The Social Anxieties of Progressive Reform: Atlantic City, 1854-1920 9780814768860

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The Social Anxieties of Progressive Reform

The American Social Experience General Editor: J A M E S KIRB

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Editors: P A U L A S . F AS S, S T E V EN H . M I N T Z , C A R L P R I N C E , J A M ES W . R E E D & P E T E R N. S T E A R N S

I . The March to the Sea and Beyond: Sherman's Troops in the Savannah and Carolinas Campaigns J O S E P HT

. G L A T T H A A

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2. Childbearing in American Society: 1650-1850 C A T H E R I N EM . S C H O L T E

J. The

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Origins of Behaviorism: American Psychology, 1870-1920 J O H N M . O ' D O N N E L

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4. New York City Cartmen, 1667-1850 G R A H A M R U S S E L

L H O D G E

S

5. From Equal Suffrage to Equal Rights: Alice Paul and the National Woman's Party, 1910-1928 C H R I S T I N EA . L U N A R D I N

I

6. Mr. Jefferson's Army: Political and Social Reform of the Military Establishment, 1801-1809 T H E O D O R EJ

. CRACKE

L

7. " A Peculiar People": Slave Religion and CommunityCulture among the Gullahs M A R G A R E T W A S H I N G T O N C R E E

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8. "A Mixed Multitude": The Struggle for Toleration in Colonial Pennsylvania SALLY S C H W A R T

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9. Women, Work, and Fertility, 1900-1986 SUSAN H O U S E H O L D E

R V A

N HOR

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io. Liberty, Virtue, and Progress: Northerners and Their War for the Union EARLJ . H E S

S

I i. Lewis M. Terman: Pioneer in Psychological Testing H E N R YL . M I N T O

N

12. Schools as Sorters: Lewis M. Terman, Applied Psychology, and the Intelligence Testing Movement, 1890-1930 PAUL D A V I

S C H A P M A

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13. Free Love: Marriage and Middle-Class Radicalism in America, 1825-1860 J O H NC

. SPURLOC

K

14. Jealousy: The Evolution of an Emotion in American History P E T E RN

. S T E A R N

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I$. The Nurturing Neighborhood: The Brownsville Boys Club and Jewish Community in Urban America, 1940-1990 G E R A L D S O R I

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16: War in America to 1775: Before Yankee Doodle J O H N M O R G A

N D E D E R E

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17. An American Vision: Far Western Landscape and National Culture, 1820-1920 A N N E FARRA

R H Y D

E

18. Frederick Law Olmsted: The Passion of a Public Artist M E L V I N K A L F U

S

19. Medical Malpractice in Nineteenth-Century America: Origins and Legacy K E N N E T H A L L E

N D

E V I L L

E

20. Dancing in Chains: The Youth of William Dean Howells R O D N E YD

. O L S E

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21. Breaking the Bonds: Marital Discord in Pennsylvania, 1730-1830 M E R R I LD

. S M I T

H

22. In the Web of Class: Delinquents and Reformers in Boston, 1810s-1830s E R I CC

. S C H N E I D E

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23. Army of Manifest Destiny: The American Soldier in the Mexican War, 1846-1848 J A M E SM . M C C A F F R E Y

24. The Dutch-American Farm DAVID STEVE N COHE

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25. Independent Intellectuals in the United States; 1910-1945 STEVEN BIE

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26. The Modern Christmas in America: A Cultural History of Gift Giving W I L L I A MB . W A I T

S

27. The First Sexual Revolution: The Emergence of Male Heterosexuality in Modem America KEVIN WHIT

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28. Bad Habits: Drinking, Smoking, Taking Drugs, Gambling, Sexual Misbehavior, and Swearing in American History JOHNC . BURNHA

M

29. General Richard Montgomery and the American Revolution: From Redcoat to Rebel HALT . SHELTO

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JO. From Congregation Town to Industrial City: Culture and Social Change in a Southern Community MICHAEL SHIRLE

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31. The Social Anxieties of Progressive Reform: Atlantic City, 1854-1920 MARTIN PAULSSO

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The Social Anxieties of Progressive Reform Atlantic City, 1854—1920

M A R T I N PAULSS

ON

N E W YOR K U N I V E R S I T Y P R E S

New York and London

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NEW YOR K UNIVERSIT Y PRES S New Yor k and Londo n Copyright © 199 4 by Ne w Yor k Universit y All right s reserve d Library o f Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Dat a Paulsson, Martin . The socia l anxieties of progressive reform : Atlantic City , 1854-1920 / Martin Paulsson . p. cm.—(Th e America n socia l experience ) Revision o f the author's thesi s (Ph.D.)—Rutgers—The Stat e University. Includes bibliographica l reference s an d index . ISBN 0-8147-6620- X 1. Atlanti c Cit y (N.J.)—Politic s an d government . 2 . Atlanti c City (N.J.)—Socia l conditions . 3 . Kuehnle , Louis , d . 1934 . 4. Progressivis m (Unite d State s politics ) I . Title . II . Series . F144.A8P28 199 4 974.9'8504i—dc20 93-4741 6 New Yor k Universit y Pres s book s are printed o n acid-free paper , and thei r bindin g material s ar e chosen fo r strengt h an d durability . Manufactured i n the Unite d State s of Americ a 10

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To Eleanor Miller Paulsson

Contents

List of Illustrations xii

i

Acknowledgments x

v

O N E The

Kuehnle Myth i

T W O From

Pitney

y

s Folly to World's Playground 1

4

T H R E E The

Robbery of the Sabbath 5

7

F O U R Low

Resorts 8

7

FIVEA

Saturnalia of

s 1 x The

Vice 11

6

Reason: The Rise and Fall of Boss Kuehnle 14

S E V E N Pharisees

and Hypocrites 17

1 9

Notes 20

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Bibliography 23

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Index 24

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XI

Illustrations

Atlantic City i n 190 5 4 4

The following illustrations appear as an insert after p. 110 Absecon Island , 1890 s The Foundin g Triumvirate : Jonathan Pitney ; Samue l Richards ; Richar d Osborne The Roanoke, th e Camden an d Atlantic' s Firs t Engin e Atlantic City Hotels , 185 7 Beachfront a t Virginia Avenue , 186 6 and 189 6 The Boardwalk , 1867 , 1870 , 1885 , and 189 5 Seabathing, 1867 ; A Beac h Scene , 1886 ; Woman on the Beach , 1914 ; and Woma n Bathing , 190 4 The Beach , 189 5 a n d I O I 5 Schaufler's Hotel , 188 5 The Extr a Dr y Cafe , 190 0 Kuehnle's Hotel , 190 0 Louis Kuehnl e Louis Kuehnl e xm

xiv • Illustrations Chalfonte Hous e an d Chalfonte-Haddo n Hal l The Traymor e Hote l Atlantic City ,1912 Black Excursionists, 189 5 Unsigned Postcard , 190 8 Harry Bacharac h The Kuehnl e Fortress under Sieg e Louis Kuehnl e William Riddl e

Louis Kuehnl e with Do g 16 6 Cartoon o f African-American Voter s 16 8

Acknowledgments

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public schoo l teacher doe s not writ e a doctoral dissertatio n with out incurrin g significan t persona l debt s t o mentors , colleagues , friends, an d family . M y committe e fro m th e Rutger s Graduat e History Faculty , Professor s Davi d Oshinsky , Richar d L . McCormick , and Jame s Reed , persevere d wit h thi s projec t ove r a lon g perio d o f time an d gav e m e unfailin g advic e an d encouragement . Professo r Angu s Gillespie offere d valuabl e commen t an d criticism . Eac h membe r o f m y committee extended himsel f wel l beyond wha t was required an d deserve s credit fo r th e completio n o f this study . It s error s an d failing s ar e entirel y my own . Professors Joh n Karra s an d Danie l Croft s o f Trento n Stat e College , Professor Maxin e Luri e o f Rutger s University , an d Georg e an d Nanc y Tapper rea d larg e portion s o f m y preliminar y tex t an d helpe d brin g a semblance o f orde r t o a potentiall y chaoti c study . Durin g th e cours e o f my wor k I wa s fortunat e t o hav e mad e th e acquaintanc e o f historian s Alan Dawley , Arthu r Link , Clemen t Price , an d John Reynolds , eac h o f whom len t a sympathetic ea r a s I wrestled wit h th e problem s o f Progres sive reform an d suggeste d source s and approache s that were helpful . Niko Pfun d o f Ne w Yor k Universit y Pres s provide d timel y assistanc e in makin g th e manuscrip t int o a book, includin g introducin g m e to assistant edito r Jennifer Hammer , who , b y phon e an d letter , helpe d demys tify th e scienc e o f wor d processing . I ow e a specia l deb t t o Jim Reed , who ha s bee n wit h thi s projec t fro m beginnin g t o end . Durin g th e final stages, h e gav e m e a grea t dea l o f assistance , bu t littl e sympathy , a s h e had don e manuscripts o n a typewriter . xv

xvi • Acknowledgments I di d muc h o f th e researc h durin g tw o sabbatical s grante d b y m y principal employer , th e Lawrenc e Townshi p Publi c Schools . M y superi ors, colleagues , friends , an d student s a t Lawrenc e Hig h Schoo l an d Trenton Stat e Colleg e wer e bot h indulgen t an d supportiv e o f m y effort . Ruth Bills , Virginia Bogart , James Csogi, Samue l Floyd, Joanna Gerwell , Barry Gleim , One e Hertzog , Jeffre y Kirswell , Su e Miller , Andre a Odi nov, Walte r Radomski , Stanle y Rose , Stephani e Rose , Mar k Rowe , Mi chael Saetta , Magdalen a Sobieszczyk , Gal e Tapper , Anthon y Watson , and especiall y Joann e Manto , Marily n Roman , an d Patrici a Wooley , provided suppor t an d assistanc e along the way fo r whic h I am grateful . Librarians, archivists , an d othe r friend s o f histor y ar e th e unsun g contributors t o ever y dissertation . Elizabet h Barke r o f th e Ne w Jerse y State Librar y an d Richar d Matthew s an d Caro l Miklovi s o f Trento n State College were very helpfu l i n locating obscure sources . A grant fro m the Ne w Jerse y Historica l Commissio n aide d i n gettin g th e researc h underway, an d researc h directo r Howar d Gree n contribute d hi s ow n knowledge o f th e Ne w Jerse y source s o n Progressivism . Th e persona l collections o f A . Tobia s Grac e an d Howar d Kyl e containe d usefu l trea sures, whic h the y generousl y share d alon g wit h thei r tim e an d effort . The voluntee r staf f o f th e Atlanti c Count y Historica l Society , especiall y the director , Bett y Ehrhart ; Mari e Boy d o f th e Hesto n Roo m a t th e Atlantic Cit y Publi c Library ; an d th e staf f o f th e Souther n Ne w Jerse y Methodist Conferenc e a t the Pennington Schoo l were congenial an d help ful host s a s I made my wa y throug h loca l sources . My deepes t deb t i s t o m y family . M y wif e Paul a an d m y childre n Albert an d Mar y manage d t o preserve th e amenities o f family lif e whil e I was cloistere d i n m y room . M y siste r Lynda , an d Jim an d Mar y Russo , supported m e i n a number o f ways. Finally , an d mos t importantly , ther e is m y mother , Eleano r Mille r Paulsson , whos e ide a thi s wa s i n th e first place. He r lov e of books an d interes t i n the topic were a constant inspira tion. Thi s wor k i s dedicated t o her. I can only hop e sh e approves.

The Social Anxieties of Progressive Reform

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The Kuehnle Myth

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he arres t o f Mayo r Jame s Usr y fo r briber y i n July 198 9 was t o an Atlantic City Press reporter merel y th e lates t episod e i n a n "unending tal e of corruption" tha t bega n i n Atlantic Cit y befor e the tur n o f th e century . I n 198 4 Usry' s predecessor , Michae l Matthews , pled guilt y t o acceptin g bribes , an d federa l investigator s reveale d tha t h e had connections t o organized crime . Usr y wa s the eighth mayor of Atlan tic Cit y t o hav e bee n arreste d o r indicte d b y stat e o r federa l authoritie s since 1909 , and ther e i s a good dea l mor e i n the histor y o f the resort tha t justified th e reporter's assertio n that "corruptio n wa s built int o the town' s very street s an d sewers. " At thi s writing , Usr y ha s not bee n convicted o f anything. Yet , give n th e incessan t cycle s of scanda l an d refor m i n Atlan tic City, i t is not surprisin g tha t a local citizen reacted t o Usry's arres t b y wondering i f ther e wer e somethin g i n th e ai r o r th e wate r o f Abseco n Island tha t predispose d th e cit y t o vice , municipa l corruption , an d bos s rule. 1 The perio d prio r t o the advent o f legalized casino s in 197 6 is known a s "The Republica n Bos s Er a o f Atlanti c City. " On e write r observe d tha t "no Bi g Bil l Thompson , Hue y Long , o r Bos s Crum p wa s mor e corrup t or exercised mor e political contro l tha n th e three bosses who successivel y ruled thi s tin y islan d durin g thi s period. 2 Th e "bosses, " i n order , wer e "Commodore" Loui s Kuehnl e (1900-1914) , Enoc h L . "Nucky " Johnso n (1916-1941), an d stat e senator Fran k S . "Hap " Farley (1941-1971) . Tha t era ended wit h Farley' s defea t fo r reelectio n i n 1971. According t o a vie w tha t ha s gaine d wid e currenc y bot h withi n an d 1

2 • The Kuehnle Myth outside Atlantic City, Farle y fel l heir to a political machine forged aroun d 1900 b y Loui s Kuehnle , th e firs t o f th e "al l powerfu l bosses " to rul e th e city. Kuehnl e wa s sentence d t o stat e priso n fo r graftin g i n 191 2 durin g the administratio n o f Governo r Woodro w Wilson , a n even t tha t figured significantly i n Wilson' s presidentia l campaign . Hi s downfal l wa s th e result of a reform movemen t that took place between 190 8 and 1912 . Thi s study analyze s that refor m movement . The Philadelphia Evening Times saw Kuehnle' s sentenc e a s "welcom e news." Atlanti c City' s politic s "smel t a s vil e a s th e mu d flats o n it s ow n thoroughfare" (th e cree k tha t separate d th e islan d fro m th e meadows) , and i f Kuehnl e coul d b e brough t down , "why , there' s hop e fo r us. " According t o th e Philadelphia North American, "th e genial , open-hande d Commodore was perhaps the most powerful politica l boss a city ever had . He controlle d no t onl y it s politics , bu t it s legitimat e business." 3 A n editorial in the New York Sun exclaimed: "If you were to take all the power exercised b y Bos s Tweed , th e Philadelphi a gang , th e Pittsburg h Ring , Abe Rue f i n Sa n Francisco , an d Tamman y Hall , an d concentrat e i t o n one man, yo u woul d stil l fall a little short of Kuehnle's clutc h on Atlanti c City." 4 Speakin g a t th e Tra y more Hote l i n Novembe r 1911 , Governo r Woodrow Wilso n foun d th e cit y livin g under a "reign o f terror. " "Ther e are policemen a t th e door, " sai d Wilson , "wh o woul d la y hand s o n m e if they dared . . . . I t i s a question o f emancipatio n fro m everythin g tha t i s disgraceful an d rotten." 5 Less tha n a year later , Wilso n woul d als o exclai m privatel y tha t Ne w York wa s "rotte n t o th e core, " bu t t o him , an d t o a hos t o f Progressiv e reformers, particularl y evangelicals , the rawness of commercial vice, election frauds , an d municipa l corruptio n i n Atlanti c Cit y transcende d th e evils the y ha d discovere d i n eve n th e wors t o f othe r cities . Blac k vote s sustained a Republica n machin e s o powerful a s to render th e law s o f th e state a virtua l nullit y o n th e island . Th e cit y swarme d wit h prostitute s and wa s controlle d b y a shado w governmen t o f gambler s an d saloo n keepers. Registratio n list s wer e padded , ballo t boxe s stuffed , an d blac k repeaters openl y sol d thei r vote s o n th e stree t corner s a t th e goin g rat e of tw o dollars . Kuehnl e controlle d th e mayor , cit y council , th e polic e department, an d th e sheriff' s office . Reformer s wer e terrorized . Count y grand juries , stacke d wit h part y stalwarts , refuse d t o indic t lawbreakers , and Kuehnl e an d hi s henchme n loote d th e cit y wit h impunit y unti l th e Wilson administratio n brok e th e machin e i n 1911 . T o th e Philadelphia

The Kuehnle Myth • 3 North American, "Kuehnleism " wa s "th e menac e o f politica l dominatio n through terroris m an d vice." 6 This i s the essence of the Kuehnl e myth . Beginning i n 1908 , whe n reformer s commence d a politica l battl e fo r control o f th e city , storie s o f th e resor t dominate d b y a powerfu l an d corrupt Republica n machin e resting on black votes found wid e credibilit y among a readin g publi c inundate d wit h muckrakin g account s o f cit y bosses grow n fa t fro m municipa l graf t an d th e protectio n o f vic e lords . This facil e picture has endured fo r eight y years , and has seduced contem porary journalists , an d eve n scholars . Myths ar e not mad e out o f whole cloth. B y 191 1 much i n outward ap pearances seeme d t o confirm thi s view , especiall y th e existence of a large bloc of black Republica n voter s wh o made convenient target s fo r politica l reformers. Atlanti c City' s reputatio n fo r wickednes s durin g th e Progres sive era derive d mor e fro m commercia l vic e than fro m municipa l corrup tion, and , t o b e sure , th e resor t ha s ha d it s share , an d perhap s more , o f gamblers an d prostitute s sinc e 1890 . But wha t ma y hav e been tru e of th e Johnson an d Farle y year s wa s muc h les s i n evidenc e durin g thi s period . Kuehnle wa s indeed a n influentia l citize n and , fo r a time, th e titular hea d of th e Republica n organization . Bu t a t n o time, betwee n 190 0 and 1912 , did either he or that organization control the city or dictate its policies. The first seriou s effor t t o "clea n u p Atlanti c City " bega n a t a tim e when th e contro l o f amusement s an d commercia l vic e was tighte r tha n i t had eve r been . B y 190 8 th e cit y wa s governe d b y th e "libera l policy, " a system o f strategi c censorshi p designe d t o assuag e evangelica l objection s to th e city' s violatio n o f Ne w Jersey' s stric t Sunda y law s an d t o mut e class conflic t amon g visitor s an d residents . Sinc e 190 2 th e libera l polic y had undergon e severa l revision s a s concession s t o Protestan t clergyme n and wealth y Boardwal k hote l owners , themselve s mostl y Republicans , and th e group s wh o forme d th e nucleu s o f th e refor m movement . B y 1908, i n matter s mos t importan t t o it s economi c an d socia l wel l being , the cit y wa s governe d no t b y a machine , bu t b y a compact. Th e libera l policy, i n effect , sanctione d Sunda y drinkin g a s wel l a s gamblin g an d prostitution, unde r certai n controls , bu t i t close d th e amusement s o n Sunday, eliminate d th e grosse r manifestation s o f socia l disorder , an d i t also segregate d black s fro m th e beac h an d th e Boardwalk . I f th e libera l policy wa s neithe r lega l no r especiall y moral , i t represente d a compro mise amon g al l o f th e divers e interest s tha t mad e u p th e community , save, o f course, th e blac k Northside . I t als o found acceptanc e amon g th e

4 • The Kuehnle Myth thousands o f working- , middle- , an d upper-clas s visitor s wh o regularl y patronized th e resor t an d gav e i t a period o f unprecedente d prosperity . How the n d o w e explain a reform movemen t i n which Woodro w Wil son ben t th e entir e machiner y o f stat e governmen t t o th e destructio n o f Kuehnle an d th e loca l Republica n organization , a movemen t tha t con vulsed an d polarize d th e cit y fo r fou r year s an d produce d ove r tw o hun dred indictment s agains t cit y an d count y official s an d loca l citizen s fo r gambling, excis e violations, electio n fraud , bribery , extortion , an d graft ? The law s o f Ne w Jerse y wer e indee d broken , an d par t o f th e explana tion, a s reformer s correctl y perceived , la y i n th e loos e mora l ambienc e of commercia l resort s an d th e tendenc y o f som e recreationa l entrepre neurs t o provid e amusement s tha t wer e unsanctione d b y th e large r soci ety. Bu t lawlessnes s an d gree d d o no t begi n t o explai n Progressiv e re form i n Atlanti c City . For a t leas t a generation, historian s hav e argue d convincingl y tha t th e visions o f socia l justic e an d publi c rectitud e tha t hav e shape d America n politics hav e bee n conditione d primarily , thoug h no t exclusively , b y th e ethnocultural identitie s o f citizens . Nativism , racism , an d concer n ove r the erosion of traditional institution s o f authority, particularl y th e churc h and th e family , hav e constituted th e rea l fault line s of American society. 7 This interpretatio n applie s with adde d forc e t o the study o f urban refor m movements durin g th e industria l era , a perio d whe n larg e number s o f Southern black s an d Catholi c an d Jewish European s change d th e fac e o f Northern cities , whe n th e disruptio n o f traditiona l pattern s o f wor k an d leisure profoundl y altere d th e relationship s betwee n me n an d women , and whe n th e anonymit y o f urba n lif e hel d ou t th e lur e o f increase d personal an d sexua l freedo m fo r American s o f al l socia l an d economi c classes. Fo r al l o f th e moder n hygiene , medicine , technology , an d socia l science tha t bot h secula r an d evangelica l Progressive s ha d com e t o em brace, on e o f th e simpl e truths , and , indeed , th e huma n traged y o f Pro gressive reform , i s that, a t leas t a s often a s not, i t foun d itsel f sharpl y a t odds wit h th e realit y o f huma n behavio r i n industria l society . The developmen t o f th e commercia l resor t industr y durin g th e las t half o f the nineteenth centur y mean t tha t leisur e activities would increas ingly tak e plac e apar t fro m th e traditiona l constraint s o f community , church, an d family . Wha t w e no w cal l "lifestyle " underwen t a profoun d transformation, on e tha t i s stil l underway . Sinc e th e 1870 s Atlantic Cit y has hoste d thousand s o f visitors , eac h o f who m woul d dra w hi s o r he r own lin e betwee n vic e an d innocen t pleasure . Despit e it s elitis t preten -

The Kuehnle Myth • 5 sions, th e lifebloo d o f th e city' s econom y ha d alway s bee n th e middl e and lowe r classe s wh o sough t i n it s breeze s an d amusement s a brie f re spite fro m th e grim e an d monoton y o f th e industria l world . This cultura l revolutio n wa s roote d i n th e secula r diversion s o f th e working classes and foun d it s purest expressio n i n commercial recreation . Such thing s a s basebal l an d mechanica l amusement s wer e beginnin g t o gain wid e acceptanc e durin g th e 1880s . Durin g th e 1890 s vaudeville , dancing, an d popula r music , an d later , motio n picture s attracte d larg e crowds. O f course , durin g thi s period , th e saloon , a s well, cam e int o it s own a s a recreational institution . Man y secula r Progressive s suc h a s Jane Addams, bu t mor e especially , evangelicals , cas t a jaundice d ey e a t th e new form s o f leisure , seein g i n the m a disintegratio n o f standard s an d social order . Thei r cultura l hegemon y wa s slippin g awa y t o a clas s o f recreational entrepreneur s wh o wer e quic k t o seiz e th e profit s o f mas s culture. Wors e yet , thei r ow n childre n wer e no t immune . Th e lur e o f secular amusemen t wa s pervasive , an d nowher e wa s thi s mor e eviden t than i n Atlanti c City. 8 Coming to terms with th e new socia l order wa s easier for som e Protestant elite s tha n fo r others . Bicycling , baseball , football , an d prizefightin g were th e rag e i n th e 1890s , a s wer e ragtim e an d th e cakewal k whic h sprang fro m th e syncopate d rhythm s o f th e blac k South . Sport s an d popular musi c were see n a s expressions o f the vigor an d virilit y o f Amer ican society , wha t Theodor e Roosevel t praise d a s "the strenuou s life. " I n this cultur e o f youth , me n becam e mor e masculin e an d wome n "mor e manly." 9 I n 189 5 Scribner's spoke approvingly o f the "summe r girl " (aged 17 t o 23 ) wh o "invariabl y wishe s t o g o wher e i t i s gay . He r ide a o f enjoyment doe s no t admi t t o domesticit y an d peacefu l relaxation . Sh e craves t o b e activel y amused , i f no t blissfull y excited. " I t conclude d it s analysis o f th e "summe r problem " b y adding : "I t speak s wel l fo r th e intelligence an d unselfishnes s o f middle-age d parent s an d guardian s i n this countr y tha t the y s o promptl y recogniz e th e legitimat e claim s o f youth." 10 Th e crowd s o f middle - an d upper-clas s patron s wh o thronge d the Boardwal k amusement s i n Atlanti c Cit y provid e evidenc e enoug h that th e popula r form s o f commercial recreatio n ha d capture d broa d seg ments o f middle - an d upper-clas s America . To man y Protestan t clerics , commercia l resorts , eve n i n thei r mos t innocent aspects , presente d a continual publi c spectacl e o f si n an d socia l disorder. Thi s coul d b e tru e o f an y da y i n Atlanti c Cit y wher e suc h things a s mixed bathin g an d drinkin g an d dancin g t o the strain s of popu -

6 • The Kuehnle Myth lar musi c excite d th e wors t fear s o f evangelicals . Bu t i t wa s especiall y true o f resor t Sundays , whe n th e crowd s wer e largest , an d th e seemin g indifference o f th e peopl e t o th e sanctit y o f th e Sabbat h an d th e law s o f the stat e confirme d th e evangelica l vie w tha t commercia l recreatio n ha d legitimized th e wors t manifestation s o f industria l society . In 189 1 Josiah Stron g wrote : "Mos t foreigner s brin g wit h the m conti nental idea s o f th e Sabbath , an d th e resul t i s sadl y manifes t i n al l ou r cities wher e i t i s bein g transforme d fro m a hol y da y int o a holiday. Bu t by fa r th e mos t effectiv e instrumentalit y fo r debauchin g popula r moral s is th e liquo r traffic , an d thi s i s chiefl y carrie d o n b y foreigners." 11 Th e image of the city, th e immigrant , an d th e saloo n as instruments o f publi c debauchery i s a well-explore d theme , lon g familia r t o student s o f fin de Steele America. Les s familiar , an d les s understood, i s the issu e of Sabbat h observance, a facet o f evangelica l refor m tha t impinge d a s heavily o n th e cities a s di d Prohibition . "Ther e is , perhaps , n o bette r inde x o f genera l morality tha n Sabbat h observance, " warne d Strong , "an d everybod y knows tha t ther e ha s bee n a great increas e o f Sabbat h desecratio n i n (th e past) twent y years." 12 Beginning wit h th e formatio n o f the National Refor m Leagu e i n Ohi o in 1863 , th e movemen t t o preserv e th e Christia n Sunda y steadil y gath ered strengt h i n th e Unite d State s an d reache d th e pea k o f it s influenc e during th e Progressiv e era . Durin g th e 1870 s an d 1880s , state s an d mu nicipalities throughou t th e countr y passe d stringen t Sunda y closin g law s in respons e t o th e growin g influenc e o f th e Sabbataria n movement . Widespread defianc e o f Sunda y restriction s generate d intens e socia l an d political conflicts , particularl y i n urba n areas , an d sharpl y accentuate d the growin g socia l chas m betwee n th e Protestan t churche s an d th e masses o f th e America n people . Historians o f urba n refor m an d Prohibitio n hav e no t ignore d Sabba tarianism. I n mos t accounts , the y faithfull y includ e Sabbat h desecratio n in th e litan y o f protest s mad e b y th e Strong s o f th e era . Ofte n ther e i s a paragraph o r two , o r perhap s a footnote , attributin g th e movemen t t o class an d ethni c tensions . Mor e traditiona l approache s eithe r dismis s Sabbatarianism a s a vestige o f Puritanis m o r se e Sabbataria n conflict s a s evidence o f th e widenin g urban/rura l dichotom y i n America n societ y af ter the Civil War or as modern antagonis m toward th e quaint stricture s of Victorian morality . Bu t Victori a hersel f wa s know n t o tak e a drink an d had littl e patienc e wit h Sabbataria n reformers. 13 Wha t i s lackin g i s th e recognition o f th e powe r an d pervasivenes s o f moder n Sabbatarianis m

The Kuehnle Myth • 7 ism an d th e mora l ambivalenc e amon g Protestant s themselve s ove r th e Sunday issue . N o les s importan t i s th e ambivalenc e o f th e stat e an d fed eral court s an d th e resultin g lega l an d socia l complexitie s arisin g fro m the attempt s o f stat e an d loca l authoritie s t o enforc e Sunda y restrictions , which, b y 1890 , wer e i n plac e i n practicall y ever y state . One historian , i n a study o f the America n wor k ethic , attribute d Sab batarian conflic t t o changin g attitude s towar d leisur e an d recreatio n an d to th e shortenin g o f th e industria l workweek . The Sabbat h controvers y stoo d fo r mor e than the legitimacy o f a Sunday ballgame. Sabbatarianis m ha d bee n a fighting, definin g poin t fo r Englis h Puritans, and the stiff an d proper regime of serious thoughts and disciplinary self-denial s ha d forme d a central part of the experience of generations of churchgoin g Norther n families . Nothin g mor e clearl y symbolize d th e injunctions t o duty an d self-discipline , th e obligations of careful, watchfu l control o f sel f an d tim e tha t wer e a t th e hear t o f th e Protestan t Refor mation. 14 Sabbatarians battle d th e force s o f commercialize d recreatio n throughou t the Progressiv e era , bu t "th e old rigi d rhythm s o f the Protestan t Sabbat h were n o matc h fo r th e influ x o f new amusements. " Politically, the y wer e successful; Sabbat h restriction s were a fact o f life in every Northern state . But b y 192 0 th e law s wer e a dea d letter , undermine d b y th e habit s o f industrial society . The onl y comprehensiv e an d scholarl y treatmen t o f American Sabbat arianism i s Winton Solberg' s Redeem the Time, which trace s the movemen t from it s Puritan beginning s i n Elizabethan Englan d t o the Great Awaken ing in the 1730 s and 1740s . "No phas e of our early history," said Solberg , "exhibits a greater discrepanc y betwee n th e importanc e o f th e subjec t t o contemporaries an d th e indifferenc e t o i t o f mos t historians. " Originall y intending t o use Sabbat h observanc e a s an inde x o f religious pluralism i n the Unite d State s afte r 1800 , h e foun d th e subjec t "highl y significant i n its own right." The intende d chapte r o n Sabbatarianis m becam e a book. 15 Looking ahea d t o anothe r volume , h e suggeste d tha t "afte r 174 0 th e periods o f greates t significanc e i n th e histor y o f Sabbatarianis m wer e i n the lat e eighteent h centur y an d th e decade s fro m th e 1820 s t o th e 188os."16 Durin g th e 1780 s and 1790 s Sabbat h restriction s wer e codifie d by th e states , an d th e 1820 s witnessed a strong nationwid e effor t t o sto p the Sunda y mails . M y ow n researc h indicate s tha t th e powe r an d influ ence of th e movemen t wa s onl y beginnin g t o b e felt i n th e Unite d State s

8 • The Kuehnle Myth by th e 1880s , tha t i t creste d i n Ne w Jerse y i n 1909 , an d tha t i t wa s a significant an d perplexin g facto r i n urba n refor m movement s durin g th e Progressive era, an d no t jus t i n commercial resorts . The conflic t ove r Sabbat h observanc e came to a head i n New Jersey i n 1908 whe n Governo r Joh n Frankli n For t appointe d th e Crime s an d Ex cise Commission s t o investigat e la w enforcemen t an d th e liquo r traffic . The commission s conducte d hearing s an d investigation s an d produce d reams o f evidenc e o n socia l condition s an d level s o f commercia l vic e i n each count y an d i n practicall y ever y cit y o f th e state . The y als o docu mented th e determine d decade-lon g struggle s o f church-base d la w an d order league s t o clos e th e bar s o n Sunda y an d th e stif f oppositio n the y encountered fro m polic e an d loca l official s an d fro m a wid e rang e o f citizens' groups wh o hel d tha t Sunda y drinkin g wa s a matter o f persona l liberty. Whe n th e mayor o f Atlantic Cit y ignore d a direct orde r fro m th e governor t o clos e th e bar s o n Sunday , th e conflic t reache d a crisis. Th e irate For t declare d th e cit y a "Saturnali a o f Vice " an d threatene d t o cal l out the militia to enforce th e Sunda y laws . Fort's Saturnali a proclamatio n ha d a devastatin g effec t o n Atlanti c City. I t destroye d th e libera l polic y an d generate d a n intens e politica l conflict amon g faction s o f th e loca l Republica n organization . Bu t th e events of 190 8 only partiall y explai n th e origins of the reform movement . The ter m "Kuehnleism " conjure d a hydra o f evils that wer e anathem a t o evangelicals an d secula r Progressive s alike . I f w e nee d nin e serpent s t o satisfy th e metaphor , w e hav e gambling , prostitution , th e liquo r traffic , graft, materialism , electio n frauds , rac e suicide , th e declin e o f religios ity—or a t least o f mora l standards—an d th e desecration o f the Sabbath , the last of which wa s symbolic of all the rest . But eac h o f thes e evoke d primar y response s amon g divers e social , religious, economic , ethnic , an d politica l group s wit h th e resul t that , b y 1911, Kuehnle , "th e machine, " an d Atlanti c Cit y itsel f confronte d a n array o f relate d bu t distinc t hostil e forces . Th e effort s o f thi s divers e legion o f reformers wer e legitimize d b y a host o f muckraking journalists , much t o the detriment o f the city's image . To describ e th e force s o f refor m i s t o pain t onl y hal f o f th e picture . What o f th e counterforces ? I f th e stud y o f Progressiv e refor m i s t o hav e meaning i n term s o f wha t i t reveal s abou t America n societ y an d it s institutions, w e mus t dea l i n simila r dept h wit h th e "objects " o f reform , in this case with th e boss, the machine, an d th e underclass . Progressives neve r wo n a n electio n i n Atlanti c City , a fac t explaine d

The Kuehnle Myth • 9 by reformer s i n typica l fashion . Th e resort , lik e it s paren t city , th e Philadelphia o f Lincol n Steffens , wa s "corrup t an d contented, " a condi tion invariabl y reduce d t o th e phras e "th e eas y purchasabilit y o f blac k votes." Kuehnle was a diabolically appealin g figure, a shrewd practitione r of th e wisdo m o f Georg e Washingto n Plunkett . Word s lik e "boss " an d "machine" constituted a brusque dismissal of urban political organization s as creature s o f venalit y wh o preye d upo n an d perpetuate d th e povert y and degradation o f their constituents. A Newark jeremia h sa w an election defeat o f resor t Progressive s i n 191 1 a s evidenc e tha t th e resident s wer e content t o wallo w i n thei r ow n filth an d predicte d tha t the y woul d soon get thei r comeuppance . Decen t peopl e woul d sta y away , an d th e cit y would withe r an d die. 17 But decen t peopl e di d no t sta y away . The y cam e i n increasin g num bers. Fo r Progressives , thi s posed a n interesting intellectua l dilemma , th e Atlantic Cit y versio n o f the age-old Parado x o f Democracy. I f indeed th e city dispense d wickedness , wha t coul d the y sa y o f it s consumers , who , by thei r ow n evidence , consiste d o f a broa d spectru m o f America n soci ety? Evangelical s ha d a ready explanation : American s ha d los t their soul . To secula r Progressives , wedded , i n principle , t o freedo m an d democ racy, th e explanation wa s not s o simple. Laying th e cornerston e o f a ne w YMC A buildin g i n Atlanti c Cit y i n July 1912 , Woodro w Wilso n offere d th e following : "On e o f th e grea t dangers of Atlantic City i s that s o many me n come here. The y kno w tha t they ar e a great distanc e fro m thei r home s an d believ e tha t ther e ar e n o home folk s her e to watch them . The y ar e too apt t o adjourn thei r moral s and have a fling. If they woul d onl y realize that if they thought the people at hom e wer e down , the y woul d kee p stead y an d woul d realiz e wha t homes mea n t o them." 18 Wilso n wen t o n t o prais e th e YMC A a s a n instrument o f "mora l sanitation " an d a "mean s fo r purifyin g man. " Fo r Wilson th e Progressive , th e answe r la y i n education ; fo r Wilso n th e Presbyterian, i n mora l uplift . Bu t wha t i f th e student s faile d t o "kee p steady"? Th e YMC A buildin g stil l stoo d i n 1992 , bu t house d a dru g rehabilitation program . Jane Addam s wrestle d wit h thi s dilemma , a s did Herber t Croly , Wal ter Lippmann , an d Loui s Brandeis . Fro m anothe r perspective , s o di d William Jennings Brya n an d Eugen e Victo r Debs . Why coul d peopl e no t see th e sel f an d societa l destructivenes s o f thei r ow n behavior , o r wh y couldn't worker s bur y th e difference s betwee n nativ e an d immigran t an d black an d whit e an d recogniz e tha t th e obstacle s t o socia l progres s la y i n

io • The Kuehnle Myth the arrogatio n o f wealt h an d powe r b y industria l capitalists ? Fo r som e reason, "th e people " neve r quit e behave d a s the y should , eve n whe n rigorously instructed . Progressive refor m coul d prov e t o b e a n undemocrati c process . I t wa s also intrusive , coul d ofte n tur n violent , an d invariabl y demoralize d a whole rang e o f social , ethnic , an d working-clas s group s t o whom refor m meant the criminalization o f long-held personal , recreational , religious , o r even sexua l practice s tha t provide d welcom e relie f fro m th e tediu m an d regimentation o f work i n industrial society . We needn' t loo k deepl y t o fatho m th e reaction s o f thousand s o f base ball fan s o n learnin g tha t th e Sunda y gam e ha d bee n enjoine d b y a handful o f loca l clerg y whil e Sunda y gol f wa s a weekl y ritua l fo r th e upper classes . Wha t wer e th e feeling s o f a Jewish butcher , arreste d fo r selling mea t o n Sunday , o r thos e o f Newar k German-American s whos e beer gardens an d concer t hall s were closed o n that da y while the factorie s operated? Crackdown s an d polic e raid s o n brothel s an d gamblin g den s were t o b e expected , bu t w e shoul d no t b e surprise d tha t agent s o f th e Law an d Orde r League , arme d wit h lega l warrants , receive d a chilly o r even violen t receptio n whe n the y entere d a neighborhoo d saloo n o n Sunday. Protestan t hegemon y weighe d heavil y upo n larg e segment s o f American society , particularl y upo n th e working classes, European immi grants, blac k people , an d religiou s minoritie s suc h a s Jews, Mormons , and Sevent h Da y Adventists . The Socia l Purit y crusade , th e socia l hygiene movement, th e Florenc e Crittendon Circle , th e whit e slaver y scare , an d th e caree r o f Anthon y Comstock provid e evidenc e of a deep concern ove r sexua l moralit y a t th e turn o f th e century , a s di d als o th e eugenic s movement , th e epidemi c o f lynching an d rac e riots , an d th e prosecutio n o f heavyweigh t champio n Jack Johnson, i n 1913 , for violatio n o f the Mann Act. 19 Fo r Progressives , the intraracial America n famil y represente d th e socio-sexual ideal . Devia tions fro m tha t nor m raise d th e twi n specter s o f sexua l anarch y an d race suicide . Bu t fo r a sizabl e portio n o f th e workin g classes—again , particularly blacks—economi c circumstance s mad e tha t idea l al l bu t un reachable, an d intimat e relationship s betwee n th e sexe s wer e forme d i n contexts that th e larger societ y condemned a s immoral an d illegal . The object s o f Progressiv e refor m were , b y thei r ow n lights , neithe r corrupt no r contented . Ye t certain o f their behavio r pattern s ha d predict able an d disastrou s result s fo r bot h themselve s an d fo r society . I n 190 8 the Reveren d Ernes t A . Boom , chairma n o f the Committee on Alcoholic s

The Kuehnle Myth • n and Narcotic s o f th e Ne w Jerse y Dependenc y an d Crime s Commission , reported tha t th e net cos t of dependency an d crime s to taxpayers o f Ne w Jersey th e previou s yea r exceede d $8. 5 million . Th e vita l statistic s fo r 1907 showe d 26 5 death s directl y attributabl e t o "alcoholism " an d 29 8 t o "cirrhosis o f th e liver, " an d tha t wa s onl y th e ti p o f th e iceberg . I n th e past si x year s 20,00 0 peopl e i n Ne w Jerse y ha d die d o f consumption . Autopsies o n consumptive s don e i n German y showe d that , i n on e in stance, 44 percent, an d i n another, 7 8 percent, wer e alcoholics. Hundred s of studie s confirme d th e relationshi p betwee n crime , disease , an d depen dency an d th e consumptio n o f alcohol , an d th e sam e could b e said o f th e relationship betwee n sexua l promiscuit y an d venerea l disease . T o secula r Progressives an d evangelical s alike , the evidence clearly indicate d tha t th e liquor traffi c wa s a "menace to the mental, moral , an d physica l welfare o f the state." 20 A s historian s no w admonish , "Howeve r w e ma y judg e prohibition effort s historically , w e canno t dismis s the m a s ridiculou s attempts t o change unalterable drinking habits." 21 In cit y afte r cit y i n Ne w Jersey i n 1908 , stat e investigator s confirme d the presenc e o f eight-year-old s i n poolroom s an d intoxicate d youth s i n saloons and dance halls. They discovere d pornograph y o n the Boardwalk , heard obscenitie s i n th e lyric s an d joke s o f vaudevill e shows , wer e ac costed b y prostitutes , an d foun d widesprea d evidenc e o f gamblin g an d fornication. M y contentio n tha t Commodor e Kuehnle' s Atlanti c City wa s no mor e wicke d tha n Trento n o r Paterson , an d perhap s les s s o tha n Hoboken o r Newark , o r tha t racism , clas s conflict , partisa n politics , an d practical economic s la y a t th e botto m o f Progressiv e refor m i n th e city , should i n n o wa y lea d u s t o deprecat e th e seriousnes s o f condition s i n this cit y an d i n other s tha t Progressives , includin g evangelicals , sough t to correct . I hav e sai d tha t Atlanti c Cit y wa s unique. Bu t i t was uniqu e i n tha t i t catered t o al l segment s o f American societ y an d becam e th e prototyp e o f the "popular " seasid e resort. 22 O n a give n summe r weekend , tin y Ab secon Islan d seeme d t o groa n unde r th e weigh t o f 300,00 0 tourists , principally fro m th e Philadelphia an d Ne w Yor k urban centers . "Atlanti c City i s on e o f th e mos t amazin g fact s i n America, " sai d trave l write r Harrison Rhode s i n th e Saturday Evening Post in 1915 . "I t i s Americ a i n little; unles s yo u prefe r t o sa y tha t Americ a i s reall y a littl e Atlanti c City." Th e America n Hardwar e Manufacturer s convene d i n Atlanti c City i n 1915 , an d s o did th e Ne w Jersey Baptists . A t thi s relativel y lat e date, th e cit y stil l promoted itsel f a s a health resort , an d a retired univer -

12 • The Kuehnle Myth sity professo r sa t i n hi s wheelchai r o n th e Boardwal k contentedl y watch ing the "procession o f brokers, governesses an d children, colore d waiters , ladies of fashion, choru s girls, and gum chewers" who filed by. Especiall y since th e 1890s , an d eve n before , trave l writer s fro m bot h side s o f th e Atlantic ha d consistentl y expresse d th e them e wit h whic h th e urban e Rhodes conclude d hi s article : "Atlanti c Cit y lift s th e li d fro m America n life s o that yo u ma y observ e it freely." 23 Long Branch , Asbur y Park , an d othe r coas t resort s buil t boardwalk s and mad e othe r effort s t o replicat e th e developmen t o f Abseco n Island , but the y neve r attaine d th e height s o f Atlanti c City . W e ar e lef t a s means of explaining the Atlantic City phenomeno n wit h what it s booster s always called "vision, " a term mor e objectively translate d a s managemen t and promotion . I hav e frame d thi s stud y aroun d th e fifty-year evolutio n of th e libera l policy , a managemen t an d promotiona l devic e tha t gre w and change d incrementall y i n respons e t o changin g economi c an d socia l conditions. People , no t historians , mak e history . Th e me n an d women , black an d white , nativ e an d immigrant , an d th e wealthy , poor , an d middle class , wh o built , applauded , deplored , enjoyed , o r merel y en dured Atlanti c Cit y betwee n 185 4 and 1920 , did s o as the firm ground o f traditional value s tremble d and , often , shoo k violently beneat h thei r feet . I invit e th e reade r t o transcen d th e Kuehnl e myt h an d t o experienc e with the m thei r agonie s an d uncertaintie s a s wel l a s thei r delight s an d aspirations, a journey tha t unfold s a s a complex bu t intensel y huma n tal e of ordinar y peopl e wh o live d throug h a n er a ever y bi t a s bafflin g a s our own . Our odysse y begin s o n barren , windswep t Abseco n Islan d i n th e 1850s an d continue s a s w e surve y th e growt h o f Atlanti c Cit y t o 191 0 when i t ha d emerge d a s th e nation' s foremos t popula r resort . O f critica l importance t o m y thesi s i s th e developmen t o f th e blac k community , it s relationship t o th e res t o f th e city , particularl y th e loca l Republica n organization, an d th e voting behavior o f black citizens. Chapter 3 i s a n essay o n Sabbatarianism . It s obviou s importanc e t o Atlantic City an d to other commercial resorts lay in the six-day workwee k and th e Sunda y excursio n trade , bu t I soon discovere d muc h large r implications. Th e Christia n Sunda y remaine d a powerfu l symbo l o f moral an d socia l orde r durin g th e Progressiv e era . T o me , a s to Solberg , the efforts o f historians t o understand th e movement seeme d trivia l i n th e light o f it s apparen t pervasivenes s an d influence . Thi s chapte r doe s no t pose as a definitive wor k on the subject , eve n for Ne w Jersey. I t is meant

The Kuehnle Myth • 1 3 for m y purpose s t o sugges t a larger plac e fo r th e Sabbataria n movemen t in the total schem e of Progressive reform, t o demonstrate it s relationship s to othe r facet s o f reform , bot h evangelica l an d secular , t o penetrat e th e legal an d socia l complexitie s an d th e dept h o f socia l an d politica l conflic t surrounding th e stat e enforcement o f Sunda y laws , an d finally, an d mor e specifically, t o plac e Atlanti c Cit y i n th e contex t o f th e widel y differin g perceptions American s hel d o f proper Sabbat h observance . Chapter 4 traces the nineteenth-century evolutio n of the liberal policy , and th e fifth chapte r recount s earlie r refor m effort s mad e locall y i n re sponse to the growing influence o f evangelical groups in the state, particu larly Sabbatarians , an d attempt s t o gaug e th e level s o f vic e an d disorde r in th e cit y a t th e tim e th e refor m movemen t began . I kno w o f n o norm s for vic e and disorder , bu t th e Crime s an d Excis e commissions' reports o f 1908 provid e a usefu l mean s fo r comparin g condition s i n Atlanti c Cit y with thos e o f othe r citie s i n Ne w Jerse y an d perhap s a n answe r t o th e question of just how wicked th e resort really was. Chapter 6 is an accoun t of th e refor m movement , an d th e final chapte r describe s it s result s an d discusses it s importance i n terms of the national Progressiv e movement . The libera l polic y wa s essentially a compromise moralit y tha t satisfie d no on e completely . But , i f no t i n it s synthesis , certainl y i n it s formula tion, i t too k int o accoun t al l o f th e socia l pressure s tha t gre w ou t o f th e Industrial Revolution . Th e hope s an d fear s o f th e resident s fo r th e cit y were see n i n bot h thei r division s an d thei r unit y an d expresse d i n a variety o f ways . A t time s th e struggle s tha t too k plac e withi n Atlanti c City amounte d t o n o mor e tha n small-tow n politics . A t others , particu larly i n time s o f crisi s fo r th e city' s image , interna l struggle s produce d decisions an d evoke d statements , fro m bot h withi n an d without , tha t constituted remarkabl y fran k an d incisiv e commentar y o n th e changin g state o f publi c morals . Th e appropriatenes s o f Atlanti c Cit y a s a labora tory fo r th e stud y o f thi s subjec t wa s perhap s bes t expresse d b y th e cryptic statemen t ofte n attribute d t o Enoch L . Johnson: "W e always gav e the people what the y wanted. "

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tlantic Cit y present s a uniqu e cas e stud y i n urba n development . Founded i n 1854 , lt bega n a s a speculative rea l estat e venture, a . creatur e o f th e railroa d an d o f outsid e investors . B y 187 0 i t stood a s i t ha d bee n envisioned , a quaint seasid e colon y o f Philadelphia . Its comin g o f ag e i n th e wanin g decade s o f the nineteent h centur y paral leled th e growt h o f th e resor t industr y an d th e industria l an d socia l maturation o f th e country . Bu t t o sa y simpl y tha t Atlanti c Cit y wa s called int o existenc e b y th e inexorabl e force s o f industrializatio n an d urbanization i s t o neglec t th e effort s an d expectation s o f th e me n an d women wh o promote d an d buil t th e cit y durin g a perio d o f rapi d socia l and economi c change. At a dinne r hel d i n 1889 , elderl y resident s describe d Abseco n Islan d as the y ha d know n i t earl y i n th e century : "I n thos e day s th e greate r portion o f the islan d wa s san d hills , duck ponds , swamps , bria r thickets , and nestin g place s fo r th e wil d fowl . Man y o f thes e wil d fow l coul d b e killed wit h clubs , an d i t i s sai d tha t the y wer e s o numerous a t time s tha t in lighting upon trees the branches would break. " In the summer, swarm s of mosquitoe s an d greenhea d flies buzze d incessantl y ove r th e lo w an d swampy terrain . Foxes , rabbits , mink , muskrats , an d hug e blacksnake s infested th e island . Ther e wa s little indication tha t th e intrusio n o f civilization woul d eve r consis t o f muc h mor e tha n th e si x rud e farmin g an d fishing dwelling s tha t existe d ther e b y 1850 . "Th e whol e island, " sai d

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From Pitney's Folly to World's Playground • 1 5 another ol d resident , "coul d hav e bee n bough t ver y chea p then—muc h less than th e price of a single cottage today." l In retrospec t w e ca n see i n thes e quain t description s o f a seashor e wilderness onl y sixt y mile s fro m Philadelphi a jus t th e thin g fro m whic h fortunes wer e made. Bu t i n the 1850 s railroads were in their infancy , an d the prospect of building a resort city in this lonely place seemed as remote as the island itself . The resort industry was also in its infancy. I n 183 3 the New Jersey Gazetteer compiled a n inde x o f th e the n know n resort s alon g th e Ne w Jerse y coast. B y thi s tim e Cap e May wa s well establishe d a s a "noted an d muc h frequented waterin g place , th e seaso n a t whic h commence s i n July an d continues unti l September, " an d offere d si x boardinghouses , "thre e of whic h ar e ver y large." 2 I t catere d principall y t o th e wealth y o f Phila delphia, and until the Civil War was a summer ritual for many elite planter families fro m Virgini a an d Maryland. 3 Lon g Branc h t o the nort h offere d "inducements t o invalids , th e idle , an d hunter s o f pleasur e t o spen d a portion o f th e ho t season " i n th e severa l boardinghouse s tha t existe d fo r that purpose. 4 Alon g th e res t o f th e coas t resor t facilitie s consiste d o f a scattering o f "respectabl e farmin g families " i n offshor e village s suc h a s Toms River , Tuckerton , o r Somer s Point , wh o advertise d an d too k i n guests fo r th e season . O f th e eigh t place s listed , onl y Cap e Ma y an d Long Branc h ha d boardinghouse s dedicate d exclusivel y t o th e summe r trade. 5 Cape May an d Lon g Branch , locate d o n the mainland, wer e serve d b y regular stag e an d steamboa t line s fro m Philadelphi a an d Ne w York . Bu t Philadelphians reached Cape May only by a six-hour steamboat ride down the Delawar e Rive r o r b y a 104-mil e stag e rout e throug h th e wild s o f South Jersey. A tri p to Long Branch, thoug h somewha t shorter , require d a similar ordeal over primitive roadways, a journey broke n only b y infre quent an d incommodious taverns along the route. 6 Most o f the one-hundred-odd mile s of coastline that separate d th e tw o resorts consiste d o f undeveloped barrie r islands . Th e onl y thin g tha t dis tinguished Abseco n Islan d fro m th e rest of this dreary expans e was that i t stood i n th e pat h o f the shortes t distanc e fro m Philadelphi a t o the ocean . Yet speculation as to the resort possibilities of the area was discouraged b y the belie f tha t i t woul d b e impossibl e t o buil d an d maintai n a roadbe d across th e meadow s tha t separate d th e islan d fro m th e mainland . A loca l skeptic expresse d th e consensu s o f are a resident s b y callin g th e islan d " a

16 • From Pitney's Folly to World's Playground sandpatch, a desolation, a swamp, a mosquito territory, wher e you coul d not build a city, o r if you could, n o one would go there." 7 Atlantic Cit y wa s th e brainchil d o f Dr . Jonatha n Pitney , a physicia n who ha d mad e hi s hom e i n th e mainlan d villag e o f Abseco n sinc e 1820 . Where other s sa w onl y wast e an d desolation , h e sa w a healthfu l an d pristine wilderness , a delightful spo t fo r summe r cottages , an d a perfec t refuge fro m th e debilitatin g atmospher e o f th e growin g cities . Local s labeled th e schem e "Pitney' s Folly, " an d fo r twent y year s treate d th e proposal wit h a n amuse d tolerance . Althoug h hi s visio n wa s a modes t one—a bathin g village made accessible to the urban center s by a railroad across th e meadows—Pitne y se t i n motio n th e chai n o f event s tha t cre ated th e great resort. 8 In 185 0 he bega n t o promot e th e projec t b y writin g a serie s o f letter s to Philadelphia newspaper s extollin g the healthful atmospher e of Absecon Island an d discussin g th e benefit s o f th e propose d railroa d t o th e hinter land. Th e letter s attracte d th e attentio n o f a grou p o f glas s an d iro n manufacturers whos e operation s dotte d th e pin e barren s o f Camde n County an d th e wester n portion s o f Atlanti c County , includin g Samue l Richards, wh o owne d a glasswork s an d 50,00 0 acre s a t Jackson. Pitne y argued tha t a passenger an d freigh t lin e from Camde n t o the beach woul d benefit th e glas s an d iro n interest s a s wel l a s creat e a lucrativ e resor t trade. Moreover , th e railroa d woul d ope n u p th e entir e regio n fo r devel opment an d enhanc e th e valu e o f thei r holdings . A s th e lan d develope d into farm s an d othe r enterprises , ne w town s woul d b e created , an d th e revenues to the railroad woul d increase . These men were easily convince d of th e nee d fo r a railroad , bu t i t wa s agains t thei r bette r judgmen t tha t they agree d t o exten d th e lin e pas t Hammonton . I n fact , tw o year s late r when Richard s caugh t hi s first glimps e o f Abseco n Island , h e exclaime d that i t was "th e most horribl e place to make the termination o f a railroad" that h e had eve r seen. 9 In Ma y the y hire d Richar d Osborne , a civi l enginee r o f nationa l repute, wh o had worked o n the building of Chicago. Osborne assure d th e group tha t withi n a generation th e railroa d woul d enabl e th e ne w cit y t o surpass Cap e Ma y a s th e nation' s premie r ocea n resor t an d expresse d a rare democratic view of the resort industry : "Th e work-wor n artisa n shu t up i n th e clos e an d debilitatin g shop s o f th e city , whos e limite d mean s prevent a lon g absenc e fro m hi s calling , wil l find her e th e res t an d recreation tha t h e canno t no w obtain." 10 B y 185 2 Osborn e ha d see n firsthand th e transformin g powe r o f th e railroads , an d hi s predictio n

From Pitney's Folly to World's Playground • 1 7 suggests tha t h e ha d mor e tha n jus t a n inklin g o f th e broa d recreationa l potential o f chea p transportation . Bu t a t thi s tim e i t i s doubtful tha t th e directors' plans fo r th e islan d extende d beyon d th e more modest visio n of Jonathan Pitney . On Jun e 24 , 1852 , th e Camde n an d Atlanti c Railroa d Compan y wa s organized i n Philadelphia , an d th e compan y issue d te n thousan d share s of stoc k t o th e origina l thirty-eigh t stockholder s a t $5 0 pe r share . Con struction o n the railroad bega n that summer , a s Pitney, no w a director o f the company , proceede d t o bu y u p th e island . Th e loca l owner s bande d together an d demande d $2 5 pe r acre . Afte r som e haggling , the y settle d for $17.50 . Som e o f thes e parcel s sol d fo r $30 0 pe r acr e soo n afte r th e railroad's completion . Atlanti c City's firs t lan d boo m wa s underway. 11 Fifty year s later , speakin g o f th e foundin g a t th e resort' s Golde n Jubilee, Atlanti c City' s congressman , John Gardner , sai d that i n no sens e was th e cit y a speculativ e venture . "Ther e wa s n o object, " h e said , "t o develop th e islan d wit h a n objec t o f increasin g lan d values. " Thi s wa s a strange protes t fro m on e wh o wa s calle d "Atlanti c City' s barefoo t boy, " and wh o ha d mad e sizabl e sum s fro m resor t rea l estate . Th e railroa d ha d acquired lan d i n suc h quantitie s tha t i n Marc h 185 3 the stat e legislature , fearing a monopoly, prohibite d furthe r purchases . Th e director s forme d the Camde n an d Atlanti c Lan d Compan y an d proceede d t o bu y u p th e rest o f th e island . Fo r th e local s i t wa s a windfall. I n 1884 , o n e recalled , "The peopl e wh o live d her e mad e jus t a s muc h mone y the n a s now , because ther e weren' t s o man y o f the m afte r th e pennies . Wit h a capita l of $1000 one could becom e a land speculato r an d clea r a good roun d su m without waitin g ver y long." 12 B y thi s tim e th e resor t wa s wel l estab lished. Durin g th e 1850 s and 1860s , the railroad an d th e residents weath ered sever e storms , bot h natura l an d economic , a s the y proceede d t o carve a resort cit y fro m th e raw wilderness o f Absecon Island . The first trai n steame d int o th e cit y o n July 1 , 1854 , i n a puff o f ros y optimism. O n han d t o launc h th e resor t wer e ove r si x hundred guest s o f the railroad , dignitaries , newsmen , an d prospectiv e investors . The y me t in the large saloon of the nearly complete d Unite d State s Hote l an d hear d a roun d o f laudator y speeches . Nearby , Bedloe' s Hote l wa s read y t o receive guests , an d th e Sur f Hous e an d som e twenty-fiv e substantia l cottages were under construction . Richar d Osborn e later recalled tha t th e party, consistin g o f nin e cars , lef t Camde n a t 9:3 0 i n th e morning , an d by noo n wa s steamin g u p Atlanti c Avenu e t o th e hotel . Th e tw o an d a half hou r journe y ha d take n th e ol d stag e lin e a ful l da y t o complete .

18 • From Pitney's Folly to World's Playground During th e firs t year , th e Camde n an d Atlanti c carrie d twent y thousan d passengers t o Atlantic City. 13 The railroa d bega n a vigorou s publicit y campaign , invitin g Philadel phians t o escape from th e suffocation o f the city t o the stimulating breat h of the ocean in less than thre e hours fo r a fare o f only $ i .50.14 One Sout h Jersey newspape r predicted : "Passenger s wil l soo n hav e th e opportunit y of runnin g dow n i n a n hou r an d a hal f t o on e o f th e mos t agreeabl e bathing place s o n th e Atlanti c Coast . Abseco m [sic ] thu s promise s t o become a formidable riva l t o Cap e Island . Th e shortnes s o f th e tri p wil l induce thousands t o give it preference." 15 Atlantic Cit y i n it s first yea r wa s somethin g les s tha n th e railroad' s promotional brochure s had led visitors to expect. Wrot e an early resident : "At tha t tim e range s o f hill s o f san d sprea d ou t o n ever y side ; tangle d underbrush an d runnin g vines impeded pedestrians ; holly and cedar tree s and bayberr y bushe s . . . mad e u p th e genera l landscap e an d furnishe d abiding place s fo r foxes , rabbits , (and ) rats." 16 Hote l accommodation s were primitive . Ther e wa s n o runnin g water , n o indoo r plumbing , an d no bedsprings . A n earl y guideboo k advise d visitor s tha t whe n stayin g i n an elevate d stor y o f a hotel , " a hal f inc h rop e a s a fire escap e ma y b e a prudent provision. " Streets , ungravele d an d ungraded , existe d mainl y o n paper, an d numerou s cattle , swine , an d goat s ran fre e o n the island . Th e newly forme d cit y governmen t lacke d th e fund s t o effec t improvements . Property owners , thoug h anxiou s t o se e thei r holding s appreciate , wer e hostile t o increase d taxes , an d th e lac k o f fres h wate r an d adequat e sewerage facilitie s remaine d seriou s problem s wel l int o th e 1880s . Visi tors accustome d t o th e amenitie s o f Cap e Ma y an d Lon g Branc h mad e plain their disappointment. On e couple, having bought a lot sight unseen , found onl y a hea p o f san d o n a deserte d beac h an d wep t whe n the y saw it. 17 By 185 5 ther e were , b y actua l count , seventy-on e structure s o n th e island. Mostl y boardinghouses , the y stoo d amon g th e remnant s o f th e cedar an d bayberr y fores t tha t had , unti l recently , thickl y covere d th e area. Hug e san d dunes , som e fifty fee t high , line d th e beachwar d sid e of the village , shieldin g th e house s fro m th e ocean . Cattl e scale d th e dune s to fee d o n th e beac h grass . I n th e absenc e o f refrigeration , provision s were scarce , an d muc h o f i t ha d t o b e brough t i n live . A boardinghous e operator wh o brave d th e secon d seaso n recalled : "Blac k snake s wer e almost a s plentiful a s huckleberries, an d the y wer e no t a s bashful . The y came int o our yar d an d eve n crawled int o the cellar. W e killed a monster

From Pitney's Folly to World's Playground • 1 9 on the porc h on e day . . . they wer e afte r th e live chickens." 18 Tha t yea r an Augus t northeaste r shortene d th e seaso n an d dampene d th e spirit s o f all but th e hardiest o f the resort's boosters . During th e winter , sever e stor m tide s practicall y engulfe d th e island , leaving i t isolate d fo r day s a t a time . Whe n th e water s receded , pond s were lef t t o stagnat e an d bree d insect s which , b y summer , becam e a plague. I n Augus t 185 8 the Philadelphia North American published a lette r from a n outraged visitor . Last week the place was crowded wit h visitors; now they ar e escaping the scourge as rapidly as possible. This house is now surrounded with bonfires, in the hope that the smoke therefrom wil l drive off the enemy. The horses attached t o a carriag e containin g guest s fro m th e Unite d State s Hote l became so maddened from th e attack of greenhead flies that they ran away near th e Inlet , demolishin g th e carriag e an d brok e th e ar m o f on e o f the ladies.19 Horses, covere d wit h blood , la y dow n i n th e streets , an d cattl e sough t refuge fro m th e tormen t b y wadin g int o th e ocean . Me n an d wome n wore mask s o n thei r faces , childre n squalled , an d peopl e begge d railroa d conductors t o tak e the m awa y ahea d o f schedule . Althoug h b y i86 0 th e city ha d take n step s t o eliminat e th e breedin g places , insect s remaine d a blight o n the resort fo r som e time. The Pani c o f 185 7 almos t wipe d ou t th e railroad , an d i t offere d on e dollar round-tri p excursio n rate s jus t t o sta y afloat . I n i86 0 th e lan d company sol d of f portion s o f it s holding s o n th e islan d t o satisf y railroa d bondholders. 20 Ba d publicit y threatene d t o strangl e th e resor t i n it s in fancy. Force d t o liv e th e entir e yea r o n th e receipt s fro m Jul y an d August, bot h the railroad an d the city experienced th e perennial difficult y of seaside resorts—a seasona l economy . After September , th e cit y practicall y shu t down . I n Januar y 185 6 a former Philadelphia n complaine d o f th e bleaknes s an d isolatio n o f resor t winters. Six months ago almost every Philadelphian thought and talked of this place; but wh o think s o f i t no w beside s it s inhabitant s an d rea l estat e owners ? Here are nearly two hundred person s on this sea-girt beach, stor m bound prisoners. W e hav e a telegraph , bu t th e operato r wen t t o th e mainlan d before th e stor m o f Saturda y night , an d th e wires are broken. W e have a railroad, but when the cars will reappear is a question upon which opinions

20 • From Pitney V Folly to World's Playground are conflicting an d unsatisfactory, an d the floating ice forbids a small boat to navigate the bay and creek. 21 The first mayor , Chalkle y Leeds , "wear y o f th e honor s o f office, " re signed late r tha t year , a s di d hi s successo r afte r a month' s tenure . Th e affairs o f th e cit y wer e i n th e hand s o f th e railroad , whic h stil l owne d much o f the island . Yet th e cit y buil t slowl y bu t steadil y onward . Th e permanen t popula tion, estimate d a t 25 0 i n 1854 , gre w t o 68 7 b y i860 . B y 185 8 th e cit y boasted 13 0 buildings , no t countin g thre e churches , a marke t house , a lighthouse, an d severa l larg e railroad structures . Tw o "firs t clas s hotels," the Unite d State s an d th e Sur f House , coul d eac h accommodat e 35 0 people, and severa l smaller ones, along with numerous taverns and board inghouses, als o too k i n guests . Th e railroa d estimate d tha t durin g Jul y and Augus t o f tha t yea r a n averag e o f mor e tha n thre e thousan d visitor s were in the city eac h day. 22 In 1866 , D . M . Zimmerman , th e secretar y an d treasure r o f th e rail road, bega n issuin g fre e passe s t o prominen t physician s o f th e Philadel phia area . H e the n solicite d exper t medica l testimon y o n th e uniqu e health-giving properties of the climate of Absecon Island . Dr . Willia m V . Keating o f Locus t Stree t i n Philadelphi a testifie d tha t th e resor t wa s no t only fre e o f milde w an d malaria , bu t woul d affor d "relie f an d cur e t o al l cases o f rheumati c feve r an d arthritis, " eve n i n th e mos t acut e stages . " I have venture d t o sen d patient s ther e i n th e heigh t o f a n attac k o f rheu matic gout , i n th e month s o f Ma y an d June , wh o hav e ha d complet e amelioration o f al l o f thei r symptom s withi n forty-eigh t hour s o f thei r residence, provide d the y locate d themselve s a s near the ocean as possible, so a s t o avoi d th e lan d breezes." 23 Atlanti c Cit y als o offere d relie f fro m "chronic bronchitis , laryngitis , incipien t tuberculosis , an d scrofula. " Th e time wa s no t distant , h e predicted , whe n "th e inhabitant s o f th e grea t West, South , an d Northwest, especiall y those suffering fro m th e sequela e of malaria l poisoning , wit h debilitate d digestiv e organs , impoverishe d blood, an d fro m wha t i s terme d a cachecti c conditio n o f th e system " would al l resor t t o th e bracin g atmospher e o f Atlanti c City . I n 1878 , when th e cit y ha d begu n t o boom , a trave l write r commente d tha t th e University o f Pennsylvani a seeme d t o hav e bre d it s doctor s fo r th e "ex press purpos e o f marshalin g a dyin g worl d t o th e curativ e shelte r o f Atlantic City." 24 An 186 8 edition of The Ladies Friend described th e resort a s a retreat fo r

From Pitney's Folly to World's Playground • 2 1 Philadelphia Quakers : "Atlanti c Cit y ha s th e advantag e fo r plain , quie t folks, tha t s o many o f it s house s ar e kep t b y Friends , an d resorte d t o b y that class . I t i s anothe r Quake r City . Now , whereve r th e sober-minded , clear-headed, pur e hearte d Friend s mos t d o congregate , ther e yo u ar e pretty sur e t o find mor e substanc e tha n show , mor e realit y tha n sham , cleanliness amountin g t o nicety , wholesom e fare , an d home-lik e com fort." 25 Durin g it s secon d decade , Atlanti c Cit y establishe d itsel f amon g well-to-do Philadelphians , bu t i t di d no t exactl y boom . B y 187 0 th e population ha d rise n t o onl y 1,043 . ^ w a s > m t n e word s o f a n earl y resident, "bu t a strugglin g resort , wit h n o winte r busines s t o spea k of , and a summer seaso n o f bu t si x weeks duration." 26 A s th e first er a o f it s existence drew t o a close, Atlantic City gav e only fain t indicatio n o f wha t it would becom e during the remaining decade s of the century . The 1870 s in the United State s was a decade of industrial strife , panic , and economi c depression . Ye t thi s wa s precisel y th e tim e tha t Atlanti c City bega n t o develop a s a popular resort . Th e residen t populatio n o f th e city mor e than quadruple d fro m a little more than a thousand t o 5,477 b y 1880. Althoug h thes e figures ar e smal l i n term s o f urba n development , they reflec t a correspondin g increas e i n patronage . I n 187 1 th e railroa d carried ove r 367,00 0 passengers an d showe d a profit o f over $131,000 . I n 1872 passenger s numbere d ove r 417,00 0 an d profit s exceede d $212,000 . Based o n th e railroad' s figures, w e ca n estimat e th e resort' s seasona l patronage fo r thes e year s a t wel l ove r 100,00 0 an d th e crowd s i n th e cit y on a busy summe r weeken d a t 25,00 0 people. 27 Thi s dramati c prosperit y in th e fac e o f genera l economi c adversit y illustrate s th e intensit y o f th e demand fo r leisur e which attende d th e growth o f industrial society . An 187 3 promotion describe d Atlanti c City a s "The Cit y of Homes b y the Seaside " an d proclaimed : "Th e soli d characte r o f it s patrons , th e better element s o f society , th e quie t home-lik e atmospher e o f th e plac e . . . al l conspir e t o mak e Atlanti c Cit y th e idea l o f a summe r resort." 28 "New passenge r car s o f elegan t finish" beckone d th e "overworke d men " and "overanxiou s women " o f Philadelphi a t o th e gentee l ambienc e o f private villas , waysid e inns , an d comfortabl e hotels . B y th e 1870 s trave l time fro m th e patro n cit y ha d bee n cu t t o unde r tw o hours , an d a substantial cottag e could b e had fo r $50 0 for th e season . The promotio n als o containe d a gestur e t o th e workin g classes . I n addition t o "countin g hous e chiefs," th e railroa d invite d "subordinate s i n their shirtsleeves " t o sampl e pleasure s o f seashor e lif e tha t wer e les s genteel i n character. Throughou t th e season, specia l trains fo r th e accom -

22 • From Pitney's Folly to World's Playground modation o f excursionist s lef t eac h mornin g an d returne d i n th e after noon. Thes e wer e availabl e a t speciall y reduce d rate s an d include d th e free us e o f a n "excursio n hous e wit h moder n hote l convenience s an d a large saloo n fo r dancin g an d othe r amusements. " Th e compan y frankl y admitted tha t it s objective wa s to "identify th e interest s o f visitors an d al l of our patron s wit h it s own to secure a mutual benefit. " During the summer o f 1873 , the railroad brough t sixty-fou r excursion s to the city . Thes e include d suc h divers e groups a s the Sawmakers ' Bene ficial Association , th e Germa n Independen t Congregation , th e Unite d Lodges o f Mechanic s Hal l o f Camden , St . George' s an d St . Jame s churches o f Philadelphia , th e Anthracit e Lodge , an d St . Mary' s Literar y Institute. Atlanti c City , proclaime d A . L . English , edito r o f th e newl y formed Atlantic City Daily Review, had becom e the excursion resor t o f th e country, surpassin g Cap e May b y a two to one margin. Englis h admitte d that th e cit y wa s "crowde d beyon d reason " an d tha t som e o f th e excur sionists wer e give n t o bout s o f drunkennes s an d hilarity . Bu t t o th e "certain classes " who foun d th e excursionist s a detriment t o th e city , h e replied tha t o n th e whol e the y wer e orderl y an d quiet , an d besides , the y spent money . "Le t the m come, " h e proclaimed , "le t the m com e b y th e thousands an d i n grea t multitudes . Ther e i s enoug h pur e ai r fo r u s all , and t o th e wear y inhabitant s o f th e dust y cit y w e kno w i t i s a great an d pleasant relief from th e work-a-day lif e which man y of them lead." 29 Much late r Mayor John Gardner , i n a blush of candor, referre d t o th e "hard busines s necessity" that ha d changed th e nature of Atlantic City : In that early day, experiments had to be resorted to which nobody desired, because the y wer e necessar y t o life . Whe n th e chea p excursio n ha d t o come, whe n question s abou t wh o cam e o n the m coul d no t b e raised , when the moonlight excursion had to come in September , afte r th e guests generally wer e gone, when other desperate expedients to raise the cash to keep the engines and cars running over the rails, and the people in Atlantic City fro m default , wer e being tried, al l deplored it , the railroad compan y not less than the others.30 The "moonligh t excursion " referre d t o th e practic e o f makin g th e resor t available t o group s o f blac k peopl e i n Septembe r afte r th e regula r guest s had departed fo r th e season . Local traditio n credit s th e buildin g o f the Boardwal k i n 187 0 with th e beginning o f th e city' s popularity . Atlanti c Avenu e ha d bee n th e cente r of resor t activity . Excep t fo r a few hour s i n th e morning , th e beac h wa s

From Pitney's Folly to World's Playground • 2 3 deserted, dotte d wit h th e hulk s o f rottin g shipwrecks . A t night , i t wa s a foreboding place , describe d late r a s " a scen e o f desolation , dar k i n th e moon shadow s o f tufte d hummocks , an d siniste r wit h th e sound s o f crawling crabs an d the clank of their snappin g claws." 31 "Seabathing" wa s stil l mor e of a curiosity tha n a popular pastime , an d a di p i n th e ocea n require d a tre k throug h "tiresom e area s o f mosquit o marsh" t o th e water' s edge . Tin y woode n walk s ha d bee n buil t acros s pools and swamp s to bathhouses, an d eventually becam e a popular conve nience fo r onlookers . Th e first boardwal k wa s a temporary affai r merel y eight fee t wid e an d a fe w block s long . I t prove d s o popula r tha t i t wa s enlarged eac h yea r unti l 1879 , whe n i t wa s replace d wit h a permanen t structure. Th e Boardwal k gav e th e cit y a unique identit y an d mad e th e beachfront bot h accessibl e and amenabl e to urban visitors. 32 In 187 4 th e railroad' s passenge r tota l approached , 500,000 , an d it s revenues climbe d steadily . I n 187 6 the Centennial Expositio n wa s held i n Philadelphia, an d resor t businessme n anticipate d hug e crowd s fro m th e overflow t o th e shore . Bu t th e expecte d bonanz a neve r materialized , an d the season was pronounced " a failure" despite the stay of President Gran t at th e Unite d State s Hote l tha t July . Ye t durin g tha t yea r wel l ove r 160,000 peopl e visite d Atlanti c City . Havin g tottere d o n th e verg e o f bankruptcy fo r mos t o f it s twenty-two-yea r existence , th e railroa d re ported earning s of almost $565,000. 33 In 187 5 a grou p o f th e railroad' s directors , le d b y Samue l Richards , resigned i n a disput e tha t reflecte d th e division s withi n Atlanti c City . Richards, th e drivin g forc e behin d th e railroa d an d th e lan d company , had initiall y bee n slo w t o recogniz e th e profi t potentia l o f th e resor t business. Bu t as tourists and revenues increased , h e wanted t o expand th e excursion trade . Rebuffe d b y th e majorit y o f th e directors , Richard s formed a rival compan y t o accomplis h tha t purpose . Afte r a bitter fight, he organize d an d buil t th e Philadelphi a an d Atlanti c Railroad , a narrow gauge line, i n the astonishingly shor t time of ninety days. 34 The completio n o f th e Narro w Gaug e i n July 187 7 touche d of f a rat e war. Round-tri p ticket s whic h ha d cos t $3.0 0 on th e Camde n an d Atlan tic wer e sol d fo r $1.2 5 o n th e ne w riva l line . A s th e fare s dropped , th e crowds swelle d proportionately , an d b y th e summe r o f 187 9 wer e s o great a s t o nearl y exhaus t th e supplie s o f meat , milk , bread , an d othe r provisions. S o muc h buildin g wa s takin g plac e tha t yea r tha t a Camde n newsman reporte d tha t "th e soun d o f th e bricklayer' s trowe l an d th e carpenter's hamme r greete d on e at every turn. " Wal t Whitman , wh o ha d

24 • From Pitney's Folly to World's Playground visited th e city o n a bright January mornin g o f that year , reporte d " a rea l sea beac h city " o f excellen t road s line d wit h row s o f "choic e privat e cottages." The tri p on the Camden an d Atlanti c inspire d hi m to write: What a place (is it not indeed the main place?) the railroad plays in modern democratic civilization ! Ho w indirectly , bu t surely i an d beyon d al l other influences to-da y i n America , i t thaws , plough s up , prepares , an d eve n fructifies th e fallow s o f unnumbere d countie s an d towns!—th e toug h sward of morals and manners of the low average (nine-tenths) of our vulgar humanity! Silentl y an d surel y an d o n a scal e a s larg e an d genuin e a s Nature's, it sets in motion every indirect and many direct means of making a really substantial community. 35 In 188 0 the Wes t Jersey an d Atlanti c Railroad , a branch o f th e Penn sylvania, complete d stil l another lin e to the city i n a n effort t o attract th e "middle an d lowe r classes. " The resultin g competitio n prove d to o muc h for th e Narro w Gauge , whic h wa s sol d t o th e Philadelphi a an d Readin g system i n 1883 . In the same year, th e Pennsylvania absorbe d th e Camde n and Atlantic , an d th e resor t wa s no w serve d b y tw o interstat e lines , including the mammoth facilitie s o f the Pennsylvania Railroad . "Immedi ately," wrot e on e promoter , "th e nam e o f Atlanti c Cit y becam e familia r in ever y ticke t offic e i n th e lan d i n contro l o f tha t grea t an d powerfu l corporation. Th e reputatio n o f th e plac e becam e national , an d peopl e from al l part s o f th e countr y bega n t o appreciat e it s healt h impartin g properties." 36 During th e 1880s , th e cit y continue d it s rapi d growth . B y 188 5 it s population reache d 7,962 , an d five year s later , i t increase d t o ove r 13,000.37 Trave l tim e fro m Philadelphi a durin g th e 1880 s wa s a n hou r and a half, an d withi n th e decad e would b e reduced t o less than a n hour . What bega n a s a trickl e wa s no w a delug e a s thousand s o f middle - an d lower-class excursionist s swarme d ont o th e islan d durin g th e summe r months. In 188 2 Georg e Howar d constructe d th e first amusemen t pie r whic h extended ove r six hundred fee t int o the ocean. I t was quickly followe d b y Applegate's Pie r i n 188 4 an d th e Iro n Pier , mor e tha n a thousan d fee t long, buil t i n 1887 . Dances, shows , mechanical amusements , an d exhibit s of all sorts beckoned th e visitors onto the piers and th e Boardwalk. Wrot e one impressed visitor : "W e hav e here al l kinds o f catch-penny shows , th e wonderful woma n snak e charmer, th e man with the iron jaws, the learned pigs, th e Johnny g o rounds. . . . It is a real vanity fair." 38

From Pitney ys Folly to World's Playground • 2 5 Beer gardens, saloons , an d popula r oper a house s appeare d everywher e in th e cit y t o complete th e men u o f diversion. I n Atlanti c Cit y ther e wa s something fo r everyone . Wealth y cottagers , an d eve n cit y fathers , migh t sniff a t th e "shoobies, " the shoe-bo x lunc h crow d wh o prudentl y packe d their meal s in boxe s and swelle d th e resort's summe r population . Bu t th e railroads ha d n o suc h compunctions . Schedule d commute r train s wer e regularly shunte d asid e t o allo w th e excursio n train s t o pas s through . I n the summe r o f 1890 , a n officia l o f th e Pennsylvani a Railroa d estimate d that th e lin e carrie d thirty-eigh t thousan d excursionist s t o th e resor t from Pittsburg h alone , an d thi s di d no t coun t peopl e wh o cam e o n th e regular trains. 39 As Wal t Whitma n said , th e railroad s di d indee d buil d Atlanti c City , but thi s statemen t overlook s th e fac t tha t b y 188 0 th e railroad s wer e responding t o a demand a s well a s creating one . Throughou t mos t o f th e nineteenth century , vacation s an d tour s wer e th e prerogative s o f the ric h and well-to-do . Afte r th e Civi l War , risin g livin g standards , th e gradua l shortening o f the wor k week , an d th e availabilit y o f cheap transportatio n brought vacation s an d excursion s withi n th e reach of the middle and eve n lower classes . Thes e development s create d a deman d fo r mas s resorts , one which Richar d Osborn e ha d anticipate d perhap s a decade too soon. 40 Large an d fashionabl e hotel s bega n t o appea r durin g th e 1880 s an d became th e symbol s o f wealt h an d refinemen t i n Atlanti c City . Th e Brighton, a ramblin g four-stor y structur e o f 15 0 rooms , stoo d nea r th e ocean betwee n Illinoi s an d Indian a avenues . Opene d i n 187 6 as Brighto n Cottage b y F . W . Hemsley , i t grew i n stages until i t achieved th e propor tions o f a hote l an d wa s th e first t o sta y ope n al l year . Th e Hemsley s were on e o f a numbe r o f Quake r familie s wh o dominate d th e hote l business i n Atlanti c City . I n 185 6 Elisha an d Elizabet h Robert s buil t th e Chalfonte House , a "commodious first class boarding house" that feature d mule-car ride s ove r th e dune s t o th e water . I n 186 9 the y opene d th e Shelburne, a muc h large r cottag e tha t becam e popula r wit h Ne w Yor k luminaries includin g Diamon d Ji m Brady . I n i86 0 Willia m Dennis , th e headmaster o f Burlington Friend s School , buil t a family cottag e on Mich igan Avenu e an d graduall y expande d i t int o a twenty-two-roo m hotel . The Denni s remaine d i n Quake r hand s unti l it s sal e i n 1970 . Chalfonte Haddon Hall , late r t o becom e th e city' s first legalize d casino , bega n a s a family enterpris e i n 187 6 when Henr y Wes t Leed s persuade d hi s mothe r and hi s life-lon g companion , J . Haine s Lippincott , t o ente r th e hote l business i n Atlanti c City . Th e Tra y more, whic h hoste d Vic e Presiden t

26 • From Pitney's Folly to World's Playground Hendricks an d hi s wife fo r a n extended sta y i n 1886 , began as a ten-room boardinghouse purchase d b y Danie l S . Whit e i n 1870 . Natha n Leed s Jones, Davi d Scattergood , Charle s Evans , an d Caspa r Wister Haine s als o turned modes t fortune s t o th e transformatio n o f cottage s an d boarding houses into hotels for th e rich. 41 The "Quake r houses, " as they becam e known , se t an aristocrati c stan dard o f accommodatio n tha t evoke d a n earlier , quieter , an d mor e Victo rian concep t o f seashor e life . B y th e middl e o f th e 1880s , armie s o f liveried blac k footme n me t th e wealth y a t thei r train s an d quickl y whisked the m awa y t o their hotels . Onc e inside , auxiliarie s o f uniforme d maids, waiters , an d bellme n attende d thei r ever y need . Sailboa t rides , drives o n th e beach , an d concert s an d cuisin e wer e amusement s tha t th e rich coul d shar e wit h thei r ow n kind . Broa d verandas , glass-enclose d promenades, an d elevate d observatorie s provide d th e perspective s fro m which th e wealth y looke d dow n o n a resor t teemin g wit h middle - an d working-class humanity . As th e gentee l insularit y o f hote l lif e wa s th e exceptio n i n Atlanti c City, th e resor t no t onl y ha d t o reconcil e th e interest s o f it s divers e patronage, bu t also come to terms with its image. In an age of pronounced class distinctions , thi s wa s n o eas y task . Th e answe r wa s t o celebrat e Atlantic City' s diversit y an d t o appea l t o th e democrati c instinct s o f th e people. A n officia l guideboo k fo r th e 188 5 seaso n proclaime d tha t th e success of the city wa s du e "mainl y t o the unacknowledged distinctio n o f class i n society . Th e ric h an d th e poor , th e health y an d th e invali d ar e equally wel l received. " The cente r mil e o f th e walk , whic h i s opposit e th e city , wel l suit s th e mixed crowd tha t walks it from mornin g till night; such a conglomeration of all classes cannot b e seen in any other seasid e resort in the world. Th e rich banker does not look down upon the shop boy he meets, and the boy thinks himself equally as good as the banker for he feels the few dollars in his pocket that he has been so long scraping together to pay the expenses of his visit , an d whil e h e smoke s hi s cigar h e thinks h e is indeed doin g th e grand, an d hope s befor e hi s wee k i s up t o leave , tha t som e millionaire' s daughter will take a fancy to him.42 Democracy i n Americ a als o mean t socia l mobility . Th e opportunit y t o rub elbow s wit h th e ric h o r t o ac t th e part , i f onl y fo r th e da y o r th e weekend, wa s a major attractio n o f the resort . But the ideal of social harmony require d a balance. Suc h a resort coul d

From Pitney'sFolly to World's Playground • 2 7 have gaiety but not license or raucous hilarity. I f it could not be exclusive, neither coul d i t be vulgar. Thi s lef t a broad middl e ground. Yet , b y 1885 , the balanc e wa s beginnin g t o tilt towar d naughtines s a s can b e see n fro m the following . Atlantic City ha s no particular characteristics . I t stand s entirely b y itself; as a seaside resort it combines all of the advantages of other places without any of their extreme views. People can enjoy themselve s according to their own inclinations , a s lon g a s the y remai n withi n bounds . I t i s lik e on e seaside resort without it s beer and rowdyism-lik e anothe r withou t it s religion; another withou t it s temperance an d cheapness , an d anothe r withou t its dissipatio n an d extravagances . Her e th e extremel y goo d com e t o b e moderately bad, and the extremely bad to be moderately good, if they can. Pleasure n o doub t doe s her e reig n supreme , stil l religio n ha s no t bee n forgotten, fo r every denomination has its place of worship.43 If Mrs . Grund y disapproved , s o muc h th e better . Th e snobbis h an d tranquil worl d o f Victoria n Americ a wa s givin g wa y t o a mor e demo cratic, les s rigi d concep t o f socia l order , on e les s burdene d b y th e pre cepts of religion an d mora l uplift . Beneath th e intens e boosteris m la y th e naggin g suspicio n tha t th e popularity o f the city wouldn' t last . I n 188 9 a local editor warned tha t th e city shoul d establis h a manufacturin g bas e i n cas e th e resor t busines s should fold. 44 Suc h advic e wa s no t ofte n foun d i n th e page s o f th e loca l press, consumed , as * it was , b y th e proces s o f promotin g th e resort . Skeptics wer e als o silenced b y th e city's continued prosperity . A railroa d schedule fo r th e summe r o f 189 5 liste d eightee n dail y departure s fro m Philadelphia t o Atlanti c City , an d thi s di d no t coun t specia l excursio n trains.45 I n July 189 7 a travel write r fo r th e New York Times marveled a t the hug e crowd s an d th e democrac y o f th e resor t an d characterize d Atlantic Cit y a s "Cone y Islan d grow n a big , well-develope d girl , wit h a little boarding-school cultur e and polish , an d no one is quite sure whethe r either i s mor e tha n ski n deep." 46 Eve n sophisticate s wer e a t a los s t o explain Atlantic City, an d we should no t be surprised t o discover that th e local entrepreneur s wh o le d th e cit y an d shape d it s policie s wer e them selves wary an d uncertai n abou t it s future . To a corresponden t fro m th e Philadelphia Press, covering th e Easte r Parade i n 1903 , th e ris e o f Atlanti c Cit y fro m a "miserabl e hamle t o f fishermen's huts " t o th e world' s greates t resor t i n jus t fifty year s sug gested "Th e Tal e o f Aladdin' s Lamp. " Th e hug e hotel s wit h thei r pen -

28 • From Pitney's Folly to World's Playground nants flying fro m soarin g roof s an d cupola s resemble d Arabia n castle s arisen fro m th e sand . Bejeweled matron s promenade d i n thei r Easte r finery i n a n unendin g processio n tha t include d thousand s o f th e not-so elegant wh o wer e als o dresse d fo r th e occasion . Tourist s fro m France , Hungary, China , an d Japa n rubbe d thei r eye s a t th e displa y o f wealt h and democrac y o n th e Boardwalk , askin g i n a gaggl e o f languages , "I s this al l true? " Bu t th e corresponden t kne w tha t thi s wa s n o illusion . Atlantic Cit y marche d i n ste p wit h th e res t o f th e countr y i n a continua l journey o f progress. 47 In June 190 4 the city marke d it s fiftieth anniversar y wit h a lavish four day fete , a n extravagant displa y o f boosterism tha t wa s more than jus t a n act o f faith . "Ther e i s somethin g sonorou s an d viril e abou t th e name , Atlantic City," proclaimed th e souvenir program , "an d ther e is no danger of it s bein g confounde d wit h an y othe r plac e o r institutio n o n earth. " What Ne w Yor k wa s t o finance, Atlanti c Cit y ha d becom e t o entertain ment, distinctl y Ne w Worl d an d democratic. "I t has taught the America n people th e scienc e o f res t an d recreation , an d th e lesso n wa s neede d t o the strenuou s America n worker. " Boosteris m notwithstanding , th e cit y began it s secon d half-centur y o n a not e o f striden t self-confidenc e tha t seemed t o dispel th e doubts o f the previous decades. 48 The resor t celebrate d it s Golden Jubilee with parades, solem n ceremonies, an d a hug e triumpha l arc h spannin g Atlanti c Avenu e cappe d b y a statue o f Kin g Neptun e draw n i n a seashel l chario t b y si x seahorses . A t the foo t o f Maryland Avenu e ros e a huge granite colum n inscribe d a t th e base with th e names of Jonathan Pitne y and the other founders, symboliz ing th e foresigh t an d th e effort s o f the pioneerin g residents . Mayo r Sto y had conceive d th e celebration som e months before , enlistin g one hundre d "representative citizens " to plan th e event. "Th e Jubilee i s for everyone, " declared th e mayor , an d th e planner s an d th e parader s include d hote l people, th e yach t club , policemen , firemen, socia l an d politica l clubs , unions, liquo r dealers , th e churches, th e Women's Christia n Temperanc e Union (WCTU) , an d Northsid e groups . Bu t i n the end, th e whiteness o f the celebratio n matche d th e gleamin g whitenes s o f th e founders ' colum n as, a t th e las t moment , th e blac k group s withdre w fro m th e parad e t o settle a stor m o f protes t fro m whit e lodge s wh o refuse d t o marc h wit h them. "Atlanti c Cit y i s equipped t o entertain th e world," proclaime d th e program, an d it s missio n ha d jus t begun. 49 Th e trut h is , Atlanti c Cit y was not one resort; i t was many . "If a student o f ou r nationa l characteristic s shoul d wis h t o understan d

From Pitney's Folly to World's Playground • 2 9 the American people, " wrote Katherin e Busb y i n 1910 , he should loo k t o Atlantic City . "Fo r thi s great middle-clas s playgroun d i s the eight h won der of the world" an d "bear s witness t o the whole panorama o f America n life." Nothing is omitted fro m th e repertoire to make the American dollar feel at home. An d stil l not all the visitors a t Atlantic City ar e as opulent a s they look whe n o n th e Boardwal k parad e grounds . Man y hav e save d th e yea r through fo r a two weeks' holiday there , an d ar e staying not a t one of the magnificent hostelrie s clustering around the waterfront, bu t in a side street in one of the packing box-type flimsy honeycombs of pine which look as if they might be pulled to pieces by your fingers-orat a boarding house in the city proper. 50 By 191 0 Atlanti c Cit y ha d mad e goo d it s boas t o f bein g "Th e World' s Playground," annuall y hostin g ove r thre e millio n people. 51 A summe r population o f 250,00 0 wa s no t unusual . "Ther e i s n o one, " wrot e a Philadelphia journalist , "tha t ca n visi t Atlanti c City , fro m th e Kin g o f England t o th e $1 0 a wee k clerk , wh o wil l no t find accommodation s t o suit his taste and pocketbook." 52 Between 189 0 an d 191 5 th e residen t populatio n gre w fro m 13,03 7 t o 51,667. Fiftee n percen t o f the adult populatio n owne d busines s establish ments tha t wer e dependen t eithe r directl y o r indirectl y o n th e resor t trade, whic h flourished mainl y durin g th e summe r months. 53 Thes e ranged fro m larg e hotel s t o smal l boardinghouses , restaurants , saloons , and amusements , a s wel l a s th e supportin g businesse s necessar y t o an y small city . O f cours e th e bul k o f th e residen t populatio n consiste d o f th e thousands o f skille d an d unskille d worker s wh o buil t th e cit y an d wh o staffed th e resor t facilitie s tha t wer e th e mainsta y o f th e city' s seasona l economy. Despit e th e city' s effort s t o cultivat e th e conventio n trad e an d to promot e itsel f a s a year-roun d resort , it s lifebloo d remaine d th e hug e crowds o f excursionist s an d vacationer s tha t swelle d th e cit y durin g th e summer months . Observers wer e ofte n critica l o f th e get-rich-quic k mentalit y tha t seemed t o fue l th e city' s rapi d growth . A Philadelphi a journalis t charac terized th e resort a s a "carpetbag city." People came for man y reason s bu t stayed onl y t o mak e money . Eve n Pittsburgh , "i n it s balmies t day s o f boom," ha d no t create d a s man y fortunes . Th e "so-calle d native " ac quired " a tast e fo r champagn e earl y i n hi s seashor e career." 54 Thes e comments reflec t th e prevalen t attitud e tha t resor t buildin g wa s a n

30 • From Pitney's Folly to World's Playground ephemeral enterprise , fi t onl y fo r th e amusemen t operato r who , buildin g nothing of permanence, lacke d civi c responsibility. T o b e sure, the resor t business wa s nothing i f not risky. B y this time, Cape May, Lon g Branch , and eve n prestigiou s Saratog a Spring s ha d experience d period s o f diffi culty fro m whic h the y wer e only beginnin g to recover. 55 Bu t this was th e age o f Horati o Alger , an d i f Atlanti c Cit y di d no t boo m i n steel , i t di d boom i n tourism , a field whic h create d opportunitie s fo r th e smal l in vestor. In 190 0 local historian John Hal l wrote : "Perhap s i n no other tow n o n the Western continen t d o the hotel interests so dominate as here. Atlanti c City i s preeminentl y a hote l town . . . . Th e stor y o f thi s stupendou s extension an d expansio n i s the story of the last fifty years of this town." 56 With th e exceptio n o f a commercial fishing industr y locate d i n th e Inle t section, almos t th e entiret y o f Absecon Islan d wa s devoted t o the accom modation an d entertainmen t o f tourists. In 191 5 th e municipa l assesso r estimate d tha t 8 0 percent o f th e city' s real propert y consiste d o f hotels. O f th e 58 7 buildings liste d a s hotels fo r tax purposes , 18 7 wer e classifie d a s boardinghouses—cottage s o f te n rooms o r les s tha t advertise d an d too k i n guests . Beyon d these , ther e were " a goo d man y hundreds , perhap s thousands " o f cottage s similarl y engaged whic h ha d escape d th e assessor' s notice . Nex t i n lin e wer e 30 0 large boardinghouse s o r "smal l hotels " o f betwee n te n t o on e hundre d rooms. Frequentl y operate d b y women , the y wer e o f suc h a siz e tha t proprietors coul d tak e a persona l interes t i n th e managemen t an d th e guests. Dependen t o n persona l reputation , thos e tha t survive d th e "sec ond season " provided stead y an d lucrativ e rents. 57 Kuehnle's, a ramblin g fram e structur e o n Atlanti c Avenu e opposit e the Camde n an d Atlanti c depot , wa s on e o f th e mos t popula r smal l hotels. Th e Commodor e himsel f woul d ofte n ten d ba r an d wai t tables , and o n Sunday s stoo d a t th e doo r collectin g half-dollar s fo r th e hotel' s famed "fifty-cen t famil y dinner. " Caterin g t o th e workin g an d middl e classes, th e boardinghous e an d th e smal l hote l forme d th e stapl e o f th e resort economy . In Atlantic City, th e larger the hotel, the more exclusive and expensiv e it tended t o be. A thir d clas s of hotels consiste d o f seventy-five house s of between on e hundre d t o tw o hundre d rooms . Caterin g t o th e famil y trade, the y wer e "wit h fe w exception s manage d an d conducte d i n a quiet and a dignifie d way. " Thei r coache s me t th e trains , an d the y feature d uniformed bellmen , printe d men u cards , an d privat e baths. 58 Aspiring t o

From Pitney's Folly to World's Playground • 3 1 an upper-clas s status , thes e hotel s occupie d a highe r groun d amon g th e three group s o f hotel s tha t accommodate d th e workin g an d middl e classes. Economic an d clas s division s amon g th e residen t populatio n becam e more pronounce d a s th e cit y grew . Th e buildin g o f th e Boardwal k be tween 187 0 an d 189 6 determine d it s socia l an d politica l configuration . Before th e beachfron t developed , train s ra n dow n th e middl e o f Atlanti c Avenue, droppin g of f visitor s a t the various hotel s a t which wa s then th e center o f resor t activity . Late r thi s becam e know n a s th e "ol d system, " and Atlanti c Avenu e a s th e "Ol d Town " section . A s th e Boardwal k developed, hotel s whic h sa t modestl y nea r Pacifi c Avenu e wer e move d beach ward t o fron t o n th e ocea n an d enlarge d t o opulen t proportions . The larges t o f these , suc h a s th e Dennis , th e Traymore , th e Marlboro Blenheim, th e St . Charles , an d Chalfonte-Haddo n Hal l forme d th e nu cleus o f th e "beachfront, " whic h durin g th e 1890 s develope d int o th e city's most valuable section . Rising cathedral-lik e abov e th e glitte r o f th e Boardwal k amusements , the beachfront hotel s testified t o the progress an d permanenc e o f Atlanti c City an d t o it s continue d popularit y amon g th e rich . Th e Marlboro Blenheim, complete d i n 190 6 at a cost o f over $ 2 million, wa s th e first o f a ne w generatio n o f larg e hotels . Buil t i n stages , it s evolutio n reflecte d the natur e o f developmen t alon g th e Boardwalk . I n 188 7 Josiah Whit e purchased th e Luray , a forty-roo m woode n hostelr y a t th e foo t o f Ken tucky Avenue . It s owne r wa s willin g t o sell , Whit e late r said , becaus e "Atlantic Cit y ha d reache d it s peak . . . . Fro m her e i t coul d g o onl y backward." Bu t Whit e an d hi s son s adde d 21 0 room s t o th e hote l an d prospered.59 In 190 0 th e Lura y burne d down , an d th e White s quickl y replace d i t with th e Marlboro , a n immens e fireproof structur e tha t wa s th e las t word i n luxur y an d refinement . Later , whe n a rolle r coaste r appeare d practically unde r th e window s o f th e hotel , the y surreptitiousl y bough t out th e nuisanc e an d i n it s place constructed th e Blenheim, a magnificen t addition o f reinforced concret e designed b y Thoma s Edison . The Whites ' succes s touche d of f a boom i n luxur y hote l buildin g tha t did no t abat e unti l th e Cras h o f 1929 . Th e Marlboro-Blenhei m wa s followed b y th e Dennis , Chalfonte-Haddo n Hall , an d finally b y th e Traymore, complete d i n 191 5 by secon d cousi n Danie l S . Whit e at a cost of $ 4 million . A hug e three-dome d monolit h o f concret e an d steel , th e Traymore coul d accommodat e mor e tha n thre e thousan d persons . Buil t

32 • From Pitney's Folly to World's Playground in the Renaissanc e style , th e hotel provide d th e genteel magnificence tha t prosperous vacationer s ha d com e t o expec t i n Atlanti c City . Whil e th e city woul d wai t unti l th e next decad e for anothe r hote l of the proportion s of th e Traymore , b y 191 6 severa l "skyscraper " hotel s dominate d th e beachfront, amon g the m th e Breakers , th e Strand , an d th e St . Charles , all of which rivale d th e Traymore , i f not i n size , the n i n luxury , service , and appointments . The Boardwal k hotelme n constitute d th e economi c an d socia l elit e o f the city . Thoug h largel y self-made , the y wer e anythin g bu t nouveau x riches. Ala n K . White , Charle s D . White , Danie l S . White , Ezr a Bell , Henry Leeds , Walter J. Buzby , Newli n Haines , and J. Haine s Lippincot t were descended fro m ol d an d venerabl e Quake r families . The y bega n lif e in comfortabl e bu t unpretentiou s circumstances . The y buil t thei r for tunes on the great hotel s that dominated th e city's skyline—solid , sedate , yet elegan t house s that welcome d th e rich an d reflecte d th e socia l outloo k of their proprietors . The hotel s of Atlantic City provide d economi c opportunity o f a differ ent sor t fo r larg e number s o f blac k peopl e who , beginnin g i n th e 1870s , flocked to the resort i n droves seeking employment i n the hotel-recreatio n industry tha t wa s rapidl y developing . Black s firs t cam e a s workers, late r as visitors, an d finally, b y th e mid-1880s , ha d settle d i n Atlanti c Cit y i n numbers sufficien t t o constitute a significant an d stabl e part of its popula tion. I n thei r role s a s workers , visitors , an d residents , blac k peopl e i n Atlantic Cit y presente d a vivid an d comprehensiv e reflectio n o f the blac k experience i n the Nort h followin g th e Civil War . In a n er a whe n th e grea t industria l center s o f th e Nort h wer e no t ready t o emplo y blacks , th e islan d becam e a mecc a fo r legion s o f blac k men an d wome n wh o becam e waiters, porters , bellmen , maids , servants , cooks, an d domestics . B y 190 5 black s mad e u p 9 5 percen t o f th e hote l work forc e i n Atlanti c City . Thi s wa s no t unusual , a s th e majorit y o f blacks workin g i n th e Nort h durin g thi s perio d wer e employe d i n "do mestic an d persona l service, " a censu s categor y tha t include d hote l work.60 A s th e industria l economie s o f Trenton , Newark , Paterson , an d Jersey Cit y wer e buil t o n th e back s o f immigran t labor , th e resor t econ omy o f Atlantic City reste d o n the service of black workers. 61 When Atlanti c Cit y bega n t o boo m i n th e 1870s , th e onu s o f slaver y still la y heavil y upo n th e Unite d States . Black s wh o trickle d nort h t o form th e vanguar d o f the grea t migratio n tha t woul d begi n t o materializ e

From Pitney 9s Folly to World's Playground • 3 3 a generatio n late r soo n sa w tha t th e peculia r patter n o f rac e relation s i n the Sout h wa s merely transpose d northward . In 187 6 Charle s Wes t Cope , th e presiden t o f th e Roya l Academ y o f England, dine d a s th e gues t o f a Quake r hote l owner . Hi s impression s provide a rare glimps e o f blac k hote l worker s durin g th e formativ e year s of the resort . The meal s wer e excellent , an d th e servic e conducte d b y a staf f o f blac k waiters unde r th e comman d o f a chef, a very handsome , compactly-buil t man, in the finest linen and the smartest satin ties of primrose or pale blue, which se t of f hi s dar k ski n t o advantage , I wa s intereste d i n thes e blac k people. They were very zealous in their duties, and when dinner was over they al l adjourne d t o som e roug h groun d nea r th e se a an d playe d a t rounders. They seeme d a happy, contented , merr y set, constantly singin g and laughing . Their peculia r laugh , a sort of "ugh, ugh," seemed to come from dee p chest recesses; and one of them, whil e running after a ball, fel l into a depression o f the ground hidde n b y a bush o f weeds, an d hi s heels appeared abov e it i n the air . Th e genera l laug h was contagious, i n which the negro who had disappeared heartil y joine d when he rose, as his white teeth glittering in the sun showed us. 62 In thi s portrait , whic h appeare d a s a delightful vignette , w e can perceiv e the rol e tha t black s wer e expecte d t o pla y i n th e resort . Thei r efficienc y and contentmen t mus t surel y hav e bee n th e subjec t o f th e dinner' s con versation betwee n thi s curiou s upper-clas s Englishman , unfamilia r wit h American racia l mores, an d his kindly Quake r host s who no doubt baske d in self-satisfactio n a t th e happ y conditio n o f thei r help . W e canno t kno w the feeling s o f thes e particula r blac k workers , bu t seasona l employmen t in Atlanti c Cit y mus t hav e seeme d a bright alternativ e t o lif e o n a tenan t farm i n Virginia , Maryland , o r North Carolina. 63 In June 189 3 a waiter, dissatisfie d wit h th e employees ' food , commit ted th e bold an d symboli c ac t of ordering a regular mea l for himsel f fro m the hea d steward . Whe n th e stewar d refused , th e entir e staf f walke d ou t in th e first o f onl y thre e strike s know n t o hav e bee n conducte d b y blac k waiters befor e th e adven t o f union s i n th e 1920s . Th e hote l summaril y dismissed th e striker s an d tha t evenin g replace d the m wit h th e hotel' s chambermaids. O n th e nex t mornin g th e dinin g roo m wa s staffe d b y " a new forc e o f colore d waiters." 64 I n Augus t 1899 , a t th e heigh t o f th e season, th e entir e forc e o f waiter s a t th e Albio n Hote l walke d ou t an d attempted wit h n o succes s t o ge t th e othe r hote l employee s t o joi n th e

34 • From Pitney's Folly to World's Playground strike. Th e manage r discharge d th e strikers , sendin g immediatel y fo r th e police and a new force of waiters. The Union reported tha t "th e manager s greatly deplore d th e occurrenc e an d receive d th e sympath y o f the guest s who realized th e dilemma the y wer e in." 65 A third , mor e disastrous , strik e occurre d i n th e Marlboro-Blenhei m Hotel i n th e summe r o f 1906 . Th e hote l mad e temporar y wag e adjust ments whic h laste d unti l th e en d o f th e season , bu t the n introduce d th e "European Plan " a t th e Blenheim , replacin g al l of th e blac k waiter s wit h whites a t th e sam e rat e o f pay . Th e inciden t ha d cit y wide ramifications . Later, blac k waiter s referre d t o th e perio d befor e 190 7 a s th e "golde n era." Afte r th e strike , increasin g number s o f whit e workers , particularl y women, appeare d i n the hotel dining rooms of Atlantic City. 66 Waiters' wages could var y fro m $ 8 per mont h i n the smalle r establish ments t o $25 in the exclusive hotels. Ofte n th e pay wa s supplemented b y room an d board , bu t th e regula r compensatio n wa s a pittance compare d to th e gratuities . Recalle d on e "ol d hotelman" : " I hav e bee n tippe d mor e money fo r waitin g on a party tha n that particula r part y pai d fo r hi s boar d at the hotel." 67 Although man y blac k males did relatively wel l in Atlanti c City, a s a rule wage s wer e low , condition s poor , an d competitio n fo r th e few year-roun d job s was intense. William M . Ashb y wa s on e o f a numbe r o f Lincol n Universit y stu dents wh o worke d a s a waite r i n Atlanti c Cit y durin g th e earl y 1900s . During th e da y h e worke d a t a small hote l an d a t nigh t h e waite d table s at th e Ilesworth , a hote l tha t feature d a hug e block-lon g cabaret . A favorite haun t o f Lillia n Russell , th e cabare t wa s on e o f th e busies t an d most popula r place s in the resort . Ashby wa s on duty a t the Ilesworth on the night of July 4, 1910 , when Jack Johnson knocke d ou t Jim Jeffries fo r th e heavyweight championshi p of the world. "Th e patrons, " he recalled, "wer e in an ugly mood . Jeffrie s had let the whole white race down . . . b y letting that nigger beat him up." The crowd vented thei r anger on the waiters, calling them "ugly, profane , and degrading names." According to Ashby, th e humiliation of black waiters was a common sport. "W e suffered fro m rud e or half drunk guests who called us degrading names because of our color." Such treatment had to be borne i n silence , bu t ther e wa s retributio n o f sorts : "W e coul d i n a wa y always get back at them. W e could spit in their sou p or in their beer. Thi s was sometimes done. Bu t this was a vicarious triumph. The y woul d neve r know of our repulsive act. . . . Rebellion caused us to think of ways to get even the very minute we stepped on the floor." 68

From Pitney's Folly to World's Playground • 3 5 To ge t o n th e floor a t th e Ilesworth , on e purchase d a towe l fo r 2 5 cents fro m Johnn y Johnson , th e blac k headwaiter . Thi s wa s a commo n practice i n resor t hotels , on e that "n o waite r woul d dar e challenge. " Sai d Ashby, workin g i n th e Ileswort h wa s lik e "bein g i n a jungle. " Owner ship, management , an d th e worker s wer e ou t t o chea t th e patron s an d each other . O n a bus y night , glasses , plates , an d silve r wer e i n shor t supply an d waiter s habituall y stol e fro m on e another , whic h ofte n re sulted i n "fierc e fights." Eve n i f a waite r wer e caugh t stealin g fro m a customer, h e ra n "n o grea t ris k o f retaliation. " Black male s constitute d th e mos t vulnerabl e segmen t o f th e resort' s population, a situatio n worsene d b y th e constan t threa t o f thei r replace ment b y whit e women . Critica l t o th e resor t economy , the y wer e none theless expendable . Ye t blac k worker s i n th e resor t probabl y fare d n o worse tha n thos e i n simila r occupation s i n othe r Norther n cities , an d the opportunit y fo r employmen t continue d t o dra w the m t o th e cit y i n large numbers . As earl y a s the 1890s , the blac k presenc e create d seriou s problem s fo r the resort's image . I n 189 3 t ne Philadelphia Inquirer asked: What ar e we going to d o with ou r colore d people ? Tha t i s the question . Atlantic Cit y ha s neve r befor e seeme d s o overrun wit h th e dar k skinne d race a s thi s season , probabl y becaus e th e smalle r proportio n o f visitor s makes their number more prominent. At any rate, both the boardwalk and Atlantic Avenu e fairl y swar m wit h the m durin g bathin g hours , lik e th e fruit i n a huckleberry pudding. This has gone so far that it is offending th e sensitive feelings of many visitors, especially those from the South. . . . O f the hundreds of hotels and boarding houses which stud the island from one end t o the other, i t i s probable that no t a dozen could b e found i n which white help is employed. An d whe n to the thousands of waiters and cooks and porters are added the nurse girls, the chambermaids, the barbers, and bootblacks an d hac k driver s an d othe r colore d gentr y i n ever y wal k an d occupation o f life , i t i s eas y t o se e wha t a n evi l i t i s tha t hang s ove r Atlantic City.69 The articl e appeare d afte r a financial pani c an d durin g a sever e depres sion. Har d economi c time s ten d t o heighte n racia l tensions , an d th e Inquirer's observation sen t an ominous messag e to area blacks. One wee k late r th e Philadelphia Tribune, 2, black publication , sen t a reporter t o Atlanti c Cit y t o investigate , an d hi s findings wer e recorde d by th e Daily Union.

36 • From Pitney's Folly to World's Playground He found n o serious "problem" agitating the public. His people were here in grea t number s becaus e the y wer e neede d an d ha d bee n sen t fo r a s servants. A s a rule , the y kep t i n thei r place s becomingly , an d di d no t intrude t o offend thos e who were over-sensitive a s to race prejudice. Th e colored peopl e are natural bor n servants , takin g bossing more meekly and gracefully, tha n whit e help , an d ar e fo r thes e an d othe r goo d reasons , generally preferred. 70 At worst , w e ma y vie w th e Tribune's compromise a s acceptanc e o f th e caste system tha t wa s already entrenche d i n Northern cities , and, a t best , as a strategi c retrea t o f th e sor t tha t Booke r T . Washingto n woul d mak e in Atlanta tw o years later. I f not the hoped-for millennium , Atlanti c Cit y was on e o f th e fe w precariou s foothold s fo r black s i n th e urba n North , one i n whic h significant number s ha d live d an d worke d i n relativ e peac e for twent y years . Seen fro m stil l anothe r perspective , th e ite m indicate d tha t th e cit y had take n n o step s t o exclud e black s fro m th e beac h o r th e Boardwalk . However, th e natur e o f th e Boardwal k an d th e othe r publi c area s o f th e city mad e rigi d control s difficul t t o impose , an d befor e th e tur n o f th e century, black s managed t o enjoy a t least some of their attractions . More over, whe n black s wer e relativel y fe w i n number , the y di d no t overl y excite whit e racia l anxiety . A s thei r number s increased , tension s ros e proportionately. In 188 4 on e Charle s Edwards , havin g bee n refuse d admissio n t o tw o concert garden s o n th e Boardwalk , brough t sui t unde r a state civil right s law passe d tha t year . Edito r Hesto n o f th e Review expressed surpris e a t the incident , noting : "Whil e th e colore d peopl e hav e neve r attempte d t o secure accommodations a t a hotel, howeve r the y hav e in perhaps al l cases been supplie d wit h refreshment s a t th e bar ; a t leas t i f ever refused , ther e was neve r an y nois e mad e abou t i t an d u p t o th e presen t tim e the y hav e except i n on e o r tw o instance s gon e int o al l place s o f amusement s upo n perfect equalit y wit h th e whites." 71 W e ma y wel l questio n Heston' s succinct histor y o f th e city' s racia l policy . Racia l segregatio n wa s prac ticed b y black s themselves wh o would invariabl y kno w the limits. As th e blac k presenc e increased , th e colo r lin e stiffened . I n Augus t 1896 amusement operator s forcibl y ejecte d Georg e Clinton fro m a toboggan slide . Clinton , a delegat e t o th e Republica n Nationa l Convention , put u p a struggle bu t wa s throw n int o a rubbish heap , handcuffe d b y th e police, and take n away. Clinto n als o threatened t o bring suit, bu t nothin g came of either case. 72

From Pitney ys Folly to World's Playground • 3 7 Between 189 9 and 1924 , George Wall s operated th e onl y black-owne d business o n th e Boardwalk , a bathhous e a t th e foo t o f Texa s Avenu e i n the excursio n district . Th e establishmen t serve d bot h races , bu t black s bathed a t th e designate d beac h a t Missouri Avenue , tw o block s away . I n 1899 Wall s addresse d a prospectu s t o blac k investors , an d gav e clea r indication tha t hi s venture ha d th e blessin g of the city's whit e leadership , and tha t i t was , fro m thei r poin t o f view , a solutio n t o th e city' s racia l problem. Atlantic City , sai d Walls , "employ s mor e Colore d me n an d wome n than an y othe r cit y i n the country," and the y "enjo y mor e privileges tha n in an y othe r cit y o f it s kin d i n th e Unite d States. " Th e eigh t thousan d blacks i n th e cit y owne d mor e tha n $500,00 0 wort h o f property . Bu t none had ye t bough t sout h o f Atlantic Avenue. Fo r black s with means , i t was a golde n opportunity ; th e director s o f th e corporatio n ha d bee n "invited" and "encouraged " b y "Whit e friends," wh o stood read y to help. Most of Walls's prospectus rea d a s though i t were taken from th e pages of Heston's Handbook. "Our wive s an d ou r childre n ar e subjec t t o sicknes s and nervou s breakdown , jus t lik e other people , an d nee d a place that wil l most quickl y an d mos t thoroughl y restor e ou r health , strength , an d beauty." Walls had hig h expectations of his bathhouse. H e envisione d th e city a s a Norther n bas e fo r America n blacks , a plac e wher e peopl e o f substance coul d congregat e an d discus s th e problem s confrontin g th e race.73 In 198 0 a n elderl y blac k residen t describe d th e realit y o f th e beachfront a s it existed earl y i n the century : [The colored beach] was at Missouri Avenue. It's where everybody went to meet. . . . The other beaches . . . were concessions of the hotels. . . . Now there wasn't any law that you couldn't go on those beaches, but the reason was that th e peopl e gathered mor e or les s at the Missouri Avenu e beach, and that' s where the majority o f the people were. . . . I f you said, "Well, I'm goin g to b e i n Atlanti c Cit y ove r th e weekend , yo u kne w tha t i f we went to Missouri Avenue, that's where we'd find them ; there was a million of them there.74 In 190 6 Wall s actuall y petitione d cit y counci l fo r a n ordinanc e prohib iting black s fro m bathin g outsid e o f Missour i Avenue . Othe r blac k resi dents wh o sa w mixe d bathin g a s a danger t o thei r employmen t situatio n supported th e effort. 75 Bu t b y thi s time , th e cit y ha d n o nee d fo r suc h an ordinance .

38 • From Pitney's Folly to World's Playground The beac h wa s publi c domain , an d nothin g prevente d venturesom e blacks from traversin g it s entire length. Discriminatio n o n the Boardwal k consisted o f innumerabl e privat e acts . Sod a fountain s an d minera l wate r booths use d separat e set s o f glasse s fo r black s an d whites . Th e "Ji m Crow" glasses were larger, thicker , an d held more, but this minor bargai n did no t assuag e th e feeling s o f indignan t black s wh o vigorously , bu t vainly, proteste d th e practice. 76 Beginning i n th e summe r o f 1904 , polic e ordere d black s of f carousel s and othe r amusement s o n th e Boardwalk . I n 190 6 a notice poste d i n th e employees' section s o f hotel s an d restaurant s calle d attentio n t o th e re sort's increasing Souther n patronag e and read: "We therefore reques t tha t you, ou r colore d employees , an d you r familie s an d friends , no t t o bath e or loung e i n fron t o f ou r respectiv e properties , . . . feeling sur e that yo u will appreciat e th e appea l i n th e spiri t i n whic h i t i s mad e an d tha t it s observance will benefit bot h yourselves an d ourselves." 77 The hotelme n mad e tha t spiri t plai n b y concludin g tha t "ther e woul d be fewer colore d employees " if the practic e continued. I n urgin g compli ance, th e Sunday Gazette was even more explicit : The colore d ma n is dependent o n the white man for hi s living, and when the whit e ma n say s i t i s necessar y fo r th e colore d ma n t o joi n hi m i n improving business by a little self-denial, h e should promptl y agre e to the request. Fo r years the colored bather has been an issue on the oceanfront . Hints that he was not wanted were of little consequence. Until the Southern man arrived, th e hotel men were disinclined t o force th e issue, which to the m woul d loo k lik e discrimination . Whe n i t reache d th e issu e o f dollars, the hotel men acted. 78 In 190 6 th e polic y o f racia l segregatio n crystallize d i n Atlanti c City , bu t it does not appear that it resulted fro m a n increase in Southern patronage . Racial tension s predate d an y larg e influ x o f Souther n visitors , a n indica tion that Northerner s wer e no more tolerant than Southerners . Late r tha t summer, precisel y th e sam e thing occurre d i n Cap e May , a resort whic h had ha d a proportionally muc h large r Souther n clientel e sinc e before th e Civil War. 79 Commercial resort s carried a high potential fo r racia l violence, particu larly outsid e o f the Dee p Sout h wher e code s governing th e associatio n o f the races were not officially draw n an d the recognized rule s of segregatio n were often murky . Thi s wa s mos t tragicall y illustrate d b y th e swimmin g incident i n Lak e Michigan durin g th e summe r o f 191 9 which touche d of f

From Pitney's Folly to World's Playground • 3 9 the Chicago Race Riot, resultin g in the deaths of thirty-eight people . Th e events tha t le d t o th e rio t bega n whe n The Whip, a blac k newspaper , urged blac k Chicagoan s t o mak e th e Twenty-fift h Stree t beac h "ou r Atlantic City." 80 I n Keyport , i n June 1888 , a numbe r o f whit e youth s "thought i t woul d b e funn y t o spoi l th e fu n o f a negro , wh o astrid e a wooden horse , wa s enjoyin g himsel f t o th e utmost. " Th e youth s pur chased te n pound s o f flour i n separat e bag s an d too k turn s dousin g th e black ma n a s he whirled aroun d th e carousel. Eithe r i n panic or anger, h e drew a pisto l an d bega n firing a t hi s tormenters , severel y woundin g a bystander. 81 Seaford , Delaware , als o experienced a serious racia l conflic t during th e summe r o f 1906. 82 N o suc h inciden t occurre d i n Atlanti c City. Afte r 1904 , th e colo r line , thoug h unofficial , carrie d al l o f th e weight o f municipal ordinances . In Septembe r 189 6 the Philadelphia Inquirer noted: "On e o f the harbin gers of fall i s the annual excursions o f colored citizen s from Pennsylvania , Delaware, an d Ne w Jerse y t o th e seashore." 83 B y th e 1890 s th e annua l September excursion s of black people to the resort had becom e an institu tion, allowin g th e cit y t o exten d th e seaso n fo r anothe r weekend . Wit h the enactmen t o f Labo r Da y a s a nationa l holida y i n 1904 , th e blac k excursions cam e durin g th e secon d wee k i n September . Durin g thes e holidays, black s ma y hav e enjoye d a respit e fro m th e usua l restrictions , but no t from humiliation . In 189 2 th e Union remarked : "There' s mor e tha n on e ne w coo n i n town today ; fully 8,00 0 of'em."8 4 I n 189 8 the Union observed: They are patronizing the street cars and the busmen are doing a good trade. The lunch counters an d the buffets ar e gathering in plenty o f nickels and dimes, fo r th e colore d fol k ar e generou s and , lik e Pittsburghers , spen d every dime they bring with them and have only the return coupons of their tickets left when the day is done. . . . Tomorrow they will be gone, and it is estimate d tha t the y wil l leav e behin d n o les s tha n $20,00 0 i n hard earned cash. 85 The sam e ton e wa s struc k b y Walte r Evan s Edge' s Republica n Press i n September 1900 : Yesterday was a great day for the colored population. Over eleven thousand were brought in by the two roads on the excursion train. . . . A great long line o f sambo s an d Liz a Janes wa s see n lik e a hug e cineograp h movin g picture along the ocean front. . . . The loud laugh of the happy negro and

40 • From Pitney's Folly to World's Playground the "yaller girl" made the Boardwalk ring. . . . Considering the event and the lo w price of razors, i t i s wonderful tha t s o few disturbance s occurre d during the day.86 Negative coverag e fo r black s wa s b y n o mean s unusua l i n th e Norther n press i n either Democrati c o r Republica n papers . Bu t fo r loca l newsmen , ridiculing th e Septembe r excursionist s wa s a n annua l sportin g ritua l an d served a s another reminde r fo r black s of their plac e in resort society . The blac k presenc e i n Atlanti c Cit y date s fro m th e city' s inceptio n i n 1854. Blac k laborer s worke d o n th e constructio n o f th e railroad s and , t o some degree , i n hote l an d roa d constructio n i n th e 1850 s an d 1860s . A s most o f th e worker s wer e transients , the y ha d littl e effec t o n th e city' s resident population . Massiv e blac k immigratio n coincide d wit h hote l de velopment, whic h bega n i n earnes t i n th e 1870 s an d 1880s . Mos t wer e seasonal employees , bu t a large number o f black peopl e chos e to settl e i n the resort an d mad e up a significant portio n o f its resident population . B y 1910, whe n black s accounte d fo r 6. 4 percen t o f th e populatio n o f Cam den, 3 percent o f Newark , 2. 7 percen t o f Trenton , 2. 2 percen t o f Jersey City, an d onl y 3. 5 percen t o f th e urba n populatio n o f Ne w Jersey , Atlantic City' s 9,83 4 blac k peopl e mad e u p ove r 2 1 percen t o f it s total , which b y thi s tim e exceede d 46,000 . B y 191 5 th e populatio n o f Atlanti c City ros e t o 51,667 , an d th e blac k population , a t 11,069 , kep t pac e a t 21 percent. 87 During th e earl y years , black s live d i n cluster s throughou t th e city , either i n servants ' quarter s o r i n makeshif t housin g nea r thei r employ ment. A s th e souther n o r beac h ward sectio n bega n t o develo p wit h summer cottages , hotels , an d permanen t residents , black s wer e increas ingly force d int o th e norther n portio n o f th e cit y beyon d Atlanti c Ave nue. B y 190 5 th e "Northside, " Atlanti c City' s blac k community , ha d taken shape . It s boundarie s wer e clearl y define d an d include d th e are a north o f Atlantic Avenue to the meadows, extendin g to Arkansas Avenu e on th e west , an d t o Connecticu t Avenu e o n th e east . I n 190 5 onl y 3. 3 percent o f th e city' s black s live d outsid e o f thi s area , an d b y 191 5 black s with whit e neighbor s woul d constitut e les s than on e percen t o f th e blac k population. Practicall y al l th e black s wh o reside d i n whit e area s o f th e city eithe r live d i n th e hotel s i n whic h the y worke d o r wer e live-i n hel p at private residences. 88 If the busines s cycle made life precariou s fo r whit e industrial workers , the seasonal economy o f Atlantic City created condition s fo r nativ e blacks

From Pitney ys Folly to World's Playground • 4 1 that wer e almos t nightmarish . B y 188 1 cit y counci l wa s settin g asid e funds i n October fo r "takin g care of the poor in winter." 89 I n 188 8 Alfre d Heston, th e city' s chie f publicist , wrote : "Colore d peopl e com e her e fo r the purpos e o f doin g laundr y an d waiting , an d thei r childre n ar e bottl e fed an d neglected." 90 Th e winte r o f 190 5 was particularly harsh , an d th e Overseer o f th e Poo r wa s overwhelme d wit h request s fo r aid . H e re ported: "A s usual , thos e applyin g fo r relie f ar e mostl y colored , bu t a number o f whit e familie s hav e bee n amon g th e recen t applicants. " Re publican club s i n al l fou r o f th e city' s wards , alon g wit h Mayo r Stoy , Louis Kuehnle , an d othe r prominen t citizens , wer e activ e i n charit y work, i n on e da y distributin g forty-fiv e gallon s o f sou p an d 36 9 loave s of bread. 91 Margaret Brett , a socia l worke r investigatin g th e condition s o f black s in Atlantic City i n 191 2 for th e Survey, reported: "Irregularit y o f employ ment, th e mos t seriou s problem o f modern life , reache s it s apex i n Atlan tic City. " "In season " relatives an d acquaintance s ar e urged t o come to this E l Dorado, an d come they do in battalions, happy with the vision of picking up like shells from th e beach gold that the visitors waste. And then they wake up. "Ou t o f season" a city o f 300,00 0 all of a sudden i n the moisture of a cold wave has dissolved t o 100,000 , and in two weeks the recently arrive d are paying room rent with promises and subsisting on sea breezes.92 Then a s now , Atlanti c Cit y wa s a stud y i n contrasts . O n th e avenues , "an arm y o f blithesom e Negroes " serve d th e visitor s an d a t day' s en d retreated t o a "labyrinth o f alleys , lanes , an d streets " of two-room shack s and worn-ou t homesteads , "al l cellerles s an d fe w sanitary, " an d whos e rents wer e high i n winter an d eve n higher i n summer . The seasona l econom y create d specia l problems fo r th e entire city, bu t winters fel l wit h a particula r harshnes s o n th e blac k community . Socia l services fel l unde r th e aegi s o f th e Oversee r o f th e Poor , whos e meage r handouts mean t onl y bar e sustenanc e fo r th e unemploye d durin g th e difficult col d months . Churche s an d privat e charitie s wer e als o activ e i n aiding th e poor , bu t suc h effort s coul d no t begi n t o addres s th e proble m of seasonal unemployment , whic h wa s a fixture of the resort economy . In 190 9 th e city' s socia l service s wer e combine d unde r a branc h o f Organized Charities , a nationa l organizatio n whic h maintaine d agencie s in over two hundred municipalities . It s motto, "Not Alms, But a Friend," reflected it s "scientific" outlook on poverty .

42 • From Pitney's Folly to World's Playground Their researc h i n Atlantic City confirme d th e popular suspicio n abou t the underclass that , a s a rule, "th e cry fo r brea d wa s simply a demand fo r booze; tha t th e whin e o f povert y wa s simpl y th e traine d cadenc e o f laziness."93 Margare t Bret t observe d paternalisticall y bu t no t unsympa thetically tha t "th e Negroe s dwel l i n a stat e o f intermitten t prosperity . Always livin g fro m han d t o mout h an d wit h rent s i n arrears , the y tak e refuge i n th e morrow . I n winte r the y reaso n wit h cheerfu l philosoph y that i t i s th e city' s dut y t o tak e car e o f them. " A t thi s time , th e cit y committed bu t $5,00 0 per yea r to Organized Charities. 94 To th e vas t majorit y o f blac k residents , Atlanti c Cit y offere d littl e beyond seasona l an d menia l employment . Outsid e o f the worl d o f work , there wer e fe w institutiona l relationship s betwee n black s an d whites . After a n unsuccessfu l experimen t wit h schoo l integratio n i n th e 1890s , the Boar d o f Educatio n adopte d a n officia l polic y o f segregatio n i n 1901 . The municipa l hospita l treate d black s i n separat e wards , an d blac k chil dren coul d no t pla y i n publi c park s outsid e o f th e Northside . A s a result, th e Northsid e turne d inwar d an d develope d paralle l institutions , agencies, and leadership , most of which centered abou t the church. Blac k fraternal organization s suc h a s th e Princ e Hal l Masons , organize d i n 1881, and the Lighthouse Lodg e of the Elks, founded i n 1900 , were active in communit y wor k an d charitabl e activitie s an d provide d socia l lif e fo r the black upper classes . Saloons , restaurants, an d dance halls operated b y local blacks catered t o both native s an d blac k tourists an d provide d socia l amenities tha t coul d no t b e obtaine d sout h o f Atlanti c Avenue . Th e Northside develope d no t merel y a s a physica l ghetto , bu t als o a s a n institutional one , in the city, bu t not of it, an enclave distinct and separat e from th e mainstream o f resort life. 95 The beachfron t an d th e Northsid e represente d th e extreme s o f Atlan tic City' s clas s structure . Atlanti c Avenue , th e mai n thoroughfar e tha t ran wes t fro m th e Inlet , bisecte d th e entir e cit y an d develope d a s th e business center . Once-gran d cottages , remnant s o f th e avenue' s mor e exclusive days, were being renovated int o storefronts an d boardinghouse s and smal l hotels . I n 191 2 a boomlet i n th e buildin g o f apartmen t house s added t o th e commercia l atmospher e tha t th e "Ol d Town " sectio n wa s beginning t o tak e on . Excep t fo r th e profusio n o f taverns , restaurants , and saloon s tha t wer e jamme d durin g th e summe r months , Atlanti c Avenue resemble d th e busines s distric t o f an y smal l America n city . Between Arkansa s an d Connecticu t avenue s i t forme d th e souther n

From Pitney's Folly to World's Playground • 4 3 boundary o f th e Northside , a dividin g lin e betwee n tw o distinc t an d separate worlds . The Inle t sectio n a t the northwestern poin t o f the island ha d becom e a district o f working - an d middle-clas s whites . Onc e a n exclusiv e cottag e section an d th e sit e o f th e Roya l Palac e Hotel , i t to o ha d falle n ou t o f fashion wit h th e ric h wit h th e developmen t o f the beachfront . Befor e th e turn o f the century, Mar y Riddl e ha d le d a group o f enterprising wome n in creatin g Chelsea , a fashionabl e are a o f imposin g home s an d summe r cottages in the southwester n portio n of the city. 96 West o f th e Northside , i n th e vicinit y o f Arcti c Avenue , stoo d th e nucleus o f a n Italia n communit y know n a s Ducktown . Althoug h th e foreign-born populatio n reache d 6,48 5 i n 191 0 and represented 1 4 percent of th e total , it s divers e mixtur e preclude d th e formatio n o f substantia l ethnic communitie s withi n th e city . Th e larges t group s wer e th e Italian s at 1,383 , th e Russian s a t 1,148 , and th e Germans at 835.^ Assuming tha t national immigratio n pattern s hel d tru e fo r Atlanti c City , th e majorit y o f the Russian s wer e Jewish. Bu t lik e the rest of the foreign born , the y wer e represented a t al l levels of the socia l spectrum . Wit h th e exceptio n o f th e black Northside , ethnicit y wa s no t a larg e socia l o r politica l facto r i n the city . With the completion o f the Philadelphia an d Atlantic Railroad i n 1877 , the are a surroundin g it s terminu s a t Arkansa s Avenu e quickl y gre w int o a smal l amusemen t cente r fo r th e workin g classes . Th e Narro w Gaug e Excursion Hous e an d th e Seavie w Excursio n Hous e afforde d inexpensiv e accommodations nea r th e beac h an d becam e th e nucle i o f a variet y o f booths, rides , an d pavilion s caterin g chiefl y t o th e excursio n trade . Sa loons such as the Poodle Dog, th e Hole-in-the-Wall, an d O'Neil's Taver n could becom e rough . I n 189 1 a corresponden t t o th e Union complained: "In on e avenu e dow n tow n ther e ar e thirtee n saloon s i n a block. Her e i s where th e excursionist s go . Som e o f thes e hav e bee n a littl e bette r tha n dives an d ever y littl e whil e w e woul d ge t a case of a man wh o ha d bee n drugged an d robbe d o r beate n an d robbe d whil e drunk." 98 B y th e 1890 s the sectio n ha d becom e know n a s "the Bowery," an d policeme n patrolle d it in twos for thei r mutua l protection . (Se e map on p. 44. ) At th e botto m o f th e socia l pyrami d reste d it s foundation , th e fifth o f the population wh o had nothin g to sell but thei r labor . Th e vas t majorit y of Northsid e resident s define d economi c goal s i n term s o f survival . Yet , on electio n day , Republica n leader s counte d o n th e Northsid e t o vot e

44 * From Pitney's Folly to World's Playground

Atlantic City in 1905. solidly for th e organization line . Observers summerize d loca l politics wit h the axiom , "Th e beachfron t pay s th e taxes , bu t th e Northsid e doe s th e voting." At thi s tim e th e Democrat s wer e th e part y o f white supremacy , lynching wa s a national scandal , an d th e Republican s were , afte r all , th e party o f Lincoln . Between 185 4 a nd t n e adven t of commission government i n 191 2 whe n city wide mayoralt y election s wer e n o longe r held , Republican s electe d fourteen o f th e sixtee n mayors , an d had , wit h rar e exception , controlle d city council . W e migh t assum e tha t durin g th e nineteent h centur y loca l residents too k their part y allegiance s seriousl y an d tha t Atlanti c City wa s a solid Republica n town . Neithe r wa s the case. Willard Wright , a Democrat an d a popular loca l physician, wo n one-year term s a s mayor i n 1877 , 1878, 1880 , an d 1882 , an d a two-yea r ter m i n 1892 . Th e voter s electe d local attorne y an d municipa l judg e Joseph Thompso n t o th e mayoralt y in 1898 . In 189 0 Smith E. Johnson, th e perennial Republica n sherif f o f Atlanti c County, wo n a n assembl y sea t b y 19 5 votes bu t carrie d th e cit y b y onl y 105 o f it s tota l o f 2,01 7 votes . I n 189 1 Republica n mayo r Hoffma n captured th e sam e sea t b y a majorit y o f 28 1 ove r th e Democrati c ta x assessor, Willia m Riddle , bu t los t th e cit y b y seve n votes. " Riddle , a follower o f Henr y George , create d a loca l sensatio n b y assessin g beachfront propertie s a t significantl y highe r rates . H e wo n reelectio n t o

From Pitney's Folly to World's Playground • 4 5 that office i n March 189 2 by the more substantial majorit y o f 591 votes.100 The pictur e tha t emerge s fro m th e politica l hodgepodg e o f th e 1890 s amounts t o nothin g mor e tha n small-tow n politic s drive n b y persona l affinities an d loca l interest s i n whic h Democrat s wer e abl e t o moun t a viable opposition . Not untypically , th e leadershi p o f bot h politica l partie s durin g th e nineteenth an d earl y twentiet h centurie s wa s draw n fro m th e risin g clas s of smal l businessme n an d professional s whos e interest s wer e primaril y local i n scope. 101 Th e transitio n fro m th e "ol d system " t o th e "ne w system" mean t tha t politica l an d civi c leadershi p fel l t o th e Atlanti c Avenue o r Ol d Tow n interests . Th e expandin g resor t econom y create d a number o f loca l busines s elite s wh o buil t modes t fortune s i n enterprise s tied bot h directl y an d indirectl y t o tourism an d entertainment . Here w e find Loui s Kuehnle , Jr., th e mos t successfu l amon g th e Ol d Town businessmen , b y 190 5 a reputed millionair e and a highly respecte d citizen o f Atlanti c City . Louis , Sr. , a Germa n chef , ha d immigrate d t o the Unite d State s i n 1849 . I n 185 8 he brough t hi s wif e an d thre e son s t o Egg Harbor , th e newl y create d Germa n settlemen t locate d twelv e mile s north o f Atlantic Cit y o n th e Camde n an d Atlanti c Railroad . H e opene d the Ne w Yor k Hotel , serve d severa l term s a s th e Democrati c mayo r o f Egg Harbor, an d wo n a seat on the county Boar d o f Freeholders. I n 187 5 he opened Kuehnle' s Hote l a t the southwest corne r of Atlantic and Sout h Carolina avenue s an d place d i t unde r th e managemen t o f hi s eightee n year old son , Louis , Jr. 102 A Democrat , youn g Kuehnl e ha d littl e tim e fo r politics . H e neve r married, spendin g his young manhood buildin g his hotel business , wher e he worked feverishl y cooking , tendin g bar , an d waitin g tables. Whe n th e Pennsylvania Railroa d absorbe d th e Camde n an d Atlantic , i t buil t it s main depot jus t opposite the hotel, an d Kuehnle' s prospere d enormously . Its sixty-foo t ba r wa s constantl y filled wit h traveler s waitin g t o entrain , and conductor s announce d departure s b y runnin g int o th e buildin g t o yell, "Al l aboard. " Workin g behin d th e ba r o r i n th e hote l dinin g room , the huge, jovia l Kuehnle me t people coming and going, includin g Count y Clerk Lewi s Scott , Sherif f Smit h E . Johnson , an d Gardner , fo r who m the hotel was a convenient meetin g place. In 189 0 Kuehnl e wage d a lega l fight wit h th e Pennsylvani a Railroa d over a property encroachmen t an d becam e a local her o when , backe d b y one hundred citizens , h e faced dow n a railroad wor k crew who attempte d to remov e cur b stone s fro m hi s hote l sidewalk. 103 I n 189 6 Mayo r Sto y

46 • From Pitney's Folly to World's Playground appointed hi m wate r commissioner , an d Kuehnl e emerge d fro m hi s firs t term a Republican . Althoug h b y 190 0 h e achieve d a measur e o f loca l influence, ther e i s no evidence of direct politica l activity , muc h les s of his being a political boss. In expanding Atlantic City, Kuehnl e found a fertile field fo r th e investmen t o f hi s hote l profits , an d h e absorbe d himsel f in business . In 1900 , Kuehnle bought a brewery, an d the Press reported th e transaction as follows : Louis Kuehnle, emperor of business and the king projector o f enterprises, has agai n launche d out . Thi s tim e hi s venture i s in th e lin e of hop s an d malt o n a gigantic scale . . . . There i s probably n o man i n Atlanti c Cit y better qualified t o do this. His liberal means and perhaps still more liberal business views will be vested in the hands of men of unquestionable ability and soun d judgement , an d whil e h e stil l wil l b e a t th e hea d o f his grea t Telephone Company, and the several other important branches of business that h e i s pushing , h e wil l kee p hi s bes t ey e upo n th e ne w enterpris e in question.104 Allowing for th e booster mentalit y o f the local press, i n this instanc e tha t of Walter Evan s Edge , th e tribute wa s not unwarranted . Kuehnl e helpe d create th e Atlanti c Coas t Telephon e Compan y becaus e o f th e hig h rate s of the Bel l system . An y projec t fo r th e bettermen t o f th e city , especiall y ones tha t free d resident s fro m th e dominanc e o f Philadelphia-owne d utilities, foun d a willing backe r i n Loui s Kuehnle . H e wa s a founder an d the firs t presiden t o f th e Atlanti c Cit y Electri c Company . Actin g wit h other local capitalists, he formed a water company, whic h they eventuall y sold t o th e city , a traction company , th e Consumer s Ga s Company , an d he wa s th e principa l investo r i n a n ill-fate d schem e t o brin g top-rate d vaudeville act s t o a plush theate r constructe d o n Atlanti c Avenue . Whil e most o f these ventures wer e profitable, i n some he lost heavily, includin g a steam heating plant t o provide heat and ho t water to city hotels. 105 In 190 0 he joine d a group o f prominen t citizen s i n a plan t o mak e th e Inlet a por t o f cal l fo r Eas t Coas t pleasur e yachts , an d the y forme d th e Atlantic Cit y Yach t Club . Kuehnle' s sixty-four-foo t craf t becam e th e club's flagship, an d Kuehnl e becam e "Th e Commodore, " a titl e tha t remained wit h hi m lon g after th e club disbanded. 106 B y 191 0 he directe d several bank s an d ha d financia l an d persona l connection s wit h ever y segment of the business community. H e serve d a s treasurer of the Unite d

From Pitney's Folly to World's Playground • 4 7 States Fir e Company fo r te n years , an d hi s charitable endeavors, particu larly i n the Northside, wer e legendary . Although a recognized civi c and financial leader , the Commodore wor e his mantle lightly . Despit e hi s wealth, h e retained a common touc h and a self-deprecating sens e o f humor . Wit h hi s littl e do g Jerry, hi s constan t companion o f fiftee n years , h e cu t a familia r an d avuncula r figur e throughout th e city . Seate d i n a barbe r chai r i n 1901 , th e 230-poun d Kuehnle responde d t o good-nature d taunt s abou t hi s weigh t fro m a n equally larg e Philadelphi a whiske y deale r b y challengin g hi m t o a foot race. Eac h ma n pu t u p $100 , an d onlooker s stage d th e rac e wit h grea t ceremony. Kuehnl e led until a Saint Bernard do g jumped i n his path, bu t the Philadelphia ma n spen t th e better par t of his purse treating spectator s at th e ba r o f Kuehnle' s Hotel. 107 Th e portrai t tha t emerge s fro m numer ous tur n o f th e centur y newspape r account s show s a ma n withou t guil e or pretension , mor e adventuresome tha n shrew d i n business, a big fish i n a smal l pond , an d on e hel d i n aw e b y loca l townsfol k fo r hi s generosit y and his alleged "Mida s touch. " Accounts o f Kuehnle' s caree r writte n nea r an d a t the time of his deat h place hi m a t th e hel m o f th e cit y a s earl y a s 1900 . I n 193 1 Victo r Jagmetty, who , b y hi s ow n account , ha d Kuehnle' s confidenc e an d a s a reporter ha d followe d cit y politic s closel y sinc e 1885 , wrote: "Ther e wa s no discussio n ove r appointment s o r perquisites . Eithe r Th e Commodor e did, o r he didn't, an d that wa s all there was to it. There was one, and bu t one, politica l bos s o f Atlanti c City , an d Loui s Kuehnle , seate d firml y i n his chair at The Corne r [South Carolina and Atlantic avenues], was IT. 108 According t o Jagmetty, Kuehnl e wa s know n a s th e "eas y boss " becaus e of his generosity towar d defeate d adversaries , ye t h e maintained a n "iro n discipline." The delegate s wer e hand-picke d b y distric t leader s wh o assure d th e "bi g boss" of individua l willingnes s t o "tak e orders. " Bos s Kuehnl e consulte d political leaders behind closed doors and they agreed upon a "slate," that is the framin g o f cit y an d count y tickets , whic h wer e certifie d t o distric t leaders, wh o i n tur n wer e require d t o kee p thei r follower s i n lin e i n supporting organizatio n selection s i n th e convention s an d the n i n th e polls.109 There ca n b e n o doub t tha t Kuehnl e wa s a ma n t o b e reckone d wit h i n the small resort cit y whose politics were dominated b y busines s interests . In Ne w Jersey , prio r t o th e passag e o f th e Gera n Ac t i n 191 1 an d th e

48 • From Pitney's Folly to World's Playground advent o f primar y elections , th e winnowin g proces s o f factiona l battle s waged befor e o r withi n nominatin g convention s whereb y th e winner s made peac e a t th e to p present s a likely scenario . I n a world grow n larg e and impersona l b y th e 1930s , th e pictur e o f Kuehnl e determinin g th e destiny o f a cit y an d dispensin g patronag e fro m hi s hote l porc h ha d a nostalgic appeal. Bu t i t is not supporte d b y the evidence. The Republican s gaine d politica l contro l ove r the city b y default . Th e popular Democrati c mayor , Josep h Thompson , decline d t o ru n i n 1900 , presumably wear y o f Sunda y closin g conflict s an d anxiou s t o atten d t o his ow n expandin g busines s interests . Democrati c leadershi p the n fel l to attorne y Clarenc e L . Cole , wh o wa s tainte d locall y becaus e h e ha d represented a refor m grou p i n a recent crusad e agains t commercia l vice . William Riddle, a political maverick, ha d broke n with the national organization in 189 6 over Bryan's free silve r platform. I n the absence of effectiv e leadership, th e organizatio n crumbled , an d loca l Democrat s defecte d t o the Republican s i n wholesal e fashion. 110 Th e absenc e o f a stron g labo r movement o r powerfu l ethni c group s withi n th e cit y wh o migh t hav e coalesced int o a n effectiv e Democrati c oppositio n mean t tha t th e busi ness-dominated Republican s ha d a clea r field, an d i t wa s withi n thi s group tha t Kuehnl e exercise d leadership . Bu t Kuehnl e a s cza r i s a rol e that wa s muc h overrated . I n fact , th e cours e o f politica l development s during thi s perio d point s i n th e opposit e direction , t o a faction-ridde n city controlle d b y a faction-ridde n Republica n part y tha t wa s unabl e t o mobilize th e populac e behin d movement s supporte d b y it s leadership , which wa s itself divided an d fragmented . A few example s will suffice t o illustrate this point. I n 190 0 the city stil l operated unde r it s origina l charte r a n antiquate d documen t tha t veste d most of the appointive power in the hands of the common council and limited the city's capacity for bonded indebtedness. A new charter, ratified b y the voters in 1902 , raised the debt ceiling by 2 5 percent and paved the way for much-neede d cit y improvements . A moder n sewe r system , a municipally owned wate r company, a paid fire department, improvement s to the Boardwalk, a s wel l a s stree t pavin g al l flowed fro m th e ne w charte r be tween 190 4 and 1910 . Each measure was delayed or opposed b y majoritie s in city counci l who were more influenced b y tax-paying constituents tha n by the business wing of the local Republican organization . The charte r wa s writte n an d sen t t o th e stat e legislatur e fo r approva l only afte r a protracte d struggl e withi n th e council . Accordin g t o a loca l source, Governo r Frankli n Murph y signe d i t in a moment o f rare drama .

From Pitnefs Folly to World's Playground • 4 9 With pe n poised , Murph y wa s se t t o vet o th e charte r becaus e th e deb t ceiling wa s to o hig h whe n a n aid e ra n int o hi s offic e an d announced , "Atlantic Cit y i s burnin g down. " Th e grea t Boardwal k fire o f Apri l 3 , 1902 destroye d thirtee n hotels , twenty-fiv e stores , an d severa l home s along a two-bloc k sectio n o f th e Boardwalk . Inadequat e wate r pressur e hampered th e effort s o f voluntee r companies , an d th e fire threatene d t o consume th e entir e city . Th e fire wa s contained an d th e disaster averted . But Murph y relented , an d th e voter s ratifie d th e charte r th e followin g month. 111 Opposition t o th e regula r Republica n organizatio n centere d abou t th e person o f William Riddle , who , b y 1902 , had jumpe d o n th e Republica n bandwagon an d wa s firmly entrenche d a s a councilman fro m th e Fourt h Ward. Th e Riddl e obstruction s consiste d o f amendment s t o city-let con tracts providin g fo r minimu m wage s an d unio n workme n an d o f objec tions t o counci l no t acceptin g lowes t bid s o n suc h project s a s stree t pav ing, curbing , an d th e layin g o f ga s an d wate r mains . Walte r Evan s Edg e constantly fume d agains t th e "turncoa t Democrat " wh o controlle d te n votes i n council . I n on e da y i n 1902 , b y a vote o f eleve n t o five, counci l voided a host o f cit y contracts , discontinue d a cit y lawsuit , an d delaye d the referendu m o n th e cit y charter . T o Edge , Riddl e wa s a demagogu e who threatene d t o tak e ove r th e city. 112 Riddle's versio n o f thes e event s i s containe d i n a documen t h e pre pared, probabl y i n 1916 , i n whic h h e summarize d hi s tenur e i n counci l between 190 2 an d 191 0 a s a tim e whe n h e "fough t ever y franchis e gra b and ever y contrac t gra b attempte d b y thi s powerfu l combination." 113 Senator Edwar d S . Lee , a bric k contractor , buil t Cit y Hall , an d part y stalwart an d late r mayo r Edwar d S . Bader , a cemen t contractor , bi d successfully o n man y cit y contracts . Althoug h Riddl e owne d valuabl e properties i n the resort , h e sough t t o build a constituency o f the workin g classes, particularl y amon g blacks , th e unions , an d cit y employees . A s a council member , h e busie d himsel f wit h repeate d resolution s i n suppor t of strikin g Pennsylvani a coa l miners . Hi s ter m a s tax assesso r foun d hi m constantly embroile d i n controversie s arisin g ou t o f lo w assessment s fo r favored supporter s an d hig h ones for hi s political enemies. 114 Som e level s of graft , demagoguery , an d favoritis m undoubtedl y attache d t o bot h sides, bu t tha t i s no t a t issu e here . T o accep t eithe r o r bot h versions , o r something i n between , i s to admi t t o a political situatio n sharpl y a t odd s with tha t o f Atlanti c Cit y dominate d b y a n all-powerfu l machine . Although i t i s clear tha t i n th e busines s o f mobilizin g vote s an d keep -

50 • From Pitney's Folly to World's Playground ing recalcitrant lieutenant s i n line the local Republican organizatio n oper ated wit h les s tha n machinelik e efficiency , th e questio n remain s a s t o Kuehnle's positio n withi n th e part y hierarch y an d th e exten t o f hi s per sonal influenc e i n th e city . I t i s no t resolve d b y a front-page articl e tha t appeared i n th e Sunday Gazette in Septembe r 190 6 unde r th e headline , "Kuehnle Say s Counci l Mus t Pav e Atlanti c Avenue. " Kuehnl e an d th e Atlantic Avenu e Leagu e o f Businessme n ha d organize d a hug e protes t parade of five hundred citizen s to resolve the paving issue. Sai d Kuehnle , "We wil l sho w Cit y Counci l tha t the y mus t yiel d t o publi c sentimen t i n regard t o pavin g Atlanti c Avenue. " Th e write r wa s frankl y a t a los s t o explain thi s development . Commodore Kuehnle, the recognized boss of the majority i n City Council, rather astonished the reporter. He is given credit, whether he possesses the power or not, of being able to command a majority o n the floor of council whenever h e wants it b y simpl y issuin g requests. . . . That h e has determined to compel Council at the head of a formidable array of citizens to do the biddin g o f th e publi c i s a politica l mov e whic h wil l no t injur e hi s reputation a s a politician. Commodor e Kuehnl e say s he is going to do it, and that practically means that it will be done.115 The poo r conditio n o f Atlanti c Avenu e ha d bee n a sore poin t amon g al l segments o f th e busines s communit y fo r a t leas t a decade. Kuehnl e ha d led the paving forces a t least since 1901 , when h e was elected chairma n of a join t committe e o f cit y counci l an d th e Boar d o f Trad e t o investigat e the matter . Whe n wor k finally bega n tha t winter , pavin g wa s a n ide a whose time had come . The charte r an d stree t pavin g owed les s to a powerful politica l combi nation tha n t o the Boardwal k fire and th e advent of the automobile. I n a n unguarded momen t i n 1903 , a n exasperate d Walte r Evan s Edge , impa tient with political infighting an d the slow progress of municipal improve ments, declare d tha t "bos s rule " woul d b e th e salvatio n o f Atlanti c City. 116 Fou r years later, loca l leaders were still clearing political appoint ments wit h Joh n Gardner , no t Loui s Kuehnle. 117 Th e year s betwee n 1900 and 191 0 were the most critica l perio d i n the development o f Atlan tic Cit y int o a modern municipa l entity . I n late r life , Kuehnl e ma y hav e basked i n th e reverie s o f loca l newsme n tha t h e guided th e cit y t o great ness; or he may have bristled a t the allegations of reformers tha t he bossed a regim e a s corrup t a s tha t o f Enoc h L . Johnson . Th e event s o f thi s period provid e evidenc e o f neithe r and , i n fact , sugges t th e opposite— a

From Pitney's Folly to World's Playground • 5 1 city ren t b y faction s an d slo w t o effec t municipa l improvement s pushe d by th e Republican organization . Finally, ther e i s th e issu e o f th e blac k vote . Beginnin g i n th e 1890s , seasonal unemployment , th e nemesi s o f th e blac k wor k force , create d a unique opportunit y fo r Republica n leaders , especiall y i n a n atmospher e of closel y conteste d elections . Numerou s transient s fro m Camde n an d Philadelphia, wh o swelle d th e populatio n durin g th e summe r month s only t o return t o those cities after th e season , coul d b e registered, an d fo r a modest fee , b e easily importe d bac k to the city t o vote, an d thi s with a t least a modicu m o f eligibility . Bu t Republican s i n Atlanti c Cit y wer e slow t o exploi t thi s potentia l blo c o f faithfu l voters , and , befor e 1908 , blacks were a dubious asse t to party fortunes . The municipa l elections , hel d i n March 1892 , and th e general electio n that Novembe r illustrat e th e relationshi p o f black s t o th e loca l politica l establishment prio r t o it s dominanc e b y th e Republican s i n 1900 . Afte r the March election , Edito r Hal l note d tha t the city was doing well to poll 2,754 vote s o n a rain y day . I n November , Harriso n carrie d th e cit y b y 361 vote s ove r Clevelan d i n a tota l vot e o f 3,119. 118 Neithe r electio n carried muc h importanc e excep t tha t eac h provide d a very earl y instanc e where blac k voters carried a critical balanc e of power i n a Northern city . In nominatin g Willar d Wrigh t fo r mayor , th e Democrat s fel l bac k o n a popula r an d prove n candidate . Th e Republican s nominate d Rober t Stroud, cit y councilma n an d a politica l all y o f Mayo r Hoffman . Fo r the counci l sea t i n th e Thir d Ward , th e Democrat s nominate d Somer s Doughty, wh o operated a saloon at Indiana an d Atlantic avenues and wa s conspicuous onl y fo r hi s racia l hostility . Opposin g Dought y wa s Samue l B. Rose , a three-term incumben t who , a s the Bulletin noted, ha d "shoul dered a musket i n th e Grea t Rebellion " an d ha d bee n a consistent frien d to his black constituents. 119 Editor Hal l o f th e Democrati c Union set th e ton e o f th e rac e i n hi s comment o n th e Republica n caucuses : "Th e numbe r o f colored me n tha t attended th e Republica n precinc t caucuse s las t evenin g surprise d th e whites. The y wer e i n th e majorit y te n t o one . A colore d chairma n [Northside saloo n keepe r Willia m H . Furney , wh o i t shoul d b e noted , enjoyed wid e respec t a s a businessma n i n bot h th e whit e an d blac k communities] presided a t City Hall , an d tw o colored me n were elected t o the cit y Executiv e Committe e fro m tha t precinct. 120 Precinc t line s ra n from th e ocea n t o th e bay , cuttin g th e Northsid e int o severa l divisions . Blacks a t thi s tim e coul d no t hav e mustere d a majority , le t alon e 9 0

52 • From Pitney's Folly to World's Playground percent, i n an y precinct . Bu t t o hi m th e even t stoo d i n star k contras t t o the Democrati c caucuse s wher e "th e larg e attendanc e o f whit e me n wa s the special feature. " The Philadelphia Bulletin noted : "Th e colore d peopl e ar e takin g mor e than usua l interest i n this election because of the well-known antipath y t o their rac e o n th e par t o f severa l o f th e Democrati c candidates. " Thoma s W. Swann , a Democra t an d "th e well-know n colore d journalis t an d politician," aros e fro m a sickbe d t o campaig n fo r Strou d because , a s h e was quoted: "Mr . Strou d ha s always been alive to the best interests of the city, an d a t the same time has never forgotten tha t the y to o were a part of the municipality . The y ar e wel l awar e o f th e prejudice s tha t exis t her e against them , an d hav e nothin g t o hop e fro m hi s opponents." 121 Swan n may hav e worked fo r th e Tribune, which understandabl y too k a judicious interest i n the election, particularl y i n the candidacy o f Somers Doughty , whom i t describe d a s " a ma n o f mea n an d contemptibl e spirit" : "Las t summer a part y o f colore d gentlemen , representin g th e bes t culture , standing, an d educatio n o f Philadelphia, entere d Mr . Doughty' s plac e on their wa y t o th e beac h an d wer e charge d a doubl e pric e fo r everythin g they ordered . Upo n on e o f th e gentleme n remonstrating , h e wa s told , 'The bos s o f thi s plac e doe s no t car e fo r nigge r trad e n o way , s o I hop e you wil l al l kee p ou t o f here. ' " 122 Dought y wo n b y a sli m majorit y o f twenty-four votes . Wrigh t wo n b y twelv e votes , an d anothe r Democra t managed t o win anothe r o f the four counci l seat s b y th e sam e margin. I n two othe r counci l races , th e Republican s wo n b y majoritie s o f twenty three and thirty-nine. 123 Given th e racia l climat e i n Atlanti c City , th e blac k impac t o n th e election wa s almos t certainl y negative . Blac k participatio n carrie d th e penalty o f alienatin g substantia l number s o f whit e voters , especiall y i n a small communit y wher e the y ha d hig h visibility . Eve n th e Republica n Bulletin accused th e Democratic henchmen o f Governor Abbet t of buyin g up blac k vote s i n preparatio n fo r th e upcomin g statewid e election s i n November. 124 Edito r Hal l celebrate d Wright' s sli m victory wit h th e wellworn commen t tha t "th e coons and th e gamblers no longer control Atlan tic City," and frankl y attribute d th e result to the presence of blacks in th e Republican caucuses. 125 Amon g the fe w certaintie s tha t emerge d fro m a n investigation i n 189 0 was tha t black s accounte d fo r onl y a smal l portio n of th e city' s vic e problem . Ye t th e persisten t associatio n o f black s wit h gamblers an d prostitute s furthe r confounde d thei r effort s a t a meaningfu l participation i n the political process .

From Pitney's Folly to World's Playground • 5 3 The Novembe r electio n foun d Willia m Riddl e running against Samue l Hoffman fo r th e stat e senate . Riddl e los t the election b y 5 5 votes and th e city b y 184 . Riddl e conteste d th e resul t t o th e Democratic-controlle d senate, chargin g tha t Hoffma n ha d "colonize d th e colore d Republicans " of th e city . Th e Riddl e probe , conducte d i n January 1893 , was strictl y a partisan affair , bu t its findings shed considerable light on the political rol e of blacks in Atlantic City a t this time . Riddle's protes t centere d abou t th e illega l registratio n o f black s i n Atlantic City, whic h h e described a s follows : Such fraudulen t registratio n bein g in many cases from empt y house s and from vacan t lots ; and i n som e instances of a s many a s eight negroes fro m one smal l two-stor y hous e whic h ha d bee n occupie d fo r severa l year s continuously b y bu t on e family , containin g onl y on e man . . . . An d i n another instanc e a s many a s nineteen negroe s bein g registered b y a negro Republican from his own home, a small two-story building, with the lower floor bein g used for a cigar store, kitchen and dining room, and the upper floor fo r sleeping apartments; said negroes being said to belong to a Republican club having its meeting place there . .. an d did register and vote from somewhere els e during th e electio n . . . yet, s o registered, wer e i n many cases voted on from sai d house by negroes.126 The indictmen t respectivel y describe d a hotel belonging to William H . Furney an d Joshua Foreman' s ciga r store , allegedl y th e instrument s i n a Republican schem e t o vot e th e name s o f nonresiden t black s wh o worke d in the city during the summer . Both Furne y an d Forema n ha d com e to the city i n 1888 , lived i n thei r establishments o n Balti c Avenue , an d le t room s t o transien t workers . But th e similarit y end s here . B y 189 2 Furne y wa s a pilla r o f th e blac k community, a membe r o f th e Republica n Cit y Executiv e Committee , and hi s hote l ha d becom e a gatherin g plac e fo r "respectable " Northsid e residents. Foreman' s ciga r stor e wa s a repute d gamin g establishmen t and th e frequen t targe t o f polic e raids . Bot h place s serve d a s politica l headquarters o f sorts , bu t th e evidenc e spok e mor e t o th e livin g an d working condition s o f blac k male s i n Atlanti c Cit y tha n i t di d t o th e existence of vote fraud . The Furne y househol d include d hi s so n an d father-in-law , bu t eigh t men ha d registere d t o vot e a t tha t address . O n th e da y o f th e election , four o f the remaining five were lodging at the house, an d th e fifth, Rober t Mickens, actuall y owne d a large boardinghous e thre e doors away . Thre e

54 * From Pitney's Folly to World's Playground of the fou r i n residenc e worke d intermittentl y fo r Furne y durin g period s when th e hous e wa s busy , an d woul d eithe r wor k a t othe r place s i n th e city or travel to Philadelphia t o work when Furney' s wa s slow . For example , Jame s Brow n ha d worke d fo r Furne y fo r thre e years , but twic e durin g th e previou s yea r ha d gon e to Philadelphia fo r a mont h or more to find work . Livin g and working conditions were similar for tw o of th e others , an d th e remainin g individual , Joh n Peterson , ha d bee n constantly employe d b y Furne y a s a cleaning and maintenance person fo r three year s an d live d ther e permanently . Asid e fro m th e Furne y family , only Brow n an d Peterso n vote d i n that election. 127 Joshua Forema n produce d th e record s o f th e Youn g Men' s Unio n Republican Clu b containin g th e rol l o f twenty-fiv e members , seventee n of who m supposedl y registere d an d vote d fro m Foreman' s address . Th e club was formed i n 1890 , but the minutes were blank until October 1892 . Foreman ha d give n canvasser s th e name s o f twelve peopl e residin g a t hi s house an d thos e of others livin g in various part s of the precinct. I n error , they liste d al l of the names a t Foreman's, a mistake that Forema n actuall y clarified a t a meetin g prio r t o th e election , havin g struc k fro m hi s resi dence al l bu t th e twelve . O f twelv e peopl e registere d fro m 90 1 Balti c Avenue, onl y fou r voted. 128 One voter , Willia m Wood , a waite r fro m Philadelphia , ha d "lodged " there betwee n job s a t variou s hotel s fo r thre e years . Durin g th e summe r of 1892 , h e ha d staye d wit h Forema n briefl y i n June an d the n worke d and live d a t tw o differen t places . Lai d of f i n September , h e returne d t o Foreman's an d worke d ther e unti l som e tim e afte r th e election . Woo d was on e o f a numbe r o f transien t worker s wh o "kep t hi s trunk " o f permanent possession s i n one of the sleepin g rooms, an d i t was evidentl y the neares t thin g t o a permanen t addres s tha t h e coul d claim . H e ha d been registere d ther e fo r thre e years , an d hi s righ t t o vot e fro m tha t address had neve r been questioned . Fourteen blac k me n ha d registere d t o vot e a t Haddo n Hall , a larg e beachfront hotel . Working as seasonal employees, mos t returned t o Philadelphia fo r th e winter. I f they live d i n Atlantic City for only four month s of th e year , i t i s no t difficul t t o believ e tha t th e hote l wa s thei r mos t steady sourc e o f employmen t an d thei r mos t permanen t o f residences . The investigatio n faile d t o sho w tha t an y o f th e individual s i n questio n had registere d t o vote elsewhere. 129 The Democrati c majorit y o n th e investigatin g committe e summarize d

From Pitney's Folly to World's Playground • 5 5 the situatio n accurately : "Durin g th e summe r month s man y colore d me n are employed i n the hotels which are open for th e season in Atlantic City . They leav e i n Septembe r an d October , bu t thei r name s ar e registere d from th e place s wher e the y slep t i n th e summer . Thes e name s ar e vote d upon b y somebody . I t ma y b e tha t th e colore d me n wh o ar e registere d return fro m Philadelphia , Washington , an d mor e distan t point s t o vot e on electio n day." 130 But , the y concluded , thi s woul d b e unlikely a s mos t of the men wer e not listed i n the city directory . In all , Riddl e challenge d th e vote s o f eighty-nin e people , al l black s who worke d i n Atlanti c City . Fo r th e Democrats , eligibilit y turne d o n whether th e voter s i n questio n actuall y slep t a t the designate d residence s on th e nigh t befor e th e election . A t Foreman' s thi s woul d hav e bee n difficult, an d impossibl e a t Haddo n Hall , whic h wa s close d fo r th e win ter. Fro m the Republican point of view, they ha d conclusively establishe d the righ t t o vot e i n al l bu t on e instance . One' s vie w o f th e matte r de pended upo n a lega l definitio n o f residency . Bu t thi s wa s no t a court o f law, an d the majority decide d i n favor o f Riddle . The Democrat s neede d onl y to establish the illegality of fifty-five votes in orde r t o revers e th e election . Bu t t o hav e accepte d al l of thei r charge s at face value would no t have established muc h of a Republican conspirac y to colonize the Northside. I f anything conclusive emerged fro m th e investigation, i t was that i n 189 2 the Republica n organizatio n o f the Northsid e was a t bes t ver y loose . Eve n th e Union, whic h constantl y mad e vagu e charges o f Republica n vot e buying , condemne d th e proceedin g a s im proper an d partisa n an d concede d tha t Hoffma n ha d wo n th e election. 131 Interestingly, Riddle' s only charges of vote buying were against white s in othe r municipalitie s i n th e county , an d Willia m Furne y testifie d tha t the Democrat s ha d purchase d a fe w vote s i n th e Northsid e fo r a fe e o f seven dollar s each. 132 Black s wer e indee d dependabl e Republicans , bu t the part y hel d the m a t arm' s length . Irregularit y o f employmen t an d residence pattern s mad e organizatio n difficult . Unlik e whit e immigran t groups i n th e industria l citie s wh o sa w i n th e Democrat s a part y o f tolerance an d a mean s o f employmen t an d socialization , fo r black s th e Republicans wer e merely th e lesser of two evils. I n 188 1 a "non partisan " group o f forty-fou r citizen s suggeste d t o cit y counci l tha t i n vie w o f th e growing black population, "i t was only a matter of justice" that a black b e appointed t o th e polic e force . Counci l appointe d a blac k i n 1886 , bu t eleven years later a Northside preacher complaine d tha t afte r tw o decade s

$6 • From Pitney's Folly to World's Playground of devotion to the Republican party , black s in Atlantic City had "separat e schools wit h mixe d teachers " an d bu t thre e policeme n an d thre e janitor s to show for it. 133 With th e collaps e o f th e Democrati c organizatio n i n 1900 , th e blac k vote becam e expendabl e an d th e "organization " eve n les s attentiv e t o th e interests an d aspiration s o f Northsid e Republicans . Ironically , amon g white politician s onl y Willia m Riddle , th e forme r Democra t wh o a s a councilman fro m th e Fourt h War d ha d th e smalles t black constituency , made a serious effor t t o court th e black vote before 1908 . A resolution h e introduced i n 190 2 providin g fo r th e appointmen t o f a "colore d boy " a s page faile d b y a vot e o f fourtee n t o two . When , i n 1906 , black s i n th e Third War d organize d a "Colore d Republica n Club " i n a n attemp t t o elect on e o f thei r member s t o cit y council , th e organizatio n quickl y squelched th e effort. 134 By 190 8 Atlanti c Cit y wa s indee d a Republica n stronghol d i n Ne w Jersey. I n matters of state and national politics, the resort seeme d to speak with on e voice . I n it s promotiona l literature , i t pose d a s an outgrowt h o f American democrac y a resort wher e ric h an d poor , thoug h no t blac k an d white, coul d fin d equa l welcom e i n a have n o f socia l harmony . Loca l promoters ha d publishe d fou r historie s o f th e resort , an d officia l guide books wer e ful l o f quain t anecdote s recountin g th e tribulation s o f th e pioneering residents. 135 Al l extolle d th e wisdo m o f Jonathan Pitne y an d attempted t o convinc e a war y public , an d perhap s themselves , that , despite appearances , Atlanti c Cit y wa s no t buil t o n th e sand , tha t i t wa s a cit y o f brick , no t wood , an d tha t i t ha d substance , permanence , an d respectability. American democrac y mad e u p th e cor e of the libera l policy , an d loca l historians painte d al l classe s o f peopl e i n Alger-lik e proportion s a s the y struggled t o buil d a great resor t o n th e waste s o f a barrie r island . Al l o f the whit e citizen s coul d shar e i n thi s epic , a s histor y serve d th e interna l function o f creating a synthjesis o f the city an d of knitting the communit y together. Harmon y require d compromis e b y al l of the contendin g elites , including th e evangelica l community , a process tha t produce d th e libera l policy. Thi s compac t lon g predate d Republica n ascendanc y i n Atlanti c City. Transcendin g th e loca l real m o f la w an d politics , th e libera l polic y only barel y covere d a cauldro n o f conflic t simmerin g jus t beneat h th e surface o f the smal l resort community .

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The Robbery of the Sabbath

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ocial an d politica l historian s hav e continuall y see n Worl d Wa r I and th e 1920 s as critical turnin g point s i n America n society , "th e crisis o f th e Protestan t establishment, " th e tim e whe n Protestan t churches becam e "sharpl y awar e that thei r ancien t swa y ove r the nation' s moral lif e was threatened. " The debacl e o f Prohibitio n functione d bot h a s evidence an d caus e of th e churches' loss of authority in a culture where urban values became primary. The declin e o f th e Purita n Sabbat h despit e strenuou s campaign s i n it s behalf, th e emergenc e o f ne w attitude s toward s recreatio n despit e ol d Puritanic suspicions of play, and the expansion of the amusement industry served meanwhil e t o weake n th e disciplinar y aspect s o f churc h member ship. Moder n though t an d socia l chang e wer e slowl y bringin g dow n th e curtains on the "great century" of American evangelicalism. l The evidenc e suggest s tha t b y th e tur n o f th e century , a t leas t i n th e Northern industria l states , Protestan t hegemon y wa s mor e o f a socia l veneer tha n a consensus or , i f ther e wa s indee d a crisis, i t occurre d wel l before th e war an d Prohibition . To b e sure , mos t evangelicals , an d man y secula r reformers , veiwe d the decline of the Christian Sabbat h an d th e rise of commercial recreatio n as symptoms o f spiritua l an d mora l deterioration . Bu t th e socia l anxietie s that fuele d th e Sabbataria n movement , an d th e Progressiv e movemen t a s well, wen t fa r deeper . T o examin e the relationship betwee n Sabbatarian ism an d Progressiv e refor m i n Atlanti c Cit y i s t o plum b th e depth s o f an ongoin g socia l crisi s withi n America n society , on e whos e principa l 57

58 • The Robbery of the Sabbath ingredients wer e race , class , an d ethni c conflic t an d profoun d anxiet y over social, economic, an d sexua l change. In 190 8 Charle s J . Fisk , chairma n o f th e governor' s commissio n t o investigate th e enforcemen t o f the state' s liquo r laws , mad e the followin g assessment o f conditions in Atlantic City : We find here a state of affairs tha t probably does not exist in any other part of the state. We find a city that is one of the largest watering places in the State of Ne w Jersey, wher e som e of th e law s relatin g . . . t o liquor an d moral matter s ar e no t onl y no t enforced , bu t ar e absolutely ignored . W e find a condition of affairs her e where the saloons and liquor places are wide open, where in connection with a number of saloons we find that there are music halls and dance halls, rendeveux for disorderly people, for prostitutes and demimondes, wher e young girls are taken in and led astray, . . . and they hold licenses granted by the city. We find places that are in the hands of gamblers,regular hel l holes, . . . and then we go further an d find the officials, fro m th e Judge of the Court of Commo n Plea s down t o the police officer wh o acts under th e order of the municipal government , sayin g that i t i s impossible to . . . enforce th e law a s far a s the liquo r questio n i s concerned, becaus e the people do not want it and won't stand for it. 2 Many foun d thi s judgmen t harsh , bu t i t coul d no t b e sai d tha t Fis k wa s uninformed. A "churchman " an d a Wal l Stree t banker , h e wa s th e "re form" mayo r of Plainfield, a delegate to the Republican Nationa l Conven tion, an d a t th e tim e ha d preside d ove r exhaustiv e hearing s o n th e liquo r traffic throughou t th e state , documentin g th e connivanc e o f loca l politi cians wit h saloo n keepers , gamblers , an d prostitute s i n Paterson , New ark, Jersey City , Hoboken , Camden , an d Trenton , an d also in rural part s of th e state . A s th e forema n o f a grand jur y i n hi s native Unio n County , he had discovere d tha t th e liquor interest s dominated bot h municipal an d county governments . I n al l o f thes e places , saloon s wer e ope n o n Sunday. 3 What the n wa s uniquel y evi l abou t Atlanti c City ? Siftin g th e length y indictment, w e come to the end before w e identify th e difference. Munic ipal official s wer e unabl e t o preven t Sunda y liquo r sale s becaus e "th e citizens wouldn' t stan d fo r it. " Fo r middle - and upper-clas s professor s o f the Protestan t ethi c (i t woul d b e difficul t t o find a bette r exampl e tha n Fisk), the violation o f the Fourth Commandment , i f not trivial among th e catalog o f offenses , wa s certainl y les s grav e tha n prostitution , gambling , and politica l corruption . Ye t i t was principally o n this poin t tha t th e cit y

The Robbery of the Sabbath • 5 9 had stumbled , an d b y 190 8 Atlantic Cit y ha d becom e a national symbo l of an ethos already i n crisis. But befor e w e can begi n t o speak of the problems o f Atlantic City , w e must firs t dea l with th e Protestan t ethic , an d "Protestan t hegemony, " th e term historian s hav e use d t o explai n it s dominanc e o f America n culture . More precisely , w e nee d t o identif y th e plac e o f Sabbatarianis m i n tha t continuum o f value s tha t fo r generation s o f middle - an d upper-clas s Americans ha s defined "respectability " within America n culture . Defining respectabilit y i n this context i s a task similar to that confront ing the Suprem e Court justic e who could no t define obscenit y bu t simpl y said tha t h e kne w i t whe n h e sa w it . I f respectability , decency , an d suc h milder terms as rectitude and propriety wer e defined i n the culture withi n the parameter s o f Protestantism, a problem immediatel y arises . B y 1900 , forty-one Protestan t denomination s wer e activ e i n th e Unite d States ; their ver y existenc e speak s t o doctrina l differences an d varyin g level s o f piety among the sects. 4 Moreover, th e practices and belief s of such group s such a s th e Mormons , Sevent h Da y Adventists , an d Unitarian s differe d radically fro m th e dominan t Methodist s an d Presbyterians . Eve n withi n sects, th e extrapolatio n o f socia l polic y fro m religiou s doctrin e coul d differ substantially . Fo r example , i n 191 4 th e Ne w Jerse y Methodis t Conference commende d Walte r Rauschenbusc h fo r hi s "socia l passion, " but foun d tha t hi s writing s ha d "n o foundatio n i n Scripture " an d wer e "destructive i n their character. " Hi s book , Christianity and the Social Crisis, was proscribe d fo r churc h use . O n th e sam e lis t appeare d th e Reveren d D. H . Meyers' s The Graded Sunday School in Principle and Practice because: "the boo k fail s t o appreciat e th e Christia n conceptio n o f sin , apparentl y teaching tha t t o protec t a perso n fro m vic e an d crim e an d rudenes s o f manner i s t o kee p hi m fro m sin , s o tha t hi s salvatio n wil l b e on e o f prevention rathe r tha n rescue." 5 Th e conflic t betwee n "fait h an d works " had begu n th e Reformation , an d th e questio n o f ho w th e faithfu l shoul d confront a sinfu l worl d i s a s ol d a s Christianit y itself . Bu t th e proble m here i s to identif y th e significant element s o f Christia n doctrin e commo n to America n Protestant s tha t admitte d t o publi c policy , an d henc e be came the synthesis on which Protestan t hegemon y wa s built . We migh t begi n wit h th e Internationa l Refor m Burea u whic h pro fessed a "ful l orbe d Christianity, " an d i n 190 8 wa s wagin g a campaig n against th e opiu m traffi c i n Chin a an d th e sal e of liquo r t o Eas t African s and other "uncivilize d races. " Its letterhead proclaime d it s platform: "Th e International Refor m Burea u promote s thos e Christian reform s o n whic h

6o • The Robbery of the Sabbath the churche s sociologicall y unit e whil e theologicall y differing . I t proffer s cooperation t o al l association s tha t stan d fo r th e defens e o f th e Sabbat h and purity ; for arbitratio n i n the place of industrial an d internationa l war ; for th e suppressio n o f intemperance , gambling , an d politica l corrup tion." 6 Muc h i n th e platfor m suggest s a unit y o f socia l outlook . Mos t Protestants o f th e da y woul d hav e agree d tha t vice , crime , an d eve n "rudeness o f behavior " wer e prope r object s o f publi c policy . Fe w woul d dissent fro m th e propositio n tha t th e savag e o f al l race s neede d t o b e protected fro m themselves . W e woul d als o fin d tha t arbitration , bot h foreign an d domestic , coul d onl y tak e place among "civilized" disputants ; the recor d o f imperialis m an d th e suppressio n o f th e I WW, t o cit e bu t one domesti c example , ar e sufficien t t o validat e tha t consensus . Bu t o n the first principle , "th e defens e o f th e Sabbath, " th e consensu s break s down. Strict Sabbatarianis m foun d favo r onl y amon g th e litera l minded . Refusal t o "tak e th e cars " o n Sunda y o r t o rea d a Sunda y newspape r were practice s tha t mos t America n Protestant s foun d anachronistic . Th e achievement o f a "Purita n Sunday " wa s th e mos t radical , an d i n on e sense, th e mos t reactionar y goa l o f evangelica l reformers ; Sabbataria n stridence ofte n prove d a n embarrassmen t t o Progressive s suc h a s Theo dore Roosevel t an d th e "Ne w Idea " contingen t i n Ne w Jersey, th e fore runner o f th e Progressiv e movemen t i n tha t state . Th e rura l mentalit y and th e religiou s sensibilitie s whic h le d t o Sunda y restriction s hav e drawn th e sarcastic wit and comic indignation o f social commentators an d historians fo r decades ; H . L . Mencke n an d Richar d Hofstadte r immedi ately com e t o mind. 7 Bu t durin g th e perio d i n question , Sabbat h obser vance wa s n o laughin g matter . Blu e laws , whic h cam e first t o colonia l Virginia, no t Purita n Ne w England , wer e widel y passe d i n th e nine teenth centur y an d jus t as widely defied . The y la y at the bottom o f muc h social and politica l conflict, particularl y i n the cities. If, o n th e on e hand , blu e law s wer e lega l absurditie s i n a moder n industrial society , o n the other, b y 189 0 they constitute d th e mos t perva sive an d practica l manifestatio n o f Protestan t hegemon y i n America . After th e Civi l War , church-base d refor m group s sproute d profusely . The Internationa l Refor m Bureau , th e Nationa l Refor m League , th e American Unio n Leagu e Society , th e Women' s Christia n Temperanc e Union (WCTU ) an d it s men' s counterpart , th e Knight s Templar , an d later, th e Anti-Saloo n Leagu e an d th e Lord' s Da y Alliance , al l founde d between 186 3 and 19*09 , were national i n scope . A n almos t endles s num -

The Robbery of the Sabbath • 6 1 ber of local and stat e societies , suc h a s the Philadelphi a Sabbat h Associa tion founde d i n 1888 , an d churche s themselve s supporte d thei r efforts . Dominated b y Protestan t elite s an d dedicated , eithe r primaril y o r promi nently, t o the preservation o f the Christian Sunday , the y wer e "ecumeni cal" onl y i n th e fac t tha t the y embrace d dominan t Protestan t sects . I n 1899 the American Unio n Leagu e Society found th e chief peril to "AngloSaxon" institutions o f state , school , an d churc h i n "Politico-Ecclesiastica l Romanism," and declared that "offense s agains t God an d his laws (including Sunda y laws ) canno t b e punishe d . . . unles s the y ar e als o offense s against society." 8 B y 192 0 ever y state , sav e Californi a an d Oregon , for bade the sale of liquor o n Sunday . Yet t o vie w Sabbatarianis m principall y i n term s o f a fundamentalis t adherence t o th e Fourt h Commandmen t i s no t onl y t o misconstru e th e modern movemen t bu t als o t o obscur e it s origins . Th e movemen t t o legislate Sunda y observanc e bega n i n Elizabetha n England , durin g an other perio d o f socia l an d economi c upheaval . No t solel y th e produc t o f Calvinist theology , i t sprang from th e new urban commercia l classe s wh o saw ritua l festival s a s dangerou s relic s o f Catholicis m an d Sunda y sport s as th e Medieva l orgie s o f th e savag e peasantry . Bul l baiting , cockfights , and equall y blood y footbal l game s were ritual Sunda y pastimes , an d eve n Shakespeare's theate r coul d degenerat e int o a pagean t o f drinkin g an d obscenities. Th e Sunda y proscriptio n an d eventua l abolitio n o f thes e pastimes wer e clearl y see n b y Purita n reformer s o f that day , an d late r b y historians, a s progressive , no t reactionar y measures . I n th e word s o f Winton Solberg : The Puritan s constitute d a pressur e grou p t o advanc e a radical messag e which a larg e segmen t o f th e populatio n foun d increasingl y attractive . Since Puritanism made its greatest headway in urban and settled communities, whil e traditiona l sport s retaine d thei r stronges t hol d i n rura l an d backward areas , th e attac k o n Sunda y pastime s ma y b e interpreted a s an attempt to impose the ethos of an urban civilization upon the "dark corners of the land." 9 Clearly, Protestan t Sabbatarianism , a s i t first emerge d i n sixteenth-cen tury England , wa s much les s a matter o f theology tha n socia l control. Historians of the Prohibition movemen t have seen Sunday restrictions , like Prohibition itself, primaril y i n terms of the agrarian/urban dichotom y in American cultur e whic h becam e mor e pronounce d afte r th e Civi l Wa r with th e advanc e o f industrialization , urbanization , an d immigration. 10

6i • The Robbery of the Sabbath Illinois passe d a statewid e closin g la w i n 1841 , bu t i n Chicag o i t wa s almost entirel y ignored . Sporadi c effort s a t enforcemen t b y refor m may ors le d t o riot s an d brough t swif t politica l retaliation . Betwee n 187 0 an d 1910, Newar k experience d a protracted conflic t ove r Sunda y observanc e between nativ e Protestant s an d th e swellin g number s o f Germa n immi grants wh o wer e a t a los s t o understan d th e nativ e antipath y t o th e concerts an d bee r garden s tha t wer e a traditiona l par t o f thei r Sunda y leisure. Durin g th e summe r o f 1895 , t n e energeti c ne w polic e commis sioner o f Ne w York , Theodor e Roosevelt , create d a nationa l sti r b y enforcing a succession of "dry Sundays " in that city. Hi s zeal in enforcin g the Sunda y law s di d muc h t o enhanc e hi s nationa l reputation , bu t mad e him the "most hated ma n in New York" and caused muc h embarrassmen t to th e refor m administratio n o f Mayo r Strong. 11 I n Chicago , Newark , New York , an d elsewhere , th e conflic t too k th e for m o f antagonis m between nativ e an d immigran t groups . Bu t thi s outwar d appearanc e touches onl y on e aspec t o f a n issu e tha t wen t dee p int o th e socia l con sciousness of the nation . In 189 0 Willia m Addiso n Blakely , a lega l schola r an d note d civi l libertarian, publishe d American State Papers Bearing on Sunday Legislation, a lengthy collectio n o f lega l brief s an d othe r polemic s agains t Sunda y law s which h e sa w a s a "reviva l o f th e religio-politica l idea s o f th e Middl e Ages." At thi s time only Arizona, California , an d Idah o among the state s and territorie s ha d n o Sunda y restrictions , an d i n eac h o f th e othe r jurisdictions th e sal e o f liquo r o n tha t da y wa s prohibited . I n ever y instance, excep t fo r Delaware , New ^ Hampshire , an d Ne w Jersey , th e laws i n forc e wer e eithe r passe d o r revise d int o thei r curren t form s within th e previous decade. Th e oldes t law , passe d b y Congres s i n 1868 , imposed Sunda y restriction s o n the District o f Columbia. 12 For Blakely , th e particula r geniu s o f America n institution s la y i n th e deistic an d Enlightenmen t theorie s o f governmen t hel d b y Jefferson , Madison, an d other s wh o ha d banishe d fro m th e statut e book s "Sunda y laws, compulsor y attendanc e a t church , an d law s agains t Unitarians , witches, infidels , an d Quakers. " In tha t sam e spirit, Congress , beginnin g in 1810 , ha d resiste d persisten t appeal s b y Sabbatarian s t o sto p th e passage of mails on Sunday . Th e middle decades passed with no agitatio n for religiou s law s in Congress an d relativel y mil d enforcemen t o f Sunda y laws b y th e states. 13 Bu t no w a n alarmin g reactio n wa s settin g in . "I n certain localitie s w e se e som e of thes e sam e laws bein g revived , an d ne w and mor e stringen t one s bein g demanded . Fro m thirt y t o fifty case s o f

The Robbery of the Sabbath • 6 3 the prosecutio n o f Sabbatarian s (Sevent h Da y Adventists ) fo r Sunda y work hav e com e t o th e editor' s notic e withi n th e pas t fe w years , amon g them bein g a n ordaine d minister." 14 A ne w generatio n o f zealot s ha d arisen t o impose Christian moralit y o n th e nation , an d th e centerpiec e o f the movemen t wa s Sabbat h observance . Th e Nationa l Sunda y Res t Bill , proposed i n 1888 , was th e first o f 11 7 religious measure s introduce d int o Congress betwee n tha t tim e an d Worl d Wa r II . O f thes e bills , ninety six demande d Sunda y legislation. 15 Sabbatarianis m ma y hav e bee n a reactionary movement , bu t i t was also a powerful moder n phenomenon . Blakely devote d a lon g caree r t o th e stud y an d monitorin g o f th e "religious right" in the United State s and took a grim view of the prolifer ation o f religiou s laws . Ho w accurat e wer e hi s perceptions ? T o begi n with, w e mus t tak e th e reformer s a t thei r word . Moder n Sabbatarians , like thei r Purita n forebears , continuall y an d unabashedl y proclaime d their intentio n t o establis h a Protestant theocrac y i n America. Moreover , the negativ e an d nativis t aspec t o f tha t impuls e i s abundantl y manifes t throughout th e movement . Th e Nationa l Refor m Leagu e was founded i n 1863 expressly fo r th e purpose of placing "all Christian laws , institutions , and usage s o f ou r governmen t o n a n undeniabl y lega l basi s a s the funda mental la w o f th e land." 16 Thei r officia l publication , th e Christian Statesman, proclaime d tha t th e governmen t "mus t enforc e upo n al l tha t com e among u s th e law s o f Christia n morality . . . . If th e opponent s o f th e Bible d o no t lik e ou r governmen t an d it s Christia n features , le t the m g o to some wild desolat e land; and, i n the name of the devil, an d for the sake of th e devil , subdu e it , an d se t u p a government o f thei r ow n o n infide l and atheisti c ideas , an d then , i f the y ca n stan d it , sta y ther e til l the y die." 17 " A true theocrac y i s yet t o come," declared France s Willard , wh o saw th e ballo t fo r wome n a s a mean s o f th e "enthronemen t o f Chris t i n law." Nor wa s Willard, wh o was among the more ecumenical of evangelical reformers , abov e nativis t appeals . I n 1876 , earl y i n he r caree r a s a temperance lecturer , sh e committe d hersel f t o th e suffrag e issu e b y de claring tha t th e woman' s voic e wa s essentia l a t th e polls , "wher e th e Sabbath an d th e Bibl e ar e attacke d b y th e infide l an d foreig n populatio n of our country." 18 To the Sevent h Da y Adventists , Sabbatarian s stoo d convicted b y thei r own declamation s o f a schem e t o impos e inquisitoria l Catholicis m unde r the guise of Puritan reform . I n 188 4 the Christian Statesman "cordially an d gladly" concede d th e fac t tha t i n Catholi c Europ e an d i n th e Sout h American republics , Roma n Catholic s wer e th e "recognize d advocate s o f

64 • The Robbery of the Sabbath national Christianit y an d stan d oppose d t o th e proposal s o f secularism, " and stoo d read y t o joi n hand s i n th e effort . A s fo r th e Church , sh e crouched lik e a Cheshire cat, "marvelou s an d shrew d i n her cunning. Sh e can rea d wha t i s t o be . Sh e bide s he r time , seein g tha t th e Protestan t churches ar e paying he r homag e i n thei r acceptanc e of the fals e Sabbath , and tha t the y ar e preparin g t o enforc e i t b y th e ver y mean s whic h sh e herself employe d i n bygon e days . . . . Wh o understand s bette r tha n th e papal leader s ho w t o dea l wit h thos e wh o ar e disobedient?" 19 I f Sabbat arians wer e neither th e dupes of Rom e nor engage d i n settin g up a latterday inquisition , i t surel y mus t hav e seeme d s o t o th e Sevent h Da y Adventists, an d fo r tha t matter , t o growin g number s o f America n Jew s who also felt th e weight o f Sunda y restrictions. 20 If w e loo k t o th e court s fo r th e preservatio n o f minorit y rights , the n much o f th e conflic t tha t attende d th e Sabbataria n movemen t mus t b e laid a t th e doo r o f the judiciary . Federa l an d stat e court s uphel d Sunda y laws on the basis of principles an d practices , that is , by the recognition of Christianity a s th e basi s fo r commo n la w an d th e polic e powe r o f th e states. I n 1892 , Justic e Davi d J . Brewe r expresse d th e stat e o f judicia l thinking o n th e Establishmen t Claus e i n th e nineteent h centur y when , speaking fo r a unanimou s court , h e declared : "Thi s i s a Christia n Na tion." Actually , th e case i n point , The Church of the Holy Trinity v. U.S., was no t a t al l involve d wit h th e Establishmen t Clause . I t aros e fro m a n oblique attac k o n th e Contrac t Labo r La w o f 188 7 i n whic h th e churc h was cite d an d convicte d i n th e lowe r court s o f Ne w Yor k fo r violatin g that la w b y contractin g fo r th e service s o f a n Englis h clergyman . A n indignant Justice Brewer , a member o f th e Nationa l Refor m Leagu e an d a frequen t lecture r o n thei r behalf , seize d upo n th e opportunit y t o ex pound o n church/stat e relations , devotin g mor e tha n hal f o f th e decisio n to a discourse tha t firml y plante d Christia n doctrin e withi n th e commo n law.21 A t thi s time, Christia n communicant s barel y mad e up one-third o f the nation's population. 22 Brewer's Christia n natio n theor y actuall y brok e sharply wit h Suprem e Court preceden t o n Sunda y laws . Beginnin g i n 188 5 an d continuin g fo r most o f th e twentiet h century , th e Cour t treate d Sunda y law s a s civi l regulations.23 Th e issu e ha s therefor e devolve d upo n th e states , an d w e are lef t wit h fifty-on e separat e Sunda y jurisdictions , man y containin g a myriad o f differing count y an d loca l regulations. In 1798 , th e Ne w Jerse y Legislatur e passe d "A n Ac t fo r th e Preven tion of Vice and Immorality, " which provide d

The Robbery of the Sabbath • 6$ that n o travelling , worldl y employment , o r business , ordinar y o r servil e labor o r work , . . . no r shooting , sporting , fishing , hunting , gunning , racing, or frequenting o f tippling houses, or any interludes of plays, dancing, singing , fiddling , o r othe r musi c for th e sak e of merriment, no r an y playing at football, fives , ninepins , bowls , long-bullets, or quoits, not any other kind of playing, sports, pastimes, or diversions, shall be done . .. b y any person . .. o n the Christian Sabbath . "An Ac t Regulatin g Inn s an d Taverns, " passe d i n 184 7 an d revise d i n 1872, forbade th e sale of intoxicating beverage s on Sunday . In Ne w Jersey, th e new s deale r wh o sol d th e Sunda y editio n an d th e person wh o bough t i t wer e n o les s guilt y o f a Sunda y violatio n tha n th e keeper o f a n ope n saloon . No r wa s th e yout h wh o playe d basebal l o n Sunday, o r fo r tha t matter , th e Pennsylvani a Railroa d th e momen t it s second trai n steame d i n o r ou t o f a city. 24 Althoug h a few municipalitie s within the state, most notably, th e Methodist settlemen t o f Ocean Grove , attempted t o enforce th e law to the letter, enforcemen t generall y followe d the customs an d usage s of dominant groups . I n the absence of a provision of enforcement b y th e state, the law made censors of local officials . Local censorshi p o f Sunda y activitie s therefor e fel l t o mayors, munici pal councils , polic e officials , an d loca l magistrates , who , i n passin g an d enforcing loca l ordinances , reflecte d th e more s o f thei r constituencies . County prosecutor s seekin g t o punis h violator s unde r th e stat e la w con fronted sheriff-picke d gran d jurie s wh o woul d o r woul d no t indic t ac cording to the political whim. Moreover , th e maximum penalt y unde r th e 1874 law wa s a one-dollar fin e tha t rendere d suc h prosecutio n useles s t o begin with . Thu s fe w Sunda y case s progresse d t o th e stat e bar , an d th e conflicts generall y remaine d loca l i n scope. 25 Wher e th e populatio n wa s not homogeneou s ther e wa s conflict . W e ma y wel l sympathiz e wit h th e German-Americans o f Newark , who , whe n denie d thei r Sunda y con certs, questione d th e "busines s necessity " o f runnin g th e factorie s o n Sunday. In 192 3 th e boroug h o f Linde n indicte d a Jewis h congregatio n fo r conducting a religiou s parad e throug h th e tow n o n Sunday , a Jewis h butcher fo r deliverin g meats , an d a woman, "pas t sixt y year s of age," for carrying seve n apple s fro m he r neighbor' s hous e t o he r ow n o n Sunda y morning. A 193 7 revisio n o f th e stat e crimina l cod e lef t th e 179 8 la w virtually intact , a fact whic h le d on e civil libertarian t o comment tha t th e most urbanize d stat e had "th e mos t drasti c blue laws i n the union." Ne w Jersey's Sunda y la w was not repealed unti l 1978. 26

66 • The Robbery of the Sabbath For Willia m Addiso n Blakel y an d th e Religiou s Libert y Association , the Washington-base d grou p tha t carrie d o n hi s work , th e operatio n o f Sunday law s "befor e th e ba r o f reason " amounte d t o nothin g les s tha n "backward drift " tha t struc k a t "th e ver y root s o f huma n advancemen t and progressiv e civilization." 27 Blakely , lik e mos t secula r intellectuals , saw th e Sabbataria n movemen t simpl y i n term s o f religiou s enthusiasm . But th e growt h o f th e movemen t itsel f reveal s growin g socia l pressure s far i n excess of the kind exercise d b y Purita n minorities . The transformatio n o f Sabbatarianis m fro m a matter o f religiou s doc trine t o on e o f publi c polic y bega n seriousl y afte r th e Civi l War . Thi s * was illustrate d b y th e proceeding s o f th e Evangelica l Unite d Brethre n Church, founde d i n rura l Pennsylvani a i n 180 0 b y a grou p o f pietisti c German-Americans. Amon g th e Brethren , Sabbat h observanc e ha d bee n an articl e o f fait h fro m th e beginning . I n 186 6 their nationa l conference , representing a greatl y expande d church , entere d a "solem n protest " against effort s t o rescin d th e Sabbat h law s an d "respectfull y praye d th e honored Senator s an d representative s t o rejec t al l proposal s tendin g t o lessen the observation o f the Lord's Day. " By 188 0 the issue had assume d much wide r implications . "Shoul d th e sanctit y o f th e Sabbat h b e dis placed b y th e simpl e holida y o f th e Europea n pattern , ou r sures t strong hold agains t the assaults of socialistic and communisti c influence s wil l fal l into th e hand s o f thos e wh o ar e th e enemie s o f th e Christia n famil y an d Christian marriage." 28 As a friend o f the working classes, the Church als o appealed tha t worker s "counterac t th e despotis m o f consolidate d capital " by refusin g t o work on Sunday . By 189 3 ^ e Brethre n ha d becom e th e Nationa l Evangelica l Associa tion. N o longe r supplicants , they now sa w themselves as arbiters of social conduct. Meetin g in Chicago, they pronounced "Sabbat h Reform " a s one of th e fou r grea t mora l question s o f th e era , th e other s bein g slavery , now abolished , socia l purity , an d temperanc e reform . Reaffirmin g thei r allegiance t o th e rule s o f Sabbat h observanc e containe d i n th e first Discipline of the Church, publishe d i n 1809 , the Congress declared it s opposition to al l form s o f Sunda y business , includin g newspapers , an d specificall y to "al l pleasur e ride s an d excursions. " Interestingly , a s i f t o corroborat e Blakely's assertio n tha t th e Protestant churche s ha d bee n less than consistent o n thes e matter s fo r mos t o f the nineteent h century , th e Associatio n congratulated itsel f i n th e followin g manner : "Th e Evangelica l Associa tion ha s fro m th e beginnin g . . . take n a ver y prominen t par t i n th e temperance reform . . . . A t tha t earl y da y (1809 ) th e sentimen t o f th e

The Robbery of the Sabbath • 6 7 Christian Churche s o n the temperance questio n wa s by n o means wha t i t is today , an d wit h th e possibl e exceptio n o f on e o r tw o denominations , the Evangelical Association stoo d alone in her attitude toward th e temper ance cause." 29 A simila r clai m wa s no t mad e fo r thei r consistenc y o n th e Sabbath question , bu t th e repor t close d b y callin g fo r a "closer unio n o f the Churc h wit h th e caus e o f temperance, " an d declare d tha t no w th e influence o f th e Evangelica l Associatio n o n Sabbat h observanc e wa s "fel t and feare d al l over this land. " The minute s of the New Jersey Methodis t Conferenc e dat e from 1798 . Like th e Brethren , wit h who m the y woul d late r merge , Methodist s ha d always ha d a stric t Sabbataria n doctrine . Bu t th e Conferenc e di d no t formally addres s th e issu e unti l 187 1 whe n a committe e o n "Sabbat h Desecration" noted a "growing tendency throughou t th e country t o disregard th e sacrednes s o f th e hol y Sabbat h b y makin g i t a da y o f pleasur e seeking i n steamboa t excursion s an d th e runnin g o f Sunda y trains. " Bu t more addresse d t o thei r ow n communicant s tha n t o th e publi c a t large , the report lamented : "Ou r ow n peopl e to some extent participat e i n thes e Sabbath desecrations , especiall y i n Sunda y visiting, " an d calle d fo r a stricter enforcemen t o f Sabbat h doctrin e withi n th e Churc h t o th e poin t of disapproving Sunda y cam p meeting s "unles s th e mos t carefu l arrange ments ar e mad e t o preven t Sunda y trave l t o an d fro m th e ground. " I n 1880, Sabbat h Desecratio n becam e a standin g committe e o f th e Confer ence an d continue d t o recommen d "close d gates " at Sunda y cam p meet ings s o a s t o remov e th e temptatio n t o railroa d manager s t o "mak e gai n out of Godliness" by transportin g peopl e to the sites. 30 By 189 3 t n e Churc h ha d becom e clearl y mor e publi c an d politica l i n its pronouncements. Th e Committee on the State of the Church reported : It i s wit h rejoicin g tha t w e not e th e increas e o f th e powe r an d o f th e efficiency o f th e churc h i n it s oppositio n t o al l form s o f evils . T o it s uncompromising attitud e towar d th e ru m traffic . T o it s determine d pur pose to have the iniquitous race-track bill s repealed, an d to present a bold and united front agains t all corrupt politicians and political machinery. T o its untiring appeals for a more strict observance of the Sabbath. 31 The Temperanc e Committee , whil e not presuming to dictate the politica l conduct o f th e members , urge d tha t the y us e "thei r solem n trus t i n th e elective franchise " t o rescu e th e countr y fro m socia l evil s an d alternatel y praised an d condemne d Congres s an d th e stat e legislatur e fo r action s o n

68 • The Robbery of the Sabbath various excis e an d gamblin g bills . Th e Committe e o n Sabbat h Desecra tion ha d becom e th e committe e fo r "Bette r Observanc e o f th e Sabbath " and ha d reaso n t o rejoic e tha t yea r a s Congres s ha d "close d th e gates " of the Columbian Expositio n i n St . Louis . Sabbatarians no t onl y forge d tie s wit h temperanc e an d socia l purit y reformers, bu t b y th e beginnin g of the twentieth centur y ha d emerge d a s a powerfu l movemen t i n thei r ow n right . I n 188 4 the Philadelphi a Sab bath Associatio n wa s forme d (Joh n Wanamake r late r becam e it s presi dent) t o "sav e th e Sabbat h fro m desecratio n an d secur e a day o f res t fo r all." I n 188 8 a grou p i n Ne w Yor k Cit y forme d th e America n Sabbat h Union. I n 190 9 they incorporate d a s the Lord's Da y Allianc e and becam e the paren t grou p o f Sabbataria n societie s tha t ha d bee n founde d i n ever y state. Thei r increase d militanc e an d politica l sophisticatio n wer e illus trated b y th e followin g excerp t fro m thei r annua l repor t i n 1911 : "I n nearly al l the states , bill s looking toward commercializin g th e Lord's Da y are introduce d a s regularl y a s th e legislatur e convenes . I n al l instances , excepting i n Ohio , wher e a loca l optio n sport s bil l wa s permitte d t o become la w withou t th e governor' s signature , th e Christia n force s hav e been abl e to prevent thes e bills from becomin g laws." 32 The Allianc e was especially concerne d wit h sportin g events an d theat ricals, an d a n Illinoi s grou p ha d targete d a Sunday Chautaqua . O n Lon g Island, a n Allianc e membe r succeede d i n havin g a Sunda y ai r sho w canceled, an d on neighboring State n Island the Sunday Observanc e Association o f King s Count y successfull y prosecute d a rea l estat e agen t fo r selling shore lots on Sunday . Quotin g the New York Daily Mail, th e repor t concluded: "A s matters now stan d the y canno t sho w property o n the first day o f th e wee k withou t runnin g th e ris k o f bein g fined o r lande d i n jai l or both. Perhap s thi s will pave the way for th e annihilation of the Sunda y paper, whic h woul d undoubtedl y b e th e greates t accomplishmen t i n reform movement s ye t achieved. " In Ne w Jersey, Sabbatarian s no t onl y sa w th e Continenta l Sunda y a s evidence o f socia l an d mora l deterioriation , bu t Sunda y law s a s a n im portant tactica l wedg e i n th e effor t t o cleans e societ y o f drin k an d com mercial vice. Attacks on the Sunda y sal e of liquor ha d the dual advantag e of depriving saloo n keeper s o f profits b y merel y insistin g on enforcemen t of th e law . I n 1891 , th e Reveren d A . Nelso n Hollifield , pasto r o f th e Third Presbyteria n Churc h i n Newark , delivere d a sermo n tha t becam e New Jersey' s "Sabbataria n Manifesto " an d dre w th e line s fo r th e thirty year conflict withi n th e stat e that woul d profoundl y affec t th e fortunes o f

The Robbery of the Sabbath • 6 9 Atlantic City . Entitle d "Shal l W e Legaliz e Sabbat h Desecratio n an d Races and Gamblin g o n Rac e Courses?", th e sermo n articulate d th e dee p evangelical anxiety over urbanization, immigration , an d the secularizatio n of American society. 3 3 Hollifield sa w th e Continenta l Sunda y a s a n alie n menac e tha t threat ened th e ver y fabri c o f America n society . O f th e 1,17 3 saloo n keeper s i n his nativ e Newark , 85 0 wer e foreig n born . Th e clamo r fo r a n ope n Sunday di d no t reflec t a change of sentiment "o n the part o f Americans, " but a n insidiou s foreig n influence . Saloo n keeper s wh o defie d th e Fourt h Commandment wer e "destroyin g th e character , health , fortunes , an d souls o f individuals ; breakin g th e charme d circl e an d wreckin g th e joy and contentmen t o f peacefu l homes ; an d filling th e communit y wit h paupers an d criminals. " Th e workin g classe s wer e especiall y vulnerabl e on Sunday s becaus e thei r wage s receive d th e nigh t befor e wen t "int o th e pockets o f saloo n keepers " instea d o f providin g "foo d an d raimen t fo r dependent families. " Hollifield conclude d wit h a clarion cal l fo r th e churc h t o ste p beyon d the spiritua l real m an d dea l wit h th e problem s tha t affec t publi c morals . Declared anothe r Newar k clergyman : The ministers of this state are not politicians, no t enough so. But now we serve deliberate notic e o n th e liquo r dealer s tha t th e wa r t o brin g t o th e church into politics is to bring politics into the church. I f that Sunday law be repealed , le t i t b e distinctl y understoo d tha t th e clerg y wil l star t a n agitation whic h wil l pu t i t bac k o n th e statut e book s wit h addition s tha t will make the present status of saloons seem as life compared to death.34 The sermo n wa s s o wel l receive d tha t i t wa s publishe d i n a n effor t t o "mold publi c opinio n an d t o influenc e legislatio n o n thes e importan t matters." If the broad-base d oppositio n t o Sunda y law s belie d Hollifield' s asser tion tha t Sabbat h drinkin g wa s a n alie n an d a working-clas s problem , appeals to race and clas s prejudice wer e powerful element s of the Sabbat arian position . An d ther e wa s th e majest y o f th e law . I n describin g th e lawlessness o f th e Sunda y liquo r traffic , Hollifiel d dre w heavil y upo n Edmund Burke' s luri d portraya l o f the anarchy o f the French Revolution . But i f hi s imager y wa s extreme , hi s logi c wa s unassailable . Municipa l officials wh o winke d a t Sunda y seller s an d gran d juror s wh o refuse d t o indict offender s violate d solem n oath s o f office . Sellin g liquo r o n th e Sabbath was , n o less than burglary , a crime against the laws of the state.

70 • The Robbery of the Sabbath Within a decade , Sabbatarian s an d temperanc e reformers , unifie d i n such group s a s th e Knight s Templa r an d loca l law-and-orde r societie s formed solel y fo r th e purpos e o f obtainin g evidenc e agains t lawbreakin g saloons, ha d se t th e patter n fo r th e antisaloo n crusad e i n Ne w Jersey. I n 1901 William Black, a local attorney carryin g the Knights' banner, wage d a stron g bu t unsuccessfu l struggl e agains t th e Sunda y sal e o f liquo r i n Newark. Blac k hired detective s t o secur e evidence, affidavit s wer e swor n and notarized , an d charge s wer e filed wit h loca l prosecutors . Bu t gran d juries, bowin g t o publi c an d politica l pressure , refuse d t o indict , an d th e courts wer e helples s t o enforc e th e law. 35 I n Lon g Branch , th e problem s with saloon s involve d gamblin g an d prostitution , an d th e loca l law-and order leagu e wa s mor e successful . A presidin g elde r o f th e Methodis t Conference praise d th e effort: "I t gives me great pleasure to report that a t some place s ou r brethre n hav e bee n makin g aggressiv e warfar e agains t this curs e o f al l curses . Notabl y thi s ha s bee n tru e o f Lon g Branc h where public sentiment ha s been aroused, license s have been refused, an d violators o f th e la w hav e bee n punished." 36 Inevitably , raid s agains t saloons resulte d i n sensationa l newspape r expose s tha t embarrasse d loca l police and publi c officials . In Camden , th e Reveren d Samue l H . Han n forme d th e Camde n County La w an d Orde r League . Hirin g detective s an d marshallin g sym pathetic lawyer s an d judges , Han n harasse d Camde n saloo n keeper s an d branched ou t t o neighborin g Glouceste r an d Cap e Ma y counties . Th e New Jerse y Methodis t Conferenc e blesse d th e effort s o f th e "trie d an d trusted Hann " b y relievin g hi m o f his pastoral dutie s t o become the stat e temperance agen t o f th e Methodis t Church , a positio n h e hel d unti l hi s death i n 1919 . I n 1901 , th e La w an d Orde r Leagu e incorporate d a s a statewide organizatio n i n orde r t o give i t standin g i n othe r counties , an d Hann becam e secretary. 37 The yea r 190 1 brought particula r fermen t ove r the liquor question an d commercial vice , bot h nationall y an d i n Ne w Jersey . Februar y foun d Carrie Natio n e n rout e fro m Kansa s Cit y t o Chicago , wher e polic e wer e stationed i n readines s t o contai n he r saloon-smashin g crusade . I n Lon g Branch, Joseph A. Poole , the editor of a small paper, wa s serving a thirtyday jai l sentence for libel , a conviction rendere d b y a local jury a s a result of hi s crusad e agains t vic e an d Sunda y sellin g i n whic h h e accuse d th e mayor o f extortion . I n Newar k an d Jersey City , th e bar s wer e ope n o n Sunday, an d whole sections of working-class districts contained gamblin g

The Robbery of the Sabbath • 7 1 operations includin g slo t machines , polic y games , an d bettin g o n bicycl e races. Reformer s i n Essex, Hudson , an d Monmouth counties were consistently stymie d b y loca l polic e an d gran d jurie s wh o refuse d t o indic t lawbreakers despit e notarize d affidavit s an d othe r indisputabl e evidence . To reformer s an d la w enforcemen t officials , th e jailin g o f Edito r Pool e was the most outrageous exampl e of a pattern of judicial abuse which tie d the hand s o f count y prosecutor s an d judge s i n thei r effort s t o preven t gambling and th e Sunda y sal e of liquor. 38 In March , Governo r Foste r M . Vorhee s sen t th e legislatur e a bil l providing tha t wheneve r th e governor , attorne y general , a county prose cutor, o r judg e o f th e stat e cour t syste m notifie d a mayor o r loca l officia l of illegal activity, failur e t o act on that information withi n ten days woul d constitute a misdemeanor punishabl e b y a fine or a jail sentence . Aime d specifically a t saloo n gamblin g operation s i n Newark , Jerse y City , an d Long Branch , th e Vorhee s Ac t wa s quickl y an d unanimousl y passed . Although th e ultimat e powe r remaine d i n th e hand s o f count y gran d juries, th e la w curtaile d th e obstructiv e powe r o f polic e an d loca l offi cials.39 In June, Suprem e Cour t Justic e Thoma s Hendrickson , hearin g case s in Sout h Jersey , applie d th e Vorhee s Ac t t o th e Sunda y sal e o f liquo r and ordere d Mayo r Sto y t o clos e th e bar s i n Atlanti c City . Bu t Sunda y closing i n Atlanti c Cit y wa s shor t lived , an d littl e cam e o f tha t mov e t o enlist th e stat e i n th e effor t t o clos e th e bar s o n Sunday . I n Esse x and Monmout h counties , Justice s Skinne r an d For t faile d t o follo w th e Hendrickson lead , an d Governo r Vorhee s decline d commen t a s t o whether th e law that bore his name applied t o the Sunda y sal e of liquor. 40 In a n extensiv e commen t o n th e Atlanti c Cit y situation , th e Newark Evening News quoted a "prominent Democrat " as saying that Hendrickso n had gubernatoria l ambitions . Hendrickso n believe d tha t "ther e wer e enough good Democrat s an d independen t Republican s t o sustain a candidate who had the moral courage to make the attempt to stop liquor sellin g on Sunday s an d t o crus h a n evi l tha t ha s b y sufferanc e bee n allowe d fo r many years. " Bu t th e Democrat s stoo d read y t o mak e "persona l libert y pledges i n retur n fo r organize d support. " Th e Hendrickso n orde r ha d also galvanize d a powerfu l arra y o f Republica n forces , includin g th e Pennsylvania an d Wes t Jerse y railroads , Senato r Sewel l o f Camden , and th e wealth y Boardwal k hotelme n o f Atlanti c Cit y wh o wer e heav y contributors t o Republica n coffers . The y wer e determine d t o forc e a

72 • The Robbery of the Sabbath revision o f th e la w i n th e stat e legislature. 41 A s i t turne d out , neithe r party too k a stan d o n Sunda y closing , an d effort s a t revision , lik e Hen drickson's candidacy , wer e unsuccessful . Throughout th e state , local reformers continue d thei r crusade s agains t the Sunda y sal e o f liquor . I n Februar y 1902 , newl y electe d governo r Franklin Murph y receive d a letter fro m th e Philadelphia Sabbat h Associ ation remindin g hi m tha t th e liquo r law s i n Ne w Jerse y remaine d un changed, an d tha t thei r lac k o f enforcemen t wa s doin g "grea t harm " t o the peopl e o f Pennsylvania . Other s calle d attentio n t o ope n saloon s i n Keyport an d Belleville . A n affidavit , notarize d i n Camden , atteste d tha t saloons i n Atlanti c City , includin g Kuehnle' s Hotel , wer e habituall y doing business on Sundays . Onl y fou r complaint s survive, but contempo rary newspape r account s o f vic e war s throughou t th e stat e sugges t tha t Murphy's files are incomplete on the subject. Th e lon e surviving reply — to th e proteste r i n Keyport—ha s th e suspiciou s rin g o f a for m letter : "The prope r metho d t o pursu e i n order t o break up thi s evi l i s to make a complaint t o th e Prosecuto r o f th e Plea s o f th e count y i n whic h th e violation i s allege d t o tak e place , o r t o file a remonstranc e agains t th e renewal o f the license of the person who has violated th e law. Ther e i s no authority veste d b y la w i n th e Governo r t o interfer e i n th e matter." 42 Murphy's successor , Caspe r Stokes , prove d n o mor e incline d tha n Mur phy t o clos e th e saloon s o n th e Sabbath , an d th e Sunda y wa r i n Ne w Jersey entere d a period o f stalemate . Yet, b y no w th e churche s ha d grow n comfortabl e i n thei r militanc e and remaine d ver y muc h aliv e to the possibilitie s o f Sunda y closin g law s as a legal weapo n agains t th e liquo r interests . Thi s wa s clearl y expresse d by th e resolution s o f th e Temperanc e Committe e i n it s repor t t o th e Methodist Conferenc e i n 1902 . T o consen t t o th e "robber y o f th e Sab bath" woul d giv e taci t consen t t o "al l th e licentiousnes s tha t follow s i n its train, " includin g drunkenness , "especiall y amon g women, " an d th e demoralization o f th e hom e an d o f societ y itself . The y pledge d unite d support t o Hann' s work , bu t added : "W e . . . eve r fee l tha t w e mus t g o on t o th e perfectio n o f Prohibition." 43 I f t o th e Methodist s i n Ne w Jersey, Sabbatarianis m ha d becom e subordinat e t o th e greate r goa l o f Prohibition, i t remained, nonetheless , bot h a means an d a n end . By 190 6 the saloo n wa s unde r sieg e in Ne w Jersey, an d Sunda y raid s had becom e a weekly ritua l throughou t th e state . A branc h o f th e Anti Saloon Leagu e organize d i n Newark , alon g wit h loca l la w an d orde r societies, goo d citizenshi p leagues , an d othe r group s suc h a s th e Civi c

The Robbery of the Sabbath • 7 3 Righteousness Federatio n o f Jersey City , forme d a networ k o f loca l re form group s tha t blankete d th e state . Saloon s adopte d th e polic y o f locking fron t door s o n Sunday s an d screenin g th e fron t windows . Bu t i f the side-door business muted Sabbat h desecration, i t produced a situation where reformer s gaine d entranc e t o saloon s throug h sid e an d bac k door s and uncovere d a multitude o f back-room evils . Whether the y burs t int o a neighborhood poke r gam e o r upo n a grou p o f wome n drinkin g beer , t o reformers gamblin g wa s gambling, an d th e mer e presenc e o f women i n a saloon coul d onl y mea n on e thing . The y dubbe d childre n dispatche d b y their parent s t o the saloo n to buy a bucket o f beer the "growle r brigade, " youth whos e innocenc e wa s compromise d b y exposur e t o th e saloon . O f course there was a good dea l about th e saloon that was less than innocent . In cit y afte r city , saloon s wer e controlle d b y breweries , an d licensin g procedures wer e ofte n irregula r o r corrupt . Ther e wer e gambler s an d prostitutes, an d th e influence o f the saloo n in the politics of, fo r example , Jersey City , wa s b y 190 6 a n articl e o f fait h amon g observer s o f Ne w Jersey politics . Bu t Sunda y raid s ha d th e effec t o f documentin g thes e evils, an d i n th e hand s o f reformer s eve n norma l activitie s too k o n th e lurid aspec t of the saloon. Obstructiv e polic e tactics and grand jurie s wh o refused t o indic t Sunda y seller s onl y reinforce d th e siniste r notio n tha t the stat e was "controlled b y th e rum power. " A Sunda y campaig n i n Trento n close d th e bar s fo r a time , bu t i n Newark, Jerse y City , Hoboken , an d Elizabeth , citie s wit h large r immi grant populations , polic e harasse d reformers , an d citizens ' league s wit nessed spectacl e afte r spectacl e o f wholesal e defianc e o f th e law . Eve n i n Bridgeton, a dr y factor y tow n i n rura l Cumberlan d County , reformer s discovered tha t a hote l speakeas y wa s als o a brothel , a famil y busines s that ha d quietl y thrive d fo r twenty-fiv e years. 44 I n thi s atmospher e o f exposure, th e tim e wa s rip e fo r reformer s t o strik e a blo w a t th e saloo n by enlistin g the state authorities i n the campaign fo r Sunda y closing . In February 1906 , a statewide interdenominational grou p of clergyme n met in Trenton and framed a bill, and Governor Stoke s signed it that sum mer. Know n a s th e Bishops ' Law , i t provide d fo r licens e revocatio n an d stiff fines fo r Sunda y selling . I t als o banne d bac k room s connecte d wit h saloons and provide d tha t saloo n interiors b e open to public view on Sun day to make evasion of the law more difficult. Althoug h the liquor interests managed t o draw som e of the teeth from th e measure with an amendmen t providing fo r loca l rathe r tha n stat e enforcement , th e la w promise d t o wreak havoc upon the Sunday liquor trade if properly enforced. 45

74 • The Robbery of the Sabbath The wranglin g ove r th e provision s o f th e Bishops ' bil l reveale d th e potential fo r politica l embarrassmen t tha t la y i n th e stat e enforcemen t o f Sunday closing , an d apparentl y Stoke s signe d i t wit h n o littl e trepida tion. A "loya l Republican " warne d stat e chairma n Fran k O . Brigg s o f the "seriou s effect " stat e enforcement woul d hav e on the party . No t onl y would i t driv e th e liquo r interest s int o th e arm s o f th e stat e Democracy , but h e wa s i n possessio n o f a petition containin g som e 200,00 0 names i n opposition t o state enforcement includin g "leading business men , church going men , hones t laborin g men , voter s all, " whos e voice s deserve d "very carefu l consideration." 46 Anothe r corresponden t whos e travel s took hi m throughou t th e stat e reported: "Whereve r I went, I heard mor e opposition t o th e Liquo r La w tha n I di d o f an y refor m movement , an d I a m incline d t o believ e tha t i t i s losin g groun d ever y day." 47 Bu t th e Methodist Conferenc e warne d th e governo r tha t i t represente d 46 2 min isters an d 104,14 3 la y member s wh o insiste d o n stron g protectio n fro m Sabbath desecratio n an d th e othe r evil s o f th e liquo r traffic. 48 The Bishops ' La w burs t upo n Ne w Jersey a s a "political powde r bar rel." The Ne w Ide a movemen t wa s wel l unde r way , an d th e prospec t o f neutralizing th e saloo n a s a politica l instrumen t ha d draw n th e unani mous suppor t o f thes e earl y Progressives . I n Esse x County , Ne w Ide a sheriff Fran k Somme r alienate d urba n voter s b y conductin g a vigorou s Sunday enforcemen t crusade , an d regula r politician s fro m bot h partie s were quic k t o saddl e th e Progressiv e force s wit h responsibilit y fo r thi s "obnoxious act." 49 Th e la w sparke d a wave of Sunda y closin g campaign s throughout th e state , an d th e gubernatoria l electio n o f 190 7 too k plac e amid a flurry o f excitemen t ove r th e liquo r issu e an d Sunda y closing . Yet the election prove d a classic study i n the avoidance of that controver sial subject . Both candidates , th e Republica n Joh n Frankli n For t an d th e Demo crat Fran k S . Katzenbach , Jr . ra n o n nearl y identica l Progressiv e plat forms. Neithe r wa s dispose d t o mak e th e Bishops ' ac t a n issu e i n th e campaign, bu t For t did , o n on e occasion , pledg e tha t h e woul d enforc e it. For t wo n th e election b y a scant eight thousand votes , and late r attrib uted hi s narro w victor y t o tha t pledge , lukewar m thoug h i t was . A n active Methodist churchman , h e would late r lea d th e Ne w Jersey contin gent o f th e Lord' s Da y Alliance . Wit h For t i n th e governor' s chair , b y 1908 evangelical s looke d towar d a period o f vigorou s enforcemen t o f th e Sunday liquo r law s an d steppe d u p raid s throughou t th e state. 50 Upon takin g office , For t wa s deluge d wit h complaint s tha t th e Bish -

The Robbery of the Sabbath • 7 5 ops' La w wa s no t bein g enforced . Actuall y i t woul d appea r tha t th e la w had resulte d i n considerabl e tightenin g o f th e rein s o n saloon s b y loca l authorities, bu t i n man y localitie s th e la w ha d littl e effect . I n a n ope n letter t o Mayo r Ott o Wittpen n o f Jerse y City , Samue l Wilso n o f th e Civic Righteousnes s Associatio n complaine d tha t saloon s stil l shroude d their window s an d wer e ope n o n Sunday s despit e Wittpenn' s publi c as surances tha t th e la w wa s bein g enforced . Saloo n keeper s employe d po lice an d othe r sentrie s t o war n o f th e presenc e o f Associatio n detectives , and gran d jurie s stil l refuse d t o indic t Sunda y sellers. 51 Reformer s i n Newark, Hoboken , Elizabeth , an d Paterso n me t wit h th e sam e resis tance, an d cit y afte r cit y decline d t o pas s th e ordinance s require d b y th e law bannin g screen s an d bac k room s i n saloons . The Bishops ' La w ha d give n th e stat e n o mor e powe r tha n i t pre viously ha d t o clos e th e saloon s o n Sunday . Ye t Fort' s repeate d remind ers tha t h e ha d n o authorit y unde r th e la w t o compe l complianc e wit h the excis e regulation s di d littl e t o assuag e reformers . Vice , crime , an d the liquo r traffi c wer e seriou s issue s i n Ne w Jerse y i n 1908 , an d For t was unde r considerabl e pressur e t o act . I n Ma y h e appointe d tw o com missions, on e t o investigat e crim e an d dependenc y an d anothe r t o inves tigate th e liquo r traffic . Simultaneousl y holdin g hearing s throughou t th e state during th e summe r o f 1908 , the Crimes Commissio n an d th e Excis e Commission togethe r gathere d almos t si x thousan d page s o f swor n testi mony o n condition s i n th e state . Ye t thei r findings, bot h presente d t o the governo r o n Decembe r 15 , onl y documente d wha t informe d peopl e had lon g know n abou t vice , crime , an d th e liquo r traffi c i n Ne w Jerse y and furthe r stirre d u p passion s o n bot h side s o f the Sunda y controversy . Arriving i n Atlanti c Cit y Sunday , Augus t 1 , Fisk an d th e othe r com missioners wer e n o soone r settle d i n thei r hotel s tha n the y personall y witnessed ove r tw o hundre d saloon s an d hotel s doin g a rushing Sunda y business. Fis k immediatel y summone d Mayo r Sto y an d Polic e Chie f Woodruff, wh o informe d hi m tha t th e bar s ha d alway s bee n ope n o n Sunday an d woul d remai n s o because th e "visitor s demande d it." 52 Th e astounded Fis k abruptl y dismisse d hi s callers , settin g th e stag e for a hostile confrontatio n betwee n th e cit y an d stat e authorities . At th e outse t o f th e hearings , Count y Prosecuto r Clarenc e Gold enberg freel y admitte d tha t whil e th e Bishops ' La w wa s bein g observe d in th e count y a t large , "a s fa r a s Atlanti c Cit y i s concerned, i t ha s neve r been no r i s it no w bein g enforced. " T o Willia m Winter , presiden t o f th e Good Citizens ' League , th e conflic t wa s betwee n "religio n an d morals "

j 6 • The Robbery of the Sabbath on th e on e hand , an d "th e lov e o f money " o n th e other . On e Jame s Steelman, chairma n o f the evidenc e committee , testifie d tha t the y woul d enter a saloo n o n Sunday , "bu y th e stuff , . . . labe l i t wit h th e nam e o f the plac e an d th e ver y hou r an d ver y minut e w e bough t it , swea r ou t the warrants , hav e th e ma n arrested , boun d fo r th e gran d jury , an d tak e this sam e evidenc e t o th e gran d jury. " Durin g th e previou s eightee n months, citizens ' raids ha d produce d som e sixty arrests , bu t five separate grand jurie s ha d faile d t o retur n a singl e indictment , despit e conclusiv e evidence.53 Sheriff Smit h E . Johnson, wh o ha d bee n i n office sinc e 1884 , testifie d that h e ha d neve r see n a drop o f liquo r sol d i n Atlanti c Cit y o n Sunda y in hi s life , no t tha t h e didn' t believ e it , h e jus t hadn' t see n it . " I don' t have t o g o hun t u p busines s a s I understan d th e law . I kno w o f n o la w that wil l mak e m e d o so. " A s fo r th e gran d juries , Johnso n swor e tha t he didn' t stac k them , an d Judge Higbe e o f th e Cour t o f Commo n Plea s washed hi s hand s o f th e matte r b y sayin g tha t h e di d no t believ e tha t a grand jur y o f twenty-fou r me n coul d b e foun d i n Atlanti c Count y tha t would indic t fo r Sunda y violations . I n th e polic e department , attitude s ranged fro m defianc e t o exasperation . Office r numbe r seventy-three , speaking t o a commissio n detectiv e posin g a s a visitor , referre d t o com mission member s a s " a lo t o f bu m hoboes " wh o shoul d min d thei r ow n business. " I wil l tel l yo u tha t w e hav e go t a sherif f i n Atlanti c Count y that can' t b e beat . H e ha s th e makin g o f th e gran d jur y an d i t i s hard t o get b y tha t combination. " Polic e Chie f Malcom b Woodruf f complaine d that ther e wa s n o us e arrestin g anybod y fo r Sunda y sellin g becaus e grand jurie s simpl y woul d no t indict. 54 City licens e holder s ha d forme d a branc h o f th e Roya l Arch , a na tional organizatio n pledge d t o th e "responsibl e conduc t o f th e liquo r business." Bu t th e commissioner s wer e no t relieve d t o hea r fro m th e mayor an d th e wealthiest hote l owners i n the resort tha t th e code govern ing Atlanti c City' s liquo r traffi c represente d a compromis e amon g th e Royal Arch , cit y officials , an d eve n member s o f th e clergy . Entitle d "Regulations t o Tak e Effec t Jun e 1 , 1907, " they require d saloon s t o loc k front door s an d scree n window s o n Sunday , forbad e musi c i n barroom s and cafe s s o a s no t t o entic e th e young , an d place d restriction s o n gam bling. Th e eight h sectio n declared : "W e pledg e goo d fait h i n th e above , and wil l se e the m carrie d ou t honestl y an d faithfull y b y th e Mayo r an d City Official s wh o shal l d o thei r dut y i n exactin g fro m al l obeyance . Any neglec t o f th e abov e shal l b e th e signa l fo r th e enforcemen t o f th e

The Robbery of the Sabbath • 7 7 present an d mor e rigi d condition s tha t exis t now." 55 I n othe r words , irresponsible saloo n conduc t o f an y sor t woul d resul t i n Sunda y closing . To Charle s Spiedel , presiden t o f th e Roya l Arch , an d t o the resor t busi ness communit y h e represented , thi s wa s a reasonabl e compromise . T o the commissioners , i t wa s a n ope n conspirac y t o evad e th e law s o f th e state. Actually , th e cod e represente d th e final revisio n t o th e libera l pol icy an d a solutio n t o th e thorn y conflic t ove r Sabbat h observanc e tha t had rage d withi n th e resor t fo r mor e tha n tw o decades . John J . White , th e owne r o f th e resort' s mos t exclusiv e hotel , re minded th e commissioner s tha t Atlanti c Cit y brough t mor e tha n $ 2 mil lion pe r yea r int o th e stat e an d urge d tha t thi s alon e warrante d specia l legislation fo r th e city . Bu t th e cru x o f th e city' s case wa s containe d i n the following : Some people may think that it would make not make much difference t o a man whether or not he could have liquor served with his meals on Sunday, the sam e a s othe r day s an d th e sam e tha t h e doe s a t home . I tel l you , gentlemen, we who have made a careful study , who have chanced not only what w e hav e o n it , bu t wha t w e hav e bee n abl e t o ge t throug h th e confidence of others in us, know that it is a very small thing which decides people where they will go on their vacations.56 In White' s view , th e enforcemen t o f Sunda y closin g woul d mea n "ruin " and "disaster " fo r th e nation' s larges t seasid e resort. Th e accurac y o f thi s observation matter s les s tha n th e fac t i t expresse d th e vie w o f practicall y the entire community . The commissioner s lef t Atlanti c Cit y unimpresse d b y th e argumen t that Sunda y liquo r sale s were critical to the survival of the city an d muc h outraged b y wha t amounte d t o blatan t defianc e o f th e law s o f th e state . Throughout th e mont h o f Augus t th e cit y remaine d wid e open . O n August 15 , a defiant Mayo r Sto y a s much a s announced tha t th e Sunda y law would no t b e enforced an d calle d fo r it s repeal. Althoug h ther e wer e token indictment s fo r gambling , anothe r gran d jur y faile d t o indic t a number o f hote l me n clearl y guilt y o f Sunda y selling . Suprem e Cour t Justice Trenchar d dismisse d th e pane l i n "dishonor, " declarin g tha t the y had violate d thei r oath s o f office . Bu t th e jur y foreman , Josep h Salus , who wa s presiden t o f th e Businessmen' s League , mad e a heroi c stand , declaring that th e panel was as representative of men as could b e found i n Atlantic City . "W e ar e willin g t o stan d befor e Go d an d ma n an d accep t the consequences . I t i s manifestl y unfai r t o repriman d us . W e represen t

78 • The Robbery of the Sabbath the will of the people in Atlantic City; we represent five million dollars of property; w e d o no t inten d tha t ou r actio n shal l b e mad e politica l capita l of b y an y man." 57 Actually , th e gran d jur y include d Harr y Graf, th e proprietor o f th e Hole-in-the-Wal l Caf e wh o wa s on e o f twenty-si x peo ple unde r indictment . Bu t i n th e person s o f Whit e an d Salus , Atlanti c City ha d pu t it s bes t foo t forward . Whit e wa s th e spokesma n fo r th e "beachfront," a contingen t o f Quake r hote l owner s wh o operate d th e largest an d mos t prestigiou s establishment s i n th e resort . Salu s owne d several Boardwal k cafe s caterin g t o th e mos t refine d elemen t o f th e re sort's patronage . Bot h me n wer e prominen t i n stat e Republica n circle s and enjoye d a personal acquaintanc e wit h th e governor. But , i f Fort wa s not merel y dealin g wit h a n unrul y saloo n element , h e wa s face d wit h a nullification polic y tha t challenged th e very basi s of executive authority . On Augus t 2 7 Governo r Fort , callin g th e cit y a "Saturnalia o f Vice, " reacted wit h a witherin g proclamatio n an d threatene d t o cal l ou t th e militia an d plac e th e cit y unde r martia l la w t o enforc e th e Bishops ' Law . The proclamation , alon g wit h accompanyin g ope n letter s t o th e mayor , the sheriff , an d Judg e Higbe e containe d a combinatio n o f truth s an d falsehoods an d wa s a blistering indictmen t o f th e mora l statu s o f the cit y based entirel y o n th e evidenc e o f th e Excis e Commission , which , i n th e governor's words , "astonishe d al l good citizen s o f th e state . . . . N o on e in office o r before that commission questioned th e fact that street walking, gambling, house s o f ill-fame , peopl e o f ill-repute , an d obscen e pictures , and ope n violation s o f th e excis e la w existe d i n Atlanti c City . . . . Th e citizens [o f Atlanti c City ] ar e alarmed . . . . Neve r i n th e histor y o f th e city has it been worse." 58 There was indeed a tenderloin i n Atlantic City , and ther e wer e als o gamblers—facts freel y admitte d b y th e resort' s bes t citizens wh o ha d fo r th e pas t fe w year s bee n engage d i n a n earnes t effort t o eliminat e thos e blight s fro m th e "famil y resort. " Moreover , commissioners ha d reveale d t o th e New York Times that condition s i n Asbury Park , a temperance resort , wer e n o bette r tha n i n Atlanti c City , and eve n the Methodis t enclav e a t Ocea n Grov e containe d twent y place s where liquor could b e had. 59 At a town meeting , Joseph Salu s denounce d th e governor' s proclama tion a s "th e damndes t lie s eve r pu t out. " Whil e mos t o f th e stat e pres s had nothin g bu t hars h word s fo r th e city, th e Philadelphia Bulletin praised its orderliness , an d th e New York Times castigated For t fo r "hars h an d extreme measures." 60 Althoug h For t ha d bee n a compromis e candidat e for governor , onc e in office, h e had cast his lot with the New Ide a factio n

The Robbery of the Sabbath • 7 9 of hi s party . Th e blatan t defianc e o f th e stat e b y th e cit y authoritie s ha d placed th e executiv e authorit y squarel y o n th e line , an d i n vie w o f hi s campaign pledge , h e had littl e choice but t o act forcefully. 61 Bu t why th e severe condemnation o f the moral statu s of the city ? The us e o f th e stat e militi a woul d neve r hav e stoo d o n th e issu e o f Sunday closin g alone . Fro m th e beginning , agitatio n fo r th e Bishops ' Law, althoug h aime d a t Sunda y closing , wa s couche d i n deepe r evils . The original petition t o Governor Stoke s from th e clergy made absolutel y no mention o f Sabbat h desecratio n an d rea d i n part a s follows : The proprietor s o f man y place s wherei n intoxicatin g drink s ar e sol d an d consumed . . . i n back rooms, not only offer opportunit y to the abandoned and the profligate t o gratify thei r bestial appetites by debauching the innocent of the poor man's home, but actually encourage and solicit the patronage of the vilest of men and women, who with the appetite of the brute and the arts of the demon recruit from th e children of honest laborers . . . the wretched victims of promiscuous prostitution. 62 Efforts t o enforc e Sunda y closin g o n it s ow n merit s ha d neve r bee n successful i n Ne w Jerse y excep t i n rura l areas , an d eve n i n thos e area s evasion had been , i f surreptitious, widespread . To b e sure , ther e wa s a large constituenc y fo r th e Purita n Sunda y i n New Jersey. Bu t fo r most , eve n evangelicals, th e conflict i n Atlantic Cit y transcended Sabbatarianis m an d becam e a n issu e of socia l control . Fort' s proclamation mad e hi m a nationa l figure. I n th e week s tha t followe d h e was deluge d wit h petition s an d letter s o f commendation . A campaig n among Ne w Jerse y churche s produce d 14 6 petition s containin g 67,49 6 names i n suppor t o f Fort' s heroi c defens e o f th e Sabbath . Bu t typica l o f the man y letter s an d telegram s For t receive d wa s a communication fro m the Methodist Sunda y schoo l in Gothenberg, Nebraska , commendin g hi s "Christian resolution " an d "fir m an d manl y determination " t o enforce th e laws of state . Josiah Stron g declare d tha t "lawlessness " had becom e "on e of th e greates t peril s o f ou r institutions. " Oswal d Garriso n Villar d be lieved tha t matter s i n Atlanti c Cit y ha d approache d a "critical state . . . . What i s being don e ther e i s at al l fours wit h th e lynching s i n Springfiel d and othe r form s o f lawlessness . . . . Yo u ar e confronte d wit h bu t on e phase of what i s the all-important questio n o f the day i n this country, th e enforcement o f the law and th e creating of respect fo r it." 63 Nor wa s th e issu e confine d t o temperance . Th e Burlingto n Count y Local Optio n Leagu e telegraphed : "Congratulation s o n you r honorabl e

8o • The Robbery of the Sabbath stand. W e ar e wit h yo u 3,00 0 stron g agains t lawlessness" (italic s theirs) , and Edwar d Black , th e Newar k Sabbataria n o f th e Knight s Templar , saw the conflict i n terms of "public righteousness." 64 Later , For t confide d to Chancellor Mahlo n Pitney : "Th e Atlanti c City situatio n wa s a troublesome one . I t wa s no t a question o f temperanc e o r Sunda y selling , bu t i t reached a poin t wher e i t becam e simpl y a questio n whethe r th e law s o f the stat e shoul d o r shoul d no t b e obeyed , o r whethe r certai n section s could nullif y th e stat e la w a t will." 65 Asid e fro m th e churc h petitions , among the 24 2 encomiums containe d i n Fort' s files one looks in vain for a commendation specificall y fo r hi s defense o f the Sabbath . Almost los t i n th e stac k o f correspondence wa s a letter fro m Christia n Fisher, a Berge n saloo n keeper , on e o f onl y thre e individual s wh o wrot e in protest o f the governor's action . I am now ruined. I made an honest living. But when I can sell no lager on Sunday m y friend s sta y away . The y mus t wor k har d i n th e wee k an d cannot get any fresh ai r until Sunday comes. They will not drink ice water that make s them sic k at the stomach . Bu t what i s it that w e cannot d o in Bergen as they d o in Guttenberg an d i n Unionhill an d al l over when one that know s it can get all the beer that is good for hi m and more too when he goes to the right doo r an d know s the watch, hi s friend. Yo u are not a just man. We are all as good as the other. 66 The Berge n barkee p was not alon e in his belief that the Bishops' Law wa s class legislatio n tha t coul d no t b e enforced . A t a late r commissio n hear ing, a prominen t Hoboke n citize n state d tha t th e condition s foun d i n Paterson, Hoboken , Elizabeth , an d Atlanti c City wer e not exceptional . They are purely typical. They will prevail everywhere you have a sumptuary law which cannot b e enforced. Th e people are not worse than others. They hav e their ow n idea s a s to the proper metho d o f observing Sunda y and ar e no t willin g t o b e dictate d t o b y temperanc e societie s a s t o wha t they shall drink and when they shall drink it. . . . If we send the militia to Atlantic City to see that the saloons are closed on Sunday, who is going to look afte r th e militia . I woul d lik e t o se e a compan y o f soldier s fro m Hoboken calle d ou t an d statione d a t a sid e doo r i n Atlanti c Cit y o n a Sunday afternoon. 67 Even Samue l Wilson , whil e praisin g Fort' s firm stand , complaine d tha t the la w wa s stil l wa s no t bein g enforce d i n Jerse y City , despit e th e governor's assurance s t o th e contrary . "Nullificatio n i s jus t a s positive ,

The Robbery of the Sabbath • 8 1 less bold , bu t mor e hypocritica l an d i n ever y wa y a s despicable." 68 O f the fe w protest s tha t For t received , Wilson' s wa s th e mos t disturbing . I f he sen t troop s t o Atlanti c City , woul d h e als o sen d the m t o Jersey City , or fo r tha t matter , t o the state capitol in Trenton ? For th e moment , For t wa s spare d thi s dilemma . Th e specte r o f troop s patrolling th e Boardwal k an d th e street s o f Atlanti c Cit y wa s enoug h t o make th e mayo r an d th e Roya l Arc h bac k down . Sto y announce d tha t Sunday sellin g would cease as of August 30 , and the Royal Arch whippe d the license holders int o line. Resor t saloon s were draped i n blac k and on e displayed a sign declaring : "N o liquo r sol d o n Sunda y an d damne d littl e on Monday. " Nonetheless , Fort' s attorne y genera l reporte d tha t th e cit y was "a s dr y a s las t year' s bird' s nest, " an d i t appeare d tha t hi s victor y was complete. 69 But withi n tw o month s Atlanti c Cit y ha d returne d t o he r ol d ways . Reformers gathere d mor e evidenc e agains t Sunda y sellers , bu t agai n there wer e n o indictments . I n October , Willia m Winte r reporte d t o th e governor tha t man y saloo n keepers wer e now mor e defiant tha n whe n th e order wa s issued . Leagu e detective s wer e threatened , an d on e wa s as saulted i n a saloo n whil e securin g evidenc e an d "barel y escape d sever e injury a t th e hand s o f a half-drunken crowd . . . . The feelin g i s so bitte r against our men , tha t i t is hardly saf e for the m to enter som e of the place s any more , bu t w e ar e certai n tha t shoul d w e cease ou r vigil , ever y plac e in th e cit y woul d b e wid e open." 70 Winte r pleade d fo r th e governo r t o send aid . I n January th e loca l chapte r o f th e WCT U sen t th e governo r a notarized petitio n certifyin g tha t Sunda y sellin g was again wide open an d ended wit h anothe r ple a fo r th e governor t o use the powe r o f his office t o enforce th e law . For t replie d tha t hi s hands wer e tied becaus e the legisla ture ha d refuse d t o gran t hi s reques t fo r powe r t o remov e loca l official s who were derelict i n their duty. 71 In Marc h th e Methodis t Conferenc e roundl y denounce d Fort' s inac tion, an d Easte r Sunda y sa w the Boardwalk thronge d wit h visitors, man y standing thre e dee p a t ever y drinkin g plac e alon g th e beachfront . Tha t summer, raid s b y th e Lord' s Da y Allianc e an d blarin g headline s pro claimed th e city' s defiance . Th e Trenton True American declared Atlanti c City " A Cit y i n Rebellion " an d castigate d th e governo r fo r hi s inaction . Fort directe d hi s attorne y genera l t o orde r Mayo r Sto y t o enforc e th e excise laws . Sto y defiantl y refuse d an d wa s arreste d o n a warrant issue d by a special magistrate , al l of whic h generate d muc h publicit y an d mad e the mayor a heroic figure in the city. 72

82 • The Robbery of the Sabbath If Fort ha d expecte d th e commissions t o deflect th e Sunda y issu e or t o provide som e sor t o f mandat e fo r legislativ e action , h e wa s sadl y disap pointed. Th e commissioners , Protestant s all , wer e a s ambivalen t o n th e issue a s the publi c a t large . Bot h th e Excis e Commissio n an d th e Crime s Commission presente d thei r report s t o th e governo r o n Decembe r 15 . Not unexpectedly , Fis k an d th e majorit y o f th e excis e commissioner s harshly condemne d th e conduc t o f th e liquo r traffi c i n th e stat e an d singled ou t Atlanti c Cit y fo r specia l opprobriu m fo r it s blatan t defianc e of th e law . Th e mos t frequen t an d flagrant violatio n o f th e excis e law s was Sunda y selling , particularl y "a t shor e resort s an d i n larg e cities, " a fact the y attribute d t o th e "apparen t disinclinatio n o f official s t o enforc e the law " an d th e "persisten t determinatio n o f th e drinkin g publi c t o procure drin k durin g prohibite d hour s . . . simpl y becaus e the y kno w i t is contrar y t o th e law. " Ye t th e ninety-pag e repor t devote d bu t on e paragraph t o the defense o f the Sabbath , recommendin g n o change in th e current regulations. 7 3 The minority , consistin g of Assemblyman John How e of Newark an d Caleb Va n Huse n Whitbeck , edito r o f th e Hackensack Record, concurre d "in larg e part " wit h th e findings o f th e majority , bu t interprete d th e evidence differently . The y declare d tha t excis e condition s wer e no t th e result o f politica l corruptio n bu t rathe r a n expressio n o f th e wil l o f the people. The cas e o f Atlanti c City , t o whic h probabl y referenc e wa s ha d b y ou r fellow member s i n charging maladministration , i s in point . Th e rule s of the Royal Arch are cited a s a conspiracy to defeat th e law, ye t these rules were drafted an d approved by a committee composed, in equal number, of delegates from the Businessmen's League, the Hotelmen's Association, and the Good Citizens' League, as well as the Royal Arch. To maintain that the Atlantic Cit y La w violation s ar e du e t o politica l dominatio n o f liquo r dealers, rathe r tha n t o the opinion an d wishe s of a vast majorit y o f all its citizens, is to shut one's eyes willfully t o perfectly paten t facts. 74 They conclude d wit h th e observation tha t legislator s should mak e laws in accordance wit h th e wishe s o f thos e the y represent , no t i n accordanc e with "th e legislators ' idea s o f wha t i s good fo r them, " an d recommende d that "certai n hotel s an d restaurants " shoul d b e allowe d t o sel l liquo r t o their guest s on Sundays . The Crime s Commissio n wa s eve n mor e ambivalen t o n th e Sunda y question. Defianc e o f Sunda y restriction s ha d bre d a contemp t fo r th e

The Robbery of the Sabbath • 8 3 law tha t wa s unprecedente d i n th e annal s o f th e state , particularl y i n Atlantic City . The y wer e unanimou s i n recommendin g crimina l indict ments agains t Charle s Spiedel , th e member s o f th e Roya l Arch , cit y officials, an d othe r "intereste d parties " who, a s the commissio n sat , wer e engaged i n a conspirac y t o def y th e law s o f th e state . Bu t almos t i n th e same breat h the y conclude d tha t "harmfu l dea d lette r laws " wer e no t only "unpunished " bu t "unpunishable " an d shoul d b e repealed . Th e majority recommendatio n o n Sunda y closin g wa s identica l t o th e minor ity recommendatio n o f the Excise Commission, t o allow the sale of liquo r to restaurant an d hote l guest s o n Sunday . Thi s wa s precisel y th e legisla tion that restaurant an d hotel interests in Atlantic City ha d bee n pursuin g for years. 75 If laws for th e prevention o f vice and immoralit y wer e civil regulation s intended t o promot e socia l welfar e an d publi c order , many , particularl y social reformer s an d la w enforcemen t officials , foun d the m counterpro ductive. Th e Crime s Commissio n conclude d tha t th e stat e had pursue d a narrow polic y wit h respec t t o wholesome sport s for th e young . Young people , thousand s o f who m ar e force d t o wor k si x day s i n ever y week, have only Sunday for relaxation; harsh laws, made to fit other times, other peoples and other conditions, prevent the youth of today from findin g harmless an d healthfu l occupatio n o n thi s da y o f idlenes s b y witnessin g ball games and othe r outdoo r sports , an d thu s encourage s the m t o spen d their tim e gamblin g an d drinkin g an d i n place s wher e the y ough t no t to be.76 The commission , wit h bu t on e dissentin g vote , recommende d tha t th e legislature expung e "th e blu e la w relics " an d mak e sport s an d amuse ments lega l at least on Sunda y afternoons . Of th e fifteen commissioners , onl y th e Reveren d Ernes t A . Boo m o f Merchantville, a Methodis t an d a membe r o f Hann' s La w an d Orde r League, sa w fit t o defen d th e Sabbath . Boo m wrot e a length y scientifi c treatise o n th e Sunda y liquo r traffic . Studie s don e i n Switzerlan d an d Germany, wher e ther e wer e n o Sabbat h restrictions , ha d show n tha t a disproportionate numbe r o f violen t crime s occurre d o n Sunday . I n Zu rich th e figure wa s 42.5 5 percent , i n Heidelburg , 4 5 percent , an d i n Luther's Worms , i t wa s 35.1 3 percent . Give n th e onerou s financial bur den of crime and dependency, th e state simply could not afford t o legalize liquor on Sunday. 77 In Januar y 1909 , th e Ne w Jerse y Sabbat h Associatio n merge d wit h

84 • The Robbery of the Sabbath the Nationa l Lord' s Da y Allianc e a s Protestan t group s throughou t th e state mobilize d t o preven t th e repea l o f th e Sunda y laws . Legislativ e delegations fro m Jerse y City , Newark , Atlanti c City , an d othe r coas t resorts introduce d a numbe r o f bill s t o liberaliz e Sunda y restriction s b y permitting liquor , sports , an d othe r entertainment s throug h loca l refer enda. Th e mos t conservativ e bil l wa s introduce d b y Senato r Wilso n o f Atlantic City. Simila r to the Raines Law in force i n New York , i t allowed hotels to serve drinks t o bona fide guests with thei r meals. 78 During Februar y an d March , delegation s representin g th e churches , the liquo r dealers , an d th e citie s descende d upo n Trenton , an d th e hear ings ofte n becam e heated . A n Atlanti c Cit y hotelma n declare d tha t th e resort wa s a t the merc y o f a "handful o f fanatics." Joseph Salus , a Jewish restaurateur, struc k a more conciliator y tone , pleadin g tha t Atlanti c Cit y license holder s ha d n o intentio n o f violatin g th e law . The y jus t wante d personal freedo m an d a "fair deal. " A Trenton clergyma n responde d tha t "Jews shoul d g o bac k t o Russi a wher e the y coul d lear n wha t persona l freedom the y enjoye d unde r th e America n government. " Salu s coul d only repl y tha t h e hope d tha t suc h uncharitabl e attitude s woul d no t survive the century. 79 Sunday basebal l faile d i n th e assembl y b y on e vote , bu t a Trenton Times canvass indicate d tha t ther e were , a t most , onl y nin e votes i n favo r in th e senate . Non e o f the bill s on Sunda y liquo r sale s reached th e floor. "As fo r a n ope n Sunday, " sai d th e Times, "th e politica l part y tha t en dorses i t wil l hardl y kno w tha t i t ha d a candidat e i n th e electio n whic h follows th e passage of such a law. 80 Protagonists o n bot h side s o f th e Sabbataria n conflic t agree d tha t Sunday restriction s presente d th e mos t seriou s proble m o f la w enforce ment i n th e state , bu t th e exhaustiv e hearing s an d th e detaile d report s resulted i n n o change i n the la w wit h respec t t o Sunda y closing . I n Ne w Jersey, an d particularl y i n Atlanti c City , th e Sunda y conflic t simpl y raged on , an d th e voluminou s proceeding s fro m th e Excis e Commissio n and th e Crimes Commissio n wer e filed and forgotten . Although pocket s o f enthusias m remained , b y 191 2 th e Sabbataria n movement i n Ne w Jerse y bega n t o sho w sign s o f seriou s decline . Refer ences t o th e issu e i n th e Methodis t Conferenc e report s becom e briefer , more scattered , an d mor e perfunctory, an d b y 191 4 Sabbath Desecratio n had cease d t o be a standing committe e o f the conference. Sabbatarianis m had, a t leas t sinc e th e tur n o f th e century , stoo d i n th e shado w o f th e Prohibition movement , an d i n Ne w Jerse y tha t movemen t wa s no w

The Robbery of the Sabbath • 8 5 under th e leadershi p o f the Anti-Saloo n League , whic h wa s pursuin g th e tactic of local option a s a means of eliminating th e saloon . A Methodis t clergyman , wh o compile d a n exhaustiv e histor y o f th e southern Ne w Jerse y conferenc e i n 1986 , referre d t o th e "flickerin g flames o f revivalism " tha t occurre d jus t befor e an d durin g Worl d Wa r I , and suggeste d tha t "ofte n a fire may bur n brigh t an d seemingl y intens e as it begin s t o nea r it s end. " I n retrospect , h e wrot e tha t th e struggl e t o preserve th e Christia n Sunda y i n Ne w Jersey ha d bee n a long one , and , in thi s secula r age , fe w coul d understan d th e intensit y wit h whic h hi s forebears wage d th e fight. "A s a matter o f fact, n o concern receive d mor e attention i n th e Ne w Jerse y Conferenc e i n th e openin g year s o f th e twentieth century , apar t fro m temperance , tha n prope r Sunda y obser vance. Today , w e ma y tak e pride i n our liberty , bu t churc h afte r churc h laments th e competitio n whic h draw s children , youth , an d adult s awa y from th e church." 81 I t i s interesting tha t a Methodist historian , immerse d in the evangelical sources , sa w the Sabbataria n issu e in terms o f competi tion a s oppose d t o piety . I n 1919 , Justic e Jame s Mintern , testifyin g before a legislative committee , sai d tha t a s a churchman h e cherished th e "beautiful idea l o f th e Christia n Sunday " but , i n th e word s o f Edmun d Burke, added : "Yo u canno t indic t a whol e people. " Condition s ha d changed, an d th e urba n populatio n no w sough t "air , res t an d recreatio n from th e putrid an d confinin g environmen t o f shop and factory." 82 Atlantic Cit y offere d air , rest , an d recreation , an d a good dea l more . The perio d betwee n it s foundin g i n 185 4 and 1920 , the tim e b y whic h i t had com e int o it s ful l fruitio n a s a commercial resor t city , Atlanti c Cit y stood consistently, thoug h unwittingly, a s both a symbolic and a practical counterpoise t o evangelica l reform . Sabbat h desecratio n symbolize d a broad rang e o f socia l anxietie s fel t b y middle-clas s American s a s the y viewed th e proces s o f urbanization. Thei r approac h t o reform wa s condi tioned b y alar m over the increasing level s of commercial vic e and munici pal corruption , evil s the y perceive d a s stemmin g fro m th e value s an d predilections o f the working classes, particularly ethni c and racia l minori ties. Thes e threat s t o society , bot h rea l an d perceived , provide d th e external pressure s o n Atlanti c Cit y an d constitute d th e broa d socia l con text i n which the reform movemen t too k place. But th e politic s o f urba n refor m i n Atlanti c Cit y wa s als o a loca l phenomenon, generate d b y th e interest s an d perception s o f a residen t population a s divers e a s th e peopl e wh o patronize d th e resort . B y 190 8 there existe d withi n th e cit y a "mora l economy, " similar , i n historica l

86 • The Robbery of the Sabbath concept, t o the long-hel d practice s an d expectation s o f the Englis h work ing classe s a t th e daw n o f th e industria l er a describe d b y historia n E . P . Thompson. 83 Thos e practices and expectations were essentially embodie d in th e libera l polic y an d obtained , i n on e for m o r another , throughou t the community , eve n amon g black s an d other s wh o ha d n o par t i n it s formulation. More s an d practice s governin g th e relation s betwee n th e classes, th e races , an d th e sexes , recreationa l habits , a s well a s the struc ture o f th e family , ha d change d significantl y sinc e 1854 . Responding , o n the on e hand , t o socia l change , and , o n th e other , t o evangelica l an d middle-class anxiet y ove r socia l change , th e libera l polic y was , lik e th e larger society , a compac t a t wa r wit h itself . Hence , th e ver y force s tha t created th e libera l polic y woul d eventuall y destro y i t i n th e wak e o f Progressive reform .

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he development o f Absecon Islan d brough t t o the wilderness th e amenities o f urba n life . I t als o brought it s maladies . Gambling , prostitution, an d th e liquo r traffi c marke d ever y stag e o f th e development o f Atlanti c City . I t wa s on e thin g t o buil d a resort cit y o n the wastes of a barrier island, an d another t o manage its attractions withi n accepted standard s o f socia l an d civi c morality . Cit y leader s confronte d this problem fro m th e very beginning, bu t i t became increasingly difficul t as the city grew. Th e evolutio n of the liberal policy during the nineteent h century reflecte d changin g lif e style s an d recreationa l habit s an d als o changing attitudes toward race , class, sex, and commercial vice. But mor e importantly, fro m it s inceptio n i n 185 4 t o century' s end , i t signaled , i f not th e opening , a t leas t th e significant widenin g o f a cultura l chas m between the Protestant churches of America an d the masses of the people. Beginning i n 1848 , th e Reveren d Alle n H . Brown , a Presbyteria n missionary, devote d mor e tha n thirt y year s o f a long caree r t o th e spiri tual need s o f rura l Sout h Jersey. Travelin g b y horsebac k ove r primitiv e roadways, h e preached t o the isolated inhabitant s an d organized an d buil t sixteen churche s i n th e area . Brown' s wor k continuall y depende d o n th e financial suppor t an d hospitalit y o f loca l capitalist s wh o sa w churc h building a s an agen t o f progress an d development . Th e frequen t gues t o f Jonathan Pitney , Brow n wa s wel l acquainte d wit h Samue l Richard s an d the other director s of the Camden an d Atlanti c Railroad. 1 Even to one accustomed t o the rigors an d privation o f a rural ministry , Atlantic Cit y i n it s infanc y di d no t presen t a n invitin g prospect . Brow n

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88 • Low Resorts first visite d th e islan d wit h Pitne y o n a pleasan t Jun e mornin g i n 1854 , one month befor e th e arrival of the first train. Afte r " a tedious passage on a sailboat, " Brow n foun d th e place "no t ver y comfortable " an d dismisse d the ne w cit y wit h th e terse comment: "Th e tim e indeed doe s not see m t o have com e t o buil d a church o n th e Beach." 2 Evidently , Pitne y wa s abl e to convinc e Brow n tha t th e cit y ha d a future, fo r withi n th e yea r Brow n accepted a choic e parce l nea r th e ocea n fro m th e lan d compan y fo r a church site . Tw o o f th e church' s five trustee s wer e railroa d director s Richards and Bell . But the company reveale d it s priorities shortly thereaf ter, whe n i n the flush of rising land values the directors tried to substitut e a less valuable lot for th e church. Brown , however , foun d th e original sit e "just fine" an d plunge d int o the project wit h characteristi c zeal. 3 Yet th e city wa s barel y a year ol d an d th e churc h no t ye t buil t whe n one of Brown's follower s lamente d i n 185 5 that "mor e places than we can now coun t ar e open fo r th e sal e of intoxicatin g drink s an d hol d ou t thei r allurements eve n o n th e Sabbat h contrar y t o al l law." 4 Twent y year s later, whe n the city was served by nine churches representing "practicall y every [Christian ] denomination," anothe r Presbyteria n complaine d o f th e "moral frigidness " o f the plac e an d o f "the tide of dissipation tha t creeps , oft unseen , ove r ou r own , ou r neighbors' , an d ou r children' s souls. " He wrote : We look upon the dissipating influence o f the summer vacation with fear . . . . Has i t not occurred t o you tha t i t is a fearful ordea l to which youn g souls and receptive natures are exposed i n hotels, where they see drinking as a pastime, and hear the popping of corks from champagne bottles oftener than they hea r prayers; where they se e card playing , an d often gambling , . . . and hear the profanity that breaks forth from the lips of the profane. 5 After 1855 , Brown' s diar y wa s strangel y silen t o n Atlanti c City . Ye t i t must hav e bee n clea r t o him , a s i t wa s t o man y others—drinkin g an d gambling notwithstanding—tha t th e ver y natur e o f th e moder n resor t was an affront t o the evangelical preoccupatio n wit h salvation . Most wh o visite d th e cit y i n 187 6 would hav e agree d wit h th e write r who sa w " a happy villag e devoted t o nothing bu t recreation, " a city wit h "no gloom y warehouse s . . . n o soile d pavement s vexe d wit h thunderin g drays, . . . and n o ho t factorie s gidd y wit h stea m an d belte d wheel s . . . in short , non e o f th e curs e lai d o n falle n Adam. " I n thi s "jaunt y littl e town," one , afte r a good mea l i n a hotel, coul d "stretc h himsel f ou t o n a good beac h an d g o t o sleep , withou t evi l thinkin g o r evi l speaking. "

Low Resorts • 8 9 "Seabathing," b y thi s time , wa s n o longe r a novelty , an d th e sigh t o f hundreds o f youn g me n an d wome n frolickin g i n th e sur f wa s n o caus e for alarm , th e se a receivin g th e bather s "wit h decoru m an d gentleness , lifting it s wave s hig h aroun d the m i n a privac y o f foam. " No r wa s th e fact tha t b y th e bathin g hou r man y o f th e gentleme n (a t sunrise ) ha d "already teste d th e billows . . . without th e inconvenience of flannel." 6 These disparat e view s o f Atlanti c Cit y i n it s formativ e year s under score on e o f th e basi c conflict s o f Victoria n culture . Evangelical s deepl y and genuinel y feare d secula r amusements . Fraugh t wit h temptatio n an d the danger o f sexual intimacy , thes e libidinous pursuit s wer e bad enoug h in an d o f themselves . Worse , the y le d t o th e ultimat e degradatio n o f drunkenness an d prostitution . Bu t what evangelicals sa w as beginning th e progress o f the rake and th e harlot , other s sa w merely a s an innocent an d healthful releas e fro m th e blea k routin e o f industria l life . Thi s conflic t was b y n o means confine d t o commercial resorts , bu t her e we see it in it s sharpest focus . In 186 6 Mayor D . W . Belisl e devoted mor e tha n hal f o f his inaugura l address t o th e "social , moral , an d religiou s interest s o f society, " which , according t o his own observations , wer e no t entirel y bein g serve d b y th e city. "Smal l an d rudel y constructe d shanties " had appeared , dealin g ou t "many o f th e vice s tha t th e flesh i s heir to. " But worse : "Suc h place s ar e found durin g th e bathin g seaso n on al l the principle street s an d i n goodl y numbers alon g th e shor e i n clos e proximit y t o th e bathin g grounds . Intemperate an d dissolut e person s frequen t them , becom e . . . beastl y intoxicated, an d ar e then i n a fit condition t o shock the ears of respectabl e . . . visitor s wit h thei r cours e an d vulga r language." 7 Th e threa t t o th e city wa s clear . "Individual s o f standin g an d characte r . . . ar e unwillin g to brin g themselve s an d thei r familie s i n proximit y t o th e societ y tha t usually inhabi t suc h vicinities. " Ye t t o ba n th e taver n altogethe r would , according t o th e mayor , b e neithe r "safe " no r "wholesome. " Th e mayo r did no t explai n wha t wa s unsaf e o r unwholesom e abou t a temperanc e resort, bu t suc h was not th e future o f Atlantic City . The mayor' s addres s containe d th e seed s o f th e libera l policy . B y th e 1860s th e saloo n wa s alread y a fixture o f th e resor t experience , an d a decade late r games , shows , an d mechanica l amusement s woul d occup y a similar position . Bu t th e cit y ha d stake d it s fortun e o n th e grea t middl e class, an d th e working-clas s diversion s woul d hav e t o b e manage d s o a s not t o offen d middle-clas s morality . I n practice , th e libera l polic y mean t that th e cit y woul d functio n al l o f th e seve n days , bu t tha t Sunday s

90 • Low Resorts would b e appropriatel y tone d down . Establishment s tha t crosse d th e bounds o f decenc y an d propriet y woul d b e eliminated . I n th e hand s o f city officials , themselve s middl e class , thi s for m o f censorship recognize d the specia l statu s o f Atlanti c Cit y a s a resor t ye t enable d the m t o brin g order an d a t leas t a semblanc e o f decoru m t o a potentiall y riotou s situ ation. While man y evangelical s woul d eventuall y com e t o term s wit h th e "innocent" pleasures o f seashore life, fe w woul d becom e reconciled t o th e spectacle of resort Sundays . I n 187 3 Editor Englis h of the Review, himself a stern and frequent criti c of resort improprieties, admitte d withou t muc h indignation tha t "th e Sabbat h a t a watering place is not observed wit h th e sacred reverenc e which mark s the day a t other places. " A stranger would be apt to judge from the general hilarity which marks our streets on the Sabbath that religion is the last thing thought of. Whil e our churches ar e liberally attended , thei r patron s woul d compar e feebl y wit h those of our groggerie s an d hote l verandas. . . . Sunda y i s little differen t from an y othe r da y o f th e week . Th e saloon s ar e throw n ope n fo r th e entertainment of guests and revelry indulged to a greater extent than at any other time. 8 In defens e o f th e city , h e offere d tha t fo r workingme n an d busines s people alike , Sunda y wa s th e onl y da y o f recreatio n an d tha t fo r thi s transient population , "provisio n mus t b e made. " During th e 1850 s an d 1860s , whe n Atlanti c Cit y wa s basicall y a cottage resort , conflic t ove r th e Sunda y issu e wa s muted . A s th e cit y began t o develo p int o a n amusemen t cente r an d a working-clas s resort , the conflic t increased . I n 188 4 Alfred M . Heston , cit y historia n an d no w the edito r o f th e Atlantic City Review, proclaime d th e merry-go-roun d a "positive nuisance. " It s "discordan t orga n an d larg e crowds " disrupte d the serenity of the Boardwalk. H e also reported tha t the increasing infrac tion o f th e Sunda y law s wa s leadin g t o a "speed y deterioration " o f th e resort, warning : "I f i t become s thoroughly an d generall y understoo d tha t there i s no t muc h Sunda y here , . . . i t wil l no t b e lon g befor e i t wil l b e also thoroughl y understoo d b y th e bes t clas s o f peopl e tha t i t i s a n exceedingly good place to keep away from." 9 A n alarmed Mayor Maxwel l agreed, declaring , "Sunda y ha s stoppe d a t th e bridge. " I n Augus t 1884 , the cit y counci l passe d "A n Ordinanc e Prohibitin g th e Exhibitio n o f Shows, Play s an d Amusement s o n Sunday. " Th e la w forbad e "bowlin g alleys, shuffl e board , te n pins , nin e pins , billiar d tables , poo l tables ,

Low Resorts • 9 1 revolving swings , o r an y othe r implement s o r contrivance s fo r publi c us e . . . o n the first da y of the week." 10 The city' s approac h t o th e Sunda y issu e reflecte d th e natur e o f clas s conflict durin g th e Gilde d Age . Th e admixtur e o f working-clas s visitor s brought muc h t o Atlantic Cit y tha t wa s alie n to middle-class culture . O n a summe r Sunda y i n 1885 , a littl e bo y wandere d int o th e "excursio n district" wher e h e witnesse d a "shocking " display . Bee r gardens , gam bling schemes , shel l stands , can e fakirs , "th e obscen e baboon, " an d th e "endless variet y o f claptraps " wer e i n ful l operation , alon g wit h "th e barkers an d buttonholer s doin g thei r Sout h Stree t act." 11 Sout h Stree t was a notoriously ill-behave d working-clas s district along the Philadelphi a waterfront, an d th e obscen e baboo n cause d muc h commen t durin g th e summer o f 1885 . Fo r a nicke l a patro n purchase d thre e ball s t o knoc k a dodging monke y fro m it s perch . Th e monkey' s repute d clevernes s i n dodging th e ball s di d no t assuag e th e indignit y o f man y wh o witnesse d the spectacle . The mayo r responde d wit h a stric t enforcemen t o f th e Sunda y ordi nance in the excursion district , bu t Sabbat h desecratio n wa s not the mai n issue. "Booth s an d peanu t stands " had als o appeared i n the hote l district . Heston reported : For several years the whole front wa s free from thi s contemptible nuisance except i n th e immediat e vicinit y o f th e excursio n houses . Thi s di d no t matter s o much , a s th e bette r clas s o f patronag e di d no t troubl e tha t neighborhood ver y much, an d the fakes, peanu t vendors, and daily excursionist held ful l control . Bu t last year the same element began to crop out about Applegate's Pier, an d this year Applegate himself built a number of booths outside the Boardwalk above Kentucky Avenue, where the swarthy Italian and the head fez of the Turk claim public attention and obstruct the public view.12 In Septembe r 1889 , a severe hurricane devastated th e city, carryin g awa y the Boardwalk , peanu t stand s an d all . Fiv e years later , th e cit y obtaine d eminent domai n ove r th e beac h an d prohibite d furthe r constructio n out side th e Boardwalk . Bu t neithe r succeede d i n eliminatin g "Turk s an d swarthy Italians " from th e fashionable area s of the beachfront . Thirsty patron s create d a high demand fo r liquor licenses in the boom ing resort . Bu t unde r th e cit y charte r a licens e petitio n neede d t o b e signed b y twelv e freeholders wh o would vouc h for th e moral character o f the applicant . B y 188 4 th e populatio n o f th e cit y ha d no t ye t reache d

92 • Low Resorts eight thousand , an d propert y owner s willin g t o sig n suc h petition s wer e scarce. T o satisf y thi s requirement , a group o f license holder s purchase d the Ram' s Head , a worthless trac t o f meado w i n th e extrem e Northside , so name d fo r a n ancien t gnarle d stum p tha t resemble d th e hea d o f a horned sheep . The y divide d th e five-acre piec e int o postage-stam p lot s and distribute d the m amon g 1,46 0 citizen s wh o wer e willin g t o sig n license applications . Th e Ram' s Hea d becam e "Whiske y Tract, " an d licenses proliferate d throughou t th e city. 13 An anecdot e publishe d i n English' s History of Atlantic City i n 188 4 illustrated bot h th e economi c importanc e o f th e liquo r traffi c an d it s place within th e liberal policy . Aloi s Schaufler , a n impoverished Germa n immigrant, cam e t o Atlanti c Cit y i n 1857 . Havin g worke d a t blackin g stoves i n Philadelphia, h e eked out a meager existenc e renting a shanty i n the Inle t t o Philadelphi a sportsmen . Whe n on e o f th e me n suggeste d h e keep beer , h e bough t a ke g bu t though t littl e o f it . Hi s fortun e bega n when th e word go t out . Sheriff Mage e an d si x or seve n othe r Philadelphians , . . . hearin g o f my purchase, cam e t o m y plac e an d . . . said , "Dutchy , hav e yo u go t som e lager beer?" I replied in German that I had, but that my place was without glasses. Th e sherif f sai d tha t th e bee r mus t b e communicate d t o thei r stomachs in some way, and I went into the kitchen and got a small pitcher with a broke n handle . The n I discovere d tha t I ha d n o spigot . I ra n t o Thomas Bedloe's hotel, . . . and borrowed a tin molasses spigot, but when I inspected th e bung-hole, I saw that it was very large and the spigot very small. . . . I tore off a part of my jacket, wrapped it about the spigot. . . . Then the beer flowed, and all hands drank eagerly from my broken pitcher, the sheriff paying me twenty-five cents for each pitcher-full. 14 Said Schaufler , "Thi s wa s m y first busines s encouragement. " B y 1884 , Alois Schaufle r wa s a leading citizen , an d Schaufler' s Concer t Garden , a respected resor t landmar k feature d Straus s waltze s an d Wagneria n con certs playe d b y "Professo r Boehm' s Militar y Band. " To ad d t o the jovial ity o f th e place , bartender s struc k a gon g ever y tim e a ke g wa s tapped . But Englis h carefull y pointe d ou t tha t concer t garden s i n Atlanti c Cit y "should no t b e judge d b y th e standard s a t whic h the y ar e hel d else where." They ar e conducte d wit h orde r an d decorum . Man y peopl e wh o neve r venture int o the m a t hom e visi t the m i n th e coo l o f th e evenin g here , and enjo y th e excellen t musi c whic h i s provided . Soli d businessme n o f

Low Resorts • 9 3 irreproachable reputation, distinguishe d peopl e from al l parts of the country, and church-going people are frequently see n in these places.15 German concer t garden s becam e a popular upscal e featur e o f Atlanti c City nightlif e durin g th e 1880s . Th e largest , Fre d Schwamb' s Columbi a Garden a t Missour i Avenu e an d th e Boardwalk , seate d fiftee n hundre d people among potted palm s imported fro m Sout h Africa. Schwam b mad e a yearly pilgrimag e to Berlin to pick out the best plants. Customers dran k beer an d san g t o th e strain s o f "Professo r Kalitz' s well-know n militar y band" o f eightee n piece s an d a $12,00 0 electri c pip e organ , "on e o f th e largest made. " But th e measure d di n o f the Sunda y evenin g concert s di d not troubl e th e city , fo r a s Henr y Adam s wryl y observe d i n anothe r context, thing s Germa n wer e "i n th e ful l tid e o f fashion. " Later , Walte r Evans Edge , proteg e an d successo r t o bot h Englis h an d Hesto n a s th e city's principa l spokesman , observed : "I t ha s alway s bee n sai d tha t th e summer i s neve r inaugurate d unti l thi s amusemen t resor t [Schaufler's ] i s opened." Schaufle r ha d com e a lon g wa y sinc e th e har d winte r o f 185 7 when hi s wif e die d o f sicknes s i n childbirt h fo r wan t o f a warm plac e t o convalesce because , a s on e hard-bitte n residen t pu t it , "W e sho w n o favors t o foreigners." 16 In July 1885 , Heston define d on e of the limits to the city's tolerance of the liquo r traffi c a s h e reported : "W e sa w severa l youn g girl s i n shor t dresses drinkin g bee r i n on e o f th e garden s alon g th e Boardwalk . Thes e same girls staggere d whe n the y lef t th e table. Fou r o r five beers i s a small item, bu t twenty-fiv e cent s wort h o f beer ma y kil l your resort . Chas e ou t the girl s i n shor t dresse s an d sav e you r place." 17 Ha d th e wome n bee n underage, Hesto n woul d surel y hav e mad e tha t a n issue . Unescorted , and obviousl y workin g class , th e wome n represente d deepe r an d unspo ken danger s t o th e wholesomenes s o f th e Boardwalk . Later , th e cit y banned unescorte d wome n fro m th e Boardwalk cafe s altogether . "Girls i n shor t dresses " woul d shortl y pos e a sever e proble m fo r th e city's image, but evidence of commercial vic e in Atlantic City befor e 189 0 is sketchy. I n 1884 , Heston warned : If half the reports abou t gamblers and gambling houses are true, then it is clearly the duty o f the authorities . . . t o suppress them. There have been quite a number o f Philadelphi a an d Ne w Yor k gambler s her e al l season, and i t i s currentl y reporte d an d generall y believe d tha t the y hav e bee n running game s of chance i n severa l part s o f the city . . . without makin g any great effort t o conceal their business . W e have been informed tha t in

94 • Low Resorts one or two places the "poker rooms" are immediately in the rear of the bar and tha t anyon e who chooses to do so enters and that gambling is carried on night and day. 18 In July 1886 , Heston agai n warned tha t there were "gamblers amon g us," as polic e arreste d a grou p o f Baltimorean s fo r operatin g a den o n Sout h New Yor k Avenue . Late r tha t summer , polic e apprehende d a grou p o f blacks o n Balti c Avenu e fo r th e sam e offense . On e Edwar d Scot t tol d a story "unfi t fo r publication. " "Th e plac e for a long time has been a house of ill-fame an d i s frequented b y colored an d whit e of both sexes." 19 During th e 1870 s an d 1880s , Englis h an d Hesto n provide d a frag mented bu t consisten t commentar y o n the moral status of the city. A s the resort's chie f spokesmen , thei r effort s a t history , journalism , an d promo tion define d th e terms o f the liberal policy an d reflecte d a n acute sensitiv ity to the morals and anxietie s of middle-class America . Atlanti c City wa s a democrati c resort , bu t th e workin g classe s wer e welcom e onl y o n th e condition tha t the y looke d an d behave d lik e the middle classes. On Sundays , Young' s Pie r hel d onl y "sacre d concerts, " an d loca l churches dre w hug e crowd s t o open-ai r service s o n th e Boardwalk . Bu t such concession s t o th e Sabbat h coul d no t hid e th e fac t tha t th e funda mental purpos e o f Atlanti c Cit y wa s t o dispens e pleasure , no t religion . On Sunday , th e merry-go-roun d wa s silen t whil e th e gong a t Schaufler' s rang more often tha n a t any othe r time . In August o f 1890 , the city counci l strengthene d it s hold ove r Sabbat h amusements wit h a stiffer an d mor e specifi c "Ordinanc e fo r th e Suppres sion o f Vic e an d Immorality. " Mor e i n lin e wit h th e diversion s the n i n vogue, th e ordinanc e offere d goo d commen t o n th e stat e o f th e amuse ment ar t i n Atlanti c City : "B e i t ordaine d . . . that n o merry-go-rounds , carousel, hobb y o r jumpin g horses , toboggans , figur e 8 sceni c railway , switchback, car d writers , glas s engravers , phonograp h performances , museums, dancing , bal l playing, san d throwing , bowlin g alleys, shootin g galleries, o r othe r kindre d game s o r diversion s . . . shal l b e performe d on th e Christia n Sabbath." 20 I n th e sam e breath , counci l als o forbad e drunkenness, disorderl y behavior , an d th e disturbanc e o f religious meet ings on Sunday , whic h di d mor e to categorize amusement s tha n preserv e the sanctit y o f th e Sabbat h a s thes e offense s wer e presumabl y illega l o n all of the seve n days. To th e Philadelphia Bulletin, counci l had "ver y queer notion s abou t vice

Low Resorts • 9 5 and immorality" : "Th e Cit y Counci l las t nigh t stampe d th e tobogga n a s Vicious,' th e merry-go-roun d a s 'immoral. ' Eve n th e phonograp h wa s declared a disturber o f th e peace , whil e car d writer s an d glas s engraver s were described a s coming within th e bounds o f Vice and immorality. ' " 2 1 The editor s o f th e Bulletin sa w tha t th e cit y wa s particularl y vulnerabl e on thi s point ; an d ther e wa s more : "Innocen t childre n ar e denie d th e pleasure o f ridin g o n th e merry-go-roun d bu t excursio n loafer s ca n reve l in fre e flowing bee r an d whiskey . Th e industriou s glas s blowe r an d th e harmless car d write r ar e denied th e possibl e profit s o f the heaviest da y o f the week , bu t th e crimso n woma n ca n flaunt he r purchasabl e charm s i n the ope n mart. " B y thi s time , Atlanti c Cit y hotelme n advertise d heavil y in th e Philadelphi a papers , an d thei r resor t section s regularl y containe d complimentary feature s o n th e city . Wha t explain s th e sudde n discover y that th e resort wa s riddled wit h vice ? The summe r o f 189 0 wa s a tim e o f crisi s fo r Atlanti c City , ye t th e season bega n promisingl y enough . Th e Boardwalk , destroye d th e previ ous September , wa s enlarge d an d almos t completel y replaced , an d a "reform" cit y counci l seeme d t o hav e th e cit y wel l i n hand . O n Jun e 1 , the Philadelphia Inquirer reporte d tha t th e "fai r sex " wer e t o b e mor e carefully protecte d tha n ever from th e insults of "mashies" and "rowdies, " or a s Mayo r Hoffma n calle d them , "corne r lounger s wh o trave l i n thei r shape." Of cours e the seaso n had no t ye t begun , bu t ther e were only tw o or thre e instance s o f ladie s bein g subjecte d t o vulgar glance s an d speech , and on e unseeml y encounte r resulte d i n summar y punishment . Authori ties quickl y jaile d th e tw o culprits , fined the m heavily , an d ra n on e ou t of town. 22 The agen t o f thi s swif t justic e wa s probabl y Office r Harr y Marks , locally note d fo r bot h hi s devotio n t o dut y an d hi s skil l wit h th e black jack. Bu t o n on e occasio n hi s diligenc e wen t unappreciated . O n th e morning o f Jul y 23 , a t 2 A.M. , h e arreste d an d roughl y handle d thre e young me n wh o came out of a bar an d wer e singin g loudly whil e walkin g along Atlanti c Avenue . On e o f the m happene d t o b e Herber t Ker , th e son o f Rober t Ker , th e assistan t distric t attorne y o f Philadelphia . Tw o days later , Ke r personall y undertoo k hi s son' s defense i n Recorde r Goul dey's court an d mercilessl y grille d Marks , a former Philadelphia n wit h a n unseemly past . Th e cour t cleare d th e youn g ma n o f al l charges , excep t for "temporaril y fallin g int o ba d company. " Despit e Ker' s effort s t o discredit Marks , Mayo r Hoffma n stoo d b y hi s man , an d Mark s to o wa s

96 • Low Resorts exonerated. Thu s th e affai r appeare d t o hav e bee n a standoff, excep t fo r the tw o companion s who , foun d b y th e cour t hav e been mor e drun k an d more roisterous, wer e fined and released. 23 This seemingl y mino r inciden t say s muc h abou t th e prerogative s o f American justic e i n 189 0 an d abou t Atlanti c City' s dependen t relation ship with Philadelphia . I t als o explains th e Bulletin's crusade. O n Augus t 5, followin g a n outrage d colum n o n th e Ke r affair , th e Bulletin flatly stated it s intentions . "O n Thursda y next , an d o n severa l day s afte r that , this paper wil l present fo r you r attentio n . . . detailed an d minute report s concerning th e degrade d dives , th e gambling halls , th e house s o f ill fam e and othe r lo w resort s tha t openl y an d flagrantly violat e th e cit y ordi nances an d stat e laws." 24 "Ther e i s n o purpos e t o har m th e town, " sai d the Bulletin, "no r t o throw mu d upo n th e good name of Atlantic City." I t would wa r onl y upo n "thos e viciou s member s o f societ y wh o hav e mad e this plac e thei r field o f profitabl e action. " Bu t fe w wer e take n i n b y thi s pious qualifier; reveng e was imminent, an d th e city was squirming . Beginning i n August , a t th e heigh t o f a recor d season , th e Bulletin launched th e first o f many probe s o f commercial vic e that th e city wa s t o experience. I n th e nam e o f publi c decency , cit y official s ha d close d the amusement s o n Sunday , ye t tolerate d gamblin g den s an d house s o f prostitution tha t flourished i n their midst. Th e sam e people who censored amusements license d saloon s tha t ra n o n Sunda y an d sol d alcoho l t o minors. Beginnin g wit h generalitie s o n thi s theme , th e Bulletin soo n go t down t o specifics . William "Dutchy " Muhlrad , wh o serve d tim e i n Philadelphi a i n 188 8 for operatin g a gamblin g de n o n Elevent h Street , no w operate d th e Lochiel Hote l i n th e Inlet . "H e control s an d direct s wha t ma y b e calle d the leadin g gamblin g de n o f th e city . . . . 'Dutchy's, ' o n Delawar e Ave nue, wher e som e of the bes t know n politician s an d down-grad e business men of Philadelphia stak e their five and te n dollars on the deal of the littl e cards tha t hav e sen t man y a ma n t o destructio n an d death." 25 Th e Lochiel, "name d afte r th e celebrate d (political ) headquarter s i n Harris burg," catered no t onl y t o politicians, bu t t o players "fro m Pittsburg h al l the way t o the Everglades of Florida. " Dutchy Muhlra d wa s the most notorious o f a "vile fraternity" wh o ra n gambling operation s "fro m wa y dow n belo w Mississipp i Avenu e (th e excursion district ) wher e the y pla y a five-cent limit " t o "Levy' s aristo cratic gambling den on Maryland Avenue , jus t opposite the United State s Hotel," jus t a stone' s thro w fro m th e residenc e o f Mayo r Hoffman .

Low Resorts • 9 7 The stake s a t Levy' s wer e n o highe r tha n a t Dutchy's , bu t Lev y wa s more discreet . The first look at th e Levy hell as one gazes at i t from Marylan d Avenue , gives one the ide a tha t i t i s just th e spo t fo r a murder. I t i s a mysterious looking affair . Th e interio r i s stil l mor e mysterious , a s th e buildin g i s constructed o n a novel plan and has a curious covered porch in the center. . . . Those gamblers who do not care to come in the front doo r can secure a more private entrance through an alleyway, access to which may be had on Virginia Avenue. 26 The siniste r aspec t o f th e plac e wa s matche d b y Lev y himself , who , under th e gaz e o f a watchful Bulletin reporter , stol e silentl y throug h hi s garden on e night , seemingl y obliviou s t o th e gamin g goin g o n i n th e shrouded secon d stor y o f the house. At th e wester n boundar y o f th e Northside , o n Arkansa s Avenue , "mulatto" Charles Colema n ra n a "low negr o gambling den " whic h actu ally ha d a n interracia l clientele . "I t i s largely patronize d b y hote l waiter s who regularl y los e thei r wage s i n thi s hole . Poke r i s no t unknow n here , but 'crap ' i s th e mainsta y o f th e house , an d th e clickin g dic e rattl e ther e every night." 27 Lik e ,Dutchy , Colema n ha d apparentl y bee n ru n ou t o f his native Baltimore wher e he had bee n "i n a good dea l of trouble." Black men als o playe d cra p a t Alexande r Coot' s o n Ne w Yor k Avenue , a t a "dive o n Balti c Avenue, " an d a t a good man y mor e informa l operation s throughout th e Northside . Establishments o f a mor e middle-clas s characte r include d th e Ciga r Store o n Atlanti c Avenu e an d th e "well-know n uppe r roo m o f th e Extr a Dry Cafe. " I n a modest cottag e district, tw o women with tw o men, "sai d to b e thei r husbands, " ra n a n indiscree t gamblin g operatio n a t 9 Sout h Pennsylvania Avenue. 28 I t woul d appea r tha t gamblin g i n Atlanti c Cit y respected neithe r rac e nor class . But th e Bulletin foun d it s ol d nemesis , Dutch y Muhlrad , th e wors t among resor t miscreants : "You r busines s i s horrible—it s histor y floats upon a n ocea n o f criminals , defaulters , robbers , suicides , broke n homes , sad hearts , an d untimel y graves . . . . Yo u hav e n o friend s excep t thos e you hav e t o buy ; mother s an d wive s hat e you , Dutch y Muhlrad ; eve n children despise you." 29 I n painting Dutchy a s a defiler o f the family, th e Bulletin touche d a ra w nerve . B y 189 0 th e socia l purit y movemen t ha d gathered considerabl e momentu m i n th e Unite d States . Feedin g princi pally o n widesprea d anxiet y abou t th e effec t o f industria l societ y o n th e

98 • Low Resorts sanctity o f th e famil y an d o n sexua l mores , th e socia l purit y crusad e focused o n th e ver y rea l threa t o f prostitutio n an d th e mor e luri d an d imagined danger s o f whit e slavery . B y 189 0 journalist s o n bot h side s o f the Atlantic had discovere d th e insidious underworld describe d b y purit y crusaders t o th e shock , o r perhap s titillation , o f th e readin g public. 30 In thi s atmospher e o f heightene d mora l awareness , Atlanti c Cit y wa s particularly vulnerable . Th e ter m "lo w resorts" was a sinister euphimis m that could appl y to the whole range of conduct unsanctioned b y the larger society, fro m saloon s servin g minor s an d wome n t o thos e tha t harbore d gamblers an d prostitutes . On Augus t 9 , th e Bulletin publishe d th e name s an d addresse s o f twenty-four "disorderl y houses. " Twenty-on e stoo d withi n a bloc k o r two nort h o f Atlanti c Avenue , an d thre e wer e locate d o n th e ocea n side , but withi n th e excursio n district. 31 B y 189 0 th e cit y ha d begu n th e transition fro m th e "ol d system " t o th e "ne w system, " an d Atlanti c Avenue ha d take n o n mor e o f a commercia l aspec t a s th e bette r hotel s and cottage s wer e move d towar d th e beach . Thi s presuppose s som e attempt, probabl y informal , a t segregatin g prostitutio n withi n linea r dis tricts away fro m th e Boardwalk . The failur e t o contai n prostitutio n cause d problem s fo r loca l resident s and sever e embarrassmen t t o th e city . Nex t doo r t o th e cottag e o f th e pastor o f th e Firs t Methodis t Churc h stoo d th e disreputabl e hous e o f Bella Thomas. "Ever y actio n of the inmates i s plainly t o be seen by thos e occupying cottage s acros s th e way. " Th e "despicabl e Mrs . Jeannett e Barrett . . . wa s allowe d t o carr y o n a de n a t 13 6 Nort h Tennesse e Avenue," nex t t o th e hous e o f Jame s Latimer , " a well-know n citizen. " Latimer complained : "Bu s load s o f drunke n wome n drov e there ; on e night a woma n wa s dragge d int o th e house , tearin g he r clothe s i n th e struggle." One nigh t h e returned hom e to find two men—"One ma n wa s black"—with tw o white women trying to enter hi s house. When the me n refused t o believe that thi s was not the desired address , "ther e was a row, and Latime r use d a whip freely upo n on e of the men." 32 One Mrs . Stewart , a "braze n female, " annoye d th e wif e o f Council man Curri e when sh e circulated he r busines s cards . Upon this card the woman gave as the location of her low den the "corner of Baltic and Rhode Island avenues." Her house is not on the corner at all, but only near to it, a vacant lot coming in between. But the Currie mansion is on a corner of Baltic and Rhode Island avenues, and to the horror of the

Low Resorts • 9 9 Currie family, disreputabl e visitors , ga y young men, an d intoxicate d per sons . . . have frequently trie d to gain admission to their house.33 Another lady , "highl y esteeme d i n th e city, " reside d a t 2 0 Sout h Massa chusetts Avenue . A t Numbe r 2 0 Nort h stoo d th e "pestilentia l hole " o f Mabel Haines , on e of the larger and mor e established brothel s in the city. The confusion cause d th e house of the unfortunate woma n to be "invade d at all hours b y drunken loafers ; her door bel l is rung late in the night, an d scandalous inquirie s ar e pu t t o her." 34 Th e proble m was , o f course , tha t most o f th e clientel e wer e stranger s t o th e cit y an d unfamilia r wit h the streets. Playing expertl y o n th e deepes t fear s an d prejudice s o f th e middl e classes, the expos e achieved th e desired effect . Onl y onc e did th e Bulletin report acces s t o th e interio r o f a brothel , a t Kitti e Weigle' s Se a Breez e Cottage o n Main e Avenue , wher e th e followin g scen e wa s recorded : "I n the genera l drinkin g room , ami d me n an d wome n drinking—som e hal f intoxicated, other s mor e o r les s i n th e sam e condition—stoo d las t night , or rathe r earl y thi s morning , a littl e boy . H e wa s perhap s abou t nin e years old. Ther e he stood singin g for th e amusement o f the patrons of th e place. Wher e wa s hi s mother?" 35 W e ca n onl y imagin e th e debaucherie s the boy was exposed t o or "th e depth of disgracefulness" attaine d o n Bella Thomas's porc h "o n a recent Sunda y whe n i n broad d a y l i g h t . . . a scene was enacted s o disgusting i n character tha t i t is beyond description. " Frequent referenc e t o th e racia l identitie s o f th e vic e participant s an d the location of brothels in the Northside also fanned th e flames of indignation. Harr y Smith' s saloon , " a de n fo r black s an d whites, " stoo d o n Arctic Avenue, a s did Mrs . Burnett' s cottage , "th e vilest of the vile and a death tra p fo r girl s an d boy s o f tende r age. " O n th e sam e street , "Mrs . Baker, [alias ] Mrs. J. Collins, " ran a brothel. "Sh e ha s a white ma n fo r a husband, an d he r hous e i s for blac k an d white. " On Balti c Avenue, Mrs . Taylor, a respectable resident of twenty-three years , complained o f "Mrs. Smith's or [Mrs. Johnson's]" interracial hous e where on a Sunday evenin g after a fight, a woma n wa s throw n fro m th e hous e screamin g fo r th e police. Rac e mixin g wa s on e of th e primar y pitfall s o f the underworl d i n Atlantic City. 36 In addition to the twenty-four brothels , the Bulletin saw fit to list sixtyseven "saloon s wit h Ladie s Entranc e signs. " Actually, mos t of these wer e small hotel s scattere d widel y abou t th e city . Ladies ' entrances, a s well a s back rooms , a s th e Bulletin admitted , existe d t o shiel d wome n fro m th e

ioo • Low Resorts male-dominated atmospher e o f th e bar . Whil e "som e o f thes e drinkin g resorts" wer e conducte d i n a respectabl e manner , other s tolerate d an d solicited "th e custo m o f th e lowes t kin d o f people. " Shee r number s indicated tha t "Ladies " wer e "ver y stead y an d profitabl e customer s o f liquor saloons." 37 Reader s could dra w thei r ow n conclusions . The Bulletin frequently castigate d Mayo r Hoffma n a s cowardly, weak kneed, an d derelic t i n hi s duty , bu t o n th e questio n o f a mor e intimat e association betwee n th e cit y an d th e purveyor s o f vice , i t wa s mor e circumspect: "I n severa l case s th e protectio n wa s mentione d a s secure d for cas h down: in other instance s it was said to be obtained throug h hous e rent: the n agai n patronag e an d influenc e wer e suggeste d a s tha t whic h purchased unlawfu l toleratio n of crime and disgrace." 38 "Cas h down" can have onl y on e meaning , bu t briber y i s difficul t t o prove . A reporte r observed Chie f o f Police Harry Eldridg e an d a member o f city counci l o n Delaware Avenu e i n earnes t conversatio n wit h Dutch y Muhlra d an d overheard th e councilma n sa y tha t "h e woul d tr y t o mak e matter s al l right." Mrs. Burnett , "th e polluter o f girlish modesty" on Arctic Avenue, boldly assure d bot h he r employee s an d customer s tha t the y wer e safe . They ha d onl y t o "kee p quie t fo r a littl e while. " Mr . Levy' s hous e wa s also quiet afte r a "mysterious tip " of an impending raid. 39 The protectio n o f vic e becam e a n issu e tw o year s late r whe n on e Amanda Blitz , th e keepe r o f a "ladies boardin g house, " told th e unlikel y story tha t Chie f Eldredg e collecte d protectio n mone y b y sellin g copies of "The Lif e o f Harrison " fo r $200 . A hearin g befor e cit y counci l reveale d that Eldredg e ha d arreste d th e woma n thre e time s i n th e pas t five year s and, o n th e mos t recen t occasion , ha d detaine d a group o f wome n over night fo r twelv e hour s wit h nothin g t o eat . Democrati c committeema n Clarence Col e seeme d a reluctan t prosecutor , an d Mayo r Wright , als o a Democrat, ha d nothin g bu t prais e fo r th e polic e department . Bu t eve n a highly sanitize d procedur e ca n b e revealing. I n summin g u p th e defense , ex-judge Westcot t blurte d ou t a succinc t summar y o f th e city' s polic y toward commercia l vice . "Thes e places , ru n withi n prope r limits , ar e pronounced necessar y b y al l wise men. " Ove r th e entir e procedur e hun g the not ver y taci t understandin g tha t gambler s an d prostitute s di d indee d have a place within th e liberal policy. 40 Although th e Bulletin shed mor e hea t tha n ligh t o n commercia l vic e in Atlantic Cit y i n 1890 , som e fact s d o emerge . Gamblin g an d prostitutio n enjoyed officia l sanctio n of one sort or another, and , i f not rampant, wer e widespread an d availabl e i n roughl y equa l proportion s t o al l classe s o f

Low Resorts • 10 1 visitors, bot h blac k an d white . Th e notabl e absenc e o f an y complain t from th e are a o f th e Boardwal k excep t i n th e excursio n distric t indicate s an effor t a t containmen t somewha t effectiv e insofa r a s th e majo r hote l interests o f th e cit y wer e concerned . Gaugin g th e exten t o f commercia l vice o n th e basi s o f a vengefu l an d sensationa l newspape r prob e ha s it s limits. Bu t the strongest indicatio n tha t w e may accep t the Bulletin's facts, if no t it s interpretatio n o f th e evidence , i s tha t non e o f th e allegation s were denied . Finally , th e sourc e o f mos t o f Atlanti c City' s vic e wa s th e source of most of its revenue: Philadelphia . Commercial vic e di d no t suddenl y sprin g int o existenc e i n Atlanti c City i n 1890 , but indication s ar e that it s origins can be traced t o events i n Philadelphia tw o year s earlier . I n 188 7 tha t cit y attacke d it s ow n vic e problem throug h a high licens e law , polic e raids , an d carefu l scrutin y o f liquor licens e application s durin g th e sprin g o f 1888 . Th e resul t wa s dramatic. Th e cit y reduce d liquo r license s b y mor e tha n three-fourths , and miscreant s fle d th e city i n droves. 41 The Bulletin made frequen t referenc e t o the Philadelphi a background s of the underworl d figures . Minni e Weigle , "th e forme r hig h kicke r a t th e Fox Theatr e fifteen year s ago, " alon g wit h he r sister , Kittie , owne d th e notorious Se a Breez e Cottage . Mrs . Schellinge r wa s "a n old-timer , wel l known t o th e authoritie s i n Philadelphia, " a s wa s Harr y Smith , th e gambler whose den was also a haven for prostitutes. Proprietor s of disreputable saloons , denie d liquo r license s i n Philadelphia , cam e t o Atlanti c City, bringin g wit h the m "th e scu m o f Rac e an d Vin e streets. " Th e Bulletin provided n o backgroun d o n th e inscrutabl e Mr . Levy , bu t Mari a Weed, Mar y French , Hatti e Brown , Lotti e Wilson, Lavini a Thomas, an d Kate Davis had been indicted i n Philadelphia for prostitutio n th e previou s February. Lavini a Thoma s wa s no w Bell a Thomas , th e notoriou s neigh bor o f th e Methodis t pasto r o n Delawar e Avenue . Lik e Dutch y an d th e rest o f th e refugee s o f th e Philadelphi a vic e wars , sh e ha d apparentl y found th e business climate in Atlantic City mor e congenial. 42 The Bulletin attacke d th e libera l policy , bu t full y accepte d it s mos t basic premise . A statemen t prefacin g eac h o f it s one-hundre d od d col umns on the city declared : It i s generally concede d tha t drinkin g saloon s ar e necessary adjunct s t o a popular summer resort; a certain element of the floatingand resident population of the place demands them, and the law allows them. There are many here conducted with propriety; they have quiet, well-behaved patrons, and

102 • Low Resorts no disturbanc e o f th e peac e ca n b e trace d t o them . Thes e ar e ope n o n Sunday, but that is apparently in touch with the sentiment of the town and its visitors. To corroborat e it s assessmen t o f conditions , i t frequently dre w upo n th e wisdom o f "honest " an d "squar e jawed " "Squire " John Gouldey , count y recorder, forme r alderman , an d distinguishe d residen t o f fort y years . Gouldey allowed : "I would lik e Atlantic City to be a place where mother s could sen d thei r daughter s an d husban d sen d thei r wive s withou t fear . . . . Ther e ar e tw o classe s tha t ca n neve r rul e thi s city—th e extrem e temperance peopl e an d th e extrem e ru m people . Ther e mus t b e a happ y medium. I t woul d b e a s damaging t o the city' s prosperit y t o allow one t o control a s the other." 43 Fo r bot h th e Bulletin and Gouldey , a s for Mayo r Belisle twenty-fiv e year s earlier , th e libera l polic y serve d bot h th e inter ests o f decenc y an d profit , share d a s i t presumabl y was , b y th e vas t majority o f middle- and upper-clas s Americans . On Septembe r 5 , the Bulletin concluded it s probe with the declaration , "The Evenin g Bulleti n Score s Grea t Victory, " an d assure d it s reader s that thing s wer e now o n the men d i n Atlanti c City. Durin g th e sprin g of 1891, i n weekl y an d biweekl y columns , th e Bulletin boome d th e cit y a s the "Queen o f Resorts" and a s the ideal place for th e "respectable familie s of Philadelphia." O n June 7 , Chief Eldredg e raide d thre e gambling dens , a barbersho p i n th e excursio n district , an d tw o blac k house s i n th e Northside. A t th e whit e establishment , "th e proprietor s an d frequenter s of the plac e were gone, bu t a lot of chips , cards , an d othe r paraphernali a were captured." Th e black s were less fortunate. Th e proprietors , Charle s Coleman an d Joshua Foreman , repute d politica l powers in the Northside , were fine d an d spen t si x day s i n jail . N o mentio n wa s mad e o f Dutch y Muhlrad o r Mr . Levy , bu t th e Bulletin di d commen t tha t " a numbe r o f places hav e yet t o be attended to. " Later tha t month , polic e arrested "th e notorious Doll y Sha w an d Mrs . Burnett, " bu t fine d the m $15 0 eac h fo r selling liquo r withou t a license . T o som e i t ma y hav e seeme d tha t th e city's newfoun d probit y wa s selective . Bu t th e Bulletin declare d tha t it s "seed ha d bee n sow n on good ground," an d tha t Chie f Eldredg e deserve d credit fo r hi s "energeti c treatmen t o f th e socia l disorders. " No mor e wa s heard o f gamblers or prostitutes tha t year. 44 In November , Edito r Hal l rejoice d a t th e cleansin g o f th e cit y an d predicted a brigh t future , fo r th e excursio n trad e wa s "gon e forever" : "Never agai n probabl y wil l Atlanti c Cit y b e wha t i t ha s largel y bee n i n

Low Resorts • 10 3 the past , a grea t excursio n town . Te n year s ag o th e Narro w Gaug e brought dow n thousand s o f peopl e o n fifty cen t an d dolla r excursions , factory hand s an d workin g peopl e in large numbers. Bu t these people can now g o t o othe r places." 45 Othe r place s include d Gloucester , th e sin filled river domain of James B . Thompson, locate d jus t sout h of Camden . In 189 0 Thompson , a Democrati c powe r i n Camde n Count y wh o wa s styled "Th e Duk e of Gloucester," buil t a racetrack, an d th e town quickl y became a wide-open resor t fo r th e workin g classe s o f Camden an d Phila delphia.46 Atlanti c Cit y woul d no w achiev e it s tru e destin y a s a "firs t class cottage and hotel town instea d o f a Coney Island. " Cheap excursion s would no w go to "cheaper place s not s o far fro m th e great cities. " The Bulletin expose ha d a chastening effec t o n th e city , bu t th e excur sion trade continued t o grow. Durin g th e 1890s , the population o f Atlan tic Cit y mor e tha n doubled , an d th e crowd s gre w proportionately , plac ing eve n mor e sever e strain s o n th e libera l policy . I n 189 2 amusemen t operators teste d th e Democrati c administratio n o f Mayo r Wrigh t b y opening on a Sunday. Wrigh t swiftl y ende d th e brief protest, threatenin g the entir e grou p wit h arrest . Th e protester s spitefull y vowe d tha t o n th e following Sunda y the y woul d clos e every saloo n in the city and eve n sto p the trains , bu t nothin g cam e o f th e threat. 47 Sunda y amusement s pose d increasing challenge s t o th e libera l polic y durin g th e season s o f 189 3 an d 1894, bu t th e issu e reache d crisi s proportion s durin g th e "Amusemen t War" of 1895 . By 189 5 Sunda y closin g ha d becom e a nationa l issue . Newar k an d New Yor k wer e embroile d i n conflicts , an d i n July si x Hebre w butcher s were arreste d i n Philadelphia . Augus t foun d th e issu e mor e heate d a s a group o f Philadelphi a baker s an d ic e crea m sellers decide d t o tes t th e Pennsylvania blu e la w i n th e courts. 48 Surrounde d o n al l side s b y th e conflict, i t i s unlikel y tha t Atlanti c City' s Sunda y traffi c coul d escap e notice. Bu t matter s quickl y cam e t o a hea d i n July whe n a delegation o f amusement me n approache d Wright' s Republica n successor , Frankli n P . Stoy, requestin g tha t the y b e accorde d th e sam e privilege a s the saloons . Stoy's adaman t refusa l se t th e stag e fo r a majo r confrontatio n betwee n the amusement me n an d th e city. 49 On th e following Sunday , al l of the Boardwalk amusement s opene d i n direct defianc e o f th e mayo r an d cit y ordinances . Sto y promptl y re sponded wit h mas s arrest s an d th e threa t o f stif f fines an d jai l sentences . The amusemen t me n countere d b y filing forma l complaint s agains t a number o f othe r resor t businesse s includin g Mayo r Stoy' s Unio n Trans -

104 • Low Resorts fer Company , chargin g him with keepin g a disorderly hous e by operatin g transfer wagon s o n Sunday . Whe n th e proprieto r o f th e "Haunte d For est" wa s ordere d t o shu t down , h e replied : "The y can' t clos e us . . . . I f the mayo r want s t o close us on Sunday , le t him clos e the drinking place s as well." He di d o n one Sunday , bu t howl s of protest made short work of that tactic , an d th e stalemat e continue d throug h th e res t o f th e season . The resor t wa s threatene d wit h paralysis , hel d hostage , a s Mayo r Sto y declared, "b y a grou p o f migrator y bird s wh o care d nothin g fo r th e welfare o f th e city. " Th e resolutio n o f th e Sunda y conflic t wa s a victor y for th e mayo r an d th e libera l policy , bu t th e mean s o f th e settlemen t remain obscure . B y Septembe r al l of th e charge s o n bot h side s ha d bee n dropped, includin g a $20,000 lawsuit agains t the mayor an d th e city. 50 In the midst of the crisis, another bombshel l burs t with the publicatio n on Augus t 4 of a lengthy an d sensationa l piec e in the Philadelphia Inquirer entitled "Atlanti c City' s Fou l Blots. " Speakin g fo r th e heavil y taxe d bu t unrepresented cottag e communit y o f Philadelphia , th e pape r portraye d the cit y mor e a s a victi m o f crimina l element s an d o f it s ow n letharg y than a s th e perpetrato r o f evi l an d warne d tha t th e plac e wa s quickl y degenerating int o a Cone y Island : "Th e element s o f lo w lif e hav e bee n allowed t o gai n wha t ma y b e truthfull y terme d a dangerous ascendancy , and notoriou s wome n ar e fre e t o lur e thei r victim s t o thei r gilde d dens . Disreputable house s an d lo w drinkin g resort s ar e thic k i n man y part s o f the town, an d t o their sorro w man y visitin g parents hav e learned tha t th e fast lif e o f th e plac e i s filled wit h dange r t o thei r dea r ones." 51 Th e Inquirer praised th e mayor' s effort s t o maintai n a semblanc e o f th e Sab bath bu t pointe d ou t tha t th e dilemma wa s of the city' s own making . N o attempt ha d bee n mad e t o curtai l th e Sunda y liquo r traffi c an d no w th e city wa s reapin g a whirlwind, "strugglin g wit h thi s ope n defianc e o f th e law" an d "i n a quandar y a s t o ho w t o stav e of f wha t Mayo r Sto y ha s declared mean s rui n fo r th e resort." The delineatio n o f municipally sanc tioned an d unsanctione d lawbreakin g ha d alway s bee n th e mos t precari ous aspec t o f th e libera l policy , bu t a s the cit y gre w th e balanc e becam e more difficult t o maintain . Shows an d amusement s tha t woul d hav e bee n summaril y shu t dow n in the 1880s , or as late as 1892 , now ran rampant i n the excursion district . "Here," sai d th e Inquirer, "everythin g goes , an d i t i s not on e whit bette r than Cone y Island. " A variety sho w feature d "negr o minstrel s whos e old jokes ar e varie d b y indecencies " an d " a femal e singe r whos e success no t infrequently depend s o n th e amoun t o f double meanin g i n her song s an d

Low Resorts • 10 5 the suggestivenes s o f he r gestures. " A t Guvernator' s Mammot h Pavilio n and a t Doyle' s an d th e Oceanic , bee r an d musi c mixed , attractin g inno cent youths to vulgar show s an d vicious company. Thieve s an d pickpock ets posing as barkers fo r th e exhibits preye d upo n th e drunk o r otherwis e unwary excursionists , an d vendors of obscene postcards conducte d a loud and rushin g business . I t wa s "Glouceste r glorifie d . . . reminiscent o f th e days when mother s wep t fo r th e fate of their son s and daughters. " Nor wa s th e socia l disorde r confine d t o th e excursio n district . A t th e Inlet, th e extrem e opposit e en d o f th e city , Atlanti c City' s tribut e t o th e Chicago World's Fai r consisted o f a rather shabb y version of "The Street s of Cairo, " th e lasciviou s exhibi t whic h tw o year s befor e ha d scandalize d the Midwa y and , i n variou s forms , ha d reappeare d i n unsavor y resort s throughout th e country . Fo r te n cent s patron s observe d th e "grotesqu e antics o f severa l clums y performer s i n Orienta l attire " accompanie d b y exotic drummer s an d pip e players . Bu t fo r a n additiona l quarter , the y followed a processio n o f horse s an d camel s int o a n inne r sanctu m an d witnessed th e performance o f six women: "One, a big ugly female, appar ently 6 0 years old , i t i s claimed i s from Chicago ; another, abou t 4 0 is no t prepossessing, i s fro m Morocco . Tw o o f th e Easter n dancer s migh t hai l from Eas t Newark , N.J. , whil e th e fifth, a negress , i s allege d t o b e Nubian. Th e sixt h i s a very fat , goo d lookin g youn g woma n wit h rave n hair an d o f undoubte d Easter n origin. " Th e wome n wer e accompanie d by a fiddler, a harp player , an d a "bi g gros s ma n i n a Turkish costume " who twange d a stringe d instrumen t bu t mad e n o music . Th e Inquirer pronounced th e whol e spectacl e ridiculou s bu t nonetheles s demoralizin g and outrageous. Apparentl y th e audience felt mor e cheated tha n outrage d and laughe d a t the "screech-owl " singing of the raven-haired woman , bu t "forbore t o anno y he r further , fo r sh e was good-looking. " No w th e issu e clearly transcende d th e Sunda y question , fo r unde r th e libera l polic y such amusement s wer e intolerable on any day . Not everyon e wh o viewe d Atlanti c Cit y durin g th e summe r o f 189 5 found i t an expression o f the vulgar aspect s of mass culture. Th e Bulletin, as a former crusader , no w ha d a stake in the resort's wholesomeness . Atlantic City today with its summer population of 100,000 , most of whom are in searc h of pleasure, i s one of the most remarkabl e manifestation s o f American life . . . . Th e Boardwal k i s one o f th e greates t illustration s o f "Triumphant Democracy " in this country. . . . The rich and the poor, the millionaire and the bootblack, th e owner of the luxurious cottage, and the denizens of the excursions houses all meet on common ground i n Atlantic

io6 • Low Resorts City. Th e wonde r o f i t i s that i t i s s o nearly fre e o f offence t o me n and women of good sense.52 The Philadelphia Press praised th e efficienc y o f th e polic e departmen t an d evinced a sympatheti c understandin g o f th e difficultie s o f managin g a huge resort . No other community in this country presents such peculiar social problems for a city government to wrestle with. These scores of thousands of people flock t o the seaside for relaxation from the cares that must be borne through the long year and they are essentially a pleasure-seeking class. Of course a large proportion o f them wish to see more "life" than the se a and the sky and the breezes impart, an d the authorities must striv e to keep within the bounds o f goo d orde r th e inclinatio n t o undu e hilarit y an d raucou s pleasure.53 A mor e explici t statemen t o f th e libera l polic y coul d no t hav e bee n made by th e mayor himsel f who , oddl y enough , foun d himsel f defendin g a stricter standar d tha n mos t o f the regional press . Eve n the stai d Trenton Times ridiculed th e "Law s o f Puritans, " finding the m ou t o f touc h wit h the moder n publi c sentimen t o f th e nineteent h century. 54 Josep h Pulit zer's New York World predictabl y blame d Theodor e Roosevel t fo r th e wave o f Purita n zealotr y "sweepin g awa y th e chewin g gu m busines s at Asbur y Park " . . . an d no w flingin g "it s whit e cap s i n th e fac e o f Atlantic City." 55 If th e cit y ha d los t it s gri p o n th e Boardwalk , b y 189 5 i t exerte d a firmer han d o n th e mor e seriou s problem s o f gamblin g an d prostitution . Gambling wa s no t a n issu e fo r th e Inquirer, ye t it s continue d existenc e was neve r i n doubt . Dutch y Muhlra d stil l hel d fort h a t th e Lochiel , an d the Extr a Dr y Caf e ha d prospere d sinc e it s exposur e i n 1890 , havin g evolved fro m a lo w gamblin g de n int o " a saloo n an d restauran t o f fairl y good class " althoug h "frequente d b y me n an d wome n o f rapi d inclina tions." I n th e Northside , blac k gaming establishment s suc h a s Coleman' s and Joshu a Foreman' s continue d t o provid e th e cit y wit h th e mean s for periodi c symboli c crackdowns . Fo r gambler s i n Atlanti c City , th e watchword wa s discretion . Vic e unsee n di d no t excit e mora l outrag e a s did th e presumabl y les s seriou s bu t mor e flagrant evidenc e o f socia l disorder a s risque amusements an d Sabbat h desecration . The sam e wa s tru e o f prostitution , which , however , ha d ha d mor e o f a checkered progres s since 1890 . In the fall of 1894 , the "infamous trio" —

Low Resorts • 10 7 Minnie Weigle , Doll y Shaw , an d Minni e Burnett—spen t thirt y day s i n the count y jai l a s a resul t o f raid s conducte d b y a handfu l o f loca l clergymen know n a s th e "Civi c Federation. " Th e refor m effor t wen t decidedly unapplaude d i n loca l circles , an d th e clergyme n wer e encour aged t o "min d thei r ow n business. " I n 189 5 t n e leade r o f th e group , Dr . Aikman, wa s i n Detroit , an d th e secretary , th e Reveren d Dr . Cross , wa s suffering fro m nervou s prostratio n an d decline d eithe r t o b e interviewe d by th e Inquirer correspondent o r to identify othe r group members. 56 By 189 5 th e infamou s tri o hel d swa y i n "th e tenderloin, " a stri p o f North Carolin a Avenu e betwee n Atlanti c an d Baltic . Her e stoo d th e residences o f Minni e Weigle , Doll y Shaw , an d Minni e Burnett , an d als o Kittie Weigle' s Se a Breez e Cottage , al l muc h enlarge d an d refine d fro m the modes t edifice s describe d i n 1890 . Despit e thei r brie f brus h wit h th e law, th e wome n ha d prospere d considerably . Al l fou r o f thes e place s were described b y the Inquirer as large caravansaries of the first class. Th e Shaw cottag e wa s on e o f th e "fines t i n town, " an d jus t dow n th e stree t Minnie Weigle's cottag e had evolve d int o "almost a mansion." Just acros s the street, Minni e Burnett occupie d anothe r substantia l cottag e and a t th e time wa s negotiatin g t o bu y th e propert y nex t door . A profusio n o f "furnished room " sign s hun g fro m th e street' s boardinghouses , a sur e indication tha t th e entire strip was given over to the same attractions. In th e Inlet , o n Massachusett s Avenue , stoo d "Mo m Fisa's, " "on e o f the swelles t place s o f ill-reput e i n town. " Frequente d b y "gilde d yout h and politician s o f note, " Fisa' s wa s a handsom e cottag e surrounde d b y well-kept grounds . Nearby , anothe r larg e cottag e house d th e "Blazin g Rag" which , lik e Fisa's , wa s license d b y th e cit y t o sel l liquor . Th e sporting crow d coul d als o reve l a t th e les s elegan t bu t mor e notoriou s Charley Smith' s hote l locate d acros s th e inle t i n Brigantine , the n know n as Peter' s Beach . Busines s ther e wa s brisk , an d loca l boatme n reape d a n annual harvest, bu t thi s was not the city's problem. Althoug h th e Inquirer said tha t ther e wer e a numbe r o f suc h place s an d tha t the y catere d t o "men o f ever y stamp " fro m wealth y politician s t o hoodlum s an d crooks , it described a situation considerabl y mor e constricted an d controlle d tha n it was in 1890. 57 Recent studie s hav e suggested tha t th e Victoria n attitud e towar d pros titution wa s on e o f "quie t toleration. " S o lon g a s place s o f assignatio n were located awa y fro m respectabl e area s or otherwise hidden from view , they di d no t excit e public indignation. 58 I n 189 0 things were out of hand , and th e siniste r qualit y o f the Bulletin probe wa s notably absen t fro m th e

io8 • Low Resorts tone o f th e Inquirer. Minni e Burnett , th e "vil e creature " o f 1890 , ha d become almos t matronl y b y 1895 : "Minni e ha s a gentle , conciliator y manner, an d addresse s he r visitor s a s 'boys,' but i f the 'boys ' speak of th e 'girls,' sh e wil l sa y archly , 'Yo u mea n th e ladie s . . . . ' Minni e Burnet t has a humorous vein , fo r i n a response to a call for beer , sh e declared tha t she woul d serv e nothin g bu t ginge r ale . . . . Th e 'ginge r ale ' wa s ver y properly ice d an d suspiciousl y lik e beer, an d th e visitor s drin k an d smil e and th e landlad y laughs." 59 Minni e spok e frankl y abou t he r busines s difficulties, bu t "becam e solemn" when police matters were touched upo n and "doesn' t forge t he r thirt y day s i n jail. " Minnie wa s n o saint , bu t b y 1895 s n e n a d becom e a human bein g and a known quantity . Except fo r Smith's , contro l wa s eviden t everywhere , fro m th e Extr a Dry Caf e wher e patron s revele d "unde r th e careful surveillanc e of sturd y looking waiter s wh o ar e instructe d t o 'stan d n o monke y business, ' " t o North Carolin a Avenu e wher e visitor s wer e instructe d t o mak e n o lou d noises an d th e pianist s wer e forbidde n t o pla y afte r 1 2 o'clock o n order s from th e police . Apparentl y th e arrangemen t satisfie d mos t resor t resi dents, a s we find no evidence of local protest i n the Inquirer probe. Nonetheless, th e event s o f 189 5 spurre d furthe r reforms . Afte r a brief sho w o f resistanc e b y amusemen t operator s i n Jul y o f 1896 , th e amusements cease d t o operat e o n Sundays . Th e cit y ha d enlarge d an d rebuilt th e Boardwal k tha t year , an d th e process , a s well a s soarin g lan d prices, eliminate d man y o f the older pavilion s an d amusemen t apparatus . Interestingly, i n 189 6 th e mayo r an d cit y counci l viewe d a performanc e of th e "Street s o f Cairo " and , havin g purge d i t o f a n "objectionabl e feature" (th e Houche-Couch e dance) , pronounce d i t wholesome . Tha t exhibit woul d surviv e in the Inlet a t least through the 189 9 season. In th e summe r o f 189 7 a correspondent fo r th e New York Journal foun d the Sabbat h a "day o f absolute quiet , s o far a s public entertainments an d amusements ar e concerned," and noted tha t this precaution saved the city from a great dea l o f rowdyism . H e eve n marvele d a t th e strenuou s silen t gestures o f hackme n restraine d fro m barkin g o n Sunday . A t th e en d of th e season , Mayo r Sto y receive d a delegatio n o f loca l clerg y wh o congratulated municipa l authoritie s fo r thei r success i n breakin g u p Sun day amusements . Tha t delegation , sai d Walte r Evan s Edge , no w edito r of th e Atlantic City Press, "voiced th e sentiment s o f th e entir e religiou s community an d thos e of the vast majority o f citizens." 60 By 189 8 Editor Hall , wh o in 189 4 anc * l %95 nac^ begu n t o have secon d thoughts abou t th e wisdo m o f th e libera l policy , wa s entirely gratifie d a t

Low Resorts • 10 9 the result o f the mayor's firmness. Fou r year s ago, from Florid a t o Rhod e Island avenues , " a panoram a o f livin g freaks " crowde d ou t legitimat e enterprise. "Th e fat woman, th e lean man, stuffe d an d unstuffed animals , gypsies, fortun e teller s o f al l nation s an d creeds , chea p picture s calle d works o f art , merr y g o rounds , tobogga n slides , weighin g an d liftin g machines," th e "endles s variet y o f catch-pennie s tha t shoul d neve r hav e been tolerated, " wer e no w confine d t o th e excursio n district , whic h Hal l conceded "wil l alway s harbo r th e bonhomm e o f th e workin g clas s wh o prefer t o separat e themselve s fro m th e wealthie r visitors." 61 Democrac y in Atlanti c Cit y ha d no w com e t o mea n segregatio n o f th e workin g classes. The 189 9 season went off without majo r conflict , an d the liberal polic y seemed o n firm ground . Bu t event s beginnin g tha t fal l portende d new , more seriou s threat s t o th e resor t equilibrium . I n October , Rober t A . Elwood, th e youn g an d aggressiv e pasto r o f th e Abseco n Presbyteria n Church, issue d a call fo r th e formatio n o f th e Atlanti c Count y La w an d Order Societ y t o attack gambling , prostitution , an d Sabbat h desecration , which h e declare d t o b e "wid e open " i n th e county . Fo r him , "th e county" reall y mean t "th e city. " O n th e mainland , ther e wer e bicycl e races o n Sunday , an d th e Eg g Harbo r Fai r wa s open , bu t th e rea l objective o f th e leagu e wa s t o refor m Atlanti c City , wher e ther e wa s n o Sunday an d vic e flourished unde r th e very nose s of ordinary citizen s an d officials alike. 62 Elwood lai d hi s plan s carefull y an d gathere d force s fro m throughou t the county . H e als o enliste d th e ai d o f lawyer s an d clerg y fro m th e Gloucester an d Philadelphi a societie s wh o wer e t o offe r ongoin g advic e and counsel . Ye t hi s first publi c meetin g turne d ou t t o b e a n embar rassment a s a Dr. Mund y an d othe r member s o f the Atlanti c Cit y clerg y wanted t o know by what authorit y Elwoo d ha d issued the call and move d for a n immediat e adjournment . Mund y an d hi s supporter s n o doubt sa w the whol e movemen t a s a ver y unsubtl e reflectio n o n thei r ow n lac k o f vigor o n thes e matter s an d wer e als o pique d a t no t bein g consulted . Mundy objecte d t o th e presenc e o f th e pres s a t th e meetin g an d t o th e public nature of the movement , whic h h e said ha d "failur e writte n acros s its face. " H e kne w fro m experienc e tha t cas h woul d b e neede d an d tha t reform woul d requir e "th e lo w dow n tactics " of th e opposition . Elwoo d had naivel y tippe d hi s hand, an d th e saloo n men wer e alread y a t work t o defeat hi s effort. 63 As Elwoo d woul d soo n learn , i t wa s on e thin g t o close the fai r i n Eg g

n o • Low Resorts Harbor bu t quit e anothe r t o til t a t th e windmill s o f vic e i n th e grea t American resort . Encourage d b y recen t refor m successe s i n Chicag o an d Philadelphia, h e reasone d tha t a mora l reawakenin g i n Atlanti c Count y would similarl y cleans e th e city . Eve n wicke d Glouceste r ha d bee n shu t down b y th e Glouceste r La w an d Orde r Society , an d i f Atlanti c Cit y could no t b e reforme d b y mora l means , ther e wa s alway s th e law . I n Gloucester th e la w worke d i n favo r o f th e reformers , fo r Jame s B . Thompson preside d ove r a Democrati c enclav e i n Republica n Camde n County, an d th e instrumen t o f refor m wa s th e count y gran d jury . A Democrat, Josep h Thompson , serve d a s mayor , bu t a s Elwoo d woul d also learn, politic s on the island stoppe d a t the water's edge . Like hi s onl y Democrati c predecessor , Willar d Wright , Mayo r Thompson wa s a distinguished loca l personag e o f impeccabl e reputatio n and committe d t o th e libera l policy . H e flatl y declare d tha t "ninet y five percent o f th e propert y owner s i n th e cit y wan t a n ope n Sunday. " Th e city solicitor , Clarenc e Cole , consente d t o addres s th e group, bu t offere d only a classic statement o f official equivocation . The subject of the enforcement of the law has given me much concern. . . . I am not here to discourage the members of this league, but there has been an almos t absolut e failur e fro m Sina i dow n . . . i n drivin g ma n t o a n observance of the law. We cannot close our eyes to conditions as they exist. We cannot mak e man better tha n h e really is by law. Go d ha s given us a will and he forces no man's will. He has given the law for man's good. The trouble i s not wit h God' s law , bu t wit h ma n wh o violates Hi s law . Me n must be taught that violated law bears a penalty here and hereafter. I am in accord wit h th e movemen t whic h ha s fo r it s objec t th e suppressio n o f Sabbath desecration. I question if we can hope to do much by insisting on an enforcement o f the law.64 Elwood declare d tha t th e member s woul d "agitate , agitate , agitate, " bu t even Judge Ashma n o f the Philadelphi a societ y counsele d moderation : " I don't believ e i n denunciation . Visi t th e Sunda y lawbreaker s an d sho w them th e erro r o f thei r ways . Yo u can' t legislat e me n int o religion . Th e Word o f Infinit e Trut h mus t touc h th e heart . Yo u mus t mak e religio n attractive t o men . I f yo u wan t t o reform Atlanti c Cit y g o out amon g th e men—not wit h denunciation—bu t wit h brotherl y love." 65 Eve n comin g from a Philadelphia lawyer , a tactic o f brotherl y lov e mus t hav e seeme d incredibly naiv e t o th e impetuou s Elwoo d wh o wa s becomin g quickl y acquainted wit h th e obstacles to reform i n Atlantic City. Actually , o f th e

"A healthful an d pristin e wilderness." A scen e taken i n the 1890 s of a yet unde veloped portio n o f Absecon Islan d suggest s th e landscape a s it looked t o Jonathan Pitney durin g the 1830s . (Courtesy, Atlanti c Count y Historica l Society , Somer s Point, N J . )

The foundin g triumvirate : (upper left) Jonathan Pitne y (courtesy , Atlanti c County Historica l Society) ; (upper right) Samuel Richards ; (left) Richard Osborn e (John Hall , A Daily Union History).

" A p u f f o f rosy o p t i m i s m . " T h e Roanoke, th e C a m d e n an d Atlantic' s firs t engine , was carrie d t o th e islan d b y boat . ( C o u r t e s y , A t l a n t i c C o u n t y Historica l S o c i e t y )

Atlantic City Hotel s i n 1857 . (Courtesy, Atlanti c City Publi c Library )

Facing page: This pictur e (top) of the beachfront a t Virginia Avenu e taken i n 186 6 contrasts sharpl y wit h th e photograph (bottom) of the sam e spot taken thirt y years later, i n 1896 . (Courtesy, Atlanti c Count y Historica l Society )

(facingpage, top) "Tiny, woode n planks. " The firs t Boardwal k a s it appeared i n 1867 (Hall, A Daily Union History), (facingpage, bottom) The Boardwal k i n 187 0 (courtesy, Atlanti c County Historica l Society) , (top) The Boardwal k i n 188 5 (courtesy, Atlanti c City Publi c Library) , (bottom) Roughly , th e sam e scene in 1895 (courtesy, Atlanti c County Historica l Society) .

(top left) "Seabathing," 1867 . (top right) A beach scen e in 1886 . (bottom left) Woman o n the beach, 1914 . (bottom right) Woman bathing , 1904 . (All cour tesy, Atlanti c County Historica l So ciety)

(top) The beac h i n 189 5 (courtesy, Atlanti c County Historica l Society) , (bottom) A busy beach , 191 5 (courtesy, Atlanti c Cit y Publi c Library) .

"Every tim e a keg was tapped, th e gong was struck." Schaufler' s Hote l a s it appeared i n 1885 . (Courtesy, Atlanti c City Publi c Library )

"Frequented b y me n an d wome n o f rapid inclinations. " The Extr a Dr y Caf e i n 1900. (Courtesy, Atlanti c City Publi c Library )

"The Corner." Kuehnle' s Hote l i n 1900 . (Courtesy, Atlanti c County Historica l Society)

Grand Marshal l Loui s Kuehnl e o f the Golde n Jubilee Parade , 1904 . At right , o n horseback, i s Mayor Frankli n P . Stoy . (Courtesy , Atlanti c County Historica l So ciety)

Louis Kuehnle , sittin g i n the rear with Sherif f Smit h E . Johnson o n his right. A t the wheel i s John Mahone y wit h count y leade r Lewi s P. Scot t to his left. (Cour tesy, Atlanti c Count y Historica l Society )

By 1900 , the Chalfonte House , picture d abov e in 187 5 (top), had evolve d int o Chalfonte-Haddon Hal l (bottom). This structur e woul d late r hous e the first legal gambling casino. (Courtesy , Atlanti c Cit y Publi c Library )

The Tra y more Hotel , designe d b y note d architec t Sanfor d Whit e an d complete d in 1915 , began a s a ten-room cottag e in 1879 . It als o evolved i n stages, a s these pictures, take n i n 189 5 (facingpage, top), 191 0 (facingpage, bottom), and 191 5 (above) show. (Courtesy , Atlanti c City Publi c Library )

"Then, a s now, Atlanti c Cit y was a study i n contrasts," as this photograph o f th e Northside take n i n 191 2 makes clear. {Survey, June 1912 )

Black excursionists, 1895 . (Courtesy, Atlanti c Count y Historica l Society )

"A Saturnali a o f Vice. " This unsigne d postcar d wa s sen t to Governor For t dur ing the summe r o f 1908 . The messag e read: "Th e sam e effect mos t generally no ticed whe n th e lid i s off." Th e writin g i n the lower lef t reads : "We're lost , bu t w e are on the way. Th e Boardwalk' s surel y gon e astray. Wha t fearsom e thing s thi s night befell , i f we get home, we'l l never tell." (Courtesy, Ne w Jersey Stat e Ar chives, Trenton , N.J. )

Harry Bacharac h defeate d Danie l S . Whit e fo r mayo r o f Atlantic City i n 191 1 and agai n becam e mayo r i n 191 6 with th e defeat o f William Riddle . {Atlantic City Commission Government, 1916 )

The Kuehnl e fortress unde r siege. {Atlantic City Review, January 16 , 1912 )

This photograp h o f Louis Kuehnl e wa s probabl y take n during the 1890 s whe n Kuehnle was i n his thirties. I t appeare d i n the Review on the day afte r Kuehnl e was sentenced t o a year a t hard labo r i n the stat e prison. (Atlantic City Review, January 25 , 1912 )

William Riddle . (Atlantic City Commission Government, 1916 )

Low Resorts • i n two, Ashma n a s a Philadelphia!! probably wa s mor e familia r wit h condi tions i n th e resor t tha n th e countr y parson , wh o thoug h livin g bu t si x miles awa y wa s sociall y a s fa r remove d fro m th e cit y a s on e coul d get . The dimension s o f th e tas k wer e perhap s bes t expresse d b y a loca l policeman wh o sai d that reformer s "migh t jus t a s well try t o stop the eb b and flow of the Atlantic tides a s to try t o reform thi s town." 66 The Atlanti c Count y La w an d Orde r Societ y die d aborning . Bu t however muc h th e loca l pres s migh t snee r a t "long-haire d crank s an d short-haired women, " Sabbat h refor m constantl y pose d a seriou s threa t to th e mora l equilibriu m o f th e libera l policy . Th e announcement , i n February 1900 , that th e Reveren d H . Fitzwilliams , Pittsburgh' s "fightin g parson," ha d assume d th e pastorat e o f th e Firs t Baptis t Church , wa s no t taken lightl y b y th e Atlantic City Sunday Gazette, which frankl y warne d that h e promised t o "mak e it warm fo r us. " Interviewed b y th e Pittsburgh Leader, Fitzwilliam s declared : As soon as I become settled an d get the lay of the land, I will keep an eye out fo r Sunda y desecratio n an d corruptio n o f al l kinds . . . . Ther e ar e plenty o f dive s an d gamblin g joints . . . . Th e saloon s ru n al l da y wid e open. . . . I thin k thi s i s a violatio n o f Ne w Jerse y stat e laws . . . . M y course will be fearless an d outspoken. . . . I t would b e a herculean task to clean out Atlantic City, but something can be done at least.67 Fitzwilliams prudentl y pointe d ou t tha t th e visitors , no t th e citizens , brought i n the sin. Bu t despite this positive assessment, a cleansing of th e city did no t promise to win the hearts of many residents, except, perhaps , for a few amon g his new flock. A visitin g membe r o f hi s Pittsburg h congregation , defendin g Fitzwil liams, onl y mad e his arrival mor e ominous . He is not a "fighting parson " nor a Parkhurst. H e pushed a reform i n the region known to us as "the Scarlet Slums." He visited 10 0 poolrooms where gambling was carried on and frequented b y several hundred boys fiveyears of age and upward. . . . Armed with this evidence, he secured the passage of a n ordinance prohibitin g boy s unde r th e ag e of sixtee n o f ag e in suc h places. . . . H e work s quietl y bu t persistently , withou t th e bombasti c speeches of Parkhurst o r the gaudy display of the Law and Order League. . . . He is also a lecturer of note . . . a member of the Grand Arm y of the Republic and an Odd Fellow. 68 As ther e wer e n o poolroom s i n Atlanti c City , cit y official s "nee d no t shake i n thei r boots. " Fitzwilliam s wa s precisel y wha t th e cit y feare d

i i 2 • Low Resorts

most. No t easil y dismisse d a s a crank o r a fanatic, h e was just the sor t t o invite the kind o f scrutiny tha t the liberal policy sough t to avoid . Although b y 190 0 the libera l policy , includin g th e quie t toleratio n o f gambling an d prostitution , enjoye d th e suppor t o f th e majorit y o f th e voting population . Whe n thing s periodicall y go t ou t o f hand , a s the y were won t t o do , citizen s wer e willin g t o brea k th e conspirac y o f silenc e to brin g th e managemen t o f vic e bac k t o acceptabl e proportions . Bu t a s vice coul d ge t ou t o f hand , s o coul d reform—an d threate n th e Sunda y liquor traffic . Mos t resor t resident s ha d n o mor e us e fo r gambler s an d prostitutes tha n peopl e generally , bu t t o shak e th e ricket y structur e o f vice equilibrium wa s to threaten it s collapse and brin g about th e unthink able resul t o f a Purita n Sunday . Thi s situatio n als o mad e reformer s unwelcome eve n t o man y i n th e cit y wh o migh t otherwis e sympathiz e with thei r goals . Th e effec t o f thi s conditio n wa s t o mut e th e refor m impulse generall y an d t o confin e it s directio n t o th e mor e flagran t an d noisy evidences o f disorder . In July 1900 , Editor Hal l declare d i n a sensational headline : "Den s o f Iniquity Canno t Exis t Here . Th e Peopl e Will Not Tolerat e Inactio n An y Longer." "Th e people " referred t o a Citizens' League recentl y formed , a t least ostensibly , t o tak e u p th e abortiv e struggl e o f th e La w an d Orde r Society. Hal l wen t o n t o war n tha t i f th e mayo r di d no t act , th e Leagu e would tak e matter s int o it s ow n hands . I f Fitzwilliam s wa s th e leade r o f the movement , hi s nam e neve r appeare d i n print , no r di d th e name s o f any o f th e othe r member s who m Hal l vaguel y describe d a s a grou p o f prominent hote l keepers , citizens , an d clergy . Anonymousl y financed , the grou p employe d privat e detective s an d wa s poise d t o carr y ou t raid s if the mayor di d no t ac t to improve conditions. 69 The Washington Post observed tha t th e "stor m broke " whe n a musi c hall announce d tha t a full-fledged theatrica l performanc e woul d b e give n on a Sunda y night . Th e wee k befor e sa w a riotous Sunda y replet e wit h theatricals, catch-penn y shows , menageries , an d othe r lou d amusements . Also tha t summer , a nunlbe r o f saloon s ha d introduce d nicke l slo t ma chines tha t evidentl y wer e heavil y patronize d b y excursionists . I n short , the limits had bee n breached. 70 Even th e Review, normall y quiescen t o n vic e matters , exclaimed : "There ar e jus t abou t hal f abou t a s many mor e house s o f il l fame i n thi s town thi s yea r a s ther e hav e bee n an y summe r fo r th e pas t te n years . This i s stated o n th e authorit y o f a police officer wh o ought t o know an d

Low Resorts • 11 3

who say s the patrolme n hav e no orders t o interfer e wit h th e 'joints. ' Th e denizens o f th e Whitechape l distric t wer e neve r s o shameles s i n thei r operations." 71 Th e controllin g adjectiv e i n th e protes t wa s "shameless. " Whitechapel ha d existe d i n Londo n a s a sanctioned red-ligh t distric t fo r a score of years , an d th e North Carolin a Avenu e stri p had bee n devoted t o that use at least since 1895 . The proble m was not that prostitution existe d but tha t i t ha d proliferated . Eve n th e Sunday Gazette, normally hostil e t o reform, fel t tha t th e tim e ha d com e t o "pu t th e brake s on " an d tha t th e town woul d b e wel l ri d o f gamblers , streetwalkers , an d othe r crook s which wer e giving the resort a bad name. 72 In July , Chie f Eldridg e stage d a genera l rai d o n gamblin g den s bu t succeeded i n closing only Joshua Foreman' s establishmen t o n Balti c Avenue. Forema n escape d hi s usua l fat e o f bein g th e first victi m o f refor m movements b y jumpin g ou t o f a window. Hi s partner , on e Rober t John son, wa s spare d a thirty-da y jai l sentenc e b y Recorde r Stephan y wh o declared tha t ther e wer e other s o f greater mean s wh o deserve d th e maxi mum penalty . Obviously , th e whit e establishment s ha d bee n tipped . Sneered th e Washington Post, "Eve n th e polic e authoritie s laughe d a t th e farcical attemp t a t a genera l raid , an d withi n a n hou r afte r th e colore d men wer e arrested , the y ha d bee n baile d ou t b y whit e politician s an d al l the dens opened u p again." 73 After a storm y meetin g i n a churc h basement , th e reformer s too k matters int o thei r ow n hands , conductin g a series o f privat e raid s agains t the brothels , an d th e Bulletin note d tha t "fo r th e firs t tim e i n year s th e tenderloin distric t was closed al l night." The cit y learne d tha t th e reform ers mean t busines s whe n the y raide d Dutch y Muhlrad' s Lochie l Hote l and caugh t a doze n me n playin g poke r i n a n upstair s room . Dutchy , "cool, nervy, an d smiling," hastened t o settle the matter with the prosecu tor. Hi s guest s wer e "respectabl e millionaires " wh o di d no t wan t thei r names mad e public . The y als o raide d severa l hotel s an d saloons , bu t charged th e proprietor s wit h sellin g afte r hours , no t wit h Sunda y viola tions. 74 Of interes t her e i s th e limite d scop e o f th e raids . Th e Sunday Gazette offered th e following analysis : "The Citizens ' Committee doe s not bothe r about ope n saloon s [o n Sunday ] o r th e operatio n o f businesse s whic h d o not offen d th e mora l sensibilitie s o f themselve s o r th e visitors , bu t the y have decide d t o fight an y oppositio n tha t i s no t libera l enoug h t o gran t some consideratio n o f thei r opinions , sinc e the y ar e willin g t o overloo k

i i 4 • Low Resorts some thing s whic h ar e no t i n accordanc e wit h th e law." 75 I n othe r words, th e pric e o f a libera l Sunda y wa s th e suppressio n o f gamblin g and prostitution . Although th e loca l pres s constantl y frette d tha t a "Dr y Sunday " wa s near a t hand , th e tide s o f reform , thoug h lappin g a t it s base, neve r quit e reached tha t citade l o f th e libera l policy . Th e slo t machine s wer e pulled , gamblers and prostitutes cease d operations for a time, and the city counci l passed a ne w ordinanc e agains t Sunda y amusements . Reformer s wer e once agai n quiet , an d Atlanti c Cit y returne d t o it s ol d ways . Th e cit y fined a numbe r o f prostitute s fo r sellin g liquo r withou t a license , bu t none spen t tim e i n jail . Bu t th e benig n fat e o f Dutch y Muhlra d provide s a clearer insigh t a s to how thing s wer e settled . Th e Septembe r sessio n of the count y gran d jur y foun d tha t bod y liberall y sprinkle d wit h Atlanti c City residents, an d the foreman wa s congressman an d former mayo r John Gardner. The y returne d n o bill against Dutchy , bu t indicte d thre e of th e League's private detectives for conspiracy. 76 Between 1890 , whe n gamblin g an d prostitutio n first becam e a seriou s problem, an d 1900 , whe n the y becam e a sourc e o f seriou s disconten t within th e city , th e evidenc e point s t o a proble m o f management , no t graft. Th e Philadelphia Public Ledger noted: "A s a result o f the rai d o n th e White Chapel ' distric t las t night , al l th e disreputabl e house s ar e closed , and inmates , Chie f o f Polic e Eldredg e states , ar e scattere d al l ove r tow n and liable to cause the authorities much trouble. Th e Citizens' Committee defends it s rai d o n th e groun d tha t th e house s sel l liquo r illegall y an d should b e oblige d t o contribut e t o th e cit y treasury." 77 Th e proble m o f controlling vice , onc e driven underground , vexe d polic e and cit y official s everywhere. I n a city wher e stranger s vastl y outnumbere d loca l inhabit ants, th e resultin g anonymit y an d th e absenc e o f th e norma l constraint s of neighborhoo d an d familiarit y compounde d th e difficult y o f keepin g order. Number s alon e create d problem s tha t woul d hav e taxe d th e wis dom an d resource s o f th e mos t enlightene d administration . Controllin g huge crowd s an d dealin g wit h amusemen t violation s an d pett y crime s strained it s resource s t o th e limit . Th e adde d burde n o f pursuin g street walkers and breakin g up gambling operations created anothe r incentiv e to maintain th e status quo . Finally, th e sures t indicatio n tha t th e libera l polic y me t wit h th e approval of the voting population o f Atlantic City is the fact that through out thi s perio d th e issu e o f vic e an d Sunda y closin g di d no t intrud e i n local politics . Durin g th e 1890s , loca l election s wer e matter s o f persona l

Low Resorts • 11 5

rivalries an d pett y difference s ove r suc h issue s a s ta x assessments , an d one look s i n vai n fo r an y connectio n betwee n politic s an d reform . Th e election o f Democrati c mayor s i n th e normall y Republica n tow n i n 189 2 and 189 8 signale d n o chang e i n th e managemen t o f it s affairs , a t leas t i n the areas most critical to its prosperity . Throughout th e nineteent h century , Atlanti c Cit y functione d a t th e very edg e o f conduc t acceptabl e t o th e Victoria n sens e o f orde r an d propriety. O n balance , th e libera l polic y ha d serve d th e cit y well . Atlan tic City' s meteori c ris e t o prosperit y an d prominenc e durin g th e 1880 s and 1890s , a perio d tha t sa w th e relativ e declin e o f siste r resort s suc h a s Cape May an d Lon g Branch, testifie d t o its effectiveness a s a management and censorshi p device . Among evangelicals , th e resor t migh t evok e image s o f a modern-da y Babylon, bu t i t enjoye d th e constan t advantag e tha t it s polic y me t wit h the approva l o f th e vas t majorit y o f it s patrons . Existin g a s a recreationa l appendage to the industrial centers of the Northeast, Atlanti c City durin g this perio d reflecte d th e myria d nuance s o f socia l change , includin g th e growing socia l an d intellectua l ga p betwee n Protestan t churche s an d th e masses o f working-an d middle-clas s Americans . Th e growin g distanc e between th e clerg y an d eve n thei r ow n communicant s generate d a pro portional increase in church militanc e and caused the churches themselve s to assum e a more secula r an d scientifi c approac h towar d th e problem s o f sin and socia l disorder. A s the new century brough t t o Atlantic City ne w forms o f popula r entertainmen t an d eve n greate r prosperity , i t als o in vited close r scrutin y fro m evangelica l reformers , a proces s tha t woul d place mor e sever e strain s o n th e libera l polic y an d culminat e i n th e conflict o f Progressive reform .

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love Atlantic City," declared newl y electe d governor John Frankli n Fort i n Februar y 1908 . Th e gues t o f th e Atlanti c Cit y Boar d o f Trade, h e added : "Atlanti c Cit y live s al l th e time . On e come s t o this place , walk s o n th e Boardwalk , . . . meet s fine women , an d goe s back onl y t o retur n again . . . . Tonigh t I sa y tha t everythin g yo u wan t which I ca n giv e you , after , o f course , yo u hav e first applie d t o th e legislature, everythin g yo u wan t whic h i s in the best interest s o f busines s . . . I promis e I wil l giv e you." 1 Allowin g fo r th e fligh t o f a banque t speech, Fort' s remarks could no t have been more reassuring. Althoug h h e carried th e city b y onl y a thousand vote s i n th e Novembe r election , For t had bee n endorse d b y al l fou r o f th e city' s newspapers , b y no w al l Republican, an d ha d receive d th e suppor t o f the local Republican organi zation. Part y stalwar t Isaa c Bacharach explaine d hi s relatively poor show ing i n thi s normall y Republica n stronghol d b y sayin g tha t man y voter s felt hi m "unsafe " on the Sunda y question. 2 As i t turne d out , For t wa s indee d unsafe . Onl y si x month s late r h e proclaimed th e resor t a "Saturnali a o f Vice " an d threatene d t o impos e martial law . Wha t ha d intervened , o f course, wa s th e Excis e an d Crime s commissions' probes revealin g that liquo r was sold on Sunda y i n defianc e of the statutes and that the rules governing the liquor traffic wer e promul gated b y th e Roya l Arch , a body o f local license holders. Mor e damagin g was th e credibilit y For t len t t o report s tha t th e cit y wa s overru n wit h gamblers an d prostitute s an d tha t commercia l vic e was protecte d b y cit y officialdom. No t surprisingly , a Trento n clergyma n condemne d th e re 116

A Saturnalia of Vice • 11 7 sort as a "sinkhole of iniquity" and suggeste d tha t bayonets wer e a proper remedy, an d th e Methodis t Conferenc e labele d th e cit y a s "th e Sodo m and Gomorra h o f New Jersey." 3 The city' s defens e too k th e for m o f a n ope n lette r t o th e governo r drafted b y a committe e compose d o f member s o f th e Boar d o f Trade , the Busines s League , an d th e Hote l Men' s Association . Predictably , th e "Saturnalia Resolution " seize d upo n Fort' s previou s prais e of the city an d proclaimed tha t t o it s million s o f visitors , vic e wa s practicall y unknown . From tim e t o time , evil s ha d "crep t in, " bu t thi s wa s t o b e expecte d i n the nation's foremos t resort , an d th e city ha d deal t with the m firmly. O n the Sunda y issue , th e lette r mad e a virtue o f necessity b y portrayin g th e resort a s a victi m o f it s ow n honesty . Fo r fifty-four year s Atlanti c Cit y sold liquor o n Sunda y "frankl y an d openl y . . . with the almost universa l acquiescence o f th e entir e communit y an d state , officia l an d otherwise. " Other citie s ha d don e th e sam e thin g surreptitiously . T o it s authors , th e Saturnalia resolutio n mad e a "fai r statemen t o f Atlanti c City' s excis e controversy." 4 But to many, th e Regulations of June 1 , 1907 , stood a s patent evidenc e that th e city wa s controlled b y th e liquo r interests . Give n th e findings o f the Excise and Crime s commission s o n conditions throughout th e state, i t was eas y t o believ e tha t th e resor t wa s i n th e gri p o f si n an d tha t th e Royal Arc h wa s a shado w governmen t o f gambler s an d saloo n keeper s bent o n wringing the last dollars out of the resort economy . Actually , th e Royal Arch was an organization of hotelmen and restaurateurs, no t saloo n keepers. B y 190 8 it s membershi p constitute d 13 0 o f th e 21 2 licens e holders i n th e cit y an d wa s le d b y suc h me n a s th e Whites , Charle s Spiedel, Loui s Kuehnle , an d othe r pillar s o f th e busines s community. 5 But more importantly, th e regulations represented a compromise betwee n hotelmen an d evangelica l reformer s withi n th e cit y tha t wa s forge d i n stages over a six-year period beginnin g in 1901. The proces s whereb y th e libera l polic y cam e t o b e embodie d i n th e regulations o f th e Roya l Arc h reveale d th e changin g mora l an d socia l tensions implici t i n th e managemen t o f a commercia l resor t cit y a t th e beginning o f th e century . I t als o provide s evidenc e o f th e significan t growth i n powe r an d influenc e o f th e evangelica l communit y withi n the stat e durin g thi s perio d a s see n i n th e Sabbataria n an d Prohibitio n movements. Fro m th e poin t o f vie w o f Atlanti c City , th e proces s illus trated th e difficult y o f controllin g commercia l vic e an d th e effec t o f Sunday law s on the moral equilibrium o f the city .

118 • A Saturnalia of Vice As earl y a s 1891 , Mayo r Hoffma n observed : " I thin k th e tim e wil l come whe n th e la w governin g th e sal e o f liquo r wil l hav e t o b e obeyed . For a long tim e th e saloon s hav e bee n ope n o n Sunda y an d nothin g wa s said abou t it . . . . Yet I a m of th e opinion tha t th e tendency o f the time s on th e liquo r questio n wil l eventuall y clos e th e saloon s o n Sunday." 6 Hoffman's offhan d remar k ma y hav e been a factor i n the clos e municipa l elections o f 189 2 whic h cos t th e Republican s th e mayoralty . Ye t hi s observation prove d t o b e prophetic . Durin g th e followin g decad e th e Sabbatarian an d Prohibitio n movement s i n Ne w Jerse y gathere d focu s and momentum , an d b y 190 1 combine d t o mak e th e libera l polic y in creasingly untenable , bringin g th e powe r o f stat e government t o bea r o n the affairs o f Atlantic City . Left t o thei r ow n devices , th e politica l an d commercia l leader s o f Atlantic City would hav e continued t o deal in traditional fashio n wit h th e legal an d mora l question s raise d i n th e operatio n o f a popula r summe r resort. Bu t i n June 1901 , Supreme Cour t Justice Hendrickson , citin g th e Vorhees Act , brok e th e equilibriu m whe n h e ordere d Mayo r Sto y t o close the bar s o n Sunday . Th e Hendrickso n decisio n cam e as a complete surprise t o Atlanti c Cit y residents , includin g Senato r Lewi s Evan s wh o declared: "M y understandin g an d tha t o f al l the othe r senators , wa s tha t the la w . . . wa s t o reac h gamblin g house s i n Jerse y Cit y an d Lon g Branch. Ever y senato r vote d fo r it , an d bu t tw o spok e a word agains t it . They wer e from Hudso n an d Monmouth, bu t they voted for th e act. Th e employment o f i t t o clos e u p Atlanti c Cit y o r an y othe r coas t resor t wa s never contemplate d o r thought o f while i t was before th e Senate." 7 Afte r a length y conferenc e wit h Hendrickso n i n Trento n durin g th e followin g week, Sto y returne d an d assemble d th e entir e polic e force, orderin g i t t o close all the bars in the city on Sundays. 8 June 30 , 1901 , noted th e New York Times, was th e first dr y Sunda y i n the histor y o f Atlanti c City . I n hi s sermo n tha t morning , th e Reveren d Charles Fitzwilliam s o f th e Firs t Baptis t Churc h declared : "Tha t whic h was sai d t o be impossible has been brought t o pass . . . b y on e man, wh o having respec t fo r hi s oath , demande d tha t th e la w shoul d b e enforced. " At th e Inlet , patron s washe d dow n clam s an d oyster s wit h fifteen-cent lemonades, whil e a t on e pavilio n th e ban d repeatedl y playe d th e refrain , "How Dr y I Am. " O n Saturday , loca l brewerie s an d liquo r suppliers , swamped wit h orders , worke d feverishl y int o the night t o deliver bottle d goods t o cottage s an d boardinghouse s befor e th e Sunda y deadline , an d hotel guests prudently ordere d cocktail s to be delivered t o their room s o n

A Saturnalia of Vice • 11 9 the nex t day . Saloon s throughou t th e cit y locke d thei r doors , an d publi c drinking occurred onl y a t the lower end o f the beach, wher e excursionist s brought thei r ow n bee r an d whiske y an d dran k i t with thei r lunch . This , said Chief Eldridge , ough t t o be stopped a s "it did no t look well." 9 Actually, Sto y had reason to be pleased with the crisis. By 190 1 the city had begun to do a brisk spring trade, and the perennial amusement controversy surface d earl y tha t yea r when, o n an April Sunday , th e Old Mil l at the foot o f Tennessee Avenu e opened fo r business . Interestingly , th e Ol d Mill wa s probabl y th e leas t offensiv e o f th e Boardwal k amusements . Lo cated i n the heart of the hotel district, i t consisted o f a wheel-driven sluic e that propelled boats through grottoes and tunnels decorated with scenes of oriental splendor . Althoug h th e local press found th e ride "charming" and "well worth the price," the mayor, fearin g a precedent, ha d the proprietor , Edward C. Boice, arrested. Boic e pled guilty, paid the fine and court costs, which amounte d t o $3.30 , and , bowin g t o publi c opinion , agree d no t t o open agai n on Sundays . Sai d th e Press, "Thi s end s the first chapter o f th e Sunday amusemen t question for the present season." 10 The stat e court s ha d invalidate d th e 189 2 amusemen t ordinanc e o n a technicality, an d th e cit y prosecute d Boic e under th e ol d blu e la w whic h provided fo r onl y a one-dollar fine. Sto y prepare d anothe r ordinanc e pro viding fo r a $200 fine and a thirty-day jai l sentenc e an d sen t i t to counci l for approval . Despit e Stoy' s repeate d urgings , th e counci l ha d faile d t o act on the measure, an d ther e the matter la y a t the time of Hendrickson' s order i n June. 11 Although th e first dr y Sunda y passe d withou t incident , th e licens e holders quietl y organize d t o fight th e ruling . O n th e followin g Sunday , police arreste d th e proprieto r o f a n ope n saloo n i n th e excursio n district . Two Boardwal k hotel s servin g drink s t o guest s wh o ha d purchase d tick ets th e nigh t befor e wer e no t charged. 12 Evidentl y th e mayo r wa s pre pared t o recogniz e tha t loophol e an d provid e a t leas t fo r a n upper-clas s evasion o f th e law . Th e practic e migh t hav e blossome d int o a n Atlanti c City hote l tradition , bu t i t wa s quickl y squelche d b y othe r forces . The Ol d Tow n hotelme n an d th e saloo n keeper s wer e no w i n th e position o f th e amusemen t operators . O n th e followin g Sunday , al l opened fo r business . Loui s Kuehnle , havin g emerge d a s th e spokesma n for th e licens e holders , stated : "W e don' t wan t an y publicity ; it s onl y a test a s t o th e intention s o f th e officials , an d w e thin k w e hav e a right t o know jus t wher e w e stand. " Th e protes t too k o n a n ominousl y familia r tone a s Kuehnl e added : "O f cours e thi s mean s on e o f tw o things . Th e

120 • A Saturnalia of Vice hotels an d bat h house s mus t clos e wit h u s o r w e sta y ope n togethe r an d make common caus e agains t th e la w which i s against loca l sentimen t an d (that of ) a vast majorit y o f visitors , an d thei r opinion s shoul d b e consid ered i n thi s matter , a s i n th e poin t o f keepin g th e hotel s ope n fo r thei r entertainment." 13 Kuehnl e ha d no t threatene d t o stop the trains, bu t nei ther th e mayo r no r th e Boardwal k hotelme n coul d mis s th e point . Th e Old Tow n interest s woul d accomplis h wha t th e amusemen t me n ha d failed t o do . The y woul d clos e th e city . To mak e matter s worse , th e amusement s opened , an d fro m tw o dr y and quie t Sundays , th e Boardwal k wa s transforme d int o a carniva l o f Sabbath revelry . Thing s wer e no w ou t o f control . I n a serie s o f front page editorials , Walte r Evan s Edg e excoriate d counci l member s fo r thei r failure t o pas s th e amusemen t ordinance . T o permi t th e Boardwal k t o become a "Midway o f the Coney Islan d type " would b e disastrous t o th e interests o f th e city . O n Augus t 12 , counci l finall y responde d wit h an other "Ordinanc e fo r th e Suppressio n o f Vic e an d Immorality, " th e ne w law providin g fo r a $200 fine an d a thirty-day jai l sentence. 14 Cafes, saloons , an d hotel s continue d t o sel l liquo r o n Sunday , an d city licens e holder s wer e buoye d b y cour t decision s i n Esse x an d Mon mouth whic h appeare d t o indicat e tha t Hendrickso n ha d gon e to o fa r i n applying th e Vorhee s Ac t t o Sunda y selling . Governo r Vorhee s decline d to comment o n th e Hendrickso n ruling . Mayo r Sto y foun d i t pruden t t o spend Sunday s durin g July an d Augus t o n hi s mainlan d far m a s the cit y awaited Hendrickson' s nex t move. 15 Carrie Natio n adde d a colorfu l dimensio n t o th e liquo r questio n i n Atlantic Cit y wit h he r arriva l o n Augus t 18 . I n th e Press, Walte r Evan s Edge declare d he r "Th e Quee n o f al l the Fakirs, " and added : "Mrs . Na tion i s short , stout , almos t t o th e poin t o f obesity , i s decidedl y homely , tanned t o a dar k brow n a s thoug h sh e ha d bee n summerin g a t a seasid e resort, an d i s unprepossessin g whe n see n a t clos e range." 16 Unabl e t o secure accommodation s a t a hotel , sh e wa s take n t o a boardinghouse , swam i n th e ocean , an d tha t afternoo n delivere d "th e wildes t kin d o f tirade agains t saloon s an d liquo r i n general. " Sh e returne d a wee k late r to b e "hisse d b y thousands " a s sh e denounce d Willia m McKinle y be cause h e wa s "owne d b y th e rummies. " Natio n departe d th e cit y o n a dramatic not e ami d rumor s tha t sh e planne d t o smas h th e window s o f Kuehnle's hotel . Kuehnl e hastil y shuttere d th e hote l an d declare d tha t i f Nation cam e t o hi s plac e h e woul d hav e he r arrested. 17 Carrie Natio n lef t Atlanti c Cit y a s sh e foun d it , bu t Judge Hendrick -

A Saturnalia of Vice • 12 1 son wa s no t amuse d tha t th e bar s remaine d ope n o n Sunday . H e sen t Mayor Sto y a sharply worde d not e that th e practice would hav e to cease. Meanwhile, seizin g th e opportunity , a grou p o f loca l clerg y organize d yet anothe r Citizens ' Leagu e an d prepare d t o moun t a campaign agains t Sabbath desecration . The y secure d th e service s o f severa l privat e detec tives, an d th e Reveren d Samue l H . Han n o f th e Camde n Count y La w and Orde r Societ y too k persona l charg e o f th e operation . Hann' s agent s gathered evidenc e agains t ove r eight y saloon s an d cafe s an d filed thirty four complaint s t o b e hear d a t th e Septembe r sessio n o f th e Atlanti c County Gran d Jury. 18 The reformer s secure d n o evidenc e agains t th e Boardwal k hotel s al though the y ha d continuall y serve d liquo r t o guest s throughou t August . The distanc e betwee n th e Boardwal k hotelme n an d th e othe r licens e holders wa s accentuate d o n Septembe r 6 with th e appearanc e o f a public statement signe d b y on e hundre d "leadin g citizens " declaring themselve s in sympath y wit h th e wor k o f th e La w an d Orde r Leagu e an d denounc ing th e reckles s defianc e o f th e law . Th e memorial , carefu l no t t o de nounce Sunda y liquo r sale s i n principle , rea d lik e a Who's Who o f th e wealthy beachfron t interests , cottagers , an d loca l clerg y an d condemne d the indiscriminat e grantin g o f liquo r licenses. 19 When th e gran d jur y convene d o n Septembe r 10 , Hendrickso n le t i t be know n i n n o uncertai n term s tha t h e expecte d indictment s o n th e Sunday sellers , an d th e new s fro m th e surroundin g countie s wa s no t good. Th e Cap e Ma y Count y Gran d Jur y hande d dow n sixty-nin e in dictments fo r Sunda y selling , an d a Camde n jur y sentence d a saloo n keeper t o tw o year s i n prison . Rumor s circulate d tha t i f ther e wer e n o indictments, Hendrickso n woul d eithe r kee p the member s empanele d in definitely o r cit e the m fo r contempt , o r h e migh t eve n cit e th e mayor , council members , an d th e police for derelictio n o f duty unde r th e provis ions o f th e Vorhee s Act . I n th e absenc e o f a ruling b y th e ful l Suprem e Court, a n ai r o f uncertaint y hun g ove r th e proceedings . Apparently, thes e pressure s wer e enough , an d o n Septembe r 1 5 th e liquor interest s capitulated . Sai d Kuehnle : So far a s my place is concerned, i t will be closed. . . . What other license holders wil l do , I a m no t prepare d t o state . Som e of the m hav e told m e they wil l no t open , whil e other s hav e expresse d n o opinion . . . . Th e members at the meeting yesterday were quite sure that it would do no good to prolong the fight. The court has fixed opinions on this matter, an d it is useless to struggle against what is sure to come in the end.20

12 2 • A Saturnalia of Vice On Sunday , Septembe r 15 , all o f th e saloon s close d an d remaine d s o on Sunday s fo r th e entir e winter . Th e Sunday Gazette declared: "Th e crusaders hav e wo n th e battl e fo r dr y Sundays, " an d outwardl y i t ap peared tha t the matter wa s settled . The gran d jur y hande d dow n n o indictment s fo r Sunda y selling , but , as th e defendant s wer e no w i n compliance , Hendrickso n release d th e panel with a mild admonition , a settlement tha t smacke d o f a deal. At th e annual meetin g o f th e Camde n Count y La w an d Orde r Society , Secre tary Han n reveale d tha t th e bod y spen t $698.5 9 gatherin g evidenc e i n Atlantic City an d strongl y censure d th e grand jur y fo r it s failure t o indic t the Sunda y sellers . O f th e twenty-fou r member s o f th e pane l picke d b y Sheriff Smit h E . Johnson , a t leas t te n wer e Atlanti c Cit y resident s an d the forema n wa s onc e agai n Congressma n John Gardner . Bu t i f th e jur y was stacked , i t wa s no t dispose d t o test th e resolve of Hendrickson . Th e season wa s ove r anywa y an d ther e remaine d th e entir e winte r t o se t things right. 21 The Boardwal k hotel s an d th e exclusiv e restaurant s ha d n o les s a n interest i n Sunda y liquo r sale s tha n th e working-clas s saloon s i n th e excursion district , and , ironically , Sunda y closin g fel l mos t heavil y o n the upper-clas s interests . Afte r September , th e excursion trad e drie d up , and mos t o f the saloon s closed fo r th e winter . Th e larg e hotels an d som e of the mor e exclusiv e restaurant s staye d open , an d i t was not lon g befor e they experience d a sharp reductio n i n business . I n Novembe r a restaurateur announce d tha t i n vie w o f Sunda y closin g h e would rene w hi s leas e only wit h a substantia l reductio n i n rent . Plan s t o enlarg e th e Windso r and Isle s worth hotel s wer e canceled , an d rea l estat e agent s reporte d tha t property value s ha d falle n an d mortgag e mone y fo r cit y propertie s wa s becoming scarce . B y January, railroa d trave l wa s dow n 3 0 percent, an d the tal k amon g al l segment s o f th e busines s communit y wa s o f im pending doom. 22 Beginning i n January, a series of meetings took place in various Board walk hotels to discuss the effects o f Sunda y closing . Participants include d members o f the Citizens' League, city officials , Boardwal k hotelmen , an d representatives o f th e smal l hote l an d saloo n interests . B y Marc h the y hammered ou t a compromise . Sunda y liquo r sale s woul d resume , bu t saloons woul d d o busines s throug h sid e doors. I n th e Boardwal k concer t gardens, orchestra s wer e eliminate d altogether , th e Citizens ' Leagu e ob jecting t o "th e result s tha t frequentl y followe d whe n ru m an d musi c mixed." 23

A Saturnalia of Vice • 12 3 "Music a t th e Inle t bu t Non e i n th e Grottos " ra n a lea d t o a Marc h item i n th e Sunday Gazette, a succinc t commen t o n th e class-consciou s nature o f th e refor m agreement . Concer t garden s ha d lon g bee n a stapl e of upper-clas s nigh t lif e i n Atlanti c City . Bu t no w Wagne r an d Straus s were n o longe r i n vogue . Popula r musi c a t th e tur n o f th e centur y consisted o f suc h number s a s "Swee t Adeline, " an d vaudevill e an d min strel show s wer e no w th e mainsta y o f Boardwal k entertainment . I n 190 2 John Phili p Sous a playe d dail y o n Tilyou' s Pier , bu t i n additio n t o hi s regular concert s h e provide d th e musi c fo r th e "Florador a Sextett e o f Lovely Dancers." 24 The libera l polic y no w categorize d popula r musi c wit h mechanica l amusements, unwelcom e i n th e hote l distric t an d banne d o n Sunday . When th e Boardwalk concer t gardens, no w reduced t o the status of cafes, experienced a shar p declin e i n business , a conference wa s quickl y calle d with th e Citizens ' Leagu e an d cit y officials , an d "th e wor d wa s quietl y passed tha t musi c woul d no w find favor. " However , onl y "sacre d con certs" could b e played o n Sunday s an d none of the concert gardens woul d be permitted a n orchestra o f fewer tha n si x pieces. 25 The negotiation s tha t produce d th e revisions of the libera l polic y wer e conducted secretly . Excep t i n th e comment s o f th e Sunday Gazette o r perhaps i n som e long-los t journa l o r diary , i t i s doubtful tha t th e regula tions wer e eve r recorded . I f the y were , th e in k woul d barel y hav e bee n dry whe n th e Great Boardwal k Fir e of April 190 2 occurred an d produce d an embarrassin g inciden t revealin g mor e o f th e accor d an d th e rol e tha t the Reveren d Han n an d th e Sunda y law s playe d i n it s formulation . When th e flames threatene d a pos h hote l gamblin g operatio n a t Rober t Delaney's Dunlo p Hotel , worker s haule d ou t th e furnishing s fo r a quick deposit i n a warehouse. Ther e on the beach for al l to see were faro tables , a roulette wheel, an d assorte d othe r gambling paraphernalia . The Press immediately bega n a front-page crusad e agains t gambler s i n Atlantic City. Alludin g darkly t o "rumors o f protection," Edg e describe d the Boardwal k operatio n i n detail . Th e operator s ha d sen t agent s a s fa r west a s Pittsburgh t o advertis e th e roo m t o wealthy gamblers . Th e roo m itself was entirely i n keeping with the ambience of the Boardwalk hotel i n which i t was located. "Th e plac e is furnished i n a luxurious manner . Th e floor i s carpete d i n heav y velve t carpe t an d th e wall s ar e adorne d wit h costly oi l paintings . Ther e i s a bar , bu t n o drink s ar e sold . An y playe r can call for a drink a t any time and colored waiter s hasten to serve it. Th e 'stock,' tha t i s a pil e o f chips , i s sol d a t five dollar s an d i s th e leas t su m

124 • A Saturnalia of Vice that on e ca n commenc e t o play with." 26 T o Edge , i t seeme d ba d enoug h that gamblin g wen t o n i n th e bac k part s o f th e city , "bu t whe n a smal l sized Monte Carlo makes its appearance i n the center o f the city, th e tim e has arrived t o act. " Although th e operation was alleged to have been conducted i n secrecy , discretion i s a bette r word . I t i s doubtfu l tha t Edg e o r anyon e els e wel l posted i n th e cit y learne d o f it s existenc e throug h th e fire. Bu t moralit y was no t th e issue , wit h Edg e warning : "I f thi s i s permitte d t o continue , citizens ma y se e th e Boardwal k filled wit h gamblin g places , an d mayb e Monte Carl o occurrence s o f som e heav y lose r departin g thi s eart h sud denly b y hi s ow n hand . I t i s a dangerou s thin g t o allo w t o exist . . . . Saratoga an d Lon g Branc h trie d t o cate r t o this clas s of people , bu t thei r end i s onl y to o fresh i n th e mind s o f th e peopl e t o nee d refreshing." 27 Gambling ha d playe d a role in the flagging fortunes o f Lon g Branch, bu t it posed mor e than jus t a threat t o the reputation o f Atlantic City. I n July the Press reported tha t th e Reveren d Han n wa s "here on business. " Han n and hi s detectives were "gunning" for certain places that not only violate d the laws, bu t "als o the compact tha t was made between th e hotelmen an d the loca l Citizens ' Leagu e i n regar d t o Sunda y selling. " I n thi s context , "hotelmen" referred t o the entire range of license holders in the city, mos t of whom , lik e Loui s Kuehnle , operate d a foo d an d liquo r busines s i n connection wit h a hotel . Fe w member s o f th e Citizens ' Leagu e share d Hann's Sabbataria n views , an d h e wa s no t a part y t o th e agreemen t t o permit Sunda y selling . Ye t Han n ha d "friend s i n town" and stoo d poise d as an avenging angel to insure compliance with the compact. 28 For Edge , a s well as the Boardwalk hotelmen , a n invitation t o the La w and Orde r Leagu e wa s a tactic o f las t resort . Th e fat e o f th e Boardwal k Monte Carl o i s uncertain, bu t b y th e en d o f July th e Press crusade cease d as suddenl y a s i t started . B y th e secon d wee k o f August , Edg e ha d returned t o hi s customar y polic y o f boomin g th e cit y an d ridiculin g reformers. Tha t weeken d ha d bee n th e bigges t i n th e city' s history , and , citing railroa d figures, h e estimate d tha t 300,00 0 peopl e ha d visite d th e resort. Th e hotel s wer e filled, an d Captai n John L . Youn g reporte d tha t 45,623 people had paid admission to his pier. Nex t to this article appeared the lead, "Reformer s Strik e at Ocean City." The implicatio n could not b e missed. Authoritie s ha d close d cand y an d ciga r store s an d prevente d drugstores fro m sellin g ginge r ale . Ocea n Cit y wa s a nearby temperanc e resort, an d th e liberal policy had spare d Atlanti c City a similar fate .

A Saturnalia of Vice • 1 2 5 Reverend Harm' s valian t ban d o f earnes t worker s though t tha t th e resor t needed "reforming " . . . an d succeede d beautifull y i n throwin g a quie t resort int o grea t excitemen t an d gettin g themselve s thoroughl y talke d about. . . . And now Ocean City residents are discussing the probability of their Sunda y bathin g being cut off. Th e sellin g of Sunday paper s will be stopped an d omnibuse s an d othe r conveyance s wil l also cease doing business o n futur e Sabbat h days . Probabl y th e trolle y wil l b e stopped , an d from presen t indications , i t would no t b e at all surprising t o see the Law and Order League endeavor to stop the tide.29 For Edge and th e Citizens' League, Han n ha d his uses, but he was clearly no friend o f Atlantic City . If i t appeare d tha t th e agreemen t o f 190 2 merely reaffirme d th e libera l policy, ther e wer e tw o significan t changes , th e regulatio n o f musi c at th e beachfront an d th e elevatio n o f th e Citizens ' Leagu e t o a voic e i n th e censorship policy of the city. Bot h reflected th e class consciousness o f th e reform impuls e withi n th e cit y an d th e rol e tha t Sunda y law s playe d i n effecting reform s i n othe r areas . A s a Gazette corresponden t ruefull y noted, befor e 190 1 "reformers wer e looked upo n a s mere clamor." 30 The compromis e of 190 2 began the final revision s of the liberal policy . Now lackin g a reform constituenc y withi n th e city, neithe r Hendrickso n nor Han n wer e incline d t o roi l th e waters , an d fo r th e nex t si x year s citizen censors trod a broad middl e ground betwee n profits an d propriety . In this situation i t remained fo r th e city in the persons of Mayor Sto y an d the police department, unde r th e watchful ey e of the Citizens' League, t o deal with th e ebb and flow of vice and disorder . During th e summe r o f 1903 , the mayo r bannne d dancin g an d vaude ville on Sunday s throughou t th e city, an d ha d th e police instructed i n th e refrains an d lyric s o f religiou s musi c s o that the y coul d preven t Sunda y musicals hel d i n th e guis e o f "sacre d concerts. " I n 190 5 Everet t Mehe r gave u p hi s leas e o n th e popula r Inle t Pavilio n wer e fo r year s h e ha d presented concert s an d vaudevill e act s becaus e Sunda y closin g ha d mad e the operatio n unprofitable . Th e Gazette declared tha t th e mayo r wa s a n "autocrat" i n thes e matter s an d tha t ther e wa s "n o appea l fro m hi s rul ing." The mayo r ha d wo n ou t afte r a long fight because public sentimen t had supporte d him . Vaudevill e a s a Sunda y entertainmen t neve r mad e much headway , conclude d th e editorial , an d it s absenc e "wa s neve r a n injury." Tha t June , Judg e Enoc h A . Hibe e enjoine d a Sunda y bicycl e race t o hav e bee n hel d o n th e Meado w Roa d i n wha t wa s the n a n

126 • A Saturnalia of Vice undeveloped portio n o f the cit y northeas t o f the excursio n district . Loca l clergy ha d appeale d t o Higbe e t o "enforc e th e law s o f th e state. " Sai d Higbee: "Perhaps w e can be indulgent occasionally , bu t Sunda y racin g of any kin d i n m y estimation , i s not t o be encouraged." 31 Poke r an d prosti tution quietly continue d i n their usual places, but polic e dealt firmly wit h streetwalkers an d brothel s outside of the tenderloin . When thing s go t ou t o f hand , a s the y periodicall y did , a word t o th e wise wa s sufficient , an d backslider s wer e brough t int o line . Rumor s o f "promiscuous dancing " i n Boardwal k cafe s brough t counterrumor s o f a renewal o f th e La w an d Orde r Societ y an d a n announcemen t fro m th e Citizens' League that "certai n resorts had bette r mend thei r habits." "One hears of the formation o f a Law and Orde r League, " grumbled th e Sunday Gazette, "with a feelin g o f resignation . Man y person s ar e o f th e opinio n that i f there wa s not th e restraining influenc e o f the cranks, thing s woul d go t o th e dogs. " Yet eve n th e Gazette ha d t o admi t th e positiv e influenc e of the Citizens' League on the tone of the city . Those i n powe r an d ever y propert y owne r realize s tha t Atlanti c Cit y cannot affor d t o hav e its reputation suffe r fro m an y cause . . . . With th e "lid" off an d th e resort wide open, Atlanti c City would suffe r fo r reason s of the pocketbook and investments in property, and the government of the resort woul d b e forced t o respond t o the sentimen t t o "keep good. . . . " The governing force o f the resort cannot pleas e everyone, and it is trying to pleas e th e majority , an d i n doin g so , give s offens e t o some , bu t th e results u p t o dat e o f existin g method s an d managemen t seem s t o hav e justified thei r course. Atlantic City never stood better in the estimation of the public , neve r ha d mor e patrons , an d neve r ha d a s muc h busines s and money. 32 The ne w censorshi p not onl y too k into account change s i n popular enter tainment, particularl y music , dancing , an d vaudeville , bu t als o reflecte d the growing evangelica l influenc e withi n th e state . Hel d i n place by thes e conflicting tension s an d buttresse d b y th e prosperit y o f th e city , th e liberal polic y b y 190 5 was, i n th e eye s of its architects, i f not thoroughl y "respectable," a t leas t a moder n respons e t o changin g condition s tha t enjoyed th e sanction of a half-century o f usage. The passag e o f th e Bishops ' Ac t i n 190 6 signale d littl e chang e i n th e management o f the resort. I n May, Han n an d the Law and Orde r Leagu e closed th e bars i n Hammonton , Eg g Harbor, an d May s Landing, bu t th e Review was no t alarmed . Atlanti c Cit y wa s a "place unt o herself. " Strin -

A Saturnalia of Vice • 12 7 gent law s ha d bee n passe d b y legislature s al l ove r th e countr y an d ha d been "quietl y ignored. " Th e resor t woul d continu e t o d o a s i t an d othe r cities i n th e stat e ha d alway s done , "interpre t th e la w t o sui t he r ow n people." The Sunday Gazette predicted tha t instea d o f correcting evils, th e law woul d onl y aggravat e them . I n July , ami d rumor s tha t "troubl e breeder" Hann ha d targeted th e resort, Mayo r Sto y declared that "outsid ers" were no t neede d t o ru n th e tow n an d anywa y th e saloon s wer e no w so quiet o n Sunda y tha t "on e would no t eve n kno w the y wer e open." A s far a s Count y Prosecuto r Abbo t wa s concerned , th e ne w regulation s made Sunda y sellin g no more illegal than i t ever was. 33 The Citizens ' League , whos e membershi p wa s "ye t secret, " com plained tha t there were at least a dozen gambling establishments "runnin g full blast " withi n th e cit y an d threatene d t o cal l ou t th e La w an d Orde r League t o mak e th e liquo r interest s "com e t o thei r senses. " Th e polic e seized thirt y slo t machines , an d Mayo r Stoy , declaring , "Th e gambler s don't ow n me, " smashe d the m wit h a hammer. 34 Councilma n Riddle , never reconcile d t o th e Sunda y proscriptio n o f musi c an d amusements , threatened tha t h e too could "rais e the Sunda y issue " unless the Citizens ' League "acted reasonably. " A League spokesman replied that its member s liked thei r liquo r "quit e a s much a s anyone else" and tha t report s tha t th e League would dr y u p the town wer e a "political canard." I n Atlantic Cit y the Bishops' Law created onl y a stronger incentiv e to maintain the middl e course. T o al l bu t a very fe w o f th e partie s t o th e libera l policy , callin g out th e dogs of reform wa s a tactic of last resort. 35 Prostitution wa s no t a n issu e i n 1906 . I n April , Chie f Eldridg e die d suddenly, an d afte r a n elaborate civic funeral, wa s mourned b y the Union, his harshes t critic , a s " a ma n wh o preferre d honest y t o wealth. " "Ther e is no one t o hint," sai d th e Sunday Gazette, "that h e 'go t his ' for th e Chie f died a comparatively poo r man , althoug h h e hel d a position whic h coul d have yielde d hi m a fortune." 36 Tha t summer , Ann a Steelma n o f th e WCTU organize d a loca l chapte r o f th e Florenc e Crittendo n Circl e an d set u p a shelter fo r falle n women . The y quietl y wen t abou t th e busines s of relocatin g an d rehabilitatin g prostitutes , a n approac h t o refor m tha t met wit h th e war m approva l o f bot h th e Citizens ' Leagu e an d cit y offi cialdom.37 Later, Malcom b Woodruff, Eldridge' s successor , reveale d th e arrange ment the city had wit h sanctione d prostitute s i n a "frank talk " to the local YMCA. Woodruf f state d tha t h e exercise d a "clos e supervisio n ove r every disorderl y hous e i n town, " h e kne w wher e eac h wa s located , wa s

128 • A Saturnalia of Vice "personally acquainte d wit h th e wome n wh o conduc t thes e place s an d with man y o f th e inmate s i n them, " an d tha t i n eac h liquo r wa s sol d i n violation o f th e law . Eac h Octobe r h e rituall y arreste d th e proprietresse s for excis e violation s an d fined the m $20 0 each , annuall y enrichin g th e city treasur y b y "mor e than $2500." 38 While we may doub t tha t thi s wa s the only "tax " the women paid , Woodruff' s statemen t place d th e numbe r of sanctioned brothel s i n the city a t probably thirteen . Between 190 2 an d 1906 , "respectability " in . a cosmopolita n resor t meant mor e tha n concession s t o th e Protestan t ethic . I t wa s i n th e sum mer o f 190 4 tha t black s wer e barre d fro m amusements . I n 190 6 th e beachfront interest s announce d tha t black s wer e n o longe r welcom e t o bathe i n th e ocea n excep t i n th e designate d spot. 39 Althoug h th e latte r edict prove d difficul t t o enforce , i t i s clea r tha t th e interest s o f th e Citizens' Leagu e extende d beyon d morality . Wit h th e working-clas s amusements an d saloon s confine d t o the excursio n distric t an d th e Inlet , the black s relegated t o the Northside , th e prostitutes an d gambler s i n th e tenderloin o r clandestinel y operatin g elsewhere , an d th e semblanc e o f a quiet Sabbath , Atlanti c Cit y durin g thi s perio d present s a n interestin g social tableau. I t i s also an incisive comment o n middle-class value s at th e beginning of the twentieth century . In Januar y 1907 , Ann a Steelman , representin g th e WCT U an d th e Florence Crittendo n Circl e a t municipa l licens e hearings , complaine d o f the presenc e o f wome n i n Boardwal k cafes . Loui s Kuehnl e agree d tha t cafes wer e wors e tha n saloon s becaus e o f th e temptation s fo r women . The mayo r responde d b y bannin g "unescorte d women " fro m th e Board walk cafes . I n Apri l th e Reveren d Sherma n Pit t aske d th e mayo r t o sto p Sunday pavin g becaus e i t gav e visitor s th e impressio n tha t th e cit y ha d no regar d fo r th e Sabbath . Stoy , fearin g anothe r Sunda y war , complied . In a cit y anxiou s t o complet e th e wor k befor e summer , thi s wa s n o small concession. 40 By 190 7 the libera l polic y ha d becom e mor e stringen t tha n i t ha d eve r been. Bu t Atlanti c Cit y wit h th e "li d down " di d no t satisf y everyone . I n April a group o f clerg y an d a handful o f loca l citizen s forme d th e Goo d Citizenship League . Sai d W . L . Garrison , th e League' s president , "Thi s means wa r o n hotelmen . . . . This thin g o f keepin g ope n o n Sunda y ha s been goin g o n fo r years . Fo r year s w e hav e bee n promise d b y Cit y Council tha t the y woul d abolis h th e Boardwal k saloon s i n th e Bower y [excursion district] , bu t nothin g ha s bee n don e yet . It s a shame . A Christian ma n canno t wal k alon g th e Boardwal k o n Sunda y bu t wha t h e

A Saturnalia of Vice • 12 9 sees saloons wide open." Th e Roya l Arch offere d t o meet the reformer s under a "flag of truce," but Garriso n sai d there would b e no compromise, and th e city brace d fo r a resumption o f the Sunda y wars . 41

The loca l pres s wa s a t a loss t o explai n thi s development . Condition s had neve r bee n better . T o th e Union, i t seeme d strang e tha t a bod y o f citizens, "representativ e i n a sense, " an d "no t altogethe r lackin g i n goo d judgement," shoul d withou t an y apparen t reaso n plung e th e cit y int o a conflict tha t coul d onl y mea n disaster . Th e Gazette was mor e defiant , issuing a polite invitatio n t o the reformer s t o move to Ocean City . Actu ally, i t woul d appea r tha t th e sourc e o f renewe d disconten t la y i n th e recent discover y b y the Reverend Sinkenso n of eighteen youths gamblin g in a saloon , som e o f who m wer e th e son s o f prominen t member s o f hi s congregation.42 Ye t th e formatio n o f th e Goo d Citizenshi p Leagu e sug gests th e continue d existenc e o f a residua l bod y o f loca l opinio n tha t would neve r reconcile to the liberal policy even in its most stringent form . The wa r commence d a s th e reformers , withi n th e week , secure d te n warrants fo r Sunda y selling . Th e conflic t escalate d whe n th e Goo d Citi zenship Leagu e me t wit h Samue l Han n an d representative s o f th e Anti Saloon League . J . Fran k Burke , th e presiden t o f th e Ne w Jerse y Anti Saloon League , journeye d fro m Newar k t o addres s th e local s an d gav e the movement a n even more sever e agenda. I n doin g so, he placed Atlan tic City, fro m th e temperance point of view, i n the context of the Prohibition movement : "Thi s i s no t merel y a mov e agains t th e violatio n o f th e Sunday law , bu t a step toward th e tota l abolitio n o f the dra m shop . Yo u seem t o thin k tha t condition s her e ar e singular , bu t th e onl y singularit y about i t i s tha t th e campaig n i s bein g mad e i n Atlanti c City , know n th e world ove r a s liberal.' " 4 3 O n Ma y 3 the Roya l Arc h announce d tha t o n the followin g Sunda y th e bar s woul d b e closed , bu t tha t thi s wa s a "special Sunday " t o giv e th e communit y a taste o f th e effect s o f Sunda y closing. Sunda y closin g continue d fo r th e res t o f th e month , bu t th e movement cam e t o a crashin g hal t o n Ma y 2 9 whe n th e count y gran d jury indicte d si x saloo n keeper s fo r sellin g t o minor s bu t decline d t o indict Sunda y sellers. 44 The spiri t o f compromis e wa s onc e agai n i n th e air , an d th e Goo d Citizenship Leagu e agreed t o meet with members of the business commu nity. Th e resul t was the Regulations of June 1 , 1907 , promulgated b y th e Royal Arch , th e las t o f th e compromise s makin g u p th e libera l policy. 45 With thi s final adjustment t o the liberal policy, th e Citizens' League wen t quietly ou t o f existence . Th e burde n o f refor m wa s no w carrie d b y th e

130 • A Saturnalia of Vice Good Citizenshi p Leagu e whose agend a wa s far to o severe for th e Board walk hotelmen , wh o no w foun d themselve s i n a middle position—t o th e left, a s i t were , o f th e evangelicals , bu t wel l t o th e righ t o f me n lik e Kuehnle an d Riddl e whos e visio n fo r th e cit y wa s mor e toleran t o f th e working classes. Article Te n o f th e Regulation s read : "Gamblin g i s t o b e absolutel y suppressed i n Atlanti c City. " Gamblin g wa s a sensitiv e issue , no t onl y because o f th e objection s o f evangelicals , bu t als o becaus e o f th e wide spread belie f tha t th e "sportin g crowd " ha d destroye d th e fortune s o f Long Branc h an d Saratoga . Th e scandal s o f 190 1 i n Lon g Branc h re mained fresh i n th e mind s o f resort businessmen , an d th e resultin g Vor hees Ac t ha d mean t nothin g bu t troubl e fo r coas t resorts . No w wit h th e passage o f th e Bishops ' Act , th e evangelicals ' han d wa s furthe r strength ened an d th e incentive to eliminate gambling was stronger . Between 190 1 an d 1908 , w e find numerou s pres s account s o f polic e raids on saloons and barbershop s keepin g nickel slot machines and simila r devices. Whil e there is no definite pattern , mos t of the raids took place on Atlantic Avenue , particularl y i n th e excursio n district , an d wer e mor e frequent durin g period s o f agitation . Althoug h periodi c headline s indi cated evangelica l discontent , th e loca l pres s regarde d the m a s mor e o f a nuisance tha n a dange r t o th e city , an d gran d jurie s freel y indicte d the culprits. The sam e was true o f small poker an d dic e games run b y black s in th e Northside. Shortl y afte r th e Regulations went int o effect, W . L . Garriso n gave Justic e Trenchar d o f th e Suprem e Cour t a lis t o f nin e gamblin g establishments i n th e city . Trenchar d sharpl y ordere d Mayo r Sto y t o close them a t once. Thre e wer e ru n b y Joseph Ford , th e "Kin g of Negr o Gamblers" and, accordin g t o press reports , a refugee o f vice wars i n Ho t Springs, Arkansas , an d Richmond , Virginia . A wee k later , a "Colore d Ministerial Union " joined th e movement agains t gambling, an d th e Union featured a picture o f Bu d Griffin' s "notoriou s gamblin g place " on Nort h Kentucky Avenu e with a huge bar across the door. 46 But the Review, having grown impatient wit h reform, exclaimed : "Firs t it wa s Sunda y closing , no w i t i s gambling. . . . The fac t i s that mos t o f these place s ar e cra p joint s an d ten-cen t poke r parlors . Ther e ar e tw o o r three exception s an d thes e establishment s ar e s o conducte d tha t fe w people know of them and the neighbors speak of them as the quietest kin d of neighbors." 47 Thi s commen t suggest s that , despit e th e Regulation s o f 1907, the city tolerated tw o classes of gamblers, an d fo r differen t reasons .

A Saturnalia of Vice • 13 1 The toleranc e o f pett y operation s i n th e Northsid e reflecte d th e racis t conviction tha t black s ha d a specia l propensit y fo r card s an d dice . Thi s could no t b e eliminated , onl y contained . Me n lik e Dutch y Muhlra d an d Robert Delane y catere d t o a wealth y clientele , an d i t i s saf e t o assum e that the y pai d fo r protectio n i n som e form , probabl y t o councilme n an d police officers, wit h th e proviso that th e games be conducted quietly . Bud Griffi n staye d on , bu t th e glar e o f publicit y wa s enoug h t o en d the Atlanti c Cit y caree r o f Joseph Ford . Th e exclusiv e whit e establish ments prove d mor e elusive . A t leas t sinc e 1901 , the "Kin g o f th e (white ) Gambling Fraternity " wa s Rober t Delaney , th e proprieto r o f the upscal e Dunlop Hote l a t Ocea n Avenu e an d th e Boardwalk . Generall y regarde d within th e tow n a s a lovable scamp , ther e ca n b e little doubt tha t h e wa s behind th e "Boardwal k Mont e Carlo " i n 1902 . Delane y wa s th e nemesi s of th e Boardwal k hotelme n an d th e Citizens ' League , an d a t on e poin t Henry Leed s hire d on e of Hann' s detective s t o get evidenc e o n Delaney , but th e effor t wa s unsuccessful . Leed s charge d tha t Delane y annuall y paid $1,00 0 eac h t o "certai n councilmen " t o insur e hi s licens e renewal . This seem s likely , bu t whethe r th e sum s too k th e for m o f bribe s o r "campaign contributions " is unclear. 48 Delaney wa s "exposed " i n 190 5 when a Trenton ma n charge d tha t h e was fleeced ou t o f $60 0 i n th e Dunlo p b y tw o me n usin g loade d dice . Delaney wen t suret y fo r th e me n i n th e amoun t o f $8,000 , bu t th e culprits fled t o thei r nativ e Baltimor e an d coul d no t b e located . Whe n Judge Trenchar d an d th e count y demande d th e balanc e o f th e bon d money, Delane y ple d povert y an d claime d tha t anywa y h e wa s drun k when th e incident occurred an d shoul d no t be held responsible. Th e lega l maneuverings tha t followe d gav e th e tow n a chuckle , an d eventuall y Delaney wa s forced t o come up with th e money. 49 "Drunken Bai l Bon d Bo b Delaney, " a s he becam e known , wa s on e o f a small numbe r o f "big time" gamblers wh o operated wit h nea r impunit y in Atlantic Cit y betwee n 190 1 and 1908 . Another wa s William "Dutchy " Muhlrad, wh o stil l operate d th e Lochie l Hote l o n Delawar e Avenu e i n the Inle t sectio n o f th e Firs t Ward . T o many , i t wa s a myster y tha t Dutchy, th e chie f villai n o f th e 189 0 scandals, ha d generall y manage d t o escape notice durin g th e recent vic e crusades. Late r i t was explained tha t he "catere d t o th e bi g contractor s an d politician s o f Philadelphia, " n o locals wer e admitted , an d "onl y me n wh o ar e wealth y an d abl e t o stan d their losse s ar e allowe d insid e hi s doors." 50 I t i s probabl y als o saf e t o assume tha t Dutchy' s game s wer e honest . Bu t another , mor e cogen t

132 • A Saturnalia of Vice reason fo r Dutchy' s impunit y wa s tha t th e Lochiel , tucke d awa y o n Delaware Avenue , lik e th e tenderloin , di d no t excit e th e ir e o f th e Citi zens' Leagu e a s di d Delaney , wh o ha d th e effronter y t o operat e o n th e Boardwalk, practicall y i n the shadow of the great hotels, an d als o had th e misfortune o f getting caught . By 190 8 Dutchy Muhlra d wa s a citizen of some twenty year s standin g in th e communit y an d th e Lochiel , a n institutio n i n th e Inlet . Thi s wa s not th e case wit h "th e leadin g gamblin g me n o f Ne w York " wh o se t u p operations i n a "palatia l cottage " o n Sout h Illinoi s Avenu e i n 190 7 an d were shortly raided . Reportedly , th e gamblers scoffe d a t reports that the y were i n a panic. "Tha t i s al l rot, " sai d one , "It'l l al l blo w ove r an d we'l l be ope n i n a week. " I f the y di d reopen , i t wa s no t o n Illinoi s Avenue . The plac e wa s close d an d th e gambler s wer e indicted. 51 Th e patter n o f police activit y durin g thi s perio d indicate s clearl y tha t Ne w Yorker s and Baltimorean s wer e no t welcom e t o se t u p gamblin g operation s i n Atlantic City . The crusad e agains t gamblin g receive d a boos t i n Marc h 190 8 wit h Governor Fort' s appointmen t o f Clarence Goldenber g a s county prosecu tor. Goldenber g ha d don e lega l wor k fo r th e no w defunc t Citizens ' League, bu t h e wa s no t th e choic e o f th e Boardwal k hotelme n fo r th e position. No r wa s h e favore d b y Senato r Wilso n an d th e Republica n organization wh o endorse d Cit y Solicito r Wooten . Bot h side s urged thei r choices on the governor, bu t Fort, ignorin g senatorial courtesy, appointe d Goldenberg. A compromis e appointment , h e was clearl y "th e governor' s man" and unde r stric t orders t o eliminate gambling in the city. 52 A serie s o f raid s commence d shortl y afte r Goldenber g too k office . County detectives , alon g wit h cit y police , close d a number o f "dives " in the Northside and , o n April 22 , raided th e "Manhattan Club " in Chelsea, seizing $7,500 worth of gambling apparatus. I n August, th e New Yorker s were indicted , an d th e Union reported tha t th e gambler s wer e agai n "i n panic." 53 O n Augus t 13 , i n th e mids t o f th e excis e revelations , Gold enberg published a list of a dozen establishments stil l operating, includin g the Lochiel , an d complaine d tha t hi s efforts wer e nullified b y th e "politi cal power s a t th e hea d o f th e cit y administration . . . . Th e onl y reaso n these gamblers hav e not bee n arreste d i s because there is no use draggin g them t o polic e headquarters ' cell s when the y woul d escap e eithe r b y th e payment o f a smal l fine o r b y th e failur e o f th e gran d jur y t o indic t them." Th e polic e wer e "honest, " bu t i n vie w o f th e politica l situation , Goldenberg woul d no w pla y a "lone hand, " aide d onl y b y th e pres s an d

A Saturnalia of Vice • 13 3 the public. Publishin g the list was only the first move . "Count y Detectiv e Baitzel, connecte d wit h m y office , ha s absolut e evidenc e agains t ever y one of the places and peopl e that I mention, an d th e only reason that the y have not bee n openly raide d i s that w e kno w positivel y tha t ther e was n o use." 54 Thi s evidence , alon g with the reports from th e Excise and Crime s commissions, forme d th e basis for Fort' s Saturnali a proclamation . Fort ha d sen t Assistan t Attorne y Nelso n B . Gaskil l t o May s Landin g to assis t Goldenber g i n obtainin g indictments . A t th e Augus t sessio n o f the Gran d Jury , th e followin g exchang e too k plac e betwee n Gaskil l an d Foreman Salus . Complaine d Salus : "W e hav e tim e an d agai n aske d th e assistant attorne y genera l an d th e prosecuto r t o presen t t o u s evidenc e which the y sai d the y ha d agains t gambler s an d othe r lawbreakers . The y have refused t o give us suc h evidence . W e have not bee n treate d fairl y a s citizens an d gran d jurors. " Gaskil l replied : " I hav e foun d tha t th e prose cutor wa s no t i n possessio n o f sufficien t evidenc e agains t gamblers , bu t I do believe that th e prosecuto r submitte d ampl e evidenc e o f the ope n an d notorious violatio n o f th e excis e laws." 55 Th e exchang e betwee n Salu s and Gaskil l hardl y le t th e cit y of f th e hook , bu t i t di d poin t u p th e difficulty o f controllin g gambling , especiall y i n a n urba n resor t environ ment. Gamblers , shu t dow n i n on e place , coul d simpl y ren t spac e i n another an d resum e operations . I n th e resor t economy , ther e wa s n o shortage o f availabl e renta l properties , and , give n a goo d lease , owner s would no t b e inclined t o scrutiniz e thei r customers . Ther e wa s usuall y a distance betwee n th e backer s o f th e game s an d th e peopl e wh o actuall y ran the m an d wer e caugh t i n th e raids . Thi s wa s th e case wit h Delane y and als o wit h on e R . H . Goff , th e Ne w Yorke r wh o actuall y hel d the leas e o n th e Manhatta n Club . Indicted , Gof f escape d conviction , presumably becaus e he was not caught i n the raid. 56 Beginning wit h Hann' s La w an d Orde r Leagu e in 1901 , the Citizens ' League, the Good Citizenshi p League, the local police, from tim e to time, and finally Goldenber g i n 190 8 al l employe d professiona l detective s t o root ou t gambling . Al l experience d som e success i n apprehendin g work ing-class gambler s bu t neve r succeede d i n corrallin g locall y ru n upper class whit e establishments. 57 Bot h Trenchard' s lis t i n 190 7 an d Gold enberg's lis t o f 190 8 appeare d afte r intens e sweep s o f gambler s i n th e resort an d presumabl y represente d th e "protecte d establishments. " Dutchy Muhlra d appeare d o n both , bu t Delane y wa s o n neither . Tren chard's lis t containe d nin e names , Goldenberg' s a n even dozen. Combin ing the lists, only four establishment s asid e from th e Lochiel were located

134 • A Saturnalia of Vice south o f Atlanti c Avenue. 58 Th e evidenc e suggest s a n upper-clas s gam bling situation i n Atlantic City simila r to the management o f prostitution , only a little less structured, an d probabl y abou t hal f as large. Aside from gambling , prostitution , an d Sunda y selling , other activitie s threatened th e mora l statu s o f Atlanti c City . I n th e summe r o f 190 8 th e police arreste d "Th e Wil d Ma n Fro m Borneo, " who , a s i t turne d out , was a "swarthy whit e man " name d Jim Sulliva n wh o worke d fo r a black concessionaire i n th e excursio n district . Dresse d i n a primitiv e costume , he grunte d an d cavorte d i n a cag e surrounde d b y chunk s o f ra w meat . "Although unde r order s no t t o us e th e Englis h language , h e aske d th e time abou t te n o'cloc k a s hi s tim e wa s up. " Sulliva n wa s arrested , bu t a year late r th e hotelme n wer e "agai n u p i n arms. " I n th e "sam e pit, " o n the Boardwal k nea r Arkansa s Avenue , dance d th e "Blac k Salome, " a n "exhibit fo r me n only. " "Th e newes t discipl e o f Salom e i s a bi g an d muscular Negr o woma n whos e danc e i s said t o b e almos t appallin g i n it s brutal sensuality. " T o th e Review, th e burde n o f censorshi p ha d becom e too onerou s fo r th e polic e an d th e cit y ha d a "pressin g nee d fo r a n Official Censor." 59 But eve n a n officia l censo r woul d hav e foun d lif e difficul t i n Atlanti c City i n 1908 . I n June a delegation fro m th e WCT U an d th e Crittendo n Circle reviewe d th e motio n picture s bein g show n o n th e Boardwal k tha t summer. On e Mrs . Ballio t pronounced th e collection wholesome, finding "nothing objectionable. " Whil e som e agreed , others , reporte d th e Union, "turned pale " at the thought o f lending their name s t o the films. 60 A yea r later Anthon y Comstoc k visite d th e Boardwalk wit h a federal marshal l i n tow an d confiscate d a numbe r o f "obscene " postcards . Bu t prosecutin g the culprit promise d t o be difficult becaus e there was som e question a s to whether th e postcard s wer e obscene, suggestive , o r merel y inappropriat e for youn g people. 61 At th e clos e o f th e 190 8 season , an d wel l int o th e sprin g o f 1909 , observers o f Atlanti c Cit y coul d asses s it s mora l statu s fro m a hos t of sources . Thes e range d fro m Fort' s proclamatio n an d th e Methodis t Conference, t o who m i t remaine d "th e chie f ulce r i n th e state, " t o th e following, almos t Menckenesque , assessmen t offere d b y Irvin g Lewi s i n the New York Telegraph. "Atlanti c City ha s always drawn heavil y from th e peaceful yeomanr y o f th e Middl e West , fo r th e abundan t reaso n tha t i t was a plac e o f harmles s an d continuou s gaiety , a relie f fro m th e dul l monotone o f lif e i n a n interio r citylet , an d ye t fre e fro m disorde r an d vice. I t i s about a s wicked a s an Ohio church picnic . It s innocuousnes s i s

A Saturnalia of Vice • 13 5 not th e leas t o f it s assets."

62

I t wa s impossibl e t o calculate , conclude d

H o w e , th e har m tha t For t ha d don e t o Atlanti c City . Bu t w e ma y doub t this final point . A. Mauric e Low , a Britis h writer , devote d a length y sectio n o f hi s treatment o f America n manner s an d more s t o Atlanti c City , an d agree d with H o w e tha t th e resor t essentiall y expresse d th e value s o f th e Ameri can middl e class , bu t tha t par t o f it s appea l wa s tha t i t hel d ou t th e allur e of th e forbidden . One ma y d o i n Atlanti c Cit y wha t on e woul d no t b e permitte d t o d o anywhere else ; and althoug h occasionall y a highly respectabl e an d middle aged matro n fro m th e Wes t i s shocke d an d watche s wit h jealou s car e ove r her husband t o see that he does not stra y fro m th e well-trod pat h of narro w routine, th e middle-age d matro n i s in the minority, an d th e great majority , old an d young , me n an d women , g o to Atlantic Cit y enjoyin g al l that the y see, eve n thoug h the y ar e virtuously thankfu l tha t suc h dreadfu l going s o n would no t b e tolerated i n the less rarified atmospher e of their homes . The y have muc h th e sam e feelin g tha t Englis h peopl e hav e whe n the y g o t o a Paris music-hall . Ther e i s fascinatio n fo r mos t person s t o b e withi n hand stretch o f th e prohibited , an d t o kno w tha t the y ar e immun e fro m it s danger.63 "Atlantic Cit y i s al l o n th e surface, " sai d Low , an d i t i s doubtfu l tha t h e observed m u c h o f th e cit y nort h o f Pacifi c Avenue . But th e beachfron t wa s th e badg e o f th e city' s respectability , and , a s Heston ha d don e i n th e 1880s , Lo w place d Mrs . G r u n d y i n th e mids t o f the rollickin g thron g t o denounc e i t a s "sinfu l an d demoralizing. " Bu t such wer e th e danger s o f lif e o n th e precipice s o f morality , an d whe n th e scales tippe d i n th e wron g direction , th e cit y coul d find immunit y i n it s own insouciance . It ha s th e unaffecte d innocenc e o f a littl e chil d tha t i s unabashe d i n th e presence o f its own nakedness . Lik e a little chil d i t romp s an d play s befor e the whol e worl d an d affect s a prett y unconsciousnes s o f th e attentio n o f doting admirers . I t i s too essentially middl e clas s for it s folly t o degenerat e into wickedness; and th e tone of middle-class Americ a i s distinctly healthy . . . . Atlanti c Cit y i s fre e an d easy , unceremoniou s an d undignified , good naturedly boisterous , an d unnecessaril y loud , bu t i t i s respectable; i t mus t maintain it s respectability , otherwis e i t woul d ceas e t o b e th e playgroun d of the middle-class . If th e precedin g read s suspiciousl y a s thoug h Lo w obtaine d som e o f hi s copy fro m th e Atlanti c Cit y Publicit y Bureau , th e piec e provide s insigh t

136 • A Saturnalia of Vice into th e mora l ambivalenc e o f middle Americ a a t th e tur n o f the centur y and th e problem s i t create d i n managin g a popula r summe r resort . "T o women-—mostly young , usuall y good-looking , an d no t avers e t o at tracting attention—wh o deligh t i n doin g audaciou s thing s an d pushin g propriety t o th e verg e withou t quit e steppin g acros s it , Atlanti c Cit y offers th e opportunit y the y desire , becaus e ther e th e boundar y lin e be tween th e conventiona l an d th e unconventiona l ha s neve r bee n de limited." Th e prospec t o f sexua l contact , bot h lici t an d illicit , wa s a powerful drawin g card for th e resort, an d it is doubtful tha t the boundar y line i n 190 8 was delimite d i n an y bu t a very fe w places . Thi s presente d serious practical problem s fo r th e city, particularl y i n the management o f the Boardwal k cafes , danc e pavilions , an d musi c halls . Bu t i f Mrs . Grundy, i n th e person s o f th e evangelicals , wa s th e fl y i n th e ointment , she was also an asset, a n important restrainin g force an d a continuing an d convenient foi l agains t whic h th e cit y coul d creat e myster y ou t o f th e innocent ware s on the Boardwalk. 64 Finally, asid e fro m Sunda y selling , i t doe s no t appea r tha t Atlanti c City, eve n a t it s worst , suffere d b y compariso n wit h othe r citie s i n th e state. Amon g it s staunchest defender s wa s the Hoboken Observer, probabl y because tha t cit y ha d vic e an d imag e problem s o f it s own . Accordin g t o the Observer, condition s i n th e resor t wer e littl e i f an y wors e tha n condi tions i n Paterson , a n industria l cit y o f simila r size : "Nort h Carolin a Avenue an d Natter s Alle y i n th e forme r cit y i s n o wors e tha n Ryerso n Street o r Rive r Stree t i n th e latter , an d i n th e matte r o f gambling , Delaney i s n o wors e tha n a well-know n politicia n o f Paterso n wh o ha s ceased hi s hors e racin g an d legislativ e activitie s an d i s content t o ru n hi s faro-bank an d poke r game s unmoleste d i n hi s hom e city." 65 Paterso n provided a goo d compariso n i n othe r ways . Crime s Commissio n detec tives reporte d " a wel l define d syste m o f licensin g house s o f prostitutio n of whic h ther e ar e a t leas t twelv e i n th e city , on e o f whic h i s i n a brick buildin g buil t especiall y fo r th e purpose. " Polic e fined keeper s of disorderl y house s "seventy-fiv e dollar s ever y thre e months." 66 This , incidentally, amounte d t o on e an d one-hal f th e annua l assessmen t tha t prostitutes pai d i n Atlantic City . Crimes Commissio n detective s wh o visite d Atlanti c Cit y discovere d a show o n th e Boardwal k (i n th e excursio n district ) marke d "Jus t Fro m Paris" featuring a woman wh o "undressed completely " and wer e solicite d at leas t twic e b y streetwalkers , onc e o n th e Boardwal k an d onc e o n Atlantic Avenue. Th e "plain-clothes " men mad e a thorough canva s of the

A Saturnalia of Vice • 13 7 city an d turne d u p thirty-eigh t illegalitie s withi n a two-day period , Jul y 30 an d 31 , 1908 . I n additio n t o th e film an d th e streetwalkers , thes e included te n pictur e show s an d amusements , includin g Young' s Pier , where ther e wer e childre n betwee n eigh t an d sixtee n year s old , thre e cigar stand s wher e childre n bough t cigarettes , an d twenty-on e saloon s with bac k rooms . Wit h th e exceptio n o f tw o o n th e Northside , al l of th e saloons were on Atlantic Avenue i n the excursion district . I n three of th e saloons, on e i n th e Northside , me n wer e throwin g dice . I n another , "three girl s abou t 1 7 came fro m upstair s ver y muc h unde r th e influenc e of liquor, " an d fro m another , "tw o boy s abou t 1 8 came ou t ver y muc h intoxicated." A t 72 1 Atlanti c Avenue , ther e wer e "tw o bac k rooms , women drinking. " Th e detective s als o tested nin e dru g stores , bu t coul d not bu y cocain e without a doctor's prescription. 67 Asbury Par k wa s a temperanc e resort . T o obtai n evidenc e here , th e Crimes Commission relied not on detectives but on Charles A. Rose n wasser, M.D. , wh o wa s presen t i n the cit y fo r si x days betwee n July 1 6 and July 26 , 1908 , and agree d t o "kee p his eyes open fo r violation s o f the la w which woul d interes t th e Crime s Commission. " A s i n Atlanti c City , cit y officials ha d mad e n o attemp t t o enforc e th e provision s o f th e Theatr e Act, an d childre n unde r ag e 1 6 were playin g billiards . Whe n h e advise d Mayor Appleby , a membe r o f th e Excis e Commission , Appleb y replie d that neithe r h e no r th e chie f o f polic e "ha d studie d th e Theatr e Ac t bu t were willing to enforce it. " He als o foun d i n th e stand s o f bot h Asbur y Par k an d Ocea n Grov e many postcards , "whic h whil e the y migh t no t com e withi n th e la w a s obscene an d indecent , the y wer e o f a highl y suggestiv e characte r t o b e placed befor e children. " Bu t th e followin g advertisemen t tha t appeare d morning an d nigh t i n th e Asbury Park Press suggested t o Rosenwasse r another "lin e of inquiry" for th e Commission : NOTICE: Signs bearing these words have been put up on Deal Lake at the Athletic Grounds: "No boats will be allowed to land here after nightfall. " Fathers and mothers of daughters who go boating on Deal Lake should seek to know the significance of these signs. "Much evidenc e wa s foun d i n th e canoe s whe n the y wer e returned. " A t Lochharbor, o n th e othe r sid e o f th e lake , "hundred s o f canoes " wer e rented eac h night , an d "no t on e o f a hundred i s rented b y a man alone. " On on e night, Rosenwasse r accompanie d Office r Truax , a n Asbury Par k

138 • A Saturnalia of Vice

policeman, i n a speedy launc h equippe d wit h a powerful searchligh t an d flushed ou t "eigh t pair , si x white an d tw o black. " But , explaine d Truax , the youn g me n an d wome n wh o frequente d th e sand s a t Lochharbo r were thos e wh o wer e drive n fro m Asbur y Par k an d simpl y crosse d th e bridge to find seclusion. 68 Commission evidenc e indicate s tha t Atlanti c Cit y als o ha d safet y valves i n Brigantine , acros s th e inlet , an d i n Sout h Atlanti c Cit y (no w Margate), b y 1908 , a shor t trolle y rid e away . Bu t i f th e commissio n turned u p mor e evi l i n Atlanti c Cit y tha n i t di d i n Asbur y Park , th e crowds wer e larger , th e scrutin y mor e intense , an d certainl y mor e hos tile, and , o f course, the latter wa s a temperance resor t to begin with . Perhaps th e moral crisis of Atlantic City wa s put int o its most accurat e perspective b y th e Crime s Commissio n i n th e brie f an d prosai c sectio n of th e Secretary' s Repor t dealin g wit h fornication . Immediatel y afte r concluding tha t "muc h crim e coul d b e avoide d b y th e repea l o f th e blu e laws," it offered th e following : Another law which is a dead letter upon the statute books is that section of the Crimes Act which prohibits fornication. Seldom is a conviction for fornica-

tion recorded unless in a case where there is some other motive than a desire to enforce the criminal statutes back of the prosecution by the complaining witness. . . .[italic s

added] While fornication i s a crime, our report s sho w that th e authoritie s in several municipalities, notabl y Atlantic City, Burlington , Trenton , an d Pater son countenance houses of prostitution, whic h exist because of fornication.69

But i n citie s withou t house s o f prostitution , " a conditio n whic h i s eve n worse i s found ; youn g girl s an d ol d wome n plyin g th e trad e o f stree t walkers. Observatio n ha s show n a n alarmin g prevalenc e o f syphili s an d other venerea l disease s among this class of women. " It i s doubtful tha t man y peopl e read th e proceedings o f the Excise an d Crimes commission s wit h an y care . I t i s even mor e doubtful that , amon g those who did, many , wit h the exception of the Atlantic City pres s or th e editor of the Hoboken Observer, conclude d that , a t least in the managemen t of th e socia l evil , Atlanti c Cit y wa s classe d wit h Burlington , Paterson , and Trento n amon g the better-run citie s of the state . Although cit y publicist s woul d continu e t o tout th e libera l policy , th e summer o f 190 8 marke d th e las t yea r tha t th e compac t wa s actuall y i n effect. Outwardly , civi c unit y foun d expressio n i n th e boosteris m tha t was commo n t o al l American citie s a t th e tur n o f the century . Al l woul d

A Saturnalia of Vice • 13 9 agree tha t Atlanti c Cit y wa s th e world' s greates t resor t an d tha t i t wa s a place wher e ric h an d poor , thoug h no t blac k an d white , coul d mingl e freely i n gaiety an d relaxation . In 191 5 Mayo r Willia m Riddl e referre d bitterl y bu t nostalgicall y t o "the policy o f liberality" and th e "spiri t o f one for al l and al l for one " that had mad e th e cit y great : "I t wa s neve r a rowdy resort , no r wa s i t eve r a prudish resort . Ther e wa s goo d fellowshi p amon g th e citizens , a gla d welcome fo r th e visitors , wit h amusement s fo r al l taste s an d tempera ments tha t di d no t offen d decenc y o r goo d order . . . . Thos e wer e th e days o f equa l opportunity . Practicall y ever y ma n mad e money." 70 Actu ally, Riddl e described th e halcyon days in the resort when h e first arrive d in 1888 . Bu t hi s memor y wa s selective . A s Riddle , i f anyone , surel y knew, clas s tension s amon g th e whit e entrepreneur s wer e alread y i n evidence an d increase d wit h the growth an d prosperit y o f the city . Between 190 1 an d 190 8 the beachfron t wa s represente d i n counci l b y the like s o f Walte r Buzb y an d Danie l S . White , an d i n 190 8 Henr y W . Leeds becam e council president. Eve n during period s of internal conflict , the local press exhibited discretio n b y no t referring t o the protagonists b y name. Fo r example , Walte r Edg e kne w ver y wel l tha t Rober t Delane y ran th e Boardwal k Mont e Carlo , bu t neve r sai d so . Th e Boardwal k hotelmen foun d anonymit y i n th e Citizens ' League . Th e Gazette might excoriate th e "Cits, " bu t neve r personall y attacke d Willia m F . Wah l o r Henry Leeds . The loca l pres s fondl y referre d t o Kuehnle' s hote l a s "th e corner, " and a t th e conclusio n o f primar y elections , whic h withi n th e cit y wer e tantamount t o general elections , th e cal l woul d g o out t o clos e ranks an d fight fo r th e stat e ticket . Ther e appear s t o hav e bee n littl e i n th e wa y o f political retaliation . Thi s probabl y i s th e sourc e o f Kuehnle' s reputatio n as th e "eas y boss. " Willia m Riddle , th e exceptio n wh o prove d th e rule , had continuall y bee n fai r gam e for al l of the local papers. Bu t Riddl e wa s a maverick and firmly ensconce d i n the Fourth Ward , wher e the Republi can organizatio n ha d neve r mad e muc h headway . Continua l dispute s over licens e renewal s cause d interna l dissension , bu t a certai n chivalr y governed politica l discourse i n the one-party town . In 190 7 the Review described "Ol d Brains " John Gardne r a s the leade r of the county Republica n organization . He has had some close calls in his thirty or forty year s of leadership, but it would b e well t o remembe r tha t h e has neve r bee n beaten . . . . Perhap s

140 • A Saturnalia of Vice there are men in the city an d county toda y who are equally brigh t in this regard, bu t no one has appeared as yet. . . . Furthermore he commands in politics what might be termed ultimate power in that he can call on a cohort of me n o f influenc e who[m ] h e ha s befriende d i n on e wa y o r another . Commodore Loui s Kuehnl e ha s th e sam e sort o f politica l powe r throug h his busines s connections , an d Count y Cler k Scott , Senato r Edwar d S . Lee, an d Sherif f Johnson , throug h thei r persona l affiliation s whic h ar e political units.71 If thes e wer e no t th e sor t o f me n wit h who m th e Boardwal k hotelme n preferred t o deal, the y mad e n o effort t o challenge tha t leadership . The y had prospere d unde r th e libera l policy , an d carrie d a powerfu l voic e i n city affairs . In 1908 , many sign s indicated tha t the political system in Atlantic Cit y was beginning to unravel, bu t non e sure r than a letter containe d i n Fort' s files writte n b y John F . Hal l i n respons e t o the Saturnali a proclamation . Hall, recentl y retire d a s edito r o f th e Union, congratulated th e governo r for hi s "Messag e to Garcia" and wen t on to denounce "th e gang" that ha d looted an d demoralize d th e cit y fo r thirt y years . The y ha d ha d don e s o with impunit y becaus e th e sherif f ha d pu t "hi s ow n kind " o n gran d juries. "Thi s i s a regula r leagu e o f crime, " sai d Hall , controlle d an d encouraged b y th e Roya l Arch . Th e peopl e "tak e gamblers ' dollar s an d vote th e wron g way. " Drunkenness , misery , crime , an d corruption — Hall lai d al l at the door o f "the gang," Sherif f Smit h E . Johnson, an d th e open Sunday . T o mak e matter s worse , th e organizatio n ha d nominate d for sherif f Enoc h L . Johnson, th e so n of the man who had controlle d tha t office fo r twenty-fou r years. 72 Hall wa s on e o f th e distinguishe d citizen s chose n b y th e cit y t o draf t the Saturnali a resolutio n on e wee k later . H e compose d th e lette r i n longhand an d obviousl y wrot e i t i n haste . Ha d For t use d th e letter , Hal l would probabl y hav e been ru n ou t o f town. Bu t Hal l wa s right i n at least one respect . Th e commissio n probe s an d th e Saturnali a proclamatio n had a devastatin g effec t o n Atlanti c City . The y ha d exacerbate d long simmering tension s betwee n th e beachfron t an d th e Ol d Tow n interests , and bot h side s ha d begu n t o mobiliz e fo r a political conflic t tha t b y thi s time had becom e almost inevitable .

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The Reason: The Rise and Fall of Boss Kuehnle

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n Ma y 1909 , Loui s Kuehnl e an d Edwar d L . Bade r o f th e Atlanti c City Athleti c Associatio n announce d tha t thei r basebal l team , th e Atlantics, woul d pla y Conni e Mack' s Philadelphi a Athletic s a t th e Inlet Fiel d o n the first Sunda y i n June. Kuehnl e an d Bade r had vision s of a major leagu e franchise, an d spare d n o expense to secure the best talent . Despite protest s an d demonstration s b y th e newl y forme d Lord' s Da y Alliance, Sunda y basebal l wa s drawin g hug e crowd s i n Jersey City , i n the nearb y far m communit y o f Eg g Harbor , an d i n othe r part s o f th e state. I n th e cit y council , Willia m Riddl e introduce d a revisio n o f th e Vice an d Immoralit y ordinanc e t o allo w th e games , an d "th e Basebal l War" of 190 9 began. 1 The Reveren d Birne y S . Hudso n o f the First Baptis t Church forme d a local chapte r o f th e Lord' s Da y Allianc e an d appeare d i n counci l a t th e head o f a larg e delegatio n o f clerg y an d representative s o f th e WCTU . After a heated debate , th e ordinance passe d th e firs t readin g b y a vote of eleven t o five . "Thi s mean s war, " sai d Hudson . I f th e ordinanc e becam e law, th e Alliance would "shu t up the town." 2 "There i s n o differenc e betwee n basebal l an d golf, " argue d Riddle , who attempte d t o tur n th e debat e int o a philosophica l discussio n o f th e Sunday question . Bu t tha t wa s no t th e issue . Henr y Leed s warne d tha t Sunday basebal l woul d hav e a detrimental effec t o n propert y value s an d would "b e a ste p towar d th e standard s o f Cone y Island. " Th e entir e beachfront agreed . Danie l Myer s an d Josep h Thompso n o f th e Chelse a 141

142 • The Reason: The Rise and Fall of Boss Kuehnle Hotel spok e agains t it , an d t o Danie l Whit e o f th e Traymor e i t looke d like a direc t challeng e t o th e churc h people , an d "th e licens e holder s would b e th e victi m o f th e struggle. " Charle s Myer s o f th e Rudol f said : "We must tak e these reformers a t their word . The y sai d they woul d fight and w e may expec t a battle." 3 The oppositio n shape d u p quickly , a s bot h th e Lord' s Da y Allianc e and th e Boardwal k hotelme n sen t delegation s t o th e mayor . Afte r a lengthy debate , th e Busines s Leagu e demande d tha t Sto y pu t a sto p t o the move . Sai d Stoy : "W e ar e monkeyin g wit h a buzzsaw. " Charle s Evans, presiden t o f th e Atlanti c Cit y Nationa l Bank , sa w nothin g bu t disaster an d wondere d wh y "anyon e shoul d wan t t o stir up a controversy when yo u can' t tell where it will end." 4 Riddle ha d lon g champione d bot h th e workin g classe s an d th e libera l Sunday. A s a member o f council sinc e 1901 , he had consistentl y oppose d the bannin g o f Sunda y amusements. 5 H e define d th e issu e i n a classi c exchange o f view s wit h th e edito r o f th e Review: "If th e minister s woul d stop th e gol f playin g a t th e gol f link s o n Sunday , tha t woul d sho w thei r sincerity. I f th e Christia n Endeavo r woul d als o d o this , i t woul d sho w sincerity. Bu t becaus e th e peopl e wh o atten d th e bal l game s ar e cla d i n old clothes , an d lov e th e grea t America n gam e bette r tha n th e Scotc h game o f golf , i t i s considere d a sin. " Fro m a practical poin t o f view , th e evangelicals ha d greatl y hindere d th e "progres s o f th e city" : Ther e ar e thirty-five hundre d employee s i n Lun a Park , Dreamland , an d Steeple chase Par k a t Cone y Island . On e o f thes e enterprise s wante d t o com e t o Atlantic Cit y i f the y coul d b e assure d tha t innocen t amusement s woul d run o n Sunday , th e sam e a s the y ru n i n Willo w Grov e an d Woodsid e Park i n Philadelphia . Bu t no , ou r narro w minde d Sixteent h Centur y bigots won' t permi t it." 6 Th e Review sa w th e progres s o f th e cit y i n a different light : Sunday basebal l promise s to bring on the collision s o long held i n check. Ball playin g o n Sunda y ha s n o defense . I t i s condemne d b y propert y owners, th e hote l men , th e clerg y an d th e grea t bod y o f citizen s wh o believe in , outwardl y a t least , observin g som e respec t fo r th e Sabbath . Those whom the ball games would induce to come to the shore are not the class that is desired, as a rule, and those whom it drives from the resort, are the class we are anxious to retain as friends and visitors.7 Kuehnle wa s not given t o philosophical musings . Sunda y basebal l wa s a bol d stroke , an d h e wa s breakin g th e compac t tha t ha d lon g hel d th e

The Reason: The Rise and Fall of Boss Kuehnle • 14 3 Republican organizatio n intact . W e ca n onl y assum e tha t defyin g th e evangelicals gav e hi m th e opportunit y t o settl e th e Sunda y questio n once an d fo r all , an d th e tim e appeare d rip e fo r doin g so . Th e Crime s Commission ha d urge d th e repeal of the Sunda y laws , and Sunda y game s were bein g playe d i n man y part s o f the state . Effort s i n the legislatur e t o liberalize the Sunda y law s had failed ami d a growing chorus of oppositio n to restriction s o n Sunda y recreatio n throughou t th e state , an d Sabba tarians foun d themselve s increasingl y o n the defensive. 8 On June 6 , 1909 , over fou r thousan d peopl e pai d th e fifty-cen t admis sion t o watc h th e Atlantic s g o dow n t o defea t befor e Conni e Mack' s Athletics b y a scor e o f eleve n t o five. Petition s bot h fo r an d agains t th e game ha d flooded th e cit y b y th e tim e Mac k ha d arrived . Th e cit y mad e no attemp t t o sto p th e game , bu t Mac k an d owne r Shib e wer e clearl y worried. Eac h wh o entere d th e ground s wa s hande d a card saying : "Al l persons ar e respectfull y requeste d t o conduc t themselve s i n suc h a man ner tha t th e Athleti c Club wil l not b e censured b y th e public." 9 From al l accounts, th e peopl e complied/Bu t o n th e followin g Tuesday , Recorde r Keffer fined Bade r $200 , an d Riddle' s ordinanc e neve r sa w a secon d reading in council. 10 Kuehnle sa w th e even t a s a mandate fo r Sunda y basebal l an d no w fel t compelled t o answe r hi s critic s publicly : " I hav e ver y larg e interest s i n Atlantic Cit y an d flatter mysel f tha t m y civi c pride i s as strong a s that o f any othe r resident . I hav e spen t m y whol e lif e here , livin g i n harmon y with m y neighbors , and , a t thi s lat e date , I d o no t propos e t o mak e an y move tha t woul d injur e th e cit y o r anno y m y neighbors , o r tha t woul d disturb th e goo d feelin g whic h no w exist s betwee n mysel f an d fello w citizens." 11 Th e statemen t wa s clever ; Kuehnl e wa s a t onc e a leader an d merely a fello w citizen . Nonetheles s ther e seeme d t o b e a "fixe d an d stubborn opposition, " and , i n vie w o f tha t sentiment , h e woul d cance l the remainder o f the games schedule d fo r June. Hudso n an d th e Allianc e interpreted th e statemen t a s a victory, bu t Kuehnl e lef t th e door ope n b y concluding tha t "th e peopl e wil l decide. " Kuehnl e reportedl y ha d ove r four thousan d signature s o n petitions , bu t th e Lord' s Da y Allianc e claimed a n equa l amount , an d Josep h Salu s tol d th e Roya l Arc h tha t "even one game of baseball wa s a mistake." 12 Hence, i t cam e a s a complet e surpris e t o resident s an d visitor s alik e when, o n Jul y 3 , th e Athleti c Associatio n suddenl y announce d a gam e for th e followin g day , Sunda y th e Fourth , a t th e Inle t Field . Eve n o n such shor t notice , ove r fifteen hundre d peopl e attended . Hudso n an d th e

144 * The Reason: The Rise and Fall of Boss Kuehnle Alliance claime d tha t Kuehnl e ha d broke n hi s word an d thi s mean t war . Exclaimed Riddl e t o council , a s he introduce d a resolution i n suppor t o f the games: "Why shoul d yo u let a dozen clergymen blackmai l this town?" But Councilma n Moore , wh o ha d vote d i n favo r o f Riddle' s amusemen t ordinance, no w denounced th e resolution a s "foolish an d dangerous, " and it never reached a vote. 13 Samuel Han n onc e again assume d comman d o f the operation, bu t thi s time wit h th e heav y financial backin g o f the beachfront. Th e raid s bega n on the second Sunda y i n August whe n William Winter obtained warrant s for al l of the motion pictur e show s on the Boardwalk, a sure indication o f the escalatio n o f the conflict , becaus e i n previous crusade s th e films wer e exempt. Th e reformer s als o secured fifty warrant s fo r th e Sunda y sal e of liquor, bu t Hudso n declared : "W e will not sto p with saloons . W e will g o after everythin g that i s unlawful, includin g the tenderloin." 14 For th e secon d Augus t i n a row , headline s an d editorial s proclaime d the city' s iniquity . Th e Trenton True American sa w Atlanti c Cit y a s a "moral sewer " an d a "rebel city, " an d recomende d martia l la w t o resolv e the crisis: It bids defiance to the authority of the commonwealth, and flingscontempt into the teeth of every law abiding citizen of the state. It has seceded fro m New Jersey . . . . Arguments , persuasion , an d threat s hav e n o effec t o n Atlantic City. Its civic conscience is apparently dead, and it knows no such word as shame. It has embraced outlawry and is therefore outlawed. I t can no longer claim sisterhood with the other communities of the state.15 Governor For t declare d tha t th e situatio n amounte d t o anarch y an d th e Newark Evening News agreed , sayin g tha t th e authorit y o f th e stat e wa s being "flouted, ignored , despise d an d defie d b y a mere municipality." 16 In Burlington , a communit y recentl y cleanse d o f brothel s an d speak easies b y Han n an d th e La w an d Orde r League , a loca l pasto r declare d that Atlanti c Cit y ha d "banishe d God" : "Lik e th e swineherd s o f old . . . the ru m seller s whos e busines s i s th e mos t unclea n i n existenc e today , and th e gamblers , wh o ar e thei r partner s i n vileness , hav e virtuall y sai d through th e cit y governmen t the y control : Jesu s Christ , yo u ar e no t wanted here . Depar t fro m thes e shores. ' " 17 A s i n th e previou s year , th e city foun d defender s amon g th e Philadelphi a pres s an d i n upstat e paper s such a s th e Bergen County Record, whic h suggeste d tha t For t investigat e the saloon s o f Trento n an d Paterso n an d calle d fo r a repea l o f th e Sun day laws. 18

The Reason: The Rise and Fall of Boss Kuehnle • 14 5 The loca l pres s exhibite d a n ai r o f resignation. Th e Atlantic City Press remained abov e th e fra y an d greete d th e openin g o f th e conflic t wit h a sigh: "Once agai n the Sunday-closin g agitatio n i s with us . Lik e the circu s it seem s t o pa y a visi t ever y year . A s th e circu s bring s wit h i t th e sam e old canvas , th e sam e old acts , an d th e sam e old sid e show , s o the annua l recurring agitatio n seem s t o b e eve r characterize d b y th e sam e fea tures." 19 B y the end o f August, th e Review had als o grown accustome d t o reform. Th e publicit y wa s bad , bu t busines s wa s good . Anyway , th e season wa s nearl y over , "an d n o on e i s goin g t o worr y ver y much. " B y this time scores of warrants ha d bee n issued, bu t th e unspoken en d t o the crisis would agai n b e the county gran d jury ; no one expected indictment s for Sunda y sellers. 20 Neither Han n no r Hudso n venture d int o th e tenderloin , bu t bot h journeyed t o Trenton fo r a meeting wit h Governo r Fort , assertin g that i t was unfai r tha t th e clerg y shoul d bea r th e burde n an d expens e o f refor m for upholdin g th e law s o f th e state . Anticipatin g tha t th e Septembe r grand jur y woul d agai n nullif y thei r efforts , the y persuade d For t t o invoke th e dorman t Vorhee s Ac t o f 190 1 an d compe l Mayo r Sto y t o enforce th e laws. Assistan t Attorne y Genera l Gaskil l sen t Sto y the necessary letter . Sto y ignore d it ; an d o n Septembe r 5 wa s arreste d unde r a warrant issue d b y a special magistrate. 21 This tim e th e reformer s ha d gon e to o far . Th e entir e cit y ros e i n hi s defense, an d a neutra l observe r declare d tha t th e arres t ha d mad e Sto y "the bigges t ma n i n th e city. " Th e unlikel y combinatio n o f Loui s Kuehnle, Carlto n Godfrey , an d Josep h B . Thompson , director s o f th e Marine Trus t Company , th e Guarante e Ban k an d Trus t Company , an d the Chelse a Nationa l Bank , thre e o f th e larges t financial institution s i n the city , immediatel y poste d a $5,00 0 bond. 22 Bu t Stoy' s herois m wa s short lived . A chancer y cour t resolve d th e Sunda y basebal l issu e on Septembe r 1 4 when i t rule d agains t th e Athleti c Associatio n an d enjoine d th e games . But a n inciden t tha t nigh t irrevocabl y polarize d th e city . A grou p o f Goldenberg's hire d detectives , al l from Newark , wen t int o the Northsid e and dre w a crowd o f hooting and jeerin g citizens, some white, bu t mostl y black. Som e i n th e crow d carrie d clubs , and , accordin g t o a t leas t tw o accounts, knive s an d pistols . Fearin g fo r thei r lives , th e detective s dre w their guns , an d bega n a retreat . B y th e tim e the y ha d mad e goo d thei r escape acros s Atlanti c Avenu e t o thei r hote l o n Sout h Carolin a Avenue , the crow d ha d swelle d int o a mo b o f ove r a thousand . Trappe d i n th e

146 • The Reason: The Rise and Fall of Boss Kuehnle Algonquin Hotel , they fired their pistols in the air and wounded a woman bystander o n a balcon y acros s th e street . Th e polic e arrived , disperse d the crowd, an d arreste d th e detectives for incitin g a riot. 23 The recrimination s tha t followe d wer e predictable . Charle s D . Whit e of the Marlboro-Blenhei m an d th e presiden t o f the Hote l Men' s Associa tion blame d th e politician s an d th e police who were "openl y an d directl y responsible fo r th e riot and th e shooting of a woman": The business element of this city, not those so-called reformers, have been for som e time trying t o close the gambling houses in the negro section in the back part of town. . . . Whe n the gambling expose came some time ago these resorts were closed, but we found that they were reopening lately one by one , an d tha t al l out appeal s t o the polic e were i n vain . O n bringin g state detectives here we found they were hampered and harassed. 24 To White , th e rio t wa s a deliberat e effor t t o discredi t th e detective s i n their effort s t o hal t gambling . Th e Review agreed : Th e action s o f th e "organization's heeler s verged o n murder." Whe n Kuehnl e arrive d o n th e riot scene , Goldenber g greete d hi m wit h th e question, "Ar e you satisfie d now, Commodore? " Kuehnle replied , "Wha t hav e I to do with this?" 25 The Trenton True American saw th e confrontatio n a s th e "Firs t Blood shed i n th e Atlanti c Cit y Rebellion " an d th e rio t a s "a desperate attemp t by th e follower s o f th e Kuehnl e politica l ring " t o thwar t Goldenberg' s efforts t o eliminate gambling. Loca l polic e in plain clothe s ha d shadowe d the detectives. "Thes e me n hav e gone further an d hav e done their bes t t o incite th e negr o habitues ' o f th e gamblin g den s g o afte r th e detective s who are on patrol. . . . A t Natter' s Alle y [a small street runnin g t o Balti c Avenue nea r th e tenderloin ] the county detectiv e an d hi s men discovere d that they had bee n trapped b y two crowds of negroes numbering betwee n two an d thre e hundred." 26 Woodruff' s police , knowin g th e probabl e ramifications o f Goldenberg' s operation , wer e indee d present , bu t incite ment t o rio t b y th e loca l polic e i s unlikely . Accordin g t o th e Union, Woodruff believe d tha t th e majorit y o f businessme n wer e satisfie d tha t the "rea r o f th e cit y joint s shoul d no t b e mad e sensationa l issue s a t critical times." 27 According t o th e Atlantic City Press, the "disgracefu l scene " occurre d because th e detective s los t thei r composur e an d pulle d thei r revolver s o n a "curious crowd " of onlookers wh o "hoote d an d jeered " when th e detectives attempte d t o rai d a plac e tha t wa s alread y closed. 28 Thi s als o i s

The Reason: The Rise and Fall of Boss Kuehnle • 14 7 unlikely. Obviously , th e importe d detective s kne w littl e o f wha t the y were gettin g into . If , o n th e on e hand , th e rio t wa s no t polic e inspired , on the other, "composure " would hav e been difficult t o maintain b y eigh t white detective s face d wit h hundred s o f hostil e black s i n a n enclav e lon g recognized a s their own territory . Goldenberg, unde r stric t order s fro m th e governo r t o eliminat e gam bling, ha d bee n raidin g place s i n th e Northsid e throughou t th e sprin g and summer . Th e Ma y gran d jur y ha d indicte d fifteen black s fo r gam bling, bu t ove r the summe r som e of these and othe r place s had reopened . In September , a frustrate d Goldenber g appeale d t o th e governo r fo r reinforcements. The y cam e i n the for m o f eight privat e detectives fro m a Newark agenc y wh o arrive d i n the resor t a t the end o f August lookin g t o a reporte r fro m th e Baltimore Sun lik e a "gan g o f steamboa t roust abouts." 29 Goldenberg instructe d th e detectives t o "root ou t gambling in Atlanti c City," an d afte r a rai d o n a "Negr o Mont e Carlo, " th e True American reported triumphantl y tha t Goldenber g ha d finally broke n th e resor t gamblers an d thwarte d th e loca l polic e an d politicians : "Hi s detai l o f eight importe d detectives , arme d wit h axe s an d crowbars , patrolle d th e negro district al l last night following th e raids on the 'Negro Monte Carlo' when table s an d othe r paraphernali a wer e smashe d t o splinters. " No on e was captured, th e gamblers havin g "smashe d throug h th e windows, " bu t "for th e first tim e i n years , sai d th e True American, Atlanti c Cit y i s absolutely fre e o f gamblin g tonight. " Fo r th e first tw o week s i n Septem ber, Goldenberg' s detective s roame d freel y throug h th e Northsid e com munity. 30 The loca l press constantl y sneere d a t Goldenberg's successe s i n break ing u p "negr o resorts " an d "pett y negr o cra p games, " expressin g th e attitude o f th e whit e communit y that , give n th e blacks ' "inclinatio n fo r vice o f al l kinds, " th e bes t solutio n fo r th e Northsid e wa s t o contai n it . The Reveren d G . Howar d Fletche r ha d expresse d th e inevitabl e effect o f this polic y i n a lette r t o Governo r Stoke s i n Jul y 1907 , jus t afte r th e Royal Arc h regulation s wen t int o effect . Fletcher , a founder o f the Blac k Ministerial Alliance , ha d live d i n th e cit y sinc e 1875 , bu t o f cours e ha d no par t i n formin g th e regulations . H e di d no t identif y himsel f b y race , but hi s isolatio n a s a blac k reforme r i n a cit y controlle d b y white s wa s evident. "Onl y abou t twenty-fiv e percen t [o f Northsid e saloo n keepers ] keep a plac e halfwa y respectable , an d a grea t man y hav e attache d o r annexed assignatio n attic s an d gamblin g joints , payin g protectio n o f

148 • The Reason: The Rise and Fall of Boss Kuehnle twenty-five t o one hundred dollar s per week." 31 "Assignatio n attics " is an interesting term . The y n o doub t provide d a n opportunit y fo r privac y otherwise denie d youn g blac k men an d wome n livin g and workin g i n th e seasonal an d unsettle d condition s o f th e resor t economy . I n a situatio n where stabl e and familia l relationship s woul d hav e been impossible for al l but th e ver y few , outsid e o f th e Church , th e Northsid e saloo n provide d practically th e only means of socialization for th e majority o f black people in Atlantic City . Fletcher wen t o n t o describ e th e violenc e an d degradatio n tha t flour ished i n these "DeviP s freigh t trains, " and hi s letter come s down t o us a s the onl y thoughtfu l accoun t o f condition s i n Northsid e saloons . I t als o provides the only statement o f protection money , bu t given the frequenc y of polic e raid s o n Northsid e saloons , it s accurac y i s i n som e doubt . Th e reform pres s quickl y seize d upo n th e Northsid e a s evidenc e o f th e city' s iniquity. Th e term s "Northside " an d "tenderloin " ofte n becam e con fused, an d For t an d Goldenber g were determined t o eradicate evils in th e only accessibl e target i n the city . Fletcher an d th e res t o f th e blac k clerg y constitute d on e o f th e fe w anchors that existe d i n the Northside. Surel y the y had a greater incentiv e than For t o r anyon e els e withi n th e cit y t o improv e condition s withi n their community . Bu t i t is doubtful tha t eve n Fletche r wa s pleased a t th e sight o f a group o f whit e Newar k tough s arme d wit h badges , warrants , axes, crowbars , blackjacks , an d gun s patrollin g th e street s an d enterin g places a t will . Th e Reveren d A . L . Murray , on e o f Fletcher' s blac k colleagues, sa w th e connectio n betwee n Goldenber g an d th e rio t a s follows: I a m not condonin g gambling, bu t I do say that i t is as fair fo r th e black man t o gamble o r b e a saloon keepe r a s it i s for th e white man , an d th e white man's place has just as much right to be raided. . . . I do not care if he is backed by his millions and the colored man has not a penny. . . . [I f he] must be the target of this latter weeks' reform campaign , an d an army of "strong arm" men must be imported t o carry out the "dirty work, " the time i s her e whe n ever y negr o wh o ha s eve n one-eight h o f negr o bloo d coursing i n hi s vein s shoul d resis t thi s inhuma n punishmen t perpetrate d upon his race.32 Racial discrimination forme d on e of the pillars of the liberal policy, bu t i t had create d a set of expectations throughou t th e city . I f i n the Northsid e those expectation s wer e th e product s o f racis m an d neglect , the y wer e

The Reason: The Rise and Fall of Boss Kuehnle • 14 9 nonetheless i n force, an d as powerfully i n force i n the Northside a s they were in the rest of the city. In the days immediatel y followin g th e riot, Mayo r Stoy , Chie f Wood ruff, Prosecuto r Goldenberg , an d Assistan t Attorne y Genera l Gaskil l conducted hearings , bu t they wer e inconclusive. Charge s brough t denial s and countercharges , an d th e onl y ne w informatio n t o emerg e wa s tha t Stoy, anticipatin g violence, had alerted a local military company , an d one of Goldenberg's hire d detective s ha d a police record. Nonetheless , blam e was heape d upo n Kuehnl e an d Stoy , settin g th e stag e fo r a n intens e political conflic t betwee n th e beachfron t an d th e Ol d Tow n faction s o f the Republica n organization. 33 In tha t struggle , Kuehnle , t o outsid e observers , assume d th e rol e described b y th e Philadelphia North American in a lengthy analysi s o f the riot. "Kuehnleism " wa s "th e menac e o f politica l dominatio n throug h terrorism an d vice. " Bu t "protectio n wa s grante d t o th e dives , no t fo r money, bu t fo r votes, " an d "th e machine " dre w it s sustenanc e fro m Northside voters . The large colored male population is very susceptible to the blandishments of the gambling house and the resort of evil. The balance of political power rests with the negro and the vicious white element in the Third Ward. This is Kuehnle's stronghold . I t is the tenderloin of Atlantic City as McNicols' Tenth War d i s the tenderloin o f Philadelphia. Fro m this source , Kuehnl e and hi s partner s ge t th e politica l strengt h t o contro l th e government o f Atlantic City . Fro m thi s lai r marche d th e arrogan t mo b o f thug s an d crooks whic h th e othe r nigh t defie d th e law , brok e int o th e region s of respectability, fro m whic h the y ha d hitherto bee n excluded , an d ended a riot with potential murder. 34 Joseph Salu s furthe r clarifie d th e boundarie s o f th e conflic t an d th e identities of the protagonists a s he denounced Kuehnl e and bossism in the same breath . Th e reformer s wer e "satisfied " an d ther e woul d hav e bee n no crusad e withou t Sunda y baseball . Sunda y basebal l wa s "harmles s i n itself," bu t would lea d t o a situation i n which th e "undesirable pleasure s of th e rabbl e woul d b e engage d in ; excursio n feature s o f amusemen t would predominat e . . . making the Boardwalk a Midway fro m th e excursion district , pas t Michiga n Avenue , t o th e Roya l Palac e Hote l i n th e Inlet." 35 I n th e rio t an d Sunda y basebal l la y bot h th e symbol s an d th e substance of Progressive reform i n Atlantic City . The tension s betwee n th e beachfron t an d th e Ol d Tow n interest s s o

150 • The Reason: The Rise and Fall of Boss Kuehnle precisely describe d b y Salu s had simmere d withi n the city and within th e Republican organizatio n fo r som e time . The y surface d durin g th e 1890 s during th e Riddl e attemp t t o impos e highe r assessment s o n beachfron t properties, an d wer e presen t t o som e exten t i n Kuehnle' s movemen t t o pave Atlantic Avenue and i n other organization effort s t o effect municipa l improvements fo r th e benefi t o f th e Ol d Tow n interests . Bu t th e socia l and economi c division s withi n th e cit y appeare d i n sharpes t relie f i n th e give an d tak e o f th e negotiation s tha t produce d th e final revision s o f th e liberal polic y betwee n 190 1 an d 1907 . Th e division s appeare d mos t clearly i n th e formatio n o f th e Citizens ' Leagu e b y th e Boardwal k inter ests in 1901 . The creation of the Ministerial Union , th e Good Citizenshi p League, and , later , th e local Lord's Da y Allianc e by the evangelicals wit h a mor e sever e socia l agend a spli t th e refor m movemen t an d furthe r testi fies to the accuracy o f Salus' s analysi s of the conflict . Fort's Saturnali a proclamation , particularl y hi s threa t t o us e troops , and Stoy' s arres t a yea r late r resulte d i n brie f closing s o f rank s betwee n the Boardwal k an d th e Ol d Tow n interests . I n th e repl y t o For t an d th e defense o f Stoy , th e city seeme d t o speak with one voice. Bu t ultimately , these event s serve d onl y t o exacerbat e th e tension s betwee n th e tw o factions an d t o destro y th e libera l polic y insofa r a s tha t polic y wa s a compromise amon g conflicting group s within the city. Th e conflic t bega n in 190 8 as an attempt b y Republica n insurgent s t o replace Stoy . A s such , it amounte d t o n o mor e tha n a factiona l fight withi n th e organization . The failur e o f tha t effort , alon g wit h Sunda y basebal l an d th e riot , intensified th e beachfron t oppositio n t o th e organization , le d t o th e re form movement , an d bega n the career of "Boss Kuehnle. " The yea r 190 8 began inauspiciousl y fo r th e politica l fortune s o f Loui s Kuehnle. I n Marc h h e los t a bi d fo r th e count y clerkshi p t o Edwar d S . Lee, who , nex t t o Gardner , wa s see n t o hol d th e leadershi p rein s o f th e county organizatio n withi n th e city. 36 Tha t summer , i n th e wak e o f the Excis e an d Crime s commission s revelations , variou s faction s o f th e Republican organizatio n move d t o replace Mayor Stoy . Joseph Salu s sa w in the crisis an opportunity t o become mayor an d emerged a s the first and most activ e o f th e insurgents . O n th e da y afte r th e Saturnali a proclama tion, h e wrot e th e governo r assurin g hi m tha t "n o extrem e measure s would b e necessary. " If For t woul d mee t hi m a t Se a Gir t th e followin g week, Salu s coul d b e "o f som e servic e i n satisfactoril y shapin g the whol e matter." Ther e i s n o recor d o f a meeting, o r eve n o f a reply, an d Salus ,

The Reason: The Rise and Fall of Boss Kuehnle • 15 1 as forema n o f th e Septembe r gran d jury , ha d t o b e satisfie d wit h de nouncing the governor fo r th e "damndest lie s ever put out." 37 Although, b y 1908 , th e Ne w Ide a movemen t i n Ne w Jerse y wa s i n full flower, oppositio n t o Sto y an d Kuehnl e hardl y too k th e shap e o f Progressive reform . Stoy' s chie f riva l wa s Gu s Parker , describe d b y th e True American a s " a Firs t War d councilma n wh o ha d grow n ric h i n office." Parke r wa s backe d b y Edwar d S . Le e an d th e Boardwal k ho telmen, bu t als o b y Rober t Delaney , wh o ha d politica l ambition s o f hi s own. Th e Boardwal k faction als o suggested Walte r Edg e as a compromise candidate, bu t Edge , citin g th e pres s o f business , decline d t o run . Bu t Louis Kuehnl e doome d al l attempts t o unify th e Republica n organizatio n by dumpin g Sto y whe n h e declared: " I am for Sto y to the end." 38 Kuehnle proclaimed , "W e wil l tak e car e o f ou r friends, " an d too k charge o f th e Sto y campaign . Th e inabilit y o f th e oppositio n t o settl e o n a candidat e mad e th e Septembe r primarie s easy , bu t Sto y wo n th e No vember electio n b y onl y 1,52 0 vote s ove r Democra t Joh n Murtland . There wa s a serious split in Republican ranks , but a s the city governmen t reorganized i n Januar y 1909 , th e organization , no w i n control , mad e a clean sweep of the insurgents. Th e New York Times declared tha t Kuehnl e was no w "bos s i n fac t an d wil l practicall y b e th e dictato r o f th e policie s during the coming year." 39 If th e electio n o f 190 8 bega n th e caree r o f "Bos s Kuehnle, " i t was , according t o th e True American, "th e cleanes t an d mos t orderl y electio n known fo r years. " The Boardwal k factio n wa s stil l represented b y Coun cilmen Buzby , White , Gale , an d Parke r an d Alderma n Henr y Leeds . Attempts b y blac k leader s t o organize th e Northsid e o n thei r ow n behal f had bee n continuall y rebuffe d b y al l factions o f the Republica n organiza tion. I n 1909 , Gu s Parke r pu t togethe r a pla n t o redistric t th e cit y i n order t o giv e th e beachfron t bette r representatio n i n council , bu t h e quickly withdre w i t when h e discovered tha t i t would hav e given blacks a fifteen t o on e majorit y i n tw o precincts . Sai d Parker , "Ther e wa s n o thought o f making the colored vot e supreme i n the uptown division." 40 In Januar y 1908 , A . L . Murra y an d Isaa c Nutter , a British-bor n attorney an d th e first blac k membe r o f the Atlanti c Count y Ba r Associa tion, organize d th e Atlanti c Cit y Progressiv e Club , a n organizatio n o f black voter s dedicate d t o th e "eliminatio n o f th e war d heeler. " Nutte r met with Governo r Fort , wh o pledged hi s support, an d b y March Nutte r claimed a thousand members . Bu t Nutte r wa s understandabl y cautious ,

152 • The Reason: The Rise and Fall of Boss Kuehnle

declaring tha t eithe r Sto y o r Parke r woul d b e acceptable , an d th e blac k vote ha d apparentl y littl e impac t o n th e fal l primaries . Nonetheless , Stoy's sli m margi n i n Novembe r lef t n o doub t tha t wit h th e spli t i n th e party, th e balanc e o f powe r i n th e cit y la y i n th e Northside . B y th e en d of 1908 , for th e first time , the black vote became critical. 41 The spli t i n the party becam e formalized i n August 190 9 when Danie l S. White filed for reelectio n to his council seat in the Third Ward . O n th e following da y Kuehnl e announce d tha t th e organizatio n woul d suppor t William Mali a an d Victo r Friesinger , no t White . O n Augus t 30 , J . Haines Lippincot t announce d fo r th e Secon d Ward , an d o n Septembe r 20, th e Boardwal k hotelme n forme d th e People' s Republica n Organiza tion an d fielded a ful l ticke t i n th e counci l race s i n oppositio n t o th e organization candidates. Everet t Colby, th e leader of the New Ide a movement, travele d fro m Newar k t o inaugurat e th e campaign , a s the People' s Republican Organizatio n too k on the colors of Progressive reform. 42 The primar y elections , hel d bu t tw o week s afte r th e riot , an d th e November election s found mos t of the white population alread y polarize d between th e Kuehnl e factio n an d th e beachfront . Th e loyaltie s o f th e blacks remaine d uncertain . Hence , th e races , particularl y i n th e Secon d and Thir d ward s wher e Whit e an d Lippincot t wer e running, centere d o n the Northside . A t th e outse t o f th e campaign , Josep h Salu s publicl y suggested tha t th e wa y t o bea t Kuehnl e wa s fo r th e Boardwal k hotelme n to discharg e thei r thre e thousan d waiter s an d othe r employee s an d "thu s deprive Kuehnl e o f th e greate r par t o f th e forc e whic h enable s hi m t o control th e city elections." 43 To th e whit e electorate , th e People' s Organizatio n stresse d Kuehnl e and Sunda y baseball . Bu t i n th e Northsid e the y mad e mor e practica l points! Th e Review bega n th e campaig n b y urgin g tha t "ever y colore d voter mus t realiz e tha t hi s welfar e depend s upo n th e welfar e o f the hote l men," who annuall y pai d $1. 5 millio n i n wages to their blac k employees , mostly mal e waiters. The city employed bu t forty-fiv e blacks . The Head waiters' Associatio n wa s mor e blunt . Hotelme n coul d "emplo y whit e waiters an d waitresse s jus t a s cheapl y a s the y coul d colore d men. " Sai d one Lawrenc e N . McCoy : "Som e ar e sayin g tha t thi s i s a whit e man' s fight only . Thi s i s one time i n local politics when i t is a black man's fight as well." I t wa s " a busines s propositio n pur e an d simple" ; black s shoul d support th e hotelme n wh o wer e "th e bedroc k an d substrat a o f ou r be ing." 44 Headwaiter s wer e the aristocracy o f black "hotelmen," the instru ments o f authorit y an d disciplin e i n hote l dinin g rooms , an d probabl y

The Reason: The Rise and Fall of Boss Kuehnle • 15 3 altogether les s popula r amon g th e ran k an d fil e tha n th e owner s them selves. White complained tha t "th e gang" had threatene d cit y employee s wit h dismissal. Th e Reveren d Samue l W . Robinso n an d Isaa c Nutte r fel l i n with th e beachfront , and , i n keepin g wit h th e Progressiv e ton e o f th e campaign, Nutte r urge d blac k voters to throw off th e onus of vote buyin g and "politica l serfdom " b y rising up agains t the machine. 45 A. L . Murra y sa w serfdo m i n th e Northsid e i n a different light . Th e Boardwalk hotelme n ha d sai d i n very plai n language that the black waite r would eithe r "vot e right " o r "b e kicke d ou t t o starve. " If th e cit y em ployed bu t sixt y blacks , ther e wa s a t leas t n o discriminatio n i n salaries . Why wer e ther e n o blac k clerk s i n hotels ? "Hav e w e no t me n wit h capabilities t o fil l suc h positions? " Bu t th e employmen t practice s an d racial policie s o f th e hotelme n wer e wel l known . T o Murray , anothe r issue cu t eve n mor e deepl y agains t them : "I t ha s bee n sai d tha t th e Organization gives protectio n t o th e gambler s an d saloonkeepers , an d by thi s force s the m t o vote a s they dictate . Doe s thi s mea n tha t th e me n and wome n wh o are employed . . . [by the city an d i n the public schools ] are gamblers , thieves , an d cutthroat s becaus e the y suppor t th e organiza tion tha t support s them , tha t the y ar e t o b e dubbe d a s 'thug s o f th e town'?" 46 I n the Northside, Goldenber g an d the reformers wer e the issu e no les s tha n employmen t although , give n th e recen t strik e i n White' s hotel an d th e bathin g edict , man y black s wer e frightene d a t th e prospec t of a wholesal e repudiatio n o f th e beachfront . Whe n Murra y asked , "I s Atlantic Cit y th e only plac e where a black ma n ca n make a living?" more than a few answere d i n the affirmative . The People' s candidate s wer e al l defeated , althoug h Whit e ra n strongly i n th e Thir d Ward. 47 Afte r th e primaries , th e Review sa w th e defeat a s a victory . Al l told , thre e thousan d vote s wer e cas t agains t th e organization, an d "muc h credit " wa s du e t o "th e independen t colore d voters." The fac t tha t the y wer e evenl y divided , a s the Review surmised , constituted i n itsel f " a rebellio n agains t Kuehnle. " Late r th e Review conducted a private investigatio n o f the primar y vot e i n the Third War d an d found a numbe r o f illega l votes . Bu t thes e wer e cas t b y whit e repeater s from Philadelphi a a t a cos t o f "te n dollar s eac h plu s carfare. " "Thre e fistfights" marre d th e Novembe r election , bu t thi s time , accordin g t o th e Review, repeaters were not numerous. 48 Nineteen hundre d an d nin e wa s no t a goo d yea r fo r Progressive s statewide, and 1910 , even with the candidacy of Woodrow Wilson, prom -

154 # The Reason: The Rise and Fall of Boss Kuehnle ised t o b e n o better . Th e election s o f 190 9 sa w Ne w Ide a candidate s beaten b y regula r organization s a t ever y turn , an d th e tal k withi n Pro gressive circles i n New Jersey wa s of a focus o n national issues . Eve n th e name "Ne w Idea " wa s droppe d i n favo r o f th e mor e nationa l term , "Progressive."49 Despit e sporadi c effort s b y suc h me n a s Fort , Colby , and Recor d t o cultivat e like-minde d politician s i n th e resort , th e Ne w Idea movemen t neve r mad e muc h headwa y i n Atlanti c City . Resor t voters wer e jus t a s concerne d a s thei r counterpart s i n Newar k o r Jerse y City ove r equa l taxation , railroa d an d utilit y regulation , workmen' s com pensation, an d electio n reform , issue s tha t dominate d th e agenda s o f Progressives i n th e industria l citie s t o the north . Bu t th e overridin g issu e in Atlanti c Cit y sinc e 190 1 had bee n Sunda y closing , an d th e Ne w Ide a had consistentl y born e the burden o f evangelical reform o n the excise and Sunday issues , particularl y sinc e th e passag e o f th e Bishops ' La w i n 1906. But th e defeat s o f 190 9 serve d t o fee d th e groundswel l o f popula r discontent wit h th e ol d orde r i n Ne w Jersey an d galvanize d Progressive s of bot h partie s i n thei r effort s t o cur b corporat e monopol y an d machin e politics. Th e risin g tid e o f disconten t wa s reflecte d earlie r i n th e nea r identical Progressiv e platform s o f For t an d Katzenbac h i n 1907 , bu t became mor e eviden t i n 191 0 with th e Progressiv e candidacie s o f Vivia n Lewis and Woodrow Wilson . By 191 0 Loui s Kuehnl e wa s a t th e heigh t o f hi s powe r an d influenc e in Atlanti c City . Afte r th e previou s Novembe r elections , supporter s tendered Kuehnl e a hug e civi c banque t signifyin g hi s leadershi p i n th e Republican organizatio n an d hi s preeminenc e i n th e city . O f course , th e Boardwalk hotelme n di d no t attend . Th e Reveren d Franci s McShan e o f St. Nicholas ' Catholi c Churc h wa s als o unabl e t o atten d bu t sen t th e following regrets : " I yiel d t o n o on e i n m y estee m an d respec t fo r Com modore Kuehnl e an d hi s manl y qualitie s an d hi s modes t bearin g towar d his fellow citizens . Fro m al l I can lear n fro m reliabl e sources , h e is easily the firs t benefacto r o f Atlanti c City." 50 Th e out-of-tow n pres s migh t vilify "Bos s Kuehnle, " bu t i t serve d t o increas e hi s statur e amon g resi dents an d businessme n grow n hotl y resentfu l a t sensationa l an d ofte n unwarranted attack s o n th e city . I n th e masculin e circle s i n whic h h e moved, loyalt y an d comradeshi p wer e prim e virtues , an d Kuehnle' s loy alty t o Sto y wa s a symbo l o f th e sieg e mentalit y tha t pervade d th e cit y after 1908 . Nothing i n his career indicate s that h e was a brilliant manipu lator o f men . Bu t attack s o n hi s bossis m onl y fe d th e myt h o f Kuehnle' s

The Reason: The Rise and Fall of Boss Kuehnle • 15 5 invincibility withi n th e cit y an d create d a n aur a o f absolut e leadershi p that furthe r cemente d hi m to his Old Tow n constituency . The defea t o f th e People' s Organizatio n pu t a temporar y quietu s o n social an d politica l agitatio n i n th e city. Goldenber g continue d hi s foray s against gambler s i n th e Northside , bu t th e Lord' s Da y Allianc e wa s silent. Th e bigges t politica l even t o f th e summe r wa s th e Republica n picnic i n July. Neve r on e t o los e th e commo n touch , Kuehnl e becam e a main attractio n fo r th e gathering when h e challenged al l corners in the fa t man's rac e an d wo n th e even t wit h a headlon g slid e i n th e mud . I n August, fres h fro m hi s victory ove r Jim Jefferies, heavyweigh t champio n of the world Jack Johnson arrive d i n the city t o be received b y a n adorin g throng a t Be n Allen' s Northsid e hotel . Hi s receptio n portende d Jo e Louis's triumphan t tou r o f Harle m a generatio n later , but , afte r som e controversy, th e city banne d films of the fight on the Boardwalk. 51 Sunday visitor s t o Atlantic Cit y i n 191 0 neither sa w basebal l no r rod e the amusements . Wit h Kuehnl e a t th e heigh t o f hi s power , ther e ca n be n o sure r indicatio n tha t hi s clutc h o n th e cit y wa s overestimated . Nonetheless, disconten t withi n th e Boardwal k factio n remaine d deep . I n August, th e Review quietl y change d hands , and , o n Septembe r 1 , an nounced th e appointmen t o f Harve y Thoma s a s presiden t an d edito r i n chief o f the Revie w Publishing Company. 52 The legen d "Th e Trut h Shal l Mak e Yo u Free " no w appeare d o n th e masthead o f each issu e of the Review, as Thomas opene d a "new chapter " in th e lif e o f th e paper : "Fro m thi s da y forwar d th e Review wil l b e particularly fo r Atlanti c City agains t the world. . . . I t will fight no battl e for an y on e ma n o r fo r an y clique . . . . Politicall y th e Review wil l b e Republican, bu t independentl y Republican . I t wil l stan d fo r thos e re forms whic h wil l ten d alway s t o giv e Atlantic Cit y an d Atlanti c Count y clean, honest , efficien t busines s governments." 53 Havin g n o "politica l ambitions t o achieve, " th e Review woul d b e th e "people' s paper " an d "nothing more. " Few i n th e cit y too k Thoma s a t hi s word . A nephe w o f Governo r Fort, Thoma s ha d bee n a politica l write r fo r th e Newark Evening News, and wa s handpicke d b y Danie l S . White , Henr y Leeds , an d a syndicat e of Boardwal k hotelme n wh o ha d purchase d th e Review. Th e purchas e o f the paper wa s part o f a well-laid pla n b y th e beachfront interest s t o wres t control o f th e cit y an d it s governmen t fro m Kuehnl e an d th e Ol d Tow n interests, a n effor t tha t bega n i n th e mids t o f Woodro w Wilson' s cam paign for governo r o f New Jersey. 54

156 • The Reason: The Rise and Fall of Boss Kuehnle Initially, Wilso n an d th e Democrati c campaig n fo r th e Stat e Hous e did no t figur e i n th e plan s o f the Boardwal k hotelme n t o refor m Atlanti c City. Progressive s i n bot h parties , suc h a s Josep h P . Tumulty , Jame s Kerney, an d Georg e L . Record , wer e highl y suspiciou s o f Wilson a t th e outset. Bu t i n October , th e Wilso n campaig n caugh t fire , inspirin g th e forces o f refor m throughou t th e state . Durin g th e campaign , Wilso n flayed th e bosses of both parties, bu t h e never took notice of Kuehnle. H e appeared i n Atlanti c Cit y onl y once . Speakin g a t the Steepl e Chase Pier , he mad e th e cas e fo r th e Democrati c part y a s better place d t o carr y int o fruition th e Progressiv e reform s o f th e Ne w Ide a Republican s an d at tacked th e legislativ e recor d o f Walte r Evan s Edge , the n runnin g fo r th e state senate. 55 During th e campaign , an d late r a s governor , Wilso n adroitl y avoide d the liquo r question , muc h t o th e satisfactio n o f th e leader s o f the Demo cratic campaig n committee . H e wa s agains t Prohibitio n bu t i n favo r o f local option ; h e sa w th e liquo r issu e a s a social, no t a political, matter , a red herrin g tha t distracte d th e voter s fro m th e rea l issue , th e allianc e o f the political bosse s with th e corporations. 56 The meanin g o f Wilson's candidac y t o Atlantic City wa s expressed b y Edge and Isaa c Bacharach, th e Republican assembl y candidate , t o a black audience a t Be n Allen' s hotel . "Thin k o f wha t for m o f governmen t w e would hav e i n thi s city, " sai d Edge , "i f Clarenc e L . Col e was cit y leade r instead o f Louis Kuehnle. " Betwee n hi s days a s attorney fo r th e Citizens ' League an d th e adven t o f Goldenberg, Col e had personifie d th e antigam bling crusade of the Boardwalk hotelmen . Th e prospect of Cole as county prosecutor di d no t appea l t o Northsid e voters , no r fo r tha t matter , t o many other s i n th e city . Kuehnl e wa s no t give n t o lon g speeches . A t a Northside appearanc e wit h Edg e an d Bacharac h h e drew a larger ovatio n than eithe r candidat e bu t merel y said , "Yo u kno w wher e t o find a frien d when yo u nee d one." 57 Neither Edg e no r Bacharac h wa s i n an y danger ; no r wa s ther e an y doubt tha t Atlanti c Cit y woul d rol l u p a sizabl e vot e fo r Vivia n Lewis . But, a t a meetin g o f th e Republica n Stat e Committee , Kuehnl e ha d guaranteed a majorit y o f seve n thousan d vote s fro m th e county , tw o thousand mor e than woul d normall y b e expected. A s the election neared , Cole warne d tha t Republica n worker s wer e paddin g registratio n lists . The cit y electio n boar d registere d 2,72 5 peopl e i n on e day , an d b y th e election th e registratio n book s liste d 1,94 4 mor e voter s i n Atlanti c Cit y

The Reason: The Rise and Fall of Boss Kuehnle • 15 7

than the y ha d i n 1909 . Stat e Democrati c Chairma n Jame s R . Nugen t hired Fran k Halliday , a Newark privat e detective , t o investigat e electio n activities i n Atlanti c County , an d b y electio n da y Hallida y an d a host o f investigators wer e o n han d t o documen t wha t turne d ou t t o b e th e mos t violent an d corrup t electio n i n the city's history. 58 The Wilso n landslid e ha d produce d a Democrati c majorit y i n th e assembly. Hallida y turne d ove r ream s o f evidenc e t o Nugent , an d th e assembly Democrat s waste d littl e tim e i n settin g u p a commissio n t o investigate electio n fraud s i n Atlanti c County . Heade d b y Willia m P . Macksey o f Esse x County , th e commissio n organize d o n Monday , Janu ary 16 , and by th e following Frida y wa s seated in council chambers read y to hea r th e parad e o f witnesse s subpoenae d b y commissio n attorne y Clarence Cole. 59 Structured aroun d evidenc e gathere d b y Hallida y an d a scor e o f pri vate detective s hire d b y th e Democrati c Stat e Committee , th e Mackse y Commission hearing s consiste d o f Democrati c legislator s an d thei r attor neys grillin g citizen s an d voters . Bu t i f i t was , lik e th e Riddl e prob e o f 1893, a Partisa n effort , th e evidence clearly pointe d t o an election marke d by practicall y ever y for m o f ballo t abus e an d show s a clear conspirac y t o roll up a large majority agains t Woodrow Wilson . Hundreds o f nonresiden t o r nonexisten t voter s wer e registere d a t th e homes o f policemen , firemen , an d othe r cit y employees . Boardinghous e and hote l keeper s ha d convenientl y destroye d ol d register s fo r th e ne w year an d coul d no t recal l th e name s o f me n wh o wer e registere d t o vot e at thei r addresses . A proprietres s o f a boardinghous e i n th e tenderloi n must hav e elicite d laughte r fro m knowin g onlookers . Whe n aske d abou t the identit y o f severa l me n registere d a t he r place , sh e replied , "Why , this is a boardinghouse fo r ladie s only." 60 To hel p vote the names, a n interracial group of 10 5 repeaters ha d bee n put togethe r i n Philadelphi a an d pu t o n th e trai n fo r Atlanti c City . Halliday describe d th e syste m a s i t wa s confesse d t o hi m b y on e o f th e "captains," a white man name d Philli p Stinson . Why, he said that when they got off at the station they divided into groups and wer e taken aroun d i n a bus—or take n i n a bus to a particular place , and th e nex t morning , afte r breakfast , the y divide d i n group s an d wen t throughout th e city , tha t the y woul d mee t certai n individual s i n eac h precinct who would hand them a slip with a name on it which they were to vote; that the y s o voted; after comin g out o f that place , as captain of that

158 • The Reason: The Rise and Fall of Boss Kuehnle one squad, h e would tak e them to another place , where they would mee t another worker , wh o woul d han d the m a whit e sli p wher e the y woul d vote.61 Another captain , interviewe d b y Hallida y i n Wilson' s office , tol d th e governor tha t hi s party o f eleven had voted a total of 11 7 times at the rat e of tw o dollar s pe r vote . On e ma n ha d vote d sixtee n times , an d "th e poorest recor d wa s three." Stinson had vote d thirtee n times , and seve n of these votes were cast in the Fourth Precinc t o f the Fourth Ward. 62 That pollin g statio n wa s assigne d t o Democrati c electio n office r Jame s Jones, a n employee of the Atlantic Cit y Electri c Company. A t 3 A.M. th e night before , Jones's superviso r calle d hi m out of bed, tol d him of troubl e on th e lines , an d too k hi m b y ca r t o the wild s o f the count y som e fifteen miles fro m th e city . Jones manage d t o escape , walke d t o May s Landing , and boarde d a morning trai n fo r th e city. Bu t b y th e time he arrived, th e damage had bee n done. 63 Democratic electio n officer s complaine d o f intimidatio n b y group s o f toughs who stole their registr y books , and on one occasion, committe d a n outright assault . The y als o complaine d tha t loca l polic e statione d a t th e polls mad e n o effor t t o preven t illega l activity . I n defens e o f hi s men , Chief Woodruf f testifie d tha t the y wer e instructed t o stand outsid e of th e polling station s an d tha t scuffle s resulte d fro m Democrati c effort s t o obstruct th e vote. 64 Fran k Smathers , Democrati c electio n office r an d a candidate for th e assembly, tol d o f a more bizzare incident. O n dut y tha t afternoon, Smather s wa s offere d a drin k o f wate r containin g "shoofly, " a colorless , odorles s chemica l emeti c which , take n internally , cause d simultaneous vomitin g an d purgin g o f th e bowels . Th e rus e effectivel y eliminated Smather s a s well a s his Democrati c colleagu e fro m hi s statio n at the Secon d Precinc t o f the Third Ward . Fran k Steelman , a Prohibition official, counte d 22 0 illegal votes cast at that station. 65 The principal s i n the election frauds appea r to have been Fourth War d councilman Joh n Murtland ; Fran k Majane , a saloo n keeper ; Thoma s McDevitt, a hardwar e dealer ; Bu d Griffi n an d Be n Allen , Northsid e hotel owners ; Thoma s Mahoney , a small-hote l proprietor ; Alfre d Gilli son, th e city building inspector; and Rober t Delaney . Murtland , a Democrat turne d Republican , conducte d operation s a t Jones's precinct , plyin g voters wit h drink s a t a nearb y barbershop ; Majan e wa s arreste d thre e times o n tha t da y fo r buyin g votes ; McDevit t pai d of f voter s i n th e basement o f hi s store ; Alle n an d Griffi n pai d of f voter s o n th e street ;

The Reason: The Rise and Fall of Boss Kuehnle • 15 9 Mahoney, a n election judge, presided ove r a carnival of irregularities, an d Republican a s well as Democratic election officials testifie d tha t they wer e bribed bot h directl y an d indirectl y b y Gillison. 66 Bu t th e lis t i s b y n o means complete . Hallida y ha d targete d te n o f th e twenty-si x votin g districts wher e th e canvas s o f loca l Democrat s ha d indicate d tha t illega l registration wa s highest . Th e evidenc e given t o the commission base d o n these district s alon e indicate d a n illega l vot e of approximatel y eigh t hun dred. If th e proportio n i n th e othe r district s wer e th e same , Hallida y estimated, repeater s cas t at least twenty-five hundre d illega l votes. 67 In th e fac e o f overwhelmin g an d damagin g evidenc e give n b y Demo crats an d Republican s alike , Kuehnl e coul d no t den y tha t "i t happened. " But h e said , "M y instruction s t o th e worker s wer e tha t w e didn' t wan t any padde d lists , becaus e w e ha d enoug h Republica n vote s i n Atlanti c City an d count y t o wi n th e electio n an y time." 68 Kuehnle' s demurre r makes a certain amoun t o f sens e bu t a t th e sam e tim e raise s troublesom e questions. Fro m Kuehnle' s standpoint , asid e fro m hi s boas t t o th e stat e committee tha t h e woul d delive r th e count y t o Lewi s b y seve n thousan d votes, there was little at stake in 1910 . Lewis was in the Fort faction o f the state organization an d presumably les s safe on excise and Sunda y matters . But th e Wilson candidac y ha d galvanize d Democrati c count y commit tees across the state, includin g the long-moribund organizatio n i n Atlantic County. Wa s th e threa t o f a revive d count y Democrac y sufficien t fo r Kuehnle to have masterminded, o r at least sanctioned, th e gross irregular ities? Prosecutor s eventuall y charge d Kuehnl e wit h conspirac y bu t neve r connected hi m personall y wit h an y o f th e electio n frauds . I t i s unlikel y that th e schem e coul d hav e bee n organize d an d carrie d ou t withou t hi s knowledge, bu t equall y unlikely that he could have prevented it . Kuehnl e "bossed" a n organizatio n tha t ha d neve r hel d firm contro l a t th e war d level. Give n th e ranco r tha t remaine d betwee n th e Ol d Tow n an d th e beachfront, i t i s also unlikely tha t Kuehnl e woul d hav e take n larg e step s to purif y th e process . H e wa s no t know n t o mollif y hi s enemie s b y antagonizing hi s friends . H e coul d prov e a stubbor n an d implacabl e political foe , bu t non e o f hi s loca l adversarie s eve r kne w hi m a s mean , vindictive, o r eve n dishonest . Th e Mackse y Commissio n hearing s pro duced 1,43 9 page s o f transcribe d evidence , an d al l o f i t tha t pertain s t o Louis Kuehnl e point s t o a bos s i n nam e mor e tha n fact , on e wit h littl e control ove r th e activities , politica l o r otherwise , o f hi s so-calle d minion s in the wards. 69 According t o Halliday , Stinso n ha d bee n gathering repeater s i n Phila -

i6o • The Reason: The Rise and Fall of Boss Kuehnle delphia fo r Atlanti c Cit y election s fo r "thre e o r fou r years. " Three year s would hav e mean t tha t th e ballo t frau d syste m wa s i n plac e i n 1908 , th e year tha t marke d th e en d o f th e libera l polic y an d th e beginnin g o f th e struggle between Kuehnle and the beachfront. Tha t year also saw the brief alliance betwee n Rober t Delane y an d th e Boardwal k hotelme n agains t Stoy an d Kuehnle . O n electio n day i n 1910 , Simon Faber , a People's Or ganization detective , approache d Harr y Bacharach , th e brothe r o f Isaa c Bacharach, complainin g o f stole n registr y books . Bacharac h immediatel y sent Faber to Robert Delaney with instructions to return them. Accordin g to Faber , Delane y said : "Tel l Harr y Bacharac h t o go to hell, I don't tak e orders from him." 70 By this time Delaney had been jettisoned by the Independents an d wa s bac k in the regular organization . Bacharac h apparentl y knew th e source , o r a t leas t on e source , o f electio n irregularities . Amon g the would-b e "bosses " in th e city , Delane y ha d th e leas t loca l following . Were repeaters the source of his influence ? The Mackse y Commissio n revelation s marke d th e beginnin g o f th e end fo r "Bos s Kuehnl e an d th e machine. " They burs t upo n th e city wit h all th e fur y o f th e rio t an d th e Excis e an d Crime s commission s scandals . This tim e th e cit y ha d fe w defenders . Eve n th e Gazette held it s nos e a t the "corruptio n an d rowdyism " o f th e recen t electio n bu t remaine d con fident tha t th e investigatio n woul d "clea r th e part y o f thos e sin s whic h may have been committed b y thoughtless individual s who were led astra y by part y enthusiasm. " Hallida y ha d assemble d ove r eigh t hundre d wit nesses, an d th e hearing s dragge d o n throug h Februar y an d March , eac h one creating a new sensation. 71 As th e Mackse y proceeding s wen t on , th e prosecutor s delivere d evi dence to the county gran d jur y draw n b y Sherif f Enoc h L . Johnson. Th e panel indicte d onl y a fe w mino r figures, al l o f who m ha d disappeared , and person s connecte d wit h th e Whit e campaig n i n 1909 . I t di d indic t Harvey Thoma s fo r libe l o n a complain t mad e b y Fran k Bowman , th e manager o f Rober t Delaney' s hotel . Bowman' s nam e appeare d twic e o n the registr y lists , an d a Democrati c electio n office r ha d testifie d tha t Bowman vote d twice . Makin g th e mos t o f Bowman' s connectio n wit h Bob Delaney , Thoma s trumpete d th e cas e o n th e fron t page s o f th e Review, an d Bowma n charge d hi m wit h libel . T o mak e matter s worse , the check mark indicatin g th e illegal vote had bee n erased, o r appeared t o have been erased; the election books, in the possession of Sheriff Johnson , had bee n remove d fro m th e vaults ; an d Bowma n ha d bee n a member o f the grand jury. 72

The Reason: The Rise and Fall of Boss Kuehnle • 16 1 What ha d bee n a minor outrag e i n th e catalo g of election abuse s gre w into a majo r issu e involvin g th e sherif f an d th e gran d jur y syste m i n Atlantic County . Th e plo t thickene d whe n Bowma n sue d Thoma s an d the Review for $50,000 . Th e Trenton Times saw th e crimina l indictment s and th e civi l sui t a s "conceive d b y th e machin e wit h th e endorsemen t o f Boss Kuehnle. " I n th e on e instanc e th e machin e woul d pu t Thoma s i n jail, and i n the other, Bowma n woul d forc e th e Review into bankruptcy. 73 By Marc h 1911 , Kuehnle an d "th e machine " wer e caugh t i n th e we b of a trap wel l lai d b y James R . Nugen t o f the stat e Democrati c Commit tee and th e Boardwalk hotelmen . Bot h had anticipate d electio n irregulari ties an d ha d employe d detective s t o gai n evidence . Th e connectio n be tween th e tw o group s wa s Harve y Thomas , wh o actuall y wrot e th e resolution tha t create d th e Mackse y Commission. 74 Durin g th e electio n of 1910 , the reformers ha d give n th e organization mor e than enoug h rop e to han g itself , an d th e action s o f Johnson' s gran d jur y onl y dre w th e noose tighter . O n Marc h 9 , Suprem e Cour t Justic e Thoma s Trenchar d gave the cit y wha t th e Trenton Times called "Atlantic' s Las t Chance. " H e reconvened th e grand jur y specificall y t o investigat e th e electio n o f 1910 . At Trenchard' s request , Goldenber g steppe d dow n fro m prosecutin g th e cases i n favo r o f stat e Attorne y Genera l Edmun d Wilson . Bu t agai n th e grand jury , t o th e "sham e o f Atlanti c City, " faile d t o retur n a singl e in dictment. 75 Harvey Thoma s sa w th e gran d jury' s actio n a s "a n ope n blo w a t th e attorney genera l a s well a s a challenge t o the stat e to do it s worst": "A s a result, nothin g mor e wil l b e submitte d t o th e gran d jur y a t thi s time . There i s nothin g mor e t o b e hope d fro m thi s bod y o f inquisitors . Bu t there is machinery beyon d th e twenty-three tha t can cripple all they hav e hoped t o support . Tha t machiner y wil l b e se t i n motio n no w tha t th e chance thi s count y ha s ha d ha s bee n rejected." 76 T o th e Trenton Times, it was inconceivable tha t the stat e shoul d remai n helples s a t the hand s of " a little gan g o f politica l bosse s . . . unde r th e influenc e o f lawbreakers. " Perhaps, sai d th e Times; it woul d b e necessar y fo r Wilso n t o cal l ou t th e militia, o r "i t may be , a s the Review suggests, tha t th e Attorney General' s visit was intended t o give the county authoritie s a last chance to deal wit h the situatio n befor e th e stat e set s i n motio n th e machiner y tha t wil l wip e out the stain that ha s been pu t upo n th e fame o f New Jersey." 77 County gran d jurie s ha d lon g bee n th e refug e o f politica l lawbreaker s in New Jersey, particularl y i n Hudso n County , wher e Rober t Davi s wa s heard t o say , "Giv e m e th e gran d jur y an d yo u ca n hav e th e res t o f th e

162 • The Reason: The Rise and Fall of Boss Kuehnle county." Effort s b y Republica n legislature s t o replac e sheriff-picke d grand jurie s wit h panel s chose n b y jur y commission s date d fro m 188 8 but ha d no t bee n successful . Th e legislatur e ha d aime d th e Vorhee s Ac t of 190 2 specificall y a t thi s abuse , bu t a succession o f governor s ha d bee n reluctant t o emplo y i t sinc e i t wa s a n attac k o n hom e rul e an d invade d the traditiona l sanctuar y o f judicia l independence. 78 Bu t th e scandal s i n Atlantic Count y mad e i t propitiou s fo r Wilso n t o ac t decisively . H e appointed Samue l Kalisch , a progressive Newar k attorney , t o a vacanc y on th e Suprem e Court . A rearrangin g o f assignment s brough t Kalisc h t o the Atlantic County circuit . At the request o f Attorney Genera l Wilson, Kalisc h drew upon a longneglected practic e i n Englis h commo n la w tha t provide d fo r elisor s o r "disinterested citizens " to be picked to draw a grand jur y when the sherif f was unde r a legal disability . Johnson's fathe r ha d controlle d th e sheriff' s office sinc e 1884 , bu t i f thi s wer e no t enoug h o f a disability , Johnso n himself wa s accuse d o f tamperin g wit h th e electio n books . Th e devic e survived a n immediat e cour t challenge , and , wit h Johnso n se t aside , paved th e way fo r a judicial resolution o f the conflict i n Atlantic City. 79 Kalisch picke d Willia m Clevenge r o f Atlanti c Cit y an d Willia m Blac k of Hammonto n a s th e elisors . Clevenger , a n Independen t Republican , served a s th e lega l counse l fo r th e Revie w Publishin g Company . Blac k was a n activ e Democra t an d a n unsuccessfu l candidat e fo r count y free holder. Charle s S . Moore , a Democratic attorne y wh o di d lega l work fo r the Mackse y Commission , becam e forema n o f th e eliso r gran d jury . Kalisch picked th e remaining twenty-three members , a mixture of Democrats, Republicans , an d Prohibitionists , fro m a carefull y chose n lis t o f citizens given him b y Clarenc e Cole. 80 With th e table s s o turned , indictment s cam e quickly . Th e pane l in dicted Loui s Kuehnle , Enoc h Johnson , Rober t Delaney , Councilme n John Murtlan d an d Thoma s McDevitt , Fran k Majane , Cit y Cler k E . R . Donnelly, Postmaste r Harr y Bacharach , an d a host o f lesser organizatio n figures, includin g Bu d Griffi n an d Be n Allen, fo r electio n frauds , an d o n August 6 th e New York Times reported tha t graf t rul e wa s broke n i n Atlantic City . A t th e nex t session , the y indicte d five freeholders an d th e county enginee r for grafting o n road contracts, Alderman James Carmon y and Councilman Henr y Bolt e for liquor license payoffs, and , finally, the y indicted Wate r Commissione r Loui s Kuehnl e fo r conflic t o f interes t i n a water mai n contract . Al l told , th e eliso r gran d jur y hande d dow n 13 8

The Reason: The Rise and Fall of Boss Kuehnle • 16 3 indictments o n sixty-tw o individuals , eigh t o f whom wer e cit y o r count y officials.81 The eliso r gran d jur y provide d othe r opportunitie s fo r refor m i n At lantic City . A s soo n a s the y ha d bee n empaneled , th e Goo d Citizenshi p League announced : "Th e decen t peopl e i n Atlanti c Cit y wh o believ e i n keeping the Sabbat h da y hol y hav e waited fo r thi s opportunity fo r years . Now tha t w e hav e it , res t assure d i t i s no t ou r intentio n t o le t i t sli p by. Atlanti c Cit y want s t o b e ri d o f lawlessness—no t partiall y so , bu t altogether." B y th e en d o f th e mont h Samue l Han n an d th e La w an d Order Leagu e were agai n i n th e cit y gatherin g evidence , an d b y Octobe r the pane l hande d dow n eighty-nin e indictment s agains t Sunda y liquo r sellers. Th e Sunda y war s finally cease d o n Octobe r 15 , whe n th e cit y went dry o n the Sabbath. 82 The New York Times, already boomin g Wilso n fo r president , reported : "Governor Wilson' s Cleansin g Proces s I s Bein g Carrie d Ou t Wit h a Vengeance": "Wilson' s boas t tha t h e intende d t o giv e th e cit y clea n government i f possibl e wa s looke d upo n a s mer e politica l buncomb e a t first . . . scarcel y a handfu l o f citizen s too k th e governo r seriously . . . . Public spirite d citizen s hav e sprun g u p o n ever y sid e . . . an d wher e a week ag o th e whol e crusad e looke d lik e a hopelessl y los t cause , toda y even th e sturdies t Kuehnlea n ma n i s trembling. 83 Wilso n wa s n o purita n but wa s goin g "stoicall y o n wit h hi s crusade " t o wip e ou t "on e o f th e worst politica l blot s in the history o f the State. " Kuehnle's worl d wa s indee d crumbling . Mayo r Sto y wa s save d fro m indictment b y hi s deat h o n July 22 . Th e passin g o f th e "Dand y Mayor " brought a n outpourin g o f grie f an d tribut e fro m th e citizen s o f Atlanti c City. However , th e pagean t o f hi s funera l provide d bu t a brief interlud e in the drama o f Progressive reform. 84 To Willia m Davenpor t o f the Philadelphi a Public Ledger, Atlanti c Cit y was under siege : The present cleansing process that is being applied to this protesting child of New Jersey is either a political scheme to stamp out the present Republican organization an d ope n som e aperture i n the Kuehnl e fortress throug h which th e Democrati c part y ca n enter , o r i t i s the culmination o f a slow but stead y growt h o f righteousness an d a desire to reform. I t al l depends on how you look at it and where your affiliations are. 85 But Atlanti c Cit y ha d neve r welcome d th e "civi c Salvationist, " an d re form, i f it came, woul d b e due to the "invasion of outside forces. "

164 • The Reason: The Rise and Fall of Boss Kuehnle Actually, th e Kuehnle fortress wa s besieged b y a combination of force s from withi n an d without, eac h of whom had reasons to destroy th e powe r of th e Republica n organization . Danie l S . Whit e an d th e Boardwal k hotelmen who , alon g wit h Harve y Thomas , ha d begu n th e movement , were ben t o n redeemin g th e cit y fro m th e like s o f Delaney , Riddle , Kuehnle an d th e Ol d Tow n interests , an d th e Northside . Fo r Jame s Nugent an d th e Democrati c Stat e Committee , th e movemen t wa s a n attack o n a Republica n stronghol d i n Sout h Jerse y an d provide d a n opportunity t o eve n u p perennia l charge s o f vot e frau d i n Esse x an d Hudson counties . Fo r Nugent , th e electio n o f a Democrati c assembl y was a godsend . Th e Mackse y sensation s reverberate d throughou t th e state and cause d sever e embarrassment t o New Jersey Republicans . Loca l Democrats suc h a s Smathers , Cole , an d Moore , lon g o n th e outs , wer e able to revive thei r organization . Evangelical s i n the person s o f the Goo d Citizenship League , th e Lord' s Da y Alliance , an d Samue l Han n an d th e Law an d Orde r Leagu e were able to close the bars on Sunday . Finally, ther e wa s Woodro w Wilso n wh o declared , " I a m behin d th e movement fo r al l ther e i s i n it. " Fo r Wilson , runnin g fo r presiden t an d battling th e bosse s o f bot h parties , th e situatio n i n Atlanti c Cit y wa s "made to order." The "thievin g politician s wer e Republicans , an d h e ha d been makin g grea t effort s t o convinc e Republica n voter s tha t thei r part y was boss-dominated." 86 The disparat e arm y o f reformer s foun d unit y onl y i n thei r oppositio n to th e Republica n organization , a fac t cleverly , an d ofte n viciously , ex ploited b y Harve y Thomas . A s th e titula r hea d o f th e organization , th e Commodore presente d a likely target . A s Thomas seize d upo n th e Mack sey sensations, Kuehnl e became the symbol of all the ills that had plague d the resort fo r a generation. By attacking Kuehnle , Thoma s confronte d th e "machine" head on . B y July, a t the head o f each sensational revelatio n ther e appeared a picture of an overweight , disheveled , an d confused-lookin g Kuehnl e wit h hi s littl e dog Jerry , captione d simpl y b y "Th e Reason. " Thoma s explaine d th e reason a t some length on August 4 . What th e Review ha s trie d t o sho w b y th e publicatio n o f Mr . Kuehnle' s picture, whic h i s a perfec t likeness , i s jus t exactl y wha t it s critic s ar e harping on—the facial and physical characteristics of the man whose reign is rapidly an d surel y decaying and who has for a decade of years held the people of this municipality in the hollow of his big fat hand, to be crushed

The Reason: The Rise and Fall of Boss Kuehnle • 16 5 at will, or to have their money blood squeezed from the m to aid him in his nefarious politica l practices—practice s whic h ar e . . . "Th e Reason " fo r the present slough of despondency through which Atlantic City is presently being dragged. Mr. Kuehnl e ma y b e al l hi s friend s sa y h e is , jolly , goo d natured , generous, and jovial, . . . but. . . look at his picture and see who and what he is. Observe th e bul l doggis h attitude , th e Simo n Legre e pose , th e heav y headed build , th e sinister eyes , and the n ask yourself: "Are you prou d of this man as your owner?" for he owns the town as absolutely as if he held a mortgage on every man, woman and child in it. That i s th e objec t o f "Th e Reason. " I t i s t o sho w a ma n wh o ha s fattened of f th e profits ble d from th e citizens . . . a man who has ordered indictments and again ordered them quashed;... a man who has furnished "the reason " fo r almos t al l o f wha t i s transpirin g no w t o th e sham e o f this city.87 Twenty year s ago , sai d Thomas , Kuehnl e migh t hav e bee n a benefi t t o the city . Bu t politic s ha d ruine d him . H e wa s no w "Atlanti c County' s evil genius, . . . debauching th e conscience s o f men h e migh t hav e le d t o decent careers. " The page s o f th e Review for 191 1 an d 191 2 provid e a s sanguinar y a n example o f muckrakin g journalis m a s could b e found durin g th e Progres sive era. Thomas' s them e was picked u p by his colleagues in Philadelphia , New York , an d throughou t th e state , particularl y b y th e Philadelphia North American, th e New York Times, an d th e Wilso n paper s i n Ne w Jersey, th e Trenton True American, th e Trenton Times, an d th e Newark Evening News. B y Septembe r 1 , 1911 , th e News, i n a n editoria l entitle d "The Passing of a Boss," was already writing Kuehnle's political obituary : For year s h e ha s bee n th e hea d an d fron t o f th e Republica n machin e i n Atlantic County . . . the most successful o f any county organization in the state. . . . I t ha s stoo d fo r al l form s o f crookedness . I t ha s prospere d through bribery , thuggery , ballo t bo x stuffing an d kindre d crimes . I t has gathered sinew s of warfare fro m degrade d an d degradin g sources . Unde r its rul e gamblin g an d prostitutio n hav e bee n permitte d fo r th e benefi t o f the Republican party. 88 That era , sai d the News, was now drawin g to a close. By Septembe r 1911 , Kuehnle's caree r as boss of the city wa s over. Bu t reports o f th e organization' s demis e wer e greatl y exaggerated . Stoy' s death mean t tha t a successo r woul d b e chose n i n November , providin g

LOUIS KUEHNLE "The Reason, " Loui s Kuehnl e wit h Jerry. (Atlantic City Review, Decembe r 23 , 1911 . Courtesy , Wilson Papers, Princeto n Universit y Library )

The Reason: The Rise and Fall of Boss Kuehnle • 16 7 the first politica l tes t o f th e refor m movement . Alderma n Carmon y suc ceeded a s mayor, bu t hi s wa s amon g th e first indictments . Th e organiza tion turne d t o Harr y Bacharach , bu t soo n afte r th e endorsement , h e to o was indicted . Danie l Whit e announce d a s a n Independen t Republica n and, afte r som e wranglin g wit h loca l Democrats , emerge d a s a fusio n candidate representing bot h Democrat s an d Independen t Republicans. 89 During th e bitterl y fough t electio n o f 1911 , the flurry o f indictment s gave Thoma s mor e tha n enoug h ammunition . Towar d th e en d o f th e campaign he summed u p the issue as follows: "You r leaders, the men wh o are in control, ar e conspicuous alon e for thei r cupidity, thei r infamies an d their cras s ignorance . The y ar e th e vermi n o f society , th e corrupter s o f good manners , an d becaus e o f thei r example , ar e activ e agent s i n de bauching th e yout h o f th e city." 90 T o th e Gazette, reform mean t nothin g more tha n a powe r gra b b y Whit e o n behal f o f th e Boardwal k hote l interests: "While everyone respects his personal honor , h e is frigid, unap proachable an d solel y committe d t o th e interest s o f th e beachfront . I t i s doubtful i f h e ha s eve r bee n Nort h o f Atlanti c Avenu e excep t whe n h e has passe d throug h i t i n a parlo r ca r o r hi s automobile . H e wa s pu t i n Council i n answe r t o th e clai m o f th e beachfron t fo r recognitio n i n tha t body. An d h e neve r pretende d t o represen t an y othe r interest." 91 Whit e did littl e persona l campaigning . H e presente d hi s candidac y i n term s o f the nationa l Progressiv e movement : "A n independen t movemen t ha s started o n th e Pacifi c Coas t an d i s sweepin g eastwar d t o th e Atlantic . Seattle, Sa n Francisco , Boston , Pittsburg h an d othe r citie s hav e fel t th e strength o f thi s might y movemen t toward s bettermen t i n civi c govern ment, an d ther e i s ever y reaso n t o believ e tha t Philadelphi a an d Atlanti c City wil l fee l i t nex t Tuesday." 92 Althoug h Bacharach , lik e Edge , man aged to keep a prudent distanc e between himsel f and Kuehnle , h e worked strenuously t o kee p the Northsid e an d th e Ol d Tow n intac t fo r th e orga nization. Isaac Nutter , wh o ha d worke d fo r th e Independent s i n 1909 , no w supported Bacharach . A cartoon appearing on the front pag e of the Review a. week befor e th e electio n gav e clear indicatio n tha t Thoma s ha d writte n off th e blac k vote. James Ottery , Be n Allen , an d Bu d Griffin , Northsid e saloon keeper s wh o were indicte d fo r gamblin g an d electio n frauds , wer e drawn i n racis t caricatur e cheerin g fo r Bacharach . Thei r pocket s stuffe d with playin g cards, they eac h held a string of repeaters i n tow. 93 Meanwhile, a s the eliso r grand jur y sat , Johnson dre w a regular gran d jury, an d o n Octobe r 2 6 i t indicte d Whit e alon g wit h othe r Indepen -

168 • The Reason: The Rise and Fall of Boss Kuehnle " T B E f U T H SHAL

L MAK E YO U FRE E "

ATLANTIC OITY , MI W J I M I Y , TVI8DAY , OCTOBE R 31 . 191 1

A Progressive view of African-American voters . (Atlantic City Review, Octobe r 31, 1911 . Courtesy , Wilson Papers, Princeton University Library ) dents—Walter Buzby , Charle s Mathis , an d Oversee r o f the Poo r Risle y Barlow—for electio n fraud s allegedl y committe d durin g th e 190 9 pri mary. A private investigatio n ha d produced phon y ren t receipt s sai d to have bee n use d b y the Independents i n a schem e t o "colonize " blac k voters i n the hotly conteste d Thir d Ward . Sai d th e Sunday Gazette, that campaign wa s the most "notoriousl y corrup t i n the city's history " and had bee n a "stenc h i n th e nostrils o f the community" fo r tw o years. To th e Review, th e White indictmen t wa s a "desperat e ac t of politica l retaliation." I n either case , a s the campaign dre w t o a close, th e voters, living unde r a n indicted mayor , coul d choos e betwee n candidate s fo r his successor wh o were also indicted. 94 The Whit e campaig n culminate d wit h a n appearanc e b y Woodro w Wilson o n November 1 . In fighting trim , Wilso n mad e "on e of the mos t swashbuckling speeche s of his career" : As 1 have stood her e tonight an d looke d int o your face s I have wondered how it feels to live under a reign of terror. Ho w doe s it feel? Ho w doe s

The Reason: The Rise and Fall of Boss Kuehnle • 16 9 your self respect fare in the circumstances? Atlantic City is famous all over the United State s and over a greater part of the world for its charm and for its shame . .. a place to which all the continent comes and of which all the continent think s wit h condescensio n an d pit y becaus e yo u hav e submit ted—you hav e not done the thing; you have stood cowed an d submissiv e and see n th e thin g don e . . . . I invit e yo u t o tel l m e on th e sevent h of November—not tonight ; there are policemen a t the door and they woul d lay their hands on me if they dared because I have come here and told you what you know, but perhaps would not like to stand on this stage and say it. I t i s no t a question o f part y politics ; it i s a question o f emancipatio n from everything that is disgraceful an d rotten. 95 Wilson gav e th e Whit e campaig n a splendi d dos e o f politica l revivalism , inviting th e voter s o f Atlanti c Cit y t o joi n th e rank s o f America n man hood b y throwin g of f th e yok e o f bossism . Bu t despit e hi s eloquence , White and th e rest of the fusion candidate s wer e soundly defeated. 96 To th e Press, th e result was "Vindication" for th e Republican organiza tion. T o Thoma s i t wa s "Vic e Triumphant. " "W e ar e a cit y controlle d by gamblers , guide d b y rascals , devoi d o f conscience , an d th e peopl e d o not wan t i t otherwise." The "deplorabl e result " had thre e causes: apathy , repeaters an d "th e willingnes s o f colore d voter s t o swin g wit h th e sid e that offere d th e profit . I t wa s settle d yesterda y tha t th e colore d vot e is as purchasable as it has been in the past years of degradation."97 Th e Newark Evening Call agreed: "Atlanti c Cit y electe d som e bad me n t o public offic e last Tuesda y becaus e ther e ar e a majority o f men i n that tow n wh o wan t bad condition s t o rul e o n accoun t o f th e mone y ther e i s i n it . . . . Th e city seem s to choose to be indecent. Ver y wel l then, le t it stew in its ow n filth. Decen t peopl e wil l sta y awa y an d th e cit y wil l g o bankrupt." 98 Neither gloatin g no r recriminatio n explaine d th e politica l failur e o f re form i n Atlantic City. I n Bacharach an d Rober t Ingersoll , th e Republica n candidate fo r sheriff , th e organizatio n ha d presente d fres h faces . Neithe r had eve r bee n associate d wit h th e Kuehnl e faction , an d Bacharac h wa s later cleare d o f electio n violations . Despit e th e ranting s o f th e refor m press, th e electio n wa s no t a mandat e fo r graft , electio n frauds , an d commercial vice . No r wa s i t a mandat e fo r Kuehnle . Clas s conflict , censorship, an d Sunda y closin g were the vital issues for the white elector ate i n th e electio n o f 1911 . Black voters , havin g bee n writte n of f b y th e White ticket , merel y chos e betwee n th e lesse r o f two evils . Th e division s in th e cit y remaine d essentiall y a s the y ha d bee n sinc e 1908 . Th e resul t was a repudiation o f Harvey Thoma s an d th e beachfront .

170 • The Reason: The Rise and Fall of Boss Kuehnle Despite th e defeat , trial s fo r graf t an d electio n fraud s kep t th e refor m pot boiling . O n Decembe r 2 3 a struck jur y convicte d Kuehnl e o f conflic t of interes t i n a wate r mai n project , an d i n January h e wa s fine d a thou sand dollar s an d sentence d t o a yea r a t har d labo r a t th e stat e prison . Kuehnle wa s th e chairma n o f th e wate r commissio n an d a stockholde r and vic e presiden t o f th e Unite d Pavin g Company . Fo r fiv e year s tha t company ha d a practical monopol y o n pavin g contract s i n th e city . Th e president o f th e company , Willia m Cherry , cam e t o th e cit y fro m Ten nessee i n 190 6 a s a n agen t o f th e Warre n Brother s Company , a fir m holding th e patent o n th e "bitulithi c process " for stree t paving , the n see n as an alternative to dealing with th e "Asphalt Trust. " The Unite d Pavin g Company wa s forme d locally , an d a numbe r o f loca l peopl e hel d stock , including Kuehnl e an d Walte r Evan s Edge . Al l o f th e city' s contract s specified bitulithic , an d unde r thi s arrangement , Cherr y secure d th e material cheaply fro m Warre n Brother s and Unite d underbi d it s competitors for th e street contracts. " In Novembe r 1909 , th e cit y awarde d th e wate r mai n contrac t t o on e Frank Lockwood , a Ne w Yor k contracto r wh o late r assigne d i t t o th e United Pavin g Company . Th e tria l reveale d tha t Lockwoo d an d Cherr y were connected an d tha t Lockwood' s bill s were paid b y United . Kuehnl e denied an y knowledg e o f th e subterfuge , bu t ther e coul d b e n o doub t that, a t leas t technically , h e wa s i n conflic t o f interest . O n tha t basi s h e was convicted an d sen t to prison . Cherry wa s a know n gamble r an d a high liver . T o Thomas , Kuehnl e was a common thief , bu t man y i n th e cit y believe d tha t Kuehnle , eve r a trusting soul , wa s th e victi m o f Cherry' s greed . Th e Unite d Pavin g Company quickl y collapsed , an d Cherr y lef t town . Kuehnl e personall y made goo d al l o f th e company' s note s which , accordin g t o Thomas , cos t him $75,000 . Wit h hi s conviction , Kuehnl e resigne d a s directo r o f th e Marine Trus t Company , bu t th e boar d refuse d t o accep t it . Sai d th e editor o f th e Gazette, "Kuehnle convicte d an d sentence d i s a bigge r ma n today tha n hi s little enemies who are crowing over his misfortune." 100 In March , Kuehnle , awaitin g th e result s o f a n appeal , wa s tendere d a testimonial banque t b y th e Youn g Men' s Republica n League . Ove r si x hundred peopl e attended , includin g som e o f th e city' s mos t reputabl e citizens. Kuehnle' s forme r adversary , Joseph Salus , brough t th e audienc e to it s fee t wit h th e following : "Whe n th e rol l o f fam e o f th e mos t sturd y among u s i s unfolded, th e nam e o f Kuehnl e mus t lea d al l the rest . H e i s the peer among the pioneers of our town. . . . I question i f the resort eve r

The Reason: The Rise and Fall of Boss Kuehnle • 17 1 needed mor e me n o f hi s typ e tha n sh e doe s today. " T o complet e th e flowery tribute , the y presente d Kuehnl e a n album , embosse d i n gold , which wa s curiously apologeti c i n tone. You have always been a sincere friend, eve r ready to sacrifice your personal interests in the sacred cause of friendship. Ye t friendship, lik e gold may be tested. Thoug h clouds may hover and lightning flash and storms rage that would malignantl y menac e you r wel l dresse d reputatio n fo r Trut h an d Honesty, w e would stil l regar d you r hono r an d integrit y a s being abov e reproach. . . . As you rea d ou r signature s o n the following pages , kindl y forget ou r shortcoming s an d tr y t o recal l eve n som e little ac t tha t woul d entitle us to subscribe ourselves Your Sincere Friends.101 Was thi s a banque t o f thieve s o r wa s Kuehnl e a martyr ? Th e gatherin g included individual s wh o were later convicted o f graft an d election fraud s but als o man y wh o survive d th e intensiv e investigation s o f th e refor m movement wit h thei r reputation s intact . Th e tw o Bacharach s an d Walte r Evans Edg e wer e conspicuou s b y thei r absenc e fro m th e tribute . T o a number o f local Republicans , th e Commodore ha d becom e a pariah. Meanwhile, i n 1912 , refor m proceede d alon g othe r lines . Soo n afte r his election , Mayo r Bacharac h close d th e gamblin g house s i n th e cit y which, includin g the Northside establishments , cam e to forty-six i n num ber. Bu t someho w Dutch y Muhlrad , Bo b Delaney , an d on e Al Marsten , another wh o catered t o an exclusive clientele, escape d th e sweep. I n July, the mayo r quickl y squelche d a pla n fo r Sunda y baseball , warnin g tha t the police would clos e the game and arres t everyon e concerned. Th e bar s remained close d o n Sunda y a s seventy-two hotelme n ple d guilt y t o Sun day sale s and pai d fines of $200 each. 102 The refor m movemen t ha d littl e effec t o n th e tenderloin . A n inciden t in January reveale d a clos e workin g relationshi p betwee n th e polic e an d prostitutes. Approache d b y a white slaver , a tenderloin proprietres s wen t to th e polic e an d Detectiv e Herber t se t a tra p fo r th e culprit . Th e case created a nationa l sensation , an d th e departmen t receive d a commenda tion fro m th e Justice Departmen t i n Washington . Later , th e federa l au thorities offere d Herber t a positio n settin g u p simila r system s i n citie s where "vic e condition s wer e horribl e an d trafficker s i n Whit e Slaver y flourished unmolested." 103 The passag e o f th e Wals h Act , i n Apri l 1911 , gave Ne w Jersey citie s the opportunit y t o adop t th e commissio n for m o f government . Commis sion government promise d t o eliminate the boss and the ward heale r fro m

172 • The Reason: The Rise and Fall of Boss Kuehnle city politic s an d pu t municipa l affair s o n a soun d businesslik e basis . A number o f cities , mos t notabl y Trenton , ha d adopte d th e plan , and , b y 1912, many i n Atlantic City sa w commission government a s an answer t o the city's problems . While th e Wals h Ac t wa s bein g debate d i n th e legislature , Kuehnl e spoke in favor o f it. A survey of leading business and hotelmen, includin g Kuehnle, don e by the Press in August 191 1 found non e opposed. Immedi ately after hi s endorsement fo r mayo r by th e organization, Harr y Bachar ach made a strong statemen t i n favo r o f the plan. Th e Press agreed: "Thi s plan o f placin g municipa l machiner y o n a business-lik e basi s makin g i t entirely responsibl e t o th e peopl e an d wipin g ou t factionalis m whic h ha s made thi s resor t a hotbe d o f sensationalis m fo r years , wil l likel y b e received toda y wit h general enthusiasm." 104 It took only on e day to obtain the required tw o thousand signature s o n a petitio n t o hol d th e referendum . Bu t o n Ma y 14 , i n a low turnout , th e city adopte d commissio n governmen t b y a scan t 12 2 votes . Thoma s charged tha t Kuehnl e ha d quietl y trie d t o kil l i t an d tha t it s opponent s "had th e backin g o f ever y colore d gamble r an d blackle g i n th e cit y wit h their whit e allie s wh o aboun d i n th e bac k section. " Th e Gazette reported that th e organizatio n ha d supporte d th e pla n and , i n doin g so , ma y hav e "dug its own grave." 105 By June , fifty-four candidate s ha d filed t o becom e on e o f th e five commissioners. On e P . J. Hawkins , a black physician, polle d 2,35 4 vote s in th e primary , providin g a n accurat e statisti c o f blac k votin g strengt h in th e city. 106 I n th e genera l election , i n July , th e voter s electe d five commissioners: Willia m Riddle , Dr . J . B . Thompson , Harr y Bacharach , William H . Bartlett , an d Alber t Beyer . Riddle , Bartlett , an d Beye r ha d been endorse d b y th e organization , bu t non e wer e organizatio n me n a s such. Th e bod y electe d Riddl e as mayor, an d th e city prepared fo r a new era i n municipal government . But ther e remaine d th e final, mos t sensationa l phas e o f th e refor m movement. O n th e ev e o f th e primar y elections , Councilme n Phoebus , Malia, Kessler , an d Lan e confesse d t o takin g bribes , an d al l resigne d i n disgrace. Th e fou r ha d bee n caugh t i n a n elaborat e stin g operatio n con ducted b y the famed detectiv e William J. Burns . "Atlantic City is the most corrupt municipalit y I eve r worke d in, " sai d Burns . I t wa s "easy , almos t amusing" the way the grafters wen t after th e bait. " I want to make it plain that th e peopl e behin d thi s movemen t ar e i n deadl y earnes t an d the y ar e going to wipe out all forms o f corruption that exist in Atlantic City." 107

The Reason: The Rise and Fall of Boss Kuehnle • 17 3 By 191 2 Burn s enjoye d a n internationa l reputation , an d h e di d no t work cheaply . H e ha d collare d th e McNamara brothers , th e Lo s Angele s dynamiters, an d gotte n th e good s o n Abraha m Rue f i n Sa n Francisc o and o n municipa l grafter s i n Seattle , St . Louis , Pittsburgh , an d a scor e of othe r cities . Th e Boardwal k hotelme n ha d hire d Burn s i n Apri l 191 0 to, i n Thomas' s words , "mak e a thorough prob e o f Atlantic City' s politi cal corruptio n an d municipa l thievery. " Afte r a year' s investigation , Burns ha d nothin g mor e tha n rumors. 108 In July 1911 , at a meeting with Harve y Thoma s an d Attorne y Genera l Wilson, Burn s proposed th e scheme that entrapped th e councilmen. The y secured th e service s o f James K . Howard , th e note d Ne w Yor k architec t and engineer , t o dra w u p plan s fo r a concret e esplanad e t o replac e th e wooden Boardwalk . Th e project , wort h mor e tha n a million dollars , wa s easily the biggest thing the city had ever contemplated an d constituted lu crative bai t fo r small-tow n politicians . Burn s sen t t o Sa n Francisc o fo r James Harris , on e of his detectives who had pose d a s a contractor i n trapping Ruef. Harris, now of the fictitious New York firm of Harris and Hen derson, se t up sumptuou s headquarter s i n the Marlboro-Blenheim an d a t the Waldorf Astori a an d ha d eac h roo m wire d wit h a dictaphone tha t le d to a concealed stenographer . Harri s broadcas t th e scheme, let it be know n that ther e was $5,00 0 in it for eac h councilman, an d arrange d th e payoff s through a bogus millionaire backer named Francklyn , wh o was really on e Frank Smiley , anothe r Burns detective. 109 Harris first contacte d W . J . Palmer , a loca l realto r who m h e plie d with drink s an d dinner s an d wh o boaste d o f hi s friendshi p wit h Kueh nle, Edge , an d Mayo r Bacharach . Palme r sai d that the right mone y coul d easily pus h th e schem e throug h council . Bu t Kuehnle , sai d Palmer , wa s "an expensiv e piec e o f furniture " an d wa s anywa y unde r indictment . Harris coul d sav e a grea t dea l b y goin g directl y t o th e councilmen . Palmer le d Harri s t o Councilman Samue l Phoebus , who ran a small hote l and chaire d th e Boardwal k Committee . Fro m Burns' s standpoint , th e operation wen t of f withou t a hitch . Phoebu s jumpe d a t th e bai t an d Howard mad e a numbe r o f appearance s befor e th e Boardwal k Commit tee. A t leas t nin e councilme n receive d bribe s i n numbere d gol d certifi cates, an d i n th e followin g March , th e ordinanc e passe d Counci l b y a vote o f thirtee n t o three . Bu t Mayo r Bacharach , havin g n o knowledg e o f the scam , vetoe d it . Phoebu s tol d Harri s tha t th e vet o would cos t hi m a t least a n additiona l thousan d dollars , bu t b y no w Burn s ha d al l th e evi dence h e needed. 110

174 • The Reason: The Rise and Fall of Boss Kuehnle The recorde d interview s tha t Harri s ha d wit h Palmer , Phoebus , Kes sler, an d other s mad e sensationa l readin g bu t provide d conflictin g an d often contradictor y evidence , no t onl y a s t o level s o f graf t i n th e city , but als o it s sources , particularl y i n regar d t o Loui s Kuehnle . Fro m th e beginning Harri s repeatedl y steere d th e conversatio n towar d Kuehnl e but wa s tol d eithe r tha t Kuehnl e wa s to o expensiv e o r tha t h e ha d los t his power . Accordin g t o Palmer , "th e boys " were gla d tha t Kuehnl e ha d been convicte d becaus e h e ha d bee n "hoggis h an d th e boy s go t ver y little." "That fact " (Kuehnle' s conviction) , sai d Harris , "seeme d t o pleas e Phoebus immensely " becaus e i t "kep t Kuehnl e ou t o f th e divvy. " Sai d Phoebus, "H e i s wors e tha n Croker . . . . I f Kuehnl e go t a lin e o n thi s Boardwalk thing—lik e o n al l th e others—h e woul d tel l th e boy s wha t to do , an d i t woul d g o throug h withou t takin g car e o f thos e wh o d o th e voting." Kuehnl e an d th e Unite d Pavin g Compan y supposedl y reape d $100,000 o n a stor m drai n project—a n astronomica l sum—but , agai n according t o Phoebus , "Kuehnl e go t his , bu t the y haven' t show n u s a nickel." 111 On anothe r occasion , Phoebu s tol d Harri s tha t Councilma n Willia m Malia wa s " a cleve r grafte r an d generall y frame d u p al l th e deal s i n th e past year s wher e mone y wa s needed t o pass bills. " According t o a swor n affidavit give n t o Burn s b y Kessler , Kuehnle' s cousin , Mali a ha d sen t Kessler t o Kuehnl e t o se e about graf t payment s o n th e stor m drai n proj ect, bu t Kuehnl e said , "Tha t i s up t o Cherry." 112 Harris' s ow n investiga tion reveale d th e followin g abou t Kuehnle , Cherry , an d th e stor m drai n project: I ha d bee n told tha t certai n wor k done for th e city b y the United Pavin g Company an d Cherr y ha s bee n unsatisfactor y an d paymen t ha s bee n refused. Cherr y owe s $30,00 0 t o a man name d Comiske y fo r materia l an d has been pressed for it. Comiskey, bein g anxious for hi s money, decide d t o go to Kuehnle and was told, so I learn from good authority, that he, Kuehnle, would see that he was paid; that he did not want the city to pay Cherry for the work and would guarante e paymen t himself . Kuehnl e tol d Comiske y tha t h e wa s through with Cherry. 113 The Burn s operatio n create d a veritable feedin g frenz y amon g th e coun cilmen. Joh n Murtland , holdin g ou t fo r mor e money , said : " I a m a s expensive a s Kuehnle." But i n the wake of the confessions, th e worst tha t Thomas coul d sa y of Kuehnle was the following: "Whil e Kuehnle had n o

The Reason: The Rise and Fall of Boss Kuehnle • 17 5 part i n th e Boardwal k graft , i t i s no t denie d b y th e quartett e wh o hav e just confesse d tha t he knew [italic s mine ] o f drainag e graft . H e di d no t discountenance graf t i n thi s instance." 114 Kuehnl e wa s certainl y n o re former, bu t i f anything , Harri s ha d Kuehnl e i n th e rol e o f safeguardin g the interests of the city agains t a conniving an d dissolute Cherry . How deepl y wa s graf t embedde d withi n th e cit y government ? A cornered Phoebu s offered th e following i n his own defense : I only did what practically everybody did in council at one time or another and can honestly say that I never realized the enormity of the offense. . . . I blame my downfall an d that of my colleagues in City Council on the fact that it has been generally understood that Councilmen who served without pay must "get theirs" out of the contracts and other jobs that were handed out to favor people . I t seeme d s o easy to take this money that it was hard for any man to refuse. I t got so that anybody who wanted anything "saw" somebody, but in many cases we Councilmen did not get a cent.115 Phoebus ha d serve d i n council only sinc e 1910 , and, b y hi s own account , pickings ha d bee n slim . Prio r t o th e improvement s begu n i n 190 6 wit h the letting of the pavin g contracts ther e woul d hav e been littl e in munici pal graft t o begin wit h asid e from gamblin g an d liquo r licenses , an d eve n that appear s t o hav e bee n limited . Pavin g an d stor m drain s create d ne w opportunities fo r th e loca l small-tow n politicos , bu t graf t ha d neve r bee n an issue in the reform movement . In June , Woodro w Wilson , visitin g th e city , pronounce d th e Burn s operation an d th e entir e refor m movemen t "wholesom e work. " B y th e end o f 191 2 many result s o f reform i n Atlantic City gladdene d th e heart s of Progressive s i n Ne w Jersey . Kuehnl e wa s destine d fo r prison , an d Wilson fo r th e Whit e House . Si x o f th e councilme n ha d confesse d t o taking bribe s an d resigne d i n disgrace . Th e ne w administratio n kep t th e bars close d o n Sunda y an d eve n suppresse d gambling . Dutch y Muhlra d was finally corralle d b y a Burn s detective , an d hi s indictmen t ende d hi s twenty-year caree r i n Atlanti c City . Th e "machine " wa s destroyed , an d the cit y no w ha d commissio n government . A Democra t defeate d Joh n Gardner fo r reelectio n t o Congres s i n November ; th e swee p wa s thor ough, o r so it appeared, an d littl e remained o f the old orde r The ne w orde r wa s signale d i n Atlantic City Commission Government, & municipal journa l publishe d b y th e city . Ignorance an d indifferenc e ha s mad e possibl e th e sham e o f th e cities . Business and professional me n took no interest nor part in politics because

176 • The Reason: The Rise and Fall of Boss Kuehnk they were too busy i n the first place , and because it was "not respectable" in the second. Political rings, dominated by political Bosses, was the inevitable result. And these political rings and Bosses have controlled the cities. As political Bosses , any mor e than industria l Bosses , do not work from a love o f it , the y "go t theirs " b y lootin g th e cities . Tha t ha s bee n th e old order. The dawn of a new era has broken.116 By 1913 , a new era had indee d dawned i n Atlantic City and in the Unite d States. O n Marc h 3 , Loui s Kuehnl e los t hi s fina l appea l befor e th e Ne w Jersey Suprem e Court . O n th e followin g day , Wilso n becam e president . What exactl y wa s the relationship betwee n these two events ? The movemen t whic h resulte d i n Kuehnle' s downfal l was , i n on e sense, a bizarre an d isolate d episod e i n th e annal s o f Progressiv e reform . It bega n a s a factiona l struggl e withi n a Republica n organizatio n i n a small American cit y an d a s a reaction to Fort's Saturnali a proclamatio n i n 1908. Stoy' s reelectio n tha t Novembe r mean t tha t th e Ol d Tow n inter ests, althoug h no t Kuehnle , controlle d th e organization . Sunda y basebal l and th e riot further inflame d tension s betwee n th e two groups. I n the fal l of 1909 , th e Boardwal k factio n forme d th e People' s organizatio n an d mounted a political struggl e fo r contro l o f th e city , framin g th e issue s i n terms o f th e nationa l Progressiv e movement . Th e failur e o f tha t effor t caused th e beachfront t o resort t o more drastic measures . Burns wa s hire d i n Apri l 191 0 t o conduc t wha t wa s essentiall y a fishing expedition . B y Thomas' s ow n account , a year's investigatio n pro duced n o evidence o f corruption o n Kuehnl e o r anyon e else . Th e Board walk factio n the n purchase d th e Review an d place d i t i n th e hand s o f Harvey Thomas . Th e Wilso n campaig n an d th e corrup t electio n o f 19 1 o were windfall s fo r th e movement . Wilson' s grea t success i n 1910 , an d i n 1912, la y i n hi s abilit y t o articulat e th e issue s i n term s o f the Progressiv e grounds well tha t wa s sweepin g th e stat e an d th e nation . Thoma s wrot e the assembl y resolutio n tha t brough t th e Mackse y Commissio n t o Atlan tic City . I t i s doubtfu l tha t anyon e coul d hav e bee n mor e adep t a t maximizing the effects o f its revelations. Up t o this point , Wilso n ha d n o role in the events i n Atlanti c City . I n a letter writte n t o the governor-elect o n January 10 , 1911 , Thomas practi cally introduce d himsel f t o Wilso n an d lai d ou t i n brie f th e whol e stor y of the reform movement. 117 Th e Wilso n interventio n too k the form o f th e elisor gran d jury , a n innovatio n apparentl y devise d b y hi s attorne y gen eral, Edmun d Wilson . Thi s too k plac e in the sprin g an d summe r o f 191 1

The Reason: The Rise and Fall of Boss Kuehnle • 17 7 and becam e th e decisiv e measur e i n bringin g dow n Kuehnl e an d th e "machine." Throughou t tha t year , Wilso n len t hi s growin g prestig e t o the movement , and , i n November , spok e vigorousl y o n behal f o f th e Boardwalk fusio n ticket . Tha t effor t cam e t o naught , a s th e beachfron t was soundl y defeate d a t the polls . Meanwhile , th e Burn s detective s wer e quietly conductin g th e Boardwal k stin g pu t togethe r b y Burns , Thomas , and Assistan t Attorne y Genera l Nelso n B . Gaskil l tha t June . Thi s pro vided a sensationa l finale t o th e refor m movemen t i n 1912 , bu t di d n o further damag e t o Kuehnle . Ther e i s n o evidenc e tha t Thoma s enjoye d Wilson's persona l confidence , bu t throughou t thi s perio d h e worke d closely wit h member s o f th e administratio n an d carefull y orchestrate d developments t o th e maximu m benefi t o f bot h Wilso n an d th e refor m movement. By th e sprin g o f 1912 , th e Wilso n presidentia l boo m wa s wel l unde r way, bu t th e nominatio n campaig n wa s i n trouble . B y th e ev e o f th e Baltimore conventio n i n June, Wilson' s chie f rival , Speake r o f the Hous e of Representatives Cham p Clark of Missouri, had twice as many delegate s as Wilson, an d campaig n fund s wer e runnin g low . James Kerne y relate d that i n Ma y a worrie d Willia m F . McCombs , Wilson' s campaig n man ager, returnin g fro m a n unsatisfactor y canva s o f nationa l Democrati c leaders, dispatche d th e candidat e t o Chicag o t o shor e u p th e Wilso n forces i n the Illinois delegation. Desperat e for funds , Wilson , on the trai n to Chicago , wire d Harve y Thomas , wh o immediatel y gathere d $6,00 0 from th e Boardwal k hotelme n an d turne d i t ove r t o McCombs. 118 Th e Illinois delegatio n late r turne d th e table s fro m Clar k t o Wilso n o n th e forty-second ballo t an d pave d th e way fo r th e nomination. 119 Even if , a s Kerne y said , th e fund s cam e a t a critica l tim e fo r th e Wilson campaign , thi s inciden t provide s onl y a n interestin g sideligh t t o the stor y o f Wilson' s meteori c ris e t o th e presidency . Th e symbiosi s between Wilso n an d Thoma s ha d t o d o wit h wha t Wilso n later , i n a n international context , woul d cal l "moral suasion. " In additio n t o th e quarte r o f a millio n dollar s spen t b y McComb s t o secure th e triump h a t Baltimore , h e spen t larg e sum s t o kee p afloa t th e failing Trenton True American fo r th e purpos e o f boomin g th e Wilso n candidacy. It s publisher, Harr y Alexander , faithfull y chronicle d Wilson' s political an d legislativ e achievement s i n Ne w Jerse y an d eac h wee k sen t from five t o te n thousan d copie s t o "goo d Democrats " al l ove r th e coun try. 120 Th e luri d cop y tha t appeare d o n th e page s o f th e Review wa s

178 • The Reason: The Rise and Fall of Boss Kuehnle picked up , almos t t o th e letter , b y th e True American an d b y othe r Wilson organs, with the result that the Atlantic City affair wa s trumpete d throughout th e nation . As Governor For t had found i n 1908 , the issues dividing Kuehnle fro m the beachfront woul d no t carry a reform movemen t i n a cosmopolitan cit y or an urbanized stat e like New Jersey. B y painting the picture of a city i n the thral l o f gamblers , prostitutes , an d saloo n keepers , o f a machin e sustained b y blac k votes, an d o f a hotbed o f corruption i n th e proces s o f redemption b y a fearles s an d crusadin g governor , h e struc k th e mos t responsive chords of the swelling Progressive refrain . But w e shoul d no t overestimat e hi s success . Thomas wa s but on e of a great choru s of voices that propelle d Wilso n to the White House . H e wa s brought t o Atlanti c Cit y an d give n a newspaper , no t t o boo m Wilson , but t o conduc t a politica l movemen t withi n th e city , a n effor t tha t wa s not successful . Thi s i s no t surprising . Th e journalis m o f exposur e an d the symbioti c relationshi p Thoma s create d betwee n th e beachfron t an d the Wilso n campaig n ma y hav e bee n th e bes t chanc e fo r a politica l movement mounte d b y a wealth y minorit y i n a smal l America n cit y during th e Progressiv e era . Bu t h e alienate d larg e segment s o f th e votin g population, particularl y th e Northside . Thoma s harmonize d wel l wit h the national Progressiv e movement, bu t h e did not tell the whole truth .

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would rathe r se e th e peopl e happy , tangoin g o n th e beach, " sai d Mayor Willia m Riddl e i n January 1915 , "tha n t o tak e a certificat e from th e minister s an d th e hotelkeepers ' associatio n tha t I ha d a passport t o Heave n fo r bein g a hypocrite." 1 "Riddleism " wa s no w th e enemy i n th e grea t America n resort . A yea r later , th e embattle d mayo r went dow n t o defea t a t th e hand s o f a coalitio n consistin g o f th e beachfront, th e evangelicals, th e regular Republica n organization , includ ing Loui s Kuehnl e an d th e blac k Northside , a combinatio n tha t woul d have bee n unthinkabl e onl y fou r year s earlier . Th e municipa l electio n o f 1916 ende d Riddle' s thirty-yea r politica l caree r i n Atlanti c Cit y an d marked th e resort' s final effor t t o com e t o term s wit h it s imag e durin g the Progressiv e era . Ironically , Riddle' s defea t brough t abou t a politica l realignment withi n th e cit y tha t pave d th e wa y fo r th e ris e o f Enoc h L . Johnson an d th e eventual realizatio n o f the worst fear s o f the reformers . By 1916 , Atlantic Cit y ha d gon e through it s third seaso n wit h th e "li d down." Th e bar s remaine d close d o n Sunday , censorshi p wa s stricte r o n the Boardwalk , an d loca l polic e wer e no w workin g closel y wit h th e county prosecuto r t o eliminate gambling . Liquo r license s wer e curtailed , and th e commissio n ha d give n th e cit y efficien t an d scandal-fre e govern ment. Mor e importantly , Progressiv e refor m lef t i n it s wak e a ne w con sensus amon g th e contendin g faction s withi n th e cit y tha t promise d a n end t o th e bitte r conflic t betwee n th e beachfron t an d th e Ol d Tow n interests an d th e restoratio n o f th e resort' s tarnishe d image . Th e resor t emerged fro m it s recen t ordea l a s Caesar' s wife , a city tha t neede d t o b e beyond reproach . 179

i8o • Pharisees and Hypocrites In 1913 , the Methodis t Conferenc e rejoice d tha t Atlanti c Count y no w had a sherif f wh o wa s willin g t o enforc e th e law s o f th e state . Th e rigi d enforcement o f th e Sunda y liquo r law s cause d n o fallin g of f i n th e num bers o f visitors. Bu t i n December , Mayo r Riddl e estimate d th e aggregat e loss o f revenu e t o resor t busines s peopl e a t ove r a millio n dollars . Com missioner Joseph B . Thompso n o f the Chelse a Hotel , on e of twelve larg e houses o n th e Boardwalk , estimate d hi s own los s for th e year a t $15,000 , and other s reporte d decline s i n revenue fro m th e previous yea r a s high a s $30,000. "Score s o f cottagers," said Thompson, "hav e gone to Cape Ma y and othe r resort s wher e the Sunda y law s are not enforced." 2 Many i n th e city , particularl y th e Boardwal k hotelmen , foun d th e benefits o f Sunda y closin g wel l wort h th e price . Th e dir e prediction s o f economic disaste r mad e b y Joh n J . Whit e t o th e Excis e Commissio n i n 1908 had no t com e t o pass , excep t i n th e excursio n district . Fo r man y o f the working-clas s cabaret s an d saloons , th e denia l o f th e Sunda y excur sion trad e mean t failure ; tw o notoriou s saloon s wer e renovate d int o ic e cream parlors . Withi n fou r years , a Philadelphia corporatio n ha d secretl y purchased a five-block sectio n alon g th e beachfron t fro m Arkansa s t o Florida avenues , an d plan s wer e afoo t t o raze "th e Bowery " to make wa y for luxur y hotel s an d apartmen t houses. 3 Compliance with th e law mean t welcome relie f fro m th e perennia l Sunda y war s tha t ha d plague d th e resort sinc e 1890 . Reluctan t convert s t o th e caus e o f dr y Sundays , bot h the beachfron t an d th e Republica n organizatio n no w embrace d i t a s a matter o f public policy . But th e issu e wa s fa r fro m settled . Afte r a yea r i n office , Mayo r Riddle was determined t o submi t th e Sunda y questio n t o the voters. Th e municipal election s were three years away, bu t b y the end of 191 3 Riddl e was alread y layin g th e groundwor k fo r hi s campaign . Wit h Kuehnl e i n prison, th e wa y appeare d clea r t o reviv e the ol d Republica n organizatio n under hi s ow n leadershi p b y exploitin g th e bitte r division s o f th e refor m movement. Fo r fifty years , sai d Riddle , th e cit y ha d kep t fait h wit h th e working classe s unde r th e libera l policy . Th e practic e wa s condone d "even b y th e churc h element , . . . excep t fo r th e fe w wh o constitute d themselves th e keeper s o f thei r brothers ' conscience . . . . Thi s wa s th e condition whe n a political war brok e out—a wa r of sordid, selfish , politi cal vengeance, reprisal , an d self-seeking . I t wa s successfu l t o the point o f bringing abou t a closed Sunda y an d jeopardizin g th e futur e prosperit y o f the resort." 4 Standin g squarel y wit h th e masses, Riddl e declared tha t th e

Pharisees and Hypocrites • 18 1

majority shoul d rule . Bu t ther e could b e "no return t o the old order. . . . The remed y mus t b e found i n legislation , an d th e times ar e propitious t o seek it. " More articulat e bu t les s cautious tha n Kuehnle , Riddl e ha d essentiall y staked ou t th e sam e territor y a s Kuehnl e ha d i n 190 9 with th e introduc tion o f Sunda y baseball . Bu t b y 1914 , th e stat e legislatur e wa s n o mor e disposed towar d liberalizin g th e Sunda y law s than i t was in 1909 . As th e session opene d i n January, th e Esse x an d Hudso n delegations , backe d b y the New Jersey Liquo r Dealer s Association , introduce d a number o f bills easing o r repealin g Sunda y restrictions . Take n together , th e bill s fo r a "liberal Sunday, " si x in all , proposed t o legalize baseball an d othe r "clea n sports," motion pictures an d theatricals, an d the sale of liquor afte r 1 P.M. under loca l option . Legislator s als o introduced th e perennia l Raine s La w bill which allowe d hotel s t o serve liquor t o guests on Sunda y wit h meals . Protestant churche s fro m Camde n t o Jersey Cit y mobilize d t o fight th e measures, an d th e hearing s o n Sunda y closin g promise d t o be a s conten tious as they wer e in 1909. 5 "The force s o f goo d governmen t wil l b e represente d i n th e Stat e House by Atlantic City," wrote Harve y Thomas , a s Boardwalk hotelme n Henry Leed s an d Alber t T . Bell , an d th e Reveren d Birne y Hudso n o f the Lord' s Da y Alliance , lef t fo r Trento n i n Marc h t o testif y agains t th e Sunday bills . Hudso n announced , an d Leed s an d Bel l agreed , tha t th e fifty-year reig n o f anarch y i n Atlanti c Cit y wa s over . A ne w polic y wa s now i n effect , an d Sunda y closin g ha d "hur t n o busines s bu t th e saloo n business." Mayor Riddl e was not a party t o the ne w policy . Lik e Sto y i n 1908, h e testifie d tha t Sunda y law s amounte d t o n o mor e tha n clas s legislation and were destroying the boardinghouse and small hotel keeper s who were the "bon e and sinew " of Atlantic City. 6 Riddle's testimon y wa s a futile gesture . O f th e Sunda y bills , onl y th e baseball measur e wa s reporte d ou t o f committee , bu t i t neve r reache d a vote i n th e senate . Th e count y delegation , Senato r Edg e an d Assem blymen Carlto n Godfre y an d Emerso n Richards , wer e noncommittal . Yet Richards , a protege of Kuehnle, ha d t o admit tha t "i t was odd, t o say the least , tha t i n vie w o f th e strenuou s effort s o f forme r year s t o procur e 'liberal legislation, ' th e licens e force s o f Atlanti c Cit y ar e . . . making n o move a t thi s time. " Th e legislatur e wa s filled wit h hypocrites , sai d Rid dle: "Th e member s com e dow n t o Atlanti c Cit y an d drin k wit h m e an d then com e bac k her e an d ar e afrai d t o vot e fo r persona l liberty. " Riddl e

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later added : "I f Chris t cam e t o Atlanti c City , h e woul d b e i n favo r o f an ope n Sunday . Afte r all , h e wa s a goo d fello w wh o turne d wate r into wine." 7 A ne w compac t wa s indee d i n effec t i n Atlanti c Cit y i n 1914 , an d i t reflected th e refor m agend a o f th e Boardwal k interests . Eve n th e Press "cheerfully an d enthusiastically " subscribe d t o th e "ne w Atlanti c Cit y policy," whic h wa s probabl y th e strictes t i n the state , a t leas t amon g th e urban center s i n term s o f th e enforcemen t o f gamblin g an d liquo r laws . The brothel s o n Nort h Carolin a Avenu e continue d t o operate discreetly , but a n inciden t i n Januar y 191 4 rekindle d th e prostitutio n issu e an d brought int o sharpe r focu s th e conflicts an d anxietie s that la y a t the hear t of Progressive reform i n Atlantic City . A gues t a t th e Marlboro-Blenhei m Hote l ha d spen t a n evenin g a t Minnie Wilson' s establishmen t i n th e tenderloi n an d ra n u p a liquor bil l of $27.50 . Th e proprietres s complaine d t o Detectiv e Herbert , wh o wen t to th e hote l an d attempte d t o collec t th e bill . Whe n th e affai r becam e public o n January 3 , Reveren d Hudso n forme d th e "Ministeria l Union " and announce d a "war agains t the tenderloin." Herbert , wh o in 191 2 ha d earned fo r himsel f an d th e cit y a federa l commendatio n fo r hi s manage ment o f prostitution , wa s fired. Mos t i n th e cit y probabl y agree d wit h Mayor Riddle , wh o pointe d ou t tha t "ther e hav e bee n wome n o f tha t character sinc e th e beginnin g o f time . Clos e the m u p an d the y scatter. " But Hudso n declare d tha t segregatio n wa s a failure , an d Publi c Safet y Commissioner Bartlet t an d Chie f Woodruf f reluctantl y close d th e ten derloin.8 The refor m initiativ e wa s no w i n th e hand s o f th e evangelicals . O n January 14 , Hudson an d th e Ministerial Unio n announce d th e formatio n of the Vic e Commission, whic h woul d ac t in concert with city official s i n "suppressing immora l house s an d al l crime s agains t moralit y an d de cency, includin g questionabl e amusements. " Th e presiden t o f th e com mission, th e Reveren d Newto n Cadwell , declared : "W e wil l se e that th e lid i s kep t o n th e city' s mora l cesspool. " Judge John J . White , smartin g from th e recen t embarrassmen t a t hi s Marlboro-Blenhei m Hotel , i n a much celebrate d speec h t o th e loca l YMC A declare d tha t th e sportin g element wa s no t necessar y t o Atlanti c City . "Vic e ruine d Lon g Branc h and Saratoga , an d i t ma y b e fairl y sai d tha t whereve r i t ha s becom e dominant, i t has brought ruin." 9 Between 190 0 and 1912 , th e Boardwal k hotelme n ha d kep t a pruden t distance betwee n themselve s an d th e evangelicals , ofte n ridiculin g thei r

Pharisees and Hypocrites • 18 3 efforts. No w bot h faction s spok e i n unison . Willia m F . Hanstein , th e president o f the Atlanti c Cit y Hote l Men' s Association , clarifie d th e ne w reform agenda . "No w tha t w e hav e stoppe d Sunda y liquo r sales , abate d gambling, an d close d ou r re d ligh t district , . . . it is time w e starte d o n a constructive program. " Th e tas k a t han d wa s to "ge t rid o f tangoism . . . and improv e th e clas s an d characte r o f resor t amusements. " Thi s woul d be accomplishe d b y a n Amusemen t Boar d operatin g unde r th e followin g guidelines: "Hig h grad e music along the lines of the Philadelphia Orches tra, frequen t recital s an d concerts , educationa l entertainmen t i n th e wa y of th e Chautauqua , lecture s b y well-know n speakers , religiou s features , and a fine art s exhibitio n wher e goo d painting s an d sculptur e coul d b e shown b y th e artists." 10 Th e eliminatio n o f working-clas s amusement s had alway s bee n a thinly disguise d objectiv e o f th e beachfron t interests , and par t o f tha t progra m wa s alread y i n effect . Polic e wer e routin g palmists an d fakir s fro m th e Boardwalk . Commissione r Bartlet t no w censured motio n pictures , an d a theate r manage r wh o advertise d a "sa cred concert, " bu t adde d tha t nothin g wa s sacre d t o him, wa s summaril y shut down . Bu t mor e remaine d t o b e done . Th e conduc t o f th e bather s on the beach, sai d Hanstein , wa s "wors e than th e tango." 11 Neither th e Vic e Commissio n no r th e Amusemen t Boar d wa s eve r formalized. Th e forme r reflecte d th e morality-oriente d campaig n o f th e evangelicals, an d th e latter th e class-oriented goal s of the beachfront . Bu t Harvey Thoma s skillfull y merge d th e tw o int o a stringen t an d coheren t reform policy . O n January 19 , in a front-page expose , he listed the thirty two know n disorderl y house s i n th e city , alon g wit h th e name s an d addresses o f th e owner s an d mortgag e holder s o f th e properties. 12 H e followed editoriall y wit h a stingin g biblica l rebuk e o f th e profiteer s an d concluded wit h " A Mother' s Appeal, " a letter culle d fro m man y o n file. The letter , compose d of equal parts of racism and religion, urge d Thoma s to tak e a stan d agains t th e "Tango " an d th e "Turke y Trot " an d con cluded: "Hel p us , Mr . Thomas , an d yo u wil l hav e th e prayer s o f hun dreds o f mother s wh o ar e almos t craz y wit h th e awfu l outloo k fo r thei r daughters. Suc h disgracefu l afternoon s an d evening s a s the Nigge r Gin k dance bring s i s beyon d understanding . . . . Go d giv e yo u strengt h t o help us." 13 Mor e falle n girl s had graduate d fro m th e cafe s an d pier s tha n the "Shad y District " eve r saw , wrot e anothe r concerne d citizen . "Nort h Carolina Avenu e collected them , bu t th e cafes ar e manufacturing them. " Thomas mad e n o apolog y fo r th e "Mother' s Appeal, " instea d describ ing th e corresponden t a s a businesswoma n wh o wa s "wel l know n so -

184 • Pharisees and Hypocrites daily." Signe d "On e Wh o Ha s Suffered, " th e lette r wa s chose n becaus e it ran g wit h "sincerity " an d "vita l feeling. " O n thi s point , Thoma s wa s correct. If h e recognize d fe w rules , Thoma s wa s adep t a t plumbin g th e depths o f rac e an d clas s anxiet y tha t fuele d refor m i n Atlanti c Cit y an d infusing thes e feeling s wit h th e mora l fervo r an d secula r respectabilit y that Progressivis m required . An objectiv e observe r o f Atlanti c Cit y i n 191 4 may hav e briefl y won dered wh o the Progressives reall y were. Th e yea r before, wit h the adven t of commissio n government , Riddl e accompanie d Rudol f Blankenbur g o f Philadelphia an d a number o f othe r refor m mayor s t o th e "shrin e o f th e Wisconsin idea, " the university a t Madison. H e returned muc h impresse d with th e state' s educationa l syste m an d limite d franchis e laws . H e ha d appointed James T . Bourne , a black druggist, t o the Board o f Education . In Februar y h e mad e a statemen t endorsin g women' s suffrag e an d pub lished a letter h e had writte n t o Booker T. Washingto n requestin g a copy of th e curriculu m t o b e implemente d a t th e "Indian a Avenu e Schoo l for Colore d Children. " Bu t i n th e sam e breath , h e declare d himsel f "unqualifiedly i n favo r o f th e libera l Sunday, " an d wante d i t distinctl y understood tha t "h e was not i n favor o f having the Ministerial Unio n ru n the city." 14 Riddle ha d als o bee n t o Mont e Carlo . Late r tha t month , h e outline d his ow n visio n fo r Atlanti c Cit y i n a n intervie w wit h th e Philadelphia Public Ledger. "People com e her e t o enjo y themselves , an d the y desir e refreshments o n Sunday. " H e note d tha t a grand jur y i n Hudson Count y had refuse d t o indic t saloo n keeper s because , a s the y publicl y stated , "public sentimen t wa s i n favo r o f sellin g liquo r o n Sunday. " A s thing s stood now , Atlanti c Cit y wa s practicall y th e onl y cit y i n th e stat e tha t was dry o n the Sabbath . I f the legislature would amen d th e Walsh Act t o give the cities wider hom e rule, 90 percent of the residents would vot e fo r an ope n Sunday . "An d wh y shouldn' t they ? A close d Sunda y mean s a loss of $500,000 a season." 15 Puffing o n a cigar , Riddl e warme d t o hi s topic : "Wh y no t a Mont e Carlo? I would lov e to see i t . .. a fine place, with th e tables tested ever y morning, woul d b e great, an d certainl y no t a s bad a s the stoc k market . I would b e ther e ever y night. " Havin g declare d fo r legalize d gambling , Riddle went on to endorse regulated prostitution . Th e cit y had close d th e red ligh t district only becaus e Herbert, wh o was both a city detective and a governmen t agent , trie d t o collec t a bil l i n Judge White' s hotel . I n a n

Pharisees and Hypocrites • 18 5

obvious referenc e t o th e evangelical s an d th e beachfront , Riddl e sai d th e resort wa s now controlled b y "fanatics " and "hypocrites. " Riddle wa s a whimsica l character , bu t h e wa s n o buffoon . Wealthy , learned, an d well-read , h e was , fro m al l accounts, a devoted famil y ma n of temperat e habit s an d refine d tastes . Hi s view s o n reformers , Sunda y closing, an d prostitutio n amounte d t o nothing mor e tha n thos e openly o r tacitly agree d t o b y resor t politician s fo r mor e tha n twenty-fiv e years . His Mont e Carl o comment , probabl y unguarded , too k u p onl y fou r sentences of a lengthy interview , bu t when i t was published, o n Februar y 24, th e articl e feature d a larg e pictur e o f th e mayo r wit h th e headline , "U.S. Mont e Carl o I s Mayor' s Drea m Fo r Atlanti c City . Municipa l Gaming Tables , Wid e Ope n Sunday , an d Plent y o f Whoop-la t o Attrac t Visitors Urged. " On th e following day , a petition wa s circulated fo r Riddle' s recall , an d a delegatio n o f nin e Boardwal k hotelme n entraine d fo r Philadelphi a t o assure th e edito r an d th e publishe r o f th e Ledger tha t Riddl e spok e onl y for himself . "W e kno w Mayo r Riddl e here, " sai d H . B . Coo k o f th e Seaside Hotel , "an d d o no t tak e hi m seriously. " Bot h Reveren d Cadwel l of The Vic e Commission an d Harve y Thoma s sa w Riddl e a s "the City' s Arch Enemy. " "Th e mora l depravit y o f th e mayor, " proclaime d th e Review, "ha s bee n reveale d t o it s fullest. " Riddl e wa s "insan e fo r public ity," a "misfit i n City Hall, " and his attitude toward decenc y "ha d alway s been a recognized shame." 16 Such comment s fro m th e beachfront , th e clergy , an d th e Review were to b e expected , bu t suppor t fo r Riddle' s recal l als o cam e fro m othe r quarters. Ban k president Sigmun d Ojserkis , wh o had fo r a time manage d Kuehnle's hotel , stated : "W e ar e fo r sanit y an d consistenc y . . . an d cannot fo r a minut e sanctio n suc h statement s a s ar e credite d t o th e Mayor." Samue l Comely , presiden t o f th e Fourt h War d Businessmen' s Association (th e Fourth wa s Riddle' s ward) , wa s leadin g th e recal l move ment, an d Joseph McNamee , anothe r Kuehnl e associat e and presiden t o f the Chamber o f Commerce, declare d tha t bod y unanimou s i n repudiatin g Riddle's utterances. 17 Eac h o f thes e protest s cam e fro m member s o f th e Old Tow n factio n o f the Republica n organization . Interviewed i n Trenton , Assemblyma n Richard s characterize d th e Riddle proposa l a s "assininity , pur e an d simple. " Senato r Edge , alread y maneuvering fo r th e Republica n gubernatoria l nomination , sai d i t wa s "absolutely ridiculous, " bu t decline d t o commen t o n it s specifics . "I t i s

186 • Pharisees and Hypocrites outbursts o f this type, " sai d Edge , "whic h interfer e wit h th e city' s prog ress an d desir e t o becom e a meeting plac e fo r clean , law-abiding , health seeking people." In the city, specia l prayer service s were held fo r Riddle , one clergyma n stating : "I f th e Mayo r worke d a s har d fo r Go d a s h e worked fo r th e devil , ther e woul d b e wonderful development s fo r bette r things here." 18 "Th e progres s of the city," so long the bone of contentio n between th e beachfron t an d th e Ol d Tow n interests , ha d com e t o mea n the sam e thin g t o bot h factions . Th e evangelical s a s wel l ha d becom e civic boosters , a s Progressiv e refor m foun d bot h meanin g an d unit y i n opposition t o Riddle . Perhaps purposefully , bu t probabl y unwittingly , Riddl e ha d mad e himself th e issue . I n doin g so , h e tappe d feeling s tha t ra n a s deepl y among th e working-clas s voter s a s th e middle-clas s anxietie s s o cleverl y exploited b y Harve y Thomas . Bu t th e pres s reporte d n o outpourin g o f public sentimen t i n suppor t o f Riddle . I n a carefully prepare d statement , he toned dow n hi s position on gambling . Of course, there are some things in the Ledger article that I did say , bu t I never expresse d th e desir e tha t Atlanti c Cit y shoul d becom e lik e Mont e Carlo becaus e I d o no t thin k tha t th e America n peopl e wan t universa l gambling the same as obtains in some European resorts. I think it is wrong to interfer e wit h peopl e wh o want t o pla y a n innocen t gam e of pinochl e and gathe r a t a cigar stor e to have this innocen t amusement . I think i t is hopeless t o expec t tha t w e shal l eve r caus e th e negr o t o los e hi s lov e for crap.19 If th e statemen t assuage d som e o f th e whit e voters , i t n o doub t nullifie d the gestures that Riddl e had mad e to the Northside . The Ledger articl e se t th e ton e fo r anothe r intens e politica l conflic t i n Atlantic City , bu t initiall y bot h side s wer e dealin g i n impossibilities . Riddle kne w ful l wel l tha t th e legislatur e woul d no t amen d th e Wals h Act t o permit Sunda y liquo r sales , much les s legalized gambling, an d th e anti-Riddle force s wer e aware that the recal l petitio n ha d n o basis in law . "Recall? I shoul d worry, " sai d Riddle , "mos t o f thes e peopl e didn' t vot e for m e anyhow, an d I don't ow e them anythin g bu t good will." 20 But th e Boardwalk hotelme n wer e indee d worried . Th e Riddl e movement , though seemin g t o consist onl y o f Riddl e himself, threatene d t o undo th e previous refor m movemen t an d retur n th e cit y t o th e storm y an d unsa vory conflict s tha t occurre d unde r th e libera l policy . Th e Ol d Tow n interests ha d n o desir e t o se e thei r ol d politica l enem y construc t a ne w

Pharisees and Hypocrites • 18 7

organization o n th e ruin s o f th e ol d one . Th e likelihoo d o f the cit y agai n besieged b y th e evangelical s di d no t bod e wel l fo r Edge' s gubernatoria l ambitions. A s h e late r note d i n a rar e momen t o f candor , th e previou s reform movemen t wa s a "lesso n i n pressur e politics ; whe n yo u ar e as sailed b y th e force s o f organize d righteousness , alway s rol l wit h th e punch." 21 T o th e evangelicals, th e mayor wa s "Riddl e th e Apostate" an d "Pontius Pilate, " a ma n wh o woul d pande r t o th e wors t instinct s o f th e people to achieve political power . Louis Kuehnl e spen t th e winte r an d sprin g o f 191 4 i n prison , an d h e must hav e viewed development s i n the city with satisfaction . I n charge of a convic t gan g a t th e priso n gate , h e maintaine d a cheerfu l dispositio n and wa s popula r wit h th e deputie s an d th e inmates . I n January h e wa s unanimously reelecte d t o th e boar d o f director s o f th e Atlanti c Cit y Fir e Insurance Company . I n Apri l th e Trenton Times reported tha t Kuehnl e was schedule d fo r releas e i n June , afte r servin g si x month s o f hi s sen tence, an d note d tha t h e woul d retur n t o a city mad e "cleane r an d drier " by hi s absence . Supporter s mad e plan s fo r a triumpha l reentr y fo r th e Commodore, complet e wit h a parad e an d a banquet . Bu t Kuehnl e de clared, " I a m ou t o f politics, " an d cancele d th e tribute . Whe n h e wa s released o n Jun e 5 , hi s do g Jerry wa s quietl y bundle d ont o a boa t an d went int o temporary seclusio n wit h Kuehnl e a t his cabin on the meadow s at Little Beach. 22 During Kuehnle' s sta y i n prison , mos t o f Atlanti c Cit y wa s indee d drier, a t leas t o n Sundays , bu t i t wa s apparentl y n o cleaner . I n August , the Ministerial Unio n complaine d tha t th e behavio r o f the bathers o n th e beach on Sunday s wa s disgusting. Indecentl y clad , the y "danc e the tang o on th e sand s whe n sacre d musi c i s bein g played. " Close d fo r a two month period , th e tenderloi n establishment s bega n t o reopen a s "lodgin g houses," an d th e Review reported: "Th e ol d tim e processio n o f cab s an d autos bearin g nois y male s t o th e Re d Ligh t territor y i s nightly assumin g an exten t tha t provoke s on e conclusion." 23 Unlicensed , th e tenderloi n establishments wer e th e easies t place s t o obtain drink s afte r midnigh t o n Saturday an d mus t hav e reaped a Sabbath bonanza . In 1915 , th e Ministeria l Unio n threatene d th e mayo r an d Commis sioner Bartlett with criminal prosecutio n fo r failin g to close the disorderl y houses. Riddl e replied : "Ho w strang e i t i s that I hav e hear d n o criticis m at all on thi s subject , excep t fro m you . . . . I t i s mine to laugh whe n yo u threaten m e wit h crimina l prosecution , fo r I hav e a s muc h regar d fo r Pharisees an d hypocrite s a s it is possible to have when on e tries t o follo w

188 • Pharisees and Hypocrites

the teaching s o f Christ an d i s charitable. Chris t suffere d muc h an d ha d a very poo r opinio n o f thi s sort." 24 Th e Ministeria l Unio n declare d tha t prostitutes ha d becom e "bolde r tha n ever, " bu t tha t i s doubtful . Throughout 191 4 an d 1915 , the Democrati c count y prosecutor , Charle s S. Moore , assiste d b y loca l police , continue d t o harry gambler s fro m th e resort bu t raide d th e tenderloi n onl y once . Prostitute s operatin g outsid e of th e distric t wer e summaril y arrested , an d durin g th e wa r polic e con ducted raid s withi n th e distric t i n respons e t o isolate d outrages . Bu t apparently al l o f th e faction s i n th e city , wit h th e exceptio n o f th e evangelicals, agree d wit h Riddl e tha t segregatio n remaine d th e bes t solu tion t o th e proble m o f prostitution . Th e Reveren d Newto n Ca d well o f the Vic e Commissio n blame d th e "supporter s o f Sunda y baseball " an d complained tha t "th e bette r elemen t o f citizenhood, " blin d t o th e evil , had "tosse d anothe r wra p o f decenc y t o th e winds." 25 Th e two-bloc k section o f Nort h Carolin a Avenu e serve d a s th e red-ligh t distric t o f Atlantic City fo r a t least another decade . Neither refor m no r th e war i n Europ e had muc h effec t o n the numbe r of visitors. Th e summe r crowd s becam e larger , an d th e cit y bega n doin g a brisk year-roun d conventio n trade . Alread y ther e was talk of building a large municipa l conventio n hall . Joh n J . Whit e sa w th e wa r a s a "grea t opportunity." Atlanti c Cit y ha d n o riva l i n th e Unite d States . Th e onl y real competitor was Europe, but "that is impossible now, and may remai n so fo r year s t o come. " Th e tim e ha d com e t o mak e Atlanti c Cit y th e entertainment capita l o f th e worl d b y offerin g th e attraction s suggeste d by Hanstei n th e yea r before . Whe n aske d i f fine r entertainmen t coul d compete wit h ragtim e and "othe r craze s of the moment," he said that thi s was no problem. Ther e wa s a taste for bette r things , suc h a s Caruso, bu t since people came for relaxation , "gran d oper a may b e a little too heavy. " Said Riddle , "Th e middl e clas s i s n o longe r welcom e here." 26 A s th e election o f 191 6 drew nearer , new s o f th e wa r an d o f impendin g Ameri can involvemen t di d no t diminis h th e city' s preoccupatio n wit h "Rid dleism." In Marc h 191 5 an d January 1916 , th e Boardwal k hotelme n sponsore d religious revival s o n th e Boardwalk , an d hundred s praye d fo r th e sou l of the erran t mayor . Riddl e responde d b y sayin g tha t h e woul d "pra y fo r those wh o attac k me, " and th e revival s encourage d onl y furthe r apostas y from th e mayor . "Morality, " sai d Riddle , "i s vic e tire d out, " an d a t on e point suggeste d tha t wha t th e cit y neede d wa s "5 0 gamblin g places , 5 0 pugilists, an d 25 0 choru s girls." 27 I n 1916 , th e evangelis t Henr y F .

Pharisees and Hypocrites • 18 9 Stough me t privately wit h Riddle , an d the mayor contribute d $10 0 to the crusade. Bu t Stoug h wa s no t reassure d whe n Riddl e too k hi m o n a tou r of th e tenderloin , wher e th e tw o observe d a ma n bein g pitche d fro m a window. 28 Riddleism an d revivalis m represente d th e extreme s o f th e socia l con flict i n Atlanti c City . Riddl e wa s portraye d a s a jok e an d a n embar rassment b y th e Review and wa s largely ignore d b y the other papers . But , in fact, Riddl e posed mor e of a threat t o the reformers tha n Kuehnl e had . In a speec h t o th e San e Sunda y Amusemen t League , Riddl e lampoone d reformers an d crusaders , bu t thi s appeal , an d other s fo r th e liberalizatio n of the city, als o contained scholarl y an d reasoned appeal s on behal f of th e working classes. 29 A t th e beginnin g o f 1916 , th e voter s o f Atlanti c Cit y could ponde r man y importan t issues . Presiden t Wilso n wa s desperatel y trying to mediate the European conflic t an d to gain reelection, an d Walte r Evans Edg e wa s equall y desperat e t o becom e governo r o f Ne w Jersey . But th e attentio n o f cit y resident s turne d t o th e upcomin g municipa l elections i n May, an d the y promise d a referendum o n Riddleism . Commission election s wer e suppose d t o b e nonpartisan , bu t a s th e Review sized u p th e contes t i n January, i t wa s t o b e "Riddl e an d Bartlet t against th e field." Twenty-fiv e candidate s ha d filed fo r th e five commis sion seats, bu t th e field included a "Citizens' Ticket" composed o f Board walk hotelme n Charle s D . Whit e an d J . B . Thompson , an d regula r organization Republican s Harr y Bacharach , W . F . Sooy , an d Alber t Beyer. In April , Bacharach' s brother , Congressma n Isaa c Bacharach , bough t the Gazette and th e Review. Harve y Thoma s departe d th e city t o head th e Public Relation s Departmen t o f th e Prudentia l Insuranc e Compan y i n Newark. Edg e ha d purchase d th e Union in 190 5 an d stil l controlle d th e Press. Riddl e attempted t o start his own weekly, offerin g th e editorship t o Alfred M . Heston . Heston , i n a lon g lette r criticizin g Riddle' s record , accused th e mayo r o f no t takin g th e campaig n seriousl y an d refuse d th e offer.30 Loca l Democrat s als o rebuffe d Riddle' s overtures . Bartlett , a n organization Republica n wh o wa s denie d a spo t o n th e citizens ' ticket , became the only loca l politician t o throw i n with Riddle . With th e entir e politica l establishmen t o f th e cit y an d th e loca l pres s arrayed agains t him , Riddl e too k hi s candidac y t o th e people , wagin g a class-oriented campaign . Riddl e had n o hope of continuing a s mayor, bu t he ha d th e suppor t o f a large blo c o f cit y employees , an d a good chanc e of reelectio n t o th e commission . A s i n 190 8 an d i n 1911 , the blac k vot e

190 • Pharisees and Hypocrites became crucial , an d Riddl e an d Bartlet t campaigne d extensivel y i n th e Northside. Th e yea r before, Bartlet t had banne d th e showing of The Birth of a Nation o n th e Boardwalk , bu t tha t decisio n wa s base d les s o n hi s sensitivity t o feelings o f the blac k community tha n o n the prospect o f th e film drawin g black s t o th e Boardwal k an d incitin g racia l violence. 31 T o Riddle, th e citizens ' ticke t wa s th e "sil k stockin g ticket, " an d h e pointe d out tha t th e Boardwal k hotelme n ha d remove d th e publi c seatin g i n front o f thei r hotel s becaus e o f th e presenc e o f "Negr o loungers." 32 No t surprisingly, hi s speeche s wen t largel y unreporte d i n th e loca l press , except fo r th e intemperat e parts , an d hi s appea l t o th e Northsid e wa s blunted b y a n inciden t th e yea r befor e whe n h e prevente d black youth s from playin g basebal l on the Chelsea Fiel d nea r his home. 33 To th e Review, Riddl e wa s a demagogu e an d a fomente r o f racia l hatred. Harr y Bacharac h state d tha t h e knew o f nothing mor e contempt ible i n a communit y tha n t o rais e clas s agains t class , "unles s i t wa s t o raise race against race , cree d agains t creed , an d colo r agains t color. " "W e are al l host s here, " sai d Bacharach , "an d i t matter s littl e whethe r w e liv e on th e Nort h Sid e o r th e Sout h Side. " Headwaiter s wer e agai n brough t in to remind blac k males that the beachfront wa s their livelihood , an d th e point coul d no t b e misse d whe n Bacharac h stated : "The y sa y w e repre sent th e hote l interests . Well , wha t ar e the hote l interest s bu t th e indus tries o f Atlanti c Cit y withou t whic h yo u couldn' t live." 34 Isaa c Nutter , aligned wit h Bacharac h sinc e 1909 , led th e organization i n th e Northsid e and campaigne d tirelessl y fo r th e citizens' ticket. For th e Northsid e community , Progressiv e refor m ha d mean t onl y demoralization an d a n increase d polic e presence . Bu t a vot e fo r Riddl e would b e interprete d a s a vot e fo r vic e an d confir m th e negativ e racia l stereotypes. Th e blac k clerg y unanimousl y denounce d Riddle , on e say ing, "Th e dive s hav e no t helpe d ou r people. " Bu t th e meanin g o f Rid dleism t o blac k peopl e wa s mor e pointedl y expresse d b y black speaker s brought i n fro m Baltimor e an d Chicag o t o addres s Northsid e voters . Harry S . Cummin s wa s a membe r o f Baltimore' s cit y council , an d Dr . A. J. Care y was one of three civil service examiners of the state of Illinois. The reelectio n o f Riddl e woul d b e "a n endorsemen t o f the sentiment s t o which h e ha s give n utterance, " the y said , an d brin g disgrac e t o the city . "This electio n i s no t purel y a loca l issue . Atlanti c Cit y belong s t o th e nation, an d the y eye s of the nation ar e focused here." 35 The messag e was clear. A t stak e fo r blac k voter s i n th e electio n o f 191 6 wa s nothin g les s than th e dignity an d integrit y o f the race.

Pharisees and Hypocrites • 19 1 With th e Northsid e leader s supportin g th e citizens ' ticket, th e closin g of the politica l rank s agains t Riddl e was almost complete . Bu t consignin g the mayor t o political oblivio n require d th e election of all five candidates, a formidable tas k in any case, but a task made more difficult b y the natur e of his campaign. Riddl e was indeed a n embarrassment, but , b y 1915 , not the only embarrassmen t i n the city. Fro m th e beginning, h e attempted t o make th e beachfron t th e issu e an d t o exploi t th e bitte r hostilitie s o f th e reform movement . I n a n articl e i n th e municipa l journal , th e onl y prin t media t o whic h h e ha d access , h e describe d th e refor m movemen t a s a n effort o f th e "Beachfron t Bund " t o gra b contro l o f th e amusement s an d exclude th e commo n peopl e fro m th e Boardwalk : A s par t o f thei r pro gram a newspape r wa s subsidize d t o becom e th e mouthpiec e o f th e 'Reformers/ an d wha t tha t orga n publishe d t o the worl d an d wha t i t di d to th e fai r fam e o f th e peopl e an d o f individual s o f Atlanti c Cit y wil l never b e forgotten , a t leas t b y thi s generation." 36 Earlier , o f course , Riddle ha d haile d th e refor m movemen t a s th e daw n o f a ne w day . Bu t Thomas's vitrioli c pe n ha d cu t a wide swat h amon g th e loca l population . By 191 5 h e ha d becom e th e mos t hate d ma n i n th e city . B y contrast , Louis Kuehnl e returne d fro m priso n a bigge r ma n tha n whe n h e left . Before hi s incarceration, h e made arrangements fo r th e continuance of his charitable donation s i n th e poo r section s o f th e city . T o many , h e wa s a scapegoat an d a martyr , a vie w onl y reinforce d b y hi s continue d pillo rying by Thomas . Kuehnle accomplishe d hi s politica l comebac k i n stages . I n 1914 , h e supported hi s friend , Emerso n Richards , agains t Isaa c Bacharac h i n a n unsuccessful primar y rac e fo r a congressiona l seat . Accordin g t o a n ac count i n th e Newark Evening News, th e Boardwal k hotelme n wer e "in censed": "I t i s no secret that th e big hotel me n wh o put u p the money fo r the investigatio n o f Atlantic Cit y affair s whic h resulte d i n hi s indictmen t and convictio n wer e willing that h e should b e let off wit h a fine. Nor i s it any secre t tha t the y aide d i n securin g hi s pardon." 37 Th e conditio n wa s Kuehnle's "solem n promise " tha t h e woul d no t engag e i n politic s fo r a period o f five years. I t wa s unlike Kuehnl e t o break hi s word, bu t h e wa s a stickle r o n th e fine points . H e wa s no t pardoned ; hi s sentenc e wa s commuted. H e remaine d a convicte d felon , a s Thoma s neve r tire d o f reminding his readers. Burns, Thomas , Wilson , an d th e courts , bu t especiall y Thomas , had give n th e Boardwal k factio n mor e refor m tha n the y ha d bargaine d for. Kuehnle' s stoi c silenc e i n th e fac e o f hi s ordea l lend s furthe r confir -

192 • Pharisees and Hypocrites mation t o th e story . Bu t tha t situatio n change d wit h th e Riddl e movement. Throughout 1915 , there wer e rumor s tha t Kuehnl e wa s activ e behin d the scenes . I n January 1916 , he appeared quietl y wit h Edg e at the annua l Republican Clu b dinner . B y April , Thoma s wa s gone , an d suddenl y th e "Citizens' Ticket " ha d becom e th e "Kuehnle-Bacharac h Ticket " i n bot h the Review and th e Press. Late r tha t month , h e was the featured speake r a t a campaign rall y wit h al l five candidates , includin g Danie l S . White , th e principal backe r o f th e refor m movement . Mountin g th e platform , th e Commodore receive d a standing ovation a s he declared : I a m here i n th e interest s o f this ticket t o which I give my endorsement , heart an d soul , becaus e I a m intereste d i n Atlanti c City . I lov e Atlanti c City becaus e I hav e grow n an d prospere d wit h it . Bu t a chang e i n th e administration o f executive affairs i s necessary. Sinc e you placed th e man who occupies this position in office, h e has done everything in his power to lower the dignity and standard of the city.38 Long speeche s fro m Kuehnl e wer e a rarity . H e carefull y instructe d th e faithful o n the dangers o f "cutting the ticket" and mad e but one referenc e to th e refor m movement . Recallin g Fort' s Saturnali a proclamation , h e said tha t th e mayor' s statement s i n favo r o f "choru s girls , gamblers , an d flubdubs" wa s "givin g life " to the forme r governor' s accusations . Bachar ach followe d b y declarin g tha t thos e condition s "neve r existed, " an d former prosecuto r Goldenber g conclude d b y sayin g that Kuehnl e was the foundation upo n which th e political succes s of the city had bee n built. "I t is the Commodore's ticke t you hav e endorsed thi s evening. " A wee k later , Kuehnl e accompanie d th e candidate s o n a tou r o f th e fortresses o f hi s forme r adversaries , makin g a series o f "plai n talk s t o th e white an d colore d help " o f th e Boardwal k hotels. 39 O n th e ev e o f the election , th e Review featured a front-page lette r entitle d "Wher e Th e Commodore Stands. " Above all, he stood fo r progress . "With the electio n of ever y ma n o n th e citizens ' ticket , Atlanti c Cit y wil l ente r th e greates t era o f prosperit y th e resor t ha s eve r known. " H e als o stoo d fo r decenc y and rectitude , an d perhap s eve n "Progressivism, " bu t tha t wor d wa s no t used. "I t mean s for yo u and me, and for al l of us, success , happiness, an d contentment wit h freedo m fro m slande r an d fals e representation. " Th e Newark Evening News commended th e Commodore's efforts , bu t could no t

Pharisees and Hypocrites • 19 3 help bu t wonde r ho w Atlanti c Cit y ha d reache d suc h a sorr y stat e a s t o have to choose between Kuehnl e an d Riddle. 40 The voter s electe d th e entir e slate , barel y defeatin g Riddl e b y 36 2 votes.41 O n th e followin g day , th e victor s stage d a parad e o n Atlanti c Avenue consistin g o f tw o hundre d automobile s an d ove r si x thousan d people. Carryin g a blac k coffi n wit h a pictur e o f th e mayor , the y pro claimed "Th e Deat h o f Riddleism. " Passin g Riddl e headquarter s o n Texas Avenue , th e celebration wa s marred b y violence . Accordin g to th e Press, th e coffin angere d th e crowd, a s a mob of protesters le d by off-dut y police attacke d th e parader s wit h club s an d stones . Th e Review reported: "Especially bitte r wer e th e taunt s agains t th e colore d paraders . Flag s were tor n fro m th e hand s o f th e colore d me n an d use d t o hi t the m ove r the head. On e burly League r got hold of a fragment o f a political standar d and whipped a horse a colored ma n was riding until it reared an d prance d dangerously throug h th e mo b whic h surge d abou t it." 42 Th e meanin g o f Progressive refor m i n Atlanti c Cit y ma y hav e elude d th e edito r o f th e Newark Evening News, bu t fo r blac k citizen s i t remaine d unchange d n o matter whic h sid e they supported . "Atlantic City Turn s Ove r A Ne w Leaf, " proclaimed a n article i n The Survey, but , i n th e ligh t o f Kuehnle' s rol e i n th e campaign , th e autho r was at a loss to explain the results in terms of civic reform. Riddle' s defea t was a boos t fo r Edge' s gubernatoria l campaign , bu t a revive d Kuehnl e would hav e th e opposit e effect. 43 Durin g th e res t o f 1916 , th e Commo dore remaine d i n th e background . However , afte r Edge' s successfu l gu bernatorial campaign , th e Edg e Marchin g Clu b tendere d Kuehnl e a ban quet an d presente d hi m wit h a liv e fo x i n appreciatio n fo r hi s effort s o n behalf o f th e party . B y 191 7 Kuehnl e wa s i n seriou s financial trouble . Later tha t year , hi s assets , estimate d t o b e wort h $625,000 , wer e place d in receivership. 44 In 1918 , pleadin g poverty , Kuehnl e mad e a bi d fo r th e count y clerk ship, bu t Edg e wa s no w runnin g fo r th e Unite d State s Senate . Durin g the campaign , on e H . L . Johnson, " a note d colore d orator " an d "forme r Recorder o f th e Deed s o f Washington, " warne d a Northsid e audienc e that Kuehnle' s candidac y wa s " a politica l trap " laid b y Democrats . Wer e Kuehnle t o b e nominated , "th e newspaper s fro m coas t t o coas t woul d b e filled with cartoons to show that the party of Edge had been camouflagin g and gon e bac k t o Kuehnl e an d th e ol d orde r o f things. " Th e Sunday Gazette named Edwar d L . Bade r an d Enoc h L . Johnson a s the leader s i n

194 # Pharisees and Hypocrites the cit y an d county , an d Danie l S . Whit e wa s bac k i n th e organization , declaring tha t i t no w represente d "th e ne w Republica n Party. " "Thi s i s not th e tim e t o sli p Kuehnl e bac k int o power, " sai d White , "th e peopl e will not brook it." 45 In 1919 , Kuehnle closed the bar at his hotel. H e later sold the propert y and th e landmar k wa s raze d t o mak e wa y fo r a ne w bank . Ironically , "The Corner " wa s a victi m o f Wilson' s wartim e prohibitio n measures , which ha d actuall y begu n i n 1917 . Bu t alread y th e cit y abounde d wit h speakeasies, an d fleets o f swif t speedboat s wer e eludin g Coas t Guar d launches of f th e coas t o f Atlanti c City . Wel l befor e th e passag e o f th e Eighteenth Amendment , th e bay s an d inlet s o f Abseco n Islan d ha d be come a major por t o f entry fo r illega l liquor. B y 192 0 the city wa s awas h with indictment s fo r liquo r violations, gambling, an d prostitution. 46 The Boardwal k hotelme n forme d th e Committe e o f One-Hundre d t o eliminate vic e an d lawlessness . Th e commissio n elections , hel d i n Ma y 1920, foun d th e beachfron t an d th e reformer s agai n arraye d agains t th e Republican organization . Th e organization , no w controlle d b y Bachar ach, Edwar d Bader , an d Enoc h L . Johnson , offere d Kuehnl e a spo t o n the ticket . Kuehnl e refused , saying , "I'l l ru n o n m y ow n hitch. " H e campaigned little , bu t wo n handily , comin g i n fifth amon g eightee n can didates.47 Kuehnle wa s no w a commissioner, alon g wit h Bacharach , Bader , an d two othe r organizatio n figures. Bade r becam e mayor , an d th e other com missioners move d swiftl y t o stri p Kuehnl e o f patronage . H e wa s place d in charg e o f park s an d playground s bu t shor n o f rea l power , wa s a commissioner i n nam e only. 48 I n 192 4 he won reelection , an d i n 192 8 he received organizatio n suppor t an d serve d continuall y a s director o f Park s and Publi c Propert y an d controlle d th e city' s waterwork s unti l hi s deat h in 1934 . Kuehnle's bod y la y i n stat e a t cit y hall , an d thousand s filed pas t th e coffin t o pay thei r las t respects t o the beloved Commodore . B y this time , the memorie s o f Kuehnle wer e almost al l fond one s an d th e legend o f th e "former boss " ha d take n firm root . Actually , th e loca l versio n o f th e Kuehnle myt h wa s establishe d b y 1926 , a s th e Press marveled a t th e excellent conditio n o f the park s an d playgrounds . Bu t wha t els e could b e expected o f a "geniu s o f Kuehnle' s calibre? " "Unde r hi s abl e guidance, " Atlantic Cit y ha d becom e th e greates t resor t i n th e world . H e wa s "th e originator o f th e Boardwalk, " th e founde r o f th e city' s utilities , an d th e man wh o "brough t th e railroad s t o reason, " an d h e als o pave d Atlanti c

Pharisees and Hypocrites • 19 5 Avenue. A s wit h mos t legends , ther e ar e som e truth s i n thi s one , an d Kuehnle did nothin g to discourage it . By 192 6 a different kin d o f legen d wa s alread y i n th e making . A t th e time o f Kuehnle' s death , Unite d State s Treasur y agent s wer e investigat ing th e affair s o f Enoc h L . Johnson , wh o the y sai d preside d ove r a n empire o f vic e an d crim e tha t rivale d Alphons e Capone' s regim e i n Chi cago. Accordin g t o thei r reports , Johnso n an d Prohibitio n ha d turne d Atlantic Cit y int o a wide-ope n tow n wit h brothels , gamblin g dens , an d speakeasies on practicall y ever y block . Liquo r an d commercia l vic e in th e city reportedl y grosse d $1 0 millio n a year , an d Johnson' s yearl y tak e from thes e source s an d fro m patronag e wa s variousl y estimate d a t fro m $300,000 t o $500,000 . Durin g th e summe r o f 1929 , Johnson hoste d Ca pone an d a convention o f organize d gangdom . Th e pictur e o f suite d an d vested mobster s danglin g thei r toe s i n th e sur f o r of Johnson an d Capon e strolling arm i n arm o n the Boardwal k complet e a nostalgic and symboli c portrait o f Atlantic City durin g the 1920s. 50 In 1939 , former Democrati c prosecuto r Charle s S . Moor e pronounce d a severe judgment o n Johnson b y sayin g he was "worse than Kuehnle." 51 Moore wa s understandabl y bitter . Thirt y year s earlie r h e ha d worke d closely wit h th e Wilso n administratio n t o ri d th e cit y o f th e Republica n machine only to see it reappear in a more powerful an d corrupt form unde r Johnson. Johnson prove d t o be an elusive quarry. H e wa s finally jailed i n 1941 for incom e tax evasion after a five-year investigation i n which federa l agents resorte d t o such method s a s counting th e towels tha t brothel s sen t to laundries in order to determine his take from prostitution. 52 With Johnson' s conviction , th e mantl e o f leadershi p fel l t o Fran k S . "Hap" Farley . Farley' s dominanc e o f th e cit y an d count y wa s sai d t o b e as grea t a s tha t o f Kuehnl e an d Johnson . I n 1951 , th e Kefauve r Crim e Commission conclude d tha t Atlanti c Cit y wa s "a n importan t wa y statio n in th e nationa l highwa y o f crime, " controlle d b y a "secre t government " composed o f "hoodlum s an d ke y official s . . . makin g commo n caus e i n plundering th e taxpayers. " Farle y escape d indictmen t an d endure d fo r twenty mor e years . H e wa s defeate d fo r stat e senato r i n th e mids t o f a federal gran d jur y investigatio n tha t resulte d i n th e conviction , i n 1972 , of seve n cit y officials , includin g tw o forme r mayors , fo r bribery , extor tion, an d conspiracy. 53 S o ende d th e "Republica n Bos s Er a o f Atlanti c City." Johnson, Farley , an d thei r successor s ar e subject s fo r othe r stud ies. The y ar e o f interes t her e onl y i n th e sens e tha t thei r career s furthe r attached th e Kuehnl e myt h t o th e politica l histor y o f Atlanti c City . 49

196 • Pharisees and Hypocrites The Kuehnl e myt h i s importan t t o ou r understandin g o f Loui s Kuehnle an d o f Atlanti c City , bu t wha t importanc e doe s i t hav e fo r ou r understanding o f Progressiv e refor m an d o f th e broade r schem e o f socia l and politica l refor m durin g th e Industria l Era ? A "friendl y critic " of th e reform traditio n i n America n societ y sa w th e perio d afte r 190 0 a s "af fected b y a sor t o f spiritua l hunger, " a yearnin g t o appl y th e principle s of Christia n moralit y t o socia l problems . Progressivis m wa s then , i n part—and i n larg e part—" a phas e i n th e Protestan t conscience , a latte r day Protestan t revival." 54 Atlanti c City , o f course , stoo d fo r somethin g quite differen t i n America n society , bu t betwee n 185 4 a n ^ 1920 , an d even within th e two decades of Progressivism, resor t elite s either resiste d or succumbe d t o man y phase s i n th e Protestan t conscience , an d the y responded t o a number o f revivals . During th e first twent y years , th e resident s an d promoter s buil t ho tels, bee r gardens , an d saloons , bu t the y als o buil t churches . I n th e 1880s, the y provide d show s an d mechanica l amusements , an d the y closed the m o n Sundays . Afte r 1890 , reformers attacke d gambling , pros titution, an d th e liquo r traffic , a s well a s the libera l Sunday , an d cause d bitter division s amon g th e residents . Bu t i n truth , th e libera l polic y wa s never a s libera l a s it s critic s charged . Geare d primaril y towar d profit s and prosperity , i t wa s also , especiall y afte r 1901 , severel y tempere d b y the Protestan t conscience . Between 190 1 an d 1908 , Walte r Evan s Edg e an d th e Boardwal k ho telmen ridicule d evangelica l reformers , bu t i n 191 6 th e elite s an d th e clergy aligne d i n solem n partnershi p i n th e struggl e agains t Riddleism . In 1909 , a Sunda y basebal l gam e bega n a refor m movement , bu t o n Sunday, Jun e 9 , 1918 , tw o game s wer e playe d withou t protest. 55 Th e supreme iron y o f reform i n Atlantic City i s that, betwee n 190 9 and 1912 , Progressives portraye d Kuehnl e an d th e Northsid e a s a detriment t o th e city an d a menac e t o publi c decency , ye t enliste d precisel y thes e force s in 191 6 t o defea t Riddle , wh o pose d a s th e champio n o f democrac y an d the workin g classe s a s agains t th e entrenchmen t o f wealt h an d privilege . Small wonde r tha t The Survey, whil e applaudin g th e result s o f tha t elec tion, coul d find i n i t n o meanin g i n term s o f civi c reform . Indeed , ex tracting th e essenc e o f Progressiv e refor m fro m th e tumul t o f socia l an d political conflic t i n Atlanti c Cit y woul d see m a daunting task . A goo d plac e t o begi n i s a t th e en d o f th e Kuehnl e era . Explainin g the marc h o f Prohibitio n i n th e immediat e prewa r years , on e historia n asserted tha t th e vast disorder o f American lif e justifie d "kee n mora l anx -

Pharisees and Hypocrites • 19 7

ieties": "Thu s th e 'searc h fo r order ' wa s quit e naturall y directe d towar d the officia l an d nationa l validatio n o f values whic h coul d sustai n th e fam ily a s th e vita l socia l institution . Th e configuratio n o f individua l respon sibilities implied b y thes e values—duty, restraint , self-discipline—were , in ope n society , ofte n violentl y a t odd s wit h an y toleranc e fo r persona l indulgences o r mora l pluralisms." 56 Thes e wer e hardl y ne w issue s b y 1913. Bu t a decade o f Progressiv e refor m ha d focuse d constan t publicit y on th e ill s o f industria l society , particularl y i n th e cities , an d create d a n increased urgenc y amon g middle-clas s American s fo r th e preservatio n o f the famil y an d traditiona l values . Th e wa r i n Europ e an d th e increasin g prospect o f America n involvemen t furthe r accentuate d thes e anxieties . Returning t o th e Survey article , w e find th e autho r baffle d b y resor t politics bu t confiden t tha t electio n o f 191 6 wa s "significan t fro m th e standpoint o f th e psycholog y o f publi c recreation . I t mean s tha t i n th e view o f th e grea t amusemen t an d hote l enterprise s alon g th e Boardwalk , their prosperit y hang s o n no t caterin g t o the tough an d sportin g element , but i n thei r appea l t o th e vas t bul k o f every-da y American s wh o wan t a clean plac e t o g o fo r refreshment. " Thi s wa s "no t repressiv e moralism, " but "th e sam e verdic t whic h cam e wit h th e cleanin g ou t o f th e wors t joints o n Cone y Island." 57 A mor e likel y explanatio n fo r th e demis e o f Coney Islan d i s that i t wa s th e victi m o f it s own success . Havin g accom plished a cultura l revolution , commercia l recreatio n los t it s capacit y t o titillate an d excit e th e masses . Cone y Island , an d b y extension , commer cial recreation , stirre d a n ambivalenc e tha t wen t t o th e hear t o f Progres sive reform . Increasingly , progressive s cam e t o believ e tha t th e socia l environment decisivel y shape d th e live s of th e people . Thus , rea l refor m required nothin g les s tha n th e complet e restructurin g o f th e socia l orde r and th e extensio n o f control s int o ever y spher e o f America n life. 58 "The movemen t fo r organize d play, " a s historian s hav e labele d th e impulse t o refor m recreationa l environments , foun d bot h publi c an d pri vate expressio n an d lon g predate d th e Progressiv e era . Frederic k La w Olmstead pioneere d th e movemen t whe n h e created Ne w York' s Centra l Park i n 1859 , an d i t wa s carrie d o n b y a hos t o f evangelica l an d secula r reformers wh o sough t t o wres t contro l o f th e amusement s fro m privat e entrepreneurs. 59 Evangelical s sough t t o bea t commercia l resort s a t thei r own gam e b y th e creatio n o f Ocea n Grov e an d suc h thing s a s Christia n Endeavor, th e YMCA , th e YWCA , an d othe r church-sponsore d yout h groups. Progressive s responde d t o the challenge of commercial recreatio n by buildin g municipa l danc e hall s an d sponsorin g municipa l athleti c

198 • Pharisees and Hypocrites leagues. Jane Addams wa s in the forefront o f that effort . I n 1916 , investigators o f th e Juvenile Protectiv e Associatio n o f Chicag o mad e si x visit s to nearb y Rivervie w Par k an d discovere d "vulga r an d suggestiv e adver tisements" and a number o f other indecencies . Boy s and girls were drink ing and gambling , an d a Cook County judg e said that th e prairie adjacen t to th e par k wa s "th e larges t hous e o f assignatio n i n Chicago. " Sai d Ad dams, "Whe n commercialize d recreatio n i s left t o it s ow n devices , socia l neglect an d la x enforcemen t o f th e la w g o hand i n hand." 60 Atlantic Cit y and , mor e especially , Cone y Islan d were , o f course, th e very antithesi s o f th e municipa l recreatio n movement , bu t th e concern s addressed b y reformer s suc h a s Jane Addam s an d th e deepe r anxietie s o f evangelicals wer e th e force s t o whic h th e politica l elite s i n Atlanti c Cit y responded. Thi s coul d prov e t o b e a perplexin g process . Jan e Addam s wrote: "Sinc e th e soldier s o f Cromwel l shu t u p th e people' s playhouse s and destroye d thei r pleasur e fields, th e Anglo-Saxon cit y ha s turned ove r the provisio n fo r publi c recreatio n t o th e mos t evil-minde d an d mos t unscrupulous member s o f th e community." 61 I n 1917 , Jame s Peyto n Sizer, a teacher o f civic s an d manua l trainin g i n Indianapolis , wrot e The Commercialization of Leisure, advocating nothin g les s tha n th e complet e overthrow o f th e commerc e i n recreatio n i n favo r o f municipa l control . Sizer was a follower o f Addams, an d thi s obscure boo k of but ninety-on e pages probabl y contain s th e pures t expressio n o f th e secula r Progressiv e response t o commercialize d recreation . I t reads , i n part , lik e a litan y o f social abuse s create d b y th e privat e purveyor s o f amusement . Bu t Size r was equall y condemnator y o f th e YMCA : So they condescend to establish a swimming pool or a gymnasium, or even allow a club of boys to meet, providin g it is thoroughly supervised . The n they tr y t o present religio n t o him while he is off hi s guard b y requirin g him to attend Sunday school or by establishing a prayer meeting next door. . . . These places are always closed on Sunday and do not remain open late at night , thu s forcin g peopl e ou t a t th e ver y tim e whe n the y hav e th e most leisure.62 An avi d reader , Willia m Riddl e woul d hav e found muc h t o commend i n Sizer's book . H e ha d advocate d th e creatio n o f a municipal ban d s o tha t the bather s coul d tang o o n th e beach . Refor m i n Atlanti c Cit y followe d the lines of Progressivism, bu t tha t message was often confused . To elevat e Sabbatarian s t o th e legitimat e rank s o f Progressiv e reform ers i s to further mudd y th e historians ' debate ove r th e natur e o f Progres -

Pharisees and Hypocrites • 19 9 sive reform. I n 1915 , in a protest highl y typica l of secular urban Progres sives, Clevelan d mayo r Newto n D . Bake r sai d tha t state-enacte d Sunda y restrictions an d "othe r dead-letter laws " were the source of "more troubl e and confusio n tha n al l othe r aspect s o f socia l contro l combined." 63 On e historian ha s propose d tha t a good wa y t o mak e sens e o f th e Progressiv e mosaic i s t o acknowledg e th e distinctio n betwee n th e moral-coerciv e crusades fo r Socia l Purit y an d Prohibitio n (t o thi s categor y I woul d obviously ad d Sabbatarianism ) an d the more positive and human e aspect s of th e movemen t tha t libera l secula r historian s fel t alon e deserve d th e term "Progressive. " Bu t underlyin g th e divers e strand s o f refor m la y a "moral substratum " grounde d i n America n Protestantis m tha t reformer s across th e broa d spectru m o f Progressivis m ha d imbibe d i n thei r yout h and whic h wa s manifes t i n "a n infinit e capacit y fo r mora l indignation. " Their share d relianc e on statistic s an d technica l expertis e gave the "mora l dimension" "scientifi c legitimacy " and provide d furthe r link s among Pro gressives.64 To thes e we might add , a s cementing an d common character istics, thei r commo n resor t t o law , politics , an d governmen t a s a mean s for effectin g reforms , an d a share d fundamenta l hostilit y towar d th e culture o f th e underclass , particularl y blacks . Norther n Republican s might wa x indignan t ove r lynchin g an d rac e riots , an d a fe w whit e Progressives, mos t notabl y Ra y Stannar d Bake r an d Oswal d Garriso n Villard, attempte d t o sti r th e nation' s conscienc e ove r th e systemati c injustice o f the color line. I n fact , a recent stud y document s th e efforts o f members o f th e Socia l Gospe l Movemen t o n behal f o f racia l reform. 65 But a majorit y o f Norther n liberal s eithe r remaine d indifferen t t o th e enormities o f racia l injustic e o r blame d black s themselve s fo r th e squalo r and vic e o f urba n slums . I t i s doubtfu l tha t anythin g coul d quicke n th e moral indignatio n o f either a coercive or a Progressive as an account o f a n interracial brothel . O n th e on e hand , w e find muc h t o impl y a unit y o f social outlook amon g Progressives . On th e othe r hand , th e experienc e o f Atlanti c Cit y mor e clearl y illus trates th e division s withi n th e rank s o f refor m an d migh t sugges t tha t historians shoul d abando n th e search for th e essence of Progressivism an d treat th e movemen t fo r wha t i t was : "ambiguous, " "inconsistent, " an d devoid o f central meaning. 66 Runnin g fo r governer i n 1916 , Walter Evan s Edge posed a s a "Business Ma n Wit h a Business Plan, " but "Progressive s could b e foun d wh o admire d th e efficienc y o f th e bi g corporatio n an d who detested th e trusts , wh o laude d th e 'people ' and wh o yearne d fo r a n electorate confined t o white an d educate d voters , who spoke the languag e

200 • Pharisees and Hypocrites of social engineering an d the language of moral uplift, o r (to make matter s worse) did all of these things a t once." 67 Edge, Harve y Thomas , th e Boardwal k hotelmen , th e evangelicals , Woodrow Wilson , an d eve n Kuehnl e an d Riddle , al l mad e goo d us e of the rhetori c o f Progressive reform , a language "thic k wit h stra w men." 68 Although ofte n a t wa r wit h itself , Progressivis m wa s mor e tha n jus t words. Perhap s i t i s bes t understoo d a s a n ofte n cynical , bu t mostl y genuine reactio n t o th e agonie s o f socia l change , a proces s that , i n th e words o f one historian, "wrenche d America n societ y fro m th e mooring s of familiar values, " long predated th e Progressive Era, and was seen mos t deeply a t the level of culture. 69 The Progressiv e movement washed ove r Atlantic City, leavin g nothin g of endurin g significanc e bu t mor e tha n jus t footprint s i n th e sand . Th e tides of reform ha d swelled man y time s ove r tiny Abseco n Island , an d as they receded , thei r high-wate r mark s lef t successiv e indice s o f the limit s of refor m an d o f changin g socia l values . Beneat h th e rumblin g water s surged powerfu l crosscurrent s o f intense huma n emotion , an d each time , as w e surve y th e wreckage , w e find evidenc e o f the increasin g intensit y of socia l conflic t durin g th e industria l era . Comin g t o term s wit h thi s conflict, successiv e generation s o f local elite s forge d th e liberal policy — an expression, lik e reform itself , o f the human nee d to preserve social and moral order i n the face of rapid an d profound change . In 1920 , with tongu e in cheek, th e New Republic hailed Atlanti c City as "The America n Utopia. " Ther e wer e no good book s to be bought o n the Boardwalk, bu t family lif e was intact. For Atlantic City i s the American Utopia , a s truly a s though i t had been planned by a congress representing our sturdy middle class millions, assembled to lay down the groundwork o f the millennium. Atlanti c City exist s but to please; the men who built it beside the ocean's cool sands gambled on their knowledge of What The Public Wants. Those who guessed rightly were enriche d beyon d th e dream s o f yesterday' s avarice . Thos e wh o guessed incorrectly, "went broke," and the place has seen them no more.70 As Enoc h L . Johnson onc e explained : "W e always gav e the people wha t they wanted. "

Notes

O N E The

Kuehnle Myth

i. Atlantic City Press, July 28 , 1989 , 1 , B i - 8 . 2. Charles Yeager, "The Republican Boss Era of Atlantic City: 1900-1971" (unpublished manuscript held in the Heston Room, Atlantic City Public Library, Atlantic City, N.J.; Ovid Demaris, The Boardwalk Jungle (New York : Bantam Books , 1986) , 21. 3. Philadelphia Evening Times, January 26 , 1912 , 4; Philadelphia North American, January 26 , 1912 , 6. 4. "Kuehnle , Arc h Boss , to Prison," New York Sun, Decembe r 8 , 1913 , 1,4 . 5. Arthu r S . Link , ed. , The Papers of Woodrow Wilson, vol . 23 : 1911-1912 (Princeton, N.J. : Princeton Universit y Press , 1977) , 522—531. 6. Philadelphia North American, September 21 , 1909, 6. 7. Jame s E . Wright , "Th e Ethnocultura l Mode l o f Voting, " American Behaviorial Scientist 16 (June 1973) : 653-673; Richard L . McCormick , "Ethno-Cultura l Interpretations o f Nineteenth-Centur y America n Votin g Behavior, " Political Science Quarterly (June 1974) : 351—377. 8. Foste r Rhe a Dulles , A History of Recreation: America Learns to Play (Ne w York: Appleton Centur y Crofts , 1965) , chaps. 11 , 12, and 13 . 9. Joh n Higham , "Th e Reorientatio n o f America n Cultur e i n th e 1890s, " i n John Weiss , ed. , The Origins of Modern Consciousness (Detroit: Wayne Stat e Univer sity Press, 1965) , 62. 10. "Th e Summe r Problem, " Scribner's Magazine, 18 , (July-Decembe r 1895) : 56-5711. Josia h Strong , Our Country (Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard Universit y Press , 1963X 5512. Ibid. , 104 .

13. Stanle y Weintraub , Victoria: An Intimate Biography (New York : E . P .

Dutton, 1987) , 212-213 .

201

202 • TW O From Pitnefs Folly to World's Playground 14. Danie l T . Rogers , The Work Ethic in Industrial America, 1850-1920 (Chicago: University o f Chicago Press, 1978) , 106-107 . 15. Winto n Solberg , Redeem the Time: The Puritan Sabbath in Early America (Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard Universit y Press , 1977) , ix. 16. Ibid. , xi . 17. Newark Evening Call, November n , 1911,4 . 18. Atlantic City Press, July 11 , 1912 , 1 . 19. Joh n D'Emili o an d Estell e B . Freedman , Intimate Matters: A History of Sexuality in America (New York : Harper an d Row , 1988) , 202-203. 20. Ne w Jersey Dependenc y an d Crime s Commission , Report (Trenton, N.J. : MacCrellish, Stat e Printers , 1909) , 20-21 , 26-27 . Boo m was not give n the fund s to conduc t studie s o f hi s own . H e therefor e relie d o n Europea n studie s don e principally i n Germany an d France . 21. Je d Dannenbaum , Drink and Disorder (Chicago: Universit y o f Illinoi s Press, 1984) , x-xi . Se e als o Mar k Edwar d Lende r an d Jame s Kirb y Martin , Drinking in America: A History (New York : The Fre e Press, 1982) , chap. 3 . 22. I hav e use d th e ter m "popula r resort " a s oppose d t o "mas s resort " t o characterize Atlanti c Cit y becaus e i t seem s t o fal l neatl y betwee n th e latte r an d the ter m "exclusiv e resort. " "Popula r resort " wa s a term continuall y use d b y th e city i n promotiona l literatur e durin g an d afte r th e 1880s , an d it s us e reflect s a n intention t o pu t a gentee l glos s o n th e majorit y o f it s patron s wh o wer e o f th e middle an d lowe r classes . Charle s Funnel l preferre d t o styl e th e cit y a s a mas s resort becaus e of its large-scale reliance on mas s transportation an d advertisin g a s well a s th e extensiv e effort s th e cit y mad e t o attrac t th e excursio n trade . Se e Funnell, By the Beautiful Sea, \6^n. M y us e of th e ter m i s intended t o distinguis h Atlantic Cit y from , fo r example , Cone y Island , whic h wa s almos t exclusivel y dedicated t o a working-class clientele, and Cape May, a resort that made comparatively littl e efforts t o promote the working-class trade . 23. Harriso n Rhodes , "Atlanti c City , Seein g Americ a A t Last, " Saturday Evening Post, February 20 , 1915 , n - 1 2 . T W O From

Pitney's Folly to World's Playground

1. Alfre d M . Heston , ed. , South Jersey. A History: 1664-1024, 5 vols . (Ne w York: Lewis Historica l Publishin g Co. , Inc. , 1924) , 754-755. 2. Lewi s M . Haupt , "Change s Alon g th e Ne w Jerse y Coast, " New Jersey Geological Survey, 1860-191$ (Trenton , N.J. , 1905) , 32 . 3. [Alber t Hand , ed.] , A Book of Cape May (Cap e May , N.J. : Alber t Han d Co., 1937) , 67-68.; Haupt, "Change s Alon g the New Jersey Coast, " 32 ; William McMahon, South Jersey Towns: History and Legend (New Brunswick , N.J. : Rutger s University Press , 1983) , 14-15 . 4. Federa l Writer s Project , Work s Progres s Administration , Entertaining a Nation: The Career of Long Branch (Bayonne, N.J. : Jerse y Printin g Company , 1940), 28 ; Haupt, "Change s Along the New Jersey Coast, " 32 .

TWO From Pitney's Folly to World's Playground • 20 3 5. Haupt , "Change s Alon g the New Jersey Coast, " 32 . 6. Rober t C. Alexander , Ho! For Cape Island (Cape May, N.J. : By the Author , 1956), 27-24 , 108 ; Entertaining a Nation, 29 . 7. Haupt , "Change s Alon g the New Jersey Coast, " 32 . 8. A . L . English , History of Atlantic City (Philadelphia : Dickso n an d Gillin g Publishers, 1884) , 44-45 . Pitney' s lif e ha s bee n sketche d i n a numbe r o f loca l histories. Th e mos t complet e accoun t appear s i n Sara h W . R . Ewin g an d Rober t McMullin, Along Absecon Creek (Bridgeton, N.J. : C O . W . A . N . Printing , 1965) , 225-245. Se e also Allen H . Brown , Fifty Years of Progress on the Coast of New Jersey (Newark, N.J. : Dail y Advertise r Printin g House , 1886) , 1 4 (a paper prepare d fo r the New Jersey Historica l Society) . 9. Carneswort h [pseud.] , Atlantic City: Its Early and Modern History Philadel phia: Willia m C . Harri s an d Co. , 1868) , 36 ; Ewing an d McMullin , Along Absecon Creek, 139-140; Alfre d M . Heston , Absegami: Annals of Eyren Haven and Atlantic City (Camden , N.J. : Sinnickso n Che w an d Son s Company , 1904) , ion ; Arthu r D. Pierce , Family Empire in Jersey Iron (New Brunswick , N.J. : Rutger s Universit y Press, 1964) , 230. 10. Charle s Funnell , By the Beautiful Sea: The Rise and High Times of That Great American Resort, Atlantic City (New York : Alfred A . Knopf , 1975) , 4. 11. Ewin g and McMullin , Along Absecon Creek, 137-138. 12. Heston , South Jersey , vol. 2 , 755. 13. "Atlanti c City, " The Pennsy, vol. 3 , no. 6 , June 195 4 (Philadelphia: Penn sylvania Railroa d Company , Inc.) , 4. 14. Camde n an d Atlanti c Railroad , Atlantic City, N.J. (Philadelphia : J . B . Lippincott an d Co. , 1873) , 4. 15. Harol d Wilson , The Jersey Shore (New York : Lewi s Historica l Publishing , I953X 5 2716. Heston , South Jersey, vol. 2 , 7 2 2. 17. "Atlanti c City," The Pennsy, 4 ; Wilson, The Jersey Shore, 529 . 18. Undate d pres s clippin g i n file, "Atlanti c Cit y Hotels, " Camde n Count y Historical Society , Camden , N.J . 19. Heston , South Jersey, 724. 20. Pierce , Family Empire in Jersey Iron, 233 ; Sara h Thompso n Smith , A History ofVentnor City, N.J. (n.p , 1963) , 13. 21. Presbyterian, January 8 , 1856 , 1 . 22. Joh n Hall , The Daily Union History o f Atlanti c Cit y an d County , Ne w Jersey (Atlanti c City, N.J. : Dail y Union , 1900) , 345 ; Alfred Heston , South Jersey, vol. 2 , 722 .

23. Camde n an d Atlanti c Railroad , Atlantic City, 11-15 . 24. Edwar d Strahan , Some Highways and Byways of American Travel (Philadel phia^. B . Lippincott an d Company , 1878) , 102 . 25. "Th e Seaside, " The Lady's Friend, 5 (January-December 1868) : 640. 26. Heston , Annals, 161 . 27. Camde n an d Atlanti c Railroad , Annual Report 1872, 19 ; Annual Report 1873, 10. The assumptio n her e i s that th e railroa d passenge r figures includ e bot h

204 •

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From

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leaving an d retur n trips . Thes e statistic s compor t wit h loca l newspape r account s which estimate , fo r example , th e numbe r o f excursionist s alon e fo r 187 2 a t 140,000. Se e Atlantic City Daily Review, August 20 , 1872 , 4. 28. Camde n an d Atlanti c Railroad , Atlantic City, 5 . 29. Atlantic City Review, August 18 , 1873 , 5; August 20 , 1873 . 30. Heston , Annals, 327 . 31. Atlantic City Commission Government Journal 1, no. 4 (July 1913) : 2-7 . 32. Ibid . 33. W . Georg e Coo k an d Willia m J . Coxey , Atlanti c Cit y Railroad : Th e Royal Rout e t o th e Se a (Ambler , Pa. : Crusade r Press , 1980) , 6 ; Camde n an d Atlantic Railroad , Annual Report 1882, 8 . 34. Pierce , Family Empire in Jersey Iron, 234-235. 35. Wilson , The Jersey Shore, 528; Miria m V . Studley , Historic New Jersey through Visitors' Eyes (Princeton, N.J. : D . Va n Nostran d Company , Inc. , 1964) , 158-159. 36. Wilson , The Jersey Shore, 473 . 37. New Jersey State Census, Volume fo r Atlanti c County , 1885 , 4 ; U.S . De partment o f Commerce , Burea u o f th e Census , Thirteenth Census of the United States, 1910, (Supplemen t fo r Ne w Jersey), 594. 38. Funnell , By the Beautiful Sea, chapter 3 . 39. Atlantic City Daily Union, Augus t 18 , 1890 , 1 . 40. Betwee n i86 0 an d 187 5 th e averag e wor k wee k i n al l industrie s decline d from 6 5 hour s pe r wee k t o jus t unde r 62 , whil e th e averag e weekl y wag e ros e from $7.0 8 t o $11.2 0 during th e sam e period. Se e Rober t E . Sno w an d Davi d E . Wright, "Cone y Island : A Cas e Stud y i n Popula r Cultur e an d Technica l Change," Journal of Popular Culture, Septembe r 1980 , 974 . (Dat a extracte d fro m The Statistical History of the United States from the Colonial Times to the Present (Stamford, Conn. : Fairfiel d Publishers , Inc. , 1965) . 41. Alfre d M . Heston , Illustrated Hand-Book of Atlantic City (Philadelphia : Franklin Printin g House , 1887) , 83-85 ; "Atlanti c Cit y Hotel-Keepers. " (pam phlet locate d i n clippin g file entitle d "Atlanti c City, " i n Ne w Jerse y Stat e Ar chives, Trenton, N.J.) . 42. " A Complet e Guid e t o Atlanti c City " (Philadelphia : Bur k an d McFe tridge, 1885) , 19 . 43. Ibid. , 15 . 44. Weekly Herald (Atlantic City), March 12 , 1889 , (Scattered copie s located i n Atlantic County Historica l Society , Somer s Point, N.J.) . 45. Atlantic City Press, July 28 , 1895 , 6. 46. New York Times, July 6 , 1897 , IO 47. Philadelphia Press, Apri l 5 , 1903 , 7. 48. Souvenir Program of the Semi-Centennial Celebration of Atlantic City, N.J. (Heston Room , Atlanti c City Publi c Library, Atlanti c City, N.J.) . 49. Ibid. , June 12 , 190 4 (Special Resor t Section) ; see also the Press, th e Union, and th e Review, June 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 , 20, 1904 . $0. Katherin e Busby , Home Life in America (New York : Th e Macmilla n Com pany, 1910) , 325.

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Pitney's Folly to World's Playground • 20 5

51. Atlantic City, New Jersey: The World's Greatest Resort (Atlantic Cit y Public ity Bureau , 1912) , 23. While sources suc h a s this can be expected t o exaggerate i n estimating th e volum e o f tourists , th e crowd s wer e undoubtedl y huge , particu larly i n Jul y an d August . I n Jun e 1914 , Georg e Lenhart , th e directo r o f th e Atlantic Cit y Publicit y Bureau , estimate d tha t th e on e thousan d hotel s an d boardinghouses i n th e cit y coul d shelte r wel l ove r a quarter millio n guest s a t on e time, an d tha t fo r "week s a t a stretch " th e populatio n o f th e cit y exceede d 300,000. Se e Atlantic City, N.J. , Atlantic City Commission Government, vol . I , No . n , June , 1914 , 4 . O n July 4 , 1909 , i t wa s reporte d tha t "on e hundre d thousan d new arrival s hav e bee n discharge d int o th e resor t durin g th e las t thre e days . Added t o th e 150,00 0 wh o wer e her e befor e th e recen t inflow r i t give s a total o f 250,000 strangers. " Durin g thi s perio d th e city' s capacit y wa s stretche d t o th e limit. "I t require d th e us e o f cot s an d billiar d table s t o sto w awa y th e throng s who demanded accommodations. " Se e Philadelphia Inquirer, July 4 , 1909 , 1 . 52. Philadelphia Press , June 12 , 190 4 (Resort Section) , 1 . 53. Populatio n figure s fo r Atlanti c Cit y ar e a s follows : 189 0 - 13,055 ; 190 0 27,838; 190 5 - 37,593 ; 191 0 - 46,150 ; 191 5 - 51,667 . U.S . Departmen t o f Com merce, Burea u o f th e Census , Thirteenth Census of the United States, 1910 (Supple ment fo r Ne w Jersey), 594 ; New Jersey State Census, 1905, 1915. A summar y o f th e New Jersey censu s o f 190 5 indicate s tha t o f th e 24,61 5 resident s ove r th e ag e of 21, 4,28 3 wer e engage d i n "commercia l pursuits. " This represente d 17. 4 percen t of th e adul t population ; New Jersey State Census, 1905, Supervisor's Report. In 1915 , of th e 35,77 8 adul t residents , 6,30 4 o r 17. 6 percen t wer e s o engaged. New Jersey State Census, 19 is, Supervisor's Report. 54. Philadelphia Evening Times, August 29 , 1909 , 3. 55. I n 1906 , th e Trenton Times lamented: "Mos t o f th e resort s tha t wer e dea r to th e heart s o f ou r father s ar e no w deserte d an d wel l nig h forgotten. " Excep t during th e racin g season , Saratog a wa s frequente d onl y b y " a fe w shir t wais t women, . . . som e invalids , an d a handfu l o f politician s wh o wis h t o mee t i n a quiet spot. " I t als o reported tha t plan s wer e afoo t t o transform i t into primarily a winter resort . Atlanti c Cit y ha d "robbe d bot h Cap e Ma y an d Lon g Branc h o f their glory. " Lon g Branc h wa s a "banque t hal l deserted, " an d it s declin e wa s attributed t o th e stat e prohibitio n o f gamblin g i n 190 0 (the Vorhee s Act) . Cap e May enjoye d al l th e advantage s o f Atlanti c City , bu t accordin g t o th e report , it s natives "lacke d enterprise. " Se e Trenton Times, September 11 , 1906 , 4 . I n 1894 , the New York Times reported tha t Cap e Ma y ha d give n notic e tha t i t propose d t o "overthrow th e letharg y o f a dozen years " in a n effor t t o regain "som e of her los t prestige a s th e mos t fashionabl e seasid e resor t i n America. " Se e "Cap e May' s New Aspirations, " New York Times, May 23 , 1894 , 2 I 56. Hall , Daily Union History, 175 . 57. Atlantic City Commission Government, vol . 2 , no. 8 , March 1915 , 1 . 58. Ibid . 59. Tov a Novarra , The New Jersey Shore: A Vanishing Splendor (Philadelphia : The Ar t Allianc e Press, 1985) , 15 . 60. Herber t Foster , "Th e Urba n Experienc e o f Black s i n Atlanti c City , Ne w Jersey: 1850-1915 " (Ph.D. diss. , Rutger s University , 1981) , 21.

206 • TW O From Pitney's Folly to World's Playground 61. Ibid., 28 . Tw o Ne w Jersey studie s explai n th e compellin g attractio n o f Atlantic Cit y fo r blac k worker s an d thei r extremel y wea k bargainin g positio n i n the hote l industry . A surve y o f 39 8 manufacturing firm s i n New Jersey "repre senting al l fields o f industry " reveale d th e following : Th e aggregat e numbe r o f persons employed i n these establishments wa s 128,412 , a number considerabl y i n excess of 5 0 percent o f the total employe d i n all kinds o f manufacturing i n New Jersey. I t was found tha t only eighty-three establishments out of the total numbe r reporting (questionnaire s wer e sen t t o 475 places) employe d Negr o labo r i n any capacity. Tw o hundre d an d ninety-tw o reporte d n o Negroe s a t wor k i n an y branch o f thei r business . Th e aggregat e numbe r o f person s o f bot h race s em ployed i n the eighty-three establishment s reportin g Negr o labo r is 38,364. Ther e were 96 3 Negroes amon g these , o f whom onl y 23 4 were eithe r skille d o r semi skilled workers . Th e remainin g 72 9 were commo n laborers , stableme n o r tea m drivers. Se e W . C . Garrison , Chie f o f th e Burea u o f Statistics , The Negro in Manufacturing and Mechanical Industries (Somerville, N.J.: Unionist Gazette Association, Stat e Printers , 1903) , 72 . (Copy i n Governo r Edwar d Stoke s Correspon dence, Archives , Ne w Jerse y Stat e Library , Trenton , N.J.) . A stud y o f th e occupational distributio n o f black workers don e in 193 5 revealed tha t i n 1910 , 6 6 percent o f al l black s employe d i n Ne w Jersey wer e i n th e fields o f Agricultur e and Persona l an d Domesti c Service , 55. 9 percen t i n th e latte r category . Onl y 16.9 percen t wer e employe d i n Manufacturin g an d Mechanical Industries . Thi s process wa s disrupted b y th e Firs t Worl d War , an d b y 192 0 the percentag e o f blacks i n Persona l an d Domesti c Servic e decline d t o 42. 9 percen t an d thos e employed i n Manufacturin g an d Mechanica l Industrie s almos t double d t o 31. 2 percent. Se e Edgarto n Ellio t Hall , The Negro Wage Earner in New Jersey (Ne w Brunswick, N.J. : Rutgers Universit y Schoo l of Education, 1935) , 27. 62. Charle s Henr y Cope , Reminiscences of Charles West Cope R. A. (London : Richard Bentle y an d Son., 1891) , 289. 63. Dat a derive d fro m th e Unite d State s Censu s o f 189 0 revealed tha t 52. 1 percent o f blac k me n i n Atlanti c Cit y wer e Southern-born . Th e percentag e o f black me n i n hote l wor k wa s muc h higher , o r 68. 6 percent . Se e Foster , "Th e Black Experience," 76, 81 . 64. Atlantic City Daily Union, June 14 , 1893, 1. 65. Ibid. , Augus t 11 , 1899, 1. 66. Foster , "Th e Blac k Experience, " 39 . After 1906 , hotels als o hire d whit e women a s cook s an d fo r othe r job s traditionall y hel d b y blac k males . I n som e instances, black s were replaced b y an entirely whit e staff. Th e trend wa s accelerated b y the war, which not only siphoned of f black males into the armed services , but als o presente d opportunitie s i n industria l wor k tha t ha d heretofor e bee n unavailable. Se e Federal Writer s Project , Work s Progres s Administration , "Earn ing a Living in Atlantic City," New Jersey Ethnic Survey (Atlantic City), Box WK2, New Jerse y Stat e Library , Trenton , N.J. , 1-2 . Apparently , th e dominanc e o f blacks i n hote l employmen t i n th e Nort h wa s in seriou s jeopard y earlie r i n the century. Thi s wa s evident a t the annual conventio n o f the United State s Head waiters Associatio n meetin g i n Atlanti c Cit y i n 1903 . President F . Johnso n o f

TWO From Pitney's Folly to World's Playground • 20 7 New York addressed ove r one hundred delegate s from fifteen state s in Fitzgerald' s Auditorium (i n the Northside) an d deplore d th e increasing reluctanc e of hotels t o hire blac k men , saying : "Th e rac e questio n doe s no t ente r int o th e employmen t or non-employment o f the colored man , bu t th e fault lie s with th e rank and file of young me n o f thi s generatio n who , withou t an y training , ar e enterin g th e field seeking work." See Atlantic City Press, Octobe r 14 , 1903 , 1. 67. "Earnin g a Living in Atlantic City," 2 . 68. Willia m M . Ashby , Tales Without Hate (Newark , N.J. : Newar k Land marks and Preservatio n Committee , 1980) , 36-37 . 69. Philadelphia Inquirer, July 23 , 1893 , 10 . 70. Atlantic City Daily Union, Augus t 1 , 1893 , 4. 71. Atlantic City Review, August 21,1884 , 1 . 72. Atlantic City Press, Augus t 18 , 1896 , 1 . 73. Federa l Writer s Project , Work s Progres s Administration , "Atlanti c Cit y Industrial Improvemen t Company, " Atlanti c Count y Historica l Society , Somer s Point, N.J. , 1-3 . Fo r a brief accoun t o f th e caree r o f Georg e Walls , se e Foster , "The Blac k Experience, " 66-68. ; Federa l Writer s Project , Ne w Jerse y Ethni c Survey, "Recreation, " 16 . 74. Wynett a Devore , "Th e Educatio n o f Black s i n Ne w Jersey , 1900-1930 : An Exploratio n i n Oral History " (Ph.D. diss. , Rutger s University , 1980) , 90-91 . 75. Atlantic City Sunday Gazette, June 29 , 1906 , 4 . Federa l Writer s Project , "Recreation," 16 . 76. Philadelphia Press, Augus t 24 , 1904 , 9. 77. Atlantic City Review, June 26 , 1906 , 1 . 78. Atlantic City Sunday Gazette, June 29, 1906 , 4. 79. Ibid. , Augus t 8 , 1906 , 4. 80. Willia m Tuttle , Jr. , Race Riot: Chicago in the Red Summer of 1919 (New York: Atheneum, 1978) , 3. 81. Philadelphia Bulletin, June 25, 1888,4 . 82. New York Times, August 19 , 1906 , 1 . 83. Philadelphia Inquirer, Septembe r 6 , 1896 , 21. 84. Atlantic City Daily Union, September 1 , 1892 , 1 . 85. Ibid. , Septembe r 1 , 1898 , 1 . 86. Atlantic City Press, Septembe r 8 , 1900 , 1 . 87. Foster , "Th e Black Experience, " 19 ; New Jersey State Census, 1915, Supervisor's Report, 1 . 88. Foster , "Th e Blac k Experience, " 144 . I n 191 0 in th e Firs t Precinc t o f th e First War d whic h wa s in the Inle t section , th e census listed onl y forty-tw o black s in residence . O f these , al l bu t fou r wer e liste d a s butlers , maids , gardener s o r live-in hel p o f som e othe r kind . I n Precinc t Tw o th e sam e patter n prevailed . Listed a t on e addres s wer e twenty-on e black s an d twenty-nin e white s i n resi dence. Thi s wa s a smal l hotel . Eac h o f th e black s indicate d tha t thei r famil y relationship wa s tha t o f maid , cook , o r som e othe r servic e occupation . Unite d States Departmen t o f Commerce , Burea u o f th e Census , Thirteenth Census of the United States, 191 o (Supplement fo r Ne w Jersey), 572-575 .

208 • TW O From Pitney V Folly to World's Playground 89. Atlanti c City Commo n Council , Minutes, October 5 , 1881. 90. Alfre d M . Heston , Illustrated Handbook of Atlantic City (Atlanti c City , N.J.: A . M . Hesto n an d Company , 1888) , 124 . 91. Atlantic City Gazette Review, January 29 , 1905 , 1 . 92. Margare t Brett , "Atlanti c City : A Stud y i n Blac k an d White, " Survey, 2 8 (September 7 , 1912) : 723. 93. Atlantic City Commission Government, vol . 1 , no- 9 (April 1914) , 7-8 . 94. Atlantic City Commission Government, vol . 1 , no. 9 (April 1914) , 8. 95. Foster , "Th e Blac k Experience, " chap . 4 . Fo r a n accoun t o f th e schoo l segregation controvers y i n Atlanti c City , se e Federa l Writer s Project , Work s Progress Administration , "Educatio n o f Negroe s i n Atlanti c City, " New Jersey Ethnic Survey, Bo x WK2, Ne w Jersey Stat e Archives, Trenton , N.J. , 1-4 . Segre gated school s becam e a n issu e at least a s early a s 189 4 and rage d withi n th e blac k community, man y black s favoring separat e schools. Set Atlantic City Daily Union, December 12 , 1894 , 1 - The issu e became particularly heate d i n 1899 . See Atlantic City Press, October 21 , Octobe r 23 , Octobe r 25 , Novembe r 3 , Novembe r 5 , November 6 , an d Novembe r 7 , 1899 , 1 . Black s i n favo r o f schoo l integratio n brought suit , bu t i n Decembe r a superio r cour t judg e rule d agains t them . Se e Atlantic City Press, Decembe r 24 , 1899 , 1 . 96. Heston , Absegami, 231-234. 97. Thirteenth Census of the United States, 1910 (Supplemen t fo r Ne w Jersey) , Statistics of Population fo r Citie s of 25,00 0 or More, 594. 98. Atlantic City Daily Union, Octobe r 26 , 1891 , 1 . Se e als o Federa l Writer s Project, Bo x C2, "Atlantic City, " New Jersey Stat e Archives, Trenton , N.J . 99. "Electio n Return s fo r '9 0 an d '91, " Atlantic City Daily Union, Novembe r 4, 1891 , 1. 100. Ibid. , Marc h 9 , 1892 , 1 . 101. Michae l H . Frisch , "Th e Communit y Elit e and th e Emergence of Urba n Politics: Springfield , Massachusetts , 1840-1880, " i n Nineteenth-Century Cities: Essays in the New Urban History, ed . b y Stephe n Thernstro m an d Richar d Sennet t (New Haven , Conn. : Yal e University Press , 1976) , 283-285. 102. Joh n F . Hall , Atlantic City and County Biographically Illustrated (Philadelphia: Albert M . Slocu m Co. , 1899) , 485. 103. Atlantic City Daily Union, February 19 , 1890 , 1 ; March 3 , 1890 , 1 . 104. Atlantic City Press, Apri l 27 , 1900 , 1 . 105. Atlantic City Daily Press, Apri l 26 , 1900 , 1 ; April 27 , 1900 , 1 . 106. Atlantic City Press, Februar y 8 , 1901 , 1. 107. Atlantic City Daily Union, April 21 , 1901 , 1. 108. Atlantic City Press, June 26 , 1931 , 8. 109. Ibid. , Augus t 12 , 1934 , 1 . n o . Th e majo r conflic t withi n Republica n rank s i n 190 1 wa s ove r politica l appointments give n t o forme r Democrats , whic h rankle d som e part y veterans . Complained one : "The only wa y t o get an office i s to be a former Democrat. " Se e Atlantic City Gazette Review, July 9 , 1901 , 1 . Durin g th e previou s yea r whe n th e Democrats di d no t field a candidate fo r mayor , thi s paper accuse d th e Democrat s of a plot t o promot e factiona l infightin g s o that whe n th e dus t settle d the y coul d

TWO From

Pitney's Folly to World's Playground • 20 9

take ove r th e city . I n 190 3 th e Democrat s fielded onl y tw o candidate s i n a n election wher e eigh t seat s wer e conteste d an d nominate d n o candidate s fo r th e Democratic Count y Convention . Se e "Demoralizatio n o f Democrat s Leave s Re publicans a Clea r Field, " Atlantic City Sunday Gazette, August 30 , 1903 , 1 . B y 1905, Clarenc e Col e was stil l strugglin g t o kee p the organizatio n intact , bu t thei r prospects wer e limited , a s indicate d b y th e followin g quot e attribute d t o a Col e supporter: "Th e Democrat s hav e a dut y t o perfor m i f the y ar e i n th e minority . They wan t t o kee p alive and fight o n simpl y t o let the opposition kno w tha t the y have a minority whic h i s on th e watc h an d aggressive. " Se e Atlantic City Sunday Gazette, January 29 , 1905 , 1 . i n . Th e histor y o f the old cit y charte r wa s sketche d b y loca l historian Fran k Butler. See Atlantic City Press, Apri l 28 , 1957 , 12; Atlantic City Daily Union, April 3, 1902 , 1 ; Atlantic City Daily Press, April 4 , 1902 , 1 . Se e als o Frankli n W . Kemp, Firefighting by the Seashore (Eg g Harbo r City , N.J. : Th e Laureat e Press , 1972), 169-170 . 112. Atlantic City Daily Press, Apri l 8 , 1902 , 1 . 113. Untitle d twelve-pag e summar y o f Riddle' s tenur e a s councilma n fro m 1902 to 1910 , probably prepare d a s a campaign documen t prio r t o the electio n of 1916 and foun d amon g hi s effects . Origina l i n th e possessio n o f his son , Graem e Riddle of Ventnor , N.J. , an d hereafte r referre d t o as Riddle Document . 114. See , for example , Atlantic City Daily Union, October 26 , 1891 , 1, November 27 , 1891 , 1, and Novembe r 30 , 1891 , 1. 115. Atlantic City Sunday Gazette, September 9 , 1906 , 1 . 116. Atlantic City Press, Decembe r 14 , 1903 , 4. 117. Atlantic City Sunday Gazette, September 14 , 1907 , 4. 118. Atlantic City Daily Union, March 9 , 1892 , 1 ; November 12 , 1892 , 1 . 119. Philadelphia Bulletin, Marc h 3 , 1892 , 4. 120. Atlantic City Daily Union, February 12 , 1892 , 1 . 121. Philadelphia Bulletin, Marc h 7 , 1892 , 4. 122. Ibid .

123. Atlantic City Daily Union, March 9 , 1892 , 1 . 124. Philadelphia Bulletin, Marc h 7 , 1892 , 6. 125. Atlantic City Daily Union, March 9, 1892 , 1 . 126. Ne w Jersey Stat e Senate , Protest, Testimony Taken before the Committee on Elections, and Reports of Committee in the Matter of the Contest for State Senator of Atlantic County, New Jersey between William Riddle, Contestant and Samuel D. Hoffman, Incumbent (Trenton, N.J. : MacCrellis h an d Quigley , Stat e Printers , 1893) , 2.

127. Riddle v. Hoffman, 144-149 . 128. Ibid . 82-85 , 126-134 , 24-2 5 (Minorit y Report) . 129. Ibid . (Minorit y Report) , 24 . 130. Ibid . (Majorit y Report) , 5 . 131. Atlantic City Daily Union, November 21 , 1892, 1 . 132. Riddle v. Hoffman, 151 , 422. 133. Counci l Minutes , Decembe r 5 , 1881 ; Atlantic City Daily Union, March 5 , 1898, 1 .

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Robbery of the Sabbath

134. Riddl e Document, 5 ; Atlantic City Press, Septembe r 9 , 1906 , 1 . 135. Th e histories, in the order of their publication, were Carnesworth, Atlantic City: Its Early and Modern History (1868); A. L . English , History of Atlantic City (1884); John F . Hall , Daily Union History of Atlantic City (1900) ; an d Alfre d M . Heston, Absegami: Annals ofEyren Haven and Atlantic City (1904). T H R E E The

Robbery of the Sabbath

1. Sidne y E . Ahlstrom , A Religious History of the American People, vol. 2 , (Garden City , N.Y. : Doubleda y an d Company, Inc. , 1975) , 404. 2. Ne w Jersey Excis e Commission , Public Hearings (Trenton, N.J. : Ne w Jer sey Stat e Legislature, 1908) , 1730-1731. 3. Willia m E . Sackett , Modern Battles of Trenton, vol . 2 : From Werts to Wilson (New York : Neale Publishing Company, 1914) , 116 , 277. 4. Jame s M . King , Genera l Secretary , Nationa l Leagu e fo r th e Protectio n o f American Institutions , Facing the Twentieth Century—Our Country: Its Power and Peril (New York: American Unio n Leagu e Society , 1899) , 94. 5. Ne w Jerse y Methodis t Conference , Minutes (1914) , 104-105 . Complet e collection foun d i n th e Archive s o f th e Methodis t Conferenc e o f Souther n Ne w Jersey, Penningto n School , Pennington , Ne w Jersey ; Hereafte r cite d a s N.JM.C., Minutes. 6. Letter , Wilbu r T . Craft s t o John F . Fort , Septembe r 5 , 1908 , Governo r John F . For t Correspondence , Ne w Jersey Stat e Archives, Trenton , N.J . 7. Se e Charles A . Fecher , Mencken: A Study of His Thought (New York : Alfre d A. Knopf , 1978) , 106-107 . A s lat e a s th e 1960s , th e followin g Hofstadte r com ment wa s standar d far e fo r colleg e undergraduates : "Fo r Prohibition , i n th e twenties, wa s th e skeleto n a t th e feast , a grim reminde r o f th e mora l frenz y tha t so many wishe d t o forget, a ludicrous caricatur e o f the reformin g impulse , o f th e Yankee-Protestant notio n tha t i t is both possibl e and desirabl e to moralize privat e life throug h publi c action. " Se e Richar d Hofstadter , The Age of Reform (Ne w York: Rando m House , 1955) , 289 . Of course , Hofstadter' s poin t tha t Prohibitio n deserved a share of the blame for the decline of Progressivism i n the 1920 s is more substantive tha n hi s analysis of the movement itself . 8. King , Facing the Twentieth Century, 92. 9. Winto n Solberg , Redeem the Time (Cambridge, Mass. : Harvar d Universit y Press, 1977) , 51. 10. Joh n Timberlake , Prohibition and the Progressive Movement (Ne w York : Atheneum, 1970) , i i o - n i ; Norma n Clark , Deliver Us From Evil (Ne w York : W. W . Norto n Company , 1976) , 57 . Sai d Andre w Sinclair : "Th e saloo n i s th e church o f th e poor . Whil e th e churche s supplie d a meeting plac e for th e respect able, th e saloon s wer e the rendezvou s o f the workers." Se e Andrew Sinclair , Era of Excess: A Social History of the Prohibition Movement (New York : Harpe r an d Row , 1962), 75. 11. Perr y Duis , Public Drinking in Chicago and Boston (Chicago : Universit y o f

THREE The

Robbery of the Sabbath • 21 1

Illinois Press, 1983) , 234 , 254 , 286-288 ; S. H . Popper , "Newark , N.J. , Chapter s in th e Evolutio n o f an America n Metropolis " (Ph.D diss. , Ne w Yor k University , 1971), chap. 4; Edmund Morris , The Rise of Theodore Roosevelt (New York: Coward , McCann an d Geoghegan , Inc. , 1979) , 496-514. 12. Willia m Addiso n Blakely , ed. , American State Papers Bearing on Sunday Legislation (New York : National Religiou s Liberty Association , 1890) , 272-323. 13. Willia m Addiso n Blakely , ed. , American State Papers on Freedom in Religion (Washington, D.C. : National Religious Liberty Association , 1943) , 231-232, 243. 14. Blakely , American State Papers on Sunday Legislation, 10 . Th e "ordaine d minister" wa s a Sevent h Da y Adventist , a Christia n sec t tha t celebrate s th e seventh day a s the Sabbath . 15. Blakely , American State Papers on Freedom in Religion, 245-260. Eight y o f the Sunda y bill s relate d t o Sunda y closin g o r wor k prohibitio n i n th e Distric t o f Columbia. Thre e bill s tha t wer e passe d se t Sunda y closin g a s condition s t o appropriations fo r th e Chicag o Expositio n i n 1892 , th e St . Loui s Expositio n i n 1901, an d th e Jamestown Expositio n i n 1907 . Th e Nationa l Sunda y Res t Bil l of 1888, whic h Blakel y regarde d a s th e firs t sho t i n th e nationa l campaig n o f th e National Refor m Movement , wa s preface d a s follows : "Bil l t o Secur e t o th e People th e Enjoymen t o f th e Firs t Da y o f th e Week , Commonl y Know n a s th e Lord's Day , a s a Da y o f Rest , an d t o Promot e It s Observanc e a s a Da y o f Religious Worship. " 16. Blakely , American State Papers on Freedom in Religion, 235-236. Article I I of their constitutio n rea d a s follows: "Th e objec t o f this Societ y shal l b e to maintai n existing Christia n feature s i n th e America n Government ; t o promot e neede d reforms i n th e actio n o f th e governmen t touchin g th e Sabbath , th e institutio n o f the Family , th e religiou s elemen t i n Education , th e oath , an d publi c moralit y a s affected b y th e liquo r traffi c an d othe r kindre d evils ; an d t o secur e suc h a n amendment t o th e Constitutio n o f th e Unite d State s a s wil l declar e th e nation' s allegiance t o Jesus Chris t an d it s acceptanc e o f th e mora l law s o f th e Christia n religion, an d s o indicat e tha t thi s i s a Christia n nation , an d plac e al l Christia n laws, institutions , an d usage s o f ou r governmen t o n a n undeniabl y fundamenta l basis in the fundamental law s of the land. " 17. (Mrs. ) E . G . White , The Great Controversy between Christ and Satan (Oak land, Calif. : The Pacifi c Pres s Publishing Company , 1892) , 689m 18. Rut h Bordin , Frances Willard: A Biography (Chapel Hill , N.C. : Universit y of North Carolin a Press , 1986) , 98. 19. White , The Great Controversy, 689 . 20. Althoug h Jew s wer e frequen t defendant s i n Sabbataria n cases , on e i s struck b y th e relativ e silenc e o f America n Jewis h intellectual s o n th e subjec t throughout thi s period . On e ca n onl y conclud e tha t thei r positio n withi n Ameri can societ y wa s particularl y vulnerable , an d tha t agitatio n wa s impolitic . Walte r Lippmann, fo r example , ha d grow n u p i n a n exclusiv e Jewish worl d an d b y th e 1920s ha d cracke d al l bu t th e pinnacle s o f socia l barrier s pose d fo r America n Jewry. Accordin g t o Ronal d Steel , h e deal t wit h instance s o f discriminatio n an d his Jewish identit y b y ignorin g it , an d i n doin g so , "wa s hardl y uniqu e amon g

212 • THRE E The

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people o f hi s clas s an d generation. " Se e Ronal d Steel , Walter Lippmann and the American Century (Boston: Little, Brow n an d Company , 1980) , 186 , and chap . 15 , "A Conspicuous Race. " 21. Churc h o f the Holy Trinit y v . Unite d States , 14 3 U.S. 457 (1892). 22. Accordin g t o statistic s gathere d b y th e America n Unio n Leagu e Societ y in 189 9 when the nation's populatio n barel y reached 7 5 million, religiou s commu nicants o f al l denomination s totale d 26,054,385 . Thi s include d si x sect s o f Sev enth Da y Adventist s tha t totale d 81,94 5 members , an d tw o bodie s o f Jew s totaling 143,000 . Se e King, Facing the Twentieth Century, 94. 23. Se e Soon Hin g v . Crowley , 11 3 U.S. 70 3 (1885); Hennington v . Georgia , 163 U.S . 20 9 (1896) ; Peti t v . Minnesota , 17 7 U.S . 16 4 (1900) ; McGowa n v . Maryland, 36 6 U.S. 420 (1961). 24. A n 189 3 revision decriminalize d Sunda y newspaper s an d allowe d th e sal e and deliver y o f mil k a s well a s walking , ridin g o r drivin g fo r recreation . Georg e Labarre, "Histor y o f the Observance o f Sunday " (reprint o f six articles appearin g in Trenton Times, Novembe r an d December , 1923) , 20 . Ne w Jerse y Stat e Ar chives, Trenton, N.J . 25. Fo r case law on the Sunda y issu e in New Jersey, se e Reeves v. Butcher , 2 Vroom 22 4 (1865) ; McMillan v . Kuehnle , 7 6 N.J . Equit y 25 6 (1909) ; Singe r v . Criminal Cour t o f Newark , 7 9 N.J . La w 38 6 (1910); and especiall y Sherma n v . Paterson, 8 2 N.J . La w 34 5 (1912) . I n th e Paterso n case , Justice James Minter n gave municipalities sweepin g power t o make and enforc e Sunda y restrictions . Se e also Paulsson , "Politic s an d Progressivis m i n Atlanti c City : A Brie f Hou r o f Reform" (Ph.D . diss. , Rutger s University , 1991) , 42-43 . 26. Blakely , American State Papers on Freedom in Religion, 479-481 , 565 ; David N . Laban d an d Debora h Hendr y Heinbuch , Blue Laws: The History, Economics, and Politics of Sunday Closing Laws (Lexington, Mass. : D. C . Heat h an d Company , 1987), 49. 27. Blakely , American State Papers on Freedom in Religion, 12 . 28. S . C . Breyfogel , Landmarks of the Evangelical Association (Reading , Pa. : Eagle Book Print, 1898) , 202, 312 . 29. G . C . Knobel , ed. , The Congress of the Evangelical Association (Cleveland , Ohio: Thoma s an d Matill , 1894) , 220-225 . Singl e cop y foun d i n th e archive s o f the Methodist Conferenc e o f Souther n Ne w Jersey, Pennington , N J . 30. N.J.M.C . Minutes, (1871), 20 ; (1880), 36-37 . 31. Ibid . (1893) , 5932. Lord' s Da y Allianc e o f th e Unite d States , Twenty Third Annual Report, November 14 , 1910 , to November 13 , 1911,8 . Singl e copy found i n Presbyteria n Historical Society , Philadelphia . 33. A . Nelso n Hollifield , Shall We Legalize Sabbath Desecration, and Races and Gambling on Race Courses? (Newark , N.J. : Advertise r Printin g House , 1891) , 13 . Hollifield's sermo n gre w ou t o f a meetin g o f Newar k clergyme n t o oppos e th e efforts o f th e Stat e Liquo r Dealer s Associatio n t o legaliz e Sunda y selling . Sun day, Januar y 25 , 1891 , wa s designate d a s a da y o f genera l protes t whe n ever y Presbyterian ministe r i n the stat e was to preach o n the subject . 34. Newark Evening News, January 26 , 1891 , 1.

THREE The

Robbery of the Sabbath • 21 3

35. Throughou t th e summe r o f 1901 , the Newark Evening News gave a running front-page accoun t o f Black' s crusad e agains t saloons . Se e June 24 , July 15 , July 20, August 14 , August 15 , and Augus t 16 , 1901 , 1. 36. Steelman , What God Has Wrought, 133. 37. N.J.M.C. , Minutes (1900), 76 ; (1901), 31. 38. Se e Newark Evening News, Februar y 6 , 16 , 1901 , 1 ; March 20 , 1901 , 1 ; March 21 , I901, 4; Ma y 17 , 1901 , 1 . B y 190 1 th e protectio n o f commercia l vic e and Sunda y sellin g b y loca l gran d jurie s ha d becom e a n issu e throughou t th e state. Th e proble m wa s mos t acut e i n Newark , Jerse y City , an d Lon g Branch , where privat e refor m group s ha d succeede d i n havin g offender s arreste d onl y t o have them released b y sheriff-picke d gran d juries . Even when police were cooper ative, thei r effort s wer e nullified . Dr . Joh n D . McGill , presiden t o f th e Jerse y City Polic e Board , complained : "Ther e i s not muc h us e of the polic e departmen t making strenuou s effort s t o abat e th e evil s o f polic y (gambling ) an d poolroom s i f the prisoner s wh o ar e arreste d o n evidenc e absolutel y complet e an d convincin g escape indictmen t b y th e gran d jury . W e ha d bee n afte r Sulliva n fo r som e time . He ha d bee n under th e aegis of political protection . I t was a difficult matte r t o get him. B y goo d polic e work , however , h e wa s finally caught . Accordin g t o th e police vernacular, h e was caught 'dea d right. ' Th e polic e department ha d don e it s duty i n ferretin g ou t thi s case , bu t i t seem s th e gran d jur y faile d t o d o it s share . This i s one of those cases that discredi t ou r syste m of government an d offe r a sad commentary o n ou r gran d jur y system . I f justic e i s thu s t o b e defeated , yo u might a s wel l abolis h th e polic e department , le t of f th e rogues , an d sto p you r efforts t o eradicate evils." See Newark Evening News, March 20 , 1901 , 4. 39. Newark Evening News, March 20 , 1901 , 1 ; March 21 , 1901, 4. 40. Atlantic City Press, Jun e 25 , 1901 , 1 ; June 25 , 1901 , 1 ; June 28 , 1901 , 1 ; New York Times, June 29 , 1901 , i;Jul y 15 , i9oi;Jul y 22 , 1901 , i;Jul y 28 , 1901, 1; August 12 , 1901 , 1 ; Newark Evening News, August 14 , 1901 , 1. 41. Newark Evening News, July 6 , 1901 , 4. 42. T . T . Mutchle r t o Frankli n Murphy , Februar y 25 , 1902 ; Franklin Mur phy t o Willia m Stanhope , Jul y 2 , 1902 , Governo r Frankli n Murph y Correspon dence (1902-1905) Ne w Jersey Stat e Archives, Trenton , N.J . 43. N.J.M.C. , Minutes {1902), 76. 44. Trenton Times, January 19 , 1906 , 1 ; January 20 , 1906 , 4; January 23 , 1906, 1; January 27 , 1906 , 1 ; New Jersey Dependenc y an d Crime s Commissio n (1908) , Stenographic Minutes, 208-209 . 45. Sackett , Modern Battles of Trenton, vol. 2 , 217-222 . 46. Stenographi c cop y o f unsigne d an d undate d lette r t o Fran k O . Brigg s found i n Stoke s files; Governor Caspe r Stoke s Correspondence (1905-1907), Ne w Jersey Stat e Archives, Trenton , N.J . 47. Stenographi c copy o f unsigned lette r to Stoke s dated Septembe r 21 , 1906, Stokes Correspondence . 48. Joh n F . Dod d t o Governor Stokes , April 6, 1907 , Stokes Correspondence . 49. Ranso m E . Noble , Jr. , New Jersey Progressivism before Wilson (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton Universit y Press , 1946) , 75-76. 50. Ibid. , 90-9in . Althoug h For t deftl y avoide d a firm commitmen t t o th e

214 # THRE E The

Robbery of the Sabbath

Bishops' La w durin g th e electio n o f 1907 , once i n offic e h e move d i n stage s int o the camp s o f the evangelical s an d th e Ne w Ide a contingen t o f his party denounc ing th e liquo r interest s an d Republica n part y bosses . See , fo r example , tex t o f a speech t o Camde n Methodist s i n Trenton Times, October, 9 , 1909 , 2 , an d "For t Flays Part y Bosses, " Trenton True American, Septembe r 23 , 1909 , 1 . H e wa s caused considerabl e embarrassmen t b y a story unearthe d b y th e Newark Evening News tha t previou s August , whic h hel d tha t despit e hi s campaig n posture , h e privately assure d Atlanti c Cit y Republican s tha t h e would see k immunity fo r th e resort fro m Sunda y closin g laws. Se e "Atlantic Cit y Accuse s Governor, " Trenton True American, August 21 , 1908 , 1 . 51. Samue l Wilso n t o Ott o Wittpenn , Augus t 9 , 1908 , Ne w Jerse y Excis e Commission, Public Hearings, Appendix. 52. Trenton True American, August 4, 1908,4 . 53. Ne w Jersey Excis e Commission , Public Hearings, 1535-1544, 1717-1722 , 1715-1716. 54. Ibid. , 1572-1583 , 1637-1640 , 1623-1625 . 55. Ne w Jersey Crime s Commission, Report, 22-23. $6. Ne w Jersey Excis e Commission, Public Hearings, 1739-1740. 57. Trenton True American, August 28 , 1908 , 1 . 58. Ibid . 59. A t e York Times, August 26 , 1908 , 7. 60. Philadelphia Bulletin, Augus t 28 , 1908 , 6 ; New York Times, Augus t 30 , 1908, 8 . 61. Nelso n Gaskil l t o Frankli n Fort , Augus t 27 , 1908 , Fort Correspondence . This wa s a telegram whic h read : "Gran d jur y discharged . N o excis e indictments . Foreman defende d actio n practically challengin g you to enforce law. " 62. Petition , Joh n J . Rya n t o Caspe r Stokes , Februar y 26 , 1906 , Stoke s Correspondence. 63. Joh n Kell y t o Franklin Fort , Septembe r 16 , 1908 ; Josiah Stron g to Frank lin Fort , Septembe r 1 , 1908 ; Oswald Garriso n Villar d t o Frankli n Fort , Augus t 31, 1908 , Fort Correspondence . 64. Hoffman , Burlingto n Count y Loca l Optio n Leagu e t o Frankli n Fort , August 28 , 1908 ; E. S . Blac k to Franklin Fort , Augus t 28 , 1908 , Fort Correspon dence. 65. Frankli n For t t o Mahlo n Pitney , Septembe r 8 , 1908 , For t Correspon dence. 66. Christia n Fische r t o Frankli n Fort , Septembe r 7 , 1908 , For t Correspon dence. 67. Ne w Jersey Excis e Commission, Public Hearings, 3529-3533. 68. Undate d cop y of press release from Samue l Wilson, For t Correspondence . 69. Nelso n Gaskil l to Franklin Fort , Augus t 31 , 1908, Fort Correspondence . 70. Willia m Winter t o Franklin Fort , Octobe r 20 , 1908 , Fort Correspondence . 71. Petition , Ann a Steelma n t o Frankli n Fort , January 19 , 1909 , For t Corre spondence. 72. "Easte r Sunda y a t Atlanti c City, " Trenton True American, Apri l 9 , 1909 , 4. Se e also editorial, Marc h 1 , 1909 , 4, August 24 , 1909 , 1 ; August 25 , 1909 , 5.

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73. Ne w Jersey Excis e Commission, Report, 85. 74. Ibid. , Minority Report, 3 . 75. Ne w Jersey Crime s Commission , Report, 21-23. 76. Ibid. , 21. 77. Ibid. , Minority Report, Recommendations, and Supplementary Statement, 62-67. 78. Atlantic City Review, January 29 , 1909 , 1 ; February 2 , 1909 , 1 ; Februar y 16, 1909 , 1 ; February 17 , 1909 , 1 ; Trenton Times, February 8 , 1909 , 1 ; Februar y 16, 1909 , 1 ; February 26 , 1909 , 14 . 79. Atlantic City Review, Marc h 2 , 1909, 1 ; Trenton Times, March 1 , 1909, 1, 12; Marc h 2 , 1909 , 1.

80. Trenton Times, March 13 , 1909 , 1 ; April 1 , 1909, 1. 81. Steelman , What God Has Wrought, 135-136 . 82. Address of Hon. James F. Mintern Delivered before the Committee to Consider Legislation Affecting Sunday Observance Octobe r 10 , 1919 (n.p. ) Ne w Jerse y Stat e Archives, Trenton , N.J. , 3-4. 83. E . Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class (New York: Rando m House, 1963) . M y us e of the ter m "mora l economy " is meant onl y t o describe a defined se t of practices an d expectation s buil t up over a long period o f time whic h explain extreme reaction s t o a new se t of conditions impose d b y an external force . Essential t o a moral econom y i s the belie f tha t th e ol d practice s ar e grounde d in righteousness o r at least represen t a commitment agree d t o by authorities whic h is violate d b y the ne w conditions . Thompso n use d th e ter m t o explain workers ' attitudes a s well a s fram e breakin g i n earl y nineteenth-centur y England . See Thompson's chap . 14 , "An Arm y o f Redressers." Fo r Atlanti c City , th e moral economy wa s th e liberal policy , a cit y wide compac t whic h i n the eyes o f th e locals wa s given taci t approbatio n b y the courts an d state authoritie s fo r fift y years. Refor m brok e tha t compact , an d thi s explain s i n part th e defianc e o f the city an d muc h o f th e violenc e an d vituperatio n tha t attende d th e refor m movement.

F O U R Low

Resorts

1. Brow n wa s th e synodica l missionar y o f the presbyter y o f West Jersey. He was bor n i n 1820 in New Yor k City , graduate d fro m Columbi a Colleg e in 1839, did graduat e an d postgraduat e wor k at Princeton Theologica l Seminary , an d wa s licensed t o preac h i n 1843 . Perhap s foresakin g th e prospect o f a prosperou s parsonage, h e spent th e nex t thirt y year s i n southern Ne w Jersey . Th e Presbyterian sai d o f him i n 1856 : "Thoug h accustome d t o all tjie comfort s an d luxuries which affluen t circumstance s an d hi s native city, Ne w York , could provide , whe n he entered th e ministr y h e mad e u p hi s min d t o count al l but los s for Christ. He might readil y hav e foun d a settlement i n some ol d establishe d congregation , but he chos e th e the n greatl y neglecte d fiel d o f the pine s o f New Jersey . Here , for some eigh t year s h e has labore d wit h a zeal an d fidelit y whic h ha s wo n fo r him the universa l respec t an d estee m o f the population. " Hi s diary , thoug h sparsel y

2i6 • FOU R Low

Resorts

kept an d personall y unrevealing , contain s reference s t o Pitney , Doughty , Rich ards, Bell , an d othe r loca l capitalist s wh o aide d hi s work . H e wa s on e o f th e dignitaries o n th e first train , an d hi s brie f biograph y o f Jonatha n Pitne y wa s laudatory o f Pitney' s rol e i n the developmen t o f Sout h Jersey an d o f the creatio n of Atlanti c Cit y i n particular . Se e th e Presbyterian, Augus t 30 , 1856 , 3 ; William D. Aikman , D.D. , "Historica l Discours e Delivere d o n th e Fiftiet h Anniversar y of th e Firs t Presbyteria n Church , Atlanti c City , N.J., " delivere d Octobe r 28 , 1906 (pamphlet file , Atlanti c Count y Historica l Society) ; Allen H . Brow n Diary , Brown Collectio n (Atlanti c Count y Historica l Society) ; Brown , Fifty Years of Progress. 2. Brow n Diary , entr y fo r June 5 , 1854 . 3. Aikman , Historical Discourse, 6 . 4. (Philadelphia ) Presbyterian, July 28 , 1855 , 1. 5. Ibid. , Februar y 6 , 1875 , 1 . 6. S . W . Lauderbach , A Century After (Philadelphia : Allen , Lane , an d Scott , 1885), 142-143 . 7. South Jersey Republican, Marc h 12 , 1866 , 1 . 8. Atlantic City Daily Review, July 7 , 1873 , 2. 9. Atlantic City Review, August 4 , 1884 , 1 ; August 12 , 1884 , 1 . 10. Atlanti c Cit y Commo n Council , Public Ordinances of Atlantic City from September 8, 1854 to August 2$, ipoj (reprinte d b y Boar d o f Commissioners , 1924), 206-207 .

11. Atlantic City Review, August 10 , 1885 , 1 . 12. Ibid. , Augus t 27 , 1885 , 1 . 13. "Sit e Use d Her e 7 5 Years Ag o i n Whiskey Licens e Racket, " Atlantic City Press, July 24 , 1966 , 18 ; Atlantic City Review, July 14 , 1884 , 1 . 14. A . L . English , History of Atlantic City (Philadelphia : Dickso n an d Gillin g Publishers, 1884) , 82-83 . 15. Ibid. , 175 . 16. Atlantic City Press, June 29 , 1895 , 1 ; Henry Adams, The Education of Henry Adams (Boston: Houghto n Miffli n Company , 1961) , 304. 17. Atlantic City Review, July 11 , 1885 , 1 . 18. Ibid. , Augus t 20 , 1884 , 1 . 19. Ibid. , July 19 , 1881 , i;July 31 , 1886, 1 . 20. Atlanti c City Commo n Council , Minutes, August 4 , 1890 . 21. Philadelphia Bulletin, August 5 , 1890 , 2. 22. Philadelphia Inquirer, June 1 , 1890 , 7. 23. Atlantic City Daily Union, July 30 , 1890 , 1 . 24. Philadelphia Bulletin, August 5 , 1890 , 1 . 25. Ibid. , Augus t 7 , 1890 , 1 . 26. Ibid. , Augus t 18 , 1890 , 1 . 27. Ibid. , Augus t 19 , 1890 , 1 . 28. Ibid . 29. Ibid. , Augus t 16 , 1890 , 1 . 30. Davi d J . Pivar , Purity Crusade: Sexual Morality and Social Control, 1868-1900 (Westport , Conn. : Greenwoo d Press , 1973) , 131-139 .

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31. Philadephia Bulletin, Augus t 9 , 1890 , 1 . 32. Ibid. , Augus t 16 , 1890 , 1 . 33. Ibid. , Augus t 30 , 1890 , 1 . 34. Ibid. , Augus t 14 , 1890 , 1 . 35. Ibid. , Augus t 16 , 1890 , 1 . 36. Ibid. , Augus t 23 , 1890 , 1 . 37. Ibid. , Augus t n , 1890 , 1 . 38. Ibid. , Augus t 22 , 1890 , 1 . 39. Ibid. , Augus t 12 , 1890 , 1 , August 23 , 1890 , 1 . 40. Atlantic City Daily Union, Augus t 23 , 1892 , 1 ; Augus t 24 , 1892 , 1 , 4 ; August 30 , 1892 , 1 . 41. Philadelphia Bulletin, Apri l 30 , 1889 , 6; May 14 , 1888 , 7. 42. Ibid. , Augus t 8 , 1890 , 1 . 43. Ibid. , Augus t 11 , 1890, 1 . 44. Ibid. , June 8 , 1891 , 6; June 23 , 1891 , 2. 45. Atlantic City Daily Union, November 14 , 1891 , 1. 46. A . J. Corocoran , The History of Gloucester City, New Jersey (Gloucester City , N.J.: Glouceste r Cit y Historica l Society , 1973) , 11-12. ; Willia m E . Sackett , Modern Battles of Trenton, 1868-1894 (Trenton, N.J. : Joh n L . Murph y [Printer] , 1895), 384-= 385 . 47. Atlantic City Daily Union, August 15 , 1892 , 1,4 . 48. Philadelphia Bulletin, July 24 , 1895 , l -> Augus t 26 , 1895 , 1. 49. Atlantic City Press, Augus t 10 , 1895 , 1 . 50. Ibid. , Augus t 19 , 1895 , 1 ; Philadelphia Inquirer, Augus t 12 , 1895 , 2 ; Au gust 13 , 1895 , 2 ; Augus t 14 , 1895 , 2 ; Augus t 19 , 1895 , 2 ; Augus t 20 , 1895 , 2 » August 26 , 1895 , 2; Atlantic City Daily Union, August 19 , 1895 , 1 . 51. Philadelphia Inquirer, August 4 , 1895,21 . 52. Philadelphia Bulletin, Augus t 5 , 1895 , 353. Philadelphia Press, Augus t 5 , 1895 , 454. Trenton Times, July 25 , 1895 , 1 . 55. New York World, August 7 , 1895 , 56. Atlantic City Daily Union, December 20 , 1894 , l 57. Philadelphia Inquirer, August 4, 1895 , 2 2 58. See , fo r example , Rut h Rosen , The Lost Sisterhood: Prostitution in America, 1900-1918 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkin s Universit y Press , 1982) , 5-6. 59. Philadelphia Inquirer, August 4, 1895 , 2 2 60. New York Journal, Jun e 27 , 189 7 (Resor t Section) , 1 ; Atlantic City Press, September 13 , 1897 , 1 . 61. Atlantic City Daily Union, July 30 , 1898 , 1 . 62. Atlantic City Press, Octobe r 31 , 1899, *• 63. Ibid. , Novembe r 3 , 1899 , 1-2 . 64. Atlantic City Press, Decembe r 5 , 1899 , 2. 6$. Ibid. , Decembe r 6 , 1899 , 1 . 66. Ibid. , Decembe r 8 , 1899 , 1 . 67. Atlantic City Sunday Gazette, February 18 , 1900 , 1 . 68. Atlantic City Daily Review, February 20 , 1900 , 1 .

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69. Atlantic City Daily Union, July 23 , 1900 , 1 . 70. Quote d i n Atlantic City Daily Union, July 23 , 1900 , 1 . 71. Atlantic City Daily Union, Jul y 20 , 1900 , 1 (quotin g Review; copie s o f Review not extan t for thi s period) . 72. Atlantic City Sunday Gazette, July 22 , 1900 , 1 . 73. Quote d i n Sunday Gazette, July 22 , 1900 , 1 . 74. Atlantic City Daily Union, July 25 , 1900,1 , August 24, 1900 , 1 ; Philadelphia Bulletin, Augus t 28 , 1900 , 2. 75. Atlantic City Sunday Gazette, July 29 , 1900 , 4. 76. Atlantic City Daily Union, August 24 , 1900 , 1 ; September 15 , 1900 , 1 . 77. Philadelphia Public Ledger, Augus t 29 , 1900 , 5.

FIVEA

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1. Atlantic City Sunday Gazette, Februar y 9, 1908 , 8. 2. Atlantic Review, November 5 , 1908 , 1 . 3. Trenton True American, August 31 , 1908, 1,5 . 4. Atlantic Review, Septembe r 8 , 1008 , 1,4 . 5. Ne w Jersey Excis e Commission , Public Hearings (Trenton, N.J. : Ne w Jer sey Stat e Legislature, 1908) , 1675-1686 . 6. Atlantic City Press, Ma y 24 , 1891 , 1. 7. Atlantic City Sunday Gazette, Jun e 30 , 1901 , 1 . Th e Gazette also noted tha t Sea Isle City, " a resort patronized principall y b y Philadelphia bee r drinkers," was "startled" by the order an d that "consternatio n reigned " among hotel keepers wh o stood t o los e hugel y b y th e edict . But , a s th e mayo r wa s ou t o f town , n o orde r came down t o close. 8. Atlantic City Daily Union, June 29, 1901 , 1. 9. New York Times, July 1 , 1901 , 1 ; Atlantic City Daily Union, July 1 , 1901 , 1 ; Atlantic City Press, July 1 , 1901 , 1. 10. Atlantic City Press, April , 9 , 1901 , 1. 11. Althoug h contemporar y pres s reports continuall y indicat e a strong major ity feelin g agains t Sunda y amusements , counci l wa s loath e t o legislat e o n th e subject. Fo r example , followin g th e 189 5 Inquirer probe , a stringen t Sunda y amusement ordinanc e wa s introduce d bu t di d no t pass . Se e Atlantic City Daily Union, Septembe r 3 , 1895 , 4 . Counci l debate s ar e no t extant , bu t on e ca n onl y surmise tha t member s fel t tha t th e les s sai d o n th e subject , th e better . T o raise th e amusemen t questio n wa s inevitabl y t o pok e a hornet' s nes t o f Sabbat h controversy a s the experiences o f 189 0 and 189 5 n ad shown . 12. Atlantic City Daily Union, July 8 , 1901 , 1. 13. Atlantic City Sunday Gazette, July 14 , 1901 , 1. 14. Atlantic City Press, Jul y 17 , 1901 , 1 ; July 22 , 1901 , 1 ; July 29 , 1901 , 1 ; August 1 , 1901 , 1 ; Augus t 5 , 1901 , 1 ; Augus t 14 , 1901 , 1 . Fo r text , se e "A n Ordinance fo r th e Suppressio n o f Vic e an d Immorality " date d Augus t 13 , 1901, in Atlantic City Common Council, Public Ordinances of Atlantic City from September

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8, 1854 to August 25, ipoj (reprinte d b y Boar d o f Commissioners , 1924) , 206-207.

15. Newark Evening News, July 15 , 1901 , i;Jul y 20 , 1901 , 1; August 14 , 1901, 1; August 15 , 1901 , 1 ; Atlantic City Sunday Gazette, August 15 , 1901 , 1. 16. Atlantic City Press, Augus t 19 , 1901 , 1. 17. Ibid. , Augus t 26 , 1901 , 1. 18. Th e loca l movement agains t Sunda y violator s grew out of a meeting of the "Ministerial Association, " a group of local clergy wh o arrange d fo r Hann's agent s and becam e th e nucleus o f the Citizens ' League . Se e Atlantic City Daily Union, July 18 , 1901, 1 . The lawye r wh o processe d th e complaints wa s Clarenc e Cole , who wa s als o the count y Democrati c chairman , bu t it was no t a tactic calculate d to improve the fortunes o f his party. Th e Democrati c Union ignored hi s activities, but Edge' s Press summarized the m wit h th e sarcasti c headline , "Crusade r Col e is Saving th e City. " Se e Atlantic City Press, Augus t 16 , 1901, 1 . Hann's rol e in the movement di d not surface publicl y unti l Septembe r 6 , when h e felt constraine d to defen d himsel f agains t charge s tha t h e was a carpetbagger. Se e Atlantic City Daily Union, September 6 , 1901 , 1. 19. Atlantic City Press, September 6 , 1901 , 1 . Edge preface d th e announcement wit h th e following : "Publi c Stan d Take n b y Citizens no Longer Leave s the Movement Unde r th e Vei l Tha t Ha s Bee n Overhangin g i t Since Its Inception— To B e Successful Fro m a Practical Standpoin t Mus t B e Handled Wit h Modera tion and Consideratio n of All." 20. Atlantic City Sunday Gazette, September 15 , 1901 , 1. 21. Atlantic City Daily Union, Septembe r 17 , 1901, 1 . From th e list o f grand jurors publishe d i n the Union on September 10 , it appears highl y unlikel y tha t Sheriff Johnso n i n thi s instanc e stacke d th e pane l fo r th e purpos e o f foilin g Hendrickson. Member s include d Joh n F . Hall, publishe r o f the Union, Willia m A. Faunce , an d Dr. J. B . Thompson , al l prominen t Democrats . Republican s included Lewi s Evans , Joh n L . Young, an d Edward S . Lee, al l of whom whil e having littl e sympath y fo r Sunday law s ha d even les s fo r saloons. Moreover , i t was widel y reporte d i n the press tha t a n unofficial dea l ha d been struc k wit h Hendrickson whic h provide d tha t h e would no t press fo r indictments a s long as the saloon s remaine d close d o n Sunday . Whil e ther e i s no soli d evidenc e of this arrangement , th e presence o f the above-name d member s o f the gran d jur y corroborates thi s view . Whil e fro m th e viewpoint o f the liquor interest s the y could no t be considered "safe, " the y woul d b e considered b y the community as "reasonable." Se e Atlantic City Daily Union, Septembe r 14 , 1901, 1 , 4; Atlantic City Press, Septembe r 9 , 1901 , 1. 22. Atlantic City Sunday Gazette, November 24 , 1901 , 10 , Decembe r 1 , 1901, 10; Atlantic City Daily Union, November 22 , 1901 , 1; January 18 , 20, 1902 , 1. 23. Atlantic City Daily Union, January 27 , 1902 , 1 ; Atlantic City Sunday Gazette, January 19 , 1902 , 1 ; March 2 , 1902, 1. 24. E d Davis , Atlantic City Diary: A Century of Memories, 1880-1980 (Eg g Harbor City , N.J. : Th e Laureate Press , 1980) , 26-28 . B y 190 0 vaudevill e had separated int o tw o classes, "hig h class " an d "variety," whic h wa s more bawd y and vigorous . I n the hote l district , show s of the mor e refine d typ e wer e feature d

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on, fo r example , Young' s Pie r an d o n th e Iro n Pie r Musi c Pavilion , bu t i n th e excursion district , show s tende d towar d burlesqu e an d wer e ofte n risque . Se e Charles Funnell , By the Beautiful Sea, (New York : Alfred B . Knopf, 1975) , 50-52 . The adven t o f vaudeville an d othe r medium s o f popula r cultur e mad e th e tas k of censorship increasingl y difficul t fo r cit y officials , delineating , a s it were, betwee n the "respectable " an d th e "vulgar. " Sunda y bannin g o f thes e show s wa s als o a means o f assuagin g Protestan t clerg y wh o wer e highl y suspiciou s o f al l form s o f popular culture to begin with . 25. Atlantic City Sunday Gazette, July 13 , 1902 , 1 . 26. Atlantic City Press, Apri l 12 , 1902 , 1 . 27. Ibid . 28. Ibid. , July 22 , 1902 , 1 . 29. Ibid. , Augus t 11 , 1902, 1 . 30. Atlantic City Sunday Gazette, December 1 , 1901 , 1. 31. Ibid. , Augus t 2 , 1903 , 1 ; Apri l 2 , 1905 , 1 ; Apri l 28 , 1906 , 4 ; June 17 , 1906, 1 . 32. Atlantic City Sunday Gazette, Jul y 16 , 1905 , 1 ; August 6 , 1905 , 1 ; August 13, 1905,4 33. Atlantic Review, Marc h 22 , 1906 , 4 ; Marc h 21 , 1906 , 1 ; Atlantic City Sunday Gazette, March 18 , 1906 , 4; Atlantic City Daily Union, Jul y 10 , 1906 , 1 ; Atlantic Review, July 11 , 1906 , 1 . 34. Atlantic Review, July 12 , 1906 , 1 . 35. Ibid. , Ma y 12 , 1906 , 1 ; May 22 , 1906 , 1 ; June 29 , 1906 , 4 ; Atlantic City Daily Union, April 5 , 1906 , 1 ; May 3 , 1906 , 1 . As for the "secrecy" of the Citizens' League, its nature surfaced i n a published repor t of council hearings on the license renewal o f Robert Delaney , th e proprietor o f the Dunlo p Hote l a t Ocean Avenu e and th e Boardwalk , widel y know n a s a "Boardwalk Mont e Carlo," for it s repute d gambling operations. On e W. L . Carter , a Camden detectiv e who had worked fo r Samuel Hann , wa s hire d i n 190 2 b y Henr y W . Leeds , proprieto r o f Chalfonte Haddon Hall , an d Willia m H . Wahl , anothe r beachfron t propert y owner , t o investigate Delaney . Whe n h e wa s asked , "Wh o i s th e Citizens ' League? " hi s counsel objected , sayin g tha t "counci l coul d no t discove r th e identit y o f th e Citizens' Leagu e b y th e witness. " Leeds, wh o wa s a member o f the council , sai d that th e bod y nee d "no t kno w wh o th e Citizens ' Leagu e is. " Willia m Riddl e replied wit h th e question , "I s th e Citizens ' Leagu e ashame d o f itself? " Late r i t surfaced tha t Leeds , alon g wit h Buzb y an d th e Whites , wer e th e cor e o f th e League an d tha t Wah l wa s it s president . Bu t Leagu e member s neve r spok e a s League members , thei r pronouncement s an d warning s comin g fro m thei r attor neys, Clarenc e Col e an d Clarenc e Goldenberg . Se e Atlantic Review, Jun e 27 , 1906, 1 ; August 20 , 1906 , 1 .

36. Atlantic City Daily Union, May 4 , 1906 , 4 ; Atlantic City Sunday Gazette, May 6 , 1906 , 4. Atlantic Review, June 29 , 1906 , 4. 37. Atlantic City Daily Union, Augus t 11 , 1906 , 1 . I n 190 7 th e cit y budge t included a $50 0 donatio n t o th e Florenc e Crittendo n Home . Se e Atlantic City Review, August 13 , 1907 , 1 . 38. Atlantic Review, Decembe r 12 , 1910 , 1 .

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39. Althoug h thi s edic t di d no t com e fro m th e Citizens ' Leagu e a s such , i t came from th e Boardwalk hotelmen who by this time controlled tha t organization . It wa s signe d by , amon g others , th e Whites , Walte r Buzby , an d Councilma n Henry Leeds . Lik e th e Citizens ' Leagu e memoria l o f 1901 , it rea d lik e a Who's Who of wealthy beachfron t interests . Se e Atlantic City Daily Union, July 26 , 1906 , I,4-

40. Atlantic City Daily Union, January 15 , 1907 , 1 ; Atlantic City Sunday Gazette, May 19 , 1907 , 1; Atlantic City Daily Union, April 18 , 19 , 20, 22 , 1907 , 1 . 41. Atlantic Review, April 23 , 1907 , 1 . 42. Atlantic City Daily Union, April 23 , 1907 , 2 ; Atlantic City Sunday Gazette, April 28 , 1907 , 4. 43. Atlantic Review, May 13 , 1907 , 1 . 44. Ibid. , Ma y 29 , 1907 , 1 . 45. Th e "Regulation s Agree d To , T o Tak e Effec t Jun e 1 , 1907 " were pub lished in full i n New Jersey Dependenc y an d Crime s Commission, Report, 22-23. 46. Atlantic Review, Jul y 25 , 1907 , 1 ; July 29 , 1907 , 1 ; Atlantic City Daily Union, May 2 , July 29 , August 25 , 1907 , 1 . 47. Atlantic Review, July 25 , August 1 , 1907 , 1 . 48. Ibid. , Jun e 27 , Augus t 20 , 1906 , 1 ; Trenton Times, Augus t 3 , 1906 , 4 ; Trenton True American, Augus t 12 , 1908 , 1 . Commentin g o n Delaney' s politica l aspirations, th e Sunday Gazette offered th e following: "I f Delaney had bee n truste d with politica l power , an y citize n ca n dra w conclusion s a s t o wha t woul d likel y have happened . Rober t Delane y sociall y i s a good companion . Politicall y h e wa s a dange r t o Atlanti c City. " O f cours e th e Gazette was Kuehnle' s organ . Delane y was largely ignore d b y th e other thre e papers betwee n 190 1 and 1908 . 49. Trenton True American, Augus t 12 , 1908 , 1 . 50. Philadelphia Bulletin, Augus t 12 , 1908 , 1-2 . 51. Atlantic City Daily Union, July 25 , 26 , 1907 , 1 . 52. Ibid. , February^ , 1908 , 1 . 53. Ibid. , Marc h 28 , April 10 , 16 , 22, 24 , August 22 , 1908 , 1 . 54. Trenton True American, August 13 , 1908 , 1,7 . 55. Ibid. , Augus t 28 , 1908 , 1 , 5. 56. Atlantic City Daily Union, April 22 , August 22 , 1908 , 1 . 57. Ibid. , Jun e 19 , 1908 , 1 . I n a swee p o f th e Northsid e i n September , Goldenberg's detective s arreste d sixt y men , "mos t o f them colored, " an d mos t o f whom wer e playin g poker . Se e Atlantic Review, Septembe r 14 , 1908 , 1 . B y thi s time Goldenber g employe d a t leas t twenty-si x privat e detectives , som e of who m were pai d b y Boardwal k hotelmen . A yea r later , Danie l S . White , presiden t o f the Hote l Men' s Association , referre d t o Goldenberg' s detective s a s "ou r detec tives." Set Atlantic Review, Septembe r 19 , 1909 , 1 . 58. Atlantic Review, July 25 , 1907 , 1 ; Trenton True American, Augus t 13 , 1908 , 1,7. Thes e wer e Warne r Crowley , 2 3 S . Kentuck y Avenue ; Th e Illinoi s Club , 18 S . Illinoi s Avenue ; " a palatia l cottage " ru n b y A . S . Rall y o n Montpelie r Avenue; an d on e othe r ru n b y "Harri s an d Sweeny, " whic h apparentl y floated. Any or all of these could hav e been run b y Delaney , bu t there is no solid evidenc e on this point .

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59. Atlantic Review, July 6 , 1908 , 1 ; Atlantic City Daily Union, July 13 , 1909 , 1; July 14 , 1909 , 4. 60. Atlantic City Daily Union, January 9 , 1908 , 1 . 61. Atlantic Review, March 9, 1910 , 1 . 62. Quote d i n Atlantic City Evening Union, August 29 , 1908 , 4. 63. A . Mauric e Low , America at Home (London : Georg e Newnes , Ltd. , 1908), 176-177 . 64. Atlanti c City' s us e o f th e allur e o f th e forbidde n receive d a n excellen t treatment i n Funnell , By the Beautiful Sea, chap. 4 , "Th e Perspective s o f Janus," especially 76-88 . 65. Quote d i n Atlantic Review, August 26 , 1908 , 4. 66. Ne w Jerse y Crime s Commission , The Report of the Secretary, 2002. Ne w Jersey Stat e Archives, Trenton , N.J . 67. Ne w Jerse y Crime s Commission , Stenographic Minutes, "Atlanti c City , General Conditions, " 1696-1700 . 68. Ibid. , "Asbur y Park , Conditions, " 1821-1826 . 69. Ne w Jersey Crime s Commission , The Report of the Secretary, 2001 . 70. Willia m Riddle , "Killin g th e Goos e tha t Lai d th e Golde n Egg, " Atlantic City Commission Government, vol . 2 , no. 6 (January 1915) , 1 . 71. Atlantic Review, Septembe r 14 , 1907 , 4. 72. Joh n F . Hal l t o Frankli n Fort , Augus t 27 , 1908 , For t Correspondence . New Jersey Stat e Archives, Trenton , N.J . s i x The

Reason: The Rise and Fall of Boss Kuehnle

1. Atlantic Review, May 13 , 1909 , 4; May 15 , 1909 , 1 . 2. Ibid. , Ma y 25 , 1909 , 1 . Under th e city charter a n ordinance neede d t o pass three reading s t o becom e law . Votin g agains t th e ordinanc e wer e councilme n White an d Buzby , Boardwal k hotelmen , an d councilme n Bacharach , Gale , an d Parker, wh o represente d th e Firs t War d wher e th e field wa s located. Riddle' s bil l would hav e eliminate d th e mandator y $20 0 fin e i n th e Vic e an d Immoralit y ordinance allowin g th e cit y recorder , a n electe d magistrate , t o asses s whateve r fine h e though t appropriat e fo r Sunda y infractions . Thi s i n effec t woul d hav e conferred censorshi p statu s o n th e recorder , instea d o f o n th e mayo r an d th e police. 3. Ibid. , June 3 , 1909 , 1 , 3. 4. Ibid. , Ma y 31 , June 5 , 1909 , 1 . 5. Fo r a length y expositio n o f Riddle' s vie w o n Sunda y closing , se e Willia m Riddle, "Travestie s o f th e Law—Th e Puritan s Ha d Littl e o n Atlanti c Cit y i n Controlling Persona l Liberty, " in Atlantic City Commission Government, vol . 2 , no . 12 (July 1914) , 5. 6. Atlantic City Sunday Gazette, June 6, 1909 , 1 . 7. Atlantic Review, June 3 , 1909,4 . 8. Th e Crime s Commissio n reporte d a numbe r o f almos t farcica l confronta tions betwee n evangelical s an d participant s i n Sunda y basebal l games , particu -

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Reason: The Rise and Fall of Boss Kuehnle • 22 3

larly i n Jersey City , an d gav e a n accoun t o f thei r devastatin g effect s o n th e poo r and workin g classes . Se e Ne w Jerse y Crime s Commission , Secretary's Report, 1998-2001. 9. Atlantic Review, June 7 , 8 , 1909 , 1 . 10. Atlantic City Evening Union, June 8 , 1909 , 1 . n . Atlantic Review, June 9, 1909 , 1 . 12. Ibid. , Jun e 17 , 1909 , 1 ; Philadelphia Evening Times, September 1 , 1909 , 2 ; Atlantic City Press, June 9 , 1909 , 1 . 13. Atlantic Review, July 3 , 5, 27 , 1909 , 1 . 14. Ibid. , July 26 , August 13 , 14 , 1909 , 1 ; Atlantic City Evening Union, August 14, 15 , 1901 , 1 ; Trenton Times, Augus t 14 , 1909 , 1 , 11 ; Trenton True American, August 16 , 24, 25 , 26 , 1909 , 1 ; August 27 , 1909 , 2; August 31 , 1909 , 1 . 15. Trenton True American, Augus t 23 , 1909 , 1 ; August 26 , 1909 , 5 ; Augus t 31, 1909 , 1 , 5. 16. Newark Evening News, August 31 , 1909 , 4. 17. Trenton Times, August 16 , 1909 , 11. 18. Quote d i n Atlantic City Press, Augus t 23 , 1909 , 5. 19. Atlantic City Press, Augus t 17 , 1909 , 5. 20. Atlantic Review, August 26 , 1909 , 4; Trenton Times, August 21 , 1909 , 1 . 21. Trenton True American, Augus t 24 , 1909 , 1 ; Trenton Times, September 1 , 5, 1909 , 1 . 22. Philadelphia Evening Times, September 5 , 1909 , 1 , 2. 23. McMilla n v . Kuehnle , 7 6 N.J . Equit y 25 6 (1909) . Th e inciden t wa s described i n som e detai l o n Septembe r 1 5 in front-pag e article s b y th e Press, the Union, an d th e Review, b y th e Philadelphi a papers , an d b y th e Trenton True American and th e Trenton Times. These facts represen t the only points upon whic h all o f th e source s agreed . Hearing s hel d o n Septembe r 1 7 disclose d nothin g materially different . Se e Atlantic Review and Trenton Times, September 18 , 1909 , 1. M y accoun t i s base d o n th e Review, whic h blame d Stoy , Kuehnle , an d th e police; the Press, whic h blame d Goldenber g an d th e detectives; the True American and th e Philadelphia North American, whic h mos t severel y condemne d th e "Kuehnle-Stoy gang" ; an d th e Trenton Times, which , althoug h critica l o f Stoy , tended t o be more careful wit h th e facts . 24. Atlantic Review, Septembe r 16 , 1909 , 2. 25. Ibid. , Septembe r 16 , 1909 , 4; September 15 , 1909 , 1 . 26. Trenton True American, September 15 , 1909 , 1 . 27. Atlantic City Evening Union, September 15 , 1909 , 4. 28. Atlantic City Press, Septembe r 15 , 1909 , 1 , 3. 29. Atlantic Review, May 19 , 1909 , 1 ; Baltimore Sun, Septembe r 5 , 1909 , 2. 30. Trenton True American, Septembe r 6 , 1909 , 1 . This accoun t wa s corrobo rated b y th e Trenton Times and th e Sunday Gazette, which describe d th e inciden t as a "tin y rai d i n a smal l negr o join t o n Sur f Avenue. " Se e Trenton Sunday Advertiser, September 5 , 1909 , 1 ; Atlantic City Sunday Gazette, September 5 , 1909 , 1. Se e also Trenton True American, Septembe r 22 , 1909 , 1 , 10 , and th e accoun t o f subsequent hearing s o n th e rio t i n Atlantic Review and Trenton Times, Septembe r 18, 1909 , 1 .

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31. G . Howar d Fletche r t o Caspe r Stokes , July 7 , 1909 , Stoke s Correspon dence. Ne w Jersey Stat e Historica l Archives , Trenton , N.J . 32. Atlantic City Sunday Gazette, September 19 , 1909 , 1 . 33. Atlantic Review, September , 18 , 1909 , 1, 3 5 ; Trenton Times, September 18 , 1909, 6; Atlantic City Sunday Gazette, September 19 , 1909 , 1 . 34. Philadelphia North American, September 21 , 1909, 1,4 . 35. Atlantic Review, Septembe r 20 , 1909 , 1 . 36. Atlantic City Sunday Gazette, Marc h 22 , 1908 , 1 ; March 29 , 1908 , 4. 37. Josep h Salu s t o Frankli n Fort , Augus t 28 , 1909 , no . 97 , For t Correspon dence; Trenton True American, September 1 , 1908 , 1 . New Jersey Stat e Archives , Trenton, N.J . Apparentl y Salu s mad e a strategic erro r i n denouncing th e gover nor. Havin g cas t hi s lo t wit h th e Boardwal k faction , hi s outburst woul d no t hav e gone wel l wit h a grou p anxiou s t o placat e th e governo r an d mut e th e clamo r o f the press. Henc e hi s candidacy di d no t go far . 38. Trenton True American, August 20 , 1908 , 1 ; September 5 , 1908 , 5; Atlantic Review, Septembe r 1,2 , 1908 , 1 ; Atlantic City Sunday Gazette, July 12 , 1908 , 1 . Walter Evan s Edg e present s a curious figur e i n Atlanti c Cit y politic s durin g thi s period. I n 190 6 in his first attemp t a t elective office, h e ran i n the county primar y for th e stat e senate . H e wa s defeate d b y incumben t Edwar d S . Lee , a setbac k which h e attribute d t o th e "Scot t machine. " Afte r tha t th e Press supporte d tha t organization faithfull y unti l h e ceased activ e involvement wit h th e paper i n 1908 , when h e wa s electe d t o th e assembly . Th e Press remained a staunch supporte r o f the cit y agains t outsid e critics , bu t remaine d aloo f fro m interna l conflicts . Al l o f Edge's persona l an d busines s contacts wer e on the beachfront. Hi s closes t friend s were Henr y Leed s an d J . Haine s Lippincot t wh o i n 190 7 travele d wit h hi m t o Memphis a s member s o f hi s weddin g party . B y 19 1 o, th e conflic t betwee n th e beachfront an d th e Ol d Tow n ha d becom e bitter. Ther e wer e few place s to hide, and Edge , runnin g fo r th e senate , campaigne d wit h Kuehnl e agains t Woodro w Wilson who was supported b y the Boardwalk faction. Al l that can be said of Edg e during thi s perio d i s that h e managed t o ride out th e stor m withou t antagonizin g either faction . I t i s characteristi c o f Edg e tha t hi s autobiograph y contain s abso lutely n o mentio n o f th e bitte r conflic t i n hi s nativ e city betwee n 190 9 and 1914 , no mentio n o f Loui s Kuehnle , nor , fo r tha t matter , an y referenc e t o Enoc h L . Johnson, who , alon g wit h Fran k Hague , i s widel y credite d wit h hi s electio n t o the governor' s chai r i n 1916 . Se e Walte r Evan s Edge , A Jerseyman's Journa, (Princeton, N.J. : Princeto n Universit y Press , 1948) , 3iff , 62-65 . 39. Atlantic Review, Septembe r 24 , 1908 , 4 ; Novembe r 5 , 1908 , 1 ; Atlantic City Sunday Gazette, Septembe r 6 , 1908 , 4 ; Septembe r 13 , 1908 , 1 ; New York Times, January 2 , 1909 , 6. 40. Atlantic City Evening Union, May 26 , 1909 , 1 . 41. Ibid. , Januar y 23 , Februar y 29 , 1908 , 1 ; Atlantic City Sunday Gazette, March 22 , 1908 , 1 . Althoug h th e war d an d precinc t line s wer e change d fro m what the y wer e i n 1892 , the y stil l ra n fro m th e beac h t o th e meadows , an d thi s prevents a precise determination o f the black influence i n the primary an d genera l elections tha t year . However , th e greates t concentratio n o f blac k vote s wer e i n

six The

Reason: The Rise and Fall of Boss Kuehnle • 22 5

the Secon d an d Thir d ward s fro m whic h Sto y receive d majoritie s i n Novembe r of 38 2 and 486, respectively. See Atlantic City Press, Novembe r 5 , 1908 , 1 . 42. Atlantic Review, Augus t 26 , 27 , 30 , 1909 , 1 ; Septembe r 20 , 24 , 1909 , 1 ; Atlantic City Press, Augus t 26 , 27 , 1909 , 1 ; September 1 , 21, 22, 23 , 24, 28 , 1909 , 1; Atlantic City Sunday Gazette, September 12 , 1909 , 1 ; September 19 , 1909 , 1 , 4; September 26 , 1909 , 1,4 . 43. Trenton Times, August 31 , 1909, 1 . 44. Atlantic Review, Septembe r 1 , 21 , 1909, 1 . 45. Ibid. , Septembe r 9 , 13 , 23, 25, 1909 , 1 . 46. Atlantic City Sunday Gazette, Septembe r 19 , 1909 , 6 . Th e discrepanc y between White' s an d Murray's statistic s on black employment i n the city was tha t Murray include d fifteen blac k teachers who taught i n the city system . 47. Atlantic City Press, Septembe r 30 , 1909 , 1 . 48. Atlantic Review, October 26 , November 3 , 1909 , 1 . 49. Ranso m Noble , New Jersey Progressivism before Wilson, (Princeton , N.J. : Princeton Universit y Press , 1946) , 146-150 . 50. Atlantic City Evening Union, November 12 , 1909 , 1 . 51. Atlantic Review, July 4 , 20 , 30 , 1910 , 1 , August 2 , 1910 , 1 . 52. Ibid. , January 19 , 25, 1910 , 1 ; February 15 , 1910 , 4; August 2 , Septembe r 10, 1910 , 1 .

53. Ibid. , Septembe r 1 , 1910 , 1 . 54. Jame s Kerney , The Political Education ofWoodrow Wilson, (New York : Th e Century Co. , 1926) , 157-158 . Se e als o Atlantic City Press, Februar y 21 , 1943 , 5. Thomas owne d al l bu t tw o share s o f th e Revie w Publishin g Company , an d indications ar e tha t th e pape r wa s place d i n hi s hand s o n libera l term s b y a coalition o f Boardwal k hotelme n an d loca l an d stat e Democrats . Thoma s wen t bankrupt i n 1926 , listing a total o f $50,839 i n liabilities an d n o assets. Amon g hi s liabilities wer e $15,05 0 i n "unsecure d notes " owed to , amon g others , Charle s D . White ($1,000) , Danie l S . Whit e ($3,700) , an d Henr y Leed s ($1,500) . Loca l Democratic creditor s include d Clarenc e Col e ($2,100) . Anothe r credito r wa s Wilson supporte r Jame s Kerne y o f th e Trenton Times ($500) . Se e "Examin e Thomas t o Find Assets, " Atlantic City Press, June 10 , 1926 , 1 . 55. Josep h Tumulty , Woodrow Wilson As I Know Him (Garde n City , N.Y. : Garden Cit y Publishin g Company , 1927) , 14-22 ; Kerney , The Political Education ofWoodrow Wilson, 36-37 ; Ra y Stannar d Baker , Woodrow Wilson: Life and Letters (Garden City , N.Y. : Doubleday , Duran , an d Company , 1931) , 74-75 ; Arthu r Link, ed. , The Papers of Woodrow Wilson, vol . 2 1 (Princeton , N.J. : Princeto n University Press , 1977) , 310-320 . ^6. Kerney , The Political Education ofWoodrow Wilson, 185-190 . A s governor , Wilson wrote the following t o the Reveren d Thoma s B . Shannon , superintenden t of th e Anti-Saloo n League : "The y [temperanc e an d loca l option ] hav e throw n every othe r question , howeve r important , int o th e backgroun d an d hav e mad e constructive part y actio n impossibl e fo r lon g year s together . . . . I ca n neve r consent t o havin g th e questio n o f loca l optio n mad e a n issu e betwee n politica l parties i n thi s state . M y judgemen t i s ver y clea r i n thi s matter . I d o no t believ e

226 • si x The

Reason: The Rise and Fall of Boss Kuehnle

that part y programme s o f the highest consequenc e t o the political lif e of the Stat e and o f th e Natio n ough t t o b e thrust o n on e sid e and hopelessl y embarrasse d fo r long period s togethe r b y makin g a politica l issu e o f a grea t questio n whic h i s essentially non-political , non-partisan , mora l an d socia l i n it s nature. " Se e Link , The Papers of Woodrow Wilson, vol . 22 , 598-599 . 57. Atlantic Review, Octobe r 29 , 19 1 o, 1 ; November 3 , 4, 19 1 o, 1 . 58. Ne w Jersey Stat e Assembl y Investigatio n o f the General Electio n o f 19 1 o in Atlanti c City , Testimony (Trenton, N.J. , 1911) , 1324 , 1433-143 4 (hereafte r referred t o a s Mackse y Commission) ; Atlantic Review, Octobe r 26 , Novembe r 1 , 1910, 1 ; Willia m Sackett , Modern Battles of Trenton, vol . 2 (Ne w York : Neal e Publishing, 1914) , 350. 59. Mackse y Commission , Report, 1-9 . 60. Th e bul k o f th e 1,439-pag e testimon y centere d abou t illega l registratio n which existe d throughou t th e city an d i n equal proportion s i n both th e white an d black communities. See , fo r example , Be n Allen's hotel , ibid. , 605-615 , Notter' s Hotel, a boardinghous e fo r whit e constructio n workers , 740-746 . Fo r loca l fire men, se e 135-139 . 61. Ibid. , 1386 . 62. Ibid. , 1385 . 63. Ibid. , 97-103 , 404-410, 676-679 , 1025-1038 . 64. Ibid. , 162 , 1249-1254 . 65. Ibid. , 54-58 , 201-206 , 497-507 . 66. Fo r Murtland , se e ibid. , 943-950 ; fo r Majane , 528-529 , 918-919 , 976-977, 1170-1171 ; for McDevitt , 176-182 ; for Griffi n an d Allen , 909-914 ; fo r Mahoney, 997-1002 ; and fo r Gillison , se e 497-507, 1199-1200 . 67. Ibid. , 1432-1433 . 68. Ibid. , 1321-1323 . 69. O f electio n officers , Kuehnl e sai d t o Clarenc e Cole , " I don' t contro l th e election officers . Yo u kno w tha t a s wel l a s I do . I don' t bothe r wit h them. " Se e ibid., 1322 . Simo n Faber , amon g privat e loca l citizens , wa s th e mos t activ e against organizatio n effort s t o pa d th e list s an d impor t repeater s goin g a s fa r a s employing detective s an d offerin g reward s fo r informatio n leadin g t o proo f o f irregularities. Hi s testimon y indicate s hi s belie f tha t Alfre d Gilliso n directe d th e scheme. B y his account Kuehnl e "handle d n o money," and Isaa c Bacharach, wit h whom Kuehnl e b y no w wa s closely associated , mad e a n honest effor t t o curb th e worst o f th e abuses . Se e ibid. , 960-963 . Bu t m y assessmen t o f Kuehnl e a s not bein g activ e i n vot e stealin g i s base d mor e o n th e natur e o f th e organiza tion, Kuehnle' s rol e i n it , Kuehnle' s characte r an d reputation , an d o n subse quent statement s b y peopl e suc h a s Joseph Salu s an d Willia m Riddl e mad e afte r Kuehnle wa s indicted . See , fo r example , Atlantic City Sunday Gazette, March 24 , 1912, 1 , 6 . I n th e electio n o f 1910 , Riddl e wa s a candidat e fo r Congres s o n th e "Progressive Labor " ticket . I t wa s onl y a toke n candidac y undertake n a t th e request o f Samue l Gompers . O n th e nigh t befor e th e election, Riddle' s office wa s broken int o an d al l of th e ballot s wit h hi s sticker s wer e stolen . Hi s assessmen t o f the electio n and , b y extension , o f Kuehnl e wa s a s follows : "N o on e denie s tha t there wa s a larg e numbe r o f repeater s fro m Philadelphia ; everyon e admit s that .

six The

Reason: The Rise and Fall of Boss Kuehnle • 22 7

. . . Th e peopl e o f Atlanti c Cit y wan t a fai r election , everybod y want s that — even th e peopl e i n powe r wan t it. " Se e Macksey Commission , Hearings, 601. All of the evidence points t o a corrupt electio n over which th e leaders of the organiza tion had littl e control . 70. Ibid. , 1384,962-963 . 71. Atlantic City Sunday Gazette, November 13 , 1910 , 4 ; Februar y 5 , 19 , 26 , 1911, 4; March 5 , 1911 , 4; Trenton True American, January 6 , 11 , 1910 , 4; Trenton Times, February 9 , 25 , 1911 , 1 ; March 10 , 1911 , 6; New York Times, January 21 , 1911, 1 ; February 5 , 1911 , 4. 72. Atlantic City Review, January 13 , 14 , 16 , 21, 1911 , 1. 73. Ibid. , Januar y 31 , 1911 , 1 ; Marc h 6 , 1911 , 1 ; Trenton Times, Marc h 6 , 1911, 1 .

74. Atlantic City Press, Augus t 14 , 1981 , 7. 75. Trenton Times, March 10 , 1911 , 6; June 6 , 1911 , 6. 76. Atlantic City Review, June 5 , 1911,4 . 77. Trenton Times, June 6 , 1911 , 6. 78. Sackett , Modern Battles of Trenton, vol. 2 , 369-378 . 79. New York Times, July 2 , 1911 , 10; July 8 , 1911 , 2; July 10 , 1911 , 4; Atlantic City Press, Jul y 2 , 9 , 1911 , 1 . A complet e accoun t o f th e eliso r gran d jur y wa s given b y th e Trenton Times, July 1 , 18 , 27 , 1911 , 1 . Fo r length y editoria l com ment, se e July 3 , 5, 8, 17 , 1911 , 6. 80. Atlantic City Press, July 20 , 1911 , 1. 81. New York Times, August 6 , 1911 , 10 ; August 10 , 1911 , 4; Septembe r 7 , 1911, 1 ; Septembe r 29 , 1911 , 4 ; Octobe r n , 1911 , 4 ; Octobe r 12 , 1911 , 18 ; Atlantic City Review, Septembe r 29 , 1911 , 1 ; Atlantic City Press, September 29 , 1911, 1 .

82. Atlantic City Press, July 3 , 21 , 1911 , 1 ; October 16 , 1911 , 1 ; Atlantic City Sunday Gazette, October 15 , 1911 , 1. 83. New York Times, July 31 , 1911, 2. 84. Atlantic City Sunday Gazette, July 23 , 1911 , 1 ; Atlantic City Press, July 24 , 25, 1911 , 1 .

85. Philadelphia Public Ledger, July 30 , 1911 , quoted i n Atlantic City Press, July 31,6. 86. Arthu r Link , Wilson: The Road to the White House (Princeton , N.J. : Princeton Universit y Press , 1965) , 292-294 . 87. Atlantic City Review, August 4, 1911 , 4. 88. Newark Evening News, Septembe r 1 , 1911 , 4. 89. Atlantic City Review, August 14 , 15 , 17 , 18 , 19 , 21, 23, 1911 , 1. 90. Ibid. , Novembe r 4 , 1911 , 4. 91. Atlantic City Sunday Gazette, November 5 , 1911 , 4. 92. Atlantic City Review, November 4 , 1911 , 2. 93. Ibid. , Octobe r 31 , 1911, 1. 94. Ibid. , Octobe r 26 , 1911 , 1 ; Atlantic City Press, Octobe r 26 , 1911 , 1 ; Atlantic City Sunday Gazette, August 6, Octobe r 29 , 1911 , 1. 95. Th e speec h i s reprinted i n ful l i n Link , The Papers of Woodrow Wilson, vol. 23,522-531-

228 • si x The

Reason: The Rise and Fall of Boss Kuehnle

96. Bacharac h wo n b y 1,41 4 votes , 5,08 7 t o 3,673 . Fusio n candidate s fo r sheriff an d assembl y wer e als o defeated . Fo r results , se e Atlantic City Press, November 8 , 1911 , 1. 97. Atlantic City Review, November 8 , 1911 , 4. 98. Newark Evening Call, November 12 , 1911 , 4. 99. Transcript s o f the Kuehnl e trial were printed verbati m i n the Atlantic City Review, Decembe r 20 , 21 , 22, 23 , 1911 . For a brief histor y o f th e Unite d Pavin g Company, se e Atlantic City Press, Apri l 15 , 1911 , special section. Durin g 191 1 the company wa s grante d $670,00 0 i n pavin g contracts . Fo r hostil e comment , se e Atlantic City Review, Februar y 28 , March 11 , June 15 , June 20 , Augus t 5 , 1911 . In January 191 2 th e ne w administratio n voide d al l cit y contract s wit h th e com pany. Se e Atlantic City Review, January 9 , 1912 , 1 . 100. Atlantic City Sunday Gazette, January 28 , 1912 , 4. 101. Ibid. , Marc h 25 , 1912 , 1 , 2. 102. Atlantic City Review, January 13 , 1912 , 1 ; February 1 , 1912 , 1 ; Atlantic City Press, July 14 , 1912 , 1 . 103. Atlantic City Sunday Gazette, January 21 , 1912 , 1 . 104. Atlantic City Review, March 8, 1911 , 1 ; Atlantic City Press, Augus t 16 , 17 , 1911, 1 .

105. Atlantic City Review, Apri l 23 , 24 , 1912 , 1 ; May 3 , 15 , 1912 , 1 ; Atlantic City Sunday Gazette, Ma y 19 , 1912 , 4. 106. A tlantic City Review, June 28, 1912 , 1 . 107. Whil e i t i s doubtfu l tha t Thoma s publishe d everythin g tha t h e receive d from Burns , th e particular s o f th e operatio n wer e lai d ou t i n detai l i n th e Review between Ma y 3 1 an d Jul y 27 , 1912 , includin g verbati m printing s o f recorde d conversations betwee n Burn s detective s an d th e principal s i n th e cas e a s wel l a s transcripts o f reports mad e b y th e detectives t o Burns. Bot h Kessle r an d Phoebu s admitted tha t everythin g tha t th e Review printe d wa s "essentiall y correct. " Se e Atlantic City Review, May 31 , June 1 , 2 , 3 , 1912 . 108. Ibid. , Ma y 31 , 1912 , 1 . 109. Th e pla n calle d fo r eac h o f th e participatin g member s o f counci l t o receive $5,00 0 upo n th e completio n o f the project . Th e mone y wa s to b e pai d i n stages, eac h ma n gettin g $50 0 fo r introducin g an d votin g fo r th e require d ordi nance. Se e ibid., June 14 , 1912 , 1 . 110. Palme r wa s quickly shunte d asid e by Phoebus , bu t h e treated th e deal as he woul d hav e an y rea l estat e transaction , late r demandin g a $500 "commission " for settin g up the transaction. Se e ibid., June 27 , 1912 , 1 . i n . Ibid. , June 14 , 1912 , 1 ; June 5 , 1912 , 1 , 2; June 7 , 1912 , 1 , 5. 112. Ibid. , June 6 , 1912 , 1 , 5; June 7 , 1912 , 1 , 5. 113. Ibid. , June 8 , 1912 , 1 , 2. 114. Ibid., June 7, 1912, 4; June 1, 1912, 1. 115. Ibid., June 1, 1912, 2.

116. Atlantic City Commission Government, vol . 1 , no. 1 (March 1913) , 2. 117. Link , The Papers of Woodrow Wilson, vol. 2 3 (1911-1912), 309-310 . 118. Kerney , The Political Education of Woodrow Wilson, 157-158.

SEVEN Pharisees

and Hypocrites • 22 9

119. Arthu r Link , Woodrow Wilson and the Progressive Era: 1910-1917 (New York: Harper an d Row , 1954) , x3120. Kerney , The Political Education of Woodrow Wilson, 157-159. S E V E N Pharisees

and Hypocrites

• *

1. Atlantic City Review, January 22 , 1915 , 1 . 2. Rober t B . Steelman , What God Has Wrought: A History of the Southern New Jersey Conference of the United Methodist Church (Rutland, Vt. : Academ y Books , 1986), 133 ; City o f Atlantic City , Atlantic City Commission Government, vol . 1 , no. 5 (December 1913) , 1-2 . 3. A tlantic City Review, April 7,1917,8 . 4. Atlantic City Commission Government, vol . 1 , no. 5 (December 1913) , 2. 5. Trenton Times, February 2 , 1914 , 1 ; February 3 , 1914 , 4; February 6 , 1914 , 1; February 17 , 1914 , 3. 6. Atlantic City Review, March 16 , 1914 , 1,4 ; Marc h 24 , 1914 , 1 . 7. Trenton Times, Marc h 17 , 1914 , 3 ; Apri l 9 , 1914 , 7 ; Apri l 10 , 1914 , 1 ; Atlantic City Review, March 24 , 1914 , 1 ; April 3 , 1914 , 1 . 8. Atlantic City Review, Januar y 2 , 1914 , 1 ; January 3 , 1914 , 1 ; January 6 , 1914, 1 ; January 7 , 1914 , 1 , 6 ; January 8 , 1914 , 4 ; January 12 , 1914 , 1 ; January 20, 1914 , 1 ; January 21 , 1914, 1 . 9. Ibid. , January 14 , 1914 , 1;Januar y 15 , 1914 , 1;Januar y 17 , 1914 , 1 . 10. Ibid. , Februar y 18 , 1914 , 1 ; February 20 , 1914 , 1 . 11. Willia m H . Bartlett , "S o Calle d 'Amusemen t War ' I s a Myth, " Atlantic City Commission Government, vol . 2 , no. 7 (February 1915) , 1-2 . 12. O f the thirty-two properties listed by Thomas as disorderly houses, seven teen wer e white-owne d establishment s betwee n 11 1 North Carolin a Avenu e an d 213 Nort h Carolin a Avenue , o r betwee n Arcti c an d Mediterranea n avenues . Properties locate d a t 215 , 219 , an d 21 9 were classifie d a s "negr o dives, " an d th e mortgages wer e hel d b y th e Delawar e Avenu e Investmen t Compan y i n whic h Harry Bacharac h ha d a n interest. The y wer e not licensed t o sell liquor, a n almos t sure indicatio n tha t the y wer e indee d brothels . Bu t th e Bacharach s owne d man y properties i n th e city, an d Thomas' s article , whil e no doubt a n embarrassment t o the owner s an d mortgagors , mad e n o connectio n betwee n prostitutio n an d cit y officialdom. Thes e properties , seventee n whit e an d thre e black , constitute d th e tenderloin a s i t existed i n Atlanti c Cit y i n 1914 . Th e remainin g twelve , excep t one white-owned establishmen t o n Mediterranea n Avenue , wer e locate d o n Nat ter's Alley , a n interracia l slu m distric t withi n th e Northside. Tw o wer e occupie d by whites , an d nin e b y blacks , bu t thi s are a ha d neve r enjoye d polic e protectio n and wa s th e continua l targe t o f raid s b y bot h cit y an d count y officials . Se e A tlantic City Review, January 19 , 1914 , 1 . 13. Ibid. , January 20 , 1914,4 . 14. "Th e Wisconsi n Idea, " Atlantic City Commission Government, vol 1 , no . 3 (June 1913) , 8; Atlantic City Review, January 16 , 1914 , 1 ; February 16 , 1914 , 1 .

230 • SEVE N Pharisees

and Hypocrites

15. Philadelphia Public Ledger, Februar y 24 , 1914, 2 . 16. Ibid. , Februar y 25 , 1914, 1; Atlantic City Review, February 25 , 1914, 1,4 . 17. Philadelphia Public Ledger, Februar y 25 , 1914, 1. 18. Ibid. , Februar y 26 , 1914, 1. 19. Atlantic City Press, Februar y 26 , 1914, 1. 20. Atlantic City Review, February 26 , 1914, 1. 21. Walte r Evan s Edge , A Jerseyman's Journal (Princeton, N.J. : Princeton Uni versity Press , 1948) , 68. 22. Atlantic City Review, Januar y 2 , 1914 , 1 ; January 13 , 1914 , 1 ; Trenton Times, April 15 , 1914, 6; Philadelphia Public Ledger, June 5, 1914, 1; Newark Evening News, June 2 , 1914 , 10; June 4, 1914 , 4 . 23. Atlantic City Review, August 29 , 1914, 1; August 31 , 1914, 1. 24. Atlantic City Review, Septembe r 2 , 1915 , 1. 25. Ibid. , Augus t 31 , 1914. Riddle's vie w of prostitution wa s stated a t lengt h in a municipal journa l articl e entitled, "Th e Problem of the Ages, the Social Evil , Will Not Be Solved B y Public Clamor. " Se e Atlantic City Commission Government, vol. 1 , no. 6 (January 1913) , 4 - 5. 26. Atlantic City Review, July 3 , 1915, 1; January 22 , 1915, 1. 27. Ibid. , June 22 , 1915, 1. 28. Ibid. , January 3 , 1916, 1; January 4 , 1916 , 1; January 10 , 1916, 1. 29. Atlantic City Press, Ma y 21, 1915, 1. See also William Riddle , "Travestie s of th e Law—Th e Puritan s Ha d Littl e O n Atlanti c Cit y I n Curtailin g Persona l Liberty," Atlantic City Commission Government, vol . 1, no. 1 2 (July 1914) , 5. 30. Alfre d M . Hesto n t o Willia m Riddle , Januar y 18 , 1916 , Heston Collec tion, Atlanti c City Publi c Library, Atlanti c City, N.J. 31. Atlantic City Press, Augus t 14 , 1915, 1. 32. Ibid., May 4, 1916 , 3 . 33. Hesto n t o Riddle, January 18 , 1916 . 34. Atlantic City Review, May 8, 1916 , 4 ; Atlantic City Press, Apri l 27 , 1916, 1; April 29 , 1916, 1. 35. Atlantic City Review, May 8, 1916 , 1. 36. Willia m Riddle , "Killin g th e Goose Tha t Lai d th e Golden Egg, " Atlantic City Commission Government, vol. 2, no. 6 (January 1915) , 1-2 . 37. Newark Evening News, September 17 , 1914, 10. 38. Atlantic City Press, Apri l 10,1916,1 , 3. 39. Ibid. , Apri l 15 , 1916, 1. 40. Atlantic City Review, Ma y 9 , 1916 , 1 ; Newark Evening News, Apri l 11 , 1916, 6. 41. Atlantic City Press, Ma y 10 , 1916, 1. 42. Ibid. , Ma y 11 , 1916, 1; Atlantic City Review, May 11, 1916, 1. 43. "Atlanti c Cit y Turn s Ove r a New Leaf, " The Survey 44 (May 27, 1916) : 216. 44. Atlantic City Press, January 28 , 1917, 1; November 15 , 1917, 1, 8; November 18 , 1917 , 1 . 45. Atlantic City Sunday Gazette, September 22 , 1918, 1, 2; September 8 , 19,18, *>4-

SEVEN Pharisees

and Hypocrites • 23 1

46. Ibid. , Jul y 27 , 1919 , 1 ; August 10 , 1919 , 1 ; Septembe r 7 , 1919 , 1 ; No vember 30 , 1919 , 1 ; Februar y 22 , 1920 , 1 ; Februar y 29 , 1920 , 1 ; Atlantic City Press, April 20 , 1920 , 1 ; Ma y 1 , 1920 , 1 ; Herber t Asbury , The Great Illusion: An Informal History of Prohibition (Westport, Conn. : Greenwoo d Press , 1968) , 2 4347. Atlantic City Press, January 27 , 1920 , 1 ; April 17 , 1920 , 1 ; April 26 , 1920 , 1; April 27 , 1920 , 1 ; April 30 , 1920 , 1 ; May 8 , 1920 , 1 ; May 10 , 1920 , 1 ; May 12 , 1920, 1 . 48. Ibid. , Ma y 19 , 1920 , 1 . 49. Ibid. , Augus t 31 , 1926 , 7. 50. Willia m E . Frank , Specia l Agent , Intelligenc e Unit , Unite d State s Trea sury Department , an d Josep h E . Burns , Specia l Assistan t t o th e Unite d State s Attorney fo r th e Distric t o f Ne w Jersey , The Case of Enoch L. Johnson (special report detailin g five-yea r investigatio n o f Johnso n unde r abov e auspices , 1941 . Complete repor t hel d b y Ne w Jerse y Stat e Archives , Trenton , N.J.) . Se e als o Jack Alexander , "Bos s o n th e Spot, " Saturday Evening Post, Augus t 26 , 1939 , 5-7. 52-53 51. Atlantic City Press, Ma y 19 , 1939 , 7. 52. Fran k an d Burns , The Case of Enoch L. Johnson, 1-2 . 53. U.S . Congress , Senate , Subcommittee of the Special Committee to Investigate Organized Crime in Interstate Commerce, Hearings before th e Specia l Committe e t o Investigate Organize d Crim e i n Ne w Yor k an d Ne w Jersey, o n S . Res . 20 2 (81s t Congress), Washington , D.C. , July 19 , 1951 , 989. 54. Richar d Hofstadter , Anti-Intellectualism in American Life (Ne w York : Al fred A . Knopf , 1962) , 197 ; idem, The Age of Reform (New York : Rando m House , 1955), 152 . 55. Atlantic City Sunday Gazette, June 9, 1918 , 1 . 56. Norma n Clark , Deliver Us From Evil: An Interpretation of American Prohibition (New York : W. W . Norto n an d Company , 1976) , 120-121 . 57. "Atlanti c Cit y Turn s Ove r A New Leaf, " 217. 58. Joh n Kasson , Amusing the Million: Coney Island at the Turn of the Century (New York : Hill an d Wang , 1978) , 104-112 . 59. Melvi n Kalfus , Frederick Law Olmsted: The Passion of a Public Artist (Ne w York: New Yor k Universit y Press , 1990) . 60. The Survey, Ma y 6 , 1916 , 163-164 . 61. Jame s Peyto n Sizer , The Commercialization of Leisure (Boston : Richar d G . Badger, 1917) , 37. 62. Ibid. , 23-24 . 63. Newto n D . Baker , "Law , Police , an d Socia l Problems, " Atlantic Monthly 195 (July 1915) : 12-20 . 64. Pau l Boyer , Urban Masses and Moral Order in America, 1820-1920 (Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard Universit y Press , 1978) , 195-198 . 65. Ronal d C . White , Jr., Liberty and Justice for All: Racial Reform and the Social Gospel (New York : Harper an d Row , 1990) . 66. Pete r G . Filene , "A n Obituar y fo r 'Th e Progressiv e Movement, ' " American Quarterly, 22 (1970): 20-34.

232 • SEVE N Pharisees

and Hypocrites

6j. Danie l Rodgers , "In Search of Progressivism," Reviews in American History 10 (Decembe r 1982) : 122 . 68. Ibid . 69. Ala n Trachtenberg , The Incorporation of America: Culture and Society in the Gilded Age (Ne w York : Hil l an d Wang, 1982) , 7. See als o Hofstadter , The Age of Reform, 7 . 70. "Th e America n Utopia : Atlanti c City, " The New Republic 2 5 (December 29, 1920) : 126-127 .

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Adams, Henry . The Education of Henry Adams. Boston , Mass. : Houghto n Miffli n Company, 1961 . Ahlstrom, Sidney . A Religious History of the American People. Ne w Haven , Conn. : Yale University Press , 1972 . Alexander, Rober t C. Ho! For Cape Island. Cap e May, N.J.: B y the Author, 1956 . Asbury, Herbert . The Great Illusion: An Informal History of Prohibition. Westport , Conn.: Greenwood Press , 1968 . Ashby, Willia m M . Tales Without Hate. Newark , N.J. : Newar k Landmark s an d Preservation Committee , 1980 . Baker, Ra y Stannard . Woodrow Wilson: Life and Letters. Garde n City , N.Y. : Doubleday, Duran , an d Company , 1931 . Blakely, Willia m Addison , ed . American State Papers Bearing on Sunday Legislation. New York : National Religiou s Libert y Association , 1890 . . American State Papers on Freedom in Religion. New York : Nationa l Reli gious Liberty Association , 1943 .

236 • Bibliography Bordin, Ruth . Frances Willard: A Biography. Chapel Hill , N.C. : Universit y o f North Carolin a Press , 1986 . Boyer, Paul . Urban Masses and Moral Order in America: 1820-1920. Cambridge , Mass.: Harvard Universit y Press , 1978 . Breyfogel, S . C . Landmarks of the Evangelical Association. Reading , Pa. : Eagl e Book Print, 1898 . Busby, Katherine . Home Life in America. Ne w York : Th e Macmilla n Company , 1910. Camden an d Atlanti c Railroad . Atlantic City, N.J. Philadelphia : J. B . Lippincot t &Co., 1873 . Carnesworth [pseud. ] Atlantic City: Its Early and Modern History. Philadelphia : Wm. C . Harri s & Co., 1868 . Clark, Norman . Deliver Us From Evil: An Interpretation of American Prohibition. New York : W. W . Norto n Company , 1976 . Cook, W . George , an d Coxey , Willia m J. Atlantic City Railroad: The Royal Route to the Sea. Ambler, Pa. : Crusader Press , 1980 . Cope, Charle s Henry . Reminiscences of Charles West Cope, R. A. London : Richar d Bentley & Son, 1891 . Corocoran, A . J. The History of Gloucester City, New Jersey. Gloucester City , N.J. : Gloucester Cit y Historica l Society , 1973 . Cunningham, Hugh . Leisure in the Industrial Revolution. New York : St . Martin' s Press, 1980 . Dannenbaum, Jed. Drink and Disorder. Chicago : University o f Illinois Press, 1984 . Demaris, Ovid . The Boardwalk Jungle. Ne w York : Bantam Books , 1986 . D'Emilio, John , an d Freedman , Estell e B . Intimate Matters: A History of Sexuality in America. New York : Harpe r an d Row , 1988 . Duis, Perry . Public Drinking in Chicago and Boston. Chicago: Universit y o f Illinoi s Press, 1983 . Dulles, Foste r Rhea . A History of Recreation: America Learns to Play. Ne w York : Appleton Centur y Crofts , 1965 . Edge, Walte r Evans . A Jersey man's Journal. Princeton , N.J. : Princeto n Universit y Press, 1948 . English, A . L . History of Atlantic City. Philadelphia : Dickso n an d Gillin g Publish ers, 1884 . Ewing, Sara h W . R. , an d McMullin , Robert . Along Absecon Creek. Bridgeton , N.J.: C.O.W.A.N. Printing , 1965 . Fecher, Charle s A . Mencken: A Study of His Thought. Ne w York : Alfre d A . Knopf, 1978 . Federal Writer s Project , Work s Progres s Administration . Entertaining a Nation: The Career of Long Branch. Bayonne, N.J. : Jersey Printin g Company, 1940 . Frisch, Michae l H . "Th e Communit y Elit e and th e Emergence of Urban Politics : Springfield, Massachusetts , 1840-1880, " i n Nineteenth Century Cities: Essays in the New Urban History. Edite d b y Stephe n Thernstro m an d Richar d Sennett . New Haven , Conn. : Yale University Press , 1976 . Funnell, Charles . By the Beautiful Sea: The Rise and High Times of That Great American Resort. Ne w York : Alfred A . Knopf , 1975 .

Bibliography • 23 7 Hall, Edga r Elliot . The Negro Wage Earner in New Jersey. New Brunswick , N.J. : Rutgers Universit y Press , 1935 . Hall, Joh n F . The Daily Union History of Atlantic City and County, New Jersey. Atlantic City , N.J. : Dail y Unio n Printin g Company, 1900 . Hand, Albert , ed . A Book of Cape May. Cap e May , N.J. : Alber t Han d Co. , 1937. Haupt, Lewi s M. "Change s Along the New Jersey Coast, " in New Jersey Geological Survey 1860-1915. Trenton , N.J. : 1915 . Heston, Alfre d M . Illustrated Hand-Book of Atlantic City, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Franklin Printin g House , 1887 . . Illustrated Hand-Book of Atlantic City, New Jersey. Atlantic City , N.J. : A . M. Hesto n an d Company , 1888 . . Illustrated Hand-Book of Atlantic City, New Jersey. Atlantic City , N.J. : A . M. Hesto n an d Company , 1889 . . Heston ys Hand-Book of Atlantic City. Philadelphia : Frankli n Printin g Com pany, 1892 . . Heston's Hand-Book of Atlantic City. Philadelphia : Frankli n Printin g Com pany, 1894 . . Heston's Hand-Book of Atlantic City. Atlanti c City , N.J. : A . M . Heston , 1899. . Heston's Hand-Book of Atlantic City: Twentieth Century Souvenir Edition. Atlantic City, N.J. : Alfred M . Heston , 1901 . . Absegami: Annals of Eyren Haven and Atlantic City, 1609 to 1904. 2 vols. Camden, N.J. : Sinnickso n Che w an d Co. , 1904 . , ed . South Jersey, A History: 1664-1924. 5 vols. New York : Lewi s Histori cal Publishing Co. , Inc. , 1924 . Higham, John . "Th e Reorientatio n o f America n Cultur e i n th e 1890s, " i n The Origins of Modern Consciousness. Edite d b y Joh n Weiss . Detroit : Wayn e Stat e University Press , 1965 . Hofstadter, Richard . The Age of Reform. New York : Rando m House , 1955 . . Anti-Intellectualism in American Life. New York : Alfred A . Knopf , 1962 . Hollifield, A . Nelson . Shall We Legalize Sabbath Desecration, and Racing and Gambling on Race Courses? Newark, N.J. : Advertise r Printin g House , 1891 . Kasson, John . Amusing the Million: Coney Island at the Turn of the Century. Ne w York: Hill an d Wang , 1982 . Kerney, James . The Political Education of Woodrow Wilson. New York : Th e Cen tury Co. , 1926 . King, Jame s M . Facing the Twentieth Century —Our Country: Its Power and Peril. New York : American Unio n Leagu e Society , 1899 . Knobel, G . C , ed . The Congress of the Evangelical Association. Cleveland , Ohio : Thomas an d Matill , 1894 . Laband, Davi d N . , an d Heinbuch , Debora h H . Blue Laws: The History, Economics, and Politics of Sunday Closing Laws. Lexington , Mass. : D . C . Heat h an d Com pany, 1987 . Lauderbach, S . W . A Century After. Philadelphia : Allen , Lane , an d Scott , 1885.

238 • Bibliography Link, Arthu r S . Woodrow Wilson and the Progressive Era: 1910-1917. Ne w York : Harper an d Row , 1954 . , ed . The Papers of Woodrow Wilson. Vols . 21 , 22 , 23 . Princeton , N.J. : Princeton Universit y Press , 1977 . . Wilson: The Road to the White House. Princeton , N.J. : Princeton Universit y Press, 1965 . Low, A . Maurice . America At Home. London: Georg e Newnes, Ltd. , 1908 . McMahon, William . South Jersey Towns: History and Legend. Ne w Brunswick , N.J.. : Rutgers Universit y Press , 1983 . Morris, Edmund . The Rise of Theodore Roosevelt. Ne w York : Coward , McCann , and Geoghegan , Inc. , 1979 . Muelder, Walte r G . Methodism and Society in the Twentieth Century. Vol . I I o f The Methodist Church in Thought and Action. Ne w York : The Abingto n Press , 1961. Noble, Ranso m E. , Jr . New Jersey Progressivism before Wilson. Princeton , N.J. : Princeton Universit y Press , 1946 . Novarra, Tova . The New Jersey Shore: A Vanishing Splendor. Philadelphia : Th e Ar t Alliance Press, 1985 . Pierce, Arthu r D . Family Empire in Jersey Iron. Ne w Brunswick , N.J. : Rutger s University Press , 1964 . Pivar, Davi d J . Purity Crusade: Sexual Morality and Social Control, 1868-1900. Westport, Conn. : Greenwoo d Press , 1973 . Rogers, Danie l T . The Work Ethic in Industrial America, 1850-1920. Chicago : University o f Chicago Press , 1978 . Rosen, Ruth . The Lost Sisterhood: Prostitution in America, 1900-1918. Baltimore : Johns Hopkin s Universit y Press , 1982 . Rosenzwieg, Roy . Eight Hours forWhat We Will: Workers and Leisure in an Industrial City, 1870-1920. Londo n an d Ne w York : Cambridge Universit y Press , 1983 . Sackett, Willia m E . Modern Battles of Trenton. Vol . 2 , From Werts to Wilson. New York: Neale Publishing Co. , 1914 . Sinclair, Andrew . Era of Excess: A Social History of the Prohibition Movement. Ne w York: Harper an d Row , 1962 . Sizer, James Peyton . The Commercialization of Leisure. Boston : Richar d G . Badger , 1917. Solberg, Winton . Redeem the Time: The Puritan Sabbath in Early America. Cam bridge, Mass. : Harvard Universit y Press , 1977 . Steel, Ronald . Walter Lippmann and the American Century. Boston : Little , Brow n and Company , 1980 . Steelman, Rober t B . What God Has Wrought: A History of the Southern New Jersey Conference of the United Methodist Church. Pennington, N.J. : Th e Unite d Meth odist Conference, 1986 . Sternleib, George , an d Hughes , James W . The Atlantic City Gamble. Cambridge , Mass.: Harvard Universit y Press , 1983 . Strahan, Edward . Some Highways and Byways of American Travel. Philadelphia : J. B . Lippincott & Co., 1878 . Strong, Josiah. Our Country. Revise d ed . Cambridge , Mass. : Harvard Universit y Press, 1963.

Bibliography • 23 9 Studley, Miria m V . Historic New Jersey through Visitors' Eyes. Princeton, N.J. : D . Van Nostran d Company , 1964 . Thompson, E . The Making of the English Working Class. New York : Rando m House, 1963 . Timberlake, John . Prohibition and the Progressive Movement. Ne w York : Athe neum, 1970 . Trachtenberg, Alan . The Incorporation of America: Culture and Society in the Gilded Age. Ne w York : Hil l an d Wang , 1982 . Tumulty, Joseph . Woodrow Wilson As I Knew Him. Garde n City , N.Y. : Garde n City Publishin g Co. , 1927 . Tuttle, William , Jr . Race Riot: Chicago in the Red Summer of 1919. Ne w York : Atheneum, 1978 . Weintraub, Stanley . Victoria: An Intimate Biography. New York : E . P . Dutton , 1987. White, E . G . The Great Controversy between Christ and Satan. Oakland , Calif. : Th e Pacific Pres s Publishin g Company , 1892 . White, Ronal d C . Liberty and Justice For All: Racial Reform and the Social Gospel. New York : Harper an d Row , 1990 . Williamson, Jefferson . The American Hotel: An Anecdotal History. Ne w York : Al fred A . Knopf , 1930 . Wilson, Harol d F . The Jersey Shore. 2 vols. New York : Lewis Historical Publishin g Company, 1953 .

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Alfred M . Hesto n Collection. Hesto n Room , Atlanti c City Public Library, Atlan tic City, N.J . Allen H . Brow n Collection . Atlanti c Count y Historica l Society , Somer s Point ,

N.J.

Atlantic Cit y Hotels . Clippin g File , Camde n Count y Historica l Society , Cam den, N.J . "Atlantic Cit y Industria l Improvemen t Company. " Federa l Writer s Project , At lantic City. Atlanti c Count y Historica l Society , Somer s Point, N.J . Devore, Wynetta . "Th e Educatio n o f Black s i n Ne w Jersey. " Ph.D . diss. , Rut gers University, 1980 . "Earning a Living i n Atlanti c City. " Federa l Writer s Project , Ne w Jersey Ethni c Survey. Ne w Jersey Stat e Archives, Trenton , N.J . "The Educatio n o f Negroe s i n Atlanti c City. " Federa l Writer s Project , Ne w Jersey Ethni c Survey . Ne w Jersey Stat e Library Archives , Trenton , N.J . Foster, Herbert . "Th e Urba n Experienc e o f Black s i n Atlanti c City , N.J. : 1850-1915." Ph.D. diss. , Rutger s University , 1981 . Governor Caspe r Stoke s Correspondence . Ne w Jersey Stat e Archives , Trenton , N.J. Governor Frankli n S . For t Correspondence . Ne w Jerse y Stat e Archives , Tren ton, N.J .

240 • Bibliography Governor Frankli n Murph y Correspondence . Ne w Jerse y Stat e Archives , Tren ton, N.J . Popper, S . H. "Newark , N.J. , Chapter s in the Evolution of an American Metrop olis." Ph.D. diss. , New Yor k University, 1971 . "Recreation." Federa l Writer s Project , Atlanti c City . Atlanti c Count y Historica l Society, Somer s Point , N.J . Yeager, C . "Th e Republica n Bos s Er a o f Atlantic City : 1900-1971. " Manuscript in Heston Room , Atlanti c City Publi c Library, Atlanti c City, N.J .

Index

114-16, 139-40 , 149-55 ; as popular reAbsecon Island , 1 ; as wilderness, 14-1 6 sort, 11 , 202 n. ; population, 20 , 21 , 24, Adams, Henry , 9 3 29, 91-92 , 20 5 n. ; promotion, 18 , 20-22, Addams, Jane, 19 8 26-28, 56 ; Quaker influence, 20-21 , American Sabbat h Union, 6 8 American State Papers Bearing on Sunday Legis- 25-26, 32 ; railroads, 15-18 , 23-24 ; as reflection of American society, 10-11 , lation (Blakely), 61,211 n . 26-30, 105-6 , 109 , 134-36 , 139-40 , American Unio n Leagu e Society, 60-61 , 200, 208- 9 n. ; resort economy, 40-42 ; 212 n . tenderloin, 44 , 78 , 106-8 , 112-13 , 114 , "Amusement Wa r of 1895, " 103- 6 128, 136 , 144 , 182-84 , 187-88 , 189 , Anti-Saloon League , 60 , 72 , 85 , 12 9 229 n.; tourism, 17 , 21, 25, 29-30 , Asbury Park , N.J. , 12 , 78, 137-3 8 102-3, 203- 4 n , 20 5 n . Ashby, Willia m M., 34-3 5 Atlantic City: amusement industry, 24-25 , Bacharach, Harry , 160 , 162 , 192 , 194 ; and 89-91, 94-95 , 103-5 , 108-9 , 112 , 119 , Boardwalk bribery scandal , 173 ; elected 123, 134 , 182-83 , 219-2 0 n. ; beachfront , mayor (1911), 167-69 , 171 ; and election 31-32, 44 ; black community {see Black of 1916 , 189-90 , 22 9 n. people; Northside); Chelsea, 43; Bacharach, Isaac , 116 , 156 , 171 , 18 9 churches, 87-88 ; commission governBader, Edwar d L. , 49, 141 , 143 , 193 , 19 4 ment, 171-73 , 175-76 ; Ducktown, 43; Baker, Newto n D. , 19 9 ethnicity, 43 ; excursion district, 43 , 91, Baker, Ra y Stannard, 19 9 96, 98 , 101 , 104-5 , 109 , 180 ; founding Belisle, D . W. , 89 , 10 2 and early years, 14-21 ; gambling, 2-4 , Birth of a Nation, The, 190 93-94, 96-97 , 106 , 113-14 , 123-25 , Bishops' Law, 73-75 , 79 , 126-2 7 130-34, 136 , 147-48 , 195 , 221 n. ; GerBlack people, 22 ; associated wit h commerman concert gardens, 92-93; Golden Jucial vice, 52 , 99, 130-31 , 145-49 , 176 , bilee, 28 ; as health resort, 11-12 , 20 ; ho183-84, 186 , 22 1 n. , 22 3 n. ; and city's tels, 25-26 , 30-32 ; Inlet, 43 ; liquor image, 35-36 ; and liberal policy, 128 ; traffic, 89 , 91-93, 99-100 , 116-17 ; mupopulation, 40 ; and Progressive reform , nicipal corruption, 1-4 , 49 , 58 , 174-75 , 10, 199 ; and racial violence, 38-39 ; and 194; "Old Town," 42-43, 45 , 98, resort economy, 32-35 , 40-42 , 54-55 , 119-20, 140 , 149-50 , 164 , 185 ; orga152-53, 205- 6 n. ; and segregation, nized crime, 175 ; politics, 43-56 , 24l

242 • Index Black people {Continued) 36-39, 20 7 n. , 20 8 n.; Septembe r excur sions, 22 , 39-40 ; as voters, 4, 12 , 43-44, 51-56, 151-53 , 169 , 172 , 178 , 190-93 , 224-25 n . See also Ashby, Willia m M. ; Cope, Charle s West ; Walls, Georg e Blakely, Willia m Addison , 62-63 , 66, 211 n . Boardwalk, 22-23 , 93 , 10 8 Boardwalk briber y scanda l (1912) , 172-75 , 228 n . Boardwalk hotelmen , 3 , 31-32 , 71-72 , 82 , 121-22, 130 , 139-40 , 141-42 , 149-50 , 152, 161 , 164 ; and W . J. Burns , 173 ; and Committee of One-Hundred, 194 ; and evangelicals, 182-83 ; purchase Atlantic City Review, 155 . See also Good Citizens ' League Boom, Rev . Ernes t A. , 10 , 83 Brandeis, Louis , 9 Brewer, Justice Davi d J., 6 4 Bridgeton, N.J. , 7 3 Brown, Rev . Ala n H. , 87-88 , 215-1 6 n . Bryan, Willia m Jennings, 9 Bulletin (Philadelphia) probe (1890), 94-10 3 Burlington, N.J. , 138 , 14 4 Burns, Willia m J., 172-75 , 17 7 Camden, N.J. , 40 , 58,7 0 Camden an d Atlanti c Lan d Company , 1 7 Camden an d Atlanti c Railroad , 17-19 , 23, 88 Cape May, N.J. , 15 , 19 , 30 , 38 , 115, 202 n. , 20 5 n . Cherry, William , 170 , 174-7 5 Chicago, 62 Christian Statesmen, 63-64 Church of the Holy Trinity v. U.S., 6 4 Colby, Everett , 152 , 15 4 Cole, Clarence , 48 , 100 , 110 , 156 , 162 , 209 n., 21 9 n . Commercial recreation : an d cultura l change, 4-5, 86-87 , 88-89 , 115 ; and Progressive reform, 197-98 ; and Protestan t clerics, 5-7 , 57 ; and racia l violence , 38-39; and Sunda y laws , 83-84 , 14 2 Comstock, Anthony , 13 4 Coney Island , 27 , 103 , 104 , 120 , 142 , 197 , 202 n . Cope, Charle s West, 3 3 Croly, Herbert , 9

Davis, Robert , 161-6 2 Debs, Eugen e V. , 9 Delaney, Robert , 123-24 , 131 , 139, 151, 160, 162 , 171 , 220 n . Edge, Walte r E. , 39 , 46, 49, 90, 108 , 123-25, 139 , 156 , 171 , 173 , 181 , 189, 196; and Atlanti c City politics , 22 4 n.; as gubernatorial candidate , 185-86 , 199-200 Eldridge, Harry , 100 , 113 , 127 Elisor gran d jury , 161-6 3 Elwood, Rev . Rober t A. , 109-1 1 English, Alber t L. , 22 , 90, 92 Evangelical Unite d Brethre n Church , 66 Extra Dr y Cafe , 97 , 106 , 10 8 Farley, Fran k S . (Hap) , 1-3 , 19 5 Fish, Charle s J., 58 , 75 Fitzwilliams, Rev . Charle s H. , 111-12 , 11 8 Fletcher, Rev . G . Howard , 147-4 8 Florence Crittenden Circle , 10 , 127-2 8 Foreman Joshua, 53-54 , 106 , 11 3 Fort, Gov . John Franklin , 8 , 71 , 74-75, 82, 132-33, 144-45 , 151 , 213-14 n. ; an d Saturnalia proclamation , 8 , 78-81 , 116-17, 140 , 15 0 Furney, Willia m H. , 51 , 53-5 4 Gardner, John, 17 , 22, 45, 50, 122 , 139-40, 17 5 Gloucester, N.J. , 103 , 105 , 11 0 Goldenberg, Clarence , 75 , 132-33 , 145-49, 153 , 192 Good Citizens ' League, 75-76 , 82 , 112-14 , 121-24, 127-29 , 132-33 , 163 , 219 n. , 220-21 n . Good Citizenshi p League , 128-30 , 13 3 Gouldy, "Squire " John, 10 2 Grand juries , 71 , 76, 78 , 110 , 114 , 121-22 , 161-64, 21 3 n. , 21 9 n . Grundy, Mrs. , 27 , 135-3 6 Hall, John F. , 30 , 51, 52, 102-3 , 108 , 109 , 112, 14 0 Hann, Rev . Samue l H. , 70 , 83, 121-25 , 127-28, 133 , 144-45 , 21 9 n., 22 0 n . Heston, Alfre d M. , 36 , 90, 18 9 Heston's Handbook, 26-21, 3 7 Hoboken, N.J. , 11 , 58, 73, 75, 80 Hoffman, Samuel , 44 , 51 , 95, 10 0

Index • 24 3 Hofstadter, Richard , 60 , 21 0 n . Hollifield, Rev . A . Nelson , 68-69 , 21 2 n . Hudson, Rev . Birne y S. , 141 , 143 , 144-45 , 181, 18 2 International Refor m Bureau , 59-6 0 Inquirer (Philadelphia) probe (1895), 103- 6 Jagmetty, Victor , 47-4 8 Jersey City, N.J. , 70 , 72-73 , 80 , 81 , 14 1 Johnson, Enoc h L. , 1 , 3 , 13 , 50, 140 , 160-61, 162 , 179 , 193 , 194 , 195 , 200, 231 n . Johnson, Jack, 4, 34 , 15 5 Johnson, Smit h E., 44 , 45, 122 , 140 , 21 9 n. Kalisch, Justice Samuel , 16 2 Katzenbach, Fran k S., Jr., 7 4 Kerney, James, 156 , 17 7 Keyport, N.J. , 39 , 72 Knights Templar, 60 , 70 , 8 0 Kuehnle, Louis , Jr., 1-5 , 117 , 119-20 , 121, 130 , 145 , 152 , 153 , 161 , 200; and Boardwalk bribery scandal , 172-75 ; as city commissioner, 194 ; "Commodore," 46; conviction of, 170-71 , 228; death of , 194; early career, 45-47; indictment of , 162-65; and Macksey Commission, 159 , 226-27 n. ; personal characteristics , 47 ; as political leader , 47-51, 154-57 , 191-94 ; portrayed a s boss, 149-50 ; prison term of, 187 ; and Progressive reform, 196-97 ; on Riddle, 192 ; and Sunday baseball , 141-44 Kuehnle, Louis , Sr. , 4 4 Kuehnle's Hotel , 30 , 44, 72 , 120 , 19 4 Law and Order Leagues, 10 , 70, 72-76 , 109-14, 112 , 121-22 , 124-26 , 14 4 Lee, Edwar d S. , 49 , 150 , 151 , 219 n . Leeds, Chalkley, 2 0 Leeds, Henr y W. , 25 , 32 , 139 , 141 , 155 , 181, 22 0 n., 22 1 n . Lewis, Irving , 134-3 5 Liberal policy , 3-4 , 12 , 13 , 56, 86-87 , 89-90, 100 , 104 , 106 , 112 , 114-15 , 126 , 129, 138-40 , 200 ; and popular music, 122-23, 183 ; and Protestant conscience , 196; and racial segregation, 128 ; and vaudeville, 125-2 6 Lippincott, J. Haines , 25 , 15 2

Lippmann, Walter , 9, 211-1 2 n . Long Branch, N.J. , 11 , 15 , 19 , 30 , 70 , 115 , 124, 182 , 205 n . Lord's Day Alliance , 60 , 68, 74 , 81-84 ; in Atlantic City, 141-4 2 Low, A . Maurice , 135-3 6 Macksey Commission , 157-60 ; on Dela ney, 158 , 159-60 ; on Kuehnle, 15 9 Marlboro-Blenheim Hotel , 31 , 34 , 18 2 Matthews, Michael , 1 Mencken, H . L. , 60 , 134 , 210 n . Moore, Charle s S. , 162 , 168 , 188 , 19 5 Muhlrad, Willia m (Dutchy), 96-97, 106 , 113-14, 131-32 , 17 1 Murray, Rev . A . L. , 148-49 , 151 , 15 3 Nation, Carrie , 70 , 12 0 National Evangelica l Association , 66-6 7 National Refor m League , 60 , 63, 21 1 n . New Ide a Movement, 60 , 74 , 78-79 , 151-52 New Jersey Dependenc y an d Crimes Commission, 11 , 82, 83 , 138 , 140 ; on Asbury Park, 137-38 ; on Atlantic City, 136-37 , 138; on Paterson, 136 ; on prostitution, 136; on Sunda y baseball , 143 ; on Sunda y laws, 8 3 New Jersey Excis e Commission, 13 , 58, 116, 140 ; on Atlantic City, 75-79 , 82-83; on Sunday laws , 82 New Jersey Methodist Conference, 59 , 67-68, 70 , 72, 74, 81, 84-85, 117 , 180 New Jersey Sabbat h Association, 8 3 Newark, N.J. , 10 , 62, 65, 69, 70 , 73 , 75 Northside, 3 , 28, 32-44 , 128 ; and commercial vice, 97, 99, 102 , 130-31 , 145-49 , 167-68, 178 , 189-91 ; and Republican organization, 52-56 , 151-53 . See also Black people; Fletcher, Rev . G . Howard; Murray, Rev . A . L. ; Nutter, Isaac Nugent, James R., 157 , 161 , 16 4 Nutter, Isaac , 150-51 , 153 , 167 , 19 0 Ocean City, N.J. , 124-25 , 12 8 Ocean Grove, N.J. , 65 , 78 , 19 7 Olmstead, Frederic k Law, 19 7 Organized Charities, 41-4 2 Osborne, Richard , 16 , 17 , 25

244 * Index Paterson, N.J. , 11 , 75, 80, 136 , 138 , 14 4 Pennsylvania Railroad , 24 , 25 , 45, 65 Philadelphia, 15 , 20-21, 91 , 101 , 110-11 , 160 Philadelphia Sabbat h Association , 61 , 68 Phoebus, Samuel , 173-75 Pitney, Jonathan, 16-17 , 88 , 149 , 203 n . Presbyterians, 68-69 , 87-8 8 Progressive reform , 4 , 8-11 , 13 , 49, 164-65, 196-200 ; in Atlantic City , 153-54, 156 , 176-78 , 179 , 184 ; and black people , 4 , 8-10 , 145-49 , 150-53 , 167-68, 189-90 , 193 , 196 , 199 ; and com merical recreation , 4 - 5 , 197-98 ; and lib eral policy, 200 ; in New Jersey, 153-54 ; and Protestan t conscience , 196 ; and Wil liam Riddle , 185-86 ; and Sabbatarian ism, 174-75,198-9 9 Prohibition movement , 10-11 , 68-72 , 84 , 112,194,195-96 Prostitution, 2 , 3 , 8, 10 , 98-101, 106-8 , 112-13, 114 , 127-28 , 136 , 138 , 171 , 182, 187-88, 22 9 n.; and fornicatio n laws , 138; and venerea l disease , 11 , 138, 187-88. See also Atlantic City, tenderloin . Protestant establishment , 9 , 10 , 27; and commerical recreation , 5-6 , 88-89 ; crisis of, 57 , 59-61, 87 , 212 n . See also New Jersey Methodist Conference ; Sabba tarianism Protestant hegemony , 10 , 58-60, 115 , 212 n . See also Law an d orde r leagues ; Protestant establishment ; Sabbatarian ism; Sunday closin g laws Quakers. See Atlantic City, hotels ; Atlantic City, Quake r influence ; Boardwal k ho telmen Rauschenbusch, Walter , 5 9 Religious Libert y Association , 66 Richards, Samuel , 16 , 23, 87, 88 Riddle, William , 44-45 , 48, 49, 53 , 55, 130, 139 , 179 , 198 , 200; elected mayor , 172; and electio n o f 1916 , 180-81 , 186-93; on gambling, 184-86 ; personal characteristics, 185 ; as Progressive, 184 ; on prostitution , 182 , 230 n.; on Sunda y baseball, 141-4 2 Roosevelt, Theodore , 5 , 60, 10 6

Royal Arch , 76-77 , 81-83 , 116 , 117 , 128-29, 14 7 Sabbatarianism, 4-8 , 10 ; and censorship , 65; decline in New Jersey, 84-85 ; and historians, 6-8 , 57 , 61-62, 85 ; and lib eral policy, 117-18 ; origins of, 61 ; and Progressive reform , 57-58 , 74-85 , 179-82; and Prohibition , 68 , 72 , 84-85, 112; and Protestan t churches , 59-61 , 66-70; an d Roma n Catholi c Church , 63-64; a s social control, 61 , 79-81; trans formation fro m religiou s doctrine to pub lic policy, 66-85 . See also National Evan gelical Association ; Nationa l Refor m League; New Jersey Methodis t Confer ence; Sunday closin g laws Salus, Joseph S. , 77-78 , 133 , 143 , 149-51 , 170-72 Saratoga, 30 , 124 , 130 , 182 , 205 n . Sea Isle City, N.J. , 21 8 n . Schaufler, Alois , 92-9 3 Schaufler's Hotel , 92-93 , 9 4 Scott, Lewis , 45, 14 0 Scribner's magazine, 5 Seaford, Del. , 3 9 Seventh Da y Adventists . See Sabbatarianism Sizer, James Peyton (The Commercialization of Leisure), 19 8 Social Gospe l movement , 19 9 Social purity movement , 97-9 8 Sousa, John Philip , 12 3 Stoy, Frankli n P. , 45 , 71 , 75, 77, 81, 118, 119-20, 125-27 , 130 ; and Amusemen t War of 1895 , 103-6 , 108 ; death i n 1911, 163; and electio n of 1908 , 149-5 3 Stokes, Gov . Caspe r M. , 72 , 79, 14 7 Sunday baseball , 83-85 , 141-45 , 149 , 150 , 152,'176, 196 , 222 n . Sunday closin g laws, 6, 61-66 , 79 , 103 , 108, 145 , 184 ; Crimes an d Excis e commissions on, 82-84 ; and federa l courts , 64; and German-Americans , 62 , 65; and grand juries , 65, 71 , 73, 76, 121 ; and Jews, 64-65 , 84 , 211-1 2 n. ; legislativ e hearings, 83-84 , 179-82 ; municipal ordi nances (Atlantic City), 90-91, 94-95 , 119-20, 21 8 n. , 22 2 n. ; and Ne w Jersey courts, 64-65 , 21 2 n. ; and Ne w Jersey

Index • 24 5 politics, 71-75 , 84 ; and workin g classes, 222 n . Thomas, Harvey , 155 , 161 , 164 , 181 , 189, 200; and Atlantic City Review, 22 5 n. ; o n Kuehnle, 164-66 ; as Progressive journal ist, 178 , 183-84 , 191 ; and Wilson' s presi dential campaign , 176-7 8 Thompson, E . P. , 85-86 , 21 5 n . Thompson, James B. , 103 , 11 0 Thompson, Joseph B. , 44, 48, 110 , 145 , 180, 189 , 219 n . Traymore Hotel , 25-26 , 31-3 2 Tumulty, Joseph P. , 15 6 United Pavin g Company, 17 0 Usry, James, 1 Villard, Oswal d Garrison , 79 , 19 9 Vorhees, Gov . Foste r M. , 7 1 VorheesAct, 71 , 118 , 145 , 16 2 Walls, George , 3 7 Walsh Act , 171-7 2 Washington, Booke r T. , 36 , 13 4 West Jersey an d Atlanti c Railroad , 2 4

White, Charle s D. , 146 , 18 9 White, Danie l S. , 26 , 31 , 139, 142 , 151, 152, 164 , 194 ; and Harve y Thomas , 155 ; as mayoral candidate , 167-6 9 White, John J., 77-78 , 117 , 180 , 182 , 184 , 188 Whitman, Walt , 23-2 4 Willard, Frances , 6 3 Wilson, Edmund , 161-62 , 17 6 Wilson, Woodrow : o n Atlantic City, 2 , 4, 9, 168-69 , 200 ; and electio n of 1910 , 153-57; on Kuehnle , 156 ; presidential campaign of , 176-78 ; on Prohibition , 156, 225-2 6 n. ; and refor m movemen t i n Atlantic City, 163 , 164 , 17 5 Winter, William , 75-76 , 8 1 Wittpenn, Otto , 7 5 Women's Christia n Temperanc e Movemen t (WCTU), 60 , 81 , 127 , 134 , 14 1 Woodruff, Malcomb , 75 , 76, 127-28 , 146 , 158 Wright, Willard , 44 , 51 , 52, 100 , 11 0 YMCA, 9 , 127-28 , 19 7 YWCA, 19 7 Young's Pier , 94 , 124-2 5