The Roman Empire during the Severan Dynasty: Case Studies in History, Art, Architecture, Economy and Literature 9781463214340

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AMERICAN JOURNAL OF ANCIENT HISTORY

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF ANCIENT HISTORY Editor, New Series: T. Corey Brennan, Rutgers University. Editorial Advisory Board: W. Robert Connor, President Emeritus, The Teagle Foundation, New York; Erich S. Gruen, Professor Emeritus, University of California, Berkeley; Sabine MacCormack, University of Notre Dame; Stephen V. Tracy, The Ohio State University. For Contributors: From New Series volume 1 (2002) the editorial office of the Journal is at The Department of Classics, Ruth Adams Building 007, Rutgers University, 131 George Street, New Brunswick, NJ 08901-1414, (USA), tel. 732.932.9493, fax 732.932.9246, email: [email protected]. For further information, please visit the journal website www.ajah.org. All editorial correspondence should be addressed to the Editor. Typescripts intended for publication should be at least double-spaced (text and notes), with the notes numbered consecutively and following the text. Journals should be abbreviated as in L’Année philologique; modifications customary in English will be accepted. No indication of the author’s identity should appear on the typescript: the name and address should be on a separate page. References to the author’s own work should be in the same style as references to the work of others. Personal acknowledgments should not be included: they may be added after the article has been accepted for publication. Authors who want rejected articles returned should enclose postage. For Subscriptions: From New Series volume 2.2 (2003) [2007] AJAH is published by Gorgias Press. All correspondence on business, subscription, advertising and permission matters should be addressed to Gorgias Press (AJAH), 954 River Road, Piscataway, NJ 08854 (USA), tel: 732-885-8900, email: [email protected]. Subscriptions are $85/vol. for individuals and institutions, plus shipping, handling and sales tax when appropriate. All prices are in USD and payments can be made by credit cards or checks drawn on US banks. Prepayment is required for shipment.

THE ROMAN EMPIRE DURING T H E S E V E R A N D Y N A S T Y: C A S E S T U D I E S I N H I S T O RY, A RT, A R C H I T E C T U R E , E C O N O M Y A N D L I T E R AT U R E

Edited by Eric C. De Sena American Research Center in Sofia and John Cabot University, Rome

Gorgias Press LLC, 954 River Road, Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA www.gorgiaspress.com Copyright © 2013 by Gorgias Press LLC

All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright Conventions. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise without the prior written permission of Gorgias Press LLC. 2013

‫ܘ‬

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ISBN 978-1-59333-838-1

Printed in the United States of America

ISSN 0362-8914

TA B L E O F C O N T E N T S

Εditor’s Νote ................................................................................... ix Ιntroduction ..................................................................................... xi SEVERAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE ...................................1 The Parthian Campaigns of Septimius Severus: Causes, and Roles in Dynastic Legitimation ...............................................................3 Mark K. Gradoni “Unitas ex Africa: Was Tertullian the Origo of Imperial Unification?” ........................................................25 E.T. Walters URBAN TRANSFORMATIONS DURING THE SEVERAN PERIOD......................................67 La Gallia Mosellana nell’età dei Severi: il caso del Vicus di Bliesbruck ................................................69 Jean-Paul Petit Sara Santoro Water Works and Monuments in Gaul in the Severan Age: Some Considerations...............................................................95 Alice Dazzi More Water for Rome: Nothing New in the Eternal City? Water-Related Monuments as Part of the Severan Building Program ..........................................117 Jens Koehler A Note on the Architectural Decoration of the Severan Period in Pamphylia and Cilicia ....................151 Müjde Türkmen-Peker v

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L’Attività edilizia a destinazione pubblica fra i Severi e i Soldatenkaiser: continuità e trasformazioni .....................173 Simone Rambaldi Il tempio di Serapide sul Quirinale: note di archeologia e topografia tra Antichità e Medioevo. ..207 Ottavio Bucarelli Alcune osservazioni sulla Sicilia durante il periodo dei Severi ....227 Giancarlo Germanà Vestigia architettoniche del periodo di Settimio Severo in Tunisia ..............................................................................255 Paola Puppo ASPECTS OF SOCIETY AND ECONOMY DURING THE SEVERAN PERIOD....................................285 The Origo of the Thracian Praetorians in the Time of Severans ...287 Ivo Topalilov Un riempimento fognario di età Severiana dalle cosiddette “Terme di Elagabalo” a Roma ..............................................301 Edoardo Radaelli La ceramica ad ingobbiatura nera di Treviri – una merce costosa in Pannonia durante l’epoca Severiana ...341 Eszter Harsányi Baetican Oil and Septimius Severus .............................................361 Lúcia Afonso Economic Growth in the Early and Middle Imperial Periods, Pre-200 AD: an Economic Approach from a Peripheral Hispanic Province, Lusitania ...................377 José Carlos Quaresma Economy and Trade of Sicily During Severan Period: Highlights Between Archaeology and History......................415 Daniele Malfitana – Carmela Franco – Annarita Di Mauro Thematic Maps By G. Fragalà

TABLE OF CONTENTS

SEVERAN ART AND IDEOLOGY ............................................463 Between Tradition and Innovation – the Visual Representation of Severan Emperors ...................465 Florian Leitmeir Ideological Messages and Local Preferences: the Imagery of the Severan Arch at Lepcis Magna ...............493 Stephan Faust Elagabalo invictus sacerdos: l’imperatore fanciullo e la centralizzazione del sacro attraverso lo specchio delle monete .......................................................515 Andrea Gariboldi The Arch of Septimius Severus in the Roman Forum: a Re-Consideration................................................................541 Maria Lloyd

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EDITOR’S NOTE

This issue of the American Journal of Ancient History (AJAH) appears after a silence of four long years. It is also the first to be published after the unexpected death of the Journal’s founding editor, Ernst Badian, in February 2011. Badian—one of the leading lights of the study of ancient history in the post-World War II period—founded AJAH at Harvard University in 1976. His inspired creation was the first journal wholly devoted to ancient history in America, or indeed in any English-speaking country. Ernst Badian edited and published the Journal for twenty-five years, until 2001, and then served as a member on the Board of AJAH in its second series (when I took over as Editor and moved the periodical to Rutgers University) for several years to follow. Up until the time of his death, Ernst Badian showed no sign of wavering in his commitment to the production of knowledge at the highest level. What shows that forcefully is the posthumous appearance this very spring of Badian’s Collected Papers on Alexander the Great (Routledge, 2012). Here are 27 contributions covering the years 1958 to 2007 that Badian himself selected and managed to revise. The arrangement of the pieces strictly in order of publication—which I am sure Ernst insisted on—fortunately permits us to follow the development of this great scholar’s thought. The collection has a welcome preface by Richard Stoneman, who solicited the volume for Routledge and receives the author’s dedication. And Eugene Borza has written a masterly introduction that manages to capture many of Ernst Badian’s main attributes as pioneering scholar, tireless organizer and a human being capable of extraordinary generosity. It will be obvious to anyone who has followed the publication history of the Journal in its second series that the present Editor is no Ernst Badian. Three self-published fascicles of the Journal appeared in the three years after the transfer from Harvard in 2001, through AJAH 2.1 (2003) ix

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[2004]. But then followed a lapse of three full years. A new publication and distribution arrangement in 2007 saw Gorgias Press issue the delayed installments of the Journal: 2.2 (2003) [2007]; 3–4 (2004–2005) [2007]; and 5 (2006) [2008]. That last number was a special edition of the Journal that offered the unpublished autobiography of Roman historian T.R.S. Broughton. In 2009, when it seemed that Gorgias had finally put AJAH back on track, I accepted a three-year position on the staff of the American Academy in Rome. Contrary to expectation, I found this overseas post so challenging that I could scarcely attend to my duties as AJAH Editor. Now that I have returned (Fall 2012) to my continuing position at Rutgers, my sincere hope is that I can do my part in sustaining Ernst Badian’s legacy and the Journal that he founded and managed on his own, without institutional subsidy, for so many years. After so long a hiatus, the Journal’s second series resumes with AJAH 6–8 (2007–2009) [2013], an interdisciplinary composite volume, The Roman Empire during the Severan Dynasty: Case Studies in History, Art, Architecture, Economy and Literature. I am delighted to welcome as guest editor of this installment Eric C. De Sena, newly appointed as the Director of the American Research Center in Sofia, and currently on leave from his full-time post as Professor in John Cabot University (Rome). Of course, as Editor I bear sole responsibility for the vicissitudes of the Journal over the past decade. But the coming years hold much promise, especially since Gorgias Press continues as partner. With the present number, the Journal will continue as an annual, with one volume corresponding to each calendar year. At least two and perhaps up to four numbers of AJAH are planned to appear in 2013, with the aim of bringing the Journal fully in line with the calendar by 2014. These forthcoming volumes include an exemplary publication of the inscriptions of the American Academy in Rome, edited by Charles L. Babcock. It is also planned that the Journal—as is proper—will soon pay tribute to the life and scholarly achievements of its Founding Editor, Ernst Badian. T.C.B.

INTRODUCTION

The Roman Empire was not a monolith. Some emperors clearly rode in the wake of a successful predecessor; many emperors, however, invested in defining their identity and re-defining “Rome” through programs of architecture, art, literature and legislation. Sulla, Pompey, Caesar and Augustus established trends for the generations that followed them, yet each strong and able leader of the Roman Imperial age introduced novelties in their personal and societal definitions. Indeed, every successful government, society and company leader today is acutely aware of the need to restructure and redefine themselves and their entity at key moments in their struggle to survive and progress. The Severan period is among the most interesting moments for students of Roman history due, in large part, to the significant shifts in how the empire was defined and functioned. Born on April 11, 145 AD, Lucius Septimius Severus was the last great Roman emperor of the early to middle Imperial periods. Raised in Tripolitania, Severus was not the first emperor born in the provinces, but he was the first enduring emperor with mixed blood: his mother’s family was of Italian origin, while his father’s family was of North African stock; his most famous wife, Julia Domna, was from Syria. Hence, the imperial couple represented the nature of the Empire at this time, a melting pot of ethnicities and cultures that was fairly well integrated. Following the assassination of Commodus on New Year’s Eve 192, five powerful individuals vied for power; Septimius Severus was the last man standing in 197. Having served as a Roman Senator and holding increasingly important military and governmental ranks, Severus was a well-known figure amongst the people of Tripolitania, Pannonia and Italy and within the Army. A clever usurper, Severus was soon accepted and xi

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honored throughout the Empire. He knew well who and how to please and befriend; he was a very able military and social leader; he knew well how to use the past to maintain his power and lead Romans into the future. From a symbolic point of view, Severus embraced the last great emperor, Marcus Aurelius—as art historians are aware, it is often difficult to distinguish portraits of Marcus Aurelius from the “young” Septimius— and developed a program of public and private art and architecture that harkened back to the ages of Augustus, Vespasian, Trajan and Hadrian. Great displays of architecture and imagery were installed in the Urbs and other major centers; there was also considerable building throughout the provinces, albeit often not discernibly grand to the archaeologist. He redefined the emperorship, establishing the first dynasty since the shortlived Flavians and elevating the figure of the emperor to the standards of his early-mid 2nd century predecessors. Compared to the decades leading up to his reign, there was greater confidence and creativity, attested by a strong economy and innovative artistic trends. From a military-political point of view, Septimius understood well the evolved role of the Army. The Army no longer represented loyal soldiers dedicated to the gods and “the glory of Rome”. The Army was a new “institution” whose power began to rival the Senate and People of Rome and could make or break emperors. Legionary, auxiliary and Praetorian troops were numerically reinforced and well treated (i.e., well paid and well supplied), while infrastructure, such as fortresses, was improved. These changes led to improved economic conditions. Because of the many building campaigns and the reinforcement of military centers, economic historians perceive the bolstering of regional economies during this time. Locals were hired for many stages of construction from brick manufacture and stone quarrying to transportation and building itself. Armies clearly relied upon the surrounding territory for their food, natural resources and manufactured goods. Long-distance trade was still significant, especially toward the Urbs and other Mediterranean centers, with North Africa and Spain as the primary producers. Upon his death, on February 4, 211, the Empire came into the hands of his sons Caracalla and Geta whose stories are well known. With the exception of Macrinus’ one-year rule, the Severan dynasty continued until 235 with the death of Severus Alexander.

INTRODUCTION

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Even if Septimius Severus can be considered as the “sixth great emperor”, his times and the times of his successors were troubled. Augustus, Vespasian and Trajan were long gone; there were strong provincial influences; and, the Army was an increasingly potent institution. The Marcomannic-Sarmatian wars were the first in a series of increasingly intense struggles between the Romans and their neighbors in Central and Eastern Europe, while the eastern frontier was also threatened. At the same time, many parts of the empire had been devastated by the Antonine Plague. Eastern religions, such as Mithraism and Christianity, were gaining strength during this time of uncertainty. This was the first time, perhaps, since the late Republican period, that the Romans began to struggle with their identity and existence. On the brink of the “Third Century Crisis” historians witness one of the most interesting moments in Roman history. The times are full of fascinations and intrigues: fratricides, love affairs, luxurious buildings, mysticism, and resurgence of literature. An economic boom led to a renaissance of the nobility and there are many displays of grandeur and extravagance in the cities of the Empire. The Severan women did much to maintain power, carrying weak emperors such as Elagabalus and Severus Alexander through their reigns. We witness the full democratization of Rome and with the stroke of a stylus millions of inhabitants of the empire became citizens under Caracalla. Given an even greater reliance on auxiliary troops, more and more outsiders, namely the so-called barbarians, entered the empire; those who survived their term of service were also granted citizenship. One of these “barbarians” would become emperor. In 235, Severus Alexander was murdered and in his place rose Maximinus Thrax. More than 30 men held the rank of emperor between this time and the reconsolidation of the Empire under Diocletian, half a century later. This volume contains 20 papers that spring from the conference “The Roman Empire during the Severan Dynasty,” organized by John Cabot University’s Programs in Classical Studies and Art History (April 15–16, 2011). The impetus for the conference and volume was to commemorate the 1800th anniversary of the demise of Septimius Severus, the last great emperor to lead the Romans prior to the third century crisis. This conference and resulting volume are not about the Severan Dynasty per se. Rather, this project is intended to highlight the historical, social and cultural episodes, conditions, and trends of the Empire at this time. All papers

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were peer reviewed by at least two scholars on the JCU organizing committee and/or who participated in the conference. The conference developed from a lively conversation amongst JCU’s Classicists: Benedetta Bessi, Tom Govero, Jens Koehler, Luca Larpi and I. I wish to thank at John Cabot University: Prof. Benedetta Bessi (Classical Studies), Ms. Micayla Burrows (Economics student), Prof. Luca de Caprariis (Chairman, Dept. Humanities and History), Prof. Elisabeth Fuhrmann-Schembri (Art History), Prof. Karen Georgi (Art History), Prof. Thomas Govero (Classical Studies), Prof. Inge Hansen (Art History), Prof. Luca Larpi (Classical Studies), Prof. Jens Koehler (Art History and Classical Studies), Ms. Jacqueline Maggi (Special Projects & Events Coordination), Prof. Mary Merva (Dean of Academic Affairs), Mr. Charles Northrop II (Classical Studies graduate 2011), Ms. Kathy Quinn (Administrative Officer), Prof. Franco Pavoncello (President), Prof. Sharon Salvadori (Classical Studies), Prof. Carolyn Smyth (Art History), Ms. Gina Spinelli (Faculty Support Office), Ms. Ryan Taylor (Faculty Support Office), and

Ms. Elyse Waters (Classical Studies graduate 2010). The conference was funded by the Dept. of Art History and Studio Art and the Dept. of Humanities. Elsewhere in Rome, I want to thank: Prof. Portia Prebys (Saint Mary’s College), Prof. Ingrid Roland (Notre Dame University Rome Program), Ms. Alana Sacriponti (Duquesne University Rome Center), and Mr. Michael Wright (Director, Duquesne University Rome Center). I am very grateful to the participants in the conference/authors: Dr. Lucia Afonso, Prof. Ottavio Bucarelli, Dr. Alice Dazzi, Prof. Giovanni Distefano, Prof. Stephan Faust, Prof. Andrea Gariboldi, Dr. Giancarlo Germanà, Prof. Thomas Govero, Mr. Mark Gradoni, Prof. Jens Koehler, Dr. Eszter Harsanyi, Dr. Adam Kemezis, Dr. Florian Leitmeir, Dr. Maria Lloyd, Prof. Daniele Malfitana, Dr. Luigi Pedroni, Dr. Jean-Paul Petit, Dr. Guido Petruccioli, Dott.ssa Paola Puppo, Prof. José Carlos Quaresma, Prof. Edoardo Raedelli, Prof. Simone Rambaldi, Dr. Viorica RusuBolindet, Prof. Sara Santoro, Prof. Ivo Topalilov, Dr. Müjde Turkmen, and Prof. E.T. Walters. Dr. Ancuț a Marieș De Sena, Mrs. Voica Horvat and Mrs. Viorica Marieș provided valuable assistance with the wonderful banquet organized on JCU’s Secchia Terrace on a beautiful sunny Saturday, April 16, 2011. I want to thank colleagues at my new “home”, the American Research Center in Sofia: Ms. Boyana Boyanova, Prof. Glenn Bugh, Prof. Kevin Clinton, Dr. Nora Dimitrova, Mr. Anton Kazakov, Mrs. Zhivka Ka-

INTRODUCTION

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zakova, Dr. Emil Nankov, Mr. Todor Petev, and Ms. Elitsa Popova. This has been a wonderful setting for the last stage of the editing process. Special thanks to Prof. Corey Brennan, professor of Classics at Rutgers University, Mellon Professor of the American Academy in Rome, 2009–2012 and editor of the American Journal of Ancient History. This volume is dedicated to the tens of millions of brave people in North Africa and the Near East (the homelands of Septimius Severus and Julia Domna) who in 2011 and 2012 have risked and, even, lost their lives in order to improve the conditions of their countries and to achieve the unalienable rights of life, liberty, justice and the pursuit of happiness. Eric De Sena Sofia, November 5, 2012

S E V E R A N H I S T O RY A N D L I T E R AT U R E

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T H E PA RT H I A N C A M PA I G N S O F SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS: CAUSES, AND ROLES IN DYNASTIC LEGITI M AT I O N Mark K. Gradoni (Hood College)

“The Parthians alone of mankind have sustained against the Roman People the role of enemy in a fashion never to be despised, as is sufficiently shewn (sic.), not only by the disaster to Crassus, and the shameful flight of Antoninus, but by the slaughter of a general with his army, under the leadership even of Trajan, the stoutest of emperors, and by the retreat, by no means unharassed or without loss, of that emperor as he retired to celebrate his triumph.” —M. Cornelius Fronto, Principia Historiae1

When Septimius Severus was acclaimed emperor by the troops of the Danube legions in 193 CE, he could not have anticipated that his actions would embroil him in a series of eastern campaigns that would eventually draw the Roman Empire into a conflict with Parthia, Rome’s enduring enemy. The purpose and necessity of the Parthian campaigns of Severus 1

Fronto. Correspondence. VII. From the preamble to the fragmentary history of Lucius Verus’ Parthian War.

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remains a point of contention among scholars. While some have argued that there was no reason to renew hostilities with the Parthian state (Isaac 1998, 22–23,31; Keall 1975, 620), others have declared that the impotence of the declining kingdom made a tempting target for the Roman army (Sheldon 2010, 162). The purpose of this paper is to examine the Parthian campaigns of Septimius Severus, their context, and how these campaigns were later appropriated in imperial propaganda. I will argue that, rather than representing Roman aggression, Severus’s Parthian campaigns were responses to legitimate threats, or perceived as legitimate threats, to Roman possessions and interests in the Near East. I will also argue that the Parthian campaigns served a variety of purposes in the legitimization of the reign of Septimius Severus; specifically, the campaigns themselves provided an opportunity to create a sense of loyalty of the eastern troops, who had recently fought under the aegis of Pescennius Niger, to Severus; additionally, the invasion of Roman territory by Vologases V, while Severus was in Europe confronting Albinus, necessitated the appropriate military response, which manifested in the invasion of Parthian Mesopotamia, and allowed Severus to match the accomplishments of Verus and Trajan.

PARTHIA AND THE NEAR EAST IN 194 CE The Parthian monarchy in 194 CE was not the same aggressive, expansionist state that had usurped dominion of the Near East from the successors of Seleukos. By the early-second century, Parthia may have suffered the loss of its northeastern vassal states, Hyrcania and Bactria. Both kingdoms sent embassies to the Romans during the reign of Hadrian,2 generally interpreted as indicative of their independence. Also by this time the Parthian monarchy was confronted with the rise of the kingdom of Kush on its eastern frontier. Oriental sources mention a war between the Parthians and the expanding Kushan state during the early second century CE (Colledge 1967, 167). When compounded with the effects of Trajan’s wars in 114–117 CE, the prestige of the monarchy was diminished in the view of the client kings that controlled the kingdoms and satrapies of the Parthians’ empire (fig. 1). 2

Debevoise 1968, 241, 245. Here citing the biography of Hadrian in the SHA.

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However, as with the Roman Empire, the strength of the Parthian monarchy was entirely dependent on the strength of the individual king. In the person of Vologases IV, ruling from 148–192 CE, the Parthians had a monarch powerful enough to command the respect of the vassal rulers and the Parthian nobility. Vologases IV’s attitude differed from that of most Parthian monarchs of the previous two centuries in one key respect: Vologases IV pursued a pugnacious policy towards Rome. At the ascension of Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, Vologases initiated a conflict by invading Armenia (Dio Epitome LXXI.2.i), a client kingdom, claimed by both Rome and Parthia, with a long history as a source of conflict between the two powers. This incursion began the series of events that brought Lucius Verus and the Roman legions to the east. In the first of a series of campaigns, Armenia was retaken and a pro-Roman king placed on its throne (Dio Epitome LXXI.3.i). The legions, under the command of Avidius Cassius, took Dura-Europos on the Euphrates and marched southward along the course of the river towards Seleucia-on-theTigris (fig. 2) (Dio Epitome LXXI.2.iii–3.1). After peacefully occupying the city, an undetermined incident led the Roman troops to sack the city (Debevoise 1968, 251), before spreading the carnage to the eastern bank and the royal capital of Ctesiphon. The damage that resulted from the campaigns of Lucius Verus and Avidius Cassius is largely speculative. However, if the conquest of Seleucia-on-the-Tigris and Ctesiphon resembled the earlier storming of cities by Roman troops in terms of severity, then we may hypothesize that damage to the cities and their populations was extensive.3 The loss of life and the destruction of agricultural and commercial areas in southern Mesopotamia must have had a sizeable impact on the economy of the Parthian state. Seleucia-on-the-Tigris was a massive monument to Hellenistic city building, and was almost certainly the most populous city under Parthian hegemony. Compounding the issues inherent with a Roman invasion, the population of the Parthian state suffered the effects of an outbreak of an epidemic originating in the Kushan territories to the east (CHI III.1, 93), a disease remembered in Roman history as the Antonine plague. Again, the carnage left in the wake of this disease amongst the Parthian kingdom is speculative. Even if we accept Roman reports of 3

See Dio’s account of the Severan sack of Ctesiphon: LXXVI.9.iv

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a loss of perhaps a quarter of the urban population in some areas with a reasonable degree of scrutiny, we may envision a Parthian state facing a collapse of agricultural production and the death of a significant percentage of its population. The devastation of agricultural lands, the loss a significant percentage of the tax base in southern Mesopotamia, and the loss of military age population and the disruption of commerce would have cost most Parthian monarchs their throne; but Vologases reigned until 192 CE, retaining control over the vassal kingdoms and the nobility, a testament to his powerful personality and competence as a ruler. Vologases IV’s successor, Vologases V, inherited a shaken kingdom; a kingdom that would soon become embroiled in a Roman civil war. Severus was drawn to the eastern provinces of the empire by the civil war against Pescennius Niger, the governor of Syria who, along with Severus on the Danube, and Clodius Albinus in Britain, was acclaimed emperor in the wake of the assassination of Pertinax. Niger had received the congratulations of Vologases and several of the rulers of the vassal kingdoms along the Euphrates frontier, accompanied by offers of military support, should a conflict with other imperial claimants ensue. Initially, the governor politely declined these offers, but Severus’s mobilization of the Danube legions forced Niger to reconsider (Herodian III.1.ii). Herodian informs us that Vologases promised he would summon troops from the satraps for a campaign, though it seems certain that his initial offer of military aid was an attempt to ingratiate himself with a new Roman monarch rather than a willingness to support Niger in the face of opposition. Several client kings, those of Adiabene, Osrhoene and Hatra, contrarily did offer their support and Barsemius of Hatra committed a body of archers to the Syrian governor’s cause (Herodian III.1.iii). Severus’s forces engaged Niger’s troops at Cyzicus, proceeded to besiege to Byzantium, crossed the Hellespont (Dio Epitome LXXV.6.iv; Herodian III.2.i–ii; SHA Severus IX.1). A second battle was fought at Nicomedia (Herodian III.2.ix), and the ensuing Severan victory forced Niger’s forces to withdraw back to the passes of the Taurus range and the river Issus (Dio Epitome LXXV.7.i–ii; Herodian III.4.i–ii). In early autumn of 194 CE, the two armies faced each other. Dio and Herodian describe a battle that hinged on a sudden act of divine intervention, a rain miracle constituted by the genesis of a sudden storm that blew rain and dust into the eyes of Niger’s frontlines (Dio Epitome LXXV.7. vi; Herodian III.3.vii). At this time, Valerius Valerianus, Severus’ magister equitem, allegedly uncertain of whether to defect to Niger’s side, saw the lines

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falter and succeeded in flanking Niger’s force4 and turning the battle into a disorderly route. Niger attempted to flee to the Parthian court, but was overtaken and executed (Dio Epitome LXXV. 8.iii; Herodian III.4.vi).

SEVERUS IN THE EAST: THE FIRST PARTHIAN CAMPAIGN In Mesopotamia, the forces of the vassal states of Adiabene, Osrhoene and Hatra turned against their former allies, massacring Roman garrisons and ultimately besieging Nisibis (Dio Epitome LXXV.1.ii). Representatives of the Mesopotamian states informed Severus that they were attacking soldiers loyal to Niger on his behalf (Dio Epitome LXXV.1.ii–iii). However, much of this pretense was revealed by their refusal to return cities taken in their revolt against Niger and the demand that all Roman garrisons be removed from Mesopotamia (Dio Epitome LXXV. 1.iii). A more likely scenario, probably suspected by Severus, was the desire to reclaim territories lost thirty years earlier during the last period of Roman military activity in the area. Adiabene, for instance, had particularly focused on the re-conquest of Nisibis, a city that the Parthian king had once awarded to the king of Adiabene for his loyal service (Neusner 1964, 60; Millar 1993, 493). The refusal to return Roman territory necessitated the declaration of war,5 and Severus embarked upon a punitive campaign to chastise the rebellious Mesopotamians (fig. 3). The campaign in Mesopotamia fulfilled a variety of functions. In the Roman imperial psychology a punitive campaign was the only plausible response to a rebellion of subject peoples; perhaps more significantly, the 4

Spiedel (1985, 321–322) regards this flanking maneuver correctly as the determining factor in the battle. Dio’s account of the rain miracle akin to that depicted on the column of Marcus Aurelius at Rome is likely one of many attempts by Severus and Dio to stress the association of the new dynast with the Antonine dynasty and period of the “Five Good Emperors.” 5 Isaac remarks that “it is to be noted that all available sources deny that there was any practical need for Severus’ Persian campaign” (Issac 1998, 22–23). Whether Isaac is referring to the campaign against the Mesopotamian vassals or the Parthian campaign proper is uncertain, but if Isaac judges to rebellion of subject peoples or the invasion of an external power as insufficient cause for a military campaign then he seems to misunderstand the nature of Roman military history during the empire entirely.

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prospect of campaign allowed Severus to solicit the loyalty of the eastern legions and auxiliaries that had supported Niger. In the view of Severus and his allied commanders a sense of uncertainty regarding the loyalty of the ten legions stationed in the eastern half to the empire must have pervaded discussions about how to proceed in the settlement of the east after Niger’s defeat. Rankov postulates that “Severus had to safeguard his position and confirm the loyalty of the eastern armies,” and that next logical step “was to lead an imperial campaign of conquest across the Euphrates where, it was claimed, the local kingdoms had supported Niger” (Rankov 1996, 169). A campaign allowed for the emperor to forge a symbolic connection with the soldiers through shared duress and success (Rankov 1996, 171). While it seems unlikely, as Rankov implies, that there was any need to fabricate a cassus belli,6 Severus was fortunate that such a ready opportunity for such a campaign presented itself. While any direct contest with Parthia, no matter the context, was an uncertain matter, a campaign against the small western vassal states offered a degree of almost certain success given the advantages of the Roman force in terms of man power and organization. In the choice of campaigns to establish the loyalty of a formerly rebellious provincial army to a new commander the prospect of certain success was vital. “From a political point of view, such a campaign would have to end with an imperial triumph and a solid achievement plain for all to see, 6

The passage to which Rankov is referring, also cited by Millar and Isaac, is Herodian III.4.v: “As soon as Severus had settled the East to his satisfaction and advantage, he proposed to go straight on to attack the king of Hatra and invade Parthia, since he alleged that both were guilty of alliance with Niger” (My emphasis). However, Herodian confuses the chronology of the eastern campaigns, condensing the events into a single campaign originally targeted solely at Parthia; this confusion may explain his skepticism for the legitimacy of the invasion of Parthia. Further contributing the confusing nature of Herodian’s account is his later remark that “using the friendship that Barsemius, king of Hatra, had shown for Niger as an excuse, [Severus] made an expedition to the East” (III.8.i–ii). Also of interest is the generally disreputable account of the SHA that “it was commonly rumoured, to be sure, that in planning a war on the Parthians, Septimius Severus was influenced rather by a desire for glory than by any real necessity (Severus XV.1). This seems nothing more than a reconstitution or corruption of the epitome of Dio’s conclusion to book LXXV.

PARTHIAN CAMPAIGNS OF THE SEVERAN EMPERORS

9

such as the acquisition of new territory” (Rankov 1996, 171). A failure in such a campaign would undermine any confidence of the soldiers and commanders in the military ability of their new emperor and, as became apparent throughout the third century, seriously imperil the life of the embattled emperor. Indeed, from the reign of Severus until the fifth century emperors were “virtually obliged to meet the troops and take personal charge of campaigns; [the emperor’s] capacity to rule was dangerously associated with his military ability” (Campbell 1984, 413). While Severus could not have foreseen the consequences of any potential precedents established by his invasion of Mesopotamia, the emperor must have understood the importance of a successful campaign for the stability of the empire and his own prospects. Severus’ campaign to restore the stability of Roman possessions in Mesopotamia began in the spring of 195 CE. The immediate objectives were to reestablish Roman control of cities taken by the Mesopotamians and to ravage the lands of vassals who had lent aid to Niger and then exploited the former’s timely reversal of fortune to find excuse to attack the troops and lands of the empire. Abgarus IX of Edessa, ruler of Osrhoene, surrendered upon the advance of the legions, offering his sons as hostages; he took the name Severus, and contributed a force of archers to Severus’ expeditionary force (Herodian III.9.ii). Severus proceeded to Nisibis, breaking the siege and establishing the city as his base for subsequent operations in the region (Dio Epitome LXXV.2.iii). The army was divided into three columns; these undertook the reduction of Mesopotamia before crossing the Tigris and capturing Adiabene with its capital at Arbela.7 The rebellion of Clodius Albinus in 196 CE required that Severus and a significant detachment of the legions return to the Europe to extinguish the possibility of any further, significant civil strife. The actions of Albinus cannot have surprised Severus since his coins had begun to identify his son, now named Marcus Antoninus, in one of several attempts to forge a convincing connection to the Antonine dynasty, as his Caesar, 7 It seems likely that it was at this time that the pro-Roman monarch Narses was placed on the thrown of Adiabene, and that knowledge of the location of the Parthian royal tombs at Arbela, a fact significant in Caracalla’s later Parthian campaign, passed into Roman knowledge.

10

THE ROMAN EMPIRE DURING THE SEVERAN DYNASTY

depriving Albinus of any semblance of authority in the Severan government of the empire (Birley 1988, 117).

VOLOGASES’S EXPEDITION, AND SEVERUS’S SECOND PARTHIAN CAMPAIGN Vologases V imitated the example of his royal predecessor by seizing the opportunity to exploit a potential moment of domestic strife by mobilizing the Parthian army and invading Roman Mesopotamia. The extent of Vologases’ counter-operations is unclear; the SHA states that Vologases’ crossed the Euphrates into Syria, while Herodian discusses the Parthian re-conquest of Armenia. Adiabene was certainly retaken, and its monarch, the pro-Roman Narses, drowned in the Greater Zab (Debevoise 1968, 259). Nisibis was besieged and was in serious danger of falling to the Parthians, saved only by the heroics of the Roman commander, Laetus (Dio Epitome LXXVI.9.i–ii). Goldsworthy has dismissed the effectiveness of the Parthian army citing a misunderstanding of the tactics and significance of the Parthian victory over Crassus in 53 BCE (Goldsworthy 1996, 67). While the defeat at Carrhae and its consequences are frequently exaggerated in severity and significance, the martial abilities of a Parthian force under the command of a competent military leader cannot be dismissed. Similarly, the assumption that the Parthian Empire of the late second century was a decrepit and impotent shadow of its former self is not entirely true. The success of the Parthian army in 196 CE is indicative of a military potency that a particularly powerful Parthian monarch could wield. While Roman invasions of Parthian territory fared better in the second century than they had previously, this success is reflective of an alteration of Roman strategy rather than the sudden collapse of Parthian military ability. The campaigns of Trajan, Avidius Cassius, and later Severus, utilized a route that took the legions along the course of the Euphrates, avoiding the open country of central Mesopotamia that favored the Parthian cavalry. By following the Euphrates to the densely populated territory of southern Mesopotamia, the Romans were able to engage in the method of urban siege warfare in which they excelled. This strategy negated the strength of the Parthian army: the specialized cavalry core of horse archers and heavily-armored cataphracts. In an urban setting, the confined spaces favored the Roman infantry, and the legions always enjoyed an advantage over a dismounted cavalry force or a hastily assembled militia of irregular

PARTHIAN CAMPAIGNS OF THE SEVERAN EMPERORS

11

troops. This is not to minimize the importance of the adaptations of the Roman legions and auxilia to wage war in the theater of the Near East more effectively; certainly, the adoption of auxiliary units from eastern peoples, such as horse archers and armored cavalry, were invaluable to the success and evolution of the Roman army. However, it is an overreaction to dismiss the abilities of the Parthian army simply because Roman strategy evolved to negate the strengths of the Parthians while exploiting their weaknesses. Such a development is the successful application of military science, rather than an indictment of the abilities of a foe. When it seemed that the Parthian monarchy had struck a decisive blow that would force the Roman forces back to the western bank of the Euphrates, the rebellion of vassal kings of Persis and Media necessitated the abandonment of significant operations in Mesopotamia. Vologases mustered troops from his remaining vassals and confronted the rebels in Khorasan (Debevoise 1968, 258). Vologases’ forces were initially surrounded and forced to flee before regaining their composure and turning upon the disorderly pursuit of their opponents. Vologases, returning toward Mesopotamia encountered a second rebel force, which was defeated only after two days of hard fighting. The exact chronology of this rebellion and subsequent campaign is unclear, and completely absent from Roman sources. However, it is reasonable to conclude that by the time the threat of rebellion was removed, Severus had returned to Syria and was prepared to embark upon an expedition much greater in scope than the punitive campaign against the Mesopotamian vassal states. In 197 CE Severus began his planned invasion of the Parthian empire with the rapid subjugation of Armenia. While the Armenian king, an Arsacid prince also named Vologases, had neither offered Niger aid, nor participated in the revolt of the Osrhoeni, Adiabeni and Hatrenes, Armenia constituted a power allied to Parthia, through which any counter attack against Syria and Asia Minor could pass. The Armenian Vologases sued for peace, and Armenia was removed as a factor from the military equation. While military control of Armenia was important, and the Romans seem to have attached undue significance to the importance of that kingdom, Severus may have had ulterior motives for subjugating Armenia first. Trajan had initiated his Parthian campaign with the conquest of Armenia, and if Severus was trying to associate himself with that emper-

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THE ROMAN EMPIRE DURING THE SEVERAN DYNASTY

or, whose great-great grandson he claimed to be (Birley 1988, 117), it is sensible that Severus would seek to mimic the progressions of Trajan’s famous war.8 With Armenia securely within the sphere of Roman control, Severus advanced again to the relief of Nisibis. The Parthian forces maintaining the siege, likely a minimal force sufficient only for executing the siege, fled before the Roman emperor (Dio Epitome LXXVI.9.iii). Severus again divided his forces into three parts; Severus lead the main force along the Euphrates to attack the dual metropolis of Seleucia-on-theTigris and Ctesiphon, while the second force would again ravage eastern Mesopotamia, with the third re-crossing the Tigris into Adiabene. Babylon and Seleucia-on-the-Tigris were taken without resistance (Dio Epitome LXXVI.9.iii–iv), and Severus reached the walls of Ctesiphon by late 198 CE. Ancient sources9 remark that the sudden appearance of the Roman army outside his capital surprised Vologases; additionally, modern commentators have citied this episode, and the subsequent failure to engage the Roman army, as indicative of the lack of competence on the part of the Parthian monarch (Rawlinson 1903, 345; Sheldon 2010, 170). Yet, again because we do not know the chronology of the revolt of the Persians and Medes, it is possible that Vologases had only recently returned to Ctesiphon. The rapid advance of Severus and the other Roman generals 8

Edwell notes that “in the centuries that followed [Trajan’s Parthian war], numerous Roman invasions of the Parthian/Persian empires followed the same routes and were often undertaken in conscious emulation of Trajan” (2008, 22). Bivar concurs, describing the route of Trajan followed by Severus as “the now traditional march down the Euphrates to Seleucia and Babylon” (CHI III.1 94). 9 Herodian III.9.ix. It is important to note that Herodian’s confused chronology places the attack on Ctesiphon after the failed siege of Hatra (Herodian condenses both sieges into a single event). Herodian states that the Roman army sought to retreat via the Tigris, but were so unfamiliar with that river that their boats were washed downstream to the Parthian capital, at which point Severus fortuitously decided to attack the city. Further indications of Herodian’s general unreliability for this episode include his assertion that Vologases had little concern for Severus’ attack on Hatra (III.9.ix) and his identification of the Parthian monarch as Artabanus (III.9.x) At this time Artabanus (V), a son of the reigning Vologases V, had likely not yet even been granted the position of vassal king of Media, let alone a share in the absolute rule of the Parthian state.

PARTHIAN CAMPAIGNS OF THE SEVERAN EMPERORS

13

against a number of small Parthian detachments may have compromised any chain of military intelligence and tactical communication available to Vologases. In such a scenario, the appearance of a Roman army on the western bank of the Tigris may have constituted a legitimate, and sobering, surprise to the Parthian king. Vologases next move reflected his panic: he elected to meet the Roman army in the field before the walls of Ctesiphon. Engaging the legions in confined space was never a tactically sound idea, and the Parthian forces were, unsurprisingly, defeated and driven back. The city was invested with siege works and the walls were soon breached (Dio Epitome LXXVI.9.iv). Vologases, in a scene commemorated on the Severan triumphal arch in the Roman forum, escaped the city with a few retainers as his capital fell (Dio Epitome LXXVI.9.iv). Ctesiphon was sacked, the male population exterminated, and ancient sources attest to the 100,000 persons being sold into slavery. On the centenary of Trajan’s accession to the throne, a date of significance that surely figured into the speed with which the city was taken, Severus accepted the title of Parthicus Maximus (Sheldon 2010, 169), again emulating Trajan and the Antonines. The timing of Severus’ acceptance of the title of Parthicus Maximus, a title representing in many ways the apex of Roman military ability, and closely associated with the “Five Good Emperors,” was certainly intentional. While it is implausible, and entirely contrary to the historical context, to assert that Severus undertook the Parthian campaign solely to legitimate his rule, Severus must have viewed the events in the east, particularly Vologases counter-offensive, as a perfect opportunity to associate himself with the military achievements of Trajan and Lucius Verus (and therefore Marcus Aurelius, his “father” by previous claim, and by means of fraternal association with Commodus) (Birley 1988, 117–18). With these successes equaled, Severus logically turned his attentions northward, along the Tigris, to the fortress city of Hatra. Trajan had besieged the city but failed to take it after his own conquest of the Parthian capital. Therefore, if Severus could conquer Hatra, thereby succeeding where even Trajan had fallen short, he could surpass the achievement of the Optimus Princeps.

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THE ROMAN EMPIRE DURING THE SEVERAN DYNASTY

THE SIEGES OF HATRA: STRATEGIC, AND IDEOLOGICAL, SHORTCOMINGS Strategically, Hatra represented the last obstacle to the creation of a line of fortified cities that would bisect Roman-held Mesopotamia. Rome already controlled Dura Europos on the Euphrates, Nisibis on the Mygdonius, and Singara near the Tigris; Hatra would complete the chain and allow a line of communication from the Euphrates to the Tigris, as well as providing the Romans with a base tantalizingly close to the Parthian capital. The first attempt to take Hatra was not remarkably different from the failed attempt of Trajan. The assembled military engines of the legions were destroyed by Hatrene archers and the Romans failed to make progress (Dio Epitome LXXVI.10.i). This lack of success led to tension among the soldiers and the officer corps. Two officers were executed (Dio Epitome LXXVI.10.ii) and the siege engines were repaired, but neither seems to have remedied the low ebb in the army’s morale: by early spring of 198 CE Severus and the legions retired to Nisibis. A second siege was initiated in early 199 CE. The Roman forces were provisioned for a much longer action, and Dio informs us that special siege engines were designed and built by a fellow Bithynian, Priscus, specifically for the conquest of Hatra (Dio Epitome LXXVI.11.i–ii). However, the Hatrenes also seem to have made significant preparations, and once more the assaults of the Roman army broke upon the walls of the fortress-city. The Hatrene cavalry was deployed to great effect, setting fire to the Roman siege engines and harassing foraging parties (Dio Epitome LXXVI.11.ii). The defenders upon the walls used naphtha, a burning, bituminous tar, to cause disorder among the Roman besiegers. The Hatrenes invested further misery and torment upon the Roman troops by hurling jars filled with stinging insects down upon them (Herodian III.9.v). The Romans, at length, were successful in breaching the walls. Rather than pressing into the breach, Severus ordered the troops to withdrawal, hoping an act of benevolence might encourage the defenders to capitulate (Dio Epitome LXXVI.12.i–ii). The Hatrenes had no intention of peacefully surrendering and rebuilt the section of destroyed wall during the night (Dio Epitome. LXXVI.12.iii). When a frustrated Severus ordered a renewed assault, the European troops mutinied, refusing to advance (Dio Epitome LXXVI.12.iii). Their Syrian counterparts fared poorly, and were

PARTHIAN CAMPAIGNS OF THE SEVERAN EMPERORS

15

driven back with heavy losses. Again, military executions were used to restore order: this time Laetus, the hero of Nisibis, was deprived of his life (Dio Epitome LXXVI.10.iii). At the end of only twenty days the Romans withdrew to Nisibis for the final time (Dio Epitome LXXVI.13.i). The failure to take Hatra on two occasions certainly strained the army and may have cost Severus and his commanders a significant amount of the good will they had engendered among the eastern legions. It is important to note that, despite their heavy losses, the Syrian troops did not join in the mutiny of European soldiery. If nothing else, this seems demonstrative of the loyalty of the eastern forces to the emperor. Though the Parthian campaign of Severus ended with a setback, rather than a triumphal conquest of a prize that had eluded even Trajan, we need not view them as a failure.

CONTEMPORARY SCHOLARSHIP ON SEVERUS’S PARTHIAN CAMPAIGNS In the composition of this paper, two sources, dealing with the Roman aspect of Severus’s Parthian campaigns, were particularly significant. The first, Isaac’s Limits of Empire, represents one of the most significant pieces of scholarship on the Roman army in the eastern provinces, and a theoretical construction of Rome’s relationship with Parthia, and later Sasanid Persia, gaining credence among scholars. The second work, Sheldon’s Rome’s Wars in Parthia, represents the most recent monograph exploring the military aspects of the relationship between Rome and Parthia. Since the publication of Isaac’s extensive work on the role of the Roman army in the Near East, his theory of systematic, necessary Roman aggression in the region has become quite popular among historians of the eastern half of the Roman Empire. The crux of Isaac’s argument that the campaigns of Septimius Severus in the east were unnecessary derives, particularly, from as single passage in Cassius Dio (Dio Epitome LXXV.3,i–iii).10 This quote is often taken out of context, in that the quote 10

“[Severus] used to declare that he had added a vast territory to the empire and had made it a bulwark of Syria. On the contrary, it is shown by the facts themselves that this conquest has been a source of constant wars and great ex-

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THE ROMAN EMPIRE DURING THE SEVERAN DYNASTY

itself is the effect of hindsight, written in the late 210s CE (Millar 1964, 119; Millar 1993, 124). Similarly, it is impossible to pass over Isaac’s assertion that neither Severus, nor Dio, claimed the Parthian campaigns as a war of defense (Isaac 1990, 26), without returning to Dio’s declaration that the refusal of the Mesopotamians to return Roman possessions was the cause of the first campaign (Dio Epitome LXXV.1. ii–iii). Additionally, Isaac’s preference for the accounts of Herodian and the SHA is troubling, especially as Shayegan has demonstrated the superior accuracy of Dio’s account of Severus’s wars in Parthia (Shayegan 2011, 30–38). I believe that I have successfully demonstrated that Roman expansionism was not responsible from either of the Parthian campaigns; rather, the classical sources bear out that the campaigns were responses to military activities by the Parthian state and peoples within its sphere of influence. Sheldon’s work is particularly notable for its conclusion that, by the conclusion of the Antonine campaigns in the east, Parthia had “lost any ability to be an aggressive power” (Sheldon 2010, 162.) In order to take advantage of internal dissension in the Roman Empire, Sheldon argues that Vologases used client states in Mesopotamia to take advantage of the situation (Sheldon 164, 2010).11 As with Debevoise, Sheldon characterizes the eastern campaigns of Septimius Severus as a personal and political failure. Debevoise concludes that “the Parthian campaign of Severus can scarcely have given satisfaction from either the political or the personal point of view” (Debevoise 1968, 262); Sheldon echoed this sentiment, declaring that “this Parthian campaign cannot be considered a success for the Romans from a military or political point of view, and not even a personal triumph for Severus” (Sheldon 2009, 171). Both authors, it seems,

pense to us. For it yields very little and uses up vast sums; and now that we have reached out to peoples who are neighbours of the Medes and Parthians rather than of ourselves, we are always, one might say, fighting the battles of those peoples” (Loeb translation). Kennedy (1996, 73), and Millar (1993, 510) also present further argues that contradict the arguments Isaac derives from this passage. 11 “Using the Hatrians (sic.) as proxies merely gave [Vologases] plausible deniability if the struggle did not turn out the way he expected.” While such an interpretation fits in well with our modern concept of the manipulation of satellite states, shaped by the Cold War, it cannot be proved from the extant evidence.

PARTHIAN CAMPAIGNS OF THE SEVERAN EMPERORS

17

are mistaken in their understanding of Severus’s goals and intentions.12 As demonstrated above, the conquest of Parthia, the destruction of its monarchy, and incorporation of its territory into the Roman Empire, was not the goal of Severus. Rather, Severus seems to have held more feasible designs. Parthia occupied a unique position in Roman imperial psyche. The Roman sources conceive Parthia as a rival to Rome, but the place of Parthia in the Roman conscious is less certain. Sheldon believes that Roman literature portrayed Parthia as an equal and rival power (Sheldon 2009, 218), and Isaac references Mommsen’s conclusion that “the coexistence of two equal major powers was incompatible with the Roman character” (Isaac 1998, 28). But is it possible to simplify the cause of the conflict between Rome and Parthia to something such as “a continuous struggle for control of the left bank of the Euphrates?” (Isaac 1998, 28). Such an assertion is neither accurate nor satisfying. The encounter at Carrhae had a profound effect upon the Roman interpretation of the threat constituted by the Parthians. Such an effect has precedent in Roman history: the successes of Hannibal in the Second Punic war led Cato the elder to offer the opinion that Carthage must be destroyed throughout the entirety of his political career. Similarly, the defeats suffered during the invasions of the Cimbri and Teutones in the last decade of the second century BCE engendered a lasting concern for the protection of the Roman state from the Germanic peoples on its northern frontiers, a concern intensified after the loss of the three legions at Kalkriese. In such a manner the destruction of Crassus’s force at Carrhae, the proceeding Parthian incursions into Syria and Asia Minor, and the unsuccessful campaign by Anthony, engendered a similar fear. Although, in the eyes of modern commentators, history has proven that fear irrational, the Romans lacked the benefit of viewing the entire history of Romano-Parthian relations through the lens of the modern historian. Isaac acknowledges that the popular memory of Parthian incursions into Ro12

Birley (1988, 129–130), it seems, is mistaken as well in his assertion that “dissension in the Parthian empire gave an ideal opportunity to neutralise (sic.) Rome’s major enemy in the east once and for all.” There is no evidence to suspect that Severus’s second campaign (or first) was conceived of as an opportunity to destroy the Parthian state.

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THE ROMAN EMPIRE DURING THE SEVERAN DYNASTY

man territory “may well have had a long-term effect on Roman attitudes towards Parthia” (Isaac 1998, 31). But the termination of Parthia as a rival does not appear as an option that warranted significant Roman consideration. The destruction of the Parthian state was not a viable strategy for Roman dominance in the East. The Romans may not have known Parthia’s exact size,13 but even so none of the invasions in the second century CE were designed for the destruction of the Parthian Empire.14 Such an undertaking was immense in scope and associated in history and mythology only with the person of Alexander. While Millar is quick to note that “the image of Alexander was not an unreal or insignificant element in Roman thinking about military glory in the East” (Millar 1993, 112), few emperors, other than Caracalla,15 could seriously have considered an attempt to emulate the Macedonian hero. Ultimately, it seems unlikely that the Romans conceived of any permanent eastward expansion beyond the eastern bank of the Tigris.16 13

See Millar, 1982, 15–20, specifically 18–19. Millar discusses the lack of military maps, accounts, and other data in the Roman world which prevented the development of a reliable, specific understanding of the geography, and spatial relationships, of areas outside of the Empire, or immediate border regions. 14 Birley believes that “dissension in the Parthian empire gave an ideal opportunity to neutralize Rome’s major enemy in the east once and for all” (1988, 129– 130). However, if we accept Dio’s conclusion for the rapid evacuation of Ctesiphon following the city’s fall, namely a lack of adequate provisions and intelligence, we must also accept that Severus had not made plans for anything beyond a similar campaign to that mounted by Trajan and Verus. 15 Caracalla’s Alexandrian pretensions are known to us only from generally hostile sources. 16 With regards to Severus’ campaign, Dio’s anecdote (LXXVI.9.iv–v) about the lack of preparation for a significant occupation of Ctesiphon is enlightening. If Severus was unable to remain at Ctesiphon “owing partly to a lack of acquaintance with the country and partly a dearth of provisions,” then assumptions about Roman geographical knowledge of Mesopotamia eastward into the Zagros range must be abandoned. This particular passage in Dio is the most damning refutation of Wheeler’s assertion (1993, 237) that the charge of geographic ignorance of the Near East lacks credibility. At present, there is no extant evidence that the Romans employed older maps of the Near East to the planning and execution of their military campaigns.

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19

EPILOGUE: THE EFFECT OF SEVERUS’S CAMPAIGNS ON THE FALL OF THE ARSACIDS Given the present state of our evidence for the final decades of Arsacid rule,17 it is impossible to fully understand the significance of the two eastern campaigns of Septimius Severus regarding the collapse of the Parthian state. While further blows to Arsacid prestige certainly caused the rebellion during the reign of Vologases V, the discontent of the vassal kings, particularly those Persis, had much more diverse origins. For the Persian house of Sasan and their subjects, the disdain for Arsacid rule had cultural and religious underpinnings. The effect of the widespread discontent with the nature of Parthian hegemony, as exemplified by the defections and rebellions of subject peoples, hamstrung the repeatedly during the final century of the Arsacid dynasty acerbating a problem that lay at the core of Parthia’s confederated, “feudal” structure. The Parthian kings no longer possessed the resources to execute the administration of the empire, spawning a cycle of inevitable and intensifying weakness in the years after Severus’ campaigns. Although Vologases V and his son Artabanus V were able to win victories over Roman armies, their political positions were no longer secure enough to follow up military gains and translate them into any lasting political stability.

REFERENCES Birely A. R., Septimius Severus: The African Emperor (1988). Bivar A.D.H., “The Political History of Iran under the Arsacids”, in E. Yarshater (ed.), The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. 3, Pt. 1 The Seleucid, Parthian and Sassanian Periods (1983), 21–99. Campbell J.B., The Emperor and the Roman Army: 31 BC–AD235 (1984). Colledge M.A.R., The Parthians (1967). Debevoise N.C., A Political History of Parthia (1968).

17

Widengren’s chapter in Cambridge History of Iran on the sources of Parthian, and Sassanian, history remains the most thorough, and useful, survey of the extant ancient sources.

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Edwell P. M., Between Rome and Persia: The middle Euphrates, Mesopotamia and Palmyra under Roman Control (2008). Eilers W., Iran and Mesopotamia, in E. Yarshater (ed.), The Cambridge History of Iran. Vol. 3. Pt.1 The Seleucid, Parthian and Sassanian Periods (1983), 481–504. Isaac B., The Limits of Empire: The Roman Army in the East (1990). Isaac B., The Near East Under Roman Rule: Selected Papers (1998). Keal E.J., Parthian Nippur and Vologases’ Southern Strategy: A Hypothesis, JAOS 95.4 (1975), 620–632. Kennedy D.L., “Parthia and Rome: Eastern Perspectives”, in D. Kennedy (ed.), The Roman Army in the East, JRA Suppl. 18 (1986), 68–90. Millar F., A Study of Cassius Dio (1964). Millar F., Emperors, Frontiers and Foreign Relations, 31 B.C. to A.D. 378, Britannia 13 (1983), 1–23. Millar F., The Roman Near East: 31BC–AD337 (1993). Neusner J., The Conversion of Adiabene to Judaism: A New Perspective, JBL 83.1 (1964), 60–66. Rankov B., “A ‘Secret of Empire’ (imperii arcanum): an unacknowledged factor in Roman imperial expansion”, in W.S. Hanson (ed.), The Army and the Frontiers of Rome: Papers offered to David J. Breeze on the occasion of his sixty-fifth birthday and his retirement from Historic Scotland, JRA Suppl. 74 (2009), 163–172. Rawlinson G., Parthia (1903). Shayegan M.R., Arsacids and Sasanians: Political Ideology in PostHellenistic and Late Antique Persia (2011). Sheldon R.M., Rome’s Wars in Parthia: Blood in the Sand (2010). Speidel M.P., Valerius Valerianus in Charge of Septimius Severus’ Mesopotamian Campaign, CP 80.4 (1985), 321–326. Widengren G., “Sources of Parthian and Sassanian History”, in E. Yarshater (ed.) The Cambridge History of Iran. Vol. 3, Pt. 2. The Seleucid, Parthian and Sassanian Periods (1983), 1261–1283.

PARTHIAN CAMPAIGNS OF THE SEVERAN EMPERORS

FIGURES

Figure 1. Extent of Parthian Empire in 44 BCE and 138 CE.18

18

Adapted from Farrokh 2004, 155.

21

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Figure 2. Urban centers of the Parthian Empire.19

19

Adapted from CHI, 25

PARTHIAN CAMPAIGNS OF THE SEVERAN EMPERORS

Figure 3. The Fertile Crescent.20

20

Adapted from Kennedy 1996, 71.

23

“ U N I TA S E X A F R I C A : WA S T E RT U L L I A N T H E O R I G O O F I M P E R I A L U N I F I C AT I O N ? ” E.T. Walters (John Cabot University, Rome)

While L. Septimius Severus (emperor 193/7–211) executed his office as Pontifex Maximus of the Roman Empire culminating in his call for the first genuine general and empire-wide supplicatio in 202CE (unprecedented in its scope), his contemporary North African compatriot Q. Septimius F. Tertullianus (c.150–c.230) undertook the task of composing three new distinct bodies of Latin literature from 197–213CE: 1) legal treatises in defense of Christianity addressed to Roman authorities (Ad nationes; Apologeticum); 2) tractates utilizing the Roman legal device of praescriptio in his rhetorical debates with heretics (De praescriptione haereticorum; Adversus Praxean); 3) treatises expounding Christian doctrine (De anima; De carne Christi). In doing so the pagan turnedChristian turned-Montanist and highly accomplished jurist Tertullian, arguably the only Greek or Latin Christian patristic author fluently bilingual in those languages, not only created Latin Christian philosophical and theological vocabulary and thought. His employment of the term unitas, meaning “oneness/unity” and already established by pagan authors, would become the foundation of Trinitarian theology, Christology, and ecclesiology. Moreover, while the Constitutio Antoniniana was being drafted and eventually was promulgated in 212, Tertullian’s use of that term in conjunction with the Roman legal concept of origo, meaning “origin” and determinative of Roman citizenship, may have provided the 25

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original architectural blueprint for the now cosmopolitan Roman Empire’s eventual unification under one religion and the identification of that religious assembly with the state in the fourth century. Following an unprecedented and exhaustive philological analysis and synthesis of the etymological development of the term unitas in all 233 instances of its use from the first century BCE through the dawn of the Pax Constantiniana in the early fourth century CE, this study presents the results pertinent to the period of Septimius Severus in light of aforementioned observations and ramifications for socio-political theory, state relations, and religious 1 dialogue.

“UNITAS” IN THE NON-CHRISTIAN AUTHORS AND TERTULLIAN Of the sixty-five instances of “unitas” in the non-Christian authors, the term first and only once appears during Latin literature’s golden age in Varro’s (116–27BCE) De lingua latina, and finds its greatest proponent in the younger Seneca (c.4BCE–65CE), who employs the word eighteen times followed by the elder Pliny (23/24CE–79), who uses the term nine times.2 Six hallmarks may be gleaned following an analysis and synthesis of the term’s usage in the ten ancient non-Christian Latin authors that employ “unitas” intra se: 1) oneness/unity is not plurality; 2) oneness/ unity corresponds not to accidental quantity, i.e. number or “one alone” (unus), but rather to a substantial quality, i.e. “one thing only” (unum); 3) oneness/unity is uninterrupted continuity cohering in itself and not a composite of bodies united together with external aid; 4a) oneness/unity requires that there be a “source” (fons) and by implication an “origin” (origo) from which are derived, to which are connected, and by which are sustained all things (rivus/corpus/societas); 4b) a bond (vinculum) is salu1

For a more thorough discussion cf. E.T. Walters, Unitas in Latin Antiquity: Four Centuries of Continuity, Peter Lang Verlag, 2011. The publication includes a complete concordance of the term in Latin, also. The Latin term “unitas” is translated in English as “oneness/unity” throughout. 2 The term is used only in the nominative, accusative, and ablative cases by the non-Christian authors. Its use in the genitive and dative cases begins with Tertullian. No author ever uses the term in the plural.

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tary, salvific, and necessary unto preserving oneness/ unity, without which oneness/unity (of a res pubblica, imperium, or tradux for example) will be destroyed; 5) just as oneness/unity emerges out of a greater reality, everything that exists both derives out of oneness/ unity and possesses oneness/unity; 6) tension within oneness/unity is an essential principle as together they animate the world. Nowhere appear notions of division or separation existing or being able to exist within oneness/unity.3 These concepts not only inform Tertullian’s thought, but he often paraphrases, if not utilizes verbatim, the expressions found in the nonChristian authors. Regarding points “1” and “2” Seneca insists that unitas is not unus but unum: “if when I will have said one thing only, remember me not to refer to number, but to the nature of a body cohering not by external assistance but by its own oneness/unity.”4 Explaining that certain words have only either a singular or plural form, the non-Christian grammarian Gellius (c.130–c.180) employs the term “unitas” once, referring to the “oneness/unity of a singular number”,5 i.e. the oneness/unity of one. Gellius’ statement of the obvious, viz. that oneness/ unity is not and cannot be a plurality by definition, may indicate that mid-second century currents of thought were not in unified agreement on the subject. Tertullian, exasperated by illogical redundancies in neo-Platonic Christian thought embodied by various Gnostic sects like the Valentinians, finds 3

There are another six hallmarks of unitas as understood ad extra: 7) oneness/unity separates that which is not within while simultaneously is that through which things join together; 8) oneness/unity’s beauty is in its uniformity, which is enhanced with variations; 9) oneness/unity implies identity of relation; 10) the presence or absence of oneness/unity affects future identity and integrity; 11) nature and man tend toward oneness/unity, without which they suffer; 12) oneness/unity requires much cultivation, attention, and time. These are beyond the scope of the present discussion. 4 “Si quando dixero unum, memineris me non ad numerum referre, sed ad naturam corporis nulla ope externa sed unitate sua cohaerentis.” in Seneca, Naturales quaestiones, II,2,4 in E. H. Wharmington et. al., ed., Loeb: Seneca, «Naturales Quaestiones», I, Harvard University Press, Cambridge – London 1971, 102. 5 “singularis numeri unitatem”, in Gellius, “Noctes Atticae”, XIX, 8, 12 in T. E. Page – et al., ed., Loeb: The Attic Nights of Aulus Gellius III, Harvard University Press, Cambridge – London 1952, 374. Cf. L&S where under the entry «singularis» the meaning of this term in the context of grammar per se is «of or belonging to unity, singular».

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himself forced to reiterate Seneca’s and Gellius’ insights a few years after Septimius Severus’ supplicatio of 202. “‘These powers therefore: Being Alone, Oneness/Unity, , Union propagate the other emanations of Aeons.’ What difference?! Union and Oneness/Unity and Singularity and Being Alone, wherever you will have assigned [the meaning], it is [still] one thing only (unum).”6 Tertullian likewise identifies the persons of trinitas (a term he apparently coined) with unum. “Unto this with two in the masculine gender he says one thing only with a neuter word [unum] (which pertains not unto the singularity but unto the oneness/unity, unto the likeness, unto the joining together, unto the love of the Father who loves the Son and unto the obedience of the Son who obeys the Father’s will): saying ‘I and the Father are one thing only [unum]’ demonstrates two to be those who are equal and join together....And so the connection of the Father in the Son and of the Son in the Paraclete effects three cohering ones, the other out of another. Which three are one thing only [unum], not one alone [unus] as it was said: ‘I and the Father are one thing only [unum]’ unto the oneness/unity of substance, not unto the singularity of number.”7 Seneca further defines unitas. “A composite is the touching of two bodies joined between each other, continuity is the uninterrupted joining of parts among each other. Oneness/unity is continuity without a compo-

6 “‘Hae igitur virtutes: Solitas Unitas Unio ceteras prolationes Aeonum propagarunt.’ O differentia! Mutetur Unio et Unitas et Singularitas et Solitas, quaqua designaveris: unum est” in Tertullianus, “Adversus Valentinianos”, XXXVII, in CCL: II Tertulliani Opera Pars II, Brepols 1954, 777– 778. 7 “Adhuc cum duo masculini generis unum dicit neutrali verbo (quod non pertinet ad singularitatem sed ad unitatem, ad similitudinem, ad coniunctionem, ad dilectionem Patris qui Filium diligit et ad obsequium Filii qui voluntati Patris obsequitur): ‘Unum sumus,’ dicens, ‘ego et Pater,’ ostendit duos esse quos aequat et iungit….Ita connexus Patris in Filio et Filii in Paracleto tres efficit cohaerentes, alterum ex altero. Qui tre unum sunt, non unus, quomodo dictum est: ‘Ego et Pater unum sumus,’ ad substantiae unitatem, non ad numeri singularitatem” in Tertullianus, “Adversus Praxean”, XXII.10–11; XXV.1, in CCL: II Tertulliani Opera Pars II, Brepols 1954, 1190–1191; 1195.

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site.”8 Tertullian utilizes this concept to explain the immanent trinity’s eternal indivisibility. “We offer the reason (ratio)…by which the Father and Son [are] two, and this is not out of the separation of substance but by distribution, when we declare the Son undivided and unseparated from the Father, not by state but by degree, when the other, who also himself is called God, is named singular, makes not therefore two gods but one thing only [unum], by this [fact] itself that he holds to be called God, [i.e.] out of the oneness/unity of the Father.”9 Pliny’s horticultural advice includes excising from another tree a piece of bark of equal size already bearing a growth bud and precisely and tightly fitting the new piece into the existing cavity “so that there is no place for scarring and a oneness/unity (unitas) is readily made receiving neither moisture nor air; nonetheless, however, better with a bandage and a bond (vinculo).”10 Seneca suggests to his student Nero that the Roman Emperor “is the bond (vinculum), through which the republic (res publica) coheres, this one the vital breath, which these many thousands draw, themselves would be being for themselves nothing lest a burden and prey, if that mind of the empire (imperii) be taken away….This fall will be the destruction of the Roman peace,…this oneness/unity (unitas) and this coherence (contextus) of the mightiest empire will break up into many parts… the end of this city’s needing to rule.”11 8

“…et comissura est duorum coniunctorum inter se corporum tactus, continuatio est partium inter se non intermissa coniunctio. Unitas est sine comissura continuatio” in Seneca, Naturales quaestiones, II,2,2 in E. H. Wharmington et. al., ed., Loeb: Seneca, “Naturales Quaestiones”, I, Harvard University Press, Cambridge – London 1971, 102. 9 “rationem reddimus…qua Pater et Filius duo, et hoc non est ex separatione substantiae sed dispositione, cum individuum et inseparatum Filium a Patre pronuntiamus, nec status sed gradu alium, qui etsi Deus dicatur, quando nominatur singularis, non ideo duos Deos faciat sed unum, hoc ipso quod et Deus ex unitate Patris vocari habeat” in Tertullianus, “Adversus Praxean”, XIX.8, in CCL: II Tertulliani Opera Pars II, Brepols 1954, 1185. 10 “ut cicatrici non locus sit et statim fiat unitas nec umorem nec adflatum recipiens; nihilominus tamen et luto munire et vinculo melius” in Plinius, Naturalis Historia, XVII,26,§118. T.E. Page et. al., ed., Loeb: Pliny, “Naturalis historia”, V, Harvard University Press, Cambridge – London 1950, 82. 11 “Ille est enim vinculum, per quod res publica cohaeret, ille spiritus vitalis, quem haec milia trahunt nihil ipsa per se futura nisi onus et praeda, si mens illa

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Striking are both Pliny’s direct association of vinculum with unitas and its not only qualitatively better but salutary properties for grafting trees, as well as Seneca’s identification of the same with the Roman Emperor, who is de facto the pontifex maximus, implying that such is indispensible and indeed salvific for the preservation of the res publica, imperium, pax Romana, populus, and urbs. Tertullian replaces the nonChristian authors’ term in point “4b) a bond (vinculum)” with “sacrament of the economy” (sacramentum oikonomiae). Although a Roman citizen and jurist but a Carthaginian by birth if not ancestry, he is an extremely “evangelical” Christian channeled in his avowed Montanism and, hence, at odds with ecclesial politics and power struggles by the time he completes his most profound and influential work Adversus Praxean one year before Septimius Severus’ death in 211. Consequently, while maintaining the aforementioned principles expounded by Seneca and Pliny, Tertullian not only avoids the term vinculum, but he “guardedly” characterizes the one Christian god in three persons in the following way. All [are] out of one thing only (ex uno) through the oneness/unity of substance (per substantiae unitatem) and no less is guarded (custodiatur) the sacrament/mystery of the economy (oikonomiae sacramentum), which [economy] distributes the oneness/unity into the trinity (unitatem in trinitatem), setting out three, Father and Son and Spirit, three however not in state but in degree, not in substance but in form, not in power (potestate) but in kind, however of one substance, of one state, and of one power because one [is] God out of whom these degrees and forms and kinds are reckoned in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the holy Spirit. The proceeding treatments will demonstrate how they suffer number without division. For simple ones indeed, whom I will not have called idiots and imprudent ones, which is always the greater part of ones believing, become terrified unto the economy, for the rule of faith (regula fidei) itself transfers from the many gods of the ages to the true and one and only God, not ones understanding the one and only God to be needing to be believed in rather with his economy. They presume number and imperii subtrahatur…Hic casus Romanae pacis exitium erit,…haec unitas et hic maximi imperii contextus in partes multas dissiliet...urbi finis dominandi.” in Seneca, “De clementia”, III,2,1–2 in F. Préchac, ed., Sénèque: De La Clémence, Les Belles Lettres, Paris 2003, 17–18.

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distribution of the trinity [to be] a division of the oneness/unity, when the oneness/unity, deriving out of its own self the trinity, is not destroyed but administered (administretur) by that [trinity]. They throw out there to be preached two and three gods by us, they really presume themselves guardians of the one God, as if oneness/unity irrationally considered does not become heresy and the trinity rationally (rationaliter) exposed constitute truth.12

“ORIGO” IN ROMAN LAW AND TERTULLIAN The lynchpin of unitas as applied to itself for the non-Christian authors and as applied to Tertullian’s Trinitarian theology, Christology, and ecclesiology is point “4a)”, i.e. oneness/unity requires that there be a source (fons) and by implication an origin (origo) from which are derived, to which are connected, and by which are sustained all things (rivus/corpus/societas). Varro notes that two unrelated names like Priam and Hecuba “would indicate no oneness/unity”13 of idea. The nominative 12

“omnia dum ex uno omnia per substantiae scilicet unitatem et nihilnominus custodiatur oikonomiae sacramentum, quae unitatem in trinitatem disponit, tres dirigens Patrem et Filium et Spiritum, tres autem non statu sed gradu, nec substantia sed forma, nec potestate sed specie, unius autem substantiae et unius status et unius potestatis quia unus Deus ex quo et gradus isti et formae et species in nominee Patris et Filii et Spiritus sancti deputantur. quomodo numerum sine divisione patiuntur, procedentes tractatus demonstrabunt. Simplices enim quique, ne dixerim imprudentes et idiotae, quae maior semper credentium pars est, quoniam et ipsa regula fidei a pluribus diis saeculi ad unicum et verum Deum transfert, non intelligentes unicum quidem sed cum sua oikonomia esse credendum, expauescunt ad oikonomiam. Numerum et dispositionem trinitatis divisionem praesumunt unitatis, quando unitas, ex semetipsa derivans trinitatem, non destruatur ab illa sed administretur. Itaque duos et tres iam iactitant a nobis praedicari, se vero unius Dei cultures praesumunt, quasi non et unitas irrationaliter collecta haeresin faciat et trinitas rationaliter expensa veritatem constituat” in Tertullianus, “Adversus Praxean”, II.3–III.1, in CCL: II Tertulliani Opera Pars II, Brepols 1954, 1161. 13 “nullam unitatem adsignificaret” in Varro, VIII,2 in G. Goetz – F. Schoell, ed., M. Terenti Varronis De Lingua Latina Quae Supersunt, B. G. Teubner, Leipzig 1910, 126.

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“Aemilius” and its genitive form “Aemilii” would imply a relationship of identity between the two names.14 This oneness/unity of identity, according to Varro, is like that shared between a “source” (fons) and a “stream” (rivus).15 Pliny similarly implies the same in his description of the point of convergence between several rivers flowing from the one principle Nile River, which functions as the source and origin of those diverging branches. “[T]he extent [of the Nile is] from the oneness/unity of the river whence it first branches on [one] side into the Canopicus [River] to the west… [and] into the Pelusiacus [River] to the east.”16 While the idea of “origin” may be understood if not implied in the concept fons, that no non-Christian author save one instance much later in M. Junianus Justinus (c. late third or early fourth century CE) ever juxtaposes or refers “origo” to unitas is significant. Origo is a fundamental tenet of Roman law in that one’s legal “origin” was determined by one’s native birthplace within the Roman Empire and, hence, one’s “local citizenship” as opposed to one’s Roman citizenship, the privilege of which was determined by one’s paternity, i.e. one’s father’s (patris) own legal status as a Roman citizen.17 That would all change, however, with the extension of Roman citizenship to practically all free inhabitants within the Empire legislated by the “Constitutio Antoniniana” in 212 in large part prepared and disseminated effectively by Domitius Ulpianus (c.170–223/4), the renowned Roman jurist, secretary for petitions (a libellis) under S. Severus and his son Bassianus Aurelius Antoninus “Caracalla” (emperor 211–217), and short-lived praetorian prefect under S. Severus’ grand-nephew Alexander Severus (emperor 222–235) before being assassinated by the praetorian guard.18 Ulpian, who thrice cites his contemporary Tertullian’s juridical sententiae in his 14

Varro, VIII, 4 in G. Goetz – F. Schoell, ed., M. Terenti Varronis De Lingua Latina Quae Supersunt, B. G. Teubner, Leipzig 1910, 126. 15 Varro, VIII, 4–5 in G. Goetz – F. Schoell, ed., M. Terenti Varronis De Lingua Latina Quae Supersunt, B. G. Teubner, Leipzig 1910, 126. 16 “Mensura ab unitate alvei, unde se primum findit in latera ad Canopicum [a river] ostium…ad Pelusiacum…est” in Plinius, Naturalis Historia, V,9,§48. E. H. Wharmington et. al., ed., Loeb: Pliny, “Naturalis historia”, II, Harvard University Press, Cambridge – London 1947, 254. 17 T. Honoré, Ulpian: Pioneer of Human Rights, Oxford 2002, 9–10. 18 Id., 5–9.36.

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“Sabinus”, and whose own sententiae constitute more than forty percent of the Corpus iuris civilis (a.k.a. Codex Justinianus) of 553, while making use of the term “origo” never uses the term “unitas”, much less juxtaposes the two.19 The Roman jurist Tertullian is the first to do so in extant Latin literature, the ramifications of which are potentially as much a watershed moment in history as either Caracalla’s (Ulpian’s?) revolutionary constitution granting citizenship to almost all within the Roman Empire by making the ius civile Romanum the ius gentium in 212, or Galerius’ edict of religious toleration in 311, or Constantine’s edict effectively elevating the Christian cult to a religio licita in 313, or Theodosius I’s Edict of Thessalonica (“Cunctos populos”) making the Christian cult the only legal and official state religion in 380. Before Ulpian ever remarks in his “De censibus” in 213 “whence is origo to me” (unde mihi origo est) the ancient city of Tyre in Syria, Carthage’s ancient ancestral Phoenician cofounder along with Sidon and long a Roman colony,20 Tertullian juxtaposes origo with unitas eight out of thirty-two instances or twenty-five percent of the time in which he writes about oneness/unity. Concomitant to Severus’ supplicatio in 202 and well before his “Montanist” period, Tertullian composes his De praescriptione haereticorum in which he explains how the legitimacy of any Christian ecclesia is determined. And through this also will they themselves be demonstrated apostolic as offshoots of the apostolic assemblies (apostolaricum ecclesiarum). It was needed that every kind be assessed unto its own origin (ad originem suam) . One [assembly] is that first from the apostles out of which all the many assemblies. Thus all [are] first and all apostolic, while all one. They demonstrate oneness/unity (unitas) with the communion of peace and the name of fraternity and the membership of hospitality. Which reason (ratio) rules [there to be] no laws/rights (iura) other than one tradition (una traditio) of the same sacrament itself (eiusdem sacramenti).21

19

Id., 9.143. 229. Id., 9. 21 “Ac per hoc et ipsae apostolicae deputabuntur ut suboles apostolaricum ecclesiarum. Omne genus ad originem suam censeatur necesse est. Itaque tot ac 20

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Tertullian not only directly contextualizes three important Roman legal concepts, viz. ratio, ius, and sacramentum around any Christian assembly’s legitimate “origin”, but he indirectly implies their same origin to be dependent upon the “one thing being handed down” (una traditio) by the “one assembly” of the “apostles”, demonstrating unitas in the “communion of peace” and the “name of fraternity” and the “membership of hospitality”. Who really is Tertullian’s targeted audience and what is his real motivation in this work? Three related elements may indicate someone other than doctrinal heretics fomenting dissension within Christian communities whom Tertullian rhetorically is addressing. First, one of Rome’s first conquests beyond the Italic peninsula was Carthage and North Africa following the Punic Wars. Members of the Christian cult like other “mystery” cults originating from Egypt and the Near East were predominantly neither Roman Latins nor Roman citizens, frequently “freedmen and freedwomen” (liberti libertaeque), and often slaves. In fact, the development of a particularly cultured and educated “Latin” Christianity occurs not in Italy, Spain, Gaul, or anywhere else in Europe but precisely with the turn of the third century’s North African Tertullian. Educated circles of neo-Platonic Christians and Gnostics in Greekspeaking cultural centers of learning such as nearby Alexandria, the intellectual capital of the Roman Empire and home to Tertullian’s contemporary Origen, may or may not have understood readily the meanings of such fundamental Roman legal concepts.22 The bilingual jurist Tertullian in choosing to write in Latin and not in Greek potentially limits his readership deliberately not only to the Roman Latin world, a point often taken for granted by classicists, patristic scholars, and theologians alike, but perhaps more importantly to the class within society that always had been the real potestas behind Roman auctoritas: lawyers. Second, if any human being’s origo under Roman law were identical to one’s geographical birthplace and, hence, not necessarily a guarantor of Roman citizenship (as such depended on one’s father’s citizenship), tantae ecclesiae una est illa ab apostolis prima ex qua omnes. Sic omnes primae et omnes apostolicae, dum una omnes. Probant unitatem communicatio pacis et appellatio fraternitatis et contesseratio hospitalitatis. Quae iura non alia ratio regit quam eiusdem sacramenti una traditio” in Tertullianus, “De praescriptione haereticorum”, XX.5–9, in CCL: I Tertulliani Opera Pars I, Brepols 1954, 202. 22 Honoré, op. cit., 90.

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and if that status quo were suddenly changed by the aeternae ius civile Romae,— i.e. that as Tertullian suggests the human race’s origo is one, eternal, just, and omnipotent god, or at least Seneca’s unitas, very much like the Roman res publica epitomized by the Roman imperium in the person of one imperator, who is not merely pater but parens and as such remains the origo of its progeny, both humanly through legally legitimate matrimonial offspring and transcendentally through such a divinity that is identical and gives it substantial legitimacy—into the ius gentium over which eternal Roman law consequently would have presided, then would that not transform every individual possessing a native origo within the Roman Empire’s confines into a “Roman citizen” (civis Romanus) and, hence, be obligated and protected under Roman law and its privileges? Yes, and that is precisely what occurred through the Constitutio Antoniniana promulgated by Severus’ less able son Caracalla and likely prepared and certainly disseminated by Ulpian in 212. Third, the jurisprudentially experienced and logical mind of Tertullian theoretically and practically afforded him the only recourse in securing greater liberty under Roman law for his particular religious affiliation: recognition of the Christian cult as a religio licita. Subsequently, while Tertullian’s Greek Christian counterparts were either contesting potestas in who was the rightfully elected episcopus (“overseer” or “bishop”) or anitistites (“chief high priest”) of a given Christian community (e.g. Hippolytus vs. Callixtus in Rome in 217) or confusing a cult already misunderstood and ever more suspect according to Roman Latin mores (Gnostics, Origen of Alexandria)—neither of which was doing anything to further Roman sympathies for the Christian cause of legal recognition— Tertullian decided that his first major “Christian” literary work would be an unprecedented and preemptive legal motion in the cult’s defense addressed to Roman governors, which he entitled simply Apologeticum, or an “Appeal/Defense”. The three instances of unitas in this legal defense are not provocative and could only appeal to the sensibilities of more “enlightened” Latin Romans. We say this thing having been brought forth out of God, and having been generated by having been brought forth, and therefore the son of God and God having been said out of the oneness/unity of substance:

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Avoiding potentially losing his audience in detailed explanations of how the trinity works, i.e. its “economy”, Tertullian’s succinct description to the Roman authorities of the one Christian god in three persons is couched in the phrase “out of the oneness/unity of substance” (ex unitate substantiae) and evocative of the aforementioned non-Christian authors’ point “5) just as oneness/unity emerges out of a greater reality, everything that exists both derives out of oneness/unity and possesses oneness/unity,” expressed by Seneca as “whatever is a part having been born in any other thing has oneness/unity. For nothing is born without one24 ness/unity.” Avoiding Varro’s and Pliny’s references to rivus and fons to explain the oneness/unity shared between a river and its source, Tertullian utilizes another metaphorical device (sol, radius, lumen) that could not but impress itself upon growing monotheistic tendencies among educated pagan Roman Latins, especially those who gravitated to various more “enlightened” forms of sun-worship. Having satisfied Roman Latin tastes for such a deity, Tertullian next dispels misgivings about whether or not the Christian brand of “sunworship” is nevertheless a cult that practices according to Roman religious standards. “We are a body (corpus) from the knowledge of religion and oneness/unity of discipline and alliance (foedere) of hope. We join

23

“Hunc ex Deo prolatum dicimus, et prolatione generatum, et idcirco filium dei et Deum dictum ex unitate substantiae: nam et Deus spiritus. Etiam cum radius ex sole porrigitur, portio ex summa; sed sol erit in radio, quia solis est radius, nec separatur substantia, sed extenditur, ut lumen de lumine accensum” in Tertullianus, “Apologeticum”, XXI.11–12, in CCL: I Tertulliani Opera Pars I, Brepols 1954, 124. 24 “Habet…unitatem quicquid alicuius rei nativa pars est. Nihil enim nascitur sine unitate” in Seneca, Naturales quaestiones, II,4,2 in E. H. Wharmington et. al., ed., Loeb: Seneca, “Naturales Quaestiones”, I, Harvard University Press, Cambridge – London 1971, 104.

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together into a band and we form a congregation.” Such a statement, exhibiting qualities required of a faithful soldier ready to serve and, if necessary, die for Rome, would have been the envy of any army recruiter and may provide new insight into another phrase coined by Tertullian and dear to patristic scholars and theologians: “rule” not of faith but of “loyal26 ty” (regula fidei). Moreover, his final use of unitas in the context of rationally justifying the Christian belief in resurrection certainly would have endeared Tertullian to Roman soldiers, their commanders, and others involved in maintaining troop morale. Which reason (ratio) established the universe out of diversity, that all things are in agreement as rivaling substances under oneness/unity, and out of a vacuum and a solidity, out of things animate and inanimate, out of things knowable and unknowable, out of light and darkness, out of death and life itself, so in this way preserves the everlasting itself by a distinct manner, that this first portion, which we inhabit from the beginning of things (ab exordio rerum), flows through the temporal ages unto the end, really following, which we expect, is propagated into infinite eternity. 27

Is not Rome eternal and destined to illuminate the cosmos? Tertullian’s Apologeticum practically handed Septimius Severus a manifesto of political propaganda, the likes of which Cicero and Caesar only could have dreamed, that ideologically galvanized less than lofty and conflicting senatorial and imperial interests with the mores of a Roman citizenry that found itself ever more cosmopolitan, “foreign”, and lost in a world where 25

“Corpus sumus de conscientia religionis et disciplinae unitate et spei foedere. Coimus in coetum et congregationem facimus” in Tertullianus, “Apologeticum”, XXXIX.1–2, in CCL: I Tertulliani Opera Pars I, Brepols 1954, 150. 26 Tertullianus, “Adversus Praxean”, II.3–III.1, in CCL: II Tertulliani Opera Pars II, Brepols 1954, 1161. 27 “Quae ratio universitatem ex diversitate composuit, ut omnia aemulis substantiis sub unitate constarent, ex vacuo et solido, ex animali et inanimali, ex comprehensibili et incomprehensibili, ex luce et tenebris, ex ipsa vita et morte, eadem aevum quoque ita distincta condicione conservit, ut prima haec pars, ab exordio rerum quam incolimus, temporali aetate ad finem defluat, sequens vero, quam expectamus, in infinitam aeternitatem propagetur” in Tertullianus, “Apologeticum”, XLVIII.11, in CCL: I Tertulliani Opera Pars I, Brepols 1954, 167.

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such obligatory duties and mundane customs were beginning to wear on Rome’s populace by the turn of the third century. Is it mere coincidence that Tertullian’s first major “Christian” composition coincided with Severus’ acquisition of the full imperium in 197, or was Tertullian possibly capitalizing on the circumstances of a potentially ripe historical moment? The astrologically inclined and first ever non-Italic Emperor Severus, married to the Syrian and, hence, Eastern Julia Mammaea, seems to have begun rather innocuously if not favorably towards the Christians. Yet, despite an imperial invitation by the emperor’s wife to the famed Origen of Alexandria in Rome, the latter’s particularly neo-Platonist if not Gnostic brand of Christianity does not seem to have impressed the emperor or his ministers including very possibly his secretary for petitions, Ulpian.28 In fact, Severus’ first visitation beyond Rome occurred two years later. He did not travel to the East but decided to return to his native origin of North Africa where shortly thereafter he determined a general supplicatio to be warranted in 202. While Severus’ action in calling a general supplicatio neither morally nor effectively checked problems of power struggles within Christian communities nor their apparent continued disruption of public order within society at large, his decision may indicate that many Roman authorities perceived a potentially very real threat of the rapid and diffuse development of a state (in this case the Christian ecclesia) within the state (the imperium of the res publica under one Roman imperator). In fact, Tertullian’s legal defense of the Christian form of religio as a potentially faithful band of foederati could have been viewed just as easily as a potentially disloyal and eventually rebellious constituency. Only a lawyer could have avoided the fate of the sincerest of Christians, and in fact the prominent jurist Tertullian, who not even five years earlier had filed a legal docket with Roman authorities, escaped not only execution but even exile for reasons that remain unknown. Moreover, he immediately began his most prolific Christian and “Montanist” period. Was the native Carthaginian, Latin, Roman citizen and jurist Tertullian “protected” if not an elite, or was he at least respected by Roman authorities (especially other jurists like Ulpian) and able to have distanced himself enough from the perceived theosophical ramblings of popular Greek Eastern “Christian” thinkers like Origen as well as the growing power 28

Honoré, op. cit., 83.216.

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struggles among contenders for the Christian episcopacy that Severus, who spoke Punic, certainly witnessed first-hand upon his arrival as imperator in North Africa, base of operations of the most developed organizational network of Christian communities throughout the Roman Empire in the second and third centuries? Severus’ intuition would prove correct not even half a century later when not only internal revolts leading to the breakaway Gallic Empire occurred, but breakaway Christian groups (schsimatics) simultaneously were causing enough unrest in cities like Carthage and Rome to once again force Roman authorities under Decius and Valerian into action by calling two more general supplicationes in 249 and 257 respectively. Tertullian feverishly undertook his next major work in a manner similar to his Apologeticum as soon as Severus’ supplicatio had been decreed, completing De praescriptione haereticorum around 203. Tertullian now utilizes the Roman legal loophole of “prescription”, in which a case is thrown out of court before its hearing based on a lack or misuse of evidence, in order to circumvent preemptively the problems being created by schismatics within Christian communities. Once again the same two questions arise: for whom and why is Tertullian really composing this work? Explaining why schisms and heresies are arguments that should not even be heard from the outset, Tertullian states, “Thereupon if one knows the whole chapter unto the oneness/unity [of an argument] needing to be contained and the divisions needing to be enclosed, heresies no less really than schisms and dissensions rend asunder from oneness/unity.”29 Tertullian contends that schisms themselves tend to rupture and create further divisions that are not readily apparent because of the ambiguity already existing from the first schism. Any seeming oneness/unity is false because their “oneness/unity is itself schism.”30 Tertullian’s use of praescriptio here in light of his Apologeticum filed only five years earlier, his rather candid attitude regarding fellow albeit schismatic Christians intent on continuing to identify themselves as such, and his reference to 29

“Denique si totum capitulum ad unitatem continendam et separations coercendas sapit, haereses vero non minus ab unitate divellunt quam scismata et dissensiones” in Tertullianus, “De praescriptione haereticorum”, V.4, in CCL: I Tertulliani Opera Pars I, Brepols 1954, 191. 30 “scisma est enim unitas ipsa” in Tertullianus, “De praescriptione haereticorum”, XXII.6, in CCL: I Tertulliani Opera Pars I, Brepols 1954, 222.

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the latter in the third person as if they were on trial all seem to indicate that Tertullian was making his case not rhetorically to other Christians or even schismatics but directly to Roman authorities (now having to contend with the ramifications of Severus’ supplicatio on the general population) and desperately trying to distance himself and his “clients” from any association with such disruptive groups claiming to be Christian.31 A few years later Tertullian employs the same dynamics in his Adversus Valentinianos. We are fully aware, I say, also the origin (originem) of them and we know, why we call [them] Valentinians, even if it is not allowed (licet non) that they be seen to be. For they did depart from the founder, but the origin (origo) is destroyed not in the least, and even if perchance it is changed; the change itself is an attestation. Valentinus had hoped for the episcopacy (episcopatum), because he was able both in genius and eloquence, but, another out of the prerogative (praerogativa) of a martyr having been put in the place of power (loci potitum), the indigant one broke from the assembly of the authentic rule (de ecclesia authenticate regulae), as are accustomed souls being fired up on account of preference with presumption having been stirred up. 32

While this work is provocatively titled “Against the Valentinians” and is not called a “prescription”, its style and tone are closely reminiscent of De praescriptione haereticorum. Five significant insights may be made upon a closer reading of this text. First, Tertullian rather sheepishly acknowledges that “it is not allowed” (licet non) to refer to groups that have broken away from the already schismatic Valentinians as such. Who would or, more importantly, could make such a legally binding determi31

What would Jesus do indeed? He could have used Tertullian before Pontius Pilate. 32 “Novimus, inquam, optime originem quoque ipsorum et scimus, cur Valentinianos appellemus, licet non esse videantur. Abscesserunt enim a conditore, sed minime origo deletur, et si forte mutatur; testatio est ipsa mutatio. Speraverat episcopatum Valentinus, qui et ingenio poterat et eliquio, sed alium ex martyrii praerogativa loci potitum indignatus de ecclesia authenticae regulae abrupit, ut solent animi pro prioratu exciti praesumptione ultionis accendi” in Tertullianus, “Adversus Valentinianos”, IV.1–2,4, in CCL: II Tertulliani Opera Pars II, Brepols 1954, 755–756.

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nation? Second, Tertullian argues that the logical reason for referring to such splinter groups as “Valentinians” is that their origo is nevertheless the same. For whom would such line of reasoning have any real merit? Third, Valentinian’s rupture from the “assembly of authentic rule” and not any doctrinal defect is due to his being denied the “place of power”. Fourth, such place of power in the assembly of authentic rule is called the “episcopacy”. Who other than the emperor and his delegated authorities enjoy the imperium and subsequent prerogatives entrusted to them by the Roman senate and people (S.P.Q.R) such as being “overseers” (episcopi) in any place of power and wielding authentic rule in the only legitimate assembly ever known in the Roman Empire, i.e. the res publica? Fifth, and similar to the S.P.Q.R.’s delegation of such power to the emperor and his ministers, the episcopacy was given not to the eloquent genius of Valentinian but to another due to the praerogativa of a martyr, i.e. a “witness” having undergone either torture and/or death during the supplicatio. If the mischaracterizations of the Romans’ “persecutions” of the Christians that survive still today as urban but popular legend are true, such a document written by a well known and presumably respected Roman jurist would have procured for Tertullian immediate and fatal consequences. Yet, it did not. It could just as easily be suggested that some sort of deal may have been struck between better known and trusted “mainline” Christians like Tertullian and Roman authorities. Neither the chronological much less juridical expiration date of Severus’ supplicatio nor Tertullian’s precise date and place of death are really known. What is known is that by the time Tertullian penned this work he had entered what patristic scholars and theologians, perhaps walking more by fides and not by sight, refer to (blindly?) as his “Montanist” period. Moreover, only another roughly five years remained before the promulgation of that singularly revolutionary document the Roman legal system had yet produced, viz. the Constitutio Antoniniana. These two seemingly unrelated events may provide further insight into Tertullian’s real readership and motives and, hence, the third related element already intimated: the Zeitgeist in the Roman Empire at the turn of the third century. Tertullian composed his major treatise on the person and nature of Christ, De carne Christi, around 206 and, though lengthy and rather graphic, his juxtaposition of origo and unitas therein is pertinent to contextualizing its significance in light of the Constitutio Antoniniana and his ongoing justification of the Christian cult.

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THE ROMAN EMPIRE DURING THE SEVERAN DYNASTY “You tore me,” he says, “out of the uterus.” What is torn out lest what inheres, what having been affixed, what was attached to it, from which it is torn that it be removed? If he did not adhere to the uterus, how was he torn out? If what was torn out of the uterus adhered, how might it have adhered, lest not while through that umbilical cord, as a branch to its own pod, attached to the origin (origo) of the womb? Because even when a foreign thing is glued to a foreign thing, it is so enfleshed and incarnated with that to which it is glued that when it is torn away, it takes with itself out of the body from which it is torn, a consequence which [is] a branch of the mutual joining together and of the oneness/unity (unitas) having been broken off from. 33

An initially superficial reading of this text would lead a theologian to recognize immediately Tertullian’s brilliant both implicit explanation of the absolute equality of the first and second persons of the Trinity, i.e. the Father who generates or, as Tertullian says later in his most monumental and theologically profound work Adversus Praxean, “prolates” (; proferre; prolatare) the Son, as well as the explicit justification of what would be referred to following the fourth ecumenical council of Chalcedon in 453 as the “hypostatic union”, i.e. the union of the divine and human “natures” (hypostasis; natura) in the one “person” (prosopon; persona) of Jesus Christ. A more profound reading in light of the moment in which Tertullian composed this work, viz. the dawn of the Constitutio Antoniniana, indicates that the juxtaposition of origo to unitas may reveal more. If the Christian cult and doctrine as presented by Tertullian ever could or would be recognized legally much less embraced by Rome as a religio licita, then the origo of such a cult must be rationally demonstrated and juridically legitimized. Here and as previously cited in 33 “‘Avulsisti,’ inquit, ‘ex utero.’ Quid avellitur, nisi quod inhaeret, quod infixum, quod innexum est ei, a quo ut auferatur avellitur? Si non adhaesit utero, quomodo avulses est? Si adhaesit qui avulses est ex utero, quomodo adhaesisset, nisi dum est per illum nervum umbilicalem, quasi folliculi sui traducem, adnexus origini vuluae? Etiam cum quid extraneum extraneo ad glutinatur, ita concarnatur et convisceratur cum eo cui adglutinatur ut, cum avelitur, rapiat secum ex corpore, a quo avellitur, sequelam quondam, abruptae unitatis traducem et mutui coitus” in Tertullianus, “De carne Christi”, XX.5, in CCL: II Tertulliani Opera Pars II, Brepols 1954, 909–910.

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his Apologeticum Tertullian has at least on paper legally made his case that this Christian god referred to as the “Christ” is effectively “out of the oneness/unity of substance” (ex unitate substantiae). Tertullian here, however, takes a leap of faith before his readership if in fact that audience partially is constituted by the legal minds of the Severan Age. What if the origo of this historical Jesus of Nazareth whom his followers claim to be the Christ, who was executed roughly a century and a half earlier under the Roman governor of Judaea Pontius Pilatus, is not only human, i.e. being born and, hence, possessing “local” citizenship at Bethlehem or at least Jerusalem in the Roman province of Judaea, but is in fact the eternal, infinite, and divine unitas itself, notions that are human and divine and, therefore, Roman and viceversa? Besides Seneca’s identification of the emperor as the vinculum of such unitas of the res publica, Nero’s tutor also warns in reference to the res publica, “take away this society (societatem) [i.e. the imperial S.P.Q.R.], and you rend asunder (scindes, i.e. schismatic) the oneness/unity of the human race (unitatem generis humani), by which life (vita) is sustained.”34 So far, one would be hard pressed to find a more unifying, “cosmopolitan”, and “universal” religion and deity than that presented by Tertullian, who has utilized every term or at least concept in his exposition of the Christian cult that finds philosophical and juridical antecedents in those most revered by the imperial even if not senatorial establishment. Tertullian must plead his case with the former and not the latter if he desires effective results. Patristic scholars and theologians have made much of Tertullian’s “Montanist” tendencies as claimed to be evident in his De exhortatione castitatis composed around 208. The origin itself of the human race (origo humani generis) supports unto the law once needing to be established of needing to marry, answering the form needing to be examined for a future generation what God will have established in the beginning. For when he formed man and foresaw a partner necessary for him, having borrowed one from the ribs of him he fashioned for him one female only, when undoubtedly neither the maker nor the material would have been insufficient 34

“Hanc societatem tolle, et unitatem generis humani, qua vita sustinetur, scindes” in Seneca, De Beneficiis, IV,18,4 in T.E. Page et. al., ed., Loeb: Seneca, «Moral Essays», III, Harvard University Press, Cambridge – London 1958, 242.

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THE ROMAN EMPIRE DURING THE SEVERAN DYNASTY [to make more]. Many ribs in Adam, hands into infatigable things in God, but not many wives before God. And therefore the man of God, Adam, and the woman of God, Eve, one alone between themselves, sanctioned for humans the form for the duties of marriage from the authority of the origin of God (dei de originis auctoritate) and the primal will of God. Thus “they will be,” he says, “two in one flesh”, neither three nor four. In no other way then will they be one flesh, two in one flesh, if once for all there be a joining together and concretion into oneness/unity (concretio in unitatem). If really [it is] the contrary or [occurs] more often, it already ceases to be one, and they will now not be two in one flesh, but plainly on the contrary one into many. And so when the apostle interprets “they will be two into one flesh” into the assembly and Christ (in ecclesiam et Christum) according to the spiritual nuptials of the assembly and Christ, – for one [is] Christ and one the assembly of him – we must acknowledge a duplication and a reenforcement to be the law of one matrimony for us both as according to the establishment of the [human] race (generis fundamentum) and as according to the sacrament of Christ (Christi sacramentum). We derive ineach case from one matrimony, both carnally in Adam and spiritually in Christ. Of the two births there was one prescription made of monogamy.35

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“Ad legem semel nubendi dirigendam ipsa origo humani generis patrocinatur, contestans quod deus in primordio constituerit in formam posteritati recensendum. Nam cum hominem figulasset eique parem necessariam prospexisset, unam de costis eius mutuatus unam illi feminam finxit, cum utique nec artifex nec material defecisset. Plures costae in Adam in infatigabiles manus in deo, sed non plures uxores apud deum. Et ideo homo dei Adam et mulier dei Eva unus inter se nuptiis functi formam hominibus dei de originis auctoritate et prima dei voluntate sanxerunt. Denique ‘erunt,’ inquit, ‘duo in carnem unam,’ non tres neque quatuor. Alioquin, quoniam una caro, nec duo in unam carnem tunc erunt, si coniunctio et concretio in unitatem semel fiat. Si vero rursus aut saepius, iam una esse desiit, et erunt iam non duo in unam carnem, sed una plane contra in plures. At cum apostolus in ecclesiam et Christum iterpretatur ‘erunt duo in unam carnem’ secundum spiritales nuptias ecclesiae et Christi, – unus enim Christus et una eius ecclesia – agnoscere debemus duplicatam et exaggeratam esse nobis unius matrimonii legem tam secundum generis fundamentum quam secundum Christi sacramentum. De uno matrimonio

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Three insights may be made for the purposes of the current discussion. First, neither Tertullian’s argument nor his tone indicates any “Montanist” tendencies. Leading Roman jurists like his contemporary Ulpian would find not only great offense at being identified as Montanists let alone Christians, but at least two of Ulpian’s own sententiae on issues such as marriage resonate with Tertullian’s opinions. One, in a ruling actually made by Caracalla (Ulpian?), if a wife is charged with adultery (pudicitia) as grounds for divorce by the husband, the judge should determine if there may not exist a double standard, i.e. that any lack of chastity (castitas) on the husband’s part demonstrates injustice as he cannot fault in the wife what is wanting in himself.36 Two, if a “mentally disturbed” wife enjoys moments of sanity and/or can be tolerated by others around her, then under no condition should divorce be granted to the husband, as there is nothing “so human than for a woman’s husband or a man’s wife to be a participant to the strongest cases,” i.e. in good times and in bad.37 Ulpian insists upon the human dignity and equality between woman and man, wife and husband, so that especially the more defenseless of the two in the eyes at least of the ius civile Romanum if not the ius gentium could not and would not be taken advantage of, a thought echoed throughout Tertullian’s “Concerning the exhortation of chastity”. The difference is that, for better or for worse, Tertullian goes much further. Second, not only does Tertullian identify the human race’s origo with that one god, which he identifies as unitas, as the basis for the monogamous institution of marriage supported by the law (legem), but he makes the next logical step in arguing that this law then necessarily comes “from the authority of the origin of god” (dei de originis auctoritate). Third, Tertullian asserts the human institution and law (legem) of one matrimony, i.e. monogamy, to be grounded not only carnally in Adam and Eve, i.e. the origo of the human race, but spiritually in Christ and his assembly, each of which is one alone (unus and una respectively) that comes censemur utrobique, et carnaliter in Adam et spiritaliter in Christo. Duarum nativitatum unum est monogamiae praescriptum.” in Tertullianus, “De exhortatione castitatis”, V, in CCL: II Tertulliani Opera Pars II, Brepols 1954, 1022–1023. 36 Honoré, op. cit., 101. 37 Id.. “tam humanum est, quam ut fortuitis casibus muliebri maritum vel uxorem viri participem esse”.

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together not “in one flesh” (in una carne) but rather “into one flesh” (in unam carnem), which is nothing less than a “conjoining and concretion into oneness/unity” (coniunctio et concretio in unitatem). Especially in light of Seneca’s aforementioned ideas of unitas specifically with regard to vinculum, res publica, societas, and imperator, the potential ramifications of Tertullian’s thought are beginning to appear like the blueprint for a form of government, albeit a theocratic monarchy under the guise of a deified S.P.Q.R., but a veritable if not startling constitution nonetheless. Tertullian completed his perhaps most theologically profound work Adversus Praxean around 210 on the eve of S. Severus’ death the following year. The work constitutes the bulk of Tertullian’s exposition of Christian Trinitarian doctrine. Among other things he uses metaphors already seen in non-Christian authors like Varro, Pliny, and Seneca to explain how the relationships within the trinity allow the three persons therein to remain each one distinct and not subordinated to or absorbed by the other two and simultaneously remain each one god, coeternal and coequal with the other two. The following passage, though lengthy, seems important for contextualizing origo and unitas in the context of Tertullian’s Trinitarian doctrine. This will be the prolation ( ) of the truth, the guardian of the oneness/unity (custos unitatis), by which we say the Son having been prolated38 [i.e. extended forth] but not having been separated from the 38

The suggestion that while Tertullian is not a subordinationist, he does exhibit some of those tendencies in his analogies used to explain the Trinitarian persons seems inaccurate, cf. J. Quasten, Patrology II: The Ante-Nicene Literature After Irenaeus, Spectrum Publishers, Utrecht – Antwerp 1953, 326–327. The Greek feminine noun , like the verb  from which the term is derived, means «to advance forth, extend forth, put forth, propose, throw forth, to prolate» in both a general sense as well as in a rhetorical and legal sense as in «to proceed, to accuse, to defend, to set forth argumentation» and in a strictly legal sense in ancient Greek and Roman codes as «to make preliminary defense procedures and motions» before proceeding with a case to a higher court as in having the case dismissed due to lack of evidence or improper procedure, etc.. The substantive form shares the same meanings. The same meanings and developments occur with the Latin verbs profero,-ferre,-tuli,-latus and prolato,-are and their past participial (and by extension substantive) forms as utilized here by Tertullian. The brilliant legal, linguistic, and philosophical mind of Tertullian

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Father. For God brought forth the word of him, just as the Paraclete teaches, as the root the treetrunk and the source the river and the sun the ray. For also these kinds are prolations of the substances of them out of which they go forth. Nor will I have been able to doubt to say the Son both the treetrunk of the root and the river of the source and the ray of the sun, because every origin is a parent (omnis origo parens est) and everything which is brought forth out of the origin is progeny (omne…ex origine…progenies est), much more the Word of God who so properly received the name of Son. For however neither the treetrunk from the root nor the river from the source nor the ray from the sun is separated, just as neither the Word from God. Therefore, I profess to say two according to the form of these examples: God and the Word of him, the Father and the Son of himself. For the root and the tree-trunk are two things, but having been joined together; and the source and the river are two forms, but cohering ones. Everything which goes forth out of anything else, it is to be needed there be a second thing of him from whom it advances forth, it has not therefore, however, been separated. However, where a second one alone is, there are two, and where a third one alone is, there are three. For the third one alone is the Spirit from God and from the Son, as the fruit [is] the third out of the tree-trunk from the root and the stream the third out of the river from the source and the point the third out of the identifies the prolation of the truth ( veritatis) not only as the guardian of oneness/unity (custos unitatis) in the legal sense establishing precedent but also in the legitimate and more general philosophical sense of things having been advanced forth, proceeded forth, prolated () and in the theological sense as applied to the Trinity. Such seems sufficient for arguing a  in Tertullian’s defense against centuries-old charges of subordinationist tendencies via an analysis of the meaing and use of prolation in his thought. While Latin theology inspired by Augustine would prefer later the verb procedo,-ere (to advance forth, proceed) and its substantive processio,-nis (procession) to describe and define the relations among the persons of the immanent Trinity, the preceding preliminary observations previously mentioned demonstrate that a reevaluation of accusations of latent subordinationist tendencies in Tertullian seems warranted. Cf. L&S under the entries of the Latin terms mentioned as well as L. Rocci, Vocabolario Greco Italiano, Società Editrice Dante Alighieri, Italia 1978 for the Greek terms.

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THE ROMAN EMPIRE DURING THE SEVERAN DYNASTY ray from the sun. Nothing, however, is estranged from the womb/matrix from which it draws its own properties. So the trinity, flowing from the Father through concerted and connected degrees, obstructs nothing of the monarchy and protects the state of the economy.39

So, to recapitulate what Tertullian expostulates here and elsewhere as already has been seen, the trinity is derived “out of the oneness/unity of substance” (ex substantiae unitate), which is the eternal deity, and the three persons therein are coeternal and coequal “prolations” () one of the other, each of which functions together with the others as the “guardian” (custos) of the “sacrament of the economy” (sacramentum oikonomiae), which dynamics are mutually and eternally reciprocated, and so “obstructs nothing of the monarchy” (monarchiae nihil obstrepit). This last remark almost seems to imply that he delicately may be attempting to assuage any imperial fears that an emperor’s imperium should or even rationally could in any way be threatened by the Christian cult as presented by Tertullian. Seneca asserts that “whatever is a part having been born in any other thing has oneness/unity. For nothing is born with39 «Haec erit  veritatis, custos unitatis, qua prolatum dicimus Filium a Patre sed non separatum. Protulit enim Deus sermonem, quemadmodum etiam Paracletus docet, sicut radix fruticem et fons fluvium et sol radium. Nam et istae species  sunt earum substantiarum ex quibus prodeunt. Nec dubitaverim Filium dicere et radicis fruticem et fontis fluvium et solis radium, quia omnis origo parens est et omne quod ex origine profertur progenies est, multo magis sermo Dei qui etiam proprie nomen Filii accepit. Nec frutex tamen a radice nec fluvius a fonte nec radius a sole discernitur, sicut nec a Deo sermo. Igitur secundum horum exemplorum formam profiteor me duos dicere: Deum et sermonem eius, Patrem et Filium ipsius. Nam et radix et frutex duae res sunt, sed coniunctae; et fons et flumen duae formae sunt, sed cohaerentes. Omne quod prodit ex aliquo, secundum sit eius necesse est de quo prodit, non ideo tamen est separatum. Secundus autem ubi est, duo sunt et tertius ubi est, tres sunt. Tertius enim est Spiritus a Deo et Filio sicut tertius a radice fructus ex frutice et tertius a fonte rivus ex flumine et tertius a sole apex ex radio. Nihil tamen a matrice alienatur a qua proprietates suas ducit. Ita trinitas per concertos et connexos gradus a Patre decurrens et monarchiae nihil obstrepit et oikonomiae statum protegit» in Tertullianus, «Adversus Praxean», VIII.4–7, in CCL: II Tertulliani Opera Pars II, Brepols 1954, 1167–1168.

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out oneness/unity.”40 What is literally pivotal to understanding this whole process for Tertullian, however, and what often is underestimated by scholars of Roman law and overlooked by patristic scholars and theologians, is that Tertullian explicitly identifies “prolation” and “sacrament of the economy” with origo “because every origin is a parent (omnis origo parens est) and everything which is brought forth out of the origin is progeny (omne…ex origine…progenies est).”

ROME’S HUMAN AND DIVINE NATURES, MINISTERS, AND MINISTRY IN TERTULLIAN AND ULPIAN Perhaps the easiest way to understand Tertullian’s thought in the context of the Zeitgeist at the turn of the third century is to hypothesize how such may have been perceived by Ulpian through the prism of twelve interconnected Latin concepts already discussed and here arranged in four dialectical paradigms: 1) Rome’s “human” nature: sacrum, religio, cultus; 2) Rome’s “divine” nature: lex, ius, ratio; 3) Rome’s “human” ministers and ministry: sacerdos, sacramentum, oikonomia; 4) Rome’s “divine” ministers and ministry: origo, unitas, and vinculum. The first three groups would have been both comprehended and agreed upon by Tertullian and Ulpian, at least from Tertullian’s perspective. The fourth group, while undoubtedly being understood by both jurists, probably would have aroused heated debate between Tertullian and Ulpian – and then again maybe not. First, how did Rome conceive its own “human” nature? Eternal Rome is “sacred”, “head of the world” (caput mundi), and identical with the res publica, i.e. her senate and people (Senatus Populus Que Romanus), so much so that Seneca warns “take away this society (hanc societatem) and you rend asunder (scindes) the oneness/unity of the human race (unitatem generis humani).” Consequently, Roman “religion” is nothing more and nothing less than the organized “worship” (adoratio) of the state, S.P.Q.R., Roma aeterna. Rome’s preeminent “cult” is that which most 40 “Habet autem unitatem quicquid alicuius rei nativa pars est. Nihil enim nascitur sine unitate” in Seneca, Naturales quaestiones, II,4,2 in E. H. Wharmington et. al., ed., Loeb: Seneca, “Naturales Quaestiones”, I, Harvard University Press, Cambridge – London 1971, 104.

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practically enables and fosters adoration of the S.P.Q.R., which ever since the seizure of Rome’s “full power” (imperium) by Julius Caesar in 63BCE remains entrusted to the hands of one imperator, the first one among “equals” (primus inter pares) beginning with Caesar’s adopted son Augustus Octavianus (emp. 27BCE–14CE) charged with serving that empire and would remain so forever after, transforming the state cult into the imperial cult and identifying the one with the other. The imperial cult especially in the West fostered “unity and loyalty; by indicating powerful protectors and by imposing shrines on towns in prominent settings, the State could reinforce a centralized urban organization.”41 Ulpian and, hence, the Severan dynasty were adverse “to any tendency to seek private salvation rather than to shoulder public responsibility.”42 While such remained theoretically unproblematic, Severus’ general supplicatio of 202 posed problems for both the state as well as a variety of cults that for one reason or another would not acquiesce. Two latent problems emerged both for the state: 1) less than twenty years after the great fire of Rome in July of 64CE for which Nero claimed the Christians responsible and subsequently had them executed for the crime of arson in November of the same year, the Emperor Domitian, who assumed the appellations “deus et dominus” for himself, accused the group of the “crime of majesty having been violated” (crimen laesae maiestatis) and “atheism” () – reminiscent of the cult of Bacchus/Dionysus against which the state enacted legislation outlawing their bacchanalia due to a perceived disruption of public order in 186BCE;43 2) the Christians’ refusal to participate in Severus’ supplicatio and, hence, the imperial cult only confirmed longstanding negative impressions of the group as being not only irreligious and a potential threat to public order, but now demonstrating an unpatriotic if not hostile attitude towards the state and, hence, a lack of “loyalty” (fides) and an obstacle to “oneness/unity” (unitas); as well as 41

N. Christie, The Fall of the Western Roman Empire: an Archaeological and Historical Perspective, 162. 42 Honoré, op. cit., 83. 43 Cf. H. Drobner, Patrologia, op. cit., 156–157; 237–241; and K. Baus, Von der Urgemeinde zur frühchristlichen Grosskirche, Band 1, in Handbuch der Kirchengeschichte, H. Jedin, ed., Verlag Herder KG, Freiburg im Breisgau, 1962; Italian translation, Le Origini, vol. 1, in Storia della Chiesa, E. Guerriero, ed., Edizione Jaca Book SpA., Milano, 2002, 164–177; 282–294.

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for the Christians, whose problems were not only the possibility of exile, imprisonment, torture, or even death, but: 1) even less of a possibility that the state might recognize their cult as a religio licita; and 2) upheavals within Christian communities as to whether or not the lapsi (“those having lapsed” by having acquiesced to the supplicatio and, hence, having committed “idolatry” (idolatria), a sin that effected de facto excommunication from the “assembly” (ecclesia) and incited those communities especially in places like North Africa to engage openly in conflict with one another, becoming a nuisance to public order and, hence, returning to the previous first point of problems for the state and an endless cycle. Nevertheless, the sacred-religion-cult dynamic occurred as it always had for non-Christian Romans, i.e. through Rome’s human cultural customs (consuetudines) and traditional habits (mores) based on her divine nature. For Tertullian such was based likewise on Rome’s, i.e. the “human race’s” as described by Seneca, divine nature: unitas for Seneca and the adorable one Trinitarian god completely incarnate in the one Christ for Tertullian. Second, how did Rome perceive her “divine” nature? The primary anthropological qualification for any civilization ever having appeared on earth to be recognized as “advanced” is to boast of at least one unique contribution to every other civilization that has followed. Hamurabi’s Code, the Semitic lex talonis (“law of the talon”, a.k.a. “eye for an eye”), and other forms of that which the Romans called the ius gentium (“law of the nations”) can only cringe before Rome’s corpus iuris civilis, (“body of civil law”), which forms the basis of and continues to guide not only the two main branches of law in the West known as European “civil” and Anglo-American “common” and “constitutional” law, but provides the basic jurisprudential hermeneutic and legal language in an increasingly globalized world. “A law” (lex) under Roman jurisprudence is “justified” only insofar as it is derived from “the Law” (ius), which is derived from and, hence, identical with “justice” (iustitia) or, as Ulpian remarks in his Institutiones, “It behooves to be knowledgeable [of] the work [that] will have been given to the Law, whence the name of Law descends, however has been named [as such] from Justice.”44 Moreover, referencing Celsus a 44

“Iuri operam daturum prius nosse oportet, unde nomen iuris descendat, est autem a iustitia appellatum”, in Honoré, op. cit., 76.

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century earlier, Ulpian asserts that ius is the “art of the good and the equal/equitable.”45 While philosophers theoretically probe such abstract concepts, the lawyer’s vocation is similar to the medical physician’s in reconciling the theoretical metaphysic with practically applying it to the human existential experience. Ulpian maintains, as does his contemporary Galen, that a good lawyer like a good doctor necessarily must possess knowledge of philosophy and have a “theoretical background. A good doctor embraces logic and reason. He renounces superstition and despises money.”46 “Legal opinion” or “judgment” (sententia) is that which is in accord with benignum (“the good”), aequitas (“the equitable”), and ratio.47 Ratio, which is equal to auctoritas (“authority”), is that which ultimately grounds ius and, hence, lex, and is accessible to the human intellect.48 Moreover, while any philosophy or religion that promotes such notions may not be a “sham”, no one philosophy or religion per se can be considered “rationally” or “logically” superior to such ratio as “reason” is that which grounds a priori (!) any consequential creed. Ironically, only one ancient “philosophy”, which rejected “religion” per se as an ultimate end or unique means to that end at the turn of the third century, did in fact adhere to such principles: Stoicism. Both Ulpian’s and Tertullian’s thought, much like Seneca’s and the vast majority of Roman Latin intellectuals as opposed to their Greek counterparts, is influenced profoundly by Stoicism.49 Neo-Platonic notions of logos, nous, monads, and an endless procession of emanations would lead any Stoic sympathizer if not adherent to exclaim, as does Tertullian in his Adversus Valentinianos discussed earlier, “What difference?! Union and Unitas and Singularity and Being Alone, wherever you will have assigned [the meaning], it is [still] one thing only (unum).” While “Stoics respected the gods and the numinous, …Stoicism was not a religion,” nor did they have to “embrace any of the competing religions.”50 Upholding such Stoic ideals Ulpian maintains that all are free to 45

“Ius est ars boni et aequi”, in Honoré, op. cit., 76–77. N.B. – This Celsus is not the same as that to whom has been referred earlier in this article. 46 Honoré, op. cit., 76–77. 47 Honoré, op. cit., 54.78. 48 Honoré, op. cit., 21.80. 49 Honoré, op. cit., 80–82. 50 Honoré, op. cit., 83.

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enter and adhere to any religious cult “which has been sworn by [one’s] own superstition” as long as such is not an “illicit oath [that] will have been taken especially of a publicly unapproved religion.”51 Characterizing Ulpian or even Tertullian as “Stoics” would in principle at least minimize their persons and their motivations as jurists of Roman law, who “are not members of this or that school of philosophy” but rather thinkers with a rational and, hence, eclectic “set of values.”52 What guided Roman jurists like Ulpian was a practical approach to equitably and justly determining legal solutions in respect of human dignity (dignitas), mutually reciprocated equality (aequitas), and freedom (libertas) based not on philosophy per se and certainly not on divine revelation through adherence to any particular religious cult but on ratio.53 Following a long Stoic tradition of Latin Romans like Cicero, Seneca, and Marcus Aurelius (emp. 160–181), Ulpian’s ideology conceives that: as humans are by nature born free and equal they ultimately should reflect that and live according to nature; nature’s precepts are accessible to human reason; “humans form a community and relate to one another and to the gods” through ratio; subsequently, ius is “common to all” humans, who live in a kosmopolis, and is “sovereign over all things divine and human…[and] should preside over the good and the bad alike and be the criterion of what is just and unjust…the leader and ruler of those called by nature to live in society, prescribing to them what is to be done and what avoided.”54 The notion of law’s sovereignty derives from Chrysippus, Stoicism’s second “founder” following Zeno.55 The city of Rome’s first Christian Latin author, M. Minucius Felix (c.200–240), asserts that both of these Stoics ultimately “returned unto the oneness/unity of providence.”56 Consequently, and as has been seen earlier, Tertullian bases all of his argumentation on the notion of and even peppers his discussions with the term “ratio” 51 “illicitum iusiurandum…scilicet improbatae publice religionis” in Honoré, op. cit., 83. 52 Honoré, op. cit., 80. 53 Honoré, op. cit., 76–93. 54 Honoré, op. cit., 80–81. 55 Honoré, op. cit., 81. 56 “ad unitatem providentiae” in M. Minucius Felix, “Octavius”, 19 in F. Solinas, ed., Marco Minucio Felice: Ottavio, Arnoldo Mondadori Editore, Milano 1992, 82.

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identifying the Christian Trinitarian god incarnate in the Christ as deriving from the lex and dei de originis auctoritate (“from the authority of the origin of god”). Such may or not have meant much for Greek neoPlatonist Christians (semi-Gnostics?) like Origen of Alexandria, a probable one-time guest of the Severans, but may have raised the eyebrows of Latin intellectuals and Roman jurists like Ulpian. Third, if such be the “human” and “divine” natures of Rome then how did those in Ulpian’s position regard themselves as “ministers” and their “ministry”, i.e. as public servants in service to the state? Three terms in particular that Tertullian uses hold great importance within Roman law and religion: sacerdos, sacramentum, and oikonomia. Patristic scholars and theologians to this day do not seem to emphasize the full import of Tertullian’s usage of sacramentum in his doctrinal expositions of Christian theology, limiting the term’s significance to Tertullian’s Latin translation of the Greek “equivalent” mysterion (mystery) or even the Aramaic/Hebrew “ôt” (prophetic sign/action). Moreover, these same scholars practically have introduced within their own disciplines and taken for granted the notion that the ante-Nicene Latin Christian authors’ usage of the Latin term sacerdos is merely a nascent and undeveloped if not a confused distinction between two very distinct roles within the Christian cult, i.e. priest (sacerdos) and bishop (episcopus). That such remains the status quo among such scholars is a mystery if not a sign itself, but as any scholar of Roman law knows sacramentum as the initiation and subsequent adherence to any cultus recognized by Roman law as a religio licita, and the sacerdos as the arbiter of that process, lead to the third related term “oikonomia,” a simple Greek word loaded with meaning for Roman jurists like Ulpian and employed by Tertullian in his exposition of the Christian Trinity. For Ulpian “public law combines religion with service to the state. It is concerned with sacred things, priests, and magistrates.”57 If that be so and if ratio, from which is derived ius and by which humans have knowledge of ius, and ius is superior to and authorizes the legitimacy of religio, then could it not follow logically that such a ministry’s minister is a sacerdos (“priest”)? Ulpian himself draws the logical conclusions “by the merit of which [aforementioned premises that law and its exercise in 57

Honoré, op. cit., 83.

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service to the state are sacred things] names us priests.”58 Such a concept is not unique to Ulpian and finds precedent in the same Gellius mentioned earlier referring to “the judge (iudex), who is justice’s chief high priest (antistites).”59 Even Cicero declares in the first century BCE that “we [lawyers] worship justice.”60 Ulpian maintains not only that while teachers of law like those of philosophy may accept offerings they should not solicit tuition fees from students, but that a payment is incumbent upon one’s initiation or “on entrance of the sacrament” (in ingressu sacramenti). Ulpian offers directives to provincial governors trying to deal with such claims. “Wherefore they certainly will not say to professors of civil law [that] law [i.e.] civil wisdom is indeed the holiest thing, which be not a thing needing to be valued nor needing to be dishonest with a quantifiable price, but in judgment while an honorarium [i.e. offering] may be requested, which must be offered upon entrance of the sacrament. For both indeed may be accepted honestly, but dishonestly [if] requested.”61 Three notions become immediately clear: 1) a judge, a lawyer, and a magistrate is a “priest” (sacerdos) if not a “chief high priest” (antistites); 2) “entrance” (ingressu) into such a sacred ministry warrants for a novice aspirant an initiatory legally sworn oath, or “sacrament” (sacramentum); 3) while an “entrance fee” is required already under Roman law and law students’ “offerings” may be accepted legally by their professors, teachers’ solicitation of such fees is illicit. This last point should not instill fear as such law professors already have made or are continuing to make considerable profit through the actual exercise of their profession, but the teaching or “handing down” (traditio) of the ius, i.e. that “holiest civil wisdom” (sanctissima civilis sapientia) is sacred and, hence, not “with a quantifiable price (pretio nummario).” Ratio demonstrates that because this is simply how the system works based on the most rational, equitable, liberal, and, hence, sacred principles – at least in principle – everyone’s 58

“Cuius merito quis nos sacerdotes appellet” as in Honoré, op. cit., 76. “iudicem, qui iustitiae antistites est” as in Honoré, op. cit., 83. 60 “iustitiam colimus” as in Honoré, op. cit., 84. 61 “Proinde ne iuris quidem civilis professoribus ius dicent est quidem res sanctissima civilis sapientia, sed quae praetio nummario non sit aestimanda nec dehonestanda, dum in iudicio honor petitur, qui in ingressu sacramenti offerri debuit. Quaedam enim tametsi honeste accipiantur, inhoneste tamen petuntur” as in Honoré, op. cit., 77. 59

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dignity is respected as all the state’s “ministers” will be remunerated for their services rendered at the day’s end, sicut erat in principio et nunc et semper et in saecula saeculorum sic oikonomia, Stulte, est (“as it was in the beginning, [is] now, and [will be] always into the ages of ages since it’s the economy, stupid”)! While Tertullian never mentions the licit or illicit solicitation of fees for entrance into the Christian cult through the sacramentum baptismae (“sacrament of baptism”), he not only introduces the phrase for the first time in extant Christian Latin literature but identifies this sacrament as the unique legitimate mechanism whereby an aspirant becomes de facto a deified human member of the one Trinitarian god in that deity’s incarnation in the one Christ. Likewise the Christian human sacerdos, himself already deified by virtue of his own baptism, is the only lawful minister charged with effecting other baptisms and, hence, introducing other deified humans into the Christian ecclesia (“assembly”) in the midst of the societas of the imperial S.P.Q.R. The “economy” of such a system’s inner-workings cannot but be at the very least an explicit reflection of if not an implicit participation in the one Trinitarian god’s own sacramentum oikonomiae. The “oneness/unity” (unitas) of such a human assembly in an alliance (foedere) of hope professing “loyalty” (fides) to their one Trinitarian god’s “oneness/unity of substance” (unitas substantiae), which promises resurrection and eternal life to its devotees, could not but potentially attract other aspirants if not raise the eyebrows let alone fears of Roman authorities and who for them like Ulpian. Under the guise of the emperor Caracalla and following the only logical conclusions proposed by Roman Latin, Stoic, or at least Ulpian’s understanding of the principles advanced by the aforementioned premises of ratio and ius in the context of the S.P.Q.R., the Tyrian-born Roman citizen and jurist enacted the only rational if not just and equitable response to the crisis that was dawning on the empire at the turn of the third century. The Constitutio Antoniniana of 212 forever altered Rome’s economic, ideological, legal, religious, and sociological dynamics not through the legal, philosophical, religious, sophistic, or theological semantic manipulation of the term origo, but through the only avenue afforded by such developments. Rome’s ius civile would replace the rest of the world’s ius gentium, and this occurred precisely via the simple identification if not obvious and only logical conclusion of one’s native birthplace within the empire’s confines being concomitant to one’s origo within the Roman Empire itself, consequently annulling the legal ramifications of “local citizenship” by supplanting it with Roman citizenship. In other words,

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one’s birth within the Roman Empire, parens of its progeny, guarantees its offspring’s birthright, i.e. Roman citizenship and both the privileges and obligations such entails and, hence, the fourth and final dialectical paradigm regarding Rome’s divine nature, ministers, and ministries: origo, vinculum, and unitas. Ratio demanded that Ulpian acknowledge the ramifications of the extension of Roman citizenship to all freeborn within the confines of the empire, the only logical consequence of which was the supplanting of countless “local” citizenships and many origins with the one Roman citizenship and the identification of such with one origo in the one societas of the S.P.Q.R., i.e. Roma aeterna, which society, as Seneca asserts, is the “oneness/unity of the human race”. Ulpian probably would have paid no attention to first century CE Christian scriptures of the apostolic age and particularly those which would later be recognized as the only canonical and, hence, divinely inspired word of god (a.k.a. the “new testament”). He may have been familiar, however, not only with Seneca’s explanation of the formation of the earth’s waters “from the first day of the world, when it separated out of formless oneness/unity into this state, when it was decreed earthly things are immersed,”62 but the latter’s ponderings “if the image (imago) be real; for this, which has brought forth for instance out of which copy, has impressed its form with all things, so that those things come together into a oneness/unity.”63 While Seneca was obviously not a Christian, such statements easily could seem to contain latent implications of notions not only of the cosmos’ “creation” from oneness/unity but of the “incarnation” of unitas in that very creation. Tertullian advocates not only that the one Trinitarian god is responsible for creation and that same god is incarnate in Christ, but he explains this us-

62 “a primo die mundi, cum in hunc habitum ex informi unitate discederet, quando mergerentur terrena decretum est” in Seneca, Naturales quaestiones, III,30,1 in E. H. Wharmington et. al., ed., Loeb: Seneca, “Naturales Quaestiones”, I, Harvard University Press, Cambridge – London 1971, 292. 63 “si imago vera sit; haec enim omnibus, quae ex quo velut exemplari traxit, formam suam impressit, ut in unitatem illa conpetant” in Seneca, Ad Lucilium epistulae morales, LXXXIV,8 in E.H. Wharmington et. al., ed., Loeb: Seneca, “Epistulae Morales II: Books LXVI–XCII”, V, Harvard University Press, Cambridge – London 1970, 280.

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ing diction and syntax if not “imagery” reminiscent of Seneca’s aforementioned observations. Because the Son, the second person, the Word of him [i.e. god], was adhering already to him, and the third, the Spirit in the Word, therefore he declared plurally let us make and our and us. For because with these was he making man and with these was he making the likeness, with the Son, who indeed was that to be put on man, with the Spirit certainly who was to be sanctifying man, he was speaking out of the oneness/unity of the trinity (ex unitate trinitatis) as with ministers and arbiters (cum ministris et arbitris). Then the following scripture distinguishes among persons: “ God man, unto the image of God (ad imaginem dei) he made him.” Therefore, if Christ is the Spirit of the fatherly person, by merit was he the Spirit the person of whom, that is of the Father, the face of him, declared his own out of the oneness/unity indeed. Plainly an astonishing thing, that the face of the Son can be accepted [to be] the Father, who is the head of him: for “the head of Christ [is] God.”64

Caracalla’s (Ulpian’s?) Constitutio Antoniniana, prepared by Rome’s sacred ministers including lawyers, jurists, arbiters, and judges that are identified by Ulpian as priests (sacerdotes) in their service to the state through the equitable and just formulation of a law (lex) and its practical application based on a theoretical understanding of the Law (ius) as derived from reason (ratio), guarantees that the cosmopolitan society of eternally sacred Rome, “head of the world” (caput mundi) and which, like everything in the cosmos, is born from oneness/unity intra se and identi64

“quia iam adhaerebat illi Filius secunda persona, sermo ipsius et tertia, Spiritus in sermone, ideo pluraliter pronuntiavit faciamus et nostram et nobis. Cum quibus enim faciebat hominem et quibus faciebat similem, Filio quidem qui erat induiturus hominem, Spiritu vero qui erat sanctificaturus hominem, quasi cum ministris et arbitris ex unitate trinitatis loquebatur. Denique sequens scriptura distinguit inter personas: ‘ Deus hominem, ad imaginem Dei fecit illum.’ Ergo si Christus personae paternae spiritus est, merito Spiritus cuius persona erat, id est Patris, eius faciem, suam, ex unitate scilicet, pronuntiavit. Mira res plane, an facies Filii Pater accipi posit, qui est caput eius: “caput” enim “Christi Deus”” in Tertullianus, “Adversus Praxean”, XII.1–4, in CCL: II Tertulliani Opera Pars II, Brepols 1954, 1172–1173.1178.

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cal to the unitas of the human race, can only logically and necessarily apply to all within the Roman Empire by virtue of one common origo, the oneness/unity of Rome itself. Tertullian’s various legal motions based on ratio and elaborated on the eve of that constitution’s promulgation in 212 suggest that unitas derives out of itself the coequal and coeternal trinity, the three ministers and arbiters of which are not separated but distributed, share the same origo, and are both the guardians of the way the whole process works, i.e. the economy, as well as the only sacramental entrance into that process (sacramentum oikonomia). The unitas of the Christian assembly (ecclesia) not only reflects but becomes deified by entering Trinitarian unitas through the sacrament of baptism (sacramentum baptismae) licitly administered only by the sacerdos, during which one is “buried” ( in Greek) while simultaneously through which process Trinitarian unitas is “put on humanity” (induiturus hominem) because that same deity is incarnate in the one Christ by virtue of one common origo: the oneness/unity of the Trinitarian god who is the “head of Christ” (caput Christi). The similarities between the non-Christian authors’ and Tertullian’s use of the term unitas are almost as striking as the latter’s employment of the same term in the context of origo. Yet, Tertullian almost seems to avoid deliberately the term vinculum choosing instead the seemingly more innocuous “sacramentum oikonomiae”. Was his editorial decision merely due to the profoundly meaningful import in such a logically loaded turn of phrase, or was Tertullian, consciously concerned about the potential ramifications of such diction not only for public relations with Roman authorities but even for relations among communities within the Christian ecclesia itself, invoking poetic license? Pliny demonstrates a vinculum to be better and salutary for grafting trees, but Seneca’s already disturbing identification of the term with the imperator, who is the Pontifex Maximus, as indispensible and salvific for the unitas of the res pubblica could have binding repercussions. It is one thing to identify the divine, eternal, equitable, good, just, rational, and omnipotent “one thing only” (unum) with the unitas of the human race; quite another to identify such a deity with “one alone” (unus) such as an imperator.

ORIGO UNITATIS: OUT OF AFRICA Constantine entrusted his son Crispus, whom the former eventually had assassinated, to the tutelage of another North-African Christian, Lactan-

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tius, who penned the following a century after the promulgation of the Constitutio Antoniniana, 250 years following and reminiscent of if not strikingly similar to the aforementioned exhortation of Seneca to his own emperor and arbiter of death, Nero, and immediately after the Edict of Milan in 313. There cannot be in this world, therefore, many rulers, nor many lords in one house, nor many pilots on one ship, nor many leaders in one herd or flock, nor many kings in one swarm, but neither can there certainly be many suns in heaven, so too neither many souls in one body: 65 thus the natural universe harmonizes into oneness/unity. But one who follows reason understands the Lord unable to be any less than one thing only nor the Father other than one thing only. For if God, who formed all things, is the same Lord and the same Father, that there be one alone is unavoidable, that the same head and the same source of things be he. Nor can another constitute the sum of things, unless all things be returned unto one thing only, unless one alone hold the helm, unless one alone guide the reins and rule the collective members as one mind. If there be many kings of the bees in a swarm, they will perish and be dispersed, while with kings the great discord began with insurrection; if many leaders in the herd, they will long do battle, then one alone prevail; if many emperors in the army, they will not have been able to be esteemed equal by the infantry, because contrary things are commanded, nor oneness/unity obtained by these same ones themselves, because whoever it be will consider himself instead of the dead.66

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“non possunt igitur in hoc mundo multi esse rectores nec in una domo multi domini nec in navi una multi gubernatores nec in armento aut grege, duces multi nec in uno examine multi reges, sed ne in caelum multi soles esse poterunt, sicut nec animae plures in uno corpore: adeo in unitatem natura universa consentit” in Lactantius, “De ira dei”, XI.4 in S. Brandt, ed., CSEL: L. Caeli Firmiani Lactanti Opera Omnia, XXVII, Bibliopola Accademiae Litterarum Caesareae Vindobonensis, Vienna 1893, 95. 66 “Sed qui rationem sequetur, intelleget nec dominum esse posse nisi unum nec patrem nisi unum. Nam si deus, qui omnia condidit, et idem dominus et idem pater est, unus sit necesse est, ut idem sit caput idemque fons rerum. Nec potest

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A century earlier the Roman jurist Tertullian legally and rationally attempted to demonstrate the Christian god not only to not pose any threat to the state but to be that religious cult most adapted to the ideals of the S.P.Q.R. What Tertullian began would be completed by Cyprian of Carthage near the height of the Roman Empire’s third century crisis and less than twenty years after the end of the Severan dynasty following the demise of Alexander Severus in 235. A century and a half before Roman Latin elites like Ambrose would be “elected” Christian bishops and just two years after his own initiation into the Christian cult through the sacramentum baptismae in 246CE, the formerly affluent and highly successful legal bureaucrat and rhetor/orator was elected bishop of Carthage. Cyprian composed 65 letters of correspondence and several treatises on Christian doctrine in less than ten years between the second (Decius 249– 251CE) and third (Valerian 257–260CE) general supplicationes. His De ecclesiae catholicae unitate (“Concerning the oneness/unity of the universal assembly”) is the first ecclesiological treatise composed in either Latin or Greek extant literature and has been the subject of controversy among philologists and protestant, orthodox, and catholic theologians for centuries due to textual irregularities and misunderstandings of the significance Cyprian affords the bishop of Rome. Cyprian thoroughly applies his “master” (magister)67 Tertullian’s Trinitarian understanding of unitas to the nature of the “universal assembly” identifying Christ as the ratio and origo of that unitas. By rationally, logically, but nevertheless fatefully identifying Rome’s sitting episcopus (“bishop”) and successor of Peter as Christ’s earthly vicarius (“vicar”) and the origo, ratio, vinculum, and aliter rerum summa consistere, nisi ad unum cuncta referantur, nisi unus teneat gubernaculums, nisi unus frena moderetur regatque universa membra tamquam mens una. Si multi sint in examine apum reges, peribunt aut dissipabuntur, dum regibus incessit magno discordia motu; si plures in armento duces, tam diu proeliabuntur, donec unus obtineat; si multi in exercitu inperatores, nec pareri poterit a milite, cum diversa iubeantur, nec ab iis ipsis unitas optineri, cum sibi quisque pro moribus consulat” in Lactantius, “Epitome divinarum institutionum”, 2.2–4 in S. Brandt, ed., CSEL: L. Caeli Firmiani Lactanti Opera Omnia, XIX, Bibliopola Accademiae Litterarum Caesareae Vindobonensis, Vienna 1890, 676– 677. 67 Jerome claims that Cyprian referred to Tertullian as his “magister”, cfr. Hieronymus, Ep. LXXXIV,2 (PL 22, 744).

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exordium (“beginning”) of that universal assembly’s unitas, the stage is set for the conflict resolution of the third century crisis in the following century under Constantine (emperor 306/312–337) and Theodosius I (emperor 379/80–395) and what would become the imperial and ecclesial unification through the replacement of pagan cults with the Christian cult, imperial convocations of concilia oikumenica in order to guarantee correct canonical and, hence, juridically binding sententiae or “right opinions” (orthodoxeis), the identification of the Christian-Nicene religio with the ecclesia catholica and the Christian universal assembly with the state, and increasingly divisive and violent power struggles among bishops, between bishops and emperors, and ultimately among bishops, emperors, and popes. There is no extant literary evidence to suggest how Ulpian may have interpreted Tertullian’s thought as presented herein. The non-Christian authors’ notion in point “6)” that “tension within oneness/unity is an essential principle as together they animate the world,” epitomized by Seneca’s observation that “for nothing is ever lest through the oneness/unity of a body having been cohered, because the parts must agree unto tension and confer strengths,”68 resonates with Tertullian’s assertion that “that which he has equated the oneness/unity of our body through many and diverse members to the joining together of the various charisms,…[the Lord] who instructed the apostle concerning love [i.e. dilectio and not caritas] needing to be placed above all charisms which he taught as the principle precept, and Christ: “love the Lord from all heart and all strength and all soul and the one near to you as yourself.”69 In other words, whether under the guise of either Stoic “coherence” (contextus) or Christian “love” (dilectio), “tension” (intentio) remains a fundamental 68

“Numquam enim nisi contexti per unitatem corporis nisus est, cum partes consentire ad intentionem debeant et conferre vires” in Seneca, Naturales quaestiones, II,6,2 in E. H. Wharmington et. al., ed., Loeb: Seneca, “Naturales Quaestiones”, I, Harvard University Press, Cambridge – London 1971, 106,108. 69 “quod corporis nostri per multa et diverrsa membra unitatem charismatum variorum compagini adaequavit, qui de dilectione quoque omnibus charismatibus praeponenda apostolum instruxerit principali praecepto quod probavit et Christus: “diliges dominum de totis praecoribus et totis viribus et tota anima et proximum tibi tamquam te”” in Tertullianus, “Adversus Marcionem”, V.8.9–10, in CCL: I Tertulliani Opera Pars I, Brepols 1954, 687.

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and necessary characteristic of both the cosmos and the human condition. Equally difficult to ascertain is the degree and extent to which the egalitarian and elite Ulpian, imbued with the Roman ideals embodied by the “republican” S.P.Q.R. of which he was the turn of the third century’s greatest proponent, was prepared to compromise such principles in service to the “imperial” state. His pragmatic nature probably would have perceived the advantages of a cult such as the Christian brand proposed by Tertullian as a practical solution to rationally, legally, and effectively securing the unitas and fides of an increasingly ethnically cosmopolitan if not religiously confused society. Moreover, if the imperium of the res pubblica were to remain in the hands of one imperator at least for a while longer, Tertullian’s Christianity offered a remarkably non-threatening if not potentially loyal and unifying albeit imperfect alternative. Tertullian ironically appears decidedly less egalitarian and certainly less imperial if not democratically republican in his final assessment of the Christian assembly as was developed and apparently in full force by the time of his last major contribution to Christian literature composed well into his “Montanist” period. In a work ironically titled “Concerning adultery” Tertullian asserts, “And therefore the assembly will indeed forgive sins, but the assembly of the spirit through a spiritual man, not the number of bishops assembly. For the right and judgment is of the Lord, not of the servant; of God himself, not of the priest.”70 One begins to wonder if Tertullian’s so called “Montanist” period was really anything of the sort. Perhaps he vainly attempted to preserve altruistically the Roman ideal through the Christian religion and vice-versa. Caught between Roman imperial and Christian ecclesial power struggles, Tertullian suggested that one’s incorporation and participation in humanity’s ultimate destiny, unitas, occurs not through a hierarchical structure based on potestas (“power”) but ex unitate trinitatis (“out of the oneness/unity of the trinity”) through the sacramentum oikonomiae, incarnate in the Christ and entrance into which economy – promising deification – occurs through an imitation and participation in that Christ’s earthly life includ70 “Et ideo ecclesia quidem delicta donabit, sed ecclesia spiritus per spiritalem hominem, non ecclesia numerus episcoporum. Domini enim, non famuli est ius et arbitrium; Dei ipsius, non sacerdotis” in Tertullianus, “De pudicitia”, XXI.17, in CCL: II Tertulliani Opera Pars II, Brepols 1954, 1328.

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ing the “sacrament” of burial, or “baptism”. History has demonstrated repeatedly that idealism always underestimates a fundamental characteristic of human nature. In spite of ratio, be it human or divine, “it’s the economy, stupid,” and human beings tend towards contenting themselves with the way things work both here and now and for better or for worse and not the way things potentially could work much less actually do work. While Rome gifted the nations with her own ius, she was the copy if not imago artistically, culturally, and intellectually of every other people she encountered and assimilated. Likewise, the origo of eternal Rome’s unitas and perpetuation as both caput mundi and, hence, caput ecclesiae Christi comes not out of Rome but ex Africa.

REFERENCES ANCIENT SOURCES Gellius, “Noctes Atticae”, in T. E. Page – et al., ed., Loeb: The Attic Nights of Aulus Gellius III (1952). Hieronymus, «Ep. LXXXIV» in J.P. Migne, ed., PL 22 (1845). Lactantius, “De ira dei”, in S. Brandt, ed., CSEL: L. Caeli Firmiani Lactanti Opera Omnia, XXVII, Bibliopola Accademiae Litterarum Caesareae Vindobonensis (1893). __________, “Epitome divinarum institutionum”, in S. Brandt, ed., CSEL: L. Caeli Firmiani Lactanti Opera Omnia, XIX, Bibliopola Accademiae Litterarum Caesareae Vindobonensis (1890). Minucius Felix, “Octavius”, in F. Solinas, ed., Marco Minucio Felice: Ottavio (1992). Plinius, “Naturalis historia”, in E. H. Wharmington et. al., ed., Loeb: Pliny, “Naturalis historia”, II (1947); T.E. Page et. al., ed., Loeb: Pliny, “Naturalis historia”, IV,V,IX,X (1950, 1952). Seneca, “Ad Lucilium epistulae morales” in E.H. Wharmington et. al., ed., Loeb: Seneca: Epistulae Morales II: Books LXVI–XCII, V (1970). ______, “De Beneficiis” in T.E. Page et. al., ed., Loeb: Seneca: Moral Essays III(1958). ______, “De clementia” in E. H. Wharmington et. al., ed., Loeb: Seneca, “Naturales Quaestiones”, I (1971). ______, “Naturales quaestiones”, in E. H. Wharmington et. al., ed., Loeb: Seneca: Naturales Quaestiones I (1971).

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Tertullianus, “Adversus Marcionem”, in A. Gerlo, ed., CCL: I Tertulliani Opera Pars I (1954). ____________, “Adversus Praxean”, in A. Gerlo, ed., CCL: II Tertulliani Opera Pars II (1954). Tertullianus, “Adversus Valentinianos” in A. Gerlo, ed., CCL: I Tertulliani Opera Pars I (1954). ____________, “Apologeticum”, in A. Gerlo, ed., CCL: I Tertulliani Opera Pars I (1954). ____________, “De carne Christi”, in A. Gerlo, ed., CCL: II Tertulliani Opera Pars II (1954). ____________, “De exhortatione castitatis”, in A. Gerlo, ed., CCL: II Tertulliani Opera Pars II (1954). ____________, “De praescriptione haereticorum”, in A. Gerlo, ed., CCL: I Tertulliani Opera Pars I (1954). ____________, “De pudicitia”, in A. Gerlo, ed., CCL: II Tertulliani Opera Pars II (1954). Varro, “De lingua Latina”, in G. Goetz – F. Schoell, ed., M. Terenti Varronis De Lingua Latina Quae Supersunt (1910). CONTEMPORARY SOURCES Baus, K., Von der Urgemeinde zur frühchristlichen Grosskirche, Band 1, in Handbuch der Kirchengeschichte, H. Jedin, ed., Verlag Herder KG, Freiburg im Breisgau, 1962; Italian translation, Le Origini, vol. 1, in Storia della Chiesa, E. Guerriero, ed. (2002). Christie, N., The Fall of the Western Roman Empire: an Archaeological and Historical Perspective (2010). Drobner, H., Lehrbuch der Patrologie, Verlag Herder, Freiburg – Basel – Wien 1994; Italian trans., Patrologia (1998). Honoré, T., Ulpian: Pioneer of Human Rights (2002). Quasten, J., Patrology II: the Ante-Nicene Literature after Irenaeus (1953). Walters, E.T., Unitas in Latin Antiquity: Four Centuries of Continuity (2011).

LA GALLIA MOSELLANA N E L L’ E T À D E I S E V E R I : IL CASO DEL VICUS DI BLIESBRUCK Jean-Paul Petit (Parc Archeologique Européen de Bliesbruck-Reinheim) and

Sara Santoro (Università Gabriele d’Annunzio)

UN MODELLO INTERPRETATIVO IN DISCUSSIONE: LA CRISI DELLE GALLIE NELL’ETA DEI SEVERI Gli studi sulla Gallia raramente prendono in considerazione l’età severiana in quanto tale. Albert Grenier, il grande archeologo della Gallia, includeva quest’epoca in quella che egli chiamava, cento anni fa, la decadenza dell’impero (Grenier 1906). Ancora di recente, nel 2005, Alain Ferdière, nel suo bilancio sulle Gallie, tratta l’età severiana nel capitolo intitolato “Un secolo di crisi” (Ferdière 2005). In generale, essa viene vista come « une période transitoire, riche en innovations et en transformations, et annonciatrice de changements profonds ». In una visione più ampiamente diacronica, R. Bedon1 identifica un lungo periodo unitario di 1

Bedon 2001, 25: « L’impression que dégage l’époque est celle d’une progression générale vers plus de monumentalité, de commodité et de confort pour les habitants….. »

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sviluppo in Gallia, dai Flavi ai Severi compresi, caratterizzato da un aumento costante della monumentalità e del benessere degli abitanti. Le difficoltà di riconoscere l’età severiana come un periodo dotato di proprie caratteristiche e marcato da un trend di sviluppo dipendono in gran parte dal peso della storiografia che ha sempre riconosciuto come l’età d’oro delle province galliche il regno degli Antonini, enfatizzando e generalizzando le difficoltà politiche che toccarono l’impero, ed in particolare le Gallie, alla fine di questa dinastia. I regni di Marco Aurelio e di Commodo furono certamente segnati dalla pressione dei barbari sul Danubio e dalle incursioni germaniche nella Gallia Belgica, ma è forse troppo ritenere che subito dopo l’assassinio di quest’ultimo la situazione di instabilità politica avrebbe precipitato queste regioni “dans la décadence économique et le déséquilibre social” così profondamente da coinvolgere in questa visione pessimistica anche il periodo dominato dalla successiva dinastia dei Severi. A. Ferdière, pur non aderendo alla vecchia visione di declino e decadenza espressa da A. Grenier, constata, a partire dal regno di Marco Aurelio, “una certa stagnazione, o meglio un inizio di regressione” nelle province galliche, genericamente intese, in città come in campagna. Occorre, tuttavia, articolare meglio l’interpretazione, sia delle fonti che del dato archeologico, anzitutto in senso spaziale: le Gallie hanno sempre costituito un insieme vastissimo e differenziato, che impedisce di trattarne in modo generale. Qui ci si limiterà ai dati archeologici relativi alla Gallia Mosellana, quella parte della Gallia Belgica costituita dalle civitates dei Treviri, dei Mediomatrici e dei Leuqui. Come aveva già riconosciuto Yves Burnand (Burnand 1990, 147– 188), tratteggiando il quadro della civitas Mediomatricorum, il periodo turbolento della fine del II sec. d.C. fu seguito da una incontestabile fase di benessere in età severiana. Quelle turbolenze della fine del II sec. d.C., per di più, non sembrano aver lasciato traccia archeologica evidente, almeno in questa regione. E’ vero che in passato diversi archeologi hanno menzionato strati di distruzione in tutto l’est della Gallia e li hanno datati al 160–170 d.C. o alla fine del II, riprendendo i lavori, all’epoca pionieristici, di J.-J. Hatt (Hatt 1970), che aveva cercato di mostrare l’esistenza di rotture cronologiche nello studio delle stratigrafie sia urbane che rurali. Oggi questa diretta messa in relazione fra dati archeologici, talvolta mal datati o la cui datazione è soggetta a progressiva revisione, e gli avvenimenti storici, tipico di una histoire évenémentielle, appare una spiegazione semplicistica. Cercheremo dunque di dimostrare, attraverso i dati archeologici, come

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questo assunto dell’epoca severiana come di un’epoca di crisi vada rimesso in discussione, almeno per i territori della Gallia nord-orientale e come anzi il primo trentennio del III sec. d.C. corrisponda ad una fioritura economica di quei territori, che si tradusse in una monumentalizzazione anche nei siti minori ed in un concreto miglioramento delle condizioni di vita degli abitanti.

LA CIVITAS MEDIOMATRICORUM NELL’ETA DEI SEVERI La grande città della Mosella fu Treviri. Essa fu dotata di una cinta muraria negli anni 160–180 d.C., certamente in relazione alle pressioni germaniche sul limes e alle difficoltà interne di quell’epoca ma soprattutto come espressione monumentale della potenza economica della città e della ricchezza delle sue élites. Nella costruzione delle mura, non furono utilizzati materiali di reimpiego, come si può constatare invece negli apparati difensivi costruiti più tardi: il loro esteso, articolato percorso sottintende un progetto accurato, unitario, non eseguito sotto la spinta dell’emergenza. Fu probabilmente in questa epoca che Treviri divenne la capitale della Gallia Belgica. Certo la città fu particolarmente fiorente nel primo terzo del III secolo (Heinen 1985), come dimostra il lusso dei monumenti funerari, quale quello dei Secundini di Igel, che danno l’immagine di un ceto mercantile ricco e di commerci fiorenti gestiti dalle élites di Treviri sia verso la Gallia che nelle regioni del Danubio. I sontuosi mosaici delle ville del suo territorio, come quello “dei gladiatori” della villa di Nenning, l’ampiezza e ricchezza stessa delle ville, i ricchi contesti di materiali, la fioritura delle produzioni ceramiche confermano la solidità economica del territorio in quel periodo. La civitas Mediomatricorum viveva nell’orbita di Treviri e beneficiò dello stesso sviluppo, anche se su una scala minore. I dati che concernono il suo capoluogo, Divodurum (Metz), sono ancora insufficienti per misurare chiaramente il miglioramento dell’epoca severiana nell’area urbana, ma è certo che a partire dagli inizi del III sec. d.C. gli insedimenti rurali raggiunsero il loro massimo splendore. E’ il caso delle grandi ville di Liehon e Peltre a sud di Metz, ed anche della sontuosa villa di Reinheim: la ricchezza di queste residenze extraurbane si esprime nelle dimensioni, nella complessità delle planimetrie, nella presenza degli impianti termali, negli apparati decorativi. E’ ancora aperta le discussione sul fatto che questa fioritura si estenda anche agli insediamenti minori, la cui dipendenza dalle ville o dalle città

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resta problematica, ma la cui importanza nel sistema economico e demografico dell’impero in area centro europea è stata dimostrata da innumerevoli scavi, studi e pubblicazioni a partire dal convegno su Les agglomérations secondaires tenuto nel 1994 a Bliesbruck-Reinheim. Sulla fioritura vs. crisi dei vici in Gallia nel III secolo, M. Rorison (Rorison 2001) cita numerosi esempi, piuttosto contraddittori fra loro, senza giungere a delle conclusioni definitive : alcuni vedono il loro apogeo nel II sec. d.C, come per es. Argenton-sur-Creuse, mentre altri lo raggiungono piuttosto nel primo venticinquennio del III, come Bliesbruck. Anche in analisi meno generali, ma limitate a regioni circoscritte, i dati archeologici sono contraddittori: per esempio, nella regione della Côte-d’Or, la crisi del II sec. d.C. è sensibile a Mâlain, dove tuttavia il periodo severiano è segnato da nuove attività edilizie e, pur essendo complessivamente un periodo di recessione economica, si iscrive piuttosto nella linea della continuità che in quella di una rottura con la fase precedente. Ad Alesia, gli scavi non hanno restituito nessuna evidenza dell’impatto sulla vita della città da parte dei torbidi della fine del II secolo e nell’età severiana la città sembra essere stata altrettanto attiva e prospera quanto lo era stata nel secolo precedente (Bénard, Mangin, Goguey, Roussel 1994).

LA FIORITURA SEVERIANA DEL VICUS DI BLIESBRUCK-REINHEIM Fra gli insediamenti minori della Civitas Mediomatricorum, si segnala come eccellente esempio il vicus di Blisebruck che, con la sua fioritura monumentale, confermata dagli scavi recentissimi, mette particolarmente bene in evidenza questo “apogeo” severiano. Il vicus è oggetto di ricerche programmate dal 1985, che hanno portato alla realizzazione di un Parco archeologico europeo, franco-tedesco. Sono stati scavati in maniera estensiva e stratigrafica le terme pubbliche e due quartieri artigianali (quartiere est e quartiere ovest). Dal 2008 è in corso lo scavo del centro pubblico del vicus, in partenariato fra il servizio archeologico del Dipartimento della Mosella e l’Università di ChietiPescara. Il vicus di Bliesbruck si trova nella parte orientale della civitas Mediomatricorum. L’importanza di questa “agglomération secondaire” di carattere certamente urbano e il suo inserimento in un sistema denso di insediamenti minori della stessa natura suggeriscono una revisione dello schema organizzativo tradizionale di quella civitas, incentrato esclusiva-

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mente sulla vallata della Mosella. Bliesbruck era collocato invece su un asse parallelo a questa, corrispondente alle vallate della Sarre e della Blies, in uno spazio geografico proiettato verso le regioni renane e la civitas Trevirorum (Petit, Brunella 2005, 24). Una serie di tumuli di tarda età halstattiana, fra cui la celebre tomba della principessa di Reinheim, indica l’esistenza, fra V e IV sec. a.C. di un popolamento diffuso organizzato in poli principeschi ed in contatto con le culture del Mediterraneo. A questa fase appartengono alcune strutture abitative poco caratterizzate, ai piedi della collina, mentre non è stato ancora trovato l’insediamento tardo lateniano, documentato alla fine del I sec. a.C. da una necropoli (Reinhardt 2010, 213–214) e da un grande santuario (Reinhardt 2010, 250–317). In età romana, la vallata della Blies appare organizzata su più poli insediativi: 1) un vicus dalla struttura propriamente urbana e razionalmente organizzata su un asse viario NS, corrispondente alla strada dipartimentale moderna; 2) adiacente a questo, la grande villa di Reinheim, con una grandissima corte recintata, con costruzioni perimetrali ad intervalli regolari, appartenente a quella tipologia a piano assiale, così diffusa in Gallia (Sarateanu-Müller 2007 e c.s.; Ferdière et al. 2010); 3) alcuni nuclei rurali e forse santuariali, sull’altura di Homeric e nel territorio nord-orientale di questo vasto anfiteatro di colline (Reinhardt 2010, 251–303). Le prospezioni geofisiche e gli scavi sistematici, condotti dal 1990 in poi, consentono di avere un’idea precisa del nucleo principale del vicus e del suo sviluppo storico. L’inizio dell’insediamento strutturato risale al regno di Claudio, ma questa fase iniziale, caratterizzata da costruzioni in legno, è conosciuta solo in modo puntiforme. I più antichi materiali restituiti dalla villa di Reinheim appartengono a questo stesso periodo. Una prima fase di sviluppo, in materiale durevole, corrisponde all’età traianea, quando furono costruite le terme (nella loro prima versione) e i due quartieri artigianali e residenziali. L’apogeo dell’insediamento, ed anche della villa la cui relazione con il vicus è certa ma non in termini di acclarata dipendenza o priorità, corrisponde all’età severiana, senza che si colgano rotture con la fase precedente. In questo periodo, l’ampliamento delle terme pubbliche, la costruzione di un ninfeo monumentale nel centro dello spazio pubblico, di fronte e in asse con quelle e di un grande edificio a pianta basilicale sul lato nord della piazza segnalano un’accelerazione della monumentalizzazione pubblica. Nelle abitazioni private, la costruzione di ambienti sotterranei di stoccaggio e/o soggiorno, di piani superiori e di ambienti riscaldati indica che non si trattò sola-

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mente di fenomeni di evergetismo, imperiale o privato, o di interventi pubblici della comunità locale ma che effettivamente la qualità di vita degli abitanti del vicus era notevolmente migliorata. La crisi, documentata da livelli di distruzione e temporaneo abbandono, si manifesta fra la metà e la seconda metà del III sec. con due differenti episodi di distruzione, uno collocabile al 260 e l’altro al 276 d.C., come si evince tanto dai dati archeologici quanto dal quadro dei rinvenimenti numismatici (Petit 2011, 195); alla fine del III secolo la villa viene quasi completamente abbandonata e l’insediamento evolve in modo differenziato, con l’abbandono di alcuni quartieri ormai in rovina e la trasformazione di altri, che sono abitati fino agli anni 430–440 d.C.

IL CENTRO PUBBLICO NELL’ETA DEI SEVERI Fin dalla fase di età claudia, un asse viario principale, con andamento Nord-Sud, struttura l’insediamento su una lunghezza di circa 800 m ; di qua e di là da esso si articolano due quartieri a vocazione artigianale e commerciale (quartiere est e quartiere ovest), costituiti da costruzioni rettangolari che affacciano sulla strada con il lato corto. Queste costruzioni associano, in un’unica entità edilizia, spazi artigianali, commerciali e residenziali e si prolungano posteriormente in corti, che danno adito a strutture annesse, pozzi, magazzini e depositi. Quello che riteniamo essere il centro dell’insediamento, pur senza averne la certezza (le prospezioni geofisiche rilevano costruzioni allineate di qua e di là della strada ancora per seicento metri verso sud, senza altri spazi vuoti) è caratterizzato da un amplissimo spazio aperto rettangolare, delimitato da edifici su tre lati e dalla strada sul quarto (m 110 x 90): nel III sec. d.C., esso occupa, con gli edifici pubblici che vi si affacciano, circa un ettaro. Su di esso affacciano anzitutto le terme pubbliche, di carattere monumentale, fiancheggiate da un asse di circolazione parallelo alla strada principale, integrate in un complesso che comprende anche due ali di botteghe, con fronte porticato che si allunga verso nord e verso sud; l’insieme costituiva dunque una facciata architettonica unitaria. Le terme (Petit 2000) furono costruite alla fine del I sec. d.C., su precedenti strutture in terra e legno pertinenti alla prima fase del villaggio. Esse erano costituite nella loro prima fase dalla sequenza balneare tradizionale di frigidarium, tepidarium e calidarium, questi due ultimi riscaldati tramite ipocausti; un allineamento di 7 botteghe di uguali dimensioni,

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porticate, si prolungava verso sud e verso nord formando così un lungo fronte di portici. Dietro alle botteghe settentrionali l’ampio cortile (m 20 x 20) della palestra racchiudeva al centro una piscina. Nel corso del II sec. d.C. furono fatte migliorie marginali, come la costruzione di nuove latrine. Alla fine del secolo ebbe luogo invece un’importante trasformazione generale, con moltiplicazione delle stanze riscaldate e degli spazi conviviali, commerciali e di accoglienza: l’ingresso fu completamente ristrutturato con la costruzione di una grande sala rettangolare, che precedeva la sequenza delle sale balneari; il calidarium fu ricostruito ampliandolo. Nella palestra, la piscina fu chiusa e riempita; nella grande corte così ottenuta fu costruita un’edicola o fontana, verso sud, poi sostituita da un’altra grande stanza riscaldata. L’ala sud delle boutiques fu ricostruita. Alla metà del III sec. d.C. la fronte delle terme appare ulteriormente avanzata verso la piazza con la costruzione di due ulteriori grandi sale riscaldate ad ipocausto; l’accesso all’edificio non è più monumentale, da questa parte, verso la piazza, ma probabilmente laterale. Il portico di facciata dell’ala nord delle botteghe viene trasformato in galleria coperta, chiudendo parzialmente gli spazi fra i pilastri; l’ultima delle botteghe riceve un impianto di riscaldamento a ipocausto e la prima, la più vicina al nucleo del complesso termale, ingloba anche il portico e diventa una grande sala anch’essa riscaldata. Le modifiche avvenute in età severiana, dunque, fra la fine del II e la prima metà del III sec. d.C., soprattutto la moltiplicazione delle stanze riscaldate che tuttavia non hanno funzione balneare, sembrano corrispondere ad un cambiamento progressivo della natura del complesso, orientato sempre più ad essere un luogo di conventus e di otium, di discussione, di riposo e di gioco. Nella seconda metà del III secolo, le terme furono oggetto di incendi e distruzioni; fra la fine del III e gli inizi del IV secolo, abbandonata la loro funzione originaria, furono utilizzate come abitazioni e ateliers di bronzisti fino alla metà del IV sec. d.C. e poi furono frequentate episodicamente fino alla fine di quel secolo. I ruderi, che dovevano essere imponenti, furono poi riutilizzati da una casa forte nel XV–XVI sec. Le terme costituivano dunque, soprattutto nel II e III sec. d.C., una facciata urbana unitaria che si apriva su una piazza in cui le prospezioni aeree e geofisiche, ed ora gli scavi, hanno individuato altre costruzioni pubbliche. Nella prima fase dell’insediamento, questo era un amplissimo spazio aperto, in terra battuta o solo parzialmente lastricato, compreso fra l’asse viario generatore dell’insediamento e l’altra strada, ad essa parallela e più prossima al corso del fiume Blies, lungo cui sorgeranno le terme.

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Questa strada gira attorno ad esse, puntando verso ovest e verso il fiume. Al di là di essa, le prospezioni geofisiche indicano la presenza di alcuni grandi recinti quadrati che suggeriscono edifici: l’ipotesi era che si tratasse dell’area santuariale, uno spazio religioso che non poteva certo mancare nell’insediamento, ma gli scavi del 2012 non hanno confermato questa ipotesi, mettendo in luce un’altro quartiere residenziale. In età traianea, quando vengono costruite le terme nella loro prima fase, una serie di percorsi impietrati attraversano e perimetrano la piazza: oltre a quella via già citata che costeggia le terme, altri due viottoli accuratamente pavimentati in pietre partono dall’ingresso del complesso termale con andamento obliquo divergente, verso sud-est e verso nord-est. Al centro della piazza, in uno spazio lastricato, fu costruita una vasca rettangolare, poi racchiusa in un’ edicola rettangolare nel secondo terzo del II sec. d.C. Fra la fine del II e gli inizi del III sec. d.C. vasca ed edicola furono compresi al centro di un monumentale ninfeo in forma di emiciclo, di 12 m di diametro, certamente collegato all’acquedotto che alimentava anche le terme, captando l’acqua dalle colline orientali, ma che non è stato ancora rintracciato. Di questa monumentalizzazione severiana e del suo significato ideologico parla in questa stessa sede, più specificamente, Alice Dazzi. Il ninfeo fu abbandonato poco dopo la metà del III sec. d.C. e progressivamente spogliato degli elementi lapidei maggiori; i suoi muri furono rasati e tutto il materiale recuperato. Secolari, intensi lavori agricoli di quest’area, occupata da orti fino a qualche decennio fa, hanno asportato gli strati relativi alla tarda antichità. Un’altra ala di botteghe allineate con portico frontale chiudeva verso sud la piazza, agli inizi del II sec. d.C.; gli scavi hanno evidenziato che vi avevano sede anche attività artigianali produttive, anche se non si è compreso il ciclo di lavorazione a cui appartenevano i resti rimessi in luce. L’ala di botteghe si concludeva, verso la strada, con un’ultima bottega che, alla fine del II sec. d.C. e agli inizi del III sec. d.C. fu ristrutturata, dotandola di un vano interrato (cave) di stoccaggio, come accade nello stesso periodo in numerose altre case dell’insediamento. La bottega con il suo vano interrato furono utilizzate fino alla fine del III sec.; in seguito, rasati i muri, la cave fu riempita da un potente riporto, ricco di monete di IV secolo soprattutto negli strati superiori, poi sistemato per un’occupazione. Anche qui, tuttavia, gli strati superiori sono stati asportati dai secolari lavori agricoli. Verso nord, in un primo tempo, la piazza si estendeva assai di più, fino ad un edificio rettangolare con portico, che presenta un’ interessante

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planimetria: è composto infatti da due grandi sale identiche (m 15 x 7,50) e due più piccole, simmetricamente disposte. Il modulo della progettazione corrisponde a 50 piedi romani (pes monetalis). Si trattava certamente di un edificio pubblico, ma di funzione per ora ignota, costruito alla fine del I sec. d.C. o agli inizi del II e rimasto in uso fino alla fine di quel secolo, quando fu intenzionalmente rasato per prolungare le ultime due parcelle del quartiere ovest. Nello stesso momento, agli inizi dell’età severiana, parte della piazza da questo lato nord fu occupata dalla costruzione di un grande edificio a pianta basilicale, di 31 x 15,50 m, dunque dalle armoniose proporzioni e impostato sul modulo metrologico del piede romano. Dotato di uno spazio coperto, forse un portico verso la strada, l’edificio, rimesso in luce dagli scavi 2009–2011, presenta fondazioni e basamento (conservato per un’altezza massima di m 0,70) in accurata tecnica edilizia a piccoli conci lapidei rettangolari (petit appareil), allineati in filari regolari di opus vittatum, ben legati da malta bianca tenace. Si tratta del tipo di muratura utilizzata in tutto l’insediamento per gli edifici di migliore qualità. Lo spessore dei muri è di 2 piedi romani (m 0,60). La copertura in laterizi (tegulae ed embrices), era sorretta da 8 colonne, probabilmente anch’esse in legno, poggianti su imponenti basamenti monolitici in gres profondamente calati nel riporto di livellamento interno, reso necessario dalla pendenza del terreno da est a ovest, verso la Blies. Questo riporto era costituito fra l’altro di materiali provenienti dalla distruzione di impianti ad ipocausto e volte, con molta probabilità delle vicine terme, il cui calidarium fu rifatto interamente alla fine del II sec. d.C. L’edificio presentava dunque un impianto di tipo basilicale, a tre navate, di cui quella centrale larga m 8,50 e quelle laterali m 2,80–2,85, con un rapporto di 1 a 3: ancora una volta proporzioni e moduli appartengono chiaramente alla cultura edilizia romana. La distanza fra un sostegno e l’altro, nel senso della lunghezza, era di circa 8 metri, troppo ampia per poter sostenere i muri della parte superiore della navata centrale; la copertura doveva, pertanto essere semplicemente a due falde. L’apertura di accesso, che doveva essere larga circa 2 m, era al centro del lato corto che affacciava sulla strada principale. Un eventuale altro ingresso, sul lato lungo verso la piazza, non è dimostrabile in quanto i muri sono conservati in fondazione contro terra per un’altezza inferiore al livello a cui si sarebbe dovuta trovare l’eventuale soglia. La pavimentazione interna doveva essere un assito legno che poteva essere poggiato sulla risega di fondazione interna che le pareti conservano.

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L’ angolo interno orientale dell’edificio, in facciata, fu sede fin dal principio di attività artigianali o commerciali, costituite da installazioni complesse (in legno e in argilla) che, in breve tempo, richiesero di circoscrivere questo spazio con muri in pietra, trasformandolo in un ambiente quadrangolare, quasi al centro del quale era rimasto comunque il pilastro di sostegno del tetto, in linea con gli altri del corpo della basilica. L’ambiente era suddiviso in due parti da un tramezzo ligneo, di cui resta l’incasso orizzontale: una parte più ristretta, a est, ed una più ampia a ovest, dotata di un focolare realizzato in tegole. Nel corso dei cinquanta o sessant’anni in cui questo ambiente fu utilizzato, il focolare fu rifatto, spostandolo, almeno tre volte, in occasione di rifacimenti del suolo di calpestio. Non si è individuato l’accesso alla stanza. Non sono stati trovati elementi per definire l’attività che vi aveva luogo: una fossa di scarico di cenere, carboni e terra conteneva qualche piccolo scarto di bronzo. Da strati differenti, ma pertinenti alla stessa fase di vita, provengono 16 sfere di ferro di 2–4 cm di diametro ed una di piombo, di tre differenti dimensioni e con valori ponderali in progressione, dai 41,62 grammi ai 147,31, interpretabili come pesi per bilancia da posare su un piatto concavo, come rappresentato in alcuni noti rilievi romani. Il pochissimo materiale ceramico è tutto databile entro il III secolo,2 così come l’unica moneta . L’edificio nel suo complesso sembra essere stato distrutto, probabilmente da un incendio, intorno al 260 d.C. come si ritiene per gran parte degli edifici dell’insediamento rimessi in luce. Seguì una fase di recupero dei materiali (fra cui l’assito ligneo del pavimento) e di avvio del ripristino, ma il cantiere fu interrotto da una nuova, e definitiva, devastazione, probabilmente nel 276 d.C. Dopo questa data, non ci sono tracce di ulteriori occupazioni ma solo di recupero di parte dei materiali crollati. La funzione originariamente prevista per questo edificio, certamente pubblico date le dimensioni imponenti e la localizzazione su uno spazio pubblico, non è chiara: non sono stati trovati elementi atti a definire con certezza le attività che si svolgevano al suo interno. Non sembra trattarsi 2 Ceramica “engobé” a pasta bianca, terra nigra, sigillate e ceramiche tipo Eifel che compongono il tipico “orizzonte Niederbieber”, dal castellum omonimo nella Renania-Palatinato, considerato come esempio delle distruzioni barbariche del 250–260. Vd da ultimo, con le recenti revisioni cronologiche: Heising 2010.

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di un horreum,3 perchè mancano i caratteristici contrafforti delle pareti perimetrali, necessari a reggere il peso di un piano superiore di stoccaggio, e le pareti da sole, con uno spessore di soli due piedi, non sarebbero state sufficientemente robuste. Invece, l’accesso unico dalla strada, stretto e controllabile, sarebbe appropriato a questa funzione, così come il portico di facciata (sempre sulla strada), lastricato, che fu aggiunto forse in un secondo tempo ma sempre nel corso della prima metà del III secolo e che avrebbe consentito di scaricare i carri al coperto. Il pavimento in legno, certamente sollevato rispetto al piano di costruzione come indica la risega di appoggio, è altresì un elemento a favore di questa ipotesi. Planimetrie molto simili, anche se con dimensioni più ridotte, sono note: per esempio, un ampio horreum pertinente ad una villa rustica, nel suburbio settentrionale della città cisalpina di Parma, presenta una pianta davvero molto simile, compreso l’ambiente quadrangolare su uno dei lati corti, ma è dotato dei tipici contrafforti.4 Circa l’ipotesi che questo edificio fosse stato un magazzino pubblico, non risultano casi di vici con presenza attestata di magistrati o funzionari pubblici preposti alla raccolta e stoccaggio di merci destinate all’esercito o all’uso della comunità in horrea publica dell’insediamento stesso. Data la posizione sulla piazza centrale, sembra in effetti più appropriata l’interpretazione come basilica forensis, nel senso di un edificio dove si svolgevano attività diverse, dalle riunioni politiche comunitarie all’esercizio della giustizia e del commercio, ma l’apparato decorativo, tipico di una basilica ed indispensabilmente legato alla sua dignitas, sembra piuttosto modesto. Inoltre, l’unico accesso documentato è piuttosto stretto e collocato in modo inusuale sul lato corto verso la strada anziché sul lato lungo verso la piazza. La presenza di attività artigiana3

A differenza dei magazzini agricoli e di quelli militari, gli horrea publica non sono stati oggetto di studi sistematici dopo l’opera ancora fondamentale Rickman 1971, che tuttavia non prende in considerazione gli insediamenti minori. Le due tipologie fondamentali individuate dall’A. sono il tipo a corridoio e quello a corte centrale. Per una revisione generale sull’argomento vd. Dominguez 2009. 4 Edificio fra via Europa e via Milano. Presenta al suo interno una doppia fila di 8 pilastri quadrati e un ambiente quadrato nell’angolo; l’ingresso è tuttavia al centro del lato lungo e le pareti hanno contrafforti verso l’esterno, in corrispondenza con i pilastri interni. Catarsi Dall’Aglio 1998.

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li/commerciali è congrua con la funzione basilicale: sono noti numerosi casi di botteghe che costituivano un intero lato di questo tipo di edifici (Gros 1994; Cavalieri 2002). Che negli insediamenti minori, oltre che una popolazione talvolta demicamente consistente, fossero presenti anche dei magistrati (magistri vici) preposti alla gestione amministrativa della “piccola città” (per esempio la cura degli incendi e la supervisione dei collegia locali) sia giudiziaria, relativamente a cause di entità minore (sono note vici sententiae in area sabellica dall’età repubblicana), sia soprattutto religiosa ed onoraria, non è più messo in discussione.5 Basiliche in insediamenti di tipo vicano sono note, in alcuni casi, tutti concentrati nella Gallia Narbonnensis, ma spesso non sono ben documentate, in particolare per quanto riguarda le attrezzature ed attività interne, o il loro inserimento urbanistico non è chiaro. Tale è il caso della grandiosa basilica del vicus Lausonnae6 (Vidy, presso Losanna), nel paese degli Helvetii, il cui lato lungo verso la piazza era interamente formato da botteghe di uguale dimensione, aperte verso un portico. Al suo interno, una sola fila di pilastri suddivideva lo spazio in due navate, lasciando un’ area libera verso nord per un possibile tribunal, separata da tre pilastri in sequenza ortogonale rispetto all’asse più lungo dell’edificio. L’accesso era al centro del lato lungo, fra le botteghe. Un altro vicus, quello di Boutae (Annecy- le- Vieux), nel paese degli Allobrogi, dipendente dalla città di Vienne, di fondazione augustea, nonostante le modeste dimensioni (25 ha. in tutto), oltre a presentare un ben organizzato piano urbanistico suddiviso in insulae regolari e uno spazio centrale altrettanto regolare, fu dotato anche di una basilica di 46 x 22 m datata alla seconda metà del II secolo d.C. e menzionata anche da un’iscrizione (CIL XII 2533) come [basi]lica cum p[orticibus ].7 Essa affacciava sulla piazza con il suo lato lungo, mentre il lato opposto all’ingresso era articolato in tre absidi, due semicircolari ed una rettangolare; lo spazio interno era suddiviso in tre navate da colonne che scandivano un corridoio perimetrale rispetto

5

Sul tema, vd. Tarpin 2002, p. 273 passim. Per le misure, che sono differentemente indicate da diversi autori, vd. Cavalieri 2002, p. 72, n. 16. 7 La basilica sarebbe stata dedicata da tal Sex. Caprilius Attcianus a numinibus Augustorum, probabilmente Marco Aurelio e Lucio Vero. Broise 1968, p. 41. 6

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all’aula centrale, secondo una planimetria che appare in assoluto la più diffusa.

MIGLIORIE NEI QUARTIERI OVEST ED EST Di qua e di là dell’asse viario NS, che struttura l’insediamento, le abitazioni/botteghe che ne costituiscono la caratteristica si dispongono con regolarità, senza che tuttavia si possa riconoscere un piano urbanistico realmente ortogonale. Le case, del tipo rettangolare allungato (Streifenhäuser) si affacciano su di essa con il lato corto. Il quartiere ovest, di cui è stata messa in luce e musealizzata una sequenza continua di 14 unità abitative (Petit, Brunella 2005), presenta una prima fase costruttiva intorno agli anni 40–50 d.C., con edifici con struttura in legno e alzato in torchis, ricoperti di intonaci dipinti e tetto in tegole laterizie, divisi fra loro da qualche ambitus (largh. 0,80 m). La semplice struttura iniziale, che vede spazi artigianali sul fronte porticato e focolare nella stanza centrale, si complica progressivamente nel tempo, nel corso del II sec. sec. d.C. con la ricostruzione programmata e realizzata in modo unitario di gruppi di edifici (le parcelle 2–6, della stessa lunghezza di 17 m e di larghezza compresa fra 8 e 10 m) in materiale lapideo, almeno per il piano terreno. La parte anteriore delle case viene articolata in botteghe, aperte su un portico di facciata continuo che affianca la strada e gli spazi abitativi si espandono progressivamente verso il cortile retrostante, fino a trasformarlo in una corte coperta, compresa fra due blocchi costruiti, uno anteriore, con la bottega, ed uno posteriore, con vani di servizio dietro i quali si apre l’hortus, talvolta dotato di pozzorifiutaia. Le attività produttive e/o commerciali che vi si svolgevano sono svariate, dalla lavorazione del bronzo, dell’osso, del ferro, alla produzione ceramica e alimentare (pane, birra, cauponae). La struttura e articolazione del quartiere est ed il suo sviluppo nel tempo sono analoghe a quelle del quartiere ovest e ancor più accentuata è la sua vocazione artigianale, soprattutto di ambito alimentare, come indicano molti forni, focolari e strutture di combustione. Questo quartiere nel III sec. d.C. appare composto da otto parcelle molto allungate, perpendicolari alla strada, separate da stretti ambitus o direttamente contigue. La presenza di un portico di facciata è certa solo nella parcella 1 e in quelle successive a questa verso sud. La parcella 5 si differenzia dalle altre per i suoi caratteri edilizi particolari e per il materiale che ne proviene, fra cui

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aste di stendardi, strumenti musicali, finimenti di cavalcature e servizi ceramici per bere di insolita ricchezza (Petit 2010). A Bliesbruck la fioritura economica nel corso del II sec. e del primo terzo del III sec. d.C. è testimoniata anche, sul piano numismatico, da una considerevole presenza di denari d’argento rinvenuti nel corso degli scavi (Gricourt 2009, 748 e 778), benché le monete appartenenti a questo periodo siano complessivamente in quantità minore rispetto al lungo periodo di crescita regolare che arriva fino al regno di Commodo: ciò dipende anche dal fatto che continuano a circolare i bronzi antoniniani, la cui enorme quantità emessa era sufficiente al commercio minuto.8 Questa fioritura economica corrisponde, sul piano edilizio, all’ estensione dello spazio dedicato, nelle case, alle attività economiche con il raddoppio del portico di facciata e allo spostamento delle funzioni residenziali al piano superiore, nel quartiere ovest. L’eccellente livello abitativo di questa fase è indicato anche dalla presenza quasi costante, al piano terra, di ambienti riscaldati e decorati da intonaci dipinti secondo il gusto delle province centro-europee, destinati probabilmente a molteplici funzioni, da quelle di soggiorno a quelle di piccoli bagni privati. Quasi tutte le case sono dotate di un ambiente sotterraneo (cave), connesso al pianterreno tramite una scala in pietra ampia e ben costruita. La funzione di questi ambienti sotterranei, che costituiscono un fenomeno diffuso nella Gallia settentrionale così come in Germania e in Britannia fra II e prima metà del III sec. d.C., resta piuttosto incerta, a causa della cura con cui sono stati realizzati, probabilmente eccessiva per dei vani di semplice stoccaggio domestico. Questi ambienti sotterranei sono infatti accuratamente realizzati in blocchetti di calcare montati con la tecnica del petit appareil, i cui giunti in malta presentano stilature dipinte in rosso; sono dotati di nicchie voltate, intonacate e dipinte e prese d’aria a bocca di lupo accuratamente realizzate. La presenza, in alcuni di esse, di imponenti tavole rotonde in pietra, dipinte (in rosso, in bianco), rappresentate anche su alcune stele ha fatto ipotizzare un uso recettivo e religioso, anche se quest’ultimo è difficile da dimostrare sulla base dei materiali raccolti, poche statuette isolate, relative a culti domestici, generalmente trovate nei riempimenti di queste cantine successivi al 276 d.C. (Santoro, Mastrobat8

Per una visione cartografica della distribuzione delle monete dal 193 al 260 d.C. vd. Petit 2011, fig. 3, p. 186.

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tista, Petit 2011, 193–199). Non mancano tuttavia confronti in tal senso: ad Alesia, per esempio, in una di queste cantine c’è una raffigurazione dipinta di una mater, a Entrains una statuetta con offerte era collocata in una nicchia, altrettanto a Châtelet (Haute-Marne), e a Montbouy (Loiret). Il confronto più stringente è con lo straordinario ambiente sotterraneo della sede di una sconosciuta ma ricchissima corporazione, nel vicus di Schwarzenacker, posto a una 30 di km da Bliesbruck verso N, ambiente le cui funzioni anche religiose sono testimoniate dalla presenza di un larario con un complesso di statuette in bronzo di eccellente fattura. In quel vicus assistiamo anche allo stesso fenomeno di sostanzioso miglioramento della qualità delle abitazioni private, nello stesso periodo severiano. Entrambi i vici sono caratterizzati dalla presenza di queste sedi di corporazioni: a Bliesbruck, oltre alla possibile funzione in tal senso dell’edificio a pianta basilicale, anche la parcella 5 del quartiere est sembra aver svolto questa funzione, sulla base dei materiali qui rinvenuti. Questo fenomeno della fioritura delle corporazioni è particolarmente evidente per l’età severiana in tutta la Gallia. In tutto il vicus di Bliesbruck in età severiana la struttura viaria principale subisce una modificazione importante: il portico continuo sulla strada viene trasformato in galleria, con l’aggiunta di piccoli ambienti fra i pilastri, aumentando così lo spazio destinato ad attività commerciali ma salvaguardando la continuità dei percorsi. Un fenomeno analogo è noto anche a Schwarzenacker e ad Alesia, dove i portici sono raddoppiati da una seconda fila di pilastri o colonne. Sembra dunque che almeno nel primo trentennio del III sec. d.C. in questi vici a forte vocazione commerciale e produttiva lo spazio destinato a queste attività sia potenziato al massimo.

CONCLUSIONI Altri vici della regione, sebbene siano noti solo per qualche costruzione, manifestano il loro massimo sviluppo in termini di confort abitativo e di infrastrutture nell’età severiana. Tale è il caso, per esempio, di Entrains (département de la Nièvre) nel territorio degli Edui, che con i suoi 120 ettari di estensione è uno dei più vasti insediamenti minori della Gallia Belgica, insieme ad Alesia, Mâlain e Mandeure, ed è dotato anche di un teatro, noto tuttavia solo dalle foto aeree (Petit, Mangin 2002, 103), o ancora Baâlon, ai confini fra la civitas Mediomatricorum e la civitas Trevirorum. Anche i siti rurali in vario modo connessi ai vici risentono di

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questo sviluppo severiano: tale è il caso di quelli noti prevalentemente da raccolte di superficie nei dintorni di Bliesbruck, oltre 150 fra ville e fattorie, che presentano un’occupazione prevalentemente nei secoli II e III (Göring 2000). Tre di queste sono state scavate integralmente (ErfweilerEhlingen, Sarreinsming-Grosswald et Sarreinsming-Heidenkopf) e presentano il loro apogeo nella prima metà del III sec. d.C. Dunque, in epoca severiana, gli abitanti del vicus di Bliesbruck, così come quelli di Swarzenacker e di alcuni altri (non tutti) della regione, beneficiavano di un reale confort urbano, sia nelle proprie residenze private che nella dotazione monumentale dell’insediamento, corrispondente ad un ruolo sempre maggiore delle attività economiche a cui questi vici erano vocati. Questo incremento economico si traduce nell’aumento degli spazi e delle attrezzature ad esse dedicati, ma anche nella volontà di rendere visibilmente presente la potenza di Roma attraverso gli agi della vita che essa garantiva, primo fra tutti il controllo e la disponibilità dell’acqua e del calore, anche in questi insediamenti, certo secondari sul piano giuridico e demografico rispetto ai capoluoghi di città, ma fondamentali nell’articolazione economica e politica dell’ impero. Poiché l’archeologia è una disciplina storica, e come tale non può sottrarsi al dovere di interpretare i suoi dati storicamente, riteniamo che questa fioritura economica, tanto delle città quanto dei centri minori delle civitates dei Mediomatrici e dei Treviri, sia derivata dal rafforzamento della presenza militare nell’area renana, ma anche dall’essere stata la regione sostanzialmente indenne dalle turbolenze dell’ultima parte dell’età antonina, riuscendo così a salvaguardare ed anzi a portare a compiuta maturazione il proprio sistema economico e politico, concepito con lungimiranza e caratterizzato da un eccellente equilibrio distributivo tanto del popolamento quanto della rete di rapporti istituzionali e produttivi. * I paragrafi 1,2,4 sono di S. Santoro, 3 e 5 di J.P. Petit, le conclusioni sono ovviamente comuni.

BIBLIOGRAFIA Bedon R., Atlas des villes, bourgs et villages de France au passé romain (2001) Bénard J., Mangin M., Goguey R., Roussel L. (eds.), Les agglomérations antiques de Côte-d’Or, Annales Litteraires de l’Université de Besançon, 552, série archéologique 39 (1994).

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Broise P., Découverte d’un edifice public sur le site gallo-romain de Boutae (Les-Fins-d’Annecy), Latomus 27 (1968), 33–44. Broise P., L’urbanisme vicinal aux confins de la Viennoise et de la Séquanaise, in « ANRW » II, 5.2 (1975), 603–629. Burnand Y., Les Temps Anciens. 2. De César à Clovis, (Encyclopédie Illustrée de la Lorraine. Histoire de la Lorraine) (1990). Catarsi Dall’Aglio M., Parma. Via Europa-via Milano, casa protetta per anziani del Comune, “Archeologia dell’Emilia Romagna”, II/2 (1998), 60–61. Cavalieri M., Auctoritas aedifiorum. Sperimentazioni urbanistiche nei complessi forum-basilica delle Tres Galliae et narbonnensis durante i primi tre secoli dell’Impero (2002). Dominiguez J. S., La investigaciòn sobre los horrea de època romana: balance historiogràfico y perspectivas de futuro, CuadPrehistA 34 (2008), 2009, 105–124. Ferdière A., Les Gaules (Provinces des Gaules et Germanies, Provinces Alpines), IIe s. av J.-C./Ve s. apr. J.-C (2005). Ferdière A., Gandini C., Nouvel P., Collart J.-L., Les grades villae « à pavillon latéraux multiples alignés » dans les provinces des Gaules et des Germanies : répartition, origine et fonctions, RAE 59.2 (2010), 357–446. Göring R., L’environnement rural de l’agglomération secondaire de Bliesbruck à l’époque gallo-romaine (2000), 295–322. Grenier A., Habitations gauloises et villas latines dans la cite des Médiomatrices (1906). Gricourt D., Naumann J., Schaub J., Le mobilier numismatique de l’agglomérationsecondaire de Bliesbruck (Moselle). Fouilles 1978– 1998 (2009). Gros P., s.v. Basilica, E.A.A. I, suppl 1971–1994, 612–616. Hatt J.-J., Histoire de la Gaule romaine (120 av. J.-C.–451 apr. J.-C.) (1959/1970). Heinen H., Trier und das Trevererland in römischer Zeit (1985). Heising A., Perspectiven der Limesforschungen am Beispiegl des Kastells Niederbieber, in Henrich P. (ed.), Perspektiven der Limesforschung.5. Kolloquium der Deutschen Limeskommission 19./20 Mai 2009 in Römisch- Germanischen Museum der Stadt Köln (2010), 57–71. Petit J.-P., Mangin, M. (eds.), Les agglomérations secondaires: la Gaule Belgique, les Germanies et l’Occident romain, Actes du colloque de Bliesbruck-Reinheim (1994).

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Petit J.-P., Mangin, M., Alesia, Bliesbruck et autres sites de l’Est de la France. Refléxions sur l’architecture privée, artisanale et domestique dans les « petites villes » de la Gaule Belgique et des Germanies, in R. Gogräfe, K. Kell (eds.), Haus und Siedlung in des Römischen Nordwestprovinzen, (2002), 81–131. Petit J.-P., Le complexe des thermes de Bliesbruck (Moselle). Un quartier public au coeur d’une agglomération secondaire de la Gaule Belgique (2000). Petit J.-P, Auberge ou lieu de réunion d’une association professionelle ou religieuse : le bâtiment de la parcelle 5 du quartier Est de l’agglomération secondaire de Bliesbruck, in C. Ebnöther, R. Schatzmann (dir.), Festscrhift Stefanie Martin-Kilcher, Antiqua 47 (2010), 291– 323. Petit J.-P., Le développement de l’agglomération secondaire de Bliesbruck (Moselle, F.) au IIIe et au début du IVe siècle, in R. Schatzmann, S. Martin-Kilcher (red.), L’Empire romain en mutation. Répercussions sur les villes dans la deuxième moitié du IIIe siècle, Actes du colloque de Berne/Augst 2009, Archéologie et Histoire Romaine 20 (2011), 181–200. Petit J-P., Brunella Ph., Bliesbruck-Reinheim. Celtes et Gallo-Romains en Moselle et en Sarre, (2005). Reinhardt W., Kelten, Römer und Germanen im Bliesgau, Europäischer Kulturpark Bliesbruck-Reinheim (2010), 251–303. Rickman G., Roman granaries and store buildings (1971). Rorison M., Vici in Roman Gaul, BAR International Series 933 (2001). Santoro S, Mastrobattista E, Petit J.-P., I sacra privata degli artigiani e dei commercianti: qualche riflessione su due vici della Gallia Belgica a partire dall’evidenza pompeiana, in M. Bassani, F. Ghedini ( eds.), Religionem significare. Atti dell’incontro di studi (Padova 8–9 giugno 2009) (2011), 181–204. Sărăţeanu-Müller F., Les grandes villas de notables en Gaule: l’exemple de Reinheim, in J.P. Petit, S. Santoro, Vivre en Europe romaine. De Pompéi à Bliesbruck-Reinheim, (2007), 201–207. Sărăţeanu-Müller F., The roman villa complex of Reinheim, Germany, in Villa Landscape in the Roman North, Actes du Colloque de Vaals (Pays-Bas), 30 oct.–1 nov. 2008 (in press). M. Tarpin, Vici et pagi dans l’Occident romain, Coll. EFR 299 (2002).

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ILLUSTRAZIONI

Fig.1: Localizzazione del vicus di Bliesbruck

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Fig. 2: il vicus di Bliesbruck (A), la villa di Reinheim (B), strutture rurali e religiose sulla collina di Homerich (C), santurario tardo La Tène (D), ricostruzione dei tumuli celtici (E)

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Fig. 3: Bliesbruck: pianta dell’area centrale e dei quartieri ovest ed est (2010)

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Fig. 4: ricostruzione ipotetica delle terme di Bliesbruck nel III sec.d.C.

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Fig. 5: Bliesbruck, area centrale, il ninfeo ad emiciclo (2010)

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Fig. 6: Bliesbruck, area centrale, l’edificio a pianta basilicale (2010)

Fig. 7: Bliesbruck, area centrale, ala delle botteghe meridionali (2011)

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Fig. 8: Schwarzenacker, planimetria generale (da Petit, Mangin 2002)

WAT E R W O R K S A N D M O N U M E N T S IN GAUL IN THE SEVERAN AGE: S O M E C O N S I D E R AT I O N S Alice Dazzi (Università degli Studi di Parma)

The Severan age is characterized, in Rome and in some of the provinces, by the creation of monumental buildings aimed at emphasizing the water supply. An emblematic example is the Septizodium (Meschini 1963, 510; Lavagne 1990, 136; Gros 2001, 484–486; Thomas 2007, 327–377), built at the foot of the Palatine Hill by Septimius Severus in the year 203 AD (fig.1). The appearance of this building, destroyed in 1588 by Pope Sixtus V, and now completely lost, is known thanks to some plans and drawings, allowing scholars to provide a reconstruction. Further evidence is also in the Severan Forma Urbis, where the structure is labeled by an inscription, allowing the identification of its location. The building was arranged with a monumental facade 95 meters long and with three orders of Corinthian columns. Within this organization of architectural space, a statue of the Emperor was probably at the center. Finally, the discovery of two statues, a fluvial God and a beast—a wolf or a lioness—working as watersprouting elements has confirmed the interpretation of the Septizodium as a water monument.1 The two statues were probably located in the central 1

For the identification of the so called “Bocca della verità” of Rome as a Septizodium’s element see Santoro, 1987, 91–101; Santoro 2001, 84–95.

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exedra of the monument, with a water basin made in porphyry. The building was located at the end of the Via Appia, acting as a theatrical scaene frons, well visible for the people entering Rome from this direction. Other examples, discovered in the province of Africa, like the septizodia of Cincari and Lambaesis, lead us to consider this monument as a particular kind of nymphaeum, probably deriving from the eastern tradition, and influenced by astrology. This kind of monument is also called nymphaeum, a sacred place dedicated to the cult of the Nymphs. The origin and evolution of this term have been the object of several studies (Settis 1973, 661–770; Lavagne 1988; Ghiotto 1999; Neuerburg 1965). P. Gros asserts that until the first century BC the term nymphaeum possessed an implied a religious meaning (Gros 2001, 469). It is only from the second century AD that it was used to indicate water monuments not specifically consecrated to Nymphs and presenting several architectural variants. In any case, the word nymphaeum has to be used with extreme prudence. According to P. Grimald (Grimald 1969, 305), the term refers only to sacred buildings. For others, like R. Ginouvès, it is correct to use nymphaeum for non-sacred monumental fountains (Ginouvès 1969, 138; Adam, Bourgeois 1977, 139. See also Gros 2001, 470). The two different dictiones, Septizodium or Septizonium, are attested in epigraphic and literary sources. They are used to designate monuments dedicated to the Seven planets and the Seven deities. Although the earliest mention of this word is attested in Suetonius (Duos Titus, I), we observe epigraphic occurrences only by the Severan age, related to the monument built in Rome by Septimius (Gros 2001, 484–486). In Lambaesis, this monumental fountain seems to have been built as a second phase of a pre-existing nymphaeum, and called Septizodium, following the urban trend originating from Rome. The building was on the west side of the Via Septimia, next to the Iseon-Serapeum. Its existence was known thanks to a group of inscriptions, but the identification was made in a recent contribution (Agusta-Boularot et al. 2005, 117–131). A canal leading from the Septizodium acted as a water supplier from the Aquae Alexandrianae, the aqueduct built by Severus Alexander under the protection of Isis for the Iseon-Serapeum in order to simulate the annual floods of the Nile. This religious ceremony is emblematic, showing the strong connection between the monumental fountain, strictly linked to the name of Septimius, the Septizodium in Rome and, finally, its religious character. When the ancient fountain appears to have been destroyed to build the

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new monument, the ancient aqueduct was replaced by the Severus Alexander’s Aquae Alexandrianae. Similarly, the Septizodium in Rome is not characterized by pure imperial propaganda. An important contribution to the process of legitimizing power acquired by the emperor during his military campaigns is represented by the creation of stories about the miraculous actions of Septimius. One of these stories, reported by Cassius Dio (Dio Cass., LXXV, 3, 1–3), recounts that one night while Septimius was sleeping, water suddenly started gushing, like a spring, from his hands. Moreover, water seems to have played an important role in other episodes of Septimius’ life. The Historia Augusta tells us that, during the war against Albinus, Severus, concerned about the end of the conflict, went to consult some Pannonian haruspices. They told him that he would not capture his enemy and that Albinius would die near a river (Hist. Aug., 10,7; cfr. Dio Cass., LXXVI 6, 2–3 and Hdn., III, 7, 2–6). Albinius actually died in Gaul, on the banks of the River Rhone (Hist. Aug., CA, 9, 1–4). The same destiny also seems to have affected Pescennius Niger. He died, as predicted by an astrological prophecy, next to a wetland (Hist. Aug., PN, 9, 5–6). The death of the enemy in proximity to water assures the throne to Septimius. Subsequently, we can assume that water may have played a symbolic role in the possession of power. Albinius died in the running water of the Rhone; on the contrary Pescennius Niger is connected to stagnant water, symbol of death.2 The relation between the prediction and construction of the Septizodium is therefore more than plausible, translating the idea into an image of a sacral power (Thomas 2007, 327–367). This hypothesis seems to confirm that the use of water in Rome was rich with symbolic and sacral implications, never completely lost (Campagna 2008, 155). The construction of water works and monuments is strictly linked to the process of legitimizing power, and to the organization and legitimizing of the domain (Arvanitis 2008). The building of aqueducts, nymphaea and monumental fountains helps to define the urban space, acting as a landmark for special points of interest, like squares, traffic hubs and places of worship. We can therefore introduce the issue of the existence, in the Severan imperial propaganda, of a psycho-geography of power, acting trough the 2

For the prophecies of Septimius Severus see Meulder 1999, 137–149.

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construction of water works, sometimes monumental, as a tool to consolidate consensus. The example of the nymphaeum at Baia, rebuilt by Septimius himself at the beginning of his reign, and completed by Severus Alexander, seems to confirm the interest of this dynasty for architecture involving water and its symbolic value (Maniscalco 1995; ibid.1997; 1999, 147–153). Public fountains and water monuments were built not only in Rome, but also in other provinces of the empire. An example of this phenomenon can be observed in the Albanian city of Dyrrachium, where the aqueduct built by Hadrian was restored by Severus Alexander (Deniaux 2011, 27–33). The Historia Augusta attributes to this emperor the promotion of water works in regions not yet equipped by thermal baths or water supply systems (Hist. Aug., 39,4; 25,2). At that time, some monumental structures connected to the water supply were also built in Roman Gaul, particularly in the north and northeast. According to the archaeological evidence, this promotion of the architecture involving water seems to be attested also in secondary settlements, and not only in the capitals. A significant occurrence, suitable to confirm this hypothesis, is represented by the vicus of Bliesbruck (Moselle – Lorraine), excavated between 2008 and 2011 by J.-P. Petit and Sara Santoro (Petit, Santoro 2008; 2009; 2010; 2011). The settlement is organized starting from the axis of the main street, with a north-south orientation. Artigianal quarters, unearthed between 1982 and 1984, lined both sides of the road (Petit 2004; Petit, Brunella 2005), investigated in 2005 and 2006, contemporary to the artigianal quarters (Millereux-Le Bechennec 2005; Petit (dir.) 2006). The western quarter was formed by fourteen buildings, opened to the street through a long portico, while in the eastern quarter, partially excavated, eight buildings have been identified. The public sector of the vicus was occupied from 40–50 AD to the middle of the 5th century AD. In this area, baths were built between the end of the 2nd and the early 3rd third centuries (Petit 2000). Opposite to the baths, geophysical prospection performed in 1996 and in 2004–2006 identified some ancient structures. The aerialphotographs, taken in 1997 confirmed the presence of these buildings. The public area was limited, on the west side, by the baths, to the south by structures interpreted as shops and, to the north, by a large building with the plan of a basilica. The excavations conducted at the center of this area unearthed a large semicircular building measuring 12 m in diameter and linked to a system

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of water supply and distribution. Two main structures have been identified: a rectangular aedicula built during the 1st century and in use during the 2nd century, and a semicircular building (fig. 2). The aedicula has walls measuring 0.60–0.65 m in length, built on three sides and opened onto the road to the east. At the edges of the structure, four spoliation holes attest the existence of architectural elements, like columns, that were taken to be reused. In a first phase, the aedicula was equipped by a floor made in mortar and big pebbles. Although the aedicula is earlier than the hemicycle, in a second phase these two structures must have worked together. In fact, the rectangular room is framed symmetrically by the wall of the hemicycle, while the underpinning bedding of the floor ends at the perimeter wall of the aedicula. During the last quarter of the 2nd century, together with the laying of the first floor of the square, the rectangular aedicula was equipped with a water basin. Between the wall and the basin, a narrow space was paved with three decorative slabs lying at the bottom of the walls. Moreover, a large semicircular apse was built around the basin, to monumentalize the square and the basin itself. This structure is constituted by a wall measuring 1 m wide, partially preserved, and showing spoliation holes at both extremities. This evidence suggests that it was probably equipped by columns or pillars, before the abandonment of the area. The apse may have had a roof and a drainage canal. Two symmetrical rectangular spaces, possibly flower beds, were observed. The square in front of the new building was periodically restored and new adduction canals were built (fig.3). Corresponding to both the extremities of the apse, on the southern and the northern external side, two symmetrical small rectangular rooms were built after the first arrangement of the square. Two small elongated structures were later added on the west sides of both the rooms (fig.4). The function of these curious architectural elements remains unknown, but they may have served as secondary store rooms. The associated finds date the construction of the semicircular apse to the end of the 2nd century. At the same time, the construction of baths was significantly expanded. The phase of abandon of this building appears to be early, probably dating to the period of the invasions. Unfortunately the state of conservation of the structures does not allow us to interpret the relation between the levels of destruction and the abandon of the building and the baths. This chronological phase lacks dating elements. The filling of a canal yielded an Antoninianus of Postumus (259–268 A.D.), providing a termi-

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nus post quem for the abandonment of the canal. Similarly, the ceramics can be dated to the middle or second half of the 3rd century. The western part of the hemicycle shows a phase of abandon of the building. The layers excavated have yielded many coins, including some examples imitating monetary types of the late 3rd to mid 4th centuries. Around the same time the structures at the extremity of the rectangular aedicula were spoliated. All these elements allow us to date the abandonment of the monumental building to the end of the 3rd century, possibly ca. AD 270. Based upon the plan and due to the presence of fragments of painted mortar, this building has been interpreted as a monumental fountain or nymphaeum. The absence of architectural and decorative elements, such as sculpture, makes it difficult to trace a likely parallel for this kind of building. In general, the word nymphaeum needs to be adopted with extreme care (Gros 2001, 468–495). This kind of building is unusual in Gaul and is generally connected to baths; however, the central location of the monument, opposite to the facade of the baths, was surely aimed at highlighting a waterspout. This is also confirmed by the urban character of the settlement and by the public function of the central space facing the baths. Bliesbruck is not the only settlement showing, in this period, the development of water works and monuments. In northeastern Gaul we can observe other buildings which seem to be linked to a water supply system and were built to monumentalize a public space. An interesting occurrence, dated after the second quarter of the 3rd century, is in Beauvais / Caesaromagus (Oise – Picardie), where a semicircular gallery surrounds an open space (fig.5). The gallery was associated to a draw basin at the center of the square with water pipes running along the cardo. During the excavation, several sculpted blocks were discovered, suggesting that this building was originally widely decorated. The gallery, measuring 48 m in diameter, was delimited by a semicircular square and equipped with a vestibulus at both extremities. A long hallway linked the vestibula to the streets, oriented perpendicularly to the cardo maximus. In the middle of the big gallery the marks of a structure, curvilinear or rectangular, were identified. The monumental gallery, dated from the second quarter of the 3rd century and oriented north-south, was destroyed during Late Antiquity to give space for a bastion (Bedon 2001, 103–105; Woimant 1995, 127–161).

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Another monumental building, probably associated to a water distribution source, was discovered in Besançon/Vesontio (Doubs-FrancheComté): a large semicircular building measuring 53 meters in diameter (fig.6), excavated in the southeastern sector of the city, slightly north of the Porte Noire (square Castan) (Bedon 2001, 105–108; Lerat 1981, 88– 99; Bourgeois 1992, 126–130; Joan 2003, 181–185). This structure is sometimes interpreted as a sanctuary, possibly dedicated to a local deity called Vesontio, while others view it as a monumental nymphaeum. The building was first constructed during the Julio-Claudian age. In a second phase of construction, in the Antonine period, a porticus was built overlooking the forum and oriented in a southeast manner through three wide arches; it was decorated with mythological subjects. Finally, the complex was restored in a third phase, corresponding to the 3rd century. The excavations yielded a portion of wall composed of large slabs, sections of columns measuring eight meters, and several sculpted blocks, decorated by water subjects. A canal running all around the building led to a gathering well. A few meters away from the monument, the distribution basin of the Arcier aqueduct was revealed, with an orientation facing the southern area of the building. The circular basin, measuring 5 meters in diameter, with four distribution canals, was equipped by a circular well, re-used in the construction of the Baptistery of the early Church. The presence of this structure and the water sculptures constitutes the first arguments for the interpretation of this building as a nymphaeum or a monumental fountain. Variously interpreted by scholars as a naumachia basin, a reservoir, a forum, a theater or a sanctuary, some archaeologists have identified this unusual building as a nymphaeum or a water monument equipped by basins or decorative sprouts, similar to the nymphaeum in Tipasa (Cousin 1943, 130–147). This is only a hypothesis, since the basin and the water supply system were not detected and the dimensions of this building exceed those of a usual nymphaeum. Such a type has never been attested in Roman Gaul. In Bliesbruck, the choice of building a big hemicycle was aimed at the enhancing the space occupied by the rectangular aedicula, still in use, as well as to give a more monumental appearance to the public space, equipped by new public building, such as in Beauvais and Besançon. We can observe this effort to monumentalize during the first half of the 3rd century in a several Gallic urban settlements. Moreover, this intense activity was concentrated in a short span of time, as a consequence of the

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invasions of AD 250–275. Many of these buildings remained unfinished, while others were simply abandoned. A final example of this kind of building is at Vieil-Évreux/Gisacum (Eure-Haute-Normandie), the location of an important sanctuary used from the 1st to the mid 3rd century. In the mid 2nd century, Gisacum was one of the biggest religious centers of Roman Gaul. The building was located in the southwestern sector of the settlement, along the main street. It was a semi-circular monument, measuring 35 meters in diameter and equipped by a ring channel, built near the bath in the first half of the 3rd century (fig.7). Initially, it was interpreted by the archaeologists as a cistern or a nymphaeum (Bertaudière, Guyard 2004, 60–69). The archaeological survey showed us others elements and suggested the interpretation of the monument, as a nymphaeum, built during the first half of the 3rd century, contemporary with the baths and connected to the aqueduct. A comparison with eastern or African monuments (Olympia, Leptis Magna, Jerash) suggests that the building should have been characterized by a rich decoration, with water basins placed at different levels. In several monuments, the idea of ostentation seems to be in line with the monumental architecture observed at Vieil-Evreux, where everything seems over-dimensioned. After a second excavation project, aimed at investigating the west side of the building, the presence of wooden stairs suggested a second interpretation. The building may have been a water theater, perhaps used for religious purposes like the well known Qanawat monument, in southern Syria (Bertaudière, Guyard 2004, 60–69). During the last archaeological campaign, in 2004, this monument was hypothesized to be a food market, macellum (Bertaudiere, Guyard 2009–2010, 15–41). The function of this enigmatic monument is still unclear. The building measures 32.25 m in diameter, and is formed by a semicircular wall, a second wall acting as facade, and wood foundations with a radial orientation. A ring canal, in the middle of the building, was supplied by water thanks to four adduction canals connected to the aqueduct 13 meters south (Wech 2011, 93–107). The flowing of the water in the basin was slowed by a system of wood canals directed to a hole, possibly a well. The hemicycle was built after the construction of the aqueduct, at the end of the second century. The semicircular wall was built, followed by the construction of the ring canal and the others hydraulic equipment. The construction of the building was interrupted in the middle of 3rd century and never resumed. The same phenomenon can be observed in the baths, where the plan of development was halted suddenly.

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This enigmatic monumental building, regardless of its function, can be interpreted as the mark of a prestigious act strictly linked to the extension of the baths. In any case, the role of water in this global project surely occupied a central position, corresponding to an important act of benevolence. The absence of an extensive excavation of the entire monument and, in detail, of the last phase of the baths, makes it impossible to define the precise function of all these spaces. In general, we can state that the wide diffusion of nymphea and monumental fountains helps us to understand the high impact of the symbolism of water, in the ideology of imperial propaganda. This power is also expressed by the construction of aqueducts, water canals and baths, built or renovated during the Severan age, in different Gallic sites (tab.1). There were many important building campaign in Roman Gaul between the late 2nd and mid 3rd century, many of which were involved the construction of new baths. Good examples of this phenomenon are observed in Aix-en-Provence, Arles, Cluny, Rennes, Poitiers and Javolos (Lòzère) and some of the new public baths had a monumental nymphaeum (Bouet 2003a; 2003b). During this phase baths were also built in small settlements. This is the case of Vieil-Évreux where, at the end of the 2nd century, a new thermal complex was built near the springsanctuary. During the first half of the 3rd century Toulon was also furnished by baths. Moreover, in most of the towns the construction involved renovating or enlarging pre-existing baths (Bouet 2003a; 2003b). In Amiens the baths were rebuilt, perhaps after having burned down, in the end of the 2nd century. In Poitiers the addition of decorative elements, including two Corinthian capitals, appears to be the sign of a trend characterizing Aquitania from the second half of the 2nd century to the end of the Severan age. Here the work seems generally aimed at redecorating the buildings. This phenomenon is also observed in Saint-Bertrand-des-Comminges, where two public baths (Thermes Nord and Thermes du Forum) were enlarged and redecorated. In Saint-Roman-en-Gal the Thermes du Lutteurs were renovated in the late 2nd century, when a sumptuous nymphaeum was built in the area previously occupied by the latrine. The same phenomenon can be observed in smaller settlements. In Bliesbruck the baths were significantly renovated in the late 2nd century; in Châteauneuf-du-Rhône (Drôme), Mamer (Luxemburg) and in the vicus of Liberchies (Belgium), we observe the same trend. At Saint-Mard (Luxemburg) we can identify two different phases of construction dated,

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respectively, to the late 2nd and early 3rd century. In Zurich an internal transformation of the bath’s architecture was carried out at the beginning of the 3rd century. This attention to water works and monuments is also observable in the aqueducts of Roman cities such as Lutèce (Paris) and Rennes. Other aqueducts were restored or renovated, such as the aqueduct of Carhaix, which shows also a partial modification of its itinerary (Bedon 2001). Building activity was not only focused on monumental structures, but also on the water supply system. In Rouen the construction of wood canals and sewer systems were carried out at the beginning of the 3rd century. In Saint-Roman-en-Gal a lead fistula, marked with the names of the hydraulic engineer and the emperor, suggests that important hydraulic public works were executed during the reign of Caracalla, in the year 213 AD (Bedon 2001). To summarize, from the review of the occurrences presented here, we can observe that water features, such as nymphaea or monumental fountains, were surely powerfully evocative urban elements for Roman citizens. The ideological power of water was clearly exploited by the imperial propagandists promoting the construction of water works and monuments, like aqueducts, channels and baths, built or restored during the Severan age in different Roman Gaulish settlements. Recent studies have provided new interpretations about the meaning of Roman aqueducts. The idea is generally that these monumental structures, at least in some cities, were not planned in order to provide to the whole water supply of the settlement. Moreover, there is often a gap between the first urban development and the construction of the aqueducts. The development of a local economy and the growth of a wealthy municipal middle class who pays attention to the symbols of competition between the towns, have surely been an input to the “hydrological” ornament of the settlements, through acts of benevolence. The abundant presence of water in the city became a symbol of dignitas, an element characterizing the urban lifestyle. Sometimes these aqueducts did not represent a real urban need, but a material expression of the municipal control of the territory (Bianco 2007, 219). The water resources, exceeding the real need of the community, were a strong element for imperial propaganda and for wealthy local donatores, because it symbolized a prosperous lifestyle. The abundance or over-abundance of water connected to the real hydraulic necessities is a strong instrument of propaganda both for the em-

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perors and for the local elites, a symbol of a pleasant and comfortable life. All this equipment is, at the same time, a symbol of the Roman lifestyle and a tool of Romanization. In this perspective, water works and water monuments became a vehicle of self-expression, a visible mark of the great action of civilization provided by the Roman Empire.

REFERENCES ANCIENT SOURCES Cassius Dio, Roman History, IX, books 71–80, trad. Cray, Earnest; Foster, Herbert Baldwin, Loeb (1994). Scriptores historiae augustae, 2, ed. Ernestus Hohl (1971). MODERN SOURCES Adam J.-P., Bourgeois C., Un ensemble monumental gallo-romain dans le sous-sol de Bourges (Cher), in « Gallia», 35.1 (1977), 115–140. Agusta-Boularot S., Janon M., Gassend J.-M., In Lambaesem defluxit Nilus in Lafon X., Sauron G. (eds.)., Théorie et pratique de l’architecture romaine ; la norme et l’expérimentation, Études offertes à Pierre Gros (2005). Arvanitis N., I tiranni e le acque: infrastrutture idrauliche e potere nella Grecia del tardo arcaismo (2008). Bedon R., Atlas des villes, bourgs, villages de France au passé romain (2001). Bedon R., Chevallier R., Pinon P., Architecture et urbanisme en gaule romaine. Tome II, l’urbanisme (52 av J.-C. – 486 ap. J.-C.) (2008). Bertaudière S., Guyard L., “Un monument des eaux en bois énigmatique”, in Les dossiers de l’archéologie, 295 (2004), 60–69. Bertaudière S., Guyard L., “Un macellum inachevé dans la ville-sanctuaire du Vieil-Evreux (Eure)”, Caesarodunum XLIII–XLIV (2009– 2010), 15–41. Bianco A. D., Aqua ducta, aqua distributa: la gestione delle risorse idriche in età romana (2007). Bouet A. (ed.), Thermae Gallicae, les thermes de Barzan (CharenteMaritime) et les thermes des provinces galoises (2003a).

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Bouet A., Les thermes privès et publics en Gaule Narbonnaise, vol II (2003b). Bourgeois C., Divona II. Monuments et sanctuaires du culte gallo-romain de l’eau (1992). Campagna L., Valori simbolici, propaganda e scenografie dell’acqua nelle fontane greche e romane, in Anima dell’acqua (Catalogo della Mostra), Fonseca C. D., Fontanella E. (eds.) (2008), 140–155. Cousin J., A propos du « Théâtre » de Vesontio, in Mémoires de la Société d’Émulation du Doubs, I (1943), 130–147. Des Gagniers J., Devambez P., Kahil L., Ginouvès R., Laodicée du Lycos. Le nymphée. Campagnes 1961– 1963 (1969) 138. Deniaux E., L’aqueduc de Dyrrachium, construction et restauration in Les réseaux d’eau courante dans l’Antiquité, Acte du colloque international de Nancy (20–21 novembre 2009), Abadie-Reynal C., Provost S. et Vipard P. (dir.) (2011), 27–33. Ghiotto A.R., Ormatissimi lacus, munera, nymphaea: le fontane monumentali pubbliche di Roma nella loro evoluzione lessicale (2009). Grimal P., Les jardins romains. (1969). Gros P., L’architettura romana. I monumenti pubblici (2001), 468–495. Joan L., Carte Archéologique de la Gaule. Le Doubs et le Territoire de Belfort. 25 e 90. (2003). Lavagne H., Operosa antra. Recherches sur la grotte à Rome de Sylla à Hadrien, Bibliothèque des Écoles franòaises d’Athène et de Rome 272 (1988). Lavagne H., Fontane e ninfei, in Civiltà dei romani. La città, il territorio, l’impero, Settis S. (ed.) (1990), 125–138. Lerat L., Histoire de Besançon. I. L’antiquité (1981), 88–99. Maniscalco F., un ninfeo severiano dalle acque del porto di Baia, «Ostraka» IV.2 (1995), 257–271. Maniscalco F., Ninfei ed edifici marittimi severiani del Palatium imperiale di Baia (1997). Maniscalco F., Nuovi dati sulla forma maris antiqui di Baia in Dal Covolo E., Rinaldi G. (eds.), Gli imperatori Severi. Storia, Archeologia, Religione (1999). Meulder M., De quelques présages qui concernent Septime Sévère in «Revue belge de philologie et d'histoire» T. 77 fasc. 1 (1999), 137– 149. Meschini S., Ninfei e fontane, in Enciclopedia dell’arte antica e orientale, V (1963), 505–512.

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Millereux-Le Bechennec J., Bliesbruck Rue principale (Moselle), Rapport de suivi archeologique (2005). Neuerburg N., L’architettura delle fontane e dei ninfei nell’Italia antica, in Memorie dell’Accademia di Archeologia, Lettere e Belle Arti di Napoli, 5 (1965). Petit J.-P., Le complexe des thermes de Bliesbruck (Moselle). Un quartier public au coeur d’une agglomeration secondaire de la Gaule Belgique, Blesa 3 (2000). Petit J.-P., Bliesbruck et Reinheim, in Flotte P., Fuchs M., Catre Archéologique de la Gaule. La Moselle. 57/1 (2004) 278–324. Petit J.-P. (dir.), Bliesbruck, 57 901 001, Motzenbruelh, Unterer Sand, Steinfelder, Obere Betschwiese, Faullalmet, Hinteres Rohr, Vorderes Rohr (Moselle). Document final de syntese (2006). Petit J.-P., Brunella P., Deru X., Reinhard W. e Sarateanu-Muller F. 2005, Bliesbruck-Reinheim. Celtes et Gallo-Romains en Moselle et Sarre (2005). Petit J.-P., Santoro S., Rapport de fouille programmée (2008). Petit J.-P., Santoro S., Rapport de fouille programmée (2009). Petit J.-P., Santoro S., Rapport de fouille programmée (2010). Petit J.-P., Santoro S., Rapport de fouille programmée (2011). Santoro S., Il tema figurativo di Oceano nell’età dei Seviri, in « Caesarodunum », 23 (1987), 191–201. Santoro S., L’iconografia musiva di Oceano e le sue corrispondenze letterarie, in “La Mosaïque Gréco-Romaine. Actes du VII EME Colloque International pour l’Étude de la Mosaïque Antique et Médiévale” (2001), 84–95. Settis S., Esedra e ninfeo nella terminologia architettonica del mondo romano, in « Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt», I.4 (1973), 661–770. Thomas E., Metaphore and identity in Severan architecture : the septizodium at Rome between ‘reality’ and ‘fantasy’, in Severan Culture, Swain S., Harrison S., Elsner J. (eds.) (2007). Wech P., Une vie d’aqueduc...modifications de tracé, améliorations techniques et réparation d’un ouvrage hydraulique au Vieil-Évreux (Eure) in Les réseaux d’eau courante dans l’Antiquité, Acte du colloque international de Nancy (20–21 novembre 2009), Abadie-Reynal C., Provost S. et Vipard P. (dir.) (2011), 93–107. Woimant G.-P., Catre Archéologique de la Gaule. L’Oise. 60 (1995).

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FIGURES

Fig. 1: Reconstruction proposal of the Septizodium in Rome. Gros 2001, p. 484.

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Fig. 2: The big hemicycle of Bliesbruck. Petit, Santoro, 2008, p 111.

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THE ROMAN EMPIRE DURING THE SEVERAN DYNASTY

Fig. 3: The big hemicycle of Bliesbruck. Water supply system. Petit, Santoro, 2009, p. 99.

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Fig. 4: The big hemicycle of Bliesbruck. Petit, Santoro, 2010, p. 111.

111

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THE ROMAN EMPIRE DURING THE SEVERAN DYNASTY

Fig. 5: Beauvais, big hemicycle. Woimant 1995, pp. 139.

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Fig. 6: Vesontio. Big hemicycle (nimphaeum?) of square Castan. Joan 2003, p. 179.

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THE ROMAN EMPIRE DURING THE SEVERAN DYNASTY

Fig. 7: Evreux, nimphaeum (?). Bertaudière, Guyard 2004, p. 65.

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Tab.1: Water works in Gaul in the Severan age

BATHS

Aix-enProvence

X

Amiens

X

Arles

X

AQUEDUCTS

CANALS

SEWER SYSTEMS

FOUNTAINS/ MONUMENTAL STRUCTURES

Beauvais

X

Besançon

X

Bliesbruck

X X

Carhaix Châteauneufdu-Rhône

X

Cimiez

X

Cluny

X

Evreux

X

Javalos

X

Liberchies

X

Lillebonne

X

Lutèce

X

Mamer

X

Mans

X

Poitiers

X

Renne

X

X

X

X

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BATHS

AQUEDUCTS

Rouen SaintBertrand-deComminges

X

Saint Mard

X

SaintRoman-enGal

X

Toulon

X X

Vichy Zurich

X

CANALS

SEWER SYSTEMS

X

X

FOUNTAINS/ MONUMENTAL STRUCTURES

M O R E WAT E R F O R R O M E : NOTHING NEW IN THE ETERNAL CITY? WAT E R - R E L AT E D M O N U M E N T S A S PA RT O F T H E S E V E R A N BUILDING PROGRAM Jens Koehler (John Cabot University, Rome)

SOURCES FOR SEVERAN ROME. In this paper I will discuss various aspects of Severan monuments in Rome, the capital city of the Roman Empire, while the rich evidence from the provinces, in particular from Northern Africa and from the Eastern provinces, cannot be included. My selection focuses on water-related buildings, as aqueducts, baths, and fountains or nymphaea. My intention is to present an overview—and not new research on single constructions—on this part of the Severan building activity; a part which probably ranked among the prevailing urban projects of the Severans. Eventually a re-evaluation of this time period will be proposed. We may start with a dream Septimius Severus had before becoming emperor. Later during his reign more dreams are reported; the ancient Romans liked such dreams or omina, even if they were well aware that often the facts or deeds had preceded the dream. Or, as Herodian writes: “All these (dreams), whether they are true or false, are invariably be117

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lieved when they foretell something which later actually occurs”. We read about this story in Dio Cassius; the most interesting passage says: “The signs which had led him to hope for the imperial power were as follows... on another occasion water gushed from his hand, as from a spring, while he slept”.1 The symbolic image of the water- and prosperity spending emperor is clear, announcing his later engagement in the construction of aqueducts, baths, and fountains. Thinking about the origins of the Severan family and the popularity of oriental cults in the Roman Empire at that time, illustrations of the near eastern god of sweet water, Ea-Enki, come into consideration: this motive was quite common in Mesopotamia, and is known from cylinder seals and in larger scale from reliefs.2 These examples depict Ea with streams of water pouring down from his shoulders or from a vase in his hands. Leaving such legendary accounts, we have as reliable sources at first the archaeological remains of buildings from the Severan period. Some are preserved in a very fragmentary state, and several are known to us exclusively through Renaissance drawings, which show the monuments already heavily damaged. Second, coin editions serve very well to establish a chronology, because of their datable portraits and inscriptions. But the small-scale images on the reverse of coins generally don’t allow a sufficient visual reconstruction of the monument shown.3 As a third point, there are the official inscriptions, which can with high probability be attributed to a single building. They don’t tell us the amount of work really done by the emperor mentioned in the inscription; we have to guess if it was a completely new construction, a necessary repair of a damaged building, or only a very limited intervention, as cleaning. Finally, back to the ancient authors: Dio Cassius, Herodian, and the much later composed Historia Augusta are the prime sources for the Severan emperors. All authors publish short lists of major buildings done under the rule of one emperor, without giving any details and often without an identifiable lo1

Dio 75, 3, 2; cf. Herodian 2, 9, 5–6 without mentioning explicitly this dream. 2 E.g., the cylinder seal of Adda in the British Museum (2300–2200 BC); cf. the brick facade from Uruk in Berlin (1500–1400 BC). 3 Now published (non vidi): C. Rowan, Under Divine Auspices. Visualisation of Imperial Power in the Severan Period (2012) discusses Severan coin images from Rome and the provinces.

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cation. We absolutely miss a reliable source for the time period under investigation. The professional accounts about the water supply by Frontinus, which are of such great value for our knowledge, finish before the aqueduct built under Trajan. Another basic question is, if the writer liked the emperor, if buildings commissioned e.g. by hated emperors as Caracalla or Heliogabalus are mentioned or not. Fortunately, the evidence for the type of monuments here investigated, seems to be quite balanced, and we may consider the question about reliability as of secondary importance. In the following I will describe three building contexts, attributable to Septimius Severus, to Caracalla, and to Alexander Severus respectively. Various elements composed each building context, and as far as concerning the functional necessities, the connectivity of their sites, and coincidence of time of construction, we can rely on the coherency of the contexts and expect planned urban projects. It is not the aim of this paper to contribute to details about the single monuments, but to give an overview on the entire building activity.

SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS (193–211 AD). Septimius Severus was emperor from 193–211 AD. The political situation during the first years allowed only short visits to the capital city, in 193, 197, and 200 AD. From 201 to 208 the imperial family finally stayed in Rome, before the departure to Eburacum/York in Britain, where Severus died in 211 AD. During the time in Rome the decennalia were celebrated in 202 AD, and the ludi saeculares in 204 AD, both possible events to inaugurate new monuments. Most buildings seem to date before 205 AD, the year of the death of the powerful urban prefect C. Fulvius Plautianus, who probably was the responsible and the driving force for many projects.4 The surviving official inscriptions indicate with 198–202 AD a slightly earlier phase for these activities; only two inscriptions are of a later date (Lusnia 2004, 540). All evidence together leads to expect a concentration of building activities in Rome for the years 198–205 AD.

4

Birley 1988, 221. 161–162 on Plautianus’ elimination.

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Beginning with the Aqua Claudia, we can see all along this water pipeline extensive repairs which date to Severan times.5 The date may be narrowed to the year 201 AD based on an inscription related to the Arcus Caelimontani, the Neronian branch starting from the Aqua Claudia at Porta Maggiore (CIL 6, 1259; Lusnia 2004, 536. 539–540). This aqueduct brought water to Nero’s nymphaeum and then to the imperial palaces on top of the Palatine. The parts of the aqueduct preserved between the Caelian Hill and the Palatine seem to belong to the Domitianic period, with important Severan interventions necessary for the new palace (fig.1) (Mucci 1986, 95–99; Aicher 1995, 61). They consist of two superimposed arches, and must originally have carried a siphon system or otherwise reached a greater height of 37 m. Another inscription mentions for the same year 201 AD repairs at the Aqua Marcia.6 The South-Eastern part of the imperial palaces on the Palatine Hill had been destroyed by the fire of 191 (or 192) AD (Grant 1996, 65). The socalled Domus Severiana, to identify the South-Eastern extension of the Domus Augustana, includes massive substructions to create a huge terrace that reaches the height of the Palatine hilltop. A favourable date for the completion would be the celebration of the decennalia in 202/203 AD, but brickstamps from this area date from Commodus to Alexander Severus (192–235 AD) and document a longer continous construction process.7 Great part of the new Severan palace was dedicated to baths, and as such it needed an improved water supply by re-modeled aqueducts. The preserved rooms and heated pools show but also earlier and later phases, dating probably to Domitian and to Maxentius. Not far from the private baths on the Palatine, reserved to the imperial court, public thermae were constructed under Septimius Severus. These Thermae Severianae are only known from texts, and under various names (HA Sev. 19, 5). No traces can clearly be related to these baths; they must have been located below the Palatine in direction South-East, along the first track of the Via Appia, that is near or on top of the Porta Capena, the 5

Ashby 1935, 136, 192, 231: Tor Fiscale, Fosso della Vallana, Roma Vecchia; Lusnia 2004, 537. 6 C.I.L. 6, 1247, discovered near San Giovanni in Laterano; Lusnia 2004, 538. 539–540. 7 Pflug 2011; Dio 77, 11: constructions by Septimius Severus; HA Alex. Sev. 26, 9: continued under Alexander Severus.

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gate of the old Servian city walls (Tortorici 1993, 161–172. 168–170; Lusnia 2004, 535–536). The Thermae Helenianae at the Sessorium palace, later partially covered by Santa Croce in Gerusalemme, were the third new baths. If they were exclusively for the use by the imperial family and court, or even open to the public, cannot be decided with certainty. Brick stamps date between 201 and 208 AD, what is confirmed by an inscription of the emperess Julia Domna (Coarelli 2007, 209). Only a relatively large cistern of 2 lines of 6 chambers survived between today Via Sommeiller, Via Eleniana, and Via Grandis (fig. 2).8 Another bath is only known from the Historia Augusta: the Septimian Baths in Trastevere. An independent water supply had been planned, but the aqueduct collapsed before even working, and the baths could never be opened (HA Sev. 19, 5). To be built between the Domus Severiana on the Palatine and the Thermae Severianae on the Via Appia, Septimius Severus commissioned the construction of a monumental fountain, the Septizodium. The discussion of the building is not easy, because it has totally disappeared; over the time, the remaining parts had been reduced to a towerlike structure of the extreme right/North of the construction, which was then completely demolished in 1588. Fine coloured marbles were re-used, letting us at least know of the expensive building materials once employed in the Septizodium. The building is mentioned in the ancient sources, in relation to a dream of emperor Septimius Severus about a possible entrance to the palace area and regarding the statuary program, and the involvement of the urban prefect Plautianus (HA Sept. Sev. 19, 5; 24, 3–5). Then, the long inscription is reported in the Einsiedeln Itinerary, indicating that at that time (8th–9th c. AD) probably most of the Septizodium was still standing.9 For the up-going architecture we dispone of several Renaissance drawings from the 15th–16th c., all showing only the tower-like remains of the right corner (fig. 3); starting with the Anonymous

8 Given the route and the levels of the later Aqua Alexandriana, this pipeline may also have served the Thermae Helenianae (see below). 9 C.I.L. 6, 1032 after Einsiedeln Itinerary, Lusnia 2004, 539 n. 13; Lusnia 2004, 519. 532.

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Lombard Ms. Salzburg 1470 and Giuliano da Sangallo 1480.10 All 19th century reconstructions are based on these drawings (Petersen 1910, 56– 73; Dombart 1922, 1–10). In more recent times the Septizodium was identified on three-four fragments of the Forma Urbis; the Severan marble plan from the library hall on the Forum Pacis is a good contemporaneous source, and offers relatively high detail (cf. Carettoni 1960; Rodriguez Almeida 1980). So, the location could be confirmed, the name was finally clarified as Septizodium in spite of the often used Septizonium, and some more hints to reconstruct the exact plan were supplied. An excavation campaign in the 1980s added to our knowledge mostly some stone and sculpture fragments from the Septizodium. Results using the richer evidence available today are the re-created ground plan on-site and virtual reconstructions, lacking some detail because generally not exclusively interested in the Septizodium but in the wider urban context (Frischer 2010). The monumental nymphaeum measured 93–95 m in length.11 The total depth was 34,1 m, including the much lower front part with the water basins. The height was about 30 m or 100 Roman feet, and as such only a little bit higher than the Circus Maximus.12 It cannot be proved that the nymphaeum was supplied with water from the branch of the Aqua Claudia bringing water to the top of the Palatine Hill; an aqueduct reaching the city on a lower level—as the Aqua Marcia—may have been sufficient to let the water flow from top to bottom of the Septizodium.13 The Septizodium was made using a variety of precious marbles, as we know from its demolition in 1588, and filled with statues of deities and of the imperial family. The seven planetary gods: Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Sol, Venus, Mercury, and Luna, gave the name to the monument; they, and allusions to astronomy, are every-present during the reign of the Sev10 Cf. the drawings by Giovanni Antonio Dosio and E. Du Pérac; Forni 1991#; Lusnia 2004, 519–510; Thomas 2007; Fane-Saunders 2011. 11 Lusnia 2004, 521; E. Thomas proposed a longer building, with seven divisions and a central entrance to the Palatine. But HA Sev. 24, 4–5 clearly states that such an entrance was never completed. 12 H. 29,87 m; Lusnia 2004, 520. 13 Aicher 1995, 165 for the water levels at the terminal of Aqua Claudia (67m above sea level) and Aqua Marcia (59 m above sea level). Richardson 1992, 350 believed that there wasn’t any water employed at the Septizodium.

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erans. Several rooms in the palace had constellations of stars painted on their ceilings (Dio 77, 11). The ancient text sources don’t help us to understand how gods and humans were combined, if for example the emperor Septimius Severus was shown as the sun god (HA Sept. Sev. 19, 5; 24, 3–5). In 202 (or 203) AD—the year of the decennalia—the Septizodium must have been completed, giving another motivation for a strong display of dynastic propaganda. The monumental nymphaeum resembled from its façade-like aspect much the stage building of a Roman theater; compare the Northern wall of the natatio in the Baths of Caracalla built only some years later. It covered the substructions of the Domus Severiana, the palaces on the South East corner of the Palatine still under construction, and stood close to the curved Eastern end of the Circus Maximus, lastly rebuilt under Trajan. The Septizodium was a freestanding structure, quite distant from the Palatine behind, but seperated from the Circus only by a narrow street entrance; in some way it responded with its architectural partitions and its measures to the three stories of arches and the approximate height of 28 m of the Circus Maximus, or it really formed an optical unit. The Septizodium faced the Via Appia, the street where people coming from the African provinces entered the city: we may get here an hommage by Septimius Severus to his fellow people, as the whole monument was looking very “African”, comparing it to examples in the North African provinces.14

CARACALLA (211–217 AD). Caracalla, co-emperor of his father already since 198 AD, became—after the assassination of his younger brother Geta—sole emperor from 211 to 217 AD (Birley 1988, 215). Most of the time he was away from Rome on military campaigns. In this short period fall any building projects by Caracalla in Rome, even if some may have already been started before 211 AD in the name of the acting co-emperor. The Aqua Antoniniana was built by Caracalla to supply his new baths complex, the Baths of Caracalla, where some arches can still be seen in Via Bacelli. The aqueduct was a branch of the Aqua Marcia, departing at 14

Thomas 2007, starting from the notice in HA Sev. 24, 3.

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Porta Furba 5 km East from the city center. Some of the more elaborate parts closer to the city are preserved: some arches later inserted into the Aurelianic city walls near Porta Latina, and the so-called Arch of Drusus (fig. 4) at the crossing of the Via Appia Antica (Cattalini 1985, 57; Manderscheid 1992, 193–234; Lombardi 1995, 60–63; Aicher 1995, 75). This arch was erected for this purpose and doesn’t seem to use an already existing monument. The Porta Tiburtina (fig. 5) is of special interest not only because of the well preserved technical features, as the specus of several aqueducts: Aqua Marcia, Aqua Tepula, and Aqua Julia, but because of the three inscriptions. The latest, central one is by Caracalla and tells about repairs on the Aqua Marcia in 212 AD (fig. 6). How far such repairs could go is here for one time explained in details: a new source was added, the old source was cleaned, mountains dug away and tunnels constructed (C.I.L. 6, 1245; Aicher 1995, 58. 167). This date is of value both for the initial work on the Aqua Antoniniana and for the functioning of the Baths of Caracalla. The Baths of Caracalla, originally called Thermae Antoninianae, were new public baths facing a parallel street of the Via Appia. Brick stamps of the years 212–216 AD confirm the date known from the mentioned aqueduct inscription. The central building, completely done under Caracalla, measures 220 x 114 m. The natatio alone covered a space of 50 x 22 m. Its stage-like northern wall stands still 30 m high, while the dome of the caldarium must have reached a height of more than 35 m. The entire area with the external walls and rooms extends to 337 x 328 m, it was but finished not before Alexander Severus (until 235 AD).15 These dimensions can be compared to Trajan’s Baths, which were outdone creating the biggest thermae up to that time. The perfect symmetry of the architecture is admirable; elements such as the dome of the caldarium, the balconies around the palaestrae, or as a whole the upper storey open to the public, contribute both to the enormous dimensions and to the high architectural quality. The colossal marble statues from the Baths of Caracalla, as the Hercules Farnese and the group of the Farnese bull, underline these aspects. 15

HA Car. 9,4–5. 9,9; HA Heliogab. 17,8–9: porticus; HA Alex. Sev. 25,6.

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Not entering into an overall description of the in great part still standing building, I just want to highlight two nymphaea installations. The entrance façade to the main street in the North displayed eight fountains (fig. 7), which were regularly arranged between entrances and windows. They find a counterpart in the 9 interior niches along the natatio. The common water supply and the drainage of the single niches inside and outside is well documented (Lombardi 1995, 79–81; 91–92). Without being able to reconstruct the architectural and sculptural decoration for this part, one can anyway imagine the spectacular effect of the over 200 m long and 30 m high façade. In the South, where on the higher level of the smaller Aventine the aqueduct of the Aqua Antoniniana arrived, is a large water reservoir (fig. 8) attached to the slope of the hill partially cut off for the construction of the baths. The reservoir has 18 chambers, sub-devided into two levels of nine communicating chambers, each measuring 13 x 8.5 m. Below this water tank necessary for the functioning of the baths lays what remains of a 178 m long so-called stadium: a perfect installation for a monumental nymphaeum (Lombardi 1995, 64–71. 89). Next to the reservoir on the right, in the South-Western corner, is the hall often interpreted as library. The location and the niches – too humid and too large for shelves with book scrolls – make the room ideal for another nymphaeum, with a counterpart to be expected in symmetry on the opposite left corner. Consequently, the entire hill and the attached reservoir appeared on 300 m length as a combination of nymphaea.

ALEXANDER SEVERUS (222–235 AD). Macrinus had no chance to leave any traces in Rome during his short inter-regnum in 217 AD. Heliogabalus, emperor from 218 to 222 AD, resided but with the many Syrian ladies of the imperial court in Rome. Besides the temple for the cult of Baal on the Palatine, palace apartments and a new circus were constructed (HA Heliogab. 17, 8–9). The work at the Baths of Caracalla was continued, finishing or adding a portico, which can be understood as the exterior walls and rooms. Alexander Severus, guided by his mother Julia Mamaea and the court, brought back a stable reign to Rome lasting from 222 to 235 AD. In this time span, it is hard to specify a core period; much seems to have been built until or around 226/227 AD.

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The Aqua Alexandriana, the aqueduct of Alexander Severus, was a new construction (fig. 9). It dates from 222 AD and is the last of the ancient Roman water pipelines. It started in the Pantano area 22 km East of Rome. Some arches are well preserved, especially at Tor Pignattara and crossing Via Palmiro Togliatti with lines of arches about 250 m long, and the highest arches reaching 21 m.16 The final urban route is unknown, probably due to its relative low level when entering the city, and the completely under-ground running pipeline. The reason for the construction of an expensive new aqueduct was the complete re-building of a bath building, the Thermae Alexandrinae in the Field of Mars, next to the Stadium of Domitian/Piazza Navona (HA Alex. Sev. 25, 3–5). The low level of the chosen site explains why the aqueduct had not to keep the water level high. Nearly on the same spot had been the old Baths of Nero, which were dismantled. Of the 200 x 120 m measuring baths, built between 222 and 227 AD, only few elements remained until today. A labrum and some of the granite columns are still visible not far West from the Pantheon, and other columns were used for the restoration of the left side of the Pantheon’s porch. Not far, still on the central Campus Martius, the Baths of Agrippa were restored – together with Hadrian‘s Pantheon, where a long inscription was placed on the architrave (C.I.L. 6, 896. 2041). The water supply through the Aqua Virgo should still have been intact, otherwise even these baths may have been supplied by the Aqua Alexandriana. All what can be seen today of Agrippa’s Bath is the Severan brickwork of a domed hall, including the interesting construction detail of stabilizing brick ribbons in the half-dome.17 The Aqua Alexandriana may also have served the Thermae Helenianae at the Sessorium palace, but the available dating elements point to an earlier use.18 Still regarding baths and bathing, Alexander Severus took care of the supply with wood for heating and oil for the lamps in the 16

HA Alex. Sev. 25, 4. Caruso 1986, 120–125; 1993, 60–61; Aicher 1995, 45. 105–107. 110; good photos on: http://roma.andreapollett.com. see also Viale dell’Acquedotto Alessandrino; Via dei Pioppi; Via degli Olmi; Parco Tor Tre Teste. 17 Claridge 2010#, Coarelli 2007#. Brick ribbons cf. Domus Augustana and aqueduct Via Turati (see below). 18 See above under Septimius Severus.

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thermae; at the thermal springs of Baiae he constructed new pools (HA Alex. Sev. 26, 9–10). The aqueduct preserved at a length of six arches in Via Pepe/Via Turati (fig. 10), sometimes called Ramus Aquae Juliae, is part of another project by Alexander Severus of the year 226 AD (Cattalini 1986, 64; Aicher 1995, 39.59); furthermore, one can again observe the detail of the brick-bands to reinforce the arches. Starting out probably from the Anio Novus, this aqueduct branch brought water to the nymphaeum of Alexander Severus/Fountain of Oceanus.19 This monumental terminal fountain (fig. 11), originally more than 20 m high, is better known under its medieval name “Trophies of Marius”, standing on today’s Piazza Vittorio Emanuele (Lusnia 2004, 533). The date of 226 AD is proved by an aureus of Alexander Severus from that year, showing a huge fountain and probably Oceanus, represented in the traditional way as river god, and thus allowing it to be called the Fountain of Oceanus.20 Marble trophies taken from a Domitianic victory monument were re-used as sculptural decoration; they are since 1590 on the Capitoline Hill, but some drawings, as e.g. G. Du Pérac from 1575, show them still in situ. The free reconstruction Gatteschi drew in 1916 gives an idea of the fountain, but it needs a kind of triumphal arch added on top, what would render the monument still more spectacular (AAR Gatteschi 104; Tedeschi Grisanti 1985, 126– 135).

A SEVERAN RENAISSANCE. To sum up: The rule of the emperors of the Severan family lasted from 193 to 235 AD, a time span of over 40 years which one may compare to the reign of Augustus as princeps (27 BC–14 AD); or for today, you had to go back to the late 1960s. When the emperors weren’t in Rome because of military campaigns on the frontiers or for administrative business in the provinces, what happened quite often, the urban prefects of Rome had only more power and free hands to embellish the city, anyway 19 The water level at 62.27 m above sea level excludes the lower Aqua Julia, as most other aqueducts. 20 HA Alex. Sev. 25, 5 if this passage can be related to the fountain; Lusnia 2004, 535 fig. 15.

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in the name of the ruling emperor. So, there was enough time to promote dynastic propaganda, to leave a mark on the Roman Empire and on the urban set of Rome (cf. Rowan 2012). Starting from the city centre with the Baths of Alexander Severus, one can observe a concentration of Severan buildings on the Southeast side of the Palatine and more to the Southeast of the city with the Severan Baths and the Baths of Caracalla (fig. 12). And still in the Eastern quarters are the Fountain of Oceanus and the buildings of the Sessorium complex (Lusnia 2004, 536–537; cf. Lanciani 1893 pl. XXXII; Frischer 2010). No doubt that there was a kind of new beginning with emperor Septimius Severus. This was emphasized in the political propaganda, overcoming the problematic reign of Commodus and the following civil war. The creation of a new dynasty with two male successors, and the celebration of saecular games were central in initiating a new epoch (cf. Cooley 2007, 385–400). The later years of Septimius Severus show far more his attempt to insert himself into an un-interrupted tradition of Roman emperors, going so far to re-abilitate Commodus and Pertinax, what becomes evident from the emperor’s titulature in inscriptions and the official burials of the forementioned emperors. This conservative behaviour in the traditional family line was then strictly followed by Caracalla and Alexander Severus. What stood in the center of the Severan political propaganda, is confirmed by and expressed through the building activity at monumental size. The quantity is impressing: many important buildings were erected during these times, the spectrum goes from new constructions to reconstructed ones on bigger scale: the Baths of Caracalla were the largest of their time, the Aqua Alexandriana was the last new aqueduct built in Rome. Obviously, here should be included the many other Severan buildings, which were not related to water. But how was the quality of construction? Expensive materials were employed, as is best demonstrated by the coloured marbles reported for the Septizodium. Impressing is the axial symmetry of the Caracalla-Baths, and outstanding—because so unexpected in a 200 m long building—the extremely high precision up to the cm (cf. DeLaine 1997, 45–68). The masonry work of Severan walls is very ordinate: its brick facing is done

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with regularly shaped, relatively thin and long bricks, and has thin layers of mortar (fig. 13. Palatine).21 To be mentioned as a typical constructive element, the brick ribbons giving stability to vaulted and domed ceilings (Domus Severiana, Baths of Agrippa, Aqua Alexandriana, aqueduct Via Turati). Severan brickstamps show long inscriptions made of clearly visible letters, and they include sometimes elaborate images.22 The architectural ornaments of the time are rich, nearly overloaded, nevertheless the high numbers of production. The new style creates sharp contrast of light and shadow, resulting into a black/white effect, paired with frontality (fig. 14: Thermae Alexandrinae). One may compare sculpture and in particular Severan portraiture, for the treatment of hair and eyes with elaborate details.23

CONCLUSIONS All these buildings, the ornamental façades, the inscriptions played their role in the Severan dynastic propaganda. The long-winded imperial titulature (as known from the Septizodium) and the emblematic images of the imperial family (as to be seen on the arch at Leptis Magna) find direct counterparts in the aqueducts, baths and fountains in Rome. But at the same moment these constructions constituted really a great benefit for the citizens, they served the essential needs of the population. To mention the names of the benefactors was a long and well-known tradition: dynastic propaganda and public welfare went hand in hand throughout the Severan period. The fire of 192 AD and the civil war after the violent deaths of Commodus and Pertinax had caused considerable damage to various buildings in Rome. But was it only fixing some aqueduct arches and cleaning some temple porticoes, what made the Severans chisel long inscriptions onto the architraves (Pantheon, Porticus Octaviae, Porta Tiburtina)?

21

cf. Delaine 1997 fig. 57–59: examples of masonry from Caracalla’s Baths. Less impressive is the letter quality of Severan inscriptions. See J. Langford, Julia Domna Inscriptions, University of South Florida, Severan Database Project: web3.cas.usf.edu/main/other/severan/databases/. 23 Meischner 1964 and 1982, 401–439; see F. Leitmeir in this volume. 22

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I have tried in this paper to show that the Severan emperors did much more than generally estimated. Going further, we can work with the hypothesis of a revival since the times of Trajan nearly a hundred years before, a revival after decades of stagnation in the city of Rome (and probably in Italy). The last aqueduct and thermae built before the Severans were the Aqua Trajana and the Baths of Trajan; for a monumental nymphaeum we may have to go back to Nero’s at the podium of the abandoned Divus Claudius Temple on the Caelian Hill. Beyond monuments of water, the last of the imperial fora is Trajan’s, as was the last building phase of the Circus Maximus. Hadrian and Antoninus Pius built several temples, and this time saw the construction of private insulae or apartment houses concentrated on the central Field of Mars, but where are the major public works? Then, Hadrian’s orientation towards the provinces, and his headquarter-villa at Tivoli contributed to shift away from the city of Rome. And what was done under Marcus Aurelius, in a time of beginning serious economical crisis? Seen against the achievements of the good emperors during the 2nd century AD, we must even more re-evaluate the efforts of Septimius Severus and his successors, and consequently see the Severans in a much more positive light.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Aicher P. 1993, Terminal Display Fountains, Phoenix 47, 339–352. Aicher P. 1995, Guide to the Aqueducts of Ancient Rome. Ashby T. 1935, The Aqueducts of Ancient Rome. Birley A.R.1988, Septimius Severus. The African Emperor (2nd ed. 1988/ 1999) 163–164. Carettoni G. 1960, (et al.), La pianta marmorea di Roma antica. Forma Urbis Romae. Caruso G. 1986, Aqua Alexandriana, in: Il Trionfo dell’Acqua. Acque e acquedotti a Roma, 120–125. Caruso G. 1993, Aqua Alexandrina, in: Steinby E.M. (ed.), LTUR 1, 60– 61. Cattalini D. 1986, Aqua Antoniniana, in: Il Trionfo dell’Acqua. Acque e acquedotti a Roma, 57–59. Coarelli F. 1987, La situazione edilizia di Roma sotto Alessandro Severo, in: L’Urbs. Espace urbain et histoire 429–456. Cooley A., Septimius Severus: The Augustan emperor, in: Swain S.; Harrison S.; Elsner J. (ed.), Severan Culture 385–400.

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DeLaine J. 1997, The Baths of Caracalla, JRA suppl. 25. Dembskey E. J. 2009, The Aqueducts of Ancient Rome (MA thesis) 133– 134. Dombart T. 1922, Das Palatinische Septizonium zu Rom. Fane-Saunders P. 2011, ‚La forma da pochi intesa‘: the architectural reception of the Septizonium, c. 1450–1550, paper presented at the British School at Rome, June 21, 2011. Frischer B. 2010, Rome Reborn. A Digital Model of Ancient Rome, www.romereborn.virginia.edu. Garbrecht, G., Manderscheid, H. 1992, Etiam fonte novo Antoniniano, ArchClass 44, 193–234. Ghini G. 1988, Le Terme Alessandrine nel Campo Marzio. Gorrie C. 2004, Julia Domna’s Building Patronage, Imperial Family Roles and the Severan Revival of Moral Legislation, Historia 53, 61– 72. Grant M. 1996, The Severans, The Changed Roman Empire 65. 71–72. Hodge T. 2002, Roman Aqueducts and Water Supply (1992/2nd ed. 2002) Jacopi I; G. Tedone G. 1993, La ricostruzione del Settizodio severiano, Boll di archeologia 19–21, 1–12. Lanciani R. 1893, Forma Urbis Romae (1893–1901). Lombardi L. 1995; Corazza A., Le Terme di Caracalla. Lusnia S.S. 2004, Urban Planning and Sculptural Display in Severan Rome: Reconstructing the Septizodium and Its Role in Dynastic Politics, AJA 108, 517–544. Meischner J. 1964, Das Frauenportraet der Severerzeit. Meischner J. 1982, Privatportraets der Jahre 195–220 n. Chr., JDAI 97, 401–439. Mucci A. 1986, Arcus Caelimontani Aquae Claudia, in: Il Trionfo dell’Acqua. Acque e acquedotti a Roma 95–99. Petersen E. 1910, Septizonium, MDAI (Rom) 25, 56–73. Pflug J. 2011, Die Entwicklung der Domus Augustana im Kontext des südwestlichen Palatin bis in severische Zeit, paper presented at the symposium Kaiserliche Wirkungsräume und ihr Umfeld. Palast und Stadt im severischen Rom, KNIR – Dutch Institute at Rome, April 7, 2011. Piranomonte M. 1998, The Baths of Caracalla. Pisani Sartorio G. 1999, Septizonium, in: Steinby E.M. (ed.), LTUR 4, 269–272.

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Richardson L. 1992, A New Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome, 350. Rodriguez Almeida E. 1980, Forma urbis marmorea. Rowan C. 2012, Under Divine Auspices. Visualisation of Imperial Power in the Severan Period. Schram W. 2011, Roman Aqueducts, www.romanaqueducts.info (2004– 2011) Sojc N. 2011, Il palazzo severiano nel suo contesto urbano, paper presented at the symposium Kaiserliche Wirkungsräume und ihr Umfeld. Palast und Stadt im severischen Rom, KNIR – Dutch Institute at Rome, April 7, 2011. Southern P. 2001, The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine. Swain S.; Harrison S.; Elsner J. 2007 (ed.), Severan Culture. Tedeschi Grisanti G. 1986, Le mostre degli antichi acquedotti: i „Trofei di Mario“, in: Il Trionfo dell’Acqua. Acque e acquedotti a Roma 126– 135. Thomas E. 2007, Metaphor and Identity in Severan Architecture: The Septizodium at Rome Between Reality and Fantasy, in: Swain S.; Harrison S.; Elsner J. (ed.), Severan Culture 327–367. Tortorici E. 1993, Terme Severianae, Terme Severiane e terme Septimianae, BullCom 95, 161–172.

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ILLUSTRATIONS

Fig. 1 Aqua Claudia: Arcus Caelimontani (photo by the author)

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Fig. 2 Thermae Helenianae: cistern (photo by the author)

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Fig. 3 Septizodium. G. A. Dosio 1560

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Fig. 3a Septizodium. The site today

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Fig. 4 Arch of Drusus (photo by the author)

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Fig. 4a. Aqua Antoniniana. Arch of Drusus

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Fig. 5 Porta Tiburtina (photo by the author)

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Figs. 6–6a Porta Tiburtina: inscription (photos by the author)

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Fig. 7 Baths of Caracalla: northern entrance wall (photo by the author)

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Fig. 7a Baths of Caracalla. Niche in northern entrance wall (photo by the author)

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Figs. 8–8a Baths of Caracalla: southern reservoir (photos by the author)

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Figs. 9–9a Aqua Alexandriana (photos by the author)

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Fig. 10 Aqueduct Via Turati (photo by the author)

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Fig. 11 Trophies of Marius (photo by the author)

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Fig. 12 The area South-East of the Palatine. I. Gismondi 1937–1955

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Fig. 13 Domus Severiana: masonry detail (photo by the author)

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Fig. 14 Thermae Alessandrinae: architectural ornaments (photo by the author)

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A NOTE ON THE ARCHITECTURAL D E C O R AT I O N OF THE SEVERAN PERIOD I N PA M P H Y L I A A N D C I L I C I A Müjde Türkmen-Peker (Istanbul University)

INTRODUCTION In the Severan period witnessed an increased number of buildings with monumental façades, such as scaenae frons of theaters, nymphaea, propylaea and city gates, which were used as imperial propaganda to reflect the power and wealth of the new dynasty. Within the building program of this period the cities of Pamphylia received new nymphaea and restored theater scaenae frons, while in Cilicia new monumental city gates and renovated colonnaded streets embellished the urban landscapes. Corinthian and composite column capitals were preferred in this period because of their more ornamental features and decorational area (fig. 1). In order to carve the ornaments, drills were employed more than in previous periods. Deep carvings create impressive light and shadow effects; however, sometimes careless work, probably because of the increased demand for building activities and an excess of decorative programs, resulted in a perforated appearance around the ornamental features due to successive drill holes without final retouching. The increased usage of drills can be observed in the following examples of scroll decoration on friezes: The Main City Gate at Anazarbos (Cilicia), the Severan 151

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Propylaea of the South Baths and the scaenae frons of the theater at Perge (Pamphylia),1 and the Great Nymhaeum at Side (Pamphylia)2 (fig. 2). Some Syrian features are also seen in Pamphylian and Cilician architecture and architectural decoration. These features will be discussed in the 3 following paper.

THE GENERAL FEATURES OF THE ARCHITECTURAL DECORATION OF THE SEVERAN PERIOD IN PAMPHYLIA AND CILICIA To construct an outline of Severan architectural decoration of Pamphylia and Cilicia, I exemplify here the most convenient ornaments, Ionic kyma, anthemion, bead-and-reel and scrolls: The Ionic kyma (or with its other names, egg-and-dart and egg-andtongue) is a very common form of decoration and the dates derived from the stylistic development and changes of this decoration generally provide convenient results. On the other hand, besides general stylistic development, the local character of the decoration and its specific development in the region and in the city should be considered. Toward the end of the Severan Period, profiles of Ionic kyma were lower and the space between the elements of these decorations wider. The egg and the flanking frames became almost independent and connected only with a tiny bridge under the egg. The tongues or darts between the eggs became thicker and the heads of the darts wider. These general stylistic developments in Ionic kyma were valid also for Pamphylia and Cilicia.

1

The restoration and renovation project of the scaenae frons of the theater at Perge took long period from late Antonine until late Severan and also have some Gallienus and later additions. Inan et al. 2000, 299–321; Atik 2003, 115, fig. 3. 2 The Great Nymhaeum in Side is dated to Caracallan period according to the inscribed statue bases from the building (Nolle 1993, 307–308) and stylistic analysis of its architectural decorations. 3 This article is a summary of my Ph.D. dissertation (2007). I would like to thank my supervisor, Prof. Dr. Elif Tül Tulunay, for her precious guidance. The thesis was supported by Scientific Research Projects Coordination Unit of Istanbul University. Project number: T-664/13042005.

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The anthemia of this period consisted of acanthus-like palmettes and, towards the end of the period, acanthus leaves took place of the palmettes. They were used as alternating open-close palmettes types and upright-downrights positions (fig. 5). In Pamphylia, the S-shaped thin scrolls between alternating palmettes were very common. Also in Pamphylia, in this period, the open palmette leaves became thicker in the middle and with that sinuate lower contour touched the leaf below. Later, this feature was also seen in other regions of Asia Minor (fg. 6). In bead-and-reel ornamentation, as in Ionic kyma with which they were often used together, the space between the elements became wider. The beads were longer and with a more rectangular shape. Beads and reels are connected together with tiny links. In Pamphylia from the middle of 2nd century AD and onwards, a different type of bead-and-reel was used. While the general course of this ornament is arranged alternating one bead and two reels, in the Pamphylian type alternating double and single reels were used between beads (Vandeput 1997, 150) (fig. 7). When this ornament was used with Ionic kyma, the lower parts of the eggs were carved between two reels and the lower spit of the darts or tongues were carved above the single reels. This type was seen in other regions of Asia Minor later, too. The scroll ornament was common in this period in architecture and the other decorative arts, such as mosaics. Scrolls consisted of acanthus or vine leaves and branches. They employed a single scroll or sinuating scrolls and the sinuating scrolls created round medallions. The floral rosettes, leaf masks or animal protomes and putti were carved inside them. In the Severan period, these features in the medallions became closer to the corners of the frame in order to create a more crowded and off-theframe composition. To increase the impact, the motives were sometimes half carved on the corner and the decorational area was almost completely filled with thick acanthus scrolls (fig. 8). The later examples of this period, however, were monotonous because of the careless work and overcrowded composition. Towards the end of the Severan period, the earlier bold convex profiles of decorations, as a result of the retro Hellenistic Baroque trends in Septimius Severus and later Caracallan times, were lower and because of this, the decorations lost their depth and light and shadow effect (fig. 3).

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THE SYRIAN ELEMENTS IN THE ARCHITECTURAL DECORATION OF THE SEVERAN PERIOD IN PAMPHYLIA AND CILICIA Some Syrian features can be observed in the façade architecture of Severan buildings of Pamphylia and Cilicia. Architectural design of the Great Nymphaeum at Side, which was probably constructed between the reigns of Septimius Severus and Caracalla, is very similar to the courtyard of the Temple of Jupiter at Heliopolis/Baalbek (fig. 10). The Severan colonnaded streets of Cilician cities such as Soloi Pompeiopolis (PeschlowBindokat 1975, 373–391), Anazarbos and Hierapolis Castabala, have columns with consoles for statues as in the Syrian cities of Apameia, Palmyra and Bostra (fig. 11). Their column capitals also represent similar features (fig. 12). At Perge, the ornaments on the console of the Late Antonine-early Severan Tholos in Agora are similar with the ones in the main gate of Palmyra (fig. 13). The predecessors of Late Antique Corinthian capitals, with the acanthus leaves carved as if blown by the wind, were also seen in this period (fig. 14). Some special features of Syrian architectural decorations were also seen at this time in Pamphylia and Cilicia (Pensabene 1997, 288 and 404, fig. 8–9). The wide soffite decorations of the Severan Propylaea of the South Baths at Perge (Abbasoglu 1994, 85–91, no.155, 160) were exceptional and its closest parallels were found the Bacchus Temple at Heliopolis (Baalbek) (fig. 15). The Syrian architectural decoration was more innovative than the traditionalist Anatolian architectural decoration, and the standard elements of ornaments were easily varied. For example, in Ionic kyma, floral elements such as scrolls, leaves, flowers, and figures were employed instead of darts (or tongues) between the eggs (fig. 4). The fork-like end of the dart of the Ionic kyma from the scaenae frons of the theater at Aspendos (Pamphylia) and at Xanthos (Lycia) (Cavalier 2005, 155, fig. 85, 130), and floral (lotus or tulip) elements, like those on the lintel of the cella door of the prostylos temple tomb at Demircili (Cilicia), are examples of these Syrian-derived variations (Machatschek 1974, 254–255, fig. 53, pl. 94, 96, 98a).

CONCLUSION In the monumental architecture of Pamphylia imported marble was preferred over local stones in the Severan Period. As a consequence of the

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Hadrianic construction boom, using marble in architecture became widespread in the region and Pamphylian marble workshops began to thrive in this period. Pamphylian craftsmen probably worked in connection with those located in western Asia Minor. The similarities between the composition and workmanship of the theater scaenae frons at Perge in Pamphylia and at Hierapolis in Phrygia can be explained by the fact that the architectural decorations of these two buildings would be the work of the same workshop. In these two examples, we can see a tiny snail relief carved in architectural elements, maybe as a signature or at least indication of stylistic similarity (Türkmen 2007, 77) (fig. 9). Enriching the scroll compositions with little creatures like snails, fish, or birds was favored in the Augustan period, which was influenced by Hellenistic Baroque art and the Pergamene School. In Cilician architecture, imported marble and granite began to be employed in the 2nd century AD (Spanu 2003, 26–28, pl. 5), but even with the increasing amount of construction in the Severan Period, marble did not replace local stones. The same case is also seen in Syria and, owing to the ease of processing local limestone, an unconventional style in architectural decoration developed in this region (Pensabene 2006, 41). For the Syrian features in Pamphylian and Cilician architectural decoration, it can be suggested that the travelling craftsmen might have adopted local motives after they returned to their workshops. It can also be suggested that the employment of Syrian features in the architecture of this period was intended to honor the Severans by referring to their family origins (Türkmen 2007, 77). To prove the relations and understand the direction of interaction, the stylistic and typological studies are not sufficient alone and marble analyses are very necessary. The presence of Aphrodisian craftsmen in Lepcis Magna was first suggested based upon the stylistic similarities distinguished between the decoration of the Hadrianic Baths at Aphrodisias and the Severan Basilica at Lepcis Magna, but it was also proved by the scientific analysis of the marble.4 The craftsmen from other workshops in Anatolia may have also worked in Lepcis Magna (Pensabene 2006, 45). 4

Squarciapino 1943, 78–96, 102; Ward-Perkins 1980, 64–65; Stinson 2008, 58–59; Attanasio et al. 2008, 220–221. Cf. Walker 1984, 217; Walda-Walker 1984, 82.

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The Corinthian capital with an eagle from the Severan Propylaea of the South Baths at Perge (Türkmen 2007, 15, 113) (fig. 1.2) shows very similar features with the one in the Severan Basilica at Lepcis Magna (WardPerkins 1980, 53, pl. XIV). The unfinished capitals in a quarry-state export form in Proconnesian marble found at Lepcis Magna (Asgari 1988, 119, fig. 15) also proved the reality of travelling craftsmen for processing the marble. Another suggestion on this subject was the training of local craftsmen in the quarry and processing the quarry-state imported marbles when they returned to their hometowns (Asgari 1988, 120).

BIBLIOGRAPHY Abbasoglu, H., Perge Roma Devri Mimarisinde Arsitravların Soffit Bezemeleri (1994). Asgarı, N., “The Stages of Workmanship of the Corinthian Capital in Proconnesus”, Classical Marble: Geochemistry, Technology, Trade, ed. N. Herz, M. Waelkens, (1988) 115–125. Atik, N., “Perge: Stadtentwicklung in der mittleren Kaiserzeit”, Die Stadt als Grossbaustelle von der Antike bis zur Neuzeit, Internationaler Kongress vom 7. Bis 10. November 2001 (2003) 113–117. Attanasio, D., et al., “Aphrodisias and the Newly Discovered Quarries at Göktepe”, Roman Portraits from Aphrodisias exhibition catalogue (2008) 218–227. Cavalier, L., Architecture Romaine d’Asie Mineure. Les monuments de Xanthos et leur ornementation (2005). D’Andria, F., Hierapolis (Pamukkale) Arkeoloji Rehberi (2003). Dorl-Klıngenschmid, C., Prunkbrunnen in kleinasiatischen Städten: Funktion im Kontext (2001). Inan, J., et al., “Vorbericht über die Untersuchungen an der Fassade des Theaters von Perge”, Archaeologischer Anzeiger (2000) 285–340. Matchatschek, A., “Die Grabtempel von Dösene im Rauhen Kilikien”, Mansel’e Armağan – Mélanges Mansel (1974) 251–261. Nollé, J., Side im Altertum. Geschichte und Zeugnisse Band: I, Die Inschriften griechischer Städte aus Kleinasien 43 (1993). Pensabene, P., “Marmi d’importazione, pietre locali e committenza nella decorazione architettonica di età severiana in alcuni centri delle province Syria et Palestina e Arabia”, Archeologia Classica XLIX (1997) 275–421.

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Pensabene, P., “Le scuole di Nicomedia e Afrodisia e i pilastri della basilica severiana di Leptis Magna”, Marmora 2 (2006) 41–58. Peschlow-Bindokat, A., “Zur Säulenstraße von Pompeiopolis in Kilikien”, Istanbuler Mitteilungen 25 (1975) 373–391. Squarciapino, M. F., La Scuola di Afrodisia (1943). Stinson, P., “Ornamentation and the City”, Roman Portraits from Aphrodisias exhibition catalogue (2008) 54–69. Türkmen, M., “Pamphylia ve Kilikia’da Severuslar Dönemi Mimari Bezemesi [Architectural Decoration of the Severan Period in Pamphylia and Cilicia]”, Ph.D. diss., Istanbul University (2007). Vandeput, L., The Architectural Decoration in Roman Asia Minor, Sagalassos: A Case Study (1997). Walda, H., Walker, S., “The Art and Architecture of Lepcis Magna: Marble Origins by Isotopic Analysis”, Libyan Studies 15 (1984) 81–84. Walda, H., Walker, S., “Isotopic Analysis of Marble from Lepcis Magna: Revised Interpretations”, Libyan Studies 19 (1988) 55–59. Walker, S., “Marble Origins by Isotopic Analysis”, World Archaeology 16/2 (1984) 217. Ward-Perkıns, J.B., “Nicomedia and the Marble Trade”, Papers of the British School at Rome XLVIII (1980) 23–69.

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LIST OF FIGURES All photographs were taken by the author except fig. 3.2: D’Andria 2003: fig. 99b; fig. 4.4: Machatschek 1974: pl. 98.a; fig. 10.2: DorlKlingenschmid 2001: fig. 1.

Fig. 1. Corinthian and composite column capitals 1.1 Two Corinthian capitals from Perge (Pamphylia), Propylaea of the Baths 1.2 A composite capital from Perge (Pamphylia), the scaenae frons of the theater 1.3 A composite capital from Side (Pamphylia), the Great Nymhaeum

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Fig. 2. Some examples of scroll decoration on friezes 2.1 Perge (Pamphylia), the scaenae frons of the theater, with leaf mask 2.2 Side (Pamphylia), the Great Nymhaeum, with putti 2.3 Anazarbos (Cilicia), City gate, with leaf mask

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Fig. 3. Profiles of the friezes 3.1 Smyrna (Ionia), Agora: Late Antonine 3.2 Hierapolis (Phrygia), Nymphaeum of the Tritons: A.D. 220–235 3.3 Side (Pamphylia), the Great Nymhaeum: Caracalla 3.4 Perge (Pamphylia), Roman City Gate: Late Severan

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Fig. 4. The Syrian Ionic kyma 4.1 Palmyra, the colonnaded street 4.2 Bostra, theater 4.3 Aspendos (Pamphylia), the scaenae frons of the theater 4.4 Demircili (Cilicia), prostylos temple tomb

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Fig. 5. Anthemia 5.1 Detail of a frieze from Perge (Pamphylia), Propylaea of the Baths 5.2 Detail of a geison from Aspendos (Pamphylia), Nymphaeum 5.3 A frieze from Adana Museum (Cilicia) 5.4 Detail of a geison from Tarsus (Cilicia)

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Fig. 6. Anthemia 6.1–2 Detail of a frieze and geison from Perge (Pamphylia), the scaenae frons of the theater 6.3 Detail of a geison from Hierapolis Castabala (Cilicia), Colonnaded street 6.4 City Gate (Anazarbos) 6.5 Hierapolis (Phrygia)

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Fig. 7. Bead and reel 7.1 Aspendos (Pamphylia), Nymphaeum 7.2 Perge (Pamphylia), Severan Nymphaeum 7.3 Hierapolis (Phrygia), Agora

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Fig. 8. Scroll ornament from the friezes 8.1 Anazarbos (Cilicia), City gate 8.2 Propylaea of the Baths 8.3 Late Severan Numphaeum 8.4 Perge (Pamphylia), theater

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Figure 9. Carved snail within scroll ornamentation from 9.1 Hierapolis (Phrygia) and 9.2 Perge (Pamphylia), theater

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Figure 10. 10.1: Side (Pamphylia), the Great Nymhaeum 10.2 Model the Great Nymhaeum at Side (in Museo di Civilta Romana) 10.3 Baalbek, Courtyard of the Iupiter Temple

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Figure 11. Colonnaded streets with consoles 11.1 Soloi Pompeiopolis (Cilicia) 11.2 Hierapolis Castabala (Cilicia) 11.3 Palmyra 11.4 Apameia

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Figure 12. Corinthian capitals from the colonnaded streets 12.1 Soloi Pompeiopolis (Cilicia) 12.2 Hierapolis Castabala (Cilicia) 12.3 Palmyra

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Figure 13. Rosette ornamentations 13.1 Perge (Pamphylia), Tholos 13.2 Palmyra, Main gate

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Figure 14. Corinthian capitals with blown by the wind leaves 14.1 Palmyra Museum 14.2 Adana Museum 14.3 Soloi Pompeiopolis (Cilicia) 14.4–5 Perge (Pamphylia) 14.6 Hierapolis (Phrygia)

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Figure 15. Soffit ornamentation 15.1 Perge (Pamphylia), propylaea of the baths 15.2 Baalbek, Bacchus Temple

L’ AT T I V I T À E D I L I Z I A A DESTINAZIONE PUBBLICA FRA I S E V E R I E I S O L D AT E N K A I S E R : CONTINUITÀ E TRASFORMAZIONI Simone Rambaldi (Università degli Studi di Palermo)

PREMESSA Quando si deve indagare un aspetto particolare di un determinato periodo di una civiltà antica, spesso si è portati a concentrarsi essenzialmente sul periodo in sé. Tuttavia una comparazione puntuale tra l’attività di un’epoca e quella di un’altra ad essa immediatamente vicina, ma pur diversa perché contrassegnata da istanze e urgenze differenti, può rivelarsi molto fruttuoso, poiché consente di evidenziare alcuni punti fermi di vicende e sviluppi profondi, i quali potrebbero rimanere altrimenti poco visibili. E’ per questo motivo che, nell’ambito di un convegno specificamente dedicato alla dinastia dei Severi, di cui col presente volume si pubblicano gli Atti, ho voluto proporre un confronto tra l’edilizia pubblica severiana e quella del periodo subito successivo, vale a dire l’epoca che agli studiosi è generalmente nota come “Anarchia Militare”. Un’operazione di questo tipo sarà forse utile a chiarire meglio quali possano essere considerati, a tale riguardo, gli aspetti più significativi dell’età dei Severi, in quanto capaci di esercitare un’influenza diretta sugli sviluppi posteriori dell’attività edilizia nei centri urbani romani.

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Prima di continuare è però necessario fare una premessa sul periodo dell’Anarchia Militare, o dei Soldatenkaiser. Questo cinquantennio, come è noto durato dalla morte di Severo Alessandro nel 235 d.C. fino alla presa del potere da parte di Diocleziano nel 284, è stato oggetto di vari studi importanti negli ultimi anni. Limitandosi alle monografie, si potrebbero ricordare alcuni volumi di particolare rilievo, come l’analisi del III secolo compiuta da Karl Strobel (1993), o l’esame dell’Occidente romano nello stesso ambito temporale tracciato da Christian Witschel (1999), o il saggio su Aureliano di Alaric Watson (1999), o soprattutto la vasta trattazione in due tomi curata da Klaus-Peter Johne (2008), la quale ha affrontato l’epoca dei Soldatenkaiser in modo esaustivo e da diverse angolazioni. Questi lavori specialmente, insieme ad altri contributi di mole più contenuta, hanno ridimensionato l’idea vulgata di ‘grande crisi’ che da lungo tempo gravava su tale periodo. Pur tra le oggettive e indubbie difficoltà che lo contraddistinsero, come il tumultuoso avvicendarsi di numerosi imperatori e usurpatori, la pressione delle popolazioni straniere sui confini, la crisi economica generale (per limitarsi alle manifestazioni di instabilità più eclatanti), e pur tenendo conto delle notevoli differenze rilevabili tra una regione e l’altra dell’impero, la vita nelle città, a un’analisi approfondita, non sembra infatti avere conosciuto un reale declino. A Diocleziano e Costantino sarebbe stato del resto molto difficile ridonare stabilità al mondo romano, se esso fosse sprofondato in uno stato di autentica decadenza nel corso dei decenni centrali del III secolo. Di una sostanziale continuità di vita e consuetudini offre un’importante testimonianza proprio l’edilizia pubblica, un settore che è stato a lungo trascurato, quasi come se ben poco si fosse operato in tale ambito durante gli anni dell’Anarchia Militare. Grazie a un ampio lavoro di ricerca, pubblicato molto di recente, all’autore del presente contributo è stato possibile raccogliere informazioni su un totale di 334 interventi edilizi certamente o probabilmente effettuati nell’intero impero romano sotto i Soldatenkaiser. Queste informazioni sono state ricavate prendendo in esame tutte le fonti disponibili: archeologiche, epigrafiche, letterarie e numismatiche.1 Le operazioni complessivamente censite, inerenti sia a 1

Rambaldi 2009. Nelle pagine che seguono mi permetterò di rimandare soprattutto alla mia monografia quando dovrò citare monumenti pubblici dell’Anarchia Militare, anche perché in essa si potrà trovare bibliografia ulteriore.

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iniziative del tutto nuove, sia a lavori di restauro (molto numerosi), dimostrano che gli spazi e gli edifici pubblici seguitavano a essere oggetto di notevole attenzione, e da parte di ogni categoria di committenza, poiché gli apparati monumentali e le infrastrutture dei centri urbani venivano mantenuti in efficienza, per quanto possibile, e potenziati ove necessario. E’ vero che, nel complesso, si registra una contrazione numerica dei provvedimenti edilizi, rispetto ad altre epoche della storia imperiale romana in cui si è operato di più, compresa l’epoca severiana che qui particolarmente interessa, ma ciò non deve essere visto, di per sé, solo come un sintomo di crisi. Occorre infatti tenere presente che gli arredi monumentali e infrastrutturali delle città romane erano ormai sostanzialmente completi e di norma non esigevano nuove iniziative particolari (Rambaldi 2009, 133–134). Basti considerare la situazione offerta dalla capitale, il cui centro, come non ha mancato di rilevare Pierre Gros (1991, 733–734), già dal II sec. d.C. era saturo di edifici e dotato di tutte le strutture necessarie alla vita pubblica. Solo per mezzo di imponenti interventi di rimodellazione urbana e sfruttando aree non centralissime, diremmo oggi, fu possibile giungere alle ultime grandi realizzazioni dell’edilizia imperiale (si pensi solo alle Terme di Caracalla, tanto per citare uno dei maggiori complessi di età severiana). Se dunque, nei lavori edilizi degli imperatori-soldati, affiorano segni non trascurabili di continuità col passato, è proprio con le iniziative severiane che si possono cogliere notevolissimi punti di contatto, ciò che ribadisce come i problemi che travagliarono allora l’impero romano non comportassero una cesura con quanto era avvenuto in precedenza e come la vita nelle città seguitasse il suo corso senza reali fratture. Richiami tra i Soldatenkaiser e i Severi sono già stati da tempo messi in luce nell’ ambito della ritrattistica, ad esempio sottolineando le affinità che si riscontrano fra i ritratti di Massimino il Trace e Caracalla (Bergmann 1977, 11), oppure fra quelli di Gordiano III e Severo Alessandro (Wegner, Bracker, Real 1979, 17–18 [J. Bracker]), ma i rapporti nella sfera dell’edilizia pubblica hanno destato finora scarsa attenzione. L’analisi che ora si proporrà sarà basata primariamente su quanto è noto della città di Roma, tuttavia sarà opportuno considerare anche vari esempi tratti dal mondo provinciale, dove si possono individuare episodi rilevanti, i quali permettono di tracciare un quadro più ampio e completo dell’attività edilizia tra i due periodi che si vogliono mettere a confronto e delle analogie che vi si possono riconoscere.

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CONTINUITÀ ARCHITETTURA RELIGIOSA E’ risaputo che il grave incendio del 191 d.C. determinò nella capitale l’avvio di un’ingente campagna di restauri in numerosi edifici pubblici, di cui si fecero carico Settimio Severo e Caracalla, come sappiamo soprattutto grazie alle testimonianze epigrafiche (elenco in Scheithauer 2000, 183). Nel cinquantennio dell’Anarchia Militare non si registrano simili programmi su larga scala, non essendosi allora verificate calamità di tale portata.2 Ma una serie di interessanti affinità con l’immediato passato emerge qualora si proceda a indagare nello specifico diverse iniziative che furono comunque intraprese in quel periodo. Una prima importante analogia va senz’altro riconosciuta nel campo dell’architettura religiosa. Le ultime due grandi realizzazioni di questo tipo a Roma risalgono appunto l’una a un Severo, l’altra a un imperatoresoldato: si tratta, rispettivamente, del santuario sul Quirinale di solito designato come Tempio di Serapide e del Templum Solis costruito lungo la via Lata, l’odierna via del Corso. Il primo era un immenso complesso, costituito dal tempio vero e proprio (che, come si evince dalla pianta di Andrea Palladio su cui si fondano le ricostruzioni moderne, era sine postico ma con ben dodici colonne in facciata) e dal relativo recinto. Questo era associato a una monumentale scalinata, ampia quanto l’edificio sacrale, la quale consentiva l’accesso dal sottostante Campo Marzio (fig. 1). Secondo una diversa interpretazione, il santuario non andrebbe identificato col Tempio di Serapide attribuito a Caracalla sulla base di un’iscrizione oggi perduta (CIL VI, 570), come perlopiù si ritiene, ma con un altro edificio di età severiana. Si tratterebbe del tempio che fu dedicato a Hercules e Dionysus da Settimio Severo con intenti di celebrazione dinastica, in quanto nei due dèi, nei quali si potevano riconoscere i tratti delle divinità tutelari leptitane Milk’ashtart e Shadrapa, erano adombrati i

2

Dopo quello del 191, non si avranno più incendi dalle conseguenze altrettanto drammatiche fino al 283, all’epoca di Carino, quando si renderà necessaria una nuova massiccia campagna di rifacimenti, che sarà attuata sotto Diocleziano.

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suoi figli Caracalla e Geta.3 Il Tempio del Sole, la cui pianta è anch’essa nota per mezzo di schizzi rinascimentali, in particolare due celebri disegni di Palladio, rivela come caratteristica più appariscente il distacco dalla logica planimetrica tradizionale che prevede l’edificio sacrale disposto in maniera assiale rispetto al recinto che lo racchiude, logica che nella sostanza era ancora viva nel complesso severiano appena menzionato. In questo caso il santuario, per quello che possiamo sapere, era costituito da due recinti allineati, di forma molto differente: uno allungato, con due emicicli contrapposti sui lati brevi, e uno rettangolare, più vasto, porticato e con esedre aperte lungo il suo perimetro (al centro di questa corte Palladio aveva rilevato la presenza di una tholos, ma sembra probabile che ciò sia stato, se non proprio un’invenzione, almeno un fraintendimento: fig. 2). L’asse maggiore dell’impianto era perpendicolare alla via Lata, secondo una convincente proposta avanzata da Mario Torelli (1992, 111– 117), mentre in precedenza si propendeva per ritenerlo parallelo alla strada. Questo singolare impianto religioso appartiene all’avanzata Anarchia Militare, dato che esso fu costruito da Aureliano, che vi depositò parte del bottino proveniente dalla vittoriosa campagna militare contro Palmira (Rambaldi 2009, 198–200, nr. 150). Ciò che più risulta accomunare il complesso aurelianeo a quello severiano, al di là del gigantismo architettonico e dei più volte richiamati rapporti con soluzioni formali di ascendenza orientale (comunque più evidenti per il Tempio del Sole), è la natura delle divinità titolari, estranea al pantheon classico in entrambi i casi. Ma soprattutto si tratta, e in questo propriamente Aureliano può essersi ispirato al modello severiano, di fi3

Secondo la testimonianza di Cassio Dione, che rappresenta l’unica fonte al riguardo, si sarebbe trattato di un impianto di enormi dimensioni (LXXVI 16, 3). Vedi Santangeli Valenzani 1991–1992, 1996 e 1999; cfr. inoltre Ensoli 2000, 269–271. Per R. Taylor (2004), il quale ritiene il tempio del Quirinale un Serapeo ma lo attribuisce a un’iniziativa di Adriano completata da Antonino Pio, l’intervento severiano sarebbe consistito in un’operazione di rinnovamento, rappresentata soprattutto dalla grandiosa scalinata alle spalle dell’edificio sacrale (di una datazione all’età antonina, su base stilistica, per il capitello corinzio di pilastro conservato nel giardino di Villa Colonna ha parlato Freyberger 1990, 60–61). Sulla storia dei resti architettonici sul Quirinale attraverso i secoli, si vedano Santangeli Valenzani 2005 e il contributo di Ottavio Bucarelli in questo stesso volume.

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gure divine cui l’imperatore che governava in quel momento si dichiarava legato in modo particolare. E’ un fatto così noto che è superfluo soffermarsi sulla devozione per il dio africano Serapide da parte dei Severi, devozione la quale, oltre che nell’iniziativa or ora ricordata di erigere a Roma un importante tempio per il suo culto, trovò altre forme per manifestarsi, soprattutto col padre di Caracalla, la cui principale tipologia ritrattistica ricalcava addirittura alcuni elementi dell’immagine serapidea.4 Un ruolo paragonabile era svolto da Sol per Aureliano, il quale si mostrò specialmente devoto a questo dio, tanto da ritenerlo l’artefice della vittoria sul regno di Zenobia (HA, Div. Aurel., 25, 4–5). Se era sempre stato normale erigere templi alle figure divine predilette (lo si faceva già in piena età repubblicana: cfr. Gros 1990, 136–138), ciò che appare più notevole ora è la volontà di trattare il ‘proprio’ dio come un fattore di coesione culturale, conferendogli una sorta di preminenza nel panorama religioso dell’epoca. Simili intenzioni potevano dare luogo a eccessi, come era il caso del tempio eretto sul Palatino da Elagabalo in onore del suo dio emeseno, un altro santuario a vocazione ‘personale’. Era quello, peraltro, un complesso obbediente a una logica architettonica tradizionale, con un tempio periptero e ottastilo al centro di un recinto rettangolare dal ricco propileo d’accesso, quindi affine in ciò all’altro impianto sacrale di età severiana prima considerato5 (fig. 3). Il successore Severo Alessandro manifesterà la sua volontà di rendere omaggio al mondo divino tradizionale riconsacrando il tempio di Elagabalo a Iuppiter Ultor, nell’ambito di una politica religiosa attenta alle credenze avite, pur non rinunciando a occuparsi di edifici dedicati a divinità peregrinae ma ormai molto diffuse e popolari, come l’Iseo del Campo Marzio, di cui completerà il restauro avviato da Settimio Severo e 4

In proposito mi limito a citare: McCann 1968, 109–117; Hornbostel 1972, 354–356; Fittschen, Zanker 1985, 95–97, nr. 83. 5 Sulla possibilità che Elagabalo avesse non costruito ex novo, ma riutilizzato un edificio precedente, argomento che costituisce una questione dibattuta, si veda la sintesi tracciata da Gros 2001, soprattutto 15–21. Vedi inoltre Coarelli 1996b; Broise, Thébert 1999; Cecamore 1999; Thébert et al. 2001. Di esistenza dubbia un altro santuario che Elagabalo, secondo la testimonianza di Erodiano (V 6, 6), avrebbe dedicato al suo dio nei sobborghi di Roma, in un luogo che si è proposto di identificare col complesso del Sessorium, di cui avremo occasione di riparlare più avanti. Vedi Coarelli 1996a; Scheithauer 2000, 193–194 e nota 67.

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Caracalla (Coarelli 1987, 433; Coarelli 1996c). Di impronta tutto sommato collaudata appare anche il caso del c.d. Tempio Rotondo di Ostia, particolarmente interessante perché la sua costruzione pare essersi protratta dall’epoca severiana a quella dell’Anarchia Militare. Innalzato accanto alla basilica del Foro cittadino, l’edificio si ispirava direttamente, seppure su scala minore, al Pantheon adrianeo di Roma, trattandosi di una fabbrica a pianta circolare con copertura a cupola, innervata all’interno da nicchie alternatamente curve e rettangolari, e aperta su una vasta corte antistante (fig. 4). L’analisi strutturale sembra rivelare che questo tempio, che fu l’ultima grande impresa architettonica di Ostia prima del suo declino, fu iniziato all’epoca di Severo Alessandro, ma venne terminato soltanto sotto Gordiano III.6 Può essere significativo ricordare che il Pantheon di Roma fu oggetto di un restauro, peraltro di entità probabilmente molto limitata, a opera di Settimio Severo e Caracalla, come rivela l’iscrizione, oggi non del tutto visibile, che venne incisa sull’architrave del pronao (CIL VI, 896.2), al di sotto di quella in lettere di bronzo celebrante Agrippa (CIL VI, 896.1).7 Come il suo modello, l’edificio ostiense doveva rivestire soprattutto la funzione di tempio dinastico, a esaltazione della famiglia severiana in particolare.8 L’unica testimonianza veramente certa di una nuova realizzazione templare per il culto imperiale, nel periodo dell’Anarchia Militare, proviene dal territorio africano: a Verecunda, nella provincia di Numidia, un’epigrafe attesta che la città eresse un tempio al divo Caro, quando ancora regnavano i suoi figli Carino e Numeriano.9 Alla celebra6

Due teste pertinenti a statue colossali di entrambi sono state ritrovate al suo interno, come anche la base di una statua di Tranquillina, la moglie di Gordiano. Vedi Rambaldi 2009, 185, nr. 122 e nota 127. 7 Secondo un documento papiraceo, un intervento venne effettuato anche sotto Severo Alessandro, quando fu installata una biblioteca all’interno del Pantheon (Ramsay 1935, 438). Si è pensato che, in realtà, la biblioteca fosse ubicata nella retrostante Basilica Neptuni (Coarelli 1993b). 8 Crema 1959, 522. Sulla funzione del Pantheon vedi de Fine Licht 1968, 191–193; MacDonald 1976, 76–78; Coarelli 1983; Ziolkowski 1999, 55–56. Cfr. inoltre Martini 2006, 37–43. 9 Come chiarisce lo stesso testo (CIL VIII, 4221 = ILS 609), l’edificio fu dedicato dal governatore provinciale. Vedi Rambaldi 2009, 164, nr. 60. Iniziative dello stesso genere sono talora riferite dall’Historia Augusta, benché siano noti-

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zione della famiglia regnante e dei suoi membri divinizzati erano riservati monumenti appositi anche nella città arabica di Philippopolis, rifondata da Filippo l’Arabo, sulla quale dovremo tornare. Mentre il Tempio Rotondo di Ostia fu ideato e interamente realizzato nella prima metà del III sec. d.C., nello stesso periodo giunse al termine il lungo cantiere del grandioso santuario di Giove a Baalbek, cui era stato dato avvio circa due secoli prima, ma senza che gli si donasse un compimento davvero definitivo. Anche qui si verificò una sorta di avvicendamento tra Severi e imperatori-soldati: sotto Caracalla, infatti, venne completato il monumentale sistema d’accesso costituito dai propilei e dalla corte esagonale, ma lavori ulteriori, purtroppo non meglio precisabili, furono eseguiti sotto Filippo l’Arabo, come fanno pensare emissioni monetali della sua epoca, nelle quali alla rappresentazione dei propilei colonnati è stata conferita una particolare enfasi (Rambaldi 2009, 282–283, nr. 332). TERME E ATTREZZATURE IDRAULICHE Alcuni Soldatenkaiser furono attivi anche nel campo dell’architettura profana e funzionale alle esigenze materiali della popolazione, in ciò seguendo, del resto, uno dei tradizionali ambiti di intervento del potere centrale. L’imperatore Decio, in anni pur turbolenti sul piano della politica estera (si ricordi che Decio morì in battaglia, combattendo contro i Goti nel territorio mesico), costruì uno degli ultimi grandi complessi termali di Roma, vale a dire quello sul colle Aventino, caratterizzato da un’orientazione e una distribuzione dei vani che seguivano la logica simmetrica della “tipologia imperiale”, sviluppatasi a partire dal I secolo d.C. (fig. 5). Se anche non poteva essere confrontabile, sul piano dimensio-

zie di non facile valutazione, come il Divorum templum costruito da Tacito (Tac. 9, 5), i templa per Gordiano I e Gordiano II decisi dal Senato di Roma (Max. duo 26, 2), il restauro del Templum gentis Flaviae voluto da Claudio il Gotico (Div. Claud. 3, 6), il templum dedicato ad Aureliano a Caenophrurium in Tracia, nello stesso luogo dove l’imperatore era stato ucciso e sepolto (Div. Aurel. 37, 1–2). Su tutte queste informazioni vedi ancora Rambaldi 2009, 196 nr. 145, 196–197 nr. 146, 197 nr. 147, e 268 nr. 304.

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nale, con le colossali Terme di Caracalla,10 del cui edificio centrale sembrava quasi rievocare ‘in piccolo’ la planimetria, e nemmeno con le più contenute terme neroniane del Campo Marzio, che erano state rifatte da Severo Alessandro una ventina d’anni prima,11 questa nuova opera obbediva comunque alla stessa logica di decentramento di tali vasti impianti, nell’intento di servire quartieri fino allora sprovvisti di strutture adeguate.12 Le terme, naturalmente, comportavano la necessità di garantire un sufficiente rifornimento idrico: Severo Alessandro fu l’ultimo imperatore che fece costruire per la capitale un nuovo acquedotto, che aveva lo scopo prioritario di approvvigionare appunto le sue terme nel Campo Marzio (Caruso 1993; Ghini 1999). L’attenzione per l’acqua si esprimeva inoltre nella realizzazione di fontane monumentali: ricordiamo, ancora a proposito dell’ultimo dei Severi, la grande fontana da lui fatta innalzare sull’Esquilino e di cui restano le vestigia nell’odierna Piazza Vittorio

10

Il Cronografo dell’anno 354 riferisce che nell’ambito dell’Anarchia Militare, precisamente sotto Aureliano, furono restaurate le porticus thermarum Antoniniarum che erano state danneggiate da un incendio (testo pubblicato in Valentini-Zucchetti 1940, 279, ll. 2–3). Benché non si possa raggiungere una piena certezza, sembra probabile che nell’espressione vada riconosciuto il recinto perimetrale del grandioso complesso di Caracalla. Vedi Rambaldi 2009, 201, nr. 153. Di porticus in queste terme parla anche l’Historia Augusta, riferendo che esse sarebbero state aggiunte da Elagabalo e terminate da Severo Alessandro (Heliog. 17, 8–9; Al. Sev. 25, 6). Vedi Coarelli 1987, 444; Scheithauer 2000, 196–197. 11 Secondo l’Historia Augusta, lo stesso imperatore avrebbe dotato di balnea le regiones che ancora ne erano prive (Al. Sev. 39, 4). La stessa fonte attribuisce a Gordiano III un’iniziativa opposta laddove riferisce che le uniche opere che egli aveva lasciato alla sua morte erano nymfia et balneas, accusandolo di avere convertito molti bagni privati a suo uso personale (Gord. tres 32, 5). Sul valore da dare all’espressione in usum privatum all’interno di questo passo, vedi da ultimo Rambaldi 2009, 57–58, nota 34. 12 La planimetria “imperiale” è attestata anche in un altro complesso imponente, le Terme Liciniane di Thugga nell’Africa Proconsularis, risalenti al periodo di Valeriano e Gallieno. Si tratta di uno dei pochi edifici di questo genere che furono costruiti ex novo nel corso dell’Anarchia Militare (ibid., 148–149, nr. 26).

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(i c.d. Trofei di Mario),13 ma soprattutto va segnalato il Septizodium, il maestoso ninfeo colonnato su più ordini che era stato eretto da Settimio Severo presso le pendici sud-orientali del Palatino.14 Nell’epoca dell’Anarchia Militare non fu edificato niente del genere a Roma (d’altronde il Septizodium era un unicum nel panorama della capitale), però l’interesse per le fontane pubbliche continuava a essere attestato in ambito provinciale, dove non si intervenne tanto con la costruzione di nuovi monumenti, ma restaurando o completando quelli già esistenti. Nella città numidica di Lambaesis venne rifatto sicuramente negli anni di Filippo l’Arabo un ninfeo proprio di età severiana che l’epigrafe dedicatoria nomina Septizonium, un termine chiaramente ispirato alla denominazione della fontana romana di Settimio, per la quale sembra tuttavia più corretta la forma Septizodium (Settis 1973, 722–725; Rodríguez Almeida 1981, 74–75, tav. 5). Il ninfeo lambesitano, di cui si conservano pochi resti, era a un solo piano e complessivamente di dimensioni molto più ridotte di quello ai piedi del Palatino (la sua lunghezza era inferiore ai 20 metri, a fronte degli oltre 90 del Septizodium: Iacopi, Tedone 1990, 149), tuttavia anch’esso presentava una facciata movimentata da nicchie e colonne libere antistanti, con un’esedra centrale e una prestigiosa decorazione scultorea15 (fig. 6). In Asia Minore, dove le opere di questo genere erano particolarmente apprezzate e avevano raggiunto una notevole fioritura proprio sotto i Severi, Gordiano III aggiunse un intero piano, il terzo, a un grandioso ninfeo forse già di epoca flavia presso l’“Agorà Sud” di Mileto, accrescendo di conseguenza il corredo di statue che occupavano le nicchie della facciata (fig. 7), fra le quali comparivano anche il suo ritratto e quello della consorte Tranquillina (Rambaldi 2009, 234–235, nr. 225). Molto probabilmente durante il regno dello stesso imperatore, a Side, capitale della provincia di Lycia et Pamphylia, venne effettuato un intervento in un altro grande ninfeo, parimenti a tre piani decorati con sculture. Inoltre al monumento, che in questo caso risaliva solo presumi13

E’ stato formulato qualche parere contrario al fatto che fosse un impianto di nuova esecuzione: vedi il punto della situazione tracciato in Tedeschi Grisanti 1977, 41–43, e 1996, 352. 14 In generale sulle attrezzature legate all’acqua di cui i Severi dotarono la città di Roma, si veda il contributo di Jens Koehler in questo stesso volume. 15 Rambaldi 2009, 159–160, nr. 50 (ibid., nota 58, per altre fontane africane che avevano ricevuto analoga denominazione nel corso del III sec. d.C.).

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bilmente all’epoca severiana (è stata recuperata la base di una statua di Caracalla), venne di nuovo assicurato il rifornimento idrico da un maggiorente locale, che si incaricò di ricostruire l’acquedotto cittadino dopo che i Goti lo avevano tagliato, assediando Side nel periodo di Claudio il Gotico (ibid., rispettivamente 247–248, nr. 249, e 245–246, nr. 246). ALTRE INIZIATIVE EDILIZIE L’attività evergetica di Severo Alessandro, che si configura come un vasto programma di iniziative attente prevalentemente alle esigenze della plebs di Roma,16 oltre che nella realizzazione di terme e acquedotti ebbe modo di esprimersi anche attraverso altri provvedimenti di pubblica utilità, come il restauro di numerosi edifici per spettacoli (Coarelli 1987, 444). Fra questi vi era l’Anfiteatro Flavio, oggetto di un lungo intervento di restauro, che era iniziato già sotto Elagabalo (HA, Heliog. 17, 8) e che sarebbe terminato soltanto sotto Gordiano III (dunque ancora un caso di continuità diretta tra Severi e imperatori-soldati). Di lì a poco sarà però necessario intervenire ancora una volta, negli anni di Decio o di Treboniano Gallo.17 L’attenzione per le esigenze ludiche della popolazione di Roma e per gli edifici ove queste si espletavano trovò altre occasioni di manifestarsi sotto i Soldatenkaiser, come dimostra specialmente l’attività svolta in tal senso da Filippo l’Arabo, al cui regno risalgono una probabile operazione di restauro del Teatro di Pompeo e la realizzazione di una naumachia, che forse era un rifacimento di quella di Augusto (Rambaldi 2009, 196 nr. 144 e 193–194 nr. 139). Simili manifestazioni di evergetismo da parte di Filippo si possono spiegare anche nel quadro di una circostanza molto particolare, cioè il fatto che proprio lui, originario della provincia d’Arabia, ebbe in sorte di celebrare il millenario della fondazione di Roma, compito al quale ottemperò organizzando iniziative son16

L’attività edilizia di Severo Alessandro è stata studiata in modo approfondito da Ramsay 1935/1936, cui va aggiunto il più recente riesame di Coarelli 1987. 17 Oltre alle informazioni tramandate dall’Historia Augusta (Al. Sev. 24, 3; Max. et Balb 1, 4), ai lavori di Severo Alessandro e di Gordiano III offre riscontri la documentazione numismatica. Invece il restauro di Decio o Treboniano Gallo, resosi necessario dopo un incendio attestato da fonti ecclesiastiche, ha ricevuto conferme archeologiche: vedi Rambaldi 2009, 187–188, nrr. 128–129.

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tuose, testimoniate dalle fonti letterarie e dalle emissioni monetali (Rambaldi 2009, 59, 61). Sono da annoverare altri episodi che dimostrano come l’attività dell’ultimo dei Severi, in special modo, possa avere fornito ispirazione per iniziative che conosciamo nel periodo dell’Anarchia Militare. Bisogna menzionare i provvedimenti di natura sociale effettuati da Severo Alessandro per rendere più efficiente la distribuzione dei viveri agli abitanti di Roma, cosa che qui interessa poiché ebbe importanti riflessi anche sul piano urbanistico: in quel frangente furono infatti costruiti degli horrea publica in tutte le regiones della città (Al. Sev. 39, 3). Un caso che possiamo considerare analogo da questo punto di vista, trattandosi anche qui di un intervento funzionale al vettovagliamento della popolazione, ma che era in concomitanza con una trasformazione del panorama monumentale cittadino, lo offre il già citato Tempio del Sole di Aureliano. Alla valenza sacrale e celebrativa della vittoria palmirena, che è stata ricordata, esso univa un’istanza del tutto laica, vale a dire l’immagazzinamento nei suoi portici del vino erariale, prima della sua distribuzione (Div. Aurel. 48, 4). Fra l’altro il complesso dedicato al culto solare intratteneva uno stretto rapporto col limitrofo Forum Suarium, che era stato realizzato probabilmente proprio in epoca severiana, ma il cui funzionamento fu riorganizzato da Aureliano, in concomitanza con le elargizioni regolari di caro porcina da lui istituite.18 Ulteriori contatti tra Severo Alessandro e i Soldatenkaiser li possiamo individuare in alcune notizie tramandate dall’Historia Augusta, una fonte la cui attendibilità ha sempre sollevato discussioni, anche se si tratta di una questione sulla quale in questa sede non è possibile addentrarsi.19 18

Si è ritenuto che Aureliano avesse in realtà completato una riforma avviata da Severo Alessandro, come anche a proposito delle assegnazioni di pane al posto del grano, che, sulla base delle informazioni fornite dall’Historia Augusta, sono state attribuite a lui: vedi Coarelli 1987, 446–454, per il quale Aureliano avrebbe riorganizzato tutto il sistema distributivo. Cfr. inoltre Torelli 1992, 119 ss.; Neudecker 2005, 96–97. 19 Riguardo all’analisi delle iniziative di natura edilizia riferite da questa raccolta di biografie imperiali, si segnalano specialmente: Robathan 1939; Schaithauer 1988 e 2000; Behrwald 2007. Nel suo esame dei lavori effettuati nella capitale all’epoca di Severo Alessandro, Filippo Coarelli si mostra propenso ad accordare una sostanziale attendibilità a questo genere di informazioni

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Nella Vita dell’ultimo erede di Settimio viene ricordata un’enorme basilica di 1000 per 100 piedi nel Campo Marzio, la Basilica Alexandrina, rimasta incompiuta a causa della morte dell’imperatore (Al. Sev. 26, 7), per la quale Filippo Coarelli ha avanzato una proposta di identificazione (Coarelli 1987, 440–442, e 1993a). Una basilica di dimensioni imponenti (500 piedi di lunghezza) era pianificata anche nell’ambito di un gigantesco complesso monumentale, dotato di giardini, ampi porticati e due impianti termali, da edificare ai piedi del Quirinale, secondo un ambizioso programma ideato da Gordiano III ma rimasto solo sulla carta (Gord. tres 32, 6–8). Parimenti non eseguito, lungo la via Flaminia fino al ponte Milvio, il progetto di una grandiosa porticus, a più ordini di colonne e ornata di statue, che sarebbe stata concepita da Gallieno (Gall. duo 18, 5), al quale l’Historia Augusta attribuisce propositi fantasiosi.20 Qualcosa di simile sarebbe stato invece effettivamente realizzato da Aureliano, che avrebbe fatto costruire una Porticus Miliarensis negli Horti Sallustiani, dove usava esercitarsi a cavallo ogni giorno (Div. Aurel. 49, 2): in questa zona, alla fine dell’Ottocento, furono rilevati i resti di un portico lungo almeno 200 metri, che si è pensato di identificare proprio con la porticus aurelianea. Se, come si è anche ipotizzato, l’impianto aveva forma di circo,21 si configurava qui, con questa specie di circo privato, una situazione simile a quella che era stata posta in essere nel grande complesso severiano esteso al di fuori di Porta Maggiore e chiamato Sessorium in epoca tarda. Qui, infatti, era stato costruito sia un circo (il c.d. Circo Variano, l’unico componente che rimarrà in gran parte al di fuori delle Mura Aureliane) sia un anfiteatro (il c.d. Anfiteatro Castrense), entrambi riservati all’utilizzo personale dell’ imperatore e della sua corte.22 Ma l’avocazione nell’Historia Augusta, la fonte principale al riguardo (Coarelli 1987, soprattutto 429–433 e 439–440). 20 Come l’idea di innalzare sull’Esquilino una statua immane che lo ritraesse nelle vesti del dio Sole, grande due volte il Colosso neroniano (Gall. duo 18, 2–4). 21 E’ possibile che sulla sua spina si innalzasse l’Obelisco Sallustiano, collocato in età moderna davanti a Trinità dei Monti. Vedi da ultimo Rambaldi 2009, 195, nr. 142 e nota 154. 22 Incrociando i dati archeologici con le notizie delle fonti, si può stabilire che il complesso, iniziato da Settimio Severo, era stato continuato da Caracalla e terminato da Elagabalo, che lo prediligeva per soggiornarvi. Vedi Paterna 1996;

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al privato uso imperiale di tipologie architettoniche concepite per il pubblico uso cittadino trovava altri importanti precedenti nell’ambito delle dimore dei principes, come il circo voluto da Caligola negli horti della madre Agrippina, sul colle Vaticano,23 e soprattutto lo “Stadio” del Palazzo imperiale sul Palatino, il quale aveva subito un significativo intervento proprio all’inizio dell’epoca severiana.24 INIZIATIVE CELEBRATIVE Durante l’Anarchia Militare, invece, si rarefanno i monumenti che esaltano la casa regnante. Nonostante siano attestati diversi archi onorari nei territori dell’impero (se ne contano complessivamente quattordici: Rambaldi 2009, 130–131), nella capitale non viene realizzato nulla di paragonabile a un’opera come l’Arco di Settimio Severo nel Foro Romano, dal triplice significato politico. Esso, infatti, celebrava a un tempo la vittoria sui Parti (l’istanza più importante, resa manifesta dai quattro grandi pannelli decorati a rilievo sulle due fronti del monumento), la restitutio della res publica effettuata da Settimio, grazie alla sua affermazione sui rivali che ne avevano minacciato l’autorità all’inizio del suo regno, e la continuità della dinastia assicurata dai figli e ribadita nel testo originario dell’epigrafe dedicatoria (CIL VI, 1033 e 31230).25 Nella stessa Roma, per i Soldatenkaiser, sono testimoniati tre archi: il primo in ordine cronoColli, Palladino, Paterna 1997; Guidobaldi 1999. Un impianto residenziale suburbano che, nell’ambito dell’Anarchia Militare, può essere accostato al Sessorium, trattandosi anche in questo caso di una vasta proprietà imperiale comprendente più edifici, è la villa dei Gordiani sulla via Praenestina. Ricordata dall’Historia Augusta (Gord. tres 32, 2–3), è tradizionalmente identificata con gli importanti resti, risalenti a più fasi, tuttora visibili presso il III miglio della strada. Vedi Rambaldi 2009, 58, nota 36. 23 L’area circiforme era più simile a un giardino, non essendovi gradinate in muratura: Tomei 2001, 37; Liverani 2005. 24 La funzione dell’edificio resta peraltro non del tutto chiara, sebbene dovesse essere anch’esso utilizzato almeno in parte come giardino: Sasso D’Elia 1995, 44; Royo 1999, 333–335. 25 De Maria 1988, 306. Sull’arco severiano vedi il contributo di Maria Lloyd in questo stesso volume, dove sono riconsiderati i rilievi dei quattro pannelli frontali.

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logico è il poco noto Arco di Gordiano III, di controversa ubicazione, al quale sono stati ipoteticamente assegnati alcuni lacerti di marmo rinvenuti in passato. Segue l’Arco di Gallieno sull’Esquilino, in parte conservato, che non era esattamente un arco onorario, bensì una delle porte delle Mura Serviane, a suo tempo ricostruita da Augusto, poi semplicemente ridedicata da un cavaliere che, in questo modo, aveva voluto rendere omaggio a Gallieno e alla sua consorte Salonina (fig. 8). Infine il caso più importante, anche se purtroppo non più esistente: l’“Arco di Portogallo”, una nuova realizzazione di Aureliano lungo la via Lata, dove instaurava un significativo collegamento con altri monumenti del Campo Marzio, fra i quali il coevo e già più volte citato Templum Solis dello stesso imperatore (Torelli 1992 e 1993); per il suo apparato decorativo furono riutilizzati elementi di età precedente26 (fig. 9). Fra gli archi provinciali conosciuti, mi sembra interessante segnalare soprattutto un monumento trifornice di Bostra, che venne innalzato nella tarda età severiana ma fu poi ridedicato a un praefectus legionis negli anni di Filippo l’Arabo (fig. 10), quando nella medesima città venne anche costruito il circo, l’unico edificio di questo genere realizzato ex novo nel cinquantennio dei Soldatenkaiser (Rambaldi 2009, 271–272, nr. 311–312; cfr. anche 96 e nota 9). Ancora nella provincia d’Arabia di cui Bostra era la capitale, lo stesso Filippo, di cui è già stato ricordato l’impegno nei festeggiamenti per il millenario di Roma, concepì una delle iniziative in assoluto più magniloquenti di tutta l’Anarchia Militare. Egli decise di monumentalizzare il piccolo borgo del deserto che gli aveva dato i natali, trasformandolo in una vera città, dotata di un impianto urbano regolare e di tutte le attrezzature necessarie alla vita pubblica di un centro romano. Sebbene la realtà archeologica del sito non sia chiarita in tutti i suoi aspetti, del progetto originario della nuova Philippopolis (oggi Shahbā, in Siria) facevano sicuramente parte un palazzo imperiale, un teatro, uno stadio, un ampio complesso termale con acquedotto e altri monumenti pubblici, funzionali anche alla celebrazione e al culto della famiglia regnante, come la grande kalybe e il mausoleo del padre divinizzato di Filippo (il c.d. Philippeion), eretti intorno a una piazza presso il centro geometrico della città (fig. 11). 26

Precisamente i due noti rilievi adrianei inerenti all’apoteosi di Sabina, oggi nel Palazzo dei Conservatori. Per i tre archi di Roma, vedi Rambaldi 2009, 189 nr. 131, 188–189 nr. 130 e 189–190 nr. 132.

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Che il provvedimento fosse dettato da un’esigenza prevalentemente encomiastica è rivelato dal fatto che gli edifici principali vennero lasciati incompiuti, quando Filippo morì nel 249 d.C., anche se Philippopolis non venne abbandonata (Rambaldi 2009, 274–277, nr. 316). Analogamente celebrativa, e con ogni probabilità del tutto effimera, sarà la decisione presa da Claudio il Gotico di rinominare Claudiopolis l’antica città di Cirene, in occasione di una campagna di restauri resasi necessaria dopo i danni che il centro urbano aveva subito a causa di un terremoto nel 262 d.C. e di una guerra contro le tribù marmariche (ibid., 226–227, nr. 208). Simili iniziative, benché di natura essenzialmente propagandistica, si collocavano comunque nel solco di un atteggiamento ben preciso, vale a dire la predilezione dimostrata da un imperatore per una città determinata, che poteva essere il rispettivo luogo di provenienza, come appunto Shahbā per Filippo l’Arabo (ma non Cirene per Claudio il Gotico, il quale era di origine illirica). Questo atteggiamento aveva già dato prova di sé con altri imperatori di provenienza provinciale che avevano voluto onorare la loro patria: si pensi al vasto programma di Adriano a Italica,27 il primo provvedimento del genere, ma soprattutto agli ingenti lavori promossi da Settimio Severo per abbellire Leptis Magna, coi quali l’assetto urbanistico della città africana venne trasformato in misura notevole mediante l’aggiunta di nuovi edifici e la parziale rimodellazione dell’abitato. Quello di Leptis fu il primo caso di una ristrutturazione in senso veramente monumentale del proprio luogo d’origine da parte di un princeps non nativo di Roma (cfr. Viscogliosi 2010, 339). A Settimio non fu peraltro necessario procedere a un’operazione di riorganizzazione urbanistica così radicale come sarà quella voluta da Filippo, dal momento che Leptis era già un centro vivace e non un oscuro villaggio desertico quale era Shahbā.

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Luzón Nogué 1982; Boatwright 1997; Rodríguez Hidalgo 1997; Caballos Rufino, Rodríguez Hidalgo 2000.

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TRASFORMAZIONI MURA URBICHE In concomitanza col rinnovamento di Philippopolis venne predisposta anche un’imponente cinta muraria, peraltro del tutto sproporzionata rispetto alle dimensioni dell’abitato che era destinata a racchiudere. Nell’ambito dei numerosi impianti difensivi realizzati nel corso dell’Anarchia Militare, il caso sicuramente più macroscopico, anche per via del suo impressionante stato di conservazione, è quello offerto dalle nuove mura volute da Aureliano nella capitale, dopo che per tanti secoli Roma non aveva più avuto bisogno di difese strutturali (fig. 12). La realizzazione ex novo o il ripristino di fortificazioni già esistenti, ma non più tenute in efficienza da lungo tempo, rappresenta la trasformazione urbana più notevole che molte città romane si trovarono a subire durante l’Anarchia Militare. Mettendo a confronto le più rilevanti iniziative pubbliche che furono effettuate tra i Severi e i Soldatenkaiser, ho posto finora l’accento sulle continuità, perché queste costituiscono l’aspetto a mio giudizio più vistoso dell’attività edilizia nell’arco di tempo fin qui complessivamente indagato, ma prima di concludere è doveroso soffermarsi, almeno in breve, anche su questo aspetto. I tanti casi di costruzione o restauro di mura urbiche che si annoverano negli anni degli imperatori-soldati, pari a circa un centinaio di provvedimenti, sono naturalmente da mettere in rapporto con alcune delle evidenti difficoltà storiche cui si è fatto rapido cenno all’inizio del presente contributo. Tuttavia questi interventi sugli apparati murari dei centri cittadini si verificarono essenzialmente nelle regioni più esposte al pericolo di aggressioni nemiche e in prevalenza a partire dal periodo gallienico, quando queste minacce cominciarono a dilagare. Le aree coinvolte erano: i territori dell’Illirico, minacciati dai Goti; l’Italia settentrionale e adriatica, interessata da scorrerie di Alamanni e Iutungi fra Gallieno e Aureliano;28 le province galliche (in particolare la Belgica e la Lugdunensis), che furono a più riprese attaccate dalle popolazioni germaniche; le coste orientali della Britannia, soggette alle incursioni dei pirati sassoni; 28

Ciò produsse operazioni in varie città, fra le quali è particolarmente notevole l’esempio di Verona: Rambaldi 2009, 217, nr. 188.

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la Grecia, aggredita dagli Eruli; le province anatoliche, anch’esse attraversate dai Goti; le zone più orientali dell’impero, infine, dove le mire di Palmira ma specialmente l’espansione della Persia sotto la dinastia sasanide determinarono una serie di interventi nei territori arabici, siriaci e mesopotamici. Generalmente tali provvedimenti venivano eseguiti in modo alquanto frettoloso, con abbondante ricorso a materiale eterogeneo e di recupero, senza configurarsi come opere di difesa in grado di resistere a invasioni davvero massicce, quali saranno invece quelle che si registreranno in momenti posteriori della storia di questi territori. Anche le Mura di Aureliano a Roma, come è noto, si presentavano inizialmente piuttosto basse, tanto che all’epoca di Onorio sarà necessario raddoppiarne l’altezza e rifare la maggior parte delle porte, potenziandone le capacità difensive (Rambaldi 2009, 192–193, nr. 138). Spesso, poi, le fortificazioni proteggevano soltanto il settore urbano centrale, o perché seguivano, magari ripristinandolo, il tracciato di difese precedenti, che da tempo non erano più in funzione ed erano state scavalcate dall’espansione degli abitati, o perché si era deciso di munire soltanto il comparto cittadino più importante, sebbene l’area effettivamente abitata potesse essere molto più estesa. Questo, per fare un esempio particolarmente impressionante, è ciò che avvenne ad Atene con le nuove fortificazioni innalzate sotto Probo, le quali si limitavano a racchiudere solamente il nucleo urbano centrale, fra l’Acropoli e l’Agorà romana, dunque una porzione della città molto più ridotta di quella protetta dalle antiche Mura di Temistocle, che erano state ripristinate da Valeriano prima dell’invasione degli Eruli (Rambaldi 2009, 249–252, nr. 254–255). In ogni caso, simili interventi erano la conseguenza di nuove sollecitazioni, che determinavano cambiamenti anche radicali negli assetti urbani, ma senza condizionare necessariamente l’esistenza che vi conducevano gli abitanti.29

29

Diverse città dell’impero, che pure furono costrette ad affrontare assalti di popolazioni nemiche nel corso dell’Anarchia Militare, si ripresero facilmente e vissero nuovi periodi di prosperità nelle epoche successive, come fu il caso della stessa Atene, ma anche di altri centri greci, di Antiochia sull’Oronte, di Nicea in Bitinia. Vedi Rambaldi 2009, 134, e in generale, sugli interventi defensionali in quel periodo, 122–128.

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BIBLIOGRAFIA Behrwald R., Die römischen Bautenkataloge der Historia Augusta und ihre Quellen, in G. Bonamente, H. Brandt (a cura di), Historiae Augustae Colloquium Bambergense (Atti del Convegno, Bamberg 2005), Historiae Augustae Colloquia, n.s. 10 (2007) 35–50. Bergmann M., Studien zum römischen Porträt des 3. Jahrhunderts n.Chr. (1977). Boatwright M.T., Italica and Hadrian’s urban benefactions, in A. Caballos, P. León (a cura di), Itálica MMCC (Atti del Convegno, Sevilla 1994) (1997) 115–135. Broise H., Thébert Y., Élagabal et le complexe religieux de la Vigna Barberini. Heliogabalium in Palatino monte iuxta aedes imperatorias consecravit eique templum fecit (HA, Ant. Heliog., III, 4), in «Mélanges d’archéologie et d’histoire de l’École Française de Rome. Antiquité», CXI (1999) 729–747. Caballos Rufino A., Rodríguez Hidalgo J.M., Adriano e la sua patria di Italica, in Adriano. Architettura e progetto (Catalogo della Mostra, Villa Adriana, Tivoli 2000–2001) (2000) 23–30. Caruso G., s.v. Aqua Alexandrina, in LTUR I (1993) 60–61. Cecamore C., Faustinae aedemque decernerent (SHA, Marcus, 26). Les fragments 69–70 de la Forma Urbis et la première dédicace du temple de la Vigna Barberini, in «Mélanges d’archéologie et d’histoire de l’École Française de Rome. Antiquité», CXI (1999) 311–349. Coarelli F., Il Pantheon, l’apoteosi di Augusto e l’apoteosi di Romolo, in Città e architettura nella Roma imperiale (Atti del Seminario, Roma 1981), «Analecta Romana Instituti Danici», suppl. 10 (1983) 41–46. Coarelli F., La situazione edilizia di Roma sotto Severo Alessandro, in L’Urbs. Espace urbain et histoire (Ier siècle av. J.-C. – IIIe siècle ap. J.-C.) (Atti del Convegno, Roma 1985) (1987) 429–456. Coarelli F., s.v. Basilica Alexandrina, in LTUR I (1993a) 168–169. Coarelli F., s.v. Bibliotheca Panthei, in LTUR I (1993b) 197. Coarelli F., s.v. Heliogabalus, neos, in LTUR III (1996a) 10. Coarelli F., s.v. Heliogabalus, templum; Heliogabalium, in LTUR III (1996b) 10–11. Coarelli F., s.v. Iseum et Serapeum in campo Martio; Isis Campensis, in LTUR III (1996c) 107–109.

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Colli D., Palladino S., Paterna C., Le campagne di scavo nell’anfiteatro Castrense a Roma: nuove acquisizioni, in «Bullettino della Commissione archeologica comunale di Roma», XCVIII (1997) 249–282. Crema L., L’architettura romana, Enciclopedia classica, III.12.1 (1959). De Maria S., Gli archi onorari di Roma e dell’Italia romana (1988). Ensoli S., I santuari di Iside e Serapide a Roma e la resistenza pagana in età tardoantica, in Ead., E. La Rocca (a cura di), Aurea Roma. Dalla città pagana alla città cristiana (Catalogo della Mostra, Roma 2000– 2001) (2000) 267–287. de Fine Licht K., The Rotunda in Rome (1968). Fittschen K., Zanker P., Katalog der römischen Porträts in den Capitolinischen Museen und den anderen kommunalen Sammlungen der Stadt Rom, I. Kaiser- und Prinzenbildnisse (1985). Freyberger K.S., Einige Beobachtungen zur städtebaulichen Entwicklung des römischen Bostra, in «Damaszener Mitteilungen», IV (1989) 45– 60. Freyberger K.S., Stadtrömische Kapitelle aus der Zeit von Domitian bis Alexander Severus. Zur Arbeitsweise und Organisation stadtrömischer Werkstätten der Kaiserzeit (1990). Ghini G., s.v. Thermae Neronianae/Alexandrinae, in LTUR V (1993) 60– 62. Glaser F., Brunnen und Nymphäen, in Die Wasserversorgung antiker Städte, Geschichte der Wasserversorgung 2 (1987). Gros P., L’organizzazione dello spazio pubblico e privato, in A. Momigliano, A. Schiavone (a cura di), Storia di Roma, II. L’impero mediterraneo, 1. La repubblica imperiale (1990) 133–142. Gros P., La stagione della crisi. Urbanesimo e architettura fra II e III secolo, in A. Momigliano, A. Schiavone (a cura di), Storia di Roma, II. L’impero mediterraneo, 2. I principi e il mondo (1991) 733–741. Gros P., Case, palazzo e tempio nell’area nord-est del Palatino, in F. Villedieu (a cura di), Il giardino dei Cesari. Dai palazzi antichi alla Vigna Barberini sul Monte Palatino. Scavi dell’École française de Rome, 1985–1999 (Guida alla Mostra, Roma 2000–2001) (2001) 9– 22. Guidobaldi F., s.v. Sessorium, in LTUR IV (1999) 304–308. Hornbostel W., Severiana. Bemerkungen zum Porträt des Septimius Severus, in «Jahrbuch des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts», LXXXVII (1972) 348–387.

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Iacopi I., Tedone G., Il Settizodio severiano, in «Bollettino di archeologia», II (1990) 149–155. Janon M., Recherches à Lambèse, in «Antiquités Africaines», VII (1973) 193–254. Johne K.-P. (a cura di), Die Zeit der Soldatenkaiser. Krise und Transformation des römischen Reiches im 3. Jahrhundert n.Chr. (235–284), I– II (2008). La Follette L., The Baths of Trajan Decius, in Rome Papers. The Baths of Trajan Decius, Iside e Serapide nel Palazzo, a Late Domus on the Palatine, and Nero’s Golden House, «Journal of Roman Archaeology», suppl. 11 (1994) 6–88. Liverani P., s.v. Gai et Neronis circus (365), in A. La Regina (a cura di), Lexicon Topographicum Urbis Romae. Suburbium, III (2005) 11–12. LTUR I = E.M. Steinby (a cura di), Lexicon Topographicum Urbis Romae, I (1993). LTUR II = E.M. Steinby (a cura di), Lexicon Topographicum Urbis Romae, II (1995). LTUR III = E.M. Steinby (a cura di), Lexicon Topographicum Urbis Romae, III (1996). LTUR IV = E.M. Steinby (a cura di), Lexicon Topographicum Urbis Romae, IV (1999). LTUR V = E.M. Steinby (a cura di), Lexicon Topographicum Urbis Romae, V (1999). Luzón Nogué J.M., La Itálica de Adriano (1982). MacDonald W.L., The Pantheon. Design, Meaning, and Progeny (1976). Martini W., Das Pantheon Hadrians in Rom. Das Bauwerk und seine Deutung (2006). McCann A.M., The Portraits of Septimius Severus (A.D. 193–211), in «Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome», XXX (1968). Neudecker R., Ein göttliches Vergnügen. Zum Einkauf an sakralen Stätten im kaiserzeitlichen Rom, in Id., P. Zanker (a cura di), Lebenswelten. Bilder und Räume in der römischen Stadt der Kaiserzeit (Atti del Convegno, Roma 2002), Palilia, 16 (2005) 81–100. Paterna C., Il circo Variano a Roma, in «Mélanges d’archéologie et d’histoire de l’École Française de Rome. Antiquité», CVIII (1996) 817–853. Pensabene P., Committenza edilizia a Ostia tra la fine del I e i primi decenni del III secolo. Lo studio dei marmi e della decorazione architettonica come strumento d’indagine, in «Mélanges d’archéologie

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et d’histoire de l’École Française de Rome. Antiquité», CXIV (2002) 181–324. Rambaldi S., L’edilizia pubblica nell’impero romano all’epoca dell’Anarchia Militare (235–284 d.C.) (2009). Ramsay H.G., A third century A.C. Building Program, in «L’antiquité classique», IV (1935), pp. 419–447; V (1936) 147–176. Robathan D.M., A Reconsideration of Roman Topography in the Historia Augusta, in «Transactions of the American Philological Association», LXX (1939) 515–534. Rodríguez Almeida E., Forma Urbis marmorea. Aggiornamento generale 1980 (1981). Rodríguez Hidalgo J.M., La nueva imagen de la Itálica de Adriano, in A. Caballos, P. León (a cura di), Itálica MMCC (Atti del Convegno, Sevilla 1994) (1997) 87–113. Royo M., Domus imperatoriae. Topographie, formation et imaginaire des palais impériaux du Palatin (IIe siècle av. J.-C. – Ier siècle ap. J.-C.) (1999). Santangeli Valenzani R., ΝΕΩΣ ΥΠΕΡΜΕΓΕΘΗΣ. Osservazioni sul tempio di piazza del Quirinale, in «Bullettino della Commissione archeologica comunale di Roma», XCIV (1991–1992) 7–16. Santangeli Valenzani R., s.v. Hercules et Dionysus, templum, in LTUR III (1996) 25–26. Santangeli Valenzani R., s.v. Serapis, aedes, templum, in LTUR IV (1999) 302–303. Santangeli Valenzani R., La torre Mesa, in F.P. Fiore (a cura di), La Roma di Leon Battista Alberti. Umanisti, architetti e artisti alla scoperta dell’antico nella città del Quattrocento (Catalogo della Mostra, Roma 2005) (2005) 270–272. Sasso D’Elia L., s.v. Domus Augustana, Augustiana, in LTUR II (1995) 40–45. Scheithauer A., Die Bautätigkeit der Kaiser in der Historia Augusta, in «Würzburger Jahrbücher für die Altertumswissenschaft», n.s. XIV (1988) 225–240. Scheithauer A., Kaiserliche Bautätigkeit in Rom. Das Echo in der antiken Literatur (2000). Segal A., From Function to Monument. Urban Landscapes of Roman Palestine, Syria and Provincia Arabia (1997). Settis S., “Esedra” e “ninfeo” nella terminologia architettonica del mondo romano. Dall’età repubblicana alla tarda antichità, in

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H. Temporini, W. Haase (a cura di), Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt. Geschichte und Kultur Roms im Spiegel der neueren Forschung, I.4 (1973) 661–745. Strobel K., Das Imperium Romanum im “3. Jahrhundert”. Modell einer historischen Krise? Zur Frage mentaler Strukturen breiterer Bevölkerungsschichten in der Zeit von Marc Aurel bis zum Ausgang des 3. Jh. n. Chr. (1993). Taylor R., Hadrians’ Serapeum in Rome, in «American Journal of Archaeology», CVIII (2004) 223–266. Tedeschi Grisanti G., I “Trofei di Mario”. Il ninfeo dell’Acqua Giulia sull’Esquilino (1977). Tedeschi Grisanti G., s.v. Nymphaeum Alexandri, in LTUR III (1996) 351–352. Thébert, Y., F. Villedieu, G. Rizzo, J.-P. Adam, J.-P. Morel, P. Gros, L. de Arrizabalaga y Prado, Il santuario di Elagabalus: un giardino sacro, in F. Villedieu (a cura di), Il giardino dei Cesari. Dai palazzi antichi alla Vigna Barberini sul Monte Palatino. Scavi dell’École française de Rome, 1985–1999 (Guida alla Mostra, Roma 2000–2001) (2001) 83–106. Tomei M.A., s.v. Agrippinae horti (24), in A. La Regina (a cura di), Lexicon Topographicum Urbis Romae. Suburbium, I (2001) 37–39. Torelli M., Topografia e iconologia. Arco di Portogallo, Ara Pacis, Ara Providentiae, Templum Solis, in «Ostraka», I (1992) 105–131. Torelli M., s.v. Arco di Portogallo, in LTUR I (1993) 77–79. Valentini R., Zucchetti G., Codice Topografico della Città di Roma, I (1940). Viscogliosi A., L’architettura romana, in C. Bozzoni, V. Franchetti Pardo, G. Ortolani, A. Viscogliosi, L’architettura del mondo antico (2010) 239–369. Watson A., Aurelian and the Third Century (1999). Wegner M., Bracker J., Real W., Gordianus III. bis Carinus, Das römische Herrscherbild, III.3 (1979). Witschel Ch., Krise – Rezession – Stagnation? Der Westen des römischen Reiches im 3. Jahrhundert n.Chr. (1999). Ziolkowski A., s.v. Pantheon, in LTUR IV (1999) 54–61.

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FIGURES

Fig. 1. Roma, Tempio sul Quirinale. Pianta di Andrea Palladio (da Santangeli Valenzani 1991–1992).

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Fig. 2. Roma, Templum Solis. Pianta di Andrea Palladio (da Torelli 1992).

Fig. 3. Roma, Tempio di Elagabalo sul Palatino. Ricostruzione (da Thébert et al. 2001).

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Fig. 4. Ostia, c.d. Tempio Rotondo. Planimetria (rielaborazione da Pensabene 2002).

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Fig. 5. Roma, Terme di Decio sull’Aventino. Proposta di ricostruzione planimetrica (da La Follette 1994).

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Fig. 6. Lambaesis, Septizonium. Ricostruzione (da Janon 1973).

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Fig. 7. Mileto, Ninfeo. Ricostruzione (da Glaser 1987).

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Fig. 8. Roma, Arco di Gallieno sull’Esquilino. Ricostruzione (da De Maria 1988).

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Fig. 9. Roma, “Arco di Portogallo”. Disegno di Giovanni Antonio Dosio (da De Maria 1988).

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Fig. 10. Bostra, Arco (da Freyberger 1989).

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Fig. 11. Philippopolis d’Arabia. Pianta della città (da Segal 1997).

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Fig. 12. Roma, Mura di Aureliano. Particolare (foto dell’Autore).

IL TEMPIO DI SERAPIDE SUL QUIRINALE: NOTE DI ARCHEOLOGIA E TOP OGRAFIA TRA ANTICHITÀ E MEDIOEVO. Ottavio Bucarelli (Pontificia Università Gregoriana)

Le brevi note che qui si presentano riguardano le vicende e le fasi tardoantiche e medievali del tempio di Serapide sul Quirinale,1 i cui resti monumentali insistono nell’area della Pontificia Università Gregoriana2 e nei Giardini di Palazzo Colonna (fig. 1). Il racconto del martirio dei Santi Felice e Adautto, secondo la passio di Adone (Act. Sanct., Aug. VI, 546 E), narra che il presbitero Felice fu obbligato, durante il regno di Diocleziano e Massimiano, a recarsi nel

1 Costruzione collocabile cronologicamente durate il regno di Caracalla (211– 217). Coarelli individua in un passo dell’Historia Augusta (Aelius Spartianus, Vita Antonini Caracallae, IX) l’attribuzione a Caracalla del Serapeo: «Sacra Isidis Romam deportavit et templa ubique magnifice eidem deae fecit». Cfr. Coarelli 2008, 308–309. 2 Desidero ringraziare il Rev. P. Martín M. Morales S.I. – Direttore dell’Archivio Storico e il Rev. P. Daniel McDonald S.I. – Vice Rettore Amministrativo, per aver concesso la visione e l’utilizzo dei documenti e delle immagini di proprietà della Pontificia Università Gregoriana.

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secretarium iudicis,3 presso il tempio di Serapide, per sacrificare agli dei. Felice, giunto davanti al giudice che gli imponeva di ripudiare la propria religione, invece di sacrificare, compì un gesto singolare, cioè soffiò contro le statue in bronzo di alcune divinità che caddero a terra; i simulacri pagani contro cui Felice exsufflavit erano quelli di Serapide, Mercurio e Diana: «Horum senior Felix ex iussione imperatorum cum ad secretarium iudicis esset perductus iuxta templum Serapis, dum cogeretur ad sacrificandum, exsufflavit in faciem statuae aereae, et statim cecidit. Item ductus ad Mercurii statuam in aliam aediculam, simili modo in illam exsufflavit, et mox cecidit. Item ad simulacrum Dianae, quod pari modo deiecit» (Act. Sanct., Aug. VI, 546 E). Felice fu martirizzato insieme ad Adautto sulla via Ostiense, dove riposano nel cimitero di Commodilla.4 Il tempio di Serapide menzionato nella passio, fu identificato per la prima volta dallo Huelsen (Huelsen 1895, 39–59), all’interno della regio VI Alta Semita, in accordo con i cataloghi regionari del IV secolo, Curiosum e Notitia,5 dove è associato all’inizio dell’elenco al tempio Salutis. Precedentemente, il Lanciani (Lanciani 1894, 285–308) aveva proposto di vedere nei resti monumentali il tempio del Sole edificato da Aureliano, che, invece, è da ubicare nella regio VII Lata, nell’area della chiesa di S. Silvestro in Capite (Coarelli 2008, 306.). Diversamente, la cartografia moderna pone la struttura templare ‘a cavallo’ tra la VI e la VII regione augustea (Grande – Scagnetti 2005, quadrante F4). Secondo queste ricostruzioni, il tempio di Serapide doveva ergersi sulla platea del Quirinale con la fronte rivolta ad Est, preceduto dall’imponente scalinata di accesso compresa all’interno di una sostruzione a più livelli, che permetteva di superare il dislivello tra il Campo Marzio e il colle Quirinale. Recentemente Santangeli Valenzani (Santangeli Valenzani 1991–1992, 7–16), sulla scorta di un passo di Cassio Dione (Cass. Dio., LXXVII, 16, 3), ha proposto di vedere nella grande struttura templare sul Quirinale il tempio dedicato ad Ercole e Dioniso 3

Per la menzione dei secretaria nelle passiones dei martiri, vedi Cancellieri 1885, 154–155. 4 Notizie essenziali in Pergola 2002, 218–221. 5 Notitia Urbis Romae regionum XIII, Regio VI Alta Semita (= Codice topografico, I, 171); Curiosum urbis Romae regionum XIII, Regio VI Alta Semita (= Codice topografico, I, 107).

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dall’imperatore Settimio Severo; tempio che lo storico romano definisce NEΩS ΥΠΕΡMEΓEΘΗΣ cioè «tempio gigantesco», senza però ubicarlo nello spazio. Santangeli propone anche di spostare il sito del tempio di Serapide nei pressi della chiesa di San Silvestro al Quirinale (Santangeli Valenzani 1991–1992, 9), a motivo del ritrovamento in quel luogo – secondo la notizia riportata dal Ligorio (Pirro Ligorio, Cod. Taur., XV, 156; Santangeli Valenzani 1991–1992, 8) – di un’epigrafe lacunosa e fuori contesto,6 pertinente ad una dedica a Serapide da parte di Caracalla. Oggi, le accurate ricerche condotte da Maria Cristina Capanna,7 attraverso la rilettura dei dati archeologici, epigrafici e delle fonti letterarie, permettono di avanzare nuove e più convincenti soluzioni per l’ubicazione e la ricostruzione dei due edifici templari, costituenti il complesso severiano del Quirinale. Secondo la studiosa, il complesso era così articolato (fig. 2): il tempio sulla platea del Quirinale con la fronte rivolta ad Est, che Santangeli propone di identificare con quello di Ercole e Bacco; il tempio di Serapide, sulla enorme sostruzione a più piani sui cui resti insistono oggi l’Università Gregoriana e i Giardini di Palazzo Colonna. Proponendo anche, dopo attente misurazioni e verifiche degli elementi architettonici superstiti, una correzione da 100 a 102 gradini per la scala che doveva superare un dislivello di 45 m slm (Capanna 2009, 160), tra il vicus Caprarius – forse tratto iniziale della via Salaria vetus (Coarelli 2008, 334) (attuale via dei Maroniti – via dei Lucchesi) e la sommità del colle Quirinale. Le strutture murarie della sostruzione severiana, visibili presso la Gregoriana, recentemente sono state oggetto di accurati restauri che hanno messo in evidenza il paramento antico in laterizio, evidenziando anche le fasi post-classiche che testimoniano un diverso uso, o meglio, destrutturazione del tempio, che avrebbe origine già nel corso del IV secolo, per 6 Serapidi deo [Sancto(?)] | [Imp(erator) Caes(ar)] M(arcus) Aurellius (!) Antoninu[s Pius Felix Aug(ustus) Parth(icus) max(imus) Brit(annicus) max(imus)] | [pont]ifex max(imus) tribunic(a) pote[st(ate)] | aedem [---]. Cfr. CIL VI 570. 7 Ricerche condotte nell’ambito di un progetto diretto dal prof. Andrea Carandini, di cui sono state pubblicate le notizie preliminari in Capanna 2009, 157–162; ora i risultati definitivi in Capanna 2012. Desidero qui ringraziare Maria Cristina Capanna per la disponibilità e la generosità con cui ha voluto discutere alcune tematiche relative al presente articolo.

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cavarne materiale da costruzione per le vicine terme di Costantino (Santangeli Valenzani 1991–1992, 13–14; Santangeli Valenzani 2005, 270). Ciò evidentemente si rese possibile anche per l’oblio in cui i monumenti dei Severi furono lasciati dopo la morte di Caracalla. Le fasi post-antiche sono individuabili in tamponamenti di aperture o passaggi, nei diversi livelli dell’imponente opera sostruttiva, realizzati con materiale non omogeneo. Si tratta di laterizi frammentari, scaglie di tufo, conci di pietra, posti in opera senza regolarità (Figg. 3–4),8 in un periodo che va dal momento in cui il complesso perde le sue originarie funzioni d’uso, sino all’epoca delle case di abitazione demolite negli anni Venti del XX secolo. A queste trasformazioni-destrutturazioni non deve essere estraneo un avvenimento che è stato tralasciato dagli autori che si sono occupati del tempio severiano, cioè il sacco di Roma del 410 ad opera di Alarico. Il re goto entrò in Roma dalla Porta Salaria avanzando verso il centro dell’Urbe: prima devastò le residenze private ubicate nella fascia verde del colle Quirinale, a ridosso delle mura urbiche (Ghilardi 2010, 287– 290); poi, scendendo, incendiò la basilica Iulii, oggi dei Santi Apostoli. Nuova successione topografica di eventi, qui accolta secondo la recente lettura dell’itinerario goto proposto da Massimiliano Ghilardi (Ghilardi 2010, 309–312), che ricolloca la basilica Iulii iuxta Forum, piuttosto che Transtiberim. Probabilmente durante questo percorso, il tempio di Serapide fu interessato dall’evento bellico; addirittura sarebbe suggestivo ipotizzare che l’esercito goto sia sceso per le ripide scalinate della struttura templare per giungere direttamente alla basilica apostolorum Philippi et Iacobi (LP, I, 303). È interessante, a questo proposito, ricordare l’iscrizione del praefectus urbi Petronius Perpenna,9 databile secondo elementi 8

L’analisi delle murature post-anctiche sarà oggetto di ulteriori approfondimenti da parte di chi scrive. 9 Petronius Perpenna Magnus Quadratianus, v(ir) c(larissimus) et inl(ustris), praef(ectus) urb(i), | Constantinianas thermas longa incuria et abolendae civilis vel | potius feralis cladis vastatione vehementer adflictas, ita ut agni|tionem sui ex omni parte perdita desperationem cunctis repa|rationis adferrent, deputato ab amplissimo ordine parvo | sumptu, quantum publicae patiebantur angustiae, ab extremo | vindicavit occasu et provisione largissima in pristinam | faciem splendoremque restituit. Testo secondo la scheda EDR111536 del 08.06.2011 (A. Ferraro); cfr. CIL VI 1750.

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prosopografici tra il 430 e il 500, nel cui testo si ricorda il restauro delle vicine terme di Costantino per riparare i diversi danni subiti, probabilmente anche a causa del sacco goto,10 forse trovando il materiale per la ricostruzione anche nella fabbrica severiana, prossima alle terme e già in condizioni precarie (Santangeli Valenzani 2005, 270). Durante il XII secolo, quanto rimaneva in piedi del tempio sulla platea del Quirinale, cioè parte del muro di fondo della cella, chiamato Frontespizio di Nerone, fu utilizzato per addossarvi una torre, detta Mesa11 (fig. 5). La torre assunse diversi e originali toponimi: mensa Imperatoris, mensa Neronis, Frontespizio di Nerone, Torre di Mecenate. In particolare, il riferimento a Nerone si deve al fatto che l’umanista Flavio Biondo (Picozzi 2010, 12, nota 4) per primo, ma poi seguito da altri, asserì che in quel luogo fossero gli orti di Mecenate dove era ubicata la torre da cui Nerone osservò e cantò l’incendio di Roma; spiegando anche come Torre Mesa derivasse dalla corruzione o volgarizzazione di Torre Mecenatiana. Bisognerà aspettare l’Adinolfi che proporrà di vedere, correttamente, nell’attributo Mesa il significato di «torre dimezzata» o «diroccata nell’alto» (Adinolfi 1881 (rist. an. 1980), 41). Osservando attentamente i disegni, si scorge, oltre alla torre addossata alla parete postica della cella templare, una merlatura che sembrerebbe impostarsi direttamente sulla sommità del timpano. Dalle rare riproduzioni che ritraggono il lato est del Frontespizio (fig. 6), non risultano esserci altre strutture turrite, quindi la merlatura potrebbe corrispondere ad una ulteriore postazione di avvistamento, nel punto più alto dell’elemento templare superstite. Il Frontespizio di Nerone con la torre medievale furono soggetti privilegiati dei disegnatori di antichità romane, sino alla loro completa scomparsa nel 1630,12 per essere riutilizzati nella cos10

Vilucchi 1999, 49–51. La torre viene menzionata per la prima volta nel XII secolo, all’interno della più antica versione dei Mirabilia Urbis Romae (Santangeli Valenzani 2005, 270). 12 «Hec bina loculamenta binis columnis et arcu exornavit Urbanis ex lapidus Templi quod Soli dicavit Adrianus Imperator, ut affirmat Torrigius, in Monte Quirinali, ubi nunc Columnensium horti, prostravitque solo idem Urbanus anno 1630. In horis enim Columnensibis marmorei aedificii pars exurgebat, vulgo Maesa iam diruta. Blondus Turrim Moecenatis falso nuncupat» (Bonanni 1700, 92). 11

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truzione dei monumenti funebri dei pontefici Paolo III Farnese e Urbano VIII Barberini in San Pietro in Vaticano (Scaglia 1992, 58, nota 22). Tra i resti del tempio di Serapide trovò posto, nel Medioevo inoltrato, anche una struttura residenziale con torre, detta Loggia dei Colonnesi (fig. 7), indicata come il primo insediamento della famiglia Colonna in quest’area, forse dopo il 1167, anno in cui i Colonna dovettero abbandonare il loro insediamento fortificato presso il mausoleo di Augusto, perchè cacciati dal popolo romano (Fea 1806, 48; Manacorda 2006, 106). Alla Loggia dei Colonna era annesso un giardino, come sappiamo da un racconto di cui non è chiara però l’autenticità, in cui si narra di un infortunio accaduto ad una delle figlie dei Colonna. L’episodio è riportato dall’Adinolfi il quale dice che «la più giovane dei Colonnesi non potè intervenire alla caccia dei Tori tenuta nel Colosseo negli anni del Signore 1332, perchè si era rotta un piede nel giardino della torre di Nerone» (Adinolfi 1881 (rist. an. 1980), 41.). La domus cum turre ospitò probabilmente il Petrarca in occasione della sua venuta a Roma, l’8 ottobre 1341, per ricevere in Campidoglio la corona di alloro da Stefano Colonna il Vecchio ma in realtà dal figlio Stefanuccio, come sembrerebbe evincersi in un sonetto in cui magnifica le delizie del soggiorno presso la famiglia Colonna.13 È interessante notare, come è stato già fatto nel catalogo delle sculture di Palazzo Colonna (Picozzi 2010, 13–14), la piccola collezione di antichità romane che decorava in parte la facciata della Loggia. Tra queste si nota, nel bel disegno del Metropolitan Museum di New York, una scultura raffigurante un coccodrillo (Fileri 2010, 108–110) murata nel prospetto principale dell’edificio, conservata oggi nel Palazzo Colonna ai Santi Apostoli (fig. 8), certamente proveniente dal Serapeo di Caracalla. Oggi, osservazioni ulteriori sulle foto eseguite durante i lavori di costruzione della Pontificia Università Gregoriana alla fine degli anni Venti del XX secolo, permettono di fare alcune ipotesi circa l’impianto e l’ubicazione del primitivo palazzetto loggiato dei Colonna. Nella foto che qui si presenta (fig. 9), sul fondo si nota l’edificio a ridosso del fianco ovest del colle Quirinale, costituito da una struttura alta e tozza (torre) (A) e da un corpo più basso e lungo a più piani, delimitato a sinistra dal muraglione della sostruzione severiana (C). Con molta proba13

Epistolarum familiarum, VIII, 1; Safarik 2009, 73.

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bilità vi si possono riconoscere le strutture superstiti della Loggia dei Colonnesi. Può aiutare all’identificazione dell’edificio moderno con la Loggia, una mostra di fontana ubicata sulla parete destra del cortile antistante l’antico palazzetto. L’elemento architettonico, costituito da due semicolonne in laterizio terminate in alto da un architrave che incorniciano un nicchione, è ben visibile nell’incisione di Alò Giovannoli dell’inizio del XVII secolo (fig. 10), e si ritrova quasi integro in una delle foto scattate durante i lavori di costruzione della Gregoriana (fig. 9, A e fig. 11). L’elemento ci conferma che l’edificio sullo sfondo della foto, contiguo alla fontana, può essere ricondotto all’impianto strutturale della Loggia dei Colonnesi. Nel Medioevo inoltrato, non solo i resti monumentali ma anche i marmi delle scale del tempio di Serapide furono oggetto di riutilizzo. Quanto ne rimaneva fu donato dal Senato Romano per realizzare la scalinata monumentale (fig. 12), che conduce ancora oggi alla chiesa di S. Maria in Aracoeli, come ex voto alla Vergine Maria affinché ponesse fine alla peste che imperversava in tutta Europa (Armellini 1887 (rist. an. 1995), 378–379). La costruzione fu completata il 25 ottobre 1348 dal mastro costruttore Lorenzo di Simeone Andreozzo del Rione Colonna, come ricorda l’epigrafe in lettere gotiche murata sulla facciata della chiesa (Forcella 1869, n. 453, 127). Secondo Francesco Albertini, nella sua descrizione dei monumenti della città di Roma tra la fine del XV e gli inizi del XVI secolo (Codice topografico IV, 457–461), i gradus marmorei asportati ed impiegati nella fabbrica dell’Aracoeli furono 130: «Erat et templum Romuli in colle Quirinali […] ex cuius spoliis facti sunt CXXX gradus marmorei apud ecclesiam Sanctae Mariae Ara Caeli et Capitolii anno Christi MCCCXLVIII die vero XXV octobris»;14 ma il Lanciani nel riportate la notizia parla invece di 124 gradini, dicendoli provenire dal tempio del Sole sul Quirinale (Lanciani 1998, 44). Da quel momento in poi lo spolium sistematico di quello che rimaneva del tempio di Serapide conobbe un crescendo inarrestabile, fornendo ma-

14

F. Albertini, Opusculum de mirabilibus (= Codice topografico IV, 483).

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teriali alle maggiori fabbriche di Roma che in diverso e singolare modo perpetueranno la memoria del monumento severiano.15

BIBLIOGRAFIA Acta Sanctorum Augusti, tomus VI, Antuerpiae 1743. Adinolfi, P., Roma nell’età di Mezzo. Rione Trevi – Rione Colonna (1881, rist. an. 1980). Albertini, F., Opusculum de miralibus novae et veteris urbis Romae, Roma 1510 (= Codice topografico, IV (1953), 457–546). Armellini, M., Le chiese di Roma dalle loro origini sino al secolo XVI (1887). Bonanni, Ph., S.I., Numismata Summorum Potificum Templi Vaticani fabricam indicantia (1700). Cancellieri, F., Notizie del Carcere Tulliano detto poi Mamertino alle radici del Campidoglio ove fu rinchiuso S. Pietro e delle catene con cui fu avvinto prima del suo martirio (1885). Capanna, M.C., Il complesso severiano del Quirnale, «Workshop di archeologia classica», 6 (2009) 157–162. Capanna, M.C. Regione VI, Alta Semita, in Atlante di Roma Antica, I, A. Carandini (a cura di), Milano 2012, pp. 446–473. Cassio Dione, Historia romana. Coarelli, F., Roma (2008). Codice Topografico della Città di Roma I, Roberto Valentini, Giuseppe Zucchetti (a cura di) (1940). Codice Topografico della Città di Roma IV, Roberto Valentini, Giuseppe Zucchetti (a cura di) (1953). Fea., C. Annotazioni alla memoria sui diritti del Principato sugli antichi edifici pubblici, sacri e profani (1806). Fileri, E., Statua di coccodrillo, in M. G. Picozzi (a cura di), Palazzo Colonna. Appartamenti. Sculture antiche e dall’antico (2010) 108– 110. Forcella, V., Iscrizioni delle Chiese e di altri edifizi di Roma dal secolo XI fino ai nostri giorni, I (1869). 15

Per le notizie sulla destinazione dei materiali cavati dalle rovine del tempio di Serapide si veda la Storia degli scavi di Roma di Rodolfo Lanciani.

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Ghilardi, M., In una urbe totus orbis interiit. Il sacco alariciano di Roma tra mito e realtà, in I barbari che presero Roma. Il sacco del 410 e le sue conseguenze, M. Ghilardi, G. Pilara (a cura di) (2010) 241–353. Grande, G., G. Scagnetti, Roma Vrbs Imperatorum Aetate. Pianta topografica a colori di Roma antica (2005). Huelsen, Ch., Il tempio del Sole nella regione VII di Roma, «BCom» 23 (1895) 39–59. Lanciani, R., Di un frammento inedito della pianta di Roma antica riferibile alla Regione VII, «BCom» 22 (1894) 285–311. Lanciani, R., Storia degli scavi di Roma e notizie intorno le collezioni romane di antichità (1000–1530), I (1998). Le Liber Pontificalis, Louis Duchesne (a cura di), I–II, 1186–1892. Manacorda, D., Castra e burgi a Roma nell’alto medioevo, in La nobiltà romana nel medioevo, S. Carocci (a cura di), Atti del Convegno (Roma 20–22 novembre 2003) (2006) 97–135. Pani Ermini, L., (a cura di), Christiana loca. Lo spazio cristiano nella Roma del primo millennio. Catalogo della mostra (Roma 5 settembre – 15 novembre 2000), II (2001). Pergola, Ph., Le catacombe cristiane. Storia e topografia (2002). Picozzi, M.G. (a cura di), Palazzo Colonna. Appartamenti. Sculture antiche e dall’antico (2010). Safarik, E.A., Palazzo Colonna (2009). Santangeli Valenzani, R., NEΩS ΥΠΕΡMEΓEΘΗΣ. Osservazioni sul tempio di piazza del Quirinale, «BCom», XCIV (1991–92) 8–16. Santangeli Valenzani, R., La torre Mesa, in La Roma di Leon Battista Alberti. Umanisti, architetti e artisti alla scoperta dell’antico nella città del Quattrocento, F. P. Fiore (a cura di) (2005) 270–272. Scaglia, G., Il Frontespizio di Nerone, la Casa Colonna, e la Scala di età romana antica in un disegno nel Metropolitan Museum of Art di New York, «BdA», 72 (1992) 35–62. Taylor, R., Hadrian’s Serapeum in Rome, «American Journal of Archaeology», 108, 2 (2004) 223–266. Vilucchi, S., Thermae costantinianae, in Lexicon Topographicum Urbis Romae, V (1999) 49–51.

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FIGURES

Fig. 1: Roma. Foto aerea dell‟area della Pontificia Università Gregoriana e dei Giardini di Palazzo Colonna. I tratti in bianco evidenziano le strutture superstiti del tempio di Serapide (rielaborazione da GoogleMaps).

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Fig. 2: Ricostruzione del complesso severiano del Quirinale (Capanna 2009).

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Fig. 3: Roma. Pontificia Università Gregoriana. Particolare delle strutture severiane con tamponature di età post antica (foto Ottavio Bucarelli).

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Fig. 4: Roma. Pontificia Università Gregoriana. Rilievo della parete est della sostruzione del tempio di Serapide, a ridosso del fianco del Quirinale. © Pontificia Università Gregoriana.

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Fig. 5: Giovanni Antonio Dosio, Frontespizio di Nerone a mo(n)te cavallo (inizio anni sessanta del XVI secolo) (da Picozzi 2010).

Fig. 5 :

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Fig. 6: Anthony van den Wyngaerde (attr.), Veduta panoramica di Roma (parte) (1560 ca). Oxford, Ashmolean Museum, Sutherland Collection (da Taylor 2004).

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Fig. 7: Artista fiammingo, Pallasse nerone (metà del XVI secolo ca.). New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art, Roger Fund 59.73 (da Picozzi 2010).

Fig. 8: Roma. Palazzo Colonna. Statua di coccodrillo (prima età imperiale) (da Fileri 2010).

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Fig. 9: Cantiere per la costruzione della Pontificia Università Gregoriana (18.01.1928). © Archivio Storico della Pontificia Università Gregoriana – Roma, Fondo Barluzzi.

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Fig. 10: Alò Giovannoli, Tempio del Sole (incisione, 1619) (da Scaglia 1992).

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Fig. 11: Cantiere per la costruzione della Pontificia Università Gregoriana (maggio 1928). In primo piano l‟edificio le cui strutture sono riconducibili alla Loggia dei Colonnesi; sul muro di destra si noti la mostra della fontana con nicchione. © Archivio Storico della Pontificia Università Gregoriana – Roma, Fondo Barluzzi.

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Fig. 12: Antonio Tempesta, Pianta di Roma. Particolare della chiesa di S. Maria in Aracoeli (1606) (da Pani Ermini 2001).

A L C U N E O S S E RVA Z I O N I SULLA SICILIA DURANTE IL PERIODO DEI SEVERI Giancarlo Germanà (Accademia di Belle Arti di Catania)

La politica della dinastia dei Severi, in particolare di Settimio Severo, si può riassumere nella legenda di un denario, Laetitia temporum, che era allo stesso tempo auspicio e programma politico. L’avvento dei Severi al potere fu preceduto da una guerra civile estremamente violenta, che si protrasse fino al 197 d.C. e che sconvolse tutto l’impero romano. Dopo il breve regno di Pertinace, il 28 marzo 193 d.C. i pretoriani acclamarono l’imperatore Didio Giuliano, in Siria i legionari acclamarono il legato Pescennio Nigro e nella Pannonia Superiore Settimio Severo. Quest’ultimo prima affrontò e sconfisse Pescennio Nigro a Isso nel 194 d.C. e Clodio Albino tre anni dopo presso Lione. In tutto l’impero romano la fine della guerra civile lasciò numerose città, colpevoli di avere favorito un avversario di Settimio Severo, in un disastroso stato di rovina. Fra la fine del II ed il III secolo d.C. anche la Sicilia attraversava una fase di declino, che tuttavia andrebbe ridimensionata soprattutto alla luce dei dati archeologici acquisiti negli ultimi decenni. Il periodo dei Severi, in particolare, presenta ancora molti aspetti che meritano di essere analizzati con attenzione, a partire dal periodo in

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cui Settimio Severo fu governatore dell’isola tra il 189 ed il 190 d.C. (SHA, v. Sept. Sev. 4, 2), dopo che lo era già stato suo fratello Publio Set1 timio Geta tra il 183 ed il 184 d.C. Al tempo dei Severi si registra una maggiore attività edilizia nella parte nord-occidentale dell’isola, dove abbondano le iscrizioni di ringraziamento. Il motivo va forse cercato nella maggiore attenzione che c’era stata fino ad allora per i centri della Sicilia orientale, ma non è da sottovalutare il fatto che la parte occidentale dell’isola, soprattutto Lilibeo, costituiva il ponte naturale che collegava Roma all’Africa e l’origine africana dei Severi dovette rafforzare questa funzione. A Lilibeo i primi due secoli dell’età imperiale erano stati caratterizzati da riadattamenti di edifici preesistenti. Una consistente ripresa dell’attività edilizia è documentata a partire dagli inizi del III secolo d.C., quando cominciarono ad essere eretti edifici, caratterizzati dalla presenza costante di ambienti termali e da una ricca pavimentazione a mosaico. Tale fase edilizia si può ricollegare alla istituzione della Colonia Helvia Augusta Lilybitanorum durante il regno di Pertinace o più verosimilmente all’inizio del regno di Settimio Severo (CIL X 2, n. 7228).

LE FONTI EPIGRAFICHE Prima di analizzare i dati archeologi ascrivibili al periodo in questione ricordiamo una serie di indicazioni utili che possiamo trarre dall’analisi delle epigrafi. A Palermo è attestata la maggiore concentrazione di dediche alla famiglia dei Severi che ci sia rimasta nell’isola, conseguenza sicuramente del proconsolato dei due fratelli: anche l’attività del porto sembra confermare l’importanza della città. Nel versante sud-orientale della Sicilia si segnala il rinvenimento di un’epigrafe, attualmente esposta presso il Museo Archeologico di Ragusa,2 rinvenuta in località S. Nicola vicino Kaukana. Nel testo in latino sono menzionati degli anonimi prefetti e l’imbarco dell’annona. Per la

1 Publio Settimio Geta nacque a Leptis Magna e fu console nel 203 d.C., rimane incerto se fosse il fratello maggiore o minore. 2 L’epigrafe è collocata tra la vetrina 28 e la sala della VI sezione e nella didascalia si legge che faceva parte della collezione Pace.

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cronologia è stato proposto un breve periodo compreso tra il 209 ed il 211 d.C.3 (fig. 1). [_________________________________________] folium [moles ____________________ extructae provid]entia [)v(iri)] p(erfectissimi) praef(ecti) ann(onae) [idem(que) a (gentis) v(ices) praef(ectorum) pr] aetorio (duorum) e(minentissimorum) v(irorum)

Nell’epigrafe di Kaukana vengono menzionati i prefetti dell’annona, una magistratura istituita da Augusto, la quale insieme alle prefetture urbana e del pretorio, la curatela degli acquedotti e dei lavori pubblici divenne un organo amministrativo permanente. Quando fu istituita, nell’8 d.C., la prefettura dell’annona era affidata non a un senatore, bensì ad un dignitario del rango equestre. A questa magistratura spettava la terza posizione nella gerarchia delle funzioni che costituivano il cursus equestre, dopo quella del pretorio e quella dell’Egitto e prima di quella dei vigili. Presto si dovettero creare stretti legami tra il prefetto dell’annona e quello dell’Egitto, il quale era in carica ad Alessandria ed amministrava il principale mercato granario di Roma insieme ai procuratori ad Mercurium e di Neapolis, che operavano “essenzialmente per gli interessi dell’annona di Roma” (Pavis d’Escurac 1976). Il praefectus annonae aveva la responsabilità del trasporto e dell’immagazzinamento delle merci negli horrea, la cui costruzione e manutenzione spettava al curatore dei lavori pubblici. Una parte di queste merci era destinata alle frumentationes, soprattutto di frumento che esistevano dall’età repubblicana e che furono mantenute in età imperiale. La manutenzione dei luoghi utilizzati per la raccolta delle derrate frumentarie era un altro incarico particolarmente delicato, se pensiamo al rischio di incendi come quello che tra il 191 ed il 192 d.C. devastò la zo3

Ringrazio l’Arch. Giovanna Susan, Direttore del Museo Archeologico Ibleo di Ragusa, per avermi autorizzato a studiare l’epigrafe di Kaukana, la Dott.ssa Concetta Genovese per la trascrizione ed il Prof. Giovanni Di Stefano, Direttore del Parco archeologico terracqueo di Kamarina e delle aree archeologiche di Ragusa e dei Comuni limitrofi, per le preziose indicazioni riguardanti il rinvenimento e lo studio dell’epigrafe.

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na cosiddetta di Largo Argentina, dove avvenivano parte delle frumentationes. Questo episodio sicuramente avrà richiesto un nuovo luogo per le distribuzioni, in attesa del completamente dei lavori di restauro. A questo grave incendio, che si colloca negli ultimi anni del regno di Commodo, seguì una riorganizzazione dell’ufficio delle frumentationes, che si fuse con la cura acquarum (Daguet-Gagey 2000, 93–95).Al suo avvento, nel 193 d.C., Settimio Severo trovò l’annona in cattivo stato come conseguenza dell’epidemia divampata sotto il suo predecessore Commodo. Per questo accumulò ingenti scorte alimentari e aggiunse alle distribuzioni di frumento quelle di olio, arrivando ad imporre un’apposita tassa alla Tripolitania per assicurare a Roma una fornitura regolare (SHA, v. Sept. Sev., 18, 3; 23, 2). Con la riforma di Settimio Severo i prefetti preposti all’imbarco dell’annona dovevano essere in qualche modo legati allo scarico delle merci, in particolare olio e grano, che provenivano dall’Africa settentrionale (Tripolitania, Egitto) e facevano tappa in Sicilia per alimentare il mercato di Roma. I criteri delle distribuzioni di olio rimangono ancora sconosciuti, ma è probabile che fossero gli stessi delle frumentationes.4 Oltre al grano si aggiungono alle competenze delle autorità romane anche altre tre derrate alimentari: l’olio, il vino e la carne. Questo cambi5 amento, reso necessario dalla continua crescita delle proprietà imperiali e con l’aumento progressivo delle imposte sull’Italia. L’approvvigionamento oleario era entrato a far parte del le competenze del praefectus annonae tra il periodo adrianeo e quello di Antonino Pio (Pavis d’Escurac 1976). Questa prefettura aveva la responsabilità di fare arrivare a Roma i carici di olio che partivano dalla Betica e dall’Africa sotto forma di imposta o canone sulle proprietà imperiali per alimentare Roma con un prodotto di prima necessità. Come nel caso delle frumentationes, anche i commercianti ed i trasportatori di olio godevano di vantaggi fiscali (Dig.., 50, 4, 5) ed anche le distribuzioni di olio avvenivano in ma-

4

Il trasporto delle derrate, affidato ai corpora navicularium, dal 200 d.C. diventò un munus, a cui si affiancavano contratti stipulati con trasportatori indipendenti. 5 Questo processo subisce notevole accelerazione tra il regno Commodo e il periodo di Settimio Severo, il quale lasciò delle enormi riserve di grano alla sua morte (SHA, Sev., 23, 2), a riguardo vedi Lo Cascio 1997, 3–76.

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niera regolare sotto il regno di Settimio Severo (SHA, v. Sept. Sev., 18, 3. A riguardo vedi Chastagnol 1960, 321). La maggior parte delle riforme introdotte da Settimio Severo erano destinate ad alleggerire il peso fiscale che gravava sulle fasce più basse delle popolazione. In questo senso deve essere vista l’introduzione dell’annona, una tassa speciale che fece la sua prima apparizione in Egitto, dove è meglio documentata. Essa molto probabilmente era in rapporto con l’annona militare e, sebbene fosse pagata ancora in aderazione, tuttavia contribuiva ad incrementare la tassazione in natura secondo una prassi tutt’altro che nuova. Analoghe riforme tributarie dovettero verificarsi anche nelle altre provincie dell’impero, anticipando per certi versi la successiva grande riforma di Caracalla. Ricordiamo infatti che la Constitutio Antoniniana, emessa nel 212 d.C., non trasformò l’essenza del privilegio dei beneficiari, poiché alla distinzione tra cittadini e peregrini si sostituì quella tra Romani e incolae, cioè semplici residenti. L’accesso alle frumentationes rimase una prerogativa di coloro che avevano la cittadinanza romana.

LE TESTIMONIANZE ARCHEOLOGICHE Lo scalo commerciale da dove proviene questa importante iscrizione viene identificato con l’abitato di Kaukana, sulla costa sud-orientale della Sicilia. L’insediamento si inserisce in un territorio circostante caratterizzato dalla presenza di ville e latifondi di notevoli dimensioni. Occorre inoltre ricordare che la cuspide sud-orientale della Sicilia era attraversata da una strada, la cosiddetta via selinuntina, che partiva da Siracusa e si inoltrava nell’entroterra verso Akrai (l’odierna Palazzolo Acreide), scendeva quindi verso sud ed attraversava gli altopiani iblei per arrivare sulla costa meridionale dell’isola e continuare lungo la costa nella direzione di Selinunte. Lungo il tracciato ipotetico di questa strada antica le indagini archeologiche hanno in passato individuato numerosi latifondi, ognuno dei quali doveva fare riferimento ad una villa. Tra il II ed il III secolo d.C. si può osservare in tutto l’impero romano un processo di trasformazione del lavoro schiavile nei latifondi. La specificità delle mansioni svolte dallo schiavo, che ne caratterizzarono il ruolo nella produzione latifondiaria durante i secoli precedenti, viene progressivamente meno per lasciare spazio alla nuova figura del colono. Questo processo viene osservato da

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Ulpiano, giurista dell’epoca severiana, il quale nel Digesto scrive “servi qui quasi coloni in agro sunt” (Dig., 33, 7, 12, 3). Nel latifondo gli schiavi rimanevano tali, ma non costituivano più l’instrumentum fundi, in quanto ad essi si affiancavano i coloni liberi nella coltivazione della terra.6 Dal territorio di Siracusa provengono alcune importanti scoperte che confermano l’intensa attività di sfruttamento dei latifondi durante la prima metà del III secolo d.C. attraverso la presenza di numerose ville. Nella maggior parte dei casi si tratta di scoperte isolate, che tuttavia possono aggiungere dei dati a questo quadro di insieme. Come nel caso di alcuni elementi attribuibili alla presenza di una villa individuati casualmente nelle vicinanze di Siracusa, presso Torre Milocca. In particolare fu scoperta una piccola erma di Dioniso. La scultura, rinvenuta nel 1943, raffigurava una piccola erma del tipo arcaizzante con un alto diadema ornato con tralci d'edera a larghe foglie e grosse bacche disposte in modo simmetrico e decorativo.7 Dalle chiome pendono grappoli d'uva e bende scendono fino alle spalle. I tratti del volto, con le sopracciglia quasi rettilinee e il naso sottile e in linea perfettamente retta con la fronte, mostrano la stessa stilizzazione decorativa di quegli ornamenti. La bocca semiaperta è circondata da folti baffi spioventi che scendono sulla barba appuntita, triangolare, con ciocche allungate terminanti a spirali. L’editore della scoperta ha datato la scultura alla prima metà del II secolo d.C. in base alle caratteristiche tecniche e stilistiche (Bernabò Brea 1947, 212–213, fig. 10), tuttavia ritengo che se ne possa spostare la cronologia ad un periodo compreso tra il II ed il III secolo d.C. Il rinvenimento dell’erma di Dioniso in contrada Torre Milocca fece pensare alla presenza di una villa in quella regione del suburbio siracusano, nella quale si sovrappongono tracce di vita intensissima dall'età neolitica all'età bizantina.8 La presenza di ville doveva caratterizzare il territorio extraurbano di Siracusa attraverso una notevole diffusione di strutture produttive

6

Per i cambiamenti del lavoro schiavile fra il II ed il III secolo d.C. vedi Thébert 2009, 165–184. 7 Alta cm. 22,5. 8 La lunga frequentazione del sito in età romana fu confermata dal rinvenimento di quattro nummi alexandrini bronzei degli imperatori Claudio II, Tacito e Aureliano, in seguito portati al Museo Archeologico di Siracusa.

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ad esse collegate, come fornaci, e con la presenza di piccoli approdi sulla costa. Rimanendo nel territorio siracusano possiamo ricordare un’altra scoperta, riferibile al periodo preso in esame, avvenuta all’inizio degli anni Cinquanta durante i lavori di demolizione di alcune vecchie fabbriche esistenti nel fondo Monasteri di proprietà del Barone Andrea Catalano. Durante i lavori di livellazione del cortile furono riportati alla luce i resti di un'antica costruzione di età romana, nella quale si possono individuare diverse fasi di rifacimento (Gentili 1950, 357, n. 4222; Gentili 1951, 163 sgg). La prima costruzione, databile al II secolo d.C., era in opus quadratum. Su questa si sovrapponeva un'altra struttura di età posteriore, che presentava blocchi reimpiegati. Della costruzione originaria restava molto poco ed in base a quanto è stato riportato alla luce fu identificata come la parte angolare della fondazione di un edificio, il cui lato orientale era stato scalzato fino alla base. In questo modo è stato possibile identificare due filari di blocchi poggianti sopra un sottofondo di pietrame a secco, tra cui è stato buttato anche un rocchio di colonna. Ad una seconda fase di molto posteriore, riferibile alla tarda romanità o già ad età bizantina, è da assegnare l’altro angolo del fabbricato, che presenta quali particolarità costruttive di avere le murature senza fondazione, ma posate direttamente sul terreno e formate con materiali di risulta, pertinenti alla prima costruzione. Al momento della scoperta questi resti furono attribuiti ad un vicus o un pagus risalente all’età imperiale. A sostegno di questa ipotesi l’editore pubblicava alcuni lapidei decorativi. Oltre a questi elementi lapidei decorativi, sono state riportate alla luce delle iscrizioni, in una delle quali è riportata una dedica ad Esculapio. L’altezza delle lettere nelle prime sei linee e nella decima è di cm. 4; per le linee settima, ottava e nona, è di cm. 3 e 2. Il ductus litterarum, nonché la presenza quale segno di interpunzione dell’hedera distinguens, inducono a datare l’epigrafe ai primi anni del III secolo d.C. In tal caso le ultime due righe potrebbero essere integrate con la data consolare del 227 d.C.: [Al]bino et M[assimo]. Questa epigrafe si potrebbe riferire al dono fatto da un privato ad un luogo di culto, forse una statua del dio, per invocare la protezione nell’attività iatrica. Roscius Aelianus Salvius potrebbe essere stato un medico a cui si deve il dono votivo dell’altare. A Siracusa il culto di Asclepio era attestato ancora in età romana, come si può desumere dall’accusa fatta da Cicerone a Verre di avere sottratto una statua di Apollo Paian dal tempio di Asclepio. Considerata

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l’importanza di questa divinità in ambito urbano, non deve meravigliare la presenza di un suo luogo di culto ad appena 12 km a ovest di Siracusa. La presenza di sorgenti d’acqua nel luogo del rinvenimento dell’epigrafe, inoltre, ricorda il santuario Cifanta, un piccolo centro nel Peloponneso, dove Pausania (III, 24, 2) nel II secolo d.C. vede una statua del dio collocata in una grotta vicino ad una sorgente, dove secondo il mito Atalanta si sarebbe dissetata mentre andava a caccia. La diffusione del culto di Esculapio nell’impero romano ebbe un forte impulso tra il II ed il III secolo d.C. I Discorsi sacri di Elio Aristide, un oratore greco vissuto in questo periodo, riflettono un progressivo avvicinarsi di paganesimo e cristianesimo verso un comune obiettivo di un culto salvifico. Proseguendo lungo la via selinuntina si colloca un’altra importante scoperta attribuibile al periodo preso in esame. Ad una di queste ville si può riferire un complesso termale rinvenuto fra il 1933 ed il 1934 nella parte centrale dell’abitato moderno di Comiso (Arias 1937, 456–465; Pace 1946, 162–174; Di Stefano 1999, 34–43). Nel 1934 i scavi riportarono alla luce in via Virgilio (odierna via Emanuele Calogero) alcuni tratti di un pavimento a mosaico. A questi seguirono altri saggi di scavo diretti da Arias nel 1935 e da Pace nel 1937. Più recentemente, tra il 1988 ed il 1989, si sono svolte due campagne di scavo avviate dalla Soprintendenza sotto la direzione di Giovanni Di Stefano. Queste ultime indagini archeologiche hanno permesso di appurare una serie di dati estremamente importanti per definire le fasi di uso e la planimetria dell’impianto termale. Per quanto riguarda la planimetria, gli scavi del secolo scorso aveva riportato alla luce l’angolo nord-ovest del pavimento dell’ipocausto appartenete al tepidarium, ad ovest del quale è stato individuato il calidarium di forma ottagonale e dotato di due pilastrini (pilae) formati da mattoni di forma quadrata e circolare, nonché delle tracce di altri nove pilastrini. Ad ovest del calidarium, il cui pavimento era stato realizzato con una gettata di calcestruzzo contenente frammenti di tegole, è stato individuato il praefurnium. Il ninfeo, dove sono più evidenti le tracce di un 9 riuso avvenuto in età bizantina, presenta una pianta di forma ottagonale 9

Alla fase di riutilizzo, in età bizantina, si riferisce il pavimento in opus sectile sovrapposto al mosaico di età imperiale (Di Stefano 1999, 35).

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con una nicchia semicircolare ad ovest. Il pavimento del ninfeo è decorato a mosaico con scena figurata. Il soggetto del mosaico è marino con evidenti richiami alla topografia locale. Su un fondo bianco, incorniciato da una fascia marginata da un filetto nero che inquadra il campo figurato, si sviluppa una composizione dalla prospettiva aperta formata da alcuni personaggi contrapposti verso la parte centrale. All’estremità occidentale, conservata quasi per intero, si trova un corteo marino che si muove verso la figura di Nettuno, posizionata al centro del mosaico. La ripresa degli scavi del complesso termale ha evidenziato che il ninfeo, nella sua fase più antica, era perpendicolare rispetto all’asse formato da calidarium e tepidarium. Nel mosaico del ninfeo è raffigurata una scena marina, nella quale sono stati osservati alcuni riferimenti alla topografia locale. La scena, realizzata con tessere nere su fondo bianco, presenta attraverso una prospettiva aperta due gruppi di personaggi contrapposti: da una parte un corteo marino in movimento verso il centro, dove si trova la figura di Nettuno. Il dio è rappresentato stante, nudo e barbato con una lunga chioma; il corpo è reso di prospetto, mentre la gamba destra è raffigurata quasi di tre quarti. Nella mano destra Nettuno reca il tridente puntato a terra, mentre nella sinistra protesa in avanti tiene un aplustre a forma di delfino. La figura è resa secondo un’iconografia molto diffusa, risalente all’età ellenistica e molto diffusa in età imperiale. Ai lati di Nettuno si trovano due coppie di Nereidi che cavalcano dei Tritoni, rappresentati con torso umano e lunga coda di pesce e due zampe equine nella parte anteriore. Il Tritone del gruppo a sinistra di Nettuno porge la prua di una nave, che nell’iconografia più antica si trova generalmente sotto il piede del dio, mentre la Nereide del gruppo a destra reca in mano un fiore di loto. Il motivo del delfino ritorna nella parte inferiore del mosaico, dove si trova rappresentato nell’atto si saltare in mezzo alle onde del mare. Sul lato opposto del mosaico, contrapposta al gruppo della Nereide e del Tritone ed alla destra di Nettuno, è visibile parte di un giovane, reso forse di tre quarti, nudo e seduto o poggiato su un rilievo roccioso che tiene nella mano sinistra un vaso capovolto da cui fuoriesce dell’acqua. Il getto d’acqua, reso con un tratteggio, si versa nel mare verso la parte centrale della composizione. Alle spalle del giovane si intravede parte di un paesaggio palustre con alte canne. In quest’ultimo personaggio si è voluto vedere un riferimento al fiume Ippari che si versa nel mare inserito in un

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contesto paesaggistico palustre che confermerebbe questa interpretazione.10 Le campagne di scavo del 1988 e del 1989 hanno inoltre permesso di ricostruire l’impianto planimetrico dell’edificio termale, accertando che il primo impianto architettonico, attribuibile alla prima età imperiale, doveva presentare una successione lineare degli ambienti. In questo allineamento verticale, con apodyterium, frigidarium e calidarium, si aggiungeva il ninfeo, anch’esso inserito nell’asse est-ovest. Per il primo impianto termale è stata proposta da Arias e da Pace una datazione compresa tra la metà e la fine del II secolo d.C. (Arias 1937, 456–465; Pace 1946, 162– 174). In base ai dati acquisiti nelle ultime campagne di scavo è stato proposto di datare il primo impianto termale, con il mosaico, ad un periodo immediatamente successivo all’età severa (Di Stefano 1999, 34–43). Un altro impianto termale con ambienti mosaicati databile ad un periodo compreso tra il II ed il III secolo d.C. è stato riportato alla luce a Tindari. L’edificio termale di questo centro della Sicilia nord-orientale è stato riportato alla luce nell’isolato IV tra il 1949 e il 1968. L’accesso alle terme avveniva da ovest, attraverso un cortile porticato su cui si aprivano vari ambienti. Ai lati del vestibolo si trovavano due piccole stanze (spogliatoi?) con pavimenti in mosaico bianco e nero: vi sono rappresentati un toro con i pilei dei Dioscuri, protettori di Tindari, e il simbolo della Trinacria. Gli ambienti termali si trovano più in alto: precede un frigidario con piscina absidata, decorato con mosaici rappresentanti dei lottatori (Verna e Afer, i nomi sono iscritti accanto, mentre in basso si trova il nome dell’esecutore del mosaico, uno schiavo di nome Dionisio). Un altro mosaico circolare è decorato con quattro delfini, e un terzo con un centauro marino. Segue il tepidarium, dopo una saletta absidata di passaggio: l’ambiente, come il successivo, era riscaldato tramite suspensurae e mattoni cavi nelle pareti. Il mosaico pavimentale reca al centro un grande tondo con Dioniso sotto la vite e una pantera, inquadrato ai quattro angoli da satiri, tra i quali sono due kantharoi. L’ambiente successivo, il calidario, ha un mosaico geometrico. L’insieme delle terme, in questa fase, si può attribuire al II secolo d.C. Si notano vari restauri e infine un abbandono 10

Per l’interpretazione del mosaico nel ninfeo dell’impianto termale di Comiso si rimanda a Di Stefano 1999, 36–37.

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corrispondente alla fine del IV secolo d.C., probabilmente in seguito ad un terremoto, quando la zona fu occupata da semplici costruzioni, che invadono anche la terrazza superiore. Nel tondo centrale del mosaico del tepidarium è raffigurato Dioniso/Bacco stante con il tirso nella mano sinistra mentre con la destra porge una coppa di vino ad un leopardo posto su un podio. Un satiro di dimensioni ridotto reca un tirso dietro a Bacco, mentre tutta la scena è incorniciata da un lungo tralcio di vite. Nel pannello centrale è raffigurata anche una coppia di kantharoi dai quali si dipartono dei tralci di vite, mentre ai quattro angoli del pannello sono raffigurati dei satiri. L’insieme dei mosaici delle terme di Tindari viene datato al 200 d.C. circa da Wilson, il quale lo descrive come il mosaico con Bacco firmato dal mosaicista locale Neikias. Anche le scoperte archeologiche avvenute il secolo scorso a Lilibeo hanno riportato alla luce dati archeologici ascrivibili al periodo dei Severi. Il complesso edilizio più significativo è stato scoperto poco prima del 1939 al Capo Boeo, in seguito allo sterro per la costruzione di uno stadio. Si tratta del blocco di un’insula quasi per intero occupata da un’unica lussuosa abitazione, provvista di atrio tetrastilo e di un peristilio. L’insula era fiancheggiata, su due lati, da strade lastricate in pietra bianca di Trapani. Nel lastricato stradale sono reimpiegate tre iscrizioni provenienti presumibilmente da edifici pubblici. Lo scavo dell’insula, a parte brevi notizie preliminari, rimase inedito a causa dei successivi eventi bellici. Una breve campagna, nel 1972, ho consentito di effettuare dei saggi in profondità. È probabile che nell’impianto antico l’insula fosse occupata da due case separate, una delle quali probabilmente già provvista di un atrio tetrastilo e di un peristilio. L’impianto del complesso termale sembra avere subito almeno due diverse ristrutturazioni. Nella fase più tarda, verso la fine del III secolo d.C., l’accesso avveniva attraverso un vestibolo, con pavimento a mosaico con cave canem, e un piccolo apoditerium. La stanza centrale (frigidarium) presenta un pavimento a mosaico di chiara impronta africana, con leone, leonessa, tigre e pantera che assalgono rispettivamente un cavallo, un’antilope, una gazzella e un cervo. Le stanze calde constano di un tepidarium e di altri tre ambienti, forse un laconicum e due calidaria, con vasche per l’immersione.

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VILLE E LATIFONDI La presenza di ville legate ai latifondi nella Sicilia sud-orientale è stata confermata anche dalle scoperte avvenute nell’entroterra nisseno, dove sono stati riportate alla luce altre testimonianze archeologiche riferibili alla presenza di lussuose dimore costruite o ristrutturate tra la fine del II ed il primo quarto del III secolo d.C. Significativa in questo senso è la scoperta presso il complesso abitativo di Piano della Clesia, nel territorio di Caltanissetta, del ritratto marmoreo dell’imperatore Geta.11 Questa scultura rappresenta uno dei rari esempio di ritratto giovanile di Geta, sfuggito alla sua damnatio memoriae ordinata da Caracalla (Carra 1977, 25–30). Il busto, di medie dimensioni, è realizzato con un blocco di marmo bianco a grana fine, dalle superfici levigate. Il Principe indossa sulla tunica una lorica molto semplice, arricchita da una fascia, e sulla corazza un paludamentum trattenuto sulla spalla destra da un grosso fermaglio a borchia. Il panneggio è reso in maniera naturalistica attraverso una resa consistente dei volumi della stoffa e con il rendimento chiaroscurale delle pieghe. Il gioco dei contrasti di luci e ombre viene resto in maniera sobria da un uso essenziale del trapano. La testa ampia, di forma sferica, è rivolta verso destra e si imposta su un collo corto dalla muscolatura volutamente accentuata. I lineamenti decisi del volto sono nettamente incisi. Il contrato tra la superficie levigata del volto e la calotta dei capelli suddivisa in ciocche crea l’unico effetto coloristico. Le ciocche lungo l’arco frontale e sulle tempie con un volume maggiore incorniciano il volto, mentre due lunghe basette scendono sulle gote fino all’altezza del lobo delle orecchie. Dal linguaggio formale contenuto del ritratto traspare l’atteggiamento malinconico che caratterizza i ritratti giovanili di Geta. L’espressione assolta del viso è resa dalla solida costruzione del profilo e dallo sguardo ispirato e rivolto verso l’alto, che risente già dell’arte tardoantica. In base ai confronti questo ritratto viene collocato tra quelli che rappresentano Geta tra i 15 e i 16 anni, secondo un tipo iconografico nuovo che si af11 Dopo essere stato di proprietà della famiglia Giordano Starabba, questa scultura è stata acquistata nel 1970 dalle Collezioni del Museo Regionale di Caltanissetta in seguito all’acquisto da parte dell’Associazione Archeologica Nissena.

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fermò in età severiana come contrapposizione all’enfasi barocca. Lo possiamo osservare anche nei ritratti ufficiali per le effigi giovanili di Caracalla al tempo del suo terzo consolato. La presenza di un ritratto di un membro della dinastia dei Severi farebbe pensare che l'ultimo proprietario della villa potrebbe essere stato un funzionario di alto rango legato alla famiglia imperiale. Lo stesso modello iconografico ritorna su un aureo della zecca di Roma del 203 – 208 d.C., per cui si ritiene che il busto di Sabucina si possa datare agli anni compresi tra il 204 ed il 205 d.C., nel breve periodo intermedio tra il primo ed il secondo tipo dei ritratti dell’adolescenza. Il busto-ritratto di Sabucina costituisce quasi sicuramente, per la Bonacasa Carra, un ritratto ufficiale attribuibile ad un’officina metropolitana giunto in Sicilia al seguito degli aristocratici proprietari della villa (Bonacasa Carra 2002, 271–272). Per quanto riguarda i proprietari della villa, e del latifondo ad essa connesso, ricordiamo che nell’area in cui fu rinvenuto il busto di Geta furono anche riportati alla luce tegoli con bollo, tra i quali uno con bollo PHILIPPIANI, che suggeriva di localizzare nel sito i praedia di un certo Philippianus, nome però non attestato nelle fonti antiche. Significativa è anche la presenza della necropoli romana di contrada Lannari nelle immediate vicinanze di Piano della Clesia. Per avere una quadro completo, a questo punto, passiamo ad analizzare alcuni dati acquisiti dagli scavi archeologici avvenuti durante il secolo scorso nell’ambito urbano di Siracusa, i quali possono trovare importanti confronti in altri centri urbani della Sicilia. Importanti informazioni sulle condizioni economiche di Siracusa durante la prime e la media età imperiali posso venire dalle abitazioni, rinvenute in varie parti dell'impianto urbano. Nella maggior parte dei casi si tratta di scavi poco estesi, che hanno dato una quantità di dati limitati, come nel caso del quartiere di S. Maria di Gesù. Non mancano esempi di opus sectile o mosaico con scena figurata risalente agli inizi del III secolo d.C.12 La scoperta avvenne tra il 1934 e il 1936, durante i lavori per l’apertura di Via del Littorio. Pochi metri a sud dell’incrocio di queste via con via S. Cristoforo fu scoperto un lembo di circa m. 2 × 2 di mosaico pavimentale 12

Per l'opus sectile: Gentili 1956, 106; per il mosaico con il “bagno di Venere”: von Boeselager 1983, n. 70, 149–154.

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policromo con quadro centrale figurato (Venere e amorino) e ampia fascia con decorazione a motivi geometrici e vegetali, allettato ad una quota più alta rispetto alle strutture murarie rinvenute nelle vicinanze, e con differente orientamento. Suggestivo è il confronto con la Venere raffigurata nel mosaico proveniente dalla località di Elles, nel Kef, del III secolo d.C., in una scena che rappresenta il trionfo della dea esposto al Museo del Bardo a Tunisi (Wilson 1990).

TESTIMONIANZE DELLA PRESENZA DEL CULTO DI MITRA A SIRACUSA TRA IL II ED IL III SECOLO D.C. Con la dinastia dei Severi si assiste nei culti tradizionali un rapido processo di sincretismo, che l’affermazione di culti orientali anche presso la famiglia imperiale. L’imperatrice Iulia Domna, in particolare, diede vita ad un circolo di intellettuali, di cui faceva parte Filostrato, autore della biografia del taumaturgo Apollonio di Tiana. Il notevole interesse di Settimio Severo per l’astronomia intesa come lo studio dell’influsso degli astri sul destino dell’uomo è testimoniata dalla pagina iniziale del De fato (165.3–15 Bruns) di Alessandro di Afrodisia, dove si legge la dedica del trattato proprio all’imperatore ed al figlio e correggente, è incerto se sia Caracalla o Geta. Durante l’età dei Severi si può osservare una notevole diffusione dei culti orientale, fra i quali in particolare il mitraismo. Nel corso del III secolo d.C. sono sempre più numerosi i santuari dedicati a questo culto. Il culto di Mitra, rispetto ad altri culti orientali, fu l’ultimo a penetrare nell’impero romano. In questo senso è significativo l’esempio di Ostia, dove si registra una progressivo aumento dei luoghi di culto dalla fine del II d.C. e prima della metà del secolo successivo aveva acquisito il primato rispetto agli altri culti orientali di più antica acquisizione. Il culto di Mitra si allargò progressivamente a tutto l’impero romano partendo dall’Asia Minore, sotto l’influsso della vicina Persia. I riti, che rimasero sempre interdetti alle donne, si affermarono rapidamente tra i soldati delle legioni che combattevano contro i Parti, in particolare tra l’età dei Flavi ed il regno di Traiano. Nel II secolo d.C. possiamo osservare una piena diffusione nel mondo romano del Mitraismo, che fondamentalmente era rimasto fino ad allora estraneo ad ogni forma di religiosità greco romana e che veniva portato dai soldati, dai mercanti orientali, dagli schiavi. Questi ultimi, in partico-

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lare, dovevano essere stati attirati dall’ideale di fraternità che costituiva uno dei fondamenti di questa religione e per questo dovette garantire anche una notevole diffusione fra i liberti. Diffuso fra gli eserciti, i ceti produttivi ed i liberti, il Mitraismo doveva riscuotere anche il sostegno degli imperatori che basarono il loro regno sul supporto di questi elementi della società romana, favorendo l’identificazione del culto di Mitra con quello del Sol invictus. In questo modo l’ascesa del mitraismo a religione di Stato durante il III secolo d.C. fu estremamente rapida, costituendo un forte concorrenza all’affermazione del cristianesimo. L’interesse di Settimio Severo per le province orientali aveva anche delle concrete motivazioni di carattere militare, che ebbero sicuramente delle ripercussioni sulla diffusione del culto di Mitra tra le legioni. In un passo di Erodiano, infatti, leggiamo che allorquando il re dell’Osroene si sottomise “gli portò un gran numero di arcieri come alleati” (Hdn., VI, 7, 8). Quest’uso si perpetuava ancora al tempo di Severo Alessandro, il quale durante le sue campagne contro i Parti reclutò “un numero immenso di arcieri Osroeni e Armeni, di cui alcuni erano sudditi, altri amici e alleati; altri ancora erano Parti che servivano i Romani o come disertori arruolati per la paga, o come prigionieri catturati in guerra” (Hdn., VI, 2, 1–3). A Caracalla viene attribuita anche la proposta di unire l’impero romano con il regno dei Parti attraverso una proposta matrimoniale (Hdn., IV, 10, 4). A Siracusa è attestata la presenza dell'unico tempio di Mitra finora conosciuto in Sicilia, un piccolo santuario intagliato nella roccia scoperto nel moderno quartiere S. Lucia nel 1931 e successivamente andato distrutto. Il mitreo di Siracusa rientra in una tipologia piuttosto comune nei centri dell’impero romano. I confronti più interessanti si possono individuare ad Ostia, dove gli scavi hanno individuato ben 17 mitrei datati tra la fine del II ed il III secolo d.C., distribuiti in maniera uniforme nei quartieri urbani a differenza delle sedi dei culti orientali prevalentemente collocati nelle aree periferiche. Nel caso di Ostia questa diffusione capillare all’interno dell’impianto urbano è stata spiegata in primo luogo con il sostegno al culto offerto dalle autorità pubbliche, a cui si aggiungeva un’ampia diffusione fra le masse e le dimensioni modeste dei sacelli, che richiedevano poco spazio e per questo si inserivano bene nel tessuto urbano.

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Le dimensioni ridotte di un mitreo, che caratterizzavano anche il sacello di Siracusa, consentivano d’altra parte l’accesso ad un numero limitato di fedeli, che bene si accordava con il carattere esoterico dei riti. Il progressivo aumento dei fedeli portava inevitabilmente ad un aumento dei luoghi di culto. Le dimensioni ridotte dei mitrei permettevano inoltre una loro collocazione all’interno di edifici già esistenti, in particolare insulae o edifici commerciali, dove lo spazio veniva concesso da ricchi proprietari protettori del culto. Da un punto di vista tipologico tutti i mitrei avevano in comune l’esigenza di segretezza e raccoglimento, caratteristiche necessarie per un culto misterico ed iniziatico. Nei numerosi casi noti si può osservare che gli ingressi non si aprivano mai sulle strade principali, bensì su vie secondarie e cortili interni, ed in alcuni casi il mitreo era sotterraneo. Il sacello era in genere spostato rispetto all’ingresso o preceduto da un vestibolo in modo da impedire che il profano potesse scorgere i riti che si compivano all’interno di esso. Con la sua pianta rettangolare allungata coperta da una bassa volta a botte il mitreo cercava di imitare la grotta (spelaeum) in cui era nato Mitra. Presso la soglia si trovava un pozzetto, il cui uso rimane ancora incerto ma che doveva essere connesso con il rito del battesimo impartito ai fedeli. Il santuario era formato da un corridoio delimitato ai lati da due podi (praesepia) utilizzati dai fedeli (fratres) per consumare il banchetto rituale insieme al sacerdote (pater). Vivande e lucerne erano collocati su un ripiano al margine dei podi. In alcuni mitrei compaiono le figurazioni simboliche dei sette gradi dell’iniziazione, realizzati con degli affreschi o graffiti sulle pareti, oppure con dei mosaici che decoravano il pavimento del corridoio e i piani dei podi e dei ripiani. In queste raffigurazioni si trovano soprattutto gli attributi rituali dei vari gradi dei fedeli, ovvero i sette pianeti o sfere celesti che li tutelavano. Il fulcro di un mitreo si trovava nel lato di fondo del sacello, dove era collocato un piccolo altare, su cui si bruciavano le offerte di frutta. In una nicchia dietro l’altare si trovava l’immagine di Mitra in atto di uccidere il toro. Questa scena poteva essere realizzata in varie tecniche, con un affresco o un rilievo sulla parete, oppure con una scultura a tutto tondo

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posta su un sostegno.13 Ai margini di questa scena si potevano trovane altri riferimenti ai simboli del culto come il Sole e la Luna, la pietra conica da cui era nato Mitra (petra genetrix). Il mitreo di Siracusa al momento della scoperta misurava 13,80 × 5,30 m con allineamento in senso est-ovest, ed era formato da un nartece, un ambiente principale con una nicchia in ogni parete e dal recesso del santuario all'estremità occidentale su cui si conservano alcuni parti di una tauroctonia in stucco; alla sua destra un affresco riproduce una scena di caccia, comune nell'iconografia mitraica. Tracce di una pittura raffigurante fiori rossi si conserva anche nell'angolo nordorientale dell' ambiente principale, vicino una porta conduceva forse in un'altra stanza o era l'ingresso principale. Alcuni graffiti, datati al 1459, testimoniano che questo sito fu sconvolto prima del 1931, tuttavia interventi avvenuti nel corso del XIX secolo hanno portato all'esterno materiali relativi al culto di Mitra, fra i quali frammenti di una rozza tauroctonia in marmo, una testa di Mitra e una figura con copricapo frigio. La statua di Mitra, realizzata in marmo bianco a grana fine,14 si data al II – III secolo d.C. ed insieme alle lucerne riferibili prevalentemente al III secolo d.C. confermano una frequentazione del santuario fino al IV secolo d.C. Un altorilievo in marmo raffigurante una tauroctonia,15 fu rinvenuto in Ortigia durante i lavori di demolizione delle mura spagnole del XVI secolo. Questa scultura potrebbe provenire da un secondo e più grande mithraeum, anch'esso situato nella città. In questo modo a Siracusa ci sarebbe stati almeno due santuari di Mitra, entrambi databili tra il II ed il III secolo d.C. Un'altra testimonianza della presenza del culto di Mitra a Siracusa è data da un altorilievo in marmo rinvenuto in Ortigia e datato al III secolo d.C. Nel bassorilievo è raffigurato Mitra che uccide il toro secondo un’iconografia abbastanza diffusa.

13

Nelle Terme del Mitra ad Ostia si trovava il celebre gruppo scultoreo della tauroctonia firmato dall’ateniese Critone, in cui il dio, che indossa una insolita tunica greca al posto delle vesti orientali, è reso nel momento prima del sacrificio mentre leva gli occhi al cielo e brandisce il pugnale. Per il culto di Mitra ad Ostia vedi Pavolini 1996, 159–163. 14 Museo Archeologico Regionale “Paolo Orsi” di Siracusa (inv. n. 50712). 15 Museo Archeologico Regionale “Paolo Orsi” di Siracusa (inv. n. 8478).

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Le testimonianze del culto di Mitra a Siracusa acquistano maggiora valore se rapportate al numero limitato di attestazioni nel resto della Sicilia. Altre sculture frammentarie in marmo relative al culto di Mitra, come una tauroctonia probabilmente da Catania e un'iscrizione nella quale viene menzionato il Sol Invictus da Termini Imerese. Quest'ultima in particolare costituisce una dedica alla divinità solare durante il regno di Elagabalo, durante il quale la promozione energica del culto promossa da questo imperatore sincretista, e non ha nulla a che fare con il Mitraismo. Proprio Elagabalo sconvolse la religione ufficiale a Roma volendo regnare da sacerdote, invece che mantenere scisso il ruolo di princeps che amministra il governo da quello di sacerdote che gestisce la vita religiosa (Scheid 2009, 47–79).

BIBLIOGRAFIA Arias P. E., Comiso. Esplorazione di edifizio romano e di varie zone della città antica, “NSc”, XIII (1937) 456 – 465. Bernabò Brea L., Erma di Dioniso dalla Torre di Milocca, “NSc” (1947) 212–213. Bonacasa Carra R.M., Nuovi ritratti romani dalla Sicilia (1977). Bonacasa Carra R.M., Busto-ritratto di Geta, in R. Bonacasa Carra, R. Panvini (a cura di), La Sicilia centro-meridionale tra il II e il VI secolo d.C. (2002) 271 – 272. Chastagnol A., La préfecture urbaine à Rome sous le Bas-Empire (1960). Daguet-Gagey A., I grandi servizi pubblici a Roma, in E. Lo Cascio (a cura di), Roma imperiale, una metropoli antica (2000) 93–95. Di Stefano C.A., Fase romana imperiale, in AAVV, Lilibeo. Testimonianze archeologiche dal IV sec. a.C. al V sec. d.C. (1984). Di Stefano G., Comiso antica (1999). Di Stefano G, Oddone M., Savio A., I pesi-campione romani ritrovati nelle acque di Camarina, “RItNum”, 99 (1998) 195–212. Gentili G.V., Siracusa, “F.A.”, V (1950) 357, n. 4222. Gentili G.V., Resti di una costruzione romana ed epigrafi latine in contrada Monasteri, “NSc”, V (1951). Gentili G.V., Siracusa. Contributo alla topografia della città antica, “NSc”, X (1956) 106. Lo Cascio E., Le procedure di recensus dalla tarda repubblica al tardo antico e il calcolo della popolazione di Roma, in La Rome impèriale.

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Démographie et logistique, Actes de la table ronde de Rome (25 mars 1994), École française de Rome (1997) 3–76. Pace B., Comiso. Edificio termale romano presso il Fonte Diana, “NSc”, VII (1946) 162 – 174. Pavis d’Escurac H., La préfecture de l’annone: service administratif impérial d’Auguste a Constantin, “BEFAR”, 226 (1976). Pavolini C., La vita quotidiana ad Ostia (1996). Scheid J., Il sacerdote, (a cura di A. Giardina), L’uomo romano (2009) 47–79. Thébert Y., Lo schiavo, in A. Giardina (a cura di), L’uomo romano (2009) 165–184. von Boeselager D., Antike mosaiken in Sizilien. Hellenismus und Roemische kaiserzeit (1983). Wilson R.J.A., Sicily under the Roman Empire. The Archeology of a Roman Province, 36 BC – AD 535 (1999).

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FIGURES

Fig. 1. Epigrafe di Kaukana (foto autore).

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Fig. 2. La viabilità nella Sicilia sud-orientale (dettaglio da Wilson 1990, 41).

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Fig. 3. Erma marmorea rinvenuta presso Torre Milocca (Siracusa).

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Fig. 4. Monasteri (Floridia, SR), planimetria dei muri antichi, a tratteggio le strutture moderne (da Bernabò Brea 1947, 212 – 213).

Fig. 5. Contrada Monasteri (Floridia, SR), cippo e trascrizione dell’iscrizione con dedica ad Esculapio.

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Fig. 6. Veduta del mosaico del ninfeo nell’impianto termale di Comiso.

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Fig. 7. Piano della Clesia (Sabucina Bassa), busto ritratto in marmo di Geta (da Bonacasa Carra 2002, 271).

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Fig. 8. I latifondi lungo il fiume Gela e Frammento di tegolo con bollo: sulla superficie esterna bollo circolare con impresso PHILIPPIANI entro cerchi concentrici.

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Fig. 9. Siracusa, mosaico con Venere e amorino (da Gentili 1956).

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Fig. 10. Siracusa, pianta del mitreo: 1) raffigurazione della tauroctonia in stucco; 2) affresco con scena di caccia; 3) nicchia; 4) affresco floreale; 5) antico ingresso (?); 6) ingresso moderno (da Wilson 1990).

VESTIGIA ARCHITETTONICHE DEL PERIODO DI SETTIMIO SEVERO IN TUNISIA Paola Puppo (Independent Researcher)

Settimio Severo, un africano di Leptis Magna, giunto al potere per acclamazione unanime delle legioni di stanza a Carnuntum sul Danubio (ora Petronell), resse con mano salda le redini dell’Impero, coadiuvato da un’instancabile collaboratrice, la moglie Giulia Domna, nativa di Emesa in Siria. La coppia imperiale manifestò subito con chiarezza al popolo di Roma la volontà di rifondare l’Impero, rinnegando le spinte teocratiche commodiane e ispirandosi invece, almeno formalmente, ai principi ormai classici dell’ideologia augustea, come mostrano diversi cammei.1 In quel1

Due, conservati al Museo Archeologico di Firenze, che facevano parte della dattilioteca medicea, risultano piuttosto interessanti. L’uno, in nicolo calcedonio, presenta tre figure stanti frontali: al centro, corazzato e con il paludamentum avvolto attorno al collo, con un lungo scettro stretto nella mano sinistra e la patera nella destra, è riconoscibile Settimio Severo, che reca un diadema sul capo. Alla sua destra è Giulia Domna, velata, la testa un poco ruotata verso la sua destra. Nelle mani tiene due oggetti, scarsamente leggibili. Tuttavia, sembra di potere individuare in quello retto dalla sinistra (che è appoggiata con il polso sull’anca corrispondente) una patera (che quasi si confonde con una piega del mantello); in quello tenuto dalla destra, scesa lungo il fianco, un’ampulla. Presso la gamba

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lo conservato al Cabinet des Medailles di Parigi, sicuramente il più celebre, i quattro membri della famiglia imperiale sono ritratti nella ben sperimentata formula di ascendenza altoellenistica: i capita iugula et opposita. Di profilo a destra, in primo piano, è il busto paludato e corazzato dell’imperatore, con la corona radiata, nel tipo derivato dall’ iconografia di Serapide. Di fronte a Settimio Severo è il busto di Caracalla, imberbe, l’egida riccamente ornata. Porta una corona d’alloro che, unita all’egida, evidenzia il suo status di primogenito (proclamato Caesar nel 196) e più verosimilmente, quello di Augustus, rango cui fu innalzato nel 198. In secondo piano risalta il profilo, opposto a quello della madre, del fratello minore Geta, che non è caratterizzato da attributo o da insegna alcuna: un elemento, questo, che potrebbe far restringere la cronologia del manufatto a prima del 198, anno in cui anche Geta fu nominato Caesar.2 Tali cammei si configurano come lussuoso prodotto e mezzo di propaganda, frutto della committenza imperiale. Dovevano probabilmente costituire i preziosi munera elargiti agli alti funzionari, a riprova della loro fedeltà e lealtà, nonché a quei sacerdoti addetti al culto degli Augusti. Solitamente venivano esibiti durante solenni manifestazioni pubbliche, quale ricco e significante ornamento per vesti e monili, o anche impiegati nella decorazione di diademi indossati da membri della classe sacerdotale. La politica di Settimio Severo era diretta a ribaltare i rapporti di forza fra Senato ed esercito, privilegiando i soldati, e fra Italia e province, in favore di queste ultime, come mostra l’iscrizione con il regolamento per lo sfruttamento dei domini imperiali in Africa, sotto il regno di Settimio destra della domina si intravede una minima porzione di un oggetto basso, dalla forma cilindrica, probabilmente un altare. Alla sinistra di Settimio Severo è un figlio giovanetto, corazzato, che ripete fedelmente la posa dell’imperatore e reca una patera nella mano destra, nella sinistra lo scettro. Il volto, imberbe, dalle guance paffute, circondato sulla fronte da una fila serrata di riccioli corposi sui quali posa il diadema, accenna i tratti del giovane Caracalla. Nell’altro cammeo in calcedonio a due strati bianchissimi sono scolpite due figure maschili stanti: in quella togata è Settimio Severo diademato, mentre il giovane è Caracalla. Cfr. Micheli 1996, 207–211. 2 Geta divenne Augusto nel 209, benché la sua accresciuta importanza in seno alla famiglia risalga agli anni precedenti, tanto che nel 208 ricopre per la seconda volta il consolato insieme al fratello.

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Severo da Ain Ouassel, del 209–210 d.C., conservata al Museo del Bardo di Tunisi (CIL VIII, 26416. Cfr. Mastino 1999, 380). Settimio Severo, giunto all’Impero dopo una lunga e non particolarmente brillante carriera, lo mantenne grazie alle sue doti di coraggio e di preveggenza. L’astuzia politica, che contrassegnò sempre le sue mosse, gli suggerì fin da principio di presentarsi come restauratore e vindice dell’ufficialità dinastica. Questa scelta di fondo condizionò tutta la sua politica, e non si tradusse soltanto in provvedimenti quali l’assunzione del nome di Pertinace o la plateale—e postuma—autoadozione nella famiglia degli Antonini, che lo portò a proclamarsi figlio di Marco Aurelio e fratello di Commodo, mutando nello stesso tempo il nome del suo primogenito da Settimio Bassiano in Marco Aurelio Antonino. La sua immagine ufficiale subì un’importante modifica nell’acconciatura, con la sostituzione alle ciocche arricciate, disposte in una massa scomposta sulla fronte (ripresa dal ritratto dell’imperatore filosofo Marco Aurelio), di quattro lunghi riccioli attorcigliati, chiaramente desunti dall’iconografia di Serapide, il dio venerato nel grande tempio di Alessandria. (fig. 1) Questa seconda acconciatura fu probabilmente adottata dopo che la famiglia imperiale compì un lungo viaggio in Egitto da dicembre 199 a gennaio 202, quando l’imperatore ripartì con Caracalla e i suoi per l’Occidente (infatti sappiamo che in aprile era già tornato a Roma, accolto con manifestazioni di giubilo e di onore) (McCann 1968, 79–81, 110). Del periodo egiziano conserviamo il tondo ligneo, attualmente negli Staatliche Museen di Berlino (fig. 2). Armonicamente inseriti entro la struttura, i ritratti dei quattro componenti la famiglia imperiale (Settimio Severo, la moglie Giulia Domna e i due figli Caracalla e Geta, quest’ultimo cancellato a causa della damnatio memoriae, che lo colpì dopo il 212 d.C.) sono resi con un pacato classicismo: il volto dell’Africano mostra una sobria espressività attraverso gli occhi grandissimi, sormontati da palpebre pesanti, in cui iride e pupilla, che spiccano contro il bianco lucente del bulbo, appaiono lievemente volti in alto, perduti nella contemplazione di un mondo lontano. Con l’avvento al trono di Settimio Severo e della sua famiglia, i richiami all’Africa sono frequenti, anche nella numismatica. Le monete dell’imperatore, con diversi riferimenti, ora a carattere personale, ora religioso, ora politico, testimoniano una certa attenzione per la provincia, comprovata anche dalle fonti letterarie oltre che dall’abbondante epigrafia. E’ significativo che già nel 193 d.C., nelle emissioni della zecca di Roma, compaia per la prima volta il Saeculum Frugiferum, divinità

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africana che viene raffigurata radiata, a petto nudo, con il caduceo alato nella destra ed il tridente appoggiato alla spalla sinistra, identificata dalla scritta SAEC FRVGIF (Pera 1991 tav. II, 7). La divinità era particolarmente venerata ad Hadrumetum, patria di Clodio Albino, ed il suo uso da parte di entrambi i personaggi è testimonianza di accordo e di concordia, oltre che allusione essa stessa ad una nuova età dell’oro, che si concretizza in un dio africano per indicare da che parte giungerà il beneficio per l’ impero. La presenza delle spighe di grano, pur se tradizionali nella raffigurazione del dio, vuole rammentare al tempo stesso la preoccupata attenzione di Settimio Severo affinché, nella lotta contro Pescennio Nigro, non vi fosse l’opportunità per quest’ultimo di intercettare le spedizioni di viveri per Roma (Pera 1991, 501–521). Nell’ambito delle province africane, gli edifici del culto imperiale assumono un importante ruolo nella vita politica e sociale, in quanto essi costituiscono, come è ormai noto, il canale privilegiato della propaganda imperiale: le classi dirigenti locali proprio attraverso la costruzione di questi edifici e l’assunzione di cariche connesse al culto (flamines, sacerdotes provinciae) esprimono così la loro ascesa sociale e la loro adesione al governo imperiale. Inoltre lo studio di questi edifici può dare un contributo anche alla comprensione dell’architettura romana nel Nord-Africa che unisce tradizioni locali e architettura ufficiale dello stato romano.3 Il periodo dei Severi rappresenta nel III secolo ancora uno dei periodi esemplari per le manifestazioni dell’architettura ufficiale romanoafricana, ma nello stesso tempo documenta la ricezione di tendenze di varia origine. La politica di questo imperatore di accordare nuovi statuti municipali e coloniali e più in generale il numero delle dediche in onore della nuova dinastia sono un segno dei cambiamenti e non solo dei vantaggi e della prosperità di cui godette il Nord-Africa in questo periodo (Gascou 1972, 226–234). Proprio a partire da Settimio Severo in poi i richiami alla provincia d’Africa diventano costanti e testimoniati anche dall’assunzione a culto universale delle divinità locali. Le monete documentano che la regione non è più soltanto ricordata come insostituibile granaio di Roma, ma anche accettata nella sua cultura e tradizioni. 3

Per le caratteristiche generali dell’edilizia in età Severiana, si rimanda al volume di Mattern 2001.

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Mentre tutto poteva lasciar credere che Settimio Severo desiderasse ormai trattenersi a Roma, dove egli aveva celebrato il decennale di impero, il matrimonio del figlio Caracalla con Plautilla e la consegna della toga virile a Geta, che raggiungeva nel 203 il tredicesimo anno d’età, dove già aveva iniziato la costruzione dell’arco nel Foro, del Septizonium e aveva avviato la ricostruzione del portico di Ottavia, apprendiamo da fonti epigrafiche e numismatiche e dai rilievi di Leptis Magna che egli, accompagnato da Caracalla, era partito per l’Africa per una visita urgente di ispezione. Tentativi di ribellione o di assalto alla Tripolitania, necessità di carattere amministrativo, oppure solo l’irrequieta natura dell’imperatore, che non amò mai trattenersi a lungo inattivo a Roma, sono da considerare eventuali cause del nuovo viaggio imperiale. Il ricordo del suo passaggio in varie città, senza permettere di ricostruire un itinerario, è comunque documentato da vari monumenti. Si suppone che da Cartagine ed Utica si sia diretto a Theveste e a Lambaesis, dove ci sono opere e privilegi concessi dall’imperatore all’accampamento della III legione Augusta. Il soggiorno di Settimio Severo in Africa (fig. 3) non fu comunque favorevole ai Cristiani perché è appunto del 7 marzo 203 il processo a Cartagine delle sante Perpetua e Felicita e il loro martirio durante le feste per il compleanno di Geta. L’Africa comunque trasse notevoli vantaggi da questo viaggio imperiale sia nell’ordinamento amministrativo (ad esempio per la Tunisia—parte dell’Africa argomento di questa relazione—Bulla Regia, Douggha, Thuburbo Maius diventarono municipia, mentre Cilium fu eretta a colonia)4 sia nello sfruttamento agricolo e commerciale, sia per lo stimolo che l’imperatore diede alla vita civile5 e sia per la difesa del limes. Sappiamo che l’odeon di Cartagine fu costruito all’inizio del III sec.d.C. in seguito all’istituzione nella città da parte di Settimio Severo dei ludi pithici. Per quanto riguarda l’anfiteatro, invece la datazione

4

Di Kasserine, l’antica Cilium, municipium sotto Vespasiano o Tito, poi colonia sotto i Severi, rimane solo l’Arco trionfale dell’inizio del III sec.d. Nel V secolo, per impulso di S. Agostino, vi fu eretto probabilmente un monastero. 5 Come africano comprendeva l’importanza dell’acqua e la necessità di non disperderla: durante il suo impero fu restaurato, all’inizio del III d.C., l’acquedotto, tuttora visibile, che portava l’acqua da Zaghouan a Cartagine. (fig. 4)

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dell’impianto originario—come degli ampliamenti o ristrutturazioni—è problematica.6 Nel II e nel III d.C. Bulla Regia conosce il suo periodo di massimo splendore ed è a quest’epoca che si datano la maggior parte dei suoi edifici pubblici e delle sue famose case sotterranee. Si procedette ad abbellire il Tempio di Apollo e a risistemare il Foro, soprattutto il lato est della piazza in cui si aprono tre ambienti consacrati al culto imperiale come si evince dalle epigrafi in onore di Settimio Severo e dei suoi figli Caracalla e Geta ivi rinvenute, che hanno fatto pensare all’esistenza di un tempio della Gens Septimia; il culto imperiale si affermò sicuramente con la dedica di statue per iniziativa dei duoviri cittadini che si sono alternati a partire dal 198 per almeno un decennio (Khanoussi-Mastino 2004, 376– 414). Sul lato nord del foro si eleva il tempio di Apollo (fig. 5), costruito su un precedente luogo di culto punico: si tratta infatti di un edificio in stile africano, senza podio, composto da un cortile porticato, dove si apre una cella principale a Nord; una seconda cella a ovest della principale è visibile, mentre non rimane traccia della terza cella. In ogni caso si tratta di una pianta tipica dei santuari di tradizione indigena dell’Africa: fu iniziato sotto il regno di Tiberio (34–35 d.C.), dopo il 128 d.C., sotto il regno di Adriano, la facciata del tempio fu risistemata per allinearsi agli altri edifici dell’angolo Nord-Est del foro. Nel corso del II e inizio del III sec.d. C. fu completamente rinnovato ed è anche al III sec. che deve essere datato il decoro a mosaico del portico e l’opus sectile della cella principale. Il tempio era sicuramente dedicato ad Apollo, come documenta l’iscrizione della sacerdotessa del culto imperiale Minia Procula e la monumentale statua di Apollo, protettore ancestrale di Bulla Regia (deus patrius), alla quale Cerere ed Esculapio erano associati, conservata al Museo del Bardo di Tunisi.

6

Lézine (1960, 60–64) proponeva una fase iniziale di costruzione da collocarsi genericamente nel I secolo d.C., una seconda fase di accrescimento alla metà del II d.C., infine la realizzazione della facciata in kedel agli inizi del III d.C.; Bomgardner 1989 (85 e ss.) ne colloca invece l’origine agli inizi del II secolo, non oltre il 133–135 d.C., e un rinnovamento appena dopo il 165 d.C. Golvin 1988 (122–123) lo data agli inizi dell’epoca imperiale, guardando alla concezione generale, alle tecniche di costruzione, alle caratteristiche architettoniche e riconosce pure un intervento di ampliamento tra il II e il III secolo d.C.

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Il sito archeologico di Thignica, al centro di una prospera zona agricola in cui si trovavano vasti possedimenti imperiali, è celebre per il grande numero di stele dedicate a Saturno, dio della fecondità e della fertilità, e per la sua imponente cittadella bizantina. Il nome attuale, Aïn Tounga, conserva, leggermente deformato, il toponimo antico THIGNICA, che era una civitas legata alla colonia giulia di Cartagine; divenne municipium durante il regno congiunto di Settimio Severo e di Caracalla (municipium Septimium Aurelium, CIL VIII 1404 e 1406), nel 205 d.C.7 Da questa città provengono due basi dedicate a Publius Septimius Geta Caesar, scoperte nel reimpiego di una piccola fortificazione tarda. Sopra queste due basi, che dovevano essere collocate senza dubbio nel foro, vi erano due statue dedicate a Geta, che dovevano far parte di un insieme di monumenti pubblici in onore dei membri della famiglia Severiana per festeggiare la promozione della città al rango di municipio. Una iscrizione, una semplice dedica è in CIL VIII 15202 (= 1401), l’altra è piuttosto interessante in quanto testimonia la somma utilizzata per la costruzione della statua al figlio di Settimio Severo. [[P(ublio) Septimio Getae / Caesari]] / L(ucius) Clodius, Quir(ina), Rufi / nus stauam quam / dum adviveret ex (sestertiis duobus milibus)/ promiserat adiectis, ex tes/tamento eius, (sestertiis duobus milibus) n(ummum)./ L(ucius) Caecilius Quietus Rufinia / nus, Q(uintus) Caecilius Victor/ Quintianus Blandius, fl(amines) p(er)p(etui) mun(icipii), [h]eredes ampliata pe/ cunia posuerunt idemq(ue)[dedi]caverunt. 8

Chidibbia, attuale villaggio di Slouguia, era una civitas amministrata da dei undecimprimi e promossa al rango di municipium dopo il 195–196. Da questo sito proviene una dedica all’imperatore Settimio Severo ri7 Sulla storia municipale di Thignica, cfr. Gascou 1972, 182–183 e Lepelley 1981, 194–195. 8 A Publius Septimius Geta Cesar. La statua che da vivo Lucio Clodio Rufino, della tribù Quirina, aveva promesso di erigere per la somma di 2000 sesterzi, somma aumentata di (altri) 2000 per disposizioni testamentarie, i suoi eredi, Lucio Cecilio Quietus Rufinianus e Quintus Cecilius Victor Quintianus Blandius, flamines perpetui del municipio, avendo aumentato a loro volta la somma, l’hanno eretta e dedicata. Per l’analisi dell’iscrizione si rimanda a Abdallah- Hassen 1992, 291–294.

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cordato con tutti i suoi ascendenti della dinastia antonina, da Nerva fino a Marco Aurelio, passando per Traiano, Adriano e Antonino Pio. De[o]Silvano Aug(usto),/ Genio civit[atis]. [Pro] salut[e] Imp(eratoris) Cae[s(aris) – divi M(arci) An]toni[n]i, Pii, Germ[anici, / fil (ii)], divi Pii nep(otis), divi [Hadriani / pro]nep(otis), divi Traiani Pa[rth(ici)]/ abnep(otis), divi Nervale adnep(otis)- [L(ucii) Septimi(i) Severi, Pii]Pertina[cis],/ Aug(usti), Arab(ici), Adiabenici, p(atris) p(atriae),/ [po]nt(ifici) max(imi), trib(unicia) pot(estate) III, / imp(eratoris) VII, co(n)s(uli) II, [pr]oco(n)s(uli)./ Castriciu[s Ro]gatianus,/ Silvani, S [--]C I / fil(ius), o/nandae patriae [causa fecit ?] et in test(amento)/ suo (sestertium) II vel III (milia) D V s[uis leg(avit) ut ob dedica]tion/ em universis [decurionibus sportul]as, / pr[aestaren]t vel pr[aeberent].9

Il sito di Uchi Maius, recentemente oggetto di numerose campagne di scavo da parte dell’Università di Sassari, ha restituito, addossato al porticus settentrionale del Foro, un monumento equestre realizzato per Settimio Severo nel 197 d.C., di cui rimane solo il basamento in cementizio rivestito di lastre di calcare poggiante su base modanata, con epigrafe dedicatoria.10 Inoltre vi era un’iscrizione monumentale che correva sul fregio porticato del foro costruito in età severiana (CIL, VIII, 26258), una lunghissima epigrafe con lettere alte cm. 18, dedicata (in dativo) a Settimio Severo, Caracalla, Geta, Iulia Domna nella seconda metà dell’anno 207, con una titolatura relativamente comune (Mastino 1994, 77–100).

9

Al dio Silvano Augusto, Genio della città. Per la salute dell’imperatore Cesare – figlio del divino Marc Antonino, Pio, vincitore dei Germani, nipote del divino Traiano, vincitore dei Parti, discendente del divino Nerva – Lucio Settimio Severo Pio, Pertinace, Augusto, vincitore degli Arabi e di Adiabene, padre della patria, pontefice massimo, rivestito della tribunizia potestatis per la terza volta, imperatore per la VII, console per la II, proconsole. Castricius Rogatianus, figlio di Silvano, lui stesso figlio di Sorico (o meglio di Siccus ?), ha fatto ornare la sua patria di una statua di Silvano e nel suo testamento, ai suoi lega 3505 sesterzi affinché in occasione della dedica di questa statua offrano degli sportules a tutti quanti i decurioni Cfr. Abdallah- Hassen 1992, 294–298. 10 CIL VIII, 26255 = Dessau, 9401. Khanoussi – Mastino 1997; Ibba – Abid 2006.

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Dopo essere stata residenza, nella prima metà del II sec. a.C., del re numida Massinissa (202–148 a.C.), Dhougga viene annessa nel 46 a.C. alla provincia Africa Nova come tutto il regno numida di Juba I sconfitto dai Romani. Molto presto un gruppo di cittadini romani si stabilisce a Thugga costituendo un distretto (pagus) della colonia romana di Cartagine voluta da Cesare. I rapporti con la comunità autoctona (civitas) non sono sempre facili sia a causa della ridistribuzione delle terre sia per il differente statuto giuridico delle due comunità. La situazione si stabilizza nel 205 d.C. quando la città diviene municipium sotto Settimio Severo e, soprattutto, nel 261 d.C., anno in cui Thugga diviene colonia. Le due comunità, comunque, avevano già attenuato le proprie differenze attraverso la celebrazione di numerosi matrimoni misti che avevano contribuito alla reciproca integrazione. La costruzione di numerose opere pubbliche monumentali, finanziate da ricche famiglie, contribuisce alla crescita della città e al suo sviluppo economico e culturale nonché al raggiungimento di numerose cariche onorifiche da parte dei cittadini più liberali. Raggiunse un incomparabile splendore sotto l’imperatore Settimio Severo, coadiuvato da Julia Domna la moglie filosofa, sempre al suo fianco anche in guerra, che davvero lo aiutò a farsi grande. Il Tempio di Saturno, eretto nel 195 d.C. grazie al lascito di un cittadino, L. Octavius Victor Roscianus per la salvezza degli imperatori Settimio Severo e Clodio Albino (il cui nome è stato in seguito scalpellato) e dell’imperatrice Julia Domna, e l’Arco Trionfale sono le testimonianze più dirette del periodo. Situato nella zona nord-est della città il Tempio di Baal – Saturno (fig. 8 pianta n° 6) è un edificio terrazzato, orientato ad est; lo spazio interno era ripartito tra un vestibolo, una corte a cielo aperto contornata da portici e tre cellae contenenti presumibilmente le statue della divinità e gli strumenti cultuali. Sotto il suolo della corte sono state rinvenute alcune cisterne per la raccolta delle acque di scolo. Il tempio si data al 195 d.C., durante il regno degli imperatori Settimio Severo e Clodio Albino, ma al di sotto dei resti oggi visibili è stato individuato un santuario più antico dedicato a Baal-Hammon che in età romana viene assimilato a Saturno. Vicino al lato sud del tempio, si trovano i resti di un piccolo santuario ancora anonimo, ma che alcuni ritrovamenti epigrafici suggerirebbero consacrato al culto di Nettuno, (fig. 8 pianta n° 7) nel qual caso sarebbe ipotizzabile la presenza di un’antica sorgente nelle immediate vicinanze. Il piccolo edificio è addossato alla falesia, orientato ad est e preceduto da una piccola scala di tre gradini che conduce ad un portico e

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ad una sala cultuale la cui nicchia di fondo restaurata ospitava la statua della divinità. La magnifica Piazza della Rosa dei Venti, che in antichità era chiamata area macelli (area del mercato), fu probabilmente finanziata dalla gens Pacuvia, cui si devono anche il macellum a sud e il Tempio di Mercurio a nord, che la sistemò tra il 180 e il 192 d.C. La piazza ha una forma particolare in quanto il lato est arriva a lambire la facciata del Tempio della Fortuna, arretrato rispetto alle altre costruzioni, con un andamento semicircolare. La denominazione moderna è dovuta ad un orologio solare con l’indicazione dei dodici venti principali, inciso sulla pavimentazione in prossimità del Capitolium. Sul lato opposto della piazza si trova il Macellum, il mercato alimentare, costituito da una grande corte a cielo aperto con dieci botteghe disposte su ciascuno dei lati ovest ed est. Sul lato sud, oggi poco leggibile era probabilmente collocata, entro un’abside, la statua di Mercurius Genius Macelli citata da un’iscrizione. Il complesso, fondato nel corso del I sec. d.C., fu ristrutturato alla fine del II sec. da quella stessa gens Pacuvia che aveva finanziato il Tempio di Mercurio. Verso nord-est è un’area rettangolare con al centro un podio, riferibile forse ad un santuario di Plutone, nei pressi, più ad est, si trovano i resti dell’Arco di Settimio Severo (fig. 6, fig. 8 pianta n° 40) costruito nel 205 in occasione della promozione della città al rango di municipio. Rimangono solo le parti inferiori dei piedritti che reggevano l’arco (la cui apertura era di 5 m), decorati sulle due facce da nicchie rettangolari poco profonde affiancate da pilastri scanalati con capitelli corinzi. L’arco di Settimio Severo, in calcare, porta almeno sei testi: 1) Attico (facciata orientale): dedica a Settimio Severo, Caracalla e Giulia Domna (CIL VIII, 26539, completato da ILA frammento 525), in cui la titolatura imperiale illustra la politica dinastica di Settimio Severo, attraverso le crisi che avevano costituito nel 195 d.C. la rottura con Albino.(fig. 7) 2) Attico (facciata occidentale): dedica a Caracalla e Geta (CIL VIII, 26540, completato da ILA frammento 526).(fig. 7) Vengono quindi quattro fregi architravati che coronano le colonne che ornano i pilastri su ciascuna faccia: 3) Facciata occidentale, pilastro nord: dedica a Caracalla (CIL, VIII, 26541). 4) Facciata occidentale, pilastro sud: dedica a Geta (n° 11 KhanoussiMaurin 2000).

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5) Facciata orientale, pilastro nord: dedica a Iulia Domna (ILAfr, 563). 6) Facciata orientale, pilastro sud: dedica a Settimio Severo, di cui finora non è stato trovato alcun frammento. L. Poinssot ha proposto di attribuire all’arco uno zoccolo con una dedica a Iulia Domna (CIL, VIII, 26544), che avrebbe sostenuto una statua dell’imperatrice che doveva decorare una delle quattro nicchie dei pilastri (Poinssot 1983, 33–34). Di conseguenza bisogna supporre che ciascuna delle nicchie ospitasse la statua di un membro della famiglia imperiale, con uno zoccolo inscritto; l’esistenza di questa statua del resto era indicata dall’iscrizione del fregio architravato sorretto dalle colonne di ciascun pilastro. [Imp(eratori) Caes(ari) Divi M(arci) Anto]nini] Sarmatici filio Divi Comodi Fratri, Divi Antonini Pii nipoti, Divi Hadriani pronipoti, Divi Traiani Partici abnepoti, Divi Nervale adnepoti, Lucio Septimio Severo Pio Pertinaci Augusto Arabico Adiabenico Parthico Maximo pontifici maximo tribunizia protestate XIII, imperatori XII, consuli IIII proconsoli, patri patriae, et Imperatoris Caesaris Lucii Septimii Severi Pii Pertinacis Augusti Arabici Adiabenici Partici Maximi pontifici maximi filio Marco Aurelio Antonino Augusto Pio Felici, et Iuliae Domnae Augustae Imperatoris Caesaris Lucii Septimii Severi Pii Pertinacis Augusti Arabici Adiabenici, Partici Maximi, pontifici maximi coniugi Conditoribus municipi Septimii Aurelii Thuggensis, repubblica fecit, decreto) decurionum pecunia publica.11 11 All’imperatore Cesare figlio del Divo Marco Antonino Sarmatico, fratello del Divo Comodo, nipote del Divo Antonino Pio, pronipote del Divo Adriano, bispronipote del Divo Traiano Partico, discendente del Divo Nerva, Lucio Settimio Severo Pio Pertinace Augusto, vincitore degli Arabi, degli Adiabeni, vinci-

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Thuburbo Maius entrò nell’orbita romana già nel 146 a.C., quando, dopo la disfatta di Cartagine, la parte nord-est dell’Africa venne ordinata provincia. Circa a metà del portico sud-orientale si affaccia l’elegante Tempio di Mercurio (fig. 9), il dio preposto ai commerci che si svolgevano nel vicino mercato (a pianta quadrangolare con botteghe sui lati e chiosco centrale). Il tempio costruito nel 211 d.C. a spese della colonia, come dice l’iscrizione, presenta di fronte alla cella un’originale corte con portico circolare e quattro nicchie, all’interno delle quali erano forse collocate delle statue. Sotto Settimio Severo fu restaurata l’area del Mercato e rinnovato la decorazione del Tempio di Baal con una serie di capitelli ionici con fiore dell’abaco reso con un disco circolare e le volute distinte dal margine delle foglie della seconda corona, che rientrano nella tipologia propria della fine del II d.C.–inizi III d.C., del Nord-Africa di età severiana, di cui si tratterà in modo più approfondito per il sito di Haidra. Haidra (l’antica Ammaedara) con l’Arco Trionfale, eretto nel 195 d.C. da Settimio Severo all’ingresso della città sulla via di Cartagine, ed il teatro (di cui rimane solo l’orchestra e parte delle sostruzioni della cavea) offre ulteriore testimonianza del rinnovamento edilizio attuato durante il suo impero. (fig. 10) ll monumentale Arco di Settimio Severo segna quindi l’ingresso est della città, fungendo da simbolica porta urbica. L’arco è a fornice singolo, di circa 6 metri di apertura, con i piedritti arricchiti da avancorpi costituiti ciascuno da due colonne poggianti su un basamento, secondo uno stilema in voga tra la fine del II e gli inizi del III sec. d.C. Le colonne sono di ordine corinzio, con base attica e fusto monolitico liscio; ad esse, sul corpo dei piedritti, corrispondono due aggetti. L’architrave è arricchito da modanature che contornano tutta la struttura; il soffitto degli avancorpi è decorato da cassettoni scolpiti. tore supremo dei Parti, pontefice massimo, nella sua 13esima tribunizia potestatis, acclamato 12 volte Imperatore, tre volte console, proconsole, padre della patria, e a Marco Aurelio Antonino Pio Felice figlio dell’imperatore Cesare Lucio Settimio Severo Pio Pertinace Augusto vincitore degli Arabi, degli Adiabeni, massimo vincitore dei Parti, pontefice massimo e a Giulia Domna Augusta, sposa dell’imperatore Cesare Lucio Settimio Severo Pio Pertinace Augusto vincitore degli Arabi, degli Adiabeni, vincitore supremo dei Parti, pontefice massimo, fondatori del municipium Septimium Aurelium di Thugga, lo stato ha elevato per decreto dei decurioni con denaro pubblico.

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Il fregio dell’arco è molto alto, non decorato e presenta, sul lato esterno (cioè ad est), la dedica del monumento contenuta in un cartiglio rettangolare; la cornice è decorata da bande sovrapposte di motivi decorativi; non rimane traccia dell’attico. I Bizantini trasformarono l’arco in un bastione avvolgendo l’intera struttura con una muratura in opera quadrata, in parte abbattuta dal bey di Costantina alla fine del XVIII secolo; questa giustapposizione di costruzioni ha comunque garantito l’eccellente stato di conservazione del monumento: l’Arco di Settimio Severo è infatti rimasto in parte nascosto dalla fortificazione bizantina che l’ha inglobato e quindi anche protetto. Il teatro è ubicato a nord della strada moderna tra l’Edificio “delle vasche” a ovest e l’Arco di Settimio Severo a sud-est. Le sue dimensioni non sono determinabili con esattezza a causa dell’incompletezza delle indagini. Pressoché interamente perduto è il settore scenico, rimangono l’orchestra, pavimentata a lastre, parte dell’ima cavea e le sostruzioni, percorse da corridoi semicircolari, dei maeniana superiori. Gli accessi laterali del teatro sono molto manomessi, si conserva il vomitorio centrale che immetteva nella gradinata. Databile alla media età imperiale, fu restaurato in epoca tetrarchica, verso il 299 d.C. come attestato da due epigrafi, trovate insieme ad alcune statue decorative. Altro edificio del periodo di Settimio Severo è il tempio di Saturno, che occupa una posizione particolare, piuttosto periferica, a sud-est della città, a circa 2 km dal foro, sulla riva destra del torrente (oued) Haidra, orientato verso est ed intagliato nel fianco orientale di una collina. Louis Poinssot aveva identificato le tracce di un tempio, che fu scavato a partire dal 1930 da Dolcemascolo, un medico di origine italiana che lavorava nella miniera di fosfati di Kalaa Jerda, oggi Kalaat Casbah, a 15 km. dal sito di Haidra, vicino al confine tra Tunisia e Algeria. Di questo tempio oggi rimangono pochi resti a causa della forte erosione. La pianta ricostruita mostra una struttura rettangolare costituita da tre livelli: una terrazza che domina la valle, un secondo livello formato da un grande cortile fiancheggiato da due passaggi laterali che corrispondono a dei portici coperti; al centro era posto l’altare. Il terzo livello al quale si accedeva tramite una scala assiale di sei gradini parzialmente conservati, costituisce il podium sul quale si innalzava il tempio propriamente detto, diviso in tre celle coperte da volte; solo la cella centrale, preceduta da quattro colonne, comunicava direttamente con il cortile. Sotto la cella di sinistra era un vano che senza dubbio ricopriva la funzione di favissa, fossa consacrata per il materiale votivo, alla quale si accedeva da una porta aperta

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all’estremità sud della terrazza centrale. L’organizzazione generale, una corte con portici, un sistema di terrazze, una cella tripartita (di cui si ignora ancora la funzione esatta di ognuna delle tre celle), è chiaramente di origine punica. Si noterà dalla pianta la stretta somiglianza di questo santuario con quello di Dougga, meglio noto e apparentemente ben più monumentale. Il dio Saturno è essenzialmente una divinità agraria e quindi il santuario era destinato agli abitanti della campagna ma anche ai cittadini, come mostra una dedica frammentaria a Saturno e a Ops, di epoca Severiana, fatta da un certo L. Baebius Secundus e dalla sua sposa Julia Victorina, gli stessi che hanno fatto una dedica a Hygea su un altare trovato tra le pietre reimpiegate nella costruzione di un monumento bizantino. L’altare12, in calcare, ha un decoro nella parte superiore: una fila di ovoli sormontata da una fila di foglie di acanto; l’iscrizione recita: Hygiae Aug(ustae) sacr(um)./Pro salute et victoriis/Imp(eratorum quorum) Caes(arum quorum) L(ucii) Septimii Severi / Pii Pertinacis Aug(usti) et /M(arci) Aureli(i) Antonini Pii/Felicis Aug(usti) [[et L(ucii) Septimi(i) Get]]ae,/ [[nobilissimi Caesaris]] et/ Iuliae Domnae Aug(ustae), matri(s)/ Aug(ustorum) et castror(um) totiusq(ue)/ divinae domus eorum./ L(ucius) Baebius Secundus et Iulia/ Victorina uxor/ Eius v(otum) s(olverunt).13 (fig. 11)

L’ambito titolo di mater castrorum fu conferito a Iulia Domna il 14 aprile 195 e rientra nella politica di legittimare almeno formalmente la sua candidatura all’impero, presentando se stesso e la sua famiglia come la naturale e necessaria evoluzione della dinastia antonina. Numerosi furono gli interventi edilizi di età severiana a Mactar. E’ da notare che le prime iscrizioni pervenuteci nelle quali Mactaris è menzionata come colonia appartengono all’epoca di Settimio Severo.14 12

Misura m. 1, 10 x 0, 60 x 0, 47. Alla consacrazione di Igiea Augusta. Per la salute e per le vittorie dei due Imperatori Cesare Lucio Settimio Severo, Pio, Pertinace, Augusto e Marco Aurelio Antonino, Pio, Felice Augusto e di Lucio Settimio Geta, mobilissimo Cesare e di Giulia Domna Augusta, madre dei due Augusti e di tutti quanti gli accampamenti e della loro divina casa. Lucio Baebius Secundus e Iulia Victorina, sua moglie, sciolsero il loro voto. Baratte – Abdallah 2000, 51–75. 14 Colonia Aelia Aurelia Mactaris: CIL VIII 11801 (=ILS 458), dedica a Geta del 199; AE 1949, 47, dedica a Caracalla del 201 o 202; [colonia] Aelia [ Aurelia 13

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A partire dall’età severiana si comincia ad avvertire un indebolimento della tradizione occidentale, che darà luogo, contemporaneamente, ai primi influssi asiatici nei capitelli e ad un accentuato sviluppo degli elementi di tradizione africana a Mactar e nelle province africane. Nei capitelli corinzi la struttura generale della foglia a ventaglio, lo schiacciamento di volute ed elici contro l’abaco e la presenza, su alcuni esemplari sporadici (Pensabene 1986, fig. 33 e Tav. 34, a), di fogliette dal contorno ogivale, talvolta aguzzo, indicano un influsso del capitello corinzio asiatico. Non essendo presenti a Mactar capitelli di importazione asiatica, è probabile che questo influsso esterno sia arrivato alla città tramite la mediazione di Cartagine, nel momento iniziale dell’importazione in Africa di capitelli asiatici, fatto che forse va collegato con il legame che univa Settimio Severo alla provincia d’Asia attraverso la seconda moglie, Giulia Domna, nata a Emesa in Siria, che può aver operato un’influenza orientale sul gusto decorativo ed ornamentale delle opere commissionate dall’imperatore. Ancora più che nei capitelli corinzi, variazioni e semplificazioni locali appaiono nei capitelli compositi, mostrando in modo evidente la formazione di uno stile decorativo sempre meno fedele al modello urbano di Roma. Queste variazioni si evidenziano soprattutto nella vegetalizzazione delle volute dell’elemento ionico: le spirali sono spesso sostituite da viticci fioriti, con rosetta centrale più o meno grande. Le Grandi Terme di Sud-Est vennero costruite nel 199 in onore di Settimio Severo, come documenta una dedica a Settimio Severo rinvenuta in situ nell’ingresso dell’edificio. I capitelli compositi di colonna e di pilastro in calcare che decoravano la palestra delle Grandi Terme presentano varianti dei motivi canonici: in particolare uno dei capitelli, di pilastro, presenta l’interessante variante della vegetalizzazione della voluta interamente coperta, anche sui lati, dalla foglia potenziale e con rosetta al centro. Vanno notate le particolarità dell’astragalo a perline alternate a fusarole singole sotto il kyma ionico dell’echino, e della mancanza del canale delle volute: si tratta evidentemente ancora di un’esigenza del gusto locale per la semplificazione e la trasformazione degli elementi canonici (Milella 1990, 422–423). In un altro esempio, sporadico, solo uno dei fiori dell’abaco mostra, al centro della foglia frastagliata che lo costituisce, una Mactar]is: CIL VIII 11910, ad 677, di Settimio Severo. Si veda anche il cippo in calcare con le due iscrizioni ad Apollo e ad Esculapio in Cadotte 2002, 93–106.

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serpentina; negli intervalli delle foglie inoltre nasce uno stelo avvolto da una lunga foglia frastagliata, che prosegue fino a rivestire la parte iniziale delle spirali delle volute. In altri capitelli dello stesso edificio le volute presentano indifferentemente sia una piatta spirale sia una grande rosetta che ne occupa tutta la superficie. Inoltre l’abaco è baccellato, i due ovuli laterali del kyma ionico di ogni lato sono molto ridotti, in quanto nascosti dalle semipalmette e l’acanto è del tipo con costolatura centrale svasata nella parte superiore, dove sono visibili due lunghe solcature verticali parallele. Nella palestra delle Grandi Terme di Sud-Est, la cornice, in cui i motivi decorativi hanno rese leggermente diverse da un blocco all’altro, è priva della corona e del soffitto. Il kyma ionico presenta una variante interessante: la superficie della parte interna dello sguscio, ampiamente visibile dietro il piccolo ovulo, è articolata verso il margine in piccole fogliette arrotondate, in modo da dare l’impressione di una larga foglia che accoglie l’ovulo liscio. Oltre alle sontuose terme venne costruito un piccolo anfiteatro a nord della città, sfruttando il naturale pendio di una collina per addossarvi la parte nord della cavea, che a sud venne costruita con un sistema di volte scaricanti sui muri radiali. La posizione dell’anfiteatro è periferica (come spesso per questo tipo di costruzioni), ma presso un importante asse di comunicazione territoriale (Golvin 1988, 134 n° 119). Per questo piccolo edificio possediamo un prezioso terminus post quem: il suo muro perimetrale nord (la metà sud della cavea poggia sulla roccia di una collina che domina il sito) si appoggia quasi al recinto di un santuario databile al 210 d.C., probabilmente dedicato a Saturno, poi nel IV d.C. convertito in basilica cristiana (c.d. basilica di Rutilius), rendendone praticamente inutilizzabile un ingresso post a meridione (Picard 1984, 13 e ss). Una singolarità di questo edificio è costituita dal fatto di essere sprovvisto delle stanze sotterranee destinate al ricovero degli animali, che di lì venivano innalzati nell’arena per mezzo di ponti mobili. Per risolvere il problema dell’ingresso delle fiere vennero create delle aperture nel muro dell’arena, chiudibili con sportelli a scorrimento, alcuni dei quali sono ancora al loro posto. Intorno al 210 venne eretto il santuario di Saturno, a cui sono pertinenti otto capitelli corinzi di colonna e uno di pilastro in cui si ritrova il motivo delle elici trasformate in viticci intrecciati (Picard 1984). Le maestranze locali sono identificabili in un certo appiattimento nella lavorazione e soprattutto in una certa vegetalizzazione dei motivi decorativi secondo la tradizione africana di età Severiana. Sempre al santuario ap-

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partengono sei elementi di cornice, prive di soffitto e corona, in cui l’astragalo è di dimensioni maggiori dei dentelli. Non lontano era pure il tophet, che termina la sua vita alla fine del II secolo: nella sua area venne costruito, agli inizi del III secolo, l’arco di Bab-el-Ain, a segnare l’ingresso urbano della via da Cartagine. Sempre in epoca severiana (l’età dei Severi si conclude nel 235 d.C.) si impiantano nelle vicinanze una casa a peristilio, per ora solo parzialmente esplorata, e la c.d. casa di Venere (Picard - Bourgeois 1977). Il Foro di Sufetula è una struttura chiusa di forma quasi quadrata (70 x 67 m), a cui si accede attraverso una porta a tre fornici, la cui decorazione in facciata, con semicolonne su alti plinti e nicchie destinate a contenere sculture, richiama quella degli archi onorari. I quattro gradini che precedono la porta indicano che il Foro non era accessibile ai veicoli. Anche in questo Foro dovevano trovarsi numerose statue erette in onore degli imperatori e dei notabili della città, di cui rimangono le basi scritte con la dedica: una base reca la dedica a Caracalla e a sua madre Giulia Domna. Il limite urbano settentrionale era marcato simbolicamente da un arco onorario dedicato a Settimio Severo, databile tra il 209 e il 211 d.C., di cui rimangono solo pochi elementi relativi alle fondazioni che permettono comunque di inquadrarlo nella consueta tipologia a fornice unico, con piedritti animati da colonne aggettanti (Ferchiou 1980, 49–58. Veritè 1983, 51–58). Oltre questi modesti resti dell’arco di Settimio Severo è stata identificata l’area dove doveva sorgere l’anfiteatro (Duval – Baratte 1973). Sotto Settimio Severo, Thysdrus, attuale El Djem, fu elevata al rango di municipio e poi con Valeriano o Gallieno divenne colonia onoraria. Il 238 d.C., segna un evento fondamentale per la città, che riuscì ad avere un ruolo politico di primo piano e che vide la caduta dell’imperatore Massimino e l’avvento al potere dei Gordiani. Il suo grandioso anfiteatro, uno dei meglio conservati di tutta l’Africa romana, la cui costruzione, iniziata alla fine del II sec.d.C. o all’inizio del III sec.d.C., si impone con particolare evidenza al centro delle basse costruzioni del moderno abitato, leggermente infossato rispetto al piano di calpestio, con tre ordini esterni che raggiungono l’altezza di circa m. 40, a cui si deve verosimilmente aggiungere un attico con mensole, che servivano per reggere i pali con cui si manovrava il velario. L’edificio presenta la classica forma ellittica (con assi di 148x122 m; arena 65x37m) a tre ordini di arcate inquadrate da semicolonne; poteva ospitare fino a 30000 persone, qualificandosi tra i più capienti dell’antichità. Rimane parecchio delle sovrastrutture, tranne a

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nord e a ovest, dove esse furono abbattute a cannonate (delle 30 arcate per ciascun piano ne restano in totale 68); eccetto le volte di sostruzione conservate in alcuni punti, nulla resta delle gradinate originarie, ricostruite in parte nel settore nord. Al di sotto dell’arena, sono visitabili i due grandi sottopassaggi di servizio coperti a volta, tra loro ortogonali, dove erano custoditi gli animali feroci. Presenta, nonostante la successiva ricostruzione di Gordiano nel 238, una decorazione negli ordini esterni certamente semplificata (le foglie dei capitelli sono lisce), ma ancora nella tradizione architettonica degli edifici pubblici del II secolo: si tratta quasi certamente di maestranze provenienti da Cartagine, dove tra l’altro esisteva un anfiteatro molto simile anche nelle dimensioni. L’attività di queste sembra ancora visibile nei numerosi frammenti di cornici e di architravi rettilinei in marmo, che si conservano accanto all’anfiteatro: l’uso del marmo e di maestranze itineranti sono un chiaro indizio del benessere economico dei committenti. Dall’analisi delle città della Tunisia qui presentate sembra che effettivamente vi sia stato un incremento edilizio sotto Settimio Severo, almeno considerando l’elemento ‘Arco Trionfale’ presente a Dougga, Kasserine, Thignica, Haidra, Sufetula. Ciò è sicuramente scaturito da varie motivazioni, tra le quali le principali sono la volontà di sopperire alla generale crisi economica che attraversava varie zone dell’Impero, e anche la ricerca del consensus da parte della popolazione locale. Del resto, il numero di iscrizioni dedicate a Settimio Severo mostrerebbe anche un nuovo entusiasmo per questo imperatore da parte della popolazione stessa del NordAfrica, dovuto forse alla gratitudine per la sistematica opera di fortificazione che attuò per le province meridionali dell’Impero. La ricerca archeologica, come si è cercato di delineare in questa relazione, lungi dall’esaurire la quaestio sulla effettiva opera di abbellimento delle città della Tunisia sotto Settimio Severo, ha permesso comunque di ampliare il quadro fino ad ora delineato e di contraddire le conclusioni a cui era giunto nel lontano 1962 lo studioso R.M. Haywood: “If we then consider the attitude of the people of the North African provinces toward Severus, we find that there is no sound evidence of any enthusiam for him on the round of his having been born in one of the provinces” (Haywood 1962, 787).

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BIBLIOGRAFIA Ben Abdallah Z., Nouveaux documents épigraphiques d’Ammaedara. Aspects de la vie religieuse et municipale sous le haut empire, “Recherches archeologiques à Haidra” (eds. Baratte F. – Bejaoui F. – Ben Abdallah Z.) (1999). Ben Abdallah Z., Ben Hassen H., A propos de deux inscriptions d’époque sévérienne, récemment découvertes à Thignica et Chidibbia (Afrique Proconsulaire), “L’Africa Romana”, Atti del IX Convegno di Studi su l’Africa Romana (1992) 290–298. Baratte F., Ben Abdallah Z., Le sanctuaire de Saturne à Ammaedara (Haidra, Tunisie): documents inedits, “Revue Archeologique” vol. I (2000) 51–75. Birley A., Septimius Severus, the African Emperor (1988). Bomgardner D. L., The Carthage Amphitheater. A Reappraisal, “AJA” 93 (1989). Cadotte A., Une double dédicace à Apollon et à Esculape en provenance de Mactar, “Epigraphica”, LXIV (2002) 93–106. Carlsen J., Gli spettacoli gladiatori negli spazi urbani dell’Africa romana. Le loro funzioni politiche, sociali e culturali, “L’Africa Romana”, Atti del X Convegno di Studi su l’Africa Romana (1994) 139–145. M‘Charek A., Documentation épigraphique et croissance urbaine: l’exemple de Mactaris aux trois premiers siècles de l’ère chrétienne, “L’Africa romana”, Atti del II Convegno di Studi su l’Africa Romana (1985) 221–223. Duval N., Baratte F., Les ruines de Sufetula-Sbeitla (1973). Ferchiou N., L’arc de Septime Sévère a Sbeitla, “Echanges”, II (1980) 49–58. Gascou J., La politique municipale de l’Empire romain en Afrique proconsulaire de Trajan à Septime-Sévère (1972). Golvin J. Cl., L’amphithéatre romain (1988). Haywood R. M., A Further Note on the African Policy of Septimius Severus, “Hommages à Albert Grenier”, edit M. Renard, Latomus, LVIII (1962) 786–790. Ibba A., Abid M., Uchi Maius: Scavi e ricerche epigrafiche in Tunisia, Volume 2 (2006). Khanoussi M., Mastino A., Il culto della Gens Septimia a Bulla Regia: Settimio Severo e Caracolla in tre basi inedite degli Agrii, dei Domitii e dei Lollii, Angeli Bertinelli M. G. – Donati A. (eds.), Epigrafia di

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confine. Confine dell’epigrafia, Atti del Colloquio AIEGL (2004) 376–414. Khanoussi M., Mastino A., Uchi Maius: Scavi e ricerche epigrafiche in Tunisia, Volume 1 (1997). Khanoussi M., Maurin L., Dougga, fragments d’histoire. Choix d’inscriptions latines editées, traduites et commentées (Ier–IVe siècles) (2000). Lepelley Cl., Les cités de l’Afrique romaine au Bas Empire, I (1979). Lézine A., Architecture romaine d’Afrique. Recherches et mises au point (1960). Mastino A., L’iscrizione monumentale del foro severiano di Uchi Maius (CIL, VIII, 26258), “Epigraphica”, 56 (1994) 77–100. Mastino A., I Severi nel Nord Africa, XI Congresso Internazionale di Epigrafia greca e latina. Atti (1999) 359–417. Mattern T., Gesims und ornament. Zur stadtrömischen Architektur von der Republik bis Septimius Severus (2001). McCann A. M., The portraits of Septimius Severus, MAAR X (1968). Micheli E., Rappresentazioni scolpite su due cammei conservati nel Museo Arch. di Firenze, Scritti di antichità in memoria di Sandro Stucchi: la Tripolitania e l’Italia (1996) 207–211. Milella M., La decorazione architettonica di Mactaris, “L’Africa Romana”, Atti del VI Convegno di Studi su l’Africa Romana (1990) 417– 429. Pensabene P., La decorazione architettonica nell’Africa romana: studio preliminare sui capitelli, Giardina A. (a cura di), Società Romana e impero tardoantico. Le merci e gli insediamenti, vol. III (1986). Pensabene P., Architettura e decorazione architettonica nell’Africa Romana: osservazioni, “L’Africa Romana”, Atti del VI Convegno di Studi su l’Africa Romana (1990) 432–458. Pera R., I riferimenti all’Africa nelle emissioni monetali, “L’Africa Romana”, Atti dell’VIII Convegno di Studi su l’Africa Romana (1991) 501–521. Picard Ch., Les fouilles de Mactar, CRAI (1974) 9–33. Picard Ch., Le temple du Musée a Mactar, “Revue Archeologique” (1984). Picard Ch., Bourgeois A., Recherches archéologiques franco-tunisiennes à Mactar.1. La maison de Vénus (1977). Poinssot Cl., Les ruines de Dougga (1983).

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Vérité J., La restitution d’un monument romain. L’arc de Septime Sévère à Sbeitla en Tunisie, ArcheologiaParis, 176 (1983) 51–58.

FIGURES

Fig. 1: Ritratto di Settimio Severo, Tunisi Museo del Bardo, sala 7.

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Fig. 2: Tondo ligneo con Settimio Severo e famiglia (Berlino, Staatliche Museen).

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Fig. 3: Carta della Tunisia con i siti trattati.

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Fig. 4: Zaghouan. Tratto di acquedotto romano (foto F. Mosca)

Fig. 5: Bulla Regia: Tempio di Apollo (foto F. Mosca; dis. da Lepelley 1979)

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Fig. 6: Dougga: Arco di Settimio Severo (foto F. Mosca)

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Fig. 7: iscrizioni dell’Arco di Settimio Severo (da Khanoussi-Maurin 2000)

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Fig. 8: Dougga: pianta della città e pianta del Tempio di Baal Saturno. (da Khanoussi – Maurin 2000)

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Fig. 9 Thuburbo Maius: tempio di Mercurio (foto F. Mosca)

Fig. 10: Haidra: Arco trionfale, 195 d.C.(foto F. Mosca)

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Fig. 11 : Haidra, altare con iscrizione per Hygiea e pianta del tempio di Saturno. (da Abdallah 1999)

Fig. 12: Mactar, Terme meridionali, elementi della decorazione architettonica (foto F. Mosca)

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THE ORIGO OF THE THRACIAN PRAETORIANS IN THE TIME OF SEVERANS Ivo Topalilov

(Shumen University, Bulgaria)1

When Septimius Severus entered Rome in 193 AD he disbanded the praetorians and replaced them with soldiers of the legions which had raised him as an emperor. These soldiers were of provincial origin which changed radically the composition of the Guard; the old mostly Italian guards were replaced by mostly Thracians, Panonians, Norici, Moesians etc. who first served in the frontier legions and then transferred to Rome (for the transfer, see Kennedy 1978, 288–296). This is the so-called ‘reform’ of Septimius Severus of the Praetorian Guard (Passerini 1939, 171– 180; Durry 1968, 247–249). The change is reflected not only in the impression left by the new praetorians on the local population, vividly described by Cassius Dio, but also on the way of recording the new recruits. Some of the questions have already been discussed, mainly the replacement of the tribe with the pseudo-tribe as well as the effect of constitutio Antoniniana on the soldiers’ names (Benefiel 2001, 222–229). The new situation, however, impacted also on the way of presenting the origo of the new praetorians. In many instances, the 4–7 letter abbreviations used to indicate a recruit’s origo are ambiguous and could refer to more than 1

My sincere thanks go to Dr. Adam Kemezis for the language corrections and useful comments on the draft of the paper.

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one city. These examples are numerous, and one could not ignore such cases like Hadrianopolis (Thrace)/Hadrumentum (Afr.), Augusta Traiana (Thrace)/Traianopolis (Thrace), Philippopolis (Thrace) /Philippis (Macedonia), Beroe (Thrace)/ Beroe (Macedonia) etc. The lack of any specific study on deciphering the abbreviations of the laterculi had let some scholars to conclusions not supported by the inscriptions and other data we posses. Thus, according to a military diploma of in March, 1st, a. 152 a certain P. Aelius P. f. Vol. Pacatus was honourably discharged from the Praetorian Guard. His origin was initially written as {Marcia(nopoli)}, but corrected to Philipp. The publisher of the diploma is inclined to expand this abbreviation as Philipp(opolis) (Pferdehird 2004, 97–99, n. 33, fig. 60–62). If so, this means that it was a long time before 193 AD that the Thracians were recruited for the Guard (Pferdehird 2004, 99, n. 6). The problem of this interpretation arises when studying the epigraphic material found in Philippopolis, Thrace. Of some 1200 epigraphic monuments of Philippopolis and its territory, not more than 10 are in Latin, the rest are in Greek. The common way of obtaining Roman names and citizenship in second century in Thrace was by a military career, which did not involve membership in the emperor’s tribe especially after Hadrian’s reign and consequently the pseudo-tribes appeared and the veterans, mostly praetorians from the end of second century were assigned to them. The only tribe to which the Thracians were assigned, and most probably the elite of Thrace, was that of Quirina, the tribe of Vespasian in whose reign they were granted Roman citizenship. The auxiliary Thracian veterans themselves were not enrolled into the Emperor’s tribe afterward as revealed by the military diplomas. This is why the Thracian praetorians had to use pseudo-tribes in laterculi praetorianorum when discharged. Thus, it is quite unlikely that P. Aelius P. f. Vol(tinia) Pacatus originated from Philippopolis, Thrace. It, however, fits well with other possibility – the Roman colony of Philippis, Macedonia. According to Dio κáèåóôçêότος Vê ôå ô\ò єфблЯбт кбp ô\ò şâçñЯáò ô\ò ôå ĚáêåäïíЯáò кбp ôï‡ Нщсйкп‡ мьнпн фп†т ущмбфпцэлбкбт еxíáé (LXXV 2, 4) which is proved by the epigraphic monuments of the second century (Passerini 1939) On the other hand, the epigraphic monuments found in the colony suggest that many members of the tribe of Vol(tinia) were settled there, and not in Philippopolis where none have been attested so far (see for instance Philippi 45; 59; 492; 493; 712 etc.). This was noticed as early as 1863 by C. Grotefend (Grotefend 1863, 139), followed by Kubitschek (Kubitschek 1889, 243–244). So, having in mind the epigraphic

THE ORIGO OF THE THRACIAN PRAETORIANS

289

monuments found in Philippis and Philippopolis, the written sources, the specific of the Roman onomastics and citizenship in Macedonia and Thrace in the middle of second century, it is more likely that P. Aelius P. f. Vol. Pacatus originated from Philippis, Macedonia, instead of Philippopolis, Thrace, as proposed in the bibliography. This is just one simple example how the name of two cities very close each other might confuse modern scholars since the ‘Philip’ cited in the diploma could be interpreted as Philipp(opolis) or Philipp(is) accordingly. And this is not the only one. Similar confusing was made by C. Ricci when studying the Thracians in Rome. Thus, in CIL VI, 32 515 [---]s Scalvinus Philip is cited (b, 32). According to Ricci, the case here is about a praetorian from Philippopolis (Ricci 1993, 176, n. 3) while A. Passerini and G. G. Mateescu are inclined to think that the soldier originated from Philippis (Mateescu 1923, 91; Passerini 1939, 158). This is not the only discrepancy. The same is the case with sp(eculator) P(ublius) Valerius Rufus Philipp from CIL VI, 32 520 (Mateescu 1923, 95; Passerini 1939, 158; Ricci 1993, 176, n. 4), the praetorian P. Aelius Valerianus Phil of 126 AD (CIL VI 32 516, 8)(Mateescu, 1923, 94; Passerini 1939, 158; Ricci 1993, 194), the praetorian [---]nicius Q. f. Vol. Maximus Philip of c. 136 AD (CIL VI, 32 518 a)(Mateescu 1923, 95; Passerini 1939, 158; Ricci 1993, 197) etc. (see for instance CIL VI, 3559). More interesting is the case with M. Aur(elius) M(arci) f(ilius) Fl(avia) Bassus Philip of CIL VI, 32 624, b 3 which A. Passerini, G.G. Mateescu and G. Forni without hesitation interpreted as Philip(popoli) (Mateescu 1923, 109, n. 2; Passerini 1939, 177; Forni 1985, 80), but this example is missing in Ricci’s list (Ricci 1993, 177). The problem here arises since the next veterans mentioned in this column: M. Aur(elius) M. f. Iul(ia) Cottus Philip (b, 4), M. Aur(elius) M. f. Iul(ia) Fuscus Philip (b, 5), M. Aur(elius) M. f. Iul(ia) Aprilis Philip (b, 20), [---] M. f. Iul(ia) Larcus Philip (b, 23) and [---] Corbulo Philip (b, 24) were all identified as originating from the Roman colony of Philippis (Mateescu 1923, 119, n. 4; Passerini 1939, 178). In this very inscription, however, the veterans from the Thracian city are cited with Trimon(tio) (CIL VI, 32 624, a, 8– 9)(Mateescu 1923, 96–97; Passerini 1939, 177; Forni 1985, 79) or Trumi(ntio) origo (c, 3). So, it remains unclear why M. Aur(elius) M(arci) f(ilius) Fl(avia) Bassus Philip should have originated from Philippopolis which was presented in this inscription as Trimon(tium) and how the distinction was made with Philip cited as origo in all the examples here. The presence of pseudo-tribe of Fl(avia) instead of the ordinary Iul(ia) is not a

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crucial point considering the pseudo-tribe specifics. Similar is the case in which Ulpia Scupis is used (CIL VI, 37 184, c, 11) instead of the formal colonia Flavia Scupinorum (see ILJug. III, 1380). On the other hand, in some studies these praetorians were assigned to Philippopolis and this is regarded as explicit evidence of organized settling of veterans in Philippopolis or of the urbanization carried out by the last Thracian kings during the time of Julian-Claudian dynasty (Gerov 1980, p. 40, n. 3). This confusion seems to be, however, quite out of place for the Roman army where nothing is by chance and the records as revealed by the modern studies were made in a very strict order without any doubt (see for instance Echols, 1955–1956, 119–120). So, in order to escape such confusion and misunderstanding, an attempt will be made in this article to find or at least to propose a kind of solution to that kind of problems and try to show how the Roman authorities also coped with those problems. The cases under discussion here will be Philippopolis (Thrace)/ Philippis (Macedonia), Augusta Traiana (Thrace)/Traianopolis (Thrace) and Beroia (Thrace)/Beroia (Macedonia).

PHILIPPOPOLIS (THRACE) OR PHILIPPIS (MACEDONIA) Before starting the study it should be mentioned that Philippopolis is one of the cities in Thrace which had two names – Greek and Roman. Tacitus’s note “Oppidum sub Rhodope Poneropolis antea, mox a conditore Philippopolis, nunc a situ Trimontium dictum” (Plin. NH, IV, 11, 41) and „Φιλιππόπολις ή και Τριμόντιον” in Claudius Ptolemaeus’s Geographia (III, 11, 12) show clearly the case. Consequently, it is not surprisingly that the origo of many Philippopolitans – praetorians, soldiers, and citizens in Rome and the provinces in the inscriptions is Trimontium, full or in abbreviations. Thus, in CIL VI, 37 184 one finds M. Aurel. M. f. Ulp.Bubalus Tr[---] (b 20), M. Aurel. M. f. Ulp.Dubitatus Trim (b, 21) and M. Aurel. M. f. Ulp. Petronius Trim (b, 24). Undoubtedly, Trim here should be interpreted as Trim(ontio) as shown by C. Ricci (Ricci 1993, 176). The same is the case with CIL VI, 32 624 where [---]l Montan(us) Trimon (a, 8) and [---]l Maupus Trimon (a, 9) are attested and which were also recognized as of Trimontium origin (Mateescu 1923, 96–97; Passerini 1939, 177; Forni 1985, 79). In fact, all abbreviations of this kind such as IRIMU (CIL IV, 32 624, c, 3 – Trimu ?), Trim in [---] Aurel. M. f. Qui Orestes Trim (CIL VI, 43 640, 7), natus Tremontiae (CIL VI, 2566)

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291

were accepted as being a part of the name Trimontium (Passerini 1939, 177; Forni 1985, 84, 95–96; Ricci 1993, 176). The same is the case with T. Ael. Dizo Trim, [---] Ael. Victor Trim and M. Aur. Dines Trim found in a laterculus set up in Viminacium in 195 AD (CIL III, 14507). In these inscriptions the tribe of Quirina or the pseudo-tribe of Ulpia was added, if any, to the nomenclature of the veterans. The cases with the Greek name of the city ‘Philippopolis’ are more numerous, even in Rome. Thus, we know of the funeral stela of Firminius Valens where he is natus in prov(incia) Thracia civit(ate) Philippopol(i) (CIL VI 2954= ILS 2137). The full presentation of the city’s name is to be found in the stela of Aur(elius) Bithus, natione T(h)rax cives Filo(po)pulitanus (CIL VI, 2601=ILS 2055); T. Aurelius Mestrius, cives Philip(p)opolitanus (CIL VI, 32 635); Aur. Mucianus, reg. Philippopoli[ta]ne (CIL VI, 30 685); Val. Sarmatius, civis Filopopuletanus (CIL VI, 2785) and others. Similarly, from Lugudunensis the funeral stela of L(ucius) Sept(imius) Mucianus, veteran of legion XXX Ulpia Victrix P(ius) F(idelis), who was domo Philippopoli (CIL XIII, 1891), is known. In the laterculi, the city is presented as Filippopo (CIL VI, 32 536), in CIL VI, 32 563- Filopopoli, in CIL VI, 32 635- Philopopolita, in CIL VI, 32 629- Philop. As one might observe, in these cases the identification of the city as Philippopolis is undisputable (Passerini 1939, 177; Ricci 1993, 176). The study is summarized in table 1, the date after M. Clauss (Clauss 1973, 55–95) and R. Benefiel’ studies (Benefiel 2001, 221–224). A few comments should be made on this. First, it is quite clear that the Thracians from Philippopolis present before 214/215 AD only appear with the Trimontium origo in the laterculi. That name was also preferred in the private inscriptions from that period. The origin of the persons who set up those inscriptions is, however, unclear. Second, it seems that in 214/ 215 AD a change occurred and Philippopolis is cited as origo of the Thracians in both official and private inscriptions instead of Trimontium. In fact after 214/215 the Roman name Trimontium was no longer in use, and only Philippopolis remained. The line between the uses of both of the names, which is date 214/ 215 AD, is very clearly observed.

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Table. 1. Trimontium-Philippopolis in the praetorian inscriptions in Rome citation

date

type

praetorian

origo

CIL VI 37 184

204г.

laterculus

M. Aurel. M. F. VLP.Bubalus

Tri[m(ontio)]

M. Aurel. M. F. VLP. Dubitatus

Trim(ontio)

M. Aurel. M. F. VLP. Petronius

Trim(ontio)

CIL VI 32 640

209

laterculus

Aur. M. F. Qui. Orestes

Trim(ontio)

CIL VI 2566

209

funeral

Aurel. Mucianus

Tremontio (sic)

L. Maupus

Trimon(tio)

L. Montanus

Trimon(tio)

CIL VI 32 624

214– 215

laterculus

T. FL.T.F.Qvi. Antiochus

[T]r(i)mu(ntio)

CIL VI 32 Severi 536

laterculus

[…]hus

Philippopol(is)

CIL VI 32 563

211– 217

laterculus

Aur. Diogen(es)

Filopopolis (sic)

CIL VI 32 629

214– 225

laterculus

[…]

Philop(popoli) (sic)

CIL VI 32 625

214– 225

laterculus

Aur. Marcianus

Phil(ippopoli)?

CIL VI 32 543

227

dedication

[…]F.FL. Appolodorus

cives Philippopolitanus

T. Aurelius Mestrius

civis Philop(p)opolitanus (sic)

CIL VI 32 Severi dedication 635

THE ORIGO OF THE THRACIAN PRAETORIANS citation

date

type

CIL VI 32 Severi 909

293

praetorian

origo

[…]

Philopo(poli) (sic)

CIL VI 30 685

241

dedication

Aur. Mucianus

reg. Philippopoli[ta]nae

CIL VI 26 01

III c.

funeral

Aur. Bitus

civis Filopopulitanus (sic)

CIL VI 2785

III c.

funeral

Val. Sarmatius

civis Filopopulеtanus (sic)

CIL VI 2954

III c.

funeral

Firminius Valens

civit. Philippopol.

These cases should undoubtedly be attributed to the Thracian city. In some of the laterculi, however, dated till Septimius Severus’s reign, the origo of a certain number of praetorians is reveled simply as Philipp and this raises questions. One such example is P. Valerius Rufus Philipp mentioned in an inscription of 144 AD. (CIL VI, 32 520) and whose origin is believed to be from Philippopolis (Ricci 1993, p. 197), or from Philippi (Passerini, 1938, 158; Durry 1968, 246–247; Fol 1968, p. 205, № 108). And this is not a lone example. According to C. Ricci P. Aelius Valerianus, Phi[lip] (CIL VI, 32 516, 18), P. Valerius Rufus Philip (CIL VI, 32 520, a, III, 10), and [---]nicius Q. f. Vol. Maximus, Philip were from Philippopolis (Ricci 1993, 194, 197). These veterans, however, were assigned to Philippis by A. Passerini and G. G. Mateescu (Mateescu 1923, 91, 94 95; Passerini 1939, 158) as mentioned above which shows that no rule is established among the scholars for such cases. With an exception which is that of M. Aur(elius) M(arci) f(ilius) Fl(avia) Bassus Philip where Philip was developed as Philip(popolis), discussed above, A. Passerini usually developed Philip as Philip(pis). Thus, in CIL VI, 32 518 is mentioned a certain [---]nicius Q. f. Vol. Apronianus Philip (a, 3) of 136 AD, in CIL VI, 32 520 the aforementioned P. Valerius Rufus Philipp (a, III, 10) or [---]s Scalvinus Philip of CIL 32 515 (b, 32)(Passerini 1939, 158). The assumption made by C. Ricci for [---]nicius Q. f. Vol. Maximus Philip and P. Valerius Rufus Philipp finds no proof in the onomastic material and its specifics in Thrace, whether epigraphic inscriptions or military diplomas. And this confusion is not by chance since the Roman colony Philippi is usually presented as c(oloniae) Philippensium, col(oniae)

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Iul(iae) Philippens(is), but also as Philippis, Phil(ippis), col(oniae) Philipp(is), Philipp(is), Philipp(iensis), Phil(ippensium), P(hilippensium), P(h)il/ip(p)is etc. Outside Macedonia the colony is presented as Philip(pis), Philippis, Philipp(iensis). In the military diplomas the colony is inscribed as Philipp(iensis), Philippie(n)sis (CIL XVI, 12) or Philippiensis as origin of the witnesses (CIL XVI, 10), which contradicts the Thracian examples where Philippopolis is always presented in its full form. The examples are numerous: M. Aurelius M. f. Ulp(ia) Potentius Philippopolis (CIL XVI, 189), Philippopol(i) ex Thrac(ia) (RMD II, # 105; RMD IV, # 277) etc. These observations, from the onomastcics an the written sources, and especially Cassius Dio, who clearly states that the praetorians of second century originated from Italy, Spain, Noricum and Macedonia (LXXV 2,4), let me to follow A. Passerini’s assumption that the abbreviation Philip or Philipp in the laterculi should be a mark for soldiers originating from Philippis in Macedonia. Thus, the Thracian city of Philippopolis was presented in a more developed way so not to be confused with the colony in Macedonia.

AUGUSTA TRAIANA (THRACE) OR TRAIANOPOLIS (THRACE) A similar situation exists for Augusta Traiana/ Traianopolis. Here, the identification problem arises from the very beginning with the local coinage of Augusta Traiana where the city is presented on the reverse as ἡ Τραιανέων πόλις. The problem with the identification of the coinage has already been solved, but some confusion about the inscriptions still remains. It is probably for this reason that A. Passerni and G. Forni ignored any other evidence and accepted that the Thracian city was always present with its local name, but not Augusta Traiana (Beroea) (Passerini 1939, 177; Forni 1985, 75, 92–93). And henceforth comes the second problem of correct identification of Beroe(a), mentioned in the laterculi – was it the Macedonian or Thracian city? The name of Augusta Traiana is found in the official military records including the military diplomas. A diploma of Jan. 1 237 AD was issued for M. Aurelius Suri fil. Valent whose origin is mentioned as Aug (usta) Traiana ex Thracia (Roxan 1994, 332–333, # 198). The same is the case with the praetorian M. Aurelius M. f. Aug(usta) Posidonius Trajana of Jan., 7, 231 AD (Roxan 2003, 593–596, # 315). This name is to be found also among the funeral stelai such as the stela set up for Mucatralis

THE ORIGO OF THE THRACIAN PRAETORIANS

295

Auluzenis, militis leg. III Aug. who was natione Thrace(!), natus in civitate Augusta Traiane(n)sie(!)(CIL VIII, 3198). It is for these reasons that we should expect Augusta Traiana to be used in the laterculi, especially having in mind the fact that Thrace was regarded as reservoir for soldiers. In the some inscriptions the origo of the praetorians is cited by the abbreviation Trai (CIL VI, 32 627), Tra (CIL VI, 32 628), Traipo (CIL VI, 32 624, b, 25), Troian (sic)( CIL VI, 32 624, d, 30), Traip (CIL VI, 32 640), Traian (CIL VI, 2385=32 533, 32 536). This could be interpreted as Traiano(poli)( Passerini 1939, 177; Ricci, 1993, 176–177) or Augusta Traiana (Forni 1985, 135). There is no doubt that Traipo in CIL VI, 32 624, b, 25 and Traip in CIL VI, 32 640 should be interpreted as Traianopolis (see for instance Mateescu 1923, 122, n. 1; 126, n. 11; 127). In the rest of the cases, however, the identification is not so certain. Here, the pseudo-tribe used in the nomenclature of the praetorians gives us a clue. Caesarea Germanicia is presented in CIL VI, 32 624 as M. Aur. M. f. Cae. Paladus Germanicia (d, 10)(Forni 1985, 137). As is well known the pseudo-tribes were in most cases part of the city-name, and it is not surprising to have other example such as that of Caesarea Germanicia. Aug(usta) is a pseudo-tribe and also a part of the city-name. It is therefore reasonable to suggest that the praetorians with pseudo-tribe Aug(usta) and Trai as origo actually derived from the Thracian city Augusta Traiana (see Mateescu 1923, 118, 122, n. 1; Forni 1985, 135). The examples under discussion are as follows: M. Aur. M. f. AVG. Avitus Troian (sic)(CIL VI, 32 624, d, 30), [---] Aurel. M. f. AVG Seneca Trai and [---] Aurel. M. f. AVG. Aquila Trai (CIL VI, 32 640, 2, 6), and M. Aurel. M. f. AVG. Marcianus Tra (CIL VI, 32 628, 16). It is worthwhile to note that for our case that in CIL VI 32 640 in order to escape misunderstanding, the origo of the praetorian [---] Aurel. M. F. Ulp. Ianuarius is cited differently as Traip (37). It is the same case with the other inscription CIL VI 32 624 where [---]arcus Traipo is cited (b, 25) contrary to Troian (sic) cited in the next column (d, 30). Here is also mentioned M. Aur. M. f. Ael. Afrodisiu(s) Tra[---], most probably from Traianopolis, Thrace (d, 32).

BEROE(A) (THRACE) OR BEROE(A) (MACEDONIA) Cases with the correct identification of Beroe(a) are more problematic. A. Passerini did not even recognize veterans and soldiers from the Macedonian Beroe(a) and assigned all the Beroe(a) cases to the Thracian city

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(Passerini 1939, 158, 177–178). It seems that G. Forni followed him (Forni 1985, 92–93). In this respect the case of [---A]elius T. f. Ulp. Nepos Bero(e)(Ferrua 1962, 124–125, fig. 4) of 170/171 AD. is significant. Scholars believe that this should be identified as the Thracian city (Passerni 1939, 177; Fol 1968, 205, № 113; Forni 1985, 92–93; Ricci 1993, 176–177), and if this is so, this conclusion contradicts that of Cassius Dio and the epigraphic monuments found in Rome showing that the Thracian praetorians entered the Guard only after 193 AD. Therefore, it is more plausible to assume that [---A]elius T. f. Ulp. Nepos Bero(e) was actually of Macedonian origin. There are several possible solutions to this problem. The easiest way is to assume that in all cases dated before 193 AD, a Thracian origin of a praetorian should be doubted and a Macedonian origin is much more likely. We still have Dio Cassius, mentioned above. In the other cases, we should refer to the onomastics as in the case above. It is quite clear that the Roman names used in the peregrine city in Thrace where were mostly used by Romanized Thracians and those used in the Macedonian Beroe(a) where Italian immigrants settled stand in sharp contrast. Thus, in CIL VI, 32 625 is mentioned a certain Aur(elius) Mucapor(us) d(omo) Beroe(a)(a, I, 9) who was of Thracian origin given his Thracian cognomen (on the cognomen – see Detschev 1957, 314–315). There is no doubt that in this case the Thracian city is meant. The opposite is the case of M. Aurel. M. f. Serg. Nasiabus Ber[---] mentioned in CIL VI, 37 184 (c, 9) and counted as Thracian (Passerini 1939, 177). There are two objections: the first is the use of the tribe of Sergia which is quite uncommon in Thrace and Augusta Traiana; and the second is the use of the Roman cognomen Nasiabus which is not found in Thrace. This cognomen, however, is found in the name of Lorenius Nasiabus in inscription found in Pompeii (Grattarolo 2000, 156; CIL IV, 4861) which fits well with the evidence of Italian immigrants settled in Macedonian Beroe(a) and who had non-imperial gentilicia, most of them unknown in other parts of Macedonia. According to F. Papazoglou the first negotiatores and their families settled in Beroe(a) in 1st c. BC to 1st c. AD (Papazoglou 1988, 146, n. 36). It is for these reasons that M. Aurel. M. f. Serg. Nasiabus Ber[---] mentioned in CIL VI, 37 184 (c, 9) was not of Thracian origin, but most likely a descendent of one of those immigrants that settled in Macedonian Beroe(a) from Pompeii in the 1st c. AD. Another group of veterans that might have belonged to the Macedonian city are those mentioned in CIL VI, 32 624 and CIL VI, 32 628. In

THE ORIGO OF THE THRACIAN PRAETORIANS

297

CIL VI, 32 624 one finds M. Aur. M. f. Ul(pia) Fabius Beroe(a) (b 6) and [---]s Beroia (b, 26) and in CIL, 32 628 – M. Aurel. M. f. Maior Beroe(a) (15). These praetorians are again counted as Thracians (see Passerini 1939, 177), but it is doubtful since some other praetorians from Augusta Traiana are cited in these very inscriptions coming from TRA[---] or TROIAN (sic!) as origo and Aug(usta) used as a tribe (CIL VI, 32 624, d, 30; 32 628, 16). This problem was discussed above. It is noteworthy that the praetorians from Macedonian Beroe(a) used the pseudo-tribe Ulp(ia), quite inappropriate for instance for Augusta Traiana, possibly established in Hadrian’s time, but consistent with the recognizing of the title of μητρόπολις τῆς Μακεδονίας in the time of Nerva (cf. Papazoglou 1988, 144–145). As for [---]udens Beroe(a)(CIL VI, 32 536), the case remains unclear. The result of the analysis on the Thracian origo of the praetorians coming from Beroe(a) and Augusta Traiana is presented on table 2. Таble. 2.Augusta Traina-Beroe(a) in the praetorian inscriptions in Rome citation

date

type

praetorian

origo

CIL VI 32 628

Severi

laterculus

M. Aur. M. F. Aug. Marcianus

Tra(iana)

32 640

209

laterculus

[M] Aurel. M. F. Aug. Aquila

Tra(iana)

Aurel. M. F. Aug. Seneca

Trai(ana)

32 624

214– 215

laterculus

M. Aur. M. F. Aug. Avitus

Troian(a) (sic)

32 536

Severi

laterculus

M. I[ucun]dus Severus

Traiana

32 625

214– 225

laterculus

Aur. Mucapor

d. Beroe

As for other inscriptions we are aware of a funeral stela of Aur(elius) Brimursius, nat(ione) Thrax civis Bero[e]nsis who was equites singularis. The stela was set up by his son Aur. Emeritus and wife Aurelia Pelegrina (CIL VI, 3196). It is possible that in CIL VI, 3559 also the Thracian city meant was […] Stratus, Bervua (sic). But this is only private inscriptions. As shown above, the origo of these praetorians in the military diplomas

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THE ROMAN EMPIRE DURING THE SEVERAN DYNASTY

was Aug(usta) Traiana ex Thracia or Aug(usta) Traiana where Aug(usta) is used as a tribal designation. After this very short analysis, three observations can be made. First, the laterculi show that the official Roman name of the city is preferred in the nomenclature of the praetorians or soldiers instead of the native name in the inscriptions in Rome and of military officials in the Latin provinces. This phenomenon is specific to the time before Septimius Severus. Thus, the praetorians from Philippopolis used only the Roman name of Trimontium while those from Beroe only Augusta Traiana. Second, the change of this practice and the advance of the native name of the cities is clearly observed in the year 214 AD when Philippopolis and Beroe came into use. The year is not by chance. It is well established by studying the rosters in Dura Europos where the edict of Caracalla, the constitutio Antoniniana, which was proclaimed in 212 AD actually affected the military records at the earliest in 214 AD (see Gilliam 1965, 83–90). This is exactly the date when the advancement of the native names Philippopolis and Beroe in the praetorian laterculi can be clearly observed. I believe that this correspondence is not by chance and we should propose a strong connection between that change and the effect of the edict. Accordingly, we may presume that the imperial chancellery and archives preferred using before that time only the Latin name of the peregrine cities in Thrace; consequently only Trimontium and Augusta Traiana were cited in the inscriptions. This requirement was obviously abandoned after 214 AD and the new praetorians were able to use the native names of their home cities. Third, despite the theses proposed in the literature for the lack of any accuracy and rules in the military records, it seems that such uniformity existed. As we may note, in these cases where Philippopolis is mentioned, a distinction between that name and the name of the Roman colony of Philippis is clearly observed. In order to make such distinction the name of the peregrine city is presented not by the four-letters abbreviation PHIL as usual, but with more elaborated name such as Philippopol(is), Filopopolis, Philopopolitanus, Philipopolitanus etc. Thus, it was clear that a particular praetorian was from Philippopolis in Thrace and not from Philippis in Macedonia. The case with Augusta Traiana – Beroe is more complicated since the full likeness between the name of the Thracian and Macedonian city Beroe(a). The military diplomas, the laterculi and official inscriptions show that in these cases the Roman name Augusta Tra-

THE ORIGO OF THE THRACIAN PRAETORIANS

299

iana was used instead of the native Beroe(a) and the confusion with the Macedonian city was avoided. Thus, in a military diploma of January, 1st 237 AD M. Aurelius Suri fil. Valent is cited with Aug (usta) Traiana ex Thracia, in another diploma of January, 7th 231 AD M. Aurelius M. f. Aug(usta) Posidonius Trajana is mentioned. The correct identification of the origo of the praetorians where Philipp is developed as Philippis raises the question of the attribution of the pseudo-tribe Iulia to Philippopolis which is accepted in the bibliography. This also calls into question the proposed organized settlement of veterans in Philippopolis or urbanization of the city proposed after this pseudo-tribe.

REFERENCES Benefiel R., A New Praetorian Laterculus from Rome, «Zeitschrift für Papirologie und Epigraphik», 134 (2001) 221–232. Clauss, M., Zur datierung stadrömischer Inschriften: tituli militum praetorianorum, «Epigrafica», 35 (1973) 55–95. Detschev, D., Die thrakischen Sprachreste, Schriften der Balkankommission. Linguistische Abteilung XIV (1957). Durry, M., Les cohortes prétoriennes, Bibliothèque des Écoles française d’Athènes et de Rome (1968). Echols, E., Roman army records, «The Classical Journal» LI (1955– 1956) 119–120. Ferrua, A., Iscrizioni pagane nelle catacombe di Roma via Nomentana. «Epigraphica» 24 (1962) 106–139. Fol, A., Les Thraces dans l’Empire romain d’Occident (Ier–III e s.). Deuxième partie: documentation épigraphique, «Godišnik na Sofiiskija universitet – Istoriko-filologičeski fakultet LXII, 3 - History» (1968) 193–274. Gerov, B., Landownership in Roman Thrace and Moesia (I–III c.), «Godišnik na Sofiiskija universitet – Fakultet po zapadni filologii» LXXII 2 (1980). Gilliam, J. F., Dura Rosters and the Constitutio Antoniniana, «Historia» 14 (1965) 83–90. Kennedy, D. L., Some observations on the Praetorian Guard, «Ancient Society» 9 (1978) 275–301. Kubitschek, J. W., Imperium romanum. Tributum discriptum, Pragae, Vindobonae, Lipsiae ILJug. III (1889).

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Mateescu, G. G., I Traci nelle epigrafi di Roma, «Ephemeris Dacoromana», I (1923) 57–290. Papazoglou, F., Les villes de Macédoine a l’époque romaine, Bulletin de correspondence hellénique, Supplément XVI (1988). Passerini A., Le coorti pretorie, Studi publicati dal R. Instituto Italiano per la Storia Antica, fasc. I (1939). Pferdehird, B., Römische Militärdiplome und Entlassungsurkunden in der Sammlung des Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums, Kataloge vor – und frühgeschichtlicher Altertümer, 37 (2004). Ricci, C., Balcanici e Danubiani a Roma. Attestazioni epigrafiche di abitanti delle province Rezia, Norico, Pannonia, Dacia, Dalmazia, Mesia, Macedonia, Tracia (I–III sec.), In L. Mrozewicz, K. Ilski (herausg.), Prosopographica (1993) 141–208. Roxan, M., Roman Military Diplomas 1985–1993, University College London Occasional Publication 14 (1994). Roxan. M., Holder, P., Roman Military Diplomas 1993–2003 (2003). Šašel, A., Šašel, J., Inscriptiones Latinae quae in Iugoslavia inter annos MCMII et MCMXL repertae et editae sunt. Situla 25 (1986).

UN RIEMPIMENTO FOGNARIO DI ETÀ SEVERIANA DALLE COSIDDETTE “TERME DI ELAGABALO” A ROMA Edoardo Radaelli

(University of Southampton; Sapienza – Università di Roma)1

Gli anni ‘80 del XX secolo sono stati, per Roma, un periodo di grande 2 fermento per l’archeologia in generale e per l’archeologia urbana nello 1 Questo scritto, da un lato è una sintesi della Tesi in Metodologia e Tecnica dello Scavo discussa nell’A.A. 2008–2009 per la Scuola di Specializzazione in Beni Archeologici della “Sapienza” – Università di Roma, dall’altro è parte di un lavoro in corso d’opera più vasto (MPhil/PhD presso the University of Southampton). Quest’ultimo, partendo dall’analisi completa della massa di dati ceramici provenienti dalle stratigrafie medio imperiali presso le “Terme di Elagabalo”, intende affrontare, tramite confronti con siti editi (oltre a Roma, che soffre della cronica mancanza di contesti ceramici editi e non soltanto di età severiana, anche, ad esempio, Ostia), le implicazioni commerciali durante il II e l’inizio del III secolo d.C., argomento che non è stato volontariamente trattato in questa sede. Ringrazio sentitamente Clementina Panella che dirige lo scavo delle pendici N-E del Palatino, Lucia Saguì responsabile dell’Area IV, A. Falcone per l’aiuto nella prima fase di studio, G. Pardini per le informazioni numismatiche e B. Lepri per le informazioni preliminari sul materiale vitreo oggetto della sua tesi di laurea.

301

302

THE ROMAN EMPIRE DURING THE SEVERAN DYNASTY

specifico.Tra le indagini che hanno preso avvio in questo periodo, una tra 3 le più importanti è quella dell’area della Meta Sudans, diretta dalla prof.ssa Clementina Panella, iniziata nel 1985 grazie agli stanziamenti dovuti alla Legge Biasini (Legge Speciale del 23 Marzo 1981, n. 396) e parzialmente conclusasi nel 2001 riportando alla luce le strutture della 4 fontana flavia, demolita definitivamente nel 1936, per la realizzazione della Via dell’Impero voluta da Mussolini (Manacorda, Tamassia 1985, 192–194; Insolera, Perego 1983, 129; Nardoni 2005, 132). Le indagini hanno, inoltre, permesso l’individuazione e l’analisi delle strutture più antiche che essa obliterava, attribuite già dal Colini all’età neroniana (Colini 1937). Gli scavi e lo studio dei materiali hanno confermato entrambe le datazioni proposte in passato, ma hanno altresì posto alcuni interrogativi di notevole interesse per la ricostruzione topografica dell’area più occidentale della Valle del Colosseo e della prospiciente area delle Pendici Nord-Orientali del Palatino, mai realmente interessata da scavi o studi specifici. Nell’autunno del 2001 è stata intrapresa l’indagine di quest’area (fig. 1), volta alla risoluzione dei quesiti posti dalle precedenti campagne. Le indagini, tuttora in corso, hanno permesso l’individuazione di una complessa stratificazione collocabile tra la situazione preantropica e l’età contemporanea (basti pensare ai servizi della città moderna). La superficie d’indagine è stata divisa dapprima in due aree (Area II, verso la valle e Area I, ad Ovest di questa) separate fra loro da una struttura muraria 5 con andamento NE-SW presente almeno dall’età sillana e che ha deter-

2

Sul significato di questo termine cfr. ad esempio Brogiolo 2000. Da non dimenticare le indagini presso la Crypta Balbi, importantissime per l’archeologia post-antica e medievale, e quelle presso le pendici settentrionali del Palatino. 4 Per il resoconto dettagliato dei ritrovamenti cfr. Panella 1990. La fontana era nota dalle descrizioni delle fonti letterarie e si era a conoscenza del suo aspetto attraverso alcune monete antiche. I ruderi di questo monumento sono stati, inoltre, tramandati attraverso numerose raffigurazioni della piazza. 5 Da qui in avanti le indicazioni di orientamento saranno semplificate con la menzione dei soli punti cardinali. 3

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6

minato sorti ed interventi edilizi di notevole differenza. Ad esse nel 2005 è stata aggiunta—verso Sud-Est—l’Area III. Nel 2007 il cantiere di scavo è stato ampliato con l’apertura dell’Area IV, situata ad Ovest della cd. Area I e comprendente l’edificio comune7 mente noto con il nome di “Terme di Elagabalo”. Questo complesso non era stato mai seriamente, stratigraficamente ed estensivamente indagato prima, se si eccettuano gli sterri della fine dell’Ottocento operati dal Rosa (Rosa 1873, 80–82),8 lo studio architettonico operato dal Popescu negli anni 20 del Novecento (Popescu 1930) e i quattro saggi operati dalla Escuela Española de Arqueología degli anni 1989–1992 (parzialmente editi in Arce, Mar 1990, Mar 2005, Mar 2006). Nell’area delle “Terme di Elagabalo” le indagini hanno permesso l’individuazione di un’articolata stratigrafia che soltanto dalla fase giulioclaudia è stato finora possibile comprendere con maggiore chiarezza. Nella porzione Est e lungo il lato Nord dell’area di scavo è stata individuata la prosecuzione di strutture già indagate nel settore immediatamente a Est, costituite da parti di un ambiente di una domus e del fronte strada di questo isolato, con tabernae (fig. 2) Tutto il complesso, che vide numerosi rifacimenti e restauri tra la tarda età repubblicana e l’età claudia (Saguì 2009, 239–243), fu interessato dall’incendio del 64 d.C. (di cui sono state rinvenute cospicue tracce soprattutto in quei settori che sono stati chiamati vani 3, 6, 7 ed 8) a cui seguì una completa obliterazione e un quasi totale abbandono (Saguì 2009, 243–244). Sembra, infatti, che durante l’età flavia quest’area fosse priva di edifici e che l’attività edilizia in questo settore fu ripresa soltanto in età adrianea (Saguì 2009, 244–245). All’età adrianea, quindi, è attribuibile un grande complesso edilizio, costituito da stanze rettangolari allungate in senso N-S comunicanti fra loro e pavimentate con opus spicatum, con una strada che ne delimitava il 6 Per le notizie riguardanti questi settori delle indagini cfr.: Panella 2001; Panella 2006; Ferrandes 2006; Carbonara 2006; Zeggio 2006; Panella et al. 2011. 7 Il nome “Terme” è parzialmente erroneo. Esso nasce dal ritrovamento già nella fine del XIX secolo di un piccolo balneum retrostante la grande abside occidentale (indagato poi a partire dalla campagna estiva 2010, non pertinente però all’impianto originario) che ha portato all’interpretazione come impianto termale per l’intero complesso. 8 E’ noto anche un dettagliato rapporto del Pellegrini per il Ministero della Pubblica Istruzione: cfr. Saguì 2009, 236 e nt. 4.

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THE ROMAN EMPIRE DURING THE SEVERAN DYNASTY

lato posteriore. Interpretato come un horreum, prevedeva ingressi a Nord, Ovest, Est e Sud (Saguì 2009, 246–254; fig. 3, in grigio scuro). I cospicui interventi edilizi databili all’età severiana, ebbero un profondo impatto non soltanto sulla sommità del colle (nell’area della Vigna Barberini), ma anche sulle pendici nord-orientali, mettendo fine alla breve vita delle strutture adrianee che si estendevano in questa zona. L’horreum di età precedente fu, infatti, completamente raso al suolo e con esso una parte delle sostruzioni palatine. Furono artificialmente innalzati i livelli e su questi furono fondati l’esteso complesso delle cd. “Terme di Elagabalo” e le nuove poderose sostruzioni palatine. Rispetto a quanto è stato possibile sapere degli edifici precedenti, le informazioni riguardanti il nuovo edificio sono piuttosto limitate, nonostante il discreto stato di conservazione delle murature e la struttura planimetrica molto ben leggibile. L’edificio di età severiana è costituito (fig. 3, in grigio chiaro) da una serie di ambienti che si sviluppano attorno ad una corte centrale e che hanno dimensioni più ridotte e diversa articolazione rispetto all’horreum precedente. Purtroppo, la perdita dei piani pavimentali in tutti gli ambienti indagati, l’asportazione delle stratificazioni di età imperiale in tutta la porzione occidentale del complesso e l’impossibilità di indagare tutto il fronte settentrionale hanno privato l’analisi di dati essenziali alla ricostruzione delle funzioni e delle percorrenze nel complesso, sebbene sia ipotizzabile la sua interpretazione come un altro magazzino (per l’analisi di tutti i muri severiani indagati fino al 2009 cfr. Saguì 2009, 254–262). All’interno di quello che sarà il vano 4 del magazzino severiano (in corrispondenza del secondo ambiente da Est dell’edificio adrianeo) è stato rinvenuto un condotto fognario di servizio ad una piccola latrina, il cui riempimento (fig. 3, cerchio nero; US 4194), oggetto di questo contributo, è stato immediatamente riconosciuto come di particolare interesse per la quantità e qualità di materiale ceramico. Non si conservano, in questo vano, resti di strutture che possano aiutare l’identificazione d’uso (forse realizzate in legno oppure rimosse completamente dai successivi interventi severiani). Il materiale esaminato ammonta complessivamente a 5232 frammenti (fig. 4). Fra questi, quello che più ha colpito l’attenzione è stato il ritro-

UN RIEMPIMENTO FOGNARIO DI ETÀ SEVERIANA

305

vamento di numerosi esemplari integri o parzialmente integri,9 l’elevata presenza di ceramica comune (cfr. infra) e la quasi totale assenza di residui (80 vasi in fase contro 11 oggetti residuali).10 Classi

N. di frammenti

Percentuale

14

0,4%

Ceramiche comuni

2619

73,5%

Lucerne

321

9,0%

Anfore

608

17,1%

3562

100%

Ceramiche fini

Totale

Sono state rinvenute anche 10 monete che, ad un primo esame, sembrano quasi tutte circolanti nel periodo di utilizzo dell’ambiente adrianeo essendo attribuibili al massimo alla fine del II secolo d.C.11 Il materiale vitreo è attualmente in corso di studio, ma una prima analisi ha permesso di individuare esemplari di piatti, coppe, bicchieri, balsamari ed un vago di collana cronologicamente molto coerenti fra loro.12 Ceramiche fini da mensa. Sono presenti con soli 7 esemplari.13

9

Sono interi 3 esemplari di lucerne, 3 esemplari di ceramica comune da mensa e dispensa e 4 esemplari di ceramica da fuoco. 10 Nelle tabelle che seguono i materiali residui saranno contraddistinti da un colore grigio chiaro, mentre i materiali datanti saranno evidenziati con un colore grigio più scuro. 11 Si tratta di 4 monete repubblicane in pessimo stato di conservazione (residue), 1 asse databile tra il I e il II sec. d.C., 1 asse di età antonina, 1 asse di Antonino Pio, 2 sesterzi di Marco Aurelio e un asse molto probabilmente di Lucio Vero. Ringrazio il Dott. Giacomo Pardini per le informazioni preliminari sul materiale numismatico in corso di studio. 12 Informazione personale di Barbara Lepri, che sta ultimando lo studio di tutto il materiale vitreo proveniente dall’Area IV. 13 Tre frammenti non sono identificabili: 1 esemplare di Sigillata orientale A molto fluitato, 1 frammento di Sigillata italica ed 1 frammento di Sigillata africana A. In Rizzo 2003b, 39 viene posto il dubbio che per le coppe del tipo Conspectus 37.5=Rizzo 2003a, Tav. XXIII, 10=Rizzo 2003b, fig. 2,2=Patterson et al. 2003, fig. 5.5/6, 164–165, la produzione si prolunghi nel II secolo poiché è stata

306

THE ROMAN EMPIRE DURING THE SEVERAN DYNASTY Classe

Sigillata Orientale A

Forma

Sigillata africana A/C

Datazione

n. es.

-

1

Non id.

Non id.

Coppa

Conspectus 37.5 = Rizzo 2003a, Tav. XXIII, 101= Rizzo 2003b, fig. 2,2 = Patterson et al. 2003, fig. 5.5/6, 164–165

Età tiberiana - fine I d.C.

1

Lamboglia 1 C = Hayes 8 B = Bonifay 3, n. 5

III d.C.

1

Hayes 14b, 11

Prima metà III d.C.

2

Hayes 14/17, 1

Seconda metà IIprima metà III d.C.

1

Prima metà III d.C.

1

Sigillata italica

Sigillata africana A

Tipo

Coppe

Coperchio

Salomonson XXII (Hayes 146) TOTALE

7

Notevolmente attestate sono, invece, le ceramiche comuni sia da mensa e dispensa, sia da fuoco, tutte di produzione locale.14 Fra queste, inoltre, è stato possibile notare una fortissima ricorrenza di medesime forme e stessi tipi.

rinvenuta una grande quantità di pezzi afferenti a questo stesso tipo in un contesto datato al 140–160 d.C. 14 Per 6 esemplari, riconducibili alle ceramiche comuni da mensa e dispensa in base alle paste, e per 1 esemplare di ceramica comune da fuoco, non è stato possibile identificare la forma funzionale poiché si trattava di pareti non diagnostiche. Le datazioni che seguiranno, si riferiscono a cronologie di attestazione.

UN RIEMPIMENTO FOGNARIO DI ETÀ SEVERIANA

307

Ceramica comune da mensa. E’ presente 69 esemplari. Sono attestate solamente 4 forme funzionali, fra cui ben 55 brocche. Forma

Figura

Confronto

Datazione confronto

n. es.

tavv. I, 1; V, 38

-

-

26

tav. I, 2

Pavolini 2000, nn. 33–34

Età flavia-età adrianea

16

tavv. I, 3; V, 41

Ostia II, 398

80–90 d.C.

4

tav. I, 4

Curia II, A573, fig. 263, 209

Età dioclezianea

4

tav. I, 5

Ostia II, 400

80–90 d.C.

2

tav. I, 6

Carta-Pohl-Zevi 1978, strato IV, fig. 128, 201

Età traianea

1

tav. I, 7

Ostia I, 300

240–250 d.C.

1

tav. II, 8

Ostia III, 67

190–220/225 d.C.

1

-

Non id.

Non id.

4

Piattello

tav. II, 9

-

-

1

Bicchiere

tav. II, 10

-

-

2

Boccalino

tav. II, 11

Duncan 1964, fig. 12, form 28, 108

65–75 d.C.

1

-

-

-

6

Brocche

Non id.

TOTALE

69

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THE ROMAN EMPIRE DURING THE SEVERAN DYNASTY

Le più attestate fra le brocche (26 esemplari) sono quelle con orlo a tesa orizzontale, corpo piriforme tendente al globulare con evidenti segni del tornio, ansa a tortiglione impostata sull’orlo e sulla spalla e basso piede ad anello (tavv. I, 1; V, 38).15 Il secondo tipo in ordine di attestazione (16 esemplari) è quello con orlo a sezione triangolare, superiormente arrotondato e versatoio, corpo piriforme e basso piede ad anello (tav. I, 2), mentre altri 4 esemplari differiscono dai precedenti solamente per la parte superiore dell’orlo che si presenta piana (tavv. I, 3; V, 41). Gli altri tipi di brocche e il boccalino hanno confronti datati tra il I e il IV secolo d.C. I bicchieri e il piattello non sembrano invece avere confronti con esemplari editi.16 Ceramiche comuni per la conservazione dei cibi. E’ presente con 9 esemplari. Sono attestate solamente 3 forme funzionali, con una predominanza delle olle.

15

Nonostante la sostanziale omogeneità, è stato possibile notare la presenza di piccole varianti morfologiche che prevedono un corpo che varia dal piriforme al globulare. Questa forma, della quale non si conoscevano finora pezzi interi, presenta tuttavia forti similitudini con alcuni esemplari editi. Fra questi una brocca utilizzata come segnacolo di una tomba, datata al II secolo a.C. (Diamadis 2006); una cd. anforetta rinvenuta all’interno della cisterna degli scavi della Villa di Livia ad gallinas albas (Carrara 2001, n. 96, fig. 225, 189). Anse simili sono edite anche in Ostia I, p. 103, figg. 511–512; Cabrera Carratalá et al. 1999, CP 135260, 138 e fig. 19, 144; Schucany et al. 1999, fig. A.8, 13, 16 (esemplare differente per morfologia dell’orlo, datato al 25/20 a.C.-10/5 d.C.); MartinKilcher 1994, 451–452, fig. 201, taf. 251, nn. 5670 (datato al 30–130 d.C.) e 5671 (datato al I–III sec. d.C.). Anse simili in ceramica comune ad ingobbio bianco sono edite in Porcari 2008, fig. 2 a–d, fig. 7, 51, 237. 16 Il piattello (tav. II, 9) presenta un bordo ricurvo forse a formare una decorazione a foglie o petali; i bicchieri (tav. II, 10) hanno un orlo estroflesso, pareti molto sottili con evidenti segni del tornio e basso piede a tromba.

UN RIEMPIMENTO FOGNARIO DI ETÀ SEVERIANA Forma

Olle

Dolium di piccole dimensioni

Coperchio

309

Figura

Confronto

Datazione confronto

n. es.

tav. II, 12

Ostia IV, 230

225/230– 270/280 d.C.

3

tav. II, 13

Dyson 1976, LS 100

post 330–335 d.C.

1

tav. II, 14

Curia II, A1141, fig. 263, 68

80/90 d.C.

1

tav. III, 15

Duncan 1964, fig. 18, 223

65–75 d.C.

1

tav. III, 16

simile a Moltó Poveda 1999, 168 e fig. 12, 171

Non indicata

1

tav. III, 17

simile a Settefinestre, tav. 23, 1 oppure simile ad olla in impasto con orlo sagomato Bulgarelli, Torre 2009, 335–336, fig. 3, 2.

Età tardoantica, medievale e moderna

1

Ostia IV, 422

190–200/225 d.C.

tav. III, 18

TOTALE

oppure I–II/III secolo d.C.

1 9

Ceramica comune per la preparazione dei cibi. In questo caso si tratta di soli due frammenti: 1 esemplare di bacino con orlo a tesa pendente leggermente ingrossato e parete inclinata verso l’interno (tav. III, 19)17 e un esemplare di mortarium.

17

Ostia IV, 96 (fine IV–inizi V secolo d.C.).

310

THE ROMAN EMPIRE DURING THE SEVERAN DYNASTY

Ceramica comune da fuoco. E’ presente con 69 esemplari. Sono attestate 6 forme funzionali, con netta predominanza di una forma di ciotola (46 esemplari). Forma Ciotola

Olle

Casseruole

Tegami

Figura

Confronto

Datazione confronto

n. es.

tavv. III, 20; V, 40

-

-

46

tav. III, 26

Olcese 2003, tav. X, 3

II secolo d.C.

10

tav. III, 27

simile a Settefinestre, tav. 30, 8 oppure Dyson 1976, 22II–11 oppure Ostia III, 186

Età severiana oppure 40 d.C. circa oppure 240– 250 d.C.

1

tav. IV, 28

Ostia II, 487

80–90 d.C.

1

tav. IV, 29

Ostia III, 185

240–250 d.C.

1

tav III, 30

Dyson 1976, LS 9

Post 330–335 d.C.

1

tav. III, 31

simile a CartaPohl-Zevi 1978, str. IV, fig. 131, 271

età traianea

1

tav. IV, 32

Settefinestre, tav. 24, 14

50/1 a.C.–IV sec. d.C.

1

tav. IV, 33

Carta-Pohl-Zevi 1978, str. IV, fig. 131, 270 b

Età traianea

1

tav. IV, 34

Ostia II, 478

80–90 d.C.

1

tav. IV, 35

Zevi-Pohl 1970, Strato IV B2, fig. 130, 75

Età claudia

1

UN RIEMPIMENTO FOGNARIO DI ETÀ SEVERIANA Forma Coperchi

Incensiere Non id.

311

Figura

Confronto

Datazione confronto

n. es.

tav. IV, 36

Dyson 1976, LS 96

330–335 d.C.

1

tav. IV, 37

Carta-Pohl-Zevi 1978, str. IV, fig. 131, 255

Età traianea

1

tav. V, 38

-

-

1

-

-

-

1

TOTALE

69

Le ciotole, infatti, appartengono tutte allo stesso tipo caratterizzato da un orlo distinto, ingrossato e ripiegato verso l’interno, una leggera carenatura smussata che delimita l’orlo dal corpo, corpo a tronco di cono rovesciato, due anse applicate sulla carenatura e schiacciate al centro fino ad aderire all’orlo formando una sorta di W arrotondata e un basso piede ad anello (tavv. III, 20, V, 40).18 Ben attestate sono anche le olle, soprattutto quelle (10 esemplari) con breve orlo a tesa orizzontale, collo cilindrico e corpo globulare e due anse impostate subito sotto l’orlo e sul corpo (tav. III, 18

Nonostante l’omogeneità di fondo degli esemplari di questa forma, è stato possibile distinguere piccole variazioni nel profilo e nella dimensione dell’orlo che hanno portato alla identificazione di 5 “varietà” (cfr. tav. III, 21–25) e alcune irregolarità sia nella dimensione che nella circolarità dell’orlo: esso infatti varia tra 19 e 23,6 cm e la circonferenza, il più delle volte circolare, in alcuni esemplari tende maggiormente verso l’ovale mentre in altri è decisamente irregolare, forse per difetti di fabbricazione o cottura. Questa forma, della quale non si conoscevano finora esemplari interi, è attestata in contesti inediti di Vigna Barberini datati tra il 190 e il 240 d.C. (inf. di G. Rizzo) e presenta parziali somiglianze con alcuni esemplari editi. Fra questi, orli con andamento simile sono editi in Dyson 1976, FG61–62, 48 (fine III–inizi II a.C.), CF7, 22 (I sec. a.C.–I sec. d.C.) ed LS54, 147 (metà II–metà III secolo d.C.). Si veda anche l’esemplare edito in Della Porta-Sfredda-Tassinari 1998, tav. CXL, 3, 211–213 e in Cortese 2005, tav. 1, 3, 328 (età augustea). Andamento dell’orlo e della parete ricordano i tegami con orlo ingrossato prodotti nell’officina di San Biagio/Nepi editi in Patterson et al. 2003, 167 e fig. 9. 1–4, (fine I-inizio III secolo d.C.) e la casseruola tipo 16 di Quercia 2008, 204 (età neroniano-flavia).

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THE ROMAN EMPIRE DURING THE SEVERAN DYNASTY

26). Gli altri tipi di olle e le altre forme funzionali hanno confronti attestati tra il I e il IV secolo d.C.,19 ad eccezione dell’incensiere che non trova confronti puntuali.20 Ceramica a vernice rossa interna. E’ presente con due tegami di produzione campana21 riferibili alla forma Chiosi 1996, fig. 3, 41= Goudineau 1970, tav. II, 30–31, datata tra l’età claudia e gli inizi del III sec. d.C. Ceramica africana da cucina. Sono attestati 20 esemplari, dei quali sono stati identificati i seguenti tipi:22 Forma

Tipo

Datazione

n. es.

Casseruola

Hayes 197=Ostia III, 267=Bonifay 10

Prima metà II-fine IV/inizi V d.C.

6

Casseruola

Non id.

-

3

19

La casseruola tav. IV, 30 è un’imitazione locale della casseruola Hayes 197=Ostia III, 267=Bonifay Culinaire type 10 in ceramica africana da cucina. La casseruola tav. III, 31 è un’imitazione locale della marmitta Ostia I, 271 in ceramica africana da cucina. La casseruola tav. IV, 32 è confrontabile anche con Guldager Bilde 2008, 113–114, Form 18d, pl. 48,7 (I–III sec. d.C.). Il tegame tav. IV, 35 è confrontabile anche con Guldager Bilde 2008, Form 1, 99–101, pl. 35, 6 (I–III sec. d.C.). Il coperchio tav. IV, 36 è confrontabile anche con Guldager Bilde 2008, 120, Form 27b, pl. 54, 6, (I–III sec. d.C.). 20 L’incensiere tav. V, 38 presenta un orlo superiormente piano e decorato da ondulazioni realizzate con digitazioni, parete svasata con tre fasce di decorazione: le prime due realizzate con colpi di stecca a formare dei piccoli ovoli; inferiormente ad esse una fascia di decorazione ondulata a digitazioni impresse. Frammenti più conservati e afferenti al medesimo tipo sono stati rinvenuti in uno strato di età neroniana indagato all’interno del vano 6 durante la campagna 2011. Per questa ragione il tipo può essere datato almeno a partire dall’età neroniana (e, forse, il frammento qui analizzato si può considerare in giacitura secondaria). 21 La pasta presenta un’elevatissima quantità di augite e prodotti vulcanici, tipici delle produzioni di quest’area. 22 Lo stato di conservazione dei frammenti di piatti/coperchi e la similitudine fra questi tipi, non permettono un’identificazione più puntuale. Gli esemplari di casseruola non id. sono costituiti solo da pareti.

UN RIEMPIMENTO FOGNARIO DI ETÀ SEVERIANA Forma Tegame

Piatto/Coperchio

313

Tipo

Datazione

n. es.

Lamboglia 10 B=Hayes 23 A

Fine I-prima metà del III (meno frequente a fine IV/inizi V d.C.)

7

Ostia II, 302 oppure Ostia I, 18 oppure Ostia III, 332=Hayes 196, n. 1

Fine I a.C.-prima metà III d.C.

4

TOTALE

20

Suppellettile da illuminazione.23 Le lucerne sono rappresentate da 321 frammenti, corrispondenti a 76 esemplari, tutti di produzione italica, tra i quali nettamente prevalenti sono i tipi Bailey P, P/Q e Q (40 esemplari), in alcuni casi realizzati con le stesse matrici (37 esemplari di Bailey tipo P/Q con la spalla decorata con tralci di vite e con due diversi bolli).24

23

Per lo scioglimento e le trascrizioni dei bolli sulle lucerne si seguono i criteri di Panciera 1991. 24 Si tratta di due diversi bolli: 1) anepigrafo con due ovoli e un’immagine d’ape; 2) onomastico con menzione del fabbricante. Gli ovoli del bollo anepigrafo sono attestati ad esempio in Bailey 1980, fig. 111, Q 1121, Q 1303, Q 1311; l’ape invece sembra essere inedita. Non si può stabilire con certezza se l’ape sia un semplice signum decorativo oppure un’indicazione del cognomen del fabbricante. Non si può totalmente escludere, infatti, che l’assonanza Aprilis-apis (come se fosse avvenuto un passaggio Aprilis – Apilis – apis) abbia dato luogo alla rappresentazione figurata allusiva al cognomen (sulle immagini onomastiche in età imperiale si vedano i riferimenti bibliografici in Saguì 2009, 252–253, nota 39). Il bollo onomastico è edito in CIL XV, 6412 c. Questo bollo è attestato ad esempio in una lucerna conservata nel museo archeologico di Verona, edita in Larese-Sgreva 1996, n. 309, 189. Forse può essere identificato con il Sex(ti) Eg((n))(ati) Apr(ilis) di CIL XV, 6412 a (ma anche CIL V, 8114, 43), sebbene esistano altri bolli di lucerna recanti Aprilis editi ad esempio in CIL XV, 6308 e CIL V, 8114, 9.

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THE ROMAN EMPIRE DURING THE SEVERAN DYNASTY

Tipo (Bailey 1980)

Bollo

Datazione

n. es.

C, Q 992, 198, pl. 25.

-

Fine I-primo terzo II d.C.

1

M, Group II

-

Terzo quarto I200 d.C.

1

N

-

I–IV d.C.

1

((ovulum)) ((apis)) ((ovulum))

90–140 d.C.

1

P, Q 1307, 329, pl. 70, 97

-

Prima metà II d.C.

1

P/Q = Hellmann 1987, 82, pl. XL, 313 (tav. VI, 45)

((ovulum)) ((apis)) ((ovulum))

Fine I/prima metà II-metà II/metà III d.C.

6

P/Q = Hellmann 1987, 82, pl. XL, 313

-

Fine I/prima metà II-metà II/metà III d.C.

24

P/Q = Hellmann 1987, 82, pl. XL, 313 (tav. VI, 43)

EN APRILIS = Sex(tus vel -ti) E(g)n(atius – vel ati) Aprilis

Fine I/prima metà II-metà II/metà III d.C.

7

P/Q = Deneauve 1969, 192, pl. LXXXII, 905 (tav. VI, 47 A-B)

[LU]C FORT = [Lu]c(i) Fort(is)

Fine II o inizi III sec. d.C.

1

Q, Q 1329, 341, pl. 73

-

Metà II d.C.

1

Non id. con becco triangolare senza volute

-

-

2

Bilicne con becchi triangolari (tav. VI, 46)

-

-

2

C IUL NICEF = C. Iul(ius vel -i) Nicef(orus vel -ori)

Età di Traianoetà di Antonino Pio

1

-

-

1

P, Q 1279, 324, pl. 67 (tav. V, 42)

Non id.

Non id. con ariete sul disco

UN RIEMPIMENTO FOGNARIO DI ETÀ SEVERIANA

315

Tipo (Bailey 1980)

Bollo

Datazione

n. es.

Non id. con fiera sul disco (tav. VI, 44)

-

-

1

Non id.

-

-

25

TOTALE

76

La lucerna bilicne sembra inedita e senza decorazione.25 Gli altri due bolli attestati sono databili tra l’età traianea e forse gli inizi del III secolo d.C.26 Anfore. Le anfore sono rappresentate soltanto da 30 esemplari, così distinti: Produzione Italica27 Tipo

Confronto

Datazione

n. es.

Dressel 2–4 tirrenica

Martin-Kilcher 1994, 2108

70/60 a.C.-prima metà II d.C.

1

Dressel 2–4 tirrenica

Martin-Kilcher 1994, 2053

50–70 d.C.

1

Dressel 2–4 campana

-

70/60 a.C.-prima metà II d.C.

1

25

Presenta una somiglianza per la forma (ma non per la presa o la decorazione) con Deneauve 1969, pl. XCVIII, 1070, 216 e con Rosenthal-Sivan 1978, 60, n. 241. 26 Per il bollo mutilo l’integrazione è possibile grazie a quello attestato in Larese-Sgreva 1996, n. 307, 189 che dà come riferimenti bibliografici Bernasconi 1865, n. 309, Balil 1968, 58 e CIL V, 8114, 82. Il bollo C. Iul Nicef. è edito in Bailey 1980, 97 e, come suggerito in Balil 1968, 48, potrebbe rientrare nella famiglia dei bolli Iuli Nicef(ori) di CIL XV, 6495. 27 La produzione campana della Dressel 2–4 (di cui si conserva il puntale) è identificabile per il tipo di pasta; le c.d. Anfore di Spello (fondi e anse) sono identificabili per il tipo di pasta; l’esemplare non id. è riconducibile a quest’area di produzione per il tipo di pasta, ma è costituito solamente da frammenti di pareti e da un frammento di ansa.

316

THE ROMAN EMPIRE DURING THE SEVERAN DYNASTY Tipo

Ostia II, 521/Ostia III, 369–370

Confronto

Datazione

n. es.

Ostia II, 521

Età tiberiano/claudia-fine II d.C.

3

-

-

1

Non id. TOTALE

7

Produzione Gallica. E’ presente 1 solo esemplare riferibile alla produzione della Gallia Narbonensis, sebbene non attribuibile ad alcun tipo. Produzione Iberica (Baetica)28 Tipo

Confronto

Datazione

n. es.

-

Età augustea-III sec. d.C.

1

Dressel 14 A

Martin-Kilcher 1994, 5356

I–II d.C.

1

Beltrán II A = Pélichet 46

Étienne-Mayet 2002, fig. 34, 2

25 d.C.-seconda metà II d.C.

1

Dressel 28 tarda

-

Fine I-metà III d.C.

1

Baetica da garum non id.

-

-

1

Non id.

-

-

1

Dressel 20

TOTALE

28

6

La Dressel 20 è datata genericamente poiché si tratta di soli 3 piccoli frammenti di ansa e da 1 puntale; alla Dressel 28 tarda, prodotta in Baetica, sono attribuibili gli orli Ostia I, 549; Ostia III, 391; Ostia IV, 290–291; l’esemplare di Baetica da garum non id. è stato identificato per il tipo di pasta e trattandosi di un frammento di ansa con solco centrale, ma non è stato possibile individuarne il tipo; l’esemplare non id. è costituito da frammenti di pareti attribuibili a quest’area produttiva per la pasta, ma non identificabili con le altre anfore qui attestate.

UN RIEMPIMENTO FOGNARIO DI ETÀ SEVERIANA

317

Produzione Nord-Africana29 Tipo

Confronto

Datazione

n. es.

Africana IA

Keay 1984, fig. 37, 8

Metà II/fine IIinizi III d.C.

1

Africana IA

Keay 1984, fig. 37, 2

Metà II/fine IIinizi III d.C.

1

Africana IB

Keay 1984, fig. 38, 6

Metà II-metà III d.C.

1

Non id.

-

-

3

Tripolitana non id.

-

-

1

TOTALE

7

Produzione Egeo-Orientale30

29

Gli esemplari non id. sono costituiti da sole pareti. L’Agora F65/66 è costituita da pareti e per questo la datazione rimane generica. L’anticipo della datazione delle Kapitän I o II è dovuto ad attestazioni precedenti alla cronologia tradizionale presso le recenti indagini del Nuovo Mercato di Testaccio (Coletti, Lorenzetti 2010, 156). L’indicazione Kapitan I/II è dovuta alla presenza di sole pareti, che non permettono una distinzione fra i due tipi. Il dubbio tra Cretese 2 e 3 è, invece, dovuto alla presenza di un’ansa che morfologicamente si situa tra la variante b del tipo Cretese 2 e il tipo Cretese 3. La Cretese generica è attestata da sole pareti. La Zeest 80 è databile, secondo Dyczek 2001, 159, da fine I al III secolo d.C., mentre per Swan 2010, 112–115 la sua produzione arriva fino alla fine del V, sebbene dal IV secolo d.C. il tipo abbia una diffusione solamente orientale e cambi la morfologia dell’orlo; per Coletti, Lorenzetti 2010, 160 quest’anfora proverrebbe dalla Pamphilia, per Krapivina 2010, 70, invece, avrebbe un’origine nel Bosforo; anfore Zeest 80 sono attestate a Roma in un argine datato alla fine del II–inizi del III secolo d.C. di via P. Blaserna (Cianfriglia, Francini 2008, 398–402 e fig. 314, 3) ed in strati adrianei di Testaccio (scavi SAR – Nuovo Mercato) datati al 110–140 d.C. (Coletti, Lorenzetti 2010, 160). La datazione della Kingsholm 117 o simile è presa da Rizzo 2003a, 154–155. L’anfora non id. è attestata solo da pareti. 30

318

THE ROMAN EMPIRE DURING THE SEVERAN DYNASTY Tipo

Origine

Confronto

Datazione

n. es.

Agora F 65/66

Valle del Meandro

-

Fine I a.C.-III d.C.

1

Kapitän I

Area egeomicroasiatica

Ostia IV, 439

Primo quarto IIfine III d.C.

1

Kapitän I/II

Area egeomicroasiatica

-

Primo quarto IIfine III d.C.

1

Cretese 2/3

Creta

-

50 d.C.-fine II d.C. (AC2)/27 a.C.-inizi III d.C. (AC3)

1

Cretese non id.

Creta

-

-

1

Zeest 80=Bengazi MR5=Dyczeck 21

Pamphilia? Bosforo?

-

I-fine V d.C.

1

Palestina

-

I-III d.C.

1

Non id.

-

-

1

Kingsholm 117 o simile Non id.

TOTALE

8

Produzioni non id. Per 2 esemplari non è stato possibile proporre un’identificazione né formulare un’ipotesi sull’area di provenienza. Ossi Lavorati31 Tra gli ossi lavorati sono presenti: - 13 aghi crinali interi e 15 frammentari (tav. VII, 49): asta a sezione circolare e affusolata, estremità superiore appuntita a cono. Un solo ago ha una capocchia con decorazione tendente al triangolare (tav. VII, 48).

31

Per alcuni manufatti in osso d’età imperiale rinvenuti a Roma si veda, a titolo esemplificativo, Moroni 2008 (con bibliografia precedente).

UN RIEMPIMENTO FOGNARIO DI ETÀ SEVERIANA

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- 3 aghi da cucito interi e 4 frammentari (tav. VII, 50): asta a sezione circolare con estremità superiore appuntita e cruna costituita da due fori circolari contigui. - 1 dado di forma cubica irregolare con facce che misurano tra 0,77 e 0,80 cm. Le indicazioni numerali sono realizzate con un puntino circondato da due piccoli cerchi concentrici. (tav. VII, 51 A–F). Dall’analisi dei materiali ceramici, gli esemplari “residui”32 (11) sono: Classe Sigillata italica

Sigillata Orientale A

Forma

Tipo

Datazione

n. es.

Coppa

Conspectus 37.5 = Rizzo 2003a, Tav. XXIII, 101= Rizzo 2003b, fig. 2,2 = Patterson et al. 2003, fig. 5.5/6, 164– 165

Età tiberiana - fine I d.C.

1

Non id.

Non id.

Primo quarto I a.C.-fine I d.C.

1

Non id.

Non id.

-

1

Fine Iprimo terzo II d.C.

1

Bailey 1980, C, Q 992

32

Non vi è generale accordo da parte degli studiosi su cosa si intenda col termine “residuo”. Spesso si intende “residuo” un manufatto rinvenuto in contesti databili almeno una generazione dopo il termine della sua produzione. Questo perché un oggetto circolava e/o veniva usato anche successivamente al momento in cui si finiva di produrlo. Tuttavia, nonostante spesso questa definizione sia appropriata per molti reperti, in questo caso specifico essa sembra abbastanza impropria, poiché questo criterio di una generazione, stabilito a tavolino, è labile. Gli oggetti qui definiti come “residui” in realtà erano in uso e/o circolavano nel momento in cui l’ambiente adrianeo fu distrutto ed entrarono a far parte di questo nuovo contesto di poco più tardo. Per questo motivo i materiali possono eventualmente definirsi in modo migliore come “falsi-residui”.

320

THE ROMAN EMPIRE DURING THE SEVERAN DYNASTY Classe

Forma

Lucerne

Anfore

Tipo

Datazione

n. es.

Bailey 1980, P, Q 1279

90–140 d.C.

1

Non id. con bollo C. Iul. Nicef.

Età Traiano-età Antonino Pio

1

Bailey 1980, P, Q 1307

Prima metà II d.C.

1

Bailey 1980, Q, Q 1329

Metà II d.C.

1

Dressel 2–4, MartinKilcher 1994, 2108

70/60 a.C.prima metà II d.C.

1

Dressel 2–4, MartinKilcher 1994, 2053

50–70 d.C.

1

Dressel 2–4 campana non id.

70/60 a.C.prima metà II d.C.

1

TOTALE

11

Fra gli esemplari identificabili come in fase (80), invece, sono stati enucleati i tipi la cui produzione si colloca nell’orizzonte cronologico più tardo. Si tratta di soli 5 esemplari che sono più precisamente datanti: Classe

Tipo

Sigillata Africana A

Sigillata Africana A/C

Cronologia

N. es.

Lamboglia 1 C= Hayes 8 B = Bonifay 3, n. 5

III secolo d.C.

1

Hayes 14b, 11

Prima metà III secolo d.C.

2

Salomonson XXII (Hayes 146)

Prima metà III secolo d.C.

1

UN RIEMPIMENTO FOGNARIO DI ETÀ SEVERIANA Classe

Tipo

Lucerne

Bailey 1980, P/Q, bollo [Lu]c. Fort. TOTALE

321

Cronologia

N. es.

Fine II o inizi III sec. d.C.

1 5

L’analisi dei materiali ha permesso di inquadrare la formazione del deposito originario nella fase di vita dell’ambiente, collocabile nel corso del II secolo d.C., poco prima, quindi, del riempimento del condotto fognario. Gli esemplari datanti, infatti, permettono di inquadrare questo intervento nell’età severiana e verosimilmente agli inizi del III secolo d.C., sebbene non sia attestato alcun esemplare di Sigillata africana C che prende avvio proprio dagli inizi del III secolo d.C. (Atlante I, 14; Gandolfi 2004, 133– 135; Gandolfi 2005, 203–207), né di anfore Africana II, le cui varianti più antiche IIA1 e IIA2 sono datate alla metà/seconda metà del II-prima metà del III secolo d.C. (Bonifay 2004, 111). In questo momento fu completamente interrata la fogna di età adrianea che costituiva un vuoto strutturalmente pericoloso in vista della realizzazione del nuovo edificio severiano. Per colmare la fogna è molto probabile che siano stati utilizzati materiali provenienti proprio dall’ambiente in cui essi si trovavano ed in cui erano in uso nel momento in cui fu distrutto, come lasciano ipotizzare da una parte le datazioni dei materiali definiti “residui” che si situano in un range cronologico che sembra concentrarsi proprio nel corso del II secolo d.C., dall’altra anche le datazioni della maggior parte degli elementi in fase di questo contesto. Manufatti analoghi a quelli attestati in questo riempimento sono stati rinvenuti in alcuni strati di distruzione in questo ed in altri ambienti dell’horreum adrianeo, permettendo, quindi, di confermare questa ipotesi. Le ceramiche analizzate facevano quasi sicuramente parte di uno degli 33 ambienti dell’horreum adrianeo che precede l’impianto di età severiana. Non è noto l’utilizzo specifico per il quale questi contenitori furono realizzati, ma si possono avanzare delle proposte riguardo ciò che brocche e ciotole avrebbero potuto contenere. Le caratteristiche macroscopiche della pasta delle ciotole (per le quali sembrano essere state utilizzate materie 33

Per la descrizione e l’articolazione dell’horreum adrianeo cfr.: Saguì 2009, 246–254.

322

THE ROMAN EMPIRE DURING THE SEVERAN DYNASTY

prime di non eccellente qualità) e lo stato di conservazione degli esemplari sembrano indicare l’inadeguatezza di questi recipienti per il posizionamento sul fuoco diretto. Per le lucerne, invece, non vi possono essere dubbi circa il loro utilizzo, ma vale la pena sottolineare che esse sono tutte annerite attorno al foro d’illuminazione e quindi devono essere state utilizzate. Le ipotesi che si possono formulare sono le seguenti e, sebbene molto distanti fra loro, sono entrambe verosimili: 1. Le brocche con ansa a tortiglione contenevano acqua poiché il diametro dell’orlo e la sua forma avrebbero causato una certa perdita di vino nell’atto di versarlo. Le altre brocche, soprattutto (ma non solo) quelle con versatoio, avrebbero invece contenuto vino. Le ciotole in ceramica da fuoco potrebbero aver contenuto cibi solidi, liquidi o semiliquidi. 2. Tutte le brocche erano destinate a contenere acqua, mentre le ciotole potrebbero essere dei contenitori per l’acqua versata dalle 34 brocche stesse . Prendendo spunto da queste due ipotesi, se ne possono avanzare altre riguardanti la destinazione d’uso dell’ambiente dal quale i materiali provengono. La presenza di tante forme tutte uguali sia in ceramica comune da mensa (brocche con orlo a tesa e anse a torciglione, ma anche brocche con orlo a sezione triangolare) sia in ceramica da fuoco (ciotole con orlo distinto ed ingrossato e olle con piccolo orlo a tesa orizzontale) sia di lucerne (Bailey 1980, tipo P/Q) può far pensare ad una bottega in cui questi oggetti erano venduti al pubblico. Non è, infatti, possibile escludere totalmente l’identificazione di questo ambiente come la bottega di un rivenditore di ceramiche (quale che fosse il loro utilizzo) in cui si svolgeva l’attività commerciale anche nelle ore di poca luce (per l’annerimento delle lucerne). Più verosimile sembrerebbe, invece, l’identificazione dell’ambiente di provenienza originaria come una piccola popina, un’osteria o trattoria, in cui era stato acquistato uno stock di oggetti in ceramica tutti uguali, per34

Per fare un esempio più contemporaneo poteva trattarsi di un abbinamento “da toilette” personale per il lavaggio delle mani o del viso, come accadeva nelle dimore aristocratiche fino all’arrivo dell’acqua corrente.

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ché funzionali a servire cibi e bevande. Si tratterebbe di una popina comunque ben organizzata poiché fornita di una latrina per le necessità degli avventori. Alcuni frammenti di argilla rinvenuti all’interno del riempimento fognario in esame potrebbero essere quello che resta di un bancone. Questi frammenti presentano, infatti, una serie di concavità che sembrano combaciare quasi perfettamente con le ciotole rinvenute in questo riempimento (tav. VII, 52). A partire da Tiberio furono emanati editti imperiali sempre più severi 35 e restrittivi sulla possibilità di somministrazione dei cibi nelle popinae. Le testimonianze offerte da Ostia mostrano, tuttavia, resti molto usurati di banconi in edifici “per la ristorazione” appartenenti al II secolo d.C., tanto da far pensare che alla morte di Vespasiano gli editti emanati in precedenza abbiano cessato di essere applicati e già sotto Domiziano essi 36 non esistessero più. La datazione proposta per i materiali analizzati potrebbe, quindi, farli rientrare cronologicamente in questo periodo di nuova floridezza delle popinae. Rimane aperta la questione sul tipo di cibi che venissero somministrati in questa popina. Il contenuto delle brocche potrebbe essere quello prospettato nell’ipotesi precedentemente esposta (cfr. supra, n. 1), fermo restando che i romani non erano soliti bere il vino puro (cfr. ad esempio Salza Prina Ricotti 1987, 75), mentre rimane più difficile identificare il contenuto delle ciotole. Esse potrebbero esser state usate come una specie di piatti/zuppiere da portata che, vista la loro manifattura, avrebbero mante37 38 nuto caldi sia cibi liquidi o semiliquidi, sia le carni (come sembra at35

Tiberio per primo proibì che fossero venduti dolci nelle osterie (Suet., Tib., 34); sotto Claudio invece gli edili vietarono la possibilità di offrire carni cotte o acqua calda per allungare le bevande (Cass. Dio., 60–67; Suet., Claud., 38); Nerone e Vespasiano permisero la sola somministrazione di ceci cotti e vino. Questi ‘regolamenti commerciali’ determinarono un profondo cambiamento in questi esercizi che fino ad allora erano considerati come luoghi in cui mangiar bene, tanto che Orazio le chiamava le unctae popinae (Hor., Epist., I, 14, 21). 36 Salza Prina Ricotti 1987, 122. Già Marziale (Mart., I, 41, 9–10) menziona le tiepide osterie nelle quali il rauco cuoco vendeva salsicce fumanti ed anche Giovenale (Iuv., XI, 78–81; VIII, 172–178) ne dà un quadro molto vivace. 37 In via di semplici ipotesi, si può pensare ad esempio: alla alicia, un semolino/polenta di grano o farro, talvolta con alcune aggiunte (nota in diverse realizzazioni in base alla finezza della macinazione: André 1981, 58–59; Salza Prina

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testare la grande quantità di reperti osteologici e la malacofauna: cfr. su39 40 pra, fig. 4) forse accompagnate da qualche salsa più o meno speziata. A prescindere, tuttavia, dalla funzione che queste ceramiche comuni potevano aver avuto nell’ambiente da cui provengono ed in cui erano utilizzate fino a tutto il II secolo d.C., i rinvenimenti di questo riempimento fognario, visti nella loro totalità, ci offrono un esempio di una parte dei materiali che circolavano a Roma tra la fine del II e gli inizi del III secolo d.C., nei primi anni quindi del Principato di Settimio Severo.

Ricotti 1987, 72; Baun 1995, 37; White 1995, 39–40); alla polenta, una zuppa d’orzo liquida, tuttavia poco usata dai romani (André 1981, 61); ad una zuppa di legumi e verdure in cui erano presenti anche la bieta (Apic., III, 2, 1) e forse gli spinaci (André 1981, 28); ad una minestra di legumi con ceci, orzo, lenticchie e piselli (Apic., IV, 4, 2; V, 5, 2); alla tisana, un decotto o bevanda a base di orzo mondato (Plin., N.H., XVIII, 75: essa era così tanto diffusa che Plinio non ritenne necessario darne la ricetta; André 1981, 62 che menziona altre fonti); al tragus, una specie di polenta a base di grano mondato ed essiccato (Plin., N.H., VIII, 76); alla puls, una sorta di polenta a base d’acqua o latte, farina di grano (André 1981, pp. 60–61) o farro (Braun 1995, 35–36), talvolta con aggiunta di formaggio, miele e uova (la puls punica di Cato, Agr., 85; Olcese 2003, 38). 38 Per le specie note e le ricette a base di volatili vd. ad esempio André 1981, 127–133; Salza Prina Ricotti 1987, 95–101; per le specie note e le ricette a base di pesci vd. ad esempio André 1981, 96–103 e 107–113; Salza Prina Ricotti 1987, 101, 103–105; Wilkins-Hill 1995, 430; per le specie note e le ricette a base di molluschi vd. ad esempio André 1981, 103–107 e 125–126; Salza Prina Ricotti 1987, 101–103 e 106–107; per le specie note e le ricette a base di animali di media taglia vd. ad esempio André 1981, 114–125 e 134–148; Salza Prina Ricotti 1987, 89–91, 92–95 e 106. E’ nota l’attività di un commerciante di carni, come riportato nella sua epigrafe funeraria, “de Sacra Via” (Frayn 1995, 110 e bibliografia precedente). 39 Le salse menzionate da Apicio sono molto numerose. Per una visione d’insieme su queste cfr. Solomon 1995. 40 Fra le spezie si può citare ad esempio il pepe (piper monoxylis: Plin., N.H., VI, 105) che fu molto richiesto in età imperiale e che proveniva, trasportato via mare attraverso le tratte dell’oceano indiano, dall’India: su questa tratta cfr. Daffinà 1995.

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ABBREVIAZIONI Agora = Robinson H. S., Pottery of the roman Period. Chronology. The Athenaian Agora V (1959). Atlante I = AA. VV., EAA, Atlante delle forme Ceramiche I, Ceramica fine romana nel bacino Mediterraneo (medio e tardo impero) (1981). Bengazi = Riley, J.A., The Coarse Pottery from Bernice. In Excavations at Sidi Khrebish, Benghazi (Berenice) II, «Libya Antiqua», Suppl. 5,2, Lloyd, J.A. (ed) (1979) 91-467. Conspectus 1990 = Ettlinger E. et al., Conspectus formarum terrae sigillatae italico modo confectae (1990). Cretese = Marangou-Lerat A., Le vin et les amphores de Créte: de l’époque classique ò l’époque imperiale, Études Crétoises 30 (1995). Curia II = Morselli C., Tortorici E. (eds.), Curia, Forum Iulium, Forum Transitorium, II, «Lavori e studi di archeologia» 14 (1990). Food in antiquity 1995 = Wilikins J., Harvey D., Dobson M.(eds.), Food in antiquity (1995). Kingsholm = Hurst H. R., Kingsholm. Excavations at Kingsholm Close and Other Sites with a Discussion of the Archeology of the Area (1985). Ostia I = AA.VV., Ostia I, «Studi miscellanei. Seminario di archeologia e storia dell’arte greca e romana dell’università di Roma» 13 (1968). Ostia II = AA. VV., Ostia II, «Studi miscellanei. Seminario di archeologia e storia dell’arte greca e romana dell’università di Roma»16 (1970). Ostia III = AA. VV., Ostia III, «Studi miscellanei. Seminario di archeologia e storia dell’arte greca e romana dell’università di Roma»21 (1973). Ostia IV = AA. VV., Ostia IV, «Studi miscellanei. Seminario di archeologia e storia dell’arte greca e romana dell’università di Roma»23 (1977). Patabs I 2010 = Kassab Tezgör D., Inaishvili N. (eds.), Patabs I, Production and Trade of amphorae in the Black Sea, «Varia Anatolica» XXI (2010). Settefinestre = Ricci A. (ed.), Settefinestre. Una villa schiavistica nell’Etruria romana, III. La villa e i suoi reperti (1985).

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BIBLIOGRAFIA André J., L’alimentation et la cuisine à Rome (1981). Arce J., Mar R., Monumento presso l’Arco di Tito nel Foro Romano: Campagna 1989, «Quaderni di Archeologia Etrusco-Italica» 19 («Archeologia Laziale» X) (1990) 43–51. Bailey D. M., A Catalogue of the Lamps in the British Museum, II, Roman Lamps made in Italy (1980). Balil A., Lucernae Singulares, «Collection Latomus», vol. XCIII (1968). Beltrán Lloris M., Las ánforas romanas en España (1970). Bernasconi C., Catalogo descrittivo degli oggetti d’arte e di antichità del civico museo di Verona (1865). Bonifay M., Études sur la céramique tardive d’Afrique (2004). Braun T., Barley cakes and Emmer bread, in Food in antiquity (1995) 25–37. Brogiolo G., s.v. Urbana, Archeologia, in R. Francovich - D. Manacorda (eds.), Dizionario di Archeologia: temi, concetti e metodi (2000) 350355. Bulgarelli F., Torre E., Produzione e commercio di alcune classi di ceramica comune nel territorio di Vado Ligure (SV) (I–III sec. d.C.). Primi dati archeologici ed archeometrici integrati: Parte I, in Les céramiques communes d’Italie et Narbonnaise. Structures de production, typologies et contextes inérits, IIe s. av. J.-C.–IIIe s. apr. J.-C., Pasqualini M. (ed.) (2009) 331–341. Cabrera Carratalá L., Jiménez Martínez E., Pérez Coloma Á., Rico Cánovas E., Ros Berenguer s., La Ceramica comune, in La villa di Plinio il Giovane a San Giustino, Primi risultati di una ricerca in corso, Braconi P., Uroz Sáez J. (eds.) (1999) 135–147. Carbonara V., Domus e tabernae lungo la via verso il Foro, «Scienze dell’antichità» 13 (2006) 15–35. Carrara M., C. Materiali dalla cisterna, in Messineo G. (ed.), Ad Gallinas Albas, Villa di Livia, «Bullettino della Commissione archeologica comunale di Roma» Suppl. 8 (2001) 165–200. Carta M., Pohl I., Zevi F., La taberna dell’Invidioso. Piazzale delle Corporazioni, Portico Ovest: saggi sotto i mosaici, «Notizie degli scavi di antichità» 32 Suppl., 1978 (1987). Chiosi E., Cuma: una produzione di ceramica a vernice rossa interna, in Les céramiques communes de Campanie et Narbonnaise (Ier s. av. J.-C. – IIe s. ap. J.-C.). La vaisselle de cuisine et de table, Actes des

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Journées d’étude organisées par le Centre Jean Bérard et la Soprintendenza Archeologica per le Province di Napoli e Caserta, Naples, 27–28 mai 1994, Bats M. (ed.) (1996) 225–233. Cianfriglia L., Francini S., Via Portuense, Via P. Blaserna. Area funeraria e infrastrutture agricole (municipio XV), « Bullettino della Commissione archeologica comunale di Roma » CIX (2008) 388–402. Coletti F., Lorenzetti E. G., Anfore orientali a Roma. Nuovi dati dagli scavi della Soprintendenza Archeologica di Roma nell’area del Testaccio, «Rei Cretariae Romanae Fautorum acta» 41 (2010) 155–164. Colini A. M., Meta Sudans, «Atti della Pontificia accademia romana di archeologia. Rendiconti» XIII (1937) 15–39. Daffinà P., Le relazioni tra Roma e l’India alla luce delle più recenti indagini, «Conferenze IsMEO» 7 (1995). Della Porta C., Sfredda N., Tassinari G., Ceramiche comuni, in Olcese G. (ed.), Ceramiche in Lombardia tra II secolo a.C. e VII sec. d.C., Raccolta dei dati editi, Documenti di Archeologia 16 (1998) 133–230. Deneauve J., Lampes de Carthage (1969). Diamadis N., II. 323, Brocca di grandi dimensioni, Via Vertumno, Località Pietralata (Municipio V), Tomba ipogea, in Tomei (2006) 260. Dressel H., CIL XV, 1, I, tab. II. Duncan G. C., A Roman Pottery near Sutri, «Papers of the British School at Rome» 30 (1964) 38–88. Dyczek P., Roman amphorae of the 1st–3rd centuries AD found on the Lower Danube: typology (2001). Dyson S. L., Cosa: the Utilitarian Pottery, «Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome» XXXIII (1976). Étienne R., Mayet F., Salaisons et sauces de poisson hispaniques (2002). Ferrandes A. F., Tra valle e collina: il sistema sostruttivo neroniano e le sue trasformazioni, in «Scienze dell’antichità» 13 (2006) 37–59. Filippi F. (ed.) Horti et Sordes, Uno scavo alle falde del Gianicolo (2008). Frain J., The roman meat trade, in Food in antiquity (1995) 107–114. Gandolfi D., La produzione ceramica africana di età medio e tardo imperiale: terra sigillata chiara e ceramica da cucina, in Lusuardi Siena S. (ed.), Ad mensam, Manufatti d’uso da contesti archeologici fra tarda antichità e medioevo (1994) 127–156. Gandolfi D., Sigillate e ceramiche da cucina africane, in Gandolfi D. (ed.), La ceramica e i materiali di età romana, classi, produzioni, commerci e consumi (2005) 195–232.

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Goudineau C., Note sur la céramique à engobe interne rouge-pompéien (Pompejanisch-Roten Platten), «Mélanges de l'Ecole française de Rome. Antiquité» 82 (1970) 159–186. Guldager Bilde P., Cooking Ware, in Guldager Bilde, Poulse et al. (2008) 95–124. Guldager Bilde P., Poulse B., Sande s., Vaag E. L., et al., The Temple of Castor And Pollux II.1, «Occasional Papers of the Nordic Institutes in Rome» 3 (2008). Hayes J. W., Late Roman Pottery (1974). Hellmann M.-C., Lampes Antiques de la bibliothèque Nationale II, Fonds general: Lampes pré-romaines et romaines (1987). Insolera I., Perego F., Archeologia e città. Storia moderna dei fori imperiali (1983). Kapitän G., Le anfore del relitto romano di Capo Ognina (Siracusa), in Baldacci P. et al. (eds.), Recherches sur les amphores romaines, «Collection de l'École Française de Rome» 10 (1972) 243–252. Keay S. J., Late Roman Amphorae in the Western Mediterranean. A typology and economic study: The Catalan evidence, «British archaeological reports. International series» 196 (1984). Krapivina V. V., Amphorae of the 3rd–4th centuries A.D. in Olbia Pontica, in Patabs I (2010) 63–73. Lamboglia N., Gli scavi di Albintimilium e la cronologia della ceramica romana (parte prima: campagna di scavo 1938–1940) (1950). Larese A., Sgreva D., Le lucerne fittili del museo archeologico di Verona I (1996). Manacorda D., Tamassia R., Il Piccone del Regime (1985). Mar R., El Palatí. La formació dels palaus imperials a Roma (2005). Mar R., Contribución a la topografía de los palacios imperiales en Roma (Escavaciones Españolas junto el Arco de Tito), «Scienze dell’antichità» 13 (2006) 157–198. Martin-Kilcher S., Die römischen Amphoren aus Augst und Kaiseraugst. Ein Beitrag zur römischen Handels-und Kulturgeschicte, 2–3 (1994). Moroni M. T., L’Instrumentum in osso e metallo, in Filippi (2008) 387– 405. Nardoni T., s.v. Meta Sudans, in C. Calci (ed.), Roma archeologica. Le scoperte più recenti della città antica e della sua area suburbana (2005) 132–134.

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Olcese G., Ceramiche comuni a Roma e in area romana: produzione, circolazione e tecnologia (tarda età repubblicana-prima età imperiale) (2003). Panciera S., Struttura dei supplementi e segni diacritici dieci anni dopo, in Supplementa Italica 8 (1991) 9–21. Panella C., La valle del Colosseo nell’antichità, «Bollettino di archeologia» 1–2 (=2) (1990) 35–88. Panella C., La Valle del Colosseo prima del Colosseo e la Meta Sudans, in La Regina A. (ed.), Sangue e Arena (2001) 49–67. Panella C., Il Palatino Nord-Orientale: nuove conoscenze, nuove riflessioni, «Scienze dell’antichità» 13 (2006) 265–299. Panella C., Saguì L., Zeggio S., Ferrandes A. F., Pardini G., Lo Scavo Archeologico tra ricerca e trasmissione della Memoria, «Forma Urbis, Itinerari nascosti di Roma Antica», Anno XVI, n. 4 (2011) 4–18. Patterson H., Bousquet A., Di Giuseppe H., Le produzioni ceramiche nella media valle del Tevere tra l’età repubblicana e tardo antica, «Rei Cretariae Romanae Fautorum acta» 38 (2003) 161–170. Pavolini C., Scavi di Ostia, XII, La ceramica comune, Le forme in argilla depurata dell’antiquarium (2000). Pélichet E., A propos des amphores romaines trouvées à Nyon, in «Zeitschrift für schweizerische Archäologie und Kunstgeschichte» 8 (1946) 189–209. Popescu I. A., Le cosiddette Terme di Eliogabalo in via Sacra. Rilievo e considerazioni architettoniche sopra un gruppo di rovine situate sulla via Sacra ai Pendici del Palatino, finora spiegate quali terme di Eliogabalo, Larare, lavacro, etc…, «Ephemeris Dacoromana» IV (1930) 1–28. Porcaro B., La ceramica comune a ingobbio bianco, in Filippi (2008) 233–246. Quercia A., Le ceramiche comuni di età romana, in Filippi (2008) 197– 232. Rizzo G., Instrumenta urbis I. Ceramiche fini da mensa, lucerne ed anfore a Roma nei primi due secoli dell’impero (2003). Rizzo G., Roma e le ultime produzioni “Tardo-Italiche” di vasi in Terra Sigillata, «Rei Cretariae Romanae Fautorum acta» 38 (2003) 35–42. Rosa P., Sulle scoperte archeologiche della città e provincia di Roma negli anni 1871–1872 (1873).

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Rosenthal R., Sivan R., Ancient Lamps in the Schloessinger Collection, (QUEDEM, Monographs of the Institute of Archaeology, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 8) (1978). Saguì L., Pendici Nord-orientali del Palatino: le “Terme di Elagabalo”. Indagini archeologiche e prime riflessioni, «Archeologia Classica» LX (2009) 235–274. Salomonson J. W., Etude sur la céramique romaine d’Afrique sigillée claire et céramique comune de Henchir el Ouiba (Raqqada), en Tunisine Centrale, «Bulletin antieke beschaving» XLIII (1968) 80–141. Salza Prina Ricotti E., Alimentazione, cibi, tavola e cucine nell’età imperiale, in L’alimentazione nel mondo antico. I Romani-età imperiale (Catalogo della mostra per la Giornata mondiale dell’alimentazione 16/10/1987) (1987) 71–130. C. Schucany C., Martin-Kilcher S., Bergen L., Paunier D., Römische Keramik in der Schweiz (1999). Solomon J., The Apician sauce, ius apicianum, in Food in antiquity (1995) 115–131. Swan V. G., Dichin (Bulgaria): the destruction deposits and the dating of Black Sea amphorae in the fifth and sixth centuries A.D., in Patabs I (2010) 107–118. Tomei M. A. (ed.), Roma. Memorie dal sottosuolo. Ritrovamenti archeologici 1980/2006 (2006). White K. D., Cereals, bread and milling in the roman world, in Food in antiquity (1995) 39–43. Wilkins J., Hill S., The sources and sauces of Atheneaus, in Food in antiquity (1995) 429–438. Zeest I. B., Keramičeskaja Tara Bospora, «Materialy i issledovanija po archeologii SSSR» 8 (1960). Zeggio S., Dall'indagine alla città. Un settore del centro monumentale e la sua viabilità dalle origini all’età neroniana, «Scienze dell’antichità» 13 (2006) 61–122. Zevi F., Pohl I., Ostia (Roma). Casa delle Pareti Gialle, salone centrale. Scavo del pavimento a mosaico, «Notizie degli scavi di antichità» Suppl. I (1970) 43–244

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FIGURES

Fig. 1: La porzione occidentale della valle del Colosseo. La freccia indica l’area delle indagini (rielaborazione da PANELLA ET AL. 2011, fig. a p. 4).

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Fig. 2: Sovrapposizione planimetrica della fase severiana (in grigio chiaro) e della domus con tabernae di età claudia (grigio scuro) alle “Terme di Elagabalo” (da SAGUI 2009, fig. 7).

Fig. 3: “Terme di Elagabalo”. Sovrapposizione planimetrica delle fasi adrianee (in grigio scuro) e severiane (in grigio chiaro) con la numerazione dei vani. Il cerchio nero nel vano 4 indica la posizione del riempimento fognario in esame (rielaborazione da SAGUÌ 2009, fig. 8).

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Fig. 4: Quantificazione dei materiali attestati in numero di frammenti e percentuali.

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Tav. I: (1–3, scala 1:3; 4–7, scala 1:2)

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Tav. II: (8–12 e 14, scala 1:2; 13, scala 1:3)

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Tav. III: (15–19 e 26–27, scala 1:3; 20–25, scala 1:2); 21: varietà 1; 22: varietà 2; 23: varietà 3; 24: varietà 4; 25: varietà 5.

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Tav. IV: (28–32 e 35–37, scala 1:2; 33–34, scala 1:3)

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Tav. V: 38 Incensiere; 39: Brocche con ansa a tortiglione in ceramica comune: visione di profilo; 40: Ciotola biansata in ceramica da fuoco: visione di profilo; 41: Brocca con orlo triangolare e versatoio in ceramica comune: visione di profilo; 42: Lucerna BAILEY 1980, Tipo P, Q 1279.

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Tav. VI: 43: Lucerna BAILEY 1980, P/Q con bollo En. Aprilis; 44: Lucerna non id. con fiera; 45: Lucerna BAILEY 1980, P/Q con bollo ((ovulum)) ((apis)) ((ovulum)); 46: Lucerna bilicne non id. con becchi triangolari; 47: Lucerna BAILEY 1980, Tipo P/Q = DENEAUVE 1969, pl. LXXXII, 905, p. 192: A) Disco e spalla decorati, B) fondo con bollo [Lu]c. Fort.

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Tav. VII: 48: Ago crinale in osso decorato: visione di profilo; 49: Visione d’insieme degli aghi crinali; 50: Visione d’insieme degli aghi da cucito; 51: Dado in osso (A–F visione delle varie facce); 52: Ciotole in ceramica da fuoco parzialmente combacianti con le tracce presenti sui frammenti di piano d’argilla.

L A C E R A M I C A A D I N G O B B I AT U R A NERA DI TREVIRI – UNA MERCE COSTOSA I N PA N N O N I A D U R A N T E L’ E P O C A S E V E R I A N A Eszter Harsányi (Archäologisches Landesmuseum Baden-Wüttemberg)

INTRODUZIONE: L’EPOCA SEVERIANA IN PANNONIA Dopo le devastazioni delle guerre marcomanniche, con l’acclamazione di Settimio Severo ad imperatore cominciò l’epoca più prospera in Pannonia. In segno di sua gratitudine e per la difesa dell’Italia e del suo potere, il nuovo imperatore aumentò il valore del salario, concedette diversi privilegi ai soldati in Pannonia e lasciò in eredità la stessa politica anche ai figli. Allo stesso tempo l’epoca severiana era un periodo pacifico, grazie ai diversi patti di pace con i popoli barbarici limitrofi. Della favorevole situazione economica e politica approfittarono anche i numerosi immigrati provenienti dall’Oriente, i quali si stabilirono nella provincia, soprattutto nei centri vicini al confine dell’Impero. Tali città erano Brigetio, Aquincum e Carnuntum, ma un’immigrazione notevole è stata documentata anche a Savaria, ubicata accanto alla Via dell’Ambra e anche nel vicus di Intercisa in Pannonia orientale, sul Danubio (fig. 1), dove gli abitanti provenienti dalla Siria formarono la comunità siriaca più grande della provincia (Barkóczi 1964 passim; Fitz 1972). L’attività dei commercianti orientali accelerava lo sviluppo economico dell’epoca 341

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severiana, così in questi insediamenti si diffuse una prosperità eccezionale. Questa prosperità è riscontrabile in diversi gruppi di reperti archeologici. La maggior parte delle epigrafi conosciute di Pannonia risale a quest’epoca. Queste iscrizioni testimoniano una vivace attività architettonica nella sfera pubblica. Durante l’epoca severiana molti edifici privati furono ricostruiti in pietra e la maggior parte dei pavimenti a mosaici è databile a questo periodo. Per quanto riguarda i costumi funerari, la sepoltura in sarcofago divenne di moda, ed oltre alle stele si erigevano monumenti sepolcrali (Mócsy 1975, 59. 62–63). Tra i cosiddetti reperti minori si trovano molte terre sigillate importate dalle province occidentali (Gabler 2006, soprattutto 74–84), ma molti oggetti orientali (come vetri o reperti d’avorio) sono similmente di questo periodo (Pannonia 1990, 201–202), anche se non si può parlare di un’importazione di massa dall’Oriente. Anche un altro gruppo di reperti, finora meno studiato in Pannonia, si connette a quest’epoca: le ceramiche ad ingobbiatura nera di Treviri.1 Questa ceramica è rappresentata nel materiale archeologico di Pannonia solo durante un breve periodo e solo in determinati siti. La sua cronologia e diffusione geografica sta in rapporto con la politica dell’epoca severiana e con le sue conseguenze. Più avanti sarà analizzato dettagliatamente questo rapporto.

LA CERAMICA AD INGOBBIATURA NERA DI TREVIRI IN PANNONIA La produzione della ceramica ad ingobbiatura nera di Treviri (Symonds 1992, 46–67) cominciò nella seconda metà del secondo secolo d.C. (Harsányi 2011, 21). Il repertorio della ceramica presenta soprattutto le forme chiuse (bicchieri, brocche, caraffe) destinate al consumo di vino. Le caratteristiche più importanti sono la parete sottile, cotta dura e l’ingobbiatura brillante nera. Come elementi decorativi si possono menzionare la decorazione a rotella e le ammaccature ovali o rotonde (fig. 2). Benché la produzione di vasellami fittili di Treviri avesse una 1

Céramique métallescente in francese, schwarz engobierte Ware o Schwarzfirmisware (erroneamente) in tedesco, black coated ware in inglese.

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lunga tradizione di più secoli e si producesse anche la terra sigillata (Künzl 1997, 10; Huld-Zetsche 1972; Huld-Zetsche 1993.), la ceramica ad ingobbiatura nera era il prodotto migliore e di maggior successo della manifattura. I vasi furono trasportati in gran quantità nelle province lungo il Reno e il Danubio e nei territori accanto agli affluenti di questi fiumi, inoltre nella Britannia e nella Gallia.2 Nella seconda metà del terzo secolo d.C. si può osservare un’interruzione nella produzione. Da questo momento la qualità della ceramica divenne inferiore: la parete diventò spessa e meno dura, l’ingobbiatura non era più così brillante come prima, ma piuttosto opaca. Anche la forma dei vasellami divenne imperfetta. La rottura si manifesta anche nel commercio: il territorio d’importazione si restringe, il trasporto nelle province danubiane cessò. La merce fu trasportata solo nei territori accanto al Reno e nella Britannia. La produzione della ceramica finì nella seconda metà del quarto secolo (Symonds 1992, 63–69; Künzl 1997, 73). Solo i primi prodotti, quelli di ottima qualità furono esportati in Pannonia (fig. 3). La particolarità di questa ceramica è che questa è l’unica merce conosciuta trasportata da Treviri con un commercio organizzato nella provincia danubiana.3

2

La precisa diffusione geografica della ceramica non è conosciuta. La diffusione qui descritta si base ai singoli reperti pubblicati e sulla carta di diffusione della cd. Spruchbecherkeramik – si veda Künzl 1997, fig. 47. 3 Tra le più migliaia di terre sigillate pubblicate dalla Pannonia non c’è nemmeno un pezzo della manifattura di Treviri. Le altre due merci famose di Treviri, il vino e i prodotti di tessile, non sono ben rintracciabili con metodi archeologici. Dall’altro lato mancano anche le allusioni letterarie o epigrafiche sul commercio organizzato di questi due prodotti in Pannonia. Della ceramica ad ingobbiatura nera di Treviri sono conosciuti finora poco più di nella provincia. Sul commercio organizzato di questa merce in Pannonia si veda Harsányi 2011, 274–277.

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UNA MERCE COSTOSA Sul prezzo della ceramica non disponiamo di alcuna fonte letteraria. Per rivelare, a quale categoria tariffaria appartenevano i vasellami, devono essere esaminati il processo di produzione, il modo di trasporto e i contesti archeologici contenenti questa merce. Per ottenere informazione sul prezzo, si può inoltre confrontare la ceramica di Treviri con una merce di simile categoria in Pannonia, la terra sigillata di Rheinzabern. La manifattura di queste ceramiche, Rheinzabern, si trova ca. 200 km da Treviri, e le terre sigillate prodotte qui furono trasportate in Pannonia sicuramente con un commercio organizzato (Gabler 2006, 76–77). Sul prezzo delle terre sigillate di Rheinzabern disponiamo due dati dalla provincia vicina di Pannonia, dal Norico. Una coppa di forma Dr. 37 con decorazione a rilievo di Flavia Solva (presso Leibnitz) dal terzo quarto del secondo secolo d.C. costava secondo il suo graffito venti assi (Noll 1972, 150). Il prezzo di un piatto liscio di Iuvavum (Salisburgo) era— similmente in base ad un graffito—dodici assi (Kovacsovics 1987, 222– 225). Nel secondo secolo erano queste somme sicuramente più alte di quella del salario giornaliero di un soldato semplice (Gabler 2006, 108). Per la produzione della ceramica di Treviri ci voleva un’argilla adeguata, la quale doveva essere preparata in modo speciale. L’argilla per la ceramica di Treviri derivava dalla città o dai suoi dintorni, come anche la manifattura di Rheinzabern usava l’argilla locale. Neanche la sua preparazione differiva in uno e in altro luogo di produzione: l’argilla doveva essere decantata più volte e solo le particelle più fini furono usate per la ceramica e per l’ingobbiatura. Tra la temperatura e il metodo della cottura si possono però osservare alcune differenze: mentre le terre sigillate di Rheinzabern furono cotte solo in atmosfera ossidante a 750– 800 gradi (Kritsotakis 1986, 761), per le ceramiche di Treviri furono usati ambienti alternati (ossidante – riducente – ossidante) a 950 gradi (Harsányi 2011, 268; Szakmány et al, 2012). Questo significa, che per il metodo a Treviri si voleva non solo una tecnica più complicata, ma anche una maggior quantità di legno a causa della temperatura alta della cottura. Nel caso di Pannonia le spese furono influenzate anche dal lungo percorso da Treviri fino alla Pannonia, una via di più di 1500 km (fig. 4). Il trasporto più economico era quello per via fluviale, perciò è molto

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probabile che l’itinerario verso Pannonia fosse la Mosella, il Reno e il Danubio.4 Un tratto del trasporto tra il Reno e il Danubio doveva svolgersi per terra, il che aumentò di nuovo le coste. Anche le terre sigillate di Rheinzabern furono trasportate lungo lo stesso itinerario (Fischer 2005, 73–75), il quale però era di 300 km più corto, il che si dimostrava sicuramente anche nella differenza del prezzo dei due gruppi di ceramica. Inoltre, tutte e due merci dovevano attraversare il confine tra la zona doganale gallica e quella illirica. Il dazio di questa dogana non è ancora ben chiaro, ma poteva essere compreso tra il 2,5 e il 12,5%.5 Nel caso delle terre sigillate di Rheinzabern era proprio questo dazio la causa perché i vasellami furono respinti dal mercato pannonico: le terre sigillate delle manifatture di Westerndorf e Pfaffenhofen, le quali furono fondate entro la zona doganale illirica, potevano essere vendute ad un prezzo più basso rispetto alla merce di Rheinzabern gravata del dazio (Gabler 2006, 81). La ceramica di Treviri non aveva una concorrenza simile: in Pannonia non si conoscono vasellami di simile qualità o di simile aspetto dal secondo e terzo secolo d.C. Neanche le imitazioni locali raggiungevano il livello della merce originale. Il fatto però, che la ceramica di Treviri fu imitata in massa in Pannonia (Harsányi 2009; Harsányi 2011, 258–266) dimostra, che nella provincia si pretendeva una merce come la ceramica di Treviri, ma ad un prezzo più basso. In altre parole: era conveniente produrre imitazioni solo se c’era una differenza notevole tra il prezzo della merce originale e quello delle copie locali di qualità inferiore. Alle spese di produzione e di trasporto si aggiungeva inoltre il profitto dei produttori, dei trasportatori e dei singoli commercianti e rivenditori. Riassumendo: è molto probabile che la ceramica di Treviri fosse una merce costosa in Pannonia. Il suo prezzo era sicuramente più alto di quello delle terre sigillate dello stesso periodo. A questo alludono anche i contesti archeologici, in cui furono ritrovate ceramiche di Treviri (v. sotto).

4

A questo allude anche la carta di diffusione della cd. Spruchbecherkeramik – si veda nota 2. 5 Per un riassunto attuale della discussione si veda Fényes 2002, 64–68.

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LA CRONOLOGIA Secondo le analisi stratigrafiche, le prime ceramiche di Treviri furono trasportate in Pannonia nella seconda metà del secondo secolo d.C., ma si tratta di reperti sporadici.6 Di una quantità di vero commercio si può parlare soltanto dall’inizio del terzo secolo d.C. A questo periodo, cioè alla prima metà del terzo secolo d.C.. risalgono quasi tutti i reperti databili. Dal periodo dopo la devastazione barbarica della provincia nel 260 d.C. non si conosce alcun pezzo della ceramica di Treviri. Il commercio della ceramica in Pannonia durò quindi dal 200 fino al 260 d.C. Secondo i dati stratigrafici, la maggior parte dei vasi doveva essere importata durante l’epoca severiana.7 Questo è provato anche dalle monete ritrovate insieme alla ceramica di Treviri: la maggior parte di queste monete sono infatti coni severiani (fig. 5). DIFFUSIONE GEOGRAFICA Analizzando la diffusione geografica della ceramica di Treviri si è osservato che i reperti si concentrano soprattutto lungo il confine, quindi lungo il Danubio. È interessante notare come una grande quantità si concentrasse per lo più nei siti, dove erano di stanza legioni, cioè a Carnuntum, Brigetio e Aquincum.8 Una relativamente grande quantità è conosciuta inoltre a Intercisa, dove—come già detto—l’attività degli immigranti siriaci portava ad una vera prosperità nel vicus. Nei territori all’interno della provincia sono trovate molte ceramiche di Treviri a Savaria e nella villa di Baláca.

6

Si conoscono solo due frammenti databili a questo periodo, ambedue sono stati scoperti nel campo militare di Arrabona. 7 I singoli reperti e la datazione dei loro strati non possono essere elencati qui. Per i dettagli si veda Harsányi 2011, 35–191 e tabella 4. 8 Dal quarto sito pannonico con campo legionario, Vindobona, non sono conosciuti molti pezzi della ceramica di Treviri. Questo può essere però spiegato dal fatto che la maggior parte del materiale degli scavi vecchi non è ancora pubblicata, solo i reperti degli ultimi decenni di scavi sono ben conosciuti.

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IL CARATTERE DEI SITI Studiando la diffusione topografica dei reperti nei siti lungo il limes si può affermare che la ceramica di Treviri non è una caratteristica dei campi militari. Benché—come menzionato sopra—la ceramica di Treviri si attesti soprattutto nei siti dove erano di stanza legioni, il 90–95% dei reperti non è stato ritrovato nei campi legionari ma negli insediamenti civili adiacenti. Molti pezzi sono rinvenuti nelle città e nelle canabae accanto a campi legionari e anche nel caso dei piccoli campi ausiliari essa è caratteristica soprattutto nei villaggi adiacenti, cioè nei vici.9 Per quanto riguarda i siti con la ceramica di Treviri che non erano ubicati nei pressi del limes, ma all’interno della provincia, questi sono sempre di carattere civile. IL CARATTERE DEI CONTESTI ARCHEOLOGICI Le analisi dei singoli edifici, dove le ceramiche di Treviri sono state ritrovate, hanno dimostrato che all’interno degli insediamenti civili la merce si concentrava soprattutto nelle case private, per lo più nelle case grandi o riccamente arredate.10 Il prezzo alto della ceramica, menzionato sopra, è dimostrato anche dal fatto, che la presenza di più di cinque pezzi di questa merce nello stesso edificio è un caso rarissimo. Un esempio di questi casi rari è la casa No. 1. nel centro della città di Brigetio (fig. 6). In questa casa sono stati scoperti sessantadue frammenti delle ceramiche di Treviri, i quali appartengono almeno a ventuno vasi diversi. La planimetria completa della casa non è ancora conosciuta, ma in base alle mura finora scoperte le sue dimensioni dovevano essere di 30 m in larghezza e almeno 35 m in lunghezza. Il ritrovamento più famoso dell’edificio è la pittura di soffitto che rappresenta le quattro stagioni, Andromeda e Pegaso, un affresco davvero di ottima qualità (fig. 7).11 Sebbene altri reperti di lusso, come ad esempio mobili o statue di marmo 9

Per le analisi dettagliate dei singoli siti si veda Harsányi 2011, 194–197. 200–201. 10 Più dettagliatamente si veda Harsányi 2011, 202–203. 205–206. 288–292. 11 Per questo e per gli altri affreschi di qualità simile si veda Borhy et al. 2010.

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oppure vasellami di argento non siano stati scoperti,12 tra i reperti minori si attestano moltissime terre sigillate, anfore e numerosi reperti vitrei costosi (Fényes 2002; Hárshegyi 2004; Dévai 2007). Nella villa di Baláca sono stati ritrovati frammenti di nove bicchieri di Treviri. Questa era una delle ville più grandi e ricche di Pannonia, con molti affreschi, pavimenti a mosaici e con colonne stuccate (fig. 8) (Thomas 1964). Dalla cosiddetta Villa di Ercole nelle canabae di Aquincum sono conosciuti frammenti di tre ceramiche di Treviri. I pavimenti a mosaici gli affreschi e le decorazioni di stucco rispecchiano chiaramente la ricchezza dei proprietari della villa: uno dei mosaici, quello con la raffigurazione di Ercole e Nesso, è il prodotto di un’officina di Alessandria (fig. 9) (Wellner 1969, soprattutto 271). Si potrebbe continuare l’elenco di simili esempi di ricche e grandi case con la ceramica di Treviri. La maggior parte di questi edifici è stata scoperta nelle città come Aquincum, Poetovio o Savaria.13 Al contrario, invece, è possibile costatare in quale tipologia di edifici questa merce non è per nulla attestata. Ad esempio, nelle case interrate non viene mai alla luce. Non è caratteristica neanche negli edifici pubblici e mancano attestazioni nei santuari. È molto strano che nessun reperto sia mai stato scoperto nelle taverne, sebbene si tratti di vasellami da bere. Nelle tombe è molto rara e tra i corredi è presente un solo esemplare.14 È da notare, che in molte tombe si trovavano accanto a questa ceramica corredi costosi come reperti di vetro, gioielli d’oro e di ambra, vasellami di bronzo ecc.15 Riassumendo, la ceramica di Treviri sembra essere una merce costosa in Pannonia, comprata dai ceti benestanti per l’uso privato o forse come oggetto decorativo.

12

Questi oggetti potrebbero essere trasportati via dagli abitanti, quando la città fu abbandonata. 13 Per gli altri esempi si veda Harsányi 2011, 288–292. 14 L’unica eccezione è una tomba ad Aquincum con quattro bicchieri di Treviri. 15 Per l’elenco dettagliato con tutti i corredi conosciuti si veda Harsányi 2011, lista 1.

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LE ANALISI La cronologia, la diffusione geografica e topografica della ceramica in Pannonia è il risultato della coincidenza di più fattori vantaggiosi: l’economia e la politica dei Severi e le loro conseguenze, la prosperità grande al confine rendevano possibile per un periodo breve l’importazione di una nuova merce costosa. Come già menzionato: nessun altro prodotto di commercio di Treviri è conosciuto in Pannonia, solo questa ceramica. Anche questa fu trasportata solo per un breve periodo, dall’inizio fino alla metà del terzo secolo, sebbene la produzione a Treviri continuasse ancora per un altro secolo circa. La forte concentrazione dei reperti lungo il Danubio può essere spiegata solo in parte con il trasporto economico sui fiumi. L’altra spiegazione è la concentrazione del potere d’acquisto nei pressi del limes. Conseguenza dell’aumento del salario fu che grandi somme circolassero regolarmente nei campi militari, le quali in gran parte poi passavano agli abitanti degli insediamenti civili adiacenti. Che la ceramica di Treviri si fosse diffusa negli insediamenti civili e non nei campi militari si può spiegare con il suo carattere di “lusso”. I vasi belli e fragili erano oggetti decorativi o oggetti d’uso dei giorni festivi, così appartengono piuttosto ai reperti di una casa civile che a quelli delle capanne in un campo militare. Un’altra spiegazione possibile è che dall’epoca severiana gli ufficiali non dovevano abitare più nei campi ma potevano trasferirsi dalle loro famiglie negli insediamenti civili adiacenti. Per il loro salario alto loro appartenevano sicuramente alla potenza d’acquisto ma hanno tenuto la ceramica costosa piuttosto nella casa fuori il campo militare. La prosperità nell’epoca severiana non si sentiva dappertutto nella provincia, in questi territori manca la ceramica di Treviri. Un buon esempio è il municipio di Salla accanto alla via dell’Ambra. Era una città prospera all’inizio del secondo secolo, poi fu completamente distrutta— come molti altri insediamenti nella provincia—durante le guerre marcomanniche nella seconda metà del secolo. Mentre gli edifici delle città lungo il confine potevano essere rapidamente ricostruiti grazie allo sviluppo economico nell’epoca severiana, solo poche case di Salla furono restaurate e anche il numero degli abitanti diminuì così fortemente che alla fine dell’epoca severiana la città fu spopolata e abbandonata (Redő 2003, 209). Evidentemente, Salla non ricevette vantaggi del denaro e dai privilegi dei siti militari. Neanche gli immigranti orientali si stabilirono nella città distrutta dopo le guerre marcomanniche. Così non è

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sorprendente, che a Salla non si vedono i segni della prosperità e nel materiale di trenta anni di scavo e non si trova nemmeno un frammento della ceramica di Treviri. Al contrario, nella colonia di Savaria, circa cinquanta chilometri a Nord di Salla, sono conosciuti molti esemplari della nuova merce d’importazione. Questa città – forse grazie alle sue mura – non fu così danneggiata come Salla e poteva essere ricostruita in breve tempo dopo le guerre marcomanniche (Scherrer 2003, 54). Benché questa colonia non si trovi accanto al limes, così i privilegi dei soldati non avessero un’influenza diretta sul suo sviluppo economico, molti immigranti orientali si stabilirono nella colonia e contribuirono alla prosperità di Savaria nell’epoca severiana (Barkóczi 1967, 264). Anche un altro esempio dimostra bene, quanto contava l’attività degli abitanti orientali nello sviluppo economico dei singoli insediamenti: l'esempio di Intercisa. Dopo le guerre marcomanniche una coorte siriaca arrivò nel campo militare con numerosi abitanti civili dalla Siria. Loro si stabilirono nel vicus adiacente e poco dopo formavano la comunità siriaca più grande della provincia. La loro attività commerciale conduceva ad un rapido sviluppo economico del vicus, il quale nella prima metà del terzo secolo aveva un aspetto urbano con molti edifici di pietra, sistema viale e infrastruttura sviluppata (Visy 1977, 32–36). Non è per caso che tra i vici lungo il limes proprio in quello di Intercisa è stata ritrovata la ceramica di Treviri nella più grande quantità. L'importazione della ceramica di Treviri sarebbe stata impossibile senza la situazione relativamente pacifica dell'epoca severiana. La via di trasporto da Treviri fino alla Pannonia era il Reno e il Danubio, il che significa che un lungo tratto del percorso, precisamente da Abusina nella Rezia fino alla Pannonia, passava lungo il limes. Un trasporto continuo e sicuro era possibile soltanto se la relazione con i barbari era pacifica. Nella storia di Pannonia non è nota alcuna invasione barbarica nell’epoca severiana.16 Gli imperatori Severi sono riusciti a mantenere a lungo il sistema di patti di pace conclusi da Commodo dopo le guerre marcomanniche. Questa buona politica esterna è provata anche dalla 16 Prima si supponeva un’invasione barbarica in Pannonia nel 212 d. C. Una critica revisione delle fonti ha provato che questa supposizione era falsa. La situazione era pacifica nella provincia fino alla metà del terzo secolo d. C. Solo durante il regno di Severo Alessandro si presuppone un conflitto con i barbari.

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ceramica di Treviri nei territori barbarici accanto al confine romano (Stuppner 1997, 51–53), fattore che può essere preso come elemento per indicare i rapporti commerciali pacifici tra i romani e i popoli vicini. Anche il resto dell’itinerario di trasporto da Treviri fino alla Pannonia era relativamente sicuro, soltanto negli ultimi anni del regno di Severo Alessandro ebbe luogo un’invasione barbarica nella Rezia (Czysz et al. 2005, 325–329).

CONCLUSIONI La costosa ceramica di Treviri fu trasportata quindi in modo organizzato tra il 200 e 260 d. C. in Pannonia. Il commercio culminò nell’epoca severiana. La ceramica si diffuse soprattutto lungo il limes, per lo più nelle città accanto ai campi legionari o negli insediamenti, dove numerosi orientali abitavano. La loro attività commerciale contribuiva notevolmente alla prosperità. All'interno degli insediamenti la ceramica di Treviri è caratteristica soprattutto nei grandi e ricchi edifici privati, spesso arredati lussuosamente. Oltre alla prosperità e alla presenza di ceti benestanti, per la diffusione della ceramica di Treviri in Pannonia fu necessaria anche la sicurezza delle vie di trasporto, il che fu il risultato della buona politica estera dei Severi. Riassumendo, la cronologia, la diffusione geografica e topografica della ceramica di Treviri rispecchiano bene le linee di forza della situazione economica e la situazione pacifica di Pannonia nell'epoca Severiana.

BIBLIOGRAFIA Augustus 2000 = Von Augustus bis Attila. Leben am ungarischen Donaulimes, Schriften des Limesmuseums Aalen 53, Stuttgart. Barkóczi, L., The Population of Pannonia from Marcus Aurelius to Diocletian, Acta Archaeologica Academiae Scientiarium Hungaricae 16 (1964) 255–356. Borhy, L., Pannoniai falfestmény (2001). Borhy, L., Militaria aus der Zivilstadt von Brigetio (FO: Komárom/Szőny-Vásártér). Indirekte und direkte militärische Hinweise auf Beginn, Dauer und Ende der Zivilsiedlung im Lichte der neuesten

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Ausgrabungen (1992–2004), in Die norisch-pannonischen Städte und das römische Heer im Lichte der neuesten archäologischen Forschungen. II. Internationale Konferenz über norisch-pannonische Städte, Budapest-Aquincum 11–14. September 2002 a cura di L. Borhy e P. Zsidi (2005) 75–81. Borhy, L. et al., Az I. számú épület falfestményei, in Római kori falfestmények Brigetióból a cura di L. Borhy ed E. Számadó, Acta Archaeologica Brigetionensia Ser. I. vol. 3 (2010). Czysz, W. et al., Die Römer in Bayern (2005). Dévai, K., A Komárom/Szőny-Vásártéri ásatások római kori üvegleletei (1992–2005), tesi di laurea, Istituto Archeologico dell’Università Eötvös Loránd (2007). Fényes, G., Import kerámia Brigetióban és az importáru hatása a helyi fazekasságra, tesi del dottorato, Istituto Archeologico dell’Università Eötvös Loránd (2002). Fischer, Th., Handelswege vom Rhein zur Donau in römischer Zeit, in Wasserwege: Lebensadern – Trennungslinien. 15. Internationales Symposion. Grundprobleme der frühgeschichtlichen Entwicklung im mittleren Donauraum, Schleswig 30. November – 4. Dezember 2002 a cura di C. von Carnap-Bornheim – H. Friesinger, Schriften des Archäologischen Landesmuseums, 3 (2005) 71–79. Fitz, J., Les Syriens à Intercisa, Collection Latomus, 122 (1972). Gabler D., Terra sigillata, a rómaiak luxuskerámiája (2006). Hárshegyi, P., Roman amphorae from the civil town of Brigetio - SzőnyVásártér 1992 – 2001, Communicationes archaeologicae Hungariae (2004) 113–121. Harsányi, E., Die Imitationen der Trierer schwarz engobierten Keramik in Pannonien in Ex officina… Studia in honorem Dénes Gabler a cura di Sz. Bíró (2009) 189–204. Harsányi, E., Die Trierer schwarz engobierte Ware und ihre Imitationen in Noricum und Pannonien, tesi di dottorato, Istituto Archaeologico dell’Università di Colonia (2011). Huld-Zetsche, I., Trierer Reliefsigillata. Werkstatt I, Materialien zur römisch-germanischen Keramik 9 (1972). Huld-Zetsche, I., Trierer Reliefsigillata. Werkstatt II, Materialien zur römisch-germanischen Keramik 12 (1993). Kovacsovics, W. K., As XII, eine Preisangabe auf einem Sigillatateller aus Salzburg, Germania 65 (1987) 222–225.

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Künzl, S., Die Trierer Spruchbecherkeramik. Dekorierte Schwarzfirniskeramik des 3. und 4. Jahrhunderts n. Chr., Trierer Zeitschrift, Beiheft 21 (1997). Mócsy A., Pannonia a késői császárkorban (1975). Noll R., Eine Sigillataschüssel mit Eigentumsvermerk und Preisangabe aus Flavia Solva, Germania 50 (1972) 148–152. Pannonia 1990 = Mócsy A., Fitz, J. (a cura di), Pannonia régészeti kézikönyve, Budapest. Redő, F., Municipium Aelium Salla, in The autonomous towns of Noricum and Pannonia. Die autonomen Städte in Noricum und Pannonien, Pannonia I a cura di M. Šašel Kos e P. Scherrer, Situla 41 (2003) 191–235. Scherrer, P., Savaria, in The Autonomous Towns of Noricum and Pannonia. Die autonomen Städte in Noricum und Pannonien, Pannonia I a cura di M. Šašel Kos e P. Scherrer, Situla 41 (2003) 53–80. Stuppner, A., Römische Keramik im nördlichen Niederösterreich anhand ausgewählter Fundplätze, tesi di dottorato, Facoltà di Lettere dell’Università di Vienna (1997). Symonds, R. P., Rhenish Wares. Fine Dark Coloured Pottery from Gaul and Germany, Oxford University Committee for Archaeology, Monograph 23 (1992). Szakmány et al., A trieri fekete bevonatos kerámia archaeometriai vizsgálati eredményei, in Környezet – Ember – Kultúra: Az alkalmazott természettudományok és a régészet párbeszéde a cura di A. Kreiter – Á. Pető – B. Tugya (2012). Szirmai, K., Hercules-villa (1978). Thomas, E., Baláca. Mozaik — freskó — stukkó (1964). Visy, Zs., Intercisa. Dunaújváros in der Römerzeit (1977). Wellner, I., The Hercules Villa in Aquincum, Acta Archaeologica Academiae Scientiarium Hungaricae 21 (1969) 235–271.

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FIGURES

Fig. 1. Pannonia alla fine del secondo secolo d. C.

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Fig. 2. Le forme più importanti della ceramica ad ingobbiatura nera di Treviri (da Symonds 1992)

Fig. 3. La diffusione della ceramica di Treviri in Pannonia (con l’indicazione del numero dei reperti conosciuti)

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Fig. 4. L’itinerario del trasporto della ceramica da Treviri fino a Pannonia

Fig. 5. Le monete ritrovate insieme alla ceramica di Treviri

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Fig. 6. La casa No. 1 nella città di Brigetio (da Borhy 2005, fig. 1)

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Fig. 7. Gli affreschi di soffitto della casa No. 1 di Brigetio (da Borhy 2001, figg. 2, 5–7)

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Fig. 8. La villa di Baláca – planimetria, affreschi, mosaici (da Augustus 2000, pp. 66-67)

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Fig. 9. La villa di Ercole – planimetria e pavimenti a mosaici (da Szirmai 1978, fig. 1)

BAETICAN OIL AND SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS Lucia Afonso (University at Buffalo, SUNY)

INTRODUCTION The study of the Roman economy is generally concerned with trade, manufacturing, and agricultural production (notably olive oil). This paper approaches the Roman economy from a political and social perspective, arguing that Septimius Severus’s weak social ties to Hispania led to a decreasing interest on the part of the Baetican elite in the production and trade of Baetican olive oil. Septimius Severus’s fiscal control of Baetican olive oil and olive oil estates was a response to get back the production of olive oil – though when it failed it led to an increased alienation between the elite from Hispania and the Roman State. This paper will be concerned particularly with the period during which Septimius Severus was emperor (AD 193–235), but it is worth noting that before becoming emperor, Septimius Severus had had little to do with the province of Hispania (Birley 1971). Earlier in his career, Septimius Severus was ascribed two posts in Hispania (Richardson 1998, 231–263). One such post was in Baetica in AD 170–71 as a quaestor to the proconsul P. Cornellius Anullinus: a post which he never took possession of because of delays related to family matters (SHA Sev. 2.3–4). The other post was in AD 177 as a legatus iuridicius to Hispania (SHA Sev. 3.3–5). As emperor he interfered quite strongly in the economic policies concerning Hispania. For example, he changed the seat of imperial con361

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trol over the Baetican olive oil supply to Rome. Furthermore, under Septimius Severus, the State controlled part (if not most) of the production, trade, and transportation of Baetican olive oil. Severus’s control of Baetican oil was not only affected by his lack of social ties with the people and territories of Hispania, but also (and more importantly) by his politics of propaganda. Severus aimed to gain the approval of the Roman populace through various tactics, one of which was the daily distribution of free olive oil (SHA Sev. 18.3, 23). Why would Septimius Severus take particularly in his hands the free distribution of olive oil to the populace of Rome? One should note that olive oil was used as fuel, food and lightening. It has also been part of the reality of ancient Rome for a long time (Bigorras 1980, 243–54). Let us take a brief survey on how the Baetica olive became such an important element on the studies of the Roman economy before looking into more detail at the Septimius Severus’ relationship to Hispania and the Baetican olive oil. The olive oil from the Iberian Peninsula was known mostly as oleum hispanium (Pliny NH XV.8; Varro Rr 1, 2, 6; Horatio Od. II.6.16; Columella V.8.5; Martial XII.63.1; and Statiu Silv. II.7.28). It has also been suggested that any reference to oleum hispanium meant olive oil from the Baetican province (Étienne and Mayet 2004, 17).1 From the first to the third centuries, Baetican olive oil was exported in Dressel 20 amphorae to Rome, though Dressel 20 amphorae have been also found widely throughout the Roman Empire.2 Many of these vessels have been discarded at Monte Testaccio;3 indeed, millions of olive oil amphora testa from Baetica, covered with stamps and graffiti, were found at this artificial hill located between the Tiber River and the Aurelian Wall in Rome. Scholars have known about Monte Testaccio since the sixteenth century (fig. 1) (Rodríguez Almeida 1980, 103–30), but it was only in the nine1 L. Marius Phoebus est Mercator olei hispani ex provinciae Baetica (CIL XV, 3943). 2 The Limes: J. Remesal Remesal, D. Gabler, A. Tchernia; Britannia: P. P. A. Funari, D. F. Williams; North Africa: E. Gozalbes Cravioto, R. Thouvenot; Italy: D. Manacorda, C. Panella; Galia: J. Baudoux, M. Christol, F. Jacques; and Hispania: M. Beltrán Lloris, S. J. Keay, P. Berni Millet. 3 These amphorae, which first appeared during the Augustan period, gained a classic form during the Claudian period. By the third century AD, Dressel 20 amphorae had been substituted with Dressel 23 amphorae.

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teenth century, through the amphorae studies carried out by H. Dressel, that Monte Testaccio revealed its great importance to the study of the Roman economy (Dressel 1878, 118–192; Dressel 1879, 36–112, 143– 195; Dressel 1899; Saggi sull’Instrumentum Romano 1978). It has been estimated that at least seven million liters of Baetican olive oil were shipped to Rome annually during the Early Empire (fig. 2) (Remesal Rodríguez 1998, 183–199). Our knowledge of the production and trade of Baetican olive oil is mostly based on the dating of amphorae, which has led to the reconstruction of economic models (Amphores Romaines et Histoire Économique 1989, 528–536). One of the earliest models, which has been criticized and revised, was the one proposed by H. Dressel and adapted by E. Rodríguez Almeida (fig. 3). The proposed production model for olive oil in Rome was based on the known number of amphorae at Monte Testaccio, and assumed that one million people were living in Rome at the time of the Early Empire. R. Étienne and F. Mayet identified certain problems with Dressel and Almeida’s production model (Étienne and Mayet 2004, 30–39). First, they pointed out, the model was based only on the surface collection of Dressel 20 testa. Second, the investigated material was taken from a trench only 2.9 meters high (although the original remains were piled up to 49 meters high). Third, there was no consideration given to earthquakes or the creation of wine caves, which would affect the mount by likely diminishing the original volume. Finally, Monte Testaccio does not represent the totality of the Hispanic amphorae that arrived in Rome. As we know, the estimates relating to any ceramic assemblages, including amphorae may not reflect the actual number of vessels originally in place. Recently, studies of archeological sites and shipwrecks have provided further insight into the complex production, distribution, and consumption of Baetican olive oil (Laubenheimer 1992; Blázquez et al. 1998). For instance, in Rome, Dressel 20 amphorae have been recovered from Meta Sudan, Via Nova, Crypta Balbi, Curia (Forum Transitorim), Basilica Aemeliana, and Via Sacra (fig. 4) (Reynold 2005, 369–486). The estimates of amphorae from these sites are based on the number of rims, bases, and handles recovered, but they are significantly lower than any known estimates from Monte Testaccio during the Early Empire.

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KILNS AND ESTATES Apart from the amphorae remains from Testaccio, further studies have been investigating production sites of the Dressel 20 amphorae in the Guadalquivir valley. Assessing the state of our knowledge regarding the Guadalquivir valley is relevant for this paper as it will be pointed out further down in this paper; Septimius Severus had likely a direct interference, to the point of possibly controlling the Dressel 20 amphorae atelier and olive oil production estates. A fair number of Dressel 20 amphorae kilns have been identified in the Guadalquivir Valley (Étienne and Mayet 2004, 124–147). The navigability of the Guadalquivir River all the way to the Baetica port must have been a factor in the choice of location for those kilns along the Guadalquivir Valley (Étienne and Mayet 2004, 129– 130). Other related factors to consider would have included the proximity to the product being stored and transported (olive oil) and the proximity to clay pits. Approximately 90 workshop sites have been identified, many of which have recognized kilns (fig. 5) (Remesal Rodríguez 1983, 115– 131; 1989, 121–153; Carreras Monfort and Funari 1998). Kiln enterprises left large footprints, as can be seen from the 20 hectares of amphorae fragments recovered from La Catria (Remesal Rodríguez 1977–78, 87– 142). Other known kilns include the El Tejarillo kiln, which has a line of five kilns (Ponsich 1974), and the Arva kiln, which covers the town and the banks of the Guadalquivir River (Remesal Rodríguez et al. 1997, 151–178). Dressel 20 amphora kilns may have been located and operated either on private or public land. A kiln on an estate would have manufactured vessels for the estate’s olive oil production. In such a scenario, the estate would be both an agricultural production site for olive oil and a workshop site for Dressel 20 amphorae. In an estate with a Dressel 20 amphora workshop, amphorae could have been used for the operations of the estate or sold/exchanged to neighboring estates. Alternatively, an estate without any agricultural production may have manufactured Dressel 20 amphorae. These are only some possibilities amongst many. Olive oil was produced in countryside estates owned by members of the local elite, the senatorial order, and the imperial family. Some of these owners may have also owned the clay pits or clay quarries, or even the ceramic vessel manufacturing workshops (Broughton 1972, 475–746). Some insight into the organization of Dressel 20 amphora kilns can be gained from the stamps, which reveal names and abbreviations of those

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involved with Baetican olive oil production, and possibly with the amphorae workshops (Grenier 1934, 616–24; Thouvenot 1940, 95–98; Callender 1965; Lloris Beltran 1970; Étienne 1972, 622–27; García Chic 1985; Rodríguez Remesal 1986; Tchnernia 1964, 419–49; Tchernia 1993, 183–85; Mayet 2000, 647–54). Amphora stamps are composed of three parts: (1) the name of a person, with the Roman tria nomina, duo nomina, or simply the cognomen; (2) another person’s name, followed by f(ecit); and (3) a place name, followed sometimes by a figlina. The tria nomina is an abbreviation in the form of the first letters of name (Étienne and Mayet 2004, 80–115). Rarer are the duo nomina and cognomen (Étienne and Mayet 2004, 94–95). Different interpretations of status have been given to the stamps with tria nomina: landowners, merchants, and landowners with amphora ateliers (Étienne and Mayet 2004, 99–100). Some of these interpretations are rooted in ancient texts (Étienne and Mayet 2004, 101). A clay pit or clay quarry is referred to as a figlina by Varro (Rr. 1.2.23, 23), but Pliny the Elder uses this term as a reference to the production of ceramic vessels (N.H. 3.82). The term figlina, meaning a workshop unit (atelier), is also used in the Lex Ursonensis (CIL II, 5434). The term figlina is connected with fundus (estate) in the Veleian Table (CII XI, 1147) and the Digest (XXXIII, 7, 25). The earliest known use of the term figlina, accompanied by a tria nomina, on a Dressel 20 amphora is from the first century AD, and is commonly seen as fig(lina) by the second century AD. The most recent view is that the tria nomina represents the individual who owned the figlinae (the amphorae atelier) (Remesal Rodríguez 1978, 87–142). Our understanding of how such kilns or workshops were organized is further complicated by the great number of different stamps found at one site, as well as by the same stamp appearing at numerous sites (Étienne and Mayet 2004, 142–143). Amphora manufacturing sites, like olive oil production estates, were likely in the hands of only a small number of families. Still, identifying the people behind the agricultural estates (fundus) through Dressel 20 stamps is very challenging (fig. 6) (Étienne and Mayet 2004, 104–115). The term fundus has only been found on two stamps from the amphorae at Monte Testaccio (CIL XV 2, 2618 and Monte Testaccio I, 199 no. 16 from the second century AD) (Étienne and Mayet 2004, 103–104). Scholars interpret these two Dressel 20 amphora stamps bearing the term fundus as referring to the olive oil production site, to the manufacturing site of the vessels (both the olive oil production site and the manufacturing site of the vessel), or to the merchant who sold the olive oil. Until we

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have more examples to study, little can be inferred about the meaning of these two stamps. The ownership or management of the agricultural estates producing olive oil might be observed from the tituli picti α, β, γ, and δ, located on the neck of the Dressel 20 amphorae (fig. 7) from the first century AD (Rodríguez Almeida1989). The owners or managers of the estates that produced the olive oil (or possibly the fundus where the olive oil was produced) has been linked to the genitive name of a free person in the titulus δ inscriptions. This genitive name is interpreted as representing the owner or manager of the estate where the olive oil was produced. From the same period, the titulus δ name was occasionally found in the accusative and is viewed as the name of the estate where the olive oil was produced. By the second and third centuries AD, the titulus δ inscriptions became more difficult to comprehend, as two different abbreviations were added (α or αα or R). Étienne and Mayet interpreted those extra abbreviations as representing demands made by the imperial administrative control, which was carried out by those who attested and weighed the olive oil at the portus (Mayet and Étienne 2004). The other tituli picti likely refer to some kind of fiscal control. The titulus ɑ indicates the weight of the empty vessel. The titulus β located below the titulus ɑ is the name of an individual concerned with the commercialization or transport of the olive oil.4 The titulus γ located below the titulus β indicates the net weight of the contents of the amphora. There are two other known tituli. One of them is the undecipherable titulus ε, which is only occasionally part of the tituli picti. The other is the titulus θ that is placed between the tituli picti α, β, γ, and δ. This type of titulus was added at the destination (not at the place of origin, as was the case for all of the other tituli picti) (Gomes-Iglesia Casal 2010, 70).

THE ANNONA In order to apprehend the extension to which Septimius Severus control the production and distribution of Baetican olive oil, we need to under4

Commercialization and transportation may be associated with mercatus, negotiatror, diffusor or navicularii; these various professions are not properly differentiated.

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stand that olive oil was part of the annona: the State supply to Rome and the army (Pavis D’Escurac 1976). Augustus had converted Baetica into a great supplier of olive oil for Rome and for the armies stationed in the western provinces.5 The fiscus’s control of Baetican olive oil was quite minimal until AD 41, but became almost total by AD 716 and continued to increase until the second century AD. The Antonine period saw the rise of complete fiscal control over Baetican olive oil, as demonstrated by references to the place of origin, the weight, the name of the product and the producer, and in most cases, the consular date with the name of the scriptor, acceptor, and ponderator. The various officers and their high level of organization reflect the importance and necessity of an organizational system that could assure the supply of products to Rome and to the army. Supplying goods to Rome and the army was a real concern for Roman emperors. The supply to the annona likely ended around AD 260 (Pavis D’Escurac 1976, 43–68). The end of the annona can be seen with the end of the various offices. For instance, the last known procurator ad Mercurium Alexandriae was in AD 201. There is no known subpraefectus annonae after AD 244, or any known procurator portus utriusque after AD 247. Moreover, there is no record of a Neaspoleos et Mausolei Alexandriae after AD 248. The amphora deposits from Monte Testaccio also came to an end around AD 259–60.

5 Augustus had created an efficient administration structure—the praefectus annona of Rome with an officium centralizing the tasks of collection and distribution using employees in the provinces, the procurators Augusti, who were given the task of obtaining products through the fiscus and donations through procurators or by requisition through inductions. 6 Vespasian concession of the ius Latii may have helped the increasing control and regulation of taxation in Hispania. By the Claudian period, fiscal control of Baetican olive oil was in the hands of the so-called recensiones, with transport handled by private enterprises (mercatores, navicularii, and diffusores).

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THE ROLE OF THE SENATE Another important factor that might have contributed to Septimius Severus economical politics in Hispania was the relationship of senators and their place of origin during his reign. For instance, a decreasing supply of olive oil to Rome, based on the testa recovered from Monte Testaccio, was evident by the period AD 160–200 (Fig. 8). In the 1960s, R. Syme viewed this decrease as a response to absentee senators from Hispania; senators were living in Rome from the time of Trajan’s reign. Syme’s argument is based on the fact that under Trajan, senators had to invest part of their revenue from Hispania in Italian territory (SHA, Vita Marci. XI 8) (Syme 1964). Most senators from Hispania came from the Baetica and Tarraconenses provinces (fig. 9), likely affecting their production and commercialization of agricultural products, and particularly olive oil from Baetica. Senators’ links to their places of origin were gradually fading from the first to the third centuries AD (Talbert 1984, 66–76). It was not easy for a senator to travel, or to visit his place of origin. Furthermore, senators were required to seek the emperor’s permission in order to travel outside of Rome. For the sake of convenience, senators had to live in Rome, since they were obliged to attend all senate reunions and travelling was slow. Being in Rome allowed the senators, at least to a certain extent, to seek a relationship with the emperor. Senators could act by having access to the emperor, by acting in tribunals, by using connections, or by acting as authorities. Cities often sent embassies to Rome asking for favors, benefits, and reconciliations. These requests likely did not reach the emperor directly, but rather travelled through a system of acquaintances, friends and clients (and possibly through senators). An example of this system is demonstrated by the honorific inscription to Q. Caecilius Oinogenes (possibly a senator from Hispania) erected by the conventus carthaginensis (CIL VI 41084) (Navarro 1997, 225–293). Roman emperors were concerned not only with maintaining their personal power, but also with ensuring their senators’ allegiance. Since the time of Augustus, the imperial aristocracy was dependent almost exclusively on social promotion rather than on old Republican family ties. The new imperial aristocracy played a crucial role in the imperial central power and in the many urban cities of the empire. Senators were the link between the emperor and the municipal elites. The social value of a sena-

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tor depended on his ability to deliver benefits to individuals and communities (Plin. Ep. 2.14.3; Tac. Dial. 34) (Leunissen 1993, 101–120). Importantly, senators could act as mediators between the emperor and society (Rodríguez Neila and Navarro 1999, 173–174). For instance, the senator M. Pompeius Macrinus supported Mitilene (his city of origin) against Antoninus Pius (ILS 88525). The third century AD senator M. Licinius Rufinus took a position against the rise of tribute (IG X² 1.142). Senator L. Flavius Hemocrates defended the rights of Pergamon (his city of origin) against an embassy sent by Caracalla (AltvPerg VIII³ 34). By way of further example, an unknown town erected an inscription in a house on the Esquiline Hill in Rome in honor of the senator P. Alfius Maximus Numerius Avitus, originally from Tarraco (Hispania). The inscription refers to the various benefits conferred under his protection (CIL VI 41176). One of those benefits was an old right that had allowed the unknown city to avoid contributing to the praefectus annonae. Senator P. Alfius Maximus Numerius Avitus was likely active during the time of Septimius Severus and Caracalla. The role of a senator throughout the empire is not quite visible in the archeological record. One of the reasons for this might be found in the tradition associated with the erection of commemorative inscriptions, as well as the survival of such inscriptions. The scarce number of inscriptions leaves us with many questions regarding the social status of senators, their places of origin, and their wealth. Thus, determining the number of senators originating from Hispania is not an easy task. A. Caballos Rufino provides some insight into the number of senators with origins in Hispania, though such information is quite partial (Caballos Rufino 2009, 265–282). Theoretically, there were 300 senators during the monarch period in Rome; by 81 BC, 300 more senators were added. 300 more were added by the time of Caesar, culminating to 1,000 by the time of the Triumvirate. Finally, by 4 AD, when a reduction of senators was imposed by Augustus, 600 senators remained, and the senate stayed at this number until the end of the Roman Empire (Talbert 1986). Only about half of the senators from the Roman Empire are known, with 483 known from the reign of Augustus and 243 from the reign of Commodus; numbers vary for most of the imperial periods (Caballos Rufino 2009, 279). The number of senators with origins in Hispania is also not definite; there are approximately 180 senators known to have origins in Hispania (Caballos Rufino 2009, 279). The number of senators from Hispania during the Julio-

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Claudian period remained stable, and tripled under Trajan and Hadrian (fig. 9) (Caballos Rufino 1990). By comparison, during the Severan period, interest in exporting foods from Hispania decreased. The traditional forms of public self-representation declined along with the number of civic inscriptions and senators in Rome. The relationship between Hispania and Rome had changed by the time of Septimius Severus. This change was reflected in the economic and political history.

SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS’S CONTROL The late second century AD experienced social instabilities. The relative peace enjoyed by the Iberian Peninsula in the Early Empire was somewhat broken by a series of eruptions from North Africa. For instance, Mauri crossed the straits of Gibraltar in the early 170s AD (Bénabou, 1976, 144–159). Another insurgence occurred when Maternus deserted the army in AD 186 and gathered a band to plunder Gaul and Hispania (Drinkwater 1983, 80; Alföldy 1971, 367–76). With the murder of the emperor Commodus in AD 192, the elite from Hispania supported Clodius Albinus instead of Septimius Severus for emperor (Vita Severi 12.1.3) (Manacorda, 1977, 313–32; Tsirkin 1987, 257–61). One may suggest that this lack of support for Septimius Severus in Hispania further weakened the social and political ties between Septimius Severus and Hispania. One may even propose that this gave Severus good reason to confiscate various estates, which he later turned into imperial properties (HDN. 3.8; SHA Sev. 12.1–3; Cassiu Dio 75.8.3–4; Herodian 3.8.6–7) (Badacci 1967, 101, 729–47; Rodríguez Almeida, 1980, 277–90; Remesal Rodríguez 1989, 131–52; 1996, 195–221). While the consequence of the war with Clodius Albinus did not change Rome’s policies regarding Hispania, it did impact the ownership of property by the elite. The private ownership of Baetican olive oil supply to Rome can be seen in stamps with AVGGGNNN/Augistorum nostrum trium. Some of the examples are associated with figlinae attributed to Barba (AVGGGNNN/FIGVLBARBA), the figlinae Cearia (AVGGGNNN/FIGVCEARIA), and the figlinae Grumensis (AVGGGNNNN/FIGVLGRUMENSIS). These three figlinae belong to the conventus of Hispalis, Astigi, and Corduba (CIL, XV, 2560, 2564, 2570) (Ponsich 1974; Remesal Rodríguez 1980, 145–52; Millet 1998, 48). The figlina Barba has not yet been located in the Guadalquivir area, while the Cearia is known to have been located near Palma del Río on the

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left bank of the River Genil. For its part, the Grumensis was located on the right bank of the Guadalquivir River, near the Lora del Río (fig. 10). Of these three figlinae, Cearia is known to have belonged to Mummius Secundinus, whose property was likely confiscated by Septimius Severus. Secundinus was a partisan of Clodius Albinus. The figlina Cearia was manufacturing Dressel 20 amphorae before the third century AD (CIL, XV, 4226; II MVS FPR: CIL, XV, 3032). The figlina Grumensis might also have been confiscated by the State, as the family members were also likely partisans of Clodius Albinus (Remesal Rodríguez 1997, 195–221). The figlina Grumensis was also manufacturing Dressel 20 amphorae before the third century AD. Different stamps belonging to different families are associated with this figlina. Evidence of State control under Septimius Severus is found on Dressel 20 stamps from amphorae originating from the manufacturing center of La Catria (Lora del Río, Sevilla). These stamps bear the suffix or prefix PORTRO/POPULI, which Millet interpreted as being destined for the annona civil – the people of Rome (Millet 2008, 49). Other forms of State control by Septimius Severus and his two sons can be observed through the tituli picti from this period. The names of Septimius Severus and Caracalla appeared on the tituli β until AD 208. From 208 to 212, the tituli β bore the names of Septimius Severus, Caracalla, and Geta. The tituli β changed from private names to the following formula during the period of Septimius Severus, Geta, and Caracalla (AD 209–11): Augusti nostri, Domini nostri Augusti, and Dominorum Severi Antonini et Getae Augg (Étienne 1949, 164–65; Rodríguez Almeida 1979, 873–975; 1980; 1989). By AD 217, there was another transformation with the tituli β: Fisci Rationi took the place of earlier private names that were referred to as the navicularii, mercator, negotiator, and diffusor olearii who were supplying the annona. The fiscal control exerted by Septimius Severus and his two sons is also evidenced by inscriptions related to the transportation of Baetican olive oil. Inscriptions refer to praefectus ad oleum afrum et hispananum rescescendum, who were responsible for one or various adiutores. Other inscriptions mention procurators ripae Baetis, whose functions may have

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been limited to supervising the navigability of the river.7 With Septimius Severus, the imperial office of the arcarii was responsible for the boats used to transport olive oil. Other inscriptions refer to scapharii and lintrarii, who transported products in small boats along the Guadalquivir River to the port at Hispalis. It is not known whether these individuals were part of the fiscal control, or if they were free collegia.

CONCLUSION Rome’s economy was closely linked to its politics and social networks, particularly when it came to the distribution and trade of food supplies (Garnsey 1999). The emperor’s involvement was always centered on the political and economic interests of the ruling State. A bureaucratic system between the emperor and the orders was in place to serve Rome and the army, to ensure peace, and to facilitate taxation. The integration (or, rather, the participation) of the elite from Hispania in the politics of Rome – particularly at the senatorial rank – was well integrated with the development of accepting and emulating Roman social and cultural values. The elites were participants who were instrumental in maintaining imperial power as they held on to their social and political functions. However, Septimius Severus, who was on a quest to gain further approval of the populace of Rome, increasingly alienated the elite from Hispania. Without any strong social ties between himself and the aristocrats of Hispania, Septimius Severus confiscated their property and increased fiscal control over the production and commercialization of Baetican olive oil. This political instability increased as a decreasing number of senators from Hispania contributed to olive oil production, further causing Hispania to distance itself from Rome.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Alföldy, G., “Bellum desertorum,” BJ 171 (1971) 367–76. 7

These procurators may have also been responsible for expediting the transport of olive oil, though dispensatores could have been responsible for that task.

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Rodríguez Almeida, E., “Monte Testaccio: I mercatores dell’olio della Betica,” in Mélanges de l’École Française de Rome (1979) 873–975. Rodríguez Almeida, E., “Alcuni aspetti della topografia e dell’archeologia attorno al Monte Testaccio,” in J. M. Blázquez Martínez (ed) Producción y comercio del aceite en la Antigüedad. Primer Congreso Internacional Madrid 1977–78 (1980) 103–30. Rodríguez Almeida, E., “Vicissitudine nella gestione,” MAAR 36 (1980) 277–90. Rodríguez Almeida, E., Los Tituli Picti de las Ánforas Olearias de la Bética I (1989). Rodríguez Almeida, E., Amphores Romaines et Histoire Économique: Dix Ans de Recherche: actes du colloque de Sienne 22–24 mai 1986 (1989). Lloris Beltran, M., Las ánforas romanas en España (1970). Badacci, P., “Comercio e stato Nell’età dei Severi,” in Rendicioni dell’Academia di Science e Lettere di Milano (1967). Bénabou, M., La résistance africaine à la Romanisation (1976). Birley, A., Septimius Severus (1971). Mariner Bigo, S.M., Blázquez Martínez, J.M. (eds.) Producción y comercio del aceite en la Antigüedad. Primer Congreso Internacional Madrid 1977–78 (1980) 243–54. Blázquez, J.M., et al., La carta Arqueológica Subacuática de la Costa de Almería (1983–1992) (1998). Broughton, T.R.S., “Oil producing estates in southern Spain,” in VI Kongreses für Griechissh und Lateinische Epigraphie (Vestigia 17) (1972) 475–746. Callender, M.M.H., Roman Amphorae, with index of Stamps (1965). Gomes-Iglesia Casal, A., “Apectos Jurídicos de la Actividad Comercial en Roma y los ‘Tituli Picti’,” in Revista de Estudios HistóricosJurídicos [Sección Derecho-Romano] XXXII (2010) 59–82. Dressel, H., “Ricerche su Monte Testaccio,” Annali dell’Instituto di Corrispondenza archeological (1878) 118–192. Dressel, H., “Di un Grande Deposito di Anfore rinvenuto nel Nuovo Quartiere del Castro Pretorio,” Bulletino della Commissione Archeologica Communale di Roma VII (1879) 36–112, 143–195. Dressel, H., Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum XV 2 Inscripriptione Urbis Romae Latinae. Instrumenttum Domesticum. Partis Posteriores Fasciculus I (1899). Dressel, H., Saggi sull’Instrumentum Romano (1978).

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Drinkwater, J.F., Roman Gaul: The three provinces, 58 BC – AD 260 (1983). Pavis D’Escurac, H., La préfecture de l'annone service administratif impérial d'Auguste à Constantin (1976). Étienne, R., “Les amphores du Testaccio au III siècle,” in Mélanges d’Archéologie et d’Histoire de l’École Française de Rome, Antiquité 41 (1949). Étienne, R., “Structures agraires antiques dans la region de Séville,” in Essai de problématique in Mélanges de la Casa de Vélázquez, VIII (1972) 622–27. Étienne, R. and Mayet, F., L’Huile Hispanique (2004). García Chic, G., Epigrafía anfórica de la Bética, I. Las marcas impresas en el barro sobre ánforas olearias (Dressel 19, 20 y 23) (1985). Garnsey, P., Food and society in classical antiquity (1999). Grenier, A., Manuel d’archéologie préhistorique, celtique et galloromaine de J. Déchelette, VI, 2 (1934). Kulikowski, M., (ed.), Hispania in Late Antiquity (2005) 369–486. Laubenheimer, F., (direction), Les Amphores en Gaule: production et circulation: table ronde internationale, Metz, 4–6 octobre 1990 (1992). Leunissen, P.M.M., “Conventions of Patronage in Senatorial careers under the Principate,” Chriron 23 (1993). Manacorda, D. “Il Kalendarium Vegetianum e le anfora della Betica,” MEFR 89 (1977), 313–32. Mayet, F., “Amphores de Bétique en Lusitanie,” in Congreso Internacional Ex Baetica Amphorae, Vol. II (2000) 647–54. Berni Millet, P., Las Ánforas de aceite de la Bética en la Cataluña romana (1998). Carreras Monfort, C., Funari, P.P.A, Britanni y el Mediterráneo. Estudios sobre el Abesticimento de Aceite Bético y Africano en Britannia (Instrumenta 5) (1998). Ponsich, M., Implantation Rurale Antique sur le Bas-Guadalquivir, I. Séville, Alclá del Río, Lora del Río, Carmona (1974). Navarro, F.J., “El Retorno a las Ciudades de la Aristocracia Romana, los Senadores Hispanos,” in J. F. J. F. Rodríguez Neila and F. J. Navarro (eds.), Elites y Promoción Social en la Hispania Romana (1999). Remesal Rodríguez, J., “La Economía de la Bética: Nuevas Formas de Análisis,” AEA 50–51 (1977–78) 87–142.

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Remesal Rodríguez, J., “Reflejo económicos y sociales en la producción béticas (Dr. 20) Producción y comercio del aceite en la antigüedad,” in J. M. Blázquez Martínez (ed) Producción y comercio del aceite en la Antigüedad. Primer Congreso Internacional Madrid 1977–78 (1980) 131–52. Remesal Rodríguez, J., “Transformaciones en la Exportación del aceite Bético del Siglo III d.C,” in J. Remesal Rodríguez (ed.), Producción y comercio del aceite en la Antigüedad. Segundo Congreso Internacional Sevilla 1982 (1983) 115–131. Remesal Rodríguez, J., La annona Étienne y la exportación del aceite bético a Germania, con un corpus de sellos en ánforas Dressel 20 hallados en Nimega, Colonia, Mainz, Saalburg Zugmantel y NidaHeddernheim (1986). Remesal Rodríguez, J., “Tres Nuevos Centros Productores de Ánforas Dressel 20 y 23. Los Sellos de Lucius Fabius Cilo,” Ariadna 6 (1989) 121–153. Remesal Rodríguez, J., “Mummius Secundinus. El Lalendarium Vegetianum y las confiscaciones de Severo en la Bética (HA Severus 12–13),” Gerión 14 (1996) 195–221. Remesal Rodríguez, J., “Arva Prospeciones de un Centro Productor de Ánforas Dressel 20 (Alcoela del Río, Sevilla),” Pyrenae 28 (1997) 151–178. Reynold, P., “Hispania in the Late Roman Mediterranean: Ceramics and Trade” in K. Bowes and J. S. Richardson, The Romans in Spain (1998). Caballos Rufino, A., Los Senadores Hispanoromanos y la Romanizacion de Hispania (siglos I–III) (1990). Caballos Rufino, A., “La Extracción de Hispanos para Formar Parte de la Aristocracia Imperial: Senadores y caballeros,” in J. Andreu Pinto, J. Cabrero Piquero, and I. Rodà d llanza (eds.), Hispaniae: Las Provincias Hispanas en el Mundo Romano (2009) 265–282. Syme, R., Hadrian and Italica JRS 54 (1964). Talbert, J.A., The Senate of Imperial Rome (1984). Tchnernia, A., “Amphores et marques d’amphores de Bétique à Pompéi et à Stabies,” MEFR, LXXVI, 2 (1964) 419–49 Tchnernia, A., “Des timbres d’amphores à l’organisation du commerce,” in W. V. Harris (ed.), The inscribed economy (1993) 183–85 Thouvenot, R., “Marques d’amphores romaines trouvées au Maroc,” in Publications du Service des Antiquités du Maroc, VI (1940) 95–98

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Tsirkin, J.B., “The crisis of antique society in Spain in the third century,” Gerión 5 (1987) 257–61.

ECONOMIC GROWTH I N T H E E A R LY A N D M I D D L E IMPERIAL PERIODS, PRE-200 AD: AN ECONOMIC APPROACH F R O M A P E R I P H E R A L H I S PA N I C P R O V I N C E , L U S I TA N I A José Carlos Quaresma (Post-doctoral grant, Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia; Researcher, CIDEHUS – Un. Évora / UNIARQ – Un. Lisbon)

INTRODUCTION In the last 20 years some important studies (Panella 1993; Carandini 1993; Wilson 2009; Bauman, Wilson 2009; Jongman 2007; Scheidel 2009; 2010) has resumed an old scientific debate concerning the evolution of the Roman economy and especially the changes occurred in the Antonine period. This debate has discussed the archaeological data and not only the historical sources information, on the opposite of the former proposal published by Gibbon (1776), in the 18th century and Rostovtzeff (1926), in the first half of the 20th century. A time of urban and economic development, 2nd century (its first half) presents also other complex evolutions which characterize it as a transitional period where one can see the progress of the 1st century, but also the first lines of the major changes which will characterize the Low Empire. In the words of P. Bang (2008), are we facing a return to Ros377

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tovtzeff, or according to Jongman (2007), a return to Gibbon? Or are we rather facing a period of transformation and change? And what is the geographic scale of these phenomena? Does several similarities point to the connectivity of the Roman economy, as the modernist theories propose? By applying line graphics, a methodology introduced by Fentress and Perkins (1987) to the African terra sigillata, on the total terra sigillata amount consumed in Chãos Salgados and other published peninsular sites, showed an extreme coincidence with the issues raised by the evolution of other items throughout the 2nd century. Unfortunately we have no other Roman sites where the total amount of terra sigillata has been calculated, except for London (Marsh 1981) and Poitiers (Tilhard 2004), whose imports of the 1st and 2nd century are published. This is the more original contribution from this paper and this lack of data for other regions of the Empire makes automatically impossible to compare this Hispanic and Atlantic (?) evolution to the central or the eastern Mediterranean’s one. Nevertheless, the importance of the terra sigillata as the main table fineware, its industrial production framework, and its statistic value when we try to draw economic evolutions in long-distance trade, are reinforced by the strong similarity of the line produced in all the graphics, which show drops in consumption over the 2nd century, making this century pivotal in explaining the transformation of Roman economy, a kind of precursor to Low Empire. This article is therefore an attempt to explain this century from Lusitania, a peripheral provincial of Hispania, where surprisingly we find the major amount of sites whose total terra sigillata imports were quantified, but trying also to establish the similarities and contradictions of the archaeological and historical sources, which led us to a wider view of the Roman economy. A question rises easily from the graphs we have drawn on terra sigillata consumption: why does consumption in the 1st century is several times stronger than in the next centuries? We may put a second one: why does this change occur in these Hispanic, Gallic and Britannic consumption sites, when their terra sigillata regional productions decrease strongly and move to a new strategic region, the North Africa? Finally, what can we conclude from the similarity of different patterns concerning the Roman economy, already stressed during the last 20 years, with regard to the terra sigillata pattern?

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THE ROMAN ECONOMY OF THE 2ND CENTURY AD: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK The primitivist theories, headed by Finley (1973), and modernist, headed by M. Rostovtzeff (1926) marked the historiographic debate of Roman Economy, since the 20th century and they are crucial to the understanding of the role of the 2nd century AD, somewhat balancing what is proposed by H. Pirenne (1937), who proposed a major transformation related to the Arabic expansion. Embedded with a more pessimistic view of Ancient Economy, L. Blois, H. Pleket and J. Rich (2002, xiii) point out clear constraints, supported by primitivism: “The Roman Empire may have been nothing else than a conglomerate of different cultural and economic entities, which were kept together by the Roman imperial administration, the armed forces, and—to a lesser extent—Graeco-Roman elite culture, but certainly not by economic integration”. In the words of P. Temin or of J. Paterson we speak in the first instance of regional interdependent markets, but coordinated in an imperfect way, and in the second case, of a network of regional micro-economies that in certain periods had an increased range and dynamics, becoming wider markets (apud Blois, Pleket, Rich 2002, xiv). This intermediate level of debate, which has been the focus of many authors over the last decades, reaches not only this tendency closer to Finley, but also an important series of authors that we may perceive as closer to the modernist theory. “Returning to Rostovtzeff?” is actually the title of a book chapter by P. Bang (2008, 26–30), The Roman Bazaar, that focuses on this historiographic debate and reminds us that Rostovtzeff (1926) himself said that the limitations to Roman economy and technology were the lack of capital and production, still insufficient for industrial development. Ph. Kenrick (Ettlinger et Al. 1993, 36) or R. Marichal (1988) proposed that Italian and South-Gaulish terra sigillata productions (namely La Graufesenque) are modernist, taking into account the empirical epigraphic basis (potter stamps and pre-firing graffiti), workshop structures, branches and inter-potter or hierarchical relationships (Bang 2008, 30). Production of terra sigillata is viewed as an anti minimalist proof by P. Horden and N. Purcell (2000, 123, 250): if this ceramic was capable of reaching such vast areas and places of different hierarchy, from the most important cities to the smallest settlements, it would need to have a mas-

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sive production. It is thus a fundamental element of “connectivity of micro-regions”. This intermediate criticism has two nuclear authors for the construction of an economical paradigm. For R. Duncan-Jones (1974), a strong commercial inter-regional growth had occurred, generated by the great cities, but with strong limitations to the private world due to the role of the Estate and mainly because of the tax load. For K. Hopkins (1980, 101–116), taxes in money had certainly stimulated commerce by creating complex networks, mainly until 200 AD, and the taxed provinces had to generate wealth to pay those taxes. He points out the growth in coin minting to finance that commercial activity in an integrated fashion as shown in the similar graphics resulting from the monetary volume circulating in several areas of the Empire (fig. 2). K. Hopkins however, stresses the influence of climate on trade volume, the existence of many taxes as supplies and the maintenance of an essentially subsistence economy, calculating the autarchy as around 80 to 90% of the gross domestic product of the imperial space. According to P. Horden and N. Purcell (2000, 153), “it is the seventh century rather than the second in which aggregate demand was small, merchants were lowly, and only luxuries could profitably be moved over long distances. For all that, the early medieval depression is of course inextricably associated with neither Jones nor Finley, but rather with Henri Pirenne (…)”. “Gibbon’s problem” (1776) is by and large the view of Rostovtzeff (1926, LV) who establishes two great phases in his Economic and Social History of the Roman Empire: the first one, of development, between the end of the Republic and the beginning of the principality of Augustus, prolonging until the 2nd century; the second one, of regression and decline, in the 3rd century. The turning point between them would be around the end of the 2nd century, when the political and economical decline had been the result of a large, social, upraise of the poorest classes, mainly agricultural, against the urban elite. The Marxist vision of the slavic author, searching for essentially socio-economic explanations, is today somewhat limited, when considering the amount of diverse information collected, and the new historiographic perspectives. However, it was the empirical basis currently known that actually led to the reprise of this period’s study and to many authors considering this century, or its ending, a turning point. W. Jongman (2007, 183, 195, 199) ironically entitles one of his articles with the following words: “Gibbon was right: the decline and fall of the Roman economy”

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and accepts a strong economical growth in the 1st and 2nd centuries, but replaces the notions of decline and fall by transformation. However, Jongman finishes his text with a hyperbolic expression of his concept of the 2nd century: “The age of Antoninus Pius was indeed probably the best age to live in pre-industrial history” and places the rupture somewhere at the end of the 2nd century AD. We will find the same conception in the recent work of A. Bowman and A. Wilson (2009, 47), Quantifying the Roman economy, with the date of c.200 AD for the end of economical growth. A. Wilson (2009, 224) poses the question: “the marked drop between the first and the second centuries AD appears surprising, and is not easily explained. The numbers are fairly constant throughout the second century, and the drop occurs too early to be a result of the Antonine Plague”. The late 1st century/early 2nd century seems to have been the beginning of a turning period, with a slower growth in the economy and a likely slower inflationary process, in the principalities of Trajan and Adrian, possibly with underlying deflationary processes. This is illustrated by the price of the donkey, an important terrestrial means of transportation, according to an Egyptian source, when compared with the evolution of coin circulation (figs. 1 and 2). There is a clear inflationary process until the end of the 1st century and a deflection, not abrupt, but that is more marked at the time of Adrian. The monetary circulation seems to confirm that situation: the high minting of Claudius supports the transactions over several decades and the monetary circulation only increased again, albeit mildly, with Adrian or Marcus Aurelius (figs. 1 and 2). The shipwrecks curve in the Mediterranean, published by Parker, in 1990 (fig. 3), and recurrently used by Roman Economy Archaeologists and Historians (Scheidel 2009; Wilson 2009) demonstrates a trade peak in the second half of the 1st century AD, that decreases in the 2nd century, despite still having high levels during Trajan and Adrian phases. Such a low curve from the 2nd century onwards is questioned by several authors. Scheidel (2009, 16) states pertinently that, at least the 4th century curve should be higher, even knowing about the more frequent use of leather bags and barrels in relation to amphorae, from the 2nd century on. Horden and Purcell (2000, 160) also raise this question and believe that something radical was occurring to the economy. Wilson (2009, 220, 224–226) elaborates on this question: on one hand, inter-provincial trade is contrary to an exaggerated growth of the autarchy; on the other hand,

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the hypothesis of an increased use of barrels (despite important for italic wine from the 3rd century onwards) does not match the important trade of Hispanic and African salted fish, a question also debated by Harris (2009, 259). The known predominance of the African trade, in foodstuffs such as olive oil, as well as in table ceramics, constitutes a problem in relation with the shipwrecks results. Because of that, Wilson questions if part of the result can be caused by the lack of underwater archaeology along the African coasts. Jongman (2007) presents two other graphics highly suggestive of the falling results in the 2nd century: a decrease in the consumption of animals is seen in Italy as in the provinces; a fall which is even more notable in the length of the human femur, denouncing small statures, consequence of less quality of life (figs. 4–5). This author (Jongman 2007, fig.2) presents still another graphic, suggestive but more questionable concerning its causes: also in the 2nd century, lead levels in Greenland drop, indicating lower levels of global environmental pollution. Another factor recurrently debated as a cause for the 2nd century decreases is the so-called Antonine Plague, occurring in 165–180 AD, originated in the Eastern part of the Empire and brought to the West by the imperial army on the Partic campaigns of Lucius Verus (161–166 AD). According to Ammianus Marcellinus it would have expanded through Gallia and the Rhine legions; Dio Cassius and Eutropius mention high levels of deaths in the Empire, particularly in Rome (apud Bruun 2007). However, the true reach of this phenomenon is far from being known and is questioned by Rostovtzeff (1926, 269) or Scheidel (2010, 9). Two sentences by A. Wilson and W. Harris synthesize how hard it is to explain the 2nd century juncture. On one hand, as we referred before, “the marked drop between the first and the second centuries AD appears surprising, and is not easily explained. The numbers are fairly constant throughout the second century, and the drop occurs too early to be a result of the Antonine Plague” (Wilson 2009, 224); on the other hand, according to Harris (2009, 259), “neither the textual nor the material evidence from sites on land would lend us to suspect that there was a decline in maritime trade in the Western Mediterranean after AD 50 and especially after 100, as the shipwreck evidence suggests”.

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FINANCIAL DATA From the Trajan period we know new political attitudes for famine control, such as performing a feeding scheme for the rural children in Italy. These alimenta, brought to us by Plinius (Ep. VII, 31, 4. Apud Garnsey, Saller 1987, 60), started, according to Rostovtzeff (1926, 260), in Italy, and were progressively widened to other provinces, in an apparent indication of an increase in poverty. Silver coin debasement occurring in the principality, with a decrease in precious metal from 90 to 85%, is probably not the result of a new inflation increase, rather a correction of denarius value on the aureus, which had lost some value due to the high quantities of gold available after the conquest of Dacia (Jones 1953, 191). On a financial level, the middle 2nd century, with Antoninus Pius, is a moment of stability on the wake of the policy started by Adrian, for pacification, therefore contrary to the aggressive policy of Trajan (Rostovtzeff 1926, 261–266). Peace allows for government treasury to accumulate around 675 million of denarius according to the sources (Jones 1953, 189–190). It is during Marcus Aurelius that, once the peace ended, public finance met with serious problems. To face the deficit, Trajan had already resorted to selling real estate in public sale. Marcus Aurelius adds to these goods, jewellery and luxurious clothes, to face spending of the Marcomanic War (Dio, LXXIII. 8. 3; Plinius, Paneg. 50; S.H.A., Marc. 17. Apud Jones 1953, 189–190; Rostovtzeff 1926, 268). Highly suggestive of the public finance, the state of the economy and the need for control of food supplies in Italian area, is the Oratio de pretiis gladiatorum minuendis, found at Italica and in Lidia and published in 177–178 AD (Rodriguez de Berlanga 1891; Ceballos Hornero 2004, 162– 178). Despite being requested by Gallia priests, this law, aiming at decreasing the prices of circus shows, intended to target the whole Empire. The Hispanic document mentions some interesting subjects, which are interesting to understand how far the State had the perception of the general economic context, safeguarding a possible excessive rhetoric. According to the text, this one was made after examining public accounts for the previous 10 years and taking into account the growing ruin of private fortunes. Most of all it was a measure to defend the imperial treasury and urban structures, whose finances were also going through serious problems. According to the text, public revenue was expected to recover 20 to 30 million of sestercii per year with this law. The final aspect to point out

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is related to law observance: it is attributed to provincial administration, except in Italy, where it should be supervised by the Praefectus Aliment[orum, which seems a pressing necessity to preserve food distribution in that central area. In that sense, a 2nd century law clears from other tax obligations those who build ships and those who use them to supply wheat to Rome, as long as they have at least 330 tonnes of capacity or if they own enough boats to fulfil that capacity, just as long as each one was not below 65 tonnes in capacity (Dig. 50. 5. 3; vide Hopkins 1983, 98). The growing state interventionism shows itself in other legislative points. If during Trajan there had been an increase in the use of collegia of navicularii, mercatores of cereal and olive oil, and bakers, which would have higher privileges if they preferably served the Annona and Munus Publicum, the middle of the century sees a different juridical activity to strengthen the number of navicularii, as opposed to the number of mercatores (Dig. 27. 1. 17. 6; Dig. 50.6. 6. 3; Dig. 60. 6. 6.6; vide Rickman 1980, 271–272). The Bingen 77 papyrus (Rathbone 2003, 223) proves the existence of mixed cargoes in the second half of the 2nd century, thus showing the maintenance of public-private trade efforts. This document, related to ships arriving at a port, probably that of Alexandria, reveals that one of them, a 7000 artaba akatos (210 tons), was coming from Side (Pamphylia), led by G. Ulpius Iasôn, with a cargo of pine logs and wine, owned by the Emperor and a private trader, Noumênios al. Kallistratos. It is likely that these market control measures are linked with the new debasement of the silver coin, which content in precious metal decreases from 85% (Trajanus) to 75%, with Marcus Aurelius (García Vargas 1998, 242). The Comodus principality seems to affect the whole West, namely some measures related with state commerce, such as the construction of a state-owned merchant fleet with its headquarters in Carthage (Reynolds 1995, 107), probably related to the lack of 300 ton ships to supply wheat to Rome, mentioned by Ulpianus, in the beginning of the 3rd century (vide Hopkins 1983, 98: Dig. 3. 6). The monetary fluxes increase again during Septimius Severus, who debased the silver coin, now to 50% of that metal, and increased the soldiers’ salaries to 400 denarii, a rise followed by that of Caracala, to 600 denarii, revealing somehow inflation was progressing (Jones 1953, 194). Donkey’s price in Egypt (fig. 1) shows exactly a strong increase in the end of the 2nd century, as well as other prices in this region (Wilson 2009, 292).

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At the fiduciary circulation level, the 2nd century confirms the transition of the primacy of the Northern part of the Empire (Hispania, Italy, and militarised areas of Britannia and Germania), to the new directorarea, North Africa: a certain stabilisation in the number of circulating coins in the more militarised areas of the North, in Italy and Hispania and an increase in North Africa (fig. 2).

CONSUMPTION IN HISPANIA: HISPANIA’S GEO-ECONOMIC POSITION Plinius and Aelius Aristides tell us about the development of the Atlantic route and the role of Gades and Olisipo in that economic axe, during the High-Empire (apud Mantas 2004, 433–435). The peninsula’s situation, especially the Atlantic side remained however peripheral in the Empire. K. Hopkins (1980, 101) presents a model with three levels of provincial hierarchy: an external ring of border provinces with great military presence, an Italian core and an intermediate ring with tax-exporting provinces, composed by Hispania, Gallia, North Africa, Asia Minor, Syria and Egypt. Ph. Leveau (2007, 651–652, 668–669), in his contribution to The Cambridge Economic History of the Greco-Roman World, distinguishes between a Mediterranean and a later-evolved continental and Atlantic area and highlights that in Hispania, most cities have not over than 1000/2000 inhabitants and that a fourth of those cities paid stipendium. The same author recalls Friedman’s proposals for the hierarchy of western provinces. For this author, on the first level, the core region, we find not only Italy but also the Carthage area; he names the third level, resources frontier regions and the fourth, downward-transition regions; the Hispanic provinces, such as Gallia, would be the second level, the upward-transition regions. According to this author, “regions which experienced their first phase of development at the end of the Republic and in the early Empire are also those where the first withdrawals, which took place from the second century AD onward, signaled the crisis of the third” (apud Leveau 2007, 668). The same Ph. Leveau (2007, 669) warns: “this is the subject of a debate connected with the interpretation of the archaeological data (…) Hence the impression of a crisis could simply be an effect of the scale of observation”. It is this frame that we will seek to demonstrate in this chapter: in the West what seems to happen is the transition from an economic primacy of the provinces of the northern shores of the Mediterra-

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nean (Italia, Gallia and Hispania) to a new North African primacy, mainly in Proconsularis and Byzacena. Terra sigillata’s consumption curves for the Iberian Peninsula show, however, that the fall in South Gaulish and Hispanic productions precedes in several decades the noteworthy growth of African terra sigillata.

THE HISPANIC EMPIRICAL BASIS: OPERA PUBLICI, METAL PRODUCTION AND MAURI INCURSIONS In Hispania, the level of evergetism at the opera publici seems also to have a more fruitful period between Augustus and Trajanus, despite maximum levels being reached at the Julian-Claudian and Flavian periods (Andreu Pintado 2001; Melchior 1999, 252). The urban expansionism, stimulated by the Flavian emperors, extends trough Trajanus and Hadrianus, in areas such as the Northwest (Morais 2005, 2), but also in cities of the southern Lusitania, such as Italica or Chãos Salgados (Quaresma 2009, 9)1. However, in the imperial space, the marble consumption levels seem to be high for the two first centuries (Jongman 2007, 186; Fant 1993). Also in this domain one can observe a certain transition to the African space: with Trajan many colonies in Africa are founded and the urban development also reaches the near Orient in detriment of the areas that were earlier developed, including Gallia or Hispania, in Rostovtzeff’s opinion (1926, 157). Jongman (2007, 196) points to a crisis in Hispanic silver as a possible cause to successive coin debasements. Bustamante, Pérez Macias and Martins (2008) place the steep production decline at Vispasca (Southern Lusitania), around 150 AD, considering the imported ceramics, and point out to the 173 AD Tabula, dedicated by the colonists to the procurator Berylus, restitutor metallorum, epithet which confirms a previous fall of richness. The same crisis chronology is known in the Baetican metal extraction areas, that is, a floruit until Antoninus Pius. Bustamante, Pérez Macias and Martins (2008, 169) however, point the beginning of the mining activity in Britannia, starting with Hadrianus, as a possible cause to 1

One may note that recently it has taken place an international meeting organized in Spain by Casa de Velasquez, with this title “Crisis urbana a finales del Alto Imperio”.

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this decline. After the end of the 2nd century, we find few data concerning mining in Hispania and they are concentrated mainly in the South (Domergue 1990, 217). The first Mauri incursions occur in the principality of Marcus Aurelius, according to the Historia Augusta, which describes them in omnes Hispanias, an exaggerated manifesto. The Life of Septimius Severus describes the Baetica as a target in 171 AD and a second raid occurred in 177 AD, according to the Tabula Banasitana. Other epigraphic documents, such as in Antequera, reveal city sieges, but it seems not to be present in the epigraphy of important Baetican cities, such as Italica, which reveals the difficulties to draw the real geographic extension of these incursions (apud Arce 2005, 343). Their chronology as well as Antonine Plague’s one is nevertheless interesting, when compared with those of the decline in Lusitanian production of salted fish (see infra), despite being impossible to demonstrate causality.

TERRA SIGILLATA CONSUMPTION: THE FIRST ECONOMIC INDICATOR OF A SLOWER JUNCTURE? The high sales of terra sigillata, in particular of La Graufesenque, throughout the second half of the 1st century, as observed by the import curves of Chãos Salgados and other peninsular sites, integrated a process of continuous general economic growth (fig. 7; Quaresma 2009). Terra sigillata consumption curve at Chãos Salgados has a similar development to the one observed in the consumption centres in the peninsula and in London (fig. 8), as well as in Poitiers, in the western Gallia (Tilhard 2004). Ceramic data prove that there was a certain level of commercial dynamics and regional interdependence and that the falling levels of terra sigillata are part of a possible recession. Results obtained at Chãos Salgados, where South Gaulish and Hispanic terra sigillata present a noteworthy progression in lesser quality manufacture throughout the chrono-typology and stratigrafy (Quaresma 2009), lead us to propose that there was, for South Gaulish and Hispanic terra sigillata, a Flavian overproduction phenomenon, with a noteworthy drop in sales, in the first half of the 2nd century, due to a possible excessive offer in relation to demand. That was not due to the competition by African terra sigillata, whose trade is only well settled from the middle of the 2nd century onwards (fig. 7).

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In the Italian peninsula, stratigraphy at the Nuotatore’s baths in Ostia, shows that between 70 and 100 AD, the Italian sigillata predominates with c.80%, followed by the South Gaulish with c.10%, while the African is below 5%, and that between 100 and 120 AD the situation is similar. The turnaround starts slowly between 120 and 140 AD, when Italian sigillata represents c.70%, South Gaulish c.10%, Hispanic less than 5% and African c.20%. The definitive reversal occurs in the second half of the 2nd century: between 160 and 190 AD, Italian decreases to 10–20%, South Gaulish is below 5%, as well as Hispanic, and the African dominates for the first time, in a hegemonic way, with 70% (Martin 2006, tables 1–4). In Benghazi, Libya, the deposit n.73, dated from the first half of the 2nd century, shows the supremacy of Italian and oriental imports (Kenrick 1985, 422). The main role of Italian sigillata in the Italian peninsula, as well as the Italian and Eastern sigillata in the eastern half of North Africa, seems to parallel in the Iberian Peninsula, where Hispanic sigillata continues to lead the market throughout the first half of the 2nd century, in the southern part, as concluded by the quantities from Andújar (Baetica) at Chãos Salgados and at Ilha do Pessegueiro, on the Lusitanian western coast (Quaresma 2009; Silva, Soares 1993). In the first site, between 100 and 150 AD, there is a Hayes 9A specimen, whereas at Ilha do Pessegueiro, the first specimen, Hayes 8A, belongs to Flavian layers. Conversely, the A trench on this island is revealing of the importance of Andújar until the middle of the 2nd century, when African sigillata A is still incipient and presents the same type as Chãos Salgados, Hayes 9A (Silva, Soares 1993). On the abandoning level (layer 4) of the first phase (50–200 AD) of Sines tanks nr. 1 and 2, at the Praça João de Deus, Hispanic terra sigillata from Andújar totalises the existing sigillata (Silva, Coelho-Soares 2006, 110). In Salacia, just as in Ilha do Pessegueiro, the African Hayes 8A starts in Flavian levels with 3 specimens, together with another specimen of decorated Hayes 3B (Silva, et Al. 1980, 192). The first stratigraphic fragments at Cordoba (Baetica) are from the end of the 1st century or first half of the 2nd century (Vaquerizo, Garriguet, Vargas 2005), maybe at the same time as in the capital of Lusitania, Augusta Emerita, where African terra sigillata occurs in the Domitian levels of Suburbio Norte (types Hayes 3 and 8. Bustamante 2010, 153–170).

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The beginning of the imports at the southern coast of Lusitania was more diverse, even though it also shows continuity problems: in Monte Molião-Lagos, African terra sigillata A appears through types Hayes 7, 8 and 9, at the SUs of the end of the 1st century/beginning of the 2nd century, but is absent at the SU 29, between 125–150 AD (Arruda et Al. 2008, 158–161). In Lagos, in the industrial area of Rua Silva Lopes, the levels of c.50–150 AD have Hayes 3A, 8 and 20 (Ramos, Almeida, Laço 2006, 91). In the Northeast of the Iberian Peninsula (Tarraconensis), the oldest levels with African terra sigillata A belong to Domitian, at Ampurias, Baetulo and Tarraco, but their indices are still very poor. In the last city, between 90 and 110 AD, the imports rise mildly; between 100–125 and 125–150 AD, the African terra sigillata A becomes important, but the dominance still belongs to Hispanic terra sigillata whose numbers usually are twice or sometimes five times higher than the ones for African terra sigillata. In Baetulo, slightly further North of Tarraco, therefore slightly more distant from the Ebro river, where Hispanic terra sigillata from La Rioja was produced, African terra sigillata dominates the 125– 150 AD deposits, with more specimens than the total amount of South Gaulish and Hispanic terra sigillata. Importing African terra sigillata is equally important in Ampurias, in the first half of the 2nd century, but here, South Gaulish terra sigillata still predominates, with more than the double of African sigillata specimens (Aquilué Abadias et Al. 2005; Comas et Al. 1994; Madrid Fernández 1999; Aquilué Abadias 1987; 1992b; García Noguera et Al. 1997; apud Quaresma 2009, annex 2, tables 51– 54). According to the stratigraphic data from Valentia, African terra sigillata A never heads the deposits: it starts during the Flavian time and only increases its trade notably from the second half of the 2nd century, but even at the 3rd century levels Hispanic terra sigillata always predominates (Escrivà Torres, 1989; apud Quaresma 2009, annex 2, table 55). In this very city, in the second half of the 2nd century deposit, at Plaça del Negret, some African terra sigillata was found, but 90% of fine ceramic is Hispanic terra sigillata from La Rioja (Huguet Enguita 2005, 185). The shapes that are found chrono–typologically until 150 AD, especially Hayes 3A, 3B, 6A, 8A, or 9A, are well represented on the southern and eastern parts of the Peninsula: at Baelo (Bourgeois, Mayet 1991, 228), Carteia (Roldán Gómez et Al. 2006, 476), Almeria (Garcia López, Cara Barrionuevo 1995, 138), Portus illicitanus (González Prats 1984,

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125) and Tarraco, where, in 100–125 AD, types Hayes 3A, 8A and 9A are present (apud Quaresma 2009, annex 2, table 54). This trade, with a tendency for the coastal line, also reached the western shores at Olisipo (Lisbon), in the first half of the 2nd century, with some natural means of penetration described, at Alto do Cidreira (Nolen 1988, 61) and we have data for this phase in Britannia – in particular at the Southeast, with a few points in the Centre and North, where types Hayes 2, 3B, 3C, 5C, 6A, 8A and 9A were traded (Bird 1977). From the 2nd century onwards, African terra sigillata exports are strengthened, as shown by the curves at sites such as Tarraco, Alicante, or Almeria. Figure 10 shows curves with a fast increase from the beginning of the 2nd century because on these calculations, authors did not separate quantities of African cooking ware that had important sales in the South and East of Hispania, just as in Italy, as Reynolds (1995, 12) has already stressed. From c.150 AD on, African terra sigillata reaches new inland points of southern Lusitania, as in what seems to be the case in the Monte Novo do Castelinho (Hayes 14B and 27: Fabião et Al. 1998, fig.29, n. 9 and fig.30, n. 6) and in Ammaia (Hayes 5C and 6B: Pereira 2006, 58). The import quantities of Hayes 14 and 27, at Baelo, with 450 and 362 vessels (Bourgeois, Mayet 1991, 228), show that, just like in Chãos Salgados (Quaresma 2009), the indices at the Strait and Atlantic areas increase in two stages: the middle and the end of the 2nd century. It is at this stage, from the middle or end of the 2nd century, that African A terra sigillata reaches new Lusitanian sites North from the Tagus, in hinterland positions: Parreitas (Hayes 9B, 14, 16 and 27: Dias 2008, 96); Conimbriga (Hayes 15, 16 and 27: Delgado, Mayet, Alarcão 1975, 251); it appears scarcely at Brigantium (López Pérez 2004), in the Northwest, and at Alava, in Bask Country (Filloy Nieva, Gil Zubillaga 1997, 335), but does not reach Britannia, where this African trade is interrupted between c.150 and c.200+ AD (Bird 1977). If we analyse the import curves for terra sigillata from Chãos Salgados, other sites in Hispania and London (fig. 8), we find an almost generalised fall in trade values of this fine ceramic in the first half of the 2nd century. In Chãos Salgados, Baelo, Valentia, Conimbriga, São Cucufate, Represas and Tróia, this fall is likely. Even quantities of stratigraphy in Rome seem to point to a drop in consumption. The quantities published by G. Rizzo (2003, 201) are of 251 specimens in Neron, 272 at the Flavian, and only 108 at the Antonine

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period. This lack of imports seems to match with the similar stratigraphic behaviour in ambiente XXV of Ostia, where we find a gap in the second half of the 2nd century (Carandini, Panella 1977). The second century is thus of clear trade contraction: in Londinum, the deposits of the 1st century have between 10 and 25% of terra sigillata, whereas on the 2nd century, this ceramic rarely goes over 10% of the remains (Fulford 1987, 65). Despite terra sigillata import curve apparently recover some ground in the third quarter of the 2nd century (not by imports of African A terra sigillata, but through the one from the centre of Gallia), it drops sharply from this stage onwards (fig. 8). On the other hand, if growing sales of African terra sigillata work in counter-cycle, it is necessary to relativize some excessively high import curves of this ceramic in the 2nd century, in several sites of the Eastern Hispania as previously mentioned (Reynolds 1995, 12), because this often includes the quantities of some African cooking ware forms such as Hayes types 23, 181 and 197, sold in great quantities at that time in the South and East of Hispania and in Italy (Quaresma 2009). The several sites calculated by Hawthorne (1987) and especially by Fentress and Perkins (1987) have therefore an incorrectly high curve of terra sigillata in the 2nd and 3rd centuries (fig. 10). Lastly, even in the Lusitanian capital, Augusta Emerita, the stratigraphy of the Suburbio Norte (fig. 9) shows that the consumption of Hispanic terra sigillata (almost exclusively from La Rioja) decreases markedly in the first half of the 2nd century, reinforcing the idea of general decline in the consumption of this table ware, before the clear predomination of the African production.

OLIVE OIL AND SALTED FISH PRODUCTION: THE CONFIRMATION OF THIS JUNCTURE? Around half a century after the drop in consumption of terra sigillata, the middle of the 2nd century sees crisis clearly affecting the food sector. On the Guadalquivir valley, there is a drawback of the harbour and handycraft areas, such as Calle San Fernando or Encarnación, in Hispalis, which were converted to residential areas. This picture, that according to García Vargas (2007, 353) may go as far back as the second quarter of the 2nd century, is to this author, a result of a downturn in private trade, in particular of salted fish, while the trade in olive oil is maintained at acceptable levels (García Vargas 1998, 247). In Britannia, the distribu-

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tion of olive oil in Dressel 20 amphorae stays stable throughout the 1st and 2nd centuries, and actually increases from the middle of the 2nd century. In York, Dressel 20 has 8 specimens in 120 AD, 65 in 90–150 AD, 97 in 150–200 AD and 398 in 140–255 AD (Reynolds 2005). In Lusitania, the stratigraphy of the fish-salting factory at Ilha do Pessegueiro, with a particular interest in trenches A, C and D’ demonstrates the advent of crisis even in the third quarter of the 2nd century, maintained in a steady-state until the middle of the 3rd century (Tavares, Soares 1993, 47–59). In the amphorae centre of Pinheiro, at the lower Sado, the transition from the end of the 2nd century to the beginning of the 3rd century may however belong to an “indeterminate phase in the second half of the 2nd century” (Mayet, Silva 1998, 114). In the Strait area, the Tahadartz, Thamusida and Banassa centres go into recession at the Severan time (Reynolds 2005, 389). The graphics published by A. Wilson (fig. 11), both for Hispania and for other areas of the Empire, demonstrate a generalised decline around 150 AD and, just as in the terra sigillata consumption, after the 1st and 2nd c. floruit, the Low-Empire levels are much lower. On the other hand, as mentioned above, the drop in production values for salted fish seems to be later in several decades to the ones for terra sigillata consumption. Thus we have a phenomenon lasting around 100 years, a crisis juncture in the salted fish sector, occurring widely, from Lusitania to the western coast of North Africa, not limited simply to the turning from the 2nd to the 3rd century, a time of change in Lusitanian centres such as Tróia or Abul, Praça do Bocage and Travessa de Frei Gaspar (Setúbal), in the Sado area, or the Casa dos Bicos, in Olisipo (Mayet 2001, 288; Fabião, Carvalho 1990, 49; Quaresma 1999, 176–177), and structuring itself, as Reynolds sees it (1995, 388), in the evolution of new smaller containers, in the reduction in the number of sites producing to export and in the increased numbers of small factories for local markets.

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CONCLUSION2 The main problem in the 2nd century is to know what is the geographical scale and sector range involved. It is a juncture that affected the whole Empire, so how can it indicate the shipwrecks fluctuations (fig. 3), monetary circulation (fig. 2), or meat consumption (fig. 4)? Other phenomena have a more questionable dispersion: what is the real impact of the so called Antonine Plague and of the imperial financial crisis, expressed in a gradual money debasement and in central measures to fight deficit, particularly sensitive in Marcus Aurelius principality? Data from Hispania, a more peripheral region especially on the Atlantic side, but more connected to the Mediterranean in the eastern and southern coast, are compatible in terms of chronology. The opera publici in Hispania seem to stay stable until Trajan, as does the urban development in the Lusitanian areas and in the Tarraconensis. On what concerns the decline in metal extraction, the plausible chronology is c.150 AD in Lusitania and in Baetica (Bustamante et Al. 2008). Lusitanian production of salted fish also declines in the third quarter of the 2nd century (Quaresma 2009), a time when the South of the Iberian Peninsula is affected by Mauri incursions, a phenomenon which effect is not easy to understand (Arce 2005). We have thus several phenomena occurring from around c.150 AD, probably more contemporary to the possible demographic crisis induced by the Antonine Plague (Bruun 2007), but occurring after the prolonged decline in money circulation in several areas of the empire (fig. 2), which started clearly around c.100 AD, and also after the apparent decline of trade in the Mediterranean, with a beginning that could be situated on the first half of the 2nd century (fig. 3). We therefore speak of at least two periods for this conjuncture: c.100–150 AD and c.150–200 AD. 2

This text has been adapted from part of a PhD thesis (Quaresma 2009) on the terra sigillata from Chãos Salgados (Mirobriga?), on the southwest Atlantic coast of Lusitania. On that work we had performed an extensive commercial analysis, comparing not only statistical and contextual data of the consumption of this fine ceramic throughout Hispania, but also other kinds of economic information.

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Consumption data for terra sigillata in Hispania, quantifiable in several Lusitanian sites (cities of Chãos Salgados: Mirobriga? and Conimbriga; villae of Represas and São Cucufate; salted fish production centre at Tróia), in Baetica (Baelo) and in Tarraconensis (Valentia) match the slowing down in financial circulation as proposed by Hopkins (1980) and demonstrate, by their wide diachrony, that the consumption up to the beginning of the 2nd century was never matched again (even though the São Cucufate villa has excellent levels in the 4th century and Troia floruit is linked to a greater production dynamic of Lusitanian salted fish in the Lower Empire). More surprising still are the terra sigillata consumption levels in the 1st century, several times higher than in the rest of the Roman period (fig. 8). Unfortunately we have no other total quantifications of terra sigillata in other consumption areas of the Empire. Despite Rome apparently also experienced a decrease in the consumption of this ceramic in the first half of the 2nd century (Rizzo 2003), it is impossible to determine the scale of the phenomenon. Nevertheless, this evolution seems to occur also in the Atlantic area, since the consumption in London (Britannia) and in Poitiers (western Gallia. See Tilhard 2004) has the same behaviour. We have demonstrated that the production of the South Gaulish and Hispanic terra sigillata is not immediately replaced by the African one, in the first half of the 2nd century, not only in the Hispanic area (Quaresma 2009), but also in the Italian area (Martin 2006) or in Libya (Kenrick 1985), concerning Italian terra sigillata. The stratigraphy at Augusta Emerita, Lusitania’s capital, despite Hispanic terra sigillata is the single production quantified (fig. 9), demonstrates that this typology falls dramatically in the first half of the 2nd century, while a series of other Lusitanian, Baetican and Tarraconensis sites, show that African sigillata only imposes itself on the market from the second half of the 2nd century onwards (Quaresma 2009), despite the importance of African cooking ware in the eastern Hispanic coast and in other sites of the western Mediterranean, even in the first half of the 2nd century, a factor often not separated from African quantifications (such is the case of fig. 10). Africa’s importance, already pointed out by Rostovtzeff (1926–1988) at an urban level, since Trajan, and discernible through the monetary circulation from the 2nd century (fig. 2), is well expressed by the domination of African terra sigillata A from c.150 AD onwards (Quaresma 2009 – Hispania; Martin 2006 – Ostia; Kenrick 1985 – Benghazi). It is quite possible that the receding (?) economy of the 2nd century is by and

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large a transition of the economic primacy of the North Mediterranean area in favour of this new director area, the North Africa, in particular Proconsularis and Byzacena. As Jongman (2007) put it, more than crisis or decline, we should talk about transformation, but the High-Empire floruit concerning several items also takes this author to remind us Gibbon’s problem (1776). Terra sigillata consumed in Hispania, London and Poitiers (and maybe in Rome) also confirms the ideas of Bauman and Wilson (2009): we can talk about growth until c. 200 AD, but the data for a economy in crisis are clearly earlier in several sectors, one being that of terra sigillata, the most important table fineware produced in large-scale and certainly one of the main economic indices of the Roman period.

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Comas, M. et al., Observations sur les sigillées du Sud de la Gaule à Baetulo (Badalogne, Espagne), in Actes du Congrès de Millau. 12– 15 Mai 1994. S.F.E.C.A.G. (1994) 83–94. Delgado, M., Mayet, F., Alarcão, A.M., Fouilles de Conimbriga. IV (Les sigillées) (1975). Dias, M.A., A terra sigillata africana de Parreitas (Bárrio, Alcobaça), in P. G. Barbosa (coord.), A região de Alcobaça na época romana. A estação arqueológica de Parreitas (Bárrio) (2008) 94–113. Domergue, C., Les mines de la Péninsule Ibérique dans l’Antiquité Romaine, Collection de l’École Française à Rome, 127 (1990). Duncan-Jones, R., The economy of the Roman Empire. Quantitative studies (1974). Duncan-Jones, R., Money and government in the Roman Empire (1994). Escrivá Torres, V., La cerámica romana de Valentia. La Terra Sigillata hispánica, Ajuntament de València, Série Arqueológica Municipal, 8 (1989). Étienne, R., Makaroun, Y., Mayet, F., Un grand complexe industriel a Tróia (Portugal) (1994). Ettlinger, E., et al., Conspectus formarum terrae sigillatae italico modo confectae, Materialen zur römisch-germanischen Keramik, Heft 10 (1990–2002). Fabião, C., O azeite da Baetica na Lusitania, “Conimbriga”, XXXII– XXXIII (1993–1994) 219–245. Fabião, C., Carvalho, A., Ânforas da Lusitânia: uma perspectiva, in J. Alarcão, F. Mayet, F. (eds.), Les amphores lusitaniennes. Typologie, production, commerce. Actes des journées d’études tenues à Conimbriga les 13 et 14 Octobre 1988 (1990) 37–64. Fabião, C., et al., Necrópole romana do Monte Novo do Castelinho, Almodôvar, “ Revista Portuguesa de Arqueologia”, 1.1 (1998) 199–220. Fant, J., Ideology, gift and trade: a distribution model for thr Roman imperial marbles, in W.V. Harris (ed.), The inscribed economy. Production and distribution in the roman empire in the light of instrumentum domesticum, “Journal of Roman Studies”, Supplementary Series, n. 6 (1993) 145–170. Fentress, E., Perkins, Ph., Counting african red slip ware, in A. Mastino, A., L’Africa romana. Atti del V convegno di studio. Sassari. 11–13 dicembre 1987 (1987) 205–214. Filloy Nieva, I., Gil Zubillaga, E., Importaciones galicas tardías en Alava (Espagne), SFECAG. Actes du Congrès du Mans (1997) 335–344.

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Finley, M., A economia antiga (1973). Fulford, M., Economic interdependence among urban communities of the Roman Mediterranean, “World Archaeology”, 19.1 (1987) 58–75. Fulford, M., Approaches to quantifying Roman trade. Response, in A. Bauman, A. Wilson (eds.), Quantifying the Roman economy. Methods and problems (2009) 250–258. García Lopez, J.L., Cara Barrionuevo, L., Un ejemplo de fondeadero en la costa meridional. Analisis de distribucion espacial de los hallazgos romanos en la ciudad de Almeria, Actas del XXI congreso nacional de Arqueologia, I, Colección Actas, n. 28 (1995) 127–141. García Noguera, M. et al., Un context ceràmic d’inicis del segle II d.C. a Tàrraco (Hispania Tarraconensis), « Pyrenae » 28 (1997) 179–209. García Vargas E., La Producción de ánforas en la bahía de Cádiz en época romana (siglos II a.C. – IV d.C.) (1998). García Vargas, E., Hispalis como centro de consumo desde época tardorrepublicana a la Antigüedad Tardía. El testimonio de las ánforas, “Anales de Arqueología Cordobesa”, n. 18 (2007) 317–360. Garnsey, P., Saller, R., The Roman Empire. Economy, society and culture (1987). Gibbon, E., The decline and fall of the Roman empire (1776). González Prats, A., Aportaciones al conocimiento del Portus Illicitanus: Reseña de los trabajos de urgencia de 1976. La terra sigillata, “Lucentum”, n. 3 (1984) 101–34. Harris, W.J., A comment on A. Wilson: Approaches to quantifying Roman trade, in A. Bauman, A. Wilson (eds.), Quantifying the Roman economy. Methods and problems (2009) 259–267. Hawthorne, J.W.J., Post processual economics: the role of African Red Slip Ware vessel volume in Mediterranean demography, in Preceedings of the Sixth Annual Theoretical Roman Archaeology Conference (1987). Hopkins, K., Taxes and trade in the Roman Empire (200 B.C. – A.D. 400), “Journal of Roman Studies”, 70 (1980) 101–125. Hopkins, K., Models, ships and staples, in P. Garnsey, C. R. Whittaker (eds.), Trade end famine in Classical Antiquity (1983) 84–109. Horden, P., Purcell, N., The corrupting sea. A study of Mediterranean History (2000). Howgego, Ch., Some numismatic approaches to Quantifying the Roman Economy, in A. Bowman, A. Wilson (eds.), Quantifying the roman economy. Methods and problems (2009) 287–295.

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Huguet Enguita, E., Segells de Sigillata Hispànica de labocador de la Placa del Negret, “Saguntum (P.L.A.V.)”, 37 (2005) 181–198. Jones, A.H.M., Inflation under the Roman Empire, “Economic History Review”, 5, in P. A. Brunt (ed.), The Roman economy. Studies in ancient economic and administrative History (1953) 187–227. Jongman, W., Gibbon was right : the decline and fall of the Roman economy, in O. Hekster, G. Kleijn, D. Slootjes (eds.), Crises and the Roman Empire. Proceedings of the Seventh Workshop of the International Network Impact of the Roman Empire (Nijmegen, June 20–24, 2006) (2007) 183–200. Kenrick, Ph.M., Excavations at Sidi Khrebish Benghazi (Berenice), III. Part I (The fine pottery) (1985). Leveau, Ph., The western provinces, in W. Scheidel, W., I. Morris, R. Saller, The Cambridge economic History of the Graeco-Roman world (2007) 651–670. Lopes, C., A Sigillata de Represas. Tratamento informático (1994). López Pérez, M.C., El comercio de Terra Sigillata en la provincia de A Coruña, “Brigantium”, 16 (2004). Madrid Fernández, M., Primers resultats de l’estudi de la ceràmica terra sigillata de Baetulo: Circulació ceràmica i aportacions cronològiques a la ciutat, « Pyrenae » 30 (1999) 147–172. Mantas, V., Vias e portos na Lusitânia romana, in J. G. Gorges, E. Cerillo, T. Nogales Trinidad (eds.), V mesa redonda internacional sobre Lusitania romana. Las comunicacione. Cáceres. Faculdad de Filosofia y Letras. 7, 8 y 9 de noviembre de 2002 (2004) 427–454. Marichal, R., Les graffites de La Graufesenque, « Suplement à Gallia”, 47 (1988). Marsh, O., London´s samian supply and its relationship to the development of the gallic samian industry, in A. C. Anderson, A. S. Anderson, Roman pottery research in Britain and North West Europe, BAR, n.13 (1981) 173–238. Martin, A., Sigillata and red-slip ware to Ostia. The supply to a consumption center, in S. Menchelli, M. Pasquinucci (eds.), Territorio e produzioni ceramiche. Paesaggi, economia e società in età romana. Atti del convegno internazionale. Pisa 20–22 ottobre 2005, Instrumenta 2 (2006) 381–388. Mayet, F., Les amphores lusitaniennes, in Céramiques hellénistiques et romaines, III (2001) 277–293.

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Mayet, F., Silva, C.T., L’atelier d’amphores de Pinheiro (Portugal) (1998). Melchior, E., Elites municipales y mecenazgo cívico en la Hispania, in J. F. Rodríguez Neila, F. J. Navarro Santana (eds.), Elites y promoción social en la Hispania Romana, Mundo Antiguo, Nova série, 5, Ediciones Universidad de Navarra (1999) 219–264. Morais, R., Autarcia e comércio em Bracara Augusta. Contributo para o estudo económico da cidade no período Alto-Imperial, Escavações Arqueológicas, 2, U.A.U.M. (2005). Nolen, J. S., A villa romana do Alto de Cidreira (Cascais) – os materiais, “Conimbriga”, 27 (1988) 61–140. Panella, C., Merci e scambi nel Mediterraneo tardoantico, in A. Momigliano, A. (eds.), Storia di Roma, III (L’éta tardoantica), 2 (I luoghi e le culture) (1993) 613–697. Parker, A., The pattern of commerce as evidenced by shipwreck, in T. Hackens, T., M. Miró (eds.), Le commerce maritime romain en Méditerranée occidentale, PACT, 27 (1990) 147–167. Pereira, V., Terra sigillata em três locais da Lusitânia : Ammaia, Idanha, Mileu, PhD thesis, Faculdade de Letras da Universidade de Coimbra (2006). Pirenne, H., Maomé e Carlos Magno (1937 [1992]). Quaresma, J.C., Terra sigillata africana, hispânica, foceense tardia e cerâmica africana de cozinha de Mirobriga (Chãos Salgados, Santiago do Cacém), “Conimbriga”, 38 (1999) 137–200. Quaresma, J.C., Economia antiga a partir de um centro de consumo lusitano. Terra sigillata e cerâmica africana de cozinha em Chãos Salgados (Mirobriga?), PhD thesis. Faculdade de Letras da Universidade de Lisboa (2009). Ramos, A.C., Almeida, R., Laço, T., O complexo industrial da Rua Silva Lopes (Lagos). Uma primeira leitura do sítio e análise das suas principais problemáticas no quadro da indústria conserveira da Lusitânia meridional, in Simpósio internacional. Produção e comércio de preparados piscícolas durante a Proto-História e a Época Romana no Ocidente da Península Ibérica. Homenagem a Françoise Mayet, “Setúbal Arqueológica”, 13 (2006) 83–100. Rathbone, D., The financing of maritime commerce in the Roman empire, I–II AD., in E. Lo cascio (ed.), Credito e moneta nel mondo romano. Atti degli incontri capresi di storia dell’economia antica (Capri 12– 14 Ottobre 2000) (2003) 197–230.

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Reynolds, P., Trade in the Western Mediterranean. A.D. 400–700: the ceramic evidence, TEMPVS REPARATVUM / BAR IS, n. 604 (1995). Reynolds, P., Baetican, lusitanian and tarraconensian amphorae in classical Beirut: some preliminary observations on trends in amphora imports from the western Mediterranean in the anglo-lebanese excavations in Beirut (BEY 006, 007 and 045), Actas congreso internacional Ex Baetica Amphorae. Conservas, aceite y vino de la Bética en el Império Romano (Écija y sevilla, 17 al 20 de Deciembre de 1998), III (2000) 1035–1060. Reynolds, P., Hispania in the Later Roman Mediterranean: ceramics and trade, in K. Bowes, M. Kulikowski (eds.), Hispania in Late Antiquity. Current perspectives (2005) 369–486. Rickman, G.E., The grain trade under the Roman Empire, in J. H. d’Arms, E. C. Kopff (eds.), The seaborne commerce of the Ancient Rome. Studies in Archaeology and History, Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome 36 (1980) 261–275. Rizzo, G., Instrumenta urbis I. Ceramiche fini da mensa, lucerne ed anfore a Roma nei primi due secoli dell’Impero, Colléction de l’EFR 307 (2003). Rodríguez de Berlanga, M., El nuevo bronce de Italica que publica de real orden Manuel Rodríguez de Berlanga (1891). Roldán Gómez, L., et al. (eds.), Estudio historico-arqueologico de la ciudad de Carteia (San Roque, Cádiz). 1994–1999, I (2006). Rostovtzeff, M., Histoire économique et sociale de l’Empire Romain (1926 [1988]). Ruivo, J., Circulação monetrária na Estremadura portuguesa até aos inícios do século III, “Nummus”, 2ª série 16–20 (1993–1997) 7–177. Scheidel, W., A comparative perspective on the determinants of the scale and productivity of maritime trade in the Roman Mediterranean. Version 1.0, Princeton/Stanford working papers in Classics (forthcoming) Scheidel, W., Approaching the Roman economy. Version 1.0, Princeton/Stanford working papers in Classics (forthcoming). Silva, C.T., Coelho-Soares, A., Produção de preparados piscícolas na Sines romana, in Simpósio internacional. Produção e comércio de preparados piscícolas durante a Proto-História e a Época Romana no Ocidente da Península Ibérica. Homenagem a Françoise Mayet, “Setúbal Arqueológica” 13 (2006) 101–122.

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Silva, C.T. et al., Escavações arqueológicas no castelo de Alcácer do Sal (campanha de 1979), “Setúbal Arqueológica” 6–7 (1980–1) 149–218. Silva, C.T., Soares, J., Ilha do Pessegueiro. Porto Romano da Costa Alentejana, Instituto da Conservação da Natureza (1993). Tilhard, J.-L., Les céramiques sigillées du Haut-Empire à Poitiers d’après les estampilles et les décors moulés. SFECAG Supplément 2 (2004). Vaquerizo, D., Garriguet, J.A., Vargas, S., “La Constancia”. Una contribución al conocimiento de la topografia y los usos funerarios en la Colonia Patricia de los siglos iniciales del Imperio, Arqueología Cordobesa, 11, Servicio de Publicaciones/ Universidad de Córdoba (2005). Wilson, A., Approaches to quantifying Roman trade, A. Bauman, A. Wilson (eds.), Quantifying the Roman economy. Methods and problems (2009) 213–249. Young, G.K., Rome’s eastern trade. International commerce and imperial policy, 31 BC – AD 305 (2001).

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FIGURES

Fig.1: Donkey’s price and monetary circulation in Egypt (Duncan-Jones 1994).

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Fig.2: Monetary circulation in several sites or regions of the Roman Empire.

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Fig. 3: Roman shipwrecks in the Mediterranean Sea (Parker 1990).

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Fig. 4: Animal bone amounts in Italy and in the provinces (Jongman 2007).

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Fig. 5: Femur length evolution (Jongman 2007).

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Fig. 6: Chãos Salgados (Mirobriga?): terra sigillata evolution (Quaresma 2009).

Fig. 7: Chãos Salgados (Mirobriga?): terra sigillata evolution according to the regions of production (Quaresma 2009).

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Fig. 8: Terra sigillata in several sites of Hispania and London.

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Fig. 9: Hispanic terra sigillata in Augusta Emerita (stratigraphic amounts from the sector suburbio norte) (Bustamante 2010).

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Fig. 10: African terra sigillata in several western sites.

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Fig. 11: Fish-salting vat capacities (Wilson 2009).

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Fig. 12: Iberian sites mentioned in the text

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E C O N O M Y A N D T R A D E O F S I C I LY DURING SEVERAN PERIOD: HIGHLIGHTS BETWEEN A R C H A E O L O G Y A N D H I S T O RY Daniele Malfitana – Carmela Franco – Annarita Di Mauro Thematic maps by G. Fragalà (IBAM - Istituto per i Beni Archeologici e Monumentali, CNR, Catania)

FOREWORD: THE GENERAL SETTING, APPROACHES AND CHALLENGES In the last few years, the integration of ancient sources, material culture studies and landscape archaeology are proving particularly effective (Malfitana 2011). From long time, we have been looking for a relevant progress in ICT studies applied to archaeological researches. This new approach has to be accompanied by the strong need to communicate our studies and researches. Starting from two parallel tracks that link archeology and ICT and using as case studies some research's lines developed within an international research project (Roman Sicily Project: ceramics

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and trade),1 we want to bring to the attention of the whole scientific community the first results of a new research. This new approach is based on the interactions between economic and social history of Sicily, the first province of the Roman Empire, with the archaeological data. G. Woolf, few years ago, summed up the situation of the studies of Roman archeology within the general context of Classical archeology along these words: “Roman archaeology is in good shape, institutionally, financially, and in terms of high quality of current research. Both fieldwork and publication have increased in quality in the last few decades and the discipline is better at disseminating information widely, albeit through fairly traditional media. The discipline is fortunate in the quality and commitment of its academic leaders and the energy and creativity of many other researchers, in universities, museums, and archaeological companies and units. The increase of activity has, however, led to a marked degree of specialization. The effects are more obvious in some national traditions than others. ... The prospect for Roman archaeology in the next few decades nevertheless looks very promising indeed” (Woolf 2004). The team of young researchers of the RSP is trying to apply these considerations to the context of Roman Sicily. Unfortunately, the question just raised cannot find easy answer. Firstly, a disproportionate attention by the scientific research community to different historical contexts considered more important, but today certainly very inflated. In fact, conferences and meetings keep on focusing on the relations between Greeks and Sicilian natives when on this subject has been said, more or less, everything. On the contrary, fewer studies have been focused on Sicily in Hellenistic, Roman and Medieval periods. However, in the last decade scientific results are gradually coming out thanks to the strong efforts made by a large group of scholars.2 Based on these experiences and old and new excavations, the team of young re-

1

The project is based at the Institute for archaeological and monumental heritage of the Italian National Research Council and it is dedicated to the investigations of contexts and material culture of Roman, late Roman and Medieval Sicily. 2 See: Campagna 2003; Portale 2006; La Torre 2004; Malfitana, Poblome, Lund 2006; Malfitana 2006; Malfitana 2011.

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searchers is now working on building a platform upon which to focus efforts, resources, skills and studies. As we know, the research is normally substantiated by “raw material”. These data regarding Sicily are still partly unpublished: extraordinary quantity of archaeological materials is destined to remain unstudied in the storerooms of several Sicilian archaeological museums. Important archaeological contexts of some of the most strategic towns of Sicily, from Republican and Imperial time,3 are still unpublished. Today, we are conducting research trying to open up new horizons for scientific research in Sicily, following a multidisciplinary approach, updated with the most advanced sociological, anthropological and cultural approaches of Classical archeology (Alcock, Osborne 2007; Hölscher 2010). The study of Roman archeology4 reflects the needs and specificities that are highly dependent on the investigated data, i.e. a specific class of artifacts (Greene 2006 and Greene 2008), a territory (Bintliff 2004; Alcock 2007), political, and social ideas of the ancient society under investigation (Dardenay 2010). The province of Sicily, as mentioned before, offers a significant concentration of data that can be used to raise awareness of the need to start an innovative dialogue among archeology, history, geography, ecology, along a general knowledge of a diachronic context multilayered to be investigate in its social and economic aspects. It appears that the only correct approach is the one summarized as the long durée by Braudel: i.e., the investigation of the different models of occupation and social development of specific areas of the material culture and Sicilian landscape through the centuries, evaluating, for instance, the structures of natural environment and the manner in which they influenced or were influenced by the society. The prospective of long durée needs to understand—through the historical and archaeological sites—the cultural, political, and social identity of the island, its towns and its people, opening amazing perspectives.

3

Recently see the publication of data from Agrigento: De Miro, Fiorentini 2011. 4 See besides Woolf 2004, Greene 2006; Brilliant 2007 and Greene 2008.

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We should analyze the dynamics of evolution and change in the social component as it is transmitted by the archaeological and historical evidence which have determined the growth mechanisms of a specific context taken into examination. In other places,5 we had the opportunity to present some preliminary considerations based on the applications developed within the RSP project. The research was conducted over a sample areas of Eastern Sicily (modern day town of Priolo) (Malfitana et al. 2011) we are increasingly convinced of the need to broaden the scope and take on some of the suggestions and the evidence came out of that context as guidelines with which to operate. Combining and integrating the information between data from surveys to economy, commerce, cultural practices, will enable us to consider the territory in its complexity as a social expression valid for the construction of its diachronic history. The aims of this foreword is to present some focus on which we are giving attention, especially for the historical period under consideration, i. e. the Severan age. The ICT approach of data collection, up now limited to only the ceramic evidence, is a key pillar within the overall RSP. We have developed a large database that currently contains all the data published in relation to the ceramic evidence (fine wares and amphorae), from the late Hellenistic to the late Roman period. C. Franco will discuss this approach in her following contribution, combining the pottery data with the historical ones. The ceramic evidence, must be supported by aspects directly connected to the organization of the production system. This is why, for instance, it was decided to activate a specific research line on the island's production system and the role of artisanal production in the management of businesses. Along this way, we are trying to redraw the map of artisans and professional associations in Roman Sicily. A new research, lead by A. Di Mauro, will definitely help to reconstruct the relationship between owners, producers, local elite and investors from an historical point of view.

5

Malfitana et al. 2010; Malfitana, Cacciaguerra 2011; Malfitana, Franco 2011; Malfitana, Franco 2012.

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Looking at the topic of this meeting, three key lines seem absolutely clear. 1. the economic data: i. e., the contextualization of all the ceramic evidence as an index of effective assessment of patterns of growth or degrowth of the island’s commercial system in the Imperial period and, in particular, in the Severan age; 2. the theme of the historic landscape as a large container of political and social events that otherwise might not be tied to a broader framework; 3. finally, the theme of the reconstruction of the image, identity and transformation of great urban contexts of the island, in Imperial date and, in particular, during the Severan age. This latter issue is one on which we will promote as soon a specific line of inquiry within the RSP. The idea is to reconstruct the image of the Roman cities of Sicily through the analysis of the transformation of urban functions and monumental contexts in the passages from the Hellenistic to the Roman period and throughout the Imperial age, the age of the Severans in particular, when the island enjoyed a period of remarkable growth. This line also aims to rebuild the programs of urban and monumental public and private spaces, recognizing the role of architectural types in the development plans and the role of the decorative programs, rebuilding the social and cultural motivations that underlie the actions of transformation of the urban system as a representation of society as a whole.

Daniele Malfitana THE DISTRIBUTION OF IMPORTED TABLEWARE AND TRANSPORT AMPHORAE IN SICILY: AN OVERVIEW INTRODUCTION This contribution will examine the overall distribution of transport amphorae and fine ware imports within the complex economic trends and shipping routes of the whole Mediterranean during the Severan Age (AD

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193–235).6 The data required to plot the pottery distribution from the major coastal and inland cities, rural settlements and underwater sites of Sicily were derived from published material.7 The ceramic evidence will then be used to assess the role played by Sicily as a consumer, and to define and understand the Sicilian market. In spatial terms, the analysis of the evidence also takes into account the complex, and sometimes highly variable, topography of Sicily, which in the past must have influenced the relationships between cities, the countryside and coastal centers. Sicily is, in fact, a very large island, with a range of different climatic and geomorphological characteristics (fig. 1). As a consequence, the variation in the distribution of pottery (notably chronological and quantitative changes) within different geographical areas can reveal peculiar patterns of exchange and ceramic consumption on a macro-regional scale. CONTEXTUALIZING THE POTTERY: SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC PATTERNS IN SICILY IN THE SEVERAN AGE The Severan dynasty brought a period of economic growth and urban development across the Empire8 which had a direct effect on Sicily; most notably in the western part of the island and in the major coastal cities of the east. Following the new administrative measures implemented by Augustus, the Severan period witnessed another significant phase for the island. This is attested by the renewed strategic importance of Sicily for Rome. The archaeological and epigraphic evidence suggests new urban 6

I am grateful to Dr. Daniele Malfitana for involving me in the project “Roman Sicily Project: ceramics and trade” and granting me permission to publish the ceramic data in this paper. I also would like to thank Professor Andrew Wilson for his generous critical reading of this text and Maxime Anastasi for her valuable comments and corrections of my English. 7 In order to gather these data, journals, excavation news items, excavation reports, museum catalogues, as well as any other material concerning Sicilian archaeology were consulted. In some cases, I was also given access to view unpublished material which has also been included in the survey. 8 Dal Covolo, Rinaldi 1999; Cordovana 2007; Severan culture 2007.

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prosperity especially in the cities of Palermo, Termini Imerese, Marsala, Taormina and Catania (Wilson 1990, 183–184; Portale 2005, 81). Between the end of the 2nd and the 3rd century evidence of a period of wealth, high living standards and a need of amenities is indicated by the considerable number of polychrome mosaics found in private houses (Palermo, Marsala, Agrigento, Syracuse etc.) in which the influence of North African workshops is clearly visible.9 Private wealth was particularly expressed by using imported marble in buildings10 and sculptured marble sarcophagi (Wilson 1990, 243–244). Marmorarii from Greek and Asia Minor were brought to Sicily and worked—often with the help of local craftsmen and marble-workers—on selected public buildings11 using styles which have close parallels to the sculptural decoration found on buildings in Severus’s birthplace, Lepcis Magna.12 From the middle-Empire onwards, the Sicilian ruling class became wealthy enough to buy marble form the imperial marble quarries in Greece and the eastern Mediterranean and to develop a floruit of urban life. The cause of the island’s economic prosperity can be attributed to the land reform involving Sicily during the Severan period. This agrarian reorganization was undoubtedly the principal factor that brought both higher social status and better economic opportunities to the local ruling class, many of which held positions functioning as intermediaries between Rome and its economic interests in North Africa. It is reasonable to suppose that an increase in agricultural production brought with it much higher levels of farming efficiency and general prosperity. The later Late Antique concentration of the fundi in Sicily was not a short-term process; aristocratic wealth was, as we have seen, the product of longstanding processes of accumulation, which started around

9 For some late 2nd–3rd century examples of “African style” mosaic floors, Wilson 1990, 247–249. 10 Common were Proconnesian, Attic and Asian Minor marbles (Pensabene 1996–1997, 11). African marble, however, does not seem to have been extensively used in Sicily (Wilson 1990, 241). 11 Such as the scaenae frons theatre decoration in Catania, Pensabene 1996– 1997. 12 Ward-Perkins 1993. For the presence in Lepcis Magna of marble-workers coming from Asia Minor, Wilson A. 2007, in partic. 299–300.

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the 3rd century13 and completed between the 4th and the 5th century (Vera 1989, 140). As a result, the bulk of 4th century Sicilian rural estates were the result of previous economic investments. Archaeological evidence coming from extensive surveys carried out over the last twenty years in western Sicily (Heraclea Minoa, Entella, Termini Imerese and its hinterland) suggests the presence of large rural estates specialized in the cultivation of cereals, vines and olives dating from the late 2nd/early 3rd century AD.14 Nevertheless, the farming economy and use of the land under the Severan dynasty still requires detailed studies. The contemporary prosperity of North African elites and their involvement in the luxurious refurbishment of several African civitates (such as Lepcis Magna, Cuicul, Thugga, Cirta and others) can be linked to the supply of the annona because the ruling class derived their fortune from olive cultivation and trade. This greatly contrasts with what we know of the Sicilian elite's source of wealth; a considerable lack of evidence hinders us from being able to identify specific lucrative enterprises connected to the agricultural exploitation of land. Additional questions concerning the sources of wealth of Sicilian landowners may be posed: Were Sicilian landowners involved in wine or grain trade? Were they involved in sheep-rearing or the export of horses?15 Was their fortune based just on their large rural estates? And, were they engaged in private or public negotia? Besides grain—which was widely produced and exported throughout the imperial period, and is attested by ancient sources and inscriptions16 that allude to the involvement of private entrepreneurs and state control17—evidence indicating the handling and export of the other major 13

The expansion of Roman senatorial property allegedly took place between 250 and 300 AD, VERA 1989, 142. 14 Wilson 1981; 2 Himera III 1, 2; Entella 1988, 1478–1491; Canzanella 1993. 15 For a review on the importance of pastoral economy in Sicily during the Empire see Wilson 1990, 193–194. 16 An inscription of Severan period (early 3 rd century AD) from Punta Secca (modern province of Ragusa) might refer to activities connected to the grain supply that were approved by a praefectus annonae, Manganaro 1982, 496–497. 17 On Sicilian grain, Soraci 2011.

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agricultural productions such as olive oil and wine by members of the Sicilian elite, is lacking. Sicily was, however, a producer of olive oil, which apparently was not exported (due to insufficient quality or quantity?), but entirely directed towards local consumption.18 In addition, large quantities of olive oil from Spain and Africa reached Sicily, the extent of which will be discussed below. The other most significant agricultural production in Roman Sicily was the cultivation of the vine to make wine. Evidence for this is based on a limited selection of excerpts written by the main Roman agricultural writers19 and the distribution of local amphorae exports. However, although of considerable importance, the ancient sources only provide a general geographic definition of the distribution of vineyards on the island; and do not provide any answers to the questions concerned with understanding the social context of vine-growers, the evolution of the demand for wine over time, changing patterns of viticulture, and the degree of local and private involvement in the transportation of wine and its sale. Considering the scarcity of the available archaeological evidence, it is relatively difficult to evaluate the economic role played by the rich, Sicilian landowners involved in oil and wine production and trade during the mid-Imperial period. However, a wealth of information remains overlooked: tracing the distribution of Sicilian wine amphorae of the midImperial period can provide precious direct testimony of estate owners, kiln operators and merchants involved at different levels in the international trade of Sicilian wine.

18

Olive-crushers (trapeta) and presses have been discovered in various Sicilian Roman settlements. Some of them could have been used to press grapes instead of olives (see Wilson 1990, p. 192, with bibliography). In the Late Antique farm at Campanaio (AG) a tank for decanting oil has been discovered. The area controlled by the centre used to produce a surplus that probably allowed for the export of olive oil, although on a small scale (Wilson 2000, 361–362). 19 Such as Cato, Varro, Columella and Pliny.

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THE CERAMIC EVIDENCE By the Severan period, Sicily assumed an important economic role because of its position along the Rome-North Africa trade route, where the island's main western coastal cities of Palermo and Marsala became important stopovers along these trips. The local upper class took advantage of their strategic geographical location gaining profits from the increased trade following the expansion of the grain markets.20 As an immediate consequence, already from the very beginning of the 2nd century, African Red Slip ware produced in Tunisia started dominating the supply of table wares within Sicily, contributing towards the end of Italian imported red gloss table wares (Terra sigillata), which were mostly imported to the island from Arezzo, Pisa, Puteoli and the Naples region.21 On the other hand, North Africa gradually replaced southern Spain as the main source of olive oil exported for the annona urbana. The disappearance of the Dressel 20 amphora type in Sicily after the end of the 2nd century can be explained as a direct consequence of the decline in the presence of Baetican olive oil in the market.22 In Sicily, olive oil was im20 The presence in Sicily of two imperial procurators of African origin involved in the annona (M. Vettius Latro and T. Flavius Macer: PIR F 310) is epigraphically attested at the beginning of the 2 nd century AD. The inscriptions show as important were the relations between Africa and Sicily already in the 2 nd century and how vital was the island for the annona and imperial administration, Salmeri 1985. 21 Sicily was precociously supplied by Italian Terra Sigillata (ITS) from the end of the 1st century B.C., as testified by the name stamps found on molded vessel produced in the ateliers of M. Perennius e M. Perennius Tigranus (BC 30– 15). Under Augustus ITS is increasingly found throughout Sicily where it was probably imported due to the presence on the island of Italian negotiatores and large estate owners of Italic origin (Cic., Verr. II, 2, 153). The dominance of Italian tablewares in Sicily continued until the first half of the 2nd century AD with the imports of some of the most common forms of Late ITS (Conspectus 3; Conspectus 20 and Conspectus 34). For the Italian stamped terra sigillata attested in Sicily, see Malfitana 2004. 22 The impact of Spanish foodstuffs in Imperial Sicily is still little understood, although various Spanish amphorae types are attested in cities and on shipwrecks. For the Early Imperial period, examples of Dressel 7–11 (garum and salsamen-

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ported from Tripolitania in Tripolitanian II/III amphorae, and from Northern Africa (possibly Byzacena) in Africana I amphorae from the second half of 2nd/early 3rd century onwards.23 Salted fish products (salsamenta) or wine (?) may have been exported from Byzacena and stored in Africana II amphorae (variants A and B), both widely attested in Sicily in the course of the 3rd century. A smaller number of Dressel 30/Keay IA amphorae produced in Mauretania Caesariensis is attested in Sicily. Contrary to earlier suggestions that olive oil was carried in these containers (Laporte 1976–1978, 140–144), it now seems more likely that wine was carried instead24 (fig. 2). Wine imported from Gallia Narbonensis is also attested by the presence of flat-bottomed south Gallic amphorae (Gauloise 4),25 which appear in Sicily, although in small quantities, during the second and third centuries (fig. 3). In sharp contrast to the early Empire,26 North Italian wine amphorae are now absent in Sicily, as neither the Spello27 or Forlimpopoli28 amphorae types have been firmly identified so far. Eastern transport amphorae reached Sicily in larger quantities from the Antonine period onwards. In the Severan age, Kapitän I and II amta), Baetican and Dressel 2–4 tarraconensis (wine), Haltern 70 (defrutum/olives?/wine?), Dressel 14 (salsamenta), Beltran I/Dressel 11 (salsamenta), Beltran IIB (salsamenta and wine) are known. 23 For the chronology of the types and their variants, see Bonifay 2004, 105– 107; fig. 55 (Tripolitana II and III); 107 ss., fig. 56 (Africana I); fig. 57–59 (Africana II and variants). 24 Traces of pitch are very often found on the interior surface of Dressel 30 amphorae, Panella 2001, p. 207, nota 222. 25 The type was produced in numerous kilns in the Narbonne region from around AD 50 to the end of the third century AD and it was widely imitated, Panella 2001, 198. 26 On the distribution of Italian wine amphorae in Roman Sicily see Franco in Malfitana et al. in press. 27 Spello/Ostia II, 521/Ostia III, 369–370 forms produced at Spello (Umbria) and in several other centers on the Tiber valley from the Tiberian-Claudian period and the end of the second century AD, Panella 2001, 195. 28 Forlimpopoli/Ostia IV, 442 form produced in Forlimpopoli in north-eastern Italy and in the Emilia Romagna region from the second half of the 1 st to the first half of the 3rd century AD, Panella 2001, 195.

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phorae types (probably Aegean, Anatolian, or from the Black Sea in origin, and thought to have carried wine) are the most commonly represented ‘eastern’ amphorae in Sicilian assemblages at this time (fig. 3). In order better to understand, evaluate and interpret the commercial networks and trade routes within Sicily, an analysis of the ceramic typologies will be divided according to several geographic areas within the island. This methodology was adopted as it hopes to illustrate the range of imports reaching Sicily, as well as to calculate the quantities of these various amphorae types present in different parts of the island, (see. fig. 1 for the settlements cited in the paper). NORTH-EASTERN TIP OF SICILY In the territory of Messina archaeological studies have traced the existence of coloniae, municipia and small coastal and sub-coastal centers. These are characterized by the presence of a wide range of commercial goods and foodstuffs since the early Imperial period, and which increases from the 4th century AD onwards. However, our knowledge of imported pottery during the Severan period is particularly lacking for the centers of Messana,29 Tauromenium30 and Tyndaris,31 despite their historical and economic relevance attested by many public monuments dating from the 1st century AD (these include: theatres, an odeum, fora, an aqueduct, a “basilica” with grandiose propylaea, public thermae, urban domus and villae). The lack of published, stratified, urban contexts in Messina and Taormina makes it particularly difficult to draw a picture of the supply of amphorae and vessels at the beginning of the Middle Empire. Fortunately, more is known about the settlement of Tindary on the north coast of Sicily. The city was home to a large and prosperous elite in the 1st century AD as attested by the excavation of several lavish private houses. However, this period of prosperity was followed by a period of 29

Oppidum Civium Romanorum (Plin., Nat. Hist., 3, 88). Augustan colony. 31 Colonia Augusta Tyndaritanorum (Diod. Sic., Bibl. Stor., XXIII, 18; Plin., Nat. Hist., III 90). 30

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economic recession and a subsequent demographic decline, dated by archaeologists to the 3rd century AD.32 Although the public buildings continued to be used, the high standard of living witnessed in the earlier period seems to have gradually petered out during the course of the Severan period. Of particular interest, from the beginning of the 3rd century AD, the city's sewerage system stops receiving constant attention and maintenance.33 Moreover, a recent re-evaluation of the pottery assemblage found in the central sector of the city (insula IV) shows a significant reduction of the presence of diagnostic fragments in the 3rd-century strata (Tyndaris I 2008, 110, nota 16). Among the pottery recovered (regrettably not yet fully published) dating to the mid-Imperial period, were present a number of African products; Tripolitana II and III were quite common in this period, as well as numerous types of red-slipped fine wares in fabric A (Hayes 9B, 14A; 16; 26; 27) and A/D (Hayes 31). A different picture is seen from surveys and excavations carried out in rural estates built in the suburban area of the Roman Messana and along the via Pompeia. It is possible to reconstruct a hinterland with small- to medium-sized settlements mainly based on agriculture, such as oil, wine and wheat production. According to the published data some of these rural settlements started being inhabited under the Severan period, or just before. In particular, a rural settlement on the Peloritan Mountains—close to the modern-day town of Scifì (Lentini, Ollà 2001, 123–129),—and a possible statio viaria in the area of S. Alessio,34 were both in use from the 2nd to the beginning of the 5th century AD. Although the well-excavated ceramic finds have only been summarily reported, imports from North Africa (Tripolitanian I and II) and from the Eastern Mediterranean (Kapitän II amphorae) are attested.

32

Recent excavations carried out in the Cercadenari domus show a phase of abandonment of the surrounding urban area during the 3rd century AD. In the same century some other private houses situated in the central sector of the city along the cardo n were abandoned, Tyndaris I 2008, 110. 33 The phase of abandon is well dated by stratified pottery consisted on the earliest forms of African red slip wares in fabric A. 34 The settlement has been identified as a Statio Palmae sive Tamariciae, cited in the Itinerarium Antoninii (It. Ant., 87, 13).

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NORTH-EASTERN COAST OF SICILY Recent systematic investigations have began to define the urban and rural settlement landscape of this area in Sicily, as well as the identify the source of some local amphorae productions dating to the Late Roman Period.35 The colony of Thermae Himerenses/Termini Imerese36 flourished between the 2nd to the 3rd century AD, bringing about the rise of a ruling class, whose fortune derived principally from trade and agriculture. Their presence suggests an equally prosperous economy, attested by epigraphic evidence mentioning some of the senators of Termini who were the proconsuls or quaestores of the island between the 2nd and 3rd centuries (Portale 2005, 35). Significant evidence indicates that they were involved in important activities that benefited the municipality. During the Severan period, the town continued to grow and with the addition of a port, become a prominent port of call along the North Africa-Rome route and the crucial commercial outlet for the Sicilian grain bound for Rome. Several specimens of African amphorae (Dressel 30, Africana IIA, IIC, IID, Tripolitana III) and red-slipped wares (Hayes 8B, 16 and 27) have been discovered in the urban excavations (Termini Imerese 1993). In the hinterland of Termini Imerese the number of large- and medium-sized agricultural settlements grew in the Severan period (Himera III, 2) as attested from the ceramic finds (Africana I B, Africana II D, Hayes 8B and 27), thus confirming a more intensive and systematic rural exploitation by the main city, which served as a major centre for all economic activities in the area. The city of Halaesa (modern-day Tusa), lying inland along the north coast, presents a different picture of local and regional variation. Previous archaeological evidence37 suggested a decline of the municipium from the second and third decades of the 2nd century AD onwards (Wilson 1990, 150). More recent excavations, however, have brought to light an im35

In Termini Imerese, Caronia Marina, Furneri and Capo d’Orlando. On the production of Sicilian amphorae in this area of Sicily see Franco in Malfitana et al. 2008. 36 Civitas Decumana (Cic., Verr., 3, 99); Colonia (Plin., Nat. Hist., III, 8). 37 No known statues dated later than the 2nd century, no grandiose imperial buildings and lack of maintenance of the urban drains.

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portant structure of imperial date (2nd – 3rd century?) within the urban forum. The presence of a columbarium, located just outside the city and dated to the 2nd century, indicates the existence of a middle/upper social class at Halaesa because the style and type of burial method used appears to have been influenced by elite practices found on the Italian mainland. Nevertheless, in contrast to the other areas described above (see Termini Imerese), the lack of mid-Roman-period pottery sherds discovered within the city and its hinterland is very noticeable. The lower valley of the river Tusa (flumen Halaesus), controlled by the city, has been extensively explored in the last ten years by a series of systematic surveys (Burgio 2008). In the countryside the dominant social and economic unit appears to have been farms and, more rarely, villae since the late Republican period. The surveys have revealed a greater density of rural settlements in the course of the early Imperial Period, followed by a considerable reduction in their concentration and number from the mid-Imperial to the late Roman period. By the end of the 2nd century AD many rural farms display signs of abandonment as surmised from the lack of North African imports. Surprisingly, a general economic 'depression' marked by a subsequent decline in agriculture is evident for this area of the island around the late 4th and early 5th century AD, which stands in sharp contrast with the rest of the Sicilian countryside. The presence of 2nd- to 3rd-century North African imports is attested in two rural settlements located within the modern-day Messina district. African red slip ware, of forms Hayes 8 and 9, and amphorae identified as Dressel 30, and Tripolitanian II, have been found during excavations carried out in Roman settlement of Calactae, close to the coastal town of Caronia Marina. The settlement has been identified as a statio situated along the Via Valeria, and dates from the mid-Imperial period (Bonanno, Sudano 2006). The second rural settlement is attested by a few North African fine ware sherds (Hayes 8A and 27), and may have originally formed part of a coastal villa at Bagnoli San Gregorio (statio Agathyrnum) (Spigo, Ollà, Capelli 2006), located about 3 km away from Agathyrnum (modern-day town of Capo d’Orlando). This settlement was also situated along the ancient Via Valeria38 that linked the main cities 38

This route served the northern Sicily coast, and it is called «Valeria» in Strabo, VI 266. For a reconstruction of this route, see Uggeri 2004, 117–162.

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and settlements found along the northern coast of Sicily (for instance, Panhormus, Soluntum, Thermae Himeraeae, Cephaloedium). SICILY’S IONIAN COAST: FROM CATANIA TO THE HYBLAEAN PLATEAU The colony of Catina 39 played a crucial role in the economy of Sicily, particularly because of its port, and the colony's involvement in the management and exploitation of agriculture within its wide hinterland, which included Mount Etna and the Plain of Catania. Despite its importance, however, very little is actually known about the composition of ceramic assemblages from the urban excavations carried out in the city. Nevertheless, an important ceramic assemblage was recovered from the excavations of the Roman theatre and odeon, parts of which have been subsequently published (Branciforti, Pagnano 2008). The pottery studied includes numerous examples of African red slip ware in Fabric A (Hayes 8, 16 and 27) datable to between the last decades of the 1st and the 2nd century AD. In contrast to this dearth of available amphorae data on land, however, many amphorae have recently been discovered off-shore by recent underwater surveys carried out by the local Superintendence of the region (Tortorici 2002). These findings suggest that the colony of Catania strategically controlled many of the landing places scattered along the Ionian coast.40 In addition, these underwater discoveries have also provided evidence for the flourishing trade between Catania and the eastern areas of the empire (Kapitän I and II) and North Africa (Africana I, IIA and IIC, and ARS Hayes 8, 14 and 32) evident since the mid-Empire. Sporadic finds of North African red-slipped tablewares (Hayes 27, 31) and amphorae (Africana II A and C) come from some surveys carried out in the southern hinterland of Catania (Bonacini 2007), known in the Roman period as Campus Leontinus. This large rural expanse was important farm land often mentioned by Classical writers as early as the late Republic (for instance, in a famous passage of Cicero’s third oration against

39

Colonia (Plin., Nat. Hist., 3, 89). Landing site in Catania-Villa Pacini, Ognina, Acicastello, Acitrezza, Capo Mulini, Tortorici 2002. 40

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Verres).41 It is worth noting the apparent absence of Eastern containers dating to the Mid-Empire, although the presence of several eastern forms of the 2nd/3rd century AD is attested in Catania. SICILY’S SOUTHERN COAST Since the mid-Empire the south-eastern part of Sicily witnessed the development of several rural settlements (villae, vici, mansiones and stationes) and agricultural land, spread across the hinterland on fertile plateaus, or along the coast. They appear to have been settled and worked from the late 2nd century, up until the end of the 5th century, and beyond (Wilson 2005, 234). A probable villa in use during the course of the midImperial period has been discovered in the area of S. Teresa di Longarini in the hinterland of Syracuse (Wilson 1990, 211–212). A polychrome mosaic unearthed in one villa's rooms has been dated to the first half of the 3rd century (Wilson 1990, 211, fig. 172). Unfortunately, vessel or amphorae sherds from any of the mid-Imperial layers of the excavated villae remain to be published.42 Additionally, a few examples of African red slip ware of fabric A (Hayes 9B) are known from surveys carried out in the hinterland of the civitas foederata Netum (modern-day Noto).43 Likewise, our knowledge of pottery of mid-Imperial date from the Roman colony of Syracuse also remains very poor.44 The only exceptions to this, however, are the numerous underwater finds discovered through underwater surveys carried out close to the harbor (see below).45 Far more varied and rich ceramic evidence is known from the several excavations carried out in the city of Agrigentum (Agrigento).46 The presence of earlier forms of North African red-slip ware (Hayes 2 and 3A) 41

95.

42

Cic., in Verr., III, 47; about the Imperial period see Plin., Nat. Hist., XVIII

Imports attested in the latest strata of these rural settlements/villae are represented by Few Phocian Red Slip Ware/Late Roman C (Hayes 3C), Eastern Amphorae and several African Red Slip ware and amphorae of various types. 43 Rural settlement of Bonfalà/Passo di Miele (Noto, SR), Guzzardi 1996, 18. 44 Colonia, Plin., Nat. Hist., 3, 89; It. Ant. 90,2; XLIV Tab. 45 On the many wrecks found in the area of Capo Ognina see La Fauci 2002. 46 Civitas decumana (Cic. Verr. II, 3, 103); Municipium latinae condicio (under Augustus).

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and commercial amphorae (Van der Werff 3; Leptiminus I; Tripolitana I)47 in the city and its hinterland are clear signs of enduring and strong contacts between Northern Africa and this area of Sicily, which, on the basis of the ceramic evidence (Hayes 109; Spatheia 3C), seems to last until the beginning of the 7th century AD.48 The most important pottery assemblages from urban contexts have come from the city of Agrigentum. Almost all the published ceramic data derive from a complex system of catacombs, which include the Giambertoni necropolis, the cave of Fragapane and the sub divo necropolis, and are all located behind the Hill of Temples (Agrigento 1995). A few sherds dating to the 3rd century were discovered (Hayes 14B; 14/17; 26; Tripolitana III; Hammamet 1B;49 Africana IA and IB; Africana II A, IIB and IIC) (Agrigento 1995, 259, 262.), although the majority of the pottery dates to the 4th/5th century AD. More recent investigations carried out along the east side of the communal Christian cemetery have revealed the presence of some private hypogea, dated, on the basis of the North African pottery (Dressel 30, Africana IA and Africana II) (Bonacasa Carra, Ardizzone 2007, 95–96), to the 3rd/5th century AD (Bonacasa Carra, Ardizzone 2007). It is necessary to note that the amphorae and vessels found within these catacombs were probably used for dining rituals related to the symbolic rite of refrigerium. It might be perceived, therefore, that the containers were employed for a secondary use. Finally, scientific investigations in the Graeco-roman Sanctuary of Asclepius in another part of the city have unearthed fragments of African red-slip ware dating from the 2nd century onwards (Hayes 8A; 9A) (De Miro 2003, 163–164), and one amphora fragment (Africana 2)50 from the mid-Roman period.

47

Unpublished group of amphorae personally examined. For a recent review on the Late Roman/proto-byzantine pottery assemblages in this area of Sicily see Franco 154–156 in Malfitana et al. 2008, and Franco in press. 49 Unpublished amphora personally examined. 50 The African II amphora was found in a rectangular cistern, north of the temple of Asclepius, De Miro 2003, 157, n. 201. 48

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SICILY’S NORTH-WESTERN TIP: THE HINTERLAND OF SEGESTA Villages and settlements in the area of Segesta, in the north-western tip of Sicily, were already established by the early- to mid-Imperial period, and remained settled throughout the course of the rest of the Imperial period. Recent surveys have demonstrated the existence of many settlements, with flourishing economies, populating the low-lying hills near the Valle del Fiume Freddo, and which date to the 2nd century (Bernardini et al. 2000; Bernardini, Cambi, Molinari 2000, 111–112). The villages’ wealth during the mid-Imperial period is shown by imported pottery vessels such as North African table wares in fabric A (Hayes 19; 34; 17 A; 14/17; 14 B) and fabric A/D (Hayes 27), although the presence of transport amphorae imported from Africa (Tripolitana I; Africana IB and II; Dressel 30), Spain (Baetican Dressel 20) and the Eastern Mediterranean is very limited (Cambi 2005, 630). Archaeologists have, therefore, explained these low levels of imported pottery within these villages, as evidence for economic self-sufficiency (Cambi, Molinari 2000, 111–112). These villages were thus able to produce olive oil and wine for their own domestic consumption, as well as harvest and process grain, which is attested by the discovery of numerous lava mill-stone fragments on many inland sites (Cambi 2003, 161). CENTRAL SICILY: THE MODERN DAY PROVINCES OF CALTANISSETTA AND ENNA Uncertainty still shrouds the exact number, the topographical distribution, and the evolution, of the majority of rural settlements and villages in this area of Sicily. However, recent investigations conducted by the Superintendence of Caltanissetta on some of these villages—most of which remain unpublished—have provided important information about these villages’ history and their relationship with the surrounding area (Panvini 2002). The only published data that date back to the 2nd–3rd century AD come from 60 tomb contexts in the sub divo cemetery area of Contrada Lannari, situated a few kilometers from the modern-day city of Caltanissetta. The area was investigated in 1991 and dated by the excavators to between the early and the middle Roman Imperial period (Panvini, Zavettieri 1993– 1994). The pottery found includes African red slip ware in fabric A1–2 (Hayes 8A; 14 A, nn. 1, 4–5; 14B; 14/17; 16, n. 16) and North African

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lamps, some of which contain stamped signatures.51 Other North African potsherds from the same period were discovered in the surrounding area, pointing the possible existence of a rural settlement associated with the burials. In the territory of Enna the Roman villa near Piazza Armerina provides important evidence of Northern African pottery imported into Sicily from the 2nd century onwards. The villa is located 5 km from Piazza Armerina, at the heart of an ancient estate, whose name was preserved in the ancient Itineraria. The image of Roman Imperial Sicily is closely related to this renowned complex (Ampolo et al. 1971; Carandini, Ricci, De Vos 1982; Gentili 1999). Its architectural monumentality and the grandeur of its mosaics led to the misleading belief that Sicily was reborn only in late antiquity, following centuries of economic uncertainty and a lack of interest and investing by Roman aristocrats. Fortunately, a more plausible historical reconstruction illustrating the evolution of the villa from the mid-Imperial period onwards has been demonstrated by a recent re-evaluation of pottery from mid-Roman strata.52 Several forms of African red slip ware in fabric A1–2 have been identified (Hayes 3; 8A and B; 9A; 14; 27) (Ampolo et al. 1971), although, far less in known about whether any mid-Imperial North African and Eastern amphorae were imported to the site. DATA FROM SHIPWRECKS: THE EVIDENCE FROM SOUTH-EASTERN COAST OF SICILY Several underwater finds and shipwrecks discovered along the southeastern coast of Sicily are a clear testament to the long-term trading and commercial contacts between the eastern Mediterranean basin and the North African coast in existence from the 2nd century AD onwards This part of the Sicilian coast overlooks, what can be considered as, one of the main ancient sea lanes linking the Sicilian channel, with the harbor colony of Syracuse, and the numerous rural settlements and coastal villae situated along the south-eastern coast. Its potential for being 51

CIVNDRAC, ATTINI e IUNIALEXI signatures are attested, Panvini, Zavettieri 1993–1994, 865. 52 Data are partially still unpublished.

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of great strategic importance, and as a node for broad exchange networks, is confirmed by the discovery of lots of examples of eastern Roman amphorae of various types,53 and conspicuous numbers of North African containers. The most relevant and important data for the period under examination concern at least five wrecks found off the south-eastern coast of Sicily – the Terrauzza, Marzamemi, Capo Ognina 1, Plemmirio B and Camarina A shipwrecks–, which sank whilst transporting a cargo consisting of Kapitän I–II54 and Africana I and II amphorae (fig. 4). The Terrauzza shipwreck was discovered lying just 8 km south of Syracuse (Parker 1992, 421–422, n. 1143). It sank carrying a homogeneous cargo of eastern amphorae (Kapitän I–II) dating from the late 2nd century AD. Amphorae of the same types are attested on another two shipwrecks near Marzamemi and Ognina, in eastern Sicily. The Marzamemi wreck (Parker 1992, 266–267, n. 670) was transporting approximately 350 tons of marble and numerous Kapitän I and Kapitän II amphorae (fig. 5). The second wreck, known as Capo Ognina A/Ognina Sud 1 (Parker 1992, 29, n. 755), was found at Ognina close to Syracuse and only 5 km south-west of Terrauzza. The cargo of this wreck is particularly interesting because of the mixed cargo carrying both North African (Ostia 59;55 Ostia 23;56 Dressel 30; Tripolitana I, and III, Africana 1A and 1B), and eastern amphorae (Kapitän I and Kapitän II) (La Fauci 2002, 341–343) (fig. 6). The main cargo amounted to 60 and 40 vessels respectively. Plemmirio B shipwreck, located 5 km south of Porto Grande di Siracusa, carried a cargo of African I and II amphorae produced in Africa Proconsularis (fig. 7).

53

Kapitän 1; Kapitän 2; Knossos 18; LR1; 2; 3; 4; 5/6. The Kapitän 1–2 amphorae start in the late 1st to 2nd century AD, but seem to continue into the 3rd and 4th centuries AD. 55 An early North African amphora containing perhaps olive oil. It was probably produced in Tunisia, between the Second half of the 1 st to middle of the 2nd centuries AD., Panella 2001, 209. 56 An early North African amphora, considered as the predecessor of the type Africana 1. It was probably produced in Tunisia, between the beginning of the 2nd to the 3rd centuries AD., Panella 2001, 209. 54

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It is thought to have been shipping around 200 amphorae. Together with the former North African types, individual examples of other forms of North African amphorae were also found. These include sherds belonging to Tripolitana 2 and Mauretanian Dressel 30 amphorae. A few examples of African cooking ware (forms Hayes 23B, 196A, 181 and 183/4) were also found and most probably belonged to the crew’s domestic belongings rather than cargo. The amphorae forms in the cargo support the Severan chronology. According to the excavators the ship had been sailing from Africa Proconsularis—where the amphorae where produced—towards central Tyrrhenian Italy in the region of Ostia and the other ports serving the city of Rome. On the ship, the Africana 1 and Africana 2A containers were probably carrying olive oil57 and fish products,58 respectively. An interesting painted inscription EG[...]ERE found on an Africana 2A sherd may have designated that the amphora was assigned for shipment.59 Furthermore, an inscription stamped on an Africana 2A amphora neck probably refers to the initials of a Roman citizen (tria nomina).60 According to M. Bonifay, this type of inscription, which is composed of two or three letters, is primarily found on Africana 2A types and can be attributed to the amphorae production site in the city of Sullecthum. These types of inscriptions are largely attested in the Pupput cemetery between the second half of the 2nd and the beginning of the 3rd century AD (Bonifay 2004, 11–13), and could indirectly confirm a Severan chronology for the cargo itself. Lastly, the Camarina A marble wreck has been dated to the end of the 2nd century AD (Parker 1992, 94, n. 163; Purpura 2008, 24–28). Amphorae of Africana I and IIA forms constituted the bulk of the cargo on board, whilst cooking wares (Hayes 195, 197) are believed to have made up a secondary cargo. 57 In the cargo several Africana 1 sherds were found with adhering olive pits, Gibbis 2001, 315. 58 Africana 2A amphorae were found with thick linings of resinous material on the interior surface, Gibbis 2001, 315. 59 The inscription EG[...]ERE, could possibly have a distinct nautical usage: “ex navi egredere” ‘to disembark’, and “e portu egredere”, ‘to set sail’, Gibbis 2001, 319 with bibliography 60 The stamp is inscribed in a rectangle with raised letters [...]PP, Gibbis 2001, 320.

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CONCLUSION THE SOURCES OF DATA The combined data and information gleaned from many of the shipwrecks mentioned above have partly illustrated what foodstuffs were in demand (such as olive oil, wine and fish sauce) and supplied, via a series of sea routes, around the central Mediterranean during the mid-Imperial period. The shipments of North African olive oil, and possibly fish products, mostly being carried in Dressel 30; Tripolitana I and III, Africana 1A and 1B, appear to have been geared towards supplying a specific, and somewhat considerable, market during the Severan period. This is clearly the case for the homogeneous, North African, shipwrecked cargoes found along the south-eastern coast of Sicily (Ognina A and Plemmirio B). Despite, the improbability of ever knowing the intended destination of these ships, it nevertheless remains undoubtedly clear that Syracuse played a major role as a shipping center or port of call along the annona sea-route connecting Tunisia and central Tyrrhenian Italy/Rome. Reliable mid-Imperial amphorae evidence coming from scientific excavations on land is available for a few Sicilian cities. At present, the finds from Termini Imerese, Agrigento, Segesta and Catania (harbor area) are amongst the most well published assemblages that illustrate the distribution of commercial amphorae during the Severan Age. Extensive and regular African imports are widely attested at these sites (red-slip ware and amphorae). To a lesser extent, eastern imports are also recognized, and were essentially transported within two main amphorae types— Kapitän I–II—both most probably as wine containers. Important contributions to our understanding of the scale of trade in the rural communities between the 2nd and 3rd century AD come from some recent intensive field surveys carried out near Heraclea Minoa, in the hinterland of Termini Imerese, Tusa and Segesta, and in central Sicily (seen from the early phase of the Roman villa of Piazza Armerina). The widespread presence of North African vessels and amphorae within these rural areas reflects the access the farmers and inhabitants of these minor communities had to the long-distance trading system. In other words, the Sicilian rural economy in the Severan period was fully integrated with that of the major urban centers. Therefore, this ceramic evidence suggests that the considerable prosperity seen in the Sicilian countryside during the late Roman period was not a new trend making up for a static and stag-

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nant past economy, but was rather a continuation of a process that had begun evolving since the mid-Imperial Period. The presence of villae increased between the Antonine period and the 3rd century (for instance, the villa of Piazza Armerina has a phase that goes back to that period), and thus marks a crucial moment in the passage from the late Republican to proto-Imperial organization of land estates, to the system of the fundi in late antiquity. FINAL CONSIDERATION ON THE DISTRIBUTION PATTERN The success of African agricultural exports, such as olive oil, from the second half of 2nd century AD onwards is well attested in Sicily and could be more generally connected to the involvement of merchants in the supply of free olive oil handouts for the Roman plebs, which was instituted by Septimius Severus (Hist. Aug., Sev., 18.3). The density of African imports, composed mainly of fine wares and amphorae, is particularly evident in the growing coastal cities of the island as well as its rural centre (fig. 2 and 8 showing the distribution of African imported amphorae and fine wares during the middle empire). The widespread diffusion of African tableware in the Sicilian market from the first quarter of the 2nd century onwards, and the rarity of other regional imported fine wares, at least until the end of the 6th century, can be partially explained by Sicily’s proximity to the North African potteryproduction centers.61 Although the paper has not specifically taken African cooking wares into account, the published evidence available for these wares from the important mid-Roman contexts of the Villa of Piazza Armerina (Ampolo et al. 1971), Termini Imerese (Termini Imerese 1993), and Agrigento (Agrigento 1995), allows us to demonstrate the existence of a precocious and regular trade of African cooking pots in central, northern and southern Sicily. During the second half of the 2nd and the course of 3rd century AD, cooking ware found in Sicily includes forms such as: Hayes 23A/B, Hayes 181 and 185 shallow pans, Hayes 195–197 casseroles and Hayes 182 lid. More light that will be shown on the current picture will come 61

See in particular Fentress’s theory that Sicily was a maritime entrepôt for goods between Carthage and Rome, Fentress et al. 2004, 157.

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from the much anticipated edition of the Italian CNR/French CNRS project, Ceramica Africana in Sicilia, which will examine the results of a general survey of Northern African material culture in Roman Sicily until the Byzantine period (Malfitana, Bonifay, Capelli 2008). There are signs displaying regional differences in the distribution of eastern amphorae in Sicily in the Severan Age (fig. 3). This disparity of eastern amphorae find-spots between the western and eastern parts of the island may be explained by the existence of a different Sicilian market controlling or dictating the access and importation of eastern-produced wine. Needless to say, only additional archaeological excavations and further analyses on ceramic assemblages could hope to clarify whether the differences noticed between east and west are real or apparent, possibly resulting from differing field methods, or the choice of which areas to investigate.

Car mela Franco ARTISANS, MERCHANTS AND THEIR PROFESSIONAL ORGANIZATIONS IN ROMAN SICILY: PRELIMINARY COMMUNICATIONS The research project on artisan and professional associations in Roman Sicily aims to investigate the social and economic aspects associated with the centers of ceramic production, as part of a multidisciplinary study devoted to Roman pottery. The need to have more information on the dense network of relationships linking private associations, imperial ceremonies, funerary collegia of arrangements (their construction of tombs, their participation in funerals), and the negotiation of individual distinctions within the group as well as the construction of a collective identity, has prompted the scientific community to investigate the dynamics of associative phenomena,

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contextualizing them in confined areas62 and in different historical moments. These new investigations have allowed us to reconsider the nineteenth-century theories,63 whose aim was to minimize or even deny the economic role of such associations, at least up to the transformations which they were subject in the late imperial period, with particular reference to the age of the Severans. Many scholars, in fact, place at this very moment, a turning point in the organization of the collegia associated with annona (Sirks 2006; Lo Cascio 2002): the legal texts show that the associations connected to annona before Tetrarchic age had become an integral part of the imperial bureaucracy. That is why being part of them was no longer free but mandatory and hereditary. This change was gradual, however, both in relation to the different functions performed by that corpora and to the different geographical and economic realities considered, and probably it was closely tied to the economic crisis of the empire in the last years of Commodus, and during the reign of his successors. In particular, F. Zevi has traced the political decision to change the structure of the relationship between imperial and large private property: he opened a new route to «un cambiamento di indirizzo nella politica di gestione dei beni derivati da confische, che in precedenza si usava vendere subito, e invece, con Settimio Severo, vengono immessi nel patrimonio imperiale. All’ampliamento della proprietà imperiale, si affianca, sotto Severo, una larga politica di provvidenze nei confronti dell’annona urbana, che ha accreditato quell’imperatore di una eccellente reputazione nella storiografia» (Zevi 2008, 488). It was also noted that, in contrast with the age of Hadrian, which had seen a parallel between the creation of new municipalities commissioned by Hadrian and the proliferation of the collegia, «Da Severo Alessandro 62

See for Italic regions Salamito 1990; Castagnetti 2007; Zevi 2008, while the provinces of the empire, see Kneissl 1994; Christol 2003; Arnaoutoglu 2005, Van Nijf 1997. 63 The Waltzing unions believed that these individuals had a single common interest, tied solely to the craft who exercised to obtain favors for, in most cases, tax relief, and to defend their interests against the power or from other collegia, (Waltzing 1895–1900). The opinions Waltzing were updated in a contribution of Mennella and Apicella (See Menella, Apicella 2000).

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in avanti le attestazioni di omaggio da parte di collegi a membri della famiglia imperiale si fanno manifestamente sempre più rade, sino a cessare affatto dopo il cesarato di Costante nei primi decenni del IV s.: e ciò in evidente correlazione inversa non tanto con le accresciute difficoltà economiche dei collegia […] quanto piuttosto con il progrediente controllo coatto da parte dello stato, evidenziatosi proprio al tempo di Severo Alessandro» (Cracco Ruggini 1973, 282–283). The importance of professional associations, then, derives from the fact that it is a key indicator of economic and social development of the lower classes, crucial for the reconstruction of the social framework of Roman cities, revealing among other things, a close link between centers of production and inscriptions relating to professional corporations. As for the relevance of the findings and arguments, it is really essential to review all the documentation, mostly epigraphic, on the collegia of Sicily, putting all data into a single contribution dedicated specifically to professional organizations. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE SICILIAN IMPERIAL INSCRIPTIONS ASSOCIATED WITH THE COLLEGIA On the basis of some previous considerations, we can still say that the main Sicilian epigraphic attestations belong to the imperial age, as in the rest of the Italian regions (Lo Cascio 2002; Castagnetti 2007; Zevi 2008; Patterson 1994) although not many, show a lively business activity in the island. In fact, despite being less important its role of suppliers of annona in favor of Sardinia, Africa and Egypt, in the imperial period, the Sicily did not lose that vitality especially connected with port activities, which in Late Antiquity favored its economic recovery. In particular, the importance of navicularii in the management of the transport of goods and people has been well analyzed by De Salvo (1992), who in her 1979 article pointed out the commercial dynamism of the island, especially of its eastern ports (De Salvo 1979, 58), through the

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analysis of the ναúκληροι inscriptions64 found in Sicily, although limited in number compared with other regions of the Roman Empire. Another fact that emerges clearly is that many of these attestations come from eastern Sicily. In addition to the above-mentioned inscriptions from Messina and Syracuse, also another epigraph comes from this area; it was found in Catania and dated back to the Imperial period (III AD.). It is a dedication to Arrius, a member of the collegium of marmorarium.65 The marmorarii, together with pistores, mensores and navicularii were the major corpora working for the annona. In this case the components of the collegium, according to Manganaro (Manganaro 1988, 25, 62; Pensabene 1995), were experts only in the processing of marble imported from Africa or Luni, since Sicily lacked of real marble quarries: caves existed in Tauromenium, perhaps derived from the heritage of Hiero II in ager pubblicus, and then in the imperial capital from which stone marble blocks were quarried, sub cura of Pater(nus) proc(urator), but «producevano soltanto breccia per costruire» (Manganaro 1988, 25). This epigraph is usually associated with an inscription of Ostia (CIL XIV 364), which seems to attest also the existence of a corpus fabrum navalium in Catania. But the most conspicuous group is coming from funerary inscriptions from the catacombs of Syracuse, because with the rise of Christianity, the mention of the profession became increasingly frequent in the inscriptions. Specifically, of great interest is the funerary inscription discovered at Syracuse in the catacomb of San Giovanni (fig. 9). The Greek inscription, in small letters and rubricate, overhanging a sign of the cross, was discovered during the excavations conducted in 1895 by P. Orsi (Orsi 1896, 48). The archaeologist recognized in the word βολιμαρίων the nomen of the family who owned Peregrina, although in reality an indication of the 64

These are two inscriptions, both of the 3rd century AD, one from Syracuse and the other from Messina. The reflections of De Salvo and Manganaro, in contrast with that of Griffo (Griffo 1954), would not show the presence of a collegium of navicularii in the two cities but «l’esistenza in Licia di un’associazione di armatori che esercitavano il loro commercio verso l’occidente e dall’altro, di un’attività economica florida in questi porti dell’isola», De Salvo 1979, 61. 65 (CIL X 7039) D.M.S. / L. Arrius / Secundus / vix. (annis) XVII. / Marmorarii / convive fecer(unt).

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nomen is very rare in the Christian inscriptions of Sicily. In fact, as it has been noted by Wessel66 and Ferrua,67 βόλιμος in Greek is also the lead and may indicate in that case a collegium plumbarioum dedicated to the processing of lead (Manganaro 1988, 28). It is by no means an isolated case: in other inscriptions the term plumbarius refers to women68 and may indicate or workshop owner or conductrices who sold their members’ products. The role of women and in particular their participation in the collegia is a problem that deserves further investigation. From the West side of the island come, however, two examples: a Latin Greek sign (fig. 10) of a stonemason's workshop and the dedication of ΚΙΝΑΚΩΝ Mazara (fig. 11). The former is a bilingual inscription69 engraved on a marble table of a stonemason's workshop and its origins are uncertain (or hinterland Panhormus?). The text of the sign suggests cus66

See C. Wessel, Inscriptiones Graece Christiane veteres Occidentis, Dissert. Halensis 1936, 22 nr. 127 in which he cites in a footnote Etym. Magn. βόλιμος·ἔ στι μόλιβος· καὶ κατὰ ἐ ναλλαγὴ ν βόλιμος παρὰ Συρακουσίοις, and he interprets οἱ βολιμάριοι = plumbariorum collegium. 67 According to Ferrua Peregrina was probably a servant of the Association of plumbarii, see (Ferrua 1974, 41). 68 The term plumbaria is included in the rich list of terms on “female jobs” created by E. Malaspina and would indicate the (holder) owner of a metal shop. The existence of women plumbariae, according to Malaspina, is confirmed «dal loro nome inciso—specialmente fra il II e l’inizio del III sec.—su tubi (o su lamine provenienti da cassette di divisione di acquedotti) fabbricati in officine di cui esse erano titolari spesso da sole, (cf. ad es. CIL XV 7252, 7253, 7303, 7378, 7434, 7589, 7592, 7612, 7620, 7628, 7640, 7649, 7675, 7688, 7863) e talora in società con altri (cf. ad es. CIL XV/2,7343, 7472, 7687)» (Malaspina 2003, 383– 384). Instead, according to J. Loane (1938) these women were “contractores” (conductrices), who sold the product of their partners (plumbarii). In this way also female managers could be owners of shops or related, as in our case, with the mining of sulfur. 69 This is a bilingual sign, Latin and Greek, of the imperial age coming from a workshop where stone masons worked and they were specialized in operating incised tables and engraving tituli for sacred and profane purposes. According to L. Bivona «la duplice redazione fa pensare che, anche se non propriamente panormitana, la tabella debba essere di provenienza locale», however some inaccuracies of the text in both editions «induce a ritenere che chi scrisse il testo non conoscesse bene né l’una né l’altra lingua», Bivona 1970, 86–87.

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tomers that the owner of the workshop executes inscriptions for public and religious buildings and shows the existence of at least two phases in the composition of an inscription: the ordinatio, that is the transcription in the stone of a text giving an epigraphic form, and the sculpere, the work of the actual engraving (Bivona 1984, 28). The latter, however, is a Greek inscription dated to the first half of the third century A.D. (220–250 AD) and recalls the honor of a crown made to M. Iunius Felix, a member of the βουλή Lilybaeum, conferred by a κοινòν ΚΙΝΑΚΩΝ. According to the theory of Manni Piraino (Manni Piraino 1969, 124), the Κίνακες in question were the Phoenicians, coming from the Hellenistic East, or a group of safflower workers and dyers who took their names from their Phoenician masters, residing in Mazara and members of a κοινòν, corporate or religion, to defend their interests in a commercial centre of considerable importance. This epigraph has remarkable similarities with another inscription,70 discovered in 1891 in Mazara near Piazza Mokarta, especially in the layout of the written text. This is a public dedication to curio minor L. Cassius Manilianus, which could be ascribed to the age post-Severan for the characteristics with which it is reported the cursus honorum71 and for the fact that Lilybaeum appears already elevated to the status of colony (CIL X 7205). As for the expression erga patriam suam, the character in question was from Lilybaeum, but probably belonged to a branch of the gens Cassia Proconsularis who had moved from Africa to Sicily to in70

L. Bivona suggests the following integration: L(ucio) Cassio Manili / anoc(larissimo) v(iro) curioni / minori q(uaestori) p(rovinciae) S(iciliae) curat(ori) / rei p(ublicae) Lilyb(itanorum) ob insigne(m) / eius abstinentiam pa / tientiam praestanti/[a]m erga patriam sụ[am] / ordo splend[idi]ṣs(imus) col(oniae) Lily(bitanorum) / decreto pubļicọ facto / ẹṭ aliam in patria eius / p(ecunia) p(ubblica) posuit. Bivona 1987, 13. 71 As it has been noted by L. Bivona «mancano nella carriera di Maniliano le cariche anteriori alla questura. Assai di rado, o addirittura eccezionalmente, la menzione di tali cariche è tralasciata in età anteriore ai Severi. Non è raro, invece, che nelle iscrizioni del III sec. i cursus honorum siano riportati in modo incompleto proprio relativamente a tali cariche. L’omissione del vigintivirato e del tribunato militare è abbastanza frequente nelle iscrizioni dopo Caracalla, ma è già attestata anche al tempo di Settimio Severo», Bivona 1987, 13.

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crease their economic interests related to the extraction and sulfur trade (Bivona 1987, 16). In the Tegulae sulfuris72 of the area of Agrigento, the noble Cassius appeared in a series of stamps in the adjectival form “Cassia” next to the gens Annia, who played a leading role in the mining area of Agrigento between II and III century A.D. It was not a sheer chance that the Severan period has represented a period of economic recovery not only for Lilybaeum, but for western Sicily, from Termini Imerese, Palermo to Agrigento (Cracco Ruggini 1980, 4; Mazza 1980–1981, 346), in which the relationships between these cities and Africa intensified, they are also reflected in Agrigento ceramics (Wilson 1980–1981), mosaics (Dunbabin 1978) art and architecture monuments. For the latest case, an interesting example is the so-called “Tomb of Theron” which, according to De Miro (Spigo, Ollà, Capelli 2006), would become part of the imperial mausoleums, whose formal approaches must be found in the East and Africa, and probably belonging to figures connected to the production of sulfur like the family of Annii. In this case, a careful reading of this epigraphic material, as part of the sulfur mining industry, could be crucial both to know the identity and role of these individuals, and to understand that separation between mining sites and residential sites in Roman period, typical of the modern age, and to know whether those who worked and managed the workshops were divided into groups. The answer to all these questions surely would add an important element in the study of Roman society.

Annarita Di Mauro REFERENCES Agrigento 1995 = R.M. Bonacasa-Carra (ed.), Agrigento. La necropoli paleocristiana sub divo (Studi e Materiali) (1995). 72

The name was given by the tegulae mancipum sulfuris Mommsen to indicate those inscriptions which he placed in Corpus X 2 8044, 1–14 characterized by these specific items. As regards their function and the detailed analysis of the inscriptions, see Griffo 1963; De Miro 1982–1983 and the Ph.D. thesis of L. Zambito: “Lo sfruttamento dello zolfo in età romana. Gentes senatories e attività mineraria in Sicilia”, University of Messina.

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Himera III.1 = V. Alliata, O. Belvedere, A. Cantoni, G. Cusimano, P. Marescalchi, S. Vassallo (eds.), Himera III.1. Prospezione archeologica nel territorio. Himera III.2 = O. Belvedere, A. Bertini, G. Boschian, A. Burgio, A. Contino, R.M. Cucco, D. Lauro (eds.), Himera III.2. Prospezione archeologica nel territorio. Hölscher, T., L’archeologia classica. Un’introduzione (2010). Kneissl, P., Die Fabri, Fabri tignuarii, Fabri subaediani, Centonarii und Dolabrarii als Feuerwehren in den Städten Italiens und der westlichen Provinzen, in E fontibus haurire. Beiträge zur römischen Geschichte und zu ihren Hilfswissenschaften, eds. R I. Günther, S. Rebenich (1994) 133–146. La Fauci, F., Nuove osservazioni sui relitti di Capo Ognina (Siracusa), «Archeologia Subacquea. Studi, ricerche e documenti» 3 (2002) 335– 352. Laporte J.P., Les amphores de Tubusuctu et l’huile de Maurétanie césarienne, Bulletin archéologique du Comité des travaux historiques et scientifiques (1976–1978) 131–157. La Torre, G.F., Il processo di romanizzazione della Sicilia. Il caso di Tindari, «Sicilia Antiqua» 1 (2004) 111–146. Lentini, M.C., Ollà, A., Una villa marittima a Marina di Itala- Catalogo, in M.C. Lentini (ed.), Naxos di Sicilia in età romana e bizantina ed evidenze dai Peloritani. Catalogo Mostra Archeologica Museo di Naxos (2001) 107–114. Lo Cascio, E., Ancora sugli “Ostia’s services to Rome”, «MEFRA» 114 (2002) 87–109. Malaspina, E., La terminologia latina delle professioni femminili nel mondo antico, «Mediterraneo antico» 6.1 (2003) 347–391. Malfitana, D., Italian Sigillata Imported to Sicily: The evidence of stamps, in J. Poblome, P. Talloen, R. Brulet, M. Waelkens (eds.), Early Italian Sigillata. The chronological framework and trade patterns, Proceedings of the First International ROCT-Congress (2004) 309– 336. Malfitana, D., Metodologie, problemi e prospettive di ricerca negli studi di ceramologia ellenistica e romana in Sicilia. Un planning per future ricerche tra archeologia e archeometria, in D. Malfitana, J. Poblome, J. Lund (eds.), Old Pottery in a New Century. Innovating Perspectives on Roman Pottery Studies, (2006) 399–421.

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Malfitana, D., Ricerche di archeologia classica e post-classica in Sicilia, in Malfitana et al. (2011) 25–30. Malfitana, D., Poblome, J., Lund, J. (eds.), Old Pottery in a New Century. Innovating Perspectives on Roman Pottery Studies, Atti del Convegno Internazionale di Studi, Catania 22–24 aprile 2004, Monografie dell’Istituto per i beni Archeologici e Monumentali (2006). Malfitana, D., Cacciaguerra, G., Archeologia romana e medievale in Sicilia: riflessioni, problematiche e prospettive di ricerca. Priolo come caso-studio, in Malfitana et al. (2011) 32–47. Malfitana, D., Franco, C.,“Archeologia dell’artigianato” nella provincia Sicilia. Nuove prospettive di indagine dal “Roman Sicily Project. Ceramics and trade”, in Roma y las provincias. Modelo y difusión, a cura di T. Nogales, I. Rodà (2011) 79–91. Malfitana, D., Franco, C., «Fructuosissima atque opportunissima provincia» (Cic. In Verrem, II, 3, 226). Il sistema Sicilia ed il ruolo economico delle città nella Sicilia romana. Il contributo dell’evidenza ceramica, in S. Keay (ed.) Rome, Portus and the Mediterranean. Archaeological Monographs of the British School at Rome (2012) 177– 204. Malfitana, D., Bonifay, M., Capelli, C., Un progetto italo francese (CNRCNRS) per lo studio delle importazioni di ceramiche africane nella Sicilia romana, vandala, ostrogota e bizantina. Problemi archeologici e archeometrici. Status quaestionis, metodologie e percorsi di indagine, «Rivista di Archeologia» 31 (2008) 227–235. Malfitana, D., Franco, C., Morgano, M.G., Palazzo, A.L., Botte, E., Roman Sicily project: ceramics and trade, «Facta» 2 (2008) 127–192. Malfitana, D., Franco, C., Palazzo, A., Di Stefano, G., Fragalà, G., Un progetto internazionale per uno studio multidisciplinare della cultura materiale della Sicilia romana (“Roman Sicily Project: ceramics and trade”), in F. D’Andria, D. Malfitana, N. Masini, G. Scardozzi (eds.), Il dialogo dei Saperi. Metodologie integrate per i Beni Culturali (2010) 189–240. Malfitana, D., Cacciaguerra, G., Guzzetta, G., Fragalà, G., Franco, C., Lazzari, M., Nucifora, M., Scardozzi, G. et al., Priolo romana, tardo romana e medievale. Ricerche di archeologia classica e post-classica in Sicilia (2011). Malfitana, D., Franco, C., Cacciaguerra, G., Di Mauro, A., Merci e scambi tra il Nord e il Sud dell’Italia romana: i contesti siciliani. Il contributo del Roman Sicily Project: Ceramics and Trade, in L’anfora

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di Empoli: produzione e diffusione in età romana, Atti del convegno di studi (in press). Manganaro, G., Palast und Hutte, in D. Papenfuss; V. M. Stroka (eds.) (1982) 496–497. Manganaro, G., La Sicilia da Sesto Pompeo a Diocleziano, «Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt», II, 11.1 (1988) 3–89. Manni, Piraino M.T., Mazara ed un KOINON KINAKΩN di età romana imperiale, «Oriens Antiquus» 8 (1969) 121–125. Mazza, M., Economia e società nella Sicilia romana, «Kokalos», XXVI– XXVII (1980–1981) 292–353. Menella, G., Apicella, G., Le corporazioni professionali nell’Italia romana. Un aggiornamento al Waltzing (2000). Orsi, P., Gli scavi a San Giovanni di Siracusa nel 1895, «Römische Quartalschrift» X (1896) 1–59. Panella, C., Le anfore di età imperiale del Mediterraneo occidentale, in Céramiques hellénistiques et romaines, III, E. Geny (ed.) (2001) 177– 275. Panvini, R., Insediamenti bizantini nella Sicilia centro-meridionale, in R.M. Carra Bonacasa (ed.), Byzantino-Sicula, IV, Atti del I Congresso internazionale di archeologia della Sicilia bizantina (2002) 191–214. Panvini, R., Zavettieri, G., La necropoli subdivo di contrada Lannari, «Kokalos» 39–40, II.1 (1993–1994) 851–866. Parker, A.J., Ancient Shipwreck of the Mediterranean and the Roman Provinces, BAR-IS 580 (1992). Patterson, J.R., Patronage, collegia and burial in imperial Rome, in Death in towns, ed. S. Basset (1992) 15–27. Patterson, J.R., The collegia and the transformations of the town of Italy in the second century AD, in L’Italie d’Auguste à Dioclètien (1994) 227–238. Pensabene, P., Le vie del marmo: i blocchi di cava di Roma e di Ostia. Il fenomeno del marmo in Roma antica (1995). Pensabene, P., Edilizia pubblica e committenza, marmi e officine in Italia meridionale e in Sicilia durante il II e III secolo d.C., «RendPontAcc» 69 (1996–1997) 3–88. Portale, E.C., Sicilia, in Le grandi isole del Mediterraneo Occidentale. Sicilia, Sardinia, Corsica, E.C. Portale, S. Angiolillo, C. Vismara (eds.) (2005) 17–139.

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Portale, E.C., Problemi dell’archeologia della Sicilia ellenistico-romana, Il caso di Solunto, «Archeologia Classica» 47.7 (2006) 50–114. Purpura, V., I relitti con manufatti marmorei in Sicilia, «Archaeologia Maritima Mediterreanea» 5 (2008) 23–44. Rizzo, F.P., La menzione del lavoro nelle epigrafi della Sicilia antica (1989). Salamito, J.M., Les collèges de fabri, centonarii et dendrophori dans les villes de la Regio X à l’époque impériale, in La città in Italia settentrionale in età romana (1990) 163–177. Salmeri, G., Sui rapporti tra Sicilia e Africa in età romana repubblicana e imperiale, in L’Africa romana iii, Atti del III Convegno di studio Sassari, 13–15 dicembre 1985, ed. A. Mastino (1986) 397–412. Salmeri, G., Sui rapporti tra Sicilia e Africa in eta’ romano repubblicana ed imperiale, in L’Africa romana 3, Atti del III convegno di studio (1985) 397–412. Severan Culture 2007 = S. Swain, S. Harrison, J. Elsner (eds.) (2007). Sirks, B., The food distributions in Rome and Constantinople: Imperial power and continuity in Herrschaftsstrukturen und Herrschaftspraxis. Konzepte, Prinzipien und Strategien der Administration im römischen Kaiserreich, Akten der Tagung an der Universität Zürich, Okt. 2004, ed. A. Kolb (2006) 35–44. Soraci, C., Sicilia frumentaria: il garno siciliano e l’annona di Roma, V. a.C.–V d.C. (2011). Spigo, U., Ollà, A., Capelli, C., La ceramica di produzione locale dalle terme di Bagnoli-S. Gregorio a Capo d'Orlando (ME), in D. Malfitana, J. Poblome, J. Lund (eds.), Old Pottery in a New Century. Innovative Perspectives on Roman Pottery Studies (2006) 451–463. Termini Imerese 1993 = O. Belvedere, A. Burgio, R. Macaluso, M.S. Rizzo (eds.), Termini Imerese. Ricerche di topografia e di archeologia urbana (1993). Tortorici, E., Contributi per una carta archeologica subacquea della costa di Catania, «Archeologia Subacquea» 3 (2002) 275–335. Tyndaris 1 2008 = R. Leone, U. Spigo (eds.), Tyndaris 1. Ricerche nel settore occidentale: campagne di scavo 1993–2004 (2008). Uggeri, G., La viabilità della Sicilia in età romana (2004). Van Nij, F.O.M., The civic world of professional associations in the Roman East (1997).

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Vera, D., Aristocrazie romana ed economie provinciali nell’Italia tardoantica: il caso siciliano, «Quaderni catanesi di studi classici e medievali» 10 (1989) 115–172. Waltzing, J.P., Étude historique sur les corporations professionnelles chez les Romains I–IV (1895–1900). Ward-Perkins, J. B., The Severan Buildings of Lepcis Magna: An Architectural Survey (1993). Wessel, C., Inscriptiones graecae christianae veteres Occidentis, ed. A. Ferrua e C. Carletti (1989). Wilson, A., Urban development in the Severan Empire, in Severan Culture (2007) 290–326. Wilson, R.J.A., The hinterland of Heraclea Minoa (Sicily), in Classical Antiquity, Archaeology and Italian Society, Papers in Italian Archaeology, 2, G.W. Barker, R. Hodges (eds.), BAR-IS (1981) 249–260. Wilson, R.J.A., Sardinia and Sicily during the Roman Empire, in Atti del V Congresso Internazionale di Studi sulla Sicilia antica, «Kokalos», XXVI–XXVII (1980–1981) 219–242. Wilson, R.J.A., Sicily under the Roman Empire: The Archaeology of a Roman Province, 36 BC–AD 535 (1990). Wilson, R.J.A, Rural Settlement in Hellenistic and Roman Sicily: Excavations at Campanaio (AG), 1994–1998, «PBSR» 68 (2000) 337–369. Wilson, R.J.A, Settlement Patterns in South-East Sicily in Roman and Late Roman Times, in F.P. Rizzo (ed.), Di abitato in abitato. In itinere fra le più antiche testimonianze cristiane degli Iblei, Atti del Convegno Internazionale di studi (2005) 223–238. Woolf, G., The present state and future scope of Roman archaeology. A comment, «AJA» 108 (2004) 417–428. Zevi, F., I collegi di Ostia e le loro sedi associative tra Antonini e Severi, in Le quotidien municipal dans l’Occident romain, eds. C. Berrendonner, M. Cébeillac-Gervasoni, L. Lamoine (2008) 477– 505.

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FIGURES

Fig. 1. Map of Sicily showing the Roman settlements mentioned in the paper.

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Fig. 2. Distribution map showing the principal Northern African amphorae imported to mainland Sicily in the Severan Period.

Fig. 3. Distribution map showing Gallic and Eastern Mediterranean amphorae mainly attested in mainland Sicily in the Severan Period.

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Fig. 4. Map showing the location of the Severan Age shipwrecks found off the south-eastern coast of Sicily (modified after GIBINS 2001 fig. 1)

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Fig. 5. Marzamemi I wreck. Examples of Kapitän I amphorae found on the wreck. (after Kapitän 1971).

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Fig. 6. Capo Ognina A wreck. Examples of Kapitän II and Africana 1 amphorae found on the wreck (after La Fauci 2002).

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Fig. 7. Plemmirio B shipwreck .Africana 2A amphora tops and base (after Gibbins 2001 fig. 5)

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Fig. 8. Map showing the distribution in mainland Sicily of African fine wares forms (Fabric A 1-2 and A/D) during the middle empire. List of ARSW forms considered: fabric A 1-2 (Hayes 8 A and B; 9B, 14A and Hayes 14B/15; 14/17; 16; 17 A; 19; 26) fabric A/D (Hayes 27/31; 32; 34).

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Fig. 9. Inscription of Peregrina (after Orsi 1896, 48).

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Fig. 10. Latin-Greek inscription of a stonemason's workshop (after Rizzo 1989, 93).

Fig. 11. Inscription of κοινòν ΚΙΝΑΚΩΝ (after Manni Piraino 1969, 122).

BETWEEN TRADITION A N D I N N O VAT I O N – T H E V I S U A L R E P R E S E N TAT I O N OF SEVERAN EMPERORS Florian Leitmeir (Julius-Maximilians-Universität Würzburg)

Previous scholarship on Severan Imperial portraiture has particularly focused on dynastic aspects.1 Parallels could be seen in nearly all kind of ancient sources, ranging from sculpture to inscriptions and coinage. Dynastic relationships, however, are only one aspect affecting such portraits. The shortcomings of so narrow a focus become blatantly obvious, I would argue, when looking at the development of portraiture, which is

I thank Eric De Sena for the possibility to take part at the conference at the John Cabot University in Rome. The paper is a brief summary of my yet unpublished doctoral thesis Die bildliche Repräsentation des severischen Kaiserhauses von Caracalla bis Severus Alexander (Freiburg i. Br.), that was granted with a doctoral scholarship by Hanns-Seidel-Stiftung. Christian Thomas Leitmeir and Rachel King were a great help for correcting my English paper. 1 Severan imperial portraiture has been studied generally only for a single emperor. A comprehensive review of the whole period is lacking. For the single emperors and the replicas cf. the articles of Klaus Fittschen in Fittschen and Zanker 1985. The first comprehensive study of Severan imperial portraiture from 193–217 has been published by Nodelman 1965. For the same period see also Baharal 1996 focused mainly the dynastic aspect (cf. the review of Hannestad 1998).

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characterized not by direct lineage, but by radical changes in the visual representation of the emperors.2 My paper starts with a discussion of different concepts of representation, using Caracalla as a case study. Then I will attempt a characterization of the imperial image between tradition and innovation in Severan period. In the concluding section, I will place the results of both these detailed and general observations in the broader contexts of Severan and, finally, even Roman art. My doctoral thesis examined the visual representation of the Severan Emperors focusing mainly the form of statuary representation (Leitmeir, forthcoming). Any proper understanding of statuary representation must take two factors into account: First and foremost, we must establish who was responsible for the appearance of the statue.3 Normally the emperor would design a so-called “Urbild” (“archetype”), which was disseminated through the whole Empire in forms such as plaster casts or drawings (Dally 2007, 231–240; Fittschen 1971, 220–224; Pfanner 1989, esp. 157–161). Thus the “Urbild” was the single part of the statue which was controlled by the emperor (Fejfer 2008, 373–429). The physical appearance of the body and the honorific inscription generally lay in the hand of the dedicator and the sculptural workshop.4 Secondly, one has to make a distinction between the conception of the portrait, the “Urbild” or the portrait type, and its reception. As well the body of the statue, reception consists of bases with inscriptions (Deppmeyer 2008; Højte 2005). Let me demonstrate this through the example of Caracalla. Born on April 4th 187/188, Caracalla was elevated to the rank of Caesar in 195, after his father Septimius Severus had firmly established his rule (cf. Kienast 1990, 162; Campbell 2005, 5–7; Birley 1988, 119). Only two years later Caracalla was elevated to the rank of Augustus and his younger brother Geta to that of Caesar.

2

cf. Leitmeir 2011. A brief review for the first and second century gives von den Hoff (in press). 3 This question is recently discussed by von den Hoff (in press, with further lit.). 4 Von Den Hoff (in press); Fejfer 2008, 373–429. For honorific statues see Lahusen 2010, 27–53; Lahusen 1983, 97–111.

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The earliest sculptural portrait type of the boy Caracalla shows him with a round face and curly hair with two comma locks framing hair on the fore (fig. 1).5 The propagandistic intention of this image becomes apparent on comparison with the portrait type of Marcus Aurelius as prince (fig. 2) (Leitmeir 2011, 13–14; Fittschen 1999, 13–21; Fittschen and Zanker 1985, 98). Three aspects are worth noting: First: If we compare this with the portrait type of Caesar known to us only from coinage the image is completely modified. We know of a change in his Caesar-type (fig. 3) only from coinage (Mattingly 1975, Taf. 10 Abb. 1–11; Taf. 26 Abb. 4–9). Second: His official name after becoming Caesar: Marcus Aurelius Antoninus.6 Third: A similarity with Marcus Aurelius’ portrait is articulated by the second type of Septimius Severus, who himself constructed a genealogical relationship by pretending to be brother of Commodus. In this way, the Roman people were primed to see in the young and old Marcus Aurelius in the portraits of the two Augusti (Fittschen and Zanker 1985, 98). Moreover, the degradation of Geta (fig. 4) is significant.7 We can see this from his first portrait type, which is more similar to contemporary children portraits8 and has therefore no dynastic function. The second portrait type of Caracalla and Geta (fig. 5. 6) marks the first radical change. Here, the two brothers are represented like twins, causing any resemblance to their earlier portraits to be lost. From 205 to 211, one can also see a progression in beard growth.9 The representation of the two princes as twins powerfully communicates their mutual ‘concordia’. We need only look at the so-called Con5

For the First portrait type cf. Jacobsen 1903. Fittschen and Zanker 1985, 99 (list of replicas). 6 The first inscription, exactly datable, is from 195 (RIU 3, Nr. 840 = AE 1982, 817). 7 For the first portrait type of Geta: Budde 1951, 37–39; Fittschen and Zanker 1985, 100–102; Leitmeir 2007, 7. 8 Cf. for portraits of children with the same coiffure Fittschen 1999, 101 Nr. 131–134 Taf. 188–190. 9 For the Type: Budde 1951, 28–39; Wiggers H.B., Wegner M. 1971, 23–25. 54f.; Fittschen, K., Zanker, P. 1985, 102–105; Pollini 2005; Leitmeir 2007, 10– 16. Leitmeir 2011, 14–15.

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cordia-Scene at the quadrifrons of Lepcis Magna which can be connected to Septimius Severus. Caracalla is shaking hands with Septimius Severus. Geta’s depiction in the background shows that he is at a lower rank than Caracalla, but he is still connected in the action of the two Augusti. We also see the Concordia motif in coinage10 and even hear it in Septimius Severus’ last words to his sons: «Be Harmonious, enrich the soldiers, and scorn all other men.» (Cass. Dio 77,15,2) In stark contrast to the alleged rivalry and hate between Caracalla and Geta, as described by ancient historians, their portraits do not change during the short period of common reign. Following Geta’s assassination in December 211, Caracalla’s portrait underwent yet another radical change. The third type (fig. 7), also called first sole ruler-type, is arguably one of the most impressive ancient portraits.11 Alone a historiography of scholarship on this portrait since the 16th century and its reception would make a fascinating paper. For today, however, I restrict myself to Jacob Burckhardt, who in his Cicerone interpreted the Naples Portrait of Caracalla as embodiment of Satan.12 But let us turn our backs on the Devil for now and confront the portrait directly instead: Its characteristic elements are the short cropped hair with single curls, the pathognomonic facial expression with accentuated facial furrows and the strong leftwards rotation of the head, which means that the right profile is the main view. The first ruler-type has invited many different interpretations. These have ranged from the representation of a cruel despot to that of a common soldier. While all of these opinions have their roots in the writings of ancient historiographers, those who advocate them normally fail to consider the tendentious character of such accounts. Because these can never provide a fool-proof key to unlock these portraits, I suggest that we withhold judgment on them momentarily and concentrate on the hard evidence presented by the portraits themselves.

10

E.g. Hill 1964, Nr. 1079. 1081. 1118. 1193–1195 (standing); 1087. 1119 (sacrifice). 11 For the third portrait type: Wiggers and Wegner 1971, 28–35; Fittschen and Zanker 1985, 105–109 (with list of replicas). 12 Burckhardt 2001, 418–419. For the importance of the research history cf. Fittschen and Zanker 1985, 108 note 2.

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Inge Mennen has stressed the military in her interpretation, basing herself on the work of Anne-Marie Leander-Touati (Mennen 2006; Leander-Touati 1991). Comparing the facial expression of Caracalla with an attacking soldier depicted on the Great Trajanic Frieze, Mennen and Leander-Touati read Caracalla’s pathognomy as the expression of an active soldier (Mennen 2006, 258; Leander-Touati 1991, 120–124). In my view, this approach is flawed. This becomes apparent on reference to the relief on the Arch of Septimius Severus on the Forum Romanum. There we see this allegedly characteristic feature on the passive soldiers standing near the emperor too.13 The soldier and the captured barbarian on the pedestal are also shown with the same features (Brilliant 1967, Taf. 53). A military interpretation has been also proposed for Caracalla’s short beard and the coiffure. Critically, however, there is a pronounced lack of comparable examples in military environment, where hair is normally hidden under the helmet. The coiffure was interpreted as philosophical or athletic and even compared the hair and beard of Hercules (Giuliani 1980, 82, nr. 57; Bergmann 1983, 44). This variety of ways to interpret the short hair and beard should leave us doubting that it is actually possible to understand the whole while referring only to one part. The strong rotation of the head to the left has often been interpreted as the imitation of Alexander the Great by Caracalla.14 Whilst this reading is certainly attractive at first sight, the comparison between portraits does not stand up to scrutiny. True, portraits of Alexander are always rotated leftwards, but significantly his glance is directed upwards, which means that the head bends as if in a spiral rotation. What is more, both the anastole and the beardless face, distinctive features of Alexander, are missing in the Caracalla portrait. On our search to understand the meaning of the Caracalla portrait, we could turn to other idealistic statues, which actually show several of his features in combination. Studying the statue type of Diomedes (fig. 8) some scholars pointed out similarities to Caracalla— an insight willingly

13 E.g. Brilliant 1967, Taf. 78b. 80: north-west relief, standing group of soldiers near the emperor. 14 Kühnen 2008, 184 f. (with lit.). Against the imitatio of Alexander: Salzmann 2001, 175 f. (with. lit.)

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or unwillingly ignored in subsequent portrait research.15 The official portrait of the emperor additionally includes a heroic aspect, as found already in statues of Trajan and Hadrian but only in the provinces.16 Which of these arguments should be considered, then, when interpreting Caracalla’s first sole ruler portrait? First, it should be noted that the design presents a combination of features which have been used in Roman portraits before. It is the combination of these features which is completely new in each case. The portrait seems a convincing whole. Yet, the military interpretation reduces the portrait to a single aspect. The type is to be interpreted as the representation of the emperor Caracalla as a heroic commander in the style of Diomedes, Achilles or Alexander the Great. In this way, Caracalla distances himself from both the viewer as well as from all preceding emperors. Not even soldiers would have been able to appreciate this—let alone members of the imperial court or senators. The similarity between Caracalla with Achilles in the «heroikos» of Philostratos may be just one case in point.17 The popularity of heroic themes, especially Achilles, in Severan Period has already been noted. One parallel is especially striking in this context. On a sarcophagus from Torraccia, which takes the education of Achilles as its theme, the deceased is depicted in nearly the same form as Caracalla, with short beard and leftwards rotation.18 Yet, these factors still do not result in a satisfying explanation of the Caracalla portrait. There is a forth portrait type, also known as Type Tivoli or second sole ruler-type (fig. 9).19 This dates from about 215 to 217 (Fittschen and Zanker 1985, 110–112). Ten replicas survive and all are found in Italy, which suggests that the type was disseminated only 15

Furtwängler 1893, 325; Lippold 1923, 181; Vierneisel-Schlörb 1979, 81; Rößler 1993, 112; Leitmeir 2011, 16 Anm. 26. See also Leitmeir (forthcoming). 16 Maderna 1988, D 5 (Trajan); D7–D10 (Hadrian). Also the type DeltaOmikron of Hadrian is similar to Diomedes, cf. Bergmann 1997, 143–146; Schröder 1993, 204. 17 Philostrat. Heroikos c. 45–57. Beschorner 1999, 235–240. 18 Sarkophag from Toraccia: Rome, MNR Inv. 124735: Grassinger 1999, 195 Nr. 3 Taf. 3. For the popularity of Achilles in the Severan period see Gonzenbach 1979. 19 For the Tivoli-Type: Wiggers and Wegner 1971, 25–28. 55; Fittschen and Zanker 1985, 110–112. Leitmeir 2011, 17–18.

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across this area in ancient times. In comparison to the expressive facial features of the former portrait, the Tivoli Type appears fairly natural. The rotation to the right is but slight and the pathognomic features have almost completely vanished. A change can be observed in the coiffure. The hair volume is extremely reduced and the a-penna technique is used for the hair and beard. Caracalla is presented here in the common guise of a Roman emperor as the military chief. Klaus Fittschen has already reminded scholars that the limited dissemination of this type should be taken into consideration (Fittschen and Zanker 1985, 110). The portrait was conceived sometime after Caracalla went to war in Syria. Absent from Rome, he desired that he would be seen as a successful commander there – just as former emperors had been before him. The Caracalla portraits testify to noteworthy modifications over time. The first type is used as legitimation of the Severan dynasty, by forging a close link with Marcus Aurelius. The second type shifts the emphasis to the aspect of continuity and stresses the Concordia of the Severan family. The radical change of physiognomic features of the two princes was undoubtedly made for propagandistic purposes. Yet, Caracalla modified his image twice more: Drawing on heroic presentations, the first sole rulertype made his claim to power manifest. That idea was maintained throughout his reign across the whole Empire. Only in Italy instead the portrait has been calming and has going back to the representation in a traditional way of the emperor as military chief.20 The importance of the Caracalla portraits, mainly the first sole rulertype, becomes more evident when we consider the reception of the imperial image: that is to say the statues and, in particular, the honorific inscriptions.21 20

In this paper I neglect the posthumous portraits of Caracalla erected during the reign of Elagabal and Severus Alexander. For a detailed discussion see Leitmeir (forthcoming). 21 The combination of portrait and inscription has not been tried for many emperors. One of the pioneers was Meriwether Stuart (1938), although their method has not become very popular in the following centuries. Only groups of statues have been used for combination of portraits and statue bases, cf. Boschung 2002; Rose 1997; Deppmeyer 2008. The following observations are only a very short conclusion of my study about the statue bases of Caracalla. For a detailed discussion see Leitmeir (forthcoming).

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It must be noted, that in Severan Period the quantity and variety of unofficial epithets—the so called “inoffizielle Titulatur”—on statue bases are increasing.22 In the epithets on inscriptions of statue bases especially for Caracalla we can read about his might (e.g. dominus noster), his military ability (e.g. fortissimus et felicissimus, magnus et invictus, invictissiums et innocentissimus, maximus/optimus), his concern for welfare (e.g. indulgentissimus, soter tes oikoumenes) and the emperor worship (e.g. devotus numini eius, devotus numini et maiestati eius). Further, his hierarchical position as the first among all former emperors is stressed (ac super omnes principes). These lead me to draw the following conclusions: 1. The huge variety of unofficial epithets amply demonstrates the adoration of Caracalla by those who dedicated the statues. Indeed, the majority of the epithets are known to us from former times, yet their wide geographical dissemination and combination are characteristic for Severan period.23 2. The use of the superlative—notably often for his military ability— emphasizes the emperor’s eminence (Alföldy 1980, 19–21; Scheithauer 1988). 3. Particular attention should be paid to the first use of the phrase: devotus numini maiestatique eius (cf. Gundel 1953). The combination of numen with maiestas—as interpreted by Manfred Clauss and Ittai Gradel (Clauss 1999, 236; Gradel 2002, 234– 250)—creates a dual god-human nature worshipped by the dedicant. 4. Caracalla’s concern for welfare and clemency, his indulgentia, could be connected to the edict of debt cancellation of Banasa.24 In this text, Caracalla himself praises his own deed as magnam indulgentiam. According to Kostas Buraselis the edict of Banasa should be seen in context of the Constitutio Antoniniana (Bura22

Only some aspects of unofficial titulature have been studied yet. For fundamental see Schoener 1881; Berlinger 1935; Hammond 1957; Frei-Stolba 1969; Scheithauer 1988. The classification follows basically Scheithauer 1988. 23 For the use of single epithets in former times see Scheithauer 1988. 24 For the edict of Banasa (AE 1948, 109 = IAM 2, 100) see Buraselis 2007, 67–87 (with further lit.).

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selis 2007, esp. 88–93). Buraselis has identified a tendency towards the creation of equals in Caracalla’s legal reforms: If all inhabitants share the same legal position, the pre-eminent, monarchical position of the emperor is also stressed. The assertion made by both portrait and honorific inscriptions from Caracalla’s sole ruler period, and the interpretation of the same, complement one another. This result is exciting. If we look at Severus Alexander’s reign for example, the design of his portrait is traditional and retrospective on the one hand. On the other, the honorific inscription emphasizes the character of the emperor as dominus, a title ancient historians say that Severus Alexander refused.25 That both design and text agreed with one another in Caracalla’s time should be seen as evidence for his portrait’s incomparable success. Let us return to Severan imperial portraiture. Broadening the perspective from a single case study to the entire Severan dynasty, we see that the typology of Severan portraiture does not develop along a straight trajectory. How they came to be discontinued can explained by the fact that the concept of a dynastical connection with the visual imitation of their predecessors had become exhausted, as well as the fact that the emperors were especially youthful in Severan times. Construing a relationship with one’s predecessors had been recognized as a means of legitimating the rule of Septimius Severus and Caracalla (fig. 10).26 The latter used the models of Marcus Aurelius and Elagabal. This link was not only expressed in the actual portrait but also in the official nomenclature. The name Marcus Aurelius Antoninus was therefore adopted by both Caracalla and Elagabal—a strategy also used by Macrinus. Only when rule had been established—that is, after the socalled adoption-type—were new ways of representation sought. I have just mentioned that Caracalla and Geta broke with the tradition of Imperial representation. Elagabal departed even more radically from his first 25

The relations between portrait and inscription of statue bases see Leitmeir (forthcoming). The refuse of using the title dominus by Severus Alexander is attested in SHA Sev. Alex. 4,1. 26 The figure gives an overview of the Severan emperors and their relation between another. One can distinguish between the traditional and the revolutionary ways of representation.

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type. The reign of Severus Alexander marked the end of this period. He used only one portrait type with slight modifications during a reign of nearly 13 years. Imaginary legitimation by means of reference to a former dynasty was a novel idea instituted by the Severan emperors. In inscriptions, the genealogies they construed for themselves reach back as far as Nerva.27 This said, however, in the first two centuries AD each new dynasty had sought to create new portraits with the objective of enforcing/consolidating their rule.28 The only exception is Hadrian in my opinion, because he employed his non-official image, the Delta-Omikron Type, as a youth with his hair dressed luxuriously and beard.29 The young age of emperors is another argument for the changing of the portraits. Herodian himself commented in his preface that: “The emperors who were advanced in years governed themselves and their subjects commendably, because of their greater practical experience, but the younger emperors lived recklessly and introduced many innovations. As might have been expected, the disparities in age and authority inevitably resulted in variations in imperial behavior” (Herodian. 1,1,6. Cf. Schlumpf 2011, 301–302). As if to agree with this statement, Caracalla, Geta and Elagabal did not remain faithful to their first types, as earlier emperors had normally done. Nero represents the exception which confirms the rule. Called emperor from the age of 17 and depicted as a youth, he remodeled his image

27

For example the the honorific inscription for Caracalla from Civitas Siagitana (215 AD): Imp(eratori) Caes(ari) divi Septimi Sev[eri] / Pii Arabici Adiabenici Par[th(ici)] / maximi Brit(annici) max(imi) fili(o) div[i] / M(arci) Antonini Pii German[ici] / Sarmat(ici) nepot(i) divi Antonin[i Pii] / pronepot(i) divi Hadriani abn[ep(oti)] / divi Traiani Part(hici) et divi Ner[vae] adnepoti / M(arco) Aurelio Antonino Pio F[el(ici) Aug(usto)] / Part(hico) max(imo) Brit(annico) max(imo) Germ(anico) max(imo) [tr(ibunicia) pot(estate)] / XVIII imp(eratori) III co(n)s(uli) IIII p(atri) p(atriae) proco(n)s(uli) op[timo] / princ(ipi) civitas Siagitanorum d(ecreto) d(ecurionum) p(ecunia) p(ublica) (CIL 08, 12447). – The genealogical tree of Elagabal and Severus Alexander reaches only far back until Caracalla. 28 This observation will be outlined in Leitmeir (forthcoming). 29 cf. for Hadrian Type Delta Omikron note 29.

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following the emancipation of his mother and his educators.30 However, while his portrait underwent pronounced changes, the physiognomic features were in essence retained. An analogous process of transformation characterizes the evolution of the design of Severan Imperial portraits. Facial expression became increasingly important, with the emphasis on hairstyle fading into the background. In striking contrast to Antonine representation which has highlyelaborate curls and a rather calm physiognomy, in Severan times hair was sculpted in the a-penna technique and covered the head very thinly. Facial features became more prominent as a means of political propaganda: Might was articulated in the face primarily, not in a luxurious hair style. This tendency culminates in the image of Maximinus Thrax (fig. 12), whose haircut is similar to Alexander Severus (fig. 11) and whose physiognomic features were modeled after Caracalla. The ancient viewer took an impression of simplicity away with him in which luxurious hairstyles were clearly renounced. I would like to conclude my paper with some remarks about the meaning of imperial representation in the context of Severan and Roman Art in general.31 The focus and eminence of the emperor can be seen in the context of frontal views of the emperor, as we could observe on some monuments of Severan Period like the Arcus Argentarii on the Forum Boarium, the Quadrifrons of Lepcis Magna and on the relief from Syria, depicting Caracalla and Julia Domna, now in Warsaw.32 Surely, depicting the emperor in frontality is not an invention of the Severans. It could be observed for the first time on the Parthian Monument of Ephesos but is also familiar on the column of Marcus Aurelius in Rome.33 Of great importance is in Severan time the fact, that we do not only find frontality as 30

The style of the portraiture of Nero is in general very close to that of Caracalla and Elagabal. Is in the beginning of his reign the portrait designed in a traditional way with assimilations to the Julio-Claudian Dynasty, so it changes dramatically to the second half of his reign. For the portraiture of Nero see Cadario 2011a; Cadario 2011b; http://viamus.uni-goettingen.de/fr/e/uni/e/02/05 (18.8.2011); Schneider 2003, 63–68; Bergmann 1998, 147–150. 31 For further discussion of these phenomena see Leitmeir (forthcoming). 32 Warszawa, National Museum, Inv. 139678 (Sadurska 1972, 55 f. Nr. 57 Taf. 55). 33 For the problem of frontality in Roman Art see Elsner 2000 (with lit.).

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a way to show the prominence and might of the emperor. The singular position of the emperor is also emphasized in honorific inscription in the superlative, and that is actually the view of the dedicant! Very close to that topic is—as I have demonstrated above—the observation, that images, especially portraits, in Severan Period became readable on first sight. Memorable physiognomic features, for instance, dominated the representation of Caracalla at the expense of hairstyle. Taking up Tonio Hölscher’s idea of the ancient viewer, I suggest that this also meant a widening of their appeal to all inhabitants of the Imperium Romanum (Hölscher 1984, 33–37). This fact becomes clearer looking at the provincial portraits of Caracalla. Sculptures and the coinage depict his portrait homogenously.34 We can observe the successive process of change in portraits, in the statuary body and in inscriptions. This transformative process and the pushing of boundaries between tradition and innovation inspired developments in late antique art. Yet, such an intensive concentration on a single emperor as happened with Caracalla was never seen again.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Alföldy, G., Die Rolle des Einzelnen in der Gesellschaft (1980). Baharal, D., Victory of Propaganda. The Dynastic Aspect of theIimperial Propaganda of the Severi: the Literary and Archaeological Evidence, AD 193–235, BAR-IS 657 (1996). Bergmann, M., Zum römischen Porträt des 3. Jahrhunderts n. Chr., in D. Stutzinger (a cura di), Spätantike und frühes Christentum (1983) 41–59. Bergmann, M., Zu den Porträts des Traian und Hadrian, in A. Caballos – P. León (a cura di), Italica MMCC, Actas de las Journadas del 2.200 Aniversario de la Fundación de Itálica, (1997) 137–153. Bergmann, M., Die Strahlen der Herrscher. Theomorphes Herrscherbild und politische Symbolik im Hellenismus und in der römischen Kaiserzeit (1998).

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For provincial imperial portraiture in Severan period see Leitmeir (forthcoming).

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Berlinger, L., Beiträge zur inoffiziellen Titulatur der römischen Kaiser (1935). Beschorner, A., Helden und Heroen, Homer und Caracalla (1999). Birley, A.R., Septimius Severus. The African Emperor (1988). Boschung, D., Gens Augusta. Untersuchungen zu Aufstellung, Wirkung und Bedeutung der Statuengruppen des julisch-claudischen Kaiserhauses, Monumenta Artis Romanae 32 (2002). Brilliant, R., The Arch of Septimius Severus in the Forum Romanum, «MemAmAcc» 29 (1967). Budde, L., Jugendbidlnisse des Caracalla und Geta (1951). Buraselis, K., Das göttlich-kaiserliche Geschenk. Studien zur Politik der Severer und zur Constitutio Antoniniana, Akten der Gesellschaft für Griechische und Hellenistische Rechtsgeschichte 18 (2007). Burckhardt, J., Der Cicerone, a cura di Roeck, B., Tauber, C., Warnke, M., JBW 2 (2001). Cadario, M., Nerone e il “potere delle immagini”, in Maria Antonietta Tomei – Rossella Rea (a cura di), Nerone (2011a) 176–189. Cadario, M., Ritratto di Nerone, in Eugenio La Rocca et al. (a cura di), Ritratti. Le tante facce del potere (2011b) 264 Campbell, B., The Severan Dynasty, in Bowman, A., Garnsey, P., Cameron, A. (a cura di), The Cambridge Ancient History, Second Edition, Volume XII, The Crisis of Empire, A.D. 193–337 (2005) 1–27. Clauss, M., Kaiser und Gott. Herrscherkult im römischen Reich (1999). Dally, O., Das Bild des Kaisers in der Klasssciehn Archäologie oder: Gabe es einen Paradigmenwechseln nach 1968?, «JdI» 122 (2007) 223–257. Deppmeyer, K., Kaisergruppen von Vespasian bis Konstantin. Eine Untersuchung zu Aufstellungskontexten und Intentionen des statuarischen Repräsentation kaiserlicher Familien (2008). Elsner, J., Frontality in the Column of Marcus Aurelius, in Scheid J, Huet, V. (a cura di), La colonne aurélienne. Autour de la colonne aurélienne, geste et image sur la colonne de Marc Aurèle à Rome, Bibliothèque de l’Ecole des hautes études. Sciences religieuses 108 (2000) 251–264. Fejfer, J., Roman Portraits in Context, ICON 2 (2008). Fittschen, K., Zum angeblichen Bildnis des Lucius Verus im ThermenMuseum, «JdI» 86, 1971 (1971) 214–252.

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Fittschen, K., Zanker, P., Katalog der römischen Porträts in den Capitolinischen Museen und den anderen kommunalen Sammlungen der Stadt Rom, Vol. 1, Kaiser- und Prinzenbildnisse (1985). Fittschen, K., Prinzenbildnisse antoninischer Zeit (1999). Frei-Stolba, R., Inoffizielle Kaisertitulaturen im 1. und 2. Jahrhundert n. Chr., «MusHelv» 26 (1969) 18–39. Furtwängler, A., Meisterwerke der griechischen Plastik (1893). Giuliani, L., Individuum und Ideal, in Schütz, W. (a cura di), Bilder vom Menschen in der Kunst des Abendlandes (1980) 41–86. Gonzenbach, V. Von, Caracalla und Achill im griechischen Osten, in Studies in Classical Art and Archeology. A Tribute to Peter Heinrich von Blanckenhagen (1979). Gradel, I., Emperor Worship and Roman Religion (2002). Grassinger, D., Die mythologischen Sarkophage: Achill, Adonis, Aeneas, Aktaion, Alkestis, Amazonen, ASR 12.1 (1999). Gundel, H.G., ‘Devotus numini maiestatique eius’. Zur Devotionsformel in Weihinschriften der römischen Kaiserzeit, «Epigraphica» 15 (1953) 128–150. Hammond, M., Imperial Elements in the Formula of the Roman Emperors during the First two and a half Centuries of the Empire, «MemAmAcc: 25 (1957) 17–64. Hannestad, N., Recensione di Baharal 1996, «AJA» 102 (1998) 192–195. Hill, P.V., The coinage of Septimius Severus and his family of the mint of Rome, A.D. 193–217 (1964). Højte, J.M., Roman Imperial Statue Bases, Aarhus studies in Mediterranean antiquity 7 (2005). Hölscher, T., Staatsdenkmal und Publikum, Xenia 9 (1984). Jacobsen, C., Caracalla jeune, «RA» 1 (1903) 121–123. Kienast, D., Römische Kaisertabelle (1990). Kühnen, A., Die Imitatio Alexandri in der römischen Politik (2008). Lahusen, G., Untersuchungen zur Ehrenstatue in Rom. Literarische und epigraphische Zeugnisse (2010). Lahusen, G., Römische Bildnisse. Auftraggeber, Funktionen, Standorte (2010). Leander-Touati, A.M., The Meaning of Caracalla’s Sole Ruler Portrait (1991). Leitmeir, F., Die visuelle Repräsentation des severischen Kaiserhauses von Caracalla bis Severus Alexander (forthcoming).

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Leitmeir F., Geta’s Büste kaufe ich nicht!. Neues zur Typologie der Bildnisse der severischen Prinzen Geta und Caracalla, Münchner Jahrbuch der Bildenden Kunst, 3. F., 58 (2007) 7–22. Leitmeir, F., Brüche im Kaiserbildnis von Caracalla bis Severus Alexander, in: Faust, S., Leitmeir, F. (a cura di), Repräsentationsformen in severischer Zeit (2011) 11–33. Lippold, G., Kopien und Umbildungen (1923). Maderna, C., Iuppiter, Diomedes und Merkur als Vorbilder für römische Bildnisstatuen (1988). Mattingly, H.B., Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum 5. Pertinax to Elagabalus (1975). Mennen I., The image of an Emperor in trouble. Legitimation and Representation of Power by Caracalla, in De Blois, L. et al. (a cura di), The Impact of Imperial Rome on Religions, Rituals and Religious Life in the Roman Empire (2006) 253–267. Nodelman, S., Severan Imperial Portraiture, A.D. 193–217, Diss. Yale University (1965). Pfanner, M., Übr das Herstellen von Porträts, «JdI» 104 (1989) 157–275. Pollini, J., A portrait of Caracalla from the Mellerio Collection and the Iconography of Caracalla and Geta, «RA», 2005/1 (2005) 55–77. Rose, C.B., Dynastic commemoration and imperial portraiture in the Julio-Claudian period (1997). Rößler, D., Der Stilbegriff und die römische Porträtkunst des 3. Jahrhunderts, in Zimmermann K. (a cura di), Der Stilbegriff in den Altertumswissenschaften (1993). Sadurska, A., Les Portraits Romains dans les Collections Polonaises, CSIR Pologne 1 (1972). Salzmann, D., Alexanderschilde – Die Alexanderverehrung Caracallas, in Bergemann, J. (a cura di), Wissenschaft mit Enthusiasmus. Festschrift für Klaus Fittschen (2001). Scheithauer, A., „Super omnes retro principes“. Zur inoffiziellen Titulatur römischer Kaiser, «ZPE: 72 (1988) 155–177. Schlumpf, D., Monster in der Männertoga. Roms junge Herrscher, in: Faust, S., Leitmeir, F. (a cura di), Repräsentationsformen in severischer Zeit (2011) 291–303 Schneider, R.M., Gegenbilder im römischen Kaiserporträt: Die neuen Gesichter Neros und Vespasians, in Büchsel, M. (a cura di), Das Porträt vor der Erfindung des Porträts (2003) 59–76. Schoener, C., Ueber die Titulaturen römischer Kaiser (1881).

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Schröder, S., Katalog der antiken Skulpturen des Museo del Prado, Band 1, Die Porträts (1993). Stuart, M. The Portraiture of Claudius, Preliminary Studies (1938). Vierneisel-Schlörb, B., Klassische Skulpturen des 5. und 4. Jahrhunderts v. Chr., Glyptothek München, Katalog der Skulpturen Band II (1979). Von den Hoff, R., Kaiserbildnisse als Kaisergeschichte(n). Prolegomena zu einem medialen Konzept römischer Herrscherporträts, in: Winterling A. (a cura di), Zwischen Strukturgeschichte und Biographie.Probleme und Perspektiven einer römischen Kaisergeschichte (in press). Wiggers, H.B., Wegner M., Caracalla, Geta, Plautilla. Macrinus bis Balbinus, Das römische Herrscherbild Band 3.1 (1971).

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FIGURES

Figure 1.

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Figure 2.

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Figure 3.

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Figure 4.

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Figure 5.

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Figure 6.

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Figure 8.

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Figure 10.

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Figure 12.

IDEOLOGICAL MESSAGES AND LOCAL PREFERENCES: T H E I M A G E RY O F T H E S E V E R A N A R C H AT L E P C I S M A G N A 1 Stephan Faust (University of Hamburg)

INTRODUCTION This paper discusses some ideological aspects of the representation of Septimius Severus and his family in the sculptural decoration of the wellknown quadrifrons at Lepcis Magna (in modern Libya), which was erected on the cross-way of two important roads (Fig. 1).2 Although epigraph-

1 I would like to express my thanks to Birgit Bergmann, Florian Leitmeir, Volker Michael Strocka and the participants of the conference at John Cabot University for critical remarks and to Georg Gerleigner for correcting my English manuscript. As a member of the archaeological mission of the Universitá degli Studi Roma Tre in Lepcis Magna (directed by Luisa Musso), I had the opportunity to study the reliefs of the Severan arch first-hand in 2006. 2 On the reconstruction of the architecture, see Bacchielli 1992; Mühlenbrock 2005, 212–215 Cordovana 2007, 405–409. The prominent topographical situation of the arch has been analyzed by Fähndrich 2005.

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ic evidence is missing,3 we may assume that it was decreed as an honorific monument by the city council or by prominent citizens. According to the portrait types used for the imperial figures, the reliefs must have been executed around 205 AD or a little later.4 The arch was perhaps dedicated as a consequence of the huge building program initiated by the emperor himself in his home town.5 The attic of the quadrifrons was decorated with four long friezes (now in Tripoli), which have been thoroughly analyzed by Volker Michael Strocka in 1972.6 Therefore, I would like to concentrate on the much less known series of reliefs from the passageways (in Lepcis Magna), of which a substantial part survives as well.7 Originally, there were eight reliefs measuring about 3.5 meters in height and 2 meters in width. In my opinion, the iconographic analysis of the fragments is essential for a better understanding of the imagery as a whole. The ideological messages conveyed by the relief scenes cover three specific fields of traditional qualities, expressing military, dynastic and divine aspects of Severan rule. However, as I will argue, the arch should not be interpreted as a mere provincial copy of imperial state monuments, such as those erected by the 3

Some fragments of a monumental inscription found in the vicinity of the arch have been hypothetically related to the monument by Ioppolo 1968. The words DIVO and DIVAE surviving at the beginning of the first and third lines could then refer to deified members of the imperial family. As the arch was most probably erected during Severus’ lifetime, the attribution can be doubted, see Cordovana 2007, 409. 417–422. 4 On the portraits of the Severans on the arch, see McCann 1968, 74–78; Soechting 1972, 27–30; Bonanno 1976, 150–155; Schlüter 1977, 64–71; Raeder 1992, 178 f. 185 n. 85; Alexandridis 2004, 200 f. cat. n. 220–222; Leitmeir 2007, 12–16. For historical arguments, see Strocka 1972, 169 f.; Mühlenbrock 2005, 215 f. cat. n. LAR 4; Cordovana 2007, 417–419. 5 For the Severan building activities in Lepcis Magna, see Mahler 2005; Cordovana 2007, 341–365; Wilson 2007, 295–307. 6 Strocka 1972; see also Hannestad 1986, 270–277; Kleiner 1992, 342 f.; Fähndrich 2005, 34–40; Cordovana 2007, 409–415. 421–427; Newby 2007, 207. 209; Lichtenberger 2011, 75–78. 357. 7 Bartoccini 1931; Ghedini 1984, 74–87; La Rocca 1985; Cordovana 2007, 415–417. 424–426; Newby 2007, 209. 211; Faust 2011 (with further references); Lichtenberger 2011, 78. 114–117. The friezes originally measured ca. 7.3 meters in length and 1.7 meters in height.

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Senate in the city of Rome, even if the imperial virtues and qualities in question might initially have been conceived in the capital. In fact, the images seem to be specifically designed for a local audience, because they emphasize the twofold importance of Septimius Severus: for the Empire and Lepcis Magna.

MILITARY VIRTUE One of the relief panels shows the siege of a city by Roman soldiers (Fig. 2), hence presenting a similar subject as the great panels of the Severan Arch in the Roman Forum.8 Although it is in a poor state of preservation, it is still possible to distinguish two scenes on top of the other. In the larger upper scene, the Romans are depicted attacking the city walls, which are fortified by towers and battlements. A couple of barbarians, who should be interpreted as Parthians because of their dress, defend their city by shooting arrows and throwing stones down on the enemy. Some barbarians have already fallen victim to the Romans lying dead or wounded at the bottom of the wall. The assailants can be divided into a single row of three soldiers in the centre, who are concealed by their shields, and two symmetrical groups advancing from left and right. These are equipped with bows and, in one case, with a burning torch. Regardless of the rather schematic composition, the figures are characterized by the full panoply of muscle cuirasses, laminated armour as well as scale armour, and girded tunics. Thus, on the one hand, the Romans are conceived as a military body, with limbs acting in perfect unison. On the other hand, the individual members of the army are much better equipped than their barbarian adversaries, who all wear the same set of clothes. The central file must be interpreted as an abstract version of the socalled testudo. The same formation is shown on Trajan’s Column and on

8

Bartoccini 1931, 74; Townsend 1938, 512. 514; La Rocca 1985, 2 f.; Lusnia 2006, 286–288; Faust 2011, 113–115. Attempts of some scholars to identify the city have proved futile, as distinct topographic references are missing. On the reliefs of Arch of Septimius Severus in the Roman Forum, see Brilliant 1967 with pl. 60–95.

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the Column of Marcus Aurelius.9 The Trajanic image seems to emphasize the tactical training and discipline of the soldiers by giving a threedimensional view of the subject.10 Its offensive function is stressed by the Antonine version and even more so by the totally unrealistic Severan testudo, which is represented as a single file virtually pointing at its target. Literary sources tell us that the formation was only deployed at the crucial moment, when a siege entered into its final phase, in order to capture the enemy’s city or fortress.11 As the ancient viewer was doubtless aware of this tactical aspect, he was able to perceive the image of the testudo as an iconographic means of anticipating the actual victory. Of course, military success in this context has to be associated with the person of the emperor himself. Septimius Severus was probably shown in the lower scene. There, a group of Parthian captives is apparently presented to two or three Romans on horseback, probably Severus and his sons. The heavily damaged figure accompanying them on foot might have shown the personification of virtue. In a way, the celebration of victory itself is transferred to the friezes of the attic zone. For two of the friezes seem to show triumphal processions of Roman soldiers and oriental captives, followed by a quadriga which is occupied by the emperor and his sons.12 As the lighthouse of Lepcis Magna is depicted in one of the scenes, which occupied the northwestern side of the attic zone, we are dealing with an adventus in his hometown rather than a proper triumph taking place in the city of Rome. Nevertheless, the second scene belonging to the southeastern side might have shown an ingressus into the capital itself.13

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Coarelli 2000, 124 pl. 80 (Trajan’s Column, scene 71); Coarelli 2008, 220 with pl. (Column of Marcus Aurelius, scene 54). 10 On the ideological aspect of military discipline, see Hölscher 1991, 291 (Trajan’s Column) and, accordingly, Hölscher 2009, 99 (Column of Marcus Aurelius). 11 Liv. 34, 39; Tac. Ann. 13, 39; Tac. Hist. 3, 27; 3, 31; 4, 23; Cass. Dio 29, 30. 12 Strocka 1972, 149–157 with pl.; Cordovana 2007, 412 f. 426; for the interpretation of the friezes as adventus scenes rather than depictions of proper triumphs, see Mittag 2009, 457 f. 13 See Strocka 1972, 171 f.

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IMPERIAL PIETY AND DYNASTIC CLAIMS The two themes of religion and dynasty are closely linked in the relief decoration of the arch. The best preserved example for this concept is a relief panel that shows a group of nine figures standing in front of a temple, the columns of which partly survive (Fig. 3).14 A stairway leading up to the podium of the edifice is indicated below. Some of the figures can be identified as members of the imperial family: On the right, Septimius Severus and one of the princes, probably Caracalla as the senior prince, are depicted. Both father and son are clad in the toga capite velato and turn their head to the centre. The emperor’s left hand perhaps grasped the right hand of the prince, while his right arm pointed in the direction of the female figure in the centre. The person depicted should be identified with Julia Domna, as in the imagery of the arch her figure is constantly integrated into scenes expressing religious/divine and dynastic qualities of the Severans, at the same time (vide infra).15 The empress is accompanied by another togate figure, which might have shown the portrait of Geta. The imperial family is surrounded by five figures: On the extreme left, we see Virtus (rather than Roma) wearing the typical Amazon costume. Moreover, the head of Hercules appears between Severus and his son. Because of Hercules’ presence, we may assume that Liber Pater was depicted in the background, too, since Hercules and Liber Pater were worshipped as the city’s gods and, at the same time, as the tutelary deities of the Severans.16 For this reason, the Tyche of Lepcis Magna might have also been integrated into the background. The figure on the extreme right is conceived as a statue, since it is set up on a small pedestal. It shows a bearded man wearing tunic and mantle. He turns his wreathed head to the centre and stretches out his right hand with two fingers extended, thus performing a gesture of speech that may stand for rhetorical abilities. 17 14

Bartoccini 1931, 74–83; Townsend 1938, 522; Scott Ryberg 1956, 134– 136; Parra 1978; Ghedini 1984, 76–80; La Rocca 1985, 5–7; Alexandridis 2004, 200 f. cat. n. 221; Cordovana 2007, 415 f.; Faust 2011, 115–119. 15 See Scott Ryberg 1955, 135; Parra 1978, 813. 816; Ghedini 1984, 76 f.; La Rocca 1985, 5; Alexandridis 2004, 200 f. cat. n. 221. 16 On the important role of Liber Pater and Hercules in the representation of the Severans, see now Lichtenberger 2011, 27–99. 17 See Richter 2003, 3 f. n. 11; 142–147.

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On account of the branch he carries in his left arm, most scholars have identified him as the god Silvanus,18 but I would rather suggest to interpret this figure as a priest. As a matter of fact, there are representations of priests in the Roman East carrying branches,19 and, at any rate, the wreath could have a ritual meaning. The lower section of the relief is designed quite symmetrically. The centre is occupied by a large altar decorated with sacrificial implements and carrying different kinds of fruit as well as loafs of bread. To the left and right, two bovine victims are led to the altar by a ministrant. The procedure is witnessed by two soldiers, standing on either side next to the victimarii, and a group of nine togati in the background. Although the emperor and his sons are clearly marked as the officiating priests by the toga drawn over the head, they do not really participate in the ritual. Therefore, imperial piety (pietas) seems not to be displayed for its own sake. It is rather conceived as a necessary condition of the perpetual harmony of the new dynasty promoted in the upper section of the relief. The presence of divine as well as priestly figures underlines the legitimacy of the dynastic claim. Again, the subject of the relief can be related to two friezes from the attic showing a sacrifice and a manifestation of concordia, respectively. The destroyed centre of the first scene, on the northeastern side of the arch, was once occupied by the Severans standing around a tripod altar and sacrificing in the presence of gods, soldiers, and civilians.20 Only the figure of Julia Domna, holding a small pyxis in her left hand, is more or less preserved. The ritual is obviously performed in the capital of the empire, as Roma herself and the Genius Senatus are present. In addition, some fragments of the Capitoline Triad belonging to the central part of 18

Bartoccini 1931, 76; Townsend 1938, 522; Parra 1978, 810; Ghedini 1984, 77; La Rocca 1985, 5; Cordovana 2007, 415. According to Scott Ryberg 1955, 135, the figure is “an amalgamation of Silvanus and the Genius Augusti, in this case the Genius of Caracalla”. 19 See Rumscheid 2000, 149 f. cat. n. 75 pl. 35, 3 (lid of a tetrarchic sarcophagus belonging to a priest of Cybele); 151 f. cat. n. 79 pl. 37, 4 (Severan grave relief of a cistophoros of Bellona). Furthermore, the emperor Elagabalus appears on coins from Rome and the eastern provinces as a Syrian priest carrying a branch, too: see Krumeich 2000/2001, 109–112 pl. 11, 1. 3. 4; 12, 7. 8. 20 Strocka 1972, 160–165 with pl.; Cordovana 2007, 413 f. 426 f.

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the background survive. The second frieze, which once adorned the southwestern façade, shows the emperor and his elder son shaking hands, with Geta and Julia Domna standing nearby.21 As the two tutelary gods and the personification of Lepcis watch the scene from behind, there can be no doubt that the ceremony takes place in the hometown of Septimius Severus. The lituus in the emperor’s left hand perhaps indicates that he is about to inaugurate the site of his building program, as Sabine Fähndrich has convincingly argued.22 The relief from the passageways (Fig. 3) might allude to an even more specific setting in Lepcis.23 This is confirmed by the remains of two more panels with representations of the Severans in local contexts. One piece, that belongs to larger series of associated fragments, shows Julia Domna next to a togate figure and a naked statue, which according to its proportions must have been set up on a base (Fig. 4).24 Maybe the statue should be identified as Dionysos-Liber Pater, originally leaning on his thyrsus. The empress, lowering her head and turning to the lost centre of the scene, once stretched out her right arm. Maybe she was depicted sacrificing or grasping the hand of a family member for yet another demonstration of imperial concordia. These figures as well as two more figures, preserved on a second fragment, stand in front of an architectural structure of some kind. This structure consists of a podium with two pedestals on top, which possibly served as statue bases. Images that might have been erected on these bases partly survive on another fragment. It is still possible to identify Hercules by his characteristic lion’s skin thrown over his left shoulder. The god’s image is framed by two small panels, the left one of which is decorated with a banquet scene. The right panel is divided into two sections, with figures standing under a kind of arch above and two busts below. There is a fragment of a similarly designed third image.

21

Strocka 1972, 157–160 with pl.; Cordovana 2007, 414 f. 421. 427. Fähndrich 2005, 39 f. 23 The temple cannot be identified with certainty. According to Parra 1978, 819–822. 825–829, the scene could be set in the so-called sanctuary of Jupiter Dolichenus in the harbor area. The architecture might as well represent an important place on the Old Forum, i. e. the city center, see Faust 2011, 117. 24 La Rocca 1985, 5 f.; Ghedini 1984, 74–76; Alexandridis 2004, 200 cat. n. 200; Faust 2011, 120 f. 22

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Another fragment (Fig. 5) apparently shows the left third of a façade whose upper zone features a most interesting decoration, displaying the winged sun disk with uraeus snakes on either side, flanked by a lion and a sphinx.25 In this case, we are obviously dealing with Egyptianizing elements. Since this fragment reaches the height of only one of the three super-imposed slabs of which an entire relief originally consisted, the protagonists of the scene were probably represented somewhere below. In fact, there was a Serapaeum in Lepcis, which demonstrates the importance of Egyptian influences in the city.26 It remains uncertain, however, whether this particular sanctuary is depicted on the relief. Although we have encountered a whole range of specific settings of the city, we do not necessarily have to conclude that all these scenes refer to real historical events that might have taken place during an alleged visit of the emperor in his home town.27 The viewer is rather confronted with general ideological messages like concordia and pietas.28 These messages are conveyed in a most convincing way by integrating their subjects into images of local sanctuaries. In other words, the temples are used as familiar stages, with the Severans performing certain roles.

DIVINE QUALITIES AND DIVINE SUPPORT Again, there is set of three reliefs clearly designed along the same lines. All of them were originally divided into three sections which had to be read, like a text, from top to bottom. Each scene seems to have shown four figures in a paratactic arrangement.

25

Faust 2011, 122. See Kreikenbom 2005. 27 On the date of Severus’ visit to North Africa (203 or 206/207 AD?), see Strocka 1972, 166. 169 f.; Halfmann 1986, 51. 222 f.; Birley 1988, 146–154; Fähndrich 2005, 33 with n. 34. 28 In the city of Rome, the reliefs of the Arch of the Argentarii in the Forum Boarium feature a similar concept of imperial piety and harmony. On this monument, see Elsner 2005. 26

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One slab represents Septimius Severus in the guise of an enthroned god (Fig. 6).29 As the figural type of the emperor shows some similarity to the famous cult image of Sarapis made by Bryaxis,30 this scene has played an important role in the general debate on the question whether Severus was a great worshipper of that Egyptian god Sarapis.31 First of all, the composition of the relief section clearly refers to Jupiter, not Sarapis, for the emperor is flanked by Minerva (right), with the owl at her feet, and Julia Domna (left), who appears in the iconography of the goddess Juno, accompanied by the characteristic peacock. Thus, the Roman ruler is represented as a member of the Capitoline Triad. What is more, the hairstyle of Severus follows the fourth type of his official portraiture and not the third type with its characteristic corkscrew locks, which have often been connected to Sarapis by modern scholars.32 Only the tunic covering the emperor’s body, indeed unusual in the iconography of the Father of Gods, might indicate some (local) influence of perceptions of the Egyptian deity on the image of Jupiter.33 In the left half of the scene, the Tyche of Lepcis Magna is depicted, carrying her cornucopia. Another fragment, which can perhaps be attributed to the middle section of the same relief, shows Mars and Venus. The lower part is completely lost. The representation of Septimius Severus and Julia Domna in the guise of Jupiter and Juno conveys two complementary messages. On the one hand, the qualities of the divine couple are thus transferred to the imperial couple, suggesting that the emperor’s rule on earth is comparable to the unlimited power of the Father of Gods, and that Julia Domna and Juno possess the same female virtues. The figures of Mars and Venus in the 29

Bartoccini 1939, 83–85; L’Orange 1947, 76–79; La Rocca 1985, 5 f.; Ghedini 1984, 80–87; Raeder 1992, 178 f.; Alexandridis 2004, 199 f. cat. n. 219; Cordovana 2007, 416 f. 424; Dimartino 2007, 132. 142; Faust 2011, 123–125; Lichtenberger 2011, 116 f. 212 f. 30 On the iconography of Sarapis, see Hornbostel 1973. 31 L’Orange 1947, 73–86; Raeder 1992; Dimartino 2007; Lichtenberger 2011, 113–120. 32 On the portrait types of Septimius Severus in general, see McCann 1968; Soechting 1972; Hornbostel 1972; Raeder 1992. 33 The local worship of Sarapis in his sanctuary could have exerted a certain influence. See Kreikenbom 2005, 91 f.; Lichtenberger 2011, 116 f.

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section below underline the aspect of marital concord. Furthermore, they stand for military virtue and fertility. On the other hand, the two central figures are connected with Minerva through their divine iconography. Representing the three members of the Capitoline Triad, they symbolize the Roman Empire and, in particular, the city of Rome. At the same time, the couple belongs to the provincial town, personified by Tyche, since the founder of the Severan dynasty was born there. The final two reliefs are conceived as counterparts which were most likely arranged opposite each other in the passageways.34 The top sections of both reliefs show Victory with a palm branch in her left arm, advancing to the left and crowning a figure with a wreath. In one case, the portrait of the protagonist is still extant (Fig. 7). Although it is heavily damaged, we can still distinguish the features of a beardless young man. For this reason, the figure should be identified as one of the Severan princes. Seeing that he is confronted with Jupiter himself (vide infra), we are probably dealing with Caracalla as the senior brother and Augustus (since 197 AD). Geta would have been depicted in the second relief, appearing next to Liber Pater. Caracalla is clad in the toga. He turns to Jupiter either to grasp his hand or to receive the globe from the god. The middle section is occupied by Apollo and his sister Diana, flanking Silvanus and a female divinity (possibly Ceres). Finally, a fragment of the lower slab shows Cybele wearing a calathus on her head and holding a tympanon. The god next to her might be Attis, who is shown sacrificing at a small altar in the centre. The prince of the second relief, most probably Geta, wears a military garment (Fig. 8). Liber Pater, who is accompanied by a panther setting its paw on the cista mystica, is shown next to him. A separate figure of Hercules probably belongs to the right part of the scene. Fragments of the lower sections survive as well, but only the figures of Virtus and Mercurius belonging to the middle part can be named with certainty. If treated as a matching pair, the reliefs reveal two levels of meaning. On the one hand, Rome and Lepcis Magna have been juxtaposed again. And while Liber Pater and Hercules are connected with Lepcis, Jupiter presumably represents the empire. While the di patrii are worshipped by

34

La Rocca 1985, 3 f. 6; Faust 2011, 126–129.

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the Severans for personal reasons, as it were,35 the Father of Gods is the most important deity of the Roman state. He alone is able to confer unlimited power to the emperor and his designated successors. On the other hand, there is a distinction between civic and military roles, indicated by the different clothes of the princes (toga and paludamentum, respectively). Maybe the deities in the lower scenes have been positioned accordingly, for Virtus is shown in the same panel as the person wearing the military cloak. In contrast, Silvanus and Ceres could signify aspects of agriculture and fertility on the ‘civic’ side. Apparently, Victoria no longer personifies a specific military success as in earlier times. Instead, she has become a quality of the princes. The successors of Severus are victorious everywhere and always, that is to say both in Lepcis Magna and in Rome, but also in warfare and in civic affairs.

CONCLUSION: “LEPCIS MAGNA MEETS ROME” The sculptural decoration of the Severan arch at Lepcis Magna provides a truly ‘panegyric’ range of scenes. These images adopt a complex pictorial language to convey various ideological concepts. There is an emphasis on the dynastic and ‘divine’ aspects of the imperial family and, at the same time, on the military and civic roles of its members. The actions of the figures are also often shown against the background of prominent public buildings in Lepcis Magna: This serves to highlight the city’s special role as the home town of the emperor. Futhermore, the role of Caracalla and Geta as the future emperors is stressed. In the imagery of the monument, Lepcis and Rome stand for two domains of Severan rule. This is especially true of the four friezes of the attic, the find-spots of which were recorded during the excavation.36 The two scenes representing the adventus of Severus in the provincial town and in the capital were placed opposite each other. The same goes for the two friezes showing a sacrifice for the Capitoline Triad on one side and a ritual act under the auspices of the Lepcitanian Triad on the other side. Thus, what emerges despite the thematic diversity and the different levels of meaning of each individual image of the arch, is a coherent picture of 35 36

See above n. 16. See Strocka 1972, 167–169. 171 f.

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complementary messages particularly directed to the citizens of Lepcis Magna.

REFERENCES Alexandridis, A., Die Frauen des römischen Kaiserhauses. Eine Untersuchung ihrer bildlichen Darstellung von Livia bis Iulia Domna (2004). Bacchielli, L., L’arco Severiano di Leptis Magna. Storia e programma di restauro, in A. Mastino (a cura di), L’africa romana. Atti del IX convegno di studio (1992) 763–770. Bartoccini, R., L’arco quadrifronte dei Severi a Lepcis (Leptis Magna), AfrIt IV (1931) 32–152. Birley, A.R., The African Emperor. Septimius Severus (1988). Bonanno, A., Portraits and other heads on Roman historical reliefs, BAR Suppl. VI (1976). Brilliant, R., The Arch of Septimius Severus in the Roman Forum, MAAR XXIX (1967). Coarelli, F., The Column of Trajan (2000). Coarelli, F., La Colonna di Marco Aurelio. The Column of Marcus Aurelius (2008). Cordovana, O.D., Segni e immagini del portere tra antico e tardoantico. I Severi e la Provincia Africa Proconsularis (2007). Dimartino, A., Settimio Severo e il ‘Serapistypus’. Forme di rappresentazione del potere imperiale, in F. De Angelis (ed.), Lo sguardo archeologico. I normalisti per Paul Zanker (2007) 129–139. Elsner, J., Sacrifice and narrative on the Arch of the Argentarii at Rome, JRA XVIII (2005) 83–98. Fähndrich, S., Zum urbanen Kontext des severischen Quadrifrons in Lepcis Magna, in D. Kreikenbom, K.-U. Mahler, T.M. Weber (ed.), Urbanistik und städtische Kultur in Westasien und Nordafrika unter den Severern (2005) 29–46. Faust, S., Zur Repräsentation des severischen Kaiserhauses im Bildschmuck des Quadrifrons von Lepcis Magna, in S. Faust, F. Leitmeir (ed.), Repräsentationsformen in severischer Zeit (2011) 111– 145. Ghedini, F., Giulia Domna tra oriente e occidente. Le fonti archeologiche (1984).

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Halfmann, H., Itinera principum. Geschichte und Typologie der Kaiserreisen im Römischen Reich (1986). Hannestad, N., Roman Art and Imperial Policy (1986). Hölscher, T., Vormarsch und Schlacht, in L.E. Baumer, T. Hölscher, L. Winkler, Narrative Systematik und politisches Konzept in den Reliefs der Traianssäule, JdI CVI (1991) 287–295. Hölscher, T., Die Säule des Marcus Aurelius. Narrative Struktur und ideologische Botschaft, in H. Scheid, V. Huet (ed.), La colonne Aurélienne. Autour de la colonne Aurélienne. Geste et image sur la colonne de Marc Aurèle à Rome (2000) 89–105. Hornbostel, W., Severiana. Bemerkungen zum Porträt des Septimius Severus, JdI LXXXVII (1972) 348–387. Hornbostel, W., Sarapis. Studien zur Überlieferungsgeschichte, den Erscheinungsformen und Wandlungen der Gestalt eines Gottes, EPRO XXXII (1973). Ioppolo, G., Una nuova iscrizione monumentale presso l’arco dei Severi a Leptis Magna, LibyQAnt V (1968) 83–91. Kleiner, D.E.E., Roman Sculpture (1992). Kreikenbom, D., Zum Serapeion in Lepcis Magna, in D. Kreikenbom, K.-U. Mahler, T. M. Weber (ed.), Urbanistik und städtische Kultur in Westasien und Nordafrika unter den Severern (2005) 83–93. Krumeich, R., Der Kaiser als syrischer Priester. Zur Repräsentation Elagabals als sacerdos die Solis Elagabali, Boreas XXIII/XXIV (2000/2001) 107–112. La Rocca, E., I relievi minori dell’arco di Settimio Severo a Leptis Magna: una proposta di ricstruzione, Prospettiva XLIII (1985) 2–11. Leitmeir, F., “Geta’s Büste kaufe ich nicht”. Neues zur Typologie der Bildnisse der severischen Prinzen Geta und Caracalla, MüJb LVIII (2007) 7–22. Lichtenberger, A., Severus Pius Augustus. Studien zur sakralen Repräsentation der Herrschaft des Septimius Severus und seiner Familie (193–211 n. Chr.), Impact of Empire 14 (2011). L’Orange, H.P., Apotheosis in Ancient Portraiture (1947). Lusnia, S., Battle Imagery and Politics on the Severan Arch in the Roman Forum, in S. Dillon, K. E. Welch (a cura di), Representations of War in Ancient Rome (2006). Mahler, K.-U., Stadtentwicklung und Stadtplanung der severischen Zeit in Lepcis Magna, in D. Kreikenbom, K.-U. Mahler, T. M. Weber

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(ed.), Urbanistik und städtische Kultur in Westasien und Nordafrika unter den Severern (2005) 5–19. McCann, A.M., The portraits of Septimius Severus (A.D. 193–211), MAAR XXX (1968). Mittag, P.F., Processus consularis, adventus und Herrschaftsjubiläum. Zur Verwendung ovn Triumphsymbolik in der Mittleren Kaiserzeit, Hermes CXXXVII (2009) 447–462. Mühlenbrock, J., Tetrapylon. Zur Geschichte des viertorigen Bogenmonumentes in der römischen Architektur (2005). Newby, Z., Art at the crossroads? Themes and styles in Severan Art, in S. Swain, S. Harrison, J. Elsner (ed.), Severan Culture (2007) 201– 249. Parra, M., A proposito di un rilievo con statua di Silvano (Leptis Magna), MEFRA XC (1978) 807–828. Raeder, J., Herrscherbildnis und Münzpropaganda. Zur Deutung des ‚Serapistypus‘ des Septimius Severus, JdI CVII (1992) 175–196. Richter, T., Der Zweifingergestus in der römischen Kunst, Frankfurter Archäologische Schriften II (2003). Rumscheid, J., Kranz und Krone. Zu Insignien, Siegespreisen und Ehrenzeichen in der römischen Kaiserzeit, IstForsch XLIII (2000). Schlüter, R., Die Bildnisse der Kaiserin Julia Domna (1977). Scott Ryberg, I., Rites of the State Religion in Roman Art, MAAR XX (1955). Soechting, D., Die Porträts des Septimius Severus (1972). Strocka, V.M., Beobachtungen an den Attikareliefs des severischen Quadrifrons von Lepcis Magna, AntAfr V (1972) 147–172. Townsend, P.W., The significance of the arch of the Severi at Lepcis, AJA XLII (1938) 512–524. Wilson, A., Urban development in the Severan Empire, in S. Swain, S. Harrison, J. Elsner (ed.), Severan Culture (2007) 290–326.

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FIGURES

Fig. 1 Stephan Faust

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Fig. 2 Inst. Neg. Rom 61.1710

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Fig. 3 Inst. Neg. Rom 61.1711

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Fig. 4 Inst. Neg. Rom 61.1712

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Fig. 5 Stephan Faust

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Fig. 6 Inst. Neg. Rom 61.1713

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Fig. 7 Inst. Neg. Rom 61.1715

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Fig. 8 Inst. Neg. Rom 61.1714 + 61.1717.

ELAGABALO INVICTUS SACERDOS: L’ I M P E R AT O R E FA N C I U L L O E LA CENTRALIZZAZIONE D E L S A C R O AT T R AV E R S O LO SPECCHIO DELLE MONETE Andrea Gariboldi (Università di Bologna)

L’IMPERATORE SACERDOTE Elagabalo è ricordato nella storiografia antica quasi esclusivamente per la sua devozione fanatica al dio aniconico di Emesa e per le sue stravaganze comportamentali. Fanatismo religioso, follie e perversioni sessuali di un giovanissimo imperatore, che hanno suscitato e certamente susciteranno ancora l’interesse di molti, non solo storici e studiosi della religione romana,1 ma anche scrittori e psichiatri. Nel tralasciare questi aspetti, narrati anche nella Historia Augusta con dovizia di particolari—non senza una certa attenzione ai limiti della morbosità—ritengo che sia importante, piuttosto, puntare l’attenzione sul trasferimento della pietra nera da Eme1

Si vedano: Frey 1989; Berrens 2004; Gualerzi 2005; Kissel 2006; Altheim 2007, con la postfazione di Albanese 2007.

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sa a Roma, in quanto tale episodio storico venne celebrato anche sulle monete. La raffigurazione del betilo di Emesa, trainato su un carro da una quadriga, costituisce, infatti, la più eclatante novità tipologica introdotta dal giovane principe nella monetazione romana (Belloni 1983, 66–78). Furono probabilmente Giulia Soemia e Giulia Maesa, rispettivamente nonna e mamma di Elagabalo, a prendere la decisione di traslare la pietra a Roma, che appare smodata e prematura per un quattordicenne, quantunque vivace, quale Vario Avito Bassiano. Sembrerebbe, pertanto, che l’intera famiglia di origine siriana avesse il non celato proposito di diffondere anche a Roma il culto del dio di Emesa Heliogabalus.2 È probabile, inoltre, che Elagabalo avesse tentato di convertire anche altri luoghi di culto al suo dio, se è autentica la testimonianza della Historia Augusta (Marcus XXVI 9; Carac. XI 7), secondo la quale il tempio dedicato a Diva Faustina, alle pendici del monte Tauro in Cilicia, fu consacrato ad Heliogabalo (Dupont-Sommer, Robert 1964, 81). Questo progetto, quindi, fu perseguito con una certa rozzezza provinciale nei confronti di una realtà romana ancora piuttosto conservatrice e orgogliosa delle proprie tradizioni avite, sebbene fosse pervasa da profonde inquietudini religiose. La pietra nera compì un lungo e sontuoso viaggio da Emesa a Roma (Turcan 1991, 72–81), in quanto ad Elagabalo il sacerdozio ereditario dei re-sacerdoti di Emesa, noti come Sampsigerami, sembrava costituire la fonte stessa del proprio carisma (Sullivan 1977). Non è un caso, infatti, che il filosofo neoplatonico Giamblico, che tanto appassionò l’imperatore Giuliano con la sua teologia pagana, rivendicasse col suo nome (che fu di ben due re) il prestigio dell’antica dinastia emesena. Qui il culto di questo dio solare era ben radicato, e alcune monete della città, che fu elevata al rango di colonia da Caracalla (Millar 1993, 308), rappresentano, in segno della devozione locale, un tempio esastilo con all’interno il betilo dalla sommità conica. Sul blocco arrotondato sono visibili un’aquila e alcune protuberanze confuse, che potrebbero anche far pensare alla natura “bisessuale” di Elagabalo (Turcan 1991, 24–26), tuttavia, è bene sotto2

Alcune epigrafi attestano la venerazione del dio Heliogabalo anche in Italia. Si vedano Barnes 1972, 61; Bruun 1997; Halsberghe 1972, 105–110, registra quasi duecento epigrafi dedicate a Sol Invictus Elagabal, sparse in tutto l’impero.

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lineare che l’interpretazione dei segni sulla pietra sacra, sia che si trattasse di simboli astrali sia sessuali, è materia molto incerta, come lo era, del resto, anche per Erodiano. Il nome del dio “Elagabalo”, o Heliogabalo, sembra che sia da ricondurre all’aramaico ‹’LH GBL›, “il dio monte”, identificabile con la rocca fortificata di Emesa. Questa interpretazione è corroborata dal fatto che nel Vicino Oriente si trovano iscrizioni greche dedicate a “Zeus Betylos”, tuttavia, poiché l’aspetto solare era ritenuto preminente, Elagabalo venne assimilato a Helios (Millar 1993, 300–309; Seyring 1971). Dietro la pietra nera emergevano due parasoli, come se questa fosse dotata di una vitalità propria e quindi fosse degna di essere protetta oltre che venerata. All’interno del timpano del tempio di Emesa è visibile, talvolta, un crescente lunare. La simbologia astrale è certamente collegata, in questo caso, al dio Heliogabalo e alla sua natura cosmica. Le raffigurazioni monetali corrispondono piuttosto fedelmente alla descrizione di Erodiano (V 3, 5): Non si notano nel tempio, così come presso i Greci e i Romani, statue realizzate da abili artisti a immagine del dio; si vede, invece, una grande pietra arrotondata alla base che termina a punta. La forma è conica e il colore è nero. Gli indigeni pretendono che essa sia caduta dal cielo e indicano sulla pietra alcune asperità o figure poco chiare. Essi sostengono che si tratti di una immagine del Sole che non è opera dell’uomo, e così la adorano.

Robert Turcan ritiene che la pluralità delle figure siderali sulla pietra nera, appena intuibili nelle asperità dell’aerolito, potesse alludere alla sovranità del Sole in qualità di corego degli astri, e che lo stesso profilo arrotondato del betilo richiamasse la volta celeste. Il betilo di Emesa, almeno nella forma, era infatti simile ad altri monoliti venerati nel Vicino Oriente (HA Elag. VII 5: lapides qui divi dicuntur), come quello dedicato ad Afrodite-Astarte di Pafos a Cipro, o all’Artemide di Perge o di Sardi. In Fenicia, inoltre, il culto dei betili è ampiamente attestato, ed era ancora praticato nel III secolo d.C. La documentazione numismatica relativa alla monetazione provinciale, infatti, testimonia il culto dei betili in modo particolare a Sidone, Tiro, e nella città sacra di Biblo.3 Analogamente, in 3

Nella città sacra di Biblo è stato rinvenuto il cosiddetto “tempio degli obelischi”, databile al secondo millennio a.C. Altri betili in pietra sono stati trovati

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Asia Minore era famosa la pietra nera di Pessinunte, ritenuta una meteorite e considerata una materializzazione della dea Cibele. In età repubblicana, secondo un oracolo dei Libri Sibillini, che sosteneva la necessità di portare la pietra a Roma per vincere su nemici stranieri, l’idolo della Mater Magna venne trasportato a Roma e posto in un tempio sul Palatino.4 L’allargamento dell’imperium romanum richiedeva dunque l’assunzione di culti allogeni, e l’integrazione di Cibele con le divinità “italiche” fu tale, che Cicerone restò ammirato dalle virtù etiche e religiose dei ludi Megalesi, gli unici che non portassero un nome latino (Cic. Har. XXIV). Proprio a causa della relativa diffusione dei culti aniconici, i Romani non si scandalizzarono oltremodo per l’introduzione del dio Heliogabalo anche nell’Urbe, ormai pervasa da un forte sincretismo culturale e religioso. I caratteri fondamentali di questa divinità solare orientale sembrano proprio essere l’androginia e l’aniconicità, due aspetti che Gualerzi 2005, 74–85, ha giustamente evidenziato. Elagabalo naturalmente si interessò anche alla Mater Magna, e ne sottrasse il simulacro nascondendolo nel suo tempio. Egli si fece iniziare ai misteri di Cibele, sottoponendosi al nel santuario di Eshmun a Sidone, e sono raffigurati anche su monete sidonie di Elagabalo, il quale concesse a questa città (nel 218 d.C.) lo status giuridico di colonia romana, come attesta la leggenda latina Colonia Aurelia Pia Metropolis Sidon. Con Elagabalo ci fu un cospicuo aumento nella produzione monetale di questa città, che si pose in concorrenza con Tiro, spesso ricorrendo a tematiche iconografiche afferenti a culti locali. Per le monete di Elagabalo coniate a Sidone, raffiguranti il carro da processione di Astarte, con all’interno il betilo, si veda Hill 1910, 186, n. 250 (pl. 24, 7). Sui betili di Sidone si vedano Ronzevalle 1932; Seyring 1959; Soyez 1972. Sotto il regno di Elagabalo si verificò in Phoenicia la massima produzione monetale sia in termini quantitativi, sia riguardo alla varietà dei soggetti raffigurati. Gli interessi di questo imperatore nei confronti della Fenicia possono essere illustrati, ad esempio, dal fatto che Sidone fu resa colonia nel 218 d.C., con una conseguente ripresa copiosa della monetazione, dopo che era stata interrotta da Adriano nel 118/119 d.C. Elagabalo concesse il diritto coloniale anche alla piccola città di Arca, situata ai piedi del monte Libano, che prese il nome di Caesarea Libani. Unico merito di Arca sarebbe stato quello di essere la città natale di Alessandro Severo, figlio di Gessio Marciano, uno zio acquisito di Elagabalo tramite il matrimonio con Giulia Mamaea. Vedi Gariboldi 2002, 73; Millar 1993, 285–295; Butcher 2004, 219–221. 4 Liv. XXIX 37, 1–2; Liv. XXXVI 36, 3–4. Vedi Belloni 1996, 277–281.

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rito del taurobolio, ma secondo la sua peculiare politica religiosa che verrà esplicitata a Roma, dove pretese di assoggettare tutti quanti gli dei italici ad Heliogabalo.5 Elagabalo, dopo che le truppe ribelli ebbero sconfitto l’imperatore Macrino (8 giugno 218), nell’unica occasione in cui egli apparve in preda ad un furioso impeto guerriero, quasi divino (Dio Cass. LXXIX 38, 4), lasciò Antiochia nell’estate del 218 e giunse trionfalmente a Roma nel luglio del 219. L’episodio della battaglia contro Macrino merita di essere menzionato, in quanto fu l’unica occasione in cui Elagabalo dette prova di spirito combattivo, seppure fosse sospinto contro i nemici dagli incitamenti della madre e della nonna, che provocarono in lui una sorta di bellicosità travolgente. Sembra di poter intravedere nelle parole di Dione Cassio, comunque, una non celata ironia, quando scrive che le urla delle donne infiammarono il giovane Elagabalo e lo spinsero nella pugna. Questo comportamento, che certo appariva bizzarro ad un senatore romano, in realtà, era abituale presso le tribù arabe, dove i guerrieri erano accompagnati dalle donne della comunità, che suonavano piccoli tamburi e intonavano canti di guerra, arrivando persino al punto di denudarsi di fronte al nemico (Altheim 2007, 70). Erano cinque anni che un imperatore non si presentava a Roma. Possiamo dunque immaginare quanto grande fosse l’aspettativa di vederlo, assieme alle sue stravaganze “orientali”. Il viaggio fu una sorta di processione sacra che durò un anno intero, nel corso del quale furono soffocati nel sangue i primi conati di ribellione, anche da parte di chi, come Gannys, tentava invano di dare buoni consigli all’imperatore per vivere decentemente (Dio Cass. LXXX 6, 3). È possibile seguire il percorso di Elagabalo verso nord, sino a Nicomedia, dove trascorse l’inverno, e poi, oltre il Bosforo, verso la Tracia, la Mesia e la Pannonia sino a Sirmium, che gli aprì la via per Aquileia e quindi l’Italia, anche attraverso le iconografie di alcune monete emesse da città che vollero celebrare l’inattesa visita imperiale. Il betilo sul carro è rappresentato, infatti, su monete civiche di Hierapolis-Castabala, in Cilicia, e di Iuliopolis di Bitinia (Dupont-Sommer, Robert 1964, 80–81).

5

HA Elag. VII 4: omnes sane deos sui dei ministros esse aiebat. Vedi Optendrek 1969, 29–38.

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Elagabalo si consacrava personalmente alle cerimonie del culto emeseno, danzava in modo convulso, agghindato nel suo sfarzoso ed eccentrico costume, che «era una via di mezzo tra la stola, propria dei sacerdoti fenici, e i sontuosi costumi dei Medi» (Herod. V 5, 4), e rifiutò persino di indossare la toga trionfale il giorno della sua proclamazione a console, destando un comprensibile scandalo fra i Romani. Egli, infatti, detestava gli abiti di lana e amava ricoprirsi di seta purpurea e di monili d’oro. Calzava alti stivali gemmati e portava un’alta cintura. Anche la pietra sacra era circondata da cuscini e parasoli adorni di pietre preziose. Elagabalo durante la processione sacra precedeva il betilo a piedi, rivolto all’indietro, e teneva le briglie dei cavalli; sembrava che il carro non fosse guidato da nessuno. Altheim 2007, 70–71, ha spiegato che questa era una prassi tipica dei popoli arabi: gli animali selezionati per portare l’icona del dio, infatti, dovevano trovare la strada da soli. Forse, rendendosi conto dello stupore che una simile visione avrebbe potuto suscitare, Elagabalo pensò di farsi precedere a Roma da un dipinto (forse eseguito da lui stesso) che lo ritraeva in piedi e agghindato con l’abito sacerdotale emeseno, in atto di sacrificare di fronte al betilo di Heliogabalo. Il quadro venne spedito a Roma e appeso nella Curia senatoria, sopra la statua della Vittoria, presso la quale i senatori erano soliti prestare giuramento al nuovo principe. Così i Romani, «già avvezzi alla vista del quadro, non trovarono l’imperatore particolarmente stravagante» (Herod. V 5, 6–7). Resta il fatto che Elagabalo preferì presentarsi ai Romani nelle vesti di sacerdote,6 piuttosto che in abito imperiale. Questo noto episodio è solo uno dei tanti, che simboleggia la rottura che l’imperatore intendeva apportare nei confronti della tradizione roma-

6 Dirven 2007, 29–30, sostiene che la figura di Elagabalo sacrificante non indosserebbe l’abito sacerdotale emeseno, ma una uniforme militare portata dall’imperatore in tempo di pace, e cita Alföldi 1970, 270. La descrizione di Erodiano, che lo vuole abbigliato con vesti barbariche, viene così di fatto privata di credibilità. Purtroppo, nessuno conosce come fosse l’abito tipico del sacerdote emeseno ed inoltre lo stesso Alföldi scrive che Elagabalo portava un «orientalischen Priesterkleid», simile agli abiti da cerimonia dei sacerdoti palmireni (Alföldi 1970, 158, 176, 269–270). Per il confronto con gli abiti palmireni, si veda Drijvers 1976.

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na.7 Lo scardinamento delle antiche istituzioni (consuetudo) costituisce la frattura della concordia. In sintesi, è il punto centrale della polemica senatoria confluita nella Historia Augusta. Il gesto irriverente di Elagabalo nei confronti della statua della Vittoria, posta al centro della curia Iulia, dove Augusto meritò che fosse appeso lo scudo d’oro per ricordare le sue virtù,8 viene sottolineato da Erodiano; tuttavia, è curioso che proprio nella storia attribuita alla penna di Lampridio tale questione sia stata del tutto omessa. Si tratta forse di un cauto silenzio su una condotta di Elagabalo che poteva richiamare da vicino la scottante polemica fra cristiani e pagani sull’altare della Vittoria, un acceso dibattito (che ebbe il culmine nella famosa disputa oratoria fra Ambrogio e Simmaco nel 384), trascinatosi fino agli inizi del quinto secolo.9 Elagabalo, in un certo senso, agisce in modo esattamente contrario rispetto ad Augusto, e le quattro virtù capitali del buon principe, ovvero virtus, clementia, iustitia e pietas, sono semmai il modello opposto del suo comportamento. Le fonti insistono oltremodo sullo sfarzo delle vesti, sulla lussuria della tavola e sul fasto smodato della corte di Elagabalo, tutti stereotipi che di solito caratterizzano la ʽ regalità orientaleʼ , secondo un cliché storiografico negativo ʽ occidentaleʼ assai diffuso e penetrante (Wiesehöfer 2005, 113–115). Elagabalo si vantava delle proprie origini siriache e trascurava completamente i costumi romani, offendeva la religione, si macchiava di inutili crudeltà e credeva ciecamente nell’astrologia e nelle pratiche divinatorie.10 Sono ʽ qualitàʼ genericamente attribuite ai Persiani, e quindi presenti negli imperatori romani ʽ negativiʼ , come Caligola e Nerone (Kissel 2006). Si narra, ad esempio, che Elagabalo, una volta divenuto imperatore, viaggiasse con al seguito seicento carri, per non essere inferiore al re dei Persiani che aveva diecimila cammelli e a Nerone, che si faceva scortare da cinquecento carrozze. 11 La figura di Alessandro Severo, invece, viene tratteggiata nella Historia Augusta esattamente come speculare e contraria rispetto a quella di 7

Pietrzykowski 1986, 1807–1808; Sommer 2004, 105–106; Berrens 2004, 52–53; Baldus 1989; Dirven 2007, 22–23. 8 Belloni 1996, 131. 9 Cracco Ruggini 1991, 137–138; Bowersock 1975, 234; Orselli 2007, 82–85. 10 Gualerzi 2005, 19–20; Cramer 1996, 225–230. 11 HA Elag. XXXI 5. La notizia su Nerone ricalca Svetonio, Ner. XXX 3, dove le carrozze sono addirittura mille.

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Elagabalo (Cracco Ruggini 1991, 125–126). Questo nuovo “Alessandro” non imitò i Persiani, ma li combatté duramente (Blázquez 1990), organizzò una campagna militare e sconfisse il potente re Artaserse (ovvero Ardašīr I, che però secondo Erodiano non fu affatto battuto), al quale gli storici antichi attribuivano il desiderio di ripristinare la grandezza dell’impero degli Achemenidi (Huyse 2002), e assunse il titolo onorifico di Persicus maximus (HA Alex. LV; LVI). Alessandro Severo, anziché farsi raffigurare sulle monete come un sacerdote orientale, preferiva essere immortalato con i suoi abiti militari, a guisa di Alessandro Magno. Ma anche questo è il frutto della propaganda romana, assai difficile da negare, quando sono le fonti a fornire il paragone.12 Tutto questo dovrebbe bastare a giustificare l’indignazione del popolo romano e la cancellazione di Elagabalo dalla memoria collettiva. Suo cugino Alessandro Severo, infatti, non gli riconobbe nemmeno la dignità di princeps, e neppure osava parlare di un uomo, ma lo definì causticamente inpura illa bestia.13 Gualerzi ha notato che nei confronti di Elagabalo non si verificò una normale damnatio memoriae, ma una cancellazione radicale del suo ricordo che era automaticamente vissuto come un’infamia perenne. Il tema iconografico di Elagabalo sacrificante è ripreso anche su numerose monete, sia in bronzo, sia in argento sia, eccezionalmente, in oro (fig. 1). Sin qui non vi sarebbe nulla di curioso, perché l’imperatore a Roma è anche pontifex maximus, ma Elagabalo ne modifica profondamente il carattere. Egli regge nella mano destra la patera sull’altare, mentre nella sinistra tiene un folto ramo di cipresso (talvolta appare una clava), in quanto era un albero consacrato al Sole. Ai piedi dell’altare giace talvolta un toro sacrificale. La leggenda monetale INVICTVS SACERDOS AVG.(ustus) designa appunto l’imperatore come un sacerdote invincibile, a guisa di Sol. Dobbiamo tuttavia rimarcare che nessuna iscrizione romana sovrappone chiaramente Elagabalo ad Heliogabalo: egli è amplissimus o summus sacerdos, ma non è da identificarsi tout court con la sua divinità (Bruun 1997, 1–2). La gloria di Elagabalo consisteva proprio nel fatto di essere il sommo sacerdote del Sole, simboleggiato sulle monete dalla stella, il legittimo officiante dei riti secondo la tradizione arabo-beduina, 12 13

HA Alex. XXV 9: Alexandri habitu nummos plurimos figuravit. HA Alex. LIII 6; LVI 6. Vedi Gualerzi 2005, 9–10.

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dunque una sorta di mediatore tra cielo e terra, secondo una ideologia della regalità sacra tipica del mondo iranico (Panaino 2007, 143–182), ma estranea alla concezione genuina del potere romano, dove l’imperatore è semmai colui che ha maggiori meriti rispetto ai colleghi nelle magistrature, un primus inter pares. A riprova del fatto che Elagabalo non si identificasse col dio di Emesa, si può addurre la circostanza che egli ordinò di costruire statue a se stesso, ma non al dio Heliogabalo (Dio Cass. LXXX 12, 2). Solo il betilo, dunque, incarnava la divinità, ed Elagabalo si compiaceva nel farsi ritrarre con la veste sacerdotale. Certamente l’epiteto di invictus, attribuito nelle epigrafi anche a Heliogabalo, lo poneva al di sopra degli uomini comuni e quasi a livello divino (Price 1980), ma anche lo avvicinava a Mitra e a Dusares, dio solare dei Nabatei.14 Già Commodo, comunque, si era attribuito tale epiclesi paragonandosi ad Ercole. Il titolo di pius, che troviamo sia in iscrizioni che su monete di Elagabalo, si inseriva, invece, nel solco della austera tradizione degli Antonini. Robert Turcan vedeva nella eliolatria di Elagabalo una sorta di «teologia unificante», un monoteismo solare al servizio della monarchia sacra (Turcan 1991, 129–138). Questo enoteismo non escludeva le altre divinità, ma piuttosto le subordinava al culto del Sole, che ebbe una straordinaria vitalità proprio durante la réaction païenne del III–IV secolo. La concezione enoteistica del Sole, esplosa sotto il regno di Elagabalo, avrebbe poi trovato altre espressioni, certo più raffinate, sia in letteratura che in filosofia. Franz Altheim, in particolare, fu un acuto osservatore delle corrispondenze metastoriche che percorrono la religiosità romana. Il goffo tentativo di Elagabalo di imporre a Roma il culto del dio solare emeseno fallì, ma il Sole sarebbe rinato sotto altre forme, come nelle Etiopiche di Eliodoro e nel neoplatonismo di Porfirio, per poi fondersi nel cristianesimo di Costantino (Altheim 2007, 135–148). Secondo l’analisi neoplatonica dell’essere la molteplicità delle azioni dell’uomo avrebbe trovato un perfetto parallelismo nelle poliedriche funzioni divine, tutte subordinate al dio supremo, identificato con il Sole. Qualora accettassimo questa interpretazione ʽ porfirianaʼ del culto promosso da Elagabalo, saremmo di fronte ad una teocrazia totalitaria meno spiccia e ingenua di quanto le fonti storiche lascino trapelare. È difficile però stabilire, sulla scia di questa esegesi di Turcan, se una siffatta filosofia fosse palese a 14

Albanese 2007, 168–170; Altheim 2007, 67.

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Elagabalo, o se invece egli non si limitasse semplicemente a predicare un culto locale del Sole, che la filosofia pagana neoplatonica seppe poi trasformare in un impianto teoretico coerente, del tutto estraneo però alle doti metafisiche del nostro giovane imperatore. Nonostante quello che scrive Lampridio, Elagabalo non pretese di diffondere vastamente il suo culto. In ogni caso, Elagabalo dimostrò arroganza e ottusità etica e politica, offendendo e profanando alcuni luoghi ritenuti dal popolo di veneranda sacralità. Tale fu il caso, ad esempio, del tempio di Vesta, oltraggiato da Elagabalo nel 221 per rapire e quindi sposare la vergine vestale Aquilia Severa, dopo aver divorziato da Giulia Paola. La Historia Augusta insiste sulle offese arrecate alla religio publica e sull’incesto perpetrato nei confronti della vestale: Ignem perpetuum extinguere voluit. Nec Romanas tantum extinguere voluit religiones, sed per orbem terrae, unum studens, ut Heliogabalus deus ubique coleretur (HA Elag. VI 7). «Volle che fosse spento il fuoco perpetuo [di Vesta]; e volle abolire non solo le cerimonie religiose romane, ma anche quelle di tutto il mondo, preoccupandosi di una cosa sola, ossia che il dio Heliogabalo fosse venerato ovunque». In un altro passo molto significativo (HA Elag. III 4–5), si dice che: «appena entrò a Roma, senza curarsi di quanto accadeva nelle province, consacrò il culto di Heliogabalo e fece costruire in suo onore un tempio sul colle Palatino nei pressi del palazzo imperiale, con l’intenzione di portarvi il simulacro della Grande Madre, il fuoco di Vesta, il Palladio e gli scudi ancilî, così che nessuno in Roma venerasse alcun dio all’infuori di Heliogabalo. Affermava, inoltre, che in quel luogo dovevano essere trasferiti i riti propri degli Ebrei e dei Samaritani, nonché le cerimonie religiose dei Cristiani, affinché il sacerdozio di Heliogabalo detenesse i misteri di tutti i culti». Elagabalo operava così un forte sincretismo religioso che era tipico dell’area semita e la sua politica non era affatto priva di senso. Egli, infatti, faceva appello a ragioni ierogamiche: da un Sommo Pontefice, come lui, e da una Somma Vestale, come Aquilia, non poteva che nascere una prole divina. Mediante il congiungimento carnale del sacerdote e della sacerdotessa si sarebbe ripetuto il matrimonio cosmico della terra col cielo, in una prospettiva universalistica, rispetto ai culti ʽ etniciʼ (Ebrei, Samaritani, Cristiani), che egli voleva inglobare nel culto solare. Tuttavia la mala sorte continuava a non concedergli una progenie divina. Allora pensò a vere e proprie nozze sacre fra il Palladium, ovvero il simulacro ligneo di Pallas Athena, che si credeva fosse stato portato in salvo da Enea in fuga da Troia, e il betilo d’Emesa, secondo una logica allucinata

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magico-religiosa. Chiusi all’interno dei recessi sacri dell’Elagabalium, un tempio sacro fatto appositamente costruire sul Palatino (i cui resti archeologici giacciono forse sotto la chiesa di S. Sebastiano nell’antica vigna Barberini),15 l’aerolito e il palladio, in quanto sterili fantocci, non ebbero figli. Questa teogamia avrebbe dovuto sancire la restaurazione di un ordine cosmico garantito sulla terra dall’imperatore-sacerdote, tuttavia, nella vita quotidiana di Elagabalo erano presenti soltanto le sue caotiche e dissociate ossessioni per il sangue e per il sesso. Basti pensare che nel corpus degli editti imperiali non risulta nessuna legge emessa durante il regno di Elagabalo, né dal senato di Roma, né tanto meno da quel ʽ senatinoʼ per le donne, che avrebbe dovuto occuparsi solo di frivolezze muliebri, che pare fosse stato edificato sul Quirinale.16 I pretoriani, esasperati, alla fine lo decapitarono e trascinarono il corpo esanime per le vie di Roma (Alföldi 1976). Il suo nome fu eraso dai monumenti, specie dell’Urbe, e le statue che lo ritraevano vennero distrutte e gettate nel Tevere, così come le sue ʽ impureʼ spoglie mortali furono annientate e disperse nella Cloaca Maxima.

15 Albanese 2007, 153–154; Villedieu 2001, 83–106; Turcan 1991, 101–121. Diversa è invece l’opinione di Coarelli 1996, secondo il quale l’Elagabalium sarebbe da collocarsi presso la porticus Adonaea. In effetti, non si trattò probabilmente di una nuova costruzione voluta da Elagabalo per contenere il simulacro di Emesa e gli altri oggetti sacri, ma di una nuova dedica al dio Heliogabalo del vecchio tempio di Iuppiter Victor sul Palatino. L’Elagabalium compare solo su un medaglione bronzeo di Elagabalo del 221 d.C. (Gnecchi 1912, III, n. 6; vedi anche Turcan 1991, 234), e si presenta come una struttura molto simile a quella raffigurata su monete di Alessandro Severo. Uno scavo archeologico a Roma dell’École française mise in luce, fra il 1985 e il 1999, le fondamenta e una parte del muro perimetrale della terrazza dell’Elagabalium, ma vennero poi ricoperti. Un indizio del fatto che le strutture rinvenute sotto l’odierna chiesa di S. Sebastiano fossero appartenute all’Elagabalium, è dato dal fatto che una iscrizione di IV secolo da Piperno menziona un praepositus Palladio Palatii (CIL X 6441), e la chiesa di S. Sebastiano era precedentemente dedicata a S. Maria in Pallara (X sec.). Dunque questa chiesa potrebbe aver conservato per alcuni secoli una parte dell’antico toponimo pagano, sino alla nuova consacrazione a S. Sebastiano. Vedi Hill 1981, 59. 16 HA Elag. IV 3. Vedi Straub 1966.

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L’EVIDENZA NUMISMATICA: ROMA E LE PROVINCE Nonostante l’insistenza delle fonti letterarie, possiamo certamente affermare, come già ebbe modo di rimarcare Gian Guido Belloni, che la testimonianza delle monete attenua il fanatismo di Elagabalo e il preteso esclusivismo del suo dio nella religione tradizionale romana.17 Sulle monete romane i riferimenti ad avvenimenti politici, conseguentemente alla condotta di Elagabalo, sono pressoché nulli, e i soggetti raffigurati sono quelli convenzionali, con l’eccezione dei tipi che si riferiscono al culto del Sole e della pietra di Emesa. Le monete di Elagabalo furono emesse in gran numero a Roma e ad Antiochia, e probabilmente anche in qualche altra zecca provinciale (come Nicomedia), oltre all’abbondante monetazione delle città greche e delle colonie latine. In primo luogo, Elagabalo mantenne sulle monete il suo nome ufficiale, cioè M. Aurelius Antoninus Pius Felix, e mai fu chiamato Elagabalo, forse per l’intervento zelante degli ufficiali della zecca di Roma.18 È importante sottolineare come la titolatura di Elagabalo ricalchi fedelmente quella di Caracalla (Mattingly 1975, ccxxx). Quindi, anziché apportare una profonda innovazione, al contrario, sembra che Elagabalo si fosse uniformato immediatamente al suo predecessore, dal quale egli proclamava di discendere direttamente. L’assunzione del nome Marco Aurelio Antonino tradisce palesemente la volontà della famiglia siriana di trovare la propria legittimità a regnare nel casato degli Antonini. Ecco perché lo storico Dione Cassio si rifiuta di offrire dignità imperiale ad Elagabalo chiamandolo Antoninus: lo apostrofa, invece, PseudoAntonino, oppure, con maggior irriverenza, “l’assiro” o il “Sardanapalo”. Nella scelta del nome è già insita, pertanto, tutta la contraddittorietà del nostro personaggio, che non può salire al potere con il proprio—cioè Vario Avito Bassiano. L’Historia Augusta attribuisce a Giulia Maesa l’astuzia politica di inventare il nome di Antonino per Elagabalo,19 la 17

Belloni 1983; Id. 1993, 206–208. L’impressione che Elagabalo avesse introdotto nella iconografia monetale romana ben poche novità, è comunque presente anche negli autori del Roman Imperial Coinage. 18 Mattingly, Sydenham, Sutherland 1938, 24. 19 HA Macr. IX 4–6; Elag. I 5: Antonini sibi nomen adsciverat vel in argumentum generis vel quod id nomen usque adeo carum esse cognoverat gentibus. «Si era attribuito il nome di Antonino sia quale prova della sua presunta discen-

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quale avrebbe così attirato le simpatie dei legionari sul nipote, a scapito di Macrino. I soldati, infatti, erano ancora molto legati al ricordo di Caracalla, e così venne diffusa la falsa notizia che Elagabalo fosse suo figlio. Sembra che a quel tempo chi non fosse in grado di fregiarsi del nome di Antonino, nemmeno potesse aspirare alla dignità imperiale (HA Diad. VI 2). Possiamo aggiungere che persino il ritratto di Elagabalo è modellato su quello di Caracalla, e non è solo una questione di stile, ma anche di fisionomia. Le fonti dicono che Elagabalo era un bel ragazzo, alto e avvenente,20 mentre i ritratti monetali lo mostrano giovane sì, ma non proprio apollineo. Esistono sostanzialmente due tipi di ritratto per Elagabalo: il primo lo rappresenta giovanissimo e imberbe, il secondo, più maturo e con una corta barbula. Lo sguardo, un poco torbido e attonito, è comunemente rivolto verso l’alto, in conformità con la sensibilità artistica del tempo di Caracalla, rispetto al quale, tuttavia, Elagabalo si discosta per la mancanza della folta barba. I ritratti monetali si allineano sovente al tipo scultoreo della testa del Museo Capitolino,21 dai capelli corti e dai tratti del viso distesi. La barba appena accennata ricorda quella portata da Nerone, che può essere stato un modello anche iconografico a cui ispirarsi. Elagabalo appare così come un giovane eroe, dove la barbula assume il significato del raggiungimento dell’efebìa (La Rocca 1997, 658–659). denza, sia perché sapeva bene che quel nome era tanto caro alla gente». Anche Macrino, comunque, aveva adottato lo stesso espediente nei confronti del figlioletto Diadumeniano, che prese il nome di Antonino. 20 Herod. V 3, 7; HA Macr. IX 3. 21 Fittschen, Zanker 1985, 115–117 (fig. 98). La testa è conservata presso il Museo Capitolino nella “Stanza degli Imperatori”, n. 55 (inv. 470). Forse a causa della damnatio memoriae, i ritratti attribuibili ad Elagabalo con un discreto margine di certezza sono veramente pochi; oltre a quello di Roma, altre due teste si trovano rispettivamente al Louvre e a Oslo. Vedi Scrinari 1960, 311–312; L’Orange 1940, 152–159; alcune brevi considerazioni sull’adesione di Elagabalo ai modelli artistici della tradizione antonino-severiana in Manconi, Catalli 2005, 66; 87. Sono da segnalare anche alcune gemme romane con ritratto di Elagabalo, vedi Zwierlein-Diehl 1969, 192–193, nn. 541–542; inoltre si veda Megow 1987, 247–248, nn. A 165–167 (di dubbia attribuzione). Una certa fortuna del ritratto di Elagabalo su gemme-gioiello si ebbe pure in età rinascimentale: Gennaioli 2007: n. 210. La gemma n. 685, attribuita dall’autore ad Elagabalo (Ibid., p. 432), non sembra affatto pertinente, in quanto il ritratto è piuttosto quello di Caracalla.

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Elagabalo indossa normalmente sulle monete la corona d’alloro, simbolo del potere imperiale romano, ma talvolta compare sul capo del giovane imperatore, sopra la corona d’alloro stessa, un ʽ cornoʼ , che è stato variamente e fantasiosamente interpretato. Mattingly 1975, cxxxv, seguendo l’opinione che fu già del Cohen, parla genericamente di un corno divino connesso al culto solare, senza peraltro approfondire il problema. Altre ipotesi, tutte riassunte in un lavoro di Krengel 1997, spaziano dall’amuleto solare alla coda di gallo, e si è pensato persino ad un dito indice. Krengel, invece, sulla base della considerazione che questo ʽ cornoʼ compare perlopiù su alcune monete della zecca di Roma, dove sui rovesci Elagabalo è raffigurato in atto di sacrificare un toro, in abito sacerdotale, ritiene che questo curioso oggetto possa essere la parte terminale del pene del toro sacrificato, che giace ai piedi dell’imperatore. La studiosa, dopo aver esaminato con cura numerosi falli di toro conservati presso l’Istituto di anatomia veterinaria dell’Università di Berlino, dei quali peraltro non ci risparmia nemmeno le foto con le relative misure, è convinta che Elagabalo si aggirasse per Roma munito di questo attributo sulla fronte. Nelle fonti, comunque, non vi è traccia di una simile performance di Elagabalo, che, credo, non sarebbe certo passata sotto silenzio. La bizzarra ipotesi della Krengel, è bene dire, non ha avuto fra i numismatici e gli storici dell’arte antica molto successo.22 Si potrebbe ritenere, più semplicemente, che si trattasse di una applique posta sulla corona d’alloro, che assumerebbe così anche una valenza sacerdotale. È difficile dire, tuttavia, cosa effettivamente essa rappresentasse. Su monete provinciali di Tarso in Cilicia, coniate da Caracalla ed Elagabalo, ad esempio, compare la corona del Demiurgo assieme a quella del Kilikiarchon, che sovrintendeva al koinon delle metropoli della Cilicia, adorna di ben sei teste umane.23 Nei recessi del palazzo imperiale, Elagabalo, per apparire più bello, non disdegnava nemmeno di fregiarsi anche del diadema regale,24 che 22

Dirven 2007, 24–25; Weiser 2000. Gariboldi 2000, 52 (fig. 5). Anche i sacerdoti palmireni recavano sul capo una corona d’alloro decorata da un inserto centrale con un piccolo busto. Vedi Gabucci 2002, 33. 24 HA Elag. XXIII 5: voluit uti et diademate gemmato, qui pulchrior fieret et magis ad feminarum vultum aptus. Quo et usus est domi. «Volle far uso anche del diadema gemmato, per rendere il suo aspetto più avvenente e femmineo: e lo 23

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figurerà sulle monete e nella iconografia ufficiale romana solo a partire da Costantino. Nella monetazione provinciale lo stile dei ritratti diviene, solitamente, molto più corrente e sommario, rispetto alle monete della zecca di Roma, e ciò rende a volte difficile distinguere una moneta di Caracalla da una di Elagabalo. Kevin Butcher ha notato, per esempio, nelle monete siriane di Elagabalo, quattro tipologie di ritratto: ʽ angolareʼ , ʽ giovanileʼ , ʽ eleganteʼ e ʽ squadratoʼ , quest’ultimo molto vicino al modello di Caracalla (Butcher 2004, 384–389). Sebbene vi fossero molte città che avevano il diritto di battere moneta, con Elagabalo si impose un fenomeno curioso, detto “die-sharing”, cioè l’uso di realizzare i conî del dritto in una città, che poi li prestava ad altre zecche. Nella provincia di Syria era Antiochia a svolgere questo importante compito, in particolare nei confronti di Seleucia Pieria,25 Zeugma e Samosata, ma anche in Phoenicia sotto il regno di Macrino e Diadumeniano, si verificò il prestito dei conî, sempre da parte di Antiochia, a città differenti.26 La pratica del prestito dei conî monetali rivela dunque un particolare aspetto legato all’organizzazione interna delle zecche provinciali, ed indica un elevato livello di centralizzazione amministrativa e logistica. Con Elagabalo, poi, registriamo un cospicuo aumento della produzione monetale in termini

indossava anche in casa». Vedi anche Herod. V 3, 6, dove si dice che Elagabalo talvolta portava una corona di pietre preziose. 25 Sulle monete civiche di Seleucia Pieria è sovente raffigurato, sotto Elagabalo, un betilo all’interno di un tempio. Questa però potrebbe essere la rappresentazione del monte sacro a Zeus Kasios che sovrasta la città (oggi detto Keldağ), e non la mera pietra sacra, come avviene sulle monete di Caesarea di Cappadocia. Vedi Butcher 2004, 413–414 (pl. 22, 93). 26 Vismara 1997; Butcher 2004, 44. Abili incisori elaborarono ad Antiochia il modello del ritratto di Diadumeniano, che fu inviato a molte città della Fenicia, quali Berito, Biblo, Tiro e Tripoli, ma probabilmente questa tipologia di ritratto fu inviata anche a Roma. È molto interessante, in proposito, la testimonianza della HA Diad. II 6: statim apud Antiochiam moneta Antonini Diadumeni nomine percussa est, Macrini usque ad iussum senatus dilata est. «Subito fu coniata ad Antiochia una moneta col nome di Antonino Diadumeno, mentre si rimandò la coniazione di una moneta con il nome di Macrino fino a che non giungesse il permesso del Senato». Si veda, inoltre, Gariboldi 2002, 78–79.

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quantitativi, ed anche un riassetto della monetazione con nuovi tipi legati all’ordinamento giuridico delle città emittenti. Nonostante Antiochia avesse ottenuto in questo periodo il rango di colonia,27 il soggetto monetale con la Tyche non è propriamente ʽ colonialeʼ , cioè allusivo all’atto di fondazione della colonia stessa, ma esalta invece la divinità protettrice della città che assurge quasi a simbolo della intera provincia di Syria. L’impatto culturale di queste città orientali con il nuovo ordinamento giuridico romano non fu elevato, dato che si continuarono ad adottare sulle monete iconografie e lingua locali (Millar 1993, 256–263). Anzi, possiamo notare un certo trionfalismo delle culture epicorie in Oriente, proprio nel corso del terzo secolo: troviamo non solo le comuni espressioni della cultura ellenistica, ma anche spicca l’orgoglio civico delle tradizioni autoctone, ora di origine semita ora araba (Mazza 1994, 193–195). Emesa, ovviamente, non fu estranea a questa rinascita dei culti locali e fu oggetto di attenzione da parte di Caracalla, che la nominò colonia, forse solo perché vi era nata sua madre Giulia Domna. Elagabalo insignì la sua città natale addirittura con il titolo di metropolis, ma questo riconoscimento scomparve già con le monete dell’usurpatore Uranio Antonino (Butcher 2004, 220–221). Si trattò, dunque, di una onorificenza civica espressamente voluta da Elagabalo, e chiaramente spropositata per il modesto centro urbano di Emesa. Le monete coloniali emesene di Caracalla e di Elagabalo esaltano il culto solare di Heliogabalo e raffigurano la pietra nera all’interno del tempio esastilo. Sulle monete di Elagabalo vi sono spesso simboli astrali, come stelle e crescenti. Ad esempio, sui bronzi di Antiochia coniati da Elagabalo e Alessandro Severo, i simboli sembrano alternarsi (Butcher 2004, 237–238), ma è difficile trovare sempre una spiegazione logica per tale fenomeno, e spesso la presenza dei simboli astrali appare semplicemente bene augurante. Diverso, invece, il caso delle monete romane di Elagabalo dove compare il simbolo del Sole sui conî nei quali l’imperatore è raffigurato come 27

Sebbene si ritenga comunemente (Millar 1993, 258) che fosse stato Caracalla ad elevare Antiochia allo status di colonia romana, sulla base della citazione del giurista Paolo (Dig. L 15, 8, 5: Divus Antoninus Antiochenses colonos fecit salvis tributis), Butcher sostiene invece che ciò avvenne sotto Elagabalo, proprio a causa della nuova monetazione provinciale da lui introdotta. Si veda Butcher 2004, 44, 223.

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sacerdote di Heliogabalo; in questo caso, l’astro luminoso non può che rappresentare il dio di Emesa. Si tenga presente, comunque, che i Severi e gli Antonini tennero sempre in grande considerazione gli astrologi, ed anche Elagabalo si uniformò perfettamente a questa credenza: così, prima di muovere guerra ai Marcomanni, egli avrebbe consultato Chaldeos et magos, senza peraltro riuscire a farsi rivelare la formula magica per interrompere l’amicizia di questi barbari nei confronti del popolo romano.28 La politica religiosa di Elagabalo emerge più chiaramente nelle monete di Roma. Elagabalo, dunque, non abolì affatto la tradizione romana di una ricca tematica monetale.29 Nelle monete coniate a Roma, infatti, in un primo periodo (218–219), compaiono Roma, la più tradizionale delle personificazioni, quindi Mars Victor, Fides exercitus e Fides militum, per favorire l’impressione che l’imperatore fosse un comandante di uomini vittorioso e legato all’esercito; inoltre si celebrano la lealtà nei confronti dello Stato (Fides publica), la gioia comune (Laetitia publica), e si saluta il fortunato rientro a Roma dell’imperatore (Fortunae reduci). Nel 219 (con titolatura TR. P. II COS. II), compare per la prima volta sulle monete il titolo di Pius (IMP. ANTONINVS PIVS AVG.), che lo avvicina pertanto a Caracalla e sottolinea la sua devozione religiosa. In concomitanza con l’arrivo del corteo imperiale a Roma (Adventus Augusti), appare sulle monete anche la pietra di Emesa, portata da una quadriga, sormontata da un’aquila, con la leggenda Conservator Aug. (Conservator è un epiteto normalmente conferito a Giove, si tratta pertanto di un epiteto piuttosto ambiguo), ma prudentemente viene menzionata su alcuni conî anche Providentia Deorum, che fuga ogni dubbio sulla non esclusività del culto di Heliogabalo. Salus Antonini e Victoria Antonini Aug. inducono invece l’idea che il nuovo imperatore, la cui salvezza è assicurata dalla vittoria, è un degno discendente degli Antonini, ed egli non manca nemmeno di tranquillizzare i cittadini di Roma con Annona Augusta e Liberalitas. A proposito di elargizioni pubbliche a Roma, Lampridio ricorda con ironia che Elagabalo, durante le cerimonie di liberalitas imperiale, anziché spartire danaro, faceva scaraventare sul popolo affamato animali vivi di grosse dimensioni, come buoi e cammelli (HA Elag. VIII 3). 28 29

HA Elag. IX 1. Si veda, inoltre, Cramer 1996, 226–228. Belloni 1983, 66–78; Mattingly 1975, ccxxix–ccxlviii.

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La terza ed ultima fase del regno di Elagabalo (220–222), oltre a Bonus Eventus, Fides, Fortuna, Hilaritas, Laetitia, Liberalitas, Libertas, Pax e Victoria, celebra sulle monete anche Spes, Aeternitas e Securitas Saeculi, per fornire rassicurazioni sul fulgido futuro di Roma. Aeternitas allude all’eternità dell’impero tramite la simbologia astrale del Sole e della Luna, ma si tratta di una propaganda particolarmente cara alla dinastia dei Severi e non è peculiare di Elagabalo. La personificazione di Aeternitas, garante dell’eternità di Roma, compare per la prima volta su monete di Vespasiano, come una figura femminile che regge nelle mani la testa del Sole e della Luna (Martin 2000, 301; Belloni 1993, 152). È probabile, invece, che attraverso le monete di Elagabalo con la personificazione di Nobilitas, si volesse porre in risalto la differenza fra gli aristocratici lignaggi del presunto nipote di Settimio Severo e il vile status sociale di Macrino. Dopo il 220 sembra che l’insistenza sul culto di Heliogabalo si fece più pressante.30 Le leggende monetali che evidenziano lo stretto legame fra Elagabalo e il suo dio sono sostanzialmente tre, vale a dire Invictus Sacerdos Aug., Sacerd(os) dei Solis Elagabal(i) e Summus Sacerdos Aug. Elagabalo è di norma raffigurato sulle monete nell’atto di sacrificare presso un altare nella veste di sacerdote (fig. 1), e non come pontifex. Anzi si potrebbe dire che summus sacerdos sostituisca il titolo usuale di pontifex maximus. Si trattò di una emissione monetale abbondante in tutti i nominali, certamente destinata a lanciare un preciso messaggio propagandistico. Queste leggende monetali probabilmente costituiscono una forma abbreviata del titolo completo sacerdos amplissimus dei invicti Solis Elagabali, che si trova attestato su diplomi militari e che venne conferito dal Senato ad Elagabalo alla fine del 220 (Bruun 1997, 2; Frey 1989, 80–86). Talvolta la pietra sacra stellata, sormontata dall’aquila, campeggia sulle monete assieme alla titolatura ufficiale dell’imperatore. La fanatica devozione alla pietra di Emesa emerge comunque chiaramente anche negli straordinari aurei e denari (presumibilmente antiocheni) con leggenda Sancto deo Soli Elagabal, del 218–219, antecedenti la più nota serie romana (fig. 2). Merita di essere sottolineato anche il fatto che si tratta della prima volta in cui il nome di Sol è presente su una serie monetale romana, quantunque la rappresentazione iconografica del 30

Dirven 2007, 23; Berrens 2004, 52–53; Frey 1989, 80–86.

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Sole fosse ben nota sin dall’età repubblicana. Anche l’aureo dove Elagabalo si presenta come reggitore del mondo (Rector Orbis), in nudità eroica e con il globo terraqueo in mano, pare mostrare l’imperatore come controparte terrena del dio solare emeseno, secondo una concezione della regalità cosmica tipicamente orientale. Anche in questo caso, però, la novità è solo sfumata, in quanto già Settimio Severo e Caracalla avevano rappresentato su monete Sol in qualità di reggitore del mondo, alla stregua di Giove (Martin 2000, 299–300). Al rovescio di un rarissimo antoniniano, Elagabalo appare mentre sacrifica su un altare, e dietro di lui, in veduta frontale, una sontuosa quadriga con il betilo emeseno circondato da due parasoli (Baldus 1989, 470–471). La leggenda è di nuovo Conservator Aug.(usti), ma in questa rappresentazione è palese l’accostamento in unum dei due soggetti iconografici normalmente distinti (fig. 3). Appare significativo, che sulle monete di Roma si fosse insistito maggiormente solo sulla rappresentazione di Elagabalo come sacerdote, piuttosto che sull’immagine della pietra, che compare in modo più ‘disinvolto’ nelle monete provinciali. In ciò è possibile cogliere una diversa sfumatura della politica religiosa di Elagabalo, più prudente a Roma nella propagazione del culto emeseno. A prescindere da questi rari casi, potrebbe stupire anche la presenza sulle monete della figura di Sol con la corona radiata, secondo il noto tipo greco-romano antropomorfo, in atto di salutare con la mano destra e con una frusta da auriga celeste, nella sinistra. Segno evidente che Elagabalo non intendeva soppiantare il Sol romano, ampiamente diffuso sotto i Severi, con quello emeseno. Casomai queste divinità si sovrappongono (Belloni 1983, 75–76). Su aurei dedicati a Soli Propugnatori, il Sole reca il fulmine anziché la frusta, identificando in modo sincretistico la stella con Iuppiter, secondo le parole sbrigative di Lampridio (HA Elag. I 6): fuit autem Heliogabali vel Iovis vel Solis sacerdos. Questa incapacità patologica di attenersi a un criterio politicoreligioso in sé e per sé coerente, portò alla morte prematura del giovane imperatore. Sua zia Mamaea da tempo tramava per sostituire al potere Elagabalo col cugino Alessiano, noto come Alessandro Severo, il quale, divenuto imperatore nel 222, fece subito rispedire il betilo a Emesa. Qui però il suo culto persistette, come dimostrano le monete dell’usurpatore Uranio Antonino, raffigurato come incarnazione di Helios (Baldus 1971, 29–31). Alessandro ripristinò ufficialmente il culto di Iuppiter Optimus Maximus. Egli stesso si presentò ai Romani nella veste più rassicurante e tradizionale del Pontifex maximus.

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Il culto del Sole tornò presto a Roma con l’imperatore Aureliano: verso la fine del suo regno il culto solare era talmente ufficializzato, che su alcune monete compare persino la leggenda Sol dominus imperi Romani.31 Si tratta però di un Sole dalle sembianze umane, alla guida di una quadriga trionfale, e non glaciale e sterile come la pietra caduta dal cielo; è un Sole portatore di salvezza e vittorioso sulle forze del male, una divinità suprema che preludeva all’impero cristiano. Costantino stesso aveva adorato Sol Invictus, la cui iconografia passò a quella di Cristo Helios trionfatore. Evidentemente, per stabilire a Roma una religione monoteista era necessario il figlio di un Constantius, una persona ferma e risoluta (constans appunto), e non un Varius, un uomo incerto tanto nelle origini quanto nelle idee.

BIBLIOGRAFIA Albanese, L., I culti solari dall’Impero Romano al Rinascimento, in Altheim F., Deus Invictus. Le religioni e la fine del mondo antico, traduzione di E. Albrile (2007) 153–183. Alföldi, A., Die monarchische Repräsentation im römischen Kaiserreiche (1970). Alföldi, G., Zwei Schimpfnamen des Kaisers Elagabal: Tiberinus und Tractatitius, in Historia Augusta Colloquium. Bonn 1972–1974 (1976) 11–21. Altheim, F., Deus Invictus. Le religioni e la fine del mondo antico, traduzione di E. Albrile (2007). Baldus, H.R., Uranius Antoninus. Münzprägung und Geschichte (1971). Baldus, H.R., Das „Vorstellungsgemälde“ des Heliogabal. Ein bislang unerkanntes numismatisches Zeugnis, «Chiron» 19 (1989) 467–476. Baldus, H.R., Zur Aufnahme des Sol Elagabalus-Kultus in Rom, 219 n. Chr., «Chiron» 21 (1991) 175–178. Barnes, T.D., Ultimus Antoninorum, in Historia Augusta Colloquium. Bonn 1970, a cura di A. Alföldi (1972) 53–74.

31

Mattingly, Sydenham 1927, 301, nn. 319–322. È un asse della zecca di Serdica, con al dritto il busto radiato di Sol che sovrasta quattro cavalli rampanti. Vedi Belloni 1993, 215; Berrens 2004, 120–123.

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Bastien, P., Le buste monétaire des empereurs Romains, Numismatique Romaine 19 (1992–1994). Beard, M., North J., Pagan Priests. Religion and Power in the Ancient World (1990). Belloni, G.G., Divinità e culti in Roma. Fonti scritte, monumenti e monete (1983). Belloni, G.G., La moneta romana: società, politica, cultura (1993). Belloni, G.G., Le antichità romane. L’uomo romano: affermazione del dominio e fermenti dello spirito, Istituto Nazionale di Studi Romani. Storia di Roma 21 (1996). Berrens, S., Sonnenkult und Kaisertum von den Severern bis zu Costantin I. (193–337 n. Chr.) (2004). Blázquez, J.M., Alejandro Magno, modelo de Alejandro Severo, in Neronia IV. Alejandro Magno, modelo de los emperadores romanos, éd. J. M. Croisille, Collection Latomus 209 (1990) 25–36. Bloch, R., Il simbolismo cosmico e i monumenti religiosi nell’Italia antica, in Il simbolismo cosmico, a cura di B. Melasecchi (2006) 29–37. Bowersock, G.W., Herodian and Elagabalus, «Yale Classical Studies» 25 (1975) 229–236. Brendle, T., Die Religionspolitik Kaiser Elagabals im Spiegel seiner Münzen, «Numismatisches Nachrichtenblatt» 10 (2001) 411–414. Bruun, C., Kaiser Elagabal und ein neues Zeugnis für den Kult des Sonnengottes Elagabalus in Italien, «Tyche» 12 (1997) 1–5. Butcher, K., Coinage in Roman Syria. Northern Syria. 64 B.C. – A.D. 253 (2004). Carson, R.A.G., Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum. Volume VI. Severus Alexander to Balbinus and Pupienus (1976). Coarelli, F., Heliogabalus templum e Juppiter Ultor, in Lexicon Topographicum Urbis Romae, a cura di E. Margareta Steinby, III (1996) 10–11 and 160–161. Cracco Ruggini, L., Elagabalo, Costantino e i culti “siriaci” nella Historia Augusta, in Historiae Augustae Colloquium Parisinum, I, a cura di G. Bonamente, N. Duval (1991) 123–146. Cramer, F.H., Astrology in Roman Law and Politics (1996). Dirven, L., The Emperor’s New Clothes: A Note on Elagabalus’ Priestly Dress, in Der Christliche Orient und seine Umwelt. Gesammelte Studien zu Ehren Jürgen Tubachs anlässlich seines 60. Geburtstags, S.G. Vashalomidze, L. Greisiger (a cura di) (2007) 21–36.

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Drijvers, H.J.W., The Religion of Palmyra, Iconography of Religions 15 (1976). Dupont-Sommer, A., Robert, L., La déesse de Hiérapolis-Castabala (Cilicie), Bibliothèque archéologique et historique de l’Institut français d’archéologie d’Istambul 16 (1964). Fittschen, K., Zanker, P., Katalog der römischen Porträts in den Capitolinischen Museen und den anderen Kommunalen Sammlungen der Stadt Rom. I. Kaiser und Prinzenbildnisse (1985). Frey, M., Untersuchungen zur Religion und zur Religionspolitik des Kaisers Elagabal (1989). Gabucci, A., Zenobia. Il sogno di una regina d’Oriente (2002). Gariboldi, A., Simboli e ideologia del potere in età romana, in La corona e i simboli del potere (2000) 31–63. Gariboldi, A., Filone da Biblo e alcuni soggetti su monete di città fenicie d’età romana, «Rivista Italiana di Numismatica» 103 (2002) 71–82. Gennaioli, R., Le gemme dei Medici al Museo degli Argenti. Cammei e intagli nelle collezioni di Palazzo Pitti (2007). Gnecchi, F., I medaglioni romani (1912). Gualerzi, S., Né uomo, né donna né dio, né dea. Ruolo sessuale e ruolo religioso dell’imperatore Elagabalo (2005). Halsberghe, G.H., The Cult of Sol Invictus (1972). Hill, G.F., A Catalogue of the Greek Coins in the British Museum. Phoenicia (1910). Hill, P.V., The Buildings and Monuments of Rome on the Coins of A.D. 217–294, «Rivista Italiana di Numismatica» 83 (1981) 47–74. Huyse, Ph., La revendication de territoires Achéménides par les Sassanides: une réalité historique?, in Iran: questions et connaissances, I. La période ancienne, Ph. Huyse éd., Studia Iranica. Cahier 25 (2002) 297–311. Kissel, Th., Kaiser zwischen Genie und Wahn: Caligula, Nero, Elagabal (2006). Kosmetatou, E., The Public Image of Julia Mamaea. An Epigraphic and Numismatic Inquiry, «Latomus» 61 (2002) 398–414. Krengel, E., Das sogenannte “Horn” des Elagabal: Die Spitze eines Stierpenis. Eine Umdeutung als Ergebnis fachübergreifender Forschung, «Jahrbuch für Numismatik und Geldgeschichte» 47 (1997) 53–72.

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Krumeich, R., Der Kaiser als syrischer Priester: Zur Repräsentation Elagabals als sacerdos dei Solis Elagabali, «Boreas» 23/24 (2001) 101–112. La Rocca, E., Theoi epiphaneis. Linguaggio figurativo e culto dinastico da Antioco IV ad Augusto, «Studi italiani di filologia classica» 85 (1992) 630–678. L’Orange, H.P., Zur Ikonographie des Kaisers Eliogabal, «Symbolae Osloenses» 20 (1940) 152–159. Manconi, D., Catalli, F., Le immagini del potere. Il potere delle immagini. L’uso del ritratto ufficiale nel mondo romano da Cesare ai Severi (2005). Martin, J-P., Sol Invictus: des Sévères à la tétrarchie d’après les monnaies, «Cahiers Glotz» 11 (2000) 297–307. Mattingly, H., Sydenham, E.A., The Roman Imperial Coinage. V/1. Valerian to Florian (1927). Mattingly, H., Sydenham, E.A., Sutherland, C.H.V., The Roman Imperial Coinage. IV/2. Macrinus to Pupienus (1938). Mattingly, H., Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum. Volume V. Pertinax to Elagabalus (1975). Mazza, M., Strutture sociali e culture locali nelle provincie sulla frontiera dell’Eufrate (II–IV sec. d.C.). Uno studio sui contatti culturali, «Siculorum Gymnasium» 45 (1994) 159–235. Megow, W.R., Kameen von Augustus bis Alexander Severus (1987). Millar, F., The Roman Near East. 31 BC – AD 337 (1993). Optendrek, Th., Die Religionspolitik des Kaiser Elagabal im Spiegel der Historia Augusta (1969). Orselli, A.M., Il Cristianesimo tardo-antico tramite di coesistenza tra culture, in L’Europa fuori dall’Europa, a cura di A. Carile (2007) 77– 88. Panaino, A., Politica religiosa e regalità sacra nell’Iran preislamico, a cura di V. Sadovski, F. Martelli, P. Ognibene (2007). Pietrzykowski, M., Die Religionspolitik des Kaisers Elagabal, in Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt, XVI. 3 (1986) 1806–1825. Price, S.R.F., Between Man and God: Sacrifice in the Roman Imperial Cult, «JRS» 70 (1980) 28–43. Pudill, R., Elagabal. Ein religiöser Fanatiker auf dem Caesarerenthron, «Münzen Revue» 6 (2000) 18–24.

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Ronzevalle, P.S., Le prétendu char d’Astarté et son bétyle dans la numismatique de Sidon, «Mélanges de l’Université de Beyrouth» 16 (1932) 51–63. Scheithauer, A., Die Regierungszeit des Kaisers Elagabal in der Darstellung von Cassius Dio und Herodian, «Hermes» 118 (1990) 335–356. Scrinari, V., Eliogabalo, in Enciclopedia dell’arte antica classica e orientale, III (1960) 311–312. Seyring, H., Divinités de Sidon. Le bétyle d’Astarté, «Syria» 36 (1959) 48–56. Seyring, H., Le culte du Soleil en Syrie à l’époque romaine, «Syria» 48 (1971) 337–373. Sommer, M., Elagabal: Wege zur Konstruktion eines „schlechten“ Kaisers, «Scripta Classica Israelica» 23 (2004) 95–110. Soyez, B., Le bétyle dans le culte de l’Astarté phenicienne, «Mélanges de l’Université de Beyrouth» 47 (1972) 149–163. Sraub, J., Senaculum, id est mulierum senatus, in Historia Augusta Colloquium. Bonn 1964/1965, a cura di A. Alföldi (1966) 221–240. Sullivan, R.D., The Dinasty of Emesa, in Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt, II. 8 (1977) 198–219. Thirion, M., Le monnayage d’Élagabal. 218–222 (1968). Turcan, R., Eliogabalo e il culto del Sole, a cura di E. Rovida (1991). Villedieu, F., Il santuario di Elagabalus: un giardino sacro, in Il giardino dei Cesari. Dai palazzi antichi alla Vigna Barberini sul Monte Palatino (2001) 83–106. Vismara, N., Emissioni bronzee di Diadumenianus per la Phoenicia: appunti per una discussione, in Nomismata 1. Internationales Kolloquium zur Kaiserzeilichen Münzprägung Kleinasiens (1997) 183–197. Weiser, W., Elagabal mit Stierpenis-Hütchen – Animalphallokrat oder Weichteil-Wolpertinger?, «Gazette Numismatique Suisse» 35 (2000) 53–56. Wiesehöfer, J., Iraniens, Grecs et Romains, Studia Iranica. Cahier 32 (2005). Zwierlein-Diehl, E., Antike Gemmen in deutschen Sammlungen, II (1969).

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FIGURES

Fig. 1. Aureo di Elagabalo, zecca di Roma (218–222 d.C.). 6.42g, mm. 22. RIC 86b. Numismatica Ars Classica. Auction 31, n. 80.

Fig. 2. Denario di Elagabalo, zecca di Antiochia (218–219 d.C.). 2.94g, mm. 19. RIC 195d. Numismatica Ars Classica. Auction 40, n. 783.

Fig. 3. Antoniniano di Elagabalo, zecca di Roma (?) (219–220 d.C.). 5.66g, mm. 22. RIC ‒ Numismatica Ars Classica. Auction 29, n. 596.

THE ARCH OF SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS IN THE ROMAN FORUM: A R E - C O N S I D E R AT I O N Maria Lloyd (University of Reading)

BACKGROUND The Arch of Septimius Severus stands majestically in the north-west corner of the Roman Forum between the Curia and the Rostra (fig.1), with one side facing the Forum and the other side the Capitoline.1 On each long side there are two panels, one above each side arch, which each depict city scenes, designed to celebrate the Severan victories during the two Parthian wars.2 Over the years these four main panels have been the focus of much debate, since the identities of the cities in the panels remains questionable. So far, Richard Brilliant, in his excellent volume on the Severan Arch, has provided the most widely accepted interpretations 1

These sides will now be referred to as the Forum and Capitoline sides, respectively. For a brief introduction to this Arch of Severus see LTUR I, ‘Arcus: Septimius Severus (Forum)’ pp. 103–105 (R. Brilliant). 2 For background to the Parthian wars see M. Gradoni’s chapter in this volume.

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of the panels; following the seasons (Brilliant 1967, 115–120),3 he has suggested that the panels represent Nisibis, Edessa, Seleucia/ Babylon and Ctesiphon (fig.2: panel numbers follow Brilliant’s chronological order and will be referred to throughout this paper). However, although meticulous in his descriptions of the panels, the key features of the panels do not match the description of the cities in the sources: Brilliant associated the river scene in panel three with Seleucia/Babylon, despite the fact that the sources emphasize the importance of the river in the capturing of Ctesiphon, which Brilliant assigned to panel four. One of the reasons why Brilliant chose to assign Ctesiphon to panel four was because he felt that the panels should follow a chronological order around the Arch,4 which would then match the order of the seasons. Rubin, however, felt that the river connection to Ctesiphon was too great to ignore (Rubin 1975, 427); in his interpretations he assigned panel three to Ctesiphon and panel four to Hatra, therefore remaining true to the chronological order suggested by Brilliant. The problem with these two interpretations is that the scholars appear to have restricted themselves by their loyalty to a chronological order, although Rubin, Picard and Koeppel do appear to have paid more attention to the key features on the panels. The aim of this paper is to provide a different approach to identifying the panels on the Severan Arch, by focusing upon the key features of the panels; for example, the presence of landmarks and objects, groupings of men, and characteristics unique to the cities within the panels. Any key features which I am able to identify will then be matched to descriptions in the sources; Cassius Dio, Herodian and the Historia Augusta (HA). Admittedly, the reliability of these sources, especially the HA, is questionable and there is very little archaeological evidence from the cities in question to support any information which we are able to extract from the 3 These will be discussed in more detail in the next section. For now, suffice it to say that there are four seasons located in the spandrels of the Arch; identified by their attributes, which will be discussed in more detail later: on the Forum side (from left to right), they can be identified as winter and spring, then on the Capitoline side (from left to right) they can be identified as summer and autumn. 4 According to Brilliant, although the siege of Nisibis took place after the siege of Edessa it was the ‘causa belli’ and therefore represented first. Logical as this suggestion is, I would argue that it does not quite work, since it is hard to see a Roman audience understanding such a complex idea.

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sources. Therefore, although there is no way to prove beyond a doubt the identifications which I am going to propose, I feel that the similarities between the sources and the panels will be comparable enough to establish that these identifications are the best possible solutions to the question of the panel identities, for now. It should also be noted that, although I have indicated above the importance of highlighting cities involved during the Parthian wars under Severus, which also played an important part in the Parthian wars of previous emperors of the second century AD, my panel interpretations are not going to be dictated by which events appear to be the most important, but which cities, significant or not, match the cities depicted upon the panels; this will circumvent the tendency of scholars to identify panels based upon their location on the Arch, therefore neglecting, to an extent, the main features upon the panels. This methodology will also help to prevent any ‘circular arguments’, since it is not only the presence of the key features that is important but whether they fit in with the narrative description/ sequence of events related to the city in question. Despite these disagreements with the selection and order of the panels, though, I do follow the majority view that each panel represents events linked to a single city, and that they follow a narrative style; they should be read from the bottom to the top. The reason for this is because each panel clearly represents standard, symbolic scenes, which indicate a separate narrative style for each panel; for example, a siege, followed by a submissio and/ or adlocutio scene.

HOW DO WE INTERPRET THE PANELS? Before we attempt to interpret the four main panels upon the Arch, it is necessary to gain an understanding of their background, in the sense of the artistic tradition from which they emerged, and the influences upon the panels and how this affects our interpretation of them. Now, although the primary sources are unreliable in many ways, there is an important reference in Herodian’s ‘History of the Empire’ (contemporary with Severus), which provides us with a useful starting place for understanding the influences upon the panels: ...οὕτω μὲν δὴ Σεβῆρος τύχῃ μᾶλλον ἢ γνώμῃ, τῃ κατὰ Παρθυαίων νίκῆ κεκόσμητο

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τούτων…ἐπέστειλε τῆ τε συγκλήτῳ καὶ τῶ δήμῳ, τὰς τε πράξεις μεγαληγορῶν, τὰς μάχας τε καὶ τὰς νίκας δημοςίαις ἀνέθηκε γραφαις. (Herodian III.9.12) …in this way Severus with more luck than judgment was adorned with his victory against the Parthians…he sent a report to the senate and people, boasting of his deeds he set up the battles and victories in pictures and publicly exhibited (them).

Despite the fact that Severus never celebrated a triumph for his victories in the east (HA Sev. XVI.6; contra Herodian III.10.1–2; no triumph mentioned in Dio), this description is reminiscent of the paintings which were carried in triumphal processions to provide a visual aid for the spectators, as Josephus describes (Josephus The Jewish War VII.5); his description of events that took place during the triumphal procession can even be supported by the one of the panels on the Arch of Titus, located on the Via Sacra, which shows the presence of tituli5 in the procession, as well as the Jewish menorah. Visual aids were the most important way to communicate messages to the public; this is supported by several ancient authors who identify that sight was the keenest of all the senses (Cicero De Oratore 2.357; Herodotus Histories 1.8.2; Seneca Epistolae ad Lucilium 6.5). Were the panels therefore based upon triumphal paintings?6 By the time of the Severans, triumphal paintings already had a long and distinguished history; the first reference to a triumphal painting was in 264 BC, when M. Valerius Maximus Messala displayed a painting of the battle in which he had defeated the Carthaginians and Hieron in Sicily (Pliny Nat. Hist. 35.22). Despite this long history, though, techniques used in the early paintings can clearly be seen influencing the panels upon the Severan Arch, more than 450 years later. The tradition of triumphal painting owed its artistic forms in part to the Hellenistic painting tradition, which, among other things, introduced chorography and topography to paintings 5

For more on tituli see Holliday 2002, 217; Holliday 1997, 146. Rodenwaldt first suggested that the panel reliefs were based upon triumphal paintings (Rodenwalt 1939, 546); cf. Brilliant 1967, 223, Holliday 2002, 110 and Lusnia (2006, 284) who support this theory. 6

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(Josephus The Jewish War VII.5 «πόλεων πολωανθρώπους περιβόλους κατ’ ῎ακρας...»); important techniques in depicting various military victories (Holliday 1997, 137). The influence of topography is clear upon the Severan panels; for example, there is a river depicted in panel three. As Vitruvius indicated, though, topography was used not only in the drawing of maps but also the insertion of typical views (Vitruvius De Architectura 8.2.6); this includes the birds-eye view of various cities, seen in panels two-four. According to Holliday, various perspectives were often used in the same work in order to present the most information; for example, cities would be seen from a birds-eye view, while people would be seen from lower eye levels (Holliday 1997, 138; cf Blanckenhagen 1962, 54– 55, 58 and Felletti Maj 1977, 307–14). Apart from the river and the different views, there appears to be no significant difference in topography between the panels. Instead, the representation of a narrative style appears to take precedence: this account begins with the siege of a city or fighting, at the base of the panel; in the centre and top of the panels there is then a submissio scene and/or an adlocutio scene. This narrative style is important because it is a Roman characteristic, seen at its best in the Columns of Trajan and Marcus Aurelius, as well as on other imperial reliefs. This suggests that the panels upon the Arch of Severus are unique for their combination of Hellenistic and Roman characteristics. Despite what I perceive to be a strength of the panels in the combination of narrative style and topographic details, the panels upon this Severan Arch have been criticized by some scholars for their convoluted, or unsuccessful, style (Brilliant 1967, 219; Kleiner 1992, 331; PetralisDiomidis 2000, 258–261). This certainly appears to be the case today, especially due to the damage suffered by the panels on the Forum side of the Arch, which has hindered our attempts to identify the panels. The panels have also been hard to identify due to the lack of, and conflicting, information which we have been able to extract from the sources. In fact, there are only two points which scholars appear to have agreed upon so far: firstly, that the panels should be read from bottom to top, in a narrative style; secondly, that the panels record the four main events of Severus’ Parthian wars in chronological order, following the seasons, located in the spandrels, around the Arch. Despite the fact that a modern viewer would find it difficult to analyze the panels, though, the main question is how would an ancient viewer have fared with interpreting the panels? I would suggest that the panels

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would not have been as hard for the ancient viewer to identify as we would have thought. After all, apart from the panels being in pristine condition they would have also been painted (Brilliant 1967, 223; Lusnia 2006, 291), which would obviously have emphasized certain sections and therefore facilitated the viewer with their identifications, the Roman viewer would also have been more familiar with the development of Severus’ Parthian wars in the East than we are today. The absence of any room on the Arch for labels should also not be a cause for concern, since the majority of the population would have been illiterate (Harris 1989, 327).7 Instead, I would argue that the key features within the panels- including distinguishing features of the cities and topographic featureswould have been the main way in which the viewers identified the panels; if we believe Herodian’s reference (above) then the viewers would have already been familiar with these depictions from the end of the second Parthian war. For this reason, I also believe that the images are based upon specific, if idealized, events, rather than general images; the details are too specific to represent general battles. Admittedly, there are indications in the sources that the identification of images was not always clear, as can be inferred from Ovid’s Ars Amatoria (1.221–228). However, I would argue that even discussion of the Emperor’s achievements would have provided him with the same Gloria; indeed, any similarities between the panels could be seen as intentional to encourage a debate of Severus’ achievements. Following in the steps of the ancient viewer, I have decided that the best way to interpret the panels is to focus upon the key features. Although, as indicated above, modern viewers are at a disadvantage when attempting to identify the panels upon the Arch, it is still more prudent to attempt an interpretation which will keep us as close to the ancient perspective as possible, in order to prevent any anachronistic view of the Arch. As a result of this new method, I am not going to follow a predetermined (chronological) order, since I feel that there is no evidence to 7

Vanderbroek suggests that written information was mainly directed at the shop keepers and artisans, who were probably a communication link to the people (Vanderbroek 1987, 112); Horsfall 1991, 70 suggests public notices helped to spread minimal reading ability; contra Corbier who suggests many people had a basic form of reading (1987) 60.

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strongly support this theory and it has therefore hindered interpretations to date. The seasons8 (located in the spandrels with the Victories), clearly identified by their attributes, have been the main reason for supporting this chronological order, so far; located on the Forum side is Winter (south-east)9 and Spring (north-east),10 while Summer (north-west)11 and Autumn (south-west)12 are located on the Capitoline side (fig.3). Contrary to the standard seasons which took the shape of a woman, these seasons follow those located on the Arch of Trajan at Beneventum and take the figures of young boys (putti) (Elsner 1996, 175). The representation of the seasons as boys appears to have no significance, in fact, there appears to be no precedent for the seasons representing anything other than ‘felicitas temporum’. If we look at the Arch of Trajan at Beneventum (where these seasons appear for the first time), the panels do not appear to follow a chronological order; they merely refer to the city side and the country side. The presence of the frieze beneath the panels also indicates that the panels should be treated as separate from each other: they all show a procession leading up to Roma who is being presented with barbarian cap8

For general background on the Seasons see Hanfmann (1951). This season is identifiable only by his fully-draped, heavy, garment. Unfortunately, the objects in his left hand, against his chest, and in his right hand, by his side, have been lost. However, suggestions for them include a bowl and water bird (Brilliant 1967, 115); Duck (Levi 1941, 256); on the Arch of Constantine, Winter holds a lamb. 10 Spring, contrary to winter, wears a very loose cloak and has a wreath around his head. Again, the objects in the season’s hands have been lost, although, Brilliant 1967, 116) suggested that he carried a small basket of flowers in his left hand. 11 Summer is also loosely dressed and wearing a wreath, however, to differentiate him he has a fold of drapery tied around his waist in the manner of laborers at harvest time (Brilliant 1967, 116), and also holds a basket of fruit and grains (symbolic of summer: Levi 1941, 262) in his left hand and sickle in his right hand. 12 Autumn also wear a loose cloak, although his is fastened over his right shoulder by a small round fibula. He holds a bunch of grapes in his lowered right hand and a vessel containing fruits or nuts in his left hand, against his chest (Brilliant 1967, 116). 9

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tives (fig.4). Although the friezes can all read from left to right this should not be seen as significant enough to emphasize a chronological order of the panels; since Latin is read from left to right it would only be natural to look at images in the same way. Each frieze is also separate and complete, implying that each panel should be treated in the same way; if the sculptors wanted to convey a sense of continuity, therefore linking the panels, he would surely have wanted to emphasize this desire by depicting the frieze as one long continuous narrative, culminating in the presentation of barbarians to Roma underneath panel four.

PANEL IDENTIFICATIONS PANEL ONE: SOUTH-EAST13 (FIG.5) Unfortunately, panel one is badly damaged. This is due not only to the erosion on the Forum side of the Arch, which is not protected by the Capitoline, but also the outbreak of a fire in this vicinity at some unknown medieval date, which has caused the surface to become calcined (Brilliant 1967, 185 n.9), therefore making it very difficult to discern what the key features are. Despite this, there is general consensus among scholars who have studied the Arch, that panel one represents the siege of Nisibis, which took place during Severus’ first Parthian war in AD 195. Brilliant appears to identify this panel as Nisibis for two main reasons. The first reason is that he associates the authority figure in the city gate with the knight whom Severus entrusted Nisibis to after the first Parthian war (Brilliant 1967, 178–179). The second reason is that Nisibis was the causa belli of the first Parthian war and should therefore be placed first upon the Arch (Brilliant 1967, 179).

13

Although I do not believe the answer to identifying the panels lies in a chronological approach, I have no reason to begin my identifications on any panel in particular. Therefore, I will be following the same panel order used by scholars including Brilliant and widely accepted today. By following an already accepted system I will also, hopefully, make my interpretations easier to follow (and accept).

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After a close analysis of the source descriptions I agree with Brilliant and other scholars (Picard 1962, 10; Franchi 1964, 27), who have suggested that the city (most likely) represents the city of Nisibis, due to the presence of the knight. Another reason for believing Nisibis merits a place on the Arch is that Nisibis has connections to previous Parthian wars. When under the control of Adiabene, it was captured by Trajan in AD 114, and again later under Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus in AD 165; Nisibis had therefore long been a key feature of the Parthian wars. However, identifying the event connected with Nisibis is another matter. There are three main features on this panel, which I have been able to identify: a building at the bottom of the panel with soldiers issuing from it; fierce fighting in the centre of the panel; a figure of authority in the gateway of the city at the top of the panel. Using these key features, I have identified three possible events connected to Nisibis in Cassius Dio’s Roman History.14 The first option is that, according to Cassius Dio, Severus defeated the Osroёni and Adiabeni, who had laid siege to Nisibis (Dio Sev LXXV (2) 1.2), therefore instigating the first Parthian war. In this interpretation the building at the bottom of the panel could be interpreted as a Roman camp; the fierce battle in the centre can be interpreted as fighting against the Osroёni and Adiabeni at Nisibis; finally the city at the top and authority figure can be identified with Nisibis and its knight. The second option is when Severus sent out three of his generals; Lateranus, Candidus and Laetus, in various directions amongst the barbarians (probably into the lands of the Adiabeni) while he remained at Nisibis; this matches the three columns of men issuing from the building below. According to Dio: ...ἐπερχόμενοι οὑτοι τήν τε χώραν των βαρβάρων ἐδῃουν καὶ τὰς πόλεις ἐλάμβανον. (Dio Sev LXXV (2) 2.3)

14

Out of all the accounts which describe Severus’ Parthian wars—Cassius Dio, Herodian and the Historia Augusta—Dio is the only source who describes the wars in any detail and, therefore, possible holds the key to identifying these panels, by providing details about the cities which may be seen in the panels. (Of course, other authors will be used when necessary.)

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…these (generals) proceeded in this way and laid waste to the barbarians’ land and captured their cities.

The actions of these generals in the surrounding barbarian territories could explain why this is the only panel where the fighting does not appear to be directly connected to the city represented above. The third option takes place towards the end of the first Parthian warif we are to believe Dio’s sequence of events, and involves the corrupt entry ’Αρχὴν: according to Dio, Severus again made three divisions of his army, and giving one to Laetus, one to Anullinus, and one to Probus, sent them against ’Αρχὴν (Dio Sev LXXV (2) 3.2). Unfortunately, there is no way of proving what the place initially referred to was, although there have been suggestions; including Adiabene (Rubin 1980, 207; Hasebroek 1921, 77). No other city in the sources matches the events within this panel as well as the city of Nisibis. Is it possible, though, to further connect the city of Nisibis to this panel through archaeological evidence, and identify which event is most likely to be depicted upon the panel? Unfortunately, the location of ancient Nisibis falls into no-man’s land, on the border between Turkey and Syria, which therefore prevents excavations (Lange 2006, 16); although Lightfoot has suggested, using visible evidence on the surface of the sight and eye witness reports from travelers to the area, that Nisibis had the appearance of a Roman town, possibly with a Forum and Circus (Lightfoot 1988, 110; cf. Olivier 1804, 248). However, this suggestion by Lightfoot does not assist with our identification of the town, since there are no key features; instead, we have to find other evidence to support our identifications. The best place to look for evidence is in the inscription, where the reasons for erecting the Arch and Severus’ most important achievements are recorded: IMP.CAES.LVCIO.SEPTIMIO.M.FIL.SEVERO.PIO.PERTINACI.AVG. PATRI.PATRIAE.PARTHICO.ARABICO.ET// PARTHICO.ADIABENICO.PONTIFIC.MAXIMO.TRIBVNIC.POTEST. XI.IMP.XI.COS.III.PROCOS.ET// IMP.CAES.M.AVRELIO.L.FIL.ANTONINO.AVG.PIO.FELICI.TRIBVNIC. POTEST.VI.COS.PROCOS.P.P.// OPTIMVS.FORTISSIMISQVE.PRINCIPIBVS// OB.REM.PVBLICAM.RESTITVTAM.IMPERIVMQVE.POPVLI.ROMANI. PROPAGATVM//

THE ARCH OF SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS INSIGNIBVS.VIRTVTIBVS.EORVM.DOMI.FORTISQVE.S.P.Q.R (CIL VI 1033)

551 15

As the inscription indicates; the titles Parthicus Arabicus and Parthicus Adiabenicus, awarded to Severus at the start of the first Parthian war, appear to be an important aspect of the Arch. The circumstances under which they were awarded are, unfortunately, not clear; Birley suggests that the answer must be that the Adiabenes and the Arabs sought peace with Severus, which is supported by Cassius Dio (Birley 1988, 116; Dio LXXV(2) 1.2 and LXXV(2) 2.1(2)). Furthermore, these titles first appear on coins dating to AD194–195 IMP IIII16 before the first Parthian campaign even took place. This suggests that Birley is correct and there was some form of submission by the Arabians and the Adiabenes at the very start of the campaign: during the campaign itself the titles IMP V–VII were probably building upon this initial victory, and although we do not know exactly what they were awarded for Rubin has suggested that IMP VI and IMP VII were awarded for a campaign in the territory of Arabia Scenite and marauding expeditions against the Adiabenes (Rubin 1980, 206–7; see fig.6 – Table of Imperator titles). Our limited knowledge of the Parthian wars indicates that these two titles—Parthicus Arabicus and Parthicus Adiabenicus—represented Severus’ greatest achievements during the first Parthian war. This, combined with the idea that two panels on the Arch are connected to the first Parthian war (and the other two to the second war), suggests that it would be appropriate for one panel to be used to emphasize Severus’ victories 15

The last part of this inscription (from OB REM) ‘On account of the restored Republic and Empire of the Roman people having been extended with their marks and virtues at home and abroad’ is also very interesting. In short, the inscription complements the panels because not only does it refer to the Parthian wars (FORIS), but also to the ending of the civil wars (DOMI) against Niger and Albinus, which are connected. As Dio records, it was the first civil war that contributed to the first Parthian war, since the Osroёni, Adiabeni and Arabians claimed that they had invaded the cities on Severus’ behalf, in order to destroy the soldiers who had favored Niger’s cause (Dio LXXV (2). 1.2). 16 BMC Vol. V 86- Aureus: obverse: Head of Septimius Severus – L SEPT SEV PE RT AVG IMP IIII; Reverse: Trophy in centre, with two captive barbarians seated at L. and R. facing outwards, with hands tied behind their backsPART ARAB PART ADIAB COS II P P.

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against the Arabians and one panel against the Adiabenes. This is particularly convincing if we believe that Severus was awarded his IMP VI and IMP VII titles for military actions against these peoples. However, the problem is that we are unfamiliar with the details of these wars, especially military actions against Arabia for which we have no evidence. Fortunately, as indicated above, there do appear to be some key features on this panel, which are similar to some of the conflicts involving the Adiabenes; it is therefore left to us to try and infer which event is most likely to be represented here. The first event involving Nisibis was the siege by the Osroёni and Adiabenes, however, although the title ‘Adiabenicus’ is present upon the Arch an ‘Osroёne’ title is conspicuous only by its absence. It should be indicated that the absence of an ‘Osroёne’ title upon the Arch is not surprising, since, according to Butcher, Osroёne was within the Roman sphere of influence at the time of Severus, whereas Adiabene is thought to have been within the Parthian sphere (Butcher 2003, 48)—no Roman ally would have been placed upon a Roman victory monument.17 This leads to the conclusion that if the Osroёni are not part of the Arch, then the first event involving Nisibis is unlikely to be mentioned. The second event involving Nisibis—when Severus’ generals laid waste to the barbarian lands and cities—is a much closer match. As mentioned before, the fact that the city in the panel appears to be connected to a separate event (when Nisibis was entrusted to a knight) and not directly connected to the fighting below, suggests that the fighting depicted was not centered on the city, but in connection to it: Severus remaining at Nisibis whilst he sent his generals out into the surrounding land could be an adequate explanation. Finally, the third event involving ’Αρχὴν is closer chronologically to Severus’ act of placing Nisibis under the protection of a knight, than the second event: they both appear to have taken place at the end of the first 17

Being an ally alone would not prevent a people/city from appearing upon a victory monument, though, if they were able to provide the Emperor with some success; for example, the Arch of Augustus in the opposite corner of the Roman Forum celebrated the ‘diplomatic’ victory of Augustus, when the Roman standards, captured by Parthia after the Battle of Carrhae in 54 BC, were returned in 19 BC. In this case the absence of the Osroёne title should be emphasized, not the fact that the Osroёni were in Roman sphere.

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Parthian war. This solution would also explain why there is no city directly connected to the fighting in the centre of the panel; Adiabene (if that is a suitable suggestion for ’Αρχὴν) represented a region, not a city. Unfortunately, due to the lack of details which we have for Severus’ Parthian wars it is not possible to narrow down the identification of panel one to a single event, or events relating to one siege, since the two possibilities both involve three columns of men being sent out by Severus under different generals against the land of the Adiabenes, and both events are connected to the city of Nisibis, although indirectly. However, given the lack of information which we have the accuracy with which we have been able to identify the panel, largely due to the key features, cannot be seen as a failure: we have been able to establish that the city is more than likely that of Nisibis, and that the fighting scene is likely to be connected to conflicts between Severus and the Adiabenes, who not only asked for peace at the start of the first Parthian war, but then went on to cause more trouble, leading Severus to possibly taking another Imperator title against them. PANEL TWO: NORTH-EAST (FIG.7) As the other panel on the Forum side of the Arch this panel should, according to the chronological theory, also represent an event from the first Parthian war: Brilliant previously identified this panel as Edessa and linked it with the submission of Abgarus (Brilliant 1967, 179–180). The first reason for this is that the bottom scene appears to show a submission scene rather than a battle scene; the emperor appears to be at the front accepting the submission of the inhabitants of the city who rush to greet him. The second reason is that there appears to be a submission scene in the centre, showing the submission of the king to the Emperor. However, I do not agree with this interpretation. There are two reasons for this: firstly, Edessa was an ally of Rome and, as I mentioned above with regards to the Osroёne, I do not think that it would have been appropriate for an ally of Rome to be depicted upon a victory monument without a very good reason, which is lacking for the city of Edessa.18 This is particularly when taking into account the favor which Severus showed 18

See footnote 15, above.

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towards Abgarus; not only did he allow Abgarus VIII to retain authority over Edessa, but after Severus’ second Parthian war he gave Abgarus the honorary title ‘king of kings, which was then celebrated in Rome.19 The second (and perhaps most important) reason, is that the key features in the panel do not match the city of Edessa as described in the sources. If we focus upon the key features of this panel it becomes apparent that there are two key features: firstly, the city is clearly depicted with double walls; secondly, there are two siege machines present in connection with the city—one siege machine can be seen at the bottom of the panel and the other, barely visible, at the top of the panel, also closely connected to the city. The double walls have to be an important feature, since this is the only city upon the panel which has them. The apparent emphasis upon siege machines is also interesting, especially the one in the top-right of the panel, since in panels three and four there is only one siege machine depicted in connection with the cities, and that is during the actual siege at the bottom of the panels. If we look at the sources there is only one city mentioned which has double walls,20 and where there is an emphasis placed upon siege machines: Hatra. ὁ γὰρ Σεουῆρος τὴν τέχνην αὐτοῦ μαθὼν ἐκώλυσεν αὐτὸν ἀποθανεῖν, κἀκ τούτου ἔς τε ἄλλα τινὰ αὐτῳ ἐχρήσατο καὶ ἐς τὴν των ῎Ατρων πολιορκίαν, καὶ μόνα γε τὰ ἐκείνου μηχανήματα οὐκ ἐκαύθη ὑπὸ τῶν βαρβάρων. (Dio LXXV (1). 11.2) …for Severus, learning of his (Priscus’) skill, prevented his death, and from this time onwards consulted him in every matter, and he (Severus) besieged Hatra, where only his machines were not burnt by the barbarians. ...τὰς ῎Ατρας ἐπολιόρκει ἠν δὲ πόλις ἐπ’ ἄκρας ὑψηλοτάτης ῎ορους τείχει μεγίστῳ (Herodian III 9.4) 19

Abgar’s visit to Rome is mentioned by Cassius Dio LXXX.16.2 Although the sources do not specifically mention double walls, the fact that Hatra had them can be easily corroborated by the archaeological evidenceUNESCO (1985) Plan of Hatra; cf. Van de Mieroop 1999, 235 for layout of Hatra. 20

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(Severus) laid siege to Hatra, a city at the top of a very high hill with strong walls πεσόντος δέ πῃ τοῦ ἔξωθεν περιβόλου, καὶ τῶν στρατιωτῶν πάντων προθυμουμένων ἐς τὸν λοιπὸν ἐσβιάσασθαι, ἐκώλυσεν αὐτοὺς ὁ Σεουῆρος τοῦτο πρᾶξαι, τορῶς πανταχόθεν τὸ ἀνακλητικὸν σημανθῆναι κελεύσας. (Dio LXXVI. 12.1) …with the encompassing external (wall) having fallen, all the soldiers were eager to force their way into the rest, Severus did not allow them to pass through this (gap), having ordered retreat to be indicated piercing on every side.

Hatra was previously rejected as a candidate for any places upon the Arch by Brilliant who concluded that its presence was not appropriate, since Severus had made two unsuccessful attempts upon Hatra (Brilliant 1967, 173); a reminder of an emperor’s failure would not have been chosen for a victory monument. Indeed, Hatra appears to have had a long history of successfully withstanding sieges; Trajan had made an attempt upon Hatra in AD 116 and had also been unsuccessful (Dio LXVIII.31.1–32.1; Stark 1966, 213). However, despite the clear success of Hatra against the Romans, the two key features depicted upon the Arch—double walls and emphasis upon siege engines—clearly refer to Hatra and cannot be ignored. Could it be possible that Severus had a success at Hatra, which the sources fail to indicate? Following Picard (Picard 1962, 12), Rubin indicated that despite the failed siege attempts upon Hatra, it is possible that there may have been some form of agreement made between Severus and the Hatrians (Rubin 1975, 427–428, supported by Lusnia 2006, 283). Now, although the earliest evidence for an official alliance between Rome and Hatra is found in an inscription of AD 235 (Oates 1955), it is possible that there were amicable relations between Rome and Parthia from the time of Marcus Aurelius, it has also been suggested that these amicable relations led the king of Hatra, Barsemias, to support Niger in the first civil war against Severus, and sent him a corps of archers (Herodian III.1.2–3; Sartre 2007, 148). Another interesting point, made by Boyce, is that a possible twelfth acclamation was made to Severus at the end of the second Parthian war (not before late AD 198) (Boyce 1949, 341; Kennedy 1986, 406. n.16); the timing of this acclamation could indicate another perceived success

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by the army, but one which Severus was not keen on emphasizing—Hatra could be the source of this acclamation, which Severus would obviously not want to emphasize due to the ‘military’ defeats there.21 Further evidence to support the presence of Hatra upon the Arch can also be seen upon the coins minted at Hatra, which show connections to Rome since at least the time of Hadrian; suggested by the presence of an eagle and inscription SC on the reverse of some coins (SNG Cop. 232). Finally, some scholars indicate that it would have been in Hatra’s best interests to make some form of agreement with Severus, since the position of major Roman forces around this area, at Singara and Dura-Europos, would have caused Hatra’s commerce to suffer (Kennedy 1986, 404; Rubin 1975, 425); as an isolated settlement Hatra’s existence relied upon its role in commercial exchange between the east and west (Van de Mieroop 1999, 233). All these points indicate that the presence of Hatra upon the Arch would not be as inappropriate as Brilliant previously indicated. There is also one other detail on this panel which may be of special significance when trying to interpret this panel; the middle section which shows an apparent submissio scene. This scene appears to be of particular relevance because although there also appears to be a submissio scene present in panel three, this one is more prominent. Brilliant, as indicated above, suggested that this scene represented the submission of Abgarus, king of Edessa; however, although this scene may match the submission of Abgarus, the city does not tie in with the rest of the panel. Furthermore, I would suggest that a closer analysis of the city scene below may indicate that this submissio scene is possibly on equal terms: the dominant figure at the front of the Romans, more than likely depicting Severus, is holding a spear, which upon closer inspection appears to be pointing downwards, therefore indicating a lack of aggression; there is also an absence of kneeling on the part of the ‘enemy’ in the middle scene (compared to the submissio scene in panel three). The positioning of figures and their objects can be very important in Roman imagery, and should therefore be viewed with care. For these reasons, I would suggest that this scene de21 See Fig. 6 for a list of Severus’ Imperator titles; ‘military’ defeats should be emphasized here- just because Severus may not want to emphasize Hatra in this way does not also suggest that he would be unwilling to celebrate a ‘diplomatic’ victory, like the Augustan Arch in the opposite corner of the Forum.

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scribes an event which is not mentioned in the sources; a celebration of some form of agreement made with Hatra. This interpretation would therefore allow not only the identification of the city which clearly has links to the city of Hatra, but also a clear explanation of why the city is depicted upon the Arch; since its explanation as a military victory would have been inappropriate. As indicated above, the presence of Hatra upon the Arch cannot simply be discounted if/when Hatra did become an ally of Rome, since this ‘diplomatic’ victory of Severus had the potential to provide him with great glory and even liken him to Augustus.22 It is also clear from the sources that a success here was not accepted and so may have provided even more reason to depict it upon the Arch. Despite the fact that there do appear to be many indications that this panel can be identified with some confidence as representing Hatra, the more astute reader will at this point have noticed a flaw with this suggestion; chronologically, it was the last event of the second Parthian war, which is why Rubin suggested it belonged on panel four. The presence of Hatra upon this panel would therefore suggest that (contrary to the general agreement of scholars to date) the panels do not follow the seasons in a chronological order. Before I suggest a solution to this problem, though, it is necessary to look at panel three. PANEL THREE: NORTH-WEST (FIG.8) Panels three and four are on the Capitoline side of the Arch and, due to the protection provided by the hill from the elements, are in a better state of preservation than the panels on the Forum side. Fortunately, the presence of the main key feature upon this panel—the river—makes this panel one of the easiest to identify. According to Brilliant, the panels located on the Capitoline side of the Arch were used to represent the second Parthian war; this position, combined with the chronological order, and river, suggested to Brilliant that this panel should be interpreted as celebrating victories at Seleucia and 22 The Augustan Arch stood opposite the Severan Arch and so, although their relative positions may have been a fortunate coincidence rather than intention, there would have been clear parallels between the two; the fact that Augustus’ arch celebrated a diplomatic victory may have been significant.

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Babylon (Brilliant 1967, 180–181). On the one hand, this would have appealed to Severus, who was trying to establish his position at this time and even had himself posthumously adopted by Marcus Aurelius: a connection to a city like Babylon, which had ties as far back as Alexander the Great must have been appealing. However, although Seleucia and Babylon are mentioned in the literary sources, they both appear to have been abandoned before Severus even arrived (Dio LXXVI.9.3); they would therefore not be likely to merit a place upon this victory monument, especially since the lack of spaces suggests that only the most important successes would have merited a place upon the Arch. Another suggestion, followed by Rubin, Picard and Koeppel, is that panel three represents the victory at Ctesiphon (Rubin 1975, 426; Picard 1962, 13; Koeppel 1990, 6). This event is certainly important enough to have been represented upon the Arch; it was when Severus’ army sacked the Parthian capital (Dio LXXVI 9.4; Herodian III.9.9–11; HA Sev XVI.1). Brilliant had previously placed this city on panel four of the Arch, as a climax to the second Parthian war, and therefore the Parthian wars as a whole. However, the presence of a river on panel three is significant, since that was how the Romans came to arrive at the city of Ctesiphon (Dio LXXVI. 9.3; Herodian III.9.9). I would therefore suggest that Rubin is correct in suggesting that this panel should be identified as Ctesiphon. The submissio scenes above the battle scene below emphasize the subjugation of Ctesiphon. Having identified this panel as Ctesiphon, what does this suggest about the identities and order of the panels so far? Not only do the panels appear not to be in chronological order, as indicated above, but they also do not appear to conform to the idea that one side represents the first Parthian war, while the other side represents the second Parthian war: panel one appears to be linked to Nisibis, a city connected to the first Parthian war; panel two possibly represents Hatra, connected to the second Parthian war; and panel three possibly represents Ctesiphon, connected to the second Parthian war. If we look at the location of these panels, then it would seem logical—if panels two and three are linked to the second Parthian war—then panels one and four are linked to the first Parthian war (fig.2). This suggestion would also have the advantage of making the Arch more accessible to the average viewer, which had to be an important consideration when designing these public monuments; they would only have to view one side of the Arch to be reminded of both Parthian wars.

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PANEL FOUR: SOUTH-WEST (FIG.9) We now come to our final and (arguably) most confusing panel: unlike the previous three panels, there do not appear to be any key features within this panel which are a close match to any of the literary sources. Brilliant originally identified this panel as Ctesiphon, as a climax to his chronological take on the Parthian wars (Brilliant 1967, 181–182). However, as previously indicated, the river was a very important key feature in connection to Ctesiphon and so the presence of this city in panel three is very likely. The other suggestion, followed by Rubin, Picard and Koeppel, is that this panel should be identified as Hatra (Rubin 1975, 427; Picard 1962, 12; Koeppel 1990, 7). As indicated above, contrary to what Brilliant initially indicated, Rubin suggested that Hatra deserved a place upon the panel- if we agree that there was some form of agreement made between Severus and the inhabitants of Hatra. However, the key features upon panel two would appear to be a closer match to the city of Hatra than panel four. Now, if we exclude the presence of cities such as Babylon and Seleucia from the Arch, which do not appear to match any key features upon the panels, then we are left with no other options from the second Parthian war for this panel. However, this is not totally unexpected, since our analysis of the order of the panels, above, indicated that this panel was possibly linked to the first Parthian war. Furthermore, the research for panel one indicated a possibility that this panel could have a link to conflicts between Severus and the Arabians; the title Parthicus Arabicus appears to have been one of Severus’ main achievements of the first Parthian war, and Rubin suggests that the title IMP VI was probably awarded to Severus for further successes against the Arabians. Therefore, the fact that there are no key features within this panel, which are familiar, is not surprising; the sources do not mention any campaigns which took place against the Arabians. Although it is not possible to identify the actual event, it is still prudent to give a rough outline as to what is happening in this panel: with further research it may be possible to identify these key features later. There appear to be four key features: the first feature appears to be some sort of cave or pipes coming from the city under siege, via which a few

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inhabitants of the city appear to be escaping.23 Secondly, behind the siege engine there is some form of tent in the distance; possibly representing the presence of the Emperor upon this campaign. Thirdly, the city in the top scene contains a building with a distinct dome, among other features; Brilliant suggested that this identifies the city as being strongly oriental (Brilliant 1967, 215). However, I would suggest that- if this interpretation is correct- the dome top could also indicate an Arabian city,24 since they were allied to the Parthians; this is indicated by the Parthicus prefix to the Arabicus and Adiabenicus titles in the inscription. Finally, although care must be taken when interpreting the key features on panels and the size of scenes, and some features should not be taken too literally, it is hard to ignore the apparent prominence of the size of the adlocutio scene at the top of the fourth panel, which indicates that this is a very important scene. One possibility which I am currently in favor of is that this scene depicts the occasion when Severus was awarded the titles of Parthicus Arabicus and Parthicus Adiabenicus by the Senate (Herodian III.12); it was possibly not long after this occasion when Severus was involved in a campaign against the Arabs, which would explain the choice to depict these two scenes together. Hopefully, future research on the eastern cities will provide a better understanding of some of these features and, possibly, in time a candidate for this panel. For now, though, we have to infer- using other panel identities and evidence- that this scene is connected to a likely Severan campaign against the Arabians, during the first Parthian war: it would be unwise to try and infer more than this without any evidence. ONE FINAL LOOK AT THE PANELS AS A WHOLE Now that identifications have been assigned to all four panels, it is necessary to look at them as a whole before we draw some concluding remarks. 23

It has also been suggested to me by M. Nicholls, that this scene could show undermining work in a siege of a walled city. There is no evidence for any such procedure in the sources for Severus’ Parthian wars; however, this is an interesting idea, which I do not think it is possible to discount at this time. 24 Only by identifying the city would we be able to suggest what the building with the dome top could be.

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First of all, I would like to emphasize that I have tried my best to view the key features upon the Arch without prejudice, or agenda. I have also tried to avoid too close an analysis of landscape features and proportions, which style and space may have prevented from being accurate (and therefore identifiable) features; for example, in panel two (Hatra) the city in the bottom scene appears to be on a hill, above the Roman army, however, in the top scene it is hard to say if the city is located on a hill, above the soldiers beneath it, or, if it is merely representing a different scene. With reference to style, it is also necessary to indicate that there appear to have been two sculptors, who Brilliant refers to as the ‘Antonine sculptor’ and the more ‘Severan’ sculptor: the first sculptor is believed to be responsible for panels one and three, while the latter is thought to be responsible for panels two and four (Brilliant 1967, 31). Initially, I gave consideration to the possibility that the different sculptors may have had an influence upon the key features within the panels—such as the representations of the cities or types of scenes included in the panels—and therefore made any interpretation misleading. For example, if panels two and three had been made by one sculptor then this could indicate that the submissio scenes (absent in panels one and four) could be a result of style, and not reflect actual events. However, given that both sculptors appear to have represented sieges and submissio scenes, among other features, it would appear that the differences between the two sculptors are only reflected in the style of their figures. This also suggests that they were copying from paintings (possibly the same paintings which Herodian described), and were working systematically around the Arch, with one sculptor working upon the left panels and one sculptor the right panels on each side. On a different point, throughout this paper it has been clear that Cassius Dio’s account of Severus’ Parthian wars is the most reliable, with Herodian and the SHA being the least reliable. However, after my reinterpretation of the Severan panels, Herodian’s account of the Parthian wars has started to look very familiar: according to Herodian’s account, Severus crossed Adiabene into Arabia, where he destroyed many towns and villages and laid waste to their land; he then made one unsuccessful attempt on Hatra before being swept down the river to Ctesiphon, which he captured in a great victory (Herodian III.9.3–9.11). Apart from some confused details—the Parthian wars were split into two, Severus did not campaign in Arabia Felix and the two sieges of Hatra took place after the capture of Ctesiphon—Herodian’s account appears to be similar to the

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interpretations which I suggested above. Is this just a coincidence or is it possible that Herodian was using the images publicly exhibited by Severus to write an account of his Parthian wars? This would explain why he failed to fully comprehend the split of the Parthian wars into two campaigns, and why the details he describes can correspond to the panels upon the Arch. Also, if Herodian was using the panels to write his account of Severus’ Parthian wars this would suggest that the Roman viewers were not always certain about the images and scenes depicted upon imperial monuments. As indicated above, though, the mere discussion of the campaigns, whether the details were accurate or not would have still provided the Emperor with gloria.

CONCLUSION As well as providing new interpretations for the panels upon the Arch: panel one—Nisibis; panel two—Hatra; panel three—Ctesiphon; panel four—Arabian campaign, this paper also questions the chronological order of the panels, generally accepted to date. Instead, it appears that each panel contains a narrative related to one particular city, which is not to be identified in connection to any other panels upon the Arch; this is supported by the friezes beneath the panels, which consist of four different friezes and not one long frieze. Therefore, the main focus of the Arch appears to have been to transmit information about the Parthian wars to the average viewer in passing; this was done by exhibiting scenes from the first and second Parthian wars on each side, therefore avoiding the need to look at both sides of the Arch. However, given the confusion with which we are faced with today when trying to analyze the panels, how would the average Roman viewer have been able to understand them? Given the lack of space within the panels, there would not have been room for tituli to have been added to assist the viewers with identifying the cities and events; as such, the identity of the panels would have relied mainly upon the ability of the viewers to identify the key features within the panels. We need to remember, though, that the pristine condition of the Arch in its day, not to mention the painted scenes, would have assisted the viewer greatly with identifying the cities; the chances are that the people would have also been very familiar with the events of Severus’ Parthian wars. I would also argue, despite the fact that some scholars today criticize the Severan Arch for being convoluted and unsuccessful, that the apparent lack of information

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upon the Arch infers that the viewers were familiar enough with the content to be able to identify the panels from their key features. Our ignorance about the events of this time, due to the sources and lack of other evidence, should not cause us to assume that everyone had problems with interpreting the Arch. Even if there was some confusion about the details of the campaigns, though—possibly demonstrated in Herodian’s description of them—discussions about the identity of the panels would still have provided the emperor with gloria. Overall, it appears that we still do not have enough knowledge (if we ever will) about Severus’ Parthian wars to provide a complete interpretation of the Arch, although we are certainly closer to finding a solution. Until new evidence comes to light, though, it appears that even after 1800 years the Arch has managed to keep its secrets.

REFERENCES Birley A.R., Septimius Severus: The African Emperor (1988). Blanckenhagen, P.H. von, The paintings from Boscotrecase (1962). Boyce, A.A., The Twelfth Imperial Acclamation of Septimius Severus, «AJA» 53 (1949) 337–344. Brilliant, R., The Arch of Septimius Severus in the Roman Forum (1967). Brilliant, R., Visual Narratives (1984). Brilliant, R. Arcus: Septimius Severus (Forum), LTUR I, 103–105. Butcher, K., Roman Syria and the Near East (2003). Clarke, J.R., Art in the lives of ordinary Romans: visual representation and non-elite viewers in Italy, 100 B.C.–A.D. 315 (2003). Corbier, M., L’urbs. Espace urbain et histoire (1987). Elsner, J., Art and text in Roman culture (1996). Fellatti Maj, B.M., La tradizione Italica nell’arte Romana (1977). Franchi, L., L’arco di Settimio Severo al Foro Romano, «Studi Miscellanei» (1964) 20–32. Hamberg, P.G., Roman Imperial Art (1945). Hanfmann, G.M.A., The Season Sarcophagus in Dumbarton Oaks. Vol. I–II (1951). Hasebroek, J., Untersuchungen zur Geschichte des Kaisers Septimius Severus (1921). Harris, W.V., Ancient Literacy (1989). Holliday, P.J., Roman Triumphal Painting: Its Function, Development, and Reception, «The Art Bulletin» (1997) 130–147.

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Holliday P.J., The Origins of Roman Historical Commemoration in the Visual Arts (2002). Horsfall, N., Statistics or states of mind? in M. Beard et al. Literacy in the Roman world (1991) 59–76. Kennedy, D.L., European soldiers and the Severan siege of Hatra in P. Freeman and D. Kennedy (eds.) The Defence of the Roman and Byzantine East (1986) 397–409. Kleiner, D.E.E., Roman Sculpture (1992). Lange, C.M.W., The portrayal of Christ in the Syriac Commentary (2006). Levi, D., The Allegories of the Months in Classical Art, «The Art Bulletin» (1941) 251–291. Lightfoot, C.S., Facts and Fiction: The Third Siege of Nisibis (A.D. 350) «Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte» (1988) 105–125. Lusnia, S., Battle Imagery and Politics on the Severan Arch in the Roman Forum in S. Dillon and K.E. Welch (eds.) Representations of War in Ancient Rome (2006) 272–299. Oates, D., A note on three Latin inscriptions from Hatra, «Sumer» (1955) 39–43. Olivier, G.A., Voyages dans l’Empire Ottoman (1804). Petsalis-Diomidis, A., Landscape, transformation, and divine epiphany in S. Swain, S. Harrison, J. Elsner (eds.) Severan Culture (2007) 250– 289. Picard, M.G., Les reliefs de l’arc de Septime Severe au Forum Romain, «Comptes Rendus de l’academie des inscriptions et belles-lettres» (1962) 7–15. Rodenwalt, G., The Transition to Late Classical Art, in S.A. Cook, F.E. Adcock et al (eds.) CAH XII (1939) 544–571. Rubin, Z., Dio, Herodian and Severus’ second Parthian war, «Chiron» (1975) 419–441. Rubin, Z., Civil-War Propaganda and Historiography (1980). Sartre, M., The Middle East under Rome (2007). Stark, F., Rome on the Euphrates (1966). van de Mieroop, M., The Ancient Mesopotamian City (1999). Vanderbroek, P.J.J., Popular leadership and collective behavior in the Late Roman Republic (1987).

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WEB SOURCES UNESCO World Heritage Centre 1992–2011 (1985) http://whc.unesco.org/en/documents/100838 Accessed 15/11/11

FIGURES

Fig.1: Arch of Septimius Severus in the north-west corner of the Roman Forum, between the Curia and the Rostra. The photo was taken from the tabularium on the Capitoline. Photo by author.

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THE ROMAN EMPIRE DURING THE SEVERAN DYNASTY

Capitoline Ctesiphon Side 4 SW

Seleucia/ Babylon NW 3

SE Nisibis 1

Edessa NE 2

Forum Side

Fig.2: Brilliant’s panel interpretations. (R. Brilliant (1967) The Arch of Septimius Severus in the Roman Forum.)

THE ARCH OF SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS

Autumn SW

Capitoline Side Summer

SE Winter

NE Spring Forum Side

Fig. 3: Location of the seasons on the Arch of Severus.

Fig. 4: Frieze directly beneath panel three. Photo by author.

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THE ROMAN EMPIRE DURING THE SEVERAN DYNASTY

Fig. 5: Panel one (South-East) on the Arch of Severus. Bartoli drawing.

THE ARCH OF SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS

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Fig.6: Collated with the help of Rubin (1980) Appendix 1 (p.201–214), BMC Vol. V and Boyce (1949). Title

Date when title shown in official media

Occasion

Imp. I

AD 193

When first hailed Emperor.

Imp. II

First Issue: AD 194

Civil war against Niger: First major battle; near Cyzicus.

Imp. III

Second Issue: AD 194

Civil war against Niger: Second major battle; Nicaea.

Imp. IV

Third Issue AD 194 – First Issue AD 195.

Civil war against Niger: Battle of Issus; Niger defeated.

Imp. V

Second Issue AD 195

First Parthian war: Campaign against the Osroёni.

Imp. VI

Second Issue AD 195

First Parthian war: Campaign in the territory of Arabia Scenite.

Imp. VII

Third Issue AD 195– First Issue AD 196

First Parthian war: Campaign under three generals, possibly around ’Αρχὴν (Adiabene).

Imp. VIII

Second Issue AD 196– First Issue AD 197

Fall of Byzantium.

Imp. VIIII

Second Issue AD 197

Civil war against Albinus: Battle at Lugdunum.

Imp. X

Third Issue AD 197– First Issue AD 198

Second Parthian war: Capture of Ctesiphon.

Imp. XI

AD 198 (late)– AD 199

?

Imp. XII

Not before late AD 198

‘Diplomatic’ victory at Hatra*

* Acclamation appears to be ‘official’ from the point of view of the military and local authorities (Boyce (1949) 340) but epigraphers class it as ‘unofficial’; suggesting the soldiers acclaimed Severus Imperator for the twelfth time, but he did not acknowledge the acclamation (Boyce (1949) 342). The earliest examples of the title ‘Imp. XII’ are found in Asia and Mauretania Sitifensis in AD 198 (Boyce (1949) 341).

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THE ROMAN EMPIRE DURING THE SEVERAN DYNASTY

Fig.7: Panel two (north-east) on the Arch of Severus. Photo by author.

Fig.8: Panel three (north-west) on the Arch of Severus. Photo by author.

THE ARCH OF SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS

571

Fig. 9: Panel four (south-west) on the Arch of Severus. Photo by author.