The Qualifying Adjective in Spanish 9783110811254, 9789027927224

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JANUA LINGUARUM STUDIA MEMORIAE N I C O L A I VAN W I J K D E D I C A T A edenda curat

C. H. VAN SCHOONEVELD Indiana University

Series Practica, 192

THE QUALIFYING ADJECTIVE IN SPANISH

by ERNESTO ZIERER National University of Trujillo, Peru

1974

MOUTON THE HAGUE · PARIS

© Copyright 1974 in The Netherlands Mouton & Co. N.V., Publishers, The Hague No part of this book may be translated or reproduced in any form, by print, photoprint, microfilm, or any other means, without written permission from the publishers.

Original title: El adjetivo calivicativo en el iclicma espanol — translated from Spanish by Elspeth N. W. Allardyce

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOG CARD NUMBER 72-94516

Printed in Hungary

PREFACE

The correct use of the adjective in Spanish is a special problem for the student of that language. This is mainly due to the fact that adjectives in Spanish may occur both before and after the noun. A further complication is their co-occurrence with two linking words, both of high frequency: ser and estar. The best way of discovering the semantic and the syntactic nature of an adjective is to submit the structure in which it occurs to certain transformations and to describe them. Thus, in this study the transformational approach has made it possible to establish various adjective classes. For the sake of simplicity, no full generative and transformational grammar apparatus has been developed, i.e. only the input pattern and the output pattern have been presented in formulas elaborated on the basis of concrete examples drawn from everyday language. A study of this kind, of course, can not be complete. Further research would most likely increase the number of adjective classes found here. Acknowledgement is due to W. Mötsch, whose Study of the Syntax of the German Adjective has strongly influenced the present work, and to Miss Luisa Monteverde, for helpful comments. The author

TABLE O F C O N T E N T S

Preface I. Introductory note: System and structure

5 9

II. Classification of the qualifying adjectives as to the type of complement by which they may be followed

12

III. Noun adjectivals

16

IV. The linking verbs "ser" and "estar"

18

V. On the convertibility of certain adjectives into adverbs (of manner) VI. Gradable and ungradable adjectives VII. Further syntactic differentiation

33 38 41

Selected Bibliography

51

Index

53

I I N T R O D U C T O R Y NOTE: SYSTEM A N D STRUCTURE

The concept of structure is a basic category in all scientific disciplines. It seems appropriate at this point to clarify the concepts of structure and system from the theoretical point of view. By structure we mean a set of elements linked together on the basis of certain principles and rules. As a consequence, to produce a structure the following are essential: (a) a set of structural elements; (b) a set of rules which apply to the structural elements; and (c) an activating force which puts the rules to work. This last characteristic gives a DYNAMIC quality to the concept of structure, and makes it suitable for the name 'system' to be given in the case of all three factors existing together. We can then say that, as a result of certain processes in a specific system, structural phenomena are produced which are peculiar to it. The structural rules, also known as the SYNTAX of structure, allow us to ascertain whether or not a certain 'juxtaposition of elements' is a structural phenomenon in its respective system. If it belongs to the system, it is also known as a 'pattern'. We can thus define a structure as the totality of all the patterns that can be formed within a certain system. Statements (1) and (2) have been formed from the same structural elements, but using different rules as a basis, with the result that we have two different structural patterns: (1) Ricardo me visita (Spanish) (2) Ricardo visita-me (Portuguese) The structural patterns can undergo two kinds of operation fundamentally different from one another: If in the Spanish nominal phrase (NP) (3) una muchacha rica we replace the adjective rica by the syntagm muy rica, we do not alter the structural pattern, although there is a quantitative difference between the constituent muy rica

10

INTRODUCTORY NOTE: SYSTEM AND STRUCTURE

and the adjective rica. This kind of operation is a simple the following phrase una muchacha rica una

as shown in

una muchacha muy rica

muchacha rica muchacha

SUBSTITUTION,

una rica

muchacha muy rica muchacha

muy rica muy

rica

The second type of operation is that which changes the pattern. If in expression (3) we put the adjective before the noun, we are not only changing the meaning but also the structure; the constituent rica could no longer be replaced by muy rica: (4) una rica muchacha (5) *una muy rica muchacha1 An operation which changes the structure of a pattern is known as a

TRANSFOR-

MATION.

Subjecting an element or a structural phenomenon to certain transformations while at the same time observing its behaviour, allows us to have a clearer understanding of its essence. This is of great pedagogical interest. The structural elements which replace others in a substitution operation do not need to have a single 'structural status'. If, for example, we have the constituents a, b, . . . , « , each of which can be placed grammatically in the position X-Y, this does not mean that all of them can be inserted into another pattern Α-B. Thus the adjectives alta and dificil may be inserted into the blank space in sentence (6), whereas only dificil can fill the blank in sentence (7): (6) la matemdtica (6') la alta matemdtica (6") la dificil matemdtica (7) la matemdtica es (7') la matemdtica es dificil (7") *la matemdtica es alta Traditional grammar divides adjectives according to their SEMANTIC FUNCTION (qualificative or determinative), and their CONSTRUCTION (attributives and predicatives).2 Within the second category we usually find semantic explanations referring to the 1

An expression which is ungrammatical will be marked by an asterisk.

1

Cf.: J. A. Perez - Rioja: Gramdtica de la espanola (Madrid, 1960), 169.

INTRODUCTORY NOTE: SYSTEM AND STRUCTURE

11

prenominal or postnominal position of the attributive adjective.3 Adjectives are usually classified with regard to the prepositions that certain adjectives demand when they have a complement. These classifications are also useful to us in our work, although our aim is to establish more subtle differentiations in order to observe the behaviour of adjectives in syntactic structures.

3

Cf.: J. A. Perez - Rioja: Gramdtica, 301.

π C L A S S I F I C A T I O N OF T H E Q U A L I F Y I N G A D J E C T I V E S AS TO T H E T Y P E O F C O M P L E M E N T BY WHICH T H E Y MAY BE F O L L O W E D

Within this classification we shall first consider the class adj 0 :

φ

of adjectives that do not admit an object: (1) La piedra es angular (2) La mesa es redonda There is a class adji:

pro a t +cv-

(where Ν

cv-

-+a

pro,ο

pro at = atonic pronoun cv = copulative verb, linking verb Ν = noun pro to = tonic pronoun)

of adjectives that require an indirect object: (3) (4) (5) (6)

Juan me es adicto Juan es adicto a su maestro Juan es adicto a nosotros *Juan es adicto

(6) is ungrammatical. A class adj 2 : — - + P P

(where PP = prepositional phrase)

of adjectives requiring a prepositional phrase as object: (7) Eso es contrario a las buenas costumbres (8) Esto es opuesto a la politica del Gobierno (9) Esto es incompatible con su condicion de maestro

CLASSIFICATION OF THE QUALIFYING ADJECTIVES

13

Leaving out the prepositional phrase would give ungrammatical expressions: (10) *Eso es contrario (11) *Esto es opuesto (12) *Esto es incompatible There is a class adje: tener+mxm+'N+de

-

(where num = quantifying expression)

of adjectives that function as nouns in the pattern described above: (13) El carro tiene 2 metros de largo (14) La casa tiene 7 metros de ancho (15) El tiene 2 metros de alto tener functions as a linking verb. Spanish does not admit the same constructions as German or English: (16) (17) (18) (19) (20) (21) (22) (23) (24)

German: Der Wagen ist 2 Meter lang German: Das Haus ist 7 Meter breit German: Er ist 2 Meter gross The car is two meters long The house is 7 meters wide He is 2 meters tall *El carro es 2 metros largo *La casa es 7 metros largo *El es 2 metros alto

It should be mentioned that profundo does not belong to this class; the following sentence is not acceptable: (25) *Este lago tiene 9 metros de profundo The adjective has to be replaced by the noun profundidad to make this expression grammatical: (26) Este lago tiene 9 metros de profundidad as different from English and German, in which the corresponding adjectives are used: (27) German: Dieser See ist 9 Meter tief (28) This lake is 9 meters deep If we substitute hondo for profundo on (25), the sentence becomes grammatical: (29) Este lago tiene 9 metros de hondo There is a class adj 4 :

(IO)

(where IO = indirect object)

14

CLASSIFICATION OF THE QUALIFYING ADJECTIVES

of adjectives that can be used with or without an indirect object: (30) (31) (32) (33) (34) (35)

Juan es antipätico Juan me es antipätico Juan es simpätico Juan me es simpätico Esto es extrano Esto me es extrano

Another class adj 5 :

(PP)

is composed of adjectives that can be used without an object or else with a prepositional object: (36) Nuestro pais es rico (37) Nuestro pais es rico en minerales To prove that the prepositional phrase in (38) La piedra es angular en su parte inferior is not an object of the adjective but a complement of the noun, we transform (38) and (37) as follows: (39) En su parte inferior, la piedra es. angular (40) En minerales, nuestro pais es rico, pero + NEG While (39) is normal, though emphasis is put on the prepositional phrase, statement (40) appears forced and needs, therefore, a complementary part to function as a contrast, which we have indicated by the symbol NEG. There is a class

Φ

10 PO

adj e :

of adjectives that admit an indirect object and a prepositional object: (41) (42) (43) (44) (45) (46)

Esto es grato Esto me es grato Juan es grato con ellas Esto es ingrato Esto es ingrato a Juan Jaime es ingrato con todos

A class:

Φ

PO ΙΟ

adj 7 : tener + de

CLASSIFICATION OF THE QUALIFYING ADJECTIVES

15

of adjectives that admit a prepositional phrase, an indirect object, and the construction tener + de: (47) (48) (49) (50)

La calle es ancha El es ancho de hombros La falda le queda ancha La sola tiene 5 metros de ancho

Notice that in pattern (49) the linking verb quedar is used. There is a number of adjectives adj 8 :

DO

(where DO = direct object)

that require a direct object: (51) Este trabajo es merecedor de elogio (52) Este pueblo es amante de la paz This type of statements can be transformed as follows: (53) Este trabajo merece elogio (54) Este pueblo ama la paz The deletion of the direct object in these sentences would convert them into ungrammatical expressions: (55) Este trabajo es merecedor (56) Este pueblo es amante

Ill NOUN ADJECTIVALS

Also certain noun phrases may function as adjectives: (57) Juan es estudiante (58) La mesa es de madera In terms of the predicate calculus, there is a distinction between the two sentences: In (57) the linking verb expresses the belonging of an individual (or element) to a certain class; and in (58) a certain quality of the argument mesa is stated. In some cases, the noun functioning as an adjectival can take an object: (59) Don Jaime les fue un buen padre On the other hand, one could not say: (60) *Juan les fue un buen estudiante The reason for this difference is, of course, semantic: Not all nouns express interpersonal relationships. Sentence (59) expresses a quality of the argument Don Jaime. Both sentences (58) and (59) may be given in reply to the question (61)

IComo

...?

but not so sentence (57), which can only answer the question (62)

iQue es Juan?

Another kind of adjectival is represented by the following example: (63) Maria es muy mujer in which the adverb muy makes the noun mujer function differently from the same noun in (64) Maria es mujer where mujer refers to the class to which Maria belongs, while in (63), the adjectival expresses a quality as can be ascertained by means of the questions mentioned above. If a prepositional phrase is added to the construction (63), muy has to be replaced by mucho: (64)

Maria es mucha mujer para el

NOUN ADJECTIVALS

17

(65) El es mucho jefe para esta pequena oficina (66) El es mucho caballerro para este sinvergiienza In the examples given, mucho expresses an excess of the quality announced by the corresponding noun adjectival. Analogously we get: (67) Maria es poca mujer para el where poca signals an insufficient quantity of the quality expressed by mujer. If we leave out the prepositional phrase in (67), we obtain: (68) Maria es poco mujer Both in sentences (63) and (68) muy and poco function as adverbs to the adjectival; in sentences (64), (65), (66) and (67), however these adverbs are replaced by their corresponding adjectives and, therefore, are declined.

IV THE L I N K I N G VERBS "SER" A N D "ESTAR"

The use of the copulative verbs ser and estar has been discussed extensively in traditional grammar books.4 Here, we shall limit ourselves to commenting on a few points which have not been treated thoroughly enough by traditional grammar and which will be useful for our further classification of adjectives. We use ser when the predicate contains an expression of TIME, and when the subject represents some EVENT: (69) La clase serd en la manana (70) La inauguration del congreso serd a las 10 de la noche We use ser when the predicate is an expression of PLACE, and the subject, an

EVENT :

(71) La reunion serd en la Sala de Sesiones (72) Mi casa es en el Perii In sentence (72), the subject casa is not considered as a concrete noun, but in the sense of hogar (home), making the meaning different from (73) Mi casa estä en la Avenida Espana Let us also compare the following sentences: (74) (75) (76) (77)

El El El El

desayuno sera a las 6 de la manana desayuno estä listo drama sera en el Teatro Municipal drama (the book) estä en la mesa

The difference between ser and estar becomes particularly important when it is used with adjectives. There are different criteria according to which one can explain the use of these copulatives. The most common rule is that we use ser for permanent qualities and estar for temporary ones, but it does not always explain the problem well enough as we can see from sentences (78), (79) and (80): (78) Juan es feliz 4

Cf.: S. Gili y Gaya, Curso Superior de Sintaxis Espanola (Barcelona, 1961), 60-65.

THE U N K I N G VERBS "SER" A N D "ESTAR"

19

(79) Juan estä feliz (80) Juan es rico In sentence (80) the linking verb does not necessarily express a permanent quality, for which reason it could be argued that estar could also be used, as in (81) Juan estä rico Nevertheless, as the reader will realize, the meaning is no longer the same, and the sentence, naturally, will be used in very special situations only. The adjective which goes with ser is called CLASSIFICATORY; and that which goes with estar simply expresses a COMMENT: (82) Rosa es bonita (83) Rosa estä bonita esta noche In sentence (82), the speaker states that Rosa belongs to the category of pretty girls, while in sentence (83) he is simply making a comment. Another differentiating criterion could be the following: ser expresses a characteristic inherent to the person, while estar indicates more a way of behaving: (84) (85) (86) (87)

Que afable es el viejecito! El profesor estuvo muy afable conmlgo Es Ud. muy amable Anoche Carlos estuvo muy amable con ella

When the adjective takes a preposition, we use estar: (88) (89) (90) (91) (92) (93)

El no es nada ambicioso El estä ambicioso de poder Ella es muy orgullosa Ella estä muy orgullosa de su hija Esta inversion de capital es segura Estamos seguros de que nos escribirdn

Nevertheless, when we are dealing with adjectives which assume a different meaning according to whether they are used with ser or estar, the preposition does not affect the choice of the linking verb: (94) El pais es pobre en pastos (95) El espectdculo ha estado muy pobre en presentation Ser is used when refering to a permanent state which began at some date in the very distant past: (96) Mi padre es muerto desde hace muchos anos (97) El accidentado estä muerto Estar is used with past participles used as adjectives in order to indicate that the action is over and finished. This implies that one of the distinctive semantic charac-

20

THE LINKING VERBS "SER" A N D "ESTAR"

teristics of the verb ser is that it expresses a PROCESS or an ACTION. In some cases the absence or presence of this feature is not particularly striking: (98) (99) (100) (101)

Don Jaime es conocido por todos en el pueblo *Su hazana estä conocida por todo el pueblo. But: Su obra estä reconocida por sus amigos El estä reconocido como hijo de Don Juan Perez

The verb conocer, unlike reconocer, is not a verb of action. Certain analogies can be observed when we move the adjective from its predicative to its attributive position: (102) (103) (104) (105) (106) (107) (108) (109)

El muchacho es ciego => El muchacho ciego El muchacho estä ciego => El ciego muchacho IM muchacha es rica => La muchacha rica La muchacha estä rica => La rica muchacha

As one can see, the adjective which is linked to the verb by means of the copula "ser" moves to a position after the noun in the attributive construction, and when it is joined to the noun by means of "estar", it moves to a position before the noun. Occasionally, the adjectives of this class, when used as predicatives, may occur with "estar", maintaining their primitive meaning: (110) A Maria le han vendado los ojos; ahora estä ciega We can elaborate this formula: seradj a : Ν

estar-

Ny; x

-N

where χ and y are the two different meanings the same adjective may have. It should be considered that the specific syntactic and semantic behaviour of the adjective is frequently co-determined by the type of noun with which it co-occurs. Not all adjectives permit both linking-verbs; at least, not in everyday speech. There exists then, a type of adjective which permits the use of ser only. Adjectives of this type usually come before the noun when they are used attributively in a different sense from the one which they had in their predicative form: (111) La ciudad es antigua (it still exists) =>· (112) La ciudad antigua (it still exists) (113) La antigua ciudad (it no longer exists)

THE LINKING VERBS "SER" AND "ESTAR"

(114) (115) (116) (117) (118) (119)

21

*La ciudad estä antigua Los problemas son mayores (larger than others) => Los problemas mayores (idem) *Los problemas estän mayores Mayores problemas (important problems) No he tenido mayores problemas con ellos

Note the absence of an article in sentence (119), and also in the following: (120) (121) (122) (123) (124) (125) (126) (127) (128) (129) (130) (131)

Tengo ciertos datos (certain) Los datos son ciertos (exact) Son datos ciertos (idem) *Los datos estän ciertos La carta es simple (simple) Una carta simple (idem) Una simple carta (just a letter) *La carta estä simple La obra es cläsica (from the Classical age; in the Classical style) Una obra cläsica (idem) Una cläsica obra (a classic; an exceptionally good work) *La obra estä cläsica

We can include these adjectives in the following category: N+

χ

adj b : N + j e r + y

+ N'

Another type of adjective permits the use of estar only in exclamations: (132) El cuadro es original (an authentic work) (133) Un cuadro original (idem) (134) Un original cuadro (peculiar, unusual) (135) *La obra estä original (136) !Que original estä la obra! Adjectives which behave in the same way as original belong to the following category: Ν+λ«·+ N+ χ χ adj c : Que + estar+Ν + N" y There is a class of adjectives that have the following features: They have the same meaning when used predicatively with ser and when used attributively before the noun. They have a second meaning when used predicatively with estar, and have

22

THE LINKING VERBS "SER" AND "ESTAR"

a third meaning when used attributively after the noun: (137) La puerta es falsa (fake) => (138) La falsa puerta (139) La puerta falsa (door which is not the main-entrance to a house, usually used by servants) (140) La puerta estä falsa (loose; not properly installed) These adjectives may be described by the following formula: Ν + ser + -

Φ

adj d :

-+N

1

Ν+ estar+

N+-

There are some adjectives that maintain the same meaning both when functioning predicatively with ser and when used attributively before the noun. Further, they have a second meaning when used predicatively with estar without permitting a transformation into a postnominal attributive construction with the same meaning. The same adjectives have a third meaning when used attributively before the noun in an exclamation, changing the meaning of the noun: (141) El papel es negro =• (142) el papel negro (143) El papel estä negro (incidentally) (144)

iQue negro papel! (inadequate performance, or behaviour of a person)

The following formula holds for this class of adjectives:

Φ adj e :

Ν ?1+ λ ? / · +

χ

i Que~

-N*!

Φ where the superscript of Ν indicates a special class of nouns, and the change of the subscript of N, a change in its meaning. There is a group of adjectives which are used predicatively with ser, giving two different meanings to the noun, i.e., making the statement ambiguous. However, when changed into an attributive construction, the position of the adjective eliminates the ambiguity: (145) (146) (147) (148)

El estudio es pequeno (office; examination, work, study) un estudio pequeno (office) un pequeno estudio (examination, work, study) El margen es pequeno (margin of a letter; margin of gain)

THE LINKING VERBS "SER" AND "ESTAR"

(149) (150)

23

Un margen pequeno (margin of a letter) Un pequeno margen (margin of gain)

These adjectives conform to the following rule: •'NI +

adj f :

'

N 1 ; 2 +&?r+-

- + N2

There are also adjectives which have a single meaning when used in a predicative sense, but two when they are used as attributive adjectives, with the peculiar feature that they keep the first meaning when placed before the noun, modifying the meaning of the noun when they occur in a postnominal position: (151) El ano es nuevo (the year which has just begun) => (152) El nuevo ano (idem) (153) El Ano Nuevo (1st of January) This adjective is a representative of the following class: —+ N I

adj : N i + s e r +

N 2 +-

There is a group of adjectives which have the following peculiarity: in a predicative position, they can be used with ser and estar, changing their meaning. When in an attributive position in front of the noun they keep the meaning they originally had when they were used predicatively with the linking-verb estar. When used in a postnominal attributive position, however, they change the meaning of the noun: (154) La noche es buena para descansar (155) La noche estuvo buena (enjoyable evening: good party) => (156) Una buena noche (idem) (157) La Noche Buena (Christmas Eve) It should be noted that the adjective bueno can give three different meanings to the noun noche. Adjectives of this kind conform to the following rule: NI+JCTH

adj h :

N2+ estar+-

N+-

-+ N

There is a group of adjectives with the following characteristics: when they are being used predicatively, they have two different meanings, depending on whether the linking-word is ser or estar. and when they are being used attributively in a postnominal

24

THE LINKING VERBS "SER" AND "ESTAR"

position, they keep the meaning they had when used as predicates with the linkingverb ser. When they are in a prenominal position they reveal a third meaning: (158) La casa es nueva (recently built) =>· (159) Una casa nueva (idem) (160) La casa esta nueva (well looked after) (161) Mi nueva casa (The house I have just moved into) For adjectives of this kind the following rule of transformation exists: Ν+«»/-+adj ; :

N+-+N

N+asfar+ •

Another class is composed of adjectives that behave in the following way: When used predicatively with ser, they may be transformed into an attributive construction in postnominal position without any change of meaning. When used predicatively with estar, this transformation is not possible. However, the adjective can occur in prenominal position with a different meaning; and the meaning of the noun changes also: (162) (163) (164) (165)

Este elemento es ligero (a light chemical element) => un elemento ligero En este medio, este elemento estä ligero un ligero elemento (a person who is not very careful about what he is doing)

These adjectives conform to the following formula: Ni+-

Φ

adjj:

Φ

-+N2

Certain adjectives used with certain nouns have the following peculiarity: If the linking-verb is ser, the adjective occupies the postnominal position with the same meaning, when it is used attributively; if the linking-verb is estar, the adjective has a different meaning and does not permit any change into an attributive construction; the adjective occurs attributively with a third meaning in the prenominal position, without having a corresponding predicative construction: (166) Mi amigo es viejo (old) => (167) Mi amigo viejo (168) Mi amigo estä viejo (looks old) (169) Mi viejo amigo (has been my friend for a long time)

25

THE L I N K I N G VERBS " S E R " A N D " E S T A R "

The following formula describes the semantic and syntactic behaviour of adjectives of this class: N+ adj k :

Φ

Ν + estar Η

-+ N

Φ In the example (167) there is an intrinsic link between the adjective and the noun, while in example (169) the adjective gives an additional piece of information about the speaker. The difference between both expressions can be shown by means of the following diagrams: (a)

(b)

mi viejo amigo

mi amigo viejo

mi viejo

amigo

mi

amigo viejo \—

mi

viejo

amigo

viejo

In diagram (a) we note that at first the constituents mi and viejo are combined on a lower level, giving the constitute mi viejo, which, together with amigo, gives on a higher level the phrase mi viejo amigo. On the other hand in diagram (b) we seen that first the constituents amigo and viejo join to form the constitute amigo viejo, in order to join up later on with the constituent mi in the constitute mi amigo viejo. In example (169) then, a new factor is introduced: that of time. This construction, with the adjective in a prenominal position, does not make a simple subjective statement as does, for example, this phrase: (170) Mi buen amigo In order to express the meaning of (169) predicatively, one would have to use a more complex construction like, for example: (171) Es mi amigo desde hace mucho tiempo The difference between both expressions can also be seen by expanding the nucleus amigo. In phrase (169) it is possible to expand it without changing the meaning of the attribute viejo: (172) Mi viejo amigo que llego de Lima ay er... In this construction the constituent que llegö de Lima ayer determines the nucleus amigo, and this constitute - amigo que llego de Lima ayer - is determined, in its turn, by the attributive viejo, as can be shown by means of the following tree diagram:

26

THE LINKING VERBS "SER

AND "ESTAR

(a)

viejo amigo que llego de Lima ayer (z) The tree has a different structure if the defining relative clause is converted into a non-defining one: (173) Mi viejo amigo que llego de Lima (b)

ayer...

j

I viejo

amigo que llego

de

Lima

ayer...

In order to show that in (173) the constituent que llego de Lima ayer does not define the constituent mi viejo amigo we have not used an arrow in the corresponding line in diagram (b). Unlike (172), where the attributive adjective viejo defines the constituent amigo que llego de Lima ayer, as the corresponding arrow shows, an expansion of (169) would have a structure with a different defining relationship: (174) Mi amigo viejo que llego de Lima (c)

ayer...

!

Ί I amigo

ι viejo

que llego

de

Lima

ayer

As we can see in the diagram, the constituent que llego de Lima ayer defines the constituent amigo viejo. The adjective in a postnominal position cannot define a constituent which is integrated by a preceding noun and a defining clause following it. Thus, a structure of the following kind is impossible: (d)

amigo

I

viejo

que

llego

de

Lima

ayer

THE L I N K I N G VERBS " S E R " AND " E S T A R "

27

To continue let us look once again at past participles used adjectivally. The past participle used with the linking-verb ser indicates the duration of the action, while when estar is used, emphasis is put on the result of the action. Only in the second of these two cases is it possible to change the predicative form into an attributive one: (175) El alumno es castigado => φ. (176) El alumno estä castigado => (177) El alumno castigado As we can see, the past participle used as an attributive adjective comes after the noun. When it is in a prenominal position it has a separate meaning: (178) El castigado alumno In this last expression castigado is no concrete punishment, applied intentionally, but it is rather the question of adverse circumstances. But if the adjective carries an object, it comes after the noun (with the same meaning): (179) El alumno castigado por la mala

suerte...

On the other hand, the past participle is allowed in a prenominal position with the same meaning as in sentence (176) when there is another participle in the same sentence :5 (180) El castigado alumno se ha enfadado instead of (181) El alumno castigado se ha enfadado which is a form which we reject for the sake of euphony. Past participles which behave like castigado belong to a class which has the following features: 6 N+

Φ -+N+..

.V-do

adj,: +N

Φ

N-

+PO

A few past participles, as we have shown above, do not permit the linking-verb estar: (182) Este poeta es conocido en todo el pais => (183) Un poeta conocido en todo el pais (184) *Este poeta esta conocido en todo el pais 5 6

I owe this observation to my colleague, Dr. Julio Rodriguez y Rodriguez. In this formula, the linking-verb ser is in its simple form.

28

THE LINKING VERBS " S E R " AND "ESTAR"

The adjective has a different meaning when it is used in a prenominal position: (185)

Un conocido poeta (famous)

In expression (185), the past participle acts as a simple adjective, as it can be replaced by adjectives like ilustre, notable and so on. This type of past participle forms a sub-group of class adj b . The majority of past participles cannot be used attributively in front of a noun: (186) (187) (188) (189)

El libro es comprado El libro estä comprado => El libro comprado *El comprado libro

Past participles which are used attributively like "comprado" belong to the following category: iN+

N+esfiwH

adjn

• =>

X

•

* Past participles of intransitive verbs which express a momentary event cannot be used in the same way as adjectives can. Expressions like: (190) *El hombre llegado ayer or (191) *El hombre llegando en este momento are not considered correct in Spanish, since in this language it is impossible to replace a relative clause by a construction containing a gerund or a participle. The impossibility of expression (191) can be proved transformationally in the following way: When the construction where the adjective is used attributively is used predicatively the verb should be copulative.7 This condition is not fulfilled in (192): (192) *El hombre es llegado since the verb should be haber: (193) El hombre ha llegado Nevertheless, there exists a small number of verbs which, in spite of being transitive and expressing a momentary event in normal usage, can, in colloquial speech, be interpreted transitively: (194) Los (alumnos) egresados de esta Universidad This construction can be interpreted as meaning that circumstances permit the students to graduate from the university. Then arises the idea of egresar alumnos, an 7 It is worth mentioning the fact that ser and es tar are not the only linking-verbs: castigado.

Juanresulto

THE LINKING VERBS "SER" AND "ESTAR"

29

idiom unusual in the spoken language, but where meaning exists nevertheless in the so-called 'internal language', giving the elliptic form alumnos egresados8 Within the category of intransitive verbs which indicate a process there is a subgroup whose participles change in meaning according to the linking-verb used. These participles used like adjectives with an attributive function usually occupy a postnominal position: (195) (196) (197) (198) (199)

El nino se ha dormido => El nino estä dormido => El nino dormido (has not heard the noise) Este nino es muy dormido (backward) =»• Es un nino dormido

In order to avoid the ambiguity that arises from the fact that the past participle used attributively occupying a post-nominal position gives both meanings, the listener must have more information about the context. We can form the following category: fN + ÄT + adjn

iN+ X

• =>

' )N +