEw THaT TEcHNIcaL ExpERTIsE Is aLways THE bEsT aNswER. °E sTaTE¸ENT “FIRsT DO NO HaR¸ by sTEREOTypINg” sHOULD appEaR ON THE waLLs Of aLL cLINIcs THaT caTER TO I¸¸IgRaNT, REfUgEE, aND ETHNIc ¸INORITy pOpULaTIONs. AND yET sINcE cULTURE DOEs NOT ONLy appLy TO THEsE gROUps, IT OUgHT TO appEaR ON THE waLLs Of aLL cLINIcs.
c i n i l C e h t n i y g o l o p o r h t n A
SOURcE: CHapTER 15 IN KLEIN¸aN, °e Illness NarrativesÎÖ
step 6: the problems of a cultural competency approach Ù 122
FINaLLy, sTEp 6 Is TO TakE INTO accOUNT THE qUEsTION Of Efficacy—Na¸ELy, “¶OEs THIs INTERVENTION acTUaLLy wORk IN paRTIcULaR casEs?” °ERE aRE aLsO pOTEN-
n o s n e B r e t e P d n a n a m n i e l K r u h t r A
TIaL sIDE-EffEcTs. ´VERy INTERVENTION Has pOTENTIaL UNwaNTED EffEcTs, aND THIs Is aLsO TRUE Of a cULTURaLIsT appROacH. PERHaps THE ¸OsT sERIOUs sIDE-EffEcT Of cULTURaL cO¸pETENcy Is THaT aTTENTION TO cULTURaL DIffERENcE caN bE INTERpRETED by paTIENTs aND fa¸ILIEs as INTRUsIVE, aND ¸IgHT EVEN cONTRIbUTE TO a sENsE Of bEINg sINgLED OUT aND sTIg¸aTIzED.Î,ÌÌ,ÌÍ ANOTHER DaNgER Is THaT OVERE¸pHasIs ON cULTURaL DIffERENcE caN LEaD TO THE ¸IsTakEN IDEa THaT If wE caN ONLy IDENTIfy THE cULTURaL ROOT Of THE pRObLE¸, IT caN bE REsOLVED. °E sITUaTION Is UsUaLLy ¸UcH ¸ORE cO¸pLIcaTED. FOR Exa¸pLE, IN HER INflUENTIaL bOOk, °e Spirit Catches You and You Fall Down, ANN FaDI¸aN sHOws THaT wHILE INaTTENTION TO cULTURaLLy I¸pORTaNT facTORs cREaTEs HaVOc IN THE caRE Of a yOUNg Á¸ONg paTIENT wITH EpILEpsy, ONcE THE cULTURaL IssUEs aRE aDDREssED, THERE Is sTILL NO Easy REsOLUTION.ÎÎ ºNsTEaD, a wHOLE NEw sERIEs Of qUEsTIONs Is RaIsED.
Determining What Is at Stake for the Patient °E casE HIsTORy IN bOx 3 gIVEs aN Exa¸pLE Of HOw sI¸pLy UsINg cULTURaLLy appROpRIaTE TER¸s TO ExpLaIN pEOpLE’s LIfE sTORIEs HELps THE HEaLTH pROfEssIONaLs TO REsTORE a “bROkEN” RELaTIONsHIp aND aLLOws TREaT¸ENT TO cONTINUE. °Is casE Is NOT sETTLED, NOR Is IT aN Exa¸pLE Of aNy kIND Of TEcHNIcaL cO¸pETENcy. BUT THERE aRE TwO ILLU¸INaTINg aspEcTs Of THIs casE. FIRsT, IT Is I¸pORTaNT THaT HEaLTH caRE pROVIDERs DO NOT sTIg¸aTIzE OR sTEREOTypE paTIENTs. °Is Is a casE sTUDy Of aN INDIVIDUaL. µOT aLL CHINEsE pEOpLE fiT THIs LIfE sTORy, aND ¸aNy cONTE¸pORaRy CHINEsE NOw accEpT THE DIagNOsIs Of DEpREssION. SEcOND, cULTURE Is NOT jUsT wHaT paTIENTs HaVE; cLINIcIaNs aLsO paRTIcIpaTE IN cULTURaL wORLDs. A pHysIcIaN TOO RIgIDLy ORIENTED aROUND THE cLassIficaTION sysTE¸ Of bIO¸EDIcINE ¸IgHT fiND IT UNaccEpTabLE TO UsE Lay cLassIficaTIONs fOR THE TREaT¸ENT.
±OX 3 CASE ³cENARIO: ¾HE µMpORTANcE O½ ¿SINg CUlTURAllY »ppROpRIATE
¾ERMS TO ²xplAIN ¶EOplE’S ÀI½E ³TORIES MIss ²IN Is a 24-yEaR-OLD ExcHaNgE sTUDENT fRO¸ CHINa IN gRaDUaTE scHOOL IN THE ·NITED STaTEs, wHERE sHE DEVELOpED sy¸pTO¸s Of
paLpITaTIONs, sHORTNEss Of bREaTH, DIzzINEss, faTIgUE, aND HEaDacHEs. A THOROUgH ¸EDIcaL wORkUp LEaVEs THE sy¸pTO¸s UNExpLaINED. A psy-
123
MIss ²IN Is pLacED ON aNTIDEpREssaNTs aND DOEs cOgNITIVE-bEHaVIORaL psycHOTHERapy, wITH sy¸pTO¸s gETTINg bETTER OVER a sIx-wEEk pERIOD; bUT THEy DO NOT DIsappEaR cO¸pLETELy. SUbsEqUENTLy, THE paTIENT DROps OUT Of TREaT¸ENT aND REfUsEs fURTHER cONTacT wITH THE ¸EDIcaL sysTE¸. ANTHROpOLOgIcaL cONsULTaTION DIscOVERs THaT MIss ²IN cO¸Es fRO¸ a CHINEsE fa¸ILy IN BEIjINg—ONE Of HER cOUsINs Is HOspITaLIzED wITH cHRONIc ¸ENTaL ILLNEss. SO pOwERfUL Is THE sTIg¸a Of THaT ILLNEss fOR THIs fa¸ILy THaT MIss ²IN caNNOT cONcEIVE Of THE IDEa THaT sHE Is sUffERINg fRO¸ a ¸ENTaL DIsORDER, aND REfUsEs TO DEaL wITH HER A¸ERIcaN HEaLTH caRE pROVIDERs bEcaUsE THEy UsE THE TER¸s “aNxIETy DIsORDER” aND “DEpREssIVE DIsORDER.” ºN THIs INsTaNcE, sHE HERsELf pOINTs OUT THaT IN CHINa THE TER¸ THaT Is UsED Is NEURasTHENIa OR a sTREss-RELaTED cONDITION. ±N THE aNTHROpOLOgIsT’s URgINg, cLINIcIaNs REcONNEcT wITH MIss ²IN UNDER THIs LabEL.
FOR THE LaTE FRENcH ¸ORaL pHILOsOpHER ´¸¸aNUEL ²EVINas, IN THE facE Of a pERsON’s sUffERINg, THE fiRsT ETHIcaL Task Is ackNOwLEDgE¸ENT.Î× FacE-TO-facE ¸ORaL IssUEs pREcEDE aND TakE pREcEDENcE OVER EpIsTE¸OLOgIcaL aND cULTURaL ONEs.ÏØ °ERE Is sO¸ETHINg ¸ORE basIc aND ¸ORE cRUcIaL THaN cULTURaL cO¸pETENcy IN UNDERsTaNDINg THE LIfE Of THE paTIENT, aND THaT Is THE ¸ORaL ¸EaNINg Of sUffERINg—wHaT Is aT sTakE fOR THE paTIENT; wHaT THE paTIENT, aT a DEEp LEVEL, sTaNDs TO gaIN OR LOsE. °E ExpLaNaTORy ¸ODELs appROacH DOEs NOT ask, fOR Exa¸pLE, “WHaT DO MExIcaNs caLL THIs pRObLE¸?” ºT asks, “WHaT DO yOU caLL THIs pRObLE¸?” aND THUs a DIREcT aND I¸¸EDIaTE appEaL Is ¸aDE TO THE paTIENT as aN INDIVIDUaL, NOT as a REpREsENTaTIVE Of a gROUp.
Conclusion WHaT cLINIcIaNs waNT TO UNDERsTaND THROUgH THE ¸INI-ETHNOgRapHy Is wHaT REaLLy ¸aTTERs—wHaT Is REaLLy aT sTakE fOR paTIENTs, THEIR fa¸ILIEs, aND, aT TI¸Es, THEIR cO¸¸UNITIEs, aND aLsO wHaT Is aT sTakE fOR THE¸sELVEs. ºf wE wERE TO REDUcE THE sIx sTEps Of cULTURaLLy INfOR¸ED caRE TO ONE acTIVITy THaT EVEN THE bUsIEsT cLINIcIaN sHOULD bE abLE TO fiND TI¸E TO DO, IT wOULD bE TO ROUTINELy ask paTIENTs (aND, wHERE appROpRIaTE, fa¸ILy ¸E¸bERs) wHaT ¸aTTERs
c i n i l C e h t n i y g o l o p o r h t n A
cHIaTRIc cONsULTaNT DIagNOsEs a ¸IxED DEpREssIVE-aNxIETy DIsORDER.
¸OsT TO THE¸ IN THE ExpERIENcE Of ILLNEss aND TREaT¸ENT. °E cLINIcIaNs caN
124
THEN UsE THaT cRUcIaL INfOR¸aTION IN THINkINg THROUgH TREaT¸ENT DEcIsIONs aND NEgOTIaTINg wITH paTIENTs.
n o s n e B r e t e P d n a n a m n i e l K r u h t r A
°Is Is ¸UcH DIffERENT THaN cULTURaL cO¸pETENcy. FINDINg OUT wHaT ¸aTTERs ¸OsT TO aNOTHER pERsON Is NOT a TEcHNIcaL skILL. ºT Is aN ELEcTIVE affiNITy TO THE paTIENT. °Is ORIENTaTION bEcO¸Es paRT Of THE pRacTITIONER’s sENsE Of sELf, aND INTERpERsONaL skILLs bEcO¸E aN I¸pORTaNT paRT Of THE pRacTITIONER’s cLINIcaL REsOURcEs. ÏÌ ºT Is wHaT FRaNz KaÚa saID “a bORN DOcTOR” Has: “a HUNgER fOR pEOpLE.”ÏÍ AND ITs ¸aIN THRUsT Is TO fOcUs ON THE paTIENT as aN INDIVIDUaL, NOT a sTEREOTypE; as a HU¸aN bEINg facINg DaNgER aND UNcERTaINTy, NOT ¸ERELy a casE; as aN OppORTUNITy fOR THE DOcTOR TO ENgagE IN aN EssENTIaL ¸ORaL Task, NOT aN IssUE IN cOsT-accOUNTINg.ÏÎ
a¸knoWLeDÁments °E TwO casE scENaRIOs INcLUDED IN THIs aRTIcLE aRE ficTIONaL, bUT THEy aRE INspIRED by THE REaL cLINIcaL ExpERIENcE Of THE aUTHORs.
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Beyond CulTuRAl ComPeTence »pplYINg ¹UMIlITY TO ClINIcAl ³ETTINgS
Linda M. Hunt
ºN REcENT yEaRs, THE cONcEpT Of “cULTURE” Has capTURED THE I¸agINaTION Of a bROaD cROss sEcTION Of HEaLTH caRE pROVIDERs aND pOLIcy ¸akERs. AN INcREasINgLy DIVERsE aND ¸ULTIcULTURaL sOcIETy Is INspIRINg HEaLTH caRE pROVIDERs TO sTRIVE TO DEVELOp cULTURaL sENsITIVITy aND cULTURaL cO¸pETENcE. ÂIRTUaLLy EVERy HEaLTH pROfEssION Has ¸aDE cULTURaL cO¸pETENcy a paRT Of ITs cURRIcULU¸, aND ¸aNy HEaLTH caRE INsTITUTIONs aRE REqUIRINg cULTURaL sENsITIVITy TRaININg fOR pERsONNEL (A¸ERIcaN MEDIcaL AssOcIaTION, 1999). SUcH pROgRa¸s aRE gENERaLLy DEsIgNED TO sENsITIzE HEaLTH pROVIDERs TO THE spEcIaL NEEDs aND VULNERabILITIEs Of DIffERENT pOpULaTIONs, wITH THE gOaL Of pROVIDINg accEssIbLE aND appROpRIaTE caRE TO aLL. °E E¸pHasIs IN THIs ¸OVE¸ENT Has cLEaRLy bEEN fOcUsED ON ¸E¸bERs Of “UNDERsERVED” aND “UNDERREpREsENTED” RacIaL aND ETHNIc ¸INORITy gROUps. ¶EVELOpINg THE cULTURaL cO¸pETENcE Of HEaLTH pROfEssIONaLs Is INTENDED TO ¸INI¸IzE cULTURaL baRRIERs TO HEaLTH caRE aND ¸akE HEaLTH sERVIcEs ¸ORE “UsER fRIENDLy” TO cULTURaLLy DIVERsE sUbgROUps, aND THEREby HELp TO REDUcE THEIR DIspROpORTIONaTE bURDEN Of pOOR HEaLTH. ÁEaLTH pROVIDERs aRE ENcOURagED TO ExpLORE THE TRaDITIONaL cULTURaL cONcEpTs aND pRacTIcEs Of sUcH paTIENTs, aND TO DEVELOp cULTURaLLy appROpRIaTE ¸ODELs fOR cLINIcaL INTERacTIONs, TREaT¸ENT pROTOcOLs, aND HEaLTH EDUcaTION EffORTs (CaRRILLO, GREEN, aND BETaNcOURT, 1999). ¶EspITE wIDEspREaD pOpULaRITy, cULTURaL cO¸pETENcy RE¸aINs a VagUELy DEfiNED gOaL, wITH NO ExpLIcIT cRITERIa EsTabLIsHED fOR ITs accO¸pLIsH¸ENT OR assEss¸ENT. °Is Lack ¸ay IN paRT bE DUE TO THE ELUsIVE NaTURE Of ITs cENTRaL cONsTRUcT: cULTURE.
²INDa M. ÁUNT, “BEyOND CULTURaL CO¸pETENcE: AppLyINg ÁU¸ILITy TO CLINIcaL SETTINgs,” fRO¸
Park Ridge Center Bulletin 24 (2001): 3–4. COpyRIgHT © 2013 by °E PaRk ³IDgE CENTER fOR ÁEaLTH, FaITH, aND ´THIcs. ³EpRINTED by pER¸IssION.
Defining Culture 128 ¶EfiNITIONs Of “cULTURE” aRE ¸ULTIpLE, bROaD, aND NOTabLy a¸bIgUOUs. WHILE tnuH .M adniL
THERE Is NO agREED-UpON DEfiNITION Of cULTURE, THE cLassIc DEfiNITION by ´. B. ¹yLOR IN 1871 Is wIDELy cITED IN aNTHROpOLOgy TExTbOOks: “CULTURE . . . Is THaT cO¸pLEx wHOLE wHIcH INcLUDEs kNOwLEDgE, bELIEf, aRT, ¸ORaLs, Law, cUsTO¸ aND aNy OTHER capabILITIEs aND HabITs acqUIRED by ¸aN as a ¸E¸bER Of sOcIETy” (¹yLOR, 1871:1). MOsT DEfiNITIONs Of cULTURE E¸pHasIzE THaT IT Is cO¸pLEx aND DyNa¸Ic, cO¸pRIsED Of THE sHaRED sOLUTIONs TO pRObLE¸s facED by THE gROUp. °EsE sOLUTIONs INcLUDE TEcHNOLOgIEs, bELIEfs, aND bEHaVIORs. CULTURE DOEs NOT DETER¸INE bEHaVIOR, bUT affORDs gROUp ¸E¸bERs a REpERTOIRE Of IDEas aND pOssIbLE acTIONs, pROVIDINg THE fRa¸EwORk THROUgH wHIcH THEy UNDERsTaND THE¸sELVEs, THEIR ENVIRON¸ENT, aND THEIR ExpERIENcEs. CULTURE Is a cO¸pLEx sET Of RELaTIONsHIps, REspONsEs, aND INTERpRETaTIONs THaT ¸UsT bE UNDERsTOOD, NOT as a bODy Of DIscRETE TRaITs, bUT as aN INTEgRaTED sysTE¸ Of ORIENTaTIONs aND pRacTIcEs gENERaTED wITHIN a spEcIfic sOcIOEcONO¸Ic cONTExT. CULTURE Is EVER cHaNgINg aND aLways bEINg REVIsED wITHIN THE DyNa¸Ic cONTExT Of ITs ENacT¸ENT. CULTURE Is NEITHER a bLUEpRINT NOR aN IDENTITy; INDIVIDUaLs cHOOsE bETwEEN VaRIOUs cULTURaL OpTIONs aND, IN OUR ¸ULTIcULTURaL sOcIETy, ¸aNy TI¸Es cHOOsE wIDELy bETwEEN THE OpTIONs OffERED by a VaRIETy Of cULTURaL TRaDITIONs. ºT Is NOT pOssIbLE TO pREDIcT THE bELIEfs aND bEHaVIORs Of INDIVIDUaLs basED ON THEIR RacE, ETHNIcITy, OR NaTIONaL ORIgIN (±’CONNOR, 1996). ºNDIVIDUaLs’ gROUp ¸E¸bERsHIp caNNOT bE assU¸ED TO INDIcaTE THEIR cULTURE bEcaUsE THOsE wHO sHaRE a gROUp LabEL ¸ay VaRIOUsLy ENacT cULTURE. ºN ITs zEaL TO ENcOURagE REspEcT fOR cULTURaL DIffERENcE, THE cULTURaL cO¸pETENcy ¸OVE¸ENT Has sO¸ETI¸Es LOsT sIgHT Of THEsE I¸pORTaNT fEaTUREs Of THE cONcEpT Of cULTURE. ºNsTEaD IT Has TOO OſtEN REpREsENTED cULTURE as a DEcONTExTUaLIzED sET Of TRaITs pROVIDINg a TE¸pLaTE fOR THE pERcEpTIONs aND bEHaVIORs Of gROUp ¸E¸bERs. A bURgEONINg LITERaTURE ON cULTURaL DIVERsITy pREsENTs THE REaDER wITH VERITabLE LaUNDRy LIsTs Of TRaDITIONaL bELIEfs aND pRacTIcEs OsTENsIbLy cHaRacTERIsTIc Of paRTIcULaR ETHNIc gROUps. °Is appROacH ENcOURagEs THE qUEsTIONabLE NOTION THaT I¸¸IgRaNTs aND cERTaIN ETHNIc aND RacIaL ¸INORITIEs aRE paRTIcULaRLy DRIVEN by TRaDITIONaLIs¸ (ÁUNT, ScHNEIDER, aND CO¸ER, 2004). °E E¸pHasIs IN THIs gENRE Is ON DIffERENcE, pITTINg THE ExOTIc aND EsOTERIc agaINsT ¸aINsTREa¸ OR cONVENTIONaL bELIEfs THaT RE¸aIN UNNa¸ED aND UNExpLORED. °E ¸IscONcEpTION, cO¸¸ON IN cLINIcaL sETTINgs, THaT cULTURE caN bE UNDERsTOOD as a sET Of DIscRETE TRaITs, Has LED sO¸E ¸IsTakENLy TO TREaT cULTURE as aN
ExpLaNaTORy VaRIabLE, sUbjEcT TO pREDIcTION aND cONTROL. ºN sUcH appLIcaTIONs, spEcIfic ETHNIc cULTUREs aRE REpREsENTED as a cODIfiED bODy Of cHaRacTERIsTIcs
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cLINIcaL gOaLs (SaNTIagO-ºRIzaRRy, 1996). PaRaDOxIcaLLy, IN sUcH appROacHEs, wHaT ORIgINaTED IN a DEsIRE TO pRO¸OTE REspEcT fOR INDIVIDUaL DIffERENcEs ¸ay INsTEaD pRO¸OTE sTEREOTypINg aND EssENTIaLIzINg (CaRILLO, GREEN, aND BETaNcOURT, 1999). °Is pROcEss Of REIfyINg pREsU¸ED DIffERENcE ¸ay HaVE THE UNINTENDED cONsEqUENcE Of bOLsTERINg a sENsE Of gROUp bOUNDaRIEs (SaNTIagO-ºRIzaRRy, 1996). ºT ¸ay aLsO REINfORcE THE bELIEf THaT cULTURE caN bE DIagNOsED aND TREaTED, THaT ExOTIc OR UNfa¸ILIaR bELIEfs aND bEHaVIORs Of ¸E¸bERs Of aLREaDy DIsE¸pOwERED sUbgROUps sHOULD bE cONTROLLED aND aDjUsTED TO REsE¸bLE NOR¸s Of THE DO¸INaNT gROUp.
Cultural HumilitY SUcH pITfaLLs ¸ay bE aVOIDED by ¸ORE sUbTLy INTEgRaTINg THE cONcEpT Of cULTURE wITH THE cLINIcaL agENDa. °E sTaRTINg pOINT fOR sUcH aN appROacH wOULD NOT bE aN Exa¸INaTION Of THE paTIENT’s bELIEf sysTE¸, bUT caREfUL cONsIDERaTION by HEaLTH caRE pROVIDERs Of THE assU¸pTIONs aND bELIEfs THaT aRE E¸bEDDED IN THEIR OwN UNDERsTaNDINgs aND gOaLs IN THE cLINIcaL ENcOUNTER (±’CONNOR, 1996). ¹RaININg fOR cULTURaL cO¸pETENcy, wITH ITs E¸pHasIs ON pRO¸OTINg UNDERsTaNDINg Of THE “cULTURaL” cLIENT, Has OſtEN NEgLEcTED cONsIDERaTION Of THE pROVIDERs’ wORLDVIEw. ºN THE aLTERNaTIVE appROacH, RaTHER THaN LEaRNINg TO IDENTIfy aND REspOND TO sETs Of cULTURaLLy spEcIfic TRaITs, THE cULTURaLLy cO¸pETENT pROVIDER wOULD bE TaUgHT TO DEVELOp wHaT ¸IgHT bE caLLED cULTURaL HU¸ILITy. CULTURaL HU¸ILITy Has bEEN DEscRIbED by MELaNIE ¹ERVaLON aND JaNN MURRay-GaRcIa as a LIfELONg pROcEss Of sELf-REflEcTION aND sELf-cRITIqUE. CULTURaL HU¸ILITy DOEs NOT REqUIRE ¸asTERy Of LIsTs Of “DIffERENT” OR pEcULIaR bELIEfs aND bEHaVIORs sUppOsEDLy pERTaININg TO cERTaIN gROUps Of paTIENTs. ³aTHER, THE pROVIDER Is ENcOURagED TO DEVELOp a REspEcTfUL paRTNERsHIp wITH EacH paTIENT THROUgH paTIENT-fOcUsED INTERVIEwINg, ExpLORINg sI¸ILaRITIEs aND DIffERENcEs bETwEEN HIs OwN aND EacH paTIENT’s pRIORITIEs, gOaLs, aND capacITIEs. ºN THIs ¸ODEL, THE ¸OsT sERIOUs baRRIER TO cULTURaLLy appROpRIaTE caRE Is NOT a Lack Of kNOwLEDgE Of THE DETaILs Of aNy gIVEN cULTURaL ORIENTaTION, bUT THE pROVIDER’s faILURE TO DEVELOp sELf-awaRENEss aND a REspEcTfUL aTTITUDE TOwaRD DIVERsE pOINTs Of VIEw.
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THaT caN bE IDENTIfiED aND THEN EITHER ¸ODIfiED OR ¸aNIpULaTED TO facILITaTE
´ffEcTIVELy ExpLORINg cULTURaL IssUEs IN THE cLINIc sHOULD bEgIN wITH REc-
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OgNITION THaT “cULTURaL DIffERENcE” REfERs TO a RELaTIONsHIp bETwEEN TwO pERspEcTIVEs. ºDENTIfyINg DIffERENcE REqUIREs cONTRasTINg TwO ORIENTaTIONs: THE
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pROVIDER’s aND THE paTIENT’s. CULTURaLLy cO¸pETENT pROVIDERs DEVELOp skILLs fOR ExpLORINg THE ExIsTENcE aND I¸pORTaNcE Of DIffERENcEs IN THE basIc assU¸pTIONs, ExpEcTaTIONs, aND gOaLs THEy aND THEIR paTIENTs bRINg TO aNy cLINIcaL INTERacTION. °Is kIND Of REflExIVE aTTENTIVENEss sHOULD NOT bE LI¸ITED ONLy TO THOsE pEOpLE wHO aRE pERcEIVED TO bE cULTURaLLy “OTHER,” bUT caN bE UsEfUL IN aNy cLINIcaL ENcOUNTER. °E IDEaL cONcLUsION Of THIs kIND Of cROss-cULTURaL ExpLORaTION wOULD bE TO DEVELOp aN appROacH TO ¸aNagINg cLINIcaL pRObLE¸s basED ON NEgOTIaTION bETwEEN THE TwO pERspEcTIVEs. ¶UE TO INsTITUTIONaL, TI¸E, aND OTHER pRag¸aTIc LI¸ITaTIONs Of THE cLINIcaL sETTINg, as wELL as sOcIaL, EcONO¸Ic, aND OTHER pRacTIcaL REsTRIcTIONs facED by paTIENTs, THE IDEaL Of REacHINg a NEgOTIaTED pLaN Of acTION ¸ay NOT bE fEasIbLE. STILL, fOLLOwINg THE pRINcIpLE Of cULTURaL HU¸ILITy, a cULTURaLLy cO¸pETENT pROVIDER sHOULD bE OpEN aND flExIbLE ENOUgH TO bE abLE TO IDENTIfy THE pREsENcE aND I¸pORTaNcE Of DIffERENcEs bETwEEN HER ORIENTaTION aND THaT Of EacH paTIENT, aND TO ExpLORE cO¸pRO¸IsEs THaT wOULD bE accEpTabLE TO bOTH. °Is sTRaTEgy DOEs NOT caLL fOR THE HEaLTH caRE pROVIDER TO bEcO¸E aN ExpERT IN cULTURaL ¸INUTIaE, NOR TO acT as a ¸INIsTER OR aN HERbaLIsT. ºDEaLLy, bEINg appROpRIaTELy cOgNIzaNT Of aND REspONsIVE TO cULTURaL IssUEs sHOULD NOT bE THOUgHT Of as REacHINg a “cO¸pETENcy” sO ¸UcH as ENgagINg IN aN ONgOINg pROcEss Of HONINg aND appLyINg skILLs fOR sELf-awaRENEss aND fOR REspEcTfUL REcOgNITION Of THE UNIqUE pERspEcTIVE EacH paTIENT bRINgs TO THE cLINIcaL ENcOUNTER.
referen¸es A¸ERIcaN MEDIcaL AssOcIaTION. 1999. Cultural Competency Compendium. CHIcagO: A¸ERIcaN MEDIcaL AssOcIaTION. CaRRILLO, J. ´., A. ³. GREEN, aND J. ³. BETaNcOURT. 1999. CROss-cULTURaL pRI¸aRy caRE: A paTIENT-basED appROacH. [SEE cO¸¸ENT]. Annals of Internal Medicine 130(10):829–834. ÁUNT, ². M., S. ScHNEIDER, aND B. CO¸ER. 2004. SHOULD “accULTURaTION” bE a VaRIabLE IN HEaLTH REsEaRcH? A cRITIcaL REVIEw Of REsEaRcH ON ·.S. ÁIspaNIcs. Soc.Sci.Med. 59(5):973–986. ±’CONNOR, B. B. 1996. PRO¸OTINg cULTURaL cO¸pETENcE IN hiv / ¾id¼ caRE. Journal of the
Association of Nurses in µ¶±² Care 7(SUppL 1):41–53. SaNTIagO-ºRIzaRRy, Â.. 1996. CULTURE as cURE. Cultural Anthropology 11(1):3–24.
¹ERVaLON, M., aND J. MURRay-GaRcIa. 1998. CULTURaL HU¸ILITy VERsUs cULTURaL cO¸pETENcE: A cRITIcaL DIsTINcTION IN DEfiNINg pHysIcIaN TRaININg OUTcO¸Es IN ¸ULTIcULTURaL
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EDUcaTION. [³EVIEw] [32 REfs]. Journal of Health Care for the Poor & Underserved
Philosophy, Religion, Art and Custom. ²ONDON: JOHN MURRay.
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9(2):117–125. ¹yLOR, ´. B. 1871. Primitive Culture: Researches into the Development of Mythology,
³he µAc±sT ²AT±enT Sachin H. Jain
ºN ¸y fiNaL ¸ONTHs Of REsIDENcy, º was sU¸¸ONED TO sEE aN aNgRy paTIENT. MR. ³. was fURIOUs THaT OUR pHaR¸acy DID NOT sTOck HIs bRaND Of INsULIN. ÁE waNTED TO IssUE a cO¸pLaINT. “YOU gUys aLways ¸Ess Up ¸y INsULIN wHENEVER º a¸ HERE. º TOLD THE OTHER DOcTOR, aND NOw º’¸ TELLINg yOU. YOU gUys jUsT caN’T gET IT RIgHT.” “º’¸ sORRy,” º TOLD HI¸. “ºf yOU pREfER, yOUR fa¸ILy caN bRINg yOUR INsULIN fRO¸ HO¸E aND OUR NURsEs caN aD¸INIsTER IT. WOULD THaT bE aN accEpTabLE sOLUTION?” “YOU people aRE sO INcO¸pETENT.” ·NcERTaIN Of HOw º ¸IgHT bEsT DIffUsE THE sITUaTION, º LOOkED UNcO¸fORTabLy IN THE DIREcTION Of ¸y paTIENT’s sON, wHO was sEaTED aT THE bEDsIDE. “YOU LOOk aT ¸E wHEN º TaLk TO yOU,” MR. ³. cO¸¸aNDED. “¶ON’T yOU LOOk aT HI¸.” “º’¸ sORRy. WHy DON’T º cO¸E back LaTER?” As º UNcO¸fORTabLy waLkED OUT Of THE ROO¸, HE LaUNcHED a gRENaDE. “WHy DON’T yOU gO back TO ºNDIa!” ±N pURE INsTINcT, º REspONDED, “WHy DON’T yOU LEaVE OUR [ExpLETIVE] HOspITaL?” ¹O UNDERscORE ¸y pOINT, º REpEaTED ¸ysELf. º ExITED THE ROO¸ IN a cOLD swEaT. MUcH Of OUR cLINIcaL TRaININg fOcUsEs ON HOw TO ¸ODULaTE OUR pERsONaL sTyLE TO accO¸¸ODaTE paTIENTs. WE TakE DOcTORINg cOURsEs THaT URgE cO¸passION, E¸paTHy, aND cULTURaL sENsITIVITy. WE UNDERgO ObjEcTIVE, sTRUcTURED cLINIcaL Exa¸INaTIONs THaT cERTIfy OUR INTERpERsONaL skILLs. ±UR pREcEpTORs aDVIsE Us ON sUbTLE TEcHNIqUEs aND gEsTUREs TO ENsURE THaT paTIENTs fEEL safE, sEcURE, aND cONfiDENT IN OUR caRE. YET, as º REflEcTED ON wHaT HappENED THaT NIgHT, º REaLIzED THaT NO ONE HaD EVER RaIsED THE pOssIbILITy THaT º ¸IgHT ONE Day bE HURT by a paTIENT’s wORDs OR
SacHIN Á. JaIN, “°E ³acIsT PaTIENT,” fRO¸ Annals of Internal Medicine 158, NO. 8 (2013): 632. ³EpRINTED by pER¸IssION Of A¸ERIcaN COLLEgE Of PHysIcIaNs.
acTIONs. WHaT aRE OUR ObLIgaTIONs wHEN wE aRE THE sUbjEcT Of THEIR INHU¸aNITy, cRUELTy, OR INTOLERaNcE? WHEN THE paTIENTs wHO¸ wE aRE TREaTINg faIL TO
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°E pREVaILINg sENTI¸ENT Is THaT wE aRE sUppOsED TO bE “bETTER” THaN OUR paTIENTs. WE aRE sUppOsED TO bE abLE TO IgNORE UNpLEasaNT cO¸¸ENTaRy, ¸aINTaIN apLO¸b, INTELLEcTUaLIzE DIfficULT sITUaTIONs, aND UNDERsTaND THE ROOTs Of THEIR DIscONTENT. °Is VIEw was REINfORcED by ONE Of ¸y cOLLEagUEs wHO was TakINg caLL wITH ¸E THaT NIgHT. ºN HIs EyEs, º HaD cLEaRLy wRONgED, aND º ¸IgHT cONsIDER apOLOgIzINg TO THE paTIENT. “¶ON’T THEy TEacH Us NOT TO DO THaT? YOU’RE bETTER THaN THaT,” HE scOLDED wHEN º sHaRED ¸y sTORy. “YOU HaVE TO LEaRN TO IgNORE THaT sTUff aND RIsE abOVE IT.” ÁE ExpREssED cONcERN THaT THE paTIENT ¸IgHT REpORT ¸E TO OUR HOspITaL’s paTIENT RELaTIONs cO¸¸ITTEE aND THaT º wOULD bE fOUND gUILTy Of sO¸E kIND Of cLINIcaL ¸IscONDUcT. ANOTHER cOLLEagUE was REaDy TO fasT-fORwaRD THROUgH ¸y UpsET fEELINgs aND TRIED TO ¸akE LIgHT Of THE facT THaT º, INDEED, HaD a fORTHcO¸INg TRIp TO ¸y aNcEsTRaL HO¸ELaND. “ºT Is kIND Of fUNNy, If yOU THINk Of IT THaT way.” BUT THE REaLITy was THaT º was NOT abOVE REacTINg TO MR. ³.’s cONTE¸pT fOR ¸E, NOR DID º fEEL LIkE HU¸OR wOULD HELp ¸E TO ¸OVE ON fRO¸ THE sITUaTION. WHEN MR. ³. sTOppED sEEINg ¸E as HIs pHysIcIaN OR caREgIVER, bUT INsTEaD as a fOREIgN facE, º was NO LONgER a pROUD pHysIcIaN aT THE HOspITaL wHERE º was TRaININg. ºNsTEaD, º was REDUcED TO a passIVE sUbjEcT Of a xENOpHObE’s abUsE. AſtER yEaRs Of fEELINg THaT ¸y RacE was a NONIssUE, º was sUbjEcTED TO THE sa¸E kIND Of HURTfUL Na¸E-caLLINg THaT º facED IN cHILDHOOD. ´VEN as sELf- LOaTHINg fOR NOT HaVINg THIckER skIN bEgaN TO cREEp IN, º DEcIDED THaT, ON THIs OccasION, ¸y fEELINgs wOULD cOUNT. °E fOLLOwINg ¸ORNINg, º spOkE TO ¸y sUpERVIsINg aTTENDINg pHysIcIaN aND absOLVED ¸ysELf Of fUTURE INTERacTIONs wITH MR. ³. ÁE aND THE INTERN ON sERVIcE wOULD sORT OUT THE paTIENT’s caRE wITHOUT ¸y INpUT. AſtER ROUNDINg ON OUR OTHER paTIENTs THaT ¸ORNINg, º LEſt THE HOspITaL wITH a sURpRIsINg NEw sENsE THaT, EVEN as º HaD cHOsEN a pROfEssION THaT caLLs ON ¸E TO sERVE, THERE aRE cLEaR LI¸ITs TO THaT sERVIcE THaT º a¸ UNwILLINg TO cO¸pRO¸IsE.
tneitaP t s i c a R e h T
ExpREss THE sa¸E DEcENcy THaT THEy DE¸aND?
³he Soc±Al DeTeRm±nAnTs of HeAlTh COMINg O½ »gE
Paula Braveman, Susan Egerter, and David R. Williams
Introduction GROwINg »TTENTION IN THE ¿NITE± ³TATES TO THE ³OcIAl dETERMINANTS O½ ¹EAlTH °E I¸pacT Of absOLUTE ¸aTERIaL DEpRIVaTION—gROssLy INaDEqUaTE fOOD, cLOTHINg, sHELTER, waTER, aND saNITaTION—ON HEaLTH Has bEEN REcOgNIzED fOR cENTURIEs;×Î UNTIL RELaTIVELy REcENTLy, DIscUssIONs Of sOcIOEcONO¸Ic INflUENcEs ON HEaLTH IN THE ·NITED STaTEs fOcUsED pRI¸aRILy ON LINks bETwEEN pOVERTy aND HEaLTH. ±VER THE pasT 15 TO 20 yEaRs, HOwEVER, a NEw DIscOURsE ON sOcIaL facTORs aND HEaLTH—wITH wIDER RELEVaNcE TO THE gENERaL pOpULaTION—Has E¸ERgED IN THE ·NITED STaTEs, bUILDINg ON EaRLIER wORk IN ´UROpE aND CaNaDa. °ERE Is a RapIDLy gROwINg LITERaTURE ON THE sOcIaL (INcLUDINg EcONO¸Ic) DETER¸INaNTs Of HEaLTH (¼doh) IN THE ·NITED STaTEs aND ELsEwHERE. °E cONcEpT Is bEcO¸INg faR LEss ¸aRgINaL IN THE ·.S. pUbLIc HEaLTH REaL¸ IN gENERaL, NOT ONLy IN acaDE¸Ia; THE ¼doh HaVE REcEIVED INcREasINg aTTENTION fRO¸ pUbLIc HEaLTH aND NONpROfiT agENcIEs. ÍÌ,Í×,ÖÖ,×Ø,ÌÌÎ °Is gROwINg ¸O¸ENTU¸ REflEcTs a cONflUENcE Of sEVERaL pHENO¸ENa: FIRsT, aN accU¸ULaTINg cRITIcaL ¸ass Of kNOwLEDgE IN sOcIaL aND bIO¸EDIcaL scIENcEs fRO¸ THE ·NITED STaTEs aND OTHER cOUNTRIEsÌ,ÌØ,ÌÍÎ Has LED TO INcREasED UNDERsTaNDINg Of HOw sOcIaL facTORs INflUENcE HEaLTH aND Has ENHaNcED THE scIENTIfic cREDIbILITy Of RELEVaNT EffORTs. µOTabLE REcENT INITIaTIVEs INcLUDE THE WORLD ÁEaLTH ±RgaNIzaTION (Ñho) CO¸¸IssION ON THE SOcIaL ¶ETER¸INaNTs Of ÁEaLTH,ÌÍÍ THE MacARTHUR FOUNDaTION µETwORk ON SOcIOEcONO¸Ic STaTUs
PaULa BRaVE¸aN, SUsaN ´gERTER, aND ¶aVID ³. WILLIa¸s, “°E SOcIaL ¶ETER¸INaNTs Of ÁEaLTH: CO¸INg Of AgE,” fRO¸ Annual Review of Public Health 32 (2011): 381–398. COpyRIgHT © 2011 by ANNUaL ³EVIEws, HTTp://www.aNNUaLREVIEws.ORg. ³EpRODUcED wITH pER¸IssION Of Annual Review of Public Health.
aND ÁEaLTH,ÌÌÌ aND THE ³ObERT WOOD JOHNsON FOUNDaTION (rÑÜÀ) CO¸¸IssION TO BUILD a ÁEaLTHIER A¸ERIca.×Ì ºNcRE¸ENTaL I¸pROVE¸ENTs IN HEaLTH wITH INcREasINg sOcIaL aDVaNTagE HaVE NOw bEEN ObsERVED IN THE ·NITED STaTEs
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wELL as IN ´UROpE,×Í,×Ô INDIcaTINg THE RELEVaNcE Of ¼doh fOR ¸IDDLE-cLass as wELL as THE ¸OsT DIsaDVaNTagED A¸ERIcaNs. SysTE¸aTIc EffORTs HaVE DIssE¸INaTED THIs kNOwLEDgE aND ¸aDE IT cO¸pELLINg fOR bROaDER ·.S. aUDIENcEs.ÌÕ,×Ì AN INcREasINg fOcUs a¸ONg ·.S. REsEaRcHERs, HEaLTH agENcIEs, aND aDVOcaTEs ON THE cONcEpT Of HEaLTH EqUITy Has aLsO cONTRIbUTED, ENcO¸passINg THE spEcTRU¸ Of caUsEs—INcLUDINg sOcIaL DETER¸INaNTs—Of RacIaL/ETHNIc aND OTHER sOcIaL DIspaRITIEs IN HEaLTH THaT RaIsE cONcERNs abOUT jUsTIcE. Ö,ÌÓ,Õ×,ÖÖ,ÌÌÎ FINaLLy, ·.S. pUbLIc HEaLTH LEaDERs aND REsEaRcHERs HaVE INcREasINgLy REcOgNIzED THaT THE DRa¸aTIc HEaLTH pRObLE¸s wE facE caNNOT bE sUccEssfULLy aDDREssED by ¸EDIcaL caRE aLONE. °E LOw ·.S. RaNkINg ON kEy HEaLTH INDIcaTORs INTERNaTIONaLLy Has cONTINUED TO faLL as OUR ¸EDIcaL ExpENDITUREs skyROckET, faR OUTsTRIppINg THOsE Of HEaLTHIER NaTIONs.
¿pSTREAM AN± dOwNSTREAM ³OcIAl dETERMINANTS O½ ¹EAlTH °E TER¸ social determinant of health Is OſtEN UsED TO REfER bROaDLy TO aNy NON¸EDIcaL facTORs INflUENcINg HEaLTH, INcLUDINg HEaLTH-RELaTED kNOwLEDgE, aTTITUDEs, bELIEfs, OR bEHaVIORs (sUcH as s¸OkINg). °EsE facTORs, HOwEVER, REpREsENT ONLy THE ¸OsT DOwNsTREa¸ DETER¸INaNTs IN THE caUsaL paTHways INflUENcINg HEaLTH; THEy aRE sHapED by ¸ORE UpsTREa¸ DETER¸INaNTs. ¹O ILLUsTRaTE THE UpsTREa¸/DOwNsTREa¸ ¸ETapHOR, cONsIDER pEOpLE LIVINg NEaR a RIVER wHO bEcO¸E ILL fRO¸ DRINkINg waTER cONTa¸INaTED by TOxIc cHE¸IcaLs ORIgINaTINg fRO¸ a facTORy LOcaTED UpsTREa¸. ALTHOUgH DRINkINg THE cONTa¸INaTED waTER Is THE ¸OsT pROxI¸aTE OR DOwNsTREa¸ caUsE Of ILLNEss, THE ¸ORE fUNDa¸ENTaL (yET pOTENTIaLLy LEss EVIDENT, gIVEN ITs TE¸pORaL aND pHysIcaL DIsTaNcE fRO¸ THOsE affEcTED) caUsE Is THE UpsTREa¸ DU¸pINg Of cHE¸IcaLs. A DOwNsTREa¸ RE¸EDy ¸IgHT REcO¸¸END THaT INDIVIDUaLs bUy fiLTERs TO TREaT THE cONTa¸INaTED waTER bEfORE DRINkINg; bEcaUsE ¸ORE afflUENT INDIVIDUaLs cOULD bETTER affORD THE fiLTERs OR bOTTLED waTER, sOcIOEcONO¸Ic DIspaRITIEs IN ILLNEss wOULD bE ExpEcTED. °E UpsTREa¸ sOLUTION, fOcUsED ON THE sOURcE Of cONTa¸INaTION, wOULD END THE facTORy’s DU¸pINg. ALTHOUgH THEsE cONcEpTs ¸ay ¸akE INTUITIVE sENsE, THE caUsaL paTHways LINkINg UpsTREa¸ DETER¸INaNTs wITH DOwNsTREa¸ DETER¸INaNTs aND, ULTI¸aTELy, wITH HEaLTH, aRE TypIcaLLy LONg aND cO¸pLEx, OſtEN INVOLVINg ¸ULTIpLE INTERVENINg aND pOTENTIaLLy INTERacTINg facTORs aLONg THE way. °Is cO¸pLExITy gENERaLLy ¸akEs IT EasIER TO sTUDy—aND aDDREss— DOwNsTREa¸ DETER¸INaNTs, aT THE RIsk Of faILINg TO aDDREss fUNDa¸ENTaL caUsEs.
h t l a e H f o s t n a n i m r e t e D l a i c o S e h T
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²conomicand social opportunities and resources
s m a i l l i W d n a , r e t r e g E , n a m e v a r B
Living and working conditions in homes and communities
Medical care
Personal behavior
HEA±TH ²³´µ¶· 1 WHaT INflUENcEs HEaLTH? ·psTREa¸ aND DOwNsTREa¸ DETER¸INaNTs.
°Is aRTIcLE fOcUsEs ON THE ¸ORE UpsTREa¸ sOcIaL DETER¸INaNTs Of HEaLTH— THE facTORs THaT pLay a ¸ORE fUNDa¸ENTaL caUsaL ROLE aND REpREsENT THE ¸OsT I¸pORTaNT OppORTUNITIEs fOR I¸pROVINg HEaLTH aND REDUcINg HEaLTH DIspaRITIEs. FIgURE 1 ILLUsTRaTEs THE cONcEpTUaL fRa¸EwORk fOR THE rÑÜÀ CO¸¸IssION’s wORk. ALTHOUgH THE RELaTIONsHIps aRE ¸ORE cO¸pLEx, THIs sI¸pLIfiED scHE¸a HIgHLIgHTs sEVERaL I¸pORTaNT cONcEpTs. FIRsT, IT sHOws THaT HEaLTH- RELaTED bEHaVIORs aND REcEIpT Of REcO¸¸ENDED ¸EDIcaL caRE (kEy DOwNsTREa¸ DETER¸INaNTs Of aN INDIVIDUaL’s HEaLTH) DO NOT OccUR IN a VacUU¸. ³aTHER, THEsE facTORs aRE sHapED by ¸ORE UpsTREa¸ DETER¸INaNTs RELaTED TO THE LIVINg aND wORkINg cONDITIONs THaT caN INflUENcE HEaLTH bOTH DIREcTLy (E.g., THROUgH TOxIc ExpOsUREs OR sTREssfUL ExpERIENcEs) aND INDIREcTLy (by sHapINg THE HEaLTH-RELaTED cHOIcEs THaT INDIVIDUaLs HaVE aND ¸akE fOR THE¸sELVEs aND THEIR fa¸ILIEs). °E DIagRa¸ HIgHLIgHTs HOw HEaLTH Is sHapED NOT ONLy by LIVINg aND wORkINg cONDITIONs, bUT aLsO by EVEN ¸ORE UpsTREa¸ DETER¸INaNTs THaT REflEcT THE EcONO¸Ic aND sOcIaL REsOURcEs aND OppORTUNITIEs THaT INflUENcE aN INDIVIDUaL’s accEss TO HEaLTH-pRO¸OTINg LIVINg aND wORkINg cONDITIONs aND TO HEaLTHy cHOIcEs.
ÂHAT dO ÂE ºNOw AbOUT THE ´OlE O½ ³OcIAl FAcTORS IN µNflUENcINg ¹EAlTH? ¾HE ¶ATTERNS O½ »SSOcIATION bETwEEN ³OcIAl FAcTORS AN± ¹EAlTH ´VIDENcE fRO¸ DEcaDEs Of REsEaRcH Exa¸ININg assOcIaTIONs bETwEEN kEy sOcIaL facTORs—pRI¸aRILy EDUcaTIONaL aTTaIN¸ENT aND INcO¸E IN THE ·NITED STaTEs aND OccUpaTIONaL gRaDE (RaNkINg) IN ´UROpE—aND HEaLTH OUTcO¸Es
Family income (percent of Federal Poverty Level)
35 30