The Quest for Self: Zen in Business and Life 9780814737767

Citation preview

THE Q U E S

T FO

R SEL

F

TAKESHI

IIZUK

A

The Quest for Self Zen in Business and Life

NEW YOR K U N I V E R S I T Y PRES S NEW YOR K A N D L O N D O N

NEW YOR K UNIVERSIT Y PRES S New Yor k an d Londo n Copyright © 199 5 b y New Yor k Universit y All rights reserve d Library o f Congres s Cataloging-in-Publicatio n Dat a Iizuka, Takeshi, 1918 The ques t fo r sel f : Zen i n business an d lif e / Takeshi Iizuka . p. cm . Includes index . ISBN 0-8147-3757-9 (alk . paper ) 1. Religiou s life—Zen Buddhism . 2 . Business—Religiou s aspects — Zen Buddhism . 3 . Businessmen—Religiou s life . I . Title . BQ9286.I39 199 5 294.3 '444—dc20 95-1048 8 CIP New Yor k Universit y Pres s books ar e Smyth-sewn , and printe d o n permanent an d durabl e acid-fre e paper . Manufactured i n th e United State s of Americ a 10

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

Contents

Preface i x 1 Th e Origina l Landscap e 1 Living Lif e 1 The Weigh t o f Parenta l Lov e 3 Emergence fro m th e Shel l o f Weaknes s 6 Do No t Resen t th e Succes s o f Other s 9 The Sutr a o f th e Weigh t o f Parenta l Kindnes s 1 1 Unenlightened an d Ignoran t Peopl e 1 4

2 Th e Master' s Teaching s 1 7 True Enlightenmen t I s Not Enlightenment , Tru e Emptines s Is Not Emptines s 1 7 The Ultimat e Wa y I s Not Difficult , I t Simpl y Reject s Discrimination 2 0

v

vi CONTENT

S

Ueki Roshi' s Eye s 2 2 The Highes t Wa y o f Lif e 2 5 Thoroughly Purifyin g th e Sel f 2 7 Seeking Alway s t o G o Forwar d 3 0

3 Th e Fundamental s o f Min d 3 3 Seeking th e Tru e Sel f 3 3 What Is the True Self? 3 3 The Working s o f Min d 3 5 Illusion 3 7 Seeking th e Sel f 4 0 How t o See k th e Sel f 4 2 No-Thought 4 4 Join No t Tw o Thought s Togethe r 4 7 Prevailing ove r th e Sel f 4 9 Can th e Huma n Characte r B e Changed ? 5 2 The Conclusiv e Experienc e o f Emptines s 5 4 Two Epistemologica l View s Concernin g Realit y 56 To Realiz e Emptines s I s t o Hav e th e Abilit y t o Chang e Fat e 5 8 Transcendental Consciousnes s 6 1 Keep Thi s i n Mind ! 6 3 Choosing You r Destin y 65 Choices that Determine a Person's Destiny 65 Ruin fro m a Moment' s Mistake n Judgmen t 6 7 Compromise o r Destructio n o f th e Ego ? 6 9 Why Compan y Employee s Fai l 7 3 Attaining Tru e Insigh t 76 Some Thoughts on Attaining Intuitive Power 16 Acquiring th e Powe r o f Insigh t 7 9 Toward Insigh t 8 2 Two Necessar y Condition s fo r Attainin g Insigh t 8 4 The Shortes t Rout e t o Attainin g Insigh t 8 6 Going beyon d Insigh t 8 8 Three Condition s fo r Livin g th e Highes t For m o f Lif e 9 1 Cultivating th e Min d 9 3

CONTENTS vi

4 Th e Wisdom o f the Buddha 9 7 Raise Though t withou t Lettin g I t Settl e o n An y Particula r Thin g 9 7 Hui-neng, th e Sixt h Patriarc h 10 0 The Agama s 10 2 Bankei 10 5 The Sens e o f Fea r 10 7 Meditation Trainin g 11 0

Conclusion: Makin g th e Most o f th e Now 11 3 The Tru e Natur e o f Self-Interes t 11 3 The Importanc e o f Forgin g Self-Contro l 11 5 Seeing th e Mountain , No t Seein g th e Mountai n 11 7 Attitudes towar d Adversit y 11 9 Kill, Kill , Kil l th e Self , Kil l I t Completely . Whe n Nothin g I s Left , Become a Teacher o f Other s 12 1 Benefiting Bot h Sel f an d Other s 12 3

Appendix 1 12 7 Appendix 2 13 9 Appendix 3 14 9 Index 16 1

i

Preface

We al l kno w tha t huma n lif e i s live d onl y once , an d the n only fo r a centur y o r less . Becaus e w e hav e suc h a shor t sojourn i n life, it becomes al l the more important t o as k ho w we should bes t live it. I have compiled i n this volume a serie s of essay s tha t first appeare d i n th e TK C compan y monthl y newsletter, Tokosbie, i n th e hope s tha t m y ow n thought s o n the matte r wil l b e o f hel p t o other s i n approachin g thi s vital question . Zen Maste r Hakuin , th e eighteenth-centur y pries t wh o restored Japanes e Zen , spok e o f himsel f wit h humilit y i n Yabukoji (Spearflower) , whic h h e wrot e i n commemoratio n of th e fiftieth anniversar y o f hi s mother' s death , saying , "How coul d suc h a n insignifican t grai n o f dus t suc h a s my self no t becom e a priest?" Thi s sam e kind o f extrem e humil ity wa s show n b y Saicho , th e pries t wh o brough t Tenda i IX

X PREFAC

E

Buddhism t o Japan earl y i n th e nint h century . I n th e sevent h month o f 785 , soo n afte r receivin g ful l ordinatio n a s a Bud dhist pries t an d bein g accepte d int o th e officia l clerica l hier archy, h e suddenl y lef t th e cente r o f powe r an d climbe d int o the fastnesse s o f Moun t Hiei , northeas t o f wha t i s no w Ky oto, ther e t o undertak e auster e religiou s practice , "sittin g under tree s an d upo n stones. " H e compose d a vo w a t tha t time, whic h rea d i n part , "I , Saicho , th e mos t foolis h o f fools, th e mos t craz y o f th e crazy , th e lowes t o f delude d beings, hav e diverge d fro m th e buddhas , hav e transgresse d the imperia l la w an d hav e bee n amis s i n filial piet y an d propriety." Wha t a remarkabl e dept h o f humilit y an d self criticism i n on e shor t sentence ! I believ e tha t th e word s o f these tw o grea t priest s ar e tru e reflection s o f thei r outlook . I have much t o learn fro m them . May 199 4 Takesh i Iizuk a

1 The Origina l Landscap e

LIVING LIF E

We liv e ou r live s onl y once , whoeve r w e are . Whe n I at tended funeral s a s a heedless youth, I felt that death wa s onl y a matte r fo r other s an d ha d nothin g t o d o with me . In th e sprin g o f 193 9 I wa s a la w studen t a t Tohok u Imperial Universit y (present-da y Tohok u University) . I re member (thoug h vaguely , for i t was well over fift y year s ago ) reading a boo k popula r amon g student s a t tha t tim e calle d Einleitung in die Pbilosopbie (Introductio n t o Philosophy) b y the German philosopher an d leader of the Marburg schoo l of neo-Kantianism, Wilhel m Windelban d (1848-1915) . I n i t I came acros s th e sentence s "Wha t i s life? " ("Wa s is t da s Leben?") an d "Lif e i s but a single existence" ("Da s Lebe n is t das Einmalige") . Thos e word s struc k m e lik e lightning . I believe it was Kobayash i Iss a (1763—1827 ) wh o wrote : 1

2 TH

E ORIGINA L LANDSCAP E

What I thought until now Was to do with others— Ah, that I too will die I cannot bear it! I felt exactl y th e sam e way. I t is embarrassing t o relate , but I was s o overwhelme d b y th e though t tha t I was goin g t o di e one day , tha t I was neve r goin g t o liv e bu t thi s once , tha t I could no t slee p a t al l that night . It mus t see m foolis h gettin g s o worke d u p abou t wha t is , after all , th e natura l cours e o f events . Nevertheless , whe n I actuall y experience d thi s revelatio n m y grie f wa s almos t unbearable. Then , a t som e point , a questio n bega n t o bur n in my mind: "I f I am t o live only once, how shoul d I best live my life? " I came t o realiz e tha t eac h momen t o f lif e mus t b e lived to the fullest, an d I made that my goal. I was influenced , too, b y th e word s o f a poem mad e popula r b y Takek o Kuj o (1887-1928), a n ill-fate d beaut y o f the 1920s : Just look! Even the blossoms that are destined to fall tomorrow Are blooming now with all their might. At that tim e I was spendin g m y summer s a t Unganji Tem ple i n Nasu , an d I ha d man y chance s t o convers e wit h th e master, Giy u Uek i Roshi . H e too k m e asid e o n on e instanc e and sai d t o me , "Iizuka , lif e i s passion . Thos e wh o brin g passion t o thei r pursuit s gai n th e greates t success. " Devot e yourself hear t an d sou l t o everything , I thought . Right ! I resolved fro m the n on , sinc e afte r al l I was a student , t o ge t through a hundred page s o f origina l foreign-languag e work s and tw o hundre d page s o f Japanese literatur e ever y day . I f I was t o d o this , however , I would hav e n o tim e t o trave l t o the universit y an d atten d m y courses there. Deciding that th e

THE ORIGINA L LANDSCAP E 3

university wa s a wast e o f time , I di d no t atten d classe s fo r more tha n a tota l o f tw o week s unti l I graduated . A s a result onl y a fe w classmate s kno w m y face , an d no t a singl e professor remember s it . There was a certain Professo r Katsumot o wh o taugh t civi l law a t Tohok u Imperia l University . Naturall y I appeare d i n his clas s fo r onl y a singl e perio d (abou t tw o hours) , an d o f course th e professo r retaine d n o memor y o f m e a t al l fro m the classroom . Afte r th e war I became fairl y wel l acquainte d with hi m an d wa s ofte n i n an d ou t o f hi s house . H e onc e asked me , "Excus e th e question , bu t di d yo u reall y graduat e from Tohok u Imperia l University?" I replied, "It' s only natu ral that you don' t remembe r m e because I only attended you r course fo r on e period , bu t I ca n prov e I di d atten d you r lecture!" I went o n t o describ e th e double-breaste d nav y sui t he ha d wor n o n tha t da y an d ho w h e ha d pu t hi s lef t han d into hi s coa t pocke t an d tol d u s a n anecdot e abou t Si r Wil liam Blackstone , th e grea t eighteenth-centur y lega l schola r from Oxford . I relate d ho w h e ha d spoke n t o u s o f th e problem o f clausula rebus sic stantibus (th e principl e o f changing conditions ) tha t ha d bee n take n u p b y hi s ow n law professor. Astounded , Professo r Katsumot o stoppe d me . "You don' t hav e t o sa y an y more . I believ e yo u wer e a student a t Tohok u University! " Perhap s i t was thank s t o m y depth o f concentratio n i n thos e day s tha t I could remembe r so much . THE WEIGH T O F PARENTA L LOV E

As a youn g chil d I had a n extremel y wea k constitution . W e received a medica l examinatio n a t th e beginnin g o f ever y

4 TH

E ORIGINA L LANDSCAP E

school yea r i n elementar y school , an d i t wa s a foregon e conclusion tha t th e schoo l docto r woul d remin d m y clas s teacher tha t I shoul d no t b e allowe d t o tak e par t i n th e annual athleti c festival . A s a result I did no t onc e participat e during m y si x year s i n elementar y schoo l i n a n even t tha t i s a high point fo r ever y student . I fel t ver y sa d an d lonely . M y father , wh o worke d fo r a bedding firm, lamente d unceasingl y t o m y mothe r tha t I would no t b e able to succee d him . All the sam e he seemed t o have decide d t o mak e m e a strong child , fo r a s soo n a s I lef t the hospita l followin g a n acciden t durin g m y first yea r o f school, h e bega n gettin g m e u p a t fou r ever y mornin g an d taking m e ou t t o d o physica l exercise . I n summe r i t wa s already light , bu t i n winte r w e woul d g o ou t int o pitc h blackness. Rai n o r snow , h e too k m e ou t fo r a trainin g session ever y mornin g fo r si x years withou t a break. Whe n I think o f hi s lov e fo r m e now , I a m overwhelme d t o th e point o f tear s wit h gratitud e an d fondness . I think m y fathe r grieved tha t hi s onl y so n wa s physicall y weak , bu t h e neve r showed hi s grief t o me , he showed onl y unfailin g encourage ment. Coaxin g an d humorin g a so n wh o wa s ofte n recalci trant, h e took m e out t o exercis e every da y without fail . Being a schoolchil d I was unabl e t o convers e o n a n adul t level, and my father wa s probably equall y lonely. On the way to ou r trainin g are a h e woul d ofte n wal k alon g awkwardly , humming No h chant s h e ha d learne d fro m a frien d i n th e neighborhood. What trainin g we did was completely withou t equipment, becaus e w e wer e to o poo r t o bu y anything . Th e two o f u s woul d fac e eac h othe r o n th e ban k o f th e Kuro kawa River , whic h flowe d nea r ou r home , an d shou t i n tur n in the loudest voices we could manage. Occasionally we went

THE ORIGINA L LANDSCAP E 5

to a nearb y hil l calle d Goten'yama , wher e ther e ha d onc e been a fortification , an d exchange d shout s similarl y o n th e hillside. In the fourth yea r o f thi s training m y father wen t of f alone t o visit his elder brother , wh o wa s livin g in Seoul. This brother, whos e nam e wa s Toru , wa s th e persona l physicia n of th e Le e family , th e forme r ruler s o f Korea . H e als o oper ated a prosperou s denta l clini c i n a sectio n o f Seoul . O n hi s return m y fathe r brough t bac k wit h hi m a larg e amoun t o f secondhand clothin g an d shoe s tha t ha d belonge d t o peopl e in th e uppe r reache s o f society . Tha t wa s th e summe r I wa s in fourth grade . As a present m y father bough t me a football . At las t w e ha d somethin g t o us e i n ou r training ! Fro m the n on w e woul d kic k an d thro w th e bal l ever y mornin g durin g our trainin g period . Without realizin g it , I gradually regaine d m y health. Fro m around th e time my father bough t a football fo r m e I fell int o the habi t o f visitin g Komyoj i Temple , a loca l templ e o f th e True Pur e Lan d sect , betwee n ou r trainin g sessio n an d th e hour I had t o se t off fo r school . During that tim e I would pu t all my effor t int o chantin g th e Sboshinge, a scripture writte n by Shinra n tha t i s chante d daily , mornin g an d evening , b y his followers, unde r th e guidance o f th e priest. Looking bac k now a t tha t ten-year-ol d sittin g befor e th e Buddhis t alta r with hi s palm s hel d reverentl y befor e him , hi s min d stil l a blank page , I ascrib e m y aptitud e fo r thing s religiou s t o m y father's training . Despite m y physica l weakness , I was alway s a t th e to p o f my class , scorin g ful l mark s i n ever y subject . Whe n I too k my report car d home a t the end of the term, my father woul d always commen t happily , "You r teache r mus t hav e mad e a mistake!" I eventuall y wen t o n t o stud y commerc e a t th e

6 TH

E ORIGINA L LANDSCAP E

Kanuma Agricultura l an d Commercia l School . A s I wa s starting m y first ter m ther e m y fathe r tol d m e tha t I woul d work fo r th e famou s Toky o beddin g firm, Nishikawa , afte r graduation. I determine d the n t o becom e th e bes t beddin g craftsman i n Japan , jus t lik e m y father . A s th e tim e fo r m y graduation approached , however , m y histor y teache r cam e to se e my father. I sat very still on th e other sid e of th e pape r door an d listened , curiou s t o discove r wha t m y teache r ha d come t o discuss . "W e hav e neve r ha d a bo y i n th e schoo l with suc h excellen t results, " h e said. " I hope very muc h tha t your so n wil l b e abl e t o g o o n t o highe r education. " M y father offere d n o repl y a t tha t time , perhaps thinkin g i t wa s an economi c impossibility . Deplorin g m y father' s indeci siveness, I argue d passionatel y wit h him . I t wa s m y mothe r who sai d t o me , "Eve n i f I hav e t o reduc e ou r meal s fro m three t o two , I will le t yo u g o o n wit h school. " I would no t be the person I am today wer e it not for m y father's practica l demonstration o f hi s tru e lov e fo r m e an d m y mother' s en couragement, bor n o f indomitable love . EMERGENCE FRO M TH E SHEL L O F WEAKNES S

"I neve r though t they' d b e abl e t o rais e you, " sai d m y ol d first-grade teacher , Mr . Iizuka , pourin g sak e int o m y cu p a t an elementar y schoo l reunio n i n th e autum n o f 1959 . I t was no t a n unreasonabl e statement . On e summe r evenin g i n 1926, whe n I wa s i n first grade , I wa s hi t b y a speedin g bicycle an d throw n abou t fou r meters . I wa s take n t o Ed a Hospital i n Utsunomiya , wher e I spent th e nex t si x months . It wa s a s a resul t o f th e acciden t tha t I was neve r permitte d by th e schoo l docto r t o tak e par t i n th e annua l athleti c

THE ORIGINA L LANDSCAP E 7

festival. I was extremely wea k physically . All the same, when Mr. Iizuk a recalle d thos e event s o f thirty-thre e year s before , I, the n fort y year s old , receive d a considerabl e shock . I fel t my ol d teacher' s affectio n an d experience d a war m glo w i n my chest . Mor e tha n thirt y year s hav e passe d sinc e tha t meeting, and Mr . Iizuk a i s no longe r i n the world . My childhoo d an d youth wer e a constant complain t abou t my weakness an d a n ongoin g battl e agains t it. It was not jus t a matte r o f physica l weakness . Sadly , I als o lacke d menta l stamina. I coul d neve r stic k t o a stud y pla n fo r mor e tha n three days . Th e defeatis m suffere d b y th e wea k i s a sa d an d dispiriting thin g fo r whic h ther e i s no recourse . I t was whe n I was a t m y lowes t tha t Professo r Katayam a o f Rissh o Uni versity visite d m y schoo l t o giv e a lecture . I thin k i t wa s i n the summe r o f m y thir d yea r o f middl e school , whe n I wa s fifteen. I have completel y forgotte n wha t th e professor spok e about i n hi s lecture , bu t whateve r i t was , i t mad e a dee p impression o n me . Afterwards, whe n w e were streamin g ou t of th e hal l an d millin g aroun d th e corridor , I caught sigh t of the professo r ove r th e head s o f th e othe r students , pushe d my wa y u p t o him , an d clutche d hi s coat . "Professor , hel p me!" I cried . Th e professo r wa s puzzled . "Wha t i s it? " h e asked gently . Obliviou s o f m y surroundings , I explained . "I'm weak, " I said . " I can' t stic k t o a stud y pla n fo r eve n three days . I wan t mor e tha n anythin g t o b e strong . Hel p me!" I was sobbin g b y thi s time . "Son, " sai d th e professor , "I wa s jus t th e same. " Wha t word s o f salvatio n thos e were ! The professo r tol d m e tha t whe n h e wa s young , h e woul d visit a templ e an d cr y t o th e pries t ther e abou t exactl y th e same thing . Th e pries t tol d hi m t o dous e himsel f i n thirt y buckets o f col d wate r daily , a s a resul t o f whic h h e woul d

8 TH

E ORIGINAL LANDSCAP E

become strong , peelin g awa y th e layer s o f weaknes s on e b y one. Standin g ther e i n th e corridor , th e professo r tol d m e that h e ha d don e a s instructed , dousin g himsel f wit h thirt y buckets o f wate r a day , an d tha t h e ha d becom e muc h stronger mentall y a s a result . I did a s Professor Katayam a recommende d fro m tha t tim e until I lef t th e university . I n th e freezin g winter s o f Sendai , where my university was located, it was difficult t o break th e ice whe n th e bat h wate r froz e s o tha t I could dous e myself . My strengt h o f purpose graduall y hardened , however , just a s the professo r ha d sai d i t would , an d I came t o fee l a s i f m y consciousness an d subconsciou s wer e alway s united . I ha d also, from th e summer o f my sixteenth year (1935) , practiced Zen meditatio n unde r th e directio n o f Uek i Roshi o f Unganj i Temple, agai n i n a n attemp t t o overcom e m y weakness . I continued thi s practice fo r thirty-tw o years , until th e Roshi' s death i n May 1967 . I know fro m persona l experienc e that when m y conscious ness becomes unified wit h m y subconscious there is no longe r either strengt h o r weakness , an d I a m abl e t o ac t a s I wish . When ther e i s no weakness , ther e i s no strengt h either . Thi s is the greatest stat e o f relaxatio n a human bein g can attain . I realized tha t surprisin g talent s an d wisdo m ar e conceale d within thi s state. As a result of this experience, human being s can attai n th e si x superhuma n power s mentione d i n th e Lotus Sutra, eve n changin g th e cours e o f thei r ow n destiny . Life's guide s ar e t o b e foun d everywhere . Th e determinin g factor fo r huma n lif e i s a purit y an d honest y o f min d tha t can accep t instructio n wit h humility . I have com e t o realiz e the fallac y o f Schopenhauer' s assertio n tha t a person's char acter i s unalterable .

THE ORIGINA L LANDSCAP E 9

DO NO T RESEN T TH E S U C C E S S O F OTHER S

In The Analects of Confucius i s th e expression , "D o no t resent the succes s of others. " Durin g the early summer o f m y eighteenth yea r I read th e Analects whil e walkin g alon g th e road, an d thi s phras e ha s surprisingl y stuc k i n m y min d s o that eve n today , mor e tha n fifty year s later , i t come s wellin g up a t variou s times . I t mean s somethin g lik e no t havin g an y feelings o f reveng e o r antagonis m towar d thos e wh o over take u s o r surpas s us . A truly grea t perso n i s like this. He o r she is able to liv e consistently a t his or he r ow n pace . Perhaps I shoul d explai n wh y I was readin g th e Analects along th e road . A t tha t tim e I was i n m y secon d yea r a t th e Fukushima Highe r Commercia l School . I ha d lef t th e school's dormitorie s afte r completin g m y first year, a s schoo l policy dictated , an d I had troubl e finding suitabl e accommo dation. M y parent s sen t m e twenty-fiv e ye n a month , whic h was les s tha n th e goin g monthl y rat e fo r accommodatio n and tw o meal s a da y a t th e time . Eve n i f I coul d hav e use d the twenty-fiv e ye n fo r roo m an d board , I woul d hav e ha d no mone y fo r lunc h o r fo r th e book s an d notepad s I needed . Thus, I had t o find someplac e tha t charge d less . Findin g n o place i n th e cit y o f Fukushim a tha t woul d tak e m e fo r wha t I could pay , I thought o f Manganj i Temple , a Zen templ e i n a villag e abou t si x kilometer s fro m th e city . I t belonge d t o the Rinza i sec t o f Zen , an d I ha d visite d i t onc e durin g m y first year fo r a Zen meditatio n sessio n with a Buddhist yout h group heade d b y Professo r Meijir o Sakakibara . I wen t of f alone t o th e templ e t o plea d wit h th e residen t priest , Soe n Okuma, fo r permissio n t o boar d there , explainin g m y fam ily's circumstance s an d promisin g t o b e satisfie d wit h th e

10 TH

E ORIGINA L LANDSCAP E

simplest food . I t was decide d tha t I would liv e a t th e templ e for twelv e ye n a month . Thoug h ther e wa s a bu s t o th e cit y from tha t sid e of th e Abukuma River , I did no t hav e enoug h money t o tak e i t an d s o walke d th e twelv e kilometer s t o school an d bac k ever y day . A t first th e wal k exhauste d me , and fo r abou t a mont h I hardly ha d energ y t o study . Onc e I was use d t o i t thoug h I began t o thin k i t was a waste o f tim e just t o wal k alon g th e road . I realize d that , i n term s o f th e theory o f margina l utilit y I was learnin g a t school , i t proba bly rated zero . I therefor e decide d t o us e m y commutin g tim e t o memo rize the Analects, thinkin g i t coul d no t b e so very difficul t t o master it s five hundred o r s o small sections . I went of f t o th e bookstore t o bu y myself a copy and bega n memorizing it da y by da y a s I walke d t o an d fro m school . I t wa s fro m th e Analects tha t I extracted a large number o f the teachings tha t were t o guid e m e i n m y youth . Whe n I cam e acros s th e expression, "D o no t resen t th e succes s o f others, " I admire d the breadt h o f someon e wh o coul d ac t lik e tha t and , upo n examination, foun d mysel f t o b e quit e different . Encoun tering my weaknesses tim e after time , I determined t o be firm in m y idea s regardin g th e wa y o f lif e I wished t o liv e i n th e future. Whe n I returne d t o m y parents ' hom e i n Kanuma , Ibaraki Prefecture , fo r th e summe r holidays , I trie d talkin g with m y father abou t Confucius' s words , but I was saddene d to find that I could no t mak e him understand . In spit e o f m y weak constitutio n I had th e on e strengt h o f being unyielding , an d i t wa s ver y difficul t fo r m e t o under stand ho w no t t o b e antagonistic to those who surpasse d me . I repeated Confucius' s word s ove r an d ove r agai n t o myself ,

THE ORIGINA L LANDSCAP E 1

1

and now , wel l ove r fifty years later , th e phras e remain s aliv e in my memory . I have had som e ten driver s ove r the years. One o f them, a Mr. T. , hated t o le t other car s pass him. He would re v up th e engine jus t a s the y wer e abou t t o overtak e an d spee d ahea d of them . I once counte d t o myself , a s w e drov e betwee n th e house i n Kanum a an d m y hom e i n Chigasaki , th e car s w e overtook durin g th e journey , an d ende d u p wit h a tota l of on e hundre d an d seventy . Mr . T.' s stat e o f min d wa s astonishing, I thought . Mr . M. , th e drive r I employe d afte r Mr. T. , was , o n th e contrary , wholl y admirabl e i n hi s job . He seeme d t o mak e a missio n o f hi s occupation . Howeve r often othe r car s overtoo k him , h e remaine d obliviou s an d maintained hi s ow n pace . A n unyieldin g perso n suffer s greatly whe n overtake n durin g th e race o f life . I think i t is of the greates t importanc e tha t w e shoul d b e abl e to hol d t o our ow n pace , retainin g a broa d vie w o f ou r live s an d avoiding bein g sidetracked b y immediate phenomena . THE SUTR A O F TH E WEIGH T O F PARENTA L KINDNES S

In th e summe r o f 1937 , whe n I wa s nineteen , a charitabl e benefactor distribute d miniatur e copie s o f th e Sutra of the Weight of Parental Kindness t o ever y studen t i n m y school. I took m y cop y bac k t o th e templ e wher e I was boardin g an d read i t ove r an d ove r again . Ther e wer e thre e student s livin g at Manganj i a t tha t time , i n a detache d buildin g wit h thre e small room s of f a lon g narro w corridor . Tetsutar o Umeda , Morio Izawa , an d I occupie d on e roo m eac h an d vie d wit h each othe r i n our studies .

12 TH

E ORIGINA L LANDSCAP E

A wisteria vin e had coile d itsel f ove r th e roo f o f th e corri dor, an d i n th e sprin g it s lavende r flowers hun g i n grea t clusters thirt y o r fort y centimeter s long . Walkin g alon g th e corridor wa s lik e steppin g unde r a floral arch , an d I fel t I was a t pla y i n a sweet-smellin g garden . Mayb e I a m suc cumbing i n my memories t o what psycholog y call s "memor y beautifying th e past," bu t fro m m y vantage poin t o f clos e t o sixty year s late r m y schoo l day s see m lik e paradise . I man aged o n th e meage r su m o f twenty-fiv e ye n a month ; I wa s well satisfie d wit h th e simpl e templ e far e o f soup , rice , an d one vegetable ; an d I delighte d i n m y weekl y manju , a bu n filled wit h swee t bea n past e tha t I bough t fo r five se n eac h Saturday. M y schoo l lunc h wa s n o mor e tha n a ric e bal l smeared wit h fermente d bea n past e an d wrapped i n bambo o bark, an d ever y da y I walked th e sam e twelv e kilometer s t o and fro m school . Whe n th e lunc h sire n sounde d m y school mates woul d al l hurr y of f t o th e cafeteria , leavin g m e alon e in th e auditoriu m t o gobbl e dow n m y ric e bal l an d whe n I had finished t o quenc h m y thirs t fro m th e tap . M y peer s looked a t m e somewha t askanc e a s the y passe d b y m e i n silence, thinking wha t a strange fello w I was. I was console d and inspired , though , b y a passage i n the Analects I had rea d on m y way t o school : "Ther e is no point in seeking the views of a gentlema n who , thoug h h e set s his heart o n th e Way , i s ashamed o f poo r foo d an d poo r clothes " {The Analects of Confucius, trans . D. C. Lau, Penguin Books, 1979). It move d me deeply, an d I repeated i t to myself ove r an d ove r again . The mone y I receive d eac h mont h fro m m y parent s di d not, o f course , dro p int o thei r lap s fro m heaven ; a s m y mother ha d said , "Eve n i f I have t o reduc e ou r meal s fro m three t o two , I wil l le t yo u g o o n wit h school, " an d m y

THE ORIGINA L LANDSCAP E 1

3

parents scrimpe d an d save d ou t o f thei r ow n difficul t live s t o give thei r so n a n education . Th e monthl y boar d o f twelv e yen I pai d t o th e templ e wa s itsel f particularl y low . Th e priest o f Manganji, Soe n Okuma , ha d allowe d m e to sta y fo r that amoun t ou t o f hi s regard fo r Uek i Roshi , who ha d bee n a senio r o f hi s whe n bot h wer e doin g thei r Ze n trainin g a s youths a t Myoshinj i Templ e i n Kyoto , an d unde r who m I was no w studying . Th e averag e rat e fo r a roo m an d tw o meals a t th e tim e wa s betwee n twenty-fiv e an d twenty-seve n yen; I wa s payin g les s tha n hal f that . M y fello w boarder s Umeda an d Izawa , havin g learne d o f m y arrangement , ha d come t o m e an d begge d m e t o ac t a s intermediar y fo r the m with th e pries t Soe n Okum a t o allo w the m t o sta y a t th e temple a s boarders a s well. During m y tim e a t Manganj i I went outdoor s ever y nigh t to d o Ze n meditatio n o n th e sid e o f th e hil l facin g th e Abukuma River , whic h flowe d i n fron t o f th e templ e gate . Almost fifty year s later , m y ol d companio n Tetsutar o Umeda, meetin g m e again , remarke d whe n I aske d tha t h e never kne w I had don e that . Once I wa s meditatin g outdoor s a t nigh t afte r a heav y snowfall. A s usual , I ha d gon e of f t o th e hillsid e nea r th e temple gat e with m y cushio n an d woode n sword . I sat dow n on a larg e tre e stum p an d folde d m y leg s int o positio n t o begin meditation . Suddenly , I hear d a thumpin g nois e com ing fro m somewhere . I looked aroun d bu t coul d se e nothin g but th e dee p snow . I surveye d th e brigh t sno w guardedly , but coul d discer n n o movement . The n I realized tha t wha t I was hearin g wa s m y ow n hear t beating . Year s later , I tol d Ueki Rosh i abou t this , but h e dismisse d th e possibility flatly . Even he had neve r ha d tha t experience , it seems.

14 TH

E ORIGINA L LANDSCAP E

In an y event , i t wa s i n th e summe r o f m y nineteent h year tha t I cam e acros s th e Sutra of the Weight of Parental Kindness. M y actua l contac t wit h m y parent s wa s no w ver y limited, bu t I realized ho w muc h the y ha d struggle d t o rais e me. Standin g alon e i n th e corrido r I raised a voiceless cr y a s I stare d u p a t th e sk y ove r th e tow n wher e I was born , an d tears o f gratitud e poure d dow n m y cheeks . UNENLIGHTENED A N D IGNORAN T PEOPL E

"Unenlightened an d ignorant " i s a phras e tha t appear s i n Buddhist sutras , wher e Sakyamun i talk s abou t hi s resigna tion an d grie f a t bein g unabl e t o brin g deliveranc e t o thos e who live d i n perpetua l ignorance , i n a stat e o f unenlighten ment an d delusion . Do w e reall y hav e t o discus s heav y topic s suc h a s the bes t way fo r huma n being s t o live ? Surel y i t i s enough t o b e abl e to spen d ou r tim e doin g interestin g an d pleasan t things . Some woul d sa y th e proble m i s money—th e pressin g ques tion o f ho w t o sav e it . Other s d o no t car e s o muc h abou t money, bu t wan t instea d t o mak e a goo d marriag e i n orde r to hav e fin e children . Other s migh t prefe r t o pu t asid e bot h money an d marriag e fo r fame . Afte r all , di d no t th e grea t nineteenth-century Japanes e historia n Ra i San'y o write : "Oh, t o hav e a plac e i n history! " Ho w goo d i t woul d b e t o leave one' s nam e i n history , a t leas t i n Japan' s moder n his tory, i f no t o n th e worl d stage ! Stil l other s ar e differen t again. Remembe r Cervantes ? H e wrot e on e o f th e master pieces o f worl d literature , Don Quixote, whe n h e wa s i n prison. That i s what i s most attractiv e to some—to striv e fo r a particula r goa l o r directio n i n life. Ye t it is an indisputabl e

THE ORIGINA L LANDSCAP E 1

5

fact tha t fo r a goo d man y people , lif e mean s n o mor e tha n eating, sleeping , and , eventually , dying , an d the y hav e neve r striven t o discove r thei r rea l purpose i n life . There i s a ma n i n m y accountin g offic e I wil l cal l M . Whenever I think abou t him , I cannot hel p sighin g to myself . We hav e worke d i n th e sam e offic e fo r mor e tha n twent y years, bu t I a m stil l n o close r t o understandin g hi s goal s i n life tha n I was when I first met him . All I can thin k i s that h e has neve r attempte d t o prob e hi s ow n essence . I a m no t implying tha t h e intentionall y trie s t o d o anythin g bad . No r is he b y an y mean s inferio r whe n i t come s t o brains . Indeed , he graduate d fro m on e o f th e mos t prestigiou s universities . The proble m i s that thoug h other s loo k upo n hi m a s a ma n of som e wisdom, he lacks something. There is a considerabl e gap betwee n hi m an d th e genera l ru n o f men . I conjectur e that wha t h e i s no w i s th e resul t o f hi s neve r havin g force d himself t o plum b th e depth s o f hi s mind t o discove r hi s true , still concealed desires , of whic h h e remains unaware . H e ha s never pushe d himsel f t o as k exactl y wh o h e reall y is . I sa y this because he is a terrible egoist, almost to a clinical degree . All th e same , i t i s a difficul t tas k fo r ordinar y peopl e t o crush th e har d shel l o f unconsciou s habit s tha t surroun d th e mind. Onl y a person who has undergone religious training a t the ris k o f lif e itsel f ca n accomplis h it . Whe n i t ha s bee n achieved, however , al l forme r point s o f referenc e ar e de stroyed, an d a whol e ne w worl d open s up . I t i s somethin g like d e Bono' s "latera l thinking, " i n whic h everythin g van ishes like mist in a vast realm tha t coul d b e called the cosmo s or space . Som e peopl e woul d sa y thi s i s wors e tha n deat h itself. Ther e i s n o consciousnes s o f sel f withi n one' s mind , and ther e i s therefore , o f course , n o distinctio n betwee n

16 TH

E ORIGINAL LANDSCAP E

oneself an d others. Attaining such a state is beyond all imagination. Fo r si x year s Sakyamuni , th e Buddha , le d a lif e o f utmost frugalit y an d asceticism . Hi s ancien t biographe r Asanga describe s how, in the bone-piercing nighttime col d of the forest s o f northern India , Sakyamun i at e only one jujub e berry, on e grain o f barley , an d one flax berr y fo r hi s meals. Of greate r importance , though , i s the nature o f his religious practice. Sakyamun i himsel f provide s u s wit h th e answer : "To discove r wh o I really was " and "T o find m y real self. " This i s a ques t tha t give s absolutel y n o retur n i n monetar y terms; today we would b e inclined t o consider someon e mad who spen t si x years i n the search fo r self . The true valu e of life cannot , however , b e counted i n monetar y terms . Sakya muni struggle d t o th e ver y limit s o f hi s lif e t o acquir e tha t which i s beyond price . His actions see m inexplicabl e t o any one who does not understand thei r value . Whenever I think o f M. I feel th e weight o f karma huma n beings carr y wit h them . I hav e probabl y spen t mor e tim e than th e ma n himsel f tryin g t o find a mean s t o hel p hi m change, but I have had no success as yet. Have you ever see n someone whos e karm a i s so heavy tha t i t is like a n immov able rock ? I am convinced tha t we must hav e the experience of seriousl y learnin g durin g ou r youth a t the feet o f on e we look upo n a s our life's maste r ho w we ourselves shoul d liv e our lives , befor e ou r heart s harde n wit h variou s preconcep tions and ideas. As my life draws near its close I still conside r that i t was my greatest goo d fortun e t o have bee n tempered , between m y sixteent h an d forty-eight h years , b y Giy u Uek i Roshi. Without hi s severe trainin g I would no t have becom e the person I am today.

2 The Master's Teaching s

TRUE ENLIGHTENMEN T I S NO T ENLIGHTENMENT , TRUE EMPTINES S I S NO T EMPTINES S

The word s "Tru e enlightenmen t i s no t enlightenment ; tru e emptiness i s no t emptiness " ar e t o b e foun d i n th e Ze n classic, The Transmission of the Lamp, account s o f Chines e masters compile d i n 1004 . I f w e ar e consciou s o f havin g attained tru e an d correc t enlightenmen t w e hav e no t achieved enlightenmen t a t all , fo r w e ar e caugh t u p i n it s idea rathe r tha n it s reality. Similarly, even if we consider tha t we have achieve d absolut e enlightenment , thi s is not th e tru e enlightenment tha t goe s beyon d al l duality , wha t w e cal l "emptiness." People think Ze n is a religion whose goal is enlightenment , but thi s "enlightenment " i s something o f a scoundrel . I n m y sixteenth summe r I bega n t o practic e Ze n unde r Giy u Uek i 17

18 TH

E MASTER' S TEACHING S

Roshi o f Unganj i Templ e i n Nasu , Tochig i Prefecture . A t first I understoo d nothin g an d suffere d dreadfully . I ha d begun Ze n meditatio n thinkin g tha t al l I ha d t o d o wa s achieve a state o f "no-thought, " bu t i t was no t eas y to reac h this stat e o f mind . Lik e cloud s sailin g ove r th e mountains , extraneous an d delusor y thought s floate d unbidde n int o m y mind; rathe r tha n bein g in a state of "no-thought, " m y min d was lik e a rubbis h heap . Thi s wa s n o good , bu t wha t wa s I to do ? I had jus t starte d ou t o n th e endles s pat h o f religiou s practice. When I happened t o glance at Ueki Roshi he alway s seemed t o b e i n a stat e o f "no-thought, " reactin g t o every thing tha t occurre d lik e a flas h o f lightning , astonishingl y quickly. I admired hi s apparentl y limitles s understanding. A t the sam e time , though , th e Rosh i alway s appeare d relaxed , never restless . I though t hi m wonderful , bu t I ha d n o ide a how t o attai n suc h a stat e myself . I n th e meantim e I aime d at achievin g th e stat e o f "no-thought, " an d strov e t o ap proach i t an d becom e familia r wit h it . Tha t yea r I was stay ing a t Unganj i fo r m y entir e summe r holiday , abou t fort y days. It goes without sayin g that I was deeply impressed wit h the lif e there . Yo u ca n gaug e ho w impresse d I wa s b y th e fact tha t I remained a s a studen t o f Uek i Rosh i fo r th e nex t thirty-two years . The next summer , too , I spent a t Unganji. I had graduate d from th e Kanum a Agricultura l an d Commercia l Schoo l an d was no w a studen t a t th e Fukushim a Highe r Commercia l School. Ther e I ha d joine d a Buddhis t yout h grou p ru n b y one o f ou r teachers , Meijir o Sakakibara . I ha d gon e wit h Mr. Sakakibar a t o d o meditatio n a t a Ze n templ e calle d Manganji Templ e o n th e outskirt s o f Fukushima , thu s estab lishing the connection tha t le d to my boarding there from m y

THE MASTER' S TEACHING S 1

9

second year . I t is strange ho w specifi c event s determin e life' s turning points , fo r a t th e tim e o f m y firs t visi t I had n o ide a that I woul d en d u p livin g ther e on e day . Durin g m y firs t year I lived , lik e al l boy s o f m y ag e a t schoo l wh o di d no t commute fro m thei r homes , i n a dormitory . I live d upstair s in th e wes t block ; I ha d bee n "volunteered " a s dormitor y leader fo r m y bloc k whe n I had gon e t o th e lavatory . Ther e were thre e block s altogether , th e east , central , an d west ; Morio Izaw a an d Tetsutaro Umeda , who were later to be my fellow boarder s a t Manganji , wer e i n th e wes t an d centra l blocks, respectively . Wit h mor e tha n a hundre d vigorou s and excitabl e teenag e boy s livin g together , a grea t dea l o f roughhousing wen t on . I remember onc e a whol e roo m wa s flooded wit h water . In March o f th e followin g yea r (1937) , at the beginning of my secon d year , I had t o leav e the dormitory . I n urgent nee d I visite d Manganj i an d aske d th e priest , Soe n Okuma , t o permit m e t o boar d a t th e temple . Izaw a an d Umed a late r joined me . Durin g th e tw o year s I live d ther e I practice d meditation extensivel y i n th e templ e garden , o n th e hillsid e behind th e temple, on th e hill in front o f the temple an d o n a cliff abov e th e Abukum a River . Yo u ca n se e I was no t a t a loss for place s to sit . I have an especiall y vivid recollection o f meditating o n th e artificia l hil l i n th e larg e templ e garde n where I had th e experienc e o f havin g m y breath almos t stop , and o n th e hillsid e i n fron t o f th e temple , ami d dee p snow , where I heard m y own hear t beating . After I move d t o Tohok u Imperia l Universit y i n 1939 , I boarded a t Kotaki Onsen , occupying the same room Lieuten ant Aizaw a ha d used . I also visite d th e pries t Myod o Gika n of Taibaij i Temple , mentione d b y nam e i n th e Sosek i Nat -

2 0 TH

E MASTER' S TEACHING S

sume nove l Kusa makura (Th e Three-Cornere d World) . H e taught m e th e expression , " A min d convince d i s naturall y free." Tha t is , it is important t o b e able to assen t to the goo d in something and, at the same time, to have a mind as natural as th e dispersin g cloud s an d th e vanishin g mist . A t suc h times th e min d i s perfectl y clea r wit h n o obstructions ; i t penetrates th e emptines s (void) , or sunyatd i n Sanskrit, with out eve n conceivin g o f th e emptiness . Thi s i s wha t i s mean t by "Tru e enlightenmen t i s not enlightenment , tru e emptines s is not emptiness. " THE ULTIMAT E WA Y I S NO T DIFFICULT , I T SIMPL Y REJECTS DISCRIMINATIO N

"The ultimat e Wa y i s not difficult , i t simpl y reject s discrimi nation" ar e th e first word s o f a poe m calle d "O n Believin g in Mind " b y Master Chien-chi h (d . 606) , the thir d patriarc h of Ch'a n (Zen ) i n the lineage of Bodhidharma . Every summe r fro m th e tim e I wa s sixteen , i t wa s m y custom t o liv e a t Unganj i Templ e i n Nas u a s a studen t o f Ueki Roshi . I remembe r tha t I wa s seventee n whe n I first came acros s Chien-chih' s words . A t tha t tim e Uek i Rosh i used t o hav e al l th e monk s an d student s gathe r dail y i n th e main hal l o f th e templ e soo n afte r th e res t perio d followin g breakfast, an d ther e h e woul d lectur e u s o n Ze n scriptures . When I wa s sixtee n i t wa s th e Records of Lin-chi, an d th e summer I was seventee n i t was "O n Believin g in Mind." Th e meaning o f Chien-chih' s word s i s quit e eas y t o understand . "The ultimat e Way " fo r Buddhis m ca n b e understoo d a s "enlightenment." Wha t Chien-chi h mean t i s that th e wa y t o enlightenment i s not a t al l difficult. I t suffices tha t we remai n

THE MASTER' S TEACHING S 2

1

aloof fro m al l discrimination , selectivity , an d clinging . W e are incline d t o thin k o f enlightenmen t a s extremel y difficult , something beyon d th e reac h o f ordinar y people , bu t tha t i s not so . W e onl y nee d a min d fre e fro m discrimination . M y first reactio n o n hearin g thi s wa s astonishmen t tha t Ze n enlightenment shoul d b e so easy . What i s th e mos t highl y regarde d an d importan t thin g i n life? I s i t t o mak e larg e amount s o f money ? I s i t t o acquir e social position , b y becomin g a politician , a compan y presi dent, a mayor , o r a prefectural governor , fo r example ? O r i s it, i n Ra i San'yo' s words , "Oh , t o hav e a place in history fo r a thousand years! " Everybody worries when young about hi s or he r tru e purpos e an d goa l i n life . M y lat e schoo l frien d Izawa onc e said when we stayed up al l night talking, " I thin k that th e purpos e o f lif e i s t o find a goo d wif e an d hav e fine childre n an d grandchildren. " Impudently , I responded , "What happen s i f yo u neve r hav e children ? Yo u mea n ther e won't b e anythin g i n lif e fo r you , an d everythin g wil l b e worthless?" H e di d no t reply . When I wa s twelv e I bega n studyin g commerc e a t th e Kanuma Agricultura l an d Commercia l School . Ever y morn ing I walke d th e nearl y fou r kilometer s t o schoo l wit h a friend, talkin g al l th e way . Tim e an d agai n w e discusse d questions lik e th e meanin g o f lif e an d it s greates t worth . Whether mone y o r socia l positio n o r fam e o r glor y i s mos t important i s u p t o th e individual . Eve n a s a child , I alway s wondered whethe r thos e thing s wer e actuall y o f th e highes t value. I coul d neve r find a n answe r t o th e questio n I ha d posed myself : I f i t wa s impossibl e t o attai n thes e externa l things fo r som e reason , woul d thi s mea n tha t a person's lif e then becam e meaningless , a blank? When I heard Uek i Rosh i

2 2 TH

E MASTER' S TEACHING S

say, "Th e ultimat e Wa y i s no t difficult , i t simpl y reject s discrimination," I was elated . After I gre w u p I rea d a n earl y Buddhis t tex t calle d th e Dhammapada (Word s o f th e Doctrine) . The twentiet h chap ter i s calle d "Th e Path. " Th e first vers e reads : "Amon g th e virtues, freedo m fro m attachmen t i s th e best. " I was deepl y moved t o discover , when Uek i Rosh i die d i n May 1967 , tha t he ha d lef t nothin g t o mar k hi s ninety-seve n years , neithe r letters no r possessions . O n th e evenin g of hi s private funera l it happened , whil e I was havin g a cu p o f sak e wit h Gansh o Suzuki, th e presen t templ e head , tha t I hear d a complain t aired abou t Uek i Roshi' s Dharm a successo r an d th e the n temple head , Koka n Hayash i Roshi , tha t h e neve r lef t an y money a t al l i n th e templ e whe n h e wen t out , makin g i t impossible t o pa y eve n incidenta l bills . "Wh y didn' t yo u mention thi s directl y t o th e Roshi? " I asked . I sa w hi m hesitate. "Isn' t i t related t o 'th e ultimat e Way i s not difficult ; it simpl y reject s discrimination? ' " Th e nex t mornin g a s I was passin g i n fron t o f Suzuk i Roshi' s roo m h e calle d m e i n and apologized . Thi s i s exactl y wha t ca n b e expecte d o f a Zen priest ; he is able to recogniz e his own mistake s a t once . UEKI ROSHI' S EYE S

Around th e en d o f July 193 8 I was agai n stayin g a t Unganj i Temple, immerse d i n th e practic e o f Zen . On e da y w e stu dents wer e walkin g groupe d aroun d th e Rosh i i n th e templ e garden. Suddenly , h e turne d t o me , walkin g besid e hi m o n his left , an d asked , "Iizuka , wh y d o yo u loo k a t m y fac e al l the time? " Th e sudde n questio n lef t m e a t a los s fo r words .

THE MASTER' S TEACHING S 2

3

The Rosh i di d no t pus h th e questio n furthe r bu t continue d walking a s if nothing had happened . At tha t time , thoug h I wa s absorbe d i n m y Ze n medita tion, I was constantl y askin g mysel f wha t mad e thi s remark able Rosh i differen t fro m th e res t o f us , and I found m y eye s fixed no t s o muc h o n hi s fac e a s on hi s eyes . Always mil d o f expression, hi s eye s alon e wer e piercing . The y mad e yo u think o f a fine blade, and I felt he had n o enemy in the world . There wa s no t th e slightes t shado w o f anxiety , indecisio n or bewildermen t i n him . H e seeme d t o posses s a n absolut e tranquillity o f mind , suc h tha t n o enem y i n th e universe , living or not , coul d caus e him th e slightes t tremor . Such were the Roshi' s eyes . They fascinate d m e beyond al l reason, an d I was continuall y tryin g t o find ou t wha t la y i n their depths , th e natur e o f th e realit y the y held . I suddenl y realized tha t the y migh t b e concealin g th e secre t o f tha t "enlightenment" I was seeking . Most o f thos e studyin g Ze n a t Unganj i wer e universit y students. Ever y summe r ther e woul d b e aroun d thirt y o f them stayin g there . Whe n th e Rosh i thre w hi s sudde n ques tion a t me , h e di d no t see m t o min d tha t I di d no t answer , but continue d walkin g a s i f nothin g ha d happened . Bu t something caugh t a t m y heart , an d I wondere d whethe r h e realized tha t I was particularly intereste d i n his eyes and tha t I wa s alway s searchin g fo r wha t la y i n thei r depths . I hav e never i n al l m y lif e me t anyon e wit h insigh t suc h a s Uek i Roshi possessed . Sometime later , I believe it was th e thir d tim e I visited th e Roshi privatel y t o discus s m y koan , I had n o soone r entere d his roo m an d bowe d befor e him , abou t fou r meter s fro m

2 4 TH

E MASTER' S TEACHING S

where he was sitting , than h e said in a low but distinc t voice, "You wil l penetrat e it , yo u know. " I wa s speechles s wit h admiration fo r hi s perspicacity . Di d h e actuall y kno w tha t I was abou t t o reac h th e ver y core ? I t wa s onl y late r tha t I recalled that one of the six superhuman power s of an enlight ened bein g i s the abilit y t o perceiv e th e heart s an d mind s o f others. What struc k m e particularly wa s that , jus t a momen t after suc h a n exhibitio n o f acuteness , th e Rosh i woul d hav e let go of what h e had said , an d n o trac e would remain . From th e autum n o f 194 2 i t wa s arrange d tha t I woul d stay a t Zuiganj i Templ e i n Matsushim a a t th e invitatio n o f Joten Miur a Roshi . Jus t befor e goin g there , I visite d Ueki Roshi a t Unganj i t o pa y m y respect s an d aske d him , rathe r impudently, ho w goo d a teache r Miur a Rosh i was . Th e Roshi replied , "He' s lik e freshl y mad e noodles , jus t that. " I realized ho w ap t th e descriptio n wa s whe n I me t Miur a Roshi a fe w month s later . Th e worl d ha s man y differen t kinds o f Ze n teachers . Ueki Roshi's eye s were as sharp a s blades of bamboo gras s and filled with conviction . Ye t there was nothing dee p withi n them. Ther e wa s nothing , an d thinkin g tha t ther e was some thing wa s a n illusion . B y nothing , I d o no t mean , i n th e ordinary wa y o f thinking , tha t nothin g existed ; I mean , rather, tha t n o dus t smeare d th e mirro r o f hi s mind , tha t i t was i n th e stat e o f "nothingness " wher e al l i s wipe d clea n and beautifull y polished . Suc h a burnishe d stat e come s onl y of th e "nothingness " attaine d throug h training , da y i n an d day out . Suc h trainin g i s something tha t i s carried ou t inten tionally an d passionately , mediate d b y th e concentrate d chanting o f th e Heart Sutra dozen s o f time s mornin g an d evening. B y thi s mean s th e inne r consciousnes s i s perfectl y

THE MASTER' S TEACHING S 2

5

cleansed, whic h I term "polished. " I t is the same proces s as Kukai's repeate d intonatio n o f mantras. THE HIGHES T WA Y O F LIF E

Twelve hundre d year s separat e u s fro m Kuka i (774-835) , the maste r o f Japanese esoteri c Buddhism, an d it is therefor e difficult t o verify th e truth o f my statemen t abov e tha t train ing t o perfect th e personality throug h numerou s repetition s of th e Heart Sutra i s the same as Kukai's attainmen t throug h the repetitio n o f mantras , mystica l phrase s believe d t o con tain sacre d power . All th e same , numerou s source s remai n concernin g Ku kai's lif e an d personality , whic h allo w u s t o mak e som e hypotheses a t least . W e have a larg e numbe r o f works tha t he himsel f wrote , suc h a s Sangd shiiki (Indication s o f the Goals o f the Three Teachings) , a n essay comparin g Confu cianism, Taoism , an d Buddhism tha t h e produced whe n h e was twenty-four , an d Jukushinron (Th e Ten Stage s o f the Development o f Mind) , a deepl y philosophica l wor k h e wrote a t sixty, a s well a s an anthology mad e afte r hi s death called Shoryoshu (Collecte d Work s o f Pros e an d Poetry o f Kukai). We also posses s numerou s example s o f his calligraphy. Together, thes e permit us to appraise his life to a certain extent. Kuka i is one of the most fame d calligrapher s in Japanese history , an d today man y o f his masterpieces ar e available to us in reproduction, allowin g us to verify hi s greatnes s with our own eyes . Kukai i s also know n a s a perso n wh o exhibited remark able, eve n superhuman , abilities . H e was not a grea t man from th e first, bu t he became on e as a resul t o f his lifelon g

2 6 TH

E MASTER' S TEACHING S

religious training . W e ca n imagin e th e exten t o f hi s endeav ors here when we read his anguished confessio n i n the Shoryoshu, " I crie d severa l time s standin g a t th e crossroads. " Many centurie s later , Myoch o (1282-1337) , founde r o f th e great Kyot o Ze n templ e o f Daitokuj i an d no w bette r know n by hi s titl e o f Koze n Dait o Kokushi , wa s t o write , "Believ e the Way , I say, fo r Shak a doe s no t naturall y appear. " Myo cho encourage s peopl e to believ e in the teachings, fo r a grea t religious figure such a s Sakyamuni doe s not appear naturally , or i s no t bor n great , a s i t were ; bu t eve n ordinar y peopl e such a s ourselve s can , throug h training , attai n greatnes s a s human beings . According to his biography, Kuka i came across a Buddhist sutra calle d th e Kokuzo gumonji no ho (it s ful l titl e mean s "Akasagarbha Bodhisattva' s power-filled , wish-fulfilling , su preme mind dharan i technique for seekin g hearing and reten tion") a t th e ag e o f eightee n an d traine d accordin g t o it s teachings. Thi s sutra , No . 114 5 i n th e Taish o Canon , con tains abou t 2,15 0 character s an d wa s translate d fro m th e original Sanskri t int o Chines e b y Subhakarasimh a (637 — 735), the first patriarch o f esoteri c Buddhism i n China . The sutr a begin s with a short sentenc e transliterate d fro m the Sanskrit , th e dharani. I t goe s o n t o recommen d tha t th e practitioner tak e u p hi s meditation i n a quiet, seclude d plac e and repea t th e dharan i i n set s o f three , three , one , one , one , one, seven, twenty-five, three, three and one, with each grou p interspersed wit h meditatio n an d ritua l actions . In the cours e of thi s practic e th e dharan i wil l b e repeate d on e millio n times. N o res t perio d ma y b e take n durin g th e practice , which indicate s th e exten t t o whic h th e practitione r mus t b e absorbed i n it . Successfu l completio n o f th e practic e wil l

THE MASTER' S TEACHING S 2

7

result i n th e attainmen t o f a perfect memory , whic h perhap s indicates tha t th e practitione r ha s achieve d supernatura l powers. A person wh o ha s completed th e practice ca n imme diately understand , memorize , an d retai n virtuall y an y writ ten matter . Thus , hi s o r he r power s o f memorizatio n ar e unsurpassed. A professor o f Chines e literature a t Tokyo University wh o ha s studie d The Ten Stages of the Development of Mind estimate s tha t Kuka i has quote d fro m mor e than si x hundred Chines e sources , whic h suggest s h e mus t hav e ha d powers o f memor y fa r beyon d th e norma l ability . I n a n ag e when ther e were no copier s or pens or notebooks, Kukai wa s clearly unique . What I am concerned with here is not so much the dharani or an y specifi c meditatio n o r ritua l action , bu t rathe r ho w a person ca n becom e thoroughl y purified , righ t throug h t o hi s life's essence . Kukai' s recitin g o f th e dharani a millio n time s is n o differen t a t all , I think , fro m Uek i Roshi' s absorbe d recitation o f th e Heart Sutra dozen s o f time s ever y mornin g and evenin g fo r sixt y years , intersperse d wit h intercession s for ancestor s an d others . I hav e neve r me t an y perso n a s sensitive an d a s widely knowledgeabl e a s Ueki Roshi , or an y one els e a s capabl e a s h e o f forgettin g th e sel f an d prayin g for th e happines s o f others . I se e i n Uek i Rosh i th e highes t way o f huma n life . THOROUGHLY PURIFYIN G TH E SEL F

As Wilhelm Windelban d correctl y state s i n hi s Einleitung in die Philosophie (Introductio n t o Philosophy) , "Lif e i s bu t a single existence." When yo u die , your lif e ends. The essentia l fact o f huma n existenc e i s that i t occurs onl y once . You ma y

28 TH

E MASTER' S TEACHING S

say tha t everyon e know s this , bu t d o yo u yoursel f liv e eac h day i n thi s knowledge ? Man y peopl e i n th e worl d indee d pursue thei r live s a s if the y wil l liv e to b e a thousand. I truly realized thi s truth , a s I mentione d above , i n th e sprin g o f 1939, whe n I wa s twenty-one , an d tha t first exposur e t o Windelband's wor k sen t a shoc k t o th e cor e o f m y being . Until the n I ha d thought , muc h lik e Kobayash i Issa , tha t dying wa s somethin g tha t happene d t o othe r people , no t t o me, an d th e impac t o f thos e word s mad e m e wee p al l through th e night . An importan t questio n the n occurre d t o me . Ho w shoul d I spen d thi s lif e tha t I wa s t o liv e onl y once ? O f course , I had bee n visitin g Uek i Rosh i a t Unganj i an d practicin g Ze n meditation ther e sinc e th e summe r I wa s sixteen , bu t ther e remained withi n m e much tha t was too easy-going , an d unti l I entere d universit y I maintaine d a n unrea l attitud e towar d things. I t i s sai d tha t Ol d Ma n Shoj u (1642-1721 ) ha d hi s enlightenment confirme d b y th e Ze n maste r Shid o Buna n (1603-1676) whe n onl y nineteen , bu t a t th e sam e ag e I was a mas s o f confusion . Durin g th e summe r I was twenty-one , Ueki Roshi allowe d m e to visit him formall y fo r th e first time to discus s m y meditation . I ha d waite d fou r year s fo r tha t moment. I t ha d bee n a long , lon g wait . A t las t I woul d receive a koa n an d hav e th e opportunit y t o discus s th e stat e of m y practice . But enoug h o f thi s chatte r abou t myself . I have a questio n for you . How d o you want t o live your life? Edmun d Husser l (1859—1938), th e teache r o f probabl y th e greates t philoso pher o f thi s century , th e Germa n Marti n Heidegge r (1889 1976, autho r o f Being and Time), divide d al l human activit y into tw o poles , th e subjectiv e an d th e objective . Th e forme r

THE MASTER' S TEACHING S 2

9

he calle d noesis ("th e proces s o f perceiving" ) an d th e latte r noema ("th e objec t o f perception"). Human being s generall y live with emphasi s o n th e objective pole , that is, the objectiv e world a s perceive d b y ou r minds . A n exampl e i s askin g ourselves how t o driv e a car o r ho w w e should bes t answer a particular question . T o perceiv e th e real m o f object s fro m our ow n poin t o f vie w involve s techniqu e an d theory . I n short, al l th e sort s o f thing s examination s as k u s requir e a precise grasp of the world o f objects , the objective pole. Ho w can w e refin e ou r knowledg e t o th e leve l a t whic h w e ca n gain ful l marks ? I t depends o n th e extent to which w e shoul d purify ("empty" ) th e subjective o f the objective. I t seems tha t many peopl e hav e not realize d tha t fact . For decade s (i n fact , jus t thirty-tw o years ) I continued m y observation o f Uek i Roshi . Wha t wa s i t tha t mad e hi m s o sensitive? Wh y wa s h e s o discerning ? Wh y wa s h e s o sharp ? Why wa s he so rich i n insight? Th e conclusio n I reached wa s that h e ha d becom e wha t h e wa s becaus e h e wa s concerne d every day with thoroughl y purifying ("emptying" ) hi s subjective self . Hi s lif e wa s nothin g els e tha n this . Nothin g els e a t all. It was amazing . As h e approache d death , Ze n Maste r Takua n (1573 — 1645) penne d th e following a s his final poem : As fast as the flintstone sparks Like a flash of lightning In the twinkling of an eye The subjective self is jettisoned and turned about . The perspicacity o f th e poem explain s wh y Iemitsu , th e thir d Tokugawa shogun , admirin g hi s approac h t o life , buil t hi m a larg e templ e calle d Tokaij i i n th e capita l o f Ed o (present day Tokyo) .

3 0 TH

E MASTER' S TEACHING S

It i s strange , bu t I hav e hear d tha t Ueki Roshi' s discipl e Tetsuzen Watanabe di d not, eve n at the last, have his enlight enment certifie d b y hi s master . Hi s certificatio n wa s eventu ally grante d b y th e maste r o f Tokaiji . Th e worl d o f Ze n i s very harsh .

SEEKING ALWAY S T O G O FORWAR D

The samura i Kurod a Josui (1546—1604 ) wo n man y victorie s for hi s suzerai n Toyotom i Hideyosh i an d too k par t i n th e Korean campaign s o f 159 2 an d 1597 . Du e t o hi s enmit y with Ishid a Mitsunari , wh o supporte d th e interest s o f Hide yoshi's heir , h e side d wit h th e hegemo n Tokugaw a Ieyas u a t the Battl e o f Sekigahar a i n 160 0 an d helpe d secur e Kyush u for him . Hi s eldes t so n Nagamas a (1568-1623) , lor d o f Fukuoka Castl e in Kyushu, was known throughou t th e country fo r hi s militar y prowess . I t i s said tha t Kurod a Josu i first wanted t o maste r th e Japanese poeti c for m know n a s waka but tha t h e late r decide d t o stud y t o b e a warrio r an d cam e to exce l in strategy . It wa s Kurod a Josu i wh o devise d th e ethica l cod e calle d the "fiv e principle s o f water. " I did no t hea r abou t i t when I was young , bu t wa s taugh t i t late r b y Uek i Roshi . Th e cod e considers th e natur e o f wate r fro m five angle s an d draw s ethical comparison s fro m eac h o f thes e principles . The first principl e state s tha t wate r wil l continu e flowin g without sto p unti l i t finds it s ow n level . Yes , this i s certainl y true. Wate r doe s no t sto p flowing , eve n fo r a second , a s i t seeks lowe r an d lowe r ground . Hi s greatnes s stem s fro m th e fact tha t h e mad e us e o f thi s excellen t principl e i n hi s ow n

THE MASTER' S TEACHING S 3

1

life. Perhap s yo u thin k i t to o obviou s an d easil y forgotten . But ar e w e al l continuall y askin g ourselve s ho w w e shoul d best lea d ou r live s an d lookin g a t ourselve s critically , no t resting fo r eve n a momen t a s w e continuall y cultivat e our selves? I f w e ar e not , w e fal l fa r shor t o f Kurod a Josui . Ar e we abl e t o pul l ourselve s u p whe n lif e i s no t sufficientl y satisfactory? Ou r futur e hang s o n thi s point . Look a t th e peopl e aroun d yo u wh o ar e olde r tha n you . Do the y sugges t t o yo u that , o n th e whole , the y ar e cultivat ing themselve s withou t a moment' s rest ? I d o no t mea n breathlessly o r angrily . I a m referrin g t o thei r menta l atti tude. Recently , a t the funeral o f Kiyosh i Kurosawa , someon e commented t o th e effec t tha t Kurosaw a ha d live d alway s imposing a challenging subject. Thi s spoke to me, for seekin g always t o g o forwar d withou t a minute' s res t i s no t some thing tha t result s fro m a decision ; rather , suc h a searc h ha s to com e fro m fa r deepe r within , fro m a plac e tha t exist s before an y decision , o r i t canno t b e successful . I t is this tha t separates a great person fro m a n ordinar y one . In January 199 0 I went t o Okinawa , wher e I visited a Ze n temple calle d Kozenji . It s residen t priest , Soge n Sakiyama , showed m e a scrol l writte n b y th e lat e hea d o f Engakuj i Temple i n Kamakura , Asahin a Soge n Rosh i (1891-1979) . Asahina Rosh i wa s a fine poe t an d calligraphe r a s wel l a s a great Ze n priest . I t wa s unde r thi s maste r tha t Masahar u Iizuka, the current president o f TKC, studied Ze n a s a youth . The scrol l read : Within this boundless universe Are countless numbers of people. How many of them Are real?

3 2 TH

E MASTER' S TEACHING S

Does "real " perhap s refe r t o thos e peopl e wh o neve r ceas e in their endeavo r t o go forward ? What i s th e goa l o f thi s search ? Whe n I attende d th e funeral o f Uek i Rosh i i n th e autum n o f 1967 , I visite d th e Roshi's quarter s t o gree t Ueki' s Dharm a successor , Koka n Hayashi Roshi . I n th e alcov e behin d Koka n Rosh i hun g a scroll containin g a n eleg y fo r Uek i Rosh i written b y Asahin a Roshi: He surpasses even Koho in nobility. His Zen was simple, elegant, liberated. On th e peak o f th e Eastern Mountai n h e was concerned abou t the lif e [o f th e people ] an d [th e prospect s for ] th e Wa y [o f buddhahood]. Scolding the rain, abusing the wind, for ninety years. Asahina Rosh i describe s Uek i Rosh i a s a grea t Ze n master , surpassing eve n Unganj i Temple' s founde r Koh o Kennich i (1241-1316), als o known b y his posthumous title , Bukkok u Kokushi, th e thir d so n o f Empero r Go-Saga . Ueki' s styl e o f Zen wa s simpl e ye t classica l i n it s freedom . Fo r ove r ninet y years he lived a t one with th e universe o n the Eastern Moun tain o f Unganji , alway s concerne d fo r th e futur e o f th e peo ple an d o f Buddhism .

3

The Fundamental s o f Mind

SEEKING TH E TRUE SEL F W h a t I s th e True Self ?

Many peopl e believ e tha t th e image the y hav e o f themselve s in thei r hea d o r min d i s thei r tru e self . Thi s assumptio n should b e considered a littl e mor e carefully . Th e "self" yo u paint i n your min d i s a sel f whic h ha s been painted , no t the self whic h paints . Peopl e becom e discourage d becaus e o f the mistakes thi s painte d imag e o f th e self make s an d the ignorance it exhibits; they suffer, an d hate themselves. What the y are actuall y doin g i s playin g a sor t o f gam e base d o n a misapprehension. I think ther e ar e a good numbe r o f peopl e working at TKC who play this game of deception. They hav e never trie d t o discove r th e trut h abou t themselves , o r t o examine themselve s seriousl y concernin g thei r rea l self . 33

34 TH

E FUNDAMENTAL S O F M I N D

In 1917 , th e Austria n physicia n an d founde r o f psycho analysis Sigmun d Freu d publishe d hi s Vorlesungen zur Einfuhrung in die Psychoanalyse (Introductor y Lecture s o n Psy choanalysis), i n whic h h e wrote , "Th e Sel f i s b y n o mean s the maste r o f it s ow n house " ("Ic h nachweise n will , da s e s nicht einma l Her r is t i m eigene n Hausen, " p . 226) . Wha t led hi m t o thi s conclusion ? H e ha d rea d th e work s o f th e nineteenth-century Germa n philosophe r Arthu r Schopen hauer, in particular hi s Parerga und Paralipomena, an d kne w that huma n behavio r i s no t connecte d wit h cognition . Ac cording t o Schopenhauer , tha t whic h w e cal l huma n behav ior i s decide d b y mean s o f a n inne r impuls e ("inner n Im puls") originatin g i n instinc t an d i s not base d o n suc h thing s as cognitio n (p . 559). Schopenhaue r cam e t o thi s conclusio n through a n investigation o f people's dreams. Freud was stim ulated b y Schopenhaue r t o absor b himself , too , i n th e stud y of dream s an d neurosis . H e discovere d tha t a person' s ac tions ar e determine d no t b y the sel f th e sel f think s exists , bu t by th e unconsciou s min d dee p within . H e wa s convince d that th e huma n consciousnes s ha d a three-layere d structur e consisting o f consciousness , unconsciousness , an d precon sciousness. H e publishe d thes e result s i n Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis. Th e correctnes s o f hi s theorie s ha s been establishe d b y moder n cerebra l medicine . Conscious ness a s defined b y Freud i s now calle d surfac e consciousness , and hi s unconsciousnes s an d preconsciousnes s ar e terme d subconsciousness an d dee p consciousness , respectively . Ac cording t o moder n cerebra l medicine , th e surfac e conscious ness i s governe d b y somethin g calle d th e cerebra l neocorte x system, whic h include s function s suc h a s though t an d ere -

THE FUNDAMENTAL S O F M I ND 3

5

ativity. Human behavior , in turn, is known t o be determined by th e cerebra l limbi c system . (Se e Toshihik o Tokizane , Ningen de aru koto [Bein g Human]) . Wha t w e have alway s thought o f as "self" i s not that whic h control s behavior , but only a n idea o f the self. Zen' s greates t concer n i s the nature of thi s tru e self . Ze n may be considered th e search fo r the true sel f on the very field of life itself. My overridin g concer n i s th e ques t fo r Self . Abou t five centuries befor e th e present era , Socrates stoo d i n the marbled street s o f Athen s an d crie d out , "Youth , kno w your self!" Thi s knowledg e o f Self i s in itself th e theme of Zen. It is a far greater issu e than we imagine. We have onl y to think of the young man who threw himself t o death ove r the Kegon Falls wit h th e words, "Lif e i s a mystery," t o understand it s scope. Ascertainin g wh o we truly ar e is the starting poin t of all things in our life. THE W O R K I N G S O F M I N D

The min d work s i n wonderfu l ways . Nevertheless , perhap s because it has no form, fe w people are observing it. In particular, the y canno t dea l wit h th e idea o f th e "tru e self, " because i t indicate s th e self a s subject. Thi s pose s a problem , for huma n being s canno t perceiv e th e subjective sel f objec tively. In a world in which the self cannot be seen objectively , the fac t o f th e subjectiv e sel f pose s a difficult-to-penetrat e barrier. Give n this , there i s no method othe r tha n "knowin g the self. " Thi s i s exemplified b y the Zen expression "know ing by oneself whethe r i t is hot or cold." Knowledg e mus t be achieved throug h persona l experience . Eve n so , few people

3 6 TH

E FUNDAMENTAL S O F M I N D

have eve r manage d t o kno w thei r tru e self . I t i s no t surpris ing, therefore , tha t eve n th e Buddh a too k si x year s t o pene trate th e question . A further sourc e o f difficult y i s that, a s this formles s min d acts, it easily forms habit s an d customs. Someone whose gaze is constantl y fixed thirt y centimeter s i n fron t o f hi m o r her self wil l neve r se e beyon d th e horizon . Suc h habit s ar e trul y troublesome, becaus e the y ar e no t tangibl e an d s o remai n unrecognized. Becaus e w e d o no t realiz e the y ar e there , the y adhere spontaneousl y al l th e mor e firmly. Buddhis m call s these "residua l menta l habits. " Emancipatin g ourselve s fro m them i s a decisiv e ste p o n th e pat h towar d enlightenment . Since they ar e menta l habit s tha t ar e deepl y impresse d i n th e physical makeup , the y clin g obstinately t o th e ignorant min d and ar e not easil y wiped away . A person wh o i s conscious of a conflic t wit h thes e residua l habit s i n th e lif e o f th e min d can be said to have arrived a t the threshold o f enlightenment . Emancipation fro m habit s o f thi s typ e ca n b e achieve d only b y observing th e mind . Onc e we ar e abl e to observ e th e mind, al l we have to d o is work t o acquire a n ability to dwel l constantly a t peac e withi n ou r origina l mind . Thi s i s a stat e beyond physica l characteristic s o r form , capabl e o f penetrat ing i n ever y direction . T o dwel l knowingl y i n thi s stat e i s t o work repeatedl y t o brin g th e min d t o it s constan t turnin g point. I t i s t o ente r a real m o f incredibl e tranquillity , a stat e where n o stres s exists , representin g th e ver y adven t o f a world a t peace . Late i n hi s life , Goeth e confesse d i n conversatio n wit h Johann Pete r Eckerman n tha t h e ha d alway s returne d t o th e mind's turnin g point . H e sa w th e stat e o f no-min d a s a continual returnin g t o thi s point . W e ar e reminde d tha t no t

THE FUNDAMENTAL S O F M I N D 3

7

only Goeth e bu t al l th e grea t peopl e o f histor y returne d repeatedly t o th e stat e o f no-mind . M y maste r Uek i Roshi , too, was certainly such a person. As a result of the profundit y and strictnes s o f hi s training , h e was abl e to retur n t o a stat e of no-min d i n a n instant , bu t becaus e h e di d no t clin g t o it , he could penetrate anythin g without obstruction . H e lived i n a stat e o f absolut e freedom . Tha t h e live d t o th e ag e o f ninety-seven wa s perhap s du e t o th e fac t tha t h e never accu mulated stress . However bus y he seemed t o be outwardly, h e was a t res t withi n an d s o wa s neve r reduce d t o bein g bon e tired. Shinra n wrot e i n th e Shoshing e tha t t o kno w lif e an d death trul y wa s t o b e i n a stat e o f nirvana . Uek i Rosh i live d in thi s way ; h e departe d fo r th e afterworl d disinterestedly , knowing tha t dyin g i s a return . Clos e t o thirt y year s hav e passed sinc e then, bu t eve n now I cherish his memory keenly . I bega n b y speakin g abou t th e working s o f th e mind . M y point i s tha t I thin k i t regrettabl e tha t mos t peopl e rarel y observe th e working s o f thei r mind . I t sadden s m e t o thin k of promisin g youn g people who clin g to th e phenomena tha t surround them . The y ar e weighe d dow n b y residua l menta l habits tha t lodg e themselves immovabl y i n the mind. We live only once . We shoul d therefor e liv e that lif e t o th e ful l i n th e freedom tha t come s of enlightenment . ILLUSION

The philosophe r Arthu r Schopenhaue r wrote , "Huma n be ings ar e animal s who ar e fon d o f illusion. " Certainl y illusio n is an overwhelmin g characteristi c o f humanity . Perhap s onl y one i n a hundre d thousan d o r a millio n ar e fre e fro m it . Whatever th e actua l number , i t is very small .

38 TH

E FUNDAMENTAL S O F MIN D

Other animal s suffe r fro m illusions , bu t i t i s particularl y true o f huma n beings , perhap s because , a s Pasca l pu t it , "Man i s a thinking reed. " Th e abilit y t o thin k i s a peculiarl y human quality . Someon e wh o i s place d i n a difficul t situa tion, fo r example , wil l worr y muc h mor e tha n anothe r per son wh o take s a more objectiv e standpoint , an d ac t in a wa y that i s difficul t fo r other s t o understand . I n recen t year s th e newspapers hav e reporte d case s o f youn g boy s an d girl s jumping t o their death s of f tal l buildings. To choos e to die as soon a s some minor troubl e occurs has its origins in a mighty illusion, thoug h som e migh t sa y the y wer e benefitin g societ y by helpin g t o decreas e Japan' s hig h population . I think i t i s from aroun d th e ag e o f twenty-tw o o r twenty-three , how ever, tha t peopl e realiz e wha t a rar e an d valuabl e thin g i t i s to b e bor n int o thi s worl d a s a huma n being , sinc e huma n life make s u p bu t a smal l proportio n o f livin g things , an d being bor n huma n i s itsel f suc h a resul t o f chanc e (thoug h Hegel speak s o f th e inevitability o f chance) . When I rea d Windelband' s Introduction to Philosophy, I spent all of one night in tears, having come upon his questio n on th e natur e o f lif e an d hi s answer , "Lif e i s bu t a singl e existence." I t i s probably i n ou r earl y twentie s tha t w e hav e the mos t opportunitie s t o thin k seriousl y abou t ou r ow n lif e existence. Th e Analects recor d that , whe n Confuciu s wa s asked b y a disciple , "Master , wha t i s death? " h e answered , "You don' t kno w anythin g abou t lif e yet , s o ho w ca n yo u know death? " I myself believ e thi s t o b e a story mad e u p b y his disciples, for i t is a question tha t permits no simple, clearcut answer . In hi s famou s autobiograph y th e Englis h economis t Joh n Stuart Mil l (1806-1873 ) wrot e tha t whether o r not a perso n

THE FUNDAMENTAL S O F M I N D 3

9

becomes successfu l i n lif e depend s o n whethe r h e has , a t around th e ag e o f twenty-three , though t abou t th e basi c questions o f huma n life . Ther e is , I believe , n o questio n o f the validity o f hi s argument . I t is of utmos t difficult y tha t w e investigate thoroughl y wh o w e ar e an d encounte r wha t th e Buddha calle d th e "Tru e Self. " Th e majorit y o f peopl e ten d to los e interes t an d giv e u p halfway , puttin g th e questio n aside befor e the y hav e reache d an y conclusion . Th e earlies t sutras, containe d i n th e Pal i Nikayas an d th e Chines e Agamas, tel l us that th e Buddha wa s in his late twenties when h e began t o fee l th e world's transienc e acutely . That h e was no t so trouble d unti l late r tha n usua l wa s perhap s du e t o hi s protected upbringin g (hi s fathe r wa s a local ruler) . Schopen hauer, i n th e fourt h volum e o f hi s Collected Works, com ments tha t thos e wh o perfec t thei r self-protectiv e technique s too earl y rarel y becom e successfu l i n life . I t i s rathe r th e people wh o stil l hav e no t don e s o b y aroun d thei r forties , who ar e alway s impose d upo n an d take n i n b y others , wh o eventually becom e successful . Ther e is in the East the expression, "Grea t talents mature late," which we can take to mea n that trul y grea t people first achiev e succes s only i n their late r years. I n thi s sens e Schopenhauer' s word s woul d see m t o be correct . However w e loo k a t it , discoverin g one' s tru e sel f i s cru cial. Onl y b y doin g s o can w e escap e th e ne t o f illusion s an d begin seein g thing s constantl y a s the y reall y are . Illusion s grow fro m eve n th e minut e extraneou s thought s tha t settl e in th e mind . Eve n thought s a s smal l a s th e tin y particle s o f dust tha t floa t i n th e atmospher e preven t u s fro m seein g th e truth o f things . Whethe r o r no t w e attai n th e stat e o f wha t physics call s a n "absolut e vacuum " i n ou r head s o r mind s

4 0 TH

E FUNDAMENTALS O F M I ND

determines th e frui t o f spiritua l training . I t i s sai d tha t a carpenter calle d Heishi r Anbar a attaine d tha t stat e i n thre e days and nights, an amazing feat . SEEKING TH E SEL F

Most peopl e experienc e a wide variety of mental states , fro m defeat, humiliation , bitterness , despair , anger , an d jealous y to pleasur e an d feelings o f success an d happiness. Th e Buddha describe d people' s mind s a s bein g o f 1,24 0 differen t types. I hav e neve r mad e a count , bu t I d o kno w I hav e experienced a great numbe r o f mood s an d feelings. Whe n I was i n elementary schoo l an d never allowe d t o take par t in athletic festivals , i n particular, I envied th e others fro m th e bottom o f my heart an d frequently fel t jealous y an d defeat ism. A t times I was in suc h lo w spirits tha t I even contem plated suicide . I truly believ e tha t a person's fortun e i s decided b y his or her menta l attitude . Perhap s becaus e o f this , peopl e hav e continued sinc e ancien t time s t o see k t o kno w th e natur e and essenc e o f the mind. Socrates ' "Kno w yourself " means , "Know th e essence o f you r ow n mind." Seekin g th e self i s the greates t stud y i n life, an d it can even be said that , unles s this questio n i s solved, a person's lif e canno t b e considere d satisfactory. A t the same time , ther e i s nothing i n the world more difficul t tha n seekin g the self. What make s seekin g th e self difficul t i s that th e mind has no shap e or form. Professo r Shinohar a o f Tohoku Universit y used to say, "Th e mind' s onl y attribut e i s intendieren [inten tion]." Sinc e the mind i s not quantifiable o r measurable, it is difficult t o understand. Ze n Master Lin-ch i I-hsua n (d . 867 )

THE FUNDAMENTAL S O F M I N D 4

1

said, "Th e min d i s shapeles s an d penetrate s th e te n direc tions." I f w e contemplat e thi s statement , w e wil l graduall y come t o understan d wha t Sel f is . Mor e tha n seve n hundre d years ago there lived a Zen priest called Bassui (1327-1387) . In hi s recorde d writings , h e describe s th e essenc e o f Ze n a s "penetrating one' s mind, " whic h i s to say , gainin g penetrat ing knowledge o f one' s ow n mind . Penetratin g one's mind is, I think , wha t i s mean t b y th e searc h fo r self . I t i s t o prob e the roots o f the mind . To explai n wha t I mea n b y probin g th e mind' s root s I must firs t mentio n Kant' s Kritik der reinen Vernunft (Cri tique o f Pur e Reason) , publishe d i n 1781 . Her e Kan t com pletely refute d th e representativ e vie w o f huma n cognitio n expounded b y Davi d Hum e (1711-1776 ) i n hi s Treatise of Human Nature (1739) , pointin g ou t th e error s i n hi s argu ments. Hume ha d said , "Th e idea s I form ar e exact represen tations o f th e impression s I felt " (Everyman' s Librar y edi tion, vol . 1 , p . 12) . Al l huma n ideas , Hum e says , ar e representations made , via sensation , o f thing s existin g i n th e world abou t us . Kant , however , rebutte d thi s view . Briefl y stated, h e sai d tha t huma n being s d o no t kno w wha t exist s outside themselves , bu t onl y mak e construction s o f th e out side worl d throug h sensation . Wha t i s withou t i s thing s i n themselves ("Din g a n sich") ; thi s stimulate s th e object s o f sensation, whic h constitut e image s o f outwar d reality , no t exact representations. H e wrote, " I do not know, nor is there any nee d fo r m e t o know , wha t thing s i n themselve s migh t be" ("Wa s di e Dinge a n sic h sei n mogen, weiss ich nicht un d brauche e s auc h nich t z u wissen " [Dr . H . A . Gerstenber g Verlag, 1973 , p. 234]) . N o on e sinc e ha s bee n abl e t o over turn Kant' s theor y o f cognition . I t follow s tha t seekin g th e

4 2 TH

E FUNDAMENTALS O F M I N D

self i s the search fo r th e subjective sel f (maste r o f oneself ) that constitute s cognitio n o f the outside worl d b y means of sensation, i n othe r words , th e mind' s essence . Wha t Kan t discovered ha d in fact alread y bee n realize d wel l ove r 2,00 0 years befor e b y th e Buddha , meditatin g i n th e forest s o f northern India . H O W T O SEE K TH E SEL F

Seeking th e sel f mean s searchin g fo r th e mind' s essence . I would lik e to speak her e a little mor e abou t ho w we can go about tha t task . History offer s u s numerous example s of people who spent decades i n thei r searc h fo r self , an d man y o f the m neve r reached enlightenmen t a t all. Ananda, th e Buddha's discipl e and persona l attendan t fo r mor e tha n forty-fiv e years , had not ye t attained enlightenmen t whe n th e Buddha died , and he i s describe d a s standin g i n th e doorwa y weepin g an d crying a s the Buddha passe d awa y (Nakamur a Hajime , Gotama Buddha). A mistake i n undertaking th e search fo r self results in a huge loss in human life . Though I myself a m poor in huma n experience , i t is out of this concer n tha t I venture to spea k o f seeking the self. From anothe r perspective , th e search fo r sel f i s a searc h for th e essence of the self a s an existence withi n th e cosmos. In thi s sens e i t includes th e requirement tha t w e understand ourselves i n the context o f both th e world an d the universe, while w e seek th e essence o f the self i n the narrow sens e of the term . Th e compellin g questio n the n become s ho w we should bes t se t about doin g this , bearin g i n min d th e need not t o take a n inordinate amoun t o f tim e abou t it . Master s

THE FUNDAMENTAL S O F M I N D 4

3

of ol d hav e left man y instruction s fo r u s with respec t t o this . There i s n o nee d t o examin e the m all ; it i s more logica l an d a mor e economica l us e o f time , I feel , t o gras p thos e tha t treat th e substanc e o f th e matter . On e wor k tha t focuse s o n how t o see k th e sel f i s Ch'an-kuan ts'e-chin (Incentive s fo r Breaking Zen Barriers) , compiled i n 160 0 by a Chinese pries t named Chu-hun g (1535-1615) . Th e youn g Hakuin , i t i s said, treasured thi s work an d rea d i t constantly . The Sot o strea m o f Ze n Buddhis m i s generally considere d to encourag e "jus t sitting " (shikan taza) a s it s cor e method , but a reading o f th e Shobo genzo (Treasur y o f th e Eye of th e True Dharma ) b y Soto's founder , Ze n maste r Doge n (1200 — 1253), suggest s strongl y tha t conundrums , o r "cases, " known a s koan wer e als o use d extensively . Ther e ar e hun dreds o f koan ; seventee n hundre d i s th e mos t frequentl y quoted number . I n fac t the y ar e possibl y countless . On e o f the mos t famou s o f the m i s th e "Mu " koa n o f th e Chines e master Chao-cho u (778-897) . A later master , Ta-hui Tsung kao (1089-1163) , eve n state d tha t thi s wa s th e onl y koa n that wa s reall y necessary . Whe n I starte d forma l Ze n train ing, thi s wa s th e koa n I receive d fro m m y master , Uek i Roshi; I never receive d an y other . I n effect , sinc e the koa n i s only a device t o hel p th e studen t see k th e essentia l self , ther e is n o meanin g i n assignin g larg e number s o f them . Sinc e some Zen master s o f lesser ability cannot perceive the menta l state of their students clearly, however, they issue them man y different koa n i n orde r t o observ e thei r reaction s fro m vari ous angles . Verifyin g thei r ow n judgmen t b y thes e means , they ar e abl e t o guid e thei r students . I t i s no t eas y t o judg e the qualit y o f a master, sinc e the abilit y t o d o s o depend s o n the observer's own capabilities . Masters like Akizuki Ryomi n

4 4 TH

E FUNDAMENTAL S O F MIN D

place considerabl e valu e o n th e koan , althoug h Ryomin' s vision i s ou t o f focus , I feel. T o retur n t o m y origina l point , though, koa n lik e Chao-chou' s "Mu " o r th e koa n tha t ask s what ou r fac e was before ou r parents were born ar e very apt . Chao-chou's "Mu " goe s a s follows . On e da y a pries t monk aske d Chao-chou , "Ha s a dog the buddh a natur e [th e ability to attain buddhahood]? " Chao-cho u answered , "Mu " ("no," o r "nothingness") . Th e poin t o f th e koa n i s thi s "mu." A t som e othe r tim e Chao-cho u answere d th e sam e question wit h "yes, " b y whic h w e kno w tha t hi s "mu " doe s not simpl y mea n "no " i n contras t t o "yes, " bu t rathe r con tains n o sens e o f relativit y a t all . I t i s th e "mu " tha t tran scends al l relativity, th e Grea t Nothingnes s tha t goe s beyon d the simple positive and negative. We should place this conun drum firmly i n th e forefron t o f ou r min d an d investigat e i t single-mindedly, withou t an y distractio n o f thought . Thi s means w e ca n neve r rest . Nigh t an d da y w e mus t pursu e our search , throwin g ourselve s utterl y int o th e tas k wit h a willingness t o ris k ou r lif e itsel f t o accomplis h it . Ever y ac tion, ever y appearanc e i n ou r dail y lif e become s th e ground s for ou r quest . Th e mos t importan t facto r i n determinin g whether th e wa y t o enlightenmen t i s lon g o r shor t i s th e fervor o f ou r endeavors . NO-THOUGHT

I spok e i n th e precedin g sectio n o f thre e point s o f grea t importance i n th e searc h fo r self : spiritua l themes , suc h a s Chao-chou's "Mu " koan ; th e nee d fo r a committe d an d serious outloo k regardin g th e search ; an d a commitmen t t o conducting thi s searc h i n th e very mids t o f dail y lif e activity .

THE FUNDAMENTAL S O F M I N D 4

5

I would lik e to spea k a littl e furthe r o n th e topic , to mak e i t as relevant an d easil y understoo d a s possible. The reaso n koa n lik e Chao-chou' s "Mu " ar e s o usefu l i s because the y ar e direc t an d d o no t requir e wastefu l thought . Since th e essenc e o f Ze n i s th e searc h fo r th e essentia l self an d verificatio n o f th e Trut h underlyin g it , koa n tha t cut deepl y an d directl y int o one' s tru e min d ar e fa r mor e effective tha n koa n tha t merel y confus e thought . Ta-hu i Tsung-kao's contentio n tha t onl y Chao-chou' s koa n i s really necessary i s therefor e entirel y reasonable . Hi s "mu " i s no t "nothing" a s oppose d t o "something " o r "nothing " a s a relative concep t o r idea . I t transcend s relativity , demand s that w e tak e hol d o f absolute , essentia l "nothingness. " Th e koan ha s nothin g t o d o wit h seekin g an y definitio n o r inter pretation o f "mu. " I t refer s rathe r t o "mu " tha t transcend s all relativ e difference , requirin g u s t o see k "mu " a s sub stance, rathe r tha n th e limite d "mu " o f th e word . Sinc e th e concept o f "mu " act s a s th e mediu m fo r seekin g ou t th e essential "mu, " w e start of f wit h th e soun d o f "Wha t i s mu " constantly i n ou r mind , ringin g lik e a n alar m bell , unti l ou r whole bod y become s "mu. " Onl y the n ca n w e g o beyon d "mu" a s a concept. Pu t anothe r way , we com e t o experienc e the essentia l stat e o f "mu, " wher e th e sel f n o longe r hold s any object s a t al l i n th e mind . Suc h a n understandin g i s extremely importan t i n th e first place , fo r i t allow s u s to us e the tim e we nee d fo r ou r endeavo r mor e economically . Sinc e ours i s a n ag e o f educationa l advances , w e mus t b e abl e t o understand ahea d o f tim e ho w th e min d i s constructe d an d what menta l stat e w e shoul d b e aimin g a t wit h respec t t o it . When I studied Ze n unde r Miur a Rosh i o f Zuiganj i Templ e in 194 2 an d 1943, 1 severely criticize d hi s styl e of Ze n train -

4 6 TH

E FUNDAMENTAL S O F M I N D

ing a s bein g old-fashioned . Wh y couldn' t w e b e taugh t di rectly, I asked , abou t th e mind' s constructio n an d advise d about th e proper stat e o f min d w e shoul d b e aiming toward . The Roshi was unable to reply; men like him only know ho w to teac h withi n th e inertia o f tradition . The state o f holding no objects a t al l in the mind is termed "no-thought" i n Ze n Buddhism . Th e Buddh a calle d i t th e state o f min d o f a Tathagat a ( a buddha) , th e stat e o f on e who ha s attaine d enlightenment . Suc h a min d penetrate s al l things. I wrot e abov e tha t w e ca n see k suc h a min d i n th e very mids t o f th e dail y activit y o f life . Yet , since such a min d contains no t th e slightes t trac e o f self-consciousnes s o r self centeredness, since it is in a state of complet e non-conscious ness an d non-attachment , t o appl y th e wor d "seek " t o i t seems somewha t superfluous . Sinc e th e min d o f non-attach ment, "no-mind, " exist s withi n al l dail y action s an d phe nomena, ther e i s n o nee d fo r a specia l min d construc t suc h as "seeking. " Calculating , auditing , cleaning , eve n pourin g tea, al l aspect s o f lif e ar e i n fac t activitie s carrie d ou t withi n "no-mind." I n othe r words , "n o mind " mean s t o liv e com pletely a t on e wit h al l th e object s o f life . Thi s represent s th e most concentrate d stat e o f mind , i n whic h n o object s a t al l intrude o n th e min d (th e min d i s attache d t o nothing) . Th e Pali Nikayas describ e th e stat e o f min d o f th e Tathagat a a s an "objectles s concentratio n o f mind " (Some Sayings of the Buddha, trans . F . L . Woodward , Oxfor d Universit y Press , 1955, p . 340) . Thi s wa s th e stat e o f min d attaine d b y th e Buddha a s a result o f hi s desperate six-yea r search . Zen Maste r Hakuin , wh o revive d Japanese Rinza i Ze n i n the nineteent h century , studie d unde r a layma n calle d Ol d Man Shoju , wh o live d a t Iiyam a i n th e present-da y Nagan o

THE FUNDAMENTAL S O F M I ND 4

7

Prefecture an d who had himsel f studie d unde r anothe r lay man, a forme r innkeepe r a t Sekigahar a wh o receive d th e title Ze n Master Shid o Buna n (1603-1676 ) afte r hi s death . Neither ma n was an ordained priest . Shid o Buna n describe d the enlightene d stat e of mind i n a poem: A dewdrop as it is, When on an [autumn] maple leaf, Is a scarlet jewel. The min d o f on e who ha s succeede d i n th e searc h fo r sel f remains constantl y lik e a clear an d empty sky , like a pane of transparent glass . Ho w abou t it , readers ? Shal l w e tr y t o attain thi s stat e together , bearin g i n min d tha t w e live onl y once? JOIN NO T TWO THOUGHTS TOGETHE R

Since s o man y peopl e fai l i n thei r ques t fo r th e self, le t me speak a littl e longe r abou t ho w w e shoul d g o abou t th e search. I t is easy t o talk abou t thing s suc h a s "no-thought, " living constantly a t one with al l objects of life without lettin g one's consciousnes s becom e attache d t o any of those objects . Unfortunately, i t is much mor e difficul t t o achieve . We need to trai n ourselve s implacably , bu t becaus e w e ar e creature s of word s an d concepts, we find ourselves overwhelme d wit h ideas on e afte r th e other , an d th e stat e o f "no-thought " retreats furthe r an d further int o the distance. Zen Maste r Hakui n taugh t tha t the quickest way to attai n a stat e o f "no-mind " wa s not to join tw o thoughts together . When a ma n see s a n attractiv e woman , fo r example , h e thinks, "Wow , she's pretty! " Tha t i s hi s initia l thought —

48 TH

E FUNDAMENTAL S O F MIN D

and hi s mos t vulnerabl e moment . I n mos t cases , th e ma n then goe s throug h a successio n o f thought s abou t ho w h e would lik e t o mee t her , embrac e her , o r whatever . I n othe r words, th e initia l though t develop s int o a chai n o f thoughts , all strun g together . Thi s i s no goo d a s fa r a s Ze n trainin g i s concerned. Th e secon d though t t o aris e should no t b e linke d to th e initia l thought . Th e Ze n studen t ha s t o wor k o n breaking th e trai n afte r th e initia l though t arises . I f thi s i s accomplished, strangel y enough , th e initia l though t die s down an d eventuall y disappears . As such results are achieve d more an d mor e frequently , th e min d spontaneousl y enter s a state of "no-mind. " Uek i Rosh i would alway s say such train ing neede d a hundre d polishings , a thousan d forgings . I f w e stop afte r havin g achieve d n o particula r resul t fou r o r five times, we wil l neve r i n al l ou r lif e becom e a n adept . Thus , i t requires a hundre d polishings , a thousan d forgings . Master s of ol d als o use d th e expressio n " a thousan d polishings , te n thousand forgings. " Thei r poin t wa s no t tha t ther e i s an y particular meanin g i n countin g th e number , bu t tha t a stu dent shoul d practic e a s frequentl y a s possible . The y di d no t hand dow n suc h expression s with the intention o f foolin g us . When w e realize tha t thei r word s ste m fro m thei r ow n hard attained experience , w e ar e inspire d b y thei r lovin g concer n to mak e ever y effor t i n our ow n training . This teachin g o f Hakuin' s abou t no t joinin g tw o thought s together, whic h I learned a s a youth fro m Uek i Roshi , seem s to hav e come , a s I discovere d later , fro m a n expressio n i n Chu-hung's Incentives for Breaking Zen Barriers, "D o no t cause tw o thought s t o joi n further. " Whateve r th e origi n o f the phrase , though , th e practic e o f no t joinin g tw o thought s

THE FUNDAMENTAL S O F M I N D 4

9

together i s a n essentia l poin t i n trainin g i n everyda y life , quite apar t fro m koa n study . The sixt h Ze n patriarc h i n th e lineag e fro m Bodhidharm a was called Hui-neng (638-713) . He attained grea t enlighten ment whe n hi s master , th e Fift h Patriarc h Hung-je n ( 6 0 1 674), lecturing in the middle of th e night in a darkened roo m on th e Diamond Sutra, cam e t o th e words , "Rais e [that ] thought withou t lettin g i t settl e o n an y particula r thing. " "Not lettin g th e min d settle " mean s no t allowin g th e min d to attac h itsel f t o an y object , whic h i s the sam e a s not lettin g two thought s joi n together . Thi s i s one o f th e mos t criticall y important point s i n Ze n training . I n yout h peopl e ar e over whelmed b y troubl e an d distress , an d th e min d i s alway s scattered. Whe n the y ar e disappointe d i n love , fo r instance , they want t o commi t suicide . Before makin g suc h a decision , let u s conside r tha t ou r ow n lif e i s th e resul t o f a continua l process tha t bega n billion s o f year s ag o whe n livin g organ isms first move d ou t o f primeva l sea s ont o land , matin g and producin g young , an d th e produc t o f untol d billion s o f ancestors. Face d wit h thi s might y marc h o f life , I fee l w e cannot tak e ou r lif e lightl y an d pas s ou r day s heedlessly , bu t that w e shoul d realiz e th e origi n o f th e spiri t behin d lif e i n order t o liv e ou r on e an d onl y lif e i n a trul y worthwhil e manner. PREVAILING OVE R TH E SEL F

When w e examin e th e expressio n "prevailin g ove r th e self " and ar e compelle d t o as k wh o i t i s tha t s o prevails , w e ca n only answer , usin g the commo n sens e of th e ordinar y world ,

5 0 TH

E FUNDAMENTALS O F M I N D

that it is the Self which prevails over the self. This is, I believe of grea t significance . First, t o sa y tha t th e Sel f prevail s ove r th e sel f intimate s that ther e are at least two selves. This refers t o a physical self and one or more spiritual selves . This is a fundamental point . I recal l her e Sigmun d Freud' s Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis, a compilation o f twenty-eight o f his lectures. The eighteenth end s with the words I quoted a t the beginning of thi s chapter , "Th e Self i s b y n o mean s th e maste r o f it s own house. " Hi s assertion her e i s that consciousnes s o f the self (no w calle d "surfac e consciousness") , i n whic h peopl e have a sens e o f thei r ow n identity , i s i n fac t no t Self , th e master of the personality. Freud was the first Western schola r to clai m a three-layere d structur e o f consciousness , bu t thi s idea originate d i n India , i n Buddhism . A conscientious per son, Freu d admitte d hi s deb t i n thi s t o Schopenhauer' s Aphorismen zur Lebensweisheit (Aphorism s Concernin g Life's Wisdom , 1851) , a book publishe d man y years after his life's work , Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung (Th e World as Wil l an d Representation , 1818) . Huma n intellectua l an d behavioral choices , he says, are completely unrelated , an d he concludes that human behavio r is determined b y means of an inner impulse (Collected Works, vol . 4, p. 559). As Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (1888-1975 ) point s ou t i n a footnot e o n page 633 of the first volume of his Indian Philosophy (1923) , however, thi s wa s not Schopenhauer's origina l ide a bu t one derived fro m hi s reading of the Upanishads an d the Vedanta, which ha d bee n a consolatio n t o hi m sinc e hi s youth. Bud dhism has been calle d on e of the Upanishadic schools , and it was th e idea o f the construction o f the human consciousnes s

THE FUNDAMENTAL S O F M I ND 5

1

found i n Buddhist philosoph y tha t wa s transmitted t o Freu d through Schopenhauer . The vie w o f the self a s divided int o tw o is found no t only among India n an d European scholar s bu t in the writings of the Chines e philosophe r Wan g Yang-min g a s well. In Japan, Wang is famous fo r an aphorism containe d i n his Ch'uan-hsi lu (Instruction s fo r Practical Living) , which reads , "I t is easy to overcom e th e bandits i n the mountains, bu t it is not eas y to overcom e th e bandit s i n th e mind. " H e considere d th e human min d t o be of a twofold constructio n involvin g wha t he called the original sel f an d the self o f the physical husk . In moder n time s th e min d i s though t t o consis t o f th e surface consciousnes s an d the deep consciousness . The latter determines huma n action s an d behavior; i t contains th e "inner impulse " an d release s limitles s desires , whic h ar e ex pressed a s various form s o f behavio r an d action . Buddhis m seeks t o purif y th e dee p consciousness , t o penetrat e empti ness. Th e Chines e Ze n pries t Wu-hsiie h Tsu-yiia n (1226 1286), threatened wit h deat h b y Mongol soldier s who broke into his temple, dictated th e following a s his death poem : Joyful t o receive: Man is emptiness; The Dharma is emptiness. To hav e realize d emptines s i n this way and to have incorpo rated i t int o hi s dail y lif e a s th e basi s fo r al l hi s action s shows th e degre e o f enlightenmen t h e ha d attained . On e who alway s live s having completel y penetrate d Wan g Yang ming's "origina l self " n o longe r ha s two dimension s t o the self. The self is undivided an d in a state of "emptiness. " Thi s

5 2 TH

E FUNDAMENTAL S O F MIN D

is th e greates t an d mos t importan t destinatio n i n huma n life. Zen Maste r Hakui n wrote , "Prevailin g ove r th e sel f i n th e space of on e breath." Thoug h thi s refers t o a self tha t shoul d be prevaile d over , i t doe s no t indicat e a stat e o f enlighten ment. Whe n a perso n ha s purifie d th e sel f t o th e utmost , cleansing the dee p consciousness, there is no longer an y nee d for a min d tha t prevail s ove r th e self . I consider tha t thi s i s the basi c premise o f grea t human progress . CAN TH E HUMA N CHARACTE R B E CHANGED ?

Whether o r no t th e huma n characte r ca n b e change d i s a question tha t ha s attracte d grea t interest sinc e ancient times . When I wa s ninetee n year s old , m y Englis h teache r a t Fukushima Highe r Commercia l School , th e Englishma n E. V . Gatenby , aske d th e clas s thi s question . I answered , audaciously, wit h wha t I ha d learne d fro m Uek i Rosh i a t Unganji Temple , tha t whe n a perso n become s enlightened , he can chang e hi s ow n character . I was praised fo r m y reply . In fact , I di d no t mysel f understan d wha t I ha d said , fo r I was merel y mouthin g wha t I had hear d Uek i Rosh i sa y an d pretending tha t I knew . A fine scholar , Mr . Gatenb y ha d authored a voluminou s Englis h dictionar y fo r Japanes e stu dents a s wel l a s publishin g a numbe r o f book s i n London . He had rea d virtually al l of the works of Zen Master Hakuin . I remember hi m askin g me at one time if I had rea d Hakuin' s Orategama (Embosse d Teakettle ) an d bein g embarrasse d a t having t o sa y I had not . Mr . Gatenb y taugh t Englis h litera ture a t Tohoku Imperia l Universit y a s well. Nevertheless, man y peopl e appea r t o think , an d eve n t o

THE FUNDAMENTAL S O F M I N D 5

3

believe, tha t i t i s impossibl e fo r th e individua l t o chang e hi s character. I a m sur e yo u hav e com e acros s me n an d wome n who say , withou t an y uncertainty , tha t the y ar e a particula r type o f person . Possibl y yo u yoursel f sa y th e sam e thing . Schopenhauer sai d thi s a s well . I n Aphorisms Concerning Life's Wisdom, h e concluded , "Fo r th e characte r i s com pletely unalterable " ("Den n de r Charakte r is t schlechthi n inkorrigibel"; Collected Works, vol . 4 , p . 542) . Thi s sayin g was a produc t o f hi s late r year s b y compariso n wit h hi s famous wor k The World as Will and Representation. H e seems to hav e drawn thi s conclusion fro m observin g th e wa y large numbers of people lived. All the same, he was mistaken . The sourc e o f hi s erro r i s clea r whe n w e investigat e hi s reasons fo r reachin g thi s conclusion . H e wrote : "Al l huma n behavior flow s fro m a n inne r principl e [au s eine m inner n Prinzip fliessen] , an d accordin g t o thi s principle , a perso n will always d o the same thing in the same circumstances, an d cannot d o an y other. " Th e proble m lie s i n th e natur e o f this inne r principle . Buddhis m speak s o f paribhavana (lit . "patterns"), whic h stai n th e min d a s residua l menta l habits . From birt h onward , everyon e accumulate s countles s experi ences, within whic h habit s o f thought for m unnoticed . Whe n they tak e root , thes e ar e paribhavana. Eliminatin g the m i s no eas y thing an d require s strenuou s training . We have seen how Schopenhauer rea d Upanishadic philosophy i n Lati n translatio n a s a youth ; Radhakrishna n note s Schopenhauer's lov e fo r th e wor k i n hi s Indian Philosophy and quote s Ma x Miille r concernin g i t (vol . 2 , p . 633) . H e should therefor e hav e know n abou t paribhavana. Still , sinc e the Upanishads ar e o f grea t lengt h an d ther e ar e mor e tha n 320 partia l translation s o f the m i n existence , h e ma y wel l

5 4 TH

E FUNDAMENTAL S O F M I N D

have misrea d somethin g o r overlooke d it . Al l th e same , a mistake i s a mistake . Peopl e ar e release d fro m th e bond s o f paribhavana whe n the y hav e ha d conclusiv e experienc e tha t the essenc e o f th e sel f i s emptines s an d hav e acquire d th e ability t o shap e thei r fate . Thus , peopl e ca n chang e thei r character. THE CONCLUSIV E EXPERIENC E O F EMPTINES S

How i s it that people are released from th e bonds of paribhavana whe n the y hav e ha d conclusiv e experienc e tha t th e essence o f th e sel f i s emptiness an d ca n acquir e th e abilit y t o shape thei r destiny ? Befor e I answe r thi s question , I shoul d first defin e wha t I mea n b y "conclusiv e experienc e tha t th e essence of the self is emptiness." I f we do not understand thi s clearly i t i s extremel y difficul t t o g o an y further , fo r w e will no t understan d th e necessar y reasonin g underlyin g th e connection betwee n th e experience of emptiness an d the ability to shap e fate . Let u s thin k abou t i t quietly . First , fro m wher e wer e yo u born? Di d yo u sprin g ou t o f a clef t peac h floatin g dow n a river, lik e Momotaro . Di d yo u appea r i n th e croo k o f a tre e branch? O f course , you wer e born fro m you r mother' s body . As a resul t o f th e connectio n betwee n you r fathe r an d mother, your father' s sper m fertilize d you r mother' s egg , and you gre w bigge r an d bigge r ove r th e month s insid e you r mother's womb , unti l th e tim e cam e fo r yo u t o emerg e an d become a separat e huma n being . Thi s i s a n indisputabl e scientific fact . Bu t let us consider th e question a little further . Where d o huma n being s themselve s com e from ? Eve n now, nobody know s th e answer . No proo f i s anywhere to b e

THE FUNDAMENTAL S O F M I N D 5

5

found. Scienc e tell s u s tha t a primat e calle d Ramapitbecus was a direc t ancesto r o f th e huma n race ; thi s specie s ha d branched of f fro m Dryopithecus durin g th e Miocen e epoc h and differentiate d an d sprea d throughou t India , souther n China, East Africa, an d Europe in the Pliocene epoch. Never theless, "thoug h huma n being s have separated int o a consid erable numbe r o f races , the fac t tha t al l races ca n interbree d means tha t th e huma n rac e i s essentially one " {Seibutsugaku jiten [Dictionar y o f Biology] , 3r d edition , Iwanam i Shote n Publishers, p . 1226) . Th e India n Vedas, hymn s an d poem s which g o bac k som e 3,50 0 years , als o sa y tha t th e huma n race has existed fo r billion s o f years . The Christia n Bible , o n th e othe r hand , say s i n Genesi s 1:1 tha t "I n th e beginning , Go d create d Heave n an d Earth, " then, o n th e sixt h da y o f creation , "create d Ma n i n hi s ow n image" (1:27) . Th e Boo k o f Joh n i n th e Ne w Testamen t states, "I n th e beginnin g wa s th e Word , an d th e Wor d wa s with God , an d th e Word wa s God " (1:1 ) and , "Ther e wa s a man sen t fro m God , whos e nam e wa s John " (1:6) . Truly , human being s ar e oblivious o f thei r rea l origin . What i s clea r i s tha t on e perso n mus t b e bor n o f tw o others, each o f whom wa s likewise born o f tw o others . Afte r the sam e proces s ha s occurre d ove r thirt y generations , eac h person woul d theoreticall y hav e 536,870,912 ancestors . And if on e generatio n i s considere d t o b e twenty-fiv e years , ou r ancestors o f thirt y generation s ag o would hav e lived approx imately 75 0 year s ago . I f w e hypothesiz e tha t huma n being s emerged abou t on e billion years ago , we must al l be carryin g the bloo d o f countles s billion s o f ancestors . Zen, o n th e other hand , demand s directly , "Wha t wa s ou r own fac e befor e ou r mothe r an d fathe r wer e born? " O r i t

5 6 TH

E FUNDAMENTAL S O F M I N D

asks, "Wha t i s on e phras e o f th e Pre-Voic e (absolut e real ity)?" as in the seventh case recorded in the Blue Cliff Record (Chinese Pi-yen lu; Japanese Hekiganroku). Wher e were yo u before you parents were born? What di d you look like befor e your parent s wer e born ? A deep investigatio n o f thes e ques tions reveals that the essential Self has no form, n o character istics, tha t th e tru e Sel f i s "empty. " Thi s i s th e cru x o f th e problem, tha t ou r tru e for m i s without odor , color , taste , o r touch. I t transcend s tim e an d space , dwellin g i n a plac e beyond al l phenomena l appearance . Gradually , w e lear n t o accept thi s an d gro w t o understand , t o th e ver y depth s o f our being , tha t "emptiness " i s ou r tru e state , ou r ultimat e reality. This is no mer e concept, bu t somethin g that i s understood physically a s well. This is what I mean by a "conclusiv e experience o f emptiness. " I t is not s o difficult afte r all , is it? TWO EPISTEMOLOGICA L VIEW S CONCERNIN G REALIT Y

Let us discuss now what i t means to understand "emptiness " as our tru e state, not just a s a concept but with al l our being , which i s to say, to have a conclusive experience of emptiness . It is incorrect t o think that viewing the totality of phenomen a is t o exercis e th e function s o f th e ey e alone , separat e fro m the rest of the body. Similarly, if we wish to hear soun d i n its totality, w e canno t separat e th e ea r fro m th e bod y an d rely upon i t alone . Sight , hearing , smell , taste , touch—al l o f th e five senses—ar e n o mor e tha n window s tha t allo w huma n beings to make contac t wit h th e outside world . There ar e tw o broa d theorie s concernin g th e natur e o f knowledge an d ideas . I n A Treatise of Human Nature (1739), written whe n h e was twenty-six, David Hum e states ,

THE FUNDAMENTAL S O F M I N D 5

7

"The idea s I for m ar e exac t representation s o f th e impres sions I felt " (Everyman' s Librar y edition , vol . 1 , p . 12) . I n other words, we "feel " th e reality o f the outer world throug h our senses , an d wha t w e "feel " ar e ou r ideas . He goe s o n t o say, "This , then, is the first principle I establish i n the scienc e of huma n nature " (p . 16) . This i s th e famou s bundl e theor y of epistemology , a branc h o f philosophy . Thi s vie w wa s overturned b y Immanuel Kant , a lecturer a t the University of Konigsberg, i n hi s Kritik der reinen Vernunft (Critiqu e o f Pure Reason) , wher e h e wrote , "Afte r all , huma n being s d o not kno w wha t exist s outsid e themselves . Thing s i n them selves [Din g a n sich] , whic h transcen d th e object s o f sensua l perception, contac t an d stimulat e huma n sensations , wher e human being s construc t th e outsid e world. " Thi s i s Kant' s equally famou s theor y o f epistemology . Because dog s hav e a sens e o f smel l thousand s o f time s more sensitiv e tha n tha t o f huma n beings , the y ar e abl e t o sniff ou t drug s hidde n i n luggage , an d becaus e bird s hav e a sense o f hearin g thousand s o f time s mor e acut e tha n huma n beings, they ca n reac t t o sound s tha t ar e inaudible t o peopl e and fly of f simultaneously . I remembe r readin g i n Professo r Shinohara's psycholog y tex t mor e tha n fift y year s ag o tha t human being s ca n hea r sound s wit h a frequenc y o f betwee n thirty an d thirt y thousan d oscillation s a second; thi s is called their auditor y range . Thi s mean s tha t th e huma n sense s ar e extremely limite d an d unabl e t o catc h al l tha t exist s i n th e outer world . Nobod y ha s eve r bee n abl e t o refut e Kant' s theory, bu t tha t i s n o reaso n t o believ e i t t o b e absolutel y correct. Directly afte r producin g his Critique of Pure Reason, Kant wrot e Prolegomena, i n th e prefac e o f whic h h e com mented, "Peopl e wil l judg e th e Critique of Pure Reason im -

58 TH

E FUNDAMENTAL S O F M I N D

properly . . . [saying ] tha t i t i s dry , difficul t t o understand , against al l accepte d idea s and , abov e all , verbose." H e con tended tha t "Th e Critique of Pure Reason i s a completel y new kin d o f scholarshi p an d n o on e befor e ha s eve r con ceived o f such " (" . . . e s ein e gan z neu e Wissenschaf t sei , von welche r nieman d auc h nu r de n Gedanke n vorhe r gefass t hatte" {Immanuel Kanfs Werke, vol . 4 , Verla g Dr . A . H . Gerstenberg Hildesheim , 1913 , p. 10) . However, th e cor e of Critique of Pure Reason, th e theor y o f knowledge , ha d al ready bee n expresse d mor e tha n tw o thousan d year s pre viously b y th e Buddha . Kan t ha d n o reaso n t o b e conceite d about wha t h e ha d discovered , thoug h o f cours e h e wa s probably completel y ignoran t o f th e fact . Kant's theorie s wer e ignore d b y th e Germa n Kar l Marx , who preferre d Hume' s empiricism . Mar x employe d th e bun dle theor y i n hi s Misere de la pbilosophie (Th e Povert y o f Philosophy, 1847) , writte n whe n h e wa s twenty-nine , an d made i t th e basi s fo r a systemati c theory . Marx , th e natural born revolutionary , use d Hume' s theor y strategicall y a s th e theoretical basi s to stimulat e revolution . But I hav e bee n derailed . Le t u s retur n t o ou r discussio n of "emptiness. " TO REALIZ E EMPTINES S I S T O HAV E TH E ABILIT Y TO CHANG E FAT E

To hav e th e conclusiv e experienc e o f emptines s i s t o shif t one's point of view from th e limited, physical self to the grea t universe (emptiness) . Thi s migh t als o b e expresse d a s seein g emptiness withi n th e depth s o f one' s ow n mind . T o realiz e emptiness i s to smas h th e selfish an d self-centere d conscious -

THE FUNDAMENTAL S O F M I N D 5

9

ness an d t o hav e th e groun d o f th e min d vanis h lik e mis t before th e su n int o th e vastnes s o f th e universe . Whe n th e mind's groun d vanishe s i n this way, we realize that th e min d has neither insid e nor outside . Today, Buddhis m ha s virtuall y disappeare d fro m India , surviving onl y i n Sr i Lanka . I n India , Hinduis m i s virtuall y supreme. One o f the holiest books of Hinduism i s the Bhagavad Gita. I posses s a copy , i n th e origina l an d i n Englis h translation, give n m e b y a youn g India n alon g wit h severa l other books . Unlike the Upanishads, th e Bhagavad Gita doe s not for m par t o f th e Vedas. Interestingly , th e Bhagavad Gita describes th e stat e o f min d o f on e wh o has , i n on e expres sion, "realize d emptiness, " or , i n another , "attaine d enlight enment." O f particula r importanc e i s the sentence , "Distinc tions suc h a s insid e an d outsid e d o no t exis t fo r him " {Bhagavad Gita, Tapovana m Publishin g House , 1965 , p . 342). I n Hinduism , a s i n Buddhism , n o distinctio n i s mad e between th e inside an d th e outside o f mind . The text goes o n to say , "On e undivided , interminabl e consciousnes s i s fo r him" (p . 342). To have the conclusive experienc e o f emptines s is to arriv e at a stat e i n whic h ther e i s no distinctio n betwee n th e insid e and outsid e o f th e mind , n o sens e o f discriminatio n a t all ; consciousness o f eternit y exist s therein . I t i s significan t tha t the groun d o f though t i s no t withi n th e mind , bu t vanishe s into the great universe. Paribhavana, whic h stai n the mind a s residual menta l habits , becom e completel y irrelevant . Whe n thought rise s freel y an d withou t restriction , fat e ca n b e formed equall y freely . Ther e i s no t th e slightes t obstructio n remaining withi n th e mind . "Thi s stat e o f Pur e Conscious ness i s th e goa l o f life, " say s th e Bhagavad Gita (p . 181) .

6 0 TH

E FUNDAMENTAL S O F M I N D

Please d o no t misunderstand . T o realiz e emptines s conclu sively and attai n a firm understanding o f one' s ow n principl e of actio n i s to b e abl e t o liv e life i n enlightene d freedom . T o become attache d t o th e conclusiv e experienc e o f emptiness , however, i s a for m o f spiritua l sickness . Havin g suc h a n experience, an d thereb y becomin g liberate d i n though t an d action, enable s on e to mol d hi s or he r fate . Schopenhauer asserte d tha t becaus e huma n being s ar e bound b y an inner principle {paribhavana, perhaps) , they ar e unable t o chang e thei r character . I t i s therefore strang e tha t he wrot e i n th e sam e work , "However , fat e ca n improv e itself" ("Da s Schicksa l abe r kan n sic h bessern" ; Collected Works, vol . 4, p. 380). He throw s thi s comment in suddenly , but nowher e explain s th e reasonin g behin d it . T o m y mind , it is a contradiction an d a mistake . In th e boo k Loving Men for All the Right Reasons: Women's Patterns of Intimacy (Del l Publishing , 1982 ) Ye huda Ni r an d Bonni e Masli n discus s th e questio n o f ho w women ca n attai n tru e happines s b y discoverin g thei r "pat terns" (paribhavana) an d reformin g them . Characte r i s variable, th e author s say , an d fat e i s therefor e clearl y variabl e too. Wha t I particularl y admir e ar e thei r statement s tha t people ac t accordin g t o unconsciou s desires , tha t thei r ac tions ar e determine d b y a fundamenta l principle , tha t th e discovery o f th e tru e sel f bring s abou t th e possibilit y o f change, an d tha t askin g th e righ t question s abou t one' s pas t and upbringin g ca n reveal the source of conscious habits tha t adhere t o th e sel f an d th e roots o f one' s unconsciou s desires . There is a detailed discussio n abou t ho w fat e ca n be change d that extend s fo r 27 3 pages .

THE FUNDAMENTAL S O F MIND 6

1

TRANSCENDENTAL C O N S C I O U S N E S S

We normall y liv e withi n knowledg e base d upo n sensation . This means seein g people o r things, hearing sounds , smellin g odors, tastin g food , an d understandin g th e size s o f object s through ou r senses. This i s called knowledg e base d o n experience. I n additio n t o thi s experientia l understanding , how ever, w e als o posses s transcendenta l understandin g tha t i s not directl y relate d t o th e senses . Thi s include s recognitio n of philosophica l theories , fo r example . A t th e sam e time , human being s possess a transcendental consciousness (Trans zendentales Bewusstsein) . Thi s i s a consciousnes s that , though existin g i n the actual worl d o f sensory knowledge , is neither boun d no r regulate d b y the object s o f sensation . I n this sense , it has no connection wit h thos e objects . There are many peopl e wh o hav e ric h experience s o f transcendenta l consciousness i n their dail y lives , yet who do not consciously take hol d o f the m o r conside r the m o n a persona l basis . Transcendental consciousnes s i s also calle d "pur e conscious ness." I t is of great importanc e tha t philosopher s o f the past have regarde d th e conscious comprehensio n o f transcenden tal, o r pure, consciousnes s an d a devotion t o living within i t as huma n perfection . W e can say that th e goa l o f lif e i s to actualize th e self, o r to perfect ou r personality. T o ask wha t this "self " o r "personality " is , however, lead s u s into diffi cult, controversia l territory , fo r it does not denote ou r physical body, but refers rathe r t o the idea o f spirit . It is highly desirable that we should be able to comprehen d this transcendental, pur e consciousnes s correctl y i n an awar e manner i n our own lives. This i s quite simpl e t o do once we

6 2 TH

E FUNDAMENTAL S O F M I N D

have realized it, but in the unenlightened stat e transcendenta l consciousness canno t b e comprehende d easil y withi n th e twenty-four hour s o f ever y day . Ze n Maste r Hakui n wrot e in hi s Zazen wasan (Poem s o f Ze n Meditation ) tha t "i t i s like crying out fo r thirs t i n the midst o f water. " Thi s teache s us that th e transcendental consciousnes s i s extremely clos e t o us, bu t w e ten d no t t o conside r thi s poin t i n relatio n t o ou r daily experience . Forgive a persona l not e here , bu t on e da y whe n I wa s about twenty-tw o an d stayin g a t Unganj i Temple , I wa s alone and gazin g at the forest i n the mountain fastnesses . M y eyes were watching it , but I realized tha t n o consciousnes s o f it had appeare d o n th e scree n o f m y mind. Though I saw th e mountain, I wa s no t consciou s o f th e mountain . I saw , bu t did no t see , the mountain . That' s it ! I realized. I had discov ered th e existenc e o f m y transcendental , pur e consciousness . I als o understoo d a s a resul t tha t I ha d alway s live d withi n that consciousness . Onc e understood, i t turned ou t t o b e jus t daily experience , o f n o mor e valu e tha n win d tha t passe s from th e body. Now fo r th e first time I had me t the Sel f tha t is completely differentiate d fro m sensua l experience. It was a valuable discover y abou t m y inne r lif e tha t shoul d no t b e lightly overlooked . I t mean t tha t I had com e acros s th e Self , the very fountainhea d o f m y mind . I mus t stress , however , tha t constan t repetitio n o f th e experience wa s necessary , a thousan d times , te n thousan d times, a hundred thousan d times , an uncountabl e numbe r o f times. B y repeatin g ou r realizatio n o f th e transcendental , pure consciousness , I cam e t o realiz e tha t w e mus t becom e liberated no t onl y fro m external , sensory-base d cognitiv e matters, but als o from internal , mental images. I also came t o

THE FUNDAMENTAL S O F M I N D 6

3

understand throug h experienc e tha t I was i n th e "objectles s concentration o f mind, " a stat e i n whic h ou r whol e bein g rests i n peac e an d tranquillity . Thi s I understoo d t o b e th e "fourth stag e o f concentration " (dhydna) tha t th e India n Buddhist philosophe r Vasubandh u wrot e abou t i n hi s Abhidharmakosavydkhyd. I attaine d thi s stat e a t th e ag e o f twenty-three, aroun d th e en d o f summer , an d m y enlighten ment wa s acknowledge d b y Uek i Roshi . I ha d lon g bee n perplexed b y Kant' s inclusio n o f th e concep t o f "transcen dental consciousness " withi n th e framewor k o f hi s philoso phy, an d I only graduall y cam e t o realiz e tha t i t represente d the influence o f Vedi c thought o n hi s ideas. The Vedas spea k of a realm o f transcendental consciousnes s extendin g beyon d sensory consciousness . KEEP THI S I N M I N D !

Do you watch you r min d intently? There are, in fact, surpris ingly fe w peopl e wh o do . Th e min d i s withou t shap e o r form, colo r o r smell . I t certainl y ha s n o weight . Peopl e d o not, therefore , generall y conside r observin g th e min d itsel f objectively. Physica l object s hav e a certai n expanse , bu t th e mind doe s no t occup y an y designate d space . I remembe r reading i n a psycholog y tex t b y Professo r Shinohar a a s a youth tha t th e min d ha d onl y th e functio n o f "intent " ("in tendieren"). Lookin g bac k now , I thin k th e professo r wa s probably influence d her e b y Husserl' s phenomenology . Ze n says, "Th e min d i s shapeles s an d penetrate s th e te n direc tions." Thi s seem s t o positio n th e min d withou t addin g th e limitation o f "intention. " Husser l divide d the mind itself int o two poles— noesis, th e proces s o f perceiving , an d noema,

64 TH

E FUNDAMENTAL S O F MIN D

the objec t o f perception—an d attempte d t o elucidat e th e relationship betwee n them . Havin g alread y touche d o n thi s subject earlier , I will no t g o an y furthe r int o Kant' s rebutta l of Hume' s epistemology , a s describe d i n A Treatise of Human Nature. I woul d like , however , t o commen t tha t i f w e do no t accep t Hume' s epistemology , w e mus t accep t Bud dhist philosoph y an d it s teachin g tha t th e min d represent s the ultimate universa l reality . Buddhism, an d Ze n i n particu lar, place s grea t stres s o n seekin g ou t wha t th e min d shoul d be. Since the state of min d determine s everything , it is hardly surprising tha t suc h attentio n shoul d hav e been paid t o it . About seve n hundre d year s ag o ther e live d i n Japa n a great Ze n pries t name d Myocho , who i s better know n b y hi s posthumous title , Koze n Dait o Kokushi . H e wa s a sever e master, whic h i s exemplifie d b y th e manne r o f hi s death . When clos e t o deat h a t th e ag e o f fifty-five an d suffering from a n injur y t o hi s lef t le g that prevente d hi m fro m doin g zazen, h e brok e hi s lef t kne e i n orde r t o plac e hi s le g o n hi s right thig h an d died , bleeding, in the meditation posture . Hi s blood-stained rob e i s kep t a t Daitokuj i Templ e i n Kyot o t o this day . Myocho i s th e autho r o f a famou s se t o f Dying Admonitions, whic h w e use d t o chan t a t Unganj i Templ e durin g zazen. Th e first par t o f th e Admonitions wa s compile d a t a later tim e fro m excerpt s o f Myocho' s talks . I t read s a s fol lows: "Yo u hav e al l come to gathe r a t this mountain [Daito kuji] fo r th e sak e o f th e Way, no t fo r th e sak e o f clothin g o r food. Yo u hav e bodie s whic h mus t b e clothed, an d yo u hav e mouths whic h mus t b e fed . Bu t what yo u mus t do , ove r an d above that , i s to confron t tha t whic h yo u d o no t understan d at ever y hou r o f th e da y an d t o see k afte r i t withou t rest ,

THE FUNDAMENTAL S O F M I N D 6

5

whether yo u ar e comin g o r going . Time speed s awa y lik e a n arrow; d o no t wast e you r tim e i n frivolou s thought . Kee p this in mind! " Keep wha t i n mind ? M y opinio n i s tha t h e mean t wha t Husserl call s noesis, th e mind' s proces s o f perceiving . Noema, th e objec t o f perception , ha s a multitud e o f appear ances an d i s o f n o valu e i n a seren e searc h fo r mind . W e should confron t th e working s o f th e min d itsel f an d b e abl e to reflect , "Ah , no w I a m gettin g excited, " o r "No w I a m feeling greedy, " o r "No w I am deceivin g mysel f wit h logic, " or " I mus t judg e mysel f objectivizin g th e functionin g o f th e mind, an d b y doin g so , purify an d deepe n m y mind. " Wha t do you think ?

C H O O S I N G YOU R DESTIN Y Choices Tha t Determin e a Person' s Destin y

At th e en d o f m y fourt h yea r o f elementar y schoo l I move d with m y parent s int o th e cente r o f Kanuma , fro m Kamita machi t o Kamiyoko-machi . M y fathe r alway s sa w th e mov e as a grea t turnin g poin t i n hi s life . Formerl y a beddin g mer chant operatin g o n th e outskirt s o f th e city , h e ha d no w moved int o it s center . H e wa s filled wit h a grea t sens e o f achievement an d success . Ou r ne w hous e wa s a ro w hous e like ou r forme r dwelling , bu t wherea s w e ha d ha d onl y tw o rooms before , w e no w ha d almos t doubl e tha t spac e o n tw o floors. Directl y opposit e u s wa s a radi o shop , an d nex t t o i t was a pharmacy specializin g i n women's medicines . The pharmacis t wa s on e o f ou r district' s intellectuals . H e often too k m e o n hi s bik e t o g o mushroo m gatherin g o n th e

66 TH

E FUNDAMENTAL S O F M I N D

hillside. I knew hi m fo r almos t twenty-fiv e years , from 192 9 to 1953 , an d throughou t tha t tim e h e brough t u p tim e an d time again th e subject o f his actions when h e had worked fo r a larg e pharmaceutical maker . H e neve r altere d th e prices of the products produce d b y the sectio n h e was responsibl e for , but maintaine d a lo w budge t b y lowerin g th e qualit y o f th e ingredients employed . H e wa s prou d o f th e fac t tha t h e ha d won prais e fro m hi s superior s fo r consistentl y attainin g th e designated profit . The reason I have never forgotten this , though i t happene d more tha n sixt y year s ago , i s tha t th e stor y wa s a caus e o f great concer n t o me , youn g a s I was, an d tha t i t stil l come s back t o me . Wh y wa s m y neighbo r s o prou d o f wha t ap peared t o m e t o b e shee r deception , substitutin g inferio r goods without th e customers' knowledge? I t took a long time and a grea t dea l o f experienc e fo r m e t o find a n answe r t o this question . I s not th e roya l roa d t o makin g a living givin g the customer th e best possible goods an d service s without hi s or he r eve n bein g awar e o f it ? I f th e custome r doe s find out, h e canno t hel p bu t b e profoundl y grateful . Wha t i s th e psychological stat e o f a person wh o coul d boas t abou t doin g the exact opposite ? M y conclusio n was that people, in select ing thei r actions , d o no t d o s o o n th e basi s o f a cultivate d value judgment . Man y peopl e disregar d an y valu e judgmen t at al l an d selec t a particula r actio n mor e ellipticall y an d instinctively. Moreover , fe w woul d thin k ther e i s anythin g disgraceful abou t doin g wha t h e did . I f th e majorit y o f peo ple think lik e that, wha t i s the best thing fo r u s to do ? Most people live their lives selecting a constantly changin g range o f behavior . The y d o no t trea t thei r ow n behavio r a s

THE FUNDAMENTAL S O F M I N D 6

7

the objec t o f a cultivate d valu e judgment . O n th e contrary , to do s o would perhap s endange r thei r way o f life. It is much like drivin g a car . Th e brak e an d th e accelerato r shoul d no t be operate d afte r carefu l judgmen t but , rather , instinctively , without to o muc h thought . Th e subconsciou s doe s no t filter judgments, bu t select s wha t i s practical. Thus , i f w e wis h t o act i n the bes t possible way a t al l times, what shoul d w e do ? We mus t plan t i n ou r subconsciou s a philosoph y tha t pro vides a standar d fo r producin g prope r behavior . Thi s i s a parting o f th e way s tha t determine s a person' s destiny . Thi s standard i s achieved throug h repeatin g the decision s reache d through meditation . Ze n consider s al l thi s t o b e a questio n of a person's environmen t an d circumstances . The pharmacis t graduall y sol d les s an d less , an d h e an d his family finally disappeare d fro m Kanuma . RUIN FRO M A M O M E N T ' S MISTAKE N JUDGMEN T

I recentl y rea d a n articl e i n a weekl y magazin e abou t a person wh o ha d resigne d fro m th e Toky o Distric t Publi c Prosecutor Office , wher e h e was highly regarde d a s an excel lent prosecutor , t o ente r privat e practic e a s a lawyer . A s a n auditor fo r a financial organization , h e committed frau d an d embezzlement an d wa s jailed . Ther e i s a surprisin g numbe r of such people in the world. This man had studied intensivel y to ge t int o college , an d the n agai n t o pas s th e extremel y difficult judicia l examination . H e ha d mad e a futur e fo r himself i n his field and the n worke d har d a s a lawyer. Ye t h e ended up a criminal an d was thrown int o jail. In short, al l his hard wor k wa s merel y fo r th e sak e o f becomin g a criminal .

68 TH

E FUNDAMENTAL S O F MIN D

Whether yo u agre e wit h m y interpretatio n o r not , ther e ar e certainly man y peopl e leadin g live s simila r t o his . Ho w would yo u interpre t thi s phenomenon ? Why shoul d i t happen that , i n the mistaken judgmen t o f a moment, al l a person' s effort s ar e nullified ? Hav e yo u eve r given thi s questio n seriou s consideration ? D o yo u hav e bio logical knowledg e tha t man y differen t type s o f "mind, " in cluding tha t o f Go d a s wel l a s tha t o f th e devil , hav e bee n transmitted t o a person's subconscious ? Thi s is the stat e o f a living huma n being . A life' s wor k ca n b e destroye d i n a n instant whe n a perso n i s jailed . Histor y i s filled wit h suc h instances. Wha t doe s i t al l mean ? Wh y d o suc h thing s hap pen? An d give n tha t the y d o happen , wha t ca n b e don e t o rectify th e situation ? Despit e th e enormit y o f th e issue , ver y few people regar d i t seriously an d striv e to solv e it. Biologically, al l livin g being s preserve th e tota l experienc e of thei r specie s i n thei r individua l bodies . W e mus t realiz e just wha t a mileston e thi s discover y wa s i n moder n biology , and th e implication s i t holds . I t i s consequentl y a grea t mis take t o thin k tha t ou r mind s hol d onl y ou r ow n experiences . Deep i n ou r consciousnes s li e untol d millenni a o f inherite d consciousness o f al l the life that ha s gone before us . We mus t therefore understan d tha t ou r stat e o f min d i s like a haunte d house i n whic h anythin g a t al l i s capabl e o f jumpin g ou t at us. Two thousan d five hundred year s ago , the Buddh a taugh t the Nobl e Eightfol d Path : correc t understanding , correc t thought, correc t speech , correc t action , correc t livelihood , correct effort , correc t mindfulness , an d correc t concentra tion. Thes e eight , h e said , shoul d b e practiced a s th e virtue s of dail y life . A famou s vers e says : "D o n o evil , d o onl y

THE FUNDAMENTAL S O F M I N D 6

9

good, purif y you r min d limitlessly : thi s i s th e teachin g o f the buddhas. " This teachin g concernin g th e purificatio n o f th e min d is , in m y view , o f enormousl y dee p significance . T o hol d firmly to th e attitud e tha t w e mus t a t al l time s purif y th e min d limitlessly i s t o preven t catastroph e fro m fallin g upo n us . A moment's carelessnes s obstructs th e mind's purity an d allow s one's ow n demon s t o b e calle d forth . W e hea r man y storie s of hig h governmen t official s an d prominen t politician s bein g jailed; I d o no t thin k thi s result s fro m an y wis h o n thei r own par t t o becom e criminals . Wha t occur s i s a moment' s inattention, a slackenin g o f th e rein s o f th e mind , s o tha t the deep-seate d demon s ar e allowe d t o pou r forth . A lif e i s destroyed becaus e o f th e absenc e o f a tru e philosoph y (th e study o f living) i n a person's existence . C O M P R O M I S E O R DESTRUCTIO N O F TH E EGO ?

Some people see k work o n a self-employed basis , as lawyers, perhaps, o r a s public o r ta x accountants , whil e other s mak e their livin g b y bein g employe d i n larg e bank s o r corpora tions. In the latter case , the manne r i n which th e connection s between th e employe e an d hi s o r he r employe r ar e forme d and constitute d i s a fundamentall y importan t issu e i n th e course o f th e employee' s life . Thos e wh o prefe r t o b e self employed ar e vulnerabl e i n tha t the y mus t b e constantl y concerned wit h makin g money , fo r the y woul d starv e with out clients . Whe n the y acquir e greate r stability , th e acquisi tion o f mone y i s no longe r suc h a pressing need, bu t becaus e human being s tend t o b e creatures o f habit , the y find i t quit e difficult t o escap e fro m thei r forme r compulsio n an d ten d t o

7 0 TH

E FUNDAMENTAL S O F M I N D

continue desirin g money . Compan y employees , o n th e othe r hand, have the benefit o f not having to face starvation (unles s of cours e th e compan y goe s bankrupt) ; bu t they , i n turn , must b e constantl y attentiv e t o th e relation s betwee n th e company an d themselves , an d betwee n themselve s an d thei r superiors an d subordinates . This is an equall y grea t burden . I started ou t independently , first a s a licensed ta x accoun tant an d the n a s a certifie d publi c accountant , an d I wa s constantly expose d t o th e threa t o f starvatio n fo r th e first five o r si x years , sinc e I wa s force d t o mak e m y livin g i n a harsh economi c environment . Whic h pat h i s bes t fo r an y individual depend s o n his or her own personality an d talents , and o n a hos t o f othe r factors . I consequentl y conside r i t a mistake to make a simple, clear-cut judgment concerning thi s question withou t considerin g thes e variables . I have o n m y des k a t th e momen t a book calle d Problems of the Self b y Bernar d Williams , a lecture r i n philosoph y a t Cambridge Universit y wh o ha s als o taugh t a t Oxfor d an d Harvard an d i s a Fellow o f th e Britis h Academy . I n his boo k he take s u p th e subjec t o f th e huma n Sel f an d discusse s i t from fifteen differen t angles . Th e first chapte r i s entitle d "Personal Identit y an d Individuality " an d the fifteenth "Ego ism an d Altruism. " I t i s hardly surprisin g that , a s a produc t of a Christia n culture , h e doe s no t adop t th e Buddhis t per spective o f th e ultimat e onenes s o f sel f an d others . H e does , however, advanc e fro m th e conclusio n tha t egois m i s unethical i n tha t h e says , "I f everyon e wer e lik e him, h e coul d no t exist" (p . 252). Considering ho w a person's eg o shoul d relat e t o th e com pany h e o r sh e work s for , I thin k ther e ar e tw o form s o f modus vivendi : livin g accordin g t o a serie s o f compromises ,

THE FUNDAMENTAL S O F M I N D 7

1

with constan t adjustmen t betwee n th e desire s o f th e individ ual an d thos e o f th e company ; o r destroyin g th e ide a o f th e self s o completel y tha t th e desire s o f th e compan y becom e the desire s o f th e self . O f course , th e situatio n i s differen t when th e company' s attitude s ru n fundamentall y counte r t o the individual' s sens e o f justic e an d vie w o f ho w corpora tions shoul d behave . Whe n a firm i s involve d i n fraudulen t or corrup t activities , i n particular , somethin g w e hav e bee n hearing a grea t dea l abou t i n th e new s recently , i t i s onl y natural tha t peopl e o f goo d conscienc e shoul d refus e t o b e associated wit h suc h action s an d tha t the y shoul d hav e n o recourse bu t t o qui t a s soo n a s possibl e an d find a mor e worthwhile job . Of th e two choices , whether t o compromis e continuall y o r to mak e th e compan y par t o f one' s ego , 1 think th e secon d promises mor e advancement , sinc e a person wh o live s in thi s way i s greatly respected b y the company . Nevertheless , he o r she mus t the n b e abl e t o surmoun t an y difficultie s resultin g from conflicts wit h th e ego thus abandoned . I belong t o th e generatio n tha t remember s prewa r society , the generatio n tha t wa s brough t u p t o pu t socia l demand s first an d th e sel f last . Fire d b y suc h slogan s as , "W e won' t think o f ourselve s unti l w e wi n (th e war), " w e woul d forc e our individua l desire s dow n an d drea m o f servin g ou r coun try t o hel p i t achiev e victory . I d o not , however , mea n thi s kind o f self-abasemen t whe n I talk abou t destroyin g th e ego . That i s of a completely differen t dimension . Hakuin's master , Ol d Ma n Shoju , wa s a sever e Ze n teacher wh o live d i n a smal l templ e i n wha t i s no w Iiyam a (Nagano Prefecture ) calle d Shojuan , o r Shoju' s Hermitage . His ow n teache r ha d bee n Shid o Bunan , a forme r innkeepe r

7 2 TH

E FUNDAMENTALS O F M I N D

at th e way station o f Sekigahara . Hi s poem abou t th e dewdrop reflectin g th e scarle t leave s o f autumn , whic h I hav e already quote d above , reveal s hi m t o hav e bee n a ma n of utter transparency , reflectin g th e world abou t hi m as a dewdrop reflect s whateve r surfac e i t occupies. Being transparen t is what I mean b y destroying the ego. The dewdrop i s scarlet only becaus e i t rest s o n a scarle t leaf ; i n reality , i t i s a transparent dro p o f water unstaine d b y the slightest spec k of dust. Ze n calls the state o f transparency th e state of mind of the enlightene d person . When I recommend tha t you destroy the ego , I a m speakin g i n a manne r categoricall y differen t from th e people who used to encourage us to forget ou r own needs and serve our country . Destroying the ego is not the goal only of people leadin g a religious life , bu t i t i s the highes t purpos e i n lif e fo r every body. Th e philosopher Dr . Gusta v Radbruc h o f Berli n Uni versity ha s said , fo r example , "On e gains i n personalit y b y means o f ego-forgettin g objectivity " ("Zu r Personlichkei t wird ma n durc h selbstvergessen e Sachlichkeit" ; Rechtspkilosopbie, 8t h ed., p. 149). Here, "personality " doe s not refe r to th e characteristic s o f a singl e perso n s o muc h a s t o a perfected personality , a n adep t o r master . Th e sam e ide a appears i n Hege l (Phdnomenologie des Geistes, p . 413). In other words , whethe r i n th e Eas t o r th e West , th e highes t way o f livin g fo r a person i s considered t o be forgetting th e self, th e ego, completely an d living lif e withou t th e slightes t stain o n the mind. Thi s i s not a philosoph y o f self-sacrifice ; it means , rather , usin g one' s abilitie s wit h facilit y an d free dom. I think an y person wh o has attaine d thi s state , wher ever h e or she is, should b e honored most , eve n i n corpora tions.

THE FUNDAMENTAL S O F M I N D 7

3

How i s it possible t o liv e life with th e eg o destroyed ? I t is, in fact, th e easiest of things; it only seems excessively difficul t to thos e wh o d o no t understan d it . I t mean s t o discove r th e Self tha t i s withou t notio n o r concept , t o experienc e an d master it . Whe n mos t peopl e se e th e moon , a preconceive d idea o f i t spring s immediatel y t o mind . Whe n the y se e a mountain, th e wor d "mountain " form s i n thei r conscious ness. Al l th e same , i t i s possibl e t o loo k a t th e moo n o r a mountain withou t formin g an y concept of them. It is possible to hav e concepts ; i t i s equall y possibl e no t t o hav e them . Strictly speaking , it takes a n overwhelmingl y lon g time t o b e able t o liv e withou t formin g impression s an d conception s regarding th e object s o f life . Ze n expresse s th e spiritua l phe nomenon o f livin g consciousl y withou t concept s phenome nologically throug h th e koa n o f th e "barrier. " Thos e wh o live thei r live s unconsciousl y withou t conceptualizin g th e objects o f lif e ar e ver y numerous . Ther e is , however, a wid e difference whe n i t come s t o thos e wh o d o s o consciously . I t is surprisin g ho w simpl e thi s actuall y is , onc e i t ha s bee n explained. Ye t thos e wh o ca n practic e i t consciousl y ar e fe w and ver y accomplished ; the y liv e apar t fro m notio n an d concept, experiencin g th e worl d directly . Nagarjuna , th e great Indian Buddhis t philosopher, sai d that if we can experi ence thi s realm , w e ca n thro w of f th e bod y an d roa m freel y through it . This is what i t means to surmoun t an y difficultie s resulting fro m conflict s wit h th e abandone d ego . WHY COMPAN Y EMPLOYEE S FAI L

There ar e fou r reason s behin d people' s failur e i n a compan y situation: First , the y ar e thoroughl y self-centered ; second ,

74 TH

E FUNDAMENTAL S O F M I N D

they ar e absolut e misers ; third , the y ar e completel y lazy ; or fourth , the y tak e n o notic e o f thei r surrounding s o r o f other people . The self-centered employee. Wha t ar e yo u talkin g about , making th e Sel f int o nothing ? W e al l lik e ourselve s best , don't we ? Whe n th e block s ar e down , it' s ever y ma n fo r himself! W e shoul d liv e fo r ourselves , fro m firs t t o last . What's th e poin t o f pushin g ourselve s ove r somethin g tha t won't profi t u s directly? W e have to protect ourselve s first i n matters tha t ca n profi t us , howeve r importan t o r unimpor tant. Peopl e migh t cal l u s egocentric , bu t wh o care s abou t their criticism ? I kno w it' s righ t t o b e self-centered ; what' s the point o f bein g neither on e way nor th e other, neither self centered no r altruistic ? Nobod y ca n b e punishe d fo r bein g self-centered. Howeve r muc h peopl e migh t loo k dow n o n people lik e us , th e stat e i s never goin g t o execut e u s fo r ou r egocentricity. Consume r good s ar e al l fo r ou r ow n benefit . Using th e telephon e fo r fre e i s th e same . Howeve r unjus t some thin g migh t be , i f i t isn' t concerne d wit h ou r ow n profit, w e should jus t keep quie t an d avoi d gettin g involved . The miserly employee. Haven' t the y alway s sai d tha t peopl e who laug h ove r a cen t wil l cr y ove r a cent . W e shoul d tak e very goo d car e no t t o us e mor e mone y tha n w e hav e to . W e live in a monetary economy , an d thi s mean s that , when al l is said an d done , money's th e most important thing . Every cen t counts. Wha t abou t th e ol d proverb , "Ever y pickl e make s a nickle"? That' s th e wa y societ y is . I t isn' t a si n t o wan t t o save mone y rathe r tha n wast e i t o n othe r people . O n th e contrary, hasn' t makin g mone y bee n considere d a virtu e

THE FUNDAMENTAL S O F M I N D 7

5

from ancien t times ? Peopl e ma y sa y behin d ou r bac k tha t we're stingy , bu t they'r e wron g an d ar e jus t bad-mouthin g us. We don't hav e to take any notice of them. We don't min d smoking cigarette s an d drinkin g coffee , a s lon g a s i t doesn' t go agains t ou r principl e o f savin g ou r ow n money . Afte r all, th e founde r o f Matsushit a Electri c Industria l Compan y wasn't bor n wealthy . I f yo u ar e worrie d abou t embar rassment o r you r reputation , you'l l neve r b e abl e t o sav e money. Yo u sa y it' s importan t t o thro w yoursel f int o every thing yo u do . Well , w e shoul d thro w ourselve s int o bein g misers. The lazy employee. Howeve r har d I pus h myself , m y com pany's neve r goin g t o b e numbe r on e i n Japan o r th e world . However har d I work , m y salar y i s neve r goin g t o b e a hundred time s what i t is now. All I want to do is live withou t attracting anyone' s attention , withou t bein g lat e fo r work , and withou t gettin g to o involve d i n m y job . I f I am noticed , I might find mysel f i n a predicament, bein g give n som e kin d of heav y responsibilit y I don' t wan t an d bein g force d t o overexert myself . I f I com e i n late , I'l l als o b e notice d an d perhaps find m y jo b o n th e line . Whatever, I' m neve r goin g to advanc e al l tha t muc h b y workin g hard . S o I'l l jus t lear n to preten d I'v e go t m y nos e t o th e grindstone , an d the n I'l l be al l right . Th e objectiv e i s t o lea d a pleasan t lif e a s a salaried worke r b y bein g shrewd . Surely , yo u can' t as k an y more o f lif e tha n t o understan d thi s an d liv e i n thi s way ? Getting by without attractin g anyone' s attention , never bein g late, an d no t workin g to o hard—that' s m y advic e fo r an y salaried worker . Stick t o thos e thre e principles , an d you'l l be fine.

76 TH

E FUNDAMENTAL S O F M I N D

The arrogant employee. M y famil y ar e descende d directl y from th e Su n Goddess . I' m a s differen t fro m yo u a s a carro t from a turnip . I' m no t intereste d i n al l th e turnip s aroun d me; th e socia l standin g o f thei r famil y i s simply to o differen t from mine . I haven't th e slightes t interes t i n anythin g abou t them. They'r e completel y beneat h m y consideration . I onl y care abou t m y ow n interests . Sinc e I am livin g in thi s world , however, i t i s natural tha t th e object s o f interes t wil l chang e at times . Still , I concentrat e o n the m an d ignor e th e rest . I don't suppos e th e presiden t an d th e director s kno w ho w I feel. It' s bette r tha t the y don't . It' s no t al l that eas y t o kno w what's insid e a person' s mind . I liv e m y lif e heedles s o f th e people an d thing s aroun d me . I believ e tha t i s th e bes t wa y to live . Not tha t anyone' s eve r written abou t it , of course . The abov e fou r type s d o not , o f course , represen t al l th e varieties o f worker , bu t the y ar e t o b e foun d i n ever y work place, an d the y wil l all , withou t doubt , fai l i n thei r careers . Sometimes, whe n onl y a paper' s widt h divide s tw o candi dates, this will become th e decidin g factor. No t man y peopl e realize from wha t minut e factor s decision s ar e made .

ATTAINING TRU E INSIGH T S o m e Thought s o n Attainin g Intuitiv e Powe r

We al l realiz e th e necessit y o f intuitiv e powe r i n ou r lives , but th e proble m i s determinin g ho w t o cultivat e it . I doub t there i s an y schoo l textboo k tha t teache s u s th e bes t wa y t o do so . I suppose n o on e write s textbook s abou t i t becaus e i t would b e a rather difficul t topi c t o cover , give n tha t i t i s no t

THE FUNDAMENTAL S O F M I N D 7

7

something tha t belong s t o th e objectiv e realm . Bu t doe s thi s mean tha t schoo l textbook s ten d t o b e concerne d onl y wit h human knowledg e an d attainin g th e object s o f tha t knowl edge, an d tha t the y consequentl y discus s onl y thos e thing s that ca n b e describe d objectively ? No t necessarily . Text books ar e writte n i n level s aime d a t student s wit h differen t abilities an d differen t degree s o f maturity . Eve n so, they ten d to b e writte n abou t wha t i s objectivel y eas y t o understand . The content s ma y b e mor e advance d o r abstract , i f thi s i s considered necessar y fo r th e mos t highl y skille d people . I n this sense, the reason nothin g i s written i n school texts abou t intuitive powe r i s tha t ther e i s n o absolut e standar d fo r judging thing s tha t canno t b e recorde d factuall y an d objec tively. This stil l leave s u s wit h th e questio n o f wha t intuitio n is . Intuition means , I think , a powe r tha t doe s no t nee d t o employ an y mediu m whe n on e has som e image o r judgment . People ten d t o us e word s t o represen t thei r images . La w students lear n t o us e the logi c of syllogism , which i s a classi cal metho d o f usin g th e mediu m o f word s t o arriv e a t deci sions. Intuition, o n th e othe r hand , doe s not us e words a s a n expedient. No t onl y doe s i t not us e words a s a medium fo r a judgment, bu t i t doe s no t emplo y expression s o r images , either. I t i s a n understandin g o f th e essenc e o f things , thei r direction an d ho w the y ar e likel y t o change , without relyin g on word s o r expressions . Thus , whe n w e observ e somethin g functioning i n a particula r plac e an d wonde r wha t i t is , we attemp t t o understan d i t b y comprehendin g it s presen t condition, observin g th e directio n i n whic h i t i s moving an d grasping th e significanc e o f it s tendenc y towar d chang e through intuition , withou t usin g word s o r expression s a s a

78 TH

E FUNDAMENTAL S O F M I N D

medium. Ther e i s obviousl y mor e tha n on e wa y o f doin g this. I f w e analyz e al l o f th e condition s o f ou r environmen t comprehensively, fo r example , w e shoul d b e abl e t o under stand them . Suc h a n analysi s woul d necessitat e a n almos t infinite numbe r o f examinations , however, suggestin g that, if the analysi s lack s comprehensiveness , ther e i s a rea l dange r that misunderstanding s migh t arise . I t i s i n an y even t virtu ally beyon d huma n abilit y t o mak e suc h a n analysis . Intu ition, o n th e othe r hand , doe s no t requir e th e mediu m o f words o r expressions , an d i t is consequently direct , straight forward, an d extremel y quick . Th e questio n thu s remain s how w e can mak e i t work fo r us . We hav e see n abov e ho w th e sixt h patriarc h Hui-nen g attained grea t enlightenmen t whe n hi s master , Hung- j en, spoke th e words , "Rais e [that ] though t withou t lettin g i t settle o n an y particula r thing. " Thus , th e phras e "withou t letting [thought ] settl e o n an y particula r thing " tell s u s w e must no t le t ou r mind s becom e attache d t o anything . "Rais e [that] thought " beg s th e questio n o f wha t kin d o f though t (expressed wit h th e characte r fo r "mind " i n th e original ) i s meant. "That " suggest s tha t a particula r typ e o f though t i s being specified, thoug h it s nature i s not, in fact, described . I n other words , whe n th e min d doe s no t attac h itsel f t o any thing, whe n i t i s no t fixed, i t i s i n a conditio n I would cal l the functionin g o f intuitiv e power . I f w e vie w i t i n thi s way , we ca n sa y tha t intuitio n i s a spiritua l powe r whic h huma n beings hav e alway s possessed . I t include s th e powe r o f fore sight, bu t i t ha s nothin g t o d o wit h th e fluen t us e o f word s or wit h speculativ e thinking . Rather , i t i s a functio n an d a n operation tha t ha s huma n spiritualit y a s a direct foundation . There is , however, n o nee d t o sa y a s a consequenc e tha t th e

THE FUNDAMENTAL S O F M I N D 7

9

limitless stoc k o f experience s an d knowledg e store d i n th e subconscious an d th e dee p consciousnes s i s useless . W e should rathe r se e intuitio n a s somethin g whic h function s while maintainin g thi s ric h stor e belo w th e surfac e o f con sciousness. Intuitiv e powe r i s cultivate d b y temperin g th e mind s o perfectly tha t i t remains attache d t o nothing . ACQUIRING TH E POWE R O F INSIGH T

It i s beyon d questio n tha t th e thin g peopl e livin g i n thi s world nee d mos t t o acquir e i s th e powe r o f insight . Thi s is nowher e mor e obviou s tha n i n th e workplace , wher e a demonstration o f insigh t wit h respec t t o th e natur e an d di rection o f variou s matter s i s essential. We have onl y to thin k how importan t i t i s t o b e abl e t o rea d th e action s o f col leagues, understand th e personalities o f those in managemen t positions, judg e ho w ou r ow n assignmen t i s advancing , an d discern movement s i n the national economy . In hi s boo k Executive Decision Making, Dr . Jones, a pro fessor a t Illinoi s University, lists the power o f discernmen t a s the mos t importan t o f fou r factor s governin g th e advance ment o f on e employe e ove r th e res t o f th e wor k forc e (p . 169). I n thi s connectio n I remembe r a boo k tha t impresse d me greatl y a s a youth , Montgomery's Auditing. Here , too , "intuition" i s mentione d a s absolutel y necessar y fo r a suc cessful audito r (8t h ed. , p. 17) . Hegel, too, in his Phdnomenologie des Geistes (Phenomenolog y o f th e Spirit) , spok e o f the absolut e importanc e o f "pur e insight " ("di e rein e Ein sicht"). Th e necessit y o f insigh t i s therefor e widel y attested . How, though , ca n it be attained ? None o f th e abov e writer s wh o commen d insigh t o r intu -

80 TH

E FUNDAMENTAL S O F M I N D

ition actuall y explain s ho w t o acquir e it . Th e word s "in sight" an d "intuition " d o no t explai n i t either . Peopl e ma y understand th e words themselves, but they do not know ho w to attai n wha t the y signify . Bu t thi s i s no t t o sa y tha t the y themselves hav e no t experience d intuitio n an d insight , how ever faintly o r obscurely. Surely, however di m or hesitant th e experience, the y mus t hav e realize d a t certai n times , "Thi s i s intuition," o r "I'v e show n insigh t here." What the y have no t experienced i s th e inquir y o r searc h afte r suc h thing s withi n the pattern s o f dail y lif e suc h a s t o enabl e intuitio n t o b e employed a t wil l o n th e surfac e o f life . How , then , d o we g o about examinin g it ? Le t u s hea r th e Buddha' s view s o n th e subject. Hi s direc t teaching s ar e containe d i n scripture s known i n Sanskri t a s the Agamas an d i n Pali as the Nikayas. The Japanes e wer e lat e i n realizin g th e vita l importanc e o f these sutra s an d di d no t reall y becom e familia r wit h the m until th e en d o f th e nineteent h century . Thi s wa s becaus e Chih-i (538-597) , th e founde r o f T'ien-t'a i (Tendai ) Bud dhism in China, devised a method know n a s "the five period s and th e eigh t teachings " fo r classifyin g th e enormou s mas s of Buddhis t writing s an d teaching s tha t ha d bee n translate d into Chinese . Explainin g tha t th e Buddh a taugh t i n five dis tinct periods betwee n th e ag e of thirty-five , whe n h e attaine d enlightenment, an d th e ag e o f eighty , whe n h e died , Chih- i assigned al l th e translate d sutra s t o on e o r anothe r o f thes e periods. Th e Agamas wer e place d i n th e secon d period , be ginning thre e week s afte r th e enlightenmen t an d lastin g twelve years , intimatin g tha t the y wer e inferio r t o th e rounded, matur e teaching of his final period, the Lotus Sutra. Buddhists i n China , Korea , an d Japa n consequentl y too k little notic e o f them . A number o f Chines e priest s develope d

THE FUNDAMENTAL S O F M I ND 8

1

similar scheme s i n a proces s generall y referre d t o a s "divid ing the periods of the teachings" (p'an-chiao), usuall y for the purpose o f proving tha t th e sutras mos t favore d b y their sec t contained th e mos t complet e truth . Suc h classificatio n an d organization ar e features o f Chines e Buddhism , necessitate d by th e Chinese translation s o f Buddhist writing s i n an orde r completely unrelate d t o th e tim e o f thei r composition . Th e great thirteenth-centur y Japanes e Buddhist , Nichiren , pro duced a similar schem e to prove that the Lotus Sutra wa s the Buddha's final teaching . I n actua l fact , o f course , moder n scholarship ha s show n tha t th e Lotus Sutra wa s compose d four hundre d year s afte r th e Buddha's death . An importan t passag e i n the Agamas state s tha t ther e ar e various fields or realms belongin g to the objects o f cognition , including th e eyes, ears, nose, tongue, tactile body, and mental consciousness . Contac t wit h the m give s rise to form (ma terial objects) , feelin g (sensations) , perceptio n (representa tions o r ideas) , menta l constituent s (volition) , an d consciousness. The y ar e al l considere d t o b e impermanent , suffering, lackin g in self, and subject t o cessation. "Thes e are not ours, " sai d th e Buddha. Thi s i s significant, fo r i t mean s that th e five elements o r "aggregates " o f which al l beings are composed (form , feeling , perception, menta l constituents and consciousness) ar e no t th e "Tru e Self. " Thus , th e Buddh a taught, "Thes e ar e no t your s [Pal i natumhaka]," an d h e recommended tha t w e cas t the m away . Onc e w e abando n the five aggregates , w e liv e i n th e Tru e Sel f alone , an d we attain th e si x superhuma n power s o f th e Buddha . Tru e in sight come s whe n thes e si x powers ar e attained; or , that is , when enlightenmen t i s attained.

82 TH

E FUNDAMENTAL S O F M I N D

TOWARD INSIGH T

The Dhammapada i s a n ancien t India n Buddhis t work . M y copy contain s bot h th e Pal i origina l an d a n Englis h transla tion an d commentar y b y th e grea t India n philosophe r an d former presiden t o f th e republic , Sarvepall i Radhakrishna n (Oxford Universit y Press , 198 4 [8t h ed.]) . The work i s mad e up o f twenty-si x shor t chapters . The twentieth, entitle d "Th e Path" (Maggavaggo), contain s seventee n shor t verses , i n which ar e foun d a numbe r o f particularl y importan t pas sages. The firs t vers e contain s th e words , "O f virtues , freedo m from attachmen t i s the best. " Th e Buddha' s word s ar e remi niscent o f th e freedo m an d enlightenmen t attaine d b y Hui neng o n hearin g th e word s fro m th e Diamond Sutra, "Rais e [that] though t withou t lettin g i t settl e o n an y particula r thing." I n th e secon d vers e w e fin d th e statement , "Thi s i s the path , ther e i s non e othe r tha t lead s t o th e purifyin g o f insight." Insigh t i s usually though t t o hav e man y stages , bu t there i s onl y on e pat h whic h lead s t o th e highes t an d pures t form o f it. This is the path characterize d b y perfect liberatio n from al l attachment . Thi s i s simpl e t o conceptualiz e bu t extremely difficul t t o attai n i n practice . Realizin g freedo m from attachmen t t o th e thought s tha t com e an d g o require s considerable training . Thi s i s probabl y th e reaso n s o muc h importance i s attache d t o religiou s trainin g followin g en lightenment. The Dhammapada employ s th e expressio n "purificatio n of insight" ; Hegel' s "pur e insight, " I think , i s extremel y similar. I n hi s Phenomenology of the Spirit h e judge s th e "power o f pur e insight " t o b e th e highes t for m o f learning .

THE FUNDAMENTAL S O F M I N D 8

3

Since i t involve s a constan t stat e o f "no-thought, " i t i s no t surprising tha t i t shoul d tak e considerabl e trainin g t o achieve. As that trainin g advances , th e matte r o f one' s desti nation become s reflected , withou t effort , i n th e subject . T o my mind , th e power o f pur e insigh t i s the sam e a s the super human abilit y t o se e everything other s cannot , on e o f th e si x powers o f th e Buddh a mentione d i n th e Lotus Sutra. I t als o includes anothe r o f them , o f course , insigh t int o th e min d of others . Ueki Rosh i died , a s h e ha d predicted , o n Ma y 26 , 1967 , when th e tre e peonie s wer e i n ful l bloom . Th e da y afte r hi s private funeral , I ha d th e opportunit y t o as k hi s successor , Tetsuzen Watanab e Roshi , in a room o n th e west sid e of th e main hal l o f th e temple , wha t h e ha d value d th e mos t i n our lat e master . Watanab e Rosh i replied , "Hi s function. " "Function" i s a ter m use d i n Ze n temple s t o describ e th e power peopl e hav e t o functio n well . A s Watanab e elabo rated, "Whe n w e wer e traine e priests , Uek i Rosh i woul d gather u s togethe r an d say , 'D o yo u realiz e I passed throug h your ver y bein g tw o o r thre e time s a day wearin g clog s wit h high supports? ' " Uek i Rosh i kne w the inner sel f o f eac h an d every one o f hi s disciples. This was possible onl y because th e Roshi ha d polishe d hi s "purit y o f insight " ove r an d ove r again. I agree with Watanabe's statement , "This , I think, wa s the greates t thin g abou t Uek i Roshi. " The Buddha spok e in many ways abou t attainin g purity of mind. He warns us in the Dhammapada, "Yo u yourself mus t strive," an d "Wh o i s wea k i n resolutio n an d thought , tha t lazy an d idl e ma n wil l no t find th e wa y t o wisdom " ("Th e Path," verse s 4 an d 8) .

84 TH

E FUNDAMENTAL S O F M I N D

TWO NECESSAR Y CONDITION S FO R ATTAININ G INSIGH T

Two thing s ar e necessar y o n th e pat h t o acquirin g insight . The firs t i s t o experienc e wit h th e ful l forc e o f you r bein g that th e essenc e o f al l huma n existence , bot h you r ow n an d others', is emptiness. Since the idea o f experiencin g thi s fro m scratch i s ver y puzzling , le t u s conside r fo r a momen t th e seventh cas e recorded i n the Blue Cliff Record, "Wha t i s one phrase o f th e pre-voic e [absolut e reality]? " or , "Wha t wa s your fac e befor e you r mothe r an d fathe r wer e born ? Wher e were yo u befor e you r parent s wer e born? " W e ca n explai n this logically. Since you ar e here now, it stands to reason yo u must hav e bee n somewher e i n th e univers e befor e you r par ents wer e born . Nothin g i s produced fro m a n absolut e vac uum. Where you wer e an d i n what for m i s open t o question , but i t i s absolutel y certai n tha t yo u wer e bor n o f you r par ents, a s the y wer e bor n o f theirs . Countin g bac k thirty-fiv e generations, t o aroun d th e tim e o f th e Magn a Carta , you r ancestors numbe r ove r 17,100,000,000 . Countin g bac k fifty generations t o th e time o f Charlemagne , your ancestor s tota l 560,332,800,000,000. A mer e thre e generation s stil l earlier , the number soar s to ove r 4,480,000,000,000,000. Thes e cal culations assum e tha t eac h ancesto r produce d a t leas t on e child b y the ag e of twenty-five. Thes e enormous figures high light the never-ending cycl e of birt h an d deat h o f your ances tors, whic h ha s le d eventuall y t o you r ow n life , an d giv e meaning t o th e lif e tha t yo u hav e inherited . Yo u mus t hav e been somewher e ther e amon g you r ancestors . Ou r origin , our ver y essence , lie s i n absolut e emptines s (no t a n absolut e physical vacuum ) i n whic h ther e i s neithe r shap e no r form , color no r smell . Two thousan d five hundred year s ag o i n th e

THE FUNDAMENTAL S O F M I N D 8

5

forests o f norther n India , th e Buddha cam e to th e realizatio n that th e essenc e o f sel f i s emptiness . Thi s ide a o f emptiness , so fundamenta l t o Buddhism , wa s th e resul t o f th e Buddha' s intense meditation . Simpl y t o kno w tha t ou r bein g i s empti ness, however , i s lik e readin g abou t i t i n a newspaper . W e have t o verif y th e trut h o f th e statemen t wit h ever y cel l o f our body , renewin g tha t experienc e tim e an d tim e agai n through meditatio n s o tha t i t i s accepte d physicall y a s wel l as mentally . Whe n w e ca n d o so , ou r consciousnes s o f eg o necessarily melt s away . Th e absenc e o f eg o mean s tha t th e mind i s constantl y a t on e wit h th e universe . Sinc e th e min d is withou t form , ther e remain s nothin g tha t ca n sens e eve n that " I am th e universe. " Ther e i s no "I. " The secon d thin g necessar y o n th e pat h t o acquirin g in sight i s trainin g t o ensur e tha t tw o thought s d o no t strin g themselves together . Mos t people' s live s ar e spen t o n a con stant journe y o f th e consciousness . I t goe s fro m plac e t o place, s o tha t w e live , as it were, i n th e strea m o f conscious ness. A s w e hav e see n above , however , thi s conditio n o f mind breed s residua l pattern s (paribhavana), habit s o f thought tha t hav e staine d th e mind . Unles s w e undertak e strenuous trainin g t o eliminat e them , the y wil l tak e root . T o stop thi s happening , w e mus t b e sur e tha t w e d o no t allo w trains o f though t t o arise . Eac h though t mus t b e allowe d t o enter an d leav e the min d withou t startin g a train i n its wake. This is not difficult t o accomplish i f we are able to experienc e complete emptiness . Whe n w e hav e reache d thi s stage , w e must tak e i t a step furthe r t o prevent eve n th e initia l though t from arising . Wu-hsiieh Tsu-yua n (1226-1286) , th e Chines e priest wh o wa s Ze n maste r t o H o jo Tokimune , th e d e fact o ruler o f Japan, lef t a verse on hi s death whic h said :

86 TH

E FUNDAMENTAL S O F M I N D

Coming, nothing goes forward ; Going, nothing retreats. Though a perso n appear s befor e him , h e ha s n o awarenes s in hi s min d tha t someon e ha s come , an d similarly , whe n a person departs , he does not think, "Ah , I am seeing him off. " As suc h trainin g accumulates , w e realiz e fo r ourselve s that , mystery upon mystery , we have attained intuitiv e power. Th e Buddha, though , cautione d hi s disciple s agains t undergoin g training merel y t o acquir e suc h powers . THE SHORTES T ROUT E T O ATTAININ G INSIGH T

Mircea Eliad e write s i n Yoga: Immortality and Freedom (Princeton Universit y Press , 1971) , "Th e Buddh a di d no t encourage hi s disciples to see k siddbis. Th e one true proble m was deliverance , an d th e possessio n o f 'miraculou s powers ' entailed th e dange r tha t i t migh t tur n th e mon k awa y fro m his origina l goal , nirvana. " Thi s i s a ver y importan t point . The way t o enlightenment i s also the path b y which superhu man powers ar e obtained. Though suc h powers appea r natu rally a t a certain stage , the Buddh a warne d hi s follower s no t to practice wit h th e objectiv e o f acquirin g them , sinc e such a purpose i s a t odd s wit h th e determinatio n t o see k enlighten ment. Purifyin g th e subconsciou s t o brin g i t int o complet e unity wit h th e surfac e consciousnes s i s a vita l first ste p o n the pat h t o enlightenment . Th e resul t i s similar, sinc e super human power s ar e naturall y acquire d anywa y wit h enlight enment, bu t thi s doe s not mea n the y shoul d b e sought a s th e objective o f training . Although a fondnes s fo r misunderstandin g seem s t o b e a human attribute , th e Buddha' s follower s ha d a tendenc y t o

THE FUNDAMENTAL S O F M I N D 8

7

want t o confus e th e means an d th e ends an d t o practice wit h the intentio n o f attainin g th e supernatura l powe r acquire d by a n enlightene d person . Thus , th e Buddh a seem s t o hav e taken th e attitud e tha t i t i s bette r no t t o encourag e th e uni form attainmen t o f supernatura l power s a s th e purpos e o f liberation, i n orde r t o preven t hi s disciple s fro m steppin g onto a wron g path . Thi s i s a subtle , bu t ver y important , point. Mone y i s a sin e qu a no n i n moder n society , ye t a person whos e sol e purpose i n life i s to acquir e i t is making a big mistake . Suc h extrem e attitude s lea d t o warpe d peopl e like the hotel owner wh o was reluctant fo r economi c reason s to instal l th e require d fire detectio n equipmen t i n hi s hotel , with th e resul t tha t whe n a fire brok e out , mor e tha n thirt y people die d i n the conflagration . When a person attain s the spiritual state of nirvana, other wise know n a s enlightenment , h e ha s als o reache d th e poin t at whic h h e gain s insigh t automatically . Ze n Maste r Bassu i (1327-1387) wrote , "Seein g into one' s ow n natur e [kensho] is in itself th e six powers." When a person "see s into his ow n nature" (tha t is , become s enlightened) , h e als o gain s th e si x supernatural power s (tw o of which, the ability to see into th e heart o f thing s an d th e abilit y t o kno w th e min d o f others , can b e considere d t o compris e "insight") . This i s not t o say , however, tha t everyon e wh o ha s ha d hi s o r he r enlighten ment confirme d possesse s th e sam e degre e o f insight . A s Bassui says , "Thoug h th e Dharm a i s sai d t o b e one , no t two, enlightenmen t ma y b e shallo w o r deep , an d ther e ar e differences i n th e style s o f teaching. " A s a result , th e degre e of insigh t differ s wit h th e dept h o f enlightenment . I n th e same way , ther e wa s a worl d o f differenc e betwee n Uek i Roshi an d hi s successor, Watanabe Roshi .

88 TH

E FUNDAMENTAL S O F M I N D

The quickest way to attai n enlightenment i s through medi tation. Buddhism call s this meditation Zen , from th e Sanskri t word o f th e sam e meaning , dhyana. Ther e ar e variou s de grees o f attainmen t withi n meditation , jus t a s ther e ar e li censed ta x accountant s o f varyin g abilities . Aroun d th e yea r 300 ther e live d i n present-da y Afghanista n thre e brothers , Asariga, Vasubandhu , an d Vilincivatsa , al l o f who m gre w up t o b e grea t Buddhis t philosophers . Vasubandh u wrot e a voluminou s treatis e calle d th e Abhidharmakovsavydkhya, which i s know n toda y throug h th e origina l Sanskri t an d through th e Chines e translatio n o f Hsiian-tsang . I n i t h e divides meditation int o fou r stages , likening the fourth t o th e absolutely stead y flam e o f a candl e i n a tightl y seale d room . The superio r for m o f insigh t i s that whic h emerge s fro m th e acquisition o f suc h a n immovabl e mind . GOING BEYON D INSIGH T

Vasubandhu considere d th e fourt h stag e o f Ze n describe d above a s th e superio r form . A certai n amoun t o f resolutio n and effor t i s neede d t o attai n it . Suc h effor t i s necessar y because mos t peopl e ar e generall y caugh t u p i n th e thing s of the externa l worl d an d d o no t particularl y concer n them selves with seekin g their ow n truth . When I wa s a t universit y I attende d hardl y an y lecture s more tha n th e onc e necessary t o fulfil l th e minimu m require ment. B y th e tim e I graduated , I ha d no t spen t mor e tha n two week s i n th e classroom . I foun d tha t th e lecturer s wer e too concerne d wit h subtletie s o f theor y regardin g th e objec tive world , an d I judge d the m t o b e nothin g mor e tha n tradesmen i n academia. This disappointed m e greatly, and s o

THE FUNDAMENTAL S O F M I N D 8

9

I qui t goin g t o school . Today , I a m no t sur e whethe r tha t decision wa s goo d o r bad . A s fa r a s I was concerne d a t th e time, however , education , especiall y i n th e humanities , wa s concerned wit h huma n beings , an d an y theoretica l structur e must therefor e necessaril y b e base d o n ho w huma n being s were understood . I f thi s fundamenta l issu e i s ignored , th e meaning o f educatio n i s turned around , suc h tha t i t become s the mer e pursui t o f th e systematize d minutia e o f variou s subjects concerne d wit h th e object s o f th e physica l world . I had n o interes t i n wastin g m y yout h i n classe s taugh t b y people who though t tha t way . I decided it would b e far mor e worthwhile t o educat e mysel f b y readin g on e hundre d page s of origina l foreig n languag e tex t an d tw o hundre d page s o f Japanese literatur e a day . I have befor e m e a book calle d Karl Engisch, Beitrdge zur Rechtstbeorie (Kar l Engisch : Hi s Contribution s t o th e The ory o f Law) , publishe d i n 198 4 i n Frankfurt-am-Mai n an d written b y variou s scholar s o f lega l theory . I n readin g it , I wa s greatl y surprise d b y th e larg e numbe r o f name s o f philosophers an d lega l scholar s mentioned : Kant , Heinric h Rickert, Bernhar d Bolzano , Rudol f Stammler , Han s Kelsen , Gustav Lamber t Radbruch , an d Geor g Jellinek, no t t o men tion Plato and Aristotle. Obviously, the contributors, all legal scholars, ar e interested i n first establishing th e nature o f ma n as a basi s fo r discussin g lega l theory . Suc h a n approac h i s absolutely necessary ; ther e i s n o valu e i n educatio n tha t is concerne d fro m first t o las t simpl y wit h interpretin g th e meanings o f phrase s an d word s i n legal texts. My criticis m i s not limite d t o la w studies , either . Nicklisch' s famou s Die Betriebswirtscbaft (Economics ) als o begins with a n examina tion o f th e essentia l qualitie s o f huma n being s (p . 16) . Suc h

9 0 TH

E FUNDAMENTALS O F M I N D

an attitud e amon g scholar s i s of decisiv e importance . I n thi s sense, it is very muc h ope n t o doubt whethe r man y Japanes e academics ar e true scholar s o r merely tradesme n i n learning. I have hear d i t reported b y someone i n the same schoo l tha t a certai n prominen t universit y professo r complaine d openl y that "Iizuk a spend s tw o page s criticizin g m e i n hi s thesis . What righ t ha s he got to be awarded a doctorate?" Thi s is a typical cas e of mixing the public with th e private. I hav e digressed . T o retur n t o my original topic , I believe that th e mos t importan t aspec t o f th e searc h fo r sel f i s the relentless pursuit o f the answer t o the question, "Wha t i s my original essence? " Thi s i s what th e Buddh a terme d "empti ness." Th e Buddhis t emptines s ha s nothin g t o d o wit h th e absolute vacuu m o f physics , o r th e negatio n o f nihilism . I t is merel y th e ter m applie d t o th e origina l absenc e o f an y distinguishing form , suc h a s shape, color, or smell. The truth of the teaching of emptiness mus t be verified i n every pore of the bod y an d in ever y reces s o f th e mind . I t ha s no power , however, i f it is comprehended onl y a s an idea. Havin g thu s verified emptiness , the next ste p is to break dow n th e barrier constructed fro m th e larg e boulder s o f menta l habits . I n fact, unles s w e d o so , we wil l b e unabl e t o achiev e a tru e understanding o f emptiness. Human being s store untold mil lions o f menta l experience s i n thei r minds , fro m th e tim e they begi n t o tak e notic e o f thei r surrounding s unti l the y reach adulthood . A t som e time , thes e experience s harde n into fixed menta l habit s an d creat e a fals e sens e o f self . Because of the enormous obstructio n the y cause, most peopl e are unable to come into contac t wit h thei r tru e Self.

THE FUNDAMENTAL S O F M I N D 9

1

THREE CONDITION S FO R LIVIN G TH E HIGHES T FORM O F LIF E

According t o Radhakrishna n (Indian Philosophy, vol . 1 , p . 432), th e Buddh a repeatedl y identifie d thre e condition s a s necessary fo r livin g th e highes t for m o f huma n life . Th e three, in no particular orde r o f importance , ar e faith, insight , and cultivatio n o f th e mind . It i s o f cours e no t sufficien t t o believ e i n jus t anything , such a s a sardine' s head . Fait h come s fro m observin g some thing a s absolutel y correct . Ther e is , fo r example , a scrol l hanging i n the alcov e o f th e master' s roo m i n the meditatio n hall of Myoshinji Templ e in Kyoto which reads, "Train hard , and th e resultin g illuminatio n wil l b e vast. " I n othe r words , have fait h i n th e wa y o f lif e yo u ar e following . Suc h fait h i s not a t al l common , however , fo r ther e ar e s o man y peopl e wandering about in delusion. In the thirty-two years I trained under Uek i Roshi , two ordaine d priest s fled from th e temple , losing their way in the strictnes s o f th e practice there . One da y a s I was sittin g besid e a brazier wit h Uek i Roshi , I questioned hi m o n thi s subject . "Roshi , I have a question, " I began . "Ther e ar e ten s o f thousand s o f Buddhis t priest s i n Japan. Ho w man y o f the m d o yo u thin k hav e committe d themselves t o becomin g grea t Ze n masters? " Th e Rosh i re plied, "On e hai r o n nin e cows. " Th e numbe r o f hair s i n th e coats o f nin e cow s mus t b e vast , ye t th e Rosh i considere d that a tru e practitione r o f Ze n wa s lik e jus t on e hai r share d by al l nine . Onl y on e amon g million s possesse s tru e faith , and i t is not eas y to maintai n suc h faith , either . It i s th e sam e wit h insight . Ver y fe w peopl e posses s it , which mean s tha t peopl e wh o successfull y penetrat e th e

9 2 TH

E FUNDAMENTAL S O F M I N D

truth o f huma n lif e ar e rar e indeed . Mos t ar e no t intereste d in polishing thei r intuitiv e power. I f they think abou t i t a bit , it is only spasmodically ; almos t n o on e attempt s seriousl y t o polish th e powe r o f insigh t wit h whic h w e ar e naturall y endowed. Thi s i s th e problem . Sinc e relativel y fe w peopl e consider themselve s seriously , insight an d othe r spiritua l an d mental qualitie s ar e little in evidence. This tendency ca n onl y be expecte d t o increas e i n th e future . Mos t peopl e d o no t attempt t o observ e th e essenc e o f thei r mind , livin g instea d attached t o th e mind's objects . Those wh o practic e cultivatio n o f th e min d are , likewise , few an d fa r between . "T o cultivat e the mind" mean s to trai n it incessantly s o that i t attaches itself t o nothing. Zen master s often us e the phrase " a hundre d polishings , a thousand forg ings," stressin g tha t th e cultivatio n o f th e min d canno t b e carried ou t half-heartedly . Thousand s an d eve n million s o f repetitions ar e necessary . W e sa w i n th e previou s chapte r that Kukai , when h e was eighteen, met a Buddhist priest wh o recommended h e rea d th e sutr a calle d th e Kokuzo gumonji no ho (Akasagarbh a Bodhisattva' s power-filled , wish-fulfill ing, supreme min d mantr a techniqu e fo r seekin g hearing an d retention). Trainin g accordin g t o it s ritua l method s allowe d him t o polis h hi s natura l geniu s throug h a millio n repeti tions, withou t stop s an d starts , o f th e dhdrani ( a Sanskri t phrase callin g on the powers of the deity) se t out in the sutra . This was a truly demandin g rite . The anguis h h e experience d is suggeste d b y hi s confessio n i n th e Collected Works of Prose and Poetry of Kukai tha t h e los t hi s directio n man y times an d wept . Wha t i s certai n i s hi s attitud e towar d hi s training, whic h h e undertoo k a t th e ris k o f lif e itself . Through cultivation , th e min d become s focuse d an d fre e

THE FUNDAMENTAL S O F M I N D 9

3

from th e distractio n o f thought , an d th e practitioner , through thoroug h polishin g o f hi s mind , gain s superhuma n powers. The Ten Stages of the Development of Mind, whic h Kukai wrot e whe n h e wa s sixty , contain s quotation s fro m more tha n si x hundre d Chines e sources . Thi s wa s a t a time , it mus t b e remembered , whe n ther e wer e n o pen s o r note books t o facilitat e writing , s o h e mus t hav e recalle d the m from memory . Al l th e same , suc h power s ar e inheren t i n al l human beings . CULTIVATING TH E M I N D

Let u s loo k a littl e mor e deepl y int o th e thre e condition s mentioned i n th e previou s section . Th e firs t thin g I woul d like t o stres s i s tha t ver y fe w peopl e loo k int o thei r ow n mind. Thoug h man y migh t thin k the y do , and woul d declar e that the y kno w thei r ow n min d best , i t i s in fac t onl y a ver y few particularl y accomplishe d peopl e wh o actuall y d o so . This i s becaus e mos t peopl e d o no t consciousl y tr y t o trai n themselves no t t o strin g tw o thought s together , a s recom mended b y th e Ze n maste r Hakui n an d th e Chines e maste r Chu-hung. Th e iron y i s tha t ordinary , ignoran t peopl e suc h as ourselve s actuall y liv e al l th e tim e withou t stringin g thoughts together ; th e only problem i s that w e do not realiz e it. Eating , fo r example , i s for mos t o f u s a dail y activity . W e do no t thin k consciousl y tha t w e shoul d stretc h ou r hand s out t o pic k u p ou r knif e an d fork , o r voic e th e concep t o f food i n our mind . I t is the same when we drink ou r soup : w e do no t kee p ever y actio n thi s entail s o n th e surfac e o f ou r mind. I n thi s sense , w e spen d a larg e portio n o f ou r lif e no t stringing thoughts together .

94 TH

E FUNDAMENTAL S O F M I N D

You migh t thin k i t doe s no t matte r whethe r o r no t w e consciously experienc e no t stringin g tw o thought s together . In fact , i t doe s matter , becaus e mos t peopl e alread y d o no t do so without being aware of it. Since they lack all consciousness o f no t doin g so , however , the y als o lac k al l sens e o f discovery (o r i n othe r words , enlightenment) . The y d o no t know tha t not stringin g two thoughts together is the ultimat e reality o f thei r lives . Not knowing , the y simpl y liv e withou t doing it . Ther e i s a boundles s differenc e betwee n realizin g and no t realizing , a hundred thousan d mil e gulf. As w e liv e consciousl y withou t stringin g tw o thought s together an d trainin g ourselve s t o attai n tha t objective , ou r minds graduall y becom e increasingl y transparent . Fo r th e slightest instant , i t appear s a s i f w e ca n actuall y gras p th e workings o f ou r mind . Wha t Ze n call s "enlightenment " ca n be though t o f a s a synony m fo r "self-realization. " I t i s th e condition o f bein g abl e t o understan d th e slightes t pin-pric k of chang e i n th e mind . Sinc e th e min d i s s o open , w e se e its movement s i n perfec t clarity : "Ah , I' m talkin g ou t o f selfishness," "Ah , no w I' m abou t t o ac t ou t o f anger, " "Ah , jealously ha s overcom e m y judgment. " Whe n w e ca n thu s see int o ou r ow n mind , th e strang e thin g i s tha t w e ca n also se e int o th e mind s o f others . Thi s Buddhis m call s "th e superhuman powe r t o se e into the mind o f others. " Most peopl e neve r reac h thi s stage , becaus e the y neve r consciously trai n themselve s t o liv e withou t stringin g thoughts together . I n other words , they d o no t "trai n hard. " They liv e naturall y no t stringin g thought s together , but , be ing unconsciou s o f it , ar e no t awar e whe n the y becom e captive t o thei r egocentricit y o r slave s t o thei r desires , o r when they turn int o demon s of jealousy. This, unfortunately ,

THE FUNDAMENTAL S O F M I N D 9

5

is ho w th e majorit y o f peopl e toda y live . The y ar e t o b e pitied. Lon g ago , a grea t Chines e Ze n maste r calle d Ta-hu i confessed honestl y tha t h e had achieve d grea t enlightenmen t eighteen time s an d lesse r enlightenmen t countles s times . A s ignorant ordinar y mortal s gro w an d mature , w e accumulat e something o n th e orde r o f a n infinit e numbe r o f enlighten ments, discoveries , an d self-realizations . I t i s ver y rar e t o achieve enlightenmen t suddenl y overnigh t a s Hui-nen g did ; the majority o f people move to higher levels of enlightenmen t through a nearl y countles s serie s o f discoverie s an d insights . It cost s no t a cen t t o trai n onesel f no t t o strin g thought s together, s o you woul d thin k mor e peopl e woul d tr y it . Los t in th e strea m o f thei r fixed menta l habits , however , the y neglect this training .

4 The Wisdo m o f th e Buddh a

RAISE THOUGH T WITHOU T LETTIN G I T SETTL E O N AN Y PARTICULAR THIN G

Chinese Ze n speak s o f si x patriarchs : Bodhidharma , wh o brought th e teaching s t o Chin a fro m India , Hui-k' o (487 593), Chien-chi h (d . 606) , Tao-hsi n (580-651) , Hung-je n (601-674), an d Hui-nen g (638-713) . Wh y Hui-nen g i s generally considered t o have been the man who brough t Chines e Zen t o completio n I d o no t know . I suppos e i t i s becaus e Hui-neng appear s t o hav e bee n th e first t o spea k o f Ze n i n a way ordinar y peopl e coul d understan d an d th e popularize r of th e expressio n "seein g int o one' s ow n nature " (kensho in Japanese). This expressio n pose s man y problems . I t i s use d i n Ze n to mea n enlightenment . Enlightenmen t i s generally , thoug h mistakenly, though t t o b e ver y difficul t t o attain , necessitat 97

98 TH

E W I S D OM O F THE BUDDH A

ing lon g year s o f training . W e hav e th e exampl e o f Anbar a Heishiro, however, a carpenter, who, having heard Zen Mas ter Hakui n lecturin g i n the next room , shu t himsel f u p i n th e bathroom t o meditat e an d attaine d enlightenmen t overnight . Zen i s in no wa y connecte d wit h whethe r a person i s learned or not , hi s o r he r scholasti c attainments , o r ho w lon g h e o r she has trained . Al l that i s necessary i s that a person se e int o the essenc e o f hi s o r he r ow n min d throug h a concentratio n of th e spirit . Thi s "seein g into " is , o f course , n o shallo w action suc h a s peepin g a t something . Ze n Maste r Bassu i spoke o f i t a s "penetratin g one' s mind. " Unles s people brin g their penetratin g insigh t t o lif e throug h training , lik e takin g an objec t i n the hand , i t cannot b e kensho. Recently, however , th e expressio n ha s bee n use d fa r to o broadly, an d car e i s consequentl y needed . I place th e blam e for thi s a t Hakuin' s door . Ther e i s a genera l tendenc y t o refer t o th e first stag e attaine d afte r beginnin g Ze n practic e as kensho, whic h i s vastl y differen t i n meanin g fro m Hui neng's usage . Hui-neng , wh o live d i n th e sevent h centur y during th e T'an g dynast y i n China , wa s reputedl y illiterate , with no experience in Zen training. He described himself a s a farmer fro m Ling-nan , in the present-day provinc e of Kuang tung. Hi s fathe r wa s a n exil e wh o die d a n earl y death . Hui neng supporte d hi s mothe r an d himsel f b y cuttin g firewood in th e hill s an d sellin g i t i n th e marketplace . Bein g illiterate , he live d i n th e dires t poverty . On e day , a custome r bough t firewood fro m hi m an d aske d hi m t o delive r i t t o hi s house . As h e wa s leaving , h e notice d a pries t standin g i n th e door way recitin g th e Diamond Sutra. "Wher e ar e yo u from , an d what sutr a ar e yo u reading? " h e asked . H e learne d tha t th e priest wa s fro m Tung-sha n Templ e o n Moun t Huang-me i i n

THE W I S D O M O F THE BUDDH A 9

9

the provinc e o f Hu-pe i an d tha t th e fift h patriarc h Hung-je n was at present residing there, giving lectures on the Diamond Sutra i n th e compan y o f mor e tha n a thousan d disciples . Hui-neng begge d te n piece s o f silve r fo r th e suppor t o f hi s old mothe r an d se t of f fo r Moun t Huang-me i t o se e Hui jeng. When h e sa w Hui-neng , Hung-je n asked , "Wher e d o yo u come from, an d what ar e you seeking? " " I am a farmer fro m Ling-nang an d I see k t o becom e a buddha, " replie d Hui neng. Hung-je n the n commente d insultingly , " A ma n fro m Ling-nan? Ho w ca n a ma n fro m a plac e o f exil e lik e tha t ever becom e a buddha? " Hui-nen g answered , " A ma n ma y come fro m th e nort h o r th e south , bu t th e buddha-natur e knows n o nort h o r south . Wha t discriminatio n ca n ther e b e in th e buddha-nature? " Hung-je n realize d the n tha t thi s wa s no ordinar y man . Al l the same , he brushed hi m off , orderin g him away to work i n a shed at the back of the temple, cuttin g wood an d poundin g rice . And ther e Hui-nen g staye d fo r th e next eigh t months . Althoug h Hui-nen g wa s lame , h e man aged t o d o hi s job , whic h necessitate d poundin g ric e wit h his feet . One day , Hung-je n pose d a questio n fo r hi s disciple s con cerning lif e an d death . Thi s resulte d i n a disput e betwee n Hui-neng an d Shen-hsiu , wh o ha d alread y studie d unde r th e master fo r si x years . They bot h compose d verse s concernin g their understanding . Hung-je n considere d Shen-hsiu' s under standing stil l t o fal l shor t o f tru e penetratio n o f hi s ow n nature. I n th e meantime , Hui-nen g ha d aske d someon e t o write hi s ow n vers e upo n th e wall . Whe n Hung-je n sa w it , he called Hui-neng t o his room i n the depths of the night an d lectured t o hi m o n th e Diamond Sutra. I t wa s whe n h e

100 TH

E W I S D OM O F THE BUDDH A

uttered th e word s "Rais e though t withou t lettin g i t settl e o n any particular thing " tha t Hui-nen g attaine d grea t enlighten ment. Thi s stor y i s foun d i n th e Platform Sutra of the Sixth Patriarch. HUI-NENG, TH E SIXT H PATRIARC H

Hung-jen aske d his disciples to compose verses showing thei r understanding o f their own mind. The Fifth Patriarc h consid ered that , o f al l th e variou s question s o f huma n life , tha t concerning lif e an d deat h wa s th e mos t important . Hi s disci ples di d no t striv e t o solv e th e questio n i n a persona l sense , however, bu t concerne d themselve s onl y wit h th e Thre e Treasures (th e Buddha , th e Dharma , an d th e Samgha ) an d with makin g foo d offering s t o th e spirit s o f th e dea d o r chanting sutra s fo r thei r sak e an d fo r th e merit s o f doin g this. That is to say, they hoped onl y to achieve virtue throug h their actions . Shen-hsiu, th e leadin g discipl e an d a fine priest , wrot e i n the middl e o f th e nigh t th e followin g vers e o n th e wal l out side th e master' s roo m a s a n expressio n o f hi s ow n under standing: The body is the Bodhi tree [the tree of enlightenment]. The mind is the stand of a bright mirror. Wipe it constantly with diligence, So that it remains unstained by dust. The vers e was useles s a s an expressio n o f enlightenment , bu t Hung-jen calle d hi s disciple s t o hi m al l th e sam e an d li t incense before th e verse, praising it and urging them t o mem orize it , fo r i f the y wer e t o observ e i t i n thei r practic e the y

THE W I S D O M O F TH E BUDDH A 1 0

1

would certainl y no t fal l b y the wayside. It was a tremendou s acknowledgment. Hung-je n ma y have been concerned fo r hi s own safety , rememberin g tha t Bodhidharm a wa s repute d t o have bee n poisone d b y jealou s rivals . I n th e middl e o f th e night, however , th e Patriarc h calle d Shen-hsi u t o hi s roo m and sai d t o him , "Thi s verse you hav e compose d reveal s tha t you hav e no t ye t perceive d you r self-nature . Yo u hav e ar rived a t th e threshold o f enlightenment , bu t you hav e not ye t entered it . Write your vers e again an d submi t it. " A fe w day s later , a young novic e happene d t o pas s b y th e place wher e Hui-nen g wa s poundin g rice , chantin g Shen hsiu's vers e aloud . Hui-nen g kne w immediatel y tha t i t coul d not hav e bee n writte n b y a person wh o ha d realize d hi s ow n self-nature. H e ha d th e yout h tak e hi m t o wher e th e vers e was pinned up , and becaus e he could no t read , had hi m rea d it fo r him . Hui-nen g the n aske d a pries t calle d Chan g Jih yung to write a verse he had compose d himsel f upo n th e wal l for him . It read : Enlightenment has not a tree from the beginning. The bright mirror is not a stand. Since originally there is nothing, How could it be stained by dust? When th e priest s i n th e templ e sa w th e verse , the y wer e astounded. Hung- j en, hearing the commotion an d looking t o see wha t th e excitemen t wa s about , sa w th e verse . Fearin g that someon e would tr y to kill Hui-neng, an d concerne d tha t then ther e woul d b e n o on e t o succee d him , h e camouflage d his tru e feeling s an d sai d t o hi s assemble d disciples , "Thi s verse, too , ha s no t ye t perceive d self-nature . Wh y o n eart h are yo u praisin g it? " Th e Fift h Patriarc h wa s obviousl y ver y

102 TH

E W I S D OM O F THE BUDDH A

tense. So worried wa s h e about protectin g hi s chosen succes sor, he did no t hesitat e t o deceiv e his followers . Hui-neng's "Ho w coul d i t b e staine d b y dust? " i s lik e a verse by the retire d empero r Hanazon o (1297-1348) , whic h reads i n part: "No t a speck o f dus t marke d th e great earth. " If w e loo k a t thing s physically , dus t i s pile d high , an d i t i s sophistry t o sa y ther e i s nothing. Thes e verse s d o no t spea k of th e physical , however , bu t poin t instea d directl y t o th e realm o f enlightenment . I n muc h th e sam e wa y th e Chines e Zen pries t Wu-hsue h Tsu-yiian , threatene d wit h deat h b y Mongol soldier s who ha d broke n int o his temple, wrote: In all of heaven and earth There's no room Even to stand a stick upright. Considered physicall y an d spatially , thi s i s strange . W e should understan d it , rather , t o expres s a min d dwellin g i n emptiness which attache s t o nothing . THE AGAMAS

I remember tha t on e o f th e question s o n th e entranc e exami nation I too k fo r th e La w Departmen t o f Tohok u Imperia l University i n Marc h 193 9 concerne d th e Buddhis t counci l held t o collec t th e teaching s o f th e Buddha . Onl y eleve n o f the 38 6 candidate s wer e accepte d int o the faculty o f la w an d literature, an d o f these , a mer e fiv e receive d permissio n t o study in the Law Department. Th e examination itsel f was , as you ca n imagine , rigorous . After th e Buddha's deat h mor e than 2,50 0 year s ag o som e of th e les s dedicate d o f hi s disciple s fel t relie f tha t the y

THE W I S D O M O F TH E BUDDH A 10

3

would n o longe r hav e t o submi t t o hi s sever e discipline . Th e Venerable Kasyapa , fearin g tha t th e teachings migh t fall int o ruin, selecte d five hundre d o f th e disciples , gathere d the m together i n a cav e an d ha d the m liste n a s Ananda recite d al l that h e had hear d th e Buddh a teac h o r ha d memorize d fro m earlier teachings . Th e disciples , i n turn , memorize d wha t Ananda recited , an d thi s forme d th e basi s o f wha t w e kno w today a s th e Agama Sutras. Legen d add s tha t late r council s were hel d t o verif y tha t wha t ha d bee n memorize d wa s cor rect. Thi s is , in essence , th e answe r I wrote i n m y examina tion paper . Buddhis m ha s a vas t numbe r o f volume s o f sa cred works , bu t wha t th e Buddh a actuall y taugh t ca n b e found onl y in the Agamas. I late r cam e int o possessio n o f Some Sayings of the Buddha, a boo k b y Professo r F . L . Woodwar d publishe d b y Oxford Universit y Press . A trul y fine work , i t i s a n Englis h translation o f par t o f th e Pal i Canon . Fo r me , reading i t wa s a reconfirmatio n o f th e fundamental experienc e i n my searc h into th e natur e o f huma n lif e tha t I had begu n a t th e ag e o f sixteen wit h m y stud y o f Zen . Woodward' s summar y o f th e teachings o f th e Agamas (Nikayas) i s als o valuabl e i n tha t scholars estimat e th e Agamas t o contai n 17,50 5 sutras , an d it would requir e considerable effor t t o read them al l through . The fac t tha t the modern Japanese translatio n o f the Agamas (made u p o f fou r group s o f sutras ) begin s wit h th e Tso-ahan ching, th e Chines e translatio n o f th e Samsyuktagama, shows ho w importan t th e sutra s i n thi s particula r groupin g are considere d t o be . Le t m e giv e a n exampl e fro m thi s work: Thus hav e I heard. O n on e occasio n th e Buddh a wa s stayin g i n Jeta Grov e [Jetavan a Monastery] , th e garde n o f Anathapindika ,

104 TH

E W I S D OM O F THE BUDDH A

Sravastl. At that time the World-honored On e addressed the bhiksus saying, "Bhiksus, you should understand that form is impermanent. Thos e wh o regar d i t tha t wa y ar e considere d t o hav e a correct view of it. This wa s th e Buddha' s first teaching . For m (riipa) i s a ter m used i n Buddhis t writing s t o describ e materia l stimulatio n from th e outsid e world . Shape s an d color s see n b y th e eye , voices an d sound s hear d b y th e ear , smell s sense d b y th e nose, hav e com e int o being , lik e flowin g water , throug h causes an d condition s an d therefor e hav e n o permanent , unchanging nature . This, the Buddha said , is how w e shoul d regard al l objects i n the material realm . This i s a cruciall y importan t passage . Lik e Kant' s episte mology, i t touche s o n th e principle s o f huma n knowledge . We experienc e th e outsid e worl d b y receiving various stimu lations through ou r eyes, ears, nose, tactile body, and tongue . The image s w e for m fro m thes e stimulation s w e conside r t o constitute a tru e pictur e o f th e oute r world . Thi s vie w i s shared b y th e epistemolog y o f Davi d Hume , wh o sai d w e receive impression s o f al l tha t whic h i s outsid e ourselve s through th e mediu m o f ou r senses . This i s perhaps th e mos t sensible theor y o f th e origin s o f knowledge . Kant , however , smashed i t head-on , sayin g tha t huma n being s hav e abso lutely n o knowledg e o f wha t i s outsid e themselves . Stimula tion fro m object s i n th e oute r worl d ar e receive d b y th e senses an d constructe d ther e a s well . Onl y knowledg e o f things i s forme d (Kant' s Prolegomena). Thi s i s Kant' s mis take. The Buddh a spok e abou t th e fundamenta l constructio n that give s ris e t o huma n knowledg e fa r earlier . Al l th e vari ous phenomen a o f th e oute r worl d tha t huma n sensation s

THE W I S D O M O F TH E BUDDH A 10

5

form ar e i n constan t flux ; the y ar e no t permanen t o r un changing. A woode n plaqu e hang s unde r th e eave s o n th e southern sid e o f th e mai n hal l o f Unganj i Templ e i n Nasu . It reads: Where does your face go [after death ] ? I do not know. Only the peach blossoms blow in the spring wind, This year, just as last. The Agama Sutras teac h tha t thi s trut h i s th e ver y hear t o f Buddhist philosophy . BANKEI

Bankei Yotak u (1622-1693 ) wa s a Zen priest who was bor n in what i s now Himej i i n Hyogo Prefecture . Hi s father wa s a masterless samurai fro m Shikok u who die d when Bankei wa s ten. Hi s mothe r lived , however , t o th e ag e o f ninety-one , dying whe n Banke i wa s fifty-eight . Hi s first spiritua l uncer tainty wa s generate d b y a phrase i n th e Great Learning, on e of th e fou r book s o f Chines e Confucianism : "Th e Wa y o f Great Learnin g consist s i n manifestin g brigh t virtue. " Wha t was this "brigh t virtue," he wondered. He consequently trav eled fro m schola r t o schola r t o gai n elucidation , bu t h e me t with n o success . Thi s ha d occurre d whe n h e wa s aroun d fifteen, a n ag e whe n peopl e first begi n t o awake n t o th e fundamental question s o f huma n life . Th e passio n o f Ban kers ques t astonishe s me . He was told b y a Zen pries t tha t if he wante d t o find a n answe r t o hi s question , h e shoul d do Ze n meditatio n (zazen). A s a result , "h e immediatel y

106 TH

E W I S D OM O F THE BUDDH A

commenced meditation . H e wen t upo n a nearb y mountain , eating nothin g fo r seve n days , an d there , o n a massiv e crag , spread ou t hi s clothe s o n a roc k an d too k u p th e correc t position fo r zazen. H e di d no t car e whethe r h e los t hi s life , and h e did no t ris e from hi s seat until he naturally fel l down . If someon e ha d no t brough t hi m food , h e woul d no t hav e eaten" (Hogoshii, p . 176) . Still, h e coul d find n o answer . H e visite d senio r priest s i n many places , bu t h e di d no t tak e t o an y o f them . Accordin g to th e Gydgokyokki (Accoun t o f th e Deed s [o f Ze n Maste r Bankei), compile d b y Sand o Chijo , h e woul d cr y ou t i n hi s distress, remindin g u s o f ho w Kuka i "crie d man y a tim e standing a t th e crossroads. " Thi s give s u s a clea r ide a o f Bankei's distres s an d hi s willingnes s t o thro w hi s lif e awa y for th e sak e o f hi s religiou s training . Whe n h e wa s aroun d twenty-four h e "buil t a smal l ten-foo t squar e hu t an d stopped u p al l th e walls , allowin g onl y foo d t o b e passe d i n and bowl s t o b e collecte d throug h a smal l openin g i n on e o f the walls. He buil t a privy agains t on e o f th e walls, and use d it fro m within " (Hogoshii, p . 179) . This descriptio n testifie s to th e exten t t o whic h h e gamble d wit h hi s lif e i n hi s burn ing quest . During thi s tim e Banke i fel l ver y ill . H e "the n becam e sicker an d sicker . His body weakened. When h e vomited, th e bloody phlegma s hardene d an d rolle d i n globule s larg e a s a thumb-tip. Onc e whe n h e ha d vomite d o n th e wall , h e sa w the globules rolling down on e after th e other" (p . 180). Onl y thin ric e grue l woul d pas s dow n hi s throat , an d th e youn g Bankei thought tha t he was approaching death . Truly uncon cerned b y thi s realization , h e gaine d enlightenment . H e con -

THE W I S D O M O F THE BUDDH A 1 0

7

fessed, "Jus t then , spontaneously , I realized fo r the first time throughout m y whole bein g that al l things are fulfilled i n the Unborn, an d I gradually cam e to know m y former sins. " He took firm hol d o f the vital poin t o f his enlightenment, tha t "all thing s are fulfilled i n the Unborn." H e was the n twenty five years old. After tha t Banke i wen t t o mee t variou s Ze n priests an d told the m o f his spiritual experiences . Yet he had not yet me t one h e could regar d a s his true master . Thoug h h e believed in what h e had attained, h e found n o one to share his belief. Eventually h e wen t t o Nagasak i t o stud y unde r a Chines e priest calle d Tao-ch e Ch'ao-yua n an d received ther e th e seal of enlightenmen t a t the age of thirt y i n the third mont h o f 1652, afte r sixtee n year s of strict training . Alex Wayman, a professor o f religion at Columbia Univer sity, i s a world-renowne d schola r o f Buddhis t philosoph y and th e author o f a book calle d Buddhist Insight. H e writes that Bankei, who can be considered to have been self-enlight ened, attaine d suc h "Buddhis t insight " a s a resul t o f hi s rigorous quest . On e who i s consciously absorbe d i n the clear state o f min d wher e ther e i s no spec k o f dus t an d no frag ment of thought ca n penetrate dee p into the minds of others, for "whe n n o discriminative thought s arise , we see into the mind's core. " THE S E N S E O F FEA R

Most people, perhaps as many as 99.99 percent, have a sense of fear . I t is almost impossibl e t o find anyon e amon g ordi nary peopl e wh o doe s not . Give n tha t virtuall y everyon e

108 TH

E W I S D OM O F THE BUDDH A

possesses a sens e o f fear , i t mus t therefor e b e a natura l human attribute . I n Apri l 193 9 I becam e a studen t i n th e Law Departmen t a t Tohok u Imperia l University . Th e accep tance rat e ha d bee n on e i n seventy-seven . A t firs t I looke d upon m y professor s a s somethin g lik e gods . Ver y soon , though, I was overcom e b y a n indelibl e sens e of distrust , fo r I knew the y were unofficially an d secretl y upholdin g militar y violence. I sa y thi s becaus e no t on e wa s willin g t o stak e hi s position a s a professor a t a n Imperia l Universit y t o com e ou t in publi c an d denounc e th e unhapp y chas m bot h th e stat e and th e peopl e ha d falle n into . I realize d a t tha t tim e tha t they were al l slaves to their fear . After th e en d o f th e war I read Woodward's Some Sayings of the Buddha, whic h I knew t o b e a summar y o f th e teach ings containe d i n th e Agama Sutras. I realized the n tha t th e Buddha's abandonmen t o f palace , wife , an d chil d an d hi s ascetic practice i n th e fores t ha d bee n motivate d b y fea r an d a desire to become liberated fro m it . The Buddha almos t die d in the forest , s o hard wer e the asceti c exercises he undertoo k as he sought a way to gain liberation fro m hi s fear. Th e boo k makes i t extremel y clea r tha t hi s training wa s stric t indeed . I wanted t o find ou t whethe r th e Agama Sutras wer e reall y accurate whe n the y presente d th e Buddha's confessio n o f hi s fear an d th e strictnes s o f hi s training . It irritate d m e t o thin k tha t wit h mor e tha n 2,50 0 year s separating m e fro m th e Buddh a ther e wa s n o wa y t o verif y this. Wha t wa s clear , though , wa s tha t th e Buddh a ha d liberated himsel f fro m fea r b y keepin g a t th e forefron t o f hi s mind th e need t o see k the answe r unremittingl y himself . I resolve d th e proble m o f fea r a t th e ag e o f twenty-three ,

THE W I S D O M O F THE BUDDH A 10

9

when I receive d authenticatio n o f enlightenmen t fro m Uek i Roshi o f Unganj i Temple . Long after that , i n 196 3 a t the ag e of forty-five , I becam e involve d i n wha t becam e know n a s the "Iizuk a Incident. " Fou r o f m y employee s ha d bee n ar rested an d detained , an d a young publi c prosecutor wit h th e Utsunomiya Distric t Cour t calle d It o was heard t o sa y loudl y in a publi c ba r afte r a fe w drink s tha t m y ow n arres t wa s only a matte r o f time . I was calle d upo n t o conque r m y fea r repeatedly, wit h thi s threa t hangin g ove r m e a s a dail y real ity. You see , conquering fea r completel y onc e does not mea n it doe s no t com e again ; fo r fea r ha s th e propert y o f risin g constantly i n the mind . I t is a truly troublesom e thing , bu t i t is an extremel y importan t issu e in terms o f th e spiritual life . It i s essentia l firs t t o inquir e int o th e origin s o f th e fea r being experienced. Many people live their lives without expe riencing it, or eve n trying to experienc e it , and they therefor e never escap e fro m it s clutches . Som e migh t thin k tha t thi s i s inevitable, give n tha t peopl e a s a whol e ar e delude d an d ignorant. Ye t I think i t i s important fo r peopl e t o kno w tha t they infus e grea t huma n wisdo m int o liberatio n fro m th e sense of fear . The Buddh a cam e t o realiz e tha t fea r i s merel y a menta l appearance brough t int o bein g b y ou r ow n mind . Accordin g to Woodward' s translation , th e Buddh a wa s abl e t o elimi nate fea r whe n h e dwel t i n "th e Ultimat e Self. " Th e Heart Sutra says , "N o hindrance , therefor e n o fear. " Th e min d i s originally withou t for m o r shape . I f on e completel y remain s in this state, then fea r wil l not exist . If people d o not attemp t to watc h thei r mind s intently , however , o r eve n t o conside r the valu e o f doin g so , they wil l ten d no t t o kee p th e stat e o f

110 TH

E W I S D OM O F THE BUDDH A

the min d formles s o r shapeless , an d the y wil l ultimatel y b e left t o tremble befor e fea r a s a result. This is the fundamenta l tragedy o f th e delude d an d ignoran t person . MEDITATION TRAININ G

I onc e rea d i n Mirce a Eliade' s Yoga: Immortality and Freedom, whic h wa s originall y writte n i n Frenc h an d translate d into Englis h b y Willard R . Trask, th e sentence , "Th e roa d t o nirvana lead s t o th e possessio n o f miraculou s powers " (p . 177). These supernatural, or miraculous, powers are, he says, one o f th e five classe s o f "supe r knowledges" : (1 ) siddhi (miraculous powers) ; (2 ) th e divin e eye ; (3 ) divin e hearing ; (4) knowledg e o f others ' thoughts ; an d (5 ) recollectio n o f previous existence s (p . 178) . This classificatio n derive s fro m the lis t i n Vasubandhu' s grea t commentar y o f th e fourt h century, th e Abhidharmakovsavyakhya . Her e siddhi i s de fined i n term s o f supernatura l power s suc h a s flying throug h the sk y an d makin g th e bod y invisible . The divin e ey e is th e ability t o forese e people' s future s b y suc h mean s a s seein g into th e afterworld . Divin e hearin g i s th e abilit y t o hea r al l words an d al l sound s freely . Knowledg e o f others ' thought s is the abilit y to kno w othe r people's state s o f mind an d wha t they ar e thinking . Recollectio n o f previou s existence s mean s the abilit y t o remembe r vividl y wha t ha s happene d i n al l one's pas t lives . Enlightenmen t lead s t o th e attainmen t o f these powers . A s th e autho r notes , however , thes e power s are equally a t the disposa l o f th e non-Buddhist yogin. The Buddh a forbad e hi s disciple s t o pursu e thes e powers , however, sinc e i f the y becam e enthralle d b y th e magica l things o f thi s world , the y migh t wel l forge t thei r origina l

THE W I S D O M O F THE BUDDH A 1 1

1

goal o f nirvana . Eliad e base s hi s contentio n o n passage s considered t o b e th e actua l word s o f th e Buddh a quote d from th e Majjhima-nikdya, th e Samyutta-nikaya, an d th e Anguttara-nikaya o f th e Pal i Canon . Yog a i s a careful study , and a highly reliabl e one . You d o understand , d o yo u not ? Buddhis t enlightenmen t is relate d t o th e attainmen t o f th e five supernatura l powers , but thei r attainmen t i s not , th e Buddh a concluded , i n itsel f the realizatio n o f enlightenment . Al l th e same , w e canno t ignore th e fac t tha t supernatura l power s ar e closel y relate d to enlightenment . Durin g th e thirty-tw o year s I spent study ing under Uek i Roshi I witnessed with m y own eye s instances so clea r a s t o b e remarkabl e tha t convince d m e tha t th e Roshi possesse d th e powe r o f knowin g th e thought s o f others. Furthermore, th e goa l o f huma n perfectio n i s th e attain ment o f enlightenment , an d th e practic e o f meditatio n i s essential t o th e path . Meditatio n ma y tak e man y forms . W e have see n tha t Vasubandh u spok e o f fou r stage s o f medita tion; h e also state d tha t achievemen t o f th e five supernatura l powers depend s upo n th e accomplishmen t o f thes e fou r stages. The first stag e i n the practice o f meditatio n lead s to a condition i n whic h no t a spec k o f dus t remain s i n th e mind . Having attaine d this , it is then importan t t o discove r ho w t o go deepe r an d deepe r int o meditation . Fo r man y people , tiring o f thei r quest , eve n th e attainmen t o f a min d wit h n o speck o f dus t i s no smal l thing . Most o f the m wil l realize th e actuality o f th e thought s an d fancie s tha t floa t lik e cloud s through thei r minds , and the y will find with puzzlemen t tha t training themselves , thoug h no t easy , i s th e greates t tas k i n human life . Ther e ar e quit e a fe w peopl e i n Tibe t know n a s

112 TH

E W I S D OM O F THE BUDDH A

"living Buddhas," an d it is said that they know the birthplac e and parents ' name s o f livin g Buddha s abou t t o b e born . This i s a n amazin g demonstratio n o f th e divin e eye , whos e acquisition withou t doub t result s fro m th e practic e o f medi tation fro m childhoo d a t the risk of life .

Conclusion: Makin g th e Mos t of th e No w

THE TRUE NATURE OF SELF-INTEREST The problem o f self-interes t i s an eternal question , one whic h has shadowe d u s sinc e humankin d first bega n t o liv e i n groups, and on e which, I think, wil l b e with u s for a s long a s the huma n rac e survives . I t i s probabl y natura l tha t peopl e should put thei r ow n benefi t first, i f the self they comprehen d is tha t whic h i s merel y a n objec t o f sensor y knowledge . Ramsay MacDonald , th e first Labo r prim e ministe r o f Grea t Britain, dre w a pictur e o f th e futur e i n hi s boo k Socialism, Critical and Constructive, whic h o f course reflected th e views of hi s cabinet . Th e final chapter , "Motive s t o Work, " dis cusses th e questio n o f wha t motive s wer e necessar y t o mak e people wor k i n a socialis t societ y tha t di d no t espous e th e profit principle . MacDonal d addresse d th e questio n i n hi s 113

114 CONCLUSIO

N

own inimitabl e way . First , h e said , havin g superintendent s from amon g th e workers themselve s overse e the work wil l in itself b e sufficien t motivation . Second , h e noted , ther e i s th e ethical outloo k o f th e worke r himself , th e awarenes s tha t i f he doe s no t d o a goo d day' s work , h e wil l b e lettin g dow n society a s a whole . MacDonald' s whol e argumen t i s base d on th e premis e tha t i f th e basi c condition s o f socia l lif e change, people's heart s will change a s well. I wonder. The economis t Maynar d Keyne s presente d a n opposin g view. In General Theory of Employment, Profit, and Money, he sai d that , sinc e self-interes t i s inheren t t o huma n beings , people i n a societ y tha t doe s no t allo w th e pursui t o f profi t will devot e themselve s t o schemin g t o acquir e power . Wit h which o f th e two writer s would yo u agree ? After huma n being s emerge fro m th e womb an d graduall y begin t o comprehen d th e existenc e o f a world outsid e them selves, thei r awarenes s o f thei r ow n eg o grow s an d the y learn t o distinguis h betwee n themselve s an d th e outer world . Because this idea o f sel f is based on sensor y perceptions, the y seek ou t thing s tha t ar e comfortabl e an d fulfillin g t o tha t self. Thi s i s generall y considere d t o b e perfectl y reasonable , and mos t people exis t within thi s mental framework , matur ing, living, an d finall y dyin g within it . There ar e some , how ever, wh o ar e lik e th e youn g Buddha , wh o i n hi s yout h perceived th e sufferin g inheren t i n sickness , ol d age , an d death an d wishe d t o escap e fro m i t an d th e fear s i t engen dered. As a result o f his investigation int o the nature o f thes e phenomena, h e discovere d th e real m o f th e Tathagata , th e "Thus-gone One " wh o ha s attaine d enlightenmen t an d es caped fro m th e cycle of birt h an d death . This is the result o f taking one or two step s away fro m th e

CONCLUSION 11

5

mental framewor k o f ordinar y lif e an d fro m th e habitua l way o f thinking , confrontin g th e spiritua l dimensio n head on an d cuttin g dee p int o i t t o see k th e answer s t o one' s questions. On e who practices i n thi s wa y realize s tha t self interest i s derived fro m a fatal misunderstandin g o f the most fundamental proble m withi n his own being. It is the result of a grea t misunderstandin g o f oneself b y oneself an d a menta l state o f ignoranc e regardin g th e true self . Peopl e ar e aston ished whe n the y discove r thei r rea l self . I was no different . The wonder o f the realization tha t ther e is no "I," that "I " is nowhere t o be found, reverberate d throug h m y whole body . What enable s u s t o penetrat e thi s trut h i s th e koa n i n th e seventh cas e recorde d i n the Blue Cliff Record, "On e phrase of th e Pre-Voice , te n thousan d sage s hav e no t hande d down." Thi s is the question tha t ask s what was your origina l face befor e you r parent s wer e born . I t provided m e with the means of cutting through th e roots o f self-interest . THE IMPORTANC E O F FORGIN G SELF-CONTRO L

Let u s scrutiniz e th e fact s o f ou r lif e objectively . Th e bloo d flowing throug h ou r vein s an d th e cell s tha t mak e u p ou r body hav e been transmitte d t o us by ancestors without num ber. W e ourselves wer e create d b y our parents, wh o in tur n were bor n o f theirs . The number o f people o f whom w e are a direc t descendan t i s mind-boggling . Countin g bac k jus t a thousand o r s o years, t o not long befor e Canut e wa s telling the wave s t o retrea t o r th e equivalen t o f aroun d forty-on e generations, ou r ancestor s numbe r wel l ove r thre e trillion . Counting bac k t o th e tim e o f th e repute d ancesto r o f th e human race , Pithecanthropus, th e number of ancestors swell s

116 CONCLUSIO

N

to thousand s o f trillions . Ou r ancestor s mus t hav e bee n o f many types , includin g criminals , murderers , an d thieve s a s well as good people. In biological terms we have indisputabl y inherited al l o f thos e factor s i n ou r makeup . Thi s ha s deter mined th e type of person w e are now an d given us the abilit y to g o in an y directio n w e choose . The sel f w e ar e no w ha s bee n forme d b y al l th e variou s interactions betwee n ourselve s an d others : th e car e w e re ceived whe n w e wer e stil l i n th e womb ; disciplin e a t home ; our schoo l education; relationship s wit h peopl e in our neigh borhood; an d al l the othe r virtuall y countles s type s o f socia l interaction w e hav e experienced . Th e directio n w e tak e an d the wa y w e ar e brough t u p ar e first decide d b y others ; later , we ourselve s tak e ove r th e action s tha t serv e t o regulat e ou r behavior. Wha t w e ar e toda y i s th e resul t o f suc h self-con trol, a s we hav e face d ourselve s an d decide d ho w w e shoul d act or think , which cours e we should take , or how we shoul d or shoul d no t behave . I f thi s sens e o f self-contro l i s weak , then inerti a wil l i n mos t case s pul l u s fro m on e directio n t o another. I was lik e this, s o I understand i t fro m persona l ex perience. Among th e writing s prize d i n Rinza i Ze n i s the collectio n of koa n calle d th e Gateless Gate (Chines e Wu-men-kuan; Japanese Mumonkari). I t contains forty-eigh t "cases, " begin ning wit h Chao-chou' s "Mu " an d endin g wit h Kan-feng' s "One road. " I n th e twelft h cas e i s a koa n calle d "Jui-yen' s master." I found th e wor d "master " particularl y interestin g and aske d Uek i Rosh i t o writ e th e wor d i n larg e character s for m e mor e tha n fort y year s ago , a s I wante d t o fram e i t and han g i t i n m y hom e t o provid e a focu s fo r self-admoni tion. Beside s writin g ou t th e character s fo r me , h e wrot e

CONCLUSION 11

7

beside the m th e followin g line s fro m th e origina l tex t o f th e Gateless Gate: Priest [Shih-]ye n o f Jui-ye n [Temple ] calle d t o himsel f ever y da y [upon waking], "Master!" an d replied to himself, "Ye s sir!" Then he woul d say , "B e wid e awake! " an d reply , "Ye s sir! " A t othe r times an d o n differen t days , "D o no t b e deceive d b y others! " "No sir!" This koa n urge s Ze n practitioner s t o kno w thei r tru e Sel f and t o brin g it with them . I woul d lik e t o commen t o n thi s fro m a differen t angle . Like Shih-yen's sel f calling the self, we should make it a point to cal l t o ourselve s i n ou r dail y round : "B e i n th e bes t o f spirits today! " "Yes. " "Liv e toda y accordin g t o th e sel f o f no-thought!" "Yes! " "Don' t tel l lies today!" "No! " To forg e a min d suc h a s thi s tha t enable s u s t o contro l th e sel f i s o f utmost importanc e i n human life . SEEING TH E MOUNTAIN , NO T SEEIN G TH E MOUNTAI N

More tha n twent y year s ag o I included i n m y Fundamentals for Accountants (Kaikeiji n n o genten ) th e words "Seein g th e mountain, no t seein g the mountain " a s a vital componen t o f the Ze n experience . Th e topi c cam e u p agai n durin g a Ne w Year's visit in 199 1 b y Mr. Miyamot o o f TIMS an d hi s wife , and I would lik e to relate it here. Hojo Tokimun e (1251—1284) , the d e fact o rule r o f Japa n in th e mid-thirteent h century , practice d Ze n seriousl y unde r the tutelag e o f Wu-hsue h Tsu-yiia n (1226—1286) , a refuge e from Mongo l rul e i n China . Anothe r o f Wu-hsueh' s clos e disciples wa s th e thir d so n o f th e Empero r Go-Saga , Koh o Kennichi (1241-1316) , als o know n b y hi s posthumou s titl e

118 CONCLUSIO

N

Bukkoku Kokushi , th e founde r o f Unganj i Temple , unde r whose fifty-eighth successo r Uek i Rosh i I studie d Ze n fo r thirty-two years . Ther e i s a smal l hal l o n th e hil l behin d Unganji calle d th e Thre e Buddha s Hall . I n th e garde n i n front o f th e hal l i s a plaqu e wit h th e vers e Wu-hsue h wrot e when h e knew deat h wa s approaching , followin g th e custo m of al l Zen priests . Coming, nothing goes forward ; Going, nothing retreats. A lion in every pore A lion roaring in every pore. Though somethin g o r someon e appear s befor e him , h e ha s no idea that "someon e has come." Though he sees somethin g or someon e depart , h e maintain s n o suc h concep t a s " I wil l see him off. " Suc h a conditio n i s like having lion s roarin g i n every pore o f th e body . This i s a n importan t issu e fo r huma n life . Ren e Descarte s (1596-1650) said , " I think , therefor e I am " (Cogito ergo sum). H e thought tha t "I " was something real, that i t existe d when thought s appeare d i n the head. Therefore, h e declared , there i s n o "I " whe n n o though t exist s (Descartes , A Discourse on Method, trans . Joh n Veitch , Everyman' s Library , 1949, p . 88) . Descartes's mistak e wa s tha t h e was unabl e t o realize tha t th e Origina l Sel f i s t o b e foun d whe n ther e i s nothing i n one' s thoughts , whe n n o though t exist s i n th e mind. The seventeent h centur y wa s a time in which grea t philos ophers wh o wer e t o exer t a n enormou s influenc e ove r European civilizatio n appeare d throughou t Europe , an d i t provided th e bound s withi n whic h Descarte s worked .

CONCLUSION 11

9

Descartes's "I " i s n o mor e tha n th e "smal l I " o f Ze n Bud dhism, th e one-dimensiona l " I " create d b y th e sense s an d existing onl y withi n th e thought s o f th e physical body . Th e great Japanese Zen master Shid o Bunan (1603-1676 ) wrote : Kill, kill, Kill the self, Kill it completely. When nothing is left, Become a teacher of others. When on e obliterate s one' s ow n consciousness , whe n no t a speck o f though t mar s th e surfac e o f one' s mind , th e tru e Self, tha t is , th e sel f whic h live s withi n th e "grea t I, " i s revealed. The n on e is worthy t o becom e a teacher o f others . In th e Agama Sutras w e se e ho w th e Buddha , seekin g th e "Ultimate Self, " cam e t o th e realizatio n o f th e "objectles s concentration o f mind. " Thi s i s th e spiritua l idea l o f th e Japanese, fostere d i n th e Easter n wa y o f thought , an d th e ideal for m o f Japanes e mentality , whic h i s no t satisfie d b y the simpl e vie w o f sel f hel d b y Descarte s an d his followers . As internationalizatio n grow s increasingl y strong , thi s i s the principle o f understandin g th e min d tha t th e Japanese mus t export. Such wa s th e conversatio n I ha d wit h th e Miyamoto s during tha t New Year's fou r year s ago. ATTITUDES T O W A R D ADVERSIT Y

"Face you r deficiencie s an d acknowledg e them ; bu t d o no t let them maste r you. Let them teac h you patience, sweetness , insight. . . . Whe n w e d o th e bes t w e can , w e neve r kno w

120 CONCLUSIO

N

what miracl e is wrought i n our life , or in the life of another. " These ar e th e word s o f Hele n Kelle r (1880-1968) , blind , deaf, an d unabl e t o speak . Wha t fine word s the y are , an d how stron g th e perso n wh o spok e them ! Imagin e ho w yo u would fee l i f yo u wer e blind , an d the n ad d t o tha t no t bein g able t o hea r o r speak ! Fe w huma n being s ar e eve r a s cruell y handicapped a s this. From th e point o f view of those withou t handicaps, the suffering o f suc h people seem s unbearable . A Japanes e woma n calle d Hisak o Nakamur a suffere d from cataplecti c gangren e a t th e ag e o f three , an d he r limb s had t o b e amputated . No t on e ye n di d sh e see k i n govern ment assistanc e i n al l he r seventy-tw o year s (sh e die d i n March 1968) . A s I rea d he r biography , a cop y o f whic h I received fro m it s author , Shojir o Kurose , wh o attende d a lecture o f min e a t th e TK C Osak a Summe r University , th e tears streame d dow n m y fac e man y times . Sh e wa s a n en lightened person, who despite her hard fat e coul d write, "M y limbless bod y ha s bee n m y teacher. " She me t Hele n Kelle r a t a publi c meetin g i n Toky o o n April 17 , 1937 , which wa s als o attende d b y the prime minis ter an d othe r governmen t ministers . Kuros e describe s th e scene a s follows : Iwahash i spok e i n Englis h i n grea t detai l about Hisako . Thi s wa s transmitte d t o Hele n b y Thomson' s signing. She clasped Hisak o tightl y an d kissed her. She gently stroked Hisako' s shoulder s with bot h he r hands an d touche d the shor t arm s beneat h he r sleeves . Whe n sh e touche d Hi sako's lowe r body , he r fac e worke d fo r a momen t whe n Hisako understoo d sh e ha d artificia l legs . Suddenl y sh e em braced Hisak o an d kisse d he r fo r som e time . Tears streame d from Helen' s eyes . "Sh e i s muc h mor e unfortunat e tha n I, " the newspape r reporte d Hele n a s saying , "an d a muc h

CONCLUSION 12 1

greater person. " Hisak o wa s crying, too , and leaned agains t Helen's shoulde r instinctively . No t one person i n the crow d of mor e tha n tw o thousand coul d rais e his or her face; fo r a moment, th e auditorium wa s engulfed i n silence, and then i t was filled wit h sobbing . Hele n returne d t o her seat , holdin g the dol l sh e had receive d fro m Hisak o an d strokin g i t fro m head to toe, wiping her tears with her handkerchief (p . 228) . I crie d man y time s a s I transcribed thi s passage . Th e suf fering born e b y those wome n wa s not of their ow n making ; it had been visited upo n them . Nevertheless, they did not rail at fate , bu t faced thei r disabilitie s head-on . The y los t neithe r their gratitud e t o the universe tha t sustaine d the m no r thei r love towar d thei r fello w huma n beings . Th e dept h o f thei r humanity an d compassion i s almost beyon d words . Would I have suc h sympath y fo r other s I if I were i n their situation ? Would I b e abl e t o liv e i n gratitud e wit h suc h a handica p without bemoanin g m y fate? I doubt it. It is clear fro m th e lives of Helen Kelle r and Hisako Naka mura tha t the y face d thei r suffering directly , givin g thank s for th e fac t tha t the y wer e aliv e an d bearin g tru e lov e fo r others. The y see m t o sa y throug h thei r action s tha t t o d o otherwise would no t have been in accordance with thei r tru e self. M y own life woul d certainl y b e mean indee d i f I coul d not hel p the disabled i n any way possible. I salute you! KILL, KILL , KIL L THE SELF, KIL L I T COMPLETELY. W H E N NOTHING I S LEFT , BECOM E A TEACHER O F OTHER S

This i s the verse o f Shid o Buna n I mentioned briefl y above . It tell s u s to obliterat e al l remnants o f egotistica l conscious ness, fo r i t i s onl y the n tha t w e ar e worth y o f becomin g

122 CONCLUSIO

N

teachers o f others . I n Fraternity, th e Englis h novelis t Joh n Galsworthy asks , "Wha t i s love? " an d answers , "Lov e i s t o forget oneself. " Obliterating th e egotistica l consciousness , tha t is , elimi nating all sense of separatio n betwee n the self an d others an d wiping th e min d clea n o f an y stain , i s regarde d i n Wester n philosophy a s well as in Buddhism a s the highest for m o f th e mind. Nevertheless , peopl e wh o assum e th e sel f t o b e rea l and wh o bas e thei r action s o n thei r ow n potentia l gai n o r loss ar e i n th e vas t majority , whil e thos e wh o d o no t plac e themselves first i n thei r action s tend , o n th e othe r hand , to b e regarde d a s somewha t strange , a s no t livin g i n th e real world . I a m convince d tha t al l peopl e shoul d com e t o grip s wit h a proble m suc h a s tha t presente d i n th e sevent h cas e o f th e Blue Cliff Record: "On e phras e o f th e Pre-Voice , te n thou sand sage s hav e no t hande d down. " Tha t means , "Sa y th e word tha t i s the sel f befor e you r parent s wer e born! Not on e phrase o f thi s hav e th e sage s hande d down. " I f yo u thin k you ar e real , somethin g tha t i s foreve r unchanging , tel l m e what yo u looke d lik e befor e you r parent s wer e born . Ca n you answer ? Yo u wil l realiz e tha t you r "reality " i s onl y a temporary for m an d tha t i t originall y ha s n o permanence . I t is important , too , t o understan d tha t phrase s lik e "kil l th e self," o r "kil l th e sel f completely " d o no t refe r t o makin g yourself a sacrifice an d goin g along with th e majority. No r i s there an y objectio n implie d her e t o assertin g yourself . Not e that I a m i n n o wa y sayin g uncritica l acceptanc e i s im portant, an d I do not think , either , that uncritica l acceptanc e is a nativ e characteristi c o f th e Japanese. I t i s bette r tha t w e take a firm gri p o n ou r ow n temporar y existence , brin g ou r

CONCLUSION 12 3

breathing int o th e rhyth m o f th e universe , an d spea k forth . Seeing th e Japanes e a s exhibitin g uncritica l acceptanc e i s a kind o f misunderstanding . I f it takes root , internationa l soci ety wil l continu e t o judg e th e Japanese mistakenl y a s peopl e who ar e difficul t t o understand . A s proo f tha t th e Japanes e are no t inherentl y uncritical , however , w e hav e wel l ove r 500,000 literar y works published betwee n th e eighth centur y and 1868 . A glanc e a t th e recentl y publishe d eight-volum e Catalogue of Japanese Writings (whic h deal s wit h work s published durin g thi s tim e span ) confirm s th e abundanc e o f Japanese work s an d invite s th e questio n o f whethe r an y other countr y ca n riva l tha t output . I showed th e Catalogue to an American frien d o f mine, pointing out to him how eac h work wa s liste d wit h it s autho r an d presen t location . H e gave a whistle of surpris e and marvele d a t the number. Give n the numbe r o f book s produce d i n premoder n time s b y th e efforts o f thei r ancestors , I thin k th e Japanes e shoul d hav e more confidenc e i n thei r ow n intellectua l calibe r whe n meet ing peopl e fro m othe r countrie s an d shoul d mak e a point o f telling th e worl d o f thei r vas t cultura l an d historica l inheri tance, confident o f its important plac e in the world . BENEFITING BOT H SEL F AN D OTHER S

Society i s floode d wit h advice . I find i t strang e tha t givin g advice shoul d hav e becom e suc h a business . I would lik e t o ask, though , i f thos e adviser s ar e themselve s successful . I know, fo r example , a fortune-telle r wh o speak s o f th e mys teries of luc k an d goo d fortun e t o others , yet secretly bewail s his ow n misfortune . Hi s wor k i s no mor e tha n a business , a means o f makin g a living. There seem s t o b e no proo f o f th e

124 CONCLUSIO

N

effectiveness o f fortune-tellin g i n hi s case ; h e ha s bee n di vorced thre e times . Wh y isn' t h e abl e t o loo k int o hi s ow n future an d avoi d hi s fate ? Feelin g sorr y fo r hi m I use d t o think I shoul d tal k t o hi m abou t it , bu t I neve r pursue d it . When al l i s sai d an d done , i t i s no t anyon e else' s problem . There i s a bi g differenc e betwee n wha t peopl e sa y an d wha t they actuall y hav e the abilit y t o do . Imagine you were in charge of sales, in the widest meanin g of the word. Would yo u questio n yourself closel y if you wer e occupied onl y wit h th e desir e fo r a good sale s record, whic h is comparable t o strong-smellin g bea n paste that is not o f th e best quality ? Woul d you r customer s notic e tha t yo u wer e filled wit h a desir e t o pos t a goo d sale s record ? Yo u woul d make littl e progres s i f the y the n decide d yo u wer e onl y ap proaching the m a s par t o f you r sale s strategy . Strong-smell ing bea n past e i s a n inferio r product . T o sel l it , yo u hav e t o put you r ow n ambitio n completel y ou t o f you r mind . Thi s is the essenc e o f benefitin g bot h th e sel f an d others . D o yo u then approac h th e custome r thinkin g onl y o f hi s o r he r ow n benefit, hi s o r he r ow n good ? I n mos t cases , your customer s will b e mor e experience d sociall y tha n yo u are . S o i t i s important t o kno w tha t the y wil l instantl y notic e i f yo u ar e inwardly eage r to get good results . You consequentl y nee d t o direct your ful l attentio n t o the question o f where true benefi t to th e custome r lies . I f yo u d o no t kno w wha t i s necessar y in term s o f theor y an d psychology , yo u wil l b e unabl e t o accomplish busines s tha t trul y benefit s others . Stud y futur e trends fro m a variet y o f angle s an d creat e goo d custome r relationships base d o n trus t an d reliability . Thi s i s no t easy . It all goes back t o how yo u confron t yourself , an d i t depend s on ho w muc h yo u trul y believ e i n "benefitin g bot h th e sel f

CONCLUSION 12

5

and others. " Unles s you r action s ste m fro m a stron g philo sophical conviction , you r ow n lif e wil l never b e one thin g o r another. I n fact, mos t salarie d workers lead second-rate lives. I hav e referre d alread y t o Takek o Kujo , a ver y famou s poet befor e th e war . I still ten d t o si t u p straigh t wheneve r I remember th e words o f he r famou s poem : Just look! Even the blossoms that are destined to fall tomorrow Are blooming now in their life's glory. Here i s th e idea l o f huma n life , th e wa y tha t Ze n expect s i t to be . Uek i Rosh i onc e sai d t o me , "Iizuka , I live ever y da y to th e fullest! " Ze n shoul d no t b e jus t somethin g cerebral . We mus t see k wha t Sakyamuni , th e Buddha , calle d "ob jectless concentration o f mind. " Human being s liv e les s tha n a hundre d years . Whe n w e look bac k o n lif e w e will find i t extremel y short . I n th e tim e given us , w e shoul d liv e ever y da y t o th e fullest . Ou r lif e should no t b e motivate d b y a n expectatio n o f results , how ever, bu t b y wha t Socrate s calle d "hol y action, " th e Bhagavad Gita "Krishn a consciousness, " an d Kan t "transcenden tal consciousness. " Thes e hav e bee n calle d th e greates t wa y of living , th e suprem e for m o f th e mind . The y cos t nothin g in monetar y terms . A s lon g a s w e ar e aliv e i n th e world , le t us spend ou r day s in "hol y action. "

Appendix 1 : The New Era of Auditing and the Accounting Syste m of Japan, Part 1 (October 1990 )

1. F R O M BOOKKEEPIN G T O A C C O U N T I N G

On Novembe r 10 , 1494, th e text explainin g th e system of double-entry bookkeepin g wa s unveile d t o the world fo r the first time . Th e text i s containe d i n Chapte r X ("Tractatu s Particularis d e Computis e t Scripturis") o f the famous boo k on mathematic s entitle d Summa de Aritmetica, Geometria Proportioni et Proportionalita writte n b y the Italian mon k Lucas Paciol i (1445-1514) . Althoug h double-entr y book keeping wa s practice d i n variou s commercia l republic s o f Italy in the Middle Ages , it was kep t a s a professional secre t among th e few who practiced record-keepin g a t the time.* * Incidentally, th e bookkeeping practice s o f wooden sho e merchant s o f Niirnber g during th e Middl e Age s i s describe d i n Das Handlungsbuch der Holzschuher in

127

128 APPENDI

X1

Thus, Luca s Paciol i wa s th e first perso n t o publiciz e th e principle o f double-entr y bookkeepin g i n a scientific publica tion. Moreover , fifty years befor e th e publication o f Pacioli' s book, typograph y (th e printin g press ) wa s invente d b y Jo hann Gutenberg , which greatl y contribute d t o the dissemina tion o f Pacioli' s work . However, durin g thi s period , th e concep t o f th e balanc e sheet wa s unknown , sinc e annua l settlemen t wa s no t a cus tom a t tha t time . Th e balanc e shee t appeare d i n th e seven teenth centur y whe n Franc e legislate d i t i n it s Ordonnanc e du Commerc e i n 1673 . The balance sheet and financial state ments wer e se t a s lega l requirement s unde r thi s code . Thi s provision significantl y affecte d th e commercial code s of som e other Europea n nation s durin g th e eighteent h century , an d the stud y o f bookkeepin g move d fro m Ital y t o Franc e an d Great Britain . Matthieu d e l a Porte' s La Science des Negotiants et Des Tenue de Livres, publishe d i n 1712 , i s on e o f th e mos t valuable work s o n bookkeepin g i n France . H e experimente d with th e rationa l classificatio n o f accounts , stresse d th e fac t that a busines s enterpris e wa s a separat e economi c entity , distinct fro m it s owner(s) , an d formulate d th e basi s fo r th e legal existence of business enterprises. Bertrand Francois Barreme follow s d e l a Port e i n th e histor y o f bookkeeping . Niirnberg vo n 1304-1307 , publishe d i n 1934 , whic h wa s presente d t o m e b y m y best friend , Dr . Hein z Sebiger , o n Novembe r 25 , 1984 , a t a dinne r followin g th e ceremony i n celebratio n o f th e completio n o f DATE V III . Thi s wor k i s a ledge r based o n th e principl e o f double-entr y an d th e article s o f Vollstaendige Eintragung in das Handlungsbuch (complet e entr y int o th e commercia l book) , whic h make s one assum e tha t th e concep t o f evidentia l competenc y (Beweiskraft) o f th e books of account wa s nea r t o it s establishment .

APPENDIX 1 12

9

He classifie d th e account s int o genera l account s an d specia l accounts i n hi s Traite des Parties Doubles, publishe d i n 1721. Thi s classificatio n syste m wa s paramoun t i n Frenc h bookkeeping unti l th e late nineteenth century . As for eighteent h centur y work s o n bookkeepin g i n Grea t Britain, on e shoul d not e The Complete English Tradesman, published i n 172 5 by Daniel Defoe (1660-1731) , the famou s author o f Robinson Crusoe; John Mair's Bookkeeping Methodized, publishe d i n 1741 , which wa s appraise d a s th e stan dard o f th e period ; an d Jones English System of Bookkeeping by Single or Double Entry, publishe d i n 179 6 b y th e accountant Edwar d Thoma s Jone s o f Bristol . However , th e English syste m o f bookkeepin g wa s considere d b y som e a s merely a n expande d for m o f single-entr y bookkeeping . Jo nes's wor k wa s criticize d b y th e economis t Jame s Mil l (1773-1836) i n An Examination of Jones English System of Bookkeeping, wher e h e pointe d ou t tha t ther e wa s n o wa y to check embezzlement unde r th e English system. Mill's anal ysis demonstrated tha t double-entr y bookkeepin g supersede d any othe r bookkeepin g method . In the nineteenth century , bookkeepin g theor y wa s mainl y concerned wit h balanc e accounts . Buchhaltungssystem und Buchhaltungsforme, publishe d i n 188 7 b y Friedric h Huegl i (1833—1902), a n accountin g officia l i n Bern , Switzerland , and Buchhaltung und Bilanz, publishe d i n 191 4 b y the busi ness economis t Johan n Friedric h Schae r (1846—1925) , ha d established th e Materialistisch e Zweikontenreihentheori e (Materialistic Theor y o f Tw o Accounts) , whic h greatl y in fluenced Japa n an d th e Unite d States . I n th e intellectua l his tory o f bookkeeping , th e developmen t o f th e concep t o f

130 APPENDI

X1

"controlling account " i n th e nineteent h centur y ha d a n im pact equivalen t t o tha t th e Industria l Revolutio n ha d o n economic history . Dr. Kiyosh i Kurosawa , a Japanes e Professo r o f account ing, pointe d ou t i n on e o f hi s famou s books , Accounting (1933), that the beacon o f distinction betwee n the traditiona l and moder n method s o f bookkeepin g mus t b e base d o n th e idea o f controllin g accoun t (als o referre d t o a s "contro l ac count"). Thus , on e ca n estimat e th e establishmen t o f ac counting betwee n th e en d o f th e nineteent h centur y t o th e beginning o f th e twentieth. I n particular, on e must credi t th e establishment o f accountin g a s a scienc e t o th e publicatio n of Euge n Schmalenbach' s (1873-1955 ) Dynamische Bilanz in 191 9 an d Heinric h Nicklisch' s (1876-1946 ) Wirtschaftliche Betriebslehre i n 1922 . Th e Institut e o f Chartere d Ac countants i n Englan d an d Wale s wa s establishe d i n 1880 . Across th e Atlantic , th e Ne w Yor k Stat e Societ y o f Certifie d Public Accountant s wa s establishe d i n 1897 , followin g th e enactment o f th e Certifie d Publi c Accountan t La w o f Ne w York Stat e i n 1896 . Not e tha t thes e professiona l organiza tions wer e forme d almos t simultaneousl y wit h th e establish ment o f th e scienc e of accounting . 2. TH E B E G I N N I N G A N D TH E N E W ER A O F A U D I T I N G

In Jun e o f 185 3 Commodor e Matthe w Perr y (1794-1858 ) entered Japan . H e presente d th e credential s fro m Presiden t Millard Fillmor e t o th e Shoganate , an d i n Marc h o f th e following yea r th e U.S.-Japa n Treat y wa s concluded . Thi s preceded peac e treatie s tha t Japa n conclude d wit h othe r countries suc h a s Grea t Britain , Russia , an d Holland . Thus ,

APPENDIX 1 1 3

1

the U.S.-Japa n Treat y playe d a n importan t rol e i n introduc ing Japan t o th e Wester n world . Ninety-on e year s afte r th e signing o f th e U.S.-Japa n Treaty , Japa n wa s defeate d i n World Wa r I I an d passe d int o America n occupatio n unde r General Headquarter s (GHQ) . Despit e th e loss , thi s wa s a very happ y experienc e fo r Japa n an d it s people . Sinc e th e reason i s quite evident, I believe that i t need not be explaine d in detai l here . Unde r th e occupatio n Japa n learne d muc h from th e Unite d State s an d wa s abl e t o eventuall y becom e one o f th e leading economi c nations o f th e world . In 1948 , th e Certifie d Publi c Accountin g La w wa s en dowed t o the Japanese unde r th e supervision o f GHQ . Grad ually, w e starte d auditin g base d o n th e principle s learne d from th e Unite d States . The professor s o f accountin g lectur ing in Japanese universities , especially those who were lectur ing on auditin g theory , studie d works suc h a s Montgomery' s Auditing, Auditing Principles and Procedures b y Arthu r W . Holmes, C.P.A. , Auditing Standards and Procedures b y Homes an d Burns , an d The Philosophy of Auditing b y Rob ert K . Maut z an d Hussei n A . Sharaf . Thes e wer e indee d valuable reference s t o teach Japanese students . Apart fro m th e aforementione d books , I have th e follow ing books a t my disposal : 1. AICPA, Professional Standards, U.S. Auditing Standards 2. AICPA, Audit and Accounting Manual (non-authorita tive technical practice guide ) 3. Jac k C . Robertson, Auditing, 6t h editio n 4. Donal d H . Taylo r an d G . Willia m Glezen , Auditing: Integrated Concepts and Procedures, 4t h editio n

132 APPENDI

X1

5. Da n M . Guy , C . Wayn e Alderman , an d Alan d J . Win ters, Auditing, 2n d editio n 6. Meigs , Whittington , Pany , an d Meigs , Principles of Auditing, 9t h editio n 7. Walte r G . Kell , Willia m C . Boynton , an d Richar d E . Ziegler, Modern Auditing, 4t h editio n 8. D . R . Carmichae l an d Joh n J . Willingham , Auditing Concepts and Method: A Guide to Current Auditing Theory and Practice, 5t h editio n 9. D . R . Carmichae l an d Joh n J . Willingham , Perspectives in Auditing, 4t h editio n 10. Marti n A . Mille r an d Larr y P . Bailey , Comprehensive GAAS Guide 1990 11. Th e Institut e o f Chartere d Accountant s i n Englan d an d Wales, Auditing and Reporting 1989190. Each o f th e abov e i s superio r o n it s ow n an d al l ar e gran d works. However, I am no t satisfie d wit h the m i n the intellec tual sense . The reaso n i s this: Auditing i s really th e actio n o f human beings . Th e action s o f huma n being s ar e forme d through th e interrelationship s o f th e condition s betwee n th e subject o f huma n being s an d th e objec t o f thei r cognition . No matte r ho w logicall y wel l prepare d on e i s regardin g th e objects o f cognition , a s lon g a s th e condition s o f th e subjec t of huma n being s hav e no t mature d ordinar y negligenc e o r gross negligenc e shal l b e unavoidable . Accordingly , th e "Wave o f Litigation " become s apparent . I thin k thi s i s th e atmosphere a t present i n the United States . The Germa n philosophe r Edmun d Husser l (1859-1938 ) commented i n his book Ideen zu einer reinen Phaenomenologie und Phaenomenologischen Philosophie (Idea s Pertainin g

APPENDIX 1 13

3

to Pur e Phenomenolog y an d t o a Phenomenological Philoso phy), published i n 1913 , that "w e find a remarkable polarit y in ever y act : o n th e on e side , the ego-pol e a s 'Noesis ' an d t o the objec t pol e a s 'Noema V Th e presen t stat e o f auditin g seems t o b e onl y pursuin g th e precisenes s o f Noema. How ever, I believ e tha t t o prepar e fo r Noesis, th e trainin g i n what Immanue l Kan t calle d "transzendentale s Bewusstsein " (transcendental consciousness ) i s the bes t way t o achiev e th e utmost for m o f auditing . An d thi s i s very differen t fro m th e "mysticism" tha t Professor s Maut z an d Shara f referre d t o i n their book . The concep t o f mysticis m o r " a prior i judgment " tha t Professors Maut z an d Shara f referre d t o wil l b e on e o f th e important clue s t o lea d u s t o th e solution . Th e developmen t of "a n intuitiv e ability, " whic h i s mentione d i n th e eight h edition o f Montgomery's Auditing, shal l also provide us with a ver y importan t ke y t o it . Therefore , ther e certainl y exist s the bes t attainabl e mean s t o develo p th e ne w er a o f auditin g with th e transcendenta l consciousnes s o f ou r dail y lives . Herein lie s the point that auditin g professionals i n the Unite d States ma y someda y discove r the y nee d t o lear n fro m th e Orient; tha t is , th e philosoph y o f transcendenta l conscious ness found i n the Veda Philosophy, a document written som e five thousan d year s ag o i n India . I n i t on e ca n find th e teachings o f th e principle s o f ho w th e bes t conditio n o f human consciousnes s shoul d be . 3. TH E A C C O U N T I N G S Y S T E M O F JAPA N

Whenever I tal k abou t th e accountin g syste m o f Japan , I cannot hel p bu t b e embarrassed . Fo r example , i f yo u exam -

134 APPENDI

X1

ine th e 199 0 editio n o f Kaikei Zensbo (Compendiu m o n accounting), unde r "Principle s o f Corporat e Accounting, " you wil l find just fou r pages . Even if you ad d th e "Standard s of Cos t Accounting, " i t wil l stil l b e onl y twent y pages . Re grettably, i f yo u conside r "Th e Principle s o f Consolidate d Financial Statements, " "Th e Accountin g Standard s fo r For eign Currenc y Transactions, " "Th e Accountin g Standard s for Publi c Interes t Corporations, " an d "Th e Accountin g Standards fo r Schoo l Incorporation" a s well, it will still tota l just fifty-nine page s o f authoritativ e discussion . B y contrast , in th e 199 0 editio n o f Comprehensive GAAS Guide, ther e are 1,10 8 page s o f discussio n relatin g t o accountin g stan dards i n th e Unite d State s o f America . Clearl y on e ca n se e a gap betwee n th e accountin g syste m o f Japan an d tha t o f th e United States . Moreover, t o m y lament , thi s ga p doe s no t exis t onl y between Japan an d the United States , but between Japan an d the Unite d Kingdo m a s well . I n th e 1989/199 0 editio n o f Accounting Standards publishe d b y th e Institut e o f Char tered Accountant s i n Englan d an d Wales , yo u wil l find 67 8 pages relatin g t o th e relevan t standards . However , becaus e the prin t siz e i n th e Englis h publicatio n i s smalle r tha n th e print siz e in th e America n publication , I believe tha t ther e i s not muc h differenc e i n the amount o f material . The ga p exist s i n term s o f auditin g standard s a s well . Under "Auditin g Standards, " "Workin g Rule s o f Auditin g Procedures o f Fiel d Work," "Workin g Rule s of Audi t Proce dures i n Reportin g Standards, " an d "Standar d o f Interi m Audit o f Financia l Statements " on e finds thirtee n page s i n the 199 0 Kaikei Zensho. B y contrast , i n th e 199 0 Comprehensive GAAS Guide, on e finds 1,368 page s and in the 1989 /

APPENDIX 1 13

5

90 Auditing and Reporting, on e find s 1,07 4 pages . Clearl y there is a drastic gap betwee n Japan an d thes e two countries . What coul d b e th e cause s o f suc h a drasti c gap ? Le t m e give you thre e explanations . Thes e view s ar e solel y m y ow n opinion o n th e subject . First o f all , th e Japanes e Principle s o f Accountin g an d other relate d standard s ar e not base d o n an y kind o f legality . The Business Deliberation Counci l establishe d i n 195 2 b y a n ordinance o f th e Japanes e Ministr y o f Financ e i s not , an d has neve r been , a s powerfu l orga n a s th e Securitie s an d Exchange Commissio n (SEC) , whic h wa s establishe d unde r the U.S. Securities Exchange Act of 1934 , Section 4. The SEC has the right to enact rules and regulation s under Articles 11, 17, an d 23 . Thus, thos e wh o intentionall y violat e SE C rule s or regulation s coul d b e subjected t o monetar y fine or impris onment. Whe n suc h a violation i s committed b y an exchang e dealer, the penalty coul d be up to $500,000 . Apart from this , the SE C ha s th e righ t o f "investigations , injunction s an d prosecutions o f offenses " (Sectio n 21 ) agains t thos e wh o ar e suspected o f violatin g th e rule s an d regulations . Thus , on e can easil y se e tha t th e distributio n o f power s t o nationa l agents i s quit e differen t i n Japan a s compare d t o th e Unite d States. The secon d reason , i n m y opinion , i s th e confrontatio n between th e Japanes e Ministrie s o f Financ e an d Justice , which originate d fro m a discor d betwee n th e Financia l Ac counting Deliberatio n Counci l an d th e Legislativ e Council . Furthermore, thi s situatio n ca n b e trace d bac k t o th e con frontation betwee n th e Japanese scholar s o f accountin g wh o were member s o f th e Financia l Accountin g Deliberatio n Council an d the Japanese scholar s of law who were member s

136 APPENDI

X1

of th e Legislation Council . It is apparent t o me that th e focu s of thi s oppositio n ca n b e foun d i n mor e tha t thirt y article s within th e Kaikei Zensho an d confirmed b y the various state ments release d b y th e Financia l Accountin g Deliberatio n Council. Thi s oppositio n an d th e continue d discor d ha s per sisted fo r mor e than thirt y years an d ha s been exposed t o th e rest o f th e worl d b y th e releas e o f officia l statements . Thi s i s indeed a n unhear d o f disgrace , an d I believe that yo u ca n al l imagine, b y now , ho w incompeten t th e Japanes e politician s are wh o hav e lef t thi s matte r unresolved . I t i s a proble m resulting fro m th e lack o f courag e an d intelligence . The third reaso n can be found i n the Japanese Commercia l Code, Article 12 , Clause 2, which states , "I n interpretin g th e provisions concernin g th e preparatio n o f th e accoun t books , reasonable accountin g practic e shal l b e take n int o consider ation." Thi s statemen t i s base d o n th e theor y espouse d b y Professor Kotar o Tanak a i n The Logic of the Balance Sheet Law publishe d i n 1944 . Professo r Tanak a wa s a renowne d scholar, Dea n o f th e La w Departmen t o f th e Universit y o f Tokyo, Minister o f Education, an d the President o f th e Japanese Supreme Court . Professo r Tanak a state d tha t i n matter s relating to the reconciliation o f commercia l bookkeepin g on e must follo w "th e rule s an d regulation s o f regula r bookkeep ing" unde r Germa n law . However , th e meanin g o f "rule s and regulation s o f regula r bookkeeping " i s no t state d i n Professor Tanaka' s theory . In one sense it means that exclud ing th e cas e fo r establishin g a certai n rul e fo r individua l points o f importance , th e la w make r mus t acknowledg e th e existence o f principa l regulation s generall y practice d amon g the corporations , an d tha t a blan k rul e shal l b e establishe d whose detail s ar e delegate d t o actua l practices . I n thi s case ,

APPENDIX 1 13 7

it means tha t th e conten t o f th e actua l practic e tha t ha s bee n delegated mus t b e o f a legal nature . This i s the meanin g tha t prevails i n Japan . Bu t thi s i s no t th e meanin g accordin g t o German law , nor i s it in American o r Englis h laws . Surprisingly, Japanes e scholar s o f commercia l la w neve r doubted Professo r Tanaka' s theor y an d obeye d i t unani mously. Thi s i s based o n th e fac t tha t Professo r Tanak a wa s the highes t authorit y i n Japanes e jurisprudenc e a t th e time . According t o Professo r Tanaka' s theory , ther e i s n o nee d t o set factua l ruling s fo r necessar y "matter s tha t ar e considere d as fai r accountin g practices. " Professo r Tanaka' s theor y i s directly reflected i n Japan's Corporatio n Ta x la w (Articl e 22, Clause 4) and the Regulation o f Financial Statement s (Articl e 1). Th e concep t o f "Fai r accountin g practices " state d i n Japan's Commercia l Cod e (Articl e 32, Clause 2), the concep t of "Generall y Accepte d Accountin g Principles " state d i n th e Corporation Ta x La w (Articl e 22, Clause 4), and the concep t of "Generall y Accepte d Corporatio n Accountin g Standards " stated i n th e Regulation s fo r Financia l Statement s (Articl e 1 ) all shar e Professo r Tanaka' s theory , althoug h ther e ma y b e some differenc e i n the wording . 4. CONCLUDIN G REMARK S

Essentially, Japanes e accountin g standard s an d auditin g standards ar e accepted a s is, while this is not the case in mos t advanced countrie s lik e th e Unite d States , Unite d Kingdo m and Germany . Thus , ther e i s a grav e defec t regardin g th e number o f norm s i n th e Japanese accountin g syste m a s com pared t o thes e countries . Although thi s defec t o r ga p i s com pensated b y th e "Chancellor' s Circula r o f th e Nationa l Ta x

138 APPENDI

X1

Administration Agency, " thi s is referred t o a s an assertion , a compilation o f th e customary interpretation s o f standard s b y the hig h official s o f th e Ministr y o f Finance . Mos t peopl e view thi s a s d e fact o legislatio n b y the official s o f th e Minis try of Finance . Moreover, thi s is a deficiency whe n compare d to th e United States , where the rulings for th e administratio n of ta x matter s ar e forme d base d o n th e officia l explanation s of ta x laws . For mor e tha n te n year s I hav e bee n appealin g fo r th e necessity t o correc t thi s grav e defec t regardin g th e rule s an d regulations governin g accountin g i n Japan . Th e Ministr y o f Finance ha s finally com e t o a n understandin g o f th e defec t and ha s sanctione d th e establishmen t o f th e Foundatio n o f Corporate Financia l Syste m Researc h Associatio n o n Jul y 2, 1990 .

Appendix 2: The New Er a of Auditing and the Accounting Syste m in Japan, Part 2

In m y lectur e o n Octobe r 10 , 1990 , a t th e Arthu r K . Solo mon auditoriu m o f Ne w Yor k University , I said: No matter ho w one is logically well prepared regardin g the objectives of cognition , for a s long as the conditions of the subject sid e of huma n being s ma y no t becom e matured , "Ordinar y Negli gence" o r "Gros s Negligence " shal l b e unavoidable. Accordingly , "the Wave of Litigation" become s so common. And I think thi s is the actua l atmospher e a t presen t o f th e auditin g practic e i n th e United States. Furthermore, I also quote d th e followin g words : "W e find a remarkable polarit y i n ever y huma n act : o n th e on e side , th e Ego-pole; o n th e other , th e objec t a s the counter-pole. " Thi s passage wa s take n fro m th e boo k Ideen zu einer reinen Phd139

140 APPENDI

X2

nomenologie und pbdnomenologischen Philosophie (Idea s pertaining t o a pur e phenomenolog y an d t o a phenomeno logical philosophy , 1913) , writte n b y Edmun d Husser l (1859-1938). Husser l use d Gree k terminology , namely , Noesis and Noema, i n referring t o the ego-pole an d the counter pole, respectively . As fa r a s I ca n understand , I believ e th e Unite d State s standards fo r accountin g an d fo r auditing , a s Noema, ar e obviously th e mos t advance d one s i n th e worl d i n term s of thei r accuracy , comprehensiveness , an d intellectua l level . Accordingly, I observ e tha t American s appreciat e fro m th e bottom o f thei r heart s truthfulness , fairness , an d transpar ency eve n i n th e field o f accounting . Th e pursui t o f thes e values ha s mad e the m achiev e thei r excellen t circumstances . At the same time, I have two concerns . First, as far a s American CPA s tr y t o secur e truthfulness , fairness , an d transpar ency fo r th e society , accountin g an d auditin g standard s nee d a polic e powe r s o tha t the y ca n b e enforced . However , a s accounting and/o r auditin g standard s approac h th e limi t o f accuracy, the y ma y brin g a n unbearabl e burde n t o th e enter prises o r t o professiona l accountants . Whe n an d ho w th e United State s wil l defin e certai n borde r line s i n thi s field i s the question . The second concer n regard s audi t textbooks a t universitie s in th e Unite d States . Whil e I admi t tha t th e objectivit y an d accuracy o f th e theor y i n thes e book s i s quite superior , ther e is on e fundamenta l thin g lacking : th e theor y o f huma n be havior. Fo r auditing , i n it s bar e essence , i s n o mor e tha n a human activity . I f w e therefor e liste n t o wha t Husser l sai d about huma n behavio r a s Noesis, i t becomes clea r tha t audi tors and accountant s nee d to train themselve s to find the wa y

APPENDIX 2 1 4

1

to develo p thei r intuitiv e power o r transcendenta l conscious ness. The subjec t o f transcendenta l consciousnes s i s not onl y a matte r o f simpl e care , merel y lookin g a t th e surfac e a s i f heeding a knoc k o n th e door , bu t concern s finding th e wa y and t o wha t exten t on e ca n establis h th e concret e wa y t o discover clearl y th e subjec t sid e o f one' s mind . O f cours e I cannot se e an y indication s o f awarenes s o f thi s importan t principle i n Japanes e universities , whic h ar e remarkabl y fa r behind America n universitie s regardin g accountin g an d auditing du e t o thei r tendenc y simpl y t o lear n fro m th e United States . A s lon g a s transcendenta l consciousnes s re mains s o weak , th e Wav e o f Litigatio n agains t professiona l accountants wil l becom e mor e seriou s da y b y day. Therefor e I reall y pra y tha t America n professiona l accountant s o r CPAs ma y realiz e th e necessit y o f Ze n trainin g o r self-dis covering. Thi s principl e o f polishin g th e transcendenta l con sciousness originate d fro m India , the n transferre d t o China , and finally cam e t o Japan . I t ha s remaine d onl y i n Japan u p to now . I visite d German y las t June , an d fortunatel y I ha d th e opportunity t o hav e a discussio n wit h m y bes t friend , Dr . Heinz Sebiger , Presiden t o f DATEV , th e larges t informatio n and dat a processin g organizatio n fo r professiona l accoun tants i n Germany , an d Dr . Wilfrei d Dann , chairma n o f th e German Institut e o f Tax Law s and o f the German Federatio n of th e Chamber s o f Ta x Consultants . O n tha t occasio n Dr . Dann an d I concluded tha t Germa n CPA s hav e no t suffere d from th e Wav e o f Litigatio n a s th e America n CPA s hav e because o f tw o provision s o f th e Wirtschaftspriiferordnung , the Germa n CP A Law . On e o f the m regard s Verjahrung (prescription) (prescribe d i n S S 51,70). Prescriptio n pertain s

142 APPENDI

X2

to th e exemptio n fro m liabilitie s fo r damage s afte r thre e o r five years , a s th e cas e ma y be . Th e othe r on e pertain s t o the lega l requiremen t o f th e la w calle d Kreditwesen-Geset z (Banking Law ) fo r th e audite e t o submi t a Vollstdndigkeitserkldrung (declaratio n o f completeness) . Thes e tw o lega l stipulations provid e th e break s fo r litigation . I woul d b e happy if these two points could serve as a reference t o American CPAs . I als o mentione d i n m y lectur e las t Octobe r tha t wit h regard to accountin g principles there is a drastic gap betwee n Japan an d th e Unite d States , wit h Japa n bein g fa r behind . Moreover, thi s drastic gap does not exist only between Japa n and th e United State s but als o between Japan an d th e Unite d Kingdom. Similarly , a s I also mentione d las t year , ther e i s a drastic ga p betwee n Japa n an d thes e countrie s regardin g th e number o f rule s i n th e standard s o f auditing . Accordin g t o my observatio n ther e ar e thre e mai n cause s tha t resulte d i n such drasti c structura l gap s betwee n Japa n an d th e tw o countries. First, accountin g arinciple s i n Japa n d o no t hav e lega l authority. Th e Busines s Accountin g Deliberatio n Counci l i n Japan, whic h wa s establishe d i n 195 2 b y "Th e Ac t o f Estab lishing the Ministry o f Finance, " faile d t o win i n givin g legal status, o r meanin g an d dignity , t o th e accountin g principle s in Japan. A German lega l philosopher an d schola r o f Roma n Law, Dr . Rudolp h vo n Jherin g (1818-1892 ) sai d i n on e o f his famou s works , Der Kampf urns Recht (Th e Fight fo r th e Right): "Da s Zie l de s Recht s is t de r Friede , da s Mitte l daz u ist de r Kampf " ("th e purpos e o f th e la w i s th e peace , th e means o f realizin g i t i s th e fight"). However , th e scholar s who compose d th e Busines s Accountin g Deliberatio n Coun -

APPENDIX 2 14

3

cil o f Japa n di d no t fight fo r accountin g principle s i n Japa n to hav e meanin g o r dignit y a s lega l status , a s Dr . Jherin g defined it . Let m e sho w yo u ho w wea k th e Busines s Accountin g De liberation Counci l o f Japa n i s b y lookin g a t th e cas e o f th e United Kingdom . Th e Unite d Kingdo m passe d a la w know n as th e 194 8 Companie s Act , wherein Articl e 14 9 establishe d the principl e o f " a tru e an d fai r view. " Whe n th e tim e cam e to prepar e th e E C Directiv e fo r companies ' accounts , th e United Kingdo m engage d i n bi g theoretical argumen t fo r th e adoption o f thi s principle an d th e terminology o f " a tru e an d fair view " itsel f i n th e Fourt h Directiv e o f th e EC . Afte r ten year s o f persuasion , i t finally succeede d i n overridin g committee member s o f th e EC . I n Japan, o n th e othe r hand , despite th e fac t know n worldwid e tha t th e E C Directiv e contains si x provision s o f sai d accountin g principle , th e scholars wh o shape d th e Busines s Accountin g Deliberatio n Council di d no t mak e an y effor t t o accomplis h th e same . I think an y perso n connecte d wit h th e accountin g syste m i n the world ca n decid e how t o evaluat e thi s matter . The secon d reaso n fo r th e drasti c gap, which i s abnormal , I understand, i s the conflic t betwee n th e Ministr y o f Financ e and th e Ministr y o f Justic e i n Japan . I woul d sa y tha t thi s situation ha s resulte d fro m th e conflicts betwee n th e lega l scholars wh o shape d th e Legislativ e Deliberatio n Counci l o f the Ministr y o f Justice, o n th e on e hand , an d th e accountin g scholars wh o shape d th e Busines s Accountin g Deliberatio n Council, o n th e othe r hand . I cannot bu t sa y tha t thi s i s du e to a little bi t o f exaggerate d prid e i n scholar s o f law , o n on e hand, an d a littl e bi t to o muc h o f a n inferiorit y comple x i n scholars o f accounting , o n th e other . To o muc h prid e an d

144 APPENDI

X2

too muc h inferiorit y comple x hav e bee n closel y interwoven , so to speak . This conflic t betwee n lega l scholar s an d accountin g schol ars ca n b e easil y graspe d b y lookin g a t a simila r inciden t i n Germany. Dr . Euge n Schmalenbac h (1873-1955) , a world famous accountin g scholar , particularl y durin g th e perio d o f 1919 an d thereafte r i n Germany , becam e furiou s whe n h e issued th e Dynamische Bilanz (Dynami c Balanc e Sheet ) be cause n o lega l schola r accepte d hi s work . Thi s wa s despit e the fac t tha t hi s wor k wa s regarde d a s on e o f th e world' s greatest accountin g books . Amon g th e lega l scholar s wh o did no t accep t hi s wor k wa s Dr . Enn o Becke r (1869—1940) , a Germa n justic e wh o originate d single-handedl y th e Reich sabgabenordnung (Nationa l Ta x Procedur e Act ) i n Ger many. I ca n als o disclos e th e fac t tha t a certai n Japanes e deputy directo r genera l o f th e Ministr y o f Justice , wh o wa s in charg e o f th e Amendmen t t o th e Commercia l Code , di d not adop t i n th e amende d Commercia l Cod e o f Jun e 1990 , the principl e o f " a tru e an d fai r view. " A s mentioned , thi s was adopte d i n th e Fourt h E C Directive. This office r refuse d despite m y repeate d appea l an d advic e t o conside r m y sug gestion fo r th e adoptio n o f thi s principl e i n th e amende d Code. Th e concerne d Deput y Directo r Genera l firmly stoo d his ground , sayin g tha t "E C peopl e d o no t understan d wha t the la w is. " Yo u ca n se e fro m suc h a statemen t th e reaso n the principle was not finally adopte d i n the amende d Code . The thir d reaso n fo r thi s drasti c ga p i s du e t o th e provis ions o f th e secon d claus e o f Articl e 3 2 o f th e Japanese Com mercial Code , whic h reads : "Fo r th e purpos e o f interpreta tion o f th e rul e regardin g preparatio n o f book s o f accounts , fair accountin g custom s shoul d b e deepl y considered. " Thi s

APPENDIX 2 14

5

provision wa s adopte d straigh t fro m th e logi c describe d i n page 3 6 o f th e Logic of Balance Sheet Law, writte n b y Dr . Kotaro Tanaka , the n dea n o f th e Departmen t o f La w a t th e University o f Tokyo , in 1944 . This logic, in brief, shows tha t the Germa n Commercia l Cod e i s th e mothe r la w o f th e Japanese Commercia l Code , althoug h i t i s no t clea r wha t is show n i n th e Grundsatz e ordnungsmassige r Buchfuhrun g (Principles o f Regula r Bookkeeping) , Articl e 3 8 (th e presen t Article 238) o f th e Germa n Commercia l Code . In short, legislator s adopte d Dr . Tanaka's theor y tha t there must be practical principles which are generally being implemented amon g companies . Accordingly , th e la w shoul d merel y establish "blan k provisions " an d tha t detaile d matter s shoul d b e left t o practica l custom s excep t fo r som e important matters , and , only in those cases where details of the laws will be established. In other words, practices are thought to bear the character of the law. Japanese accountin g scholar s an d lega l scholar s unani mously believe d i n thi s "blan k assignmen t theory. " I n thi s point ther e i s a remarkabl e differenc e betwee n Euro-Ameri can universitie s an d Japanes e universities . I n Japan, particu larly fo r th e stud y o f accountin g an d law , whic h ar e bot h not experimenta l bu t cultura l sciences , nobody woul d tr y t o oppose th e opinio n o f a topmos t leade r an d authority . Any body wh o woul d oppos e th e opinion o f suc h a person woul d have his life a s a scholar substantiall y erased . In other words , he would no t surviv e i n society . I am ashame d t o sa y it here, but i t i s a fac t tha t man y professor s a t Japanese universitie s have confessed thi s to m e directly. It is a very terrible matter , but i t is true. On th e contrary , i n America n an d Europea n universities , while disciples naturally appreciat e thei r teachers, in the pur -

146 APPENDI

X2

suit o f scientifi c trut h the y neve r hesitat e t o sa y what the y believe to their teachers . Dr. Gustav Radbruc h (1878-1949 ) declared i n hi s boo k Rechtsphilosophie (Lega l Philosophy ) (Achte Auflage S . 149), "Zur Personlichkeit wir d ma n durch selbstvergessene Sachlichkeit " ("throug h th e objectivit y o f forgetfulness o f self , a ma n becomes tru e personality") . Dr . Radbruch wa s a professor o f many regiona l Germa n univer sities o n lega l philosophy . H e wa s als o th e teache r o f Dr . Kotaro Tanaka . I take thi s concep t o f Dr . Radbruc h a s the respectable, pur e propositio n o f a scholar . I n Ze n Buddhis t society i n Japa n ther e i s a n ol d saying : "neve r conced e t o your Ze n master i n cas e yo u are probing th e ultimate self. " In the world of Husserl's "Noesis " or Kant's "transcendenta l consciousness" suc h a calculatin g consciousnes s i n the secular societ y doe s no t exis t eve n a s a particl e o f dus t floating in th e air . Suc h a calculatin g consciousnes s i s impur e an d incompatible wit h th e situatio n o f th e person searchin g fo r the scientific truth . The Conferenc e o f National , Regiona l an d Internationa l Standard Settin g Bodie s me t in Brussels, June 16-18 , 1991, primarily t o discuss an d exchange opinion s o n the followin g three major points : 1. Th e necessity an d object o f conceptua l framewor k a s basis for financial report . 2. Usefulnes s o f conceptual framework . 3. Possibilit y o f cooperation amon g concerne d standar d set ting bodie s t o procee d toward s internationalizatio n o f accounting standards . Professor A. , chairman o f the Business Accountin g Delib eration Counci l o f the Ministry o f Finance, and Professor S. ,

APPENDIX 2 1 4

7

a membe r o f thi s council , attende d th e conferenc e a s th e representatives fro m Japan . Th e ful l tex t o f th e statemen t o f the tw o professor s (origina l i n English ) wa s issue d i n th e September editio n o f Accounting, th e bulleti n o f Th e Japa n Society o f Accounting , publishe d b y Moriyam a Shote n i n Tokyo. Th e titl e o f thei r repor t wa s "Lega l an d Conceptua l Framework o f Accounting in Japan." I cannot avoid pointin g out tw o defect s i n thei r repor t fro m m y persona l viewpoint , although i t is a pity fo r m e to criticiz e them here . However, I must mak e thes e defect s clea r sinc e the y ar e relate d t o ac counting system s i n Japan. Th e firs t defec t i s the concludin g comment: Even thoug h Busines s Accountin g Deliberatio n Counci l attempt s to set accounting standards unde r which, for example, the current market price is proposed as a valuation basis for marketable securities, or the mark-to-mark rul e is proposed for futures transactions , it is impossible or quite difficult t o finalize such standards. This commen t absolutel y mean s tha t wit h respec t t o th e amendment o f th e presen t laws , th e member s o f th e counci l have been giving up the fight fro m th e start, contrary t o wha t Dr. Rudol f vo n Jherin g advise d i n hi s book . I am convince d that th e fiel d o f accountin g system s canno t evolv e withou t paying homage t o th e work o f othe r scholars . The secon d defec t i s in the followin g comment : As for the Corporate Income Tax Law, its 1947 amendments made it clear that corporate income tax should be computed based upon the incom e determine d unde r th e computatio n rule s o f th e Com mercial Law. As I mentioned before , th e Rules of Account i n the Commer cial Cod e ar e no t sufficien t t o properl y defin e ho w incom e

148 APPENDI

X2

tax calculatio n i s no w bein g performed , base d o n interna l circulars bein g issue d b y th e Directo r Genera l o f th e Na tional Ta x Agency , whic h hav e grow n i n volum e t o a larg e number. Th e fac t tha t accountin g principle s i n Japa n hav e no lega l status an d tha t the y depen d o n th e internal circular s of th e Directo r Genera l o f th e Nationa l Ta x Agency , whic h has n o lega l authorit y o n accountin g matters , seriousl y threatens t o impai r an d undermin e th e independenc e o f th e accounting professio n i n Japan. Fo r th e purpos e o f assurin g the transparency , accuracy , an d fairnes s o f accountin g sys tems a s a basi s fo r th e preparatio n o f financial statement s i n Japan, I strongl y cal l fo r abolishin g th e tremendou s volum e of interna l circular s o f th e Nationa l Ta x Agency . Instead , make the m al l Enforcemen t Regulation s base d o n Articl e 65 of Corporatio n Ta x Law , b y givin g the m lega l authority . I strongly sugges t tha t thi s woul d simpl y b e followin g th e decision o f Chancello r Konra d Adenaue r (1876-1967 ) o f Germany i n 1949 , whe n th e Grundgeset z (Constitution ) (Clause 3, Article 20) was promulgated an d al l tax law circu lars wer e abolishe d i n Germany . I a m quit e sur e tha t ac counting system s i n Japa n ca n b e improve d b y movin g to ward internationa l standard s regarding the two points I have mentioned above . Othe r matter s shal l b e considere d i n th e next lecture .

Appendix 3 : The New Er a of Auditing and the Accounting Syste m in Japan, Part 3

A. TH E NE W ER A O F AUDITIN G 1. Introductio n

In m y lectur e o n Octobe r 10 , 199 0 a t th e Arthu r K . Salomo n Auditorium a t th e Leonar d N . Ster n Busines s Schoo l o f N e w York University , I made th e followin g statement : Auditing i s reall y th e actio n o f huma n being s themselves . Action s of huma n being s ar e forme d throug h th e interrelationship s o f th e conditions betwee n th e subjec t o f huma n being s an d th e objec t o f their cognition . N o matte r ho w on e i s logicall y wel l prepare d regarding objective s o f cognition , fo r a s lon g a s th e condition s o f the subjec t o f huma n being s ma y no t becom e matured , "Ordinar y Negligence" o r "Gros s Negligence " shal l b e unavoidable . Accord 149

150 APPENDI X 3

ingly, "th e Wave of Litigation " become s so common. And I think this is the actual atmospher e a t present of th e auditing practice in the United States. Furthermore, I also quoted th e following words : "W e find a remarkabl e polarit y i n ever y act : o n th e on e side , the Ego pole; o n th e other , th e objec t a s counter-pole. " Thi s passag e was take n fro m Husserl' s Ideas Pertaining to a Pure Phenomenology and to a Phenomonological Philosophy (1913) . Husserl calle d thi s Ego-pol e Noesis. I t i s exactl y wha t Im manuel Kan t ha d calle d "transcendenta l consciousness " i n his work . Husserl , too , frequentl y use s th e ter m "transcen dental consciousness " i n his book . A t issue is the acquisitio n of th e ide a o f pur e transcendenta l consciousnes s an d ho w t o enter th e transcendenta l realm . I will focu s m y tal k no w o n these two points . 2. Th e Issu e o f Acquirin g th e Ide a o f Transcendental Consciousnes s

The first issu e concern s acquirin g th e ide a o f transcendenta l consciousness. Th e acquisitio n o f idea s mean s th e under standing o f ideas . Th e cognitio n o f idea s differ s fro m th e acquisition o f ideas . I n thi s case , word s ca n b e use d inter changeably wit h ideas . But cognition, i n the sens e of a meet ing o f idea s an d words , i s somethin g w e experienc e o n in numerable occasions . Afte r goin g throug h countles s experi ences, b y associatin g first wit h ou r parents , the n wit h ou r brothers an d sisters , teachers , schoolmates , neighbors , an d people i n th e society , w e encounte r an d recogniz e idea s an d words. Th e cognitio n o f idea s an d words , however , i s no t necessarily identica l t o th e understandin g o f idea s an d

APPENDIX 3 1 5

1

words. Occasionally, w e use ideas an d word s without know ing their rea l meaning. The sam e ca n b e said abou t transcen dental consciousness . W e sometime s us e idea s an d word s such a s "transcendenta l consciousness " withou t knowin g their rea l meaning . Transcendental consciousnes s i s consciousnes s tha t ha s not reache d th e leve l o f experience : i t i s ver y fa r fro m con crete consciousness . Thus , th e questio n arise s whethe r consciousness withou t specifi c substanc e ca n b e calle d con sciousness. I n Discourse on Method, Descarte s sai d "Cogit o ergo sum " (" I thin k therefor e I am") . Accordin g t o Desc artes, on e finds himsel f i n hi s thoughts . Thus , th e convers e holds: On e doe s no t find himsel f wher e hi s thought s d o no t exist. Thi s expressio n implie s tha t transcendenta l conscious ness withou t substanc e i s n o longe r consciousness . Thi s means tha t w e huma n being s hav e consciousnes s tha t i s no t consciousness i n essence . On e individua l wh o thoroughl y inquired int o thi s questio n wa s th e Buddha o f India . I would now lik e to refe r t o Some Sayings of the Buddha, According to the Pali Canon, translate d b y F . L . Woodwar d an d pub lished b y Oxfor d Universit y Pres s i n 1925 . Thi s i s a n abridged translatio n o f the Nikayas, th e early Buddhist scriptures. According to this translation, Buddh a lef t th e palace a t age twenty-nin e an d live d i n th e jungles . Afte r si x year s o f training, Buddh a attaine d spiritua l enlightenmen t (o r nir vana) an d thereafte r travele d throughou t India . Buddh a preached fo r forty-fiv e year s an d die d a t th e ag e o f ninety . His teaching s ar e calle d Buddhism . O f thes e teachings , Ma hayanist Buddhis m wa s introduce d int o Chin a an d reache d Japan vi a Korea . Sinc e th e officia l chronicle s o f Japa n indi cated tha t Mahayanis t Buddhis m reache d Japa n thirtee n

152 APPENDI

X3

years afte r th e enthronemen t o f th e Kinme i Emperor , thi s dates back abou t 144 0 years. Nirvana is interpreted b y Westerners a s a stat e o f nothingness , extinctio n o f consciousness , or annihilatio n o f consciousness . Wester n writer s see m t o understand nirvan a a s a complet e vacuum . Bu t th e trut h i s the complet e opposit e o f that . Th e action s an d interest s o f those wh o attai n nirvan a ar e completel y detache d fro m al l images an d sound . But internally, th e mind is "i n a conditio n of mos t intens e activity. " Sinc e th e perso n i s himsel f t o th e fullest stretc h o f hi s capacity, he is infinitely mor e himself. In this sense , i t mus t b e sai d tha t th e ide a o f nirvan a i n Bud dhism i s o n a highe r leve l tha n th e ide a o f transcendenta l consciousness explaine d b y Husserl an d Kant . Let me repeat wha t I said a t the outset : Auditing i s really th e actio n o f huma n being s themselves. Actions of huma n being s ar e forme d throug h th e interrelationships o f th e conditions betwee n th e subject o f human being s and the object of their cognition . N o matte r ho w on e i s logicall y wel l prepare d regarding objective s o f cognition , fo r a s long as the condition s of the subject side of human beings may not become matured, "Ordi nary Negligence " o r "Gros s Negligence " shal l b e unavoidable . Accordingly, "the Wave of Litigation" becomes so common. And I think this is the actual atmosphere at present of the auditing practice in the United States. In othe r words , th e maturit y o f huma n subjectiv e condition s has becom e a n indispensabl e conditio n fo r th e performanc e of effectiv e auditing . Thi s i s no t onl y a prerequisit e fo r auditing. Thes e condition s o f th e min d mus t b e maintaine d during th e ac t o f auditin g a s well . I n th e Nikayas, Buddh a called thes e condition s o f th e min d "Objectles s Concentra -

APPENDIX 3 15 3

tion o f Mind. " Thi s Objectles s Concentratio n o f Min d i s a n idea tha t i s ver y clos e to , bu t differ s slightl y from , Kant' s and Husserl' s transcendenta l consciousness . Althoug h thi s Objectless Concentratio n o f Min d i s i n th e sam e transcen dental realm , it is a dynamic consciousness . As state d previously , Mahayanis t Buddhis m emerge d i n ancient Indi a an d reache d Japa n vi a Chin a an d Korea . I n India, China , an d Korea , Mahayanis t Buddhis m ha s alread y become almos t extinct . The arriva l o f Mahayanis t Buddhis m was a majo r cultura l developmen t fo r Japa n mor e tha n a thousand year s ago, but it has gained a firm foothold, i n tun e with th e nationa l characteristic s o f th e Japanes e people . I t has endure d mor e tha n a thousan d winter s an d ha s becom e a cultur e indigenou s t o Japan . I firmly believ e tha t th e Ob jectless Concentratio n o f Min d taugh t b y th e Buddh a mus t be treate d a s th e absolut e foundatio n o f th e world' s curren t auditing practices . Thi s i s th e reaso n wh y I entitle d m y tal k "The Ne w Er a o f Auditing. " 3. Th e Issu e o f Ho w t o Ente r th e Transcendenta l Real m

Before peopl e thin k abou t ho w t o ente r th e transcendenta l realm, the y mus t realiz e tha t the y hav e alread y entere d th e transcendental realm . Becaus e o f this , ther e i s a possibilit y that th e wa y i n whic h thi s issu e i s posed wil l lea d peopl e t o misunderstand th e notion . Abou t thre e hundre d year s ago , there live d a Ze n pries t b y th e nam e o f Hakui n Ekak u (1685-1768). H e wa s a distinguishe d Ze n priest , deeme d a s a restore r o f th e Rinzaish u o f Buddhism . Hakui n wrot e a book calle d Japanese Manifest of Zen. I n this book , h e men -

154 APPENDI

X3

tions "cryin g out in thirst while in the water." I n this passag e Hakuin wonder s wh y th e person i n the water i s complainin g about thirst . Perhap s i t i s normal fo r u s philistine s t o fai l t o become awar e o f transcendenta l consciousnes s becaus e i t i s located to o clos e t o us . A n interestin g episod e i s stil l re counted i n th e headquarter s o f th e Myoshin-j i sect . On e day whe n Hakui n wa s preachin g i n th e Ryotaku-j i templ e a carpenter name d Heishir o fro m Anbar a Villag e appeare d and listene d t o Hakuin' s sermo n behin d th e shoji . Afte r Ha kuin finished preachin g Heishir o wen t int o th e bathroo m o f the temple an d sa t in Zen meditatio n fo r thre e days. It is said that h e finally attaine d nirvana . Thi s episod e illustrate s tha t it i s no t difficul t a t al l t o reac h nirvana . Anyon e ca n experi ence a stat e o f Objectles s Concentratio n o f Min d throug h a comparatively shor t perio d o f practice . I took seve n years t o attain thi s conditio n becaus e I was slo w in discoverin g tha t I was alread y i n a stat e o f constan t transcendenta l conscious ness an d becaus e I wa s hindere d b y idea s an d wil d fancies . The mos t difficul t thin g wa s realizin g tha t I was constantl y in a stat e o f transcendenta l consciousness . I n everyda y lif e one is in a state of objectless consciousnes s fo r a much longe r period o f tim e tha n on e i s in a stat e o f objec t consciousness . To discove r this , on e usuall y need s t o practic e meditation . Besides meditation , i t i s believe d tha t th e clos e examinatio n of th e behavio r o f one' s min d i s als o essential . I t i s said tha t a menta l conditio n tha t i s on e wit h th e univers e prevail s during objectles s concentratio n o f mind . I n Japan , i t i s be lieved tha t thi s conditio n i s attaine d throug h Zen . Bu t eso teric Buddhism place s particular emphasi s o n thi s point .

APPENDIX 3 15 5 B. ACCOUNTIN G SYSTE M I N JAPA N 1. Refor m o f th e Auditin g S y s t e m i n j a p a n

On Decembe r 26 , 1991 , Japan undertoo k effort s t o refor m its auditin g syste m i n th e for m o f a n announcemen t b y th e Business Accounting Deliberatio n Counci l o f th e Ministry o f Finance. Thes e reform s calle d fo r revisin g th e audi t stan dards an d th e workin g rule s o f audi t procedure s o f fiel d work an d reportin g tha t for m th e foundatio n o f function s performed b y certifie d publi c accountants . The revision s wer e mad e multilaterally . I thin k severa l items in particular stoo d out . First , under th e name o f "puri fication," amon g th e rule s fo r performin g a n audi t befor e revision, th e ful l tex t o f "II . Ordinar y Auditin g Procedures " was deleted . I n plac e o f that , th e Japanese Institut e o f Certi fied Publi c Accountants wa s positioned a s the body responsi ble fo r establishin g th e standard s tha t constitut e th e specifi c foundation o f auditing . Second , th e member s o f th e Institut e were oblige d t o reques t a lette r o f confirmation . Third , among th e workin g rule s fo r a n audi t report , al l Corporat e Accounting Standards , whic h ha d forme d th e criteri a fo r decision a t th e expressio n o f opinion s i n th e financia l state ments, were delete d an d replace d b y so-calle d Generall y Ac cepted Accounting Principles . The establishment o f the Japan Institut e of Certifie d Publi c Accountants a s th e bod y responsibl e fo r settin g th e auditin g standards ha s place d a hug e burde n o n tha t Institute . Thus , the futur e development s o f th e Institut e wil l be closely moni tored. I woul d lik e t o ad d tha t i n Japa n th e Generall y Ac cepted Accountin g Principle s hav e neve r bee n considere d a s

156 APPENDI

X3

a coheren t system . Owin g to this historical fact , th e duties of the Institute becam e eve n mor e important . As fo r th e obligatio n t o reques t a lette r o f confirmatio n described in the second point, I believe that they have learne d from th e practic e i n Americ a tha t th e audito r i s oblige d t o request a managemen t Representatio n Lette r fro m th e clien t company, i n accordanc e wit h SA S No . 1 9 se t fort h i n Sep tember 197 7 by AICPA. According t o 0 9 o n pag e 11 9 o f th e GAAS Guide 1992 (publishe d b y Harcour t Brac e Jovano vich, Inc.) , a managemen t Representatio n Lette r certifie s that, amon g othe r matters , th e boo k an d record s ar e correc t and complet e t o th e bes t o f management' s knowledg e an d belief, an d ther e ar e n o undisclose d o r contingen t liabilitie s (OBSERVATION 1) . In th e Unite d States , if th e manage r sign s a fals e Manage ment Representatio n Lette r stif f penalt y rules , includin g th e Foreign Corrup t Practice s Act , ar e applied . Sectio n 720 6 o f the Internal Revenu e Code , for instance , stipulates that thos e who mak e fals e entrie s ca n b e sentence d t o a maximu m o f three year s o f pena l servitud e o r fined a maximu m o f $500,000, or both . If Japan's Ministry of Finance is earnestly committed t o preventin g fals e entrie s unde r Articl e 498.1.1 9 of th e existin g Commercia l Law , the n i t shoul d seriousl y amend thi s la w i n accordanc e wit h U.S . la w provisions , rather tha n impos e a n ambiguou s civi l penalty o f ¥ 1 millio n or less . Thus, i t i s inevitable tha t suc h Japanese laws , whic h lack transparency , ar e criticize d b y th e U.S . governmen t a s an obstacl e to a sound free-trad e system . In th e reques t fo r a lette r o f confirmation , th e item s tha t need t o b e confirme d accordin g t o SA S No . 1 9 includ e th e ordinary condition s o f twent y item s ( A t o T) . Meanwhile ,

APPENDIX 3 1 5

7

the Japanese lette r o f confirmatio n merel y require s "a t least " three item s t o b e confirmed , namel y tha t (1 ) managemen t i s responsible fo r preparin g th e financial statements , (2 ) al l materials require d t o perfor m th e audi t ar e presente d t o th e auditor, an d (3 ) important contingen t an d subsequent events . It ca n onl y b e sai d tha t th e citin g o f thes e thre e condition s lacks candidnes s an d i s inconsiderate . Fo r instance , para graph (d ) o f SA S No . 1 9 provide s fo r "absenc e o f error s in th e financial statement s an d unrecorde d transactions. " Paragraph (m ) request s th e declaratio n o f whethe r o r no t there exist any "losse s fro m sale s commitments," whil e para graph (o ) request s th e declaratio n o f whethe r o r no t ther e exist an y "agreement s t o repurchas e asset s previously sold. " In Germany , th e Germa n Institut e o f Certifie d Publi c Ac countants decide d that it was necessary to request a Vollstdndigkeitserkldrung (declaratio n o f completeness ) fro m th e cli ent an d thu s pu t thi s int o practic e i n 1936 , forty-on e year s earlier tha n th e United States . Japan, o n th e other hand , onl y undertook simila r step s a ful l fifty-five year s afte r Germany . To advanc e t o th e leve l o f othe r countries , Japan mus t lear n the lesson s containe d i n GOB, writte n b y Professo r Leffso n of Munste r University . As mentioned above , the third point calle d for abandonin g the Corporat e Accountin g Standard s an d adoptin g th e Gen erally Accepte d Accountin g Principles . This chang e stemme d from th e collaps e o f th e cart e blanch e theor y concernin g th e principles of regular bookkeepin g o f the late Kotaro Tanaka , dean o f th e Facult y o f la w o f th e forme r Toky o Imperia l University. Thi s wa s a natura l development . Dr . Tanak a claimed tha t th e principle s o f regula r bookkeepin g o f th e German Commercia l Cod e hav e n o substanc e an d tha t th e

158 APPENDI X 3

government ha s no way t o insure sound accountin g practice s of privat e companie s othe r tha n b y th e rul e o f law . On e o f the salien t feature s o f th e Japanes e academi c circl e i s tha t this theor y live s o n a s "provisio n o f Takin g int o Consider ation th e Fai r Accountin g Practices " i n Articl e 3 2 o f th e existing Japanese Commercia l Code . This provision wa s prepared unde r th e absur d theor y tha t claim s tha t specifi c ac counting standard s d o no t exis t an d onl y fai r accountin g practices exist . Thi s provisio n wil l som e da y b e revise d be cause th e genera l situatio n o f th e worl d wil l no t approv e o f this view . 2. Revisio n o f Certifie d Publi c Accountan t Examinatio n System i n J a p a n

Japan's Certifie d Publi c Accountan t La w wa s enacte d i n 1948 unde r th e auspice s o f GHQ , commande d b y Genera l MacArthur. Thu s th e la w ha s bee n i n existenc e fo r forty four years . Toda y ther e ar e roughl y nin e thousan d certifie d public accountant s (CPAs ) i n Japan . Thi s mean s tha t o n average approximatel y tw o hundre d pas s th e CP A examina tion ever y year . I presum e tha t Japan' s Ministr y o f Financ e has raise d th e specte r o f a shortag e o f CPA s ami d th e recen t process o f internationalizatio n an d diversificatio n o f th e economy. Consequently , I believe , th e Ministr y plan s t o re vise th e la w fo r th e purpos e o f increasin g th e numbe r o f CPAs. I t intend s t o accomplis h thi s withou t lowerin g thei r professional level . Japan's CP A examination i s comprised o f thre e levels : th e first, second , an d thir d examinations . Th e secon d examina -

APPENDIX 3 15

9

tion constitute s th e centerpiec e o f th e examinatio n proces s and i s generall y take n b y colleg e graduates . Th e propose d revisions cal l fo r amendin g thi s secon d examination , an d have tw o salien t features . First , th e essa y exa m wil l b e di vided int o tw o parts , a short-answe r exa m an d a n essa y exam. Unde r th e revisions , onl y thos e wh o pas s th e short answer exa m woul d b e abl e t o tak e th e essa y exam . Second , the ol d exa m covere d accounting , whic h include s bookkeep ing, financial statements , cos t accounting , an d auditin g the ory. I t als o covere d commercia l law , economics , an d man agement. The revisions call for addin g civi l law an d allowin g examinees t o choos e tw o o f thre e subject s o f economics , management, an d civi l law . I n addition , ther e wil l b e th e compulsory subject s o f accountin g an d commercia l law . There ar e othe r mino r revisions , whic h I wil l no t discus s here. Article 4 1 o f th e Constitutio n o f Japan stipulate s tha t th e Diet shal l b e th e sol e law-makin g orga n o f th e state . Wha t worries m e mos t i s the fac t tha t i n realit y Die t member s ar e satisfied wit h simpl y expressin g thei r approva l o r disap proval o f a bill. In effect, Die t members d o not actuall y draf t bills. Nearl y al l bill s ar e draw n u p b y governmen t officials . This mean s tha t almos t al l Japanes e law s ar e boun d b y th e general dispositio n an d th e leve l o f intelligenc e o f govern ment officials . Mor e ofte n tha n not , th e genera l dispositio n of governmen t official s i s t o defen d thei r ow n interest s an d seek advancement , whic h ha s a tendenc y t o produc e law s that lac k bot h foresigh t an d courage . Th e intelligenc e leve l of Japanese bureaucrat s i s remarkably lackin g in a viewpoin t for examinin g variou s phenomen a i n a globa l perspectiv e

160 APPENDI

X3

with th e methodolog y o f comparativ e laws . Th e world-fa mous superiorit y o f Japanese bureaucrat s i s therefore limite d by these factors . In m y opinion , th e revision s o f Japan' s CP A examinatio n system will augment th e yearly increase of CPA s by a meage r 20 percent , o r les s than fifty accountant s a year. Th e revise d law i s i n effec t a s o f Octobe r 1 , 1994 . Thi s mean s tha t th e number o f CPA s will gro w b y less than five hundred person s over th e nex t te n years . In consideratio n o f th e recen t globa l trend wherein a n increasing numbe r o f corporation s ar e hav ing t o disclos e thei r financial accounts , this increase i s paltr y at best . Britain, whic h ha s a populatio n o f 57. 1 million , ha s up wards o f 100,00 0 CPAs , while th e Unite d States , whic h ha s a populatio n o f 253. 6 million , ha s ove r 300,000 . Japan, o n the othe r hand , ha s a populatio n o f 123.6 1 millio n bu t onl y 9,000 CPAs . This clearl y indicate s tha t th e numbe r o f CPA s in Japan i s abnormally smal l i n compariso n wit h it s popula tion. Thi s deart h i s mad e eve n mor e apparen t whe n on e considers th e fac t tha t ther e are, according to the Ministry o f Justice, a t leas t 25,00 0 larg e limite d companie s wit h capita l of ¥10 0 millio n ($800,000 ) o r mor e in Japan. (Source : Min istry o f Justice in 1992) . Twelve E C countrie s unanimousl y approve d th e Fourt h Council Directiv e of 25 July 1978 . Article 51 of the Directiv e requires al l large limited companies to be audited by auditor s recognized b y nationa l law . Thi s i s th e genera l tren d i n th e civilized world , an d Japan mus t b e in ste p with it . To d o so , in m y opinion , Japa n mus t rapidl y increas e th e numbe r o f CPAs to aroun d 30,000 .

Index

Accounting: histor y of , 127-130 ; Jap anese syste m of , 133-137 , 155 ; standards, 137-138 ; "truth , fair ness, an d transparency, " 140 . See also Auditing ; Bookkeepin g Adversity, attitude s toward , 119-12 1 Attachment, freedo m from , 8 2 Auditing: huma n behavior , 140 ; intu ition, 133 ; New Era , 130-133 , 149-154; transcendenta l conscious ness, 13 3 Barrier(s), 43 , 48, 7 3 Behavior, 66; determine d b y inne r im pulse, 34 , 5 0 - 5 1 , 53 ; an d stud y o f auditing, 14 0 Bookkeeping, histor y of , 127—130 . See also Accountin g Buddha(s), 58 , 85 , 99 ; asceticis m of , 16, 108 ; living , 112 ; power s of , 83 ; search fo r Tru e Self , 36 , 39 , 42 ; Ta -

thagata, 46 , 114 ; teaching s of , 68 , 80-82, 86-87 , 9 0 - 9 1 , 97-11 2 Buddhism, 85 , 88 , 94; Chinese , 26 , 81; fiv e period s of , 80 ; Indian , 50 , 82; Japanes e esoteric , 26 , 154 ; Ma hayanist, 151-153 ; philosophy of , 5 0 - 5 1 , 59 , 64 ; Tendai, 80 ; Upani shadic school , 50 , 53 . See also Ze n Character, 52-54 , 60 . See also Scho penhauer, Arthu r Cognition, theorie s of , 4 1 Company employees : versu s self-em ployed, 69-70 ; wh y the y fail , 7 3 - 7 6 Concentration: "objectless, " 53 , 63, 125, 152-154 ; o f th e spirit , 98 . See also Dhyana Confucius, 9 , 12 , 38; Confucianism , 105 Consciousness: annihilatio n of , 58 ; calculating, 146 ; cleansin g of , 24—

161

162 INDE

X

Consciousness (Continued) 25, 52 ; egotistical, 121-122 ; inher ited, 68 ; Krishna, 125 ; Pure, 59; self, 15 ; stream of , 85 ; surface, 79 , 86; three-layere d structure , 34 , 50; transcendental, 6 1 - 6 3 , 125 , 133 , 141, 146 , 150-154; unificatio n of , 8,59 Death, 1 , 27, 3 7 - 3 8, 100 , 105-106 , 114 Delusion, 14-16 , 9 1 ; delusory thoughts, 18 ; most peopl e deluded , 109-110 Descartes, Rene , 118-119 , 15 1 Destiny, changin g cours e of , 8 , 5 4 - 5 7 Dharani, 26 , 92. See also Meditatio n Dharma, 5 1 , 87 Dhyana, 63 , 88. See also Concentra tion; Meditatio n Ego: absenc e of , 85 ; awareness of , 114; i n business, 7 0 - 7 1 ; destructio n of, 6 9 - 7 3 ; egoism , 15 , 70; ego-pole, 133. See also Consciousnes s Eliade, Mircea , 8 6 Employee(s): company , 7 3 - 7 6 ; fou r types, 73 ; self-employed, 69-7 0 Emptiness: essenc e o f self, 56, 84—85, 90; experienc e of , 5 4 - 5 6 , 5 8 - 6 0 , 102; penetratio n of , 17—20 , 5 1; purification o f subjective/objectiv e poles, 29 , 5 1; Void, 20 . See also Enlightenment; Self ; Tru e Sel f Enlightened being , 46, 72, 120; powers of , 2 4 - 2 5 , 52 . See also Buddha ; Enlightenment; Ze n Master s Enlightenment, 42 , 44, 49, 5 1 - 5 2, 60, 81-82, 86-88 , 94 , 97, 100-102 , 106-111; emancipatio n fro m "resid ual menta l habits, " 36 ; escape fro m cycle o f lif e an d death, 114 ; goal of Zen, 17-20 ; latera l thinking , 15;

not difficult , 20 , 9 7 - 9 8; realit y ver sus idea , 17 . See also Emptiness ; Enlightened being ; Nirvan a Epistemology, 5 6 - 5 8 , 10 4 Faith, 9 1 Fate, abilit y t o change , 58-60 . See also Destiny Fear(s), 107-110 , 11 4 Form, 104 ; in flux, 10 5 Freud, Sigmund , 34 , 5 0 - 51 Goethe, Johann Wolfgan g von , 3 6 - 3 7 Hegel, Geor g Wilhel m Friedrich , 72, 79,82 Hinduism, 5 9 Hume, David , 4 1 , 56, 58 , 64, 104 Humility, ix-x , 8 Husserl, Edmund , 28 , 63, 65, 1 3 2133, 140 , 146, 150, 152-15 3 Idea(s), as representations o f reality , 41, 56. See also Cognitio n Illusion, 37-40 . See also Tru e Sel f Insight, 92 ; attaining, 76-90 ; Bud dhist, 107 ; conditions for , 91 . See also Intuitio n Intuition: attainmen t of , 76—79 ; definitions of , 7 7 - 7 8 ; necessar y fo r auditing, 79 , 141 Kant, Immanuel , 4 1 - 4 2 , 5 7 - 5 8 , 64, 104, 133 , 146, 150, 152-15 3 Keller, Helen , 120-12 1 Kensho, 87 , 9 7 - 9 8. See also Enlight enment Keynes, Maynard, 11 4 Koan, 28 , 43, 115; barrier, 73 ; Gateless Gate , 116-117 ; Mu , 43, 48 Life: an d death, 100 ; highest wa y of , 25-27, 9 1 - 9 3 ; ho w best t o live, 2,

INDEX 16 10, 14-16 , 3 1 , 113-125; meanin g of, 1 ; onl y live d once , 1-2 , 27 , 3 7 38, 49 ; purpos e of , 15 , 2 1, 32; shortness of , 12 5 Love, 122 ; parental, 3— 6 MacDonald, Ramsay , 113-11 4 Marx, Karl , 5 8 Meditation, 13 , 17-18 , 26 , 67 , 85 , 88, 98, 110-112 , 154 ; "jus t sitting, " 43; koan , 28 , 43; no-mind, 36 ; no thought, 18-19 ; us e o f mantras , 25 ; zazen, 105-106 . See also Dharani; Enlightenment; Trainin g Mind: clarit y of , 20 , 92 , 98 ; construc tion of , 5 1 ; cultivation of , 9 3 - 9 5 , 117; a s emptiness , 58—59 ; essence of, 42 , 92 , 98 ; freeing , 2 1 ; formless ness, 3 5 - 3 6, 4 0 - 4 1 , 63 , 109-110 ; fundamentals of , 3 3 - 9 5 ; purit y of , 8, 27 , 69 , 83 ; "no-mind, " 46 ; ob jectless concentratio n of , 46 , 63 , 125, 152-154 ; penetrating , 4 1 ; "re sidual habits, " 15 , 36, 53 , 59, 85 , 90, 95 ; Suprem e Min d technique , 26; transparency , 47 ; turnin g point , 36; unconscious , 34 . See also Con sciousness; Emptiness ; Meditation ; No-mind; Nothingness ; Paribhavanay Self Nirvana, 87 , 110-111 , 154 ; power s of, 86 ; a s tru e knowledg e o f lif e an d death, 37 ; Wester n idea s of , 152 . See also Enlightenmen t No-mind, 36, 47 . See also Enlight enment Nothingness, 24 , 4 4 - 4 5 No-thought, 44 , 4 6 - 4 7 , 83 , 11 7 Oneness: o f consciousness , 59 ; o f hu man race , 55; o f sel f an d others , 7 0

3

Paribhavana, 5 3 - 5 4 , 59 , 60 , 85 . See also Min d Perception: noema an d noesis, 29 , 6 3 65 Polarity: i n ever y act , 133 , 139 ; sub jective an d objective , 2 8 - 2 9 . See also Perceptio n Power(s): intuitive , 92 , 141 ; miraculous, 86 ; spiritual , 78 ; superhuman , 8, 25 , 81 , 83, 9 3 - 9 4; supernatural , 27, 87 , 111 . See also Nirvan a Pre-Voice, 56 , 84 , 115 , 12 2 Reality, ultimate , 56 Schopenhauer, Arthur , 8 , 3 7 - 3 9, 5 0 51, 53 , 6 0 Seeing: seein g th e mountain , 117-119 . See also Kensho Self, 122 ; actualization , 61 ; consciousness of , 15 ; control, 115-117 ; de struction of , 7 1 ; discovery of , 73 ; divided, 5 1 ; essence, 42 , 54 , 56 ; false, 90 ; "Kil l th e Self, " 119 , 1 2 1 123; original , 118 , 151 ; and others , 15, 123-125 ; prevailin g over , 4 9 52; purifyin g subjectiv e self , 27-30 , 52; searc h for , 16 , 4 0 - 4 4, 4 6 - 4 7 ; as subject , 35 . See also Tru e Sel f Success: "D o no t resen t succes s o f oth ers," 9-1 1 Sutra(s), 92 , 100 : Agama(s), 80 , 1 0 2 105; o n delusion , 14 ; Diamond , 49 , 82, 9 8 - 9 9 ; Heart , 24 , 25 , 27, 109 ; Lotus, 8 , 8 0 - 8 1 , 83 ; Weight o f Pa rental Kindness , 11-1 4 Thing itself , the , 5 7 Training, 24 , 37 , 83 , 85, 9 1 - 9 2, 9 4 95, 98 , 107 , 111 ; essential durin g youth, 16 ; no mind , 4 8 - 4 9 ; n o thought, 46 ; physical , 4 - 5 ; religious ,

164 INDE

X

Training (Continued) 82, 106 ; at risk o f life , 92 , 112; spiritual, 40 ; under Uek i Roshi , 17— 18, 2 0 - 2 1 ; wa y to greatness , 26 . See also Dharani; Meditatio n Transparency, 47 , 72, 94; in account ing, 14 0 True Self , 16 , 81, 90, 109, 115, 1 1 8119; discover y of , 60 , 62; empty, 56; knowledg e of , 35 , 117; oneness of, 70 ; search for , 3 3 - 3 5 , 39, 4 0 - 4 4 Ueki Roshi , 2 , 13 , 16, 37, 63, 83, 87, 109, 116 ; power of , 111 ; teachings of, 17-32 , 43 , 48, 52, 9 1, 125 Ultimate Way : as enlightenment, 20 ; not difficult , 2 0 - 2 2 Water, five principle s of , 3 0

Way, the , 64; of Grea t Learning , 10 5 Weakness(es), overcoming , 3—8 , 10 Yoga, 86 , 110 Zen, 17-18 , 20, 63-64, 7 2 - 7 3 , 88 , 98; Chinese , 97 ; ideal o f life , 125; no-thought, 46 ; search fo r Tru e Self , 35,42 Zen Masters : Bankei , 105 ; Bassui, 4 1, 87, 98 ; Chien-chih, 20 ; Dogen, 43; Hakuin, ix , 8, 4 7 - 4 8, 52 , 62, 7 1 , 93, 98 , 153-154; Kukai , 2 5 - 2 7 , 9 2 - 9 3 , 106 ; Myocho, 64 ; Saicho, 8 ; Shido Bunan , 72 , 119, 121-123; Takuan, 29 . See also Enlightene d being Zen patriarchs : Hui-neng , 49 , 78, 82, 97-99,100-102