The Proustian Quest 9780814790120

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The Praustian Quest

The Proustian Quest William C . Carte r

NEW YOR K UNIVERSIT Y PRES S NEW YOR K AN D LONDO N

NEW Y O R K UNIVERSIT Y PRES S N e w Yor k an d Londo n Copyright © 199 2 by N ew Yor k Universit y All rights reserved Library of Congres s Cataloging-in-Publicatio n Dat a Carter, William C , 1941 The Proustia n quest / b y William C . Carter , p. cm . Includes bibliographical references an d index . ISBN 0-8147-1470- 6 1. Proust, Marcel, 1871—1922 . A l a recherche du temps perdu. 2. Socia l chang e i n literature. 3 . Spee d in literature. I . Tide . PQ2631.R63A7827 199 2 843\912-dc20 92-303

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N e w Yor k University Pres s books are printed on acid-fre e paper , and their binding materials are chosen for strength and durability. Manufactured i n the United State s of America c10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

To the memory of my mother, SARAH CAUSEY CARTER , who first read to me and taught me to love books.

Que voulez-vous, mon cher, Anaxagore Va dit, la vie est un voyage. —Marcel Proust, La Prisonniere

Contents Illustrations x i Acknowledgments xii i 1. Th e Age o f Speed 1 2. Wome n a s Landscapes 2 3 3. Girl s in Motion 3 9 4. Spee d and Desire 6 3 5. Th e Prison 9 3 6. Deat h o f an Aviator 13 3 7. Th e Artist and the Aviator 18 7 8. Th e Cosmo s Builder 20 7 Notes 24 1 Index 29 7 About th e Author 30 9

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Illustrations Jacques-Henri Lartigue , Avenue d u Bois d e Boulogne, Paris, January 15 , 1911 , p. 41. Jacques-Henri Lartigue , O n th e Road t o Paris . At Rouzat , November 2 , 1919 , p. 55. Jacques-Henri Lartigue , Secon d race o f the aviettes at th e Velodrome i n the Par e de s Princes, Paris, November 24 , 1912, p . 57. Maurice Leblanc' s Void des ailes!, p . 5 9 Eadweard Muybridge' s "Occiden t Trotting, " p. 75. Marcel Duchamp, Nude Descending a Staircase, no. 2, 1912 , p. 77. Etienne-Jules Marey , Runner o n a n Incline d Plane, Geometri c Chronophotograph, p . 79. Jacques-Henri Lartigue , Mauric e Farma n i n his Biplane, Buc , Novembrel911,p. 151 . Alfred AgostineU i in his Monoplane, p . 153 .

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Acknowledgments I would like to expres s my sincer e thanks t o th e Universit y of Alabama a t Birmingha m fo r supportin g thi s projec t throug h a sabbatical leav e an d a Graduat e Schoo l Researc h Gran t whic h allowed me t o undertak e th e wor k tha t resulted in thi s book . I a m gratefu l t o Tinke r B . Dunbar , o f th e Referenc e Department o f Mervy n H . Stern e Librar y a t th e Universit y o f Alabama a t Birmingham , fo r he r skil l i n locatin g an d obtainin g rare book s an d othe r documents ; t o Richar d Bleiler , Humanitie s Librarian, fo r hi s effort s i n maintainin g an d strengthenin g ou r Proust holdings , no w th e thir d larges t i n th e world . I a m als o indebted t o Florenc e Callu , head o f the manuscrip t departmen t a t the Bibliothequ e National e an d catalogue r o f th e Proust' s manuscripts, who , o n man y occasion s graciousl y provided impor tant assistance . Th e illustration s tha t grac e thi s boo k ar e repro duced throug h th e generosit y o f th e Associatio n de s Ami s d e Jacques-Henri Lartigue , th e Colleg e d e France , th e Philadelphi a Museum o f Art , Stanfor d Universit y Archives , an d Mm e Odil e Gevaudan—all o f whom I thank . Friends wh o hav e aide d an d encourage d m e alon g th e way includ e Rober t E . Bowden , E . Culpeppe r Clark , Marie Colette Lefort , an d Cla y Nordan . I a m especiall y gratefu l t o m y wife, Lynn , fo r he r constan t suppor t an d invaluabl e editoria l sug gestions. T o my children , Josephine, Sarah , an d Susanna , fo r thei r patience an d wonderful distractions . I woul d als o lik e t o than k m y editor , Jason Renker , an d the editoria l staf f a t Ne w Yor k Universit y Pres s fo r thei r fait h i n this project, an d Henr y Krawit z fo r hi s excellen t copy-editing .

—WC.C.

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CHAPTER 1

The Age of Speed Le monde a moins changi depuis Jisus-Christ qu'il n'a changi depuis trente ans. —Charles Peguy , VArgent (1913 )

Marcel Prous t live d from 187 1 unti l 1922 , a n epoc h tha t h e himself characterize d a s th e ag e o f locomotio n an d spee d because o f th e conques t o f lan d an d air. 1 Th e en d o f th e nine teenth centur y an d th e firs t quarte r o f th e twentiet h ma y b e seen a s a grea t turnin g poin t i n Wester n history , whe n tremen dous change s occurre d i n th e wa y peopl e lived . Thi s er a sa w rapid development s i n transportation , includin g th e inventio n o f the bicycle , automobile , airplane , an d th e continue d expansio n of trai n service . I n 1850 , Empero r Napoleo n II I mad e th e tri p from Pari s t o Marseill e i n a n ultraligh t trai n tha t reache d a n average spee d o f ninety-si x kilometer s a n hour ; onl y a fe w years earlier , suc h voyage s too k a t leas t severa l day s an d some times mor e tha n a week. 2 I t wa s progres s i n metallurg y tha t made possibl e th e invention , development , an d mas s productio n of machine s fo r rapi d transit : trains , ocea n liners , airplanes , automobiles, a s wel l a s bicycles . Bot h th e theme s o f spee d an d travel associate d wit h th e appearanc e o f thes e ne w invention s are reflecte d i n th e literatur e an d ar t o f th e period , an d espe cially i n Proust' s A la recherche du temps perdu?

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Electric lighting , plumbing , mor e leisur e time , an d ne w ways o f heatin g significantl y enhance d th e standar d o f living . Communication an d entertainmen t industrie s made extraordinar y progress thank s t o th e inventio n o f movable type , th e telegraph , the telephone , th e phonograph , an d th e movi e projector . Thre e key words tha t defin e th e teno r o f this period ar e machine, mod ern, an d speed 4 I n 1905 , Einstein' s theor y o f relativit y revolu tionized th e vie w o f th e physica l univers e b y statin g tha t "th e geometric natur e o f our world is fashioned b y mass and speed." 5 The sport s dail y VAuto-Vilo, whic h woul d becom e th e leading newspape r i n it s field, carrie d thi s commen t i n it s first issue o n Octobe r 16 , 1900 : "Nou s vivon s mieu x e t nou s vivon s plus vit e qu'autrefois." 6 However , suc h dramati c change s di d no t extend immediatel y t o al l classes o f society; man y Frenc h citizen s still live d unde r condition s tha t ha d no t change d significantl y since medieva l times . Prous t an d hi s friends belonge d t o a clas s that coul d instand y enjo y th e benefit s o f the ne w age . On e o f his acquaintances wa s du e Arman d d e Guiche , a pionee r i n aerody namics wh o stimulate d Proust' s interes t i n aviatio n wel l befor e Alfred Agostinelli , th e novelist's handsome Italia n chauffeur , bega n to stud y flying. Machine s such a s the automobil e an d the airplane , at first th e exclusiv e domai n o f wealthy sportsmen , wer e take n u p quickly b y th e middl e clas s sinc e th e practica l application s wer e obvious an d mass production soo n resulted in lowered prices. The ag e o f chea p mas s transpor t ha d arrived , bringin g with i t eas y acces s t o variou s type s o f leisure , includin g sport s facilities an d vacation spots that had previously been th e reserve o f the wealthy . No w familie s o f modest mean s coul d tak e a Sunda y outing, whil e thos e o f the middle clas s could g o o n extende d hol idays. I n 1900 , th e first Micheli n Guides—thos e indispensabl e green-colored trave l books whos e appearanc e ushere d i n th e ag e of tourism—rolle d of f th e presses . Th e Grand-Hote l a t Cabour g and other s like it were built a t the tur n o f the centur y t o meet th e needs o f th e nouveau x riche s vacationer s wh o wer e arrivin g i n large number s b y train . Afte r th e disappointin g failur e o f Les

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Plaisirs et les jours in 1896 , Proust resolve d t o addres s himself in hi s next wor k t o thi s new class , which rea d inexpensive novel s o n th e train. 7 I t woul d tak e th e novelis t mor e tha n a decad e t o find th e unique structur e o f th e boo k h e ha d alway s wante d t o writ e an d to discove r his individual voice a s a mature artist . The gran d hotel s tha t spran g up t o accommodat e th e ne w generation o f travelers were illuminate d by anothe r moder n won der—electric lighting . I n fact , th e nineteent h centur y ha s bee n called th e ag e o f th e conques t o f darkness. 8 Previously , th e rhythms o f huma n lif e ha d alway s followe d th e cycl e o f natura l light; no w a new, clean , artificia l ligh t suspende d tim e an d mad e it serv e man' s convenience . I n la Recherche, Mm e Verdurin , Proust's tyrannical , avant-gard e hostess , wh o i s always amon g th e first t o tr y something new , buys a town hous e tha t i s to be lighte d entirely b y electricity . Ligh t coul d no w b e controlled , standard ized, an d pu t t o a numbe r o f practica l an d aestheti c uses. 9 Pari s became th e Cit y o f Light. Photographs an d stoc k footag e from films mad e aroun d 1900 sho w Pari s street s bustlin g wit h a n incredibl e variet y o f pedestrians, ambulator y vendors , driver s an d thei r horses , an d a number o f th e new , self-propellin g "automobiles. " Automobil e production i n Franc e increase d a t a n astonishin g rate , from tw o hundred i n 189 4 t o fourtee n thousan d b y 1905 . By th e yea r Du cdti de chez Swann wa s publishe d (1913) , ther e wer e ninety-fiv e thousand car s i n France . I n 1925 , three year s afte r Proust' s death , the figure wa s close t o three-quarter s o f a million. A s the numbe r of car s increase d o n Pari s streets , on e coul d se e a way o f life van ishing before one' s eyes. 10 The crie s of Proust's beloved street ven dors would soo n be smothere d by th e roar o f traffic. A t th e en d o f Du c6tk de chez Swann, th e Narrator , tryin g t o recove r th e ambi ence o f th e olde n day s whe n h e use d t o g o t o th e Boi s d e Boulogne t o watch Mm e Swan n passing by, discovers instead ho w rapidly tim e i s fleeting a s Pari s enter s th e twentiet h century : "Helas! i l n' y avai t plu s qu e de s automobile s conduite s pa r de s mecaniciens moustachu s . . ." (I , 425).

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Beneath Paris' s ancient cobblestone d streets , a new wa y o f transporting urba n masse s was being created . Th e yea r 190 0 sa w the inauguratio n o f th e Pari s Chemi n d e fe r metropolitain , stil l considered b y man y t o b e th e bes t i n th e world . Th e metr o wa s extremely successful ; i n less than a decade, a s fares wer e reduced , the number o f subway travelers grew dramaticall y from 1 5 million in 190 0 t o 31 2 million i n 1909 . On e o f the majo r effect s o f mass transit wa s a leveling o f social distinctions ; peopl e from al l socia l classes were brought together within the physical confines o f a public conveyance . Th e Vicomt e d'Avenel , a contemporary observe r of th e rapidl y changin g socia l scene , rejoice d i n 1905 , "Toda y duchesses and millionaires rub shoulders with cooks and clerks." 11 In la Recherche, thi s leveling effect, "th e ne w democrac y o f public transport," 12 i s resiste d vehementl y b y Dr . Cottard . Th e worthy doctor , i n hi s capacit y a s medical office r fo r th e railwa y company, ha s a far m labore r h e consider s t o b e riffraf f ejecte d from th e litd e trai n a t Balbec because th e man dare d ente r th e ca r "reserved" fo r th e member s o f the littl e cla n e n rout e t o th e Ver durins' summe r vill a a t l a Raspelier e (II , 875) . Th e physician , awed b y anyon e wit h a title , fear s tha t th e man' s presenc e migh t contaminate th e atmospher e fo r th e putativ e Russia n princes s Sherbatoff. O n th e othe r hand, th e baron Charlus , th e haughties t of aristocrat s an d th e mos t sexuall y drive n characte r i n th e novel , uses publi c transportatio n fo r a leveling effec t o f a differen t kind : he pursue s drunke n coac h driver s an d handsom e youn g conduc tors in hopes o f seducing them . The moder n safet y bicycle—with wheel s o f approximatel y equal size , pneumati c tires , an d th e free wheel—date s from th e mid-1880s. Despit e a fairly hig h pric e tag , ther e wer e ove r fou r hundred thousan d bicycle s i n Franc e b y 1897 . Th e spee d a t which cyclist s moved increase d phenomenally i n a short period o f time: i n 190 0 a cyclis t name d Taylo r reache d th e spee d o f on e kilometer a minute; i n 190 3 a new recor d wa s se t a t ninet y kilo meters a n hour . Th e Tou r d e France , stil l th e country' s premie r sporting event , wa s established in 1903. 13

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The popularit y o f biking an d othe r sports , couple d wit h the establishmen t o f vacation resorts , als o hastene d th e liberatio n of th e huma n body. 14 Cyclin g playe d a n importan t par t i n th e advancement o f womens ' rights , freeing th e femal e bod y b y developing shoulde r an d le g muscles , a s well a s givin g wome n a greater sens e o f independence . Machine s an d sport s create d ne w fashions, a s the Narrato r note s whe n h e firs t see s Albertine push ing a bicycle alon g th e beac h a t Balbec. 15 Freed from th e impris oning corset , wome n no w require d lighte r an d les s restrictiv e clothing. The y wer e acutel y awar e tha t th e bicycl e playe d a n important rol e i n th e liberatio n o f thei r sex ; a t th e banque t fol lowing th e feminis t congres s o f 1896 , th e president , Mari a Pognon, raise d he r glas s i n a toas t t o th e "equalitaria n an d level ing bicycle." 16 Proust's father, Dr. Adrien Proust (1834-1903) , was a physician an d publi c healt h officia l wh o distinguishe d himsel f a s a teacher, practicin g physician , epidemiologist , an d write r o n medicine. Hi s successful effort s i n stopping the choler a epidemic s that had periodically ravaged Europe for centurie s were recognize d in 1870 when he was awarded the Legion of Honor by the EmpressRegent Eugenie. During his career he wrote twenty-five books and numerous articles and reports o n international hygiene, tuberculo sis, rabies, paralysis, nerve-related an d cerebra l maladies, aphasia , and occupational disorders. 17 He als o coauthored the first book o n neurasthenia with Georges Ballet in 1897. Neurasthenia, character ized by nervous exhaustion 18 an d lack o f will, was a disorder tha t afflicted Dr . Proust's elder son, Marcel, and one o f the latter's mos t famous literary creations, the hypochondriacal Aunt Leonie. As a noted hygienist , Dr . Prous t encourage d th e wearin g of clothing tha t allowe d a person freedom o f movement, exposur e to fresh air , an d th e abilit y t o exercise . Thes e change s i n life-styl e are worth y o f th e Narrator' s grandmother , wh o hate s con finement an d stultificatio n i n an y for m an d like s t o wal k o n th e beach and in th e garden—even durin g a thunderstorm. Sh e i s th e opposite o f th e hypercautious , self-imprisone d Aun t Leonie .

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One o f the question s tha t plagues the protagonist durin g his ques t is which o f these tw o relative s he wil l resemble a s he grow s older . Proust's parent s worried (a s did th e write r himself ) tha t h e woul d never be sufficientl y stron g to succee d a t anything . In la Recherche, Proust take s not e o f th e ne w vogu e fo r sports an d th e declin e o f romantic ennui : depuis la faveur don t jouissent le s exercices physiques, Toisivete a pris un e form e sportive , mem e e n dehor s des heures de sport, e t qui se traduit non plus par de la nonchalance, mai s par un e vivacit e febrile qu i croi t n e pas laisser a 1'ennui le temps ni la place de se developper. (Ill , 699) At th e en d o f th e nineteent h century , sport s caugh t o n rapidly i n Franc e a s a resul t o f th e Britis h influence. 19 Th e popularity o f sport s i n Britai n receive d grea t impetu s whe n the y were adde d t o th e educationa l program . I n 1892 , o n th e initia tive o f tw o Frenchmen , Pierr e d e Couberti n an d Georges ' d e Saint-Clair, a Frenc h rugb y tea m wen t t o Englan d an d inaugu rated th e first internationa l sport s events , whic h eventuall y le d to th e creatio n (i n 1896 ) o f th e moder n Olympi c Games . Cou bertin, lik e man y o f hi s confrere s followin g th e humiliatin g defeat i n th e Franco-Prussia n War , feare d tha t th e yout h o f France ha d degenerate d morall y an d physically . I n 1887 , h e announced tha t a nationa l sport s progra m woul d sav e th e youn g by hardenin g " a flabby, listles s confine d youth , [both ] it s bod y and it s character . . . " 2 0 Th e contest s betwee n th e Britis h an d French wer e a grea t succes s an d Frenc h enthusias m fo r sport s spread rapidl y t o al l classes . By th e lat e 1890s , ther e wa s a proliferatio n o f sportin g clubs an d magazines . A t leas t te n newspaper s abou t "automobil ism" appeared , al l eager t o publis h new spee d records a s quickly as they wer e broken. 21 Th e breakin g o f spee d record s wa s ye t another aspec t o f the increase d consciousnes s o f time, an d instru ments wer e develope d t o measur e spli t seconds . Toulouse -

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Lautrec's poster s o f bicycle race s i n th e 1890 s sho w official s an d coaches holding chronometers. 22 Sports, th e ne w machine s o f mas s transportation , an d moving picture s mad e peopl e awar e o f motio n a s neve r before . Chroniclers o f the ne w centur y constantl y referre d t o th e cul t o f speed an d th e religio n o f velocity, welcomin g th e ne w machine s as abolishers o f tim e an d space . Prous t note s th e wa y ne w inven tions chang e ou r perceptio n o f th e worl d b y alterin g time-spac e relationships. Trains , h e tell s u s i n la Recherche, mad e everyon e aware o f the minut e division s o f time an d th e necessit y fo r punc tuality: Depuis qu'i l exist e des chemin s d e fer , l a necessite d e ne pa s manquer l e trai n nou s a appris a tenir compt e des minutes, alor s que che z les anciens Romains, don t Tastronomie n'etai t pa s seulement plu s sommaire mais aussi l a vie moin s pressee , l a notion , no n pa s d e mi nutes, mai s mem e d'heure s fixes, existait a peine. (II , 825) Proust als o observe s ho w work s o f architecture tha t onc e seeme d far apar t geographicall y no w inhabi t th e sam e tempora l zone , making i t possible t o visit the m o n th e sam e outing. 23 Conquering th e lan d an d ai r no w becam e a real possibil ity a s man free d himsel f from limitation s tha t ha d hel d hi m bac k for centuries . Gravit y wa s a force from whic h me n longe d t o b e liberated, a s ca n be see n i n thi s remar k b y Pau l Souriau , mad e i n 1889 i n anticipatio n o f th e firs t manne d flight : "l e vo l sembl e l a plus bell e victoir e remporte e contr e Pinerti e e t l a pesanteur , un e veritable emancipatio n d e l a matiere." 24 Free , sustaine d flight— one o f man's oldes t an d noblest dreams—wa s abou t t o be realized . There wa s tremendou s excitemen t amon g Proust' s contempo raries, wh o wer e th e first t o believ e tha t the y migh t actuall y con quer tim e an d space . As Jacques Natha n ha s pointed out , wherea s trains an d ocea n liner s turne d passenger s int o passiv e subject s o f speed, th e bicycle , automobile , an d airplan e ha d a tremendousl y

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liberating effect : ato p th e bicycl e th e ride r i s free and i s propelle d by muscular energy ; in th e automobil e an d th e airplan e th e drive r and pilo t contro l th e machine s an d cove r a vast are a o f space i n a relatively short spa n o f time. 25 These machine s no t onl y change d th e wa y peopl e move d through spac e bu t als o ho w the y perceive d themselve s an d th e world. Peopl e ha d th e impressio n o f livin g no t onl y a t a muc h faster pac e bu t als o mor e intensel y tha n a t an y previou s tim e i n history. Th e Frenc h Cubis t painte r Fernan d Lege r observe d tha t a "modern ma n registers a hundred time s more sensor y impression s than a n eighteenth-centur y artist." 26 Octav e Uzanne , th e Frenc h journalist an d bibliophile, sai d tha t i n a short perio d o f time ma n had replace d twent y centurie s o f horse-draw n movemen t wit h three ne w inventions : trains , automobiles , an d airplanes . Thes e innovations accelerate d th e pac e a t whic h peopl e live d t o suc h a degree tha t Proust' s contemporarie s believe d th e huma n physiog nomy migh t b e altere d b y th e ne w kineti c experiences . Som e feared tha t th e spee d o f ridin g a bicycl e wa s beyon d huma n endurance an d coul d caus e disfigurement: "Th e bicycl e was abou t four time s faste r tha n walkin g an d warning s wer e issue d abou t getting 'bicycl e face ' b y movin g agains t th e win d a t suc h hig h speeds. . . ." 27 Th e fac e o f modern ma n wa s marked b y velocity : " *i l vizi o dell a velocita ' devien t u n trai t caracteristiqu e d e r h o m m e moderne , qui , a u dir e de s plu s enthousiastes , sou s pe u s'elancera a traver s l e mond e a l'instar d'u n boule t d e cano n o u d'un bolide." 28 The exhilaratin g feeling o f moving through spac e with th e explosive spee d o f a cannonball i s precisely ho w Prous t describe d the impressio n he had while riding throug h th e Normandy coun tryside i n a re d taxi , wit h Agostinell i a t th e wheel. 29 Th e motorists o f Proust' s da y ha d th e feelin g o f being rapidl y born e away since they were poorly protected from th e weather an d wer e constantly jostled an d jarred b y th e man y pothole s o n th e roads . An episod e from hi s excursions with Agostinell i that Prous t wrot e for Le Figaro became th e basi s fo r th e famou s passag e describin g

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the steeple s o f Martinvill e i n la Recherche, where th e Narrato r experiences paralla x vision whil e observin g th e steeple s i n multi ple perspectives from th e fast-moving carriage . In hi s writings , Prous t describe s th e influenc e o f sport s and machine s o f spee d o n fashion , bein g especiall y struc k b y th e androgynous loo k o f chauffeurs . Fo r example , th e novelis t com pares Agostinell i i n hi s motorin g attire , consistin g o f a long coa t with hoo d an d goggles , t o a "nu n o f speed." 30 Som e o f Proust' s contemporaries feare d tha t whe n wome n bega n t o wea r pants — largely as a result o f the popularity an d practicality o f cycling—th e distinctions betwee n th e sexe s would becom e somewha t blurred . Historians hav e pointed ou t tha t durin g period s o f transition, th e androgyne, whic h figure s significantl y i n Proust' s presentatio n o f human sexuality , appear s mor e frequently i n art , painting , an d fashion. A s w e shal l se e i n th e chapte r o n "Spee d an d Desire, " rapid movement throug h spac e characterize s thos e Proustian crea tures who ar e desirable o r whose sexualit y is ambiguous. The desir e t o travel , whic h th e Narrato r ofte n confuse s with eroti c desire , establishe s th e powerfu l Proustia n dialecti c o f stasis an d kinesis . Th e protagonist' s personalit y i s split , a s wa s Proust's, betwee n tha t o f a sedentary , sickl y reclus e an d a curi ous, eve n passionat e explorer . I n th e novel , thes e tw o penchant s are represente d b y Aun t Leoni e an d th e grandmother . Thes e conflicting trait s ma y b e see n i n Prous t himself : hi s desir e t o travel wa s complicate d b y healt h problem s (whethe r psychoso matic o r rea l i s stil l bein g debated) ; hi s reclusive , sedentar y nature contrast s wit h hi s modes t enthusias m fo r sports 31 an d hi s surprising adaptatio n t o militar y lif e durin g a yea r o f voluntar y service (1889-90) . Stillness an d mobilit y relat e t o ar t an d desir e i n Proust' s world. Spee d i s almos t alway s a n incitemen t o f Proustia n desir e and a majo r facto r i n th e elaboratio n o f tw o antithetica l Prous tian themes : th e prisone r an d th e fugitive. 32 Girl s i n motion , most ofte n o n bicycles , arous e desir e i n th e Narrator . I t i s speed—motion throug h space—tha t mor e tha n anythin g els e

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marks th e kinshi p o f Albertin e an d Saint-Loup . A s a youn g man Prous t wa s attracte d t o vivaciou s girl s suc h a s Mari e d e Benardaky an d Jeann e Pouquet , bot h o f who m len t somethin g to th e character s o f Gilbert e an d Albertine , a s wel l a s t o youn g men lik e Bertran d d e Fenelo n an d Alfre d Agostinelli . Accord ing t o Proust' s housekeeper , Celest e Albaret , th e latte r ha d th e reputation o f a daredevi l amon g hi s friends. 33 Agostinell i belonged t o th e grou p wh o frequented ahodromes, 34 a s airport s were calle d a t th e time ; h e als o wen t t o bicycl e an d ca r race s and wa s generall y fascinate d b y speed . H e entere d Proust' s lif e on tw o crucia l occasions . Hi s flight from Prous t an d tragi c death i n a n airplan e acciden t i n 191 4 plunge d Prous t int o a period o f intens e grie f an d inspire d th e novelis t t o ad d ne w dimensions t o th e characte r o f Albertine . Th e allur e o f athleti c young me n wa s a n importan t aspec t o f Proust' s fictional charac terizations a s earl y a s 1896-9 9 whe n h e wa s workin g o n th e novel Jean Santeuil, whic h h e late r abandoned , bu t whic h wa s published posthumously . Girls o n bicycle s ar e a dominan t moti f i n Proust' s explo ration o f erotic desire . When th e Narrato r firs t spot s Albertine o n the beac h a t Balbec , sh e i s pushing a bicycle i n th e compan y o f other girl s belonging t o th e litde band. Becaus e o f their attir e an d outlandish behavior , h e think s thes e strange , attractiv e creature s must al l b e th e mistresse s o f cyclists . Th e girl s o n bicycle s t o whom h e i s attracte d becom e winge d creatures 35 an d posses s a charm unknow n t o ordinar y girls . T o seiz e an d t o posses s desir able creature s wh o ar e fugitiv e become s on e o f th e Narrator' s enduring obsessions . I n a n attemp t t o understand , t o se e thes e girls a s they reall y are , th e Narrato r ofte n decompose s th e figures in motio n b y usin g photographi c analogies . Th e proble m o f speed, desire , an d fugacit y mus t b e solve d before h e ca n discove r his vocation a s a writer. While Prous t wa s stil l i n hi s formativ e period , photogra phers, painters , sculptors , physiologists , sportsmen , an d th e curi ous wer e studyin g motio n a s never before . Som e wer e draw n t o

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the beaut y o f th e huma n figure i n motion , whil e other s wer e more intereste d i n th e practica l application s for science , medicine , aviation, an d sports . Etienne-Jule s Marey' s (1830-1904 ) chrono photographs ("picture s o f time" ) wer e innovation s tha t resulte d from th e stud y o f motion . Marey , a physiologist , wa s ingeniou s when i t cam e t o inventin g instrument s t o recor d livin g phenom ena. I n 1881 , whil e studyin g th e flight o f bird s a s par t o f hi s research int o th e developmen t o f flying machines , h e discovere d the wor k o f Eadweard Muybridg e (1830-1904) , whos e zooprax iscope projected animate d pictures o n a screen an d was a forerun ner o f th e movin g picture . Mare y aske d th e America n t o tr y an d photograph bird s i n flight, bu t h e wa s disappointe d wit h th e results. Th e Frenc h physiologis t wen t t o wor k an d b y 188 2 ha d developed a photographi c gu n tha t expose d film a t a rapi d "firing" rate . Dissatisfied becaus e th e image s i t obtaine d wer e no t sharp enough , Mare y shord y thereafte r invente d chronophotogra phy, which allowe d him t o captur e perfectl y a figure i n motion i n its consecutiv e phases . Placin g hi s subject s agains t a black back ground an d usin g a rotary shutter wit h a n incredibly fast exposure , Marey wa s abl e t o obtai n a serie s o f picture s o f a moving figure on th e sam e photographic plate . Proust wa s familia r wit h Muybridge' s innovativ e wor k i n this field and must hav e also known abou t Marey' s invention. Thi s pioneer i n th e stud y o f anima l an d huma n locomotio n was , lik e Adrien Proust , a doctor, a specialist o n cholera , an d a member o f the Academi e d e Medecine . Althoug h Prous t doe s no t mentio n Muybridge's name , th e first photographi c analog y i n la Recherche is a reference t o th e earlies t motio n pictur e sequenc e eve r made , that o f Muybridge's 187 9 photographs o f a running horse, know n as "Occiden t Trotting. " Wit h th e arriva l o f Thoma s A . Edison' s kinetoscope an d Emile Raynaud's Optica l Theater , whic h opene d in Paris in 1888 , the movies were abou t t o be born. Th e firs t pro jection o f moving picture s by th e cinematograph , a n inventio n o f the Lumiere brothers, too k plac e i n Paris o n Decembe r 15 , 1895, at the Caf e d e la Paix.

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The novelis t Octav e Mirbea u describe d th e sensatio n o f motion experience d durin g a car ride by using a cinematographi c analogy: "Everywher e lif e i s rushing insanely like a cavalry charge , and it vanishes cinematographicall y lik e trees and silhouettes alon g a road. Everythin g aroun d ma n jumps, dances , gallops i n a move ment ou t o f phase wit h hi s own/' 3 6 Prous t wa s als o struc k b y th e changing pac e o f life an d th e movement o f figures throug h space , which woul d become a recurring moti f in la Recherche. Ther e i s a passage i n hi s novel , simila r t o th e on e b y Mirbeau , wher e th e prince d e Saga n and othe r equestria n rider s gree t Odette : le prince, faisant comm e dans une apotheose de theatre, de cirque, o u dan s un tablea u ancien , fair e fron t a son cheval, adressait a Odette u n gran d salu t theatral . . . . Mme Swann etait saluee par les derniers cavaliers attardes, comm e cinematographies a u galop sur Tensoleillement blanc de 1'avenue. . .. (I , 640) In depictin g a s movin g picture s th e parad e o f me n o n horseback wh o gree t Mm e Swann , Prous t i s thinkin g o f th e motion picture s produce d b y Thoma s A . Edison' s kinetoscop e and th e earl y cinema. B y comparin g th e scen e t o a n apotheosi s i n the theater , a circus, and a n ol d painting, with th e su n as the fixed white agen t throug h whic h th e rider s move , th e novelis t present s us with a recurrent imag e tha t wed s stillnes s and mobility . Odett e remains th e fixed, centra l poin t o f thi s activity ; th e movin g panorama o f th e returnin g cavalier s wh o gree t he r serve s a s a spectacular backdrop fo r th e beautiful woman . The cinem a wa s see n t o b e th e natura l companio n o f th e airplane an d th e automobile , a s can be see n in thi s remark by Fer nand Leger : "l e cinem a e t Taviatio n vont bras-dessus bras-dessou s dans la vie , il s son t ne s l e mem e jour . . . ," 37 Th e earl y cinem a captured perfecd y th e rapi d temp o a t which peopl e believe d the y had begu n t o liv e b y reproducin g "th e mechanization , jerkiness , and rus h o f modern times." 38 Leger , wh o wa s keenl y attune d t o this aspec t o f social change , observe d i n 191 3 tha t lif e wa s "mor e

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fragmented an d faste r movin g tha n i n previou s periods, " an d that peopl e sough t a dynami c ar t t o depic t it. 39 Rober t Delau nay, wh o painte d th e Eiffe l Towe r a n incredibl e seventy-seve n times, believe d tha t th e moder n worl d wa s characterize d b y movement. 40 Guillaume Apollinaire , on e o f th e earlies t supporter s o f and most astut e commentator s o n th e wor k o f the Cubists , wrot e in 190 8 o f the Cubists ' ambitio n t o creat e a n art o f mobility an d a vision o f unity: "I I faut. . . embrasser d'u n cou p d'ceil : le passe, le present e t l'avenir . L a toil e doi t presente r cett e unit e essentiell e qui seul e provoqu e l'extase." 41 Proust' s Narrato r experience s a similar ecstati c unit y o f tim e an d spac e a t th e en d o f Le Temps retrouui upon discoverin g the ke y to his vocation a s an artist. 42 Jacques Riviere , a writer an d edito r a t th e Nouuelle Revue Frangaise, wa s amon g th e first t o understan d th e tru e nature , themes, an d structur e o f la Recherche. H e sa w a direct relationshi p between Prous t an d th e Cubists . Rivier e wa s awar e o f th e con temporaneity o f Proust' s wor k an d use d painterl y analogie s t o describe the novelist's technique an d style: une chose . . . qui m'est apparue pour la premiere fois, c'est votr e relatio n ave c le mouvement cubiste , e t plus profondement votr e profonde immersio n dans la realite esthetique contemporaine . . . . d'autre par t su r un te l livre il n'y a rien a dire, tant il est proche de ce qu'ilpeint. Jamais encor e o n n'etai t arriv e a un e pareill e identification ave c Tobjet. 43 Cubism was influenced b y motion picture s an d othe r con temporary developments . Stephe n Ker n surmise s tha t "chrono photography an d cinem a n o doub t ha d som e effect , howeve r in direct, o n th e wa y Cubist s rendere d spac e an d sough t t o giv e a sense o f th e developmen t o f a n objec t i n tim e a s a construc tion o f successiv e point s o f view." 44 I n 1911 , th e Cubis t painter Jean Metzinge r explaine d ho w th e Cubists ' multipl e per spectives ha d adde d temporalit y t o painting : "The y hav e allowe d

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themselves t o mov e roun d th e object , i n orde r t o giv e a concret e representation o f it , mad e u p o f severa l successiv e aspects . For merly a pictur e too k possessio n o f space , no w i t reign s als o i n time." 45 Lik e th e Cubists , Prous t depict s variou s aspect s o f a n object see n i n rapi d succession , suc h a s the steeple s o f Martinvill e or Albertine' s fac e whe n th e Narrato r bend s ove r her t o besto w a kiss, bu t unlik e th e Cubist s h e present s suc h perspective s a s a spontaneous an d successiv e visio n rathe r tha n a n intellectualize d and recomposed vision . For thes e Frenc h artists , a s well a s for man y other s a t th e time, th e ne w her o wa s a ma n o f actio n a t th e cente r o f event s and a t the wheel o f an automobil e o r airplane. Par Bergma n give s us a portrait o f the ne w ideal : [L'homme moderne ] s e trouve toujour s a u centr e de s evenements e t enregistr e directement , a Tinstar d'u n appareil Morse , tout e l a vi e ambiante , explosiv e e t tourbillonnante dan s s a modernite . I I preftre Taero drome e t le cinema a Teglise, il a du gou t pour les vols et les voyages en automobil e plus qu'i l n'en a pour les musees, e t i l chant e l e die u de s temp s nouveaux — THomme—en celebran t l e hero s d u siecle , l'aviateu r sans peur.46 For Prous t an d hi s contemporarie s th e chauffeu r an d th e aviator wer e linke d i n a n evolutionar y way . T o the m th e progres sion from cyclis t t o chauffeu r t o pilo t wa s an observabl e an d logi cal one . Th e immediat e mechanica l progressio n from ca r t o air plane wa s self-eviden t sinc e th e airplan e wa s i n man y respect s a n automobile wit h wings . Proust' s frequent analogie s describin g a desirable cyclis t wh o become s airborn e ma y ow e somethin g t o the cyclin g competitions tha t th e athletic Agostinelli—certainly a n "homme moderne " i n his zeal to become a pilot—must hav e frequented. Jacques-Henri Lartigue' s photograph s an d diarie s ar e a n important sourc e o f documentatio n fo r th e developmen t o f machines o f speed in France durin g Proust's lifetime. Th e photog rapher too k man y picture s o f the first automobiles , actua l winge d

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bicycles know n a s aviettes, airplanes, gliders , an d s o forth , a s h e documented th e histor y o f spee d i n earl y twentieth-centur y France, I n hi s note s w e find Lartigue , lik e Proust , describin g car s as horizontal vehicle s tha t gathe r spee d an d ascen d t o th e skies. 47 At th e vilodrome, a s th e bicycle-racin g trac k wa s know n i n th e Pare de s Princes , Lartigu e too k a serie s o f photograph s o f thes e winged bicycles, whose driver s pedale d furiously i n a n attemp t t o achieve elevation . Th e drea m o f a human-propelle d flying machine woul d no t b e realize d unti l man y year s later , certainl y long after Proust' s death . The ne w heroes—th e cyclist , th e chauffeur , an d th e avia tor 48 —all appea r i n Proust' s writings . Th e cyclis t an d th e aviato r are importan t figures: th e forme r i s a mysterious, eroti c creature , while th e latte r i s the primar y symbo l o f the creativ e person . Th e horizontal and vertical axes respectively represent thos e thing s tha t are earthboun d an d thos e tha t permit ascension . Th e earthbound , horizontal explore r wh o discover s ho w t o becom e a n airborn e visionary i s a key Proustia n metaphor . I n la Recherche, i t i s abov e all the aviato r wh o symbolize s th e freedom, vision , an d individu ality of the artist . Although Proust wrote many pages that are in keeping with the Futurists' dictu m tha t a n artist shoul d "chante r l'homm e m o derne . . . l'homme acti f et 'dynamique ' d e son propre temps , tels le chauffeur e t l'aviateur," 49 h e was primarily interested in moder n inventions because they allow us to attai n new perspectives. In thi s regard he is unlike the Futurists, who were obsessed by the machine itself and found i n i t a new god : "L e moteu r devien t presqu e u n dieu, la machine un e deesse . Au 'regn o animale ' succed e 'i l regn o meccanico.'. . . [Marinetti ] proclame aussi 'la prochaine decouvert e des lois d'une veritabl e sensibilite des machines.' " 5 0 Proust is indifferent t o the concep t o f "sensibilita motrice," employin g machine s as analogies to explai n or illustrate human perception and to depic t reactions to new kinetic experiences. The Narrator's first ride in an elevator, for example , owe s part o f its description t o Proust's auto mobile excursions with Agostinelli.

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Proust's frequent analogie s an d example s draw n from opti cal devices , machines o f transportation, an d invention s relatin g t o communication describ e ne w kineti c experiences . Althoug h other writers o f the period depicte d earl y automobile an d airplan e rides, Prous t fo r th e mos t par t mad e origina l us e o f th e materia l in his similes and metaphors. Hi s compariso n o f an automobil e t o an orga n i n th e passag e describin g Albertin e a t th e pianola , o f Bergotte t o a n automobil e tha t become s a n airplane , o r o f Giotto's angel s i n th e Aren a Chape l t o th e looping s o f Rolan d Garros's aviatio n student s ar e bol d analogie s tha t woul d no t hav e occurred t o mos t novelists . The Futurist s glorifie d th e moder n world , machines , speed, an d violenc e i n a n effor t t o free Ital y from it s oppressiv e past. The y sough t t o rende r motio n b y th e simultaneou s presen tation o f successiv e aspect s o f forms i n motion . Prous t ofte n cre ates th e literar y equivalen t o f thi s techniqu e b y presentin g stop action view s o f movin g figures, th e mos t remarkabl e bein g th e successive "snapshots " o f Saint-Lou p runnin g acros s benches i n a restaurant. Bu t th e similarit y betwee n Prous t an d th e Futurist s i s limited t o hi s interes t i n machine s an d speed ; h e doe s no t down play th e huma n figure bu t instea d prize s individuality . No r doe s Proust engag e i n polemics o r write manifestoes . In a n earl y versio n o f a tex t fo r Le Temps retrouvi, Proust describes th e change s i n societ y tha t hav e com e abou t thank s t o modern inventions . (Muc h o f thi s materia l wa s late r disperse d throughout th e novel. ) Wha t interest s hi m abov e al l is the impac t of thes e invention s o n fashion , habits , socia l mores , perception , and ou r understandin g o f the law s o f nature: " a u n peti t change ment entir e 2 aiguille s correspon d dan s un e machin e l e deplace ment d'enorme s masses. " H e point s ou t tha t suc h change s hav e taken plac e no t b y violatin g know n law s but throug h th e discov ery o f previousl y unknow n laws : "Qu i m'eu t di t a Combra y qu'on pourrai t cause r d e Paris a Balbec j'aurais cru qu'i l m e disai t un cont e d e fees . L e telephon e existai t partout. " Prous t finds ye t another example :

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[On nous avait assure] que le probleme de la navigation aerienne etait insoluble, et maintenant de lourdes automobiles demarraient, couraien t quelques pas sur Therbe et brusquemen t s'enlevaient , conduisan t le s dieu x pareils a celui qu i avait effray e mo n cheva l sur la route solitaire de Doville. . . .51 In hi s novel , Prous t chronicle s th e impac t o f technolog y on Franfoise , th e venerabl e bu t stubbor n famil y servan t an d touchstone o f Ol d France , wh o ha s he r ow n comple x socia l an d ethical code . Conservativ e i n he r politica l view s an d resistan t t o any chang e i n he r habits , sh e refuses t o spea k ove r th e telephone . Her stubbornnes s amuse s th e famil y bu t als o create s a n inconve nience. Prous t sum s u p he r attitud e i n a statement abou t progres s and human adaptabilit y t o change : Les progres d e l a civilisatio n permetten t a chacu n d e manifester de s qualites insoupfonnees o u d e nouveau x vices qui les rendent plus chers ou plus insupportables a leurs amis. C'est ains i que la decouverte d'Ediso n avai t permis a Franfois e d'acqueri r u n defau t d e plus , qu i etait d e s e refuser , quelqu e utilite , quelqu e urgenc e qu'il y eut, a se servir du telephone. (II , 730) 52 Later i n life , i t wa s Prous t wh o inconvenience d hi s servant , Celeste. I n orde r no t t o be disturbed , th e writer ha d his telephon e disconnected an d required her t o make his calls from a nearby caf e or tobacco shop . The effec t tha t tim e an d th e discover y o f new law s hav e on individual s an d societ y is the mai n them e o f Proust's Recherche. His elaboratio n o f th e them e o f tim e show s tha t h e i s no t onl y aware o f th e constand y changin g natur e o f thing s bu t i s haunte d by it . Chang e an d th e reactio n t o chang e se t th e ton e o f th e period. 53 Accordin g t o Proust , i t wa s primarily th e repercussion s of the Dreyfu s affai r an d thos e o f modern technolog y tha t altere d French societ y prio r t o Worl d Wa r I. 54 Th e Grea t War , th e firs t in whic h airplane s wer e use d t o launc h bombs , accelerate d th e

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process o f transformatio n an d provided th e cou p d e grac e t o a n aristocracy soo n t o b e replace d b y suc h ne w societ y queen s a s Proust's dreadfu l Mme Verdurin , who, followin g th e deat h o f her husband an d after subsequent remarriages , becomes th e princess e de Guermantes . Implacabl e an d ingeniou s i n he r campaig n t o ruin Charlu s socially , Mm e Verduri n succeed s i n labelin g hi m "avant guerre " an d thu s hopelessl y ou t o f fashion. Afte r th e wa r the Guermante s salon , onc e th e epitom e o f Parisian aristocrati c elegance an d snobbery , i s a broken-dow n machin e tha t i s n o longer "functioning " properl y an d let s i n th e riffraf f (III , 957) . Mme Swann , a former cocotte , an d Mme Bontemps , a middleclass hostess wit h socia l ambitions , ar e among thos e wh o ris e t o levels previousl y though t unattainable . Th e worl d o f societ y i s made neithe r better no r wors e b y suc h kaleidoscopic changes ; i t remains just a s vain, vicious , an d steril e a s ever . Th e glamorou s faubourg Saint-Germai n i s equally subject t o th e laws o f time. A s the Narrator observes in a grand period near the end of the novel: Ainsi change la figure des choses de ce monde; ainsi le centre de s empires , e t l e cadastr e de s fortunes , e t l a charte des situations, tout ce qui semblait definitif est-il perpetuellement remanie, e t les yeux d'un homme qui a vecu peuvent-ils contemple r l e changemen t l e plus complet la ou justement il lui paraissait le plus impossible. (Ill, 1019) 55 Perpetual chang e an d evolutio n i s th e grea t la w o f life . One o f th e mos t powerfu l scene s i n th e nove l i s th e maske d ball episode i n which Proust brings back all the surviving members o f his cast of characters in order to illustrat e graphically the effect s o f time o n them . The y have become, h e says , puppets of time: "De s poupees baignant dan s les couleur s immaterielle s de s annees , de s poupees exteriorisan t le Temps . . ." (Ill, 924) . Proust's novel , sai d by Vladimi r Naboko v an d othe r emi nent writer s an d critic s t o b e th e greates t i n recen t memory , explores man y aspect s o f th e huma n experienc e an d contain s a

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wealth o f descriptio n an d discours e envelope d i n a panoram a o f history. But , a s in Homer' s Odyssey, the distinguishe d ancesto r o f the moder n novel , th e majo r them e i s on e o f loss , quest , an d rediscovery. A la recherche du temps perdu is, a s its tid e implies , th e story o f a quest , o f a youn g man' s searc h fo r self-identity—an d especially fo r hi s ow n voic e a s a writer. Thi s ques t involve s th e exploration o f inne r space , wha t Prous t call s th e "mo i profond " (the dee p o r real self) wherei n lie s the mysteriou s fountainhea d o f creativity, ye t i t als o involve s a n investigatio n o f th e exterio r world, a n attemp t t o gai n knowledg e o f others, ultimatel y culmi nating i n th e searc h fo r orde r ou t o f chaos . Th e purpos e o f th e Narrator's ques t i s t o soun d th e depth s o f hi s bein g i n orde r t o find a visio n tha t matche s hi s idealism , whil e a t th e sam e tim e acquiring th e craf t an d driv e t o become a writer. At th e beginnin g o f la Recherche, al l i s chaos . Th e Narra tor doe s no t kno w wher e h e is , who h e is , and—sinc e h e i s subject t o suggestion—no t eve n what h e is . I n his contemplation s h e becomes whateve r h e ha s been reading : a church , a quartet , o r a historical quarre l betwee n riva l monarch s o f the Renaissance . Al l the element s tha t defin e an d orien t a personality ar e absent: time , place, and th e natur e o f one's being. Th e extrem e suggestibilit y o f the hero i s but th e first indicatio n o f his protean nature . In la Recherche, ther e ar e tw o moment s o f separatio n tha t are crucia l t o th e Narrator' s entir e experience : th e withholding o f his mother's good-nigh t kis s in Combra y a s a child and th e disap pearance an d deat h o f Albertine . A s a matur e adul t i n love , th e Narrator come s t o identif y hi s passio n fo r Albertin e wit h hi s infantile dependenc y o n hi s mother . Terr y Eagleto n link s th e Freudian depictio n o f this basic experienc e o f loss and recovery t o the birt h o f narration. On e da y Freud wa s watching hi s grandso n playing in his stroller. Th e chil d would thro w a toy ou t o f the car riage an d exclai m "fort! " (gone) . Then , haulin g i t i n o n a string , the boy would screa m "da! " (here) . I n Beyond the Pleasure Principle, Freud interprete d th e "fort-da " gam e a s "th e infant' s symboli c mastery o f it s mother' s absence . Fort-da i s perhap s th e shortes t

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story w e ca n imagine : a n objec t i s lost, an d the n recovered . Bu t even th e mos t comple x narrative s ca n b e rea d a s variants o n thi s model. . . . " Eagleto n goe s o n t o sa y tha t narrativ e i s a source o f consolation. Sinc e lost objects caus e anxiety an d symbolize deepe r unconscious losses , i t i s alway s pleasurabl e whe n w e ar e abl e t o find the m an d put the m securel y back i n place: "I n Lacania n the ory, i t is an origina l lost object—th e mother' s body—which drive s forward th e narrativ e o f ou r lives , impellin g u s t o pursu e substi tutes fo r thi s lost paradis e i n th e endles s metonymic movemen t o f desire."56 I n Proust's cas e his biographers hav e viewed th e deat h o f his mother a s a release an d a powerful incentiv e t o begi n wor k i n earnest. Som e se e la Recherche a s a monumenta l apolog y t o hi s parents, especiall y his mother. I n an y case, she was never—even i n death—far from hi s thoughts . Th e sourc e o f la Recherche, the acorn from whic h gre w th e might y oa k o f on e o f th e mos t suc cessfully sustaine d narrations i n Western literature , i s an imaginar y conversation wit h hi s mothe r abou t Charles-Augusti n Sainte Beuve's critica l method . In th e cours e o f his quest, th e Narrator seek s both a reality that matche s his inner visio n an d th e craft , stamina , an d willpowe r necessary t o become a writer. I t i s only after man y false start s tha t he finds th e ke y an d realize s tha t h e mus t creat e a work o f art i n which th e tw o aspect s o f life—th e idea l an d th e real—ar e con trasted an d wed . I n elaboratin g hi s entir e experience , h e thu s makes accessibl e t o other s th e totalit y o f his vision . Proust's ques t fit s perfecd y th e definitio n o f a monomyth , a term coine d by James Joyce i n Finnegans Wake and borrowed b y Joseph Campbell , accordin g t o who m the standar d path o f the mythologica l adventure o f the hero i s a magnification o f the formul a represente d i n the rites of passage: separation—initiation—return: which might be named the nuclear unit of the monomyth. A hero venture s forth from th e world o f commo n day int o a regio n o f supernatura l wonder : fabulou s forces ar e ther e encountere d an d a decisive victor y is

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won: the hero comes back from this mysterious adventure wit h th e powe r t o besto w boon s o n hi s fello w man.57 At th e en d o f la Recherche, Proust' s unlikel y hero triumph s over vanity , become s a n altruisti c creator , an d offer s th e fruits o f his labor s t o hi s fello w man . A s i s usuall y th e cas e i n myths , th e Proustian voyag e i s a trial. Wha t i s new i n Prous t i s the natur e o f the her o undergoin g th e trial . H e i s apparentl y a weakling , doomed t o hypochondri a an d failur e an d plague d b y self-doubts : Can h e becom e a writer ? Doe s h e hav e wha t i t takes ? Wil l h e begin i n time ? Seekin g on e thing , h e alway s finds somethin g els e that i s unexpected an d initiall y misunderstoo d an d disappointing . Berma's acting , th e seasid e resor t o f Balbec , th e salo n o f th e duchesse d e Guermantes , an d th e experienc e o f eroti c lov e ar e nothing lik e hi s anticipation s o f them . Onl y a t th e en d o f th e quest doe s h e se e ho w hi s entir e pas t form s th e subjec t o f hi s book. Many o f th e Futurist s embrace d materialisti c goal s an d eventually adopte d Fascis t ideologies , goin g t o extreme s i n thei r worship o f machine s an d endorsin g indiscriminat e iconoclas m and violenc e t o th e detrimen t o f humanistic values . Th e narrow ness o f thei r belligeren t ideolog y doome d th e movement . I n hi s vision o f lif e a s a time-spac e continuu m o f huma n experience , Proust professe s a timeless, universal, an d cosmic view. He delight s in combinin g th e ancien t an d th e modern , th e art s an d th e sci ences, th e mythologica l an d th e mechanica l i n image s tha t revea l their similaritie s sub specie aetemitatis. Although Prous t continue s the gran d traditio n o f Western literatur e tha t began wit h Homer' s quests, h e i s ver y muc h a ma n o f hi s tim e an d follow s hi s ow n aesthetic dictu m a s to wha t a n origina l artis t shoul d do , namely , create th e world anew . Proust's compas s i s large. Hi s vie w o f human experienc e does not depriv e us of our cultura l heritage; rather i t establishe s its endurance whil e rejoicin g i n it s fecundit y a s new law s abou t th e human conditio n an d th e natur e o f th e univers e ar e discovered .

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The pas t inhabit s th e presen t throug h huma n memor y an d monu ments suc h a s Gothi c cathedrals , whic h Prous t compare s t o ship s sailing throug h time . Rathe r tha n bein g iconoclastic , Prous t i s encyclopedic 58 an d show s ho w easil y an d naturall y th e ne w take s its plac e alongsid e th e old , ho w th e mode l fo r la Recherche i s th e universe, a n ever-expandin g cosmos , a circl e o f constellations , kaleidoscopic image s constantl y undergoin g permutation s ye t moving i n harmon y wit h basi c law s whose discover y remain s th e goal o f the Proustian quest .

CHAPTER 2

Women as Landscapes Aimer et mourir Au pays qui te ressemble! —Charles Baudelair e Votre &me est un paysage choisi. . . —Paul Verlain e en ktant amoureux d'unefemme nous projetons simplement en elle un Hat de notre dme; que par consequent Vimportant n*est pas la valeur de la femme, mais la profondeur de Vitat. . . . (I , 833 ) All th e wome n desire d by Proust' s narrato r hav e tw o element s i n common: thei r fugacit y an d thei r identificatio n wit h a precis e geographic location . An d al l o f the m ar e see n fo r th e firs t tim e out-of-doors an d i n motion. 1 Indeed , fo r Prous t th e constan t identification o f gir l an d landscape—a s thoug h th e experienc e o f sighting a girl moving alon g th e beach o r i n a forest wa s total an d unique—seems t o indicat e tha t th e gir l ha s n o bein g an d n o lif e distinct from tha t o f th e local e i n whic h sh e i s seen ; yet , fo r rea sons tha t I wil l examine , th e gir l hersel f an d he r pas t remai n deeply mysterious . The young Narrator firs t desire d a peasant girl of Combra y when h e wa s strollin g nea r Roussainville , just prio r t o witnessin g the lesbian love scene between Mil e Vinteuil and her friend. I n his

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mature years , h e comment s o n hi s earl y belie f tha t eac h perso n and eac h site was unique, th e on e a product o f the other : nous croyons d'une fo i profonde a Toriginalite, a la vie individuelle du lieu ou nous nous trouvons—la passante qu'appelait mo n desi r me semblait etr e non u n exem plaire quelconqu e d e c e type general : la femme, mai s un produit necessaire et naturel de ce sol. (I, 156-57) In th e sam e passage he remarks , "ell e etait . . . pour mo i comm e une plant e locale . . . ." 2 Fo r th e concep t o f each gir l as a "plant e locale" Proust may have been influenced by Darwinism.3 The Nar rator's way of discovering these women resembles that o f a naturalist or botanist explorin g the animal or floral kingdoms in that eac h woman i s a part o f th e flora an d faun a o f her nativ e region , th e place in which the Narrator first see s her: "Entr e cett e province e t le temperament d e la jeune fill e . . . je percevai s un beau dialogue . Dialogue, non pa s discorde. Aucune ne saurait divise r la jeune fill e et son pays natal. Elle, c'est lui encore" (I , 910). 4 In depictin g th e passantes, Prous t combine s naturalis m fo r the origi n o f th e species , wherei n eac h gir l embodie s a uniqu e species an d i s the product o f a particular habitat , wit h impression ism, wherei n eac h gir l i s see n outdoor s i n th e ligh t o f a specifi c time an d place . Just a s the Impressionist s depicte d a n entir e serie s of railwa y stations , bridges , cathedrals , popla r trees , wate r lilies , and s o forth , wit h eac h paintin g i n th e serie s reflectin g th e ligh t of a particula r moment , Prous t give s u s man y version s o f th e major femal e character s a s the y appea r a t differen t time s an d i n different surroundings . Proust's manner o f representation i s that o f an Impressionis t i n tha t hi s description s o f thes e passantes always take int o accoun t th e locatio n an d th e "couleu r d u temps " i n which eac h o f them i s seen.

Une femme-pay sage Proust's conceptio n o f femme-paysage ma y hav e bee n inspire d i n part b y th e "Cart e d u Tendre, " a n allegorica l ma p o n whic h th e

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joys and danger s o f love were represente d by such geographi c fea tures a s Petits Soins , Empressement, L e Lac d'Indifference , an d La Mer d'Inimitie . Thi s topologica l representatio n o f ero s wa s cre ated i n th e seventeent h centur y b y Madelein e d e Scuder y an d those who frequented he r salon , an d was introduced t o th e publi c in her nove l Clilie (1656) . I n la Recherche, whe n Odett e i s visiting the chatea u o f Pierrefond s wit h th e Verdurins—wh o hav e ban ished th e possessive , jealous Swann—Prous t compare s th e ma p o f Compiegne, nea r Pierrefonds , t o th e "Cart e d u Tendre " (I , 295), which Swan n supplement s wit h photograph s o f the castl e t o cre ate th e illusio n o f following Odette' s movements . The ide a o f possession o r imprisonmen t throug h cartogra phy i s a variation o n th e them e o f capturing th e beloved's essenc e through a framing devic e o r visua l image. 5 A notabl e exampl e o f this i s Swann' s ritualisti c us e o f th e photograp h o f Botticelli' s painting o f Zephora, which h e come s t o regar d as a photograph o f Odette (I , 223-25) . Whe n th e Narrato r i s infatuate d wit h th e duchesse d e Guermantes , h e plead s with Saint-Lou p t o giv e him a photograph o f th e duchesse , wh o i s th e latter' s aunt ; onc e obtained, h e studie s th e photograp h i n orde r t o gai n a perspective into th e characte r an d life o f the duchess e (II , 79-80). 6 Swann an d th e Narrato r bot h envisag e abandonin g an d then forgettin g thei r mistresse s a s a trai n tri p bac k throug h th e "countries" tha t eac h associate s wit h th e woma n h e loves : "[Swann] aurai t voul u apercevoir , comm e u n paysag e qu i allai t disparaitre, ce t amou r [Odette ] qu'i l venai t d e quitte r . . . " (I , 378). Th e smoot h glidin g o f th e trai n o n th e rail s a s i t move s away from th e "countr y o f Odette " make s th e brea k wit h he r seem painless , sinc e ther e i s n o abrup t momen t o f separation. 7 In Swann' s dream , th e dreame r play s a doubl e role : h e i s bot h the travele r departin g th e "countr y o f Odette " an d th e youn g man standin g o n th e platform , undecide d abou t whethe r o r not t o leav e th e woman-landscape . I t i s a s i f wisdo m an d foll y are equall y divide d betwee n th e tw o halve s o f Swann' s charac ter: th e Swan n o n th e trai n trie s t o convinc e th e Swan n o n

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the platfor m t o giv e u p Odett e b y takin g a voyag e awa y fro m the local e o f thei r love . The protagonis t an d hi s mento r bot h us e map s an d trai n schedules t o trac k dow n th e elusiv e an d presumabl y unfaithfu l Odette an d Albertin e durin g period s o f intens e jealousy : "[Swann] s e plongeait dan s l e plu s enivran t de s roman s d'amour , Tindicateur de s chemin s d e fer , qu i lui apprenai t le s moyens d e la rejoindre . . . ce matin meme! " (I , 293). I n th e cas e o f the Narra tor, i t i s his aesthetic desire s that he seek s to satisf y whe n h e think s of taking th e trai n t o Venice : "bie n qu e mo n exaltatio n eu t pou r motif u n desi r d e jouissances artistiques , le s guides l'entretenaien t encore plu s qu e le s livre s d'esthetiqu e et , plu s qu e le s guides , Pindicateur de s chemins d e fer" (I , 391). 8 After Albertine' s death , whe n th e Narrato r imagine s for getting th e fugitiv e girl , he , lik e Swann , envision s th e proces s o f growing indifferen t t o he r memor y a s a trai n tri p bac k throug h the "countr y o f Albertine," bu t h e add s tha t th e topograph y wil l not necessaril y b e i n th e sam e orde r o n th e "retur n trip." 9 Prous t uses this analogy to make th e point tha t sinc e the process o f mem ory i s subjectiv e an d fortuitous , th e image s o f memor y seldo m represent experience s i n chronologica l order : "ce s moment s d u passe n e son t pa s immobiles " (III , 558) . Prous t describe s a crue l illusion cause d b y memor y i n thi s retrograd e process . Sinc e th e Narrator i s makin g a sentimenta l journe y bac k throug h th e "country o f Albertine," a s he leave s an d forget s he r a space-tim e confusion occurs , makin g hi m thin k tha t h e i s goin g forwar d i n time an d int o th e "geograph y o f Albertine," towar d rathe r tha n away fro m th e objec t o f hi s passion : "o n a u n instan t l'illusio n qu'on repart , mai s dan s la directio n d u lie u d'o u To n vient , comme To n avai t fai t l a premier e fois . . . . tell e es t l a cruaut e d u souvenir" (III , 558). Not onl y ar e al l ou r immediat e perception s fugitiv e an d fragmented, bu t s o perforce i s our memor y o f them. Th e percep tions o f memory ar e no t lik e th e individua l frames o f a film hel d together i n th e orde r o f exposure; ou r mind alway s cuts, edits, an d

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splices together scene s from ou r pas t in a free-associative wa y ove r which w e ofte n hav e no control .

Travel and Desire It was his olde r schoolmat e Bloc h wh o firs t gav e the Narrato r th e idea tha t h e migh t easil y possess th e girl s he desire s (I , 711) . Bu t the physica l possessio n tha t Bloc h i s talking abou t i s not th e kin d sought b y th e youthfu l Narrator , wh o say s tha t a s soo n a s h e knew th e girl s in motion coul d be possesse d physically, he becam e curious abou t thei r souls : "Pou r le s belles fille s qu i passaient , d u jour o u j'avais su que leur s joues pouvaien t etr e embrassees , j'etais devenu curieu x d e leu r ame " (I , 712) . H e identifie s eac h desire d girl's "soul" with a particular essenc e o f a city o r landscape tha t h e yearns t o explore . H e imagine s sexua l contentmen t a s a voyage, but, lik e Baudelaire's voyager , th e protagonis t neve r finds wha t h e seeks: "I I ne peu t pa s y e n avoi r [d e calme ] dan s l'amour, puisqu e ce qu'o n a obten u n'es t jamai s qu'u n nouvea u poin t d e depar t pour desire r davantage " (I , 581). 10 The firs t identificatio n betwee n ero s an d trave l occur s early in Proust' s tex t whe n th e youn g Narrato r masturbate s whil e gazing a t th e towe r o f Roussainville , a vie w tha t embrace s th e geographic an d architectura l element s h e associate s wit h desire : the landscap e from whic h sprin g th e phalli c towe r an d th e passantes of Meseglise . H e i s both stimulate d an d afraid , comparin g his activit y t o a dangerou s voyage : "ave c le s hesitations heroique s du voyageu r qu i entrepren d un e exploratio n o u d u desesper e qu i se suicide, defaillant , je m e frayais en moi-meme un e rout e incon nue e t qu e je croyai s mortelle" (I , 158) . Later he expend s his frustrated sexua l energ y b y beatin g th e tree s a t Roussainvill e wit h a stick (I , 558) , accompanie d b y repeate d outburst s suc h a s "Zut , zut, zut, " whic h als o expres s hi s exasperatio n a t no t bein g abl e t o find th e word s t o describ e th e impressio n mad e o n hi m b y th e countryside aroun d Combra y (I , 555). In his old age, the Narrato r learns from Gilbert e hersel f tha t whil e h e wa s caressin g hi s peni s and gazin g at the towe r o f Roussainville, she—th e gir l he though t

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unattainable—was i n th e towe r engagin g i n act s o f debaucher y with Theodore , th e grocer y boy , whil e wishin g sh e wer e makin g love with th e Narrator . Years later , whe n th e jealou s her o make s Albertin e a "prisoner," h e come s t o resen t he r presenc e sinc e i t deprive s hi m of th e opportunit y t o pursu e an y o f th e working-clas s girl s whom h e associate s wit h hi s long-postpone d an d no w aban doned dream s o f visitin g Venic e an d othe r Italia n cities : "L a vi e de ce s jolie s filles . . . m e paraissai t . . . quelqu e chos e . . . d'aussi desirabl e qu e le s ville s le s plu s merveilleuse s qu e prome t le voyage " (III , 171) . How , h e ask s himself , ca n h e continu e t o believe i n th e geographi c realit y o f Ital y an d th e desire d girl s without goin g there ? H e the n resolve s t o leav e Albertin e i n order t o investigat e th e sourc e an d natur e o f th e forc e tha t endows unknow n girl s an d citie s wit h suc h mystery : "ce s simili tudes meme s d u desi r e t d u voyag e firen t qu e j e m e promi s d e serrer u n jour d'u n pe u plu s pre s l a nature d e cett e forc e . . . qu i portait s i haut le s cites , le s femmes , tan t qu e je n e le s connaissai s pas . . . " (Ill , 172) . These elevate d thought s ar e base d o n fals e expectations . What h e seek s i n hi s dream s o f th e desire d citie s an d th e trip s t o Balbec an d Venic e ar e "de s verite s appartenan t a un mond e plu s reel qu e celu i o u je vivais . . . " (I , 441). I n possessin g th e girls , h e seeks intimat e knowledg e o f thei r entir e being s an d pas t history . Such flight s o f fancy ar e doome d becaus e lif e seldo m matche s th e expectations o f our imaginatio n an d desires : "o n n e trouv e jamais aussi hauts qu'o n avai t esper e un e cathedrale , un e vagu e dan s l a tempete, l e bond d'u n danseu r . . ." (I , 528). These vertical aspira tions wil l no t b e realize d unti l h e sink s int o despai r an d discover s the tru e natur e o f his vocation a s an artist .

Albertine and the Sea The appearanc e o f Albertin e an d he r friend s o n th e beac h i s reminiscent o f th e birt h o f Venus. Ero s i n th e for m o f Albertin e first appear s t o th e Narrato r i n profil e agains t a seascape . Befor e

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the girl s develo p distinc t characteristic s an d individua l facia l fea tures, th e Narrato r desire s the m i n th e conglomerate . Albertin e is th e sourc e o f man y Proustia n metaphors , bu t b y fa r th e mos t constant representatio n o f he r i s a s a n embodimen t o f th e sea . The primar y memor y th e Narrato r ha s o f Albertin e i s he r firs t appearance o n th e beac h a t Balbec , pushin g a bicycl e whil e sur rounded b y othe r member s o f th e littl e band . I t i s thi s visio n o f her tha t th e Narrato r alway s pursues . Th e gestur e sh e make s th e first tim e h e see s he r o n th e beac h create s a visua l memor y capable o f evokin g th e marin e settin g wheneve r sh e repeat s th e motion i n a differen t locale . Th e initia l imprin t o n hi s min d o f Albertine o n th e beac h remain s s o stron g tha t i t resurface s o r echoes throughou t th e late r metamorphose s o f Albertine , eve n during he r captivit y i n th e Narrator' s Pari s apartment . Andr e Ferre ha s observe d tha t i t i s th e Narrator' s desir e tha t fixes a gir l in a particula r locale : "un e femm e aime e es t lie e a un e regio n moins parc e qu'ell e e n es t originair e qu e parc e qu'ell e y a excite , de fa$o n peut-etr e fortuite , la curiosit e d u narrateur . . . . " n Thus, n o matte r wha t Albertine' s lif e ma y b e lik e late r on , sh e remains th e gir l o f Balbec , th e beach , an d th e sea. 12 Thi s i s th e image h e preserve s i n hi s min d year s afte r he r death : C'est ainsi , faisan t halte , le s yeu x brillant s sou s so n 'polo', qu e je l a revois encor e maintenant , silhouette e sur l'ecran qu e lu i fait , a u fond , l a mer, e t separe e d e moi par un espace transparent e t azure, le temps ecoule depuis lors , premier e image , tout e minc e dan s mo n souvenir, desiree , poursuivie, puis oubliee , puis retrouvee. . .. (I , 829) Throughout mos t o f th e nove l th e Narrato r believe s tha t Albertine i s an idealized embodimen t o f the essenc e o f Balbec an d the se a tha t h e canno t possess ; yet ther e i s a passag e i n th e con cluding page s o f Sodome et Gomorrhe that indicate s th e sor t o f happy lovemakin g on e woul d expec t o f a young coupl e a t a sea side resort . Albertine , marinelik e an d athletic , i s her e presente d

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with he r essentia l qualitie s o f spee d an d lubricity . Durin g thei r lovemaking i n th e dune s unde r th e stars , even th e se a suspends it s mobility: nous nous etendion s e n contreba s des dunes; ce meme corps dan s l a soupless e duque l vivai t tout e l a grac e feminine, marine et sportive, des jeunes filles que j'avais vues passer la premiere foi s devant l'horizon d u flot, je le tenais serre contr e le mien, sou s une mem e couver ture, tou t a u bord d e la me r immobile divise e par u n rayon tremblant. . . . (II, 1020) But ther e i s n o usefu l information , n o consequentia l revelatio n to b e foun d i n suc h moments . Prous t i s no t a write r wh o praises th e ordinar y pleasure s o f lovemaking . I n keepin g wit h the cosmi c natur e o f hi s quest , th e Proustia n narrato r i s eve r wanting, eve r resdess . H e mus t suffe r an d b e purge d b y th e fir e of obsessiv e sexua l jealous y befor e h e ca n attai n th e final self illumination. The similaritie s betwee n trave l an d desir e wil l culminat e in th e Albertine-Fortuny-Venic e passages , wher e Prous t com bines th e theme s o f eroticism , painting , an d geograph y whe n the Narrato r dresse s Albertin e i n Fortun y gowns . Marian o For tuny y Madraz o (1871-1949 ) revive d th e desig n motif s o n fab rics wor n b y figure s depicte d i n th e Venetia n painting s o f Carpaccio an d Titian . Th e Narrator—on e o f whos e great , unfulfilled dream s i s t o trave l t o Venice—find s i n Albertine , clothed i n a Fortun y gown , th e livin g embodimen t o f th e Ital ian cit y an d th e painting s o f thes e ol d masters : "L a rob e d e Fortuny qu e portai t c e soir-l a Albertin e m e semblai t comm e 1'ombre tentatric e d e cett e invisibl e Venise " (III , 394) . I n spit e of thes e rich , aestheti c trappings , h e reject s th e temptatio n t o consider Albertin e a wor k o f art , a s Swan n di d fo r Odett e dur ing he r Botticell i phase . But whe n th e Narrato r embrace s he r i n a Fortun y dress , he hold s Albertine-Venic e i n hi s arms , "serran t contr e mo n

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coeur Pazu r miroitan t e t dor e d u Gran d Cana l e t le s oiseau x accouples, symbole s d e mor t e t d e resurrection " (III , 399). 13 The lovebird s an d th e death-resurrectio n them e ech o th e Agostinelli-Albertine episode , wher e th e Narrato r finall y travel s to Venic e afte r Albertine' s deat h an d th e initia l stage s o f bereave ment. Fo r thi s section , Prous t borrow s element s o f hi s ow n experience o f grie f afte r th e accidenta l deat h o f Agostinelli . Shortly afte r hi s arriva l i n Venice , th e Narrato r receive s a tele gram tha t h e a t first think s i s from Albertine . Thi s even t mark s the thir d an d fina l stag e o f th e hero' s indifferenc e t o Albertine' s death (III , 641) . Afte r readin g th e wir e an d feelin g n o jo y a t he r return from th e dead , h e realize s tha t Albertin e ha s die d withi n him an d h e ha s recovere d from hi s grie f an d hi s love . Th e fac t that h e i s incapabl e o f mournin g fo r a n extende d perio d th e deaths o f his grandmothe r an d Albertine , tha t h e canno t b e faith ful t o thei r memory , i s in itsel f a source o f bitter disappointment . Remembering tha t whe n Albertin e disappeared , sh e carrie d awa y with he r a "Venetian " dress , tha t is , on e designe d b y Fortuny , th e Narrator quote s th e phras e from Agostinelli' s lette r tha t Prous t received th e da y o f th e aviator' s death , "c e trist e jour . . . 'deu x fois crepusculair e puisqu e la nui t tombai t e t qu e nou s allion s nous quitter' " (III , 647). 14 Th e letter , quote d earlie r i n th e pas sage whe n Albertin e wrot e t o th e Narrato r afte r fleeing hi s apartment (III , 468 , 506) , i s reprised her e becaus e thi s i s the final adieu t o Albertin e a s th e objec t o f hi s passion . Ultimately , th e vision o f Albertin e a s a n embodimen t o f th e se a i s al l tha t remains an d th e circl e i s closed . He r predictio n tha t th e se a would b e he r tom b i s tru e i n th e sens e tha t i n th e Narrator' s memory sh e i s reabsorbe d b y th e marin e landscap e from whic h she spran g (III , 848). 15

The Geometry of Love In la Recherche Prous t give s u s a physic s an d a geometr y o f love. The mobilit y o f space-tim e an d it s arousa l o f sexua l desir e i s a constant o f Proustian eroticism . Durin g thei r first encounter , th e

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young cyclis t look s a t th e Narrato r wit h eye s tha t ar e thos e o f a creature from anothe r universe . Thus, from th e beginning th e dis tance tha t separate s him an d Albertine i s cosmic: "D u sei n d e que l univers m e distinguait-elle ? . . . Je savai s que je n e possederai s pa s cette jeune cycliste , s i je n e possedai s pa s c e qu'i l y avai t dan s se s yeux. 16 E t c'etai t pa r consequenc e tout e s a vie qu i m'inspirai t d u desir . . ." (I , 794). Although Prous t usuall y present s a woma n a s a landscap e the Narrato r yearns t o possess , occasionally th e exploratio n o f th e terrain itsel f is presented a s an eroti c experience . Here , a s the Nar rator approache s a town i n a n automobile , th e cityscap e become s the mobil e prey : ces cercles , d e plu s e n plu s rapproches , qu e decri t 1'automobile autou r d'une vill e fascinee qu i fuyait dan s tous les sens pour echapper, e t sur laquelle finalement il fonce tou t droit, a pic, au fond d e la vallee ou ell e reste gisante a terre [l a voiture nou s donne Timpression] d e decouvrir [c e point unique] , d e l e determine r nous meme . . . d e nou s aide r a senti r d'un e mai n plu s amoureusement exploratric e . . . l a veritable geometrie, la belle "mesure de la terre" (II, 1006). 17 Proust's eroti c respons e t o trave l i s expresse d i n a letter t o Georges d e Lauris concernin g a train trip from Pari s to Evian-les Bains. Speakin g o f sleeping citie s observe d from th e trai n at dawn , Proust say s tha t h e ha d a n insan e urg e t o rap e them : "A u mati n un desi r fo u d e viole r de s petites ville s endormie s (lise z bien vill e et no n de s petite s fille s endormies!) . . ." 18 Th e urg e t o rap e "sleeping" citie s remind s u s o f th e Narrator' s possessio n o f th e sleeping Albertine , a possessio n tha t i s geographic , marine , an d floral (III , 67-75) . In passage s tha t us e suc h analogies , Prous t present s th e possession o f wome n i n term s o f a mathematica l o r geometri c chart, a s thoug h desir e an d possessio n wer e a rational , quantifi able process . Th e examinatio n o f th e duchess e d e Guermantes' s photograph i s compare d t o a geometri c stud y i n whic h th e

WOMEN AS LANDSCAPES 3

3

Narrator see s detail s impossibl e t o observ e durin g he r normall y rapid trajectories : "Ce s ligne s [d e so n visage ] qu'i l m e semblai t presque defend u d e regarder , j e pourrai s le s etudie r l a comm e dans u n trait e d e l a seul e geometri e qu i eu t d e l a valeu r pou r moi" (II , 80) . Prous t employ s suc h analogie s t o dra w a shar p contrast betwee n th e Narrator' s naiv e expectation s an d reality , between huma n capacit y an d cosmi c desire , whic h proffer s th e false hop e o f bein g assuage d throug h th e possessio n o f a corpo real bod y The Narrato r believe s tha t h e ca n solv e th e proble m o f desire an d visua l perception b y possessin g a highly covete d objec t of beauty, afemme-paysage, and throug h thi s ac t o f comprehensio n thereby recreat e th e aestheti c equivalen t o f th e mysterie s o f suc h beauty B y usin g imager y evokin g space-time , speed , logarithms , and geometry , Prous t create s a mobile friez e tha t allow s th e girl s to maintai n thei r motio n whil e a t th e sam e tim e slowin g the m down enoug h fo r th e her o t o observ e the m an d perhap s mak e them accessibl e i f he ca n discove r a way t o join them . Th e con cept o f th e Narrato r a s the excluded , weak , nervous , untalented , inept traveler—ofte n depicte d by Proust a s the "peti t personnage " in th e corne r o f a landscap e paintin g o r photograp h o f a majo r architectural monument—i s on e o f Proust's most successfu l narra tive ruses, allowing th e reader t o deligh t i n th e Narrator' s assump tion o f vast, creativ e power s a t the conclusio n o f the novel, wher e the protagonis t wil l triump h ove r tim e i n anticipatio n o f finally being abl e t o writ e hi s boo k i f h e ca n hol d deat h a t ba y lon g enough. A prime sourc e o f the novel' s narrative driv e come s fro m the Narrator' s fluctuations between , o n th e on e hand, anxiet y an d jealous self-tortur e ove r Albertine' s presume d infidelitie s and , o n the other , thos e period s o f cal m whe n h e believe s h e ha s "cap tured" her . In th e Narrator' s case , mer e sexua l desir e i s attenuate d o r held i n chec k b y th e muc h greate r desir e t o penetrat e a life . H e is drive n b y hi s ow n naivet e an d b y th e longin g tha t Baudelair e identified a s the tast e fo r th e infinite . Sexua l appetit e i s provoke d

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by th e desir e t o captur e an d posses s thos e wh o ar e beautiful , other, an d mysterious . Th e naiv e Narrato r envisage s th e belove d as terrai n t o b e conquere d b y th e metaphorica l plantin g o f a flagpole o r th e actua l insertio n o f a penis. Bu t i t i s th e natur e o f desire t o remai n unabated , an d onl y a foo l woul d thin k o f suc h conquests a s definitive . Tim e an d tim e agai n Prous t demon strates fo r u s tha t i t i s th e elusiv e individua l wh o i s mos t desir able—indeed, wh o i s alone desirable. H e remind s u s tha t w e ar e always mor e intrigue d b y a fish i n wate r tha n b y on e tha t ha s been caugh t an d lai d o n th e table , underscorin g agai n th e importance o f witnessin g th e creature—gir l o r fish—in it s nativ e surroundings, wher e i t i s endowe d wit h movement , freedom , and potentiality . Th e qualitie s tha t ar e importan t t o th e Narra tor a s h e seek s t o solv e th e myster y o f hi s desir e fo r th e elusiv e prey—kinesis an d change—ar e thos e o f lif e itself : "I I fau t qu'entre nou s e t l e poisso n . . . s'interpos e . . . l e remou s a l a surface duque l viennen t affleure r . . . l e pol i d'un e chair , l'inde cision d'un e forme , dan s l a fluidite d'u n transparen t e t mobil e azur" (I , 796) . Given th e absolut e natur e o f Proustian desire , disappoint ment i s inevitable. W e ar e confronte d wit h creature s who ar e cos mic, whil e w e ar e handicappe d b y deficiencie s i n ou r apparatu s for possessin g them , a s is demonstrate d i n th e passag e o n kissin g Albertine (III , 365) . Th e Narrato r realize s tha t Albertin e i s lik e any desire d being, lik e the se a itself—a creatur e o f infinite variety . The vastnes s and ever-changin g natur e o f the se a is recognized b y the Narrato r jus t befor e h e spot s Albertin e strollin g dow n th e beach: "j e n e vi s jamais deu x foi s l a meme [mer] " (I , 705). The n Albertine appear s an d become s th e incarnatio n o f th e sea' s ever changing nature . Late r h e recognize s ho w unrealisti c hi s expecta tions hav e bee n wit h regar d t o th e fugitiv e being , seein g th e impossible, cosmi c nature o f his desire : pour Albertin e . . . je sentai s qu e je n'etai s rien . E t je comprenais l'impossibilite o u s e heurte 1'amour. Nous nous imaginons qu'il a pour obje t un etre qui peut etr e

WOMEN AS LANDSCAPES 3

5

couche devan t nous , enferm e dan s un corps . Helas! II est 1'extension de cet etre a tons les points de Vespace et du temps qu e ce t etr e a occupes e t occupera . S i nous n e possedons pas son contact avec tel lieu, avec telle heure, nous ne le possedons pas. Or nous ne pouvons touche r tous ces points. (Ill, 100 ; emphasis added) Depending o n one' s poin t o f view , th e lover' s predica ment i s tragi c o r risibl e becaus e h e project s ont o a mer e crea ture o f flesh an d bloo d desir e tha t i s cosmic . Th e perso n h e desires i s not, a s he thought , clea r an d immobil e befor e hi m (II , 67) but , o n th e contrary , fugitive , alway s fleeing, insaisissable, moving awa y fro m hi m a t a rat e tha t increase s i n direc t propor tion t o hi s desire . Th e conceptio n o f woma n a s th e geometri c embodiment o f space-tim e i s expresse d i n a maxim : "L'amour , c'est l'espac e e t l e temp s rendu s sensible s a u coeur " (III , 385) . The Narrator' s suspicio n tha t eac h perso n i s a planet , par t o f a separate universe , i s confirme d b y hi s experienc e i n love . Sexua l possession i s a complet e disappointment , "l a possessio n phy sique—ou d'ailleur s To n n e possed e rien, " a s in Swann' s posses sion o f Odett e (I , 234) . Thi s discovery , whic h Prous t spend s many page s demonstrating , wa s forecas t earl y i n th e novel : "j'etais pou r longtemp s encor e a l'ag e o u To n n' a pa s encor e abstrait c e plaisi r d e l a possessio n de s femme s differente s ave c lesquelles o n l' a goute , o u To n n e l' a pa s redui t a un e notio n generale qu i le s fai t considere r de s lor s comm e le s instrument s interchangeables d'u n plaisi r toujour s identique " (I , 157) . A s fo r Proust's hero , h e i s no t a mere seducer , as , apparently, i s th e dis appointed Swann ; th e latter' s yearning s an d curiosit y ar e sincere , but h e i s condemne d t o remai n a creatur e o f th e surface . Th e Narrator seek s nothin g mor e no r les s tha n absolute , tota l posses sion o f th e woma n desired : nous ne regardons pas les yeux d'une fill e qu e nous n e connaissons pa s comm e nou s ferion s d'un e petit e plaque d'opal e o u d'agate . Nou s savon s qu e l e peti t rayon qu i les irise . . . [est ] tout c e qu e nous pouvon s

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voir d'un e pensee , d'un e volonte , d'un e memoir e o u resident l a maiso n familial e qu e nou s n e connaisson s pas. . . ." (Ill, 171 ) Here w e se e again the moti f o f a ray of light comin g fro m an unknow n sourc e i n th e universe . Th e protagonis t mistakenl y incorporates i n Albertin e hi s cosmi c desir e fo r space-time ; suc h desire become s monstrou s a s h e seek s t o attai n th e essenc e o f a place an d recapture th e pas t throug h possessio n o f the girl . This i s impossible, o f course , sinc e n o gir l o f flesh an d bloo d ca n wor k such wonders , eve n i n th e mos t privilege d moments . Thi s i s a variation o n th e Swann-Odette-Botticell i theme , bu t Swann , handicapped i n hi s abilit y t o concentrat e an d analyz e a situation , actually believes tha t he ca n gai n a n intimat e knowledg e o f Botticelli's ar t b y makin g lov e t o Odette . Althoug h th e Narrato r can not kno w thi s yet , hi s frustrate d sexua l expectation s advanc e hi s quest b y movin g hi m farthe r alon g th e pat h tha t lead s t o ar t an d the assumptio n o f his vocation . At th e poin t i n th e nove l wher e h e i s afrai d t o le t Albertine g o alon e t o th e Bo n March e o r Trois-Quartier s department stores , h e realize s th e impossibilit y o f hi s desire . Comparing Albertin e t o th e vastnes s o f th e sea , ove r whic h h e has n o control , h e see s tha t hi s desir e fo r tota l knowledg e an d power ove r he r thought s an d action s i s insan e an d recall s Xerxes' ridiculou s attemp t t o punis h th e se a fo r havin g swal lowed u p hi s ships : un etr e [comm e Albertine] , dissSmini dans Vespace et dans le temps, n'es t plus pour nous une femme, mai s une suite d'evenement s su r lesquels nou s n e pouvons fair e

la lumiere, une suite de probUmes insolubles, un e me r qu e

nous essayon s ridiculement, comm e Xerxes , d e battr e pour l a punir d e c e qu'ell e a englouti. Un e foi s cett e periode commencee , o n es t forcemen t vaincu . (Ill , 104; emphasis added)

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7

The Narrato r agai n equate s eroti c possessio n an d mathematic s b y seeking to make love rational, quantifiable , an d hence understand able; suc h a n ambitio n i s alway s frustrated , an d th e myster y o f desire an d possession remain s unsolvable . Proustian character s ar e no t conceive d absolutel y o r ide ally; th e lates t versio n i s alway s a "correction " o f a n earlie r impression. Accordin g t o Proust' s theor y o f the multipl e sel f per ceiving th e multipl e other , ther e ca n b e n o en d t o th e series ; indeed, on e perso n ca n onl y se e th e par t o f another' s trajector y through spac e tha t happen s t o pas s before him , wit h th e desire d other remainin g totall y unknowabl e an d unpossessable , sinc e w e can neve r ge t beyon d ourselves . "L'homm e es t Tetr e qu i n e peu t sortir d e soi , qu i n e connai t le s autre s qu'e n soi , et , e n disan t l e contraire, ment " (III , 450) . Th e lonelines s o f th e Proustia n love r is limitless an d withou t end . Thi s presentatio n o f his character s a s multiple an d unknowabl e i s on e o f th e mos t forward-lookin g aspects o f Proust's novel .

CHAPTER 3

Girls in Motion Chaque itre est ditruit quand nous cessons de le voir; puis son apparition suivante est une criation nouvelle. . . . (I , 917 ) Proust wa s as fascinated b y th e influenc e o f speed o n th e wa y w e perceive figures i n motion a s was the photographer Jacques-Henr i Lartigue (1894-1986) . Bot h move d easil y amon g th e well-to-d o upper bourgeoisi e an d aristocracy , bein g roughly contemporar y a s far a s thei r earl y creativ e year s ar e concerned . Lartigue' s fathe r gave him hi s first camer a a t th e ag e o f eight, an d th e youth bega n assembling hi s extraordinar y photographi c recor d o f th e ne w ag e in transportatio n an d sport s i n 1902—wel l befor e Prous t bega n writing la Recherche in 190 7 o r 1908. 1 The enthusias m o f the Lartigue s fo r th e ne w machine s o f speed wa s boundless . Th e fathe r owne d a successio n o f early model automobile s an d th e youn g Lartigu e kep t u p wit h th e rapidly evolvin g technolog y b y takin g man y picture s o f th e first days o f automobile s an d airplane s i n France . Amon g hi s favorit e subjects wer e automobil e races , boats , trains , glide r launchings , the first propeller-drive n airplanes , th e hors e race s at Auteuil, an d the first publi c bathin g foray s a t Biarrit z an d Etretat. 2 H e als o photographed th e mor e traditiona l parad e o f beautiful an d fash ionable women alon g th e avenu e d u Boi s (no w th e avenu e Foch ) and especiall y i n th e prim e Proustia n location , th e alle e de s Aca cias i n th e Boi s d e Boulogne . Her e th e precociou s photographe r

39

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set u p hi s camer a da y afte r da y an d waite d fo r th e "professiona l beauties" t o pas s by, just a s th e Narrato r doe s fo r Mm e Swann . There ar e a numbe r o f strikin g similaritie s betwee n thes e pho tographs an d Proust' s description s o f girl s i n motion ; bot h th e photographer an d th e write r caugh t scene s tha t ar e notabl e fo r their dynamism , freshness, an d spontaneit y Lartigu e ha s lef t u s a record o f the period fashion i n sportin g attire and o f the desig n o f ace cars and airplanes , a s well as assorted object s o f luxury, no t t o mention beautifu l wome n photographe d i n stardin g position s o r angles. (Whil e o n thei r honeymoon , h e photographe d hi s firs t wife, Bibi , sittin g on th e toilet! ) The religio n o f spee d note d b y Octav e Mirbeau , Guil laume Apollinaire, and other s o f the period—especiall y th e Futur ists—can b e see n i n man y o f Lartigue's photograph s o f speedin g machines an d huma n figures flying throug h space . Amon g Lar tigue's well-know n photograph s o f the earl y years ar e th e follow ing Proustia n instantanis: young ladies , boys , an d me n leapin g o n the beach, 3 divin g int o swimmin g pools , o r ridin g bicycles ; speeding motorcar s arreste d i n motion ; airplane s soarin g an d sometimes crashing ; an d tenni s players , golfers , an d cyclists . Lar tigue's photograph s hav e a n ai r o f innocent , youthfu l exuberanc e and d o no t contai n th e stron g an d troublin g eroti c tone s wit h which Prous t endow s his figures i n motion . Lartigue's pictures captured the antics and insouciance of the belle epoqu e a s i t trul y wa s fo r thos e o f th e middl e an d uppe r classes, a splendid period o f energy and progress that lasted until th e outbreak o f World War I. In his photographs o f the period, ther e is no hint of trouble or impending danger; only young, dynamic, radiant people ready to conquer the domains of land and air. One o f his most famou s photograph s show s a fashionable woma n walkin g he r dogs i n th e Boi s d e Boulogne . O n th e righ t sid e o f the avenue , a horse-drawn carriag e is about to disappear from the frame, while o n the left advances one of the first motorcars. (See p. 41.) Lartigue and Proust ar e both sensitiv e t o suc h moments o f transition, inten t o n capturing them in their respective medias.

Jacques-Henri Lartigue, Avenue du Bois de Boulogne, Paris, January 15, 1911 (© Association des Amis de Jacques-Henri Lartigue).

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The youn g Lartigue wen t t o th e Bois not onl y because h e was eage r t o tr y ou t hi s ne w photographi c equipmen t bu t i n order t o preserv e hi s memorie s o f th e beautie s wh o dail y walke d along th e alle e de s Acacias , Lartigu e tell s u s i n hi s memoir s tha t there were thre e parallel paths: Pietons, cavaliers , automobile s (cin q o u six) , beau x equipages melange s au x fiacres descenden t auss i 1'avenue du Bois . . . pour s e retrouver tou s ensembl e aux Acacias e t commence r un e promenad e e n va-et vient qu i leur permettra d e se croiser, d e se voir, d e se saluer, d e s e re-croiser, s e re-voir, s e re-saluer . . . les uns restan t dan s leu r voitur e o u a cheval , le s autres , surtout s'i l y a un e jolie rob e a montrer , descendan t pour marche r dan s le "Sende r d e la Vertu". Car , au x Acacias, il y a trois allees : cell e de s voitures, cell e de s cavaliers, et le petit chemi n des pietons, sous les arbres, appele "Sentier de la Vertu".4 Lartigue, wh o neve r doubte d th e validit y o f hi s craft , made photograph s o f passantes that Proust' s narrato r mistakenl y believes mus t alway s remai n fleeting {fugitives). Althoug h Prous t seems t o rejec t photograph y a s being to o realistic , to o banal , th e documentary aspec t i s on e tha t h e approve d of , a s hi s characte r Charlus confirms : "L a photographi e acquier t u n pe u d e l a dig nite qu i lu i manque , quan d ell e cess e d'etr e un e reproductio n d u reel e t nou s montr e de s chose s qu i n'existen t plus " (I , 764) . Although th e Narrato r reject s photograph y a s an ar t form—per haps becaus e i t i s a convenien t wa y t o denigrat e realism—Prous t himself was fascinate d b y th e mediu m tha t transforme d th e con cept o f perceiving a n object . Th e novelis t kep t i n a box a collec tion o f photograph s o f writers , actresses , an d demimondaine s that h e ofte n contemplated . Lucie n Daude t recall s tha t h e wa s shown thes e picture s o n hi s firs t visi t t o Proust' s apartment. 5 Bu t the autho r o f la Recherche maintain s tha t a snapsho t canno t con tain al l th e ric h complexit y o f colo r an d lin e tha t on e ca n fin d in a painting, wher e a number o f moments ar e fuse d i n th e sam e

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3

light o f da y an d i n th e sam e vision , namely , tha t o f th e artis t who create d th e picture In th e novel , on e o f th e primar y function s o f th e photo graphic analogie s i s t o demonstrat e th e elusivenes s o f a desire d being; a mere snapsho t canno t captur e th e many facets o f a girl i n motion- No t onl y i s Albertin e a creatur e wh o love s speed , bu t because th e Narrato r desire s her, sh e becomes th e essenc e o f elu siveness. Th e inadequat e photograph s onl y serv e t o heighte n th e Narrator's frustratio n ove r hi s thwarte d attempt s t o seiz e thi s volatile girl whom h e yearns to possess : ce n'es t qu'apre s voi r [sic] reconn u . . . le s erreur s d'optique d u debut qu'on pourrait arriver a la connaissance exact e d'u n etr e si cette connaissanc e etai t possible. Mais elle ne Test pas; car tandis qu e se rectifie la vision qu e nou s avons de lui, lui-meme , qu i n'es t pas un objectif inerte, change pour so n compte, nous pensons le rattraper , i l se deplace, et , croyan t le voir enfi n plus clairement, c e n'est qu e les images ancienne s qu e nous e n avions prises que nous avons reussi a eclaircir, mais qui ne le representent plus. (I, 874) Proust late r generalize s thi s observatio n tha t a fixed imag e is insufficient t o represen t suc h creature s by applyin g i t t o al l individuals a s well a s to th e kaleidoscopi c change s occurrin g i n soci ety: "u n caracter e . . . ne chang e pa s moins qu'elle s [le s societes e t les passions] e t s i on veu t cliche r c e qu'i l a de relativement immu able, o n l e voi t presente r successivemen t de s aspect s different s (impliquant qu'i l n e sai t pa s garde r l'immobilite , mai s bouge ) a 1'objectif deconcerte " (III , 327) . Th e "disconcerte d lens " i s th e sedentary, static , centri c Narrato r wh o yearn s t o arres t an d fix permanently th e grea t whirling motions o f existence . His firs t experienc e i n tryin g t o "photograph " a gir l ha d been wit h Gilberte . A s he trie s t o seiz e thi s seasid e band o f crea tures o f flight an d fi x the m i n hi s memory , h e borrow s analogie s from th e plasti c arts : statues, friezes, frescoes, an d photographs. I n addition t o th e Impressionists , who als o sought t o captur e fleeting

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moments o f ligh t an d color , Prous t wa s influence d b y ancien t friezes and , a s we shal l see, by th e moder n developmen t o f chro nophotography, bot h o f which freez e motion . Bu t th e analogica l results o f hi s menta l camer a ar e alway s disappointin g becaus e "ainsi fige s ce s etre s n e livren t pa s d e secrets. " Hope , despair , anticipation, "tou t cel a rend notr e attentio n e n face d e Tetre aim e trop tremblant e pou r qu'ell e puiss e obteni r d e lu i une imag e bie n nette. . . . Le model e cher i . . . bouge; o n n'e n a jamais qu e de s photographies manquees " (I , 489-90). 6 The coupl e Narrator-Albertin e i s representativ e o f th e very natur e o f Proustia n art—perhap s o f al l art—wher e th e ephemeral, th e mobile , an d the fugitive (kinesis ) i s wedded t o th e sedentary, th e fixed, an d the passive (stasis) . We see such a relationship explicitl y describe d i n a passage o n Elstir' s paintings— a pas sage that may serve as a statement o f Proust's novel 7 i n miniature : Or [Elstir ] avait su immortellement arrete r l e mouve ment de s heure s a ce t instan t lumineu x o u l a dam e avait e u chau d e t avai t cess e de danser o u Tarbr e etai t cerne d'u n pourtou r d ' ombre, o u le s voiles semblaient glisser sur un vernis d'or . After stasis , there i s a return t o kinesis : Mais justement parc e qu e Tinstant pesait sur nous avec tant de force, cett e toile si fixee donnai t l'impression la plus fugitive, o n sentai t qu e la dame allai t bientot s'e n retourner, le s bateaux disparaitre , 1'ombre changer d e place, la nuit venir, qu e le plaisir finit, qu e la vie passe et que les instants, montris h lafois par tant de lumihes qui y voisinent ensemble, n e s e retrouven t pas . (II , 421 ; emphasis added) Stress is placed o n th e composit e natur e o f the instant s w e experience; the y ar e multiple , separate , fugitive , an d ephemera l segments. Elsti r i s the artis t who belong s t o th e Albertin e cycle — just a s Vinteuil i s associate d wit h th e Swann-Odett e story 8 an d Bergotte wit h th e Narrator' s infatuatio n fo r Gilberte—an d th e

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subjects tha t Elsti r propose s a s meriting depictio n b y contempo rary painter s ar e thos e connecte d wit h th e ne w fascinatio n fo r speed: yachts , motorcars , an d th e fashionabl e sportin g attir e tha t the boat s an d car s inspired . Durin g hi s first sta y a t Balbec , th e protagonist i s still in a heroic, classica l frame o f mind; a t Balbec h e expects t o find a primeval , rugged , storm y seacoast. 9 Unti l h e meets Elstir , th e youn g ma n ha s bee n unde r th e influenc e o f hi s grandmother an d Swann , bot h o f who m thin k o f paintin g i n terms o f the ol d masters. The awarenes s tha t beauty may be foun d in th e contemporar y attir e o f sportin g event s suc h a s motorin g and yachtin g i s a lesso n h e ha s ye t t o lear n from Albertin e an d Elstir. Thi s modern vision , linkin g Elstir's pictures t o thos e o f such painters a s Manet an d Degas , wil l b e on e o f th e mos t importan t consequences o f hi s first tri p t o Balbec , fo r Elsti r wil l radicall y alter his way of looking a t things—"un peintr e qu e j'allais rencon trer a Balbec e t qu i eu t un e influenc e s i profonde su r m a visio n des choses, Elstir" (I , 653). Prior t o meetin g Elstir , th e Narrato r ha d conceive d o f artistic beauty i n term s o f the ol d master s an d classica l landscapes. Once h e ha s see n Elstir' s watercolors , h e look s fo r beaut y i n th e ordinary object s o f dail y life: "j'essayai s d e trouve r l a beaute l a o u je n e m'etai s jamai s figure qu'ell e fut , dan s le s chose s le s plu s usuelles, dan s l a vi e profond e de s 'nature s mortes' " (I , 869) . Proust provide s a lis t o f ordinar y thing s i n whic h th e Narrato r now find s suc h beauty: "maintenant , tou t c e qu e j'avais dedaigne , ecarte d e m a vue , no n seulemen t le s effet s d e soleil , mai s mem e les regates , le s course s d e chevaux , je l'euss e recherch e ave c pas sion . . . " (I , 897) . Now , whe n th e vacatione r ride s alon g th e sea coast, h e n o longe r trie s t o bloc k ou t view s o f steamer s an d "tous ce s fastidieux perfectionnement s d e rindustrie " i n orde r t o see th e primeva l se a a s i t mus t hav e bee n befor e th e appearanc e of man ; instead , h e seek s th e blu e shadow s o f Elstir' s painting s (I, 902-3). 10 A gir l in motion i s often describe d by Proust i n a way tha t is similar t o Impressionis t an d Cubis t paintings , which presen t th e

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viewer wit h a figure see n i n a particular landscap e o r i n multipl e perspectives an d unusua l juxtapositions. 11 Th e theor y tha t a n object i s as multiple an d comple x a s are th e possibl e view s o f it is similar t o th e perceptio n tha t inspire d th e Impressionist s t o pain t in series , th e Cubist s t o juxtapos e objects , an d th e Futurist s t o create painting s an d sculpture s vibran t wit h motio n an d contain ing speeding persons and objects . Th e grea t frustration th e Narra tor experience s i n hi s attempt s t o arres t th e flight o f desire d women an d covete d object s arise s from th e multiplicit y o f point s of view, o f varying perspectives . Wit h respec t t o th e wome n h e wants t o posses s and kno w intimately , ther e i s a succession o f moi successifs pursuing toi successifs. Ce n'etait pas Albertine seule qui n'etait qu'un e succession de moments, c'etait aussi moi-meme. . . . Je n'etais pas un seu l homme, mai s le defile d'un e arme e com posite o u i l y avai t des passionnes, de s indifferents, de s jaloux—des jalou x don t pa s u n n'etai t jalou x d e l a meme femme. (Ill , 489) Never i s there a moment o f coincidence wit h th e desire d creatur e because th e Narrato r want s t o accomplis h th e impossible : t o arres t what i s mobile throug h hi s ow n perception . H e canno t d o thi s yet because he has not discovere d how t o conver t thes e impressions t o their artisti c equivalent . I n lif e thing s move an d evolve , an d thi s is the impressio n h e want s t o creat e i n art : arreste d motion ; tha t i t be th e sam e an d ye t changing ; tha t i t be frozen an d ye t endowe d with th e potentialit y o f movement . The Narrato r desire s onl y thos e girl s wh o ar e i n motio n or thos e who m h e see s whil e h e i s moving , whic h als o endow s them wit h fugacity . Prous t describe s thi s aspect o f desir e i n a lapidary phrase : "le s charme s d e l a passant e son t generalemen t e n relation direct e avec l a rapidit e d u passage " (I , 713) . Whe n a desired woman i s immobilized, th e spel l is broken a t onc e becaus e the reductio n i n spee d allow s th e Narrato r t o observ e a flaw in he r appearance , usuall y a facia l blemish. 12 Eve n befor e h e

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imprisons Albertine , sh e i s no exceptio n t o thi s rule : "immobil e aupres d e moi , ell e m e semblai t souven t un e bie n pauvr e ros e devant laquell e j'aurai s bie n voul u ferme r le s yeu x pou r n e pa s voir te l defau t de s petales. . ." (II , 352). There i s never a momen t in hi s experienc e wit h th e girl s whe n wha t h e learn s throug h observation o r possession matches his great expectations . He especiall y desire s those whom h e call s the passantes; th e name itself , designatin g girl s wh o pas s by , implie s spee d an d movement throug h space . I t i s this qualit y o f being th e sam e an d yet differen t tha t attract s hi m upo n noticin g th e rapidit y wit h which th e young girls 13 at Balbec move throug h space : "E t mem e le plaisir qu e me donnai t l a petite bande, noble comm e s i elle etai t composee d e vierge s helleniques , venai t d e c e qu'ell e avai t quelque chos e d e la fuite de s passantes su r la route" (I , 796). Thus, th e girl s wh o attrac t th e Narrato r ar e walkin g o r leaping o n th e beach o r speeding past him o n bicycles. The veloc ity o f desirabl e beings i s especiall y remarkabl e amon g ver y youn g girls. When h e spot s th e litd e ban d o f girls a t Balbec, h e i s struc k by thei r "beaut e fluide, collectiv e e t mobile " (I , 790 ) an d b y "l a beaute mobil e d e l a jeunesse" (I , 905) . Thi s mobilit y ha s a tripl e source: (1 ) th e rapi d movement s tha t ar e natural t o th e young ; (2 ) the accelerate d change s youth s underg o a s the y mature ; an d (3 ) his urgent desir e t o posses s them . Through biologica l regeneration , th e form s o f me n an d women tha t inspire d th e painting s an d sculpture s o f the pas t con tinue t o liv e amon g us. 1 4 Unfortunately , eac h o f th e girl s i n motion contain s withi n he r th e seed s o f ol d age : "Helas ! dan s l a fleur l a plu s fraiche o n peu t distingue r le s point s imperceptible s qui pou r 1'espri t avert i dessinen t dej a c e qu i sera , pa r la dessicca tion o u l a fructificatio n de s chair s aujourd'hu i e n fleur, la form e immuable e t dej a predestine e d e l a graine." Prous t goe s o n t o sa y that ofte n w e inheri t no t onl y ou r physica l characteristic s from our parent s bu t ou r politica l belief s a s well: "te l dreyfusisme , te l clericalisme, te l heroism e nationa l e t feodal . . . . peut-etr e . . . tenons-nous d e notr e famille , comm e le s papillonacee s l a form e

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de leur graine , aussi bien le s idees dont nou s vivons qu e la maladie dont nou s mourrons" (I , 891-92). The grea t pendan t t o th e scene s o f girls i n motio n occur s many years later a t th e famou s "Matine e d e la princesse d e Guer mantes," wher e th e Narrator , wh o ha s bee n absen t from societ y for a long time , returns onl y t o discove r tha t al l his former friends have been "greatl y slowe d down " b y tim e an d now ar e incredibl y old, a mass of wrinkles, white hair , an d vacillating limbs. H e the n discovers that th e univers e is in motion, carrie d awa y by tim e (III , 936). Ther e i s a precise referenc e t o thi s phenomeno n o f immo bility/decrepitude a s h e watche s th e youn g girl s o n th e beach . This passage ca n be take n a s Proust's carpe diem: "II vient s i vite, le moment o u To n n' a plu s rien a attendre, o u l e corp s es t fige dan s une immobilit e qu i n e prome t plu s d e surprises , o u To n per d toute esperanc e e n voyan t . . . des cheveu x qu i tomben t o u blan chissent, i l est si court, c e matin radieux, qu'o n e n vient a n'aime r que le s tre s jeunes filles . . . " (I , 905) . I n th e sam e passage , h e makes clea r again the kinshi p betwee n th e girl s and th e sea : 1'adolescence es t anterieure a la solidification complet e et de la vient qu'o n eprouv e aupres des jeunes filles c e rafraichissement qu e donne le spectacle des formes sans cesse e n trai n d e changer , d e jouer e n un e instabl e opposition qui fait penser a cette perpetuelle recreatio n des element s primordiau x d e l a natur e qu'o n con temple devant la mer. (I , 906) There i s a variatio n o n thi s them e wit h respec t t o Gilberte. Sh e may be sai d to hav e a "mobile" fac e i n tha t a t time s the Narrato r notice s trait s sh e inherite d from he r father , whil e a t others feature s belongin g t o he r mothe r ar e apparent . Proust' s concluding sentenc e describin g th e changin g natur e o f Gilberte' s face contain s verb s tha t indicat e a powerful liqui d forc e a t work : "on voyai t ce s deu x nature s d e M . e t d e Mm e Swan n onduler , refluer, empiete r tou r a tou r Tun e su r l'autre , dan s l e corp s d e cette Melusine" (I , 565).

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The mobilit y an d fluidity o f th e girl s i n motio n ar e ofte n compared t o th e progression o f musical phrases. At th e firs t sight ing o f th e littl e band , th e them e o f musi c i s linke d t o thei r ap pearance o n th e beach : "toute s le s gamme s d e couleur s . . . [Tordre] confu s comm e un e musique , u n flottement harmo nieux . . . l a translatio n continu e d'un e beaut e fluide, collectiv e et mobile . . ." (I , 791). 15 The confusio n betwee n th e hero' s long ings t o posses s bot h girl s an d musi c an d th e lesson s h e derive s from the m arise s from Proust' s elaboratio n o f musi c an d lov e a s sacred an d profane . Throughou t la Recherche, th e them e o f musi c functions o n tw o levels , linking S warm's pursuit o f Odette t o Vin teuil's composition s and , i n a more comple x way , linkin g Alber tine t o Mil e Vinteui l an d th e Narrator' s searc h fo r hi s vocation a s a writer . I n th e concludin g chapter , "Th e Cosmo s Builder, " w e will see how Prous t resolves the them e o f profane lov e an d music , especially his desir e to possess an unknow n gir l in motion . In Proust' s novel , ther e ar e alway s subtl e connection s among th e theme s o f desire d women , music , art , an d othe r objects o f beauty . Ther e i s a remarkabl e Proustia n metapho r where th e ric h detail s i n th e stitcher y o f Odette' s jacket—detail s not normall y visibl e t o observer s bu t whic h th e Narrato r see s because Odett e ask s hi m t o carr y th e garment—ar e likene d t o the infinitel y complex , inaudibl e part s o f a musical compositio n and th e normall y invisibl e statue s hig h o n th e tower s o f a Gothi c cathedral. 16 Thus , Odette' s tast e i n clothin g become s music , architecture, an d th e landscap e embracin g th e towers , sky , an d an entir e city . I n Proust' s univers e beautifu l things , ofte n com monplace 17 an d eve n unnoticeable , tak e o n vas t proportion s an d the "infinimen t petit " suddenl y become s th e "infinimen t grand. " The frequent identification s b y Swann and th e Narrator o f people a s work s o f ar t ma y giv e th e appearanc e o f a dilettantis h game, bu t i t i s also meant t o establis h th e endurin g lin k betwee n the ar t o f th e pas t an d th e livin g descendant s o f it s models . Fo r example, watching the girls strolling down the beach in their sport ing attire reminds th e Narrato r o f classical friezes an d painting s b y

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Giotto: "rharmoni e qu i regnai t entr e le s jeunes corp s qu e j'avais vus s e deploye r su r la plag e e n un e processio n sportiv e dign e d e l'antique e t d e Giotto " (I , 807) . In a later passage , where h e ride s in a n elevato r fo r th e first tim e a t th e Grand-Hotel , thi s ne w experience provoke s a metaphor involvin g women i n motion an d classical art. 18 Prous t i s writing abou t kineti c impression s tha t ha d not bee n possibl e previously, o r a t least not wit h th e intensit y an d frequency tha t wer e no w bein g felt. 19 Th e chambermaid s glimpsed o n differen t floors o f th e hote l a s the elevato r rise s ar e compared t o a classical frieze: "Le s couloir s de s etage s derobaien t une fuit e d e cameriste s e t d e courrieres , belle s su r la mer comm e la firise 20 des Panathenees. . ." (II , 774). The Narrato r find s th e member s o f th e littl e ban d s o extraordinary tha t h e canno t imagin e tha t someon e lik e himsel f could eve r becom e par t o f th e pictur e (i n thi s cas e a friez e o r fresco) b y joining the procession and being loved by such divinities: "cette supposition me paraissait enfermer e n elle une contradictio n aussi insolubl e qu e si , devan t quelqu e firis e attiqu e o u quelqu e firesque figurant u n cortege , j'avais era possible , moi spectateur, d e prendre place , aim e d'elles , entr e le s divine s processionnaires" (I , 795). I n thi s case , a s i n man y othe r instances , th e Narrato r see s himself in th e guis e o f "le petit personnage, " someon e wh o i s not worthy, who ca n only play a minor role. Throughout th e novel, h e is portrayed a s a failure, whic h increase s th e dramati c interes t an d makes possible the spectacula r reversal at the conclusion , whe n h e discovers th e secret s o f his vocation. Th e onl y exception s t o thi s treatment o f himself as unworthy occu r during the moments o f his social triumphs—triumphs tha t he later realizes are empty when h e comprehends the vain, sterile nature of society. Nowhere i s the fugitiv e natur e o f time an d al l our impres sions, memories, an d desire s better summe d u p tha n a t th e en d o f Du cSti de chez Swann, wher e th e Narrator—wh o doe s no t ye t understand ho w t o us e art t o arres t time' s fleeting nature—return s to th e locale s o f hi s youth , hopin g t o fin d Mm e Swan n prome nading along the alle e de s Acacias:

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La realit e qu e j'avai s connu e n'existai t plus . I I suffisait qu e Mm e Swan n n'arriva t pa s tout e pareill e au mem e moment , pou r qu e 1'Avenue fut autre . Le s lieux qu e nou s avon s connu s n'appartiennen t qu'a u monde d e Tespac e o u nou s le s situon s pou r plu s d e facilite. li s n'etaient qu'un e minc e tranch e a u milie u d'impressions contigue s qu i formaien t notr e vi e d'alors; l e souveni r d'un e certain e imag e n'es t qu e le regre t d'u n certai n instant ; e t le s maisons , le s routes, le s avenues , son t fugitives , helas ! comm e le s annees. (I , 427 ) Thus, th e impressionistic , subjectiv e natur e o f vision an d memory i s confirme d b y experience . Somethin g a s solid an d sta tionary a s a road o r a hous e i s constantl y changin g i n relatio n t o the perceiver ; a place cannot , i n spit e o f it s concreteness , retai n the scen e he yearn s t o recapture . Girl s and landscape s ar e al l fugi tive. Space , throug h desire , become s time , and—a t thi s poin t i n his experience—th e latte r i s maddeningly elusive . Wha t interest s Proust ar e th e changes , th e multiplicity , th e constan t evolutio n o f a perso n o r object . Thi s explain s hi s acceptanc e an d enlargemen t of th e aesthetic s o f th e Impressionists , wh y i n th e Proustia n uni verse ther e ca n never be a static, ultimat e vie w bu t alway s a series of new configuration s o f the cosmos .

Albertine It i s Albertine , abov e all , wh o represent s th e grou p tha t Prous t calls "le s etre s d e fuite " (creature s o f flight), being s wh o ar e fugi tive. Sh e alway s exhibits a n enthusias m for sport s and machines o f speed, includin g bicycles, automobiles , airplanes , an d yachts . Fas t by nature , Albertin e becomes , throug h th e Narrator' s obsessiv e jealousy, a truly volatile figure: Des yeux, par mensonge toujour s immobile s e t passifi, mais dynamiques , mesurable s pa r le s metre s o u kilo metres a franchir pour se trouver au rendez-vous voulu, implacablement voulu. . . . Entre vos mains memes, ces

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etres-la son t de s etre s d e fuite . Pou r comprendr e le s emotions qu'il s donnen t e t qu e d'autre s etre s mem e plus beaux, n e donnen t pas , il faut calcule r qu'il s son t non pa s immobiles, mai s e n mouvement , e t a j outer a leur personn e u n sign e correspondan t a c e qu'e n physique est le signe qui signifie vitesse. (Ill, 91-92 ) The sig n in physics that stand s for spee d is V, shorthan d fo r veloc ity, a V whos e shap e resembles tha t o f wings, a motif tha t i s ofte n used i n connectio n wit h Albertine . Th e importanc e tha t Prous t attaches t o th e eroti c theme s o f captur e an d flight ca n b e see n i n the title s h e gav e t o th e tw o volume s o f th e nove l wher e thes e notions dominate : La Prisonnihe and La Fugitive. 21 From th e ver y firs t mentio n o f Albertine , Prous t estab lishes th e fac t tha t sh e i s mobil e an d tha t spee d i s on e o f he r essential traits . H e doe s thi s throug h a n ingeniou s us e o f th e English wor d "fast. " I t i s Gilbert e wh o first speak s t o th e Nar rator o f Albertine , a frien d o f hers fro m school , lon g befor e he r appearance o n th e beac h a t Balbec : "l a fameus e * Albertine'. Ell e sera suremen t tre s 'fast' , mai s e n attendan t ell e a un e drol e d e touche" (I , 512) . W e d o no t kno w wha t sign s lea d Gilbert e t o make th e predictio n tha t Albertin e wil l b e "fast, " bu t i t i s evi dent tha t Prous t chos e th e Englis h wor d becaus e o f it s doubl e meaning: rapi d movemen t throug h spac e an d sexua l promiscu ity. Whe n th e Narrato r see s Albertine an d th e littl e ban d o f girl s for th e firs t time—unawar e tha t h e i s seein g "th e famou s Alber tine"—he wonder s abou t thei r sexua l more s becaus e o f thei r sporting attire , th e gol f clubs , an d th e bicycle , accoutrement s and equipmen t tha t indicat e agility , speed , and , fo r th e Narra tor, undefine d socia l categories . Becaus e o f Albertine' s appear ance—especially th e bicycl e an d gol f clubs—an d he r insolen t manner, h e make s th e followin g assumptio n abou t th e girls ' sex ual conduct : une fill e au x yeux brillants, rieurs . . . sous un "polo " noir, enfonc e su r s a tete , qu i poussai t un e bicyclett e avec u n dandinemen t d e hanche s s i degingande , e n

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employant des termes d'argot si voyous22 et cries si fort . . . je conclu s . . . que toutes ce s filles appartenaient a la population qu i frequente le s velodromes, e t devaient etre les tres jeunes maitresse s de coureurs cyclistes . . . . dans aucun e d e me s suppositions , n e figurait cell e qu'elles eussent pu etr e vertueuses.23 (I, 793) Albertine an d he r friend s appea r s o differen t i n thei r sporting attir e from anyon e h e ha s know n tha t h e describe s the m at on e poin t a s looking a s thoug h the y ha d com e from anothe r planet (I , 794). The Narrato r i s witnessing the rise o f the les s con servative element s o f th e middl e class , wh o ar e th e firs t t o dec k themselves ou t i n th e recommende d attir e fo r sport s activities : "leur accoutremen t tranchai t su r celu i de s autre s jeunes fille s d e Balbec, parmi lesquelle s quelques-unes . . . se livraient au x sports , mais sans adopter pou r cel a un e tenu e speciale " (I , 788). 24 Both epithet s he choose s for Albertin e mentio n th e sport ing aspec t o f her appearanc e an d hav e stron g eroti c connotations : "la bacchant e a bicyclette , l a mus e orgiaqu e d u golf " (I , 873) . When h e encounter s on e membe r o f th e littl e band , h e react s with a strong physical attraction an d a n awareness of danger mani fested b y thei r diabolica l motion: "c'etai t comm e s i j'avais vu pro jete e n fac e d e mo i dan s un e hallucinatio n mobil e e t diaboliqu e un pe u d u rev e ennem i e t pourtan t passionnemen t convok e . . . " (I, 832). Eugen Webe r point s ou t tha t b y th e 1890 s s o man y women ha d taken t o wearin g trousers because o f the popularit y o f biking tha t th e Ministe r o f th e Interio r issue d a circula r advisin g all prefectures tha t "th e wearin g o f masculin e clothe s b y wome n is onl y tolerate d fo r th e purpose s o f velocipedi c sport. " Webe r goes o n t o sa y tha t bikin g thu s provide d a sanctio n fo r femal e transvestism, givin g wome n cyclist s a n ambiguou s nature . Th e adoption o f men' s clothin g b y th e fai r se x wa s see n b y man y Frenchmen a s signalin g th e disappearanc e o f th e las t vestige s o f feminine modesty. 25 Thi s attitud e explain s th e Narrator' s reactio n when h e see s th e member s o f th e littl e ban d i n sportin g attire ,

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with Albertin e bearin g gol f club s an d pushin g a bicycle . W e should thu s realiz e tha t a t the moment th e her o firs t sight s Alber tine, sh e is—althoug h h e doe s no t mentio n thi s aspect—a n androgynous figure. 26 (Se e p. 55.) Albertine seem s almos t overburdene d wit h athleti c equip ment, a s thoug h Prous t want s t o mak e certai n tha t w e d o no t overlook thi s aspec t o f he r personalit y an d th e shar p contras t between th e sedentar y Narrato r an d th e athleti c girl . Prous t reminds u s constand y abou t he r lov e o f sports . A s we hav e seen , when th e Narrato r late r hold s Albertin e i n hi s arms , h e find s i n her bod y "tout e l a grace feminine , marin e e t sportive , de s jeunes filles qu e j'avais vues passe r l a premier e foi s devan t Phorizo n d u flot . . . " (II , 1020) . Th e gir l i s awar e tha t h e doe s no t shar e he r tastes an d call s hi m a lizar d fo r bein g s o sedentary : "Ah ! vou s aimez a fair e l e lezard ? . . . Je voi s qu e vou s n'ete s pa s comm e moi, j'adore tous les sports!" 27 (I , 877). Later, whe n th e Narrato r become s a recluse, he regrets n o longer bein g abl e to watch girl s going by: Pour evalue r la perte qu e m e faisait eprouve r l a reclusion ... i l eut fallu intercepter dans le long deroulement de la frise anime e quelqu e fillette portant so n linge o u son lait, la faire passer un moment, comm e la silhouette d'un deco r mobil e entr e le s portants, dan s le cadr e de ma porte, et la retenir sous mes yeux.(III ... , 138-39 ) Framing i s ofte n use d b y Swan n an d th e Narrato r a s a devic e that arrest s motio n an d permit s a temporar y bu t illusor y an d incomplete for m o f possession . Th e compariso n end s wit h analogies indicatin g th e spac e covere d b y a desire d figure i n motion, th e fugitiv e natur e o f th e girls , an d th e taggin g o f birds an d fish b y naturalist s i n orde r t o trac k th e animals ' migratory routes . A Proustian formula fo r th e phenomeno n o f the desirabil ity o f girl s i n motio n migh t b e expresse d a s follows : "Velocit e donne volupte. " Thi s i s hi s variatio n o n th e romanti c topo s o f

Jacques-Henri Lartigue , O n th e Road t o Paris a t Rouzat, Novembe r 2 , 191 9 ( © Association de s Amis de Jacques-Henri Lartigue) .

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"ennui" o r splee n an d th e desir e t o trave l i n orde r t o escap e th e present an d th e known . Wha t w e canno t hav e o r seiz e is always a greater priz e tha n somethin g w e alread y possess . O n on e occa sion, th e Narrator , lyin g i n bed , no w a sedentary hypochondria c like Aun t Leonie , smell s gasolin e from a n automobil e passin g i n the street ; th e associatio n o f thi s smell—no t a t al l offensiv e o r noxious t o th e reclinin g youn g man—an d th e spee d o f th e ca r arouse i n hi m th e desir e t o tak e risks , explor e new countries , an d seduce a n unknow n woman , "fair e l'amou r dan s de s lieu x nou veaux avec une femm e inconnue " (III , 412). We hav e alread y seen th e importanc e o f the bicycle i n th e erotic theme s associate d wit h Albertin e an d othe r passantes. Th e elusive, unobtainable , an d idea l femme-paysage presents hersel f t o his min d a s a creatur e capabl e o f grea t spee d an d altitude , a n air borne goddes s who soar s abov e ordinar y beings . I n a passage tha t recalls th e Narrator' s firs t sightin g o f a n airplan e a t Balbec , a gir l mounting a bicycle becomes a winged being: "Pendan t u n instan t la bicyclett e tangua , e t l e jeune corp s semblai t s'etr e accr u d'un e voile, d'une ail e immense; e t bientot nou s vimes s'eloigner a tout e vitesse la jeun e creatur e mi-humaine , mi-ailee , ang e o u peri , poursuivant so n voyage" (III , 172) . Bicycles were all the rag e during th e fin d e siecl e and bell e epoque periods , appearin g i n man y books , illustrations , posters , and photographs . Jacques-Henri Lartigu e describe d winge d bicy cles (aviettes) o f al l kinds tha t wer e commonl y see n a t th e tur n o f the centur y o n suc h bicycle-racin g track s a s the Buffal o i n Paris . Given hi s love o f speed an d hi s determinatio n t o becom e a pilot , Agostinelli mus t hav e frequented suc h establishments . On e wil l recall tha t whe n th e Narrato r meet s Albertin e an d th e litd e ban d of girl s o n th e beach , i t i s th e bicycle , thei r sportin g attire , an d vulgar languag e tha t mak e hi m assum e the y ar e th e mistresse s o f bicycle racers . Thoug h non e o f the "winged " cyclist s a t th e Buf falo eve r succeede d i n risin g abov e th e ground , th e inten t wa s t o gain enoug h spee d s o tha t th e bicycl e woul d becom e airborne . (See p . 57. ) I t i s wort h pointin g ou t tha t th e firs t me n wh o di d

Jacques-Henri Lartigue, Second race of the aviettes at the Velodrome in the Pare des Princes, Paris, November 24 , 1912 (© Association des Amis de Jacques-Henri Lartigue).

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succeed i n flying, th e brother s Orvill e an d Wilbu r Wright , wer e by professio n bicycl e mechanics . Her e i s Lartigue's descriptio n o f the aviettes: Dimanche, a Paris . Je sui s a Buffalo, o u s e trouv e l a piste d e cours e d e bicyclettes , pou r voi r le s course s d'aviettes. . . . Une aviett e es t une bicyclette ailee . Les coureurs esperen t voler , voler comm e de s oiseaux sans moteur, san s vent , san s etr e tire s pa r un e automo bile.Mem e si elles echouent toujours, elles sont bien ... amusantes a regarder, ce s aviettes. II y en a de toutes les formes et certaines sont etrangement belles.28 Another contemporar y o f Proust's, Apollinaire, als o envis aged bicycles a s winged creatures , i n thi s case as angels. Here he i s writing abou t th e Futurists ' "religio n o f speed" : la nouvelle religion 29 de la velocite—"Veloce" c'est-a dire "c e velo ! . . . " cett e exclamatio n quas i panta gruelique eveill a e n vou s j e n e sai s que l sentimen t religieux qui transfigura la becane en en faisant tourne r les roues avec cette vitesse fulgurante qu i etai t jusqu'ici 1'apanage de-cette class e d'anges appele e ofanini m qu i dans Tangeologi e hebraiqu e son t le s roue s d u cha r celeste.30 Proust seem s t o hav e bee n th e onl y write r o f hi s tim e t o use th e bicycle an d spee d a s a means o f erotic arousal . I n Mauric e Leblanc's novel Void des ailes!, i n which bicycles play a major role , the two-wheele d machin e i s merel y a vehicl e fo r th e narrativ e line. (Se e p. 59.) Th e bicycle s d o becom e liberatin g forces i n tha t the tw o marrie d couple s who se t ou t o n a biking journey throug h Brittany an d Normand y she d som e o f thei r traditiona l clothin g and mores alon g the way as they adap t thei r life-style t o th e exhil arating freedom an d unfettere d movemen t afforde d the m b y th e bicycles. But motio n itself , th e sigh t o f figures moving, i s not pre sented a s sexually stimulating, a s it is in Proust. I n Leblanc's novel , the eroti c scen e occur s whe n th e wome n remov e thei r blouse s i n

MAURICE LEBLAN C

PARIS PAUL OLLLNDOR M , LDHfcU K 2$ bis. RU E D E R I C H E L I E U , 2 8 bis

I898

Maurice Leblanc's Void des ailes!

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the privac y o f th e ope n roa d an d th e couple s en d u p fallin g i n love wit h eac h others ' spouses , with th e ne w couple s goin g thei r separate way s a t th e end . Th e Brittan y an d Normand y landscape s through whic h th e foursom e peda l ar e undistinguishe d an d serv e no purpos e othe r tha n th e routin e on e o f providin g a frame fo r the stor y Proust' s us e o f th e bicycl e i s mor e comple x tha n Leblanc's i n tha t whe n th e Narrato r sight s a gir l i n motion , hi s desire fo r th e gir l i s arouse d becaus e o f th e multipl e perspective s of a figure movin g rapidly , causin g hi m t o assum e tha t sh e i s a rare, fugitive being . It i s throug h Albertine' s lov e o f spee d tha t Prous t pay s homage t o Agostinell i an d not—i n spit e o f what man y commen tators hav e said—i n th e scen e wher e th e Narrato r see s hi s first airplane. 31 Th e airplan e belong s t o th e vertica l creativ e axi s an d not t o th e cycl e o f Albertine. Albertin e i s not Agostinelli ; sh e is , above all , a grea t literar y creation . But , a t th e sam e time , i t can not b e denie d tha t Agostinell i contribute d t o he r portrait , th e most obviou s elemen t the y shar e bein g thei r lov e o f speed, a passion bor n wit h th e tur n o f th e centur y an d stil l aliv e today . I t was t o hi s passio n fo r spee d tha t Agostinell i eventuall y sacrifice d his life . B y emphasizin g Albertine' s lov e o f speed , Prous t under lines he r fugitiv e natur e an d tha t o f hi s chauffeur-secretar y Agostinelli, wh o share d th e sam e passio n an d fled Proust' s apart ment i n orde r t o tak e flying lessons . Th e followin g quote , describing Albertine' s lov e o f speed, migh t hav e been inspire d b y Agostinelli: "J e l'avai s mem e laisse e alor s . . . s'absente r pendan t trois jours, seul e ave c le chauffeur , e t alle r jusqu'aupres d e Balbec , tant ell e avai t envi e d e fair e d e l a rout e su r simpl e chassis , e n grande vitesse " (III , 136) . When, i n La Fugitive, the Narrato r attempt s t o persuad e Albertine t o com e bac k t o him , h e tempt s he r wit h present s that ar e als o t o b e place d unde r th e sig n o f speed : horses , a yacht, an d a Rolls-Royce . Th e symbo l o f th e Rolls-Royce , represented b y it s hoo d ornament , i s a Winge d Victor y name d Ecstasy. Bu t th e winge d creatur e tha t h e seek s t o posses s i n

GIRLS IN MOTION 6

1

Albertine alway s elude s hi m an d h e wil l kno w ecstas y no t i n love bu t i n art . At abou t thi s tim e th e Futurist s wer e proclaiming—i n a strident compariso n tha t becam e a rallyin g cr y o f thei r move ment—that a n automobil e wa s mor e beautifu l tha n th e Winged Victory of Samothrace: Nous declaron s qu e l a splendeu r d u mond e s'es t enrichie d'une beaut e nouvelle: la beaute d e la vitesse. Une automobile de course avec son coffire orn e de gros tuyaux tel s de s serpents a l'haleine explosiv e . . . un e automobile rugissante , qu i a Tair d e couri r su r d e l a mitraille, est plus belle que la Victoire de Samothrace?^ Proust, wit h a n ey e to th e pas t as well as to th e present an d future , combines spee d an d th e Winge d Victor y b y havin g th e Narrato r offer a Rolls-Royce t o Albertine . Give n Proust' s us e o f winge d figures i n combinatio n wit h airplanes , automobiles , an d bicycles , the Futurists ' choic e o f th e Winged Victory of Samothrace a s a n example o f worthless ancien t ar t seem s particularly ill-advised . The Narrator' s entir e existenc e wit h Albertin e wil l b e remembered a s havin g take n plac e unde r th e sig n o f speed . Indeed, i n th e concludin g passage s describin g thei r relationship , Proust insist s on th e elusiv e nature o f the fleeting girl : Tout cel a qu i n'etai t pou r mo i qu e souveni r avai t et e pour ell e action, action precipitee, comm e celle d'un e tragedie, ver s un e mor t rapide . . . . Comme Tengre nage33 avait ete serre, comme revolution de notre amour avait ete rapide, et, malgre quelques retardements . . . le denouement rapide!" (Ill, 499-500).34

CHAPTER 4

Speed and Desire The associatio n o f agitatio n an d motio n wit h unrequite d desir e appears ofte n i n literature . Wallac e Fowli e point s ou t tha t suc h motifs occu r i n Dante : "i n th e secon d circl e [o f hell] . . . the sin s of carnality ar e punished an d . . . a continuous wind stor m buffet s the spirits . Thi s i s agitation , ceaseles s movemen t designatin g th e insistence o f sexua l demands." 1 Jean Mill y remind s u s o f Proust' s depiction o f th e rockin g motio n o f slee p i n passage s from Jean Santeuil an d th e openin g page s o f la Recherche. Mill y als o finds French literar y antecedent s i n Flaubert' s eroti c oscillation s i n Madame Bovary and L'Education sentimentale, pointing ou t simila r passages in Proust's pastiche o f Flaubert a s well as in th e passag e i n la Recherche o n Albertin e asleep : "C e bercemen t es t auss i lie a u n rythme sexuel , comm e l e montr e asse z l a suit e d u passage." 2 I n one o f th e mos t unusua l eroti c scene s i n literature , th e sleepin g Albertine become s th e incarnatio n o f th e se a a s th e Narrato r embarks upo n th e tid e o f her slee p an d make s lov e t o hi s uncon scious prisoner (III , 72). The us e o f such motif s b y Flauber t i s quite differen t from those i n la Recherche. Flaubert' s metho d i s more traditiona l i n tha t movement, suc h a s th e carriag e i n Madame Bovary, is a natura l enticement an d accompanimen t fo r th e thrustin g an d undulatin g action o f lovemaking. Ridin g (cheuaucher) ha s ofte n bee n use d i n French a s slan g fo r copulating . I n Proust , however , ther e i s a significant departur e from th e traditiona l associatio n o f motio n and desire : i t i s th e motio n bot h rea l an d metaphorica l tha t 63

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provokes desir e an d make s possessio n impossible . Th e greate r th e prize, th e greate r th e spee d acquire d b y th e desire d perso n t o escape. A s we hav e seen , eve n physica l contac t i s not sufficien t t o slow dow n th e spee d an d ma y eve n accelerat e it . Onc e a woma n has been possesse d o r is no longe r desired , sh e loses her spee d an d becomes worthless , a s doe s Albertine , "un e pesant e esclave, " a Winged Victor y whos e wing s have been clipped. 3 The othe r majo r characte r whos e spee d take s o n impor tant themati c dimension s i s Rober t d e Saint-Loup . Ther e ar e significant parallel s between hi m an d Albertine , th e mos t obviou s of thes e bein g thei r marin e origin s (bot h ar e see n fo r th e first time o n th e beac h a t Balbec ) an d thei r sexua l ambiguity . I t i s especially character s suspecte d o f bein g homosexua l wh o ar e endowed wit h exceptiona l speed : Albertine , Saint-Loup , an d Legrandin. Th e spee d o f thes e thre e i s du e i n larg e par t t o th e ambiguity o f thei r sexua l orientation . Th e confusio n tha t suc h ambiguity cause s the Narrato r i s expressed i n a n observatio n con cerning th e natur e o f Albertine's sexuality : 'Tincertitud e moral e est vin e caus e plu s grand e d e difficult e a un e exact e perceptio n visuelle qu e n e serai t u n defau t materie l d e Toei l . . . " (Ill , 140) . •Since h e canno t determin e th e exac t natur e o f her sexuality , h e does not kno w wh o sh e i s nor ho w t o defin e he r because h e doe s not kno w ho w t o look a t her. Wit h suc h hindered vision , he can not se e her a s she really is and i s therefore unabl e t o seiz e and pos sess her. Proust demonstrate s thi s poin t i n th e cas e o f Charlus . Once th e nobleman' s sexua l orientatio n i s revealed t o th e Narra tor i n th e openin g scene o f Sodome et Gomorrhe, his bizarre behav ior i s no longe r a mystery an d th e resul t i s "un e revolution , pou r mes yeux . . . . Jusque-la, parc e qu e j e n'avai s pa s compris , j e n'avais pa s vu. . . . C'es t l a raiso n qu i ouvr e le s yeux; un e erreu r dissipee nous donn e u n sen s de plus" (II , 613). We neve r d o kno w fo r a fac t tha t Albertin e engage d i n lesbian relationships , bu t ther e i s n o doub t tha t Saint-Lou p an d Legrandin wer e homosexual s i n thei r late r years . Saint-Lou p i s a

SPEED AND DESIRE 6

5

good exampl e o f th e complexit y o f Proustia n characters : h e i s duplicitous an d crue l i n his relations with hi s wife ye t courageou s in battl e an d lovin g t o hi s men , ultimatel y sacrificin g hi s lif e fo r them. Th e disappearanc e an d deat h i n battl e o f Proust' s friend Bertrand d e Fenelon ma y have determined th e evolutio n o f Saint Loup's characte r i n term s o f hi s behavio r i n battle , hi s heroi c death, an d th e eventua l revelatio n o f hi s homosexuality 4 Whe n World Wa r I began, Fenelo n wa s servin g i n th e diplomati c corp s and wa s therefor e exemp t from mobilization , ye t h e volunteere d for dut y a t th e front. 5 Reaction s t o th e shif t i n Saint-Loup' s char acter have varied considerabl y amon g critic s and writers. Accord ing t o thos e wh o stud y sexuality , ther e i s nothing unusua l abou t such change s i n sexual orientation. 6 Afte r givin g a number o f pertinent examples , Proust expresse s th e followin g maxi m abou t suc h dramatic change s i n a person's nature : "l a natur e qu e nou s faison s paraitre dan s la second e parti e d e notr e vi e n'es t pa s toujour s . . . notre natur e premier e developpe e o u fletri e . . . elle es t quelque fois un e natur e inverse , un veritabl e vetemen t retourne " (I , 434). The spee d wit h whic h Legrandi n an d Saint-Lou p ar e endowed i n Le Temps retrouvi results primarily from thei r desir e t o shield thei r homosexuality . Legrandin , afte r year s o f extremel y cautious behavior, ha s become a more sexuall y activ e homosexua l and i s afrai d o f bein g foun d out . Thus , h e ha s becom e "plu s elance e t rapide. . . . Cette velocit e avai t d'ailleur s de s raisons psy chologiques. I I avait l'habitud e d'alle r dan s certain s mauvai s lieu x ou i l aimait qu'o n n e l e vi t n i entrer , n i sortir , i l s'y engouffrait. " Charlus, o n th e othe r hand, no w complacen t i n his "vice " and n o longer bothering t o hid e it , ha s become heav y an d slo w ("alourd i et alenti") (III , 665) . The passag e describin g Legrandi n fleeing place s o f il l repute i s practicall y identica l t o on e o n Saint-Loup ; ha d Prous t lived t o revis e th e final section s o f th e novel , h e ma y wel l hav e eliminated th e Legrandi n passag e o r varie d i t somewhat . Th e close similarit y o f the tw o passage s i s not pointe d ou t b y th e edi tors o f the Pleiad e edition . "[Saint-Loup ] etai t deven u plu s elance ,

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plus rapide, effe t contrair e d'u n mem e vice . . . . I I avait l'habitud e d'aller dan s certain s mauvai s lieu x ou , comm e i l aimai t qu'o n n e le vit ni ente r n i sortir , i l s'engouffrait. . . . Et cett e allur e d e cou p de ven t lu i etai t restee " (III , 698-99) . Thi s chang e i n spee d doe s not see m appropriat e fo r Saint-Lou p sinc e he ha s always naturall y moved rapidl y throug h space , a s w e ca n se e fro m th e followin g passage describin g him prio r t o his homosexual phase : Saint-Loup salu a [u n officier ] e t immobilis a l a per petuelle instabilit y d e so n corp s l e temp s d e teni r l a main a la hauteu r d u kepi . Mai s il l'y avai t precipite e avec tant de force, s e redressant d'un mouvement si sec, et, aussito t l e salu t fini, l a fit retombe r pa r u n declenchement s i brusque en changeant toutes les positions d e l'epaule , d e l a jambe e t d u monocle , qu e c e moment fu t moin s d'immobilite qu e d'une vibrante tension oil se neutralisaient les mouvements excessifs qu i

venaient d e s e produir e e t ceu x qu i allaien t com mencer. (II , 73; emphasis added) It i s clea r from th e italicize d phras e tha t Prous t i s sensitive t o an d fascinated b y th e precis e momen t o f transitio n betwee n stasi s an d kinesis. The bes t explanatio n fo r Proust' s presentatio n o f a n eve n more accelerate d Saint-Lou p i s that hi s rapidit y no w ha s a differ ent motivation . Perhap s mor e tha n an y othe r autho r befor e him , Proust render s consciousl y an d convincingl y th e attitude s an d motions o f hi s characters . Saint-Lou p move s s o rapidl y throug h space tha t eve n hi s monocl e flies befor e him : "partan t a u pa s d e charge, preced e d e so n monocl e qu i volai t e n tou s sen s . . . " (II , 74). 7 Saint-Loup' s ac t o f slapping the homosexua l wh o approache s him i n th e street s o f Pari s i s a ver y moder n descriptio n o f a n object movin g throug h space : "tou t d'u n coup , comm e apparai t au cie l un phenomen e astral , je vi s des corp s ovoi'de s prendre ave c une rapidit e vertigineus e toute s les positions qu i leur permettaien t de composer , devan t Saint-Loup , un e instabl e constellation . [C'etaient] le s deu x poing s d e Saint-Loup , multiplie s pa r leu r

SPEED AND DESIRE 6

7

vitesse a change r d e plac e . . . " (II , 182) . Thi s passag e i s just on e among man y example s o f Proust's fascinatio n wit h spee d an d hi s attempt t o describ e object s movin g throug h space . Saint-Loup's rapi d movement s her e ma y see m fre e o f homosexual association s unti l w e loo k mor e closel y a t th e tex t and conside r th e biographica l origin s o f th e scene . Saint-Loup' s beauty i s made clea r an y numbe r o f time s b y th e Narrator , wh o also point s ou t hi s extraordinar y resemblanc e t o hi s aunt , th e duchesse d e Guermante s (II , 80) . I t i s his beauty tha t attract s th e shabby homosexual wh o accost s him o n th e stree t i n Paris . Saint Loup beat s th e ma n i n a scen e tha t convince s th e Narrato r an d the reade r o f Saint-Loup's heterosexuality—whic h w e ha d not , i n any case , ha d an y reaso n t o doubt , especiall y give n hi s arduous , desperate pursui t o f Rachel. Once Saint-Loup' s laten t homosexualit y i s give n ful l expression, h e ha s psychologica l reason s t o mov e rapidl y an d furtively throug h space . Hi s spee d i s depicte d a s a sig n o f sham e when h e trie s t o leav e Jupien's brothe l (referre d t o a s the Templ e of Dishonor) withou t bein g seen , an d where , withou t hi s realiz ing it , h e ha s als o lef t behin d hi s militar y medal , th e Croi x d e guerre. I n th e dark , th e Narrato r doe s not recogniz e his friend : je vi s sortir rapidement . . . un officier . . . . [ce qui me frappa etait ] l a disproportio n extraordinair e entr e l e nombre de points differents pa r ou passa son corps et le petit nombr e d e secondes pendant lesquelle s cett e sor tie, qu i avai t Tai r d e l a sorti e tente e pa r u n assiege ,

s'executa. . . . Le militaire capable d'occuper en si peu de temps tant de positions diffirentes dans Vespace avai t dis -

paru. . . . (Ill, 810; emphasis added)

Saint-Loup's mobilit y i s suc h a n importan t featur e o f hi s characterization tha t i t is possible t o trac e i n statuary the evolutio n of th e youn g aristocrati c friend , fro m a cavalie r o n frieze s an d anonymous sculpture s o f the romanesqu e an d Gothi c period s t o a noble gisant after hi s deat h i n battle.

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Je regardai s Saint-Loup , e t je m e disai s qu e c'es t un e jolie chose quand il n'y a pas de disgrace physique pour servir de vestibule aux graces interieures, et que les ailes du nez son t delicate s e t d'un dessi n parfait . . . que le veritable opus francigenum,dont l e secre t n' a pa s et e perdu depui s le XIII e siecl e . . . ce ne sont pas tant les anges d e pierr e d e Saint-Andre-des-Champ s qu e le s petits Fran^ais , nobles, bourgeois o u paysans, au visage sculpte ave c cett e delicatess e e t cett e franchis e restee s aussi traditionnelles qu'a u porch e fameux , mai s encor e creatrices. (II, 409) It i s jus t afte r th e compariso n t o th e statue s o f Saint Andre-des-Champs tha t a scen e occur s i n a restauran t wher e Saint-Loup, running t o bring th e Narrato r a coat, i s described a s a figure o n a frieze, wit h eac h successiv e position o f the young cav alier's body a s he move s throug h spac e clearl y depicted . Thi s out ing with Saint-Lou p i s calle d "l e soi r d e l'amitie" (II , 413) . O n a very col d evening , th e tw o friends ar e dinin g in a restaurant wher e a number o f Saint-Loup's friends ar e also present, amon g the m th e prince d e Foix . Saint-Lou p want s hi s nobl e companion s t o mee t his brilliant, literar y friend bu t leave s i t u p t o th e Narrato r t o sa y whether o r no t h e woul d lik e t o mee t them . Th e would-b e author say s tha t h e prefer s t o din e alon e wit h Saint-Loup . Sud denly Saint-Lou p disappear s an d goe s int o th e adjoinin g room , where th e princ e d e Foi x is having his meal, an d returns wit h th e Prince's vicun a coat , whic h h e ha s borrowe d t o war m hi s col d friend. Sinc e th e latte r i s blocked i n a t hi s table , Saint-Lou p leap s up o n th e cushione d sea t that ring s th e wall s of the restaurant an d runs towar d hi s shiverin g friend. Electrica l wire s jut ou t o f th e wall an d exten d t o th e lamp s o n th e tables , requirin g Saint-Lou p to lea p ove r th e wire s a s he runs . Where patron s ar e seate d alon g the bench , h e mus t surmoun t th e bac k o f it . A t thi s poin t applause breaks ou t amon g thos e i n the restaurant wh o admir e th e cavalier's agility . Prous t compare s Saint-Loup' s bod y t o tha t o f a horse o n a n obstacl e cours e an d a rider o n a frieze.

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Proust see s with th e ey e o f a painter o r sculptor who , afte r having studie d Etienne-Jule s Marey' s chronophotograph s (a s di d Marcel Duchamp befor e creatin g his stop-action paintings) , want s to represen t th e huma n bod y i n eac h o f its successive position s a s it move s throug h space . Prous t i s no t intereste d i n depictin g a static figure a s seen in a painting o r statue , but th e multiple , dash ing figures tha t a handsome individua l embodie s a s he move s for ward in spac e and time : je sentai s qu e c e plaisi r tenai t a c e qu e chacu n de s mouvements developpe s l e lon g d u mur , su r l a ban quette, avai t s a signification , s a cause , dan s l a natur e individuelle d e Saint-Lou p peut-etre , mai s plus encor e dans celle que par la naissance et par 1'education il avait heritee de sa race. (II, 413) This frieze , containin g proo f o f Saint-Loup' s nobl e her itage and training , i s not unlik e a historical, genealogica l chart , th e mature versio n o f th e variou s stage s o f embryoni c developmen t that repea t th e evolutio n o f th e species . Her e i t i s th e racia l his tory o f on e individua l wh o i s representative o f his genus . Saint Loup, wh o want s t o inspir e tru e friendship base d o n th e valu e o f the individual , woul d no t b e please d t o kno w tha t th e Narrato r sees him , i n spit e o f hi s libera l ideas , a s a produc t o f rac e an d breeding. I f Saint-Loup's velocit y in moving through spac e is later a result o f shame and fear, i n thi s passage it i s a sign o f nobility: une nobl e liberalit e qui , n e tenan t aucu n compt e d e tant d'avantage s materiel s . . . les lui faisai t foule r au x pieds, comme ce s banquettes de pourpre effectivemen t et symboliquemen t trepignees , pareille s a u n chemi n somptueux qui ne plaisait a mon ami qu'en lui permettant de venir vers moi avec plus de grace et de rapidite; telles etaien t le s qualites , toute s essentielle s a Taristocratie, qui, derrier e c e corps non pas opaque e t obscu r comme eu t et e l e mien , mai s significati f e t limpide , transparaissaient, comm e a travers un e ceuvr e d'ar t l a puissance industrieuse , efficient e qu i l' a creee , e t

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rendaient le s mouvement s d e cett e cours e leger e qu e Robert avai t deroulee le long du mur, aussi intelligibles et charmant s qu e ceu x d e cavalier s sculpte s su r un e firise. (II , 413-14) The Narrato r i s eve n tempte d t o find a n aestheti c pleasur e i n th e sight o f his friend i n motion , bu t h e realize s tha t thi s i s onl y th e result o f his deligh t i n seein g "c e jeune cavalie r deroulan t l e lon g du mu r l a frise d e s a course." H e no w recognize s th e intelligenc e and th e sovereig n freedom o f Saint-Loup' s movement s tha t together for m th e imag e o f "la parfaite amitie " (II , 415). The mos t importan t o f the origina l models for Saint-Lou p was, a s I hav e suggested , Proust' s aristocrati c friend Bertran d d e Fenelon. Th e scen e i n th e restauran t wa s base d o n a n inciden t with Fenelo n tha t too k plac e aroun d 190 2 at Larue's restauran t i n the plac e d e l a Madeleine , a favorit e haun t o f Proust' s an d hi s friends.8 Th e origina l even t wa s describe d in Jean Santeuil (IV , 447-55) i n a section dealin g with Jean's closes t friend, Bertran d d e Reveillon, whos e nam e echoe s tha t o f hi s real-lif e counterpart . Although Georg e Painte r consider s thi s episod e t o be "on e o f the most ill-writte n (whic h i s saying a great deal ) i n th e whol e novel, " the passag e remain s a n extremel y interestin g on e becaus e o f th e light i t shed s o n Proust' s concep t o f desir e an d possession ; more over, i t allow s u s t o judge th e grea t distanc e Prous t travele d a s a writer betwee n Jean Santeuil an d la Recherche. The latte r full y orchestrates theme s an d develop s character s tha t wer e onl y sketched i n th e abandone d novel . Jean Santeuil, lik e mos t earl y works an d drafts , i s closer to autobiograph y tha n i s la Recherche. Overall, th e presentatio n o f th e scen e i s th e same : Bertrand ha s receive d th e perfec t heritage , bot h geneticall y an d culturally, an d ye t h e i s totall y indifferen t t o th e prestig e o f hi s family. H e possesse s a s secon d natur e al l th e grace , tact , an d noblesse oblig e tha t com e from suc h a background. Thi s nobilit y is manifeste d i n knowin g whe n an d ho w t o execut e th e perfec t movement require d b y a given circumstance , "fair e e n n'import e quelle circonstanc e d e l a vie . . . le mouvemen t qu'i l faut " (451) .

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Bertrand's attractivenes s i s th e resul t o f breeding, education , an d demeanor. Saint-Lou p wil l retai n hi s ela n an d beauty , bu t Prous t will revea l considerabl e flaws i n hi s character . A s w e know , th e Narrator i s at first dazzle d by th e apparen t brillianc e o f the aristo cratic world , late r becomin g mor e contemptuou s o f th e nobilit y than o f any other class . There ar e majo r stylisti c difference s betwee n th e earlie r and later version s o f the scen e i n th e restaurant , whic h i s not sur prising whe n on e recall s that Jean Santeuil is in n o wa y a finishe d work, existin g partl y i n fragments . Often , a s i s th e cas e here , Proust experiment s wit h differen t narrativ e voices within th e sam e passage. Fo r example , i t i s Bertrand wh o speak s when h e explain s to Jean wh y he ra n alon g the bench t o bring Jean th e coat ; Jean i s his preferre d friend , an d Bertrand , wh o place s th e coa t a t Jean's feet a s he woul d a trophy , i s not afrai d o f making himsel f ridicu lous b y renderin g thi s service . Bu t wha t make s th e passag e espe cially interestin g i s the ligh t i t shed s o n Proust' s concep t o f desir e and possession , fo r her e Jean does manage—a s th e Narrato r neve r does wit h th e girl s i n motion—t o posses s th e intende d gif t o f Bertrand's entir e pas t throug h th e latter' s movemen t i n space . Fo r a pag e an d a half Proust show s Bertran d makin g a presen t o f hi s past to Jean throug h th e power o f his leg muscles, which had bee n developed durin g th e year s o f his youth whe n the y di d no t kno w each other. 9 I t is Bertrand wh o speaks : "Annees passees, Education differente , tou t c e qu i es t impossible a ressaisir . . . tenez tout entieres dans la souplesse de mon jarret pour qu'e n couran t vers lui Qean ] je le s lu i apport e e t qu'i l n' y ai t plu s rie n entr e nous!"... tous ces exercices brillants qu'il Qean] n'avait jamais pratiques, toute cett e force s i eloignee d e sa faiblesse etaien t autan t d'ami s d e Bertran d don t i l etai t inconsciemment jaloux... (IV, 453-54). Unlike la Recherche, wher e onl y the Narrator's thought s ar e known, in Jean Santeuil we rea d Bertrand' s thought s a s he bring s

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the gif t o f his past to Jean. Thank s t o thi s gift, th e jealous desir e t o possess a beloved's mysterious past—which haunt s th e Narrato r i n the cas e o f Albertine, causin g hi m t o spen d year s (eve n afte r he r death) reconstructin g tha t past—i s abolishe d fo r Santeui l ("dissi pant tout e jalousie") . Jea n possesse s Bertrand' s entir e pas t an d present being . W e agai n rea d Bertrand' s thoughts : "c e pass e insai sissable . . . Ces annee s lointaines t e rendaien t triste . . . . He bien ! les voi d toute s . . . je t e le s amen e ave c moi dan s m a cours e . . . elles son t a to i e t pou r toi. " The n w e rea d Jean's thoughts : "so n etre tout entie r ave c tout so n passe rassemble. . . . toute s a vie dan s le present qu'i l nous fait [d e son] affectio n . . ." (IV , 454). The trace s o f homosexual desir e eviden t i n Jean's infatua tion wit h Bertran d ar e give n ove r entirel y i n la Recherche t o th e Narrator's desir e fo r girl s i n motion . I n th e cas e o f the Narrator' s relationship wit h Saint-Loup , al l element s o f jealousy an d posses sion ar e removed an d resolved i n a rare momen t o f "parfait e ami tie." W e kno w tha t i n th e matur e nove l th e desir e describe d i n Jean Santeuil becomes monstrou s an d unattainabl e by ordinar y an d even extraordinar y means : physica l possessio n an d imprisonmen t of th e desire d gir l d o no t revea l t o hi m th e myster y o f he r pas t and th e secret s o f her being . Proust's awarenes s o f the spee d wit h whic h a desire d per son appear s t o mov e throug h spac e predate s b y year s hi s en counter wit h Agostinelli . I t seem s saf e t o sa y tha t Albertin e an d Saint-Loup ar e bot h modele d o n Bertran d d e Fenelo n a s far a s their qualit y o f speed i s concerned . Bot h ar e androgynou s figure s based o n mal e an d femal e version s o f the sam e type . Prous t ha d a predilection fo r findin g th e mal e i n th e female , an d vic e versa , a s is eviden t from th e questionnaire s h e filled ou t a s well a s in nu merous passage s from hi s letters an d othe r writings. 10 Agostinelli' s fascination wit h spee d confirme d a tendenc y tha t wa s alread y present i n th e character s i n th e nove l an d probabl y cause d Proust t o associat e Albertin e mor e closel y wit h machine s o f m o tion, suc h a s th e bicycle , car , an d train , bu t no t th e airplane . (This will be explaine d i n a later chapter. )

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Albertine an d Saint-Lou p ar e joined b y deat h an d th e sea . While thinkin g abou t Saint-Loup' s death , th e Narrato r remem bers th e first tim e he sa w Saint-Lou p o n th e beach a t Balbec. Hi s eyes were gree n an d mobile lik e the sea , "se s yeux verts bougeant s comme l a mer" (III , 847). The youn g soldier gave his life withou t considering th e cost , just a s in bringing hi s friend th e coa t h e ha d run acros s th e benc h "pou r n e pa s m e deranger " (III , 847) . Th e Narrator the n review s al l th e tableau x store d u p i n hi s memorie s of Saint-Loup . I t i s thi s sam e rapidit y that , t o a larg e degree , marks th e kinshi p betwee n Saint-Lou p an d Albertine , a kinshi p pointed ou t t o u s b y Prous t himself : "[leur s vies ] s i vit e termi nees. . . leurs deu x vies avaient chacun e u n secre t parallel e e t qu e je n'avai s pas soupfonne" (III , 848) . The multipl e image s o f speed associated with both charac ters ar e ofte n remarkabl y similar . Whe n Saint-Lou p i s kille d i n action durin g Worl d Wa r I , th e rapi d cavalie r i s compare d t o th e sculpted figures o n Proust' s imaginar y church , Saint-Andre-des Champs, whos e faces , a s w e hav e seen , ar e sai d t o b e th e tru e French oeuvres , "l e veritabl e opus francigenum!' Althoug h Saint Loup i s presente d a s a n idea l typ e an d i s compared , alon g wit h Albertine an d Fran^oise , t o th e statue s a t Saint-Andre-des Champs, Prous t i s carefu l t o den y a living person th e statu s o f ar t (III, 415) . Proust' s compariso n betwee n th e permanenc e tha t resides in th e timeles s stone an d the living, biological models wh o continue t o perpetuat e th e nobilit y o f the sculpte d face s i n livin g statues representing all the classe s is another variation o f the novel ist's conceptio n o f artisti c expressio n an d th e forc e o f time : th e marriage o f kinesis (th e living descendant s o f those wh o wer e th e models fo r th e statues ) an d stasi s (th e permanen t work s o f art). 11 According t o Proust' s representatio n o f life, th e field s o f biology , history, and art ar e parallel bands o n th e frieze o f human existence . Proust's depictio n o f figures i n motio n ma y hav e bee n influenced b y Eadweard Muybridge' s stop-actio n photograph s an d Etienne-Jules Marey' s chronophotography . Th e latte r wa s a n innovative techniqu e tha t too k "picture s o f time " b y capturin g a

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figure o r a n anima l a t differen t stage s of a trajectory, makin g possible th e exac t representation o f figures i n motion, whic h artist s ha d attempted t o d o fo r centurie s i n thei r statues , friezes, an d paint ings. Thi s major photographi c innovatio n le d directl y t o th e birt h of moving pictures . Prous t doe s no t mentio n chronophotograph y by name , bu t i t i s highly likel y tha t h e kne w o f Marey' s accom plishments. I n additio n t o bein g a n exper t o n cholera, 12 h e i s credited wit h th e inventio n o f the sphygmograph , whic h recorde d the pulse rate an d led to th e inventio n o f the blood-pressure mon itor, th e sphygmomanometer . Eadweard Muybridge' s photographs , whic h represente d a pioneering effor t i n th e scientifi c stud y o f motion i n 1879 , wer e the result o f a wager made by horse fancier Lelan d Stanford . Stan ford wa s convince d tha t al l four hoove s o f a trotting hors e lef t th e ground a t th e sam e time . H e thu s se t out , a s Pacific Life stated o n June 22 , 1878 , "t o reproduc e th e actio n o f a horse a t ever y poin t in his stride" an d hired Muybridge t o figure ou t a way to meet th e technological challenge . Prous t seem s t o hav e know n th e famou s twenty-four-frame sequenc e o f a horse , "Occiden t Trotting, " which ha d bee n filmed b y Muybridg e usin g twenty-fou r camera s and magneti c shutte r trippers . (Se e p . 75. ) A seque l wit h anothe r horse, "Salli e Gardner Galloping, " produced photograph s tha t con tradicted th e wa y gallopin g horse s had been depicte d sinc e primi tive times. The photograph s showe d that Sallie' s legs were bunche d or akimb o rathe r tha n extende d i n pairs. 13 The first photographi c analog y use d i n la Recherche refer s to th e picture s o f a running hors e see n i n a kinetoscope, a hand cranked devic e fo r viewin g a sequence o f pictures o f a changin g scene o n a n endles s ban d o f film, thereb y creatin g th e illusio n o f motion. Thi s i s mentione d i n th e openin g page s o f Combray , when th e Narrato r i s lying i n be d an d dreamin g abou t hi s past , which h e experience s a s a chaos filled wit h kineti c energy , estab lishing th e fugitiv e natur e o f memory an d being . I n hi s slumber ing uncertaint y a s to whic h o f the rooms from hi s past he i s really occupying, h e say s tha t hi s min d canno t distinguis h amon g th e

Eadweard Muybridge's "Occident Trotting " (Departmen t of Special Collections, Stanford Universit y Libraries).

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various supposition s an y mor e tha n w e isolat e "e n voyan t u n cheval courir, le s positions successive s qu e nous montre l e kineto scope" (I , 7). Proust's texts , lik e chronophotograph s an d Marce l Duchamp's paintings , brea k u p motio n int o immobil e segments . What Muybridg e an d Mare y sough t t o documen t i n thei r photo graphic serie s was motion frozen i n succeedin g frames, th e precis e fragmentation o f time . Loui s Boll e ha s pointe d ou t tha t Prous t often decompose s movemen t int o immobil e segments. 14 Suc h a technique i s the literary equivalen t o f Duchamp's Nude Descending a Staircase No. 2 (1912) , a wor k produce d directl y unde r th e influence o f Marey's chronophotographs , a s th e painte r state d i n an interview . (Se e p . 77. ) Wha t caugh t Duchamp' s attentio n wa s the wa y Mare y dresse d his subject s i n black costumes , wit h whit e lines and dot s o n thei r limbs and joints, s o that a s the subject s ran , the positio n o f thei r arm s an d leg s coul d b e photographe d a t a speed o f on e hundre d time s a second . (Se e p. 79. ) Whe n devel oped, eac h photograp h reveale d th e successiv e position s o f a figure i n motion : J'avais vu dan s l'illustration d'u n livr e de Marey com ment i l indiquait le s gens qu i font d e Tescrime, o u les chevaux au galop , avec un systeme de pointille delimi tant le s differents mouvements . . . . C'est c e qu i m' a donne l'ide e d e 1'executio n d u "n u descendan t u n escalier."15 Proust ha s develope d th e literar y equivalen t o f Marey' s various point s o f frozen animatio n t o depic t th e successiv e posi tions o f Saint-Loup' s bod y i n motion . Thi s kee n observe r bring s to th e reader' s attention th e quantit y o f positions relative t o a very brief spa n o f time occupie d b y a body movin g throug h space : "j e vis sorti r rapidemen t . . . un officier . . . . [c e qu i m e frappa etait ] la disproportion extraordinaire entre le nombre de points differents par oil passa son corps et le petit nombre de secondes pendant lesquelles cette sor-

tie. . . s'exicuta . . ." (Ill , 810 ; emphasis added) .

Marcel Duchamp, Nude Descending a Staircase, no. 2, 1912 (Philadelphia Museum o f Art: The Louise and Walter Arensberg Collection).

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In passage s suc h a s these , Prous t produce s literar y chronophotographs b y creatin g wor d picture s tha t ar e multipl e exposures o f a perso n i n motion . Ther e ar e als o example s o f chronophotographic description s o f character s wh o ar e glimpse d only onc e i n th e stor y Her e i s Proust' s multipl e portrai t o f a waiter wh o rushe s abou t servin g table s i n th e dinin g room an d i n the adjacen t garden . Th e successiv e livin g statue s create d b y th e waiter's motio n amon g th e table s ar e tinge d wit h classica l sculp tural elements : Le gar$on a la figure rose, aux cheveux noirs tordus comme uneflamme, s'elangai t dans toute cett e vaste etendue . . . parfois a u loin, dan s la salle a manger, parfois plus pres, mais au dehors , servan t de s client s qu i avaient prefer e dejeuner dans le jardin, on Tapercevait tantot ici, tantot la, comm e de s statue s successive s d'un jeune dieu courant. . . . (II, 1016 ; emphasis added)

The Lubricious Train In la Recherche, th e trai n i s a source o f eroti c experienc e i n that , like othe r machine s o f motion—bicycle an d automobil e bu t no t the airplane—i t i s sexuall y stimulating . Suc h a belie f wa s no t merely th e product o f a literary mind but wa s held by many in th e medical an d scientifi c communit y o f Proust's da y Freu d an d othe r contemporary psychiatrist s wer e convince d tha t th e shakin g motion o f modern machine s incite d sexua l stimulation : Shaking sensations experience d in wagons and railroad trains exer t suc h a fascinating influenc e o n olde r chil dren tha t al l boys . . . wish to become conductor s an d drivers. They ar e wont t o ascrib e t o railroa d activitie s an extraordinary and mysterious interest and during the age o f phantastic activit y (shortl y before puberty ) the y utilize thes e a s a nucleus fo r exquisit e sexua l symbol isms. The desire to connec t railroad traveling with sexuality apparendy originate s fro m th e pleasurable char acter of the sensation of motion. 16

Etienne-Jules Marey, Runner o n an Inclined Plane, Geometric Chronophotograp h (Colleg e de France, Paris).

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It wa s commonl y believe d tha t th e ne w machine s wer e sexually stimulatin g t o women , eve n t o th e poin t o f causin g sen sual madness . Euge n Webe r quote s from a newspape r articl e i n which women ar e warned agains t sewing machines and bicycles— two machine s wit h ver y differen t purpose s bu t bot h requirin g women t o pedal. 17 Anothe r contemporar y o f Proust's , Dr . Ludovic O'Followell , expresse d hi s belie f i n Bicydette et organes ginitaux tha t th e sewin g machin e wa s a n eve n mor e dangerou s source o f sexua l stimulatio n tha n th e bicycle , althoug h th e latte r could " 'procure genita l satisfactions , voluptuou s sensations ' an d a kind of'sportiv e masturbation. ' " 1 8 Milton Miller , i n hi s psychoanalytica l stud y o f Proust , noticed a number o f scenes where Prous t set s erotic encounter s i n trains: The org y of patrons o f Jupien's Temple of Dishonor i n the undergroun d tunne l durin g ai r raids links Proust's images o f trains an d sexuality in a way that is close t o consciousness. Train s bring ne w arrival s and als o tak e people away : they ar e a combined symbo l o f love and death. . . . Charlus first meets Morel a t a railroad sta tion. Marcel' s env y o f Albertine regardin g Saint-Lou p is on a train, as is Bloch's affair wit h Odette. 19 And the separation an d reunio n o f Marcel an d hi s mothe r ar e at trains . Train s ar e relate d t o time , death , birth , an d sexuality.20 Miller migh t hav e mentione d a number o f othe r scenes . The revelatio n b y Albertin e concernin g he r clos e friendship wit h Mile Vinteuil—certainl y th e pivota l scen e a s far a s the actio n i n the secon d hal f o f the nove l i s concerned—take s plac e i n a train ; Albertine an d th e Narrato r ofte n engag e i n amorou s embrace s on th e trai n e n rout e t o Mm e Verdurin' s rente d summe r villa : "[le] traje t e n chemi n d e fer . . . dans une voiture noir e . . . cram ponnes l'u n a l'autre" (II , 1096) . I t i s during on e suc h sessio n tha t he an d Albertine se e the princess e Sherbatof f fo r th e first tim e an d mistake he r fo r a procuress , "un e maquerell e e n voyage. "

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Sherbatoff i s anothe r o f Proust' s androgynou s creatures , "[un e femme] a Pexpression masculine" (II , 858). Alain Robbe-Grille t finds eroticis m i n th e ver y structur e and movement of literature an d cinema . Th e specifi c exampl e h e gives i s tha t o f a trai n i n a n earl y film b y th e Lumier e brothers , UArrivk du train en gave de La Ciotat: "al l films ar e eroti c films , ever since th e famou s film b y Lumiere, where al l you se e is a train coming int o th e statio n a t La Ciotat , nea r Nice— a typicall y eroti c image. . . . al l the railwa y images an d thing s like tha t whic h occu r in numerous films... ar e eroti c images . . . ." 21 As w e hav e seen , Swan n first make s lov e t o Odett e i n a moving carriage . Indeed , i t i s the sudden , unexpecte d movemen t of the carriag e tha t initiate s th e lovemaking ; Swann , a notoriou s womanizer wh o i s unnaturally timi d towar d Odette , seize s upo n the pretext o f straightening the orchid s she is wearing in her boso m in orde r t o begi n hi s amorou s caresses . I n a famou s scen e from Madame Bovary, Leon make s lov e t o Emm a fo r th e first tim e i n a carriage, with draw n curtains, hired to meander all over Rouen. 2 2 Charlus makes a specialty o f pursuing train conductor s an d coach drivers , preferably thos e wh o ar e drun k lat e i n th e evenin g and therefor e mor e easil y seduced . H e i s persisten t enoug h t o change car s tw o o r thre e time s i f necessary , an d onc e h e eve n travels a s far a s Orleans i n pursui t o f a young conductor . Thi s i s a trait tha t Charlu s share d wit h th e America n poe t Wal t Whitman : "[Whitman] pursue d thos e wh o wer e teasingl y accessibl e bu t equivocal. Motio n wa s important . Youn g me n wh o worke d o n streetcars, railways , ferries, whos e ver y wor k suggeste d undefine d potentiality, lure d hi m particularly" 23 I t i s precisely th e unknown , mysterious, ye t apparentl y extremel y desirabl e qualitie s o f th e fugitive girl s tha t attrac t th e Narrator , just a s the sam e qualitie s i n young men appea l t o Charlus . As Miller ha s observed , train s ar e use d a t crucia l point s i n the plot t o signa l moments o f transition i n the Narrator' s develop ment a s he become s a mature, independen t being . Whe n dream ing o f a tri p t o Florence , h e ha d though t o f a trai n statio n a s a

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magical local e i n whic h th e voyage r move d almos t imperceptibl y from th e point o f destination to the longed-for cit y (I, 644). Whe n the time come s for him t o depar t for Balbec and be separate d from his mother , th e Saint-Lazar e station , wit h it s grea t glas s roof , becomes a sinister place , "u n d e ce s grand s atelier s vitre s • . . qu i deployait au-dessu s d e l a vill e eventre e u n d e ce s immense s ciel s crus e t gros de menaces. . . ." So dreaded is the moment o f separation from hi s mothe r tha t h e compare s th e scene t o a crucifixio n by Mantegn a o r Veronese , "act e terribl e e t solenne l comm e u n depart e n chemin d e fer o u 1'erection de la Croix" (I , 645). As we sa w earlier , durin g period s whe n Odett e i s absent , Swann, i n a jealous frenzy t o trac k he r down , spend s hour s por ing ove r map s an d th e trai n schedule , whic h h e call s "l e plu s enivrant de s romans d'amour " (I , 293) . We recal l tha t Swan n an d the Narrato r bot h imagin e th e breaku p wit h thei r mistresse s a s a train journey awa y from th e countrie s identifie d wit h th e women . This lead s u s t o conclud e tha t whil e Prous t present s rea l train s a s sources o f erotic stimulatio n an d sexua l encounters , i n dream-lik e states th e trai n i s seen a s a means o f escap e from eroti c obsession . As we shall see in th e concludin g chapter , th e trai n i s also a transition poin t i n th e Narrator' s journey from horizonta l searche r t o vertical visionary .

Stasis and Kinesis The natur e o f th e desirabl e othe r i s elusiv e an d ultimatel y un knowable becaus e i t i s unattainable, a s is demonstrated i n th e pas sages where Prous t depict s successiv e selve s and multipl e perspec tives. Th e Narrator , i n th e cente r o f such a vortex o f impressions, is frustrated b y th e ambiguity , bot h sexua l an d aesthetic , tha t i s engendered b y thi s centrifuga l system . Throughou t hi s quest , h e attempts t o seiz e impression s o f girls , objects , an d landscape s i n order t o examin e the m an d penetrat e thei r mystery . I n thes e attempts t o arres t wha t i s fleeting, th e Narrato r use s analogie s from photography , painting , sculpture , an d architecture . Onc e Albertine i s dead , h e remain s i n th e horizonta l real m o f physica l

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explorations, enterin g a phas e o f degradatio n whe n h e i s ques tioned abou t corruptin g a mino r (III , 443) . H e eve n resort s t o voyeurism whe n h e hire s lesbian s t o perfor m wha t h e assume s t o have been Albertine' s amorou s practice s (III , 550-51) . The velocit y o f time i s a direct challeng e t o th e artis t wh o wants t o sav e his world from destruction . Henr i Bergso n state d i n Mature et mkmoire that "t o perceiv e mean s t o immobilize." 24 I n la Recherche, th e protagonis t attempt s t o achiev e thi s immobilizatio n of desired objects an d women o n a number o f occasions, but wha t the Proustia n narrato r realize s i s tha t everythin g i s constantl y i n motion; eve n thos e thing s tha t appea r immobil e ar e no t perma nendy fixed bu t underg o mutation . No t onl y are the y evolving — as is th e perso n perceivin g them—bu t the y canno t b e perceive d fully b y a singl e o r eve n multipl e perspectives . Th e tas k o f th e Proustian artist , then , i s t o immobiliz e ye t at the same time creat e the impressio n o f movement , life , an d evolutio n i n orde r t o combine stasi s an d kinesis . Th e impressio n o f movemen t an d change wil l b e rendere d verticall y throug h a layering techniqu e (ipaisseur)25 and elevatio n imagery; i t will be rendered horizontall y through image s o f statues, friezes, photographs , an d description s that ar e the literary equivalent s o f chronophotographs . For Proust, th e onl y endurin g an d enrichin g perception i s made possibl e b y art . Th e wor k o f ar t represent s th e ultimat e ac t of slowing down , bu t fo r th e Proustia n artis t i t must als o contain , without stiflin g it , th e potentialit y o f motion. Thi s long process o f search, exposure , development , contemplation , and , ultimately , expression must com e from th e artist' s deepes t an d truest sel f as he strives t o creat e hi s visio n o f th e world . Thi s vision , whic h wil l contain layer s o f experience an d memor y datin g back t o differen t epochs, wil l tak e int o accoun t th e permanent , creativ e sel f (le moi prqfond) a s well as what Prous t call s the "successiv e selves" : On dit , e t c'es t c e qu i expliqu e Taffaiblissemen t pro gress:^ de certaine s affections nerveuses , qu e notre systeme nerveu x vieillit . Cel a n'es t pa s vra i seulemen t pour notr e mo i permanent , qu i s e prolonge pendan t

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toute la duree de notre vie, mais pour tous nos moi successifi qui, en somme, le composent en partie. (Ill, 696) What Prous t strive s fo r i n hi s ar t i s th e combinatio n o f both th e static an d th e kineti c i n orde r t o creat e a n epi c tablea u o f his era , while a t th e sam e tim e givin g th e impressio n tha t hi s wor k i s a living, moving , organi c entit y an d no t just a pale reproduction o f everyday realit y Prous t combine s th e ephemera l an d th e eternal ; false starts , errors , an d wron g path s late r prov e t o b e th e righ t ones a s th e Narrato r describe s fo r u s th e twist s an d turn s o f hi s search for th e truth . The importanc e o f renderin g th e impressio n o f motio n can b e see n i n variou s passage s tha t Prous t wrot e fo r th e final , grand recognitio n scen e i n la Recherche wher e variou s stimul i o f touch an d sound , suc h a s th e nois e o f a spoo n hittin g a plat e or th e textur e o f a napkin , resurrec t th e livin g memor y o f th e dining roo m a t Balbe c an d vision s o f th e sea . I n th e followin g notes fo r th e concludin g sectio n o f th e novel , on e ca n fee l Proust's excitemen t a s he set s fo r himsel f th e goa l o f makin g hi s work lifelike : Comme les ailes de cherubins qxd font mille tours en un moment toute s les sensations que j'eprouvais en meme temps qu e celle-la , l'odeu r d e la chambre, l e desir d u dejeuner, l'incertitud e d e la promenade, la presence du plafond pyramida l au-dessu s d e moi, tou t cel a attache ensemble e t tournant comme les mille ailes de s cherubin s qui font [mille] tours a la minute, caresse mo n am e d u souvenir d'un mond e evanoui , mais d'un monde qui non pas tableau plat comme les tableaux de la mimoire a toutes les dimensions, toute s les qualites sensibles, es t accompagne de mon etre d'alors, de ma pensee d'alors, tourne complet, plein, existant riellement total?** In th e plenitud e o f lucid, creativ e contemplatio n h e real izes tha t hi s goa l i s no t t o reproduc e flat, "realistic " picture s through consciou s recal l but t o creat e th e full , total , an d vibran t

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textures o f rea l life—th e spinnin g glob e a s oppose d t o th e flat painting. I t i s th e natur e o f Proust's imaginatio n t o b e expansiv e and all-embracing, t o thin k cosmically , to connec t hi s hero's expe rience t o tha t o f the universe, to fin d i n the eterna l flux o f experi ence rapid, successiv e tableaux tha t allo w us to perceive th e evolu tion o f space and th e flow o f time. Prous t combine s stasis , kinesis, and ubiquit y i n a passage from Jean Santeuil comparing th e spee d of electricity an d th e telephon e wit h tha t o f memory H e employ s the medieva l conceptio n o f angels , whos e wing s hav e a globa l expanse, to indicat e th e cosmi c proportions o f his emotions : L'electricite n e me t pa s moin s d e temp s a conduire a notre oreill e penchee su r un corne t telephoniqu e un e voix pourtant bie n eloignee , qu e la memoire, cet autre element puissant de la nature qui, comme la lumiere ou Telectricite, dans un mouuement si vertigineux qu'il nous semble un repos immense, un e sorte d'omnipresence, es t a la foi s partout autou r d e la terre, au x quatr e coin s d u monde o u palpiten t san s cess e se s aile s gigantesques , comme un de ces anges que le Moyen Age imaginait. 27 (IV, 243; emphasis added) Not onl y doe s spee d imbu e th e impression s tha t ar e regained from th e past , bu t th e ide a o f movement throug h tim e and spac e i s on e o f th e majo r aspect s o f th e Proustia n nove l I n the concludin g sentence , th e Narrato r tell s us that h e wil l not fai l to sho w th e effect s o f time o n hi s characters . Fo r Proust, th e evo lution o f hi s character s (mos t notabl y th e Narrator , Albertine , Odette, Charlus , Saint-Loup , an d Swann ) ove r a period o f time— often i n surprisin g shift s o r reversals—i s wha t make s the m mobil e and therefor e lifelike . I f a novel i s to represen t u s a s we reall y are , and a s we perceiv e ourselve s t o b e a t differen t stage s o f ou r exis tence, the n thi s mobility must be presen t i n th e descriptio n o f th e characters, who , lik e planets , voyag e throug h spac e an d time . I n the analogie s Prous t draw s from mathematic s an d molecula r chemistry, containe d i n his earl y notes for la Recherche, w e se e tha t he want s t o creat e a work tha t i s true t o life i n al l its dynamism :

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Encore s i Toeuvr e es t u n roma n faudrait-i l n e pa s s e contenter d'etudie r ce s caractere s comm e s'il s etaien t immobiles. Mai s pou r emprunte r l e langag e d e l a geometrie, no n point un e psychologie plane, mais une psychologie dan s Tespace e t fair e subi r au x caractere s les mouvements en quelque sorte rnathematiques qui se passent a Tinterieur d'u n caracter e etan t indirectemen t soumis a d'autres mouvements qu i agissent sur le caractere lui-meme e t a la fois alterent ses molecules, e t au dehors [le s font ] lentemen t change r d e plac e dan s rensemble des autres etres qui reagissent sur lui.28 One o f th e mos t remarkabl e se t piece s i n th e nove l i s Proust's descriptio n o f Huber t Robert' s fountai n (II , 656-57) , i n which stasi s an d kinesis , for m an d function , ar e perfecd y fused . Seen from a distance , th e fountain—svelte , immobile , rigid — appears t o b e a wor k o f ar t rathe r tha n risin g water ; eve n th e cloud o f mis t tha t constantl y form s abov e th e colum n o f wate r seems t o hav e a precis e eighteenth-centur y shape . Bu t a s th e Narrator draw s nearer , h e see s tha t whil e th e continuousl y risin g jets o f wate r giv e th e impressio n o f followin g a n architectura l design, i n fac t th e fountai n consist s o f "mill e bond s epar s pou vant seul s donne r a distanc e l'impressio n d'u n uniqu e elan. " From close r stil l h e observe s tha t wha t appear s t o b e a singl e column o f wate r i s compose d o f a numbe r o f jets, eac h risin g higher tha n th e last . Furthermore , thi s constan t upwar d thrus t o f the wate r i s ofte n broke n b y drop s o f wate r fallin g bac k dow n upon th e risin g column . Spra y fro m thes e collision s create s a n oblong clou d "fai t d e mill e gouttelettes , mai s e n apparenc e pein t en bru n dor e e t immuable , qu i montait , infrangible , immobile , elance e t rapide , s'ajoute r au x nuage s d u ciel. " Prous t present s the parado x o f th e poin t o f demarcatio n betwee n stasi s and kine sis i n th e spray o f th e fountain , whic h i s simultaneousl y immobile and rapide. The fountai n ma y underg o violent , rapi d chang e whenever a gus t o f win d send s th e vertica l colum n o f wate r splashing t o th e ground .

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The Huber t Rober t fountain , a s describe d b y Proust , ha s obvious eroti c connotations ; i n earl y version s o f th e tex t i t wa s associated wit h th e scene s o f childhoo d masturbatio n a t Com bray 2 9 Th e eroti c element s becom e explici t whe n Madam e d'Arpajon, on e o f th e du e d e Guermantes' s forme r mistresses , ventures nea r th e fountai n jus t a s a blast o f warm ai r hit s i t an d sends th e colum n o f wate r crashin g dow n upo n her , "[c e qui ] inondait s i completement l a belle dam e que , l'ea u degoulinan t d e son decolletag e dan s l'interieu r d e s a robe, ell e fu t auss i trempe e que s i on l'avai t plonge e dan s un bain. " Eroticism, i n it s paradoxical mergin g o f the lif e forc e an d intimation o f death , lie s a t th e hear t o f suc h image s o f Proustia n desire. Philipp e Lejeun e present s a Freudia n readin g wherei n h e finds a sexual basis for Proust' s creativ e drive . He link s th e portrai t of the paintin g tha t hangs i n th e Narrator' s roo m a t Combra y an d the descriptio n o f th e fountai n i n Sodome et Gomorrhe with th e hero's acknowledgmen t tha t Combra y i s th e singl e sourc e (source also means spring , o r fountain , i n French ) o f the entir e work : "l e narrateur compar e Combra y a u n bassi n uniqu e d'o u son t sorti s vine serie de jets d'eau x paralleles qu i se rejoignent finalemen t dan s le Temps Retrouvi (III , 968) , c e qu i sugger e qu e Toeuvr e es t un e architecture d e jets jaillis d'un e sourc e unique : Combra y . . ." 3 0 According t o Lejeune' s reading , th e char m o f the memor y of Combra y derive s from th e ora l attachmen t t o th e mothe r an d the voluptuous , narcissisti c pleasure s o f masturbation. Thi s gentl e rapture underlie s th e char m experience d b y th e reader , wh o unconsciously delight s i n th e enthrallmen t o f youthfu l volup tuousness describe d b y Proust , whic h contain s "l a pubert e dan s toute s a fraicheur e t s a vigueur. . . ." Time regained , accordin g t o Lejeune, i s not mummifie d tim e rediscovered throug h involuntar y memory provoke d by madeleines an d te a but tim e i n th e full , vis ceral expansio n o f orgasm. 31 Eroticis m i n it s baser, commo n ele ments wil l be transcended , togethe r wit h al l o f life's experiences , in a n all-encompassin g an d salutar y visio n a t th e en d o f th e Nar rator's quest .

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In th e experienc e o f readin g itself , wher e a fixed, linea r text i s set in motion b y th e encounte r betwee n th e reader an d th e author's words , whereb y th e expressio n o f th e wor k become s th e impression fo r th e reader, th e fountain seem s an appropriate archi tectural archetyp e fo r th e genesi s o f th e nove l an d it s dynami c recreation b y th e reader. 32 Orgasm , th e ultimat e expressio n o f nature's physica l driv e t o multiply , remind s u s o f th e obviou s lin k between "create " an d "procreate. " Book s ar e th e resul t o f a writer's effort s t o cas t th e physica l an d spiritual—th e dua l aspect s of man's nature—into a pleasing and durabl e form . It is the dynami c qualit y o f Proust's novel that continue s t o attract readers , just a s the Narrato r wa s compelled t o examin e th e fountain a s bot h a wor k o f architectur e i n it s distant , abstrac t appearance an d a s a body o f (generally ) controlled , surgin g water . The exploratio n an d contemplatio n o f the fountai n i n it s simulta neously stati c an d kineti c state s i s muc h lik e th e readin g o f an y work o f art: we follo w th e line s that w e ar e given, ye t th e readin g is not constan t an d repetitive; ou r mind , lik e th e wind , ma y veer ; the collisio n o f drop s an d th e resultan t clou d o f mist forme d wil l vary from pag e t o pag e an d readin g t o reading ; an d yet th e expe rience wil l alway s remai n withi n certai n structura l line s lai d ou t by th e architec t o f la Recherche. I f the "mist " tha t collect s abov e the tex t appear s t o belon g t o th e fm-de-siecl e period , close r inspection reveal s tha t th e droplet s tha t for m th e mis t remai n youthful an d dynamic . Lik e Impressionis t painting , i n whic h th e image dissolve s i n a maz e o f brushstroke s o f pain t whe n th e observer draw s near , th e fountai n see n u p clos e reveal s th e dynamism o f its structural elements . The desire d synthesi s o f motion an d stasi s i s expresse d a t one poin t i n th e for m o f a maxim: "Le s trait s d e notr e visag e n e sont guer e qu e de s geste s devenus , pa r l'habitude , definitifs . L a nature, comm e l a catastroph e d e Pompei , comm e un e metamor phose d e nymphe, nou s a immobilises dan s le mouvement accou tume" (I , 909). 33 Desire , however , release s wha t ha s been immo bilized an d render s i t pure motio n again . Lif e i s a series o f energ y

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transferrals from th e stati c t o th e kinetic , an d vic e versa , a s is th e reading o f a book. Alon e o n th e shelf, a text i s static; placed in th e hands o f a reader, i t becomes active . Desire i s th e impetu s tha t set s i n motio n a person wh o i s immobile an d stabl e fo r others . Suc h i s th e cas e with th e actres s Rachel, wh o fo r Saint-Lou p become s a figure i n motion , a fugi tive being, but fo r th e Narrato r remain s th e frozen, flat imag e o f a cheap bawd . Thi s explain s th e parado x o f why th e Narrato r ca n see Rache l fo r wha t sh e reall y is , whereas Saint-Lou p neve r can , although h e suspect s tha t th e photograph s h e ha s take n wit h hi s own hand-hel d Koda k camer a d o no t d o he r justic e (I , 783 ) .3 4 Proust make s th e sam e poin t concernin g Albertin e i n a paralle l scene, where th e Narrator , abou t t o sen d Saint-Lou p t o Tourain e to brin g bac k th e fugitiv e Albertine , i s reluctant t o sho w hi m a recent photograp h o f th e gir l wh o ha s totall y disrupte d hi s lif e because h e know s tha t hi s friend wil l onl y se e th e effig y o f wha t to a n unobsesse d perso n mus t b e a fairl y ordinary-lookin g gir l (III, 436-37) . In th e cas e o f the grandmother' s photograph , th e snapsho t looks entirel y differen t t o th e Narrato r tha n t o hi s mother; h e see s only hi s grandmothe r a s sh e appeare d t o hi m tha t da y o n th e beach, wherea s hi s mothe r see s th e shado w o f th e grandmother' s illness and impendin g doom . I n thi s case , experience an d point o f view ar e th e onl y relative factors , sinc e both th e Narrato r an d hi s mother stud y the sam e frozen image. 35 Proustian characterization , in thi s regard , i s trul y modern—Einsteinia n throug h th e us e o f relativity, a s Edmund Wilso n an d other s hav e pointe d out . With out th e technique s o f arreste d motio n an d relativ e poin t o f view, it woul d no t b e possibl e t o presen t tw o opposin g view s o f th e same object . Proust's method o f characterization, particularl y i n relatio n to facial traits , is compared b y Geral d Cahe n t o tha t o f Balzac, chez qu i le visage es t deja tou t entie r conten u dan s le Nom. L a physiognomie , scienc e venere e pa r Balzac , donne a Tecrivai n l a matier e absolu e d'u n dieu -

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createur; quan d che z Proust, a u contraire , le visage est le mystere qu'aucune science des Noms ne saurait a priori et objectivement capter.36 With Proust , physiognomy—th e scienc e o f observing a static fac e that ca n b e rea d onc e an d fo r all 37—is replace d b y th e perilou s and troublesom e observatio n o f faces see n in multiple perspective s or i n fragmented sections , Balzac' s metho d i s stati c an d absolute , whereas Proust' s i s kinetic an d relative . I n th e twentiet h century , narrators an d reader s n o longe r fee l comfortabl e bein g prescien t and omniscient . The spee d o f character s travelin g throug h space-tim e i n Proust's univers e wil l resul t i n tw o dominan t image s fo r th e famous "ba l d e tetes " scen e i n th e concludin g page s o f th e novel: th e los s o f spee d an d th e vacillating , vertica l motion s o f the elderly , wh o wil l soo n toppl e int o thei r graves . Ag e ha s slowed th e character s dow n an d totall y transforme d them , a s w e see i n th e cas e o f a formerl y nimbl e waltze r whos e physica l agility ha s diminishe d considerably , resultin g i n a n enormou s body an d eve n alterin g he r se x ("substitue r a la leger e blond e c e vieux marecha l ventripotent" ) (III , 939) . Th e space-tim e tra versed b y th e character s i s represented verticall y b y th e imag e o f the ol d peopl e bestridin g th e lon g year s the y hav e live d a s though o n tal l stilts . Th e vibrant , dynamic , muscula r forwar d motion o f yout h ha s becom e th e tottering , perilous , vertica l movement o f ol d ag e a s th e grav e yawn s fo r thos e o f th e Nar rator's generation . As we shal l se e i n th e concludin g chapter , Prous t achieve s the Herculea n tas k o f dramatizin g th e infiniment petit an d th e infinitnent grand, demonstratin g tha t th e sam e law s operat e i n nature o n th e cosmi c an d huma n scales . Fo r Proust , scienc e an d art ar e perfectl y wedded ; th e glamou r o f natur e derive s from th e precision an d harmon y o f its laws, whereas th e visio n an d beaut y of ar t derive s from th e revelatio n o f ne w law s an d ne w world s that ar e cas t i n permanen t form . La Recherche present s u s wit h the transitor y experience s o f a numbe r o f character s who , i n

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variations o n the central Proustian themes, prove both th e repetitive and diverse nature o f life. Proust was as intent a t representing the dynamic s of life as were th e Futurists , but hi s vision was universal and comprehen sive, unlik e tha t o f th e Futurists , wh o i n thei r iconoclasti c zea l rejected th e past and traditional art , failing t o se e how it s docu mentary aspect, its persistent energ y and beauty, could be revitalized and made to serve contemporary needs. Louis Boll e compare s Prous t wit h Zen o o f Elea , th e Greek philosopher, who though t th e absolute was to be found i n the being , unifie d an d unchanging. 38 Bu t i t seem s mor e likely , based o n text s from the novel, tha t Proust want s to have it bot h ways—to take a snapshot and represent within it the constant flux of time—as in Elstir's paintings, wherein stasis and kinesis are both present, th e forme r i n th e permanence o f the material painting, the latter suggested by the painter's technique. This is why Proust wrote a circular novel—not a simple circular novel but a complex one. Proust' s circle s ar e no t repetitiv e an d superposabl e bu t expanding; not a ring that tilt s this way or tha t whil e remainin g the sam e ring, but th e seemingly endles s rings—occurring whe n a stone i s dropped into wate r o r i n th e kaleidoscopic an d varied lozenges o f a rose window — tha t reac h ou t t o infinit y I n th e Proustian schem e o f things, al l events are cosmic and everythin g about us and within us is in flux. The greates t effort th e Narrato r makes to arres t speed by seizing a fugitive bein g occur s when h e imprisons Albertine.

CHAPTER 5

The Prison fappelle id amour une torture rkriproque. (Ill , 109 ) Le corps enferme Vesprit dans uneforteresse. . . . (Ill , 1035 ) W h i l e Proust' s nove l continue s Balzac' s depictio n o f th e huma n comedy, la Recherche is also a divine comedy , th e spiritua l autobi ography o f a soul. I t i s th e stor y o f paradise los t an d regained : a child loses his will at Combray , experience s year s o f wandering i n the ari d socia l deser t i n pursui t o f mirages, an d finall y i s rebor n and ascend s t o a state o f tim e regained . Success , however , come s at th e pric e o f a long an d difficul t struggle . I n th e priso n sectio n of the novel , the mai n questio n becomes whethe r o r not th e Nar rator wil l fre e himsel f an d regai n hi s los t will . A la recherche du temps perdu here ha s resonance s o f it s alternat e meaning , namely , temps perdu as wasted tim e o r a lost life . Proust's young , naiv e narrato r believe s i n absolute s an d thinks tha t h e wil l find i n th e worl d th e idea l representative s o f beauty, love , an d socia l prestige. 1 Instead , a s he struggle s t o find his wa y throug h th e labyrint h o f life, h e encounter s vanity , cru elty, and othe r evil s that caus e him sufferin g an d contribut e t o hi s dystopian vision . Amon g th e grea t reversal s tha t occu r i n th e novel ar e his loss o f will an d th e discover y tha t th e value s o f society ar e th e opposit e o f thos e hel d b y hi s mothe r an d grand mother. Value s are also reversed i n his exploratio n o f the world o f 93

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sexuality: lov e become s tortur e an d temple s ar e th e scen e o f satanic rites. The underworl d i s the world o f his childhood day s at Combray turne d upsid e down : "le s vrai s paradi s son t le s paradi s qu'on a perdus" (III , 870) . Midway throug h th e novel, i n th e sectio n calle d Sodome et Gomorrhe, the Proustia n ques t become s a tour o f hell befor e th e Narrator ca n find hi s way home again : "L e poete es t a plaindre, e t qui n'est guide par aucun Virgile, d'avoir a traverser les cercles d'u n enfer d e soufre e t de poix, de se jeter dan s le feu qu i tombe d u cie l pour e n ramener quelque s habitants de Sodome" (III , 206). Proust explained t o Rober t d e Montesquiou tha t his purpose i n present ing th e differen t world s o f his huma n an d divin e comed y wa s a s follows: Sodome et Gomorrhe was intende d t o b e totall y differen t from th e volume s tha t precede d i t i n orde r t o presen t "ce t emou vant contrast e entr e un e poesi e d'ede n e t un e poesi e d'enfer." 2 This descen t int o th e underworl d i s usually obligator y fo r every perso n wh o undertake s th e quest , whethe r h e b e name d Ulysses, Aeneas , Dante , Leopol d Bloom , o r simpl y th e Narrator . A voyag e int o hel l i s a prerequisite t o th e joyful ascensio n a t th e end o f the nove l in Le Temps retrouvL Th e exploratio n o f hell, th e elements o f which ar e ofte n though t t o be beautiful a t first—soci ety wil l prov e t o b e a wastelan d an d lov e a trap—i s a n essentia l part o f his experience , on e tha t eventuall y allow s hi m t o en d hi s apprenticeship i n lif e an d formulat e a n aesthetic s an d a n ethic s a s he begin s t o regai n tim e lost . A t th e en d o f th e novel , whe n h e regains hi s wil l an d finally attain s th e artist' s vision, h e i s capabl e of convertin g th e negativ e aspect s o f his life's experienc e int o th e positive forces o f creativity . As we sa w in th e precedin g chapters , th e grea t accelerato r of th e Proustia n univers e i s desire : desir e fo r wome n wh o pas s i n the stree t o r o n th e beac h a t Balbec ; desir e fo r cities , whic h ar e most ofte n associate d with covete d women , suc h a s Balbec i n th e case o f Albertine. Th e Narrato r i s driven t o see k th e unknowable , the insaisissable. Whil e stil l young an d at the first stag e of his quest , he seek s throug h physica l possessio n a highe r knowledg e tha t

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belongs t o th e domain s o f mind an d art. H e continue s t o manifes t his displace d visio n b y seekin g absolute s i n th e rea l worl d rathe r than i n art , riskin g repeatin g Swann' s mistak e befor e eventuall y discovering th e role o f desire and sufferin g i n artisti c creation . H e will finall y reac h th e point—neve r attaine d b y Swann—o f com prehending an d transformin g hi s entir e experienc e int o knowl edge an d art. 3

Manias Many Proustia n characters , includin g th e Narrato r himself , exhibit variou s manias . Accordin g t o th e Oxford Classical Dictionary, the wor d "mania " i s derive d from th e nam e o f a grou p o f punishing deities , ki n t o th e Erinyes , calle d Mania i becaus e the y work by disturbin g th e mind . I n la Recherche, maniaca l behavior i s a form o f punishment sinc e suc h conduc t make s i t impossibl e fo r the perso n i n questio n t o functio n full y an d t o realiz e hi s o r he r potential a s a huma n bein g and , especially , a s a creativ e person . Proust ofte n present s obsessiv e behavio r a s th e ac t o f bein g enclosed, tethered , o r bound . Throughou t th e novel , imprison ment an d bondage ar e associated with failur e i n love and art . The character s wh o bes t illustrat e maniaca l behavio r ar e Aunt Leonie , Swann , Charlus , an d th e Narrator. 4 Aun t Leoni e i s a hypochondria c wh o refuse s t o leav e he r be d an d insist s o n th e exact repetition o f her saf e dail y routine: "[EUe ] n'avait plu s voul u quitter, d'abor d Combray , pui s a Combra y s a maison , pui s s a chambre, pui s so n li t e t n e 'descendait ' plus , toujour s couche e dans u n eta t incertai n d e chagrin , d e debilit e physique , d e ma ladie, d'ide e fixe e t d e devotion " (1 , 49). As a result o f her obses sion wit h he r health , Aun t Leoni e ha s turne d he r be d int o a prison cell. 5 There i s a tex t i n "Journee s d e lectures " o n neurastheni a that ca n serv e a s a commentar y o n th e precedin g one , especiall y with reference t o Proust' s us e o f "descendait." I n th e essay , neurasthenia i s blamed fo r th e lac k o f volition an d creativit y i n person s like Aunt Leonie :

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il existe certain s esprit s qu'o n pourrait compare r a ces malades Pes neurastheniques] e t qu'une sorte de paresse ou frivolite empeche d e descendr e spontanemen t dan s les region s profonde s d e soi-mem e o u commenc e l a veritable vie de T esprit. . . . [les neurastheniques] vivent a la surface dan s un perpetuel oubli d'eux-memes, dan s une sort e d e passivite qu i les rend l e jouet d e tous les ... . , 179) plaisirs.(V Swann, wit h hi s frivolou s behavio r an d hi s "paress e d'esprit, " remains forever th e dilettant e an d canno t descen d into himself . A t the en d o f Le Temps retrouvi, once th e Narrato r i s endowe d wit h the creator' s vision , hi s min d i s describe d a s a "rich e bassi n minier" tha t he wil l exploi t for hi s work (III , 1037). 6 Aunt Leonie , wh o ca n neithe r ris e no r descend , i s pre sented a s a machine o f perpetua l horizonta l motion , trappe d i n the gear s o f her weaknesse s an d mania s an d unabl e t o se t hersel f free. He r behavio r remind s he r nephe w o f a water lil y h e alway s sees on hi s walks in Combra y Th e lil y is held fas t a t th e en d o f its long ste m an d i s tosse d bac k an d fort h i n th e curren t o f th e Vivonne River : "comm e u n ba c actionn e mecaniquement , i l n'abordait un e riv e qu e pou r retourne r a cell e d'o u i l etai t venu , refaisant eternellemen t l a doubl e traversee " (1 , 168) . Th e teth ered, perpetual-motio n lily , h e realizes , represent s hi s aun t an d others like her, caugh t i n th e mesh o f their obsession s an d lackin g the willpowe r necessar y t o alte r thei r condition s an d lea d a pro ductive life . I n fact, h e discovers an ironic note i n their struggl e i n that thei r occasiona l feeble effort s t o correc t thei r behavior suppl y the tensio n tha t power s th e mechanis m i n which the y ar e caught : "pris dan s Tengrenag e d e leur s malaise s e t d e leur s manies , le s efforts dan s lesquels il s se debatten t inutilemen t pou r e n sorti r n e font qu'assure r l e fonctionnemen t e t fair e jouer l e decli c d e leu r dietetique etrange , ineluctabl e e t funeste " (1 , 169). This complet e abdicatio n o f sel f t o th e tyrann y o f habi t and securit y i s a weakness illustrate d b y Swan n an d th e her o i n their respectiv e lov e affairs . I n comparin g Aun t Leoni e t o th e

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mechanical wate r lily , Proust say s that th e lil y i s like th e damne d that Dant e sa w i n hell : "[c e nenuphar , parei l a quelqu'u n de ] ce s malheureux don t l e tourmen t singulier , qu i s e repet e inde finiment duran t Teternite , excitai t la curiosit e d e Dant e . . . " (I , 169). Thi s observatio n serve s a s a warning t o th e young Narrato r to b e o n hi s guar d agains t hi s ow n foible s an d t o strengthe n hi s will. I t i s a warning tha t h e i s unable, fo r th e mos t part , t o heed . Weaknesses, whethe r inherite d o r acquired , ar e presen t i n us — potentially a t least—an d throug h th e insidiou s working s o f habi t they permi t th e establishmen t o f patterns o f mechanical behavio r that ar e self-perpetuating an d destructiv e t o th e victim . Desire, especiall y whe n heightene d o r aggravate d b y jealousy, also cause s obsessive behavior. Swann , Charlus , and the Nar rator al l struggle t o overcom e variou s form s o f sexua l temptatio n and jealous obsession . Charlu s i s weakened an d finally destroye d by hi s homosexua l lust , just a s Swan n squander s hi s energ y an d imagination i n his relendess pursuit o f Odette. Swann' s infatuatio n is largely provoke d b y hi s ow n irrationa l jealousy, whic h prevent s him from dealin g effectivel y wit h hi s amorou s dilemma , an d b y his mistakin g ero s fo r aesthetics . Th e protagonis t wil l eventuall y succeed i n larg e par t becaus e h e i s abl e t o free himsel f from th e sort o f obsessive behavior tha t cause s Swann an d Charlu s t o fai l as creative persons . Thes e tw o olde r friends an d mentor s ar e i n many way s admirabl e an d brillian t men , bu t the y lac k th e willpower an d vision necessar y t o preven t the m from succumbin g to eroti c an d social temptations . A simila r debilitativ e patter n o f behavior i s foun d i n th e Narrator's relationshi p wit h Al b ertine. Love , an d th e ruse s t o which lov e force s u s t o hav e resort , i s presented a s a technique , a machine i n whos e gear s w e ge t caught , makin g i t impossibl e fo r us t o escape . A s wa s th e cas e wit h th e wate r lily , ou r struggle s only serv e t o bin d u s mor e tightly : "l'amour , suivan t un e tech nique infaiUible , reserr e pou r nou s d'u n mouvemen t altern e Tengrenage dan s leque l o n n e peu t plu s n i n e pa s aimer , n i etr e aime" (1 , 927).

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In hi s jealou s obsessio n wit h Albertine , th e Narrato r believes tha t he ca n possess her full y an d a t the sam e time preven t anyone els e from doin g s o i f he imprison s her . Bu t th e resul t o f this arrangemen t i s onl y adde d frustration an d boredom , fo r h e becomes he r prisone r a s much a s she i s his, sinc e h e mus t b e he r guard an d interrogator : "J'etai s plus maitre qu e je n'avai s cru . Plu s maitre, c'est-a-dir e plu s esclave " (III , 157) . Loui s Gautier-Vignal , who kne w Prous t wel l just afte r Agostinelli' s death , discount s th e notion tha t th e chauffeu r serve d a s th e mode l fo r th e prisoner , claiming tha t i t wa s Prous t wh o ha d becom e th e prisone r o f hi s own healt h an d habits. 7 During th e quest , th e protagonist' s greates t fea r i s that h e will becom e lik e Leonie , totall y lackin g i n will , makin g i t impossible fo r hi m t o becom e a n artist . A t hi s lowest poin t i n La Prisonnifre, when th e Narrato r see s tha t hi s vita l energ y i s wan ing becaus e h e ha s give n i n t o jealous passio n an d allowe d him self t o becom e a sickly recluse , sufferin g from a disintegratio n o f will an d lac k o f curiosit y abou t anythin g excep t th e possibl e betrayals o f Albertine , h e realize s tha t h e ha s becom e Aun t Leonie (III , 79). 8 Heredity, th e biologica l for m o f habit , ca n b e on e o f th e most deleteriou s force s from whic h i t i s difficult , i f not impossi ble, t o escape . W e recal l tha t Swann' s lac k o f wil l i s explaine d by hi s inherite d weaknes s o f concentration . Ther e i s a mode l whom th e Narrato r consider s t o b e th e perfec t embodimen t o f will an d goodness : hi s grandmother. 9 Th e grandmothe r an d th e mother ar e sai d t o b e th e las t representative s o f th e Combra y race: "l a rac e d e Combray , l a rac e d'o u sortaien t de s etre s abso lument intact s comm e m a grand'mer e e t m a mere , sembl e presque eteint e . . . " (I , 746) . Bu t h e find s himsel f linked , through heredit y an d obsession , t o th e perso n o f th e wron g female relative : Aun t Leonie . Sh e i s a tota l egotist , whic h i s als o how h e see s himsel f i n hi s lethargic , jealou s dependenc y upo n Albertine. Th e grandmother , identifie d wit h th e steepl e o f Combray an d th e aviator , i s undeterre d b y th e rai n a s sh e walk s

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in th e garde n a t Combray , surreptitiousl y removin g stake s from the ros e trees . Sh e represent s courage , independence , natura l distinction, an d energ y There i s anothe r exampl e i n whic h a nephew i s trappe d by th e inherite d weaknes s o f a n uncle . Prous t explain s Saint Loup's unexpecte d conversio n t o homosexuality , i n part , a s th e result o f hereditary factors transmitte d throug h Charlus . Althoug h this i s a fanciful bi t o f genetic theory , i t i s consistent wit h Proust' s general atavism i n th e novel. Hi s observatio n abou t th e kinship o f Charlus an d Saint-Lou p applie s just a s easily to th e Aun t Leonie Narrator relationship : " O n n'es t pa s toujour s impunemen t l e neveu d e quelqu'un " (II , 695). Obsession ca n eve n alte r one' s sex . Thi s i s what ha s hap pened t o Charlus , wh o wa s onc e a virile, athletic 10 homosexua l but ha s now becom e a woman trappe d i n a man's body a s a result of his constan t yearnin g fo r othe r me n ("l a femm e qu'un e erreu r de l a natur e avai t mis e dan s l e corp s d e M . d e Charlu s . . .") . As the Narrato r observes , le changemen t qu e nou s marquon s ic i etai t d'origin e spirituelle. A force d e se croir e malade , o n le devient , on maigrit , o n n' a plu s l a forc e d e s e lever, o n a des ententes nerveuses . A force d e penser tendrement au x hommes, o n devien t femme , e t un e rob e postich e entrave vo s pas. L'ide e fixe peu t modifie r (auss i bie n que, dans d'autres cas, la sante) dans ceux-la le sexe. (II, 908-9)

The Loss of Will The Narrato r first kne w jealou s anguis h a s a chil d a t Combra y when Swann , the n a stranger t o him , cam e t o din e wit h hi s fam ily. Force d t o g o t o be d earl y o n suc h occasions , th e chil d coul d hear hi s mothe r laughin g i n th e garde n wit h thi s strange r an d knew tha t sh e woul d b e unabl e t o com e kis s him goo d nigh t an d remain wit h hi m fo r a while i n his room, a s was her custom . Th e

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mother an d th e grandmothe r ar e greatl y concerne d abou t th e child's delicat e healt h an d hi s overdependenc e o n them . On e night whe n h e i s especiall y miserable , h e wait s u p fo r hi s mothe r and implore s he r t o remai n wit h him . Sh e doe s not wan t t o yiel d to hi s nervou s anxiety , bu t th e usuall y ster n fathe r tell s her t o d o so. Th e chil d i s relieved bu t awar e tha t h e ha s force d hi s mothe r to d o somethin g wrong . I n a kind o f premonition, th e Narrato r predicts tha t th e tear s o f anguis h tha t burs t fort h whe n h e wa s alone wit h hi s mothe r i n th e bedroo m wil l reverberat e through out hi s lif e (I , 37) . B y forcin g hi s mothe r t o yiel d t o hi s nervou s dependency, h e realize s tha t h e i s guilty o f matricide: "i l me sem blait qu e je venai s d'un e mai n impi e e t secret e d e trace r dan s so n ame un e premier e rid e e t d' y fair e apparaitr e u n premie r cheve u blanc" (I , 39). ^ H e wil l spen d th e rest o f his life tryin g t o recove r the wil l an d energ y h e los t tha t nigh t a t Combra y an d t o expiat e the wron g don e t o thos e he loves. 12 The dram a o f th e good-nigh t kis s i s generally though t t o be autobiographica l an d t o hav e take n plac e a t Auteuil , a Pari s suburb wher e a maternal uncle , Louis Weil, had a home a t 96, ru e La Fontaine. Whethe r o r not suc h a scene really took place hardl y matters; Proust' s grea t affectio n fo r an d dependenc y upo n hi s mother i s well documented . H e spok e o f this himself i n respond ing t o tw o questionnaire s fille d ou t whe n h e wa s approximatel y thirteen an d twent y years old. 13 Your idea of misery. — Etr e separ e d e maman. (V , 335) [The first questionnaire was in English.] Quel serait mon plus grand malheur. — N e pa s avoi r

connu ma mere ni ma grand-mere. (V , 337)

The Narrato r ofte n despair s because he lack s the disciplin e and powe r o f observatio n necessar y t o becom e a writer . Thi s weakness an d lac k o f confidenc e i s a recurrent them e throughou t the novel , soundin g right u p t o th e triumphant conclusion . Prous t recognized hi s ow n lac k o f will, referrin g t o i t twic e i n th e sec ond questionnaire :

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Mon principal difaut. —Ne pa s savoir , n e pa s pouvoi r 'vouloir'. Le don de la nature que je uoudrais avoir.—La volonte, e t des seductions. (V, 337) In La Prisonnifre, th e Narrato r describe s th e wil l as a shield agains t vices: "Le s vices sont u n autr e aspec t d e ce s existences monotone s que l a volont e suffirai t a rendre moin s atroces " (III , 44) . Lac k o f will i s th e greates t o f al l vices sinc e i t make s resistin g th e other s impossible (III , 836). Victor Brombert' s remar k abou t Baudelaire' s claustro philia applie s equall y t o Proust' s an d hi s Narrator' s conflictin g desires t o trave l an d ye t remai n cloistere d i n uterinelik e securit y within hi s cork-line d room : "I s [Baudelaire's ] claustrophili a no t largely du e t o passivit y and abdicatio n o f will power? Th e refuge chamber serve s t o exclud e an d protect . I t i s a correlativ e o f th e fear o f degradation , o f the sham e tha t come s wit h failure." 14 I n a letter writte n i n 1904 , th e novelis t spok e o f th e importanc e o f discipline t o th e artist : "J e ne croi s pas que la liberte soi t tre s util e a 1'artiste . .. la discipline ser a comme a u nevropathe entieremen t bienfaisante. E t l a disciplin e es t un e chos e fecond e e n soi meme quell e qu e soi t l a valeu r d e c e qu'ell e prescrit." 15 After th e fall , th e madeleine episod e an d othe r instance s o f involuntary memory hol d ou t th e promis e o f eventual salvation — but the y ar e onl y intermitten t an d brief. Mor e ofte n tha n not , h e is discouraged . Onc e th e yout h lose s hi s wil l an d witnesse s th e lesbian lov e scen e a t Montjouvain , th e paradisiaca l aspect s o f Meseglise giv e wa y t o inferna l associations . A s Miguet-Ollagnie r has observed , "l e doubl e chatimen t d u fe u e t d u delug e com mence a degrader l e cot e paradisiaqu e d e Meseglise. . . ," 16 Rous sainville, the scen e o f licentious orgie s for Gilberte , appear s t o th e Narrator a s a biblical cit y tha t i s chastise d o r redeeme d accordin g to effect s create d by th e weather : Roussainville, dan s le s mur s duque l j e n'a i jamai s penetre . . . tantot, quan d la pluie avait deja cess e pour

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nous, continuai t a etre chati e comm e u n villag e de la Bible pa r toute s le s lance s d e Torag e qu i flagellaient obliquement le s demeure s d e se s habitants , o u bie n etait deja pardonne par Dieu le Pere qu i faisait descen dre ver s lui , inegalemen t longues , comm e le s rayon s d'un ostensoi r d'autel , le s tiges d'or effrangee s d e so n soleil reparu. (I , 152) In Sodome et Gomorrhe, when th e Narrato r dream s o f hi s dead grandmothe r an d set s ou t t o fin d her , hi s descen t int o th e world o f slee p i s sai d t o b e Hades : "nou s nou s somme s embar ques su r le s flots noir s d e notr e propr e san g comm e su r u n Lethe interieu r au x sextuple s replis . . . " (II , 760). 17 H e fail s t o find he r becaus e h e doe s no t kno w he r address ; al l h e know s i s that sh e wh o love d th e ope n ai r an d freedo m o f movemen t i s enclosed i s a smal l roo m an d canno t budge . I n hi s nightmar e she becomes , i n he r presen t circumstances , th e opposit e o f he r former self . He r chie f concer n remain s tha t h e regai n hi s wil l and becom e a productiv e person . Hi s fathe r appear s i n th e dream t o reassur e hi m tha t hi s grandmothe r stil l believe s tha t he i s goin g t o writ e a book : " O n lu i a mem e di t qu e t u allai s faire u n livre . Ell e a par u contente . Ell e a essuy e un e larme " (II, 761) . In a n earlie r versio n o f thi s text , th e relationshi p amon g the grandmother' s death , hi s wil l an d abilit y t o work , an d he r existence i n th e afterlif e i s made explicit : "M a grand'mer e etai t dans la chambr e contigue , mo i je travaillai s a m a table , e t je m e disais: 'Enfin , ell e v a m e voi r travailler , ell e qu i T a tan t desire , e t avait fin i pa r desesperer , pa r renonce r pou r toujours. ' " 1 8 Ther e can be littl e doub t tha t suc h scene s ar e biographical i n origi n an d reflect parenta l anxiet y ove r Proust's inabilit y to selec t a professio n and lea d a productive life . I n a letter t o George s d e Lauris, Prous t expressed hi s regre t a t havin g accomplishe d s o littl e befor e th e death o f his parents : "Encor e vo s succe s votr e mer e pouvait-ell e les prevoir . L a mienn e es t mort e e n croyan t qu e j e n e m e releverais jamais."19

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La Recherche i s th e stor y o f man y failures , especiall y th e Narrator's failur e t o becom e a writer. Hi s lamentation s abou t hi s inability t o work an d his lack o f talent occu r throughou t th e nove l ("Je n e sui s pa s romancier . . . " [III , 379] ; "S i j'ai jamais p u m e croire poete , je sai s maintenant qu e je n e l e sui s pas " [III , 855]) . We read in som e o f the most poeti c pros e eve r written—in a dazzling tou r d e forc e combinin g acut e analysis , poeti c metaphors , and profoun d maxims—abou t th e ver y thing s tha t h e canno t observe an d describe . A larg e par t o f the novel' s energ y an d fasci nation derive s from thi s mirror trick : w e ar e reading th e boo k h e cannot write , althoug h b y th e en d o f th e nove l h e i s read y t o write th e idea l version o f what w e hav e read . Vladimi r Nabokov , who announce d bac k i n th e fifties tha t la Recherche was th e great est nove l o f th e firs t hal f o f th e twentiet h century , particularl y admired thi s optica l trick : The boo k tha t th e Narrato r i n Proust' s boo k i s supposed t o writ e i s still a book-within-the-book an d is not quit e In Search of Lost Time—just as the Narrator is not quit e Proust . . . . Within th e novel , th e Narrato r Marcel contemplates, in the last volume, the ideal novel he will write. Proust's work is only a copy of that ideal novel—but what a copy! 20 Proust insert s small , tantalizin g touche s i n th e nove l t o heighten th e impressio n tha t la Recherche i s not exactl y th e boo k the Narrato r wil l write . A t th e en d o f th e novel , Odette—no w that Bergotte , who m sh e protecte d fo r years , i s n o longe r alive—still hope s t o b e immortalize d i n literature . Havin g hear d that th e Narrato r intend s t o becom e a writer , th e lad y i n pin k hopes fo r a par t i n hi s drama . Sh e doe s no t mak e th e grade ! "Elle etai t mediocr e dan s c e rol e [l a maitress e d u du e d e Guer mantes] comm e dan s tou s le s autres . No n pa s qu e la vi e n e lu i en eu t souven t donn e d e beaux , mai s ell e n e savai t pa s le s jouer" (III , 1020). 21 H e indicate s tha t th e rol e sh e woul d lik e to pla y i n hi s futur e boo k i s no t th e on e tha t h e i s intereste d i n

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depicting. H e intend s t o "[degage r d'elle ] a so n ins u le s loi s d e sa vie" (III , 1023) .

Voyeurism Voyeurism i s part o f th e Narrator' s dystopia n experienc e i n tha t when he resorts to such a vision rather than to artistic modes of seeing, th e vie w obtaine d i s one o f hell rather tha n o f paradise. Th e three major voyeuristi c scenes in the novel reveal the secret world o f homosexuality, o r inverte d sex—inverte d her e both i n th e homo sexual and sadistic sense. Although th e encounte r between Charlu s and Jupien doe s no t contai n sadisti c behavior , th e noise s tha t th e protagonist hear s befor e h e climb s th e ladde r t o witnes s th e lov e scene ar e s o violent tha t h e think s a murder ma y b e takin g place : "j'aurais pu croir e qu'une personne e n egorgeait une autre a cote de moi e t qu'ensuite le meurtrier e t sa victime ressuscitee prenaient u n bain pou r efface r le s traces d u crime " (II , 609) . The Narrato r wit nesses private sexual acts of profanation an d sadis m by people wh o have yielded entirely to physical obsessions and who serve as foils o r negative examples , i n th e sam e way as the water lily. The aestheti c vision he seek s to attai n i s a transcending on e tha t wil l enabl e hi m to become a creator, whereas acts of voyeurism, especially vicarious participation i n sadisti c acts , ar e negativ e an d destructive . A visua l medium—photography—i s use d i n th e firs t an d most importan t o f th e voyeuristi c scenes . Sinc e it s invention , photography ha s ofte n bee n associate d wit h eroticis m an d eve n pornography. I n th e Proustia n universe , norma l photograph s ar e used i n scene s o f sexual encounter s tha t usuall y involv e sadis m o r other sexua l practice s the n generall y considere d taboo , suc h a s homosexuality. Ther e ar e als o example s o f innocuou s pho tographs use d i n eroti c scenes , use s whose danger s ar e mor e sub tle but nonetheles s real . S warm's habit o f embracing a photograp h of Botticelli' s paintin g o f Zephora whil e imaginin g tha t i t i s Odette h e i s pressin g agains t hi s bod y i s a n exampl e o f a photo graph use d a s an instrumen t i n a n eroti c ritua l wit h a heterosex ual background . A discree t iron y exist s whe n Swan n place s th e

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photograph o f Zephora on hi s desk , sinc e i t i s th e pursui t o f th e living incarnatio n o f thi s Botticell i creatio n tha t prevent s hi m from eve r completin g hi s study o f Vermeer (I , 225). The first voyeuristi c scen e occur s when th e young Narra tor i s ou t fo r a strol l i n th e wood s nea r Combra y an d chance s upon Mil e Vinteui l an d he r lesbia n lover , referre d t o i n th e nove l only as "her friend. " Monsieu r Vinteuil , unknow n a s a composer , dotes o n hi s daughter , makin g th e grea t sacrific e o f abandonin g the revisio n an d transcriptio n o f his composition s i n orde r t o cre ate a happy, respectabl e futur e fo r he r (I , 160) . Timidl y seekin g fame a s a musician, h e instea d become s notoriou s i n th e conser vative communit y because o f the sexua l misconduct o f his daugh ter. Whe n h e die s o f chagri n becaus e o f her actions , sh e i s guilt y of parricide. Prous t depict s i n th e figure o f th e compose r a cre ative perso n wh o i s destroye d physicall y b y hi s daughter' s sexua l misconduct rathe r tha n by his own . VinteuiTs shynes s i s demonstrate d b y th e fac t tha t although h e want s t o b e recognize d fo r hi s compositions , h e cannot brin g himsel f t o admi t tha t i t i s he wh o place s th e sheet s of his wor k o n th e pian o befor e eac h visi t pai d b y th e Narrator' s parents. O n thes e occasion s h e pretend s no t t o kno w wh o pu t the musi c there . Hi s remar k t o thi s effec t become s a stock phras e in th e lov e ritua l between th e tw o girls , who plac e a photograp h of Vinteui l o n th e tabl e befor e the m a s a prelud e t o thei r amorous rites , whic h th e prudis h fathe r i n th e pictur e i s force d to witnes s an d whic h includ e spittin g o n th e photograph : "Oh , ce portrai t d e mo n per e qu i nou s regarde , je n e sai s pas qu i a p u le mettr e la , j'a i pourtan t di t ving t foi s qu e c e n'etai t pa s s a place" (I , 162 ; se e als o I , 113) . For a lon g time , i t appear s tha t Mil e Vinteui l ha s kille d both th e physica l ma n an d hi s creativ e legacy . Prous t pose s th e question a s t o whethe r th e compose r wil l eve r ge t hi s du e {son salaire) (I , 160 , 163) . This remark , too , becomes par t o f the ritua l as th e girl s moc k VinteuiT s ambitio n t o b e a n artist . Th e rewar d for hi s musica l creation s i s the friend's desecratio n o f th e father' s

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photograph, thu s profanin g VinteuiT s image. 22 Th e girls ' scan dalous behavior i s compounde d b y th e fac t tha t the y continu e t o engage i n thei r eroti c rites while i n full mournin g shortl y afte r hi s death. Mil e Vinteuil i s a good person , w e ar e told, i n spit e o f her self; sh e i s saved b y natura l goodnes s inherite d from he r father . For suc h persons , i t i s not evi l tha t make s the m see k pleasur e bu t pleasure tha t seem s evil: Ce n'est pas le mal qui lui donnait l'idee du plaisir, qu i lui semblai t agreable ; c'es t l e plaisi r qu i lu i semblai t malin. E t comme , chaqu e foi s qu'ell e s' y adonnait , i l s'accompagnait pou r ell e de ce s pensees mauvaises qu i le reste du temps etaient absentes de son ame vertueuse, elle finissaitpar trouver au plaisir quelque chose de diabolique, par Tidentifier a u Mal.23 (I , 164) Nor i s she guilty o f what Prous t call s "cette indifferenc e au x souf frances qu'o n caus e . . . [c e qu i est ] l a form e terribl e e t perma nente d e la cruaut e . . . " (I , 165) , indicating tha t sh e is remorsefu l for havin g destroye d her father . Witnessing th e lov e scene betwee n Mil e Vinteui l an d he r friend i s one o f the Narrator' s act s for whic h h e feel s mos t guilty . It i s a scen e tha t wil l retur n t o haun t hi m an d caus e hi m grea t anguish whe n Albertine , thinkin g tha t sh e will please an d impres s him becaus e o f his admiratio n fo r th e composer , reveal s tha t sh e spent a lo t o f tim e wit h th e musician' s daughte r an d he r friend when sh e was growing u p an d was practically a sister t o them . Some commentator s se e la Recherche a s Proust' s ow n penance fo r wrong s don e t o love d ones . Suc h a view i s supporte d by similaritie s between Proust' s lif e an d thi s incident i n th e novel . Mile Vinteui l resemble s he r fathe r just a s Proust di d hi s mother . There i s als o testimon y tha t Prous t displaye d a t a mal e brothe l photographs o f friends wh o wer e grande s dame s o f Parisian soci ety, an d tha t th e mal e prostitute s allegedl y spa t o n th e picture s i n Proust's presence . Thi s wa s th e brothe l tha t th e novelis t helpe d t o establish an d t o whic h h e sen t som e o f th e famil y furnitur e i n

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another ac t o f profanation. I n th e novel , furnitur e inherite d from Aunt Leoni e i s sen t t o a femal e brothe l (I , 578) . Ther e i s als o a passage where th e Narrato r ha s a nightmare i n which he perform s a sadistic ac t agains t hi s parents; suc h vision s are , he says , inheren t in th e family pictur e albu m (II , 87). To date , ther e i s n o compellin g evidence , however , tha t this scen e i s biographica l i n origin . Georg e Painte r say s tha t Proust ha d th e ac t o f spittin g performe d o n a photograph o f hi s mother an d cite s a s proof a n articl e b y Mauric e Sach s written o n the occasio n o f Alber t L e Cuziat' s death . Th e latte r wa s on e o f the chie f model s fo r Jupie n i n tha t h e se t u p a brothel , wit h Proust's help , o f th e typ e describe d i n th e nove l a s having bee n created b y Jupien fo r Charlu s (III , 867) . However , contrar y t o Painter's assertions , ther e i s nothing i n th e source s cite d b y hi m that state s tha t suc h a ritual o f profanatio n wa s performe d o n a photograph o f Proust's mother. 24 In hi s boo k Le Sabbat, Sachs writes : "[Proust ] faisai t pre parer u n plei n carto n d e photographies d'amie s illustre s o u chere s qu'on presentai t a un jeune gar^o n prealablemen t sermonne , . . . gar^on bouche r . . . o u prostitu e qu i s'ecriait : 'alor s qu'est-c e que c'es t c't e poule-la? ' e n tiran t l e portrai t d e l a princess e d e C***. . . ." Sachs does not mentio n Proust' s mother a s a victim o f profanation i n eithe r account , bu t h e doe s spea k o f la Recherche as a shrin e t o th e mother : "[Proust ] croyai t e n u n paradi s qu i s e vivait dan s le ventre d e l a mere e t jusqu'au sorti r d e l'enfance , ca r les delice s pou r lu i n'etaien t pa s dan s un e vi e a venir , mai s dan s une vie qu i avait ete e t qu i ne pouvai t plu s etr e jamais."25 In th e passage , referre d t o earlier , wher e Charlu s i s described a s having a woman' s sou l withi n a man' s body , Prous t speaks o f the topi c a s meriting a special chapte r t o b e calle d "Pro faned Mothers" : "peut-o n separe r entieremen t 1'aspec t d e M . de Charlu s d u fai t que , le s fil s n'ayan t pa s toujour s l a ressem blance paternelle , mem e san s etr e inverti s e t e n recherchan t de s femmes, il s consommen t dan s leu r visag e l a profanatio n d e leu r mere? Mai s laisson s ic i c e qu i meriterai t u n chapitr e a part : le s

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meres profanees " (II , 908) . W e d o no t kno w wha t Prous t in tended t o write i n the sectio n he provisionall y entitle d "Le s Meres profanees," bu t th e Vinteuil/Mll e Vinteui l episod e i s probably a good indication . Trace s o f thi s them e ar e foun d i n th e titl e "L e visage materne l dan s u n petit-fil s debauche, " use d b y Prous t i n Le Carnet de 1908, 26 th e first notebook o f la Recherche. Th e them e of parent s wh o ar e saddene d o r destroye d b y thei r childre n appears i n Proust's earlies t work . Matricide i s th e subjec t o f tw o piece s tha t Prous t wrote , one fictional ("L a Confessio n d'un e jeune fille" [IV , 85-92]) , th e other a n accoun t o f a rea l matricid e ("Sentiment s filiau x d'u n parricide" [V , 150-59]) . I n th e shor t story , th e heroin e combine s elements tha t wil l b e attribute d t o th e Narrato r an d Mil e Vin teuil: sh e adore s he r mother , depend s upo n he r good-nigh t kis s for happines s (IV , 86 , 94) , an d lack s wil l an d resolv e (IV , 90) . Although sh e love s he r mothe r an d want s t o pleas e her , sh e causes th e mothe r t o di e o f shoc k a s a resul t o f he r scandalou s sexual conduct . Expressin g remorse , afte r a faile d suicid e attempt, i t seem s t o he r tha t "j e faisai s pleure r Tam e d e m a mere, Tam e d e mo n ang e gardien , Tam e d e Dieu " (IV , 95) . What sh e fear s mos t i s tha t he r mothe r sa w he r "transfigure e e n bete" unde r th e spel l o f voluptuousnes s whe n sh e looke d through th e windo w from th e balcony . Sh e feel s guilt y abou t he r behavior an d realize s tha t sh e ha s kille d somethin g goo d withi n herself a s well : "dan s tou t act e voluptueu x e t coupable , i l y a autant d e ferocit e d e la par t d u corp s qu i jouit , e t qu'e n nou s autant d e bonne s intentions , autan t d'ange s pur s son t martyrise s et pleurent " (IV , 95) . Sh e know s tha t sh e wil l di e soo n from he r self-inflicted wounds . Proust wrote th e piece "Sentiment s filiaux d'u n parricide " for Le Figaro. A n acquaintanc e o f his, Henr i va n Blarenberghe , a n apparendy stable and responsible young man, stabbed his mother t o death in a rage and then sho t himself. After describin g this traged y and th e them e o f patricide i n classica l Greek play s such a s CEdipus Rex, Prous t returns to the general social theme o f parents as victims

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of their children : "nou s vieillissons , nou s tuon s tou t c e qu i nou s aime par les soucis que nous lui donnons. . ." (V, 158). The them e o f th e profane d imag e run s throughou t th e novel and i s connected t o Vinteuil' s posthumous salvatio n throug h art. Nea r th e en d o f the novel, when th e Narrato r come s t o kno w VinteuiTs late masterpieces, th e shee t o f music o n th e pian o stan d is sai d t o resembl e a photograp h o f Vinteuil. 27 Thi s "musical " photograph contain s th e essenc e o f Vinteuil , hi s inne r bein g (le moi profond) an d this , rathe r tha n th e actua l profane d photograph , is the rea l portrai t o f the composer , a knowledge o f whose musi c is an integral part o f the hero' s ques t t o become a n artist . All the voyeuristi c scene s involv e a profaned imag e eve n i f a tangibl e on e i s not present , Charlu s i s th e mal e counterpar t o f Mile Vinteuil; he end s his days in abjec t degradatio n a s he contin ues t o wast e himself i n th e pursui t o f erotic an d sadisti c pleasures . By abandonin g himsel f entirel y t o th e pursui t o f sadisti c sexua l gratification, Charlus , whos e intelligence , sensitivity , an d talen t the Narrato r admires, 28 represent s no t onl y a profaned imag e o f his mother bu t o f the artist , o f the grea t ma n h e migh t hav e bee n and on e tha t th e protagonis t wil l late r become , havin g learne d from th e bad example s o f Swann an d Charlus . Vinteuil's musi c i s profane d b y Swan n an d Odette , wh o turn th e littl e phras e int o thei r nationa l anthem : "l e pianist e jouait, pou r eu x deux , la petit e phras e d e Vinteui l qu i etai t comme l'ai r nationa l d e leu r amour " (I , 218) . Swann , wh o beg s Odette t o pla y th e littl e phras e agai n an d again , kisse s he r con stantly a s she play s i t badly . Man y year s later , evokin g th e Swan n and Odett e o f the Verduri n salon , Bricho t refer s t o Swan n a s th e "prince consor t embourgeois e d e notr e Odett e nationale " (II , 894). 29 Thi s fits Proust's schem e o f presenting a woman wh o pro vokes jealousy a s the equivalen t o f an expans e o f tim e an d space . We not e agai n th e associatio n o f love an d geography : th e countr y of their lov e has it s ow n anthem . Th e analog y o f Odett e a s a ter ritory an d commo n propert y indicates , a s doe s th e us e o f th e phrase "notr e Odett e nationale " by othe r characters , tha t sh e wa s

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a prostitute. A distinctio n t o be mad e between th e Swann/Odett e relationship an d th e Narrator/Albertin e affai r i s that th e younge r man neve r trivialize s VinteuiT s musi c t o represen t an y aspec t o f their love . O n th e contrary , whe n th e Narrato r i s capable o f for getting hi s jealous obsession , h e turn s immediatel y t o VinteuiT s music becaus e h e realize s tha t it s secret s ar e fa r superio r t o hi s usual preoccupations . The ke y scen e i n th e Narrator' s relationshi p wit h Alber tine occur s a t a time whe n h e i s bored wit h he r an d consider s th e idea o f marriage t o be foolish . Hi s earlie r suspicion s abou t Alber tine Js lesbian tendencie s hav e bee n allaye d b y he r flirtations wit h Saint-Loup. Balbe c ha s become fo r hi m a serie s o f socia l obliga tions; i f h e eve r return s t o Mm e Verdurin' s salon , i t wil l b e t o study th e work s o f a musician whos e accomplishment s ar e wel l known t o th e hostess . Durin g th e trai n rid e bac k fro m th e Ver durins, h e decide s t o tel l Albertine tha t h e ca n n o longe r se e her . This scen e i s a turning poin t i n th e novel , rivalin g th e episod e o f the good-nigh t kis s in it s impact upo n th e Narrator' s life . As he begins to tell Albertine about his plans for th e future , he remark s tha t h e ha s had littl e pleasur e thi s summe r excep t fo r the work s o f this musician. Sh e accept s thi s tactless remark ou t o f deference t o hi s nervou s natur e an d ask s him t o nam e th e com poser. Th e superio r ton e wit h whic h h e replie s enhance s th e dra matic reversal he i s about t o experience : "M a petit e cherie , quan d je t'aura i di t qu'i l s'appell e Vinteuil , e n seras-t u beaucou p plu s avancee?" (II , 1114) . Albertine, thinkin g she will gai n favor i n hi s eyes, cannot wai t t o tel l him tha t sh e knows Mile Vinteuil an d he r friend, wh o was, in fact, practically a sister to her. The sudden shif t in hi s position i s ironic an d cruel . Th e Narrator , wh o though t h e was about t o ente r th e worl d o f self-reliance an d explor e th e cos mic an d exhilaratin g worl d o f VinteuiTs music , i s instead plunge d straightaway int o th e othe r Vinteui l world , th e dar k plane t o f homosexuality an d unendin g jealousy . Th e worl d o f Balbe c i s joined t o tha t o f Combray by th e dar k and trouble d passageway o f homosexuality an d sadis m rather tha n throug h th e luminou s an d

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joyous porta l o f art. Th e imag e o f the scen e a t Montjouvain, hel d in reserve for s o long, work s it s vengeance upo n hi m lik e Oreste s come t o aveng e th e murde r o f Agamemnon. H e probe s hi s con science an d believes tha t h e i s being punishe d fo r havin g allowe d his grandmother t o die. 30 He is aware that a terrible, new, and full y deserved life is beginning for him : les funestes consequence s qu e les actes mauvais engen drent indefiniment , no n pa s seulement pou r ceu x qu i les on t commis , mai s pou r ceu x qu i n'on t fait , qu i n'ont cru , qu e contemple r u n spectacl e curieu x e t divertissant, comm e moi, helas! en cett e fin de journee lointaine a Montjouvain, cach e derriere un buisson, o u (comme quan d j'avais complaisammen t ecout e l e recit des amours d e Swann) 31 j'avais dangereusement laiss e s'elargir e n mo i l a voi e funest e e t destin e e a etr e douloureuse du Savoir. (II, 1115) The Narrato r i s s o shocke d b y th e unsuspecte d relationshi p between Albertin e an d Mil e Vinteui l tha t h e determine s t o mak e Albertine hi s prisoner and , i f possible, his wife t o preven t a recur rence o f suc h behavior . H e recall s th e scene s tha t provoke d hi s jealousy an d fear o f women partakin g i n "inconcevable s joies" (II , 1121): hi s mothe r talkin g an d laughin g wit h stranger s i n th e gar den a t Combra y durin g his childhood ; Swan n looking desperatel y for Odett e i n nighttim e Paris ; an d no w hi s ow n suspicion s abou t Albertine an d Mil e VinteuiT s day s togethe r i n Trieste . A s h e focuses hi s jealous wrat h o n Trieste , i t become s a cit y h e wishe s to destroy , "un e cit e maudite qu e j'aurais voulu fair e bruler sur-le champ e t supprime r d u mond e reel . Cett e vill e etai t enfonce e dans mon coeu r comme un e poin t permanente " (II , 1121) . He accept s the revelatio n o f Albertine's possibl e lesbianis m as punishment for pas t sins: unkindness to his grandmother an d his guilt at having listened unsympathetically t o Swann's story of his life with Odette , durin g whic h th e Narrato r denie d tha t h e under stood the nature of jealousy. Also returning to haunt him is the guilt he fel t a t bein g a voyeur whe n h e witnesse d th e scen e o f profan e

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love betwee n Mil e Vinteui l an d he r friend , wh o ar e especiall y avenged i n th e perso n o f Albertine. Onc e th e terribl e discover y about Albertine and Mile VinteuiTs friendship has been made, a cataclysmic reversal takes place and the entire planet becomes a vision of hell, where al l space is occupied by jealous obsession : Albertine ami e d e Mil e d e Vinteui l e t d e so n amie , pratiquante professionnelle d u Saphisme, c'etait, aupre s de ce que j'avais imagine dans les plus grands doutes, ce qu'est a u peti t acoustiqu e d e l'Expositio n d e 1889 , dont o n esperai t a peine qu'i l pourrai t alle r d u bou t d'une maiso n a une autre, les telephones planant sur les rues, le s villes , le s champs , le s mers , relian t le s pays. C'etait un e terra incognita terrible ou je venais d'atterrir, une phas e nouvell e d e souffirance s insoup^onnee s qu i s'ouvrait. (II , 1115) Infinite desir e become s infinit e pai n a s he i s mired i n hi s jealous suspicions, whic h becom e omnipresent : "Gomorrh e etai t disper see au x quatr e coin s d u monde " (III , 23) . Hi s attempt s t o posses s Albertine durin g he r imprisonmen t wil l lead him t o experienc e a solitude tha t i s cosmic : "L'homm e es t retir e qu i n e peu t sorti r d e soi, qu i n e connai t le s autre s qu'e n soi , et , e n disan t l e contraire , ment" (III , 450). The greatl y accelerated movement create d by his desire fo r the girl s o n th e beac h an d hi s exploratio n o f societ y no w come s to a halt. Image s o f bondage predominate . H e i s overwhelmed b y the implication s o f th e Albertine-Vinteui l connection . B y com paring his worst fear s abou t Albertine' s lesbianis m t o th e primitiv e and unlikely telephon e displaye d at the Exposition o f 1889 , whic h rapidly develope d int o a globa l network , w e se e tha t instea d o f possessing th e time-spac e coordinate s o f a n enviabl e past , h e i s confronted wit h a proliferation o f sexual and perhap s eve n sadisti c contacts tha t ignit e hi s jealous suspicions . Just befor e th e momen t of revelatio n a t Parvill e station , h e ha d intende d t o abando n Albertine forever , bu t whe n sh e take s a few step s awa y from hi m and open s th e doo r o f the train , i t i s as though sh e rippe d a hol e

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in his heart an d walked int o it , s o total is his involvement wit h he r now I t i s she wh o ha s entere d int o tota l possessio n o f his being : "cette separatio n spatial e . . . n'etait qu'un e apparenc e . . . i l eu t fallu place r maintenan t Albertine , no n pa s a quelqu e distanc e d e moi, mai s e n moi" (II , 1116) . The imag e o f the doo r i s repeated later : "depui s m a bles sure d e Balbec , c'etai t dan s mo n cceur , a un e grand e profon deur, difficile h extraire, qu'etait l e doubl e d'Albertine " (III , 253 ; emphasis added) . I t wa s hi s intentio n t o choos e th e momen t o f rupture i n orde r t o maintai n withi n himsel f the sens e of happiness and th e las t vibration s o f th e voic e h e ha d rendere d amorou s (II , 835). Instead , h e i s shake n b y th e inferna l reverberation s o f th e train door. 32 As h e relive s i n hi s memor y th e scen e o f Mil e Vinteui l and he r frien d a t Montjouvain , i t i s now Albertin e wh o fall s int o Mile Vinteuil' s arms : "Derrier e Albertin e j e n e voyai s plu s le s montagnes bleue s d e l a mer, mai s la chambr e d e Montjouvai n o u elle tombait dan s les bras d e Mile Vinteuil ave c c e rire o u ell e fai sait entendr e comm e l e so n inconn u d e s a jouissance" (II , 1117) . The inferna l laughte r an d th e sadisti c chambe r tha t ha s replace d her norma l habitat—th e spaciou s mobil e blu e mountain s o f th e sea—indicate th e transformatio n o f Albertine fro m se a goddess t o Fury: "Comm e pa r u n couran t electriqu e qu i vou s meut , j'ai et e secoue pa r me s amour s . . . " (II , 1127) . N o w jus t whe n h e i s about t o asser t hi s independence an d begin t o wor k seriously , th e knowledge tha t Albertin e knew Mil e Vinteuil an d her friend pro vokes a relapse of the loss of will he suffere d a s a child at Combra y (II, 1130-31) . Th e brie f fourt h chapte r end s wit h hi s determina tion t o marr y Albertine . Afte r h e imprison s her , h e wil l b e a s dependent upo n he r presenc e an d caresse s a s h e wa s upo n hi s mother's a t Combray : "C'etai t u n pouvoi r d'apaisemen t te l que je n'en avai s pas eprouve d e pareil depui s les soirs lointains d e Com bray o u m a mer e penche e su r mo n li t venai t m'apporte r l e repo s dans un baiser " (III , 77). 33

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The Temple of Dishonor Charlus's attempt s t o se t up sadomasochisti c encounter s wit h sol diers o r butcher boy s become scene s o f black humor a s a result o f the discrepanc y betwee n hi s bruta l desire s an d reality. 34 H e an d Jupien— tw o purveyor s o f mal e flesh a t wor k i n wartim e Paris , only mile s from wher e on e o f th e larges t slaughter s i n militar y history wa s takin g place—canno t find a rea l brut e t o tortur e Charlus an d hur l insult s a t him. The y ca n onl y find tende r youn g men wh o half-heartedl y perfor m th e tas k o f flogging hi m i n orde r to ear n enoug h mone y t o sen d home t o hel p thei r poo r mothers , as Charlu s learn s muc h t o hi s disgust . Th e tragi c elemen t derive s from th e fac t tha t thi s "homm e spirituel " ha s give n himsel f ove r entirely t o concupiscenc e an d masochism . B y renouncin g thing s of th e spiri t fo r pursui t o f th e flesh, Charlu s ha s accepte d hi s destruction b y becomin g a willin g victi m t o hi s lust : "c e Pro methee consentant s'etait fai t cloue r pa r l a Forc e a u roche r d e l a pure Matiere " (III , 838 ; emphasis added). 35 This abandonmen t o f will and self-respec t make s o f Char lus a dystopia n versio n o f Prometheus . Accordin g t o Chanta l Robin, Charlu s exprime avan t tou t l e dram e d e 1'homm e livr e au x puissances d u mal , de s passion s e t d e l a destruction . L'image d u Promethe e civilisateur , bienfaiteu r d e Thumanite s'inverse . Prous t associ e a u myth e prometheen l e malheu r d e Thumanit e attache e a u monde materiel e t perissable. . . . Charlus, au fond de s enfers . . . personnifie toute s les forces du mal. 36 Proust present s Charlus' s yielding t o hi s obsessio n a s "un e demence complete " (III , 838) . Thi s deplorabl e stat e wa s reache d by allowin g the habit o f physical gratificatio n t o stifl e th e voic e o f morality withi n him . I n hi s final word o n th e Guermante s broth ers, Prous t say s tha t al l thei r trouble s wit h mistresse s an d lover s stem from th e sam e lazines s an d lac k o f will , althoug h thes e deficiencies manifes t themselve s differentl y i n each : "Ains i le s

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deux fireres, s i different s dan s leur s gouts , etaien t arrive s a l a deconsideration a cause d'un e mem e paresse , d'u n mem e manqu e devolonte. . / ' ( I l l , 1016*) . Proust pai d Alber t L e Cuzia t t o le t hi m witnes s a flagellation a t th e brothel . Whe n th e write r returne d hom e tha t nigh t and recounte d hi s evenin g t o Celest e Albaret , sh e wa s horrifie d by what h e tol d her : Ma cher e Celeste , c e qu e j'ai vu c e soi r es t inimagi nable. J arrive d e che z L e Cuziat . . . . i l y avai t u n homme qu i se rend che z lui pour se faire flageller. . . . une espece de sale individu . . . et qu'on paie pour cela, lui tape dessus a coups de fouet, jusqu'a c e que le sang gicle d e partout. E t c'es t alor s seulemen t qu e l e mal heureux a la jouissance de tous ses plaisirs. . . . 3 7 Celeste expresse d he r disgus t wit h L e Cuziat , sayin g h e deserved t o di e i n prison . Proust , wh o foun d redeemin g qualitie s in everyone , pointe d ou t tha t L e Cuzia t adore d hi s mothe r an d did everythin g possibl e fo r he r whe n sh e wa s alive . Prous t evi dences th e sam e compassio n fo r hi s characters. 38 Th e Narrato r attributes thi s virtue i n himself to th e influenc e o f his mother an d grandmother: "j e tenai s d e m a mer e e t d e m a grand'mer e d'etr e incapable d e rancun e . . . e t d e n e jamais condamne r personne " (I, 746) . I n spit e o f hi s homosexuality , Charlu s worshipe d hi s wife, althoug h he late r boasted that , durin g her funera l service , h e obtained th e nam e an d addres s o f a choirboy he hope d t o seduce , thus profanin g he r memor y whil e i n th e ac t o f commemoratin g her demis e (II , 954). 39 Durin g th e protagonist' s exploration s o f the brothel, h e make s additional discoverie s about huma n deprav ity an d socia l hypocrisy; i t i s here tha t Saint-Lou p lose s his Croi x de guerre . On e o f th e regula r worshiper s i n Jupien's templ e o f sexuality i s a priest wh o i s alway s aske d t o contribut e t o th e col lection plat e (III , 829). Proust call s homosexual s "un e rac e maudite, " bu t i t i s t o be note d tha t th e experienc e o f erotic love , whether heterosexua l

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or homosexual , lead s nowhere . Swann , whos e heterosexualit y i s never doubted , pursue s Odette , squanders his talents, and ruins hi s life.40 Th e abandonmen t o f one' s tru e goal , no t a condemnatio n of homosexuality, i s the mora l lesso n la Recherche teaches. Proust' s reason fo r usin g th e designatio n "accurse d race " seem s t o b e a recognition o f society's persecutio n o f homosexuals sinc e ancien t Greece rathe r tha n a n ethica l judgment.41 Thi s i s borne ou t b y a number o f passages in th e nove l and by Proust's couplin g th e Jews with homosexual s a s victims o f prejudice. World Wa r I i s depicte d i n Le Temps retrouui i n wha t wa s originally intende d t o b e a sectio n o f Sodome et Gomorrhe. The episode wher e th e homosexual s from Jupien' s establishmen t tak e refuge i n a subwa y tunne l durin g a n ai r raid , a s wel l a s th e las t voyeuristic scen e immediatel y following , wher e Charlus , chaine d naked t o a n iro n be d i n th e brothel , i s bein g flogged b y a young butche r boy , ar e al l apocalypti c scenes. 42 "T u n'a s qu' a penser quell e chos e cosmiqu e serai t un e guerr e aujourd'hui . C e serait plu s catastrophiqu e qu e l e Dttuge e t l e Gotterddmmerung" (II, 412) . War , th e ultimat e evil , become s globa l fo r th e first time i n history . During th e ai r raid , whic h evoke s Wagner' s "Rid e o f th e Valkyries," th e homosexua l lover s continu e thei r tryst s i n th e darkness o f th e undergroun d metro , wher e the y hav e sough t shelter from th e Germa n bombs . Prous t make s allusion s t o Pom peii, anothe r cit y associate d wit h eroticis m an d destructio n b y fire. I n fact , a t Jupien's brothe l Charlu s link s Sodo m an d Gomor rah an d Pompei i whe n h e point s ou t tha t th e name s o f thos e two biblica l citie s were inscribe d o n th e wal l o f a house i n Pom peii (III , 807) . A fe w page s later th e allusio n i s concretize d whe n the Narrato r enter s th e brothe l an d notice s tha t th e wall s ar e covered wit h "peinture s pompeiennes " (III , 837*) , whic h nicel y reverses th e order : no w th e templ e o f Sodo m ha s Pompeii n images scrawle d o n it s walls, making th e sam e point, namely , tha t people wh o abando n themselve s entirel y t o lus t ris k mora l an d physical destruction .

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Jealousy and Suffering nous ne vivons qu'avec ce que nous n'aimons pas, que nous n'avonsfait vivre avec nous que pour tuer Vinsupportable amour, qu'il s'agisse d'une femme, d'unpays, ou encore d'unefemme enfermant unpays. (Ill , 98 ) each man kills the thing he loves. . . . —Oscar Wild e Erotic lov e o f whateve r kin d i s alway s a sourc e o f anguis h i n la Recherche. I t seem s that Prous t migh t hav e ha d a demonstration o f La Rochefoucauld's maxi m (LXXII ) i n min d a s he develope d hi s own theor y o f love: "S i o n juge d e l'amou r pa r l a plupar t d e se s effets, i l ressemble plu s a la haine qu' a l'amitie." 43 Although th e proble m o f desir e an d sexualit y i s apparen t throughout th e novel , homosexua l an d sadisti c manifestation s ar e concentrated i n th e volum e entitle d Sodome et Gomorrhe. Proust chose th e tid e a s a direc t referenc e t o th e biblica l citie s tha t wer e destroyed b y fire becaus e o f th e wicke d act s o f thei r inhabitants . Desire, sexuality , an d jealousy ar e associate d b y th e autho r wit h the Judeo-Christian concep t o f hell, th e mai n element s o f whic h are cruelty , guilt , suffering , an d despair . I n th e Narrator' s case , as we hav e seen , sufferin g take s th e for m o f intens e jealous y a t Albertine's presume d betrayal s an d th e guil t h e feel s fo r bot h hi s grandmother's an d Albertine' s deaths , althoug h h e wa s powerles s to preven t them . Th e terribl e jealousy fro m whic h h e suffer s i n Sodome et Gomorrhe, La Prisonnifre, an d La Fugitive is, a s the vari ous tide s indicate , a n inferna l experience . Swann' s jealousy i s also depicted a s a fall int o th e underworl d (I , 367) . Thos e who m w e desire flee us . Thi s flight an d betrayal—real o r imagined—greatl y increases ou r desire , an d th e onl y relie f is to impriso n th e desire d person. But , alas , thi s captivit y lead s t o a n emotiona l an d mora l hell. 44 Jealousy, which cause d th e Narrator' s fal l an d los s of will at Combray, i s a manifestation o f Satan: La jalousie es t aussi un demo n qu i n e peut etr e exor cise, e t reparai t toujours , incarn e sou s un e nouvell e

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forme. Puissions-nous arriver a les exterminer toutes, a garder perpetuellement cell e que nous aimons, l'Espri t du Mai prendrait alors une autre forme, plus pathetique encore, l e desespoi r d e n'avoi r obten u l a fidelit e qu e par force, le desespoir de n'etre pas aime. (Ill, 103) Even before Albertine' s imprisonment , th e obsessiv e love r had understood tha t th e degre e o f his desire depende d upo n qual ities hi s ow n imaginatio n ha d bestowe d upo n her . I n hi s mor e lucid moment s h e realize s tha t i n seekin g t o gai n acces s t o th e mystery o f Balbe c b y possessin g Albertin e physically , h e aban doned th e pursui t o f th e artist' s visio n fo r tha t o f vain eroticism , "le desi r d'ell e etan t lui-mem e un e form e paresseuse , lach e e t incomplete d e possede r Balbec , comm e s i possede r materielle ment un e chose , faire s a residence d'un e ville , equivalai t a la posseder spirituellement . . . . " Th e Narrato r i s awar e tha t i n hi s attempts t o posses s Albertine h e i s using her a s a medium throug h whom h e hope s t o gai n acces s to Balbe c an d hi s past. H e consid ers her a magician, embodyin g th e essenc e o f Balbec: "Ell e sem blait un e magicienn e m e presentan t u n miroi r d u Temps. 45 . . . I I suffisait . . . qu'ell e etai t passe e che z mo i pou r qu e je l a reviss e comme un e ros e a u bord d e la mer" (II , 352). If homosexualit y an d sadis m ar e element s o f a n inverte d or dystopia n worl d tha t th e Narrato r glimpse s whe n h e observe s others, h e himsel f experience s th e hel l o f jealousy whe n h e dis covers Albertine' s lesbianism . Eve n a t th e beginnin g o f he r confinement, h e wa s awar e tha t sh e wa s onl y capabl e o f causin g suffering, no t joy, an d h e sough t t o loose n th e chai n tha t boun d them (III , 28) . Love , whic h h e stil l pursues a s a n idealistic , abso lute quality , i s transforme d int o scene s o f torture—usuall y crue l interrogations b y th e jealous lover . W e agai n se e th e importanc e of th e profaned-imag e moti f i n th e novel . Albertine , th e rosy cheeked gir l who , a s th e embodimen t o f Balbec , i s th e creatio n of th e Narrator' s ow n imagination , become s a profane d ange l during scene s o f jealous interrogation : "l a stabilit e d e natur e qu e nous lu i preton s n'es t qu e fictive. . . . l a ros e jeun e fille nou s

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tient, l a second e fois , le s propo s d'un e lubriqu e Furie " (III , 64 65). Lov e i s describe d a s a torren t o f sulfu r an d brimstone , an d his lif e wit h Albertin e i s characterize d a s a secre t hel l (III , 80 ) and mutua l torture : "J'appell e ic i amou r un e tortur e reci proque" (III , 109). 46 From th e momen t Albertin e reveal s he r connectio n wit h Mile Vinteuil—-jus t a t th e poin t whe n th e protagonis t wa s tryin g to decid e ho w t o brea k wit h her—an d hi s immediat e resolv e t o imprison her , thei r relationshi p first consist s o f jealousy an d tor ture, the n boredom , followe d b y meditation s o n ar t a s he begin s to thin k o f abandonin g her . Th e degre e o f his abilit y t o concen trate o n aestheti c thought s i s a n indicatio n o f th e exten t o f hi s recovery from hi s obsessio n wit h her , o f a move towar d Utopia — freedom, energy , aestheti c curiosity , an d abov e all , th e urg e an d determination t o create : "L a musique , bie n different e e n cel a d e la societ e d'Albertine , m'aidai t a descendr e e n moi-meme , a y decouvrir d u nouveau . . . " (Ill , 159) . Bu t jus t a t th e momen t when h e i s abou t t o leav e Albertin e t o pursu e hi s artisti c voca tion, a ne w revelatio n o r suspicio n wil l surfac e concernin g he r past, present , o r futur e behavior , an d th e cycl e o f reciprocal tor ture wil l begi n agai n a s th e Narrato r abandon s ar t fo r eros . A s we hav e seen , hi s desir e t o occup y al l o f th e time-spac e coordi nates o f Albertine's bein g i s monstrous. Thi s impossible , megalo maniacal desir e interfere s wit h hi s artisti c meditation s an d pre vents hi m from working . Thus , th e creatio n o f work s o f art—often describe d a s separate , integra l world s o r planets—i s menaced b y th e fire o f ero s an d jealousy. As a result o f his experienc e wit h Albertine , a relationshi p is established between fugacit y an d jealousy tha t becomes a funda mental aspec t o f Proustia n desir e an d suffering : "quan d . . . je l a voyais prendr e s a bicyclette e t filer a tout e vitesse , je n e pouvai s m'empecher d e penser qu'ell e allai t rejoindre cell e a qui ell e avai t a pein e parle " (II , 853) . I n a tex t entitled , "Dialogues, " Prous t gives th e followin g definitio n o f jealousy: "etr e jaloux, c'es t ima giner l e plaisi r d'un e femm e qu e nou s aimons " (V , 434) . Fligh t

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from th e Narrato r become s hast e t o join another , th e riva l wh o will enjo y pleasure s tha t h e wil l neve r know . A furthe r explana tion fo r th e impossibilit y o f knowing th e loved on e i s the mytho logical division 47 o f th e androgyn e int o tw o separat e an d isolate d sexes: "Combienje souffrais de cette position oil nous a riduits Poubl i de l a nature qui , e n instituan t la division des corps, n' a pa s song e a rendre possibl e Tinterpenetratio n de s ames! " (Ill , 386 ; emphasi s added). Th e isolatio n o f a n individual , especiall y a n obsessivel y jealous person , withi n a single se x an d sou l result s i n tortur e an d confinement. Th e proble m o f jealousy i s further complicate d b y the Proustia n conceptio n o f successiv e selves , sinc e th e Narrato r finds tha t ther e ar e many differen t Albertine s abou t who m h e ca n be jealous. Thi s complexit y i s represented b y Prous t throug h pic torial analogies , snapshots , an d profiles : le nom de Le a m'avait fai t revoir , pou r e n etr e jaloux, 1'image d'Albertin e a u casin o pre s de s deu x jeune s filles. Ca r je n e possedai s dan s m a memoir e qu e de s series d'Albertin e separee s les unes des autres, incom pletes, de s profils, de s instantanes; auss i ma jalousie se confmait-elle a une expression discontinue, h lafoisjugitive et fixie, e t au x etre s qu i l'avaien t amene e su r l a figure d'Albertine. (Ill , 149 ; emphasis added) After Albertine' s death , sh e survive s i n hi s memor y i n a vital way because o f the jealousy that continue s to plague him a s it had whe n sh e was his prisoner. H e dispatche s a n agent , Aime , t o Balbec i n order to confir m hi s suspicions about her lesbian affairs ; Aime report s tha t Albertin e di d hav e relation s wit h som e o f th e women a t th e bathin g establishment . A s the Narrator , i n hi s sor row, muses ove r these betrayals, he sees Albertine i n th e compan y of her friends, wh o migh t have been her sexual partners at various Balbec locations . Instea d o f being th e paradis e h e ha d hope d t o find, th e coasta l cit y o f Balbec no w belong s t o th e geograph y o f hell: "c'etai t l e fragment d'u n autr e monde , d'un e planet e in connue e t maudite , un e vu e d e TEnfer . L'Enfe r c'etai t tou t c e

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Balbec, 48 tou s ce s pays avoisinant s d'o u . . . elle faisait veni r sou vent les filles plus jeunes qu'ell e amenait a la douche" (III , 518). N o w tha t sh e i s dead , se a imager y predominate s i n hi s visualizations o f the Albertin e o f Balbec. H e ha s ofte n imagine d her a s a piece o f sculpture; now h e see s her an d th e youn g wash erwoman i n a nautical bas-relie f A memor y o f her a s she wa s i n his bed , especiall y th e configuratio n o f he r thigh , remind s hi m of Leda by Leonardo . Imaginin g Albertin e an d th e youn g wash erwoman i n a stron g embrace , th e Narrato r compare s thes e visions t o a n electrica l curren t runnin g fro m hi s brai n t o hi s heart, a curren t tha t burn s hi s hear t a s h e suffer s fo r hi s an d Albertine's sins : jealousy, betrayal , an d guil t a t havin g glimpse d the forbidden . Proust employ s electricit y i n a n analog y t o illustrat e th e speed of rapid communication an d the fire associated with th e tor tures o f jealousy: "mo n enervemen t . . . rencontrait che z ell e l a force electriqu e d'un e volont e contrair e qu i l e repoussai t vive ment; dan s le s yeux d'Albertin e j ' e n voyai s jaillir le s etincelles " (III, 91) . Th e first suc h analogy , quote d earlier , wa s use d i n th e Parville statio n scen e (II , 1127) . Th e memor y o f Albertine i s like an electrica l wir e connectin g he r t o hi s heart, wher e th e slightes t reminder o f anything the y share d i n commo n i s enoug h t o rees tablish contact: "E t meme un e syllable commune a deux noms dif ferents suffisai t a m a memoire—comm e a u n electricie n qu i s e contente d u moindr e corp s bo n conducteur—pou r retabli r l e contact entir e Albertine e t mon coeur " (III , 538*). Here i s his ear lier jealou s reactio n upo n hearin g Saint-Loup' s descriptio n o f Albertine's life in Touraine after sh e abandons him : A ce s mot s d e hangar , d e couloir , d e salon , e t avan t meme qu'il s eussen t fini d'etre prononces , mo n cceu r £ut bouleverse ave c plus d e rapidit e qu e n'eu t mi s u n courant electrique , ca r la force qu i fait le plus de fois le tour d e la terre e n un e seconde , c e n'est pa s l'electri cite, c'est la douleur (III , 472).

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Proust agai n emphasize s th e rapidit y o f th e reactio n an d th e cos mic natur e o f th e event . Space , whic h wa s onc e filled wit h hi s ardor for Albertine , i s now replet e with suffering . The scen e i n th e bathin g establishmen t an d other s lik e i t are a pendan t t o th e Narrator' s first voyeuristi c scen e involvin g Mile Vinteuil an d her friend. Unlik e th e latter , th e late r voyeuris tic scene s ar e imagine d o r staged , a practice tha t seem s masochis tic. I n on e suc h inciden t h e ha s tw o laundr y girl s brough t t o a house o f assignation, wher e the y perform th e sam e amorou s rite s they allegedl y engage d in with Albertin e (III , 550) . During period s o f intens e jealousy , suc h spark s for m a live wir e connecte d direcd y t o hi s heart , causin g hi m t o fee l th e infernal flames a s his being i s racked b y disappointmen t an d suf fering. Suc h i s th e cas e whe n th e laundr y gir l recount s a n inci dent fo r th e Narrato r wher e he r caresse s made Albertin e swoon : cent fois par heure le courant interrompu etai t retabli et mon coeu r etait brule sans pitie par un feu d'enfer, tan dis que je voyai s Albertine, ressuscite e par ma jalousie, vraiment vivante , s e raidir sous les caresses de la petite blanchisseuse a qui elle disait: "Tu me mets aux anges." (Ill, 528) 49 There i s an iron y i n Albertine's remark i n tha t by witness ing he r heave n o f sensualit y th e Narrato r create s hi s ow n hell . The iron y i s increase d i f w e recal l earlie r association s betwee n Albertine an d mythologica l winge d creatures . Th e Narrato r con stantly seek s eroti c fulfillmen t i n th e possessio n o f Albertin e an d others lik e her , bu t t o n o avail . Possessio n o f Albertine doe s no t reveal t o hi m th e secre t o f Balbec' s beauty ; revelation s afte r he r death abou t he r activitie s a t th e seasid e resort—activitie s unknown, eve n unsuspected—tur n hi s vie w o f Balbec int o th e reverse o f the paradis e he ha d imagined . There i s no tangibl e profane d imag e i n th e imagine d an d staged voyeuristic scenes , but wha t th e Narrato r behold s i s worse: a profanatio n o f his desir e t o posses s Albertine. Sh e appear s t o b e

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enjoying wit h someon e els e wha t h e an d sh e apparentl y neve r shared: a sexuall y fulfillin g experience . Th e Narrato r seem s t o have experience d moment s o f eroti c pleasur e wit h her , bu t no t the fulfillmen t o f hi s misplace d desires . I n an y case , hi s jealou s obsession demand s exclusivity : "L'amour , dan s l'anxiet e doulou reuse comm e dan s le desk heureux, es t l'exigence d'u n tout " (III , 106). A s w e hav e seen , th e tyrann y o f lov e wa s first fel t b y th e Narrator when , a s a child , h e wa s jealous o f th e tim e hi s mothe r spent with Swann . In hi s Freudia n readin g o f th e text , Serg e Doubrovsk y explains th e Narrator' s jealous y o f Swan n i n term s o f siblin g rivalry: "n'oublion s pa s qu e l a 'scen e d u coucher ' s'articul e a la 'scene d u diner' , o u l a mer e es t precisemen t e n trai n d e nourri r un autr e qu e soi : Swann, torturant e gemellit e phonetiqu e qu i survit a 1'eliminatio n d u 'frere ' d e Jean Santeuil—e t d e Marce l Proust." 50 A t Balbec , th e Narrato r compare s th e paradis e o f th e grandmother's presenc e t o tha t o f a sucklin g bab y an d a celestia l chorus (I , 668 , 670) . Th e possessio n o f Albertine-mama n b y another create s a demonic versio n o f this scene. The jealous , obsessiv e love r see s potentia l rival s every where. Swan n an d the Narrato r bot h fluctuate betwee n desir e an d boredom, dependin g o n th e availabilit y and presumed infidelit y o f the woman . Bot h wis h fo r a cataclysmi c event , suc h a s th e acci dental deat h o f their mistresses, tha t woul d liberat e them from th e prison o f passion. Thes e deat h wishes are indicative o f the severit y of the anguis h the y suffer an d thei r frustration a t not bein g abl e t o escape from it . Aunt Leoni e expresse s a similar wish for a calamit y in th e famil y tha t woul d free he r from th e routin e impose d b y obsessive behavior (1 , 116). The Narrato r experience s suc h calamitie s i n th e death s o f his grandmothe r an d Albertine . H e learn s that , shatterin g thoug h they ma y be , suc h occurrence s d o no t mak e u s chang e ou r live s because we stil l remain trappe d i n thos e pattern s w e hav e allowe d habit t o weav e aroun d us . Catastrophie s ma y shak e us , bu t the y will no t i n an d o f themselve s free u s from th e we b o f habit. Th e

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flaws within u s stil l hold u s fast, just a s the wate r lil y i s held bac k by it s ow n stem , n o matte r ho w th e cours e o f th e rive r ma y change. 51 Albertine' s deat h doe s no t brin g a n en d t o th e jealousy that plague s th e Narrato r sinc e hi s obsessiv e desir e t o kno w he r actions an d hi s attempt s t o fin d ou t whateve r h e ca n abou t the m do no t ceas e wit h he r demise . (Prous t engage d i n th e sam e pat tern o f behavior afte r Agostinelli' s death. ) As we have seen , th e Narrator' s definitio n o f jealousy i s to imagine th e woma n w e lov e experiencin g pleasur e with someon e else. I t is true tha t th e Narrato r expect s to o muc h o f desire, just a s he expecte d to o muc h o f the theater , o f the Guermantes , o f Balbec, an d s o forth, bu t wha t h e fear s especiall y i s that anothe r per son wil l usur p wha t h e desire s most , thereb y renderin g hi m use less and impotent . O n th e aestheti c plane , thi s correspond s t o hi s fear o f remaining steril e a s an artist . Nea r th e en d o f his quest , h e says that ar t is the tru e last judgment (III , 880) . The implicatio n i s clear: failur e t o achiev e hi s ambitio n t o becom e a writer wil l b e the equivalen t o f hell for him . Escape from th e we b o f habit wil l depen d upo n a chang e even more fundamenta l tha n th e deat h o f loved ones , namely, th e Narrator's eventua l recovery o f will and his realization tha t the wa y to recapture lost time i s through th e creatio n o f a work o f art. Thi s moment o f lucidity occur s much later in the novel, when th e Nar rator finally understand s th e tru e meanin g o f his experienc e wit h Albertine and how to make use of it in relation to will and creativity.

Dystopia: The Wasteland N o grou p come s of f worse i n Proust's exploratio n o f human van ity tha n aristocrat s an d societ y people . Prous t depict s the m a s arrogant, ignorant , illiterate , vain , unfeeling , an d cruel . Pleasure , whether sexuall y o r sociall y gratifying , i s suspected o f being evi l because i t distract s u s from a highe r goal . Swan n fall s int o th e twin trap s o f sexuality an d societ y when h e trie s t o creat e a salo n for Odett e s o tha t sh e an d hi s daughte r wil l have a social positio n that approache s respectability . Swann , i n turn , i s th e victi m o f a

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form o f parricide whe n Gilbert e profane s hi s memory b y denyin g him an d changin g her name (III , 573-77). There i s an earlie r pen dant scen e wher e th e duchess e d e Guermantes , supposedl y Swarm's best friend, denie s th e terminall y il l man's request t o mee t his daughte r just onc e i n private . Anothe r scen e betwee n Swan n and Oriane—th e famou s episod e o f th e re d shoes—indicate s th e cruel indifferenc e o f societ y peopl e t o th e need s an d sufferin g o f others (II , 596-97). 52 On e o f th e grea t ironie s o f th e novel , o f course, is that after Swann' s death Gilbert e becomes a Guermante s through he r marriag e t o Saint-Loup . Swan n i s save d from obliv ion b y th e Narrator , wh o recognize s hi m a s hi s spiritua l fathe r and the sourc e o f his book (III , 915). Society represent s th e revers e o f ar t an d ethica l values . The Narrato r discover s tha t ther e i s n o rea l substanc e i n socia l gatherings; whe n h e i s there , h e i s livin g a sterile , empty , super ficial existence : "duran t ce s heure s mondaine s o u j'habitais mo n epiderme . . . " (II , 527-28). 5 3 Socia l ritual s ar e mechanistic , habitual, obsessive , an d motivate d b y vanity ; the y ar e futil e a t best, an d ar e ofte n destructive . Thos e wh o frequent th e salon s of th e faubour g Saint-Germai n ar e tainte d wit h snobbism , pet tiness, an d dilettantism . Swan n i s th e ar t exper t wh o canno t gaze inwardly . Accordin g t o th e du e d e Guermantes' s inverte d system o f values , work s o f ar t ar e importan t i f the y ar e amon g those h e ha s seen : "S i e'es t a voir , j e l'a i vu " (II , 524) . Whe n he call s o n th e Narrator' s famil y durin g th e grandmother' s las t hours, h e expect s the m t o b e sensitiv e t o th e grea t hono r h e i s bestowing upo n the m (II , 338) . Hi s mai n concer n i s ho w the y receive him , no t thei r sorro w ove r a beloved relative' s death . Swann i s a t firs t seduce d b y th e charm s o f th e Verduri n salon: "Que l charman t milieu , s e disait-il . Comm e e'es t a u fon d la vrai e vi e qu'o n men e la ! . . . Comm e Mm e Verdurin , malgr e de petite s exageration s u n pe u risibles , a u n amou r sincer e d e l a peinture, d e l a musiqu e . . . ! " (I , 248) . Onl y late r doe s h e dis cover its infernal aspects : "E n somme , l a vie qu'o n menai t che z les Verdurin e t qu'i l avai t appele e s i souvent 'l a vraie vie ' lu i semblai t

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la pire d e toutes , e t leur peti t noya u l e dernie r de s milieux. 'C'es t vraiment . . . c e qu'i l y a d e plu s ba s dan s l'echell e sociale , l e dernier cercl e d e Dante' " (I , 287) . Th e salo n i s th e profan e ver sion o f th e artist' s studio ; i n fact , Bich e (o r Tiche ) ca n onl y become th e artis t Elstir after h e escape s from th e clutche s o f Mm e Verdurin. 54 Mme Verdurin , obsesse d wit h he r positio n i n society , i s the socia l equivalen t o f the insanel y jealous love r an d exhibit s th e same fur y wheneve r anyon e usurp s he r positio n withi n th e littl e clan: "[M . d e Charlu s dechainai t che z elle ] c e sentimen t haineu x qui n'etai t che z ell e qu'un e form e particuliere , un e form e social e de l a jalousie" (III , 278) . He r obsessio n i s th e absolut e inviola bility, th e fidelit y o f the member s o f the litd e clan , who ar e ofte n referred t o a s "th e faithful. " Not e th e religiou s ta g fo r thos e who worshi p a t th e profan e shrin e wher e Mm e Verduri n ("la patronne" ) i s the ido l t o be revered . In orde r t o gai n admissio n t o he r salon , on e mus t adher e strictly to th e credo , which basicall y states that th e artist s and pro fessional peopl e bein g protected b y Mme Verduri n ar e the best i n the worl d (I , 188) . Onc e admitte d t o th e Verduri n circle , rule s must b e obeyed . Thos e wh o d o not , suc h a s Swann an d Charlus , are "executed. " Mm e Verdurin' s devotio n t o th e faithfu l doe s no t extend beyon d th e grave . Onc e dea d o r dyin g an d henc e n o longer o f use t o her—indeed , th e dyin g an d recentl y dea d ar e a threat t o th e convenin g o f her regular soirees—the former faithfu l are as anonymous a s paupers buried i n a common grave. 55 Although th e Verduri n salo n function s a s a prison, man y of th e faithfu l ar e flattered b y th e iro n han d wit h whic h Mm e Verdurin rule s them . Shoul d som e o f th e member s o f th e littl e clan wis h t o trave l apar t from th e group , sh e eithe r convince s them tha t the y ris k lif e an d lim b b y doin g s o or , i f that argumen t fails, sh e change s he r plan s s o tha t the y ca n al l go together. 56 A t Balbec, he r "prisoners, " wh o woul d rathe r res t afte r dessert , cof fee, an d liqueurs , ar e force d t o g o o n excursions , "installe s d e force e n voitur e [e t emmenes ] malgr e eu x vers l'un o u l'autr e de s

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points d e vu e qu i foisonnen t autou r d e Douville " (II , 998) . I n their coming s an d going s t o an d from l a Raspeliere , the y ar e allowed t o mov e abou t onl y i n vehicles provided o r designate d b y "la patronne." Sh e eve n commandeer s th e adjoinin g land , makin g the landscap e par t o f th e group' s domain . I t canno t b e see n a t it s best without he r presence and at a time approved by her. He r pas sion take s o n th e monstrou s aspect s o f th e jealou s love r a s sh e becomes a queen o f time an d space : "Mm e Verduri n faisai t visite r [les sites] au x etranger s u n pe u comm e de s annexes . . . de sa propriete . . . qu'on n'aurai t pa s connus s i on n'avai t pas ete re$u che z la Patronne." Th e Narrato r note s he r "pretentio n d e s'arroge r u n droit uniqu e su r le s promenades comm e su r l e jeu d e More l . . . et d e contraindr e le s paysage s a fair e parti e d u peti t cla n . . . " (II, 998) . Seen from afar , society , like ou r planet , ma y appear t o hav e the luste r o f a star i n th e night , bu t u p clos e i t reveal s itsel f t o b e ugly and sterile . This imag e i s similar t o a n earlie r planetary imag e involving Saint-Loup' s passio n fo r th e actres s Rachel. Th e Narra tor, a n objectiv e observe r i n thi s case , see s a t clos e rang e tha t Rachel's fac e i s pockmarked "lik e th e moon. " Saint-Loup , wh o sees he r fo r th e first tim e i n th e limeligh t o f th e stage , consider s her t o b e a celestial beauty. Th e objectiv e viewe r see s the "truth " in th e uglines s o f th e actress-prostitute' s fac e bu t lack s th e poetr y of experience . Thi s stigmatizin g o f a woman' s fac e occur s throughout la Recherche.57 I n th e scen e wher e th e child' s behavio r forces th e mothe r t o relen t an d spen d th e nigh t i n hi s room , th e boy feels guilt y for tracin g the first wrinkl e o n his mother's sou l i n an ac t approachin g matricide . H e ha s wounded somethin g withi n her by stigmatizing her cod e o f ethics relative to hi s behavior. 58 The blemishin g proces s taint s societ y a s a whole. Mos t o f what glitter s an d attract s when w e ar e young turn s ou t t o be ugl y or, a t best , o f no valu e whe n see n u p close . A t firs t th e Narrato r does no t realiz e th e dange r suc h a compan y o f idl e an d haught y people pos e t o hi s artisti c vocatio n becaus e h e i s so fascinate d b y the apparen t brillianc e o f that milieu . S o eage r i s he t o belon g t o

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it tha t a n invitation h e receive s to a great social even t i s compare d to a meteorite droppe d b y on e o f th e queen s o f societ y a s the y follow thei r stellar paths across infinite distance s (II , 377-78). 59 A s he move s throug h societ y an d come s t o kno w "l e bea u monde " as it reall y is , he finall y see s that i t i s superficial, petty , an d empt y To illustrat e this , he quote s a line from Victo r Hugo' s Ch&timents: "Et qu e tou t cel a fass e u n astr e dan s l a nuit! " (Ill , 718) . Proust , who usuall y quote s fro m memory , ha s don e s o her e an d slightl y altered th e endin g o f Hugo' s line ; th e origina l read s "dan s le s cieux." Proust' s variation , insistin g o n th e darknes s o f space , heightens th e contras t o f the apparen t glitte r an d th e surroundin g void. A t th e matine e give n b y th e princess e d e Guermantes , th e Narrator discover s tha t th e denizen s o f th e feas t o f th e god s (II , 272) hav e becom e fat , mechanica l dolls , caricature s o f thei r for mer selve s (III , 924, 948). The revers e hold s tru e fo r artists ; i t i s onl y whe n see n u p close through th e optic s o f their work tha t the y are interesting an d attractive. Th e Narrato r i s surprised a t the writer Bergotte's rathe r ugly appearanc e whe n h e meet s th e ma n whos e book s h e admires. Th e sam e i s true o f Vinteuil, but her e Prous t reverse s th e order o f presentation : w e first encounte r hi m a s th e ordinary , prudish pian o teache r a t Combray , wit h n o expectation s tha t h e will become a great composer . The opposit e pole s o f th e protagonist' s worl d ar e Com bray-Eden an d Balbec-Hell . I n additio n t o servin g a s the sit e fo r the disillusionment s o f love, Balbec i s depoetized i n anothe r sense . Because h e no w know s s o man y inhabitant s o f th e region—bot h permanent resident s like th e Cambremer s o r vacationin g one s like the invasiv e member s o f th e Verduri n clan—Balbe c ha s becom e an immense , stuff y salon , "cett e valle e tro p sociale " (II , 1112) ; i t is th e opposite , i n fact , o f th e wild , unspoile d seacoas t h e ha d envisaged before goin g there. Hi s experienc e wit h respec t t o geo graphical possessio n i s th e sam e a s tha t o f physical possession— a total disappointment. 60 H e find s himsel f i n a vast wasteland , fa r from th e primeva l se a and medieva l ar t h e ha d hope d t o discover .

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He doe s not kno w ye t how t o conver t th e spectacl e o f mediocrit y that surround s hi m int o art . Not onl y hav e al l the place s th e Narrato r ha s dreame d o f turned ou t t o b e disappointing—and , i n th e cas e o f Balbec , fa r worse—but late r Combray , th e paradise o f his childhood , wil l also undergo depoetization . O n a retur n visi t ther e a s a mature ma n but despairin g artist , h e discover s tha t th e sourc e o f th e Vivonn e River, whic h a s a child he imagine d t o b e a s extraterrestrial a s the entrance t o hell , i s onl y th e siz e o f a smal l laundr y basi n wher e bubbles float t o th e surface . Gilbert e als o shows him ho w th e tw o paths, Swann' s wa y an d th e Guermante s way , are connected , thu s destroying a cherishe d myt h o f hi s childhood . H e ha d alway s thought th e walk s represented tw o separat e realm s tha t coul d no t be visite d o n th e sam e day ; now h e see s tha t the y for m a circuit . This revelation anticipate s metaphoricall y th e comin g together , o r unification, o f hi s entir e lif e experience , whic h wil l resul t i n th e book w e ar e reading . Bu t fo r th e momen t h e i s discourage d an d does no t eve n bothe r t o visi t Combray' s church , whic h epito mized al l th e positiv e element s o f th e plac e an d wa s fo r hi m a n important symbo l connecte d wit h absolut e lov e (primaril y lov e for hi s grandmothe r an d thos e qualitie s fo r whic h sh e stood) , independence o f spirit, an d natural distinction . H e see s in his lack of interest i n Combra y an d his genera l dysphori a additiona l proo f that h e wil l never become a writer (III , 691) . Thus, th e Narrator , wh o seek s t o rediscove r th e los t par adise o f his childhoo d a t Combray , finds instea d dystopia n vision s of lov e an d society . Thi s depictio n o f societ y follow s th e usua l Proustian progressio n i n his hero's odyssey , namely, from anticipa tion t o disappointmen t and , finally, discovery o f society's relation ship to th e book h e will write. I n giving us this acerbic portrait o f the vai n pursuit s o f lov e an d society , Prous t place s himsel f firmly in th e lineag e o f the grea t Frenc h moralists . A la recherche du temps perdu may be understoo d a s a vast sermon o n vanity. 61 We hav e see n tha t th e idea l los t worl d th e Narrato r seek s contains it s opposite . Thi s i s in keepin g wit h Proust' s theor y tha t

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each thin g contain s it s ow n contradiction : "I I n'y a pas un e ide e qui n e port e e n ell e s a refutatio n possible , u n mo t l e mo t con traire" (III , 602) . I n a n earl y text, Prous t say s that ou r sorrow s ar e the revers e o f our pleasures : "nou s decidon s nous-meme no s cha grins, e n choisissan t no s plaisirs , ca r le s un s n e son t qu e l'enver s des autres" ("Dialogue," [V, 434]). There i s only a slight phonemi c difference i n Frenc h betwee n revers e an d hell : envers/enfer. Char lus remark s tha t h e i s no t a n ange l (III , 829 ) an d tha t Jupien' s establishment represent s a reversal o f traditional values: "Ic i c'es t l e contraire de s Carmels , c'es t grac e a u vic e qu e vi t la vertu " (III , 830). A s th e Narrato r remark s a t th e en d o f hi s quest , societ y is a place wher e value s ar e reversed , "ce s festin s d e barbare s . . . ou . . . les valeurs sont s i renversees. . ." (Ill , 1039) . The hot , suffocating , fals e worl d o f hell i s represented i n Proust's univers e by fire, weight , gravity , being bound an d flogged or tortured by jealous interrogations. Albertine, who whil e free and desired was alternately a winged creature—elusive , fugacious , an d mysterious—Venus, an d th e se a incarnate , become s a n ordinar y person—worse, a burden—once sh e is imprisoned an d possessed . The presenc e o f desire ca n animat e a woman wh o wa s immobil e and, conversely , its lack can cause a woman endowe d with speed to become stati c an d dull . Albertine a t Balbec i s a creature o f flight, but whe n th e Narrator imprison s her i n his Paris apartment, sh e is no longer desirable , having become a burdensome slave , a prisoner of gravity from whom he longs to be free: Ce n'etait plus la meme Albertine, parce qu'elle n'etai t pas, comm e a Balbec, san s cess e e n fuit e su r s a bicyclette. . .. Parc e que le vent de la mer ne gonflait plus ses vetements, parce que, surtout, je lui avais coupe les ailes, elle avait cesse d'etre une Victoire, elle etait une pesante esclave dont j'aurais voulu me debarrasser. (Ill, 371) Albertine undergoe s a marked chang e a s a prisoner whe n we compar e th e no w burdensom e slav e to earlie r epithet s use d t o describe her: un e grand e deesse , une grand e actric e d e la plage e n

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feu, l a chatoyant e actrice , ange , peri , mus e orgiaque , bacchant e a bicyclette, and s o on. Imprisoned , sh e becomes th e opposit e o f an "etre d e fuite, " fo r sh e i s now "lin e gris e prisonniere " (III , 173) . Her clippe d wings make her th e antithesi s o f a girl in motion . Albertine a s a prisoner i s the dystopia n counterpar t o f th e experience o f art a s described i n Swarm' s meditation o n VinteuiT s sonata. Comparin g th e musi c t o al l grea t discoverie s i n ar t an d science, h e describe d suc h revelation s a s "divin e captives. " I n th e Narrator's apartment , Albertin e become s a n inferna l captive , a creature wh o i s the opposit e o f what seeme d promise d t o hi m b y possession o f th e gir l firs t sighte d pushin g a bicycl e alon g th e beach a t Balbec. 62 Sh e i s a weight rathe r tha n a blessing, i n mor e ways hi s jailor tha n h e i s hers ; wit h he r hi s lif e become s "un e servitude eternelle. " H e realize s tha t sh e i s "u n treso r e n echang e duquel j'avais aliene m a liberte , l a solitude , l a pensee " (III , 331) . What h e sacrifice s i n orde r t o impriso n he r ar e th e element s nec essary for creativity . It i s onl y afte r th e Narrato r come s t o understan d th e tru e role o f regre t an d sufferin g i n hi s lif e tha t h e wil l b e read y t o assume hi s vocatio n a s a writer . Fo r a lon g tim e h e doe s no t understand th e relationshi p betwee n th e destructio n o f th e "shards" o f his being throug h th e fire o f jealousy t o th e wor k tha t he i s tryin g t o create . Thi s momen t o f illumination wil l mak e i t possible fo r hi m t o conver t th e apparend y negativ e aspect s o f hi s relationship wit h Albertin e int o a grea t positiv e force , enablin g him t o become a creative person. B y transformin g th e destructiv e forces o f th e tortur e chambe r int o a creativ e darkroom , th e Nar rator will ope n a window ont o th e cosmos .

CHAPTER 6

Death of an Aviator A s Prous t elaborate d hi s novel, th e aviato r emerge d a s one o f th e dominant symbol s o f the creativ e person. Whe n Alfre d Agostinell i reappeared i n Proust's life i n late 191 2 o r earl y 191 3 and was hired as hi s secretary , th e write r quickl y becam e infatuate d wit h th e young man. I t will be recalle d tha t Agostinell i die d i n a n airplan e crash no t lon g afte r fleeing Proust' s apartment . Sinc e th e write r subsequently borrowe d a number o f incident s from hi s relation ship wit h Agostinell i an d use d the m i n describin g th e Narrator' s experience wit h Albertine , muc h ha s been writte n abou t th e rol e of Agostinelli in Proust's life an d his influence o n th e novel . Man y of the assumption s upo n whic h a number o f commentators base d their conclusion s ar e not born e ou t b y th e textua l an d biographi cal document s a t ou r disposal . Thi s chapte r an d th e nex t attemp t to determin e exactl y wha t Agostinell i contribute d t o th e novel , especially t o th e characte r o f Albertine an d th e symbo l o f the avi ator. Tracin g th e developmen t o f th e aviato r a s representative o f the Proustia n artis t an d hi s elevate d visio n wil l ultimatel y lea d u s to th e concludin g chapte r i n th e Proustian quest .

1907: Agostinelli, "artisan de mon voyage" The yea r 190 7 was, for man y reasons , a crucial on e fo r Proust . I n the closin g day s of 1906 , he ha d move d t o 102 , boulevard Hauss mann, wher e h e woul d writ e virtuall y al l o f la Recherche. This would remain hi s home unti l 1919 , when th e apartmen t wa s sol d from unde r him . Althoug h stil l i n mournin g ove r th e death s o f 133

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both hi s parents—especially hi s mother, wh o ha d die d i n 1905 — Proust seem s t o hav e been throug h th e wors t day s o f his grief. I n the letter s o f this year we fin d hi m sobere d b y hi s experienc e an d taking a renewed interes t i n lif e a s he describe s fo r hi s correspon dents various works o f art and th e mannerism s o f friends observe d in societ y H e als o recount s anecdote s tha t h e woul d eventuall y incorporate int o th e novel . Thi s i s als o th e yea r tha t Henr i va n Blarenberghe, a youn g ma n wit h who m Prous t wa s slightl y acquainted, murdere d hi s mothe r an d the n committe d suicide , a tragedy that prompted Gasto n Calmette , edito r o f Le Figaro, t o as k Proust t o writ e a n articl e abou t th e crime . Th e piec e h e wrote , "Sentiments filiaux d'u n parricide, " was published i n Le Figaro o n February 1 , 1907 . I n describin g th e love-hat e relationshi p tha t h e supposed mus t hav e existe d betwee n va n Blarenbergh e an d hi s mother, Prous t allude s t o th e traged y o f CEdipus, King of Thebes.1 He als o wrote "Journee s d e lecture" and "Impression s d e route e n automobile"; th e importanc e o f thes e work s fo r th e futur e nove l may be see n in retrospect . Proust's brother , Robert , wa s a n earl y ca r enthusiast. 2 S o was Jacques Bizet , on e o f Proust' s closes t friends an d th e so n o f the illustriou s compose r an d Geneviev e Halevy , wh o woul d later becom e Mm e Emil e Straus , Proust' s grea t friend, confi dante, an d th e primar y mode l fo r th e duchess e d e Guermantes . In th e earl y day s befor e h e becam e a victi m o f drugs , Jacque s was a n enterprisin g youn g man , a directo r o f on e o f th e first car-rental agencie s i n Paris , Taximetre s Unic. 3 Th e compan y rented Uni c automobile s i n Pari s an d serve d vacationer s i n Cabourg i n th e summe r an d i n Monac o durin g th e winter . I t was throug h hi s hirin g o f Bizet' s driver s tha t Prous t firs t me t Agostinelli. 4 Anothe r o f Bizet' s drivers , Odilo n Albaret , late r became Proust' s regula r chauffeur , a servic e tha t wa s inter rupted onl y whe n Albare t wa s mobilize d i n Augus t 1914 , along wit h th e othe r Pari s tax i drivers , prio r t o th e firs t battl e of th e Marne . I t wa s a s a resul t o f th e mobilizatio n o f al l able-bodied me n tha t Albaret' s youn g wife , Celeste , becam e

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Proust's housekeeper ; sh e wa s t o remai n hi s faithfu l servan t an d friend fo r th e remainin g eigh t year s o f his life . In Augus t 1907 , Prous t mad e wha t turne d ou t t o b e a momentous decision . Havin g firs t considere d goin g t o Touraine , Brittany, an d eve n Germany , o r just remaining in Paris for th e res t of the summer , h e finall y electe d t o sta y at th e ne w Grand-Hote l in Cabourg , whic h h e woul d transfor m int o Balbe c i n th e novel . Because Proust wante d to visit the architectura l site s of the region , especially thos e describe d by Ruskin, h e hire d Agostinell i t o tak e him i n his red tax i o n variou s excursions. 5 The 190 7 motorin g trip s wit h Agostinell i alon g th e coas t were i n man y respect s lik e a resurrection fo r Proust , wh o fo r th e last six years had been leadin g a reclusive life; hi s health ha d bee n particularly poo r earlie r tha t year. 6 Hi s Cabour g sojour n brough t about a sudden chang e o f routin e fo r Proust , wh o u p unti l the n had onl y gotte n ou t o f bed onc e a week an d eve n the n withou t dressing. H e describe d th e dynamic s o f his new seasid e life a s that of a cannonbal l ("l a vi e d e boule t d e canon"). 7 A s Agostinell i drove hi m from on e medieva l churc h t o another , Prous t jotte d down hi s impressions , whic h woul d prov e o f great importanc e t o the novel he woul d begin writin g th e next year. 8 Although Cabour g outwardl y seeme d t o reflec t a positiv e change fo r Proust , h e confide d t o hi s correspondent s tha t th e opposite wa s th e case : "j e n'a i jamai s et e s i malheureux." 9 Th e painful memor y o f past vacations with hi s mother a t Cabour g an d other places along the Normand y coas t was a fresh reminder o f all that h e ha d los t a s a result o f her passin g on . Thi s i s probably th e inspiration fo r th e famou s "Intermittence s d u coeur " episod e (II , 751-81). Th e inciden t occur s whe n th e Narrato r return s t o th e Grand-Hotel a t Balbe c an d lean s ove r t o unbutto n hi s boots , a s his grandmothe r ha d don e fo r hi m i n tha t sam e room , wit h th e result tha t sh e is suddenly restored t o hi m throug h a n ac t o f involuntary memory s o vivid that hi s grief becomes almos t unbearable . He i s forced t o cance l all engagements an d enter s int o a period o f grieving an d reflectio n o n memory , loss , an d death . I n th e novel ,

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this withdrawa l represent s th e Narrator' s final , intens e perio d o f grieving for hi s grandmother. Fo r Proust , too , th e perio d o f pro found grie f seemed t o en d with th e Cabour g tri p i n 1907 . Active, curious, an d mor e determine d tha n eve r t o writ e i n spit e o f th e great fatigu e h e stil l felt, Prous t wa s abou t t o ente r a mature cre ative perio d tha t woul d las t th e res t o f his lif e an d produc e wha t many conside r th e major nove l o f the twentiet h century . During th e Cabour g excursions , wit h Agostinell i a t th e wheel, Prous t himsel f became "u n ferven t d e Pautomobilisme." 10 The purpos e o f thes e outing s wa s primaril y t o stud y Gothi c architecture, wit h incidenta l socia l calls on member s o f Paris soci ety wh o owne d o r rente d villa s nea r Cabourg. 11 Prous t kne w which churche s h e wante d t o se e fro m hi s reading s an d transla tions o f Ruskin's critica l writings, but h e als o wrote t o th e distin guished ar t historia n Emil e Male , askin g hi m t o recommen d th e best example s o f religiou s an d secula r medieva l architecture. 12 Among th e site s visite d tha t summe r wer e Bayeux , Cae n (whos e steeples woul d b e describe d i n la Recherche a s thos e o f Martin ville), Balleroy , Dives , Lisieux , Pont-Audemer , Evreux , an d Conches (whos e stained-glas s windows Proust admired) . None o f Proust's writing s prio r t o thes e excursion s con tain th e impression s o f spee d an d paralla x visio n tha t woul d become importan t feature s o f hi s presentatio n o f multipl e per spectives an d relativit y i n th e novel . Th e intensit y o f th e impres sions receive d wa s probabl y du e no t onl y t o th e ne w kineti c experience o f moving rapidly throug h spac e in a n automobile bu t also t o Proust' s preparation s precedin g eac h trip . Befor e settin g off, h e woul d drin k a n incredibl e amoun t o f coffee—a s man y a s seventeen cups—becaus e h e believe d th e caffein e suppresse d o r diminished an y incipien t asthm a attack . A t th e Clermont-Ton nerres' chalet , Prous t wa s s o shak y from th e caffein e that , whe n ready to depart , h e required assistanc e t o descen d th e stairs. 13 Th e automobile ride , wit h th e speed-worshipin g Agostinell i a t th e wheel, mad e quit e a n impac t o n th e normall y supin e an d super sensitive Proust , especiall y afte r s o man y cup s o f coffee . Unde r

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such conditions , what woul d have been a n extraordinary experi ence for anyon e i n th e earl y day s of car travel—the pla y o f hill, valley, an d steeple s i n a vehicl e tha t seeme d t o fly alon g th e road—must have been greatly magnified fo r Proust. Suc h outing s called for a n adventuresom e spiri t a s well, sinc e th e road s wer e rough an d accident s wer e frequent. 14 Th e car , i n it s earl y days, was considere d a s much a spor t fo r th e wealth y a s a mod e o f transportation. Prous t credite d Agostinelli' s skil l a s a drive r a s making possible th e dail y and eve n nighdy excursion s t o se e the medieval architecture of the region. These trips were described by Proust in a newspaper arti cle entitle d "Impression s d e rout e e n automobile " (Le Figaro, November 19 , 1907), parts of which were later worked into various passage s o f la Recherche, mos t notabl y th e passage s o n th e steeples o f Martinville (I , 179-82 ) an d Albertin e a t th e pianol a (III, 381-84). 15 This was probably Proust's finest piec e o f writing to date. In the Martinville episode, the young Narrator is seated in a carriage, but th e sensation s he describe s ar e those witnessed a t Caen, where Proust saw the steeples of the cathedral shift positio n as he approached them in the ca r with AgostineUi. Some of these descriptions appea r in the outing s the Narrator take s with Alber tine i n th e Balbe c region . Afte r tha t summe r a t Cabourg , Agostinelli would no t pla y a major rol e again i n Proust's life fo r another six years.

1913: Albertine, "compagnon de ma captivite" At th e urgin g o f Mme Emile Straus , Proust, wh o seldo m wen t out whil e writin g la Recherche, subscribe d t o a precursor o f th e radio calle d th e "theatrophone " ove r whic h play s an d concert s were periodically broadcast from various theaters, the Opera , th e Opera-Comique, an d a few other concert halls. 16 In 1913 , during Agostinelli's last autumn wit h him, Prous t purchase d a n Aeolia n automatic piano player, which was adapted to the grand piano he kept i n hi s room. 17 Muc h t o th e exasperatio n o f the piano-rol l suppliers, Prous t bega n t o as k fo r piece s tha t ha d neve r bee n

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requested before , suc h a s the pian o transcriptio n o f Beethoven' s Quartet no . 14 : Quand je n e sui s pas trop trist e pou r e n ecouter , m a consolation es t dan s l a musique , j'a i complet e l e theatrophone pa r 1'acha t d'u n pianola . Malheureuse ment o n n' a pa s justemen t le s morceau x qu e j e voudrais jouer. L e sublime XIV e quatuor de Beethove n n'existe pas dans leurs rouleaux. 18 During th e las t year s o f th e war , Beethoven' s lat e strin g quartets were amon g th e selection s tha t Prous t hire d th e Quatuo r Poulet t o pla y fo r hi m i n th e earl y morning hours . Prous t woul d model VinteuiT s las t works , i n part , o n thes e quartets . Bu t i n 1913, th e theatrophon e an d th e pianol a provide d hi m wit h music. 19 I n La Prisonnihe, th e Narrato r an d Albertin e ow n a pianola. Durin g period s o f cal m he ofte n ask s her t o pla y for hi m both a s a distractio n from hi s jealous obsessio n an d i n orde r tha t he ma y stud y an d better comprehen d musica l work s o f which h e has onl y a rudimentary o r imperfec t knowledge . H e conduct s hi s research b y havin g Albertin e pla y th e musi c o n th e pianol a a s h e reclines an d listens . Durin g th e performanc e o f th e music , th e instrument become s a magic lantern , projectin g image s appropri ate to th e music o n th e walls of the room : le pianol a etai t pa r moment s pou r nou s comm e un e lanterne magiqu e scientifiqu e (historiqu e e t geo graphique), e t su r le s mur s d e cett e chambr e . . . je voyais, selo n qu'Albertin e jouai t d u Ramea u o u d u Borodine, s'etendre tantot une tapisserie du XVIIIe siecle seme e d'Amour s su r u n fon d d e roses , tanto t l a steppe oriental e o u le s sonorites s'etouffen t dan s Tillimite des distances et le feutrage de la neige. (Ill, 382) In th e Proustian univers e machines undergo metamorpho sis a s readil y a s d o natura l things , a s i n th e cas e o f th e pianol a becoming a projector o f images . Th e Narrator' s constan t searc h for th e meaning o f each experienc e i n its totality is apparent whe n

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he speak s of the projecto r a s being scientifi c (knowledge) , histori cal (time) , an d geographi c (place) ; thus , th e artist' s visio n consti tutes time , space , an d knowledge . Suc h projection s represen t a n elaborate for m o f synesthesi a whereb y th e auditor y become s visual. Tha t i s to say , the sound s d o no t merel y sugges t colo r bu t entire painting s o r tapestrie s appropriat e t o th e nationa l origi n o f the music ; these images are projected ont o th e walls of the Narra tor's roo m s o tha t h e ca n analyz e the m i n orde r t o discove r th e truths the y contain. 20 Albertine , servin g a s program directo r an d organist, sense s the precis e moment whe n h e ha s fully graspe d th e secret o f each piece; she then return s th e roll and rents another . An additio n t o th e tex t tell s u s tha t VinteuiT s music — though no t th e septet—wa s feature d amon g th e selection s playe d on th e pianol a fo r hi m b y Albertine . A s we sa w i n "Th e Prison, " VinteuiTs musi c i s closel y interwove n wit h th e them e o f sexual ity. I n th e pianol a passage , however , th e Narrato r believe s tha t Albertine i s n o longe r seekin g t o contac t Mil e Vinteuil ; he r father's musi c i s freed from th e emotio n o f jealousy, sanitized , a s it were , s o tha t h e ca n attemp t t o lear n it s secret s "san s souf france" (III , 371*) . Becaus e h e i s les s familia r wit h thes e piece s by Vinteuil , th e musi c i s characterize d b y "le s ligne s fragmentaires e t interrompue s d e la construction , d'abor d enseveli e dan s la brume. . . . " Proust repeat s th e wor d "nebuleuse " o r it s varian t twice i n thi s passag e ("c e travai l d e modelag e d'un e nebuleus e encore informe " an d "l e modelag e d e ce s nebuleuses " [III , 372]). Th e wor d wa s als o amon g thos e use d t o describ e th e litd e band o f girl s a t thei r first appearanc e o n th e beac h a t Balbec , (I , 832), an d a s the y continu e thei r procession , Prous t describe s them a s variou s statue s an d friezes belongin g t o architectura l details (I , 788ff.) . Thi s i s bu t anothe r exampl e o f th e linkin g o f the them e o f th e "passantes " t o music , whic h wil l b e resolve d when th e Narrato r understand s th e relationshi p o f jealousy an d suffering t o th e productio n o f art . I n th e pianol a passage , Alber tine i s th e "passante " h e believe s h e ha s capture d an d tame d

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("Ange musicien" ) a s h e attempt s t o comprehen d he r an d th e music throug h th e tota l possessio n o f each : De mem e qu e l e volum e d e ce t Ang e musicie n etai t constitue pa r le s trajet s multiple s entr e le s different s points du passe que son souvenir occupait en moi et les differents signes , depui s la vue jusqu'aux sensation s les plus interieures d e mon etre , qu i m'aidaient a descendre jusque dan s Tintimite d u sien , l a musique qu'ell e jouait avai t aussi un volum e . . . selon qu e j'avais plus ou moin s reussi a y mettre d e la lumiere e t a rejoindr e les une s au x autre s le s ligne s d'un e constructio n qu i m'avait d'abord paru presque tout entiere noyee dans le brouiUard. (Ill , 372) Albertine's understandin g o f his aesthetic needs prove s her superi ority ove r Odette , wh o i s never abl e t o assis t Swan n i n hi s artisti c development. Th e fac t tha t Odette' s intelligenc e an d tast e neve r advance beyon d thos e o f a not ver y bright cocott e i s indicated b y the Narrato r a t th e receptio n hel d b y th e princess e d e Guer mantes whe n h e compare s her t o a mechanical dol l (III , 948 ) an d a sterilized rose (III , 950). It i s good tha t Albertin e i s so complian t a s a projectionist , since sh e i s largely responsibl e fo r th e barenes s o f his walls : "ce s decorations fugitive s etaien t . . . le s seule s d e m a chambre. " Although h e ha d promise d himsel f tha t whe n h e obtaine d hi s inheritance fro m Aun t Leonie , h e woul d amas s a n ar t collectio n like Swann's , i n hi s desperatio n t o kee p Albertin e nea r hi m a t al l costs, he has squandered his money o n her: "tou t mo n argen t pas sait a avoir de s chevaux , un e automobile , de s toilettes pour Alber tine" (III , 382). 21 Synesthesia i s als o foun d i n a passag e tha t occur s muc h earlier i n th e novel . Th e tw o passage s are related throug h imager y and th e aestheti c dilemm a th e Narrato r trie s to resolve , namely, t o discover th e secre t o f beautiful things . Durin g hi s childhoo d day s spent a t Combray , th e boy' s vie w o f th e hawthorn s tha t appea r sporadically o n hi s walk s i s compare d t o musica l intervals , bu t a t

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that poin t i n hi s lif e th e flowers d o no t yiel d u p thei r secret ; th e Narrator compare s the m t o (( ces melodie s qu'o n rejou e cen t foi s de suite san s descendre plu s avant dan s leur secret " (I , 138) . As he review s th e numerous roll s o f music wit h Albertine , the Narrator' s metho d reveal s a systemization o f a standard Prous tian metaphor: musi c as visual image, o r th e artis t and his works as magic lantern . H e no w ha s a deeper understandin g o f life an d ar t than h e formerl y possesse d i n hi s youth, whe n h e wa s dazzle d b y the impenetrabl e beaut y o f th e hawthorns . Bu t th e passag e doe s not carr y an y dee p conviction , s o fa r a s aesthetic revelation s ar e concerned, becaus e Proust give s us no indicatio n o f precisely wha t it i s the Narrato r ha s learned, no r doe s he particulariz e th e musi c beyond th e well-know n fac t tha t ar t reflect s a give n tim e an d place. Thi s i s not t o den y th e skil l o f the writer an d the aptnes s o f the images. Proust's purpose here i s not t o mak e any major revela tions bu t t o describ e th e proces s o f aestheti c contemplatio n an d Albertine's role a s mediator, a role that Agostinell i was perhaps th e first t o fill. Fo r passage s tha t d o convinc e u s o f th e greatnes s o f music an d th e exac t nature o f the Narrator's ow n aestheti c convic tions, we must tur n t o th e pages o n Vinteuil's and Wagner's music. Proust connect s th e Narrator' s initia l sightin g o f Albertin e and th e las t visio n h e ha s o f her a t th e pianola . A s we hav e seen , one o f his first epithet s fo r he r wa s "l a bacchante a bicyclette" (I , 873). Thi s phrase was coined befor e h e me t he r o r knew anythin g about her ; h e ha d instinctivel y sense d her sexua l attractiveness an d presumed t o se e i n he r somethin g wil d an d fleeting i n nature . These impression s wer e create d i n particula r b y th e bicycl e sh e was pushing, a s well as the them e o f speed tha t i s always associated with Albertine . Th e connection s betwee n Albertin e an d th e themes o f spee d an d fugacit y deepe n a s the Narrato r attempt s t o know he r an d finally decide s t o impriso n her . While watchin g Albertin e a t th e pianola , a s he r leg s "pedal" th e musica l instrument , th e Narrato r recall s th e first tim e he sa w he r wit h he r bicycle : "Se s belle s jambes, qu e l e premie r jour j'avais imaginees avec raiso n avoi r manoeuvr e pendan t tout e

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son adolescenc e le s pedale s d'un e bicyclette , montaien t an d descendaient tou r a tour su r celle s d u pianola . . . " (Ill , 382) . There i s a barely sublimate d recognitio n her e o f th e rela tionship between , o n th e on e hand , pleasur e ("se s belles jambes") and th e sufferin g cause d b y jealousy tha t h e usuall y experience s and, o n th e other , th e creativ e power o f the artis t as her legs oper ate a n instrumen t (pianola ) tha t produce s comple x ar t (musi c an d light, whic h becom e painting s o n th e walls) . W e fin d a simila r analogy i n th e passag e o n readin g i n th e garde n a t Combray , where th e boo k (literar y art ) become s i n th e Narrator' s min d a film tha t project s visua l image s before hi m (I , 83ff) . I n both pas sages, th e us e o f simultaneou s perception s i s typica l o f Proust. I n the pianola passage, he i s conscious both o f Albertine's beauty an d the beauty o f the music, perceiving th e image s projected b y both . Albertine, whos e beaut y an d sexualit y usuall y represen t a threat t o hi s becomin g a n artist , ha s bee n tame d ("un e bet e sau vage domestiquee " [III , 382]), o r s o he believes at suc h moments ; those beautifu l leg s that , alon g wit h he r othe r attributes , cause d him t o fee l suc h arden t desir e an d jealou s passio n ar e no w beatified a s they produc e ar t i n th e for m o f musical painting s fo r his contemplation . Albertine' s leg s ma y b e sai d t o embod y th e many landscape s throug h whic h sh e ha s pedaled. 22 Thi s i s ye t another variatio n o n th e mai n Proustia n them e o f women-as countries (les femmes-pays). Albertin e ha s alway s represente d fo r him th e femal e equivalen t o f Balbec. A s sh e metamorphose s int o an ange l and Sain t Cecilia , sh e becomes man y countries , depend ing o n th e musi c bein g played . Becaus e o f th e connectio n between physica l beauty an d aestheti c experience , th e Narrato r i s tempted t o regar d Albertin e a s a wor k o f ar t a s sh e play s th e pianola. Visualizin g her a s a sculpted angel , an d perhap s a bit car ried awa y by the grandeu r o f his analysis of her beauty, he i s at th e point o f callin g he r a wor k o f ar t when , rememberin g Swann' s similar mistak e wit h Odette , h e catche s himsel f abruptl y an d rejects th e ide a o f

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cet ange musicien, oeuvr e d'art qui , tou t a l'heure, pa r une douce magie, allait se detacher de sa niche et offri r a me s baisers sa substance precieuse e t rose . Mais non ; Albertine n'etai t nullemen t pou r mo i un e oeuvr e d'art j'avai s connu Swann.... Rien de tel chez moi. (Ill, 383-84)23 In th e final, gran d recognitio n scene—wher e th e Narra tor, no w grow n old , realize s tha t h e wil l be a n artis t i f he ca n live long enoug h t o giv e birth t o th e work he carrie s within him—th e relationship betwee n vanit y an d art , involvin g suffering , mistakes , regrets, an d creation , i s mad e explici t (III , 897) . Th e futur e redemptive natur e o f hi s relationshi p wit h Albertine , an d o f hi s experience i n society , i s prefigured i n th e pianol a passage , wher e the former "bacchante " an d present "pesant e esclave " becomes, as she play s th e instrument , Sain t Cecili a (III , 382 ) an d a n "ang e musicien" (III , 384), where music , light, an d painting combin e t o form a vivid aesthetic experienc e throug h metaphor an d synesthe sia. At th e en d o f his quest , th e Narrato r wil l lear n ho w t o trans form th e commo n element s o f everyda y lif e int o th e beaut y an d magic o f art i n orde r t o produc e hi s ow n magnu m opus . The parties Proust attended during his youth are among th e biographical source s fo r th e pianola/magi c lanter n episode . O n occasion during musical performances, image s were projected ont o a scree n o r wall . At a party Madeleine Lemair e hoste d i n 1894 , a tenor from the Opera-Comique san g poems from Robert d e Mon tesquiou's Chauves-souris, se t to music by Leon Delafosse: "Pendan t que Delafoss e jouait u n prelud e . . . o n voyai t de s projections d e chauves-souris. . . " 2 4 I n a descriptio n o f princesse Edmon d d e Polignac's salon, first published in he Figaro in 1903 , Proust remem bered that th e prince compose d music inspired by the forest o n his estate at Fontainebleau. While the prince's music was being played, one notice d "[passant ] derrier e l'orchestr e un e sort e d'immens e agrandissement lumineux de photographies prises dans la foret" (V , 467). Thes e earl y examples of "son e t lumiere" reinforced Proust' s deeply held belief in the synesthetic value of all art.

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In it s rol e a s inspirer , th e fores t di d "create " th e musi c through th e perso n o f th e prince . Onc e th e musi c wa s writte n down b y th e princ e an d performed , i t wa s capabl e o f recreatin g and projectin g image s o f th e forest . Suc h a proces s underscore s the predominanc e o f visio n a s th e catalys t o f ar t i n la Recherche. Vision a s source o r a s end result lie s behind ever y aspect o f Proustian art . Th e entir e nove l coul d b e viewe d a s a n objec t lesso n i n how t o se e or—whe n negativ e example s ar e provided , a s suc h correctives ofte n ar e throughout th e text—ho w no t t o see . Light i s th e mai n purveyo r o f visio n fro m on e perso n o r object t o another . Th e concep t o f artists an d work s o f art a s projectors o f ligh t produce s on e o f th e riches t constellation s o f metaphors i n Proust' s novel . Thi s i s tru e no t onl y o f th e magi c lantern itsel f bu t o f relate d images ; fo r example , Elstir' s hea d i s compared t o a projecto r (II , 419) , a s i s Vinteuil' s throug h "[s a musique,] mod e su r leque l i l 'entendait ' e t projetai t hor s d e lu i l'univers" (III , 375). In th e Proustian cosmos , artist s are frequend y represented a s mirrors o r planets, these last being, i n essence , gian t reflectors o f light. Th e artis t become s a sharp foca l poin t o f ligh t when th e univers e enter s throug h hi s sensor y perception s (pri marily visual) , i s concretel y converte d int o a work o f ar t ( a con version mad e possibl e by th e artist' s vision plus his craftsmanship) , and is projected bac k int o th e universe . Proust, i n a passage o n th e writer Bergotte , define d geniu s a s "l e pouvoi r reflechissant " (I , 555). The projectio n bac k int o th e univers e i s the centra l point o f Proust's ethics , al l genuine creatio n bein g altruistic . A t tha t point , the artis t ha s conquere d vanit y an d redeeme d himsel f fro m pas t mistakes an d shortcomings . The compariso n o f Albertin e t o Sain t Cecili a i s take n directly from Proust' s descriptio n o f hi s motorin g trip s throug h Normandy an d Brittan y wit h Agostinelli . I n referrin g t o thi s passage i n hi s introductio n t o Proust' s correspondenc e fo r th e year 1907 , Phili p Kolb , wh o usuall y immediatel y sense s th e links betwee n Proust' s lif e an d la Recherche, finds i t "curious " that Prous t compare s Agostinell i a t th e whee l wit h Sain t

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Cecilia playin g th e organ. 25 Agostinell i i n hi s motorin g coa t first reminde d Prous t o f a pilgri m o r nu n o f spee d an d the n o f Saint Cecilia . Saint Cecili a wa s th e patro n sain t o f music—especiall y church music—and , accordin g t o traditio n she was also the inven tor o f th e organ. 26 W e recal l tha t Prous t an d Agostinell i wer e e n route t o se e th e architectur e an d sculptur e o f th e medieva l churches i n th e region . A s was already noted , Prous t ofte n "sees " music i n term s o f ar t an d architecture , o f which th e pianol a pas sage i s but on e example. 27 I n "Impression s d e rout e e n automo bile," Proust describe s the automobil e a s a kind o f musical vehicle, with Agostinell i pullin g ou t al l th e stop s a s he drive s th e write r from on e churc h t o another . De temp s a autre— sainte Ckile improvisan t su r u n instrument plus immateriel encore—[Agostinelli] touchait le clavier et tirait un de s jeux d e ce s orgues cachee s dans l'automobile e t don t nou s n e remarquon s guer e l a musique, pourtan t continue , qu' a ce s changement s d e registre qu e son t le s changement s d e vitesse ; musique pour ains i dire abstraite, tou t symbol e e t tou t nombre , et qu i fai t pense r a cette harmonie qu e produisent . . . les spheres. . .. (V , 67; emphasis added) Rather tha n being unusual o r curious , th e associatio n o f machine, speed, an d music occur s throughou t th e novel. 28 On e o f the mos t striking examples involves the same locale, namely, the hotel at Balbec—we recal l that Proust an d Agostinelli set out from th e Grand Hotel d e Cabourg—an d somewha t simila r circumstances . Th e Balbec hotel is said to be as high as a church tower, and the elevato r boy ("lift" ) i s compare d t o a n organist : "u n personnag e encor e inconnu d e moi, qu'o n appelai t 'lift ' (e t qu i a u point l e plus hau t de Thotel , la o u serai t l e lanterno n d'un e eglis e normande , etai t installe . .. comm e un organiste dans sa chambre).. " (I , 665). This i s th e Narrator' s firs t elevato r ride , a n experienc e involving speed , o f bein g transported , wher e th e perso n wh o

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operates th e machin e i s see n a s an organist . Althoug h h e ha s no t yet me t Albertine , th e image s use d t o describ e hi s elevato r rid e with th e "lift " anticipat e hi s experienc e wit h th e gir l wh o wil l become hi s organis t an d meri t full y th e tid e "compagno n d e m a captivite." 29 I n th e followin g quote , m y italicizatio n o f certai n words describin g th e elevato r rid e ar e simila r t o th e one s use d i n Proust's description s o f hi s excursion s wit h Agostinell i i n Nor mandy an d Brittany, a s well as in th e Narrator' s apartment , wher e Albertine i s a prisoner a t the pianola: "j'adressa i la parole au jeune organiste, artisan d e mon voyage et compagnon d e ma captivity leque l continuait a titer le s registres d e so n instrument e t a pousser le s tuyaux" (I , 665) . Albertin e a s Sain t Cecili a wil l provid e a ful l development o f the theme s tha t ar e sketched ou t here . Just a s th e mechanize d elevato r become s a mobil e orga n lifting th e protagonis t t o th e to p o f the hotel-church , s o the auto mobile wit h Agostinelli-Sain t Cecili a a t th e whee l become s a n organ movin g Proust throug h spac e from on e medieva l churc h t o another a s h e explore s th e pas t throug h it s architecture. 30 Th e hotel-church o f th e nove l remind s u s o f th e purpos e behin d th e excursions tha t Agostinell i mad e wit h Proust ; Agostinell i wa s th e "artisan d e mo n voyage " i n 1907 , lon g befor e h e becam e th e "compagnon d e ma captivite " in 1913 . Arriving a t Lisieux afte r nightfall , Prous t despair s o f being able t o se e th e cathedra l facad e describe d b y Ruskin . Suddenl y the statue s lea p ou t from th e darknes s a s th e "ingenious " Agos tinelli trains th e headlight s o n th e portals . Proust appreciate s bot h the moder n (th e automobile ) an d th e ancien t (th e cathedral ) a s past an d presen t mee t an d illuminat e eac h other : "Agostinelli . . . envoyant au x vieilles sculptures le salut d u present don t la lumier e ne servai t plus qu' a mieux lire les lemons du passe . . . " (V , 66). Past and presen t ar e thu s see n i n eac h other' s light . Th e unexpecte d flood o f light, creatin g a long-awaited aestheti c experienc e a s th e statues leap ou t from th e void, i s like Albertine's projection o f pictures from th e pianola . Prous t i s reading th e lesson s o f th e pas t a t Lisieux lik e th e "paintings " projecte d ont o th e wal l b y th e

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pianola, th e onl y differenc e bein g tha t i n th e live d experienc e there wa s n o synesthesia . Agostinell i projecte d ligh t ont o rea l works o f art—th e portal s o f churches . Wit h th e pianola , Prous t provides a metaphorica l projectio n o f transpose d art : th e musi c becomes light , which contain s th e plasti c vision . While Prous t wa s looking a t the sculptur e a t Lisieux, curi ous childre n gathere d aroun d th e automobile . I n hi s description , Proust furthe r enriche d th e scen e b y havin g th e reflecte d ligh t from th e cathedra l fal l o n th e childre n an d creat e a tableau vivan t of the nativity . The n h e reverse d th e sourc e o f the light , wit h th e artificial ligh t from th e ca r becoming divin e ligh t emanatin g from the cathedral : Et quan d j e revin s ver s l a voitur e j e vi s u n grou p e d'enfants qu e l a curiosit e avai t amene s l a e t qui , pen chant su r l e phar e leur s tete s don t le s boucle s palpi taient dan s cett e lumier e surnaturelle , recomposaien t ici, comm e projetee d e la cathedral e dan s un rayon , la figuration angeliqu e d'une Nativite . (V , 66) The confrontatio n o f automobil e an d cathedra l a s presen t and pas t i n bot h a n ordinar y an d aestheti c contex t i s a n earl y example o f Proust's techniqu e o f layering (ipaisseur). 31 The pas t i s shown t o liv e i n th e present , an d th e childre n becom e livin g stone repeating th e scen e o f the nativity . Th e childre n ar e descen dants o f generation s no w lon g gone , descendant s no t onl y o f those wh o wer e model s fo r th e statue s bu t als o representative s o f all generation s tha t hav e repeate d an d wil l continu e t o repea t th e nativity scene . For Proust , th e us e o f synesthesi a i s no t simpl y a n ele ment o f literar y techniqu e bu t a wa y o f expressin g hi s profoun d belief i n th e unit y o f al l experience . Th e artist' s functio n i s t o seize fleeting impressions , analyz e them , an d preserv e fo r others , through hi s art , moment s tha t woul d otherwis e b e los t forever . Proust endowe d hi s boo k wit h a n activ e title , th e mott o o f th e Proustian explorer : A la recherche. H e create d a work tha t ha d t o

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be lon g enoug h t o conve y convincingl y th e shap e o f time . I n fact, th e Proustia n ques t neve r ends ; lik e th e cosmo s itself , according t o th e mos t credibl e theory , i t i s alway s expanding : light int o music , musi c int o painting , lif e int o art , an d ar t int o life. Th e Proustia n univers e i s designe d t o b e a fictional worl d without end , th e literar y equivalen t o f th e cosmos . Th e explor ers o f thi s ope n universe , a s we shal l se e i n th e nex t chapter , ar e the artist-aviators .

1914: "la mer sera mon tombeau" Although Prous t value d Agostinelli' s servic e a s a chauffeu r an d later a s a secretary , whe n th e Agostinelli s move d int o Proust' s apartment, i n th e sprin g o f 1913 , the y inevitabl y disrupte d th e writer's bizarr e bu t highl y organize d life . Anna , who m th e ne w secretary wa s sai d t o hav e marrie d afte r sh e ha d been hi s mistres s for som e years , ha s bee n describe d a s ugl y an d unpleasant . Th e photograph o f her publishe d i n Celest e Albaret' s memoir s show s a woman who , althoug h clearl y squintin g a t th e sun , nevertheles s appears rathe r plain , wit h coars e features. 32 Proust , wh o als o found he r ugl y an d disagreeable , say s tha t sh e wa s insanel y jeal ous an d woul d hav e kille d Agostinell i ha d sh e bee n awar e o f hi s many infidelities . Th e write r foun d i t difficul t t o understan d how th e handsom e youn g Italia n coul d hav e falle n i n lov e wit h such a harsh , unattractiv e woman , eve n thoug h thi s fac t confirmed hi s theor y abou t th e subjectiv e natur e o f love : "So n premier amou r pou r ell e es t inexplicable , ca r ell e es t laide , mai s enfin i l n e vivai t qu e pou r elle . . . ." 33 Proust' s letter s writte n i n the sprin g an d summe r o f 191 3 contai n veile d reference s t o th e kinds o f sorrow s h e experience d whe n i n love , fo r b y tha t tim e Proust ha d becom e infatuate d wit h hi s ras h youn g chauffeur secretary. H e wrot e t o Mm e Strau s i n mid-March : "i l me sembl e que toute s le s peine s qu e j'ai seraien t peut-etr e moin s cruelle s s i je vou s le s racontais. E t elle s on t u n caracter e asse z general , asse z humain pou r peut-etr e vou s interesser. " H e wrot e t o Mm e d e Noailles i n th e summer : "d e grand s chagrin s qu e j'a i eu s cett e

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annee e t qu e j'ai encore, m e semblen t comm e un e preparatio n a ressentir plus entierement certaine s pieces de ce livre." 34 Proust ha d hire d Agostinell i t o finish preparin g th e type script o f Du cSti de chez Swann. At thi s time, la Recherche consiste d of three volumes: Du cSti de chez Swann, which would be publishe d on November 14 , 1913 , and two othe r projected volumes, Le CSti de Guermantes and Le Temps retrouvL Th e strai n o f hard wor k an d having th e Agostinelli s unde r th e sam e roof was almost to o muc h for Prous t t o bear. H e confide d t o Lucien Daudet tha t h e ha d los t an incredibl e amoun t o f weight: "Mo n che r petit , j'ai voulu vou s ecrire mai s j e n e vou s ecrira i plu s parc e qu'i l faudrai t qu e j e reprenne 30 kilos (!).... " H e als o wrote to George s de Lauris abou t his health, explainin g why he found i t so difficult t o work an d saying tha t th e boo k abou t t o b e publishe d resemble d "L a Fi n d e l a jalousie... mais en cent fois moins mal et plus approfondi." 35 It wa s onl y because o f his fascinatio n wit h hi s ne w secre tary tha t Prous t tolerate d Anna' s presence . H e showere d Agos tinelli wit h mone y an d privileges . I n hi s letter s writte n a t thi s time, h e urge s friends no t t o mentio n mone y matter s whe n writ ing to him , suc h as his intention t o hav e his novel published a t his own expense. 36 Althoug h Prous t wa s ver y generou s t o th e Agostinellis, h e di d no t wan t the m t o kno w anythin g abou t hi s finances, apparend y for fea r tha t the y might deman d eve n more o f him. Agostinell i soon became passionatel y intereste d in aviation , a trait give n t o Albertin e i n th e novel . A s we hav e seen , sh e gener ally share s Agostinelli' s predilectio n fo r sport s an d machine s o f speed. 37 Albertin e an d th e Narrato r mak e thei r las t excursio n together t o a n airfield : Comme i l n'avai t pa s tard e a s'etablir autou r d e Pari s des hangar s d'aviatio n . . . le bu t d e no s sorties — agreable d'ailleurs a Albertine, passionnee pour ton s les sports—rut u n d e ce s aerodromes .[Apre s le decol ... lage d'u n avion ] Albertin e n e pouvait conteni r s a joie et ell e demandait de s explication s au x mecaniciens ..... (III, 105-6) .

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The yea r 191 3 i s known i n Frenc h aviatio n histor y a s th e "Annee glorieuse, " fo r tha t yea r Frenc h flyers flew nonsto p from Nancy t o Cair o an d a s far awa y as Algeria. Rolan d Garro s was th e first aviato r t o fly acros s th e Mediterranean . A ne w spee d recor d of 12 6 mile s pe r hou r wa s se t an d pilot s reache d altitude s o f twenty-thousand feet . Aerodrome s wer e opene d a t Buc, near Ver sailles, an d Issy , drawin g crowd s o f the curious , th e idl e rich , an d brave youn g me n lik e Agostinell i an d Jacques-Henr i Lartigue , who sa w a new frontier openin g u p befor e the m an d wer e eage r to fly th e ne w machines. 38 (Se e p . 151) . Prous t trie d t o dissuad e Agostinelli from takin g flying lessons , bu t hi s objection s wer e overruled by Anna's determination ; sh e thought th e coupl e woul d become fabulousl y wealth y i f he r husban d coul d lear n t o fly a n airplane. 39 Prous t ha d warne d the m t o expec t n o ai d from hi m should Agostinell i b e involve d i n a n airplan e accident : "S i jamais le malheur voulai t qu e vou s eussie z u n acciden t d'aeroplane , dite s bien a votre femm e qu'ell e n e trouver a e n mo i n i u n protecteur , ni u n am i e t n'aura jamais u n so u d e moi." 40 Celeste learne d o f Agostinelli' s passio n fo r sport s an d hi s daredevil natur e throug h he r husband , Odilon , wh o ha d bee n working wit h Agostinell i periodicall y fo r years : "J'ai . . . s u pa r Odilon qu'i l [Agostinelli ] avai t la folie d e la mecanique e t que cett e folie s'es t tourne e d e l'automobil e ver s l'aviation... . I I etait auss i audacieux e t casse-cou." 41 I n his last letter to Agostinelli, which th e young man di d not liv e to read , Prous t refers t o hi s secretary's lov e of sports, which, a s we hav e seen, i s one o f Albertine's distinguish ing characteristics : "Puisqu e vou s vou s interesse z a Swann e t au x sports, je vou s envoi e u n articl e paru su r Swann dans un journal d e Sports."42 Thanks t o Proust' s generosity—th e coupl e wer e stil l living i n th e novelist' s apartmen t o n th e boulevar d Haussmann — Agostinelli wa s abl e t o tak e flying lesson s a t Buc , wher e Rolan d Garros ha d a n aviatio n school . Sinc e Agostinell i n o longe r owne d a car , Prous t pai d Odilo n t o driv e hi m t o an d from th e airfield . During Novembe r 1913 , th e relationshi p betwee n Prous t and hi s secretar y apparentl y becam e strained . O n Decembe r 1 ,

Jacques-Henri Lartigue , Maurice Farma n i n his Biplane, Buc, Novembe r 191 1 ( © Association de s Amis de Jacques-Henri Lartigue) .

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Agostinelli an d Ann a fled Proust' s apartmen t fo r th e Riviera. 43 Distressed an d angry , Proust sen t Albert Nahmia s t o Nic e t o brin g them back . Th e jealou s write r trie d everythin g t o recaptur e Agostinelli, hiring a private detectiv e agenc y to follow th e fugitiv e and havin g Nahmia s ente r int o negotiation s wit h Agostinelli' s father, t o who m Prous t offere d a secre t monthl y paymen t i f h e could guarante e tha t hi s so n woul d retur n t o Pari s an d sta y ther e until Apri l 1914 . Al l Proust' s attempt s failed , an d Agostinell i di d not com e back. I n th e novel , Saint-Loup , who play s the sam e role that Nahmia s fille d i n real life, als o fails i n his mission, an d Alber tine neve r returns. 44 At th e en d o f March 1914 , Agostinelli , age d twenty-five , enrolled i n th e aviatio n schoo l ru n b y th e Garber o brother s a t L a Grimaudiere, nea r Antibes , unde r th e nam e Marce l Swann . Afte r two month s o f training, durin g which h e mad e rapi d progress, h e was ready for hi s secon d sol o flight. Aroun d fiv e i n th e afternoo n on Saturday , Ma y 30 , Agostinell i too k of f i n a monoplane. (Se e p. 153. ) Ann a an d Emile , Alfred' s brother , wh o wa s als o a n apprentice pilot , wer e watchin g a s Agostinell i wen t throug h hi s maneuvers. Elate d b y hi s success , th e impetuou s youn g ma n ignored th e warning s o f chie f pilo t Joseph Garber o an d lef t th e designated flying area , headin g th e plan e ou t ove r th e Ba y o f Angels. Attemptin g a turn , th e inexperience d pilo t forgo t t o increase hi s altitud e an d th e righ t win g skimme d th e water , pulling th e aircraf t int o th e se a a s Anna, Emile , an d othe r pilot s from th e Garber o schoo l watched i n horror. Onc e Agostinell i ha d recovered fro m th e shoc k o f findin g himsel f unexpectedl y plunged int o th e water , h e notice d tha t althoug h th e plan e wa s three-fourths submerged , i t seeme d t o b e floating. H e stoo d ato p the pilot' s sea t an d screame d fo r help . Thos e o n shor e quickl y found a boa t an d rescuer s bega n rowin g frantically towar d th e downed aviator . Bu t suddenl y th e plan e wen t straigh t down , tak ing Agostinell i wit h it . H e wa s know n t o b e a goo d swimmer , and hi s friends wer e late r puzzle d a s to wh y h e disappeare d with out a struggle. 45 Som e sai d tha t shark s ha d bee n see n i n th e area ,

Alfred Agostinelli in his Monoplane (Private collection of Celeste Albaret).

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while other s claime d tha t th e spo t wher e h e wen t dow n wa s known t o hav e swif t currents . Searc h boat s continue d t o pl y th e waters i n th e ba y unti l dark . Whateve r ha d happene d t o mak e him disappea r s o quickly , Agostinell i wa s no t see n agai n unti l fisherman foun d th e body eigh t day s later. 46 Le Figaro carrie d th e new s o f th e acciden t th e nex t da y Proust ha d learne d o f th e traged y o n th e evenin g o f th e thirtiet h when h e receive d a telegram from Anna. 47 O n Sunda y morning , a boa t succeede d i n locatin g th e sunke n plane , bu t th e bod y wa s no longe r there . Th e famil y gav e th e newspaper s a descriptio n o f what Agostinell i ha d been wearing : a khaki one-piec e flying suit , a brown rubbe r helmet , gra y shirt , blac k pants , black shoes , an d a signet rin g wit h th e initial s AA. 48 I n additio n t o th e heav y cloth ing, Agostinelli had o n his person al l his money—about five o r six thousand francs, whic h represente d th e remainde r o f what Prous t had give n him—probabl y becaus e h e di d no t trus t Ann a an d hi s brother. Agostinelli' s fathe r an d brothe r bot h realize d tha t i f th e body wer e found , al l th e mone y woul d g o t o Anna , sinc e every one though t tha t sh e wa s th e pilot' s lega l wife ; the y allegedl y turned agains t her an d sent a wire t o th e prince d e Monaco tellin g him o f Anna's true statu s as the mistres s o f the dea d aviator. 49 On Jun e 1 , La Nouvelle Revue Frangaise publishe d extract s from Le CSti de Guermantes, which wa s originall y intende d a s the second volum e o f th e novel , fo r whic h Prous t no w bega n t o receive proofs , bu t h e wa s too upse t t o work. 50 H e als o had Ann a and Emile t o worr y about . Afte r th e funeral , the y ha d com e run ning bac k t o Paris , confiden t tha t h e woul d hel p the m i n spit e o f the earlie r warning s tha t the y woul d neve r receiv e a penny from him shoul d Agostinell i di e i n a plan e crash . Proust , a s wa s hi s nature i n suc h circumstances , relente d an d di d everythin g h e could t o help , tryin g t o fin d the m employment , enlistin g th e ai d of friends suc h a s Emile Strau s o n thei r behalf , an d eve n writin g to th e princ e d e Monac o t o se e i f Ann a coul d inheri t anythin g from Agostinell i eve n thoug h sh e wa s no t legall y hi s widow . I n the week s followin g Agostinelli' s death , Ann a trie d severa l time s

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to commi t suicide , and Proust wa s afraid tha t i f her situatio n gre w desperate enough , sh e migh t succee d i n killin g herself. 51 Prous t himself wa s no t immun e t o deat h wishes . Late r tha t fall , h e confided t o Lucie n Daude t tha t durin g th e day s followin g Agostinelli's acciden t he ha d longed t o die : "moi , qu i avai s si bien supporte d'etr e malade , qu i m e trouvai s nullemen t a plaindre, j'ai su c e qu e c'etait , chaqu e foi s qu e je montai s e n taxi , d'espere r d e tout mo n coeu r que l'autobu s qu i venait allai t m'ecraser." 52 O n Ma y 28 , tw o day s befor e Agostinelli' s fata l accident , Proust ha d gon e t o arrang e th e sal e o f som e stock s i n orde r t o raise enoug h mone y t o bu y a n airplan e a s a surpris e gif t fo r Agostinelli. 53 O n Ma y 30—th e ver y da y o f Agostinelli's death — Proust wrot e a long lette r t o th e youn g man , tellin g hi m tha t h e had spen t twenty-seve n thousan d franc s t o bu y a n airplan e fo r him. Prous t bega n b y thankin g Agostinell i fo r hi s lette r an d quoting briefl y fro m it : "J e vou s remerci e beaucou p d e votr e lettre (un e phras e etai t ravissante (crepusculair e etc.) . . . ." 54 Proust woul d late r us e passage s fro m Agostinelli' s letter s i n th e last one s Albertin e write s t o th e Narrato r i n La Fugitive: "Croyez qu e d e mo n cot e j e n'oubliera i pa s cett e promenad e deux foi s crepusculair e (puisqu e la nui t venai t e t qu e nou s allions nou s quitter ) e t qu'ell e n e s'effacer a d e mo n espri t qu'avec l a nui t complete " (III , 468). 55 Proust ha d aske d Agostinelli to sen d back al l his letters an d had give n hi m specifi c instruction s abou t ho w t o d o so . Proust' s letters to Agostinelli were destroye d by the latter's family, wh o sai d they wer e lov e letters . Th e on e survivin g letter , returne d sinc e Agostinelli died before h e coul d receive it, doe s not read like a love letter. 56 I f we posses s th e lette r o f May 30 , i t i s probably becaus e Anna brought i t back with he r when sh e came t o sta y with Prous t after Agostinelli' s death . Kol b say s that Prous t wante d th e letter s back no t onl y t o preven t anyon e els e from readin g them , bu t i n order t o leav e ope n th e possibilit y o f using the m i n his novel. 57 I f Kolb i s right—the fac t tha t Prous t preserve d thi s letter ma y be a n important indicatio n o f his intentio n t o quot e i t i n th e novel —

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then th e novelis t ha d alread y decide d t o us e Agostinelli a s on e o f the model s fo r Albertin e befor e th e pilot' s death . Henr i Bonnet , on th e othe r hand , think s tha t th e onl y reaso n Prous t quote d th e letter to Agostinelli was because the latter was already dead 5 8 The lette r o f May 30 reveals that Proust had written previ ously t o Agostinelli , askin g hi m t o cance l th e orde r fo r th e air plane an d anothe r gift—mos t likel y a Rolls-Royce—that Prous t intended fo r hi m a s well.59 Without explainin g why, Proust think s it indelicat e t o as k Agostinell i t o cance l th e orde r fo r th e firs t unnamed gif t ("j e n e trouverai s pa s cel a delica t . . .") . Th e munificence o f th e gift s tha t Prous t offere d Agostinell i woul d b e surprising i f w e di d no t kno w ho w dependen t h e ha d becom e upon th e youn g man . Hi s attempt s t o wi n bac k Agostinell i wit h the gif t o f a n airplan e ar e th e direc t sourc e fo r simila r episode s involving Albertin e i n th e novel . Th e detail s o f Proust's lette r t o Agostinelli ar e reproduced i n th e nove l almost poin t b y point; th e gifts th e Narrato r offer s a s bait t o lur e Albertine back t o hi m ar e a yacht an d a Rolls-Royce. 60 Kolb' s investigation s hav e le d hi m t o discover tha t th e cos t o f a Rolls i n 191 4 wa s almos t exactl y th e same a s th e pric e o f a n airplane : "UAuto d u mard i 9 decembr e 1913 annonc e . . . sou s l e titr e La Rolls-Royce/La meilleure voiture du monde, que l e pri x d u chassi s Rolls-Royce 40/5 0 H P 6 cylin dres, es t d e 2 6 20 0 francs , livrabl e franco , a Paris." 61 I n th e novel , Proust substitute d a yacht fo r th e airplan e becaus e a t tha t tim e a yacht wa s a more appropriat e gif t fo r a woman. 62 Proust write s t o Agostinell i tha t i f he decide s t o kee p th e airplane, h e wil l hav e verse s from a Mallarme poe m inscribe d o n the fuselage : je ferai graver sur (je ne sais pas le nom de la piece et je ne veu x commettr e d'heresi e devan t u n aviateur ) le s vers de Mallarme qu e vous connaissez: Un cygn e d'autrefois s e souvient qu e c'est lui Magnifique, mai s sans espoir qui le delivre Pour n'avoir pas chante la region ou vivre. Toujours il secouera cette triste agonie

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Par l'espace infligee a l'oiseau qu i le nie Mais non l'horreur d u sol ou son plumage est pris. Fantome qu'a ce lieu son pur ecla t assigne II s'immobilise a u songe muet de mepris Que vet parmi l'exil inutile, le Cygne. These verses , quote d from memor y b y Prous t fro m Mal larme's poe m "Sonnet, " ar e appropriate fo r th e aviator , wh o seek s to def y gravit y Th e imag e o f the bir d whos e plumag e i s held b y the groun d expresse s exactl y th e tethere d conditio n o f th e pris oner. I t ha d apparentl y bee n Agostinelli' s intentio n t o hav e th e word "Cygne " painte d o n th e front o f the airplane. Indeed , whe n AgostineUi signe d u p fo r flying lessons , he di d s o unde r th e nam e Marcel Swann . Th e word s "Cygne , Marce l Swann " ech o th e verses about a swan and a prophecy tha t was being fulfilled eve n as Proust wrot e th e lines . Th e win g o f Agostinelli's plane , s o briefl y aloft, wa s caugh t an d hel d b y th e water . I n th e novel , a s we shal l see, Proust denies Albertine an y association with the aviator. How ever, th e yach t h e buy s he r i s t o bea r th e nam e "Cygne" : "L e yacht etai t dej a presque pret, i l s'appelle, selo n votre desir exprim e a Balbec, le Cygne" (III , 455) . Th e continuatio n o f the quotatio n from Proust' s letter t o AgostineUi, which i s really the beginning o f the poem, als o contains th e image o f the tethere d bird : C'est l a poesi e qu e vou s aime z tou t e n l a trouvan t obscure et qui commence par: Le vierge le vivace et le bel Aujourd'hu i Va-t-il nous dechirer avec un coup d'aile ivre Ce lac dur oublie, que hante sous le givre Le transparent glacier des vols qui n'ont pas foi. Helas "Aujourd'hui " n'es t plu s n i "vierge" , n i "vivace", ni "beau"! 63 The intentio n t o inscrib e verses from Mallarme' s poe m o n an object wa s later use d by Proust fo r th e Rolls an d th e yacht tha t the Narrato r promise s t o buy i n orde r t o win bac k Albertine :

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je fera i grave r su r l e . . . du yach t (mo n Dieu , n e je n'ose pas mettre un nom de piece inexacte et commet tre un e heresi e qu i vou s choquerait ) ce s vers de Mal larme qu e vous aimiez. . . . Vous vous rappelez, c'est la poesie qu i commenc e par : Le Vierge. . . . Quan t a la Rolls, ell e eu t merit e plutot ce s autres vers d u mem e poete, qu e vous disiez ne pas pouvoir comprendre : Tonnerre et rubis aux moyeux . . . Proust the n quote s from memor y th e las t si x lines o f Mallarme' s sonnet, whic h begin s wit h th e ver y Proustia n line : "M'introduir e dans ton histoir e . . ." (III , 455-56). The lette r t o Albertin e end s with a postscript i n which h e denies tha t h e sen t Saint-Lou p t o her aunt , Mm e Bontemps , i n a n attempt t o brib e th e lad y an d thu s assur e th e girl' s retur n t o hi s apartment: "C'es t d u Sherloc k Holmes . Quell e ide e vou s faites vous d e moi? " (Ill , 456) . Prous t ha d instructe d Nahmia s t o den y any suggestio n tha t h e ha d bee n sen t o n th e writer' s behal f t o arrange Agostinelli' s return. 64 Prous t was , i n fact , a s mendaciou s in hi s dealing s wit h Agostinell i a s th e Narrato r an d Swan n ar e with th e women the y pursue . Celeste sa w in Agostinelli a vain an d presumptuous youn g man wh o sough t t o ris e abov e hi s station . Whe n w e rea d wha t she ha s t o sa y abou t Alfred , who m sh e treat s a s an arriviste , w e are reminde d o f th e mai d Fran^ois e a t Combray , wh o i s jealous of an y potentia l rival : "i l etai t travaill e pa r l e desi r d'etr e autr e chose. I I a fini pa r demande r a M. Prous t d e deveni r so n secre taire." Abou t hi s intentio n t o tak e flying lesson s an d hav e th e word "Swann" painte d o n th e airplane , sh e ha s thi s t o say : "C'etait u n flatteur. . . . so n ide e etai t d e convaincr e M . Prous t de l'aide r a achete r u n apparei l pou r so n usag e personnel , qu'i l aurait baptis e 'Swann' , disait-il , d u no m d u personnag e principa l du livr e qu e M . Prous t venai t d e publier." 65 The lavis h gift s Prous t gav e Agostinell i nearl y ruine d hi m financially. A s earl y a s 1912 , th e yea r befor e th e Agostinelli s

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moved i n wit h him , Prous t ha d begu n speculatin g wildl y o n th e stock market , a gam e tha t woul d cos t hi m dearl y wit h th e onse t of th e war , a t whic h tim e Prous t foun d himsel f ruine d i n th e financial pani c o f 1914. 66 Afte r Agostinelli' s death , i n pleadin g t o his friend s t o hel p Ann a an d Emile , Prous t point s ou t tha t h e would gladl y help the m bu t canno t becaus e h e i s o n th e brin k o f bankruptcy 67 In his appeals for help for th e Agostinellis, Proust stresse s his former secretary' s intellectua l gifts. 68 If , a s Philip Kol b maintains , Proust exaggerate s Agostinelli' s intelligenc e i n thes e letter s t o hi s friends, h e doe s mak e Albertin e somewha t les s intelligen t i n th e novel. But, a s we have seen in the pianola episode , although Alber tine i s clearly mor e intelligen t tha n Odette , Prous t doe s no t allo w this faculty t o become an important reason for the Narrator's attrac tion t o her: "I I est certain que j'avais connu de s personnes d'intelli gence plus grande" (III , 495). He end s the passage with a statement about th e totall y subjectiv e natur e o f love. I n a final touch , Prous t employs a spatia l analog y wherei n th e desire d woma n i s agai n identified wit h a country o r landscape. Her e th e countr y become s generalized space, as befits th e aphoristic nature o f the statement : Tinfini d e l'amour , o u so n egoi'sme , fai t qu e le s etre s que nous aimons sont ceu x dont la physionomie intel lectuelle e t moral e es t pour nou s l e moin s objective ment defini e . . . ils n e son t qu'u n lie u immens e e t vague ou exterioriser nos tendresses. (Ill, 495) Concerning Agostinelli' s intelligence, Proust ha d observe d as early as 190 7 (th e year they met) tha t th e chauffeu r ha d a verbal facility tha t went wel l beyond wha t on e would normally expec t o f someone fro m hi s clas s an d educationa l background . Prous t ha d noticed thi s whe n Agostinell i sen t hi m a letter afte r th e publica tion o f "Impressions d e route e n automobile. " A t th e time , Prous t wrote t o Mm e Straus : "Imaginez-vou s parm i quelque s autre s let tres qu e j'ai revues quell e etai t l a plu s jolie: cell e d'Agostinell i a qui mon vale t d e chambr e avai t envoy e l'article." 69

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In a lette r t o Gid e writte n no t lon g afte r Agostinelli' s death (Jun e 1 0 o r 11 , 1914) , Prous t speak s o f hi s grea t lov e fo r Agostinelli withou t actuall y namin g him , describin g "l a mor t d'un jeun e homm e qu e j'aimais probablement plu s qu e tou s me s amis puisqu'elle me ren d s i malheureux." H e als o mentions Agos tinelli's humbl e origin s an d say s tha t althoug h hi s frien d i s ver y intelligent, i t wa s onl y afte r h e fel l i n lov e wit h hi m tha t h e noticed thi s qualit y Thi s lette r contain s a n expressio n o f sincer e regret whil e a t th e sam e tim e stating—a s di d th e quot e from th e novel—Proust's belie f that whe n w e lov e a person i t i s not neces sarily for tha t person's good qualitie s but becaus e o f our subjectiv e vision o f the beloved : C'etait u n gar^o n d'un e intelligenc e delicieuse ; e t c e n'est pa s d u rest e pou r cel a qu e j e Taimais . J'ai et e longtemps san s m'en apercevoir , moin s longtemps qu e lui d'ailleurs . J'ai decouver t e n lu i c e merit e s i mer veilleusement incompatibl e ave c tout c e qu'i l etait , je l'ai decouver t ave c stupefaction , mai s san s qu e cel a ajoutat rie n a ma tendresse. 70 The detail s of the amorous relationship between Proust an d Agostinelli ar e likely t o remai n unknown . Loui s Gautier-Vignal , who ofte n sa w Proust durin g th e perio d afte r Agostinelli' s deat h and observe d hi s poo r healt h an d dependenc e o n others—espe cially Celeste—believe s tha t al l o f Proust's crushe s o n youn g me n were platonic , goin g s o fa r a s t o sa y tha t h e think s Prous t wa s impotent. 71 Wit h n o convincin g evidenc e t o suppor t hi s view , George Painter had maintained tha t Proust wa s virile. Recent tes timony, i f it i s to b e believed , support s Painter' s vie w b y refutin g the notio n o f an impoten t Prous t an d sheddin g ne w ligh t o n hi s sexual practices . Henr i Bonne t ha s publishe d informatio n h e found i n a notebook writte n by the novelist Marcel Jouhandeau.72 Bonnet doe s not tel l us the origi n o f the notebook, 73 bu t accord ing to th e accoun t i t contains , Jouhandeau ha d interviewed a man who, whe n young , wa s ofte n summone d t o Proust' s roo m i n

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Albert L e Cuziat' s brothel 7 4 Whe n th e youn g ma n entere d th e room, th e write r woul d b e i n bed wit h th e shee t pulle d u p t o hi s chin. Prous t woul d smil e a t th e youth , wh o woul d the n undres s and begin masturbating ; Prous t woul d d o th e same . Onc e Prous t had ejaculated , h e woul d smil e agai n an d th e youn g ma n woul d leave th e roo m withou t eve r havin g touche d hi s clien t o r see n more o f him tha n hi s hea d peerin g ou t ove r th e sheet . I f Prous t were unabl e t o hav e a n orgasm , caged , famishe d rat s woul d b e brought i n an d Proust , watchin g th e blood y spectacl e o f the rat s clawing and biting each other, would succee d in reaching a climax. It i s likel y tha t w e wil l neve r kno w th e trut h abou t Proust's sexua l habits , bu t s o fa r a s interpretin g th e nove l i s con cerned, i t reall y make s n o difference . Whethe r hi s lov e fo r Agostinelli wa s physica l i n an y sens e o r not , i t i s eviden t tha t Proust fel l i n lov e wit h hi m an d tha t thi s youn g ma n len t man y details, thoug h certainl y not all , to th e characte r o f Albertine. The guil t th e Narrato r feel s ove r Albertine' s deat h i s less easy to justify tha n th e guil t Prous t fel t ove r Agostinelli's. Ther e i s a direc t referenc e i n th e nove l t o th e guil t th e write r fel t ove r th e aviator's deat h i n th e aftermat h o f Albertine' s death : "d e m a prison ell e s'etai t evade e pou r alle r s e tuer su r u n cheva l qu e san s moi ell e n'eut pa s possede . . . " (Ill , 500) . Had Prous t no t lavishe d money o n Agostinelli , th e youn g ma n probabl y coul d no t hav e afforded t o relocat e i n Antibe s an d enrol l i n th e aviatio n school : "Helas, j'ai l e chagri n aujourd'hu i d e pense r qu e s'i l n e m'avai t pas rencontre e t n'avait pa s gagn e tan t d'argen t pa r moi, i l n'aurai t pas e u le s moyens d'apprendr e l'aviation . . . . " I n th e beginning , Proust apparentl y di d tr y t o discourag e Agostinell i from becom ing a pilot ("J'avai s tou t fai t pou r l'empeche r d e fair e d e l'avia tion. . ," 7 5 ), bu t late r h e trie d t o tak e advantag e o f Agostinelli' s passion fo r aviatio n an d wi n hi m bac k b y promisin g hi m a n air plane. Accordin g t o Gautier-Vignal , "Quan d Prous t appri t s a mort, i l eprouv a u n vi f chagri n auque l s'ajouta , m e dit-il , . . . l e remords d e l'avoir encourag e a apprendre l e dangereu x metier , e n lui promettant u n avion." 76

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Although th e Narrato r canno t b e hel d responsibl e fo r either death , h e assume s guil t fo r th e death s o f his grandmothe r and Albertine . Thi s i s th e guil t w e fee l towar d thos e who m w e have loved : guil t a t havin g survive d them ; guil t a t no t havin g loved the m enoug h whil e the y were alive ; in short , guil t ove r th e general failure o f love: Et j'avais alors . . . l a honte de lui survivre. II me semblait, e n effet. . . que je beneficiais . . . de sa mort, ca r une femme es t d'une plus grande utilite pour notre vie, si ell e y est , a u lie u d'u n elemen t d e bonheur , u n instrument d e chagrin . . . . Dans ces moments-la, rap prochant l a mor t d e m a grand'mer e e t cell e d'Alber tine, il me semblait que ma vie etait souillee d'un dou ble assassinat. . . . (Ill, 496) 77 Less tha n a mont h afte r Agostinelli' s death , th e secon d tragic even t o f 191 4 occurred . Thi s on e woul d hav e globa l impli cations an d would alte r considerabl y th e novel Proust wa s writing : the assassinatio n o n June 2 8 o f Archduke Fran z Ferdinand o f Austria, th e even t tha t precipitate d Worl d Wa r I . I n letter s writte n i n the closin g day s o f th e year , Prous t refer s t o th e difficul t time s a s "l'Enfer qu'es t Fepoqu e actuelle " an d "cett e affreus e annee." 78 The larges t conflic t th e worl d ha d ye t see n mad e th e publicatio n of th e nex t projecte d volume , Le CSti de Guermantes, impossible. After th e wa r broke out , Bernar d Grasset , wh o ha d publishe d Du cStS de chez Swann and was about t o publis h Le Cdtk de Guermantes, was drafted , makin g i t necessar y t o clos e th e publishin g house. 79 According t o Loui s Gautier-Vignal , wh o sa w Proust ofte n durin g the war, th e event s o f the globa l conflic t saddene d him eve n mor e than th e deat h o f Agostinelli and that o f his mother year s earlier. 80 Gautier-VignaTs testimon y i s supported b y th e letter s tha t Proust wrot e durin g th e period . Th e los s o f Agostinelli ; th e anguish th e write r suffere d ove r Bertrand d e Fenelon' s disappear ance an d th e sorro w h e experience d whe n th e dreade d confirma tion o f Fenelon' s deat h came ; th e constan t concer n abou t th e

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safety o f hi s brother , Robert , an d tha t o f his lifelon g an d closes t friend, Reynald o Hahn , bot h o f whom wer e in th e war zone—al l these becam e recurren t theme s i n lette r afte r letter . Thi s lette r t o Clement d e Maugny i s typical: Et pourtan t [me s peines] son t bie n grandes , t u n e l e sais, tan t no s vies son t separee s maintenant , d'u n am i [Agostinelli] qu e j'ai perdu i l y a un an, e t qui avec ma mere, mo n pere, es t la personne qu e j'ai le plus aimee. Mais depuis les morts s e sont succede[s ] san s interruption. Bertran d d e Fenelon , qu i . . . s'est montre pou r moi u n am i incomparable , Bertran d d e Fenelo n qu i n'avait pas a etre mobilise et rendait plus de services ou il etait, a voulu partir et a ete tue. II y avait dix ans que je ne l'avais pas vu, mais je le pleurerai toujours. 81 Proust's intens e preoccupatio n wit h th e wa r an d hi s con cern fo r th e safet y o f hi s brothe r an d friend s ca n b e see n i n hi s daily practic e o f devourin g th e wa r report s from seve n newspa pers: "Nui t e t jour o n pens e a la guerre , peut-etr e plu s doulou reusement encor e quan d comm e mo i o n n e la fai t pas." 82 Th e newspapers Prous t rea d an d hi s discussion s wit h friends abou t th e progress o f th e wa r serve d a s the sourc e o f th e Narrator' s interes t in militar y strateg y an d hi s conversation s wit h Saint-Loup . Fenelon's deat h an d his homosexuality, whic h ha d been conceale d for som e years, were attribute d t o Saint-Loup. 83 The onl y real-life peopl e t o who m Prous t pay s tribute i n la Recherche are Bertrand d e Fenelon, Celest e Albaret, and some o f the latter's relatives, whos e name s appea r a few times . I n La Prisonnihe, Proust speak s of Celeste's genius i n the contex t o f Albertine's intel ligence, a topi c tha t ha s alread y bee n discussed : "Albertin e s'etai t etonnamment developpe . C e qu i m'etait entieremen t egal . . . . Seul le curieu x geni e d e Celest e m'eu t peut-etr e plu " (III , 17) . O f Bertrand d e Fenelon , Prous t write s tha t h e i s "l'am i l e plu s che r l'etre l e plu s intelligent , bo n e t brave , inoubliabl e a tous ceu x qu i l'ont connu " (II , 771). It is reasonable to believe that Proust consid ered suc h mentio n i n hi s nove l t o b e th e greates t tribut e h e coul d

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pay to thes e friends. W e ca n judge th e significanc e o f this homag e when w e think o f those who ar e left out , notabl y Reynaldo Hahn , Mme Straus , and Agostinelli . Ha d Prous t wante d t o pa y tribut e t o Agostinelli, th e fact tha t th e chauffeu r contribute d t o th e characte r of Albertine woul d no t hav e prevented hi m from doin g so . Celest e contributed significantl y t o th e portrai t o f Franfoise , a s di d Bertrand d e Fenelo n t o tha t o f Saint-Lou p an d t o Albertine , ye t Proust mentioned the m both by name. With th e comin g o f th e war , Prous t ha d mor e tim e t o write an d additiona l materia l t o consider ; Agostinelli' s deat h len t new lif e an d directio n t o th e novel, leading to th e developmen t o f Albertine, i n who m h e woul d concentrat e al l tha t remaine d fo r him t o sa y about eroti c love , jealousy, death , memory , oblivion , and th e relationship o f suffering t o th e creativ e act . In a long letter writte n t o Mari e Scheikevitc h i n Novem ber 1915 , Prous t outline s th e development s t o com e i n th e unpublished portion s o f his novel . H e insist s especiall y upo n th e importance o f a ne w centra l character , Albertine : "j'aimerai s mieux vou s presente r le s personnages qu e vou s n e connaisse z pa s encore, celu i surtou t qu i jou e l e plu s gran d rol e e t amen e l a peripetie, Albertine." 84 Thi s lette r i s remarkable becaus e i t show s that i n th e yea r followin g Agostinelli' s deat h Prous t ha d alread y worked ou t al l the plot detail s for th e new characters , whose pres ence woul d greatl y alte r th e origina l structure , thoug h no t th e meaning an d substance , o f his novel . Th e lette r summarize s th e Narrator's entir e experienc e wit h Albertine : th e initia l attraction , first suspicions , appeasement, an d boredom, whic h alway s happens to Proustian lovers whenever the y feel secur e in thei r possession o f the desire d woman ; hi s intention o f breaking wit h her ; th e terri ble revelatio n abou t Albertine' s relationshi p wit h Mil e Vinteui l and he r friend, whic h cause s a reversal o f his feelings an d deter mines hi m t o marr y her ; he r imprisonmen t i n hi s apartment , flight, an d death ; and, finally, th e proces s o f remembering an d for getting a s each o f his multiple selve s (les moi successifs) remembers , grows indifferent to , and ultimatel y forgets th e various Albertines :

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Albertine n'aurai t rie n pu m e reprocher . O n n e peu t etre fidel e qu' a c e dont o n s e souvient, o n n e peut s e souvenir qu e de c e qu'on a connu. Mon mo i nouvea u tandis qu'i l grandissai t a Y ombre d e Tancie n qu i mourait avai t souvent entend u celui-c i parler d'Alber tine. A travers les recits du moribond, i l croyait la connaitre, 1'aimer. Mais c e n'etait qu'un e tendress e d e seconde main. 85 In a letter t o Reynald o Hah n writte n i n th e fal l o f 1914 , Proust als o talke d abou t grievin g an d multiple selve s in muc h th e same term s a s those use d i n th e lette r t o Mari e Scheikevitch , bu t this tim e h e referre d directl y t o Agostinelli . Th e occasio n o f th e letter wa s Proust's desir e t o explai n t o Hah n tha t i f he seeme d t o have recovere d quickl y from Agostinelli' s death , h e nonetheles s had genuinel y grieve d fo r him , findin g i t impossibl e t o sustai n such feeling s fo r ver y long . Hah n ha d writte n t o Prous t express ing hi s concer n tha t th e first tri p Prous t mad e t o Cabour g i n September—only a fe w month s afte r hi s secretary' s fata l acci dent—might b e especiall y painfu l fo r him , give n al l th e associa tions tha t th e Normand y resor t share d wit h th e memor y o f Agostinelli. I n lat e October , Prous t wrot e back , tellin g Hah n tha t in spit e o f th e genuinenes s o f hi s love , ther e wer e time s a t Cabourg whe n h e though t littl e o r no t a t al l o f hi s lat e friend . The lette r merit s quotatio n a t length , especiall y sinc e th e secon d page wa s onl y discovere d i n 198 5 an d publishe d fo r th e firs t tim e by Phili p Kol b i n 1986 . (Th e previousl y unpublishe d portio n begins with th e line: "Mai s j'ai aussi la tristesse. . . .) Mais enfi n a Cabourg san s cesse r d'etr e auss i triste n i d'autant l e regretter, i l y a eu de s moments, peut-etr e des heures , o u i l avai t dispar u d e m a pensee . . . . J'aimais vraiment Alfred . C e n'est pas assez de dire que je raimais, je Tadorais. Et je ne sais pourquoi j'ecris cela au passe car je 1'aim e toujours. Mai s malgre tout , dan s les regrets, il y a une part d'involontaire e t une part d e devoir qu i fixe l'involontaire e t e n assur e la duree. O r

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ce devoi r n'exis t e pa s enver s Alfre d qu i avai t tre s ma l agi ave c moi , je lu i donn e le s regret s qu e je n e peu x faire autremen t qu e d e lu i donner , j e n e m e sen s pa s tenu enver s lu i a u n devoi r comm e celu i qu i m e li e a vous, qu i m e lierai t a vous , mem e s i je vou s devai s mille fois moins , s i je vou s aimai s mill e foi s moins . . . . Mais j'ai auss i la tristesse d e senti r qu e mem e vive s [me s souf&ances] son t pourtan t peut-etr e moin s obsedante s qu'il y a u n moi s e t dem i o u deu x mois . C e n'es t pa s parce qu e le s autres son t mort s qu e l e chagrin diminue , mais parc e qu'o n meur t soi-meme . E t i l fau t un e bie n grande vitalit e pou r mainteni r e t fair e vivr e intac t l e "moi" d'i l y a quelque s semaines . So n am i n e l' a pa s oublie, l e pauvre Alfred . Mai s il Ta rejoint dan s la mor t et so n heritier , l e "moi " d'aujourd'hu i airn e Alfre d mais n e T a pas conn u qu e par les recits d e l'autre . C'es t une tendress e d e second e main . . . . D'ailleur s je n'a i plus a . . . formuler [d e telle s idees] . I l y a longtemp s que la vi e n e m'offr e plu s qu e de s evenement s qu e j'ai deja decrits . Quan d vou s lire z mo n troisiem e volum e celui qu i s'appell e e n parti e A Vombre des jeunes filles en fleurSy vou s reconnaitre z Tanticipatio n e t l a sur e prophetie d e c e qu e j'ai eprouve depuis. 86 By N o v e m b e r 22 , Prous t ha d move d o n t o othe r consid erations an d wa s workin g o n section s o f th e nove l tha t hav e n o t h ing t o d o w i t h Agostinell i an d Albertine ; h e wa s rereadin g Josep h Reinach's b o o k o n th e Dreyfu s affai r i n orde r t o d o c u m e n t pas sages fo r la Recherche about France' s mos t famou s caus e celebre. 8 7 T h e statemen t i n th e las t paragrap h o f th e lette r reveal s that Prous t ha d alread y worke d ou t th e implication s o f lov e an d fidelity t o th e m e m o r y o f a belove d perso n i n hi s note s fo r th e novel before such implication s wer e prove n t o h i m b y th e traged y of Agostinelli' s death . T h u s , accordin g t o Proust , th e t h e o r y o f multiple selve s concernin g love , jealousy, death , guilt , an d sorro w was alread y establishe d i n A Vombre des jeunes filles en fleurs, w h i c h becam e a cas e o f lif e confirrnin g art . W e k n o w n o w tha t

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Proust embroidere d upo n thes e tenet s abou t lov e an d death , adding detail s from hi s experienc e wit h Agostinell i t o mak e them mor e precise , an d workin g the m int o passage s late r t o b e published i n La Fugitive. Th e experienc e wit h Agostinell i pro vided ne w an d painfu l example s t o sustai n a theor y alread y hel d by Proust . I n addition , th e lette r state s Proust' s realizatio n tha t hi s attachment t o Agostinell i wa s no t a s strong a s the lov e an d sens e of dut y tha t boun d hi m t o friend s suc h a s Reynald o Hah n an d Bertrand d e Fenelon . Th e latter' s deat h affecte d hi m greatly , even thoug h h e ha d no t see n Fenelo n fo r ove r te n years . Although w e d o no t kno w th e detail s behin d Proust' s assertio n that Agostinell i wa s unkin d t o him , Prous t obviousl y resente d the wa y hi s proteg e ha d treate d him . I f th e tim e fram e i n th e letter t o Hah n i s t o b e take n seriously , Proust' s perio d o f intens e grief ove r Agostinelli' s deat h laste d onl y a fe w weeks . Phili p Kolb point s ou t tha t whe n Prous t wrot e th e letter , h e wa s already thinkin g abou t th e sectio n o f La Fugitive wher e h e describes th e thre e stage s o f th e Narrator' s growin g indifferenc e to th e memor y o f Albertine. 88 Proust end s his letter t o Mme Scheikevitc h wit h a maximlike statement abou t deat h an d mourning : Le regret est bien un mal physique, mais entre les maux physiques, il faut distingue r ceu x qu i n'agissen t su r le corps qu e par Tintermediair e d e la memoire . Dan s l e dernier cas le diagnostic est generalement favorable. Au bout de quelque temps un malade atteint de cancer sera mort. I I est bien rar e qu'u n veu f inconsolable a u bou t du meme temps ne soit pas gueri. 89 At one point i n la Recherche, thi s belief is expressed as a generalized cynica l statement abou t deat h an d mourning: "tout e mor t est pour les autres une simplification d'existence , ot e le scrupule d e se montrer reconnaissant, 1'obligation de faire de s visites" (III , 978). In relatio n t o Albertine , Prous t ha d writte n a passage—later omit ted—before he r deat h tha t show s th e Narrato r woul d no t griev e

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over he r fo r long . H e confesse s hi s utte r lac k o f sincerit y whe n telling her o f the great sorrow he would experience after her death : "sachant qu'Albertin e n e pouvai t plu s qu e . . . me cause r de s cha grins, qu e je n e ferai s qu e gache r m a vie pour ell e . . . je m e disai s que cett e mort m'eut rend u . . . ma liberte d'esprit e t d'action." 90 These remark s reflec t th e Narrator' s attitud e befor e h e learns th e importanc e o f suffering t o th e creativ e act . J. E . River s delivers a facile explanatio n o f th e rol e o f suffering i n relatio n t o the Albertin e episod e whe n h e misread s th e las t lin e i n Proust' s letter t o Mm e Scheikevitch : "Hela s Madam e l e papie r m e manque a u moment o u cel a allait deveni r pas trop mal! " The lin e does no t mean , a s Rivers translate s it , "Alas , Madame , I' m run ning ou t o f blan k page s just a s th e sufferin g wa s becomin g les s acute," but "I' m runnin g ou t o f paper just a s it was getting good! " Instead o f ending o n a tragic note, a s Rivers suggests , Proust end s with characteristi c humor . River s the n provide s th e followin g analysis o f Proust's suffering : There i s a telling ambiguity i n th e remark , an d als o a moving statemen t o f on e o f th e relationship s Prous t establishes in [th e novel ] between sufferin g an d artisti c creation: a s long a s there ar e mor e blan k pages t o b e filled wit h writing , wit h analysis , with self-confronta tion, th e grie f ca n b e controlle d an d th e pain under stood. Th e pages of writing are the suffering, bu t the y are also the means of banishing the suffering. The y are, to borro w a central paradox fro m Proust' s descriptio n of love, the sickness and the cure. 91 The tellin g ambiguit y i n th e remar k come s from Rivers' s mistranslation. Th e sufferin g doe s no t resul t from th e writing — which wa s perhap s i n Proust' s late r lif e hi s onl y sourc e o f joy, i n spite o f th e immens e labo r necessar y t o creat e suc h a work , an d certainly hi s onl y raiso n d'etre—bu t from hi s disappointment s i n love and society , th e evil s of war, an d at times eve n the lack o f suffering, tha t is , from ou r inabilit y t o maintai n ou r lov e an d fidelit y to love d one s no w lost . Tha t writin g heal s wound s i s true i n th e

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sense tha t an y ac t o f self-expressio n release s tensio n an d bring s with i t th e satisfactio n o f havin g don e somethin g rathe r tha n remain passive ; but, a s we shal l see i n th e chapte r o n "Th e Cos mos Builder, " ther e i s a more profoun d relationshi p betwee n suf fering an d th e creativ e ac t tha n mer e therapeuti c expression . Fur thermore, a s th e lette r t o Hah n shows , Prous t ha d essentiall y recovered from hi s grief over Agostinelli's deat h by th e tim e o f his trip t o Cabourg . In Rivers' s effort s t o correc t wha t h e feel s i s vagueness o r homophobia o n th e par t o f critic s wh o refus e t o allo w for Agos tinelli's metamorphosis int o Albertine, 92 Rivers goe s to o fa r i n th e other direction , overstatin g the cas e and, o n som e points, wrongl y attributing source s fo r passage s i n th e novel . Thoug h h e admit s Agostinelli wa s no t th e onl y mode l fo r Albertine , h e make s a strong cas e for Proust' s experienc e wit h th e chauffeur-secretar y a s having bee n th e determinin g on e i n changin g th e cours e o f th e novel an d providin g th e materia l fo r Proust' s treatis e o n lov e an d jealousy. Thi s i s al l true , an d ye t River s clearl y exaggerate s th e importance o f the period Proust spen t grievin g for Agostinell i an d working ou t th e implication s o f thei r relationship ; no r doe s h e make an y allowanc e fo r Worl d Wa r I a s a facto r i n permittin g Proust t o expan d greatl y th e scop e o f his novel after 1914 . Proust's relationshi p wit h Alfre d Agostinell i shoo k th e very foundations o f his original conception an d helped to impart t o th e nove l both it s tragedy an d its univer sality. It played a major rol e in transforming what might have bee n simpl y a work int o a grea t work , a gran d oeuvre in th e mora l sense , in th e structura l sense . . . . Proust spen t th e rest o f his life working ou t th e implications o f hi s relationshi p wit h Alfre d Agostinelli . When Prous t die d i n 1922 , h e wa s stil l revisin g an d adding to La Prisonnihe and La Fugitive. 9^ This las t argumen t i s particularly weak . Ha d Prous t die d a year o r s o later , h e woul d hav e bee n revisin g an d addin g t o Le Temps retrouvL I n a letter t o Pau l Souda y writte n i n 1919 , Prous t

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speaks o f th e effect s o f war an d il l health o n th e lengt h o f time i t took hi m t o writ e hi s novel, pointin g ou t tha t th e beginnin g an d concluding section s wer e writte n firs t an d th e middl e sectio n "long ago. " H e the n continues : "L a guerr e m' a empech e d'avoi r des epreuves , l a maladi e m'empeche , maintenant , d e le s corriger . Sans cela , i l y a beau temp s qu e l a critiqu e n'aurai t plu s a s'occu per d e moi." 94 I f Proust continue d t o revise La Prisonnihe in 1922 , it wa s no t becaus e h e wa s workin g ou t th e implication s o f hi s relationship wit h Agostinell i bu t becaus e i t ha d bee n materiall y and physically impossible for hi m t o publis h th e novel any sooner . Proust, o f course, made man y additions t o la Recherche, but the evidenc e w e hav e indicate s tha t thematicall y an d structurall y the essentia l element s o f the novel were presen t i n th e earl y note books o f la Recherche and, i n som e cases , i n materia l fro m Les Plaisirs et les jours an d Jean Santeuil. If , a s Rivers maintains , afte r 1914 Proust spen t th e res t o f his life workin g ou t th e implication s of hi s relationshi p t o Agostinell i i n orde r t o incorporat e the m i n his novel , the n al l on e ca n sa y is tha t th e result s ar e neithe r ver y flattering t o th e mode l no r encouragin g t o lovers . I n la Recherche, Proust orchestrate s elaborat e variation s o n th e theme s o f love an d jealousy, wit h th e sam e result s tha t wer e presen t i n hi s earlies t published works : heterosexual o r homosexual lover s who becom e obsessive wast e thei r live s o n illusions . Prous t kne w thi s befor e and afte r h e me t Agostinelli . Th e experienc e wit h Albertin e shows th e Narrator's struggl e with an d eventua l triump h ove r ero s and jealous obsession , vice s t o whic h Swann , a heterosexual, an d Charlus, a homosexual, succumb . Wha t Prous t spen t th e res t o f his life doin g was writing, expanding , an d revising a literary mas terpiece that , afte r all , goes far beyond th e implication s o f his rela tionship wit h Agostinelli , whic h wer e ver y quickl y worke d ou t because the y ratifie d previou s experience s an d confirme d long held beliefs , a s i s clearl y show n i n Proust' s letter s o f 191 4 an d 1915 to Reynald o Hah n an d Marie Scheikevitch . There i s importan t evidenc e tha t a n Albertinelik e figure existed i n earlier , pre-Agostinell i text s leadin g u p t o th e creatio n

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of such a character i n la Recherche. Ther e i s no denyin g th e impor tance o f Agostinelli in Proust's life an d th e plot element s tha t wer e derived directl y from Proust' s experienc e wit h him ; bu t t o main tain tha t withou t hi m ther e woul d b e n o suc h characte r a s Albertine forces u s to ignor e far to o muc h textua l an d biographical evi dence t o th e contrar y Philip Kol b point s ou t tha t th e episod e o f the refuse d kis s belonged t o a characte r name d Charlott e in Jean Santeuil but wa s given t o Albertin e i n la Recherche (I , 931-34) . H e conclude s tha t "Charlotte doi t don e etr e u n model e d'Albertin e bie n anterieu r a Agostinelli, qu e Prous t n' a rencontr e qu'e n 1907." 95 The jealous y that Prous t felt towar d Bertrand d e Fenelon durin g thei r 190 2 tri p to Holland—year s befor e h e me t Agostinelli—i s anothe r impor tant sourc e fo r Albertin e an d th e portrai t o f th e jealou s lover . There i s no essentia l differenc e betwee n Proust' s behavior towar d Fenelon durin g thei r tri p t o Hollan d an d hi s apparen t anguis h over Agostinelli' s carefreenes s an d presume d infidelities . Prous t transposed a scen e o f jealous y tha t too k plac e i n Amsterda m between himsel f an d Fenelon , firs t usin g i t fo r th e characte r o f Maria an d the n fo r Albertine , wh o ultimatel y assume d Maria' s role. 96 I n la Recherche, th e paranoi a o f the jealous lover is such tha t the Narrato r imagine s th e bank s o f th e canal s ar e crowde d wit h people Albertin e knows , whos e image s h e see s reflected "dan s le s yeux brillant s d'Albertine , comm e dan s le s glace s incertaine s d'une rapid e voiture , le s feux innombrable s e t fuyants " (III , 385) . This passag e contain s a link betwee n spee d an d desir e tha t pre dates by years Proust's meeting with Agostinelli . A readin g o f Proust' s letter s t o hi s mal e friend s from hi s school day s throug h youn g adulthoo d reveal s th e sam e patter n o f attachment, insecurity , possessiveness , an d jealousy. Ther e i s n o doubt tha t Agostinell i was th e catalys t for th e developmen t o f Albertine's rol e i n th e novel , bu t i n orde r t o portra y he r Prous t re lied o n th e knowledge o f a lifetime an d not just o n his passion fo r Agostinelli. Mauric e Bardech e i s surel y correc t whe n h e write s that in spite of the importance o f Agostinelli in Proust's sentimenta l

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life, th e autho r dre w upon hi s experiences with al l the young me n he ha d know n i n orde r t o depic t hi s emotion s towar d Albertine : "il es t probabl e qu e le s sentiment s d e Prous t enver s Reynald o Hahn, Lucie n Daudet, Antoin e Bibesco o u Fenelon , on t ete , pou r beaucoup d e raisons, la source veritabl e d e so n experience , beau coup plu s qu e ceu x qu'i l eprouv a pou r Agostinelli . . . ," 97 In a conversation wit h Gid e i n th e sprin g o f 1921 , Proust confided tha t i n orde r t o depic t th e attractiv e feature s o f the girl s of the little band, o f which Albertin e i s the mos t importan t repre sentative, he dre w upon hi s memories o f homosexual experiences . Ironically, havin g don e so , h e fel t h e ha d nothin g lef t fo r hi s homosexual portrait s bu t mea n an d grotesqu e qualities . Hi s acknowledgment o f this t o Gide , whose stanc e was that o f a militant homosexual—Gid e ha d writte n bu t no t ye t publishe d Corydon—has th e overtone s o f a confession. Gid e recorde d th e gis t o f the conversatio n i n his diary : il dit s e reprocher cett e "indecision " qu i Ta fait, pou r nourrir la partie heterosexuell e d e son livre, transposer "a 1'ombre des jeunes filles " tou t c e que se s souvenirs homosexuels lui proposaient d e gracieux , d e tendr e e t de charmant , d e sort e qu'i l n e lu i rest e plu s pou r Sodome que du grotesque et de 1'abject. Mais il se montre tres affecte lorsqu e je lui dis qu'il semble avoir voulu stigmatiser l'uranisme; il proteste; et je comprend s enfi n que c e que nous trouvon s ignoble, obje t d e rire o u d e degout, ne lui parait pas, a lui, si repoussant. 98 Comparing his novel t o a cathedral, Prous t referre d t o th e Montjouvain scene a t Combra y a s the colum n tha t support s th e vault o f hi s novel . Thi s episode , whic h ha s it s origi n i n Proust' s earliest writings , i s als o presen t i n th e proof s o f Du cdti de chez Swann an d thu s predate s th e perio d o f th e writer' s infatuatio n with Agostinelli . Th e primar y importanc e o f thi s scene , eviden t from th e nove l itself , wa s underscore d b y Prous t i n a letter casti gating critics who generall y misunderstood th e overal l structure o f the work , o r who though t ther e was no structur e a t all:

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JPai si soigneusement ba d ce t ouvrag e qu e ce t episod e du premie r volum e [l a scene d u sadism e a Montjou vain] est T explication de la jalousie de mon jeune heros dans le s quatriem e e t cinquiem e volumes , d e sort e qu'en arrachan t l a colonn e a u chapitea u obscene , j'aurais fait plu s loin tombe r la voute. C'es t c e que des critiques appellen t de s ouvrage s san s compositio n e t ecrits au hasard des souvenirs." The structura l an d themati c significanc e o f th e Montjou vain scen e i s so grea t tha t from th e momen t h e bega n writin g la Recherche, Proust mus t hav e envisage d a femal e characte r wh o would pla y th e sam e rol e a s Odett e i n relatio n t o th e Narrator . The Narrator' s ultimat e comprehensio n o f Albertine's tru e rol e i n his lif e an d th e lesson s learne d from th e sufferin g sh e cause d hi m is essential to th e conclusio n o f the nove l an d th e hero' s discover y of a vocation. Thes e plo t element s wer e presen t a t the conceptua l stage o f th e nove l an d wer e no t suddenl y inspire d b y Agostinell i during his brief stay in Proust's apartment . Given th e textua l evidence , i t i s har d t o believ e tha t th e Agostinelli episod e account s entirel y fo r th e importanc e o f th e prison theme . I n hi s compariso n o f th e Grasse t proof s o f 1913 , printed shortl y afte r Agostinell i move d int o Proust' s apartment , and thos e o f June 1914 , whic h dat e from jus t afte r Agostinelli' s death, Dougla s Alde n finds compellin g evidenc e tha t a n Alber tine existe d from th e earlies t text s an d wa s t o hav e playe d essen tially th e sam e rol e i n relatio n t o th e Narrato r a s sh e di d afte r Proust's experienc e wit h Agostinelli . Alde n point s ou t tha t th e prisoner moti f was, i n fact , alread y i n th e tex t a t th e poin t wher e Odette i s hel d "captive " sinc e "Charlus-Fleuru s i s appointe d t o take he r ou t an d i n genera l t o repor t he r coming s an d goings. " This, i n fact , i s exactl y th e natur e o f Albertine' s imprisonment ; she i s ofte n allowe d t o g o out , escorte d b y Andre e o r b y a trusted chauffeur , wh o the n give s th e Narrato r a n accoun t o f he r activities. Alde n als o quote s a n earl y versio n o f th e scen e involv ing th e good-nigh t kiss , i n whic h ar e foun d trace s tha t prov e

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"without questio n tha t th e narrato r i s t o hav e a mistress an d tha t the leitmoti f o f thei r affai r wil l b e jealousy." 100 Jealou s lover s have alway s sough t t o surroun d th e object s o f thei r passio n wit h real an d psychologica l barriers . Jean Milly , i n his recent editio n o f La Prisonnihe, points t o texts tha t existe d prio r t o Du cSti de chez Swann containin g th e essential element s o f Proust's analysi s o f love . Mill y quote s a sen tence from Le Carnet de 1908 tha t sum s u p succinctl y th e experi ence o f all Proustian lovers : "Dan s la deuxiem e parti e d u roman l a jeune fill e ser a ruinee, je Tentretiendra i san s chercher a la posseder par impuissanc e d u bonheur. " I n "Avan t l a nuit " (1893 ) an d "L a Fin d e l a jalousie" (1896 ) ther e ar e description s o f jealous lover s that alternat e betwee n feeling s o f confidenc e an d suspicion , con tain manifestations o f homosexuality, an d recount th e deat h o f th e jealous love r i n a horsebac k ridin g accident. 101 Al l o f Proust' s lovers exemplify thi s "incapacit y for happiness, " with variation s o n the them e o f obsessiv e jealousy : Swann/Odette , Saint-Loup / Rachel, th e Narrator/Albertine , an d Charlus/Morel . Mill y ha s found tha t th e Albertin e cycl e ha d th e greates t impac t o n th e structure o f the novel rather tha n o n it s content : rimportance, bie n reelle, des elements biographiques a ete surevalue e par la critique , qu i ten d a voir dans [l e cycle d'Albertine ] un e excroissanc e contingent e d e Toeuvre, alors qu'on ne peut le comprendre qu e dans le cadre d'un e restructuratio n d'ailleur s progressiv e e t accompagnee d e frequente s remise s e n question , d e Tensemble de la Recherche depuis 1913. 102 George Painter als o sees the alternatin g pattern o f love an d death presen t i n Proust's writings before th e arriva l o f Agostinelli. In hi s view , whic h i s somewhat dramaticall y state d ye t essentiall y true, th e chauffeu r wa s caugh t u p i n th e wheel s o f love an d deat h and murdered b y a masterpiece: "Agostinell i wa s conducted alon g the roa d t o his tragic en d by th e ineluctabl e mechanis m o f a work of art; he was killed by A la Recherche. . . ." 103

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The sorrow s o f the love r an d o f the mourne r wil l pla y a n important rol e i n th e creatio n o f art , a s the Narrato r learn s upo n discovering th e secret s o f his vocation , bu t particula r sorrow s an d regrets ar e i n themselve s transitor y sinc e w e ar e no t capabl e o f sustaining suc h emotion s ove r protracte d period s o f time : "i l y a dans c e monde o u tou t s'use , o u tou t perit , un e chos e qu i tomb e en ruine , qu i s e detrui t encor e plu s completement , e n laissan t moins d e vestiges qu e la Beaute: c'es t l e Chagrin " (III , 695) . From wha t w e kno w abou t Proust' s philosophica l beliefs , it i s eviden t tha t th e concep t o f multipl e selve s tha t Prous t elab orated upo n i n letter s t o Reynald o Hah n an d Mm e Scheikevitch wa s a long-held belie f an d di d no t resul t from self analysis a s h e wen t throug h th e proces s o f mournin g th e deat h of Agostinelli . Phili p Kol b ha s demonstrate d tha t i n developin g his theor y o f multipl e selves , Prous t wa s influence d b y Gabriel e d'Annunzio's nove l L'Innocente (1892) , i n whic h Prous t foun d a direct expressio n o f th e kin d o f self-analysi s tha t result s i n suc h a formulation . Prous t rea d d'Annunzio' s nove l i n a Frenc h trans lation, L'lntms, i n 1893 , whe n h e wa s onl y twenty-two ; h e wrote t o Danie l Halev y tha t th e firs t thirt y page s enrapture d him. Her e i s par t o f th e excerp t cite d b y Kol b from th e Frenc h translation o f th e novel : Selon le s temps e t selo n le s lieux, selo n le heur t acci dentel de s circonstances , d'u n fai t insignifiant , d'u n mot, selo n de s influence s interne s beaucou p plu s obscures encore , l e fon d permanen t d e so n etr e reve tait le s aspects le s plus changeants , le s plus fogitifs, les plus etranges . E n lui , u n eta t organiqu e specia l corre spondait a chaqu e tendanc e special e e n l a renfor$ant , et cett e tendanc e devenai t u n centr e d'attractio n o u convergeaient le s etat s e t le s tendance s directemen t associes, e t Tassociatio n s e propageai t d e proch e e n proche. Alor s so n centr e d e gravit e s e trouvai t de place; s a personnalite devenai t un e autr e personnalite . Des onde s silencieuse s d e san g e t d'idee s faisaien t

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fleurir sur le fon d permanen t d e so n etre , soi t gradu ellement, soi t tou t d'u n coup , de s ame s nouvelles . I I etait multanime}^ It woul d b e difficul t t o imagin e a mor e Proustia n text ; d'Annunzio's descriptio n o f his character' s "multipl e souls " finds a direct parallel in Proust's multiple selves . In Ulntms suc h selves are even summone d int o existenc e i n a Proustian way , resulting from "le heur t accidente l de s circonstances, " an d ar e "changeants, " "fugitifs," an d "etranges. " The fac t tha t thes e pages thrilled Prous t would seem to indicate that they confirmed o r echoed feelings an d thoughts tha t h e wa s alread y i n th e proces s o f developing . Th e early dat e o f thi s text , whos e importanc e h e acknowledged , i s additional proof that insofar a s the theory o f multiple selves is concerned, Prous t had worked ou t his theory o f relativity, subjectivity , and the use of multiple perspectives long before he met Agostinelli . Those account s o f Agostinelli's rol e i n Proust' s lif e tha t d o justice t o th e par t h e playe d i n th e creatio n o f Albertin e ofte n overstate o r misinterpre t th e relationshi p betwee n th e chauffeur secretary an d th e figur e o f th e aviato r i n th e novel . Th e airplan e is the dominan t symbo l in Proust's vertical imagery describin g th e ascent o f th e creativ e person . Th e associatio n o f th e aviato r wit h Agostinelli ma y hav e bee n unavoidable , give n wha t w e kno w o f Proust's personal life, but i t is entirely coincidenta l t o th e symboli c intent o f the novel. 105 Proust woul d stil l have use d th e airplan e a s the dominan t symbo l o f th e creativ e artis t ha d h e neve r me t Agostinelli. Albertin e fulfill s exactl y th e sam e role o f handmaide n in relation to ar t a s did Agostinelli i n Proust's life. Albertine crank s the pianol a fo r th e Narrato r jus t a s Agostinell i drov e th e ca r through Brittan y an d Normand y and , mos t likely , pedale d th e pianola fo r Proust , bu t sh e i n n o wa y represent s th e creativ e per son. Th e passag e where th e Narrato r see s his first airplane, in fact , has nothin g whateve r t o d o wit h Agostinelli , contrar y t o wha t George Painte r an d othe r critic s hav e maintained . Sinc e thi s ke y passage ha s s o ofte n bee n misinterpreted , i t woul d b e wel l t o quote i t agai n here:

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Tout a coup mo n cheva l se cabra ; i l avait entend u u n bruit singulier . . . . Je pleurals aussi . .. a la pensee qu e ce que j'allais voir pour la premiere fois c'etait u n aeroplane. . . . Taviateur . . . plana quelque s instant s au dessus d e l a mer , pui s . . . semblan t cede r a quelqu e attraction inverse de celle de la pesanteur . . . d'un lege r mouvement d e ses ailes d'or i l piqua droi t ver s le ciel. (II, 1029) Painter attribute s th e Narrator' s tearfu l reactio n o n sight ing hi s firs t airplan e t o grie f ove r Agostinelli' s death : "Prous t alludes secretl y t o th e deat h o f Agostinelli , whe n th e Narrato r at Balbe c burst s int o tear s o n firs t seein g a n aeroplane . . . ." 106 J. E . River s als o link s th e death s o f Albertin e an d Agostinell i t o this text : "Bu t Alfred' s deat h an d Proust' s grie f ar e mor e clearl y memorialized i n another passage , a strange an d beautiful interlud e haunted wit h privat e symbolism." 107 B y overstatin g th e influenc e of Agostinelli o n Proust' s novel , thes e commentator s confus e th e purpose o f the episode . The inciden t tha t inspire d thi s passage is in no wa y relate d to Agostinelli , bu t instea d ha s a s it s sourc e anothe r youn g man , Marcel Plantevignes, i n whom Prous t had take n a n interest durin g the summer s h e spen t a t Cabour g i n 1908-10 , wher e th e yout h vacationed wit h hi s famil y I n hi s memoirs , Avec Marcel Proust, Plantevignes relate s tw o episode s tha t Prous t combine d t o creat e the scen e wher e th e Narrato r see s hi s first airplane . Thi s passage , which wa s onl y publishe d i n 1966 , was unavailable t o Painte r an d was ignore d b y River s an d Margare t Mein , wh o consequentl y mistakenly attribute d th e sourc e o f the inciden t t o Proust' s experi ence wit h Agostinelli . I t i s perhap s wort h examinin g a t som e length th e pertinent passage s from Plantevignes' s memoirs. 108 Margaret Mein , strangel y enough , quote s th e secon d pas sage from th e memoirs , wher e Plantevigne s recall s burstin g int o tears o n firs t seein g a n airplane , bu t no t th e first episode , wher e the horseback ride r i s frightened b y a low-flying airplane . I t is this episode tha t i s clearly th e origi n o f the Narrator' s sightin g his first

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airplane a t Balbec ; ye t Mei n persist s i n interpretin g th e hors e a t Balbec a s a presage o f Albertine's deat h an d a s "an autobiographi cal incursion " relatin g t o Agostinelli . I n speakin g o f Albertine' s death, Mei n expresse s he r surpris e that , excep t fo r th e airplan e encounter, Prous t suppresse d eve n veile d allusion s t o Agostinelli' s death. Thi s i s because th e airplan e encounte r ha s nothin g t o d o with Agostinelli' s accident , no r doe s A g stinelli' s deat h hav e any thing t o d o wit h Albertine's. 109 Plantevignes begin s b y describin g hi s horsebac k ride s a t Cabourg an d Houlgate ; Proust , s o fa r a s Plantevignes knew , ha d never mounte d a horse . Plantevigne s believe s tha t th e man y rides h e too k wit h Proust' s frien d th e vicomt e d'Alton , whic h the forme r eithe r witnesse d o r ha d describe d t o hi m b y hi s friends, wer e th e sourc e fo r th e equestria n ride s o f Albertin e and Andree. 1 1 0 Plantevigne s the n describe s th e inciden t tha t occurred whe n h e wa s ou t ridin g on e o f hi s favorit e horses , a steady, reliabl e mar e name d Serpolette . A s h e wa s amblin g peacefully along , suddenl y a n airplan e appeare d ou t o f nowhere . It wa s thi s inciden t tha t Prous t develope d int o th e Narrator' s sighting o f hi s firs t airplane . I n fact , i n on e o f th e notebook s where Albertine' s nam e occur s fo r th e firs t time , Prous t refer s t o the horsebac k rid e an d th e encounte r o f th e aviato r a s "un e promenade . . . dej a ecrite." 111 Her e i s th e passag e from Plante vignes's memoirs : Tout a cou p u n avio n surg i d e Thorizo n de s arbres , volant tre s ba s . . . fon^ai t ver s nou s ave c u n brui t d'enfer. . . . Ma jument prise de terreur . . . sursauta sur ses jambes . . . puis faisan t u n gran d bon d e n avant , partit a travers champs, au triple galop. . . . All his efforts t o cal m the panic-stricken hors e proved use less sinc e th e airplan e continue d t o follo w the m and , a s Plante vignes point s out , plane s fle w ver y lo w an d ver y slowl y a t th e time. Th e machin e staye d righ t abov e th e ride r an d hi s frantic horse. Onc e th e plan e finally relente d an d flew off , Plantevigne s

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was oblige d t o wal k th e shake n hors e bac k t o th e stables . As soo n as Plantevignes sa w Proust tha t evening , h e tol d th e write r o f hi s adventure an d narrow escape : Proust, frapp e e n effe t pa r l a nouveaut e d e cett e impression d e peu r tomban t d u cie l m e demand a l a permission d e s'e n approprie r l a descriptio n comm e etant arrive a lui et d'y faire allusion dans ses ecrits. . . . Et en effet dan s Sodome et Gomorrhe, Prous t parle de cet incident. . . comme arrive a lui. . . . The hors e bein g terrorize d b y th e airplan e ma y hav e encouraged Prous t t o hav e Albertin e di e a s a result o f a horse back ridin g accident . I f he reache d thi s decisio n afte r Agostinelli' s death, the n i t i s possibl e t o sa y tha t subliminall y th e airplan e caused Albertine' s deat h a s wel l a s Agostinelli's . Ye t w e mus t remember tha t Honore , th e jealous her o o f the stor y "L a Fi n d e la jalousie," als o die d a s a result o f a fall from a horse. Bu t ther e i s no reaso n t o believ e tha t Agostinelli' s deat h determine d Alber tine *s; the gir l who wa s t o pla y a crucial rol e i n th e Narrator' s lif e was mos t likel y require d b y th e plo t t o di e anyway , sinc e hi s obsession wit h he r serve s a s th e mai n obstacl e t o th e successfu l completion o f hi s ques t t o discove r hi s tru e bein g an d hi s voca tion a s a writer. Th e sufferin g an d guil t tha t h e experience s afte r her deat h ar e ke y element s i n thi s proces s o f development. 112 The passag e describin g ho w th e Narrato r burs t int o tear s upon seein g hi s firs t airplan e wa s base d o n anothe r inciden t described t o Prous t b y Plantevignes : C'est egalemen t a moi . . . qu'il fai t allusion , lorsqu e dans les lignes suivantes, il decrit qu'il a pleure en voyant vole [sic] . . . un avio n . . . durant un e promenade e n auto ave c me s parents . . . . je m'etai s soudai n pri s a pleure r d'emotio n e n repensan t a mo n grand'per e qui . . . eut ete si curieux, si interesse, et si surpris et saisi par cette merveilleuse et inoubliable nouveaute en voyant soudain apparaitre . . . le monoplan de Latham. . . .

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Proust, qu i m'avait devine, dit combien il comprenait cett e emotion , e t m'en avai t meme vivemen t feli cite pa r rappor t a u souveni r d e mo n grand'pere , m e demanda egalement la permission de relater cette emotion comme arrivee a lui.113 This i s just th e kin d o f emotio n tha t woul d hav e please d Proust: th e memory o f a beloved grandparen t linke d t o th e youn g man's astonishmen t a t witnessin g a revolutionar y technologica l achievement an d hi s regre t tha t th e grandparen t di d no t liv e t o share the sens e of elation. Thi s passage may have been th e startin g point for th e identification o f the Narrator's grandmother with th e church steepl e o f Saint-Hilair e a t Combra y an d othe r vertica l imagery, includin g th e airplane . Becaus e a n earlie r version o f th e aviator episod e a t Balbec contain s an allusio n t o Homer , Margare t Mein see s the source of the Narrator's tears as coming from Home ric reminiscences. Sh e later observes that "l a seule 'sublimite' d e ce bruit d'avio n serai t une explicatio n drop facile de s larmes qu e verse le narrateur . Comm e presqu e toujour s che z Proust , nou s avon s affaire pluto t a un symbolism e multiple. . . ." 114 We may indeed b e dealing wit h multipl e symbols , bu t Mei n misse s th e poin t again . The Narrator' s tear s are not merel y th e result o f his havin g witnessed a n extraordinar y huma n fea t fo r th e firs t time—ma n i n flight—but th e fac t tha t th e sigh t o f th e free-flying aviato r reminds hi m o f his ow n bondag e an d failure . Rathe r tha n havin g an ancien t source , th e Narrator' s tear s ar e inspire d b y moder n man's achievements . Th e Futurists , for who m th e airplan e was th e ultimate symbo l o f modern technology , understoo d ver y wel l th e sort o f elation tha t coul d result from th e sigh t o f an airplane : Si rhomme cherch e l a beaute de s formes, l a souplesse des lignes , e t l e myster e d e l a matier e elle-meme , i l doit, selo n Marinetti , regarde r u n avio n pre t a de coller. L e vol de s avion s cre e d e nouvelle s sensation s plastiques et remplit rhomme d e sentiments nouveaux. Les heros de "L'Elliss e e la Spirale" pleurent d e joie e t volupte au cours d'un vol. 115

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Jacques-Henri Lartigu e describe d hi s emotio n upo n see ing a n airplan e pas s direcdy overhea d i n 1909 . Th e tex t i s similar to Proust' s no t onl y i n term s o f th e emotiona l respons e o f th e observer but i n th e conceptio n o f the aviato r a s ascendant vision ary Lartigu e identifie s s o strongl y wit h th e pilo t tha t h e believe s the aviator' s eye s have become hi s own : Hier, un aeroplane est passe au-dessus de moi! juste audessus de moi! J'ai vu d'en dessou s Thomme vivant assis sur son siege, jambes ecartees . . . . Et soudai n quelqu e chose de mysterieux s'es t produit dan s ma tete . . . un peu comm e u n vertig e a Tenvers ! C'etai t comm e s i j'avais vu passer cet homme ave c d'autres yeu x qu e les miens, avec les siens!?!? Je l'a i regard e s'eloigner , tou jours e n 1'air . So n moteu r faisai t u n brui t resonnan t empli d'air . O n a quelquefois de s premieres emotion s uniques, apre s lesquelles, ensuite , o n cour t san s jamais plus pouvoir les rattraper. Je me demande comment on peut appeler ce "contraire de la peur" cett e "peu r joyeuse" qui , d'un coup , etait entre e dan s ma cervell e . . . et qu e personne (??? ) plus tard ne pourra peut-etre plus comprendre. 116 When th e Narrato r see s th e airplan e a t Balbec , he i s cha grined becaus e wheneve r h e i s i n love , h e see s himsel f a s a pris oner, a failure. H e i s therefore bot h move d an d intimidate d by th e sight o f the aviator , a symbol o f creativity an d freedom. Howeve r much Prous t ma y hav e love d Agostinelli , h e clearl y di d no t con sider him a n artist . Th e airplane , unlike th e bicycle, car , train, an d other machine s o f speed, ha s n o eroti c associations ; a s was note d in earlie r chapters , th e automobil e an d trai n ar e ofte n use d i n th e context o f eroticism an d socia l commentar y The figure o f th e aviato r i s unadulterate d i n th e nove l and i s never linke d t o aspect s o f th e horizonta l ques t becaus e th e airplane i s th e symbo l o f th e creator . Sinc e th e onl y symboli c function th e plan e serve s i n th e nove l i s t o represen t th e creativ e person, i t i s contrar y t o Proust' s intentio n t o sa y tha t th e figure

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of th e aviato r i s intende d a s a n homag e t o Agostinelli . Th e emotion fel t b y th e Narrato r whe n h e see s hi s first airplan e does no t impl y tha t a love d on e i s immortalize d throug h art , a s Rivers claims : The passage . .. i s at once [Agostinelli's ] memorial and his apotheosis as an inspiring spirit of Proust's novel. In life Icaru s must fall; but in art he can fly on and on. In A la recherche Alfred Agostinell i soars, lives, and return s to hi s native land—the min d an d imagination o f Marcel Proust. 117 In fact , ther e i s no connectio n whateve r betwee n Agostinell i an d the symbo l o f the aviato r i n la Recherche. I n th e novel , th e aviato r represents th e creativ e perso n wh o i s abl e t o fre e himsel f fro m habits an d obsessions , realize himsel f fully, an d transcen d hi s ordi nary being , hi s socia l sel f (le moi social), by attainin g th e artist' s vision. There i s on e mor e passag e fro m Plantevignes' s memoir s that i s wort h quotin g fo r tw o reasons : no t onl y doe s i t demon strate onc e agai n tha t Proust' s interes t i n aviatio n wa s entirel y independent o f his relationship wit h Agostinelli , but i t als o show s the grea t interes t tha t Prous t alway s too k i n moder n invention s and technologica l progress : d'une fa^o n generate , Prous t suivai t avec emoi les progres de l'aviation naissante, et un soir—aux alentours de 1910,— dans sa chambre du Grand-Hotel de Cabourg, comme nous devisions tranquillement, u n avion important tou t bruissan t d'u n brui t apocalyptique , e t sem blant avoi r rase de pres l'hotel, tan t i l volait bas, passa avec fraca s au-dessu s d e nou s dan s l e cie l nocturne , nous coupant la parole, et Proust, alerte, s'interrompan t soudain d e c e a quoi il songeait, e t me designan t d'u n doigt dramatique le bruit et le ciel, me dit gravement: —Ecoutez, Marcel , ecoutez , le s temp s futur s qui sont en marche!

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Proust woul d have been just a s fascinated b y airplane s i f he had neve r me t Alfre d Agostinelli . Plantevignes' s testimon y abou t Proust's earl y interest i n aviatio n i s supported b y variou s text s an d letters. I n a n unpublishe d pastich e i n th e "Lemoin e affair " series , Proust describe d th e Wrigh t brothers ' flights i n 1908- 9 abov e Paris; Philip Kolb date s the compositio n o f this text i n 1909. 118 I n a posthumously publishe d tex t entitle d "Le s CEuvre s d e M . Rey naldo Hahn, " Prous t use s th e imag e o f a n aviato r takin g of f t o describe Hahn' s music ; Phili p Kolb , wh o wa s th e firs t t o publis h this text , date s i t between June 1 , 1909 , an d July 10 , 1914 . Hah n began composin g a t ag e sixteen; on e o f his first composition s wa s inspired b y a Victo r Hug o poe m bearin g a titl e tha t suggest s flight: "S i mes ver s avaien t de s ailes." 119 After alludin g t o a Hug o poem an d th e freedo m o f the artist , Proust say s that Hahn' s musi c takes wing a s it come s int o contac t wit h th e text . Give n th e lates t date a t which thi s article coul d have been written , i t is almost cer tain tha t Prous t wrot e i t before Agostinelli' s deat h an d eve n mor e likely tha t h e wrot e i t muc h earlie r tha n i n th e perio d whe n h e began concentratin g o n hi s majo r novel . Ther e i s nothing i n th e letters o f the AgostineU i period t o sugges t tha t Prous t wa s writin g an article devote d t o Hahn . O n Decembe r 15 , 1909 , w e fin d Prous t writin g a con gratulatory lette r t o hi s friend Arman d d e Guiche , wh o wa s a pioneer i n the field o f aerodynamics: Un d e mes amis (en m'ecrivant qu e votre etude sur les circonstances du mouvement d'un disqu e dans Fair et la deduction que vous en tirez sur les formules donnan t la valeur d e l a reaction d e l'air su r une surfac e plan e e n mouvement—est d'u n gran d interet au point de vue de la constructio n de s aeroplanes) m e depeint ains i sans y songer u n Guich e faisan t pense r a Vinci, ce t aviateu r qui s'occupait auss i de physique, d e peinture, e t mem e disent les Allemands, de sculpture. 120 The compariso n o f Guich e t o d a Vinci ma y be a n exam ple o f th e kin d o f hyperbole tha t Prous t ofte n engage d i n whe n

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praising friends, bu t i t ma y als o be anothe r indicatio n o f the rela tionship tha t Prous t sa w amon g creativ e peopl e i n al l domains — science a s well a s art—and a factor i n hi s choic e o f the aviato r a s the perfec t symbo l fo r th e discoverer , inventor , an d artist . D a Vinci was , afte r all , th e epitom e o f th e Renaissanc e ma n wh o excelled i n all fields a s sculptor, painter , architect , physician , engi neer, writer , an d musician; i n addition , a s Proust point s ou t i n th e comparison o f Guich e an d Leonardo , h e wa s als o passionatel y involved i n th e questio n o f manned flight. Proust wa s as interested i n the present an d future a s he wa s in th e past . Thi s i s proven ou t b y th e profusio n o f imagery draw n from moder n invention s tha t appear s i n hi s writings . Ther e i s scarcely a n invention , ne w a t th e time , tha t wa s no t pu t t o goo d metaphorical us e by th e writer ; obviou s example s woul d includ e the telephone , X-ra y machine , an d camera . Proust' s interes t i n technology wa s suc h tha t h e anticipate d invention s tha t eve n today ar e onl y i n very limited use , such a s the voice-prin t an d th e photo-telephone. 121 The nam e Marce l Swann , th e alia s chose n b y Agostinell i when h e bega n pilo t training , echoe s bot h th e manuscrip t o f Du cSti de chez Swann —parts o f whic h th e youn g aviato r ha d typed—and th e give n nam e o f th e author . Thus , th e tribut e paid wa s no t b y Prous t t o Agostinell i bu t b y Agostinell i t o hi s benefactor. Agostinell i understoo d th e symboli c us e o f th e avia tor a s artis t an d als o tha t i n a ver y rea l sens e Proust' s narrator' s name migh t appropriatel y b e Marce l Swann. 122 Swann , wh o had bee n th e youn g Narrator' s riva l fo r hi s mother' s attentio n when h e dine d a t Combray—thu s makin g i t impossibl e fo r th e mother t o g o upstair s i n tim e t o besto w th e crucia l good-nigh t kiss ("[Swann, ] l'auteu r inconscien t d e me s tristesses " [(I , 43]) — will late r b e see n a s th e "author " o f hi s boo k ( " [Mon livre ] m e venait d e Swan n . . . " [Ill , 915]) . Thus , Swan n fulfill s th e sam e function a s Albertine i n th e sens e tha t al l thos e who m th e Nar rator love s becom e "author s o f hi s sorrows " and , b y extension , his muses .

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Swann i s tethered t o th e horizonta l plan e by hi s obsessio n with Odett e an d b y a geneti c disorde r tha t Prous t label s "paress e d'esprit" (I , 268). Swann has only two luci d moments i n the entir e novel: a negative on e whe n h e see s that he ha s wasted his life o n a woman wh o wa s not hi s type , an d a positive on e whe n h e begin s to free himsel f from Odett e an d happen s t o hea r th e Vinteui l sonata a t Mm e d e Saint-Euverte' s salon . I n a not e t o himsel f i n Cahier 57 , Prous t indicate s tha t Swann' s failur e t o distinguis h between ero s (Odette ) an d ar t (VinteuiT s music , whic h i s trivial ized a s "thei r nationa l anthem" ) an d t o follo w th e pat h o f ar t i s perhaps th e mos t importan t poin t i n th e entir e novel . Swan n i s compared t o Moses , who die d before reachin g the promised land : capitalissime, issime , issime, peut-etre l e plus de tout e Tceuvre. . . . quan d je parl e d u plaisi r eterne l d e l a cuiller, tasse de the, etc. = art : etait-ce cela ce bonheur propose pa r la petite phras e d e la sonate a Swann qu i s'etait tromp e e n l'assimilan t a u plaisi r d e l'amou r e t n'avait pas su ou le trouver (dans Tart). . . . 12 3 The Narrator' s powe r o f analysis and comprehensio n als o increases, wheneve r h e believe s h e i s abou t t o recove r from hi s obsession with Albertine. In Swann's one lucid meditation o n Vin teuil's music, th e law s o f nature an d th e beauties o f art ar e repre sented as divine captives apprehended by such "discoverers" as Vinteuil, Ampere, and Lavoisier. Th e unknow n forc e i n the univers e that guide s explorer s towar d suc h discoverie s i s represente d b y horses ("l'attelag e invisible" ) tha t fly throug h th e ethe r (I , 351) . Meditating on the music, Swann sees what art really is, but, given his nature and character, is unable to sustain and profit from hi s insight, thus forever remainin g a failed artist , on e o f the man y dilettante s who hav e the desir e to fly but who canno t ge t of f the groun d (III , 892). The Narrator' s mos t constantl y expresse d desir e throughou t the novel is to free himself from habit, sloth, and obsessions in order to becom e a n artist . A s we wil l discove r i n th e nex t chapter , th e dream o f conquerin g gravit y i s on e o f man' s oldes t ambitions .

CHAPTER 7

The Artist and the Aviator la rencontre quasi mythologique d'un auiateur . . . avait ktk. pour moi comme une image de la UbertL . . . (Ill , 105 ) The imag e o f the artis t a s aviator occur s i n th e earlies t passages o f la Recherche, wher e Prous t firs t define s artisti c genius . I n a n aston ishing metaphor , h e depict s Bergotte , th e successfu l write r o f bourgeois origin , a s th e pilot 1 o f a ca r that , thoug h modes t i n appearance an d laggin g behin d th e other s i n suc h earthboun d matters a s wit o r socia l refinement, i s able t o transfor m itsel f int o an airplan e an d fly ove r th e societ y peopl e i n thei r Rolls-Royces : "[Bergotte], d e so n modest e apparei l qu i venai t enfi n d e 'decoller', ille s survolait " (I , 555). Proust explain s th e superiorit y o f th e artis t i n term s o f power conversion . I n orde r t o tak e to th e skies , that is , to becom e an artist , i t i s not necessar y t o hav e th e mos t powerfu l ca r but on e that i s "capabl e d e converti r e n forc e ascensionnell e s a vitesse h o rizontale" (I , 554) . As we shal l see, othe r aviatio n encounter s an d symbols o f elevation prove important indicator s to th e Narrato r o f the pat h he mus t follo w o n his quest . Genius i s first describe d a s the abilit y t o reflec t o r mirror , with th e qualit y o f th e artist' s visio n dependin g no t upo n th e value o f th e thin g reflecte d bu t o n th e reflectin g capacit y o f th e mirror, tha t is , th e artist' s powe r t o rende r correctl y hi s chose n subject, "l e geni e consistan t dan s l e pouvoi r reflechissan t e t no n 187

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dans l a qualit e intrinsequ e d u spectacl e reflete " (I , 555). 2 People , places, an d name s d o no t i n themselve s constitut e ideal , integra l entities; the y ca n onl y b e endowe d wit h suc h qualitie s throug h the artist' s vision . I t i s not socia l polis h tha t matter s bu t th e bril liance o f th e artist-mirror . Lik e Proust , Bergott e attain s hi s supreme triump h a s a n artis t b y perfectl y mirrorin g th e medi ocrity o f those who ar e more sociall y elevated than h e is . To para phrase a well-known aphorism , Bergott e find s tha t "writin g wel l is th e bes t revenge. " Althoug h th e youn g Narrato r i s dazzle d b y the apparen t brillianc e o f the aristocrati c world , th e matur e Nar rator, lik e Bergotte , wil l eventuall y se e th e vanit y an d inferiorit y of this milieu . This ke y passag e combine s a number o f Proustian image s that illustrat e th e artist' s experienc e i n societ y an d hin t a t th e development o f other s t o come . Th e artis t i s first presente d a s a mirror tha t reflect s an d the n a s a n aviato r wh o look s dow n an d visually encompasse s th e live s o f others . Th e artis t a s a mirror , reflector, o r projector o f light ofte n lead s into anothe r metaphori c image fo r Proust' s artists , namely , tha t o f planets. 3 I t i s a n idea l metaphoric imag e for th e novelist's purposes, combinin g a s it doe s the essentia l feature s o f th e Proustia n artist : planet s ar e integra l worlds, gian t reflector s o f ligh t orbitin g th e cosmos . Planetar y imagery thu s embodie s tw o principal element s associate d with th e Proustian artist—ligh t an d flight—and als o implie s a n absolut e freedom an d a n integrated existence . Later i n th e novel , th e Narrato r compare s dilettantes , those would-b e artist s wh o alway s fal l short , t o prototyp e air planes tha t neve r go t of f th e groun d (III , 892). 4 Th e "artiste s manques" ar e thos e wh o canno t "decoller, " althoug h the y hav e the desir e t o fly; the y ar e presente d a s a n inferio r bu t necessar y stage in the perfectio n o f flight. Prous t thu s combines aerodynam ics an d natura l scienc e i n th e for m o f Darwinis m t o describ e metaphorically th e developmen t o f artistic genius . Throughout la Recherche, a s we hav e seen , character s wh o are victim s o f thei r obsession s ar e describe d a s being tie d down ,

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tethered b y thei r manias . Th e Narrato r see s hi s firs t airplan e when, bore d wit h Albertin e an d desirin g t o b e alone , h e goe s horseback ridin g i n a forest nea r Balbec . H e i s at first thrille d b y the experienc e o f first sightin g a n aviator , bu t late r dismaye d when h e compare s himself , a prisone r o f habit, t o th e flyer wh o soars overhea d an d seem s t o hav e "ouverte s devan t lu i . . . toute s les routes d e l'espace . . ." (II , 1029) . This mythological encounte r occurs just befor e th e bleakest perio d o f his existence . Thi s com bination o f th e mythologica l an d th e mechanica l t o illustrat e th e Narrator's lac k o f progres s o n hi s ques t i s typica l o f Proust' s metaphorical style . Whe n th e symboli c meanin g o f th e airplan e takes hol d i n th e Narrator' s mind , a transformatio n o f th e pilo t from aviato r t o ange l occur s wit h th e wing s o f stee l becomin g wings o f gold . Th e detai l o f th e golde n wings , th e mean s b y which th e aviato r propel s himsel f throug h space , indicate s th e nature o f his nativ e region : h e i s a heavenly creature . Befor e dis appearing, th e aviato r pause s abov e th e sea , th e elemen t wher e earth and sk y merge, an d the n head s back t o paradise. 5 During th e war , a t a tim e whe n th e worl d seem s topsy turvy, th e Narrato r wil l remembe r thi s encounte r durin g a n ai r raid by Germa n bombers , wher e th e airplan e tha t ha d seeme d t o be a winged messenge r fro m paradis e temporaril y become s a go d of evil. 6 Here th e airplan e i s treated realistically , assumin g a valu e that i s the opposit e o f its earlier symboli c portent. Prous t contrast s this experienc e wit h th e visio n o f th e aviator-go d first see n nea r Balbec. Th e airplane , usuall y th e symbo l o f a n altruisti c creator , becomes a satani c destroyer : "J e n e retrouvai s plu s mo n chemin . Je pensa i a c e jour . . . o u j'avais rencontre, comm e u n die u qu i avait fai t s e cabre r mo n cheval , u n avion . Je pensai s qu e main tenant l a rencontr e serai t different e e t qu e l e die u d u ma l m e tuerait" (III , 833) . There i s a direc t lin k her e betwee n th e Icarus-Daedalu s myth an d th e Narrator' s ques t t o fin d a way ou t o f th e labyrint h of socia l ritual . I n th e wood s nea r Balbec , th e nois e o f th e air plane made his horse rear; i n wartime Paris , he i s lost on e nigh t i n

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the dar k street s an d canno t find hi s way : "J e n e retrouvai s plu s mon chemin. " A t th e en d o f th e novel , whe n h e arrive s a t th e princesse d e Guermantes' s matine e afte r a n "airborne " rid e through th e street s o f Paris an d trip s o n th e uneve n cobblestones , he ha s at last "stumbled " upo n th e righ t path . So powerfu l i s th e impressio n o f freedo m th e first air plane mad e o n hi m that , onc e bac k i n Paris , th e Narrato r visit s airfields wit h Albertin e i n orde r t o witnes s thi s displa y o f libert y and defianc e o f gravity , th e triump h ove r bein g earthboun d an d tethered. Thes e outing s are , i n fact , th e onl y one s tha t h e make s with her . Durin g thes e excursions , i t become s apparen t t o hi m that th e freedom o f th e airplan e i n flight i s i n direc t contras t t o his ow n shackle d existenc e wit h Albertine ; becaus e o f hi s obses sive jealousy, h e i s a s much he r prisone r a s sh e i s his . Suc h pas sages ca n b e interprete d a s additiona l refutation s o f th e notio n that th e aviato r represent s Agostinelli , wh o i s als o th e chie f model fo r Albertine . Th e aviato r i s a liberatin g force , wherea s Albertine i s a confinin g one . Proust's generatio n wa s determine d t o conque r gravit y through manne d flight. I n 1903 , when th e Wrigh t brother s mad e their first successfu l flight a t Kitty Hawk, Nort h Carolina , th e dis tinctions betwee n th e horizonta l an d vertica l axe s wer e dramati cally demonstrated , a s on e o f mankind's oldes t dream s becam e a reality. Manne d flight crystallize d metaphorica l association s tha t had lon g been par t o f stock imagery . Accordin g t o Stephe n Kern , the directiona l shif t tha t cam e abou t wit h th e adven t o f th e air plane was unique an d universal : [The airplane's ] cultura l impact was ultimately define d by deeply roote d value s associated wit h th e up-dow n axis. Lo w suggest s immorality , vulgarity , poverty , an d deceit. Hig h i s the directio n o f growth an d hope , th e source o f life, th e heavenl y abod e o f angels an d gods . From Ovid to Shelle y the soaring bird was a symbol of freedom.7

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But i f flight ha d alway s bee n a universa l symbo l o f freedom, a huma n bein g coul d no w soa r i n a flying machin e abov e the earth . Prous t an d his contemporarie s assigne d a moral value t o the conques t o f gravity , a s i s demonstrate d i n thi s passag e b y hi s contemporary Pau l Souriau : de toute s les forces d e la nature qu e rhomme regard e comme hostile s e t prend plaisir a vaincre, cell e qu i lu i inspire l e plu s d'antipathi e e t contr e laquell e i l lutte , dans tou s ce s exercices , ave c l e plu s d'acharnement , c'est l a forc e d e l a gravitation . . . . O n a et e jusqu'a voir dan s ce rev e [d e voler] comm e un e reminiscenc e d'une vi e anterieure, ou la pesanteur n'existait pas pour nous. . . . Dans notr e lutte contr e le s puissances d e la nature . . . c'est deja quelque chose de protester, de hitter, comm e le prisonnier secou e sa chaine, ne pouvant la briser . . . c'est u n effor t ver s la liberte, e t un com mencement d'emancipatio n morale. 8 In th e passag e wher e th e Narrato r see s hi s firs t airplane , the aviator-angel' s freedom t o retur n t o hi s ow n real m i s repre sented as a force tha t i s the opposit e o f gravity, "quelqu e attractio n inverse d e cell e de la pesanteur" (II , 1029) . I f being tethere d i s th e equivalent o f hell—since fo r Proust' s hero failur e a s an artist i s primarily associate d wit h hel l ("1'art , c'es t l e vrai Jugement dernier" ; III, 880)—the n free flight represent s artisti c achievemen t an d freedom. I n fact , th e Frenc h wor d fo r takin g of f (decoller ) literall y means t o becom e unstuck . Whe n Prous t use s the wor d h e put s i t in quote s sinc e th e ne w meanin g o f becoming airborn e ha d no t been consecrate d throug h repeate d use . The first attestatio n o f this meaning i n Frenc h occur s i n 1907 , a t abou t th e sam e tim e tha t Proust bega n la Recherche; th e immediatel y precedin g year s wer e marked b y fals e start s an d discouragement , includin g th e aban doned nove l Jean Santeuil an d th e Ruski n translations , whic h Proust fel t wer e no t tru e creativ e work. 9 Throughout la Recherche, lack o f wil l an d freedom i s expressed by mean s o f images o f being tethere d o r chained . Suc h

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images becom e centra l i n La Prisonnifoe. I n th e priso n sectio n o f the novel , th e mos t urgen t questio n become s whethe r o r no t th e Narrator wil l regai n hi s los t will , sinc e h e canno t wor k no r free himself from hi s obsessio n wit h Albertine . Th e titl e A la recherche du temps perdu here resonate s wit h a n alternat e meaning , namely , as wasted tim e o r a lost life . If Aunt Leoni e i s representative o f the kin d o f relative th e young Narrato r fear s he ma y on e da y resemble—a fea r tha t i s later realized (III , 79), there i s another characte r who serve s as a mode l but who m th e sickly , dependen t bo y finds himsel f incapabl e o f imitating: hi s grandmother . Lik e th e steepl e o f Saint-Hilair e wit h which sh e i s associated , sh e represent s natura l distinctio n an d courage: "m a grand'mer e trouvai t a u cloche r d e Combra y c e qu i pour ell e avai t l e plu s d e pri x a u monde , l'ai r nature l e t l'ai r dis tingue" (I , 64). She alway s argues with th e boy's father, wh o send s him t o hi s room wit h a book o n rain y day s instead o f letting hi m go out , an d sh e i s annoye d tha t thei r garde n a t Combra y i s to o symmetrical, tha t straigh t path s rathe r tha n crooke d one s ru n through i t (I , 11) . I f n o on e i s looking , sh e wil l remov e stake s from som e o f the rose tree s to mak e the m appea r mor e natura l (I , 14). This gestur e o f removing a stake is significant, indicatin g tha t she is unlike Aun t Leonie , who i s compared t o th e tethere d wate r lily (I , 168) . Th e grandmother' s restles s nature , he r lov e o f walk s even i n ba d weather , an d he r admiratio n fo r steeple s ar e al l sign s that sh e i s free i n min d an d body, a s opposed t o th e obsesse d an d inert Aun t Leonie. 10 Th e grandmothe r i s a woma n wh o seek s emancipation an d epiphani c experience s i n he r dail y life , just a s the Narrato r wil l see k an d finally realiz e th e abilit y t o seiz e an d render i n ar t thos e moments tha t would otherwis e be lost . O n hi s las t excursio n wit h Albertin e t o a n airfiel d nea r Paris, th e Narrato r hear s a n airplan e overhea d an d remember s both th e mos t importan t vertica l symbo l o f his childhoo d day s i n Combray, namely , th e steepl e o f Saint-Hilaire , an d hi s grand mother, th e mos t importan t mento r a s far a s his will an d strengt h are concerned . H e think s o f he r becaus e i t wa s she , mor e tha n

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anyone, wh o realize d th e damag e tha t ha d bee n don e t o hi m a s a boy an d who ha d a s her dyin g ambition th e restoration o f his will: "Soudain j'eprouvais d e nouveau l a nostalgie d e ma liberte perdu e en entendan t u n brui t qu e je n e reconnu s pa s d'abor d e t qu e m a grand'mere eut , lui aussi, tant aime " (III , 406). As has been noted , the Narrator' s regre t tha t hi s grandmothe r di d no t liv e t o se e th e advent o f th e airplan e probabl y originate d i n th e inciden t tha t Marcel Plantevignes related t o Proust . Thi s is completely i n keep ing wit h th e othe r aspect s o f he r character . I t i s no t Agosti nelli/Albertine wh o i s identified wit h th e airplan e but th e grand mother/artist. The Narrator' s sightin g o f an airplane i n flight an d his discouragement whe n th e scen e remind s hi m o f his los t wil l recall s the passag e wher e a s a chil d a t Combray , th e steepl e represente d for th e Narrato r "un e existenc e individuell e e t responsable " (I , 64). Durin g th e epiphani c sectio n a t th e en d o f Le Temps retrouvi, th e airplan e i s on e o f thre e thing s i n whic h realit y i s contained an d i s equate d wit h th e steepl e a s th e embodimen t o f grandeur, "l a grandeu r dan s le bruit d'u n aeroplane , dan s l a lign e du cloche r d e Saint-Hilaire " (III , 895) . Th e primar y objectiv e o f the Narrator' s ques t i s t o rediscove r los t time—th e churc h a t Combray embodie s thi s elemen t o f hi s ques t ("u n edific e occu pant . . . u n espac e a quatr e dimensions—l a quatriem e etan t celle d u Temps " [I , 61])—an d captur e i t i n a wor k o f art . A s both th e steepl e an d airplan e indicate , th e recover y o f los t tim e will b e achieve d throug h elevate d vision . Just a s the steepl e i s a n important earl y signpos t o f th e rout e th e Narrato r mus t take — the steepl e i s envisione d a s th e finger o f Go d pointin g t o heave n (I, 66)—th e airplan e prove s tha t flight i s possible , tha t th e sk y can b e reached . However , troublin g question s stil l remai n abou t the Narrator' s dependenc y upo n Albertin e an d th e materialit y o f mechanical flight. In th e manuscrip t of Jean Santeuil, Proust's earlie r versio n of wha t wa s t o becom e la Recherche, ther e i s a characte r wh o i s a count y engineer. 11 Jea n i s astounde d on e da y whe n h e learn s

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that thi s engineer , wh o exhibit s s o man y vice s an d vulgarities , is als o a n extraordinar y musician . I n developin g thi s character , Proust attempt s t o fus e withi n on e personage— a figure wh o appears t o hi s neighbor s t o b e a n ordinar y i f no t a n inferio r person—the artis t an d th e scientist . I n late r draft s th e naturalis t was calle d Vington. 12 I n la Recherche, aspect s o f thi s earl y char acter ar e give n bot h t o Legrandi n (h e i s a n enginee r an d a ma n of letters ) an d Vinteuil , wh o receive s no t onl y th e firs t syllabl e and th e initia l consonan t soun d o f th e secon d syllabl e o f hi s name (th e final soun d come s fro m th e hero' s famil y name , San teuil) bu t als o a numbe r o f scientifi c an d technologica l associa tions. Thes e ar e presen t i n th e passag e o n Vinteui l an d th e real life artis t th e Narrato r identifie s mos t closel y wit h him , namely , Richard Wagner . I n th e cas e o f Wagne r a s presented b y Proust , the relationshi p betwee n musi c an d engineerin g i s provide d b y aerodynamics. 13 The Narrator' s mos t seriou s crisi s o f faith i n ar t occur s i n La Prisonnihe, when h e play s VinteuiTs musi c an d i s reminded o f the Combra y o f his childhoo d an d th e tim e whe n h e first kne w that h e wante d t o b e a n artist . Beset by jealousy, lackin g will, an d believing tha t h e ha s n o talent , th e Narrato r come s t o doub t th e existence o f thi s highe r reality . Discourage d an d tired , h e ask s himself i f in givin g u p th e ambitio n t o creat e ar t h e ha s give n u p anything real : " y avait-i l dan s Tar t un e realit e plu s profond e o u notre personnalite veritabl e trouv e un e expressio n qu e ne lui don nent pa s les actions d e la vie?" (Ill , 158) . As he play s VinteuiTs sonata , somethin g i n i t reminds hi m of Wagner' s music . H e switche s t o Tristan and continue s t o pla y and meditate . H e realize s tha t Wagne r possesse s th e tw o essentia l qualities o f a great artist—geniu s an d craftsmanship . Th e Narrato r appreciates Wagner's creativ e genius, especially his ability to isolat e essences and particularize musical motifs fo r th e various character s in his operas. He compare s th e maestr o o f Bayreuth t o a carpente r who select s woo d t o mak e a piece o f furniture onl y afte r havin g carefully considere d th e grai n an d othe r properties o f the wood i n

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relation t o it s intended use . A s he reflect s o n th e developmen t o f Wagner's music while playing parts o f Tristan, h e i s struck by wha t he call s th e joy o f th e fabricato r (III , 161) , whic h emerge s from the music irrespectiv e o f the mood o f the composition. 14 H e con cludes tha t th e poe t i n Wagne r i s dominate d b y th e technician . This bring s abou t a crisi s o f fait h i n th e Narrator , wh o i s no w troubled b y th e clevernes s o f th e craftsma n an d wonder s agai n i f art i s perhap s n o mor e rea l tha n life . Wha t i f musi c i s nothin g more tha n cleverl y organize d noise? 15 Wha t i f ar t i s onl y th e "produit d'u n labeu r industrieux? " (Ill , 162) . Thi s questionin g shows Proust' s mystica l yearnin g fo r a n assuranc e tha t ar t an d al l great huma n achievement s ar e proo f tha t lif e i s not senseless , tha t the fruits o f ou r bes t effort s ar e no t merel y th e materia l product s of hard work. 16 The Narrato r no w focuse s o n a n essentia l philosophica l question: Doe s ar t correspon d t o an y reality? I f the answe r is negative, the n ar t i s nothing bu t a highly complex , steril e gam e con sisting of wonderful mechanic s ("mecaniqu e e t sublime"; II , 731), but ultimatel y illusor y i n nature . I f it i s this Vulcanlik e skil l tha t gives ar t th e illusio n o f correspondin g t o a fundamental , irre ducible originality , i f art i s nothing mor e tha n a material product , then h e shoul d hav e n o regret s abou t givin g i t up . A s h e contin ues t o play , h e i s struck eve n mor e b y th e technica l brillianc e o f the composition . Contrastin g th e poet/fabricator , h e compare s Wagner's music t o a n airplane tha t i s no longe r a n idealize d visio n of artistic soarin g but onl y a mechanical contraptio n that , thoug h airborne, make s s o muc h nois e tha t i t preclude s artisti c contem plation an d exploration : "Peut-etr e . . . fallait-il d e ces appareil s vraiment materiel s pou r explore r rinfini , d e ce s cen t ving t chevaux marque Mystere , o u pourtant , s i haut qu'o n plan e o n es t un pe u empech e d e goute r l e silenc e de s espace s pa r l e puissan t ronflement d u moteur! " (Ill , 162) 17 He trie s t o resolv e th e conflic t betwee n th e mechanica l and th e divin e b y usin g a n airplan e name d Mysore a s a metapho r for th e unit y o f opposin g forces . I n hi s correspondence , Prous t

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uses a n automobile , whic h h e als o call s Mystire, t o mak e a simila r analogy. Th e occasio n wa s a lette r t o George s d e Lauri s abou t Maurice Maeterlinck' s article s o n death , whic h wer e publishe d i n Le Figaro i n 1911 . Here th e mechanica l analog y i s employe d t o criticize Maeterlinck's style : Et puis la beaute mem e d u style , la lourdeur d e sa carrosserie n e conviennen t pa s a ce s exploration s d e I' Impalpable. Je di s carrosseri e parc e qu e je croi s qu e c'est ainsi que parlent nos amis qui ont des automobiles et qu e je m e souvien s qu e je m e sui s permis devan t vous d e petite s irreverence s a l'endroi t d e Maeter linck—ma grand e admiratio n d u reste—e n parlan t d'Infini quarant e chevau x e t d e grosse voiture marqu e Mystere.18 In th e scen e fro m la Recherche, Wagner' s musi c i s likene d to a n airplan e i n that , althoug h a produc t o f techniqu e an d craftsmanship, i t doe s indee d tak e of f an d fly . I t work s a s musica l art, althoug h th e Narrato r no w see s Wagner' s musi c i n les s ide alized terms . Thes e disturbin g doubt s abou t ar t ar e soo n dis pelled whe n h e attend s a concer t wher e h e hear s th e Vinteui l septet fo r th e first time . Vinteuil' s masterpiec e wil l serv e a s th e great synthesize r fo r th e Narrator' s entir e experience , althoug h for mos t o f his adul t lif e h e wil l remai n a passive witness, lik e th e supine Aun t Leoni e a t he r windo w i n Combray , rathe r tha n a dynamic creator , suc h a s Wagner o r Vinteuil . Proust' s protagonis t continues t o wast e th e energ y h e possesse s i n th e pursui t o f Albertine. Thi s pursui t belong s t o th e horizonta l plan e o f hi s quest an d consist s o f those fals e path s whos e link s t o th e vertica l plane wil l b e discovere d onl y muc h later . A t thi s poin t i n th e narrative, h e wonder s i f the soli d realit y o f th e airplan e doe s no t detract from it s validit y a s a symbo l o f art . Thi s lac k o f under standing abou t th e tru e natur e o f art , includin g it s huma n an d divine aspects , reflect s hi s unwillingnes s t o engag e i n furthe r exploration an d t o undertak e th e labo r necessar y t o becom e a creative artist .

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After listenin g t o th e septet , h e feel s h e i s onc e agai n o n the threshol d o f making significant discoverie s about th e nature o f art whe n h e suddenl y learn s somethin g tha t lead s hi m t o believ e Albertine ha d bee n seekin g t o mak e a lesbian contac t th e after noon o f the concert . Hi s jealous obsessio n overwhelm s hi m onc e more, forcin g hi m t o postpon e indefinitel y hi s artisti c investiga tions an d attempt s t o write . Hi s constan t capitulatio n t o amorou s passion i s proof of his continued lac k of will. By th e middl e o f Le Temps retrouvi, w e hav e witnessed th e flaws o f th e thre e majo r figures wh o possesse d th e potentia l t o become artists : Swann , Charlus , an d th e Narrator . Swann , no w deceased, eventuall y realized, i n a bitter moment o f self-awareness , that h e ha d waste d years o f his life o n Odette , a woman wh o wa s not hi s type . H e wa s als o defeate d i n hi s aspiration s becaus e h e had inherite d a "paress e d*esprit " (I , 268) tha t mad e i t impossibl e for hi m t o thin k thing s through . Becaus e o f thes e shortcomings , he committe d a number o f errors, th e mos t seriou s o f which wa s mistaking lif e fo r art . Charlu s ha s give n himsel f ove r entirel y t o a life o f painfu l an d blood y physica l gratification . Th e Narrato r lacks wil l an d ha s apparentl y take n th e wron g path s i n hi s ques t for th e artist' s vision. The Narrato r doe s exhibit a reserve o f will and th e begin nings of artistic vision during his meditation o n the Vinteuil septet , when h e formulate s hi s intention o f giving up Albertine , bu t w e must remember tha t i t is she who finall y abandon s him , an d onc e that happen s h e doe s everythin g possibl e t o ge t he r back . Deat h alone prevents he r return . No r doe s his obsessio n di e with Alber tine; eve n afte r he r demise , his effort s t o discove r th e trut h abou t her sexual conduct consum e al l his energy, leaving none for artisti c explorations. But now his health is declining and he is discourage d by hi s apparen t lac k o f talen t an d abilit y t o observe , fel t keenl y when h e compare s his capacity to that o f the Goncourts . I n a masterful Proustia n trick, we read a parody of the Goncourt s (III , 70917) by Proust, whos e alte r eg o lacks the abilit y to imitat e an d thu s is profoundl y discourage d i n hi s artisti c aspirations . Tire d an d

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defeated, th e Narrator withdraws from society . The final decline o f Swann and Charlus and his own. withdrawal must tak e place befor e he ca n return t o the world and discover his vocation. Some year s afte r Albertine' s death , th e Narrator , stil l unable t o writ e an d i n il l health, withdraw s t o a sanatorium out side Paris . Year s pass , bu t h e remain s uncure d an d inactiv e a s a writer. Convince d tha t h e lack s talen t an d canno t becom e a n artist, h e decide s t o retur n t o societ y an d en d hi s self-exil e b y resuming th e sterile , empt y lif e h e previousl y led . Suc h ar e hi s thoughts a s he return s t o Pari s b y train. 19 Th e las t trai n bearin g him t o Pari s stop s for repair s in th e ope n countryside . A s he wait s for th e repair s t o be concluded , h e notice s a group o f trees 20 nea r the train . Whe n h e fail s t o respon d wit h genuin e emotion , a s a poet woul d t o th e beauty o f sunlight cuttin g an obliqu e line acros s the trees , h e become s totall y discourage d abou t hi s prospect s fo r becoming a writer : "S i j'a i jamais p u m e croir e poete , j e sai s maintenant qu e je n e l e sui s pas." The disillusionmen t h e experi ences o n th e trai n strengthen s hi s decisio n t o retur n t o society , convinced tha t h e wil l neve r b e abl e t o creat e anythin g o f valu e because h e i s himself "san s valeur" (III , 854-55) . Thi s momen t o f total discouragemen t i s the lo w poin t o f the horizonta l quest , just prior t o hi s ascension a s an artist . The nex t day , bac k i n Paris , h e take s a ca b t o atten d a party a t th e princess e d e Guermantes's . A s the ca r moves throug h the street s nea r th e Champs-Elysee s tha t wer e s o familia r t o hi m as a child , h e suddenl y ha s th e feelin g tha t h e i s becomin g air borne. Thi s sensatio n o f takin g of f mark s th e tru e beginnin g o f the novel' s climacti c scene : "comm e u n aviateu r qu i a jusque-la peniblement roul e a terre , 'decollant ' brusquement , j e m'elevai s vers les hauteurs silencieuse s d u souvenir " (III , 858). Although h e had meditate d o n th e "flights " o f Bergotte an d Wagner , an d o n the symbo l o f the aviator , thi s i s his first flight. Unti l no w h e ha s been a dilettante , wishin g t o fly but unabl e t o ge t of f th e groun d (III, 892) . No w h e i s ready t o underg o th e transitio n from proto type t o a fully operationa l aircraft .

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In th e passage , referre d t o earlier , whe n th e Narrato r an d Albertine visi t a n airfiel d nea r Paris , he ha d witnesse d th e liberat ing ascensio n o f a n aviator . Here , a s elsewhere , Prous t insist s o n the conversio n from th e horizonta l plan e (containin g thing s tha t are mundane, banal , habitual , an d vain) t o th e vertical plan e (rep resenting freedom, vision , an d will) : "tou t a coup, [Tavion ] s'ele vait lentement , dan s l'extas e raidie , comm e immobilisee , d'un e vitesse horizontal e soudai n transforme e e n majestueus e e t verti cale ascension" (III , 105-6) . Proust insist s o n th e vertica l natur e o f th e event ; i n fact , the wor d "verticale " wa s adde d b y han d t o th e typescrip t o f th e text i n wha t ma y hav e been on e o f the las t revision s mad e b y th e novelist.21 Sinc e an y ascensio n i s vertical i n nature , th e inclusio n of thi s wor d woul d b e redundan t wer e i t no t fo r th e themati c importance o f th e aviator' s ascension . Th e phras e "dan s l'extas e raidie, comm e immobilisee " i s quintessentiall y Proustia n i n tha t he delight s i n isolatin g the momen t o f transition from on e stat e t o another, looking , a s it were , int o th e ver y hear t o f the metaphor . This transitio n from horizonta l captiv e to vertica l creator i s crucia l for th e successfu l completio n o f the Narrator' s quest . Throughou t the novel , th e Proustia n ques t i s worked ou t o n th e horizontal vertical axes ; at the conclusion , vertica l imagery predominates . In th e fina l pages , th e Narrato r realize s that a n artist i s part god (desir e an d th e myster y o f flight) an d part ma n (machin e an d matter, techniqu e an d craft , a s he ha d sense d durin g hi s medita tion o n th e problem s pose d b y hi s doubt s abou t Wagner' s artisti c genius). H e understand s th e rol e o f al l the huma n facultie s i n th e creative process: vision, instinct , memory , intelligence , craftsman ship, an d suffering . Thi s comprehensio n i s a majo r aspec t o f hi s own initiatio n a s an artist . H e i s given positive sign s that th e ques t was wort h pursuin g throug h a remarkabl e serie s o f "moment s bienheureux," beginnin g wit h hi s arriva l a t th e hous e o f th e princesse d e Guermante s (III , 866ff. ) h e willingl y accept s th e labors o f Daedalus, reaffirm s hi s belie f i n mystery , an d see s grea t achievements i n ar t an d scienc e a s sign s o f a higher orde r an d a

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more perfec t real m o f existence . Th e feelin g tha t suc h a highe r order exist s is , accordin g t o Proust' s spokesperson , "c e qu i nou s emeut l e plus dan s la vie e t dan s Tart" (III , 1033) . The airplan e i s transcendenta l an d make s possibl e th e stereoscopic visio n tha t allow s th e her o t o se e th e relationshi p o f one thin g t o another . Prio r t o this , al l his perception s ha d bee n fragmentary o r intermittent . Th e artist' s visio n provide s unit y i n multiplicity sinc e i t i s made u p o f various image s viewed simulta neously. Th e las t tw o hundre d page s o f th e novel , wherei n th e Narrator continue s t o explor e th e natur e an d purpos e o f art , amount t o a n ascension , replet e wit h vertica l imagery : airplanes , planets, telescopes , an d peopl e o n stilt s who stan d tall , occupyin g space a s the y hav e occupie d time. 22 Prous t use s vertica l imager y and th e exampl e o f th e telescop e t o sho w tha t th e Narrato r ca n now se e i n time . I n additio n t o statin g Proust' s aesthetic s an d ethos, thi s fina l sectio n illustrate s th e effect s o f time o n existence . This i s don e superbl y i n th e famou s "ba l d e tetes " passag e (III , 918ff). B y tracin g imagery o f elevation an d speed , w e ca n see tha t according t o th e ultimat e Proustia n formula , whe n ou r experi ence i s converte d int o a work o f art , time-spee d become s space art throug h elevate d vision . Proust's metaphor s describin g th e aviato r a s visionar y anticipated som e o f th e unforesee n result s o f spac e photography . A strikin g paralle l exist s between th e Proustia n concep t o f seein g in tim e an d th e revelation s resultin g from som e recen t photo graphs take n in oute r space . Proust use s images o f telescopes, peo ple o n stilts , planets , an d geolog y t o sho w tha t th e pas t i s no t merely past but burie d an d lost . One o f th e mai n purpose s o f satellit e photograph y i s t o make scientificall y accurat e map s b y takin g rada r photograph s o f the eart h from a n orbitin g satellite . A n unexpecte d bonu s o f thi s endeavor ha s been th e ability to tak e photographs o f the past . Th e radar photograph s take n durin g th e secon d voyag e o f th e spac e shutde Columbia revealed ancient , unknow n rive r system s a s large as th e Nil e tha t ha d bee n burie d fo r thousand s o f years. John F .

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McCauley o f th e U.S . Geologica l Surve y ha s describe d thi s dis covery: "Th e rada r penetrate d throug h t o giv e u s an entirel y dif ferent vie w o f this area than w e eve r had before. . . . I n th e Sahar a [we were ] abl e t o loo k throug h an d us e rada r a s a tim e machine." 23 I n othe r words , geologist s wer e abl e t o us e rada r t o see throug h th e san d o f th e presen t an d int o th e riverbed s o f th e distant pas t an d t o photograp h them . Suc h a techniqu e i s essen tially Proustia n i n nature , especiall y i f on e take s int o accoun t th e abundant geologica l imager y use d by him. 2 4 I f Proust wer e writ ing today , i n hi s continuin g searc h fo r los t tim e h e migh t b e tempted t o emplo y th e analog y o f radar photographs , image s tha t converted th e sand s o f the Sahar a int o a readable palimpsest . Roger Shattuc k ha s show n ho w th e thre e basi c way s o f seeing th e worl d o r o f recreating it—th e cinematographic , mon tage, and stereoscopic principles—ar e relate d to stage s and period s of the Narrator' s life. 25 Th e mos t commo n leve l is that o f habitual vision, whic h Prous t himsel f relegate d t o realis m an d cinematog raphy (III , 883) . Fo r Proust, ar t i s the opposit e o f habit; henc e hi s rejection o f th e realis t doctrine , sinc e tha t whic h anyon e ca n observe doe s no t deserv e th e distinctio n o f being calle d art . Th e Proustian artis t i s on e wh o refashion s th e world , o r make s a ne w world, by discoverin g o r unveiling new scientifi c o r artisti c laws. 26 The importanc e o f th e vertica l imager y a t th e conclusio n of the nove l is to provid e th e artist-to-b e wit h stereoscopic , wide angle visio n i n orde r t o tak e i n al l his experiences , bot h o n th e horizontal an d vertica l planes . Throughou t th e novel , Prous t employs spee d an d flight t o represen t fleeting motio n an d artisti c ascension. Horizonta l speed—typifie d b y eroti c obsession s an d social ambitions tha t belong t o th e worl d o f vanity—only lead s t o frustration an d self-imprisonment . B y attainin g th e vertica l plane , the Narrato r i s able t o mak e creativ e an d altruisti c us e o f his pas t by absorbin g i t and convertin g i t into th e substanc e o f art. To illustrat e th e secon d principl e o f seeing , Shattuc k quotes filmmake r Serge i Eisenstein' s observation , "Montag e is conflict. " H e demonstrate s tha t i n la Recherche montag e

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corresponds t o th e perio d o f the Narrator' s exploration s o f love, society, an d art . Proust' s protagonis t routinel y contrast s habitua l vision, and his own lack of perceptions, with his idealistic expecta tions of finding absolutes in his encounters. Life as he experiences it ordinarily is fragmented, relativistic , and demoralizing. If, accordin g to Shattuck's interpretation, th e contras t is sharp and clear between the Narrator' s expectation s an d hi s experiences , ther e i s anothe r aspect o f vision relate d t o perceptio n tha t i s also importan t t o hi s quest, namely , blurre d visio n resultin g from spee d o r fiigacit y At ever y tur n th e protagonis t notice s tha t thos e thing s h e wishes t o seiz e an d capture , eroticall y o r aesthetically , alway s escape him . Sinc e desire d object s ar e see n a s a grayish blu r unde r these conditions , th e observe r i s unabl e t o nam e an d distinguis h what h e see s an d therefor e canno t fulfil l hi s functio n a s an artist . At on e poin t Prous t use s a photographic analog y t o illustrat e thi s phenomenon: "L e modele cheri . . . bouge; o n n'e n a jamais qu e des photographie s manquees " (I , 490) . Eve n i f th e earlies t an d consequently th e riches t visions—becaus e the y ar e still uncontam inated by reality—of desire d women, names , an d places are recaptured i n daydreaming , th e whirlwin d experienc e o f dail y lif e makes i t impossibl e fo r th e Narrato r t o seiz e an d hol d thos e impressions: "dan s le tourbillon vertigineu x d e la vie courant e . . . les noms on t perd u tout e couleu r comm e un e toupi e prismatiqu e qui tourn e tro p vit e e t qu i sembl e gris e . . . " (II , 12) . O n rar e occasions h e doe s succee d i n momentaril y perceivin g th e tru e colors o f things , bu t realit y soo n force s hi m t o abando n suc h impressions (II , 13) . The thir d an d highest level o f existence i s that o f the artis t who i s capable o f creating a work containin g a unified visio n fo r others to behold. Thi s is the state the Narrator finally attains whe n he come s int o possessio n o f hi s artisti c powers , a s di d Bergott e when he became a mirror an d then an airplane. 27 The hero's works will be superio r eve n t o thos e o f Bergotte becaus e h e wil l avoi d the majo r flaw o f the latter' s works , a flaw tha t Bergott e becam e aware o f to o late , namely , intellectua l dryness . Thi s momen t o f

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recognition an d disappointmen t come s fo r Bergott e whe n h e a t last sees Vermeer's View of Delft: "C'est ains i que j'aurais d u ecrire , disait-il. Me s dernier s livre s son t tro p sees , i l aurai t fall u passe r plusieurs couches d e couleur, rendr e ma phrase en elle-meme pre cieuse, comme c e petit pan de mur jaune" (III , 187) . The warnin g agains t spiritua l aridit y become s a leitmoti f in th e novel . Th e Narrato r remind s u s tha t hi s grandmother' s nature i s th e opposit e o f his own , whic h i s totall y egocentri c (I , 852). 28 A warning t o avoi d the mistake o f spiritual desiccatio n was given t o hi m b y thos e twi n mentor s o f his childhood , hi s grand mother an d th e steepl e o f Saint-Hilaire . Hi s grandmothe r make s this connection : "Me s enfants , moquez-vou s d e mo i s i vou s voulez, [l e clocher] n'es t peut-etr e pa s beau dan s les regies, mais sa vieille figure bizarr e m e plait . Je sui s sure qu e s'i l jouait d u piano , il ne jouerait pa s see' 9 (I , 64; Proust's emphasis) . This remark i s illustrative o f the grandmother' s importanc e as a moral an d artisti c mentor . He r observatio n abou t th e steepl e illustrates a major Proustia n aestheti c tenet : i t i s th e tas k o f eac h new artis t t o find somethin g unique , somethin g tha t i s beautiful , but no t accordin g t o preconceive d rule s ("pa s bea u dan s le s regies"). I t i s precisely because o f the singular , surprisin g beauty o f new, genuin e work s o f ar t tha t the y ar e a t first disconcertin g t o the viewer . The dynami c spee d o f th e creato r i s vertical , ascendant , and exhilarating , makin g possibl e th e tru e perceptio n o f things . The elevate d perspective create d throug h th e us e o f such imager y as telescopes, planets , and ol d people wh o hav e become giant s o n stilts i s no t onl y stereoscopic—bringin g differen t epoch s int o sharp focu s i n th e sam e field o f vision—bu t panoramic—juxta posing differen t epoch s (past , present, an d future) withi n th e sam e horizon—thereby utilizin g th e artist' s vision t o solv e th e proble m of th e disconnected , fragmented worl d perceive d throug h th e multiple perspective s o f multiple ego s ("le s mo i multiples") . Th e exhilarating but puzzlin g epiphanie s o f the steeple s o f Martinville, the madeleine , an d th e thre e tree s o f Hudimesni l wil l no w b e

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permanently cas t i n th e cathedral-novel , alon g wit h al l othe r aspects o f th e Narrator' s experience . Al l o f th e previou s doubt s that ha d plague d hi m concernin g th e realit y o f ar t hav e disap peared: "Ceu x qu i m'assaillaien t tou t a l'heure a u suje t d e l a rea lite d e mes don s litteraires , e t mem e d e la realite d e la litterature , se trouvaient leve s comme pa r enchantement " (III , 866-67) . Proust's original plan was for a tripartite novel consisting o f Du cSti de chez Swann, Le CSti de Guertnantes, and Le Temps retrouvL Given suc h a structure an d th e analogie s use d by Proust, i t seem s possible tha t h e intende d th e las t section t o b e devote d t o th e air . Such a conception i s not onl y strongly indicated by all the vertica l imagery but wa s suggested in a letter he wrot e t o Jacques Riviere : "Je comptai s vou s donne r quelque s passage s marin s (contrastan t avec le s paysage s terrien s d u premie r volume ) d e Balbec . . . ." 29 Taking into accoun t Proust' s cosmologica l outloo k an d th e abun dant vertical and planetary imagery in the last section, it is probable that he envisage d three stages for th e evolutio n an d progress of the Narrator's quest : lan d (Combray) , se a (Balbec) , an d ai r (th e artis t ascends t o hi s native region) : "d'u n lege r mouvement d e se s ailes d'or [Taviateur ] piqua droi t vers le del" (II , 1029). In th e closin g page s o f th e novel , th e Narrator' s entir e experience, bot h pas t an d future , i s see n fro m th e elevate d per spective o f th e artist' s vision . A s i n th e automobile-airplan e metaphor illustratin g Bergotte' s superiorit y a s an artist , th e hori zontal motio n o f th e Narrator' s lif e ha s been converte d int o ver tical lift . Th e blurre d distinctio n betwee n se a an d lan d wa s a major featur e o f Impressionis t painting , a s i t i s i n Elstir' s works , especially The Port of Carquethuit. A s J. M . Cockin g point s out , i t is likely tha t whil e readin g Ruskin' s work s Prous t learne d abou t Turner's refusa l t o distinguis h betwee n th e tw o element s afte r h e had behel d th e se a fo r th e firs t time . Her e i s ho w Ruski n described th e importanc e o f Turner's discovery : The sea up to that time had been generally regarded by painters a s a liquidl y composed , level-seekin g thing , with a smooth surface, rising to a water-mark on sides of

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ships. . .. But Turner found . . . that the sea was not this: it was, on the contrary, a very incalculable and unhorizontal thing, setting its "water-mark" sometimes on the highest of heavens, as well as on sides of ships. . . .30 Cocking point s ou t tha t th e wate r lilie s a t Combra y hav e the function o f blurring distinction s between se a and sky : The se a i s th e poin t wher e th e horizonta l meet s th e vertical an d lose s its distinction, wher e lan d joins th e sky. Water is the transitional element between the earth and sky , th e grea t metaphor . Monet' s wate r lilie s described in the novel as those of the Vivonne at Com bray have the same function. . . . 31 Recalling tha t th e wate r lilie s a t Combra y ar e sai d t o b e "u n parterre celeste, " we find th e sam e movement fro m th e horizonta l to th e vertical : "[c e parterre ] semblai t le s [le s nympheas] avoi r fai t fleurir e n plein del " (I , 170) . It is only when th e Narrato r i s ultimately capabl e o f vertical ascensio n tha t everythin g become s stil l an d visibl e an d henc e translatable int o literature . No w h e ca n trul y ente r int o possessio n of hi s pas t an d transmut e i t int o a durabl e form , a wor k o f art . Thus, elevatio n i s important no t onl y in representing freedom an d transcendence bu t i n providin g th e necessar y conditio n fo r th e creation o f art . Unti l no w th e Narrator' s field o f vision ha s bee n limited b y his ow n lac k o f talent, will , an d energ y H e ha s misun derstood th e natur e o f hi s experienc e an d ha s squandere d o n social an d eroti c pursuit s th e littl e wil l an d energ y h e wa s abl e t o muster. Th e dilettantis h voyeu r wh o coul d no t ge t off * the groun d becomes th e airborn e see r an d attain s artisti c vision . Thus , th e metaphor o f the artis t a s aviator—prefigured i n th e meditatio n o n Wagner's music an d it s comparison t o a n airplane—represent s no t only the Narrator' s attainmen t o f the artist's vision but th e restora tion o f his wil l an d th e masterin g o f a craft. 32 Th e sickly , irreso lute, insecur e protagonist , hi s energ y an d wil l restored , ha s become th e might y Daedalus, read y t o refashio n hi s cosmos .

CHAPTER 8

The Cosmos Builder Heat Becomes Light T h e da y of revelations begins whe n th e Narrator , o n hi s way t o a reception a t th e Guermantes' s tow n house , enter s th e courtyar d and literall y stumble s upo n th e ke y t o hi s ques t i n th e for m o f an uneven pavin g ston e simila r t o th e on e h e ha d trippe d ove r i n Venice, Suddenl y image s o f th e Italia n cit y wel l u p befor e hi m and alternat e wit h th e vie w o f his actua l surroundings . Thi s tim e he i s determine d t o fin d ou t wha t lie s behin d th e phenomeno n of involuntar y memor y H e continue s t o roc k bac k an d fort h o n the stone , concentratin g an d tryin g t o understan d thi s myster y The Narrator , a s resolute a s Jacob wrestlin g wit h th e angel , wil l not releas e th e ston e unti l h e ha s solve d th e riddl e o f this experi ence. Rememberin g tha t h e experience d th e sam e feelin g o f felicity from th e madelein e episode , h e ask s himself : "Mai s pourquoi le s image s d e Combra y e t d e Venis e m'avaient-elles , a Tun e t a Pautre moment , donn e un e joie pareill e a une certitude , et suffisante , san s autre s preuves , a m e rendr e l a mor t indif ferente?" (Ill , 867) . At suc h moment s h e i s freed from th e presen t and exist s outsid e o f time : "Seu l [l'etr e extra-temporel ] avai t l e pouvoir d e m e fair e retrouve r le s jours anciens , l e temp s perdu , devant quo i le s effort s d e m a memoir e e t d e mo n intelligenc e echouaient toujours " (III , 871) . Th e revelation s h e i s abou t t o receive an d th e reassertio n o f hi s wil l empowe r hi m t o write . This i s th e ultimat e goa l o f hi s quest , th e momen t whe n th e

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sickly, nervous , insecure , an d inep t Narrato r i s abou t t o become , at last, th e cosmo s builder. 1 The artist' s abilit y t o recaptur e th e pas t an d cas t i t i n a work o f art wa s foreshadowed i n th e madelein e episod e a s well as other experience s involvin g involuntar y memor y Thes e epipha nies occu r fortuitously throughou t th e novel, but i n the las t multiple serie s occurrin g nea r th e en d o f hi s ques t the y creat e a crescendo effect , heraldin g th e momen t whe n h e come s int o ful l possession o f his artisti c powers . Thes e "moment s bienheureux, " which releas e th e permanen t bu t normall y hidde n essenc e o f things, ar e characterize d b y a sensation o f joy cause d by th e feel ing that deat h has been vanquished. Afte r experiencin g th e depth s of despair, th e Narrator-Lazaru s i s brought bac k t o life a s a creato r through th e celestia l nourishment 2 provide d b y thes e epiphanies : "notre vra i moi qui , parfois depui s longtemps, semblait mort , mai s qui n e Petai t pa s entierement , s'eveille , s'anim e e n recevan t l a celeste nourritur e qu i lu i es t apportee " (III , 873) . H e wil l inter pret thes e epiphanie s a s proof o f laws an d idea s h e mus t conver t into a wor k o f ar t (III , 879) , realizin g tha t literatur e i s th e sol e means o f regainin g los t time . Th e Narrato r no w see s tha t th e experience o f hi s lif e i s th e subjec t o f hi s futur e work : "Ains i toute m a vi e jusqu' a c e jou r aurai t p u e t n'aurai t pa s p u etr e resumee sou s ce titre: Une vocation " (III , 899). 3 Among th e significan t discoverie s h e make s i n th e con cluding section i s that Albertine's role, which h e had though t neg ative, i s essentia l t o hi s becomin g a n artist . No w h e see s th e use fulness o f sufferin g i n providin g hi m wit h subject s an d a will t o work. 4 Th e Narrato r ha s progresse d from th e fire 5 o f pain t o th e light o f understanding , reason , an d art . I n orde r t o complet e hi s quest an d sav e himself by bringing forth th e work h e bears withi n him, th e fire tha t burns an d consume s becomes th e light tha t illu mines an d give s birth t o ne w worlds . Eac h sorro w create s a visi ble, permanent imag e tha t will become th e substanc e o f his work : puisque l'ardeur qu i dure devient lumiere et que l'electricite d e la foudre peu t photographier , puisqu e notr e

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sourde douleu r a u coeu r peut eleve r au-dessu s d'elle , comme un pavilion, la permanence visible d'une image a chaqu e nouvea u chagrin , accepton s le ma l physique qu'il nous donne pour la connaissance spirituell e qu'i l 6 nous apporte .(III .. . , 906) He no w see s that , contrar y t o hi s grandmother' s wishes , he wa s right t o neglec t Elsti r a t Balbe c i n orde r t o pursu e Alber tine. The torture s he suffere d becaus e o f his jealous obsessio n wit h the elusiv e Albertin e ar e more importan t t o hi s futur e wor k tha n the lesson s h e learne d fro m Elsti r becaus e th e gir l i s th e instru ment 7 b y whic h grie f become s knowledg e an d sorro w i s con verted t o joy: "Chaqu e personn e qu i nou s fai t souffrir peu t etr e rattachee pa r nous a une divinit e . . . (Idee ) don t l a contemplatio n nous donn e aussito t d e la joi e a u lie u d e l a pein e qu e nou s avions" (III , 899*). The apparentl y destructiv e aspect s o f his relationship wit h Albertine ar e converte d int o a great, positiv e forc e whe n h e dis covers hi s vocatio n a s a n artis t an d see s ho w thes e "fragments " from hi s past, th e erosio n o f time an d memory, 8 an d those parts o f his ow n being destroye d by suffering wil l become th e material fo r his book. Th e wasted element s o f his body ar e converted int o use ful particles, luminous an d legible for th e construction o f his work: "Le chagri n finit pa r tuer . . . . laissons s e desagrege r notr e corps , puisque chaqu e nouvell e parcell e qu i s'en detach e vient , cett e foi s lumineuse e t lisible . . . s'aj outer a notre oeuvre " (III , 906). 9 The Narrator' s thoroug h exploratio n o f subjectiv e lov e allows hi m t o se e beyon d it . Writin g wil l b e th e purpos e o f hi s life an d his on e tru e passion , "l a vraie vie" (III , 895). Paradise lost can onl y b e regaine d a t th e pric e o f sufferin g an d har d work . Whereas th e Ede n o f hi s childhoo d ha d no t bee n earned , th e mature artis t see s that h e mus t mak e a universe o f his ow n design . Thus, suffering , whic h h e ha d sough t t o avoid , i s one o f the key s to artisti c creativity . Th e via dolorosa leads to salvation . Hi s work i s altruistic becaus e hi s lif e experienc e wil l b e offere d t o other s i n the onl y assimilable form possible— a work o f art. 10

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The Narrato r earlie r acknowledge d a sterile for m o f ego tism and sai d that his nature was the opposit e o f his grandmother' s (I, 852) . Edmun d Wilso n see s th e grandmothe r a s th e golde n mean o f la Recherche: "Perhap s th e narrator' s grandmothe r ma y b e taken a s playing fo r Prous t th e sam e rol e tha t th e spee d o f ligh t does fo r Einstein : th e singl e constan t valu e whic h make s th e res t of the syste m possible." 11 At th e en d o f the novel, th e protagonist' s nature ha s evolve d from a selfish, subjectiv e nervousnes s tha t pre vented hi m from finding tim e los t t o a n enlargemen t o f th e sou l wherein th e pas t i s made present : "l e bonheu r qu e j'eprouvais n e venait pa s d'un e tensio n puremen t subjectiv e de s nerf s qu i nou s isole d u passe , mais a u contrair e d'u n elargissemen t d e mon espri t en qu i s e reformait, s'actualisai t c e passe" (III , 1036) . The hero , no w representativ e o f th e Utopia n figure o f th e artist, o f men an d wome n o f great achievement , i s abl e no t onl y to sav e himsel f from aridit y an d aimlessnes s bu t als o t o benefi t others b y transcribin g fo r the m th e experienc e o f hi s lov e fo r Gilberte an d Albertine . Th e egotis t become s th e altruist : "[ce t amour] doi t . . . se detache r de s etre s pour e n restitue r l a genera lite e t donne r . . . l a comprehensio n d e ce t amour , a tous , a l'esprit universe l . . . " (Ill , 897). 12 Al l creativit y become s par t o f the cosmi c stoc k o f beauty, knowledge , an d laws , just a s all livin g creatures contai n i n miniatur e th e species' s entir e geneti c inheri tance. Th e negativ e element s o f sufferin g resultin g from hi s vai n pursuits i n societ y an d lov e ar e als o converte d int o th e positiv e value o f art, thereb y makin g "u n egotism e utilisabl e pou r autrui. " Proust goe s o n t o explai n tha t th e necessar y withdrawa l o f th e artist from societ y i n orde r t o creat e wil l appea r egocentric , "ca r tous le s altruisme s fecond s d e l a natur e s e developpen t selo n u n mode egoiste " (III , 1036). 13 The poin t o f view o f th e Proustia n narrato r i s egocentri c in th e litera l sens e o f th e word ; s o fa r a s sensory perception s ar e concerned, eac h o f u s necessaril y occupie s th e cente r o f a uni verse—our ow n sentien t being . Throug h hi s frequent analogie s comparing individual s t o planets , Proust , lik e Pascal , underscore s

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the solitud e o f huma n existence . Bu t a n artist , lik e a planet , absorbs ligh t i n orde r t o projec t i t outwar d b y mean s o f creativ e vision, thu s makin g hi s experienc e usefu l t o others . I t i s onl y through thi s projected light—w e recal l the analog y o f the artis t t o a magi c lantern—tha t w e ca n ente r int o th e worl d expresse d b y the visio n o f eac h creativ e person . Bergotte , th e write r admire d by th e youn g Narrator , i s compare d t o a slowly coolin g plane t a s he near s deat h (III , 184) . Swann , il l with termina l cancer , i s see n as a declining moon (II , 690) ; a failed artist , h e generate s n o ligh t of hi s ow n bu t onl y reflect s light , wherea s Bergotte , a genuin e creator, doe s generate—for a time a t least—the light o f his work . After a long tou r o f hell, th e Narrato r ha s finally com e t o understand th e true nature o f his quest, realizing that th e sum tota l of his experienc e wil l b e usefu l t o hi m i n buildin g hi s ow n art cosmos. By sharing his knowledge wit h th e reader and pointing t o the danger s h e no w know s ho w t o avoid , th e Narrato r wil l serv e as a role model fo r th e reader . Suc h vai n pursuits a s social prestig e and profan e love , to whic h Swan n an d Charlu s fall victim, shoul d not mak e u s abando n highe r goals . Th e Narrato r reclaim s los t time throug h th e acceptanc e o f his vocatio n a s a writer an d soar s above the crowd , a s did Bergotte, i n his car-airplane (I , 555). We recal l tha t genius , a s represente d b y Bergotte , i s th e power t o conver t one' s experienc e int o a mirror tha t reflect s th e truth (I , 555) . Bergotte' s work s wer e firs t identifie d a s mirrors o f truth (I , 96) , an d hi s exampl e i s repeated towar d th e en d o f th e Narrator's quest : "c e n'es t pa s l e plu s spirituel , l e plu s instruit , l e mieux relationn e de s hommes , mai s celu i qu i sai t deveni r miroi r et peu t reflete r ains i s a vie , fut-ell e mediocre , qu i devien t u n Bergotte . . . " (Ill , 722) . Th e positiv e mora l influenc e o f an artis t who ma y be a bad person i s expressed i n the passage o n Bergotte' s genius: "souven t le s grand s artistes , tou t e n etan t mauvais , s e ser vent d e leur s vice s pou r arrive r a concevoi r l a regi e moral e d e tous" (I , 558) . Just a s Bergotte's elevatio n wa s explaine d i n term s of power conversion , s o the Narrator' s error s o n hi s quest—yield ing t o jealous, bas e passion s an d t o th e superficia l distraction s o f

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society—are translate d int o artisti c ascension. Th e years o f his past that h e though t wer e waste d an d los t ("temp s perdu" ) wil l b e transformed int o a wor k o f art . A s w e hav e seen , th e contras t between profanatio n an d ar t i s paralleled by th e imager y describ ing horizonta l an d vertica l plane s o f the search . Th e horizonta l i s represented b y excursion s int o th e vai n world s o f love an d soci ety 1 4 a movement tha t neve r allow s th e Narrato r t o ge t of f th e ground, wherea s th e soarin g achievement o f the artis t who attain s an elevate d visio n i s symbolize d b y th e aviato r an d th e steepl e o f Combray Vinteuil's music i s associated with both th e dystopi c them e of sadism and the Utopia n them e o f art. Thes e intertwine d theme s of profanatio n an d art , o f heave n an d hell , ru n throughou t th e novel an d are intimately linke d with th e Proustia n quest . Th e res urrection o f Vinteuil's musi c by th e ver y wome n wh o humiliate d him an d hastened th e en d o f his mortal life i s matched by th e tria l of th e Narrator , wh o ha s als o suffere d becaus e o f hi s frustrate d efforts t o posses s Albertine an d hi s jealousy ove r he r allege d sex ual misconduct . Hi s eroti c longing s fo r a n unknow n woman — usually a mysterious gir l i n motion—i s transpose d int o th e aes thetic domai n o f musi c whe n h e discover s Vinteuil' s septet , "l a seule Inconnu e qu'i l m'ai t jamais et e donn e d e rencontrer " (III , 260). Thi s discover y was promised t o Swan n by the little phrase o f the sonata , but h e wa s only capabl e o f trivializing it in his love fo r Odette. Swan n reduce d ar t t o eros , but th e Narrato r wil l elevat e eros and sufferin g t o th e leve l of art. Proust's linkag e o f th e sacre d an d profan e throug h th e Vinteuil family—thei r live s contai n element s o f bourgeois medi ocrity an d sadism , bu t th e musi c Vinteui l create s i s a masterfu l thematic an d structura l compositio n releasin g pur e joy—recall s Wagner's us e o f the "Pilgrim' s Chorus " an d th e Venusber g musi c in Tannhduser as opposin g theme s onl y resolve d a t th e en d o f th e opera when th e sacred triumphs. I n la Recherche, th e mino r them e of sadis m i s a voluptuous, subterranea n moti f i n counterpoin t t o the elevate d symbolis m o f Vinteuil's music , which expresse s light ,

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joy, an d the intimatio n o f eternal life. All of la Recherche is built o n the contras t betwee n th e sacre d an d th e profane . Th e tw o extremes ar e reconciled whe n th e profan e element s ar e converte d to th e positive in a timeless vision o f art .

Voyager lefauteuil magique lefera voyager h toute vitesse dans le temps et dans Vespace. . . . (I , 5) The concep t o f a n artis t a s a creato r o f ne w world s i s state d explicitly i n th e firs t noteboo k o f la Recherche: "Quan d l a plui e battait j'aurais pu enfante r de s mondes . Voyageur!" 15 Th e Prous tian cosmogon y i s th e rea l stor y o f la Recherche. Throughou t th e novel, the artist s the Narrato r hope s t o emulat e ar e seen a s cosmos builders, as interplanetary voyager s who discove r ne w worlds : "L e seul veritable voyag e . . . ce ne serai t pas d'alle r ver s d e nouveau x paysages, mais d'avoi r d'autre s yeux , d e voir Tunivers avec les yeux d'un autr e . . . d e voi r le s cen t univer s qu e chacu n d'eu x [u n Elstir, u n Vinteuil ] voi t . . . ave c leur s pareils , nou s volon s vrai ment d'etoile s e n etoiles " (III , 258). 16 Never i n fiction ha s ther e bee n a more unpromisin g her o than th e Narrato r o f la Recherche. Th e suspens e o f the nove l results from whethe r o r no t thi s unlikel y candidat e fo r greatness— a modern, nervou s Ulysse s wh o canno t fin d hi s wa y bac k home , does not kno w ho w t o observe , lacks will, energy , an d talent—ca n become a n artist . Ca n h e creat e somethin g comparabl e t o wha t Bergotte, Elstir , an d Vinteuil hav e don e i n literature, painting , an d music? On a number o f occasions, th e Narrato r i s discouraged b y his lack o f will and inability t o observe . When h e trie s to concen trate, hi s min d shut s dow n an d h e finds nothing : "mo n espri t s'arretait d e fonctionner , j e n e voyai s plu s qu e l e vid e e n fac e d e mon attention , je sentai s qu e je n'avai s pa s d e geni e o u peut-etr e une maladi e cerebral e Tempechai t d e naitre " (I , 173) . A t suc h times h e i s so discourage d b y hi s lac k o f talen t an d prospect s tha t

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he renounce s literatur e forever . Thi s menta l malfunctio n remind s us of Swann's congenita l inabilit y to concentrate whe n face d wit h a difficul t problem . Proust's frequent comparison s o f characters, such as Swann and Albertine , t o figures i n paintings endo w the m wit h prestig e and a plasti c beauty . Bu t whe n h e compare s th e Narrato r t o a minor figure (I , 393), a person barel y visibl e i n th e corne r o f a painting o r photograph, 17 th e analogy serve s a differen t purpose , namely, t o cas t th e protagonis t a s a perso n o f little importanc e who i s weak, nervous , an d lacking will . Th e Narrator frequendy engages i n self-denigration. Fo r example, he seems helples s whe n his idealisti c dream s ar e confronte d wit h th e realit y tha t lie s behind th e names h e find s s o magical, especiall y thos e o f Balbe c and Guermantes . I f the Narrato r i s to evolv e from a minuscul e figure o f little wort h t o become a n artist , a great explorer , an d a creator o f new universes , he must discove r tha t thi s heroic pas t no longer exist s in order to forge his own.18 H e now realizes that the assumptions an d ideas o f others ar e of no us e to him ; the artis t does not confirm bu t disturbs and recasts the material o f his expe rience, moldin g i t int o a n origina l vision . I n orde r t o carr y ou t the enormou s tas k h e has accepted, h e must retrea t t o th e dark room o f his inner self .

"An Urgent Appointment with Myself" To describ e th e Narrator' s descen t int o hi s inne r being , Prous t uses two primary set s of images: enclosed , privat e space s and geological strata . T o experienc e wholenes s th e hero mus t withdra w from th e worl d an d resolve to live in solitude in order to create his book: "L'ar t veritabl e n' a qu e faire d e tan t d e proclamation s e t s'accomplit dan s l e silence " (III , 881). 19 Th e inne r darkroo m i s where experienc e become s though t an d art : "C e son t no s pas sions qu i esquissent no s livres, l e repos d'intervall e qu i les ecrit " (III, 907*) . The quest turn s inwar d sinc e it is the interior book o f unknown sign s tha t h e mus t deciphe r whil e "exploran t mo n inconscient" (III , 879).20 Herei n lie s the true sourc e o f the boo k

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he intend s t o write : "N e vien t d e nous-mem e qu e c e qu e nou s tirons d e l'obscurit e qu i es t e n nou s e t qu e n e connaissen t pa s les autres" (III , 880). 21 Th e awarenes s o f approachin g ol d ag e an d death make s hi s decisio n urgent : "j'avai s . . . u n rendez-vou s urgent, capital , ave c moi-meme" (III , 986) . Friendship, society , an d conversatio n ar e distraction s tha t the artis t must avoid , but h e n o longe r fears societ y because he ha s extinguished withi n himsel f th e desir e fo r socia l glory : "c e qu i etait dangereu x dan s l e mond e c'etai t le s disposition s mondaine s qu'on y apporte " (III , 918-19) . H e wil l continu e t o mak e foray s into societ y i n orde r t o gathe r materia l fo r hi s book , sinc e h e i s determined t o creat e his great work (III , 932). As for derivin g th e laws o f human experience , societ y peopl e ar e a s good a source a s any: "le s grande s loi s morales, auss i bien qu e celle s d e l a circula tion d u san g o u d e 1'eliminatio n renale , differan t pe u selo n la valeur intellectuelle de s individus" (III , 882*). 22 The Narrato r ha d bee n puzzle d abou t th e rol e o f intelli gence i n artisti c creatio n an d wa s worrie d tha t hi s writings , lik e Bergotte's, migh t b e to o dry . H e no w realize s tha t althoug h Ber gotte's book s ar e accomplishe d i n man y ways , h e ca n avoi d th e aridity eviden t i n th e elde r writer' s work s b y alway s assignin g th e primary rol e t o sens e impression s an d th e elucidatio n o f his sub conscious t o th e intellect. I t will be recalle d tha t o n his last visit t o a museum t o se e Vermeer's View of Delft, Bergott e discover s that , compared t o th e painting, his ow n works were to o dr y and lacke d color (III , 187) . Th e agin g write r i s profoundl y discourage d b y the realizatio n that , despit e hi s popularit y an d reputatio n a s a n artist, h e ha s faile d th e ultimat e tes t b y allowin g himsel f t o become spirituall y desiccated . Thi s terribl e momen t o f recogni tion i s Bergotte's las t judgment, fo r h e discover s tha t h e ha s bee n banished t o th e circl e o f inferio r artist s becaus e h e di d no t trus t his inne r being . Thi s erro r i s one tha t th e Narrato r i s determine d to avoid : " a tou t momen t l'artist e doi t ecoute r so n instinct , c e qu i fait qu e l'art es t ce qu'il y a de plus reel, la plus austere ecol e d e la vie, e t le vrai Jugement dernier " (III , 880) .

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Because Prous t believe s tha t intellectua l endeavor s ar e basically sterile , h e present s the m a s belonging t o th e horizonta l plane. I f his hero wer e capabl e onl y o f such activity , he woul d no t be intereste d i n pursuin g it : "l e Desti n m'eut-i l accord e cen t an s de vi e d e plus , e t san s infirmites , i l n'eu t fai t qu'ajoute r de s rallonges successive s a un e existenc e tout e e n longueur, dont o n n e voyait mem e pa s 1'interet qu'ell e se prolonged davantage . . . " (Ill , 866; emphasi s added) . I n keeping wit h th e Symbolis t an d Impres sionist tenet s o f his day , Proust cast s intelligence i n a n essentia l bu t subordinate role. 23 In orde r to explai n his conceptio n o f the function o f intelligence i n artisti c creation , h e employ s a photographic analog y I n each o f us the impression , o r negative exposure , i s made, followe d by th e intellect' s consciou s developmen t o f th e man y frame s o f exposed film int o a work o f art. Accordin g t o Proust , w e al l have the capacit y t o undertak e thi s developmen t process , but mos t ar e unwilling t o perfor m th e labo r necessar y t o conver t impressio n into expressio n (III , 882) . Th e artis t i s capabl e o f processin g th e exposed film s o tha t other s ca n se e it : "L a vrai e vi e . . . enfi n decouverte e t eclairci e . . . c'est l a litterature . . . q u i. . . habite a chaque instan t che z tou s les hommes. . . . [leu r passe] es t encom bre d'innombrable s cliche s qu i resten t inutile s parc e qu e l'intelli gence n e les a pas 'developpes' " (III , 895). 24 The Narrator' s with drawal t o hi s lodgings—hi s inne r darkroom—i s simila r t o th e transformation o f Proust's ow n sickroo m int o a workroom wher e a masterpiec e coul d b e created . Loui s Gautier-Vigna l ha s des cribed Proust' s occasiona l reluctanc e t o hurr y bac k t o hi s cork lined cel l afte r a n evenin g togethe r a t th e Ritz : "Prous t n'etai t point press e d e regagne r l a triste chambr e d e so n appartement , s a 'geole' comm e i l l'appelai t e t o u i l etait , e n effet , reten u pa r s a mauvaise sant e e t son du r labeur." 25 In th e preface t o Les Plaisirs et les jours, Proust write s o f his solitude in a sickbed at an earlie r period i n his life. Solitud e a t firs t has a negative value ; th e tota l isolatio n remind s hi m o f Noa h i n his ark : "aucu n personnag e d e l'histoir e saint e n e m e semblai t

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aussi miserabl e qu e celu i d e Noe. " The n h e realize s ho w clearl y one see s th e worl d from th e dar k chamber : "J e compri s . . . qu e jamais No e n e pu t s i bien voi r l e mond e qu e d e l'arche , malgr e qu'elle fu t clos e e t qu'i l fit nui t su r la terre" (IV , 6). Writing t o Lione l Hauser , hi s friend an d financial adviser , about th e latter' s interes t i n art , Prous t use s a similar analogy , bor rowed from Montaigne . Prous t hail s hi s friend a s a homo duplex, since he doe s not limi t himself to hi s profession bu t maintain s "c e que Montaign e appelai t tro p modestemen t l'arrier e boutiqu e puisqu'elle donn e su r 1'infini." 26 I n th e bac k roo m o f ou r bein g we ar e alon e an d free t o contemplat e ou r tru e nature . Prous t knew tha t hi s ow n freedom wa s neve r s o great , no r hi s visio n s o vast, a s when h e withdre w int o hi s inner darkroom , wit h it s win dow o n th e universe . Once th e Narrato r ha s understoo d thi s an d experience d the pai n o f rejection an d isolation, h e i s ready to explor e his inne r world, th e ric h minera l field o f hi s ow n being . Prous t compare s the infinit e ephemeralit y o f Albertin e t o a ston e containin g th e salinity (salure) o f ocean s an d th e ligh t bea m o f a star: "j e sentai s que j e touchai s seulemen t l'envelopp e clos e d'u n etr e qu i pa r l'interieur accedai t a rinfini " (III , 386). 27 Solitud e i s cosmi c (III , 450), but i f the othe r bein g remains unattainable , th e inne r room , like Noah' s ark , ha s a windo w tha t open s ont o th e cosmos . Th e Narrator see s but on e remed y fo r hi s fundamenta l isolation : th e creation o f his own world .

"Un riche bassin minier" Proust's geologica l analogies ar e related to hi s planetary imager y i n the sens e tha t geolog y i s th e scienc e tha t studie s th e presen t fea tures an d th e processe s occurrin g i n a give n regio n o f a celestia l body. I n a geological sense , eac h person—especiall y th e artist — has developed his individuality t o suc h a degree tha t h e becomes a separate plane t offerin g u s a new visio n o f life: "Te l es t l'univer s nouveau e t perissabl e qu i vien t d'etr e cree . I I durer a jusqu' a l a prochaine catastroph e geologiqu e qu e dechaineron t u n nouvea u

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peintre o u u n nouve l ecrivai n originaux " (II , 327) . Ne w world s will for m an d ol d one s wil l disintegrate , hi s ow n artisti c work s among them . These geologica l images applied to th e artist function o n a vertical axis , which, fo r Proust , alway s indicates creativity . Upwar d movement give s th e artis t a larger vie w o f society an d th e world , allowing him t o gaug e accurately th e spectacl e o f human foll y an d vanity an d explor e vista s o f tim e an d space . A descen t alon g th e vertical axi s int o one' s inne r sel f makes possibl e th e discover y o f truths abou t emotions , memory , art , an d th e law s of the universe . This i s th e regio n o f th e "mo i profond, " whic h th e artis t mus t mine i n orde r t o brin g it s treasure s t o ligh t fo r other s t o behold : "Je savai s tre s bien qu e mo n cervea u etai t u n rich e bassi n minier , ou i l y avai t un e etendu e immens e e t for t divers e d e gisement s precieux" (III , 1037). 28 When los t moment s o f th e pas t ar e discovere d withi n us , we experienc e a feelin g o f exhilaration . Th e inciden t involvin g the madelein e an d othe r episode s o f involuntar y memor y occu r when suc h a moment unexpectedl y surface s fro m dee p within th e Narrator's bein g an d enter s hi s consciousness . I n th e madelein e passage (I , 46) th e rush o f a lost moment o f the past t o th e surfac e is describe d a s somethin g vas t tha t become s unanchore d (dksancri)—an imag e tha t agai n underscore s th e fac t tha t ou r ordinar y senses an d dispositio n ar e tethere d an d bound . Th e artis t mus t gain acces s to th e deepes t region s o f his being i n orde r t o fatho m his entir e experience . Th e dept h o f this experienc e ma y be deter mined by th e degre e t o whic h on e ha s suffered: "o n peu t presqu e dire qu e le s oeuvres , comm e dan s le s puit s artesiens , monten t d'autant plu s haut qu e la souffirance a plus profondement creus e l e coeur" (III , 908) . Th e descen t int o th e depth s o f his inne r bein g will resul t i n lucidity , bu t i t wil l requir e grea t courage , sinc e h e must fin d an d acknowledge th e trut h an d abando n cherishe d illu sions abou t love : "a u lie u d e s e bercer un e centiem e foi s d e ce s mots: 'Ell e etai t bie n gentille' , lir e a u travers : yavzis d u plaisi r a l'embrasser'" (III , 896) .

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The geolog y o f a plane t consist s o f many differen t layers , from th e surfac e t o th e core . I n term s o f Proustian imagery , thes e layers correspon d t o differen t epoch s (memor y an d forgetting) , different aspect s o f the personality , area s o f consciousness (suc h as the descen t int o th e worl d o f sleep o r tha t o f the inne r being, "l e moi profond") , o r t o sociobiologica l entitie s suc h a s race, hered ity, and culture. 29 Here i s an exampl e o f a character almos t pulver ized b y th e immens e pressur e exerte d o n hi m b y th e geologica l strata o f race and history : Bloch etait mal eleve, nevropathe, snob et, appartenan t a un e famill e pe u estimee , supportai t coram e a u fon d des mers les incalculables pression s qu e faisaien t pese r sur lui no n seulemen t le s chretien s d e la surface, mai s les couches superposees des castes juives superieures a la sienne. . .. (I , 744) In thi s passage Proust utilize s th e actio n o f intense geolog ical pressur e t o illustrat e th e individual' s struggl e t o overcom e o r deny (a s Bloch eventuall y denie s hi s Jewishness b y changin g hi s name t o Jacque s d u Rozier) , th e nearl y overwhelmin g forc e exerted by inherite d geneti c an d socia l layers. O n a broader scale , Proust argue s tha t socia l an d natura l history , represente d a s geo logical ages, are essentia l element s o f literary art. H e say s that Vic tor Hugo's poem "Boo z endormi," is the most beautiful o f all nineteenth-century vers e becaus e i t depict s a n entir e ag e o f histor y and geology. 30 Historical truths an d observation s abou t societ y ar e among th e element s tha t compris e th e buildin g material s o f th e Narrator's cosmos . Suc h materials, althoug h essential , ar e made o f baser stuf f tha n th e loftie r part s o f his edifice : memory , art , an d things beyond time . To conve y intellectual truth s and observation s about society , Prous t use s image s o f jewelry-making ("enchasse r d'une matier e moin s pure " [III , 898] ; "sertir " [III , 932] ) an d masonry: "D e changement s produit s dan s l a societ e j e pouvai s d'autant plu s extrair e de s verite s importante s e t digne s d e cimenter un e parti e d e mon oeuvr e qu'il s n'etaient nullemen t . . .

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particuliers a notre epoque " (III , 967). Proust's Narrato r see s fash ion, culture , biology, an d ou r personalities a s part o f the sam e cos mic stoc k reserves, which h e compare s t o geologica l phenomena : en ecoutan t parle r Cottard , Brichot , tan t d'autres , j'avais sent i que , pa r l a cultur e e t l a mode , un e seul e ondulation propage dans toute 1'etendue de l'espace les memes maniere s d e dire , d e penser , d e mem e dan s toute l a dure e d u temp s d e grande s lame s d e fon d soulevent, de s profondeurs de s ages, les memes coleres, les meme s tristesses , le s meme s bravoures , le s meme s manies a travers les generations. . . . (Ill, 944) After particularizin g hi s characters , th e Narrato r place s them al l i n th e evolutionar y swee p o f th e universe . Thi s concep t of the cosmi c stoc k reserve s o f materials i s expressed elsewher e i n Proust's writings . W e mus t liste n t o ou r hear t an d instinc t i n choosing ou r vocatio n becaus e wha t please s u s wil l certainl y please others , fo r underneat h i t al l we ar e ver y much alike : "c'es t dans une tram e universell e qu e nos individualite s son t taillees . . . . il entr e dan s l a compositio n d e c e qu e nou s croyon s etr e notr e personnalite, de s substance s for t commune s e t qu i s e retrouven t un pe u partou t dan s l'Univers." 31 History repeat s itself , bu t wit h variations , lik e th e glas s chips i n a kaleidoscope. Th e sociologica l aspect s o f th e Proustia n novel are truly "baser " element s i n that the y form th e foundation , the cement , tha t support s th e mor e elevate d parts , th e law s an d vision o f art associate d with image s o f elevation and the interplan etary voyager. Above all , the revelation provide d by the Narrator' s final vie w o f society—in th e famou s scen e know n a s the maske d ball, o r "l e bal d e tetes" (III , 920-55)—is th e manifestatio n o f th e evolutionary force o f time o n his social group. Time becomes tan gible i n th e ravage d faces o f the Narrator' s friends, inspirin g geo logical analogies o f people a s planets embodyin g thei r entir e past: On etai t efl&aye , e n pensant au x p6riodes qu i avaien t du s'ecouler avan t que s'accomplit un e pareille revolu-

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tion dan s la geologie d'u n visage , d e voir quelle s ero sions s'etaien t faite s l e lon g d u nez , quelle s enorme s alluvions a u bord de s joues entouraien t tout e l a figur e de leurs masses opaques et refractaires. (Ill , 946) The geologica l stratificatio n o f epoch s manifeste d i n th e "masks" o f his friends i s the concretizatio n o f time. Th e Narrato r first witnesse d th e embodimen t o f tim e a s a visible entit y i n th e form o f th e churc h o f Combra y (I , 61) . Now , a t th e en d o f hi s quest, h e link s thi s ne w an d troublin g manifestatio n o f tim e t o that momen t o f awarenes s i n hi s childhood , "l a forme qu e j'avais pressentie . . . habituellemen t invisible , cell e d u Temps " (III , 1045). H e determine s tha t th e discover y o f th e natur e o f tim e i n its variou s manifestations , includin g th e geologica l an d archaeo logical, wil l b e a key t o th e boo k h e i s now read y t o write . H e will mar k hi s character s wit h th e sea l o f tim e an d depic t eac h o f them a s occupying a larger plac e i n tim e tha n i n space : "d u moin s ne manquerais-j e pa s d' y decrir e r h o m m e comm e ayan t l a lon gueur no n d e so n corp s mai s d e ses annees . . ." (Ill , 1046). 32 The conceit s o f th e rive r o f tim e an d th e maske d bal l scene ma y hav e bee n nurtured , i n part , b y a number o f Homeri c associations i n th e earl y stages o f la Recherche. I n th e later versions, these hav e becom e merel y allusive , but the y wer e explici t i n th e early sketches for th e scene : "j e dirais : Toute cett e foule s e pressait autour d e moi comm e le s morts d e TOdyssee venan t dir e a Ulysse leur nom e t lui rappelant l e passe. . . " 3 3 I n anothe r passag e based upon a performanc e o f Parsifal Proust attended , wher e h e sa w s o many once-familia r face s mad e unrecognizabl e b y th e wor k o f time, th e autho r understand s tha t onl y b y restorin g thei r name s can he sav e them from th e destructiv e force s o f time. But rescuin g them wil l be difficult , fo r the y beckon t o hi m from th e othe r sid e of "u n gran d fleuv e qu i mettai t entir e nou s d e Tespac e e t elevai t des brumes. . . c'etait l e fleuve d u Temps." 34 The maske d bal l scen e ma y hav e a n additiona l biographi cal source . I n a lette r t o Reynald o Hah n date d Apri l 11 , 1907 , Proust describe d a musica l soire e h e ha d jus t attende d a t th e

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princesse d e Polignac's : " Q u e tou s le s gen s qu e j'ai connu s on t vieilli. . . . C e son t de s portrait s d e monstre s d u temp s o u o n n e savait pa s dessiner." 35 Year s earlier , i n Decembe r 1902 , Prous t expressed hi s desir e to abando n th e Ruskin translation s i n favor o f an origina l work . Th e novelist , discourage d abou t creatin g any thing o f his own , wrot e t o Antoin e Bibesco : "j e sen s tou t l e ne ant d e m a vie , cen t personnage s d e romans , mill e idee s m e demandent d e leu r dorme r u n corp s comm e ce s ombre s qu i de mandent dan s UOdyssie a Ulyss e d e leu r fair e boir e i m pe u d e sang pour le s mene r a l a vie. . . ." 36 Perhap s withou t realizin g it , Proust ha d a t this earl y date—some five o r si x years before begin ning la Recherche in earnest—alread y stumble d upo n th e mai n story lin e o f hi s novel : th e Narrator' s journe y throug h tim e i n search o f his true vocation .

Epaisseur The techniqu e o f layering (ipaisseur) result s from Proust' s determi nation t o depic t th e totality o f experience by capturin g characters , events, an d impression s i n al l thei r multiplicit y an d complexit y The unusuall y ric h tex t resultin g from thi s an d othe r narrativ e devices is one o f the most strikin g features o f Proust's novel. Man y aspects o f la Recherche, suc h a s Proust's theor y o f multiple selve s and multipl e perspectives , contribut e t o th e impressio n o f narra tive layers, all this reinforced b y the abundan t geologica l an d plan etary imagery . Thi s accumulatio n o f narrative perspective s make s it possibl e fo r Prous t t o creat e a complex , unifie d visio n ou t o f everyday impression s tha t woul d otherwis e appea r fragmentary and meaningless . Ramon Fernande z an d Bria n Roger s hav e describe d Proust's metho d o f layering a s it relate s t o narrativ e voices . Fer nandez trace s th e Narrator' s developmen t b y identifyin g thre e stages o f hi s quest : youth , experience , an d th e formulatio n o f laws. Youth reflects th e ag e of idealism, a period when th e Narra tor stil l believes in absolute s an d i s hopeful tha t he wil l find i n th e real worl d th e equivalen t o f hi s dreams . Th e secon d stag e i s th e

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result o f experience, wherei n th e Narrator' s disappointment s leav e him skeptica l an d discouraged . Th e thir d stag e i s tha t o f laws , where creativ e relation s ar e establishe d betwee n th e min d an d reality. I t i s the carefu l elaboratio n an d orchestratio n o f these thre e stages that creat e the psychic, poetic, an d pseudoscientific layer s o f the novel. 37 In his study o f Proust's narrative techniques , Bria n Roger s has show n tha t th e novelist' s elaboratio n o f the thre e stage s o f th e quest i s highly comple x becaus e h e ofte n present s simultaneousl y different moment s o f narrativ e time. 38 Roger s speak s o f th e ambiguous doubl e vision cause d by sudden , unannounce d shift s i n the narrativ e poin t o f vie w tha t mak e i t difficul t t o determin e whether th e reade r i s encounterin g a n experienc e fo r th e firs t time wit h th e young , inexperience d Narrato r o r relivin g i t wit h the matur e Narrato r wh o i s telling the stor y Often , afte r recount ing an experience , th e Narrato r provide s a commentary tha t shift s the apparen t tim e lin e ("A s I woul d lear n later" ; "Ha d I know n then wha t I woul d discove r s o man y year s later" ; " I though t a t the tim e bu t hav e sinc e learned"). Suc h a technique create s layer s of narrativ e point s o f vie w tha t endo w th e reade r wit h stereo scopic vision a s past, present, an d future ar e brought int o th e sam e focal plane , into on e moment o f being. A majo r facto r i n th e creatio n o f layer s o f impression s i s Proust's choic e o f the metaphor a s a key stylistic element : Une heur e n'est pas qu'une heure, c'est un vase rempli de parfiims, d e sons , d e projets e t d e climats . C e qu e nous appelons la realite est un certain rapport entr e ces sensations e t ce s souvenirs qu i nou s entouren t simul tanement . . . l a verite ne commencer a qu'a u momen t ou l'ecrivain prendra deux objets differents, poser a leur rapport . . . [et] degagera leur essence commune e n les reunissant Tune e t 1'autre pour les soustraire aux con tingences du temps, dans une metaphore. (Ill, 889) 39 The beaut y o f on e thin g i s reveale d onl y i n tha t o f another: "L e rappor t peu t etr e pe u interessant , le s objet s

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mediocres, l e style mauvais, mais tant qu'i l n'y a pas eu cela , i l n' y a rien " (III , 890) . Noonda y a t Combra y i s revealed i n th e soun d of churc h bells , th e totalit y o f Combra y i n a cu p o f tea , an d mornings a t Donciere s ar e recalle d i n th e noise s fro m th e heater . The exampl e o f th e heate r i s interestin g becaus e i t present s a unique cas e i n th e novel . Durin g th e tim e th e Narrato r i s con sciously recalling his day s at Doncieres, th e newl y installe d centra l heating make s a n unaccustome d an d disagreeabl e noise . Hence forth thi s nois e wil l b e capabl e o f recallin g t o hi m th e morning s at Doncieres (II , 347). This i s the onl y time i n the novel when w e witness th e actua l storin g u p o f memorie s i n th e presenc e o f th e object-sensation tha t wil l revive the m i n his mind . In th e cours e o f the Narrator' s quest , a number o f key sites vacillate between wha t the y really are and past o r unknow n place s that see m t o becko n t o him . Whe n h e finally make s th e long awaited tri p t o Venice , he finds reminiscence s o f Combray i n th e Italian city : "j' y goutai s de s impression s analogue s a celle s qu e j'avais s i souvent ressentie s autrefoi s a Combray , mai s transposee s selon u n mod e entieremen t differen t e t plu s riche " (III , 623) . When Elsti r glimpse s natur e poeticall y an d suppresse s th e cog nitive demarcatio n o f lan d an d sea , h e succeed s i n introducin g "cette multiform e e t puissant e unite , caus e . . . de l'enthousiasm e qu'excitait che z certain s amateur s l a peintur e d'Elstir " (I , 836) . The tru e sig n o f an origina l artis t i s the abilit y t o fashio n a multiple an d powerful unifie d visio n from al l the fragments an d impres sions o f experience . Proust delight s i n givin g u s example s o f multiple impres sions, o f simultaneou s awareness . I n hi s depictio n o f th e youn g Narrator readin g i n th e garde n a t Combray , th e autho r make s u s aware o f th e comple x perception s experience d whil e readin g (I , 84). 40 Sittin g i n a real garden , th e yout h i s absorbed b y th e stor y and finds th e landscap e describe d i n th e boo k mor e rea l tha n th e actual landscape, which i s only partiall y rendered becaus e i t i s not fully perceived . Th e bo y i s also conscious o f the emotion s arouse d by th e character s an d thei r actions , whic h ar e registere d i n

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another are a o f his perception . A s th e boo k i s read ove r a perio d of days , memorie s an d association s fro m th e surroundings , cir cumstances, an d hi s ow n emotiona l stat e clin g t o th e book , which, lik e othe r object s fro m hi s past , contain s layer s o f pas t impressions. This i s th e cas e wit h Georg e Sand' s Frangois le Champi. Though no t a n extraordinar y boo k i n an d o f itself, th e age d Nar rator unexpectedl y encounter s a cop y o f th e nove l i n a bindin g similar t o on e h e owne d a s a chil d an d thi s encounte r resurrect s his childhoo d whe n hi s mothe r rea d th e stor y t o him : "e t voic i que mill e rien s d e Combray , e t qu e j e n'apercevai s plu s depui s longtemps, sautaien t legeremen t d'eux-meme s e t venaien t a la queue le u le u s e suspendre a u be e aimante , e n un e chain e inter minable e t tremblant e d e souvenirs" (III , 884) . Literature tha t fail s t o tak e int o accoun t th e importanc e of memor y an d association s betwee n th e pas t an d th e present , being conten t t o describ e mer e line s an d surfaces , i s th e farthes t removed from reality , a s Proust's narrato r define s i t i n th e passag e on metaphor : "C e qu e nou s appelon s l a realit e es t u n certai n rapport entir e ce s sensation s e t ce s souvenir s qu i nou s entouren t simultanement. . . . " So-calle d realis t literatur e impoverishe s u s by cuttin g of f "tout e communicatio n d e notr e mo i presen t ave c le passe , don t le s chose s gardaien t l'essence , e t l'avenir , o u elle s nous inciten t a l a goute r d e nouveau " (III , 885) . Prous t refuse s to giv e a flat, one-dimensional , photographi c vie w o f thing s an d hence reject s realism ; hi s aesthetic s require s hi m t o rende r th e rich multiplicit y o f th e huma n experienc e i n perception , mem ory, an d time . A perso n i s as multilayered i n a psychological an d geneti c sense a s i s a plane t i n a geologica l sense . Th e event s o f ou r live s are no t static , isolated , one-dimensiona l episodes ; the y for m a time-space continuu m i n ou r ow n being. 41 W e eac h contai n many accumulate d layer s o f experience , memory , an d time . T o reveal th e ric h complexit y o f ou r lives , s o ofte n unperceive d b y us, is one o f the prim e function s o f art. Proust' s conceptio n o f th e

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diversity o f ou r ow n experienc e throug h tim e als o explain s wh y he though t peopl e shoul d b e depicte d a s occupyin g a s larg e a position i n spac e as they d o i n time . Suc h a view transform s eac h of u s int o a being o f superhuma n proportions . I n th e wonderfu l but brie f portrai t o f th e princess e d e Nassau , Prous t show s ho w her eye s reflect he r entir e lif e history : "se s maris, les hommes qu i l'avaient entretenue , deu x guerres, et ses yeux stellaires, semblable s a un e horlog e astronomiqu e . . . marqueren t successivemen t toutes ce s heure s solennelle s d u pass e s i lointain" (III , 979). 42 I n the compariso n o f her eye s to a n astronomica l clock , Prous t joins together huma n an d cosmi c time . Odette i s th e bes t exampl e o f th e layerin g techniqu e applied t o a characte r i n th e novel . W e se e he r i n man y differen t guises an d situations : a s th e lad y i n pink , Odett e d e Crecy , Madame Swann , Odett e d e Forcheville , Mis s Sacripant , an d finally a s Saint-Loup' s mother-in-la w an d mistres s t o th e agin g due d e Guermantes . Throug h Swann' s aestheti c gam e o f match ing rea l peopl e wit h portrait s b y th e grea t masters , sh e become s a Botticell i woma n an d a lady i n a Rembrandt hat . Fo r th e Nar rator, wh o ha s followe d he r life' s story , sh e embodie s no t onl y her ow n personalit y an d pas t bu t a n entir e historica l perio d (III , 948, 950). 43 Most novelist s ar e generall y conten t whe n the y posi t on e convincing motivatio n t o explai n a character' s behavior , bu t Proust ofte n provide s u s wit h a numbe r o f motivation s tha t ar e plausible. Man y suc h passage s might b e cited . Fo r example , whe n the Narrato r discover s tha t Bloc h ha s been meddlin g i n th e deli cate negotiation s t o secur e Albertine' s retur n t o he r prison , th e culprit ca n onl y laugh . Th e Narrato r give s thre e possibl e reason s for Bloch' s laughter (III , 443). Similarly , he provide s thre e motiva tions fo r Charlus' s effusiv e greetin g o f Mm e d e Saint-Euverte , a woman h e especiall y despise s an d ha s spen t a lifetime persecutin g (III, 860) . Lastly , whe n th e Narrato r refuse s t o presen t Bloc h t o the princ e d e Guermantes , Prous t propose s fou r differen t reason s for th e inconsiderat e ac t (III , 953-54) .

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Has any othe r autho r delineate d more fully th e richness o f personality withi n a given individua l an d demonstrate d ho w self contradictory huma n behavio r ofte n is , how w e ar e influenced b y heredity, society , culture , an d time? 44 Possessing multipl e person alties within on e body, w e react a t any give n moment t o a variet y of stimul i an d motivations . W e ar e differen t accordin g t o place , circumstance, mood , health , an d eve n th e weather : "u n change ment d e temp s suffi t a recree r l e mond e e t nous-memes " (II , 345). Prous t delve s beneat h th e facad e o f th e socia l personality , seeking psychologica l truth s abou t huma n behavior . H e depict s his protagonis t a s a n X-ra y machin e i n hi s ambitio n t o disclos e hidden motivation s rathe r tha n remainin g o n th e surfac e lik e th e Goncourt brother s (III , 718-19). 45 Proust' s formulatio n o f th e laws o f human behavio r carrie s o n th e gran d Frenc h moralis t tra dition exemplifie d b y suc h writer s a s Montaigne, Pascal , an d L a Rochefoucauld. 46 We have see n the Narrator' s frustrating an d vain pursuit o f many differen t Albertines , suspecte d mos t ofte n o f betrayal. Hi s endless investigation s lea d him t o conclud e tha t a desired creatur e is too complex , to o fugitiv e eve r t o b e seize d an d known . Alber tine is the proof writ larg e o f Proust's theor y o f multiple selves . At the en d o f th e quest , th e Narrato r see s tha t h e mus t presen t hi s characters a s havin g th e sam e complexit y a s rea l people : "pou r chaque caracter e [faire ] apparaitr e le s faces opposee s pour montre r son volum e . . . " (Ill , 1032). 47 B y creatin g layer s o f perception , presenting character s wh o ar e multifaceted , an d refusin g t o b e omniscient an d didactic , Prous t invent s a univers e tha t i s open ended an d dynamic . La Recherche fulfills Proust' s basi c aestheti c tene t concern ing reading—a tene t tha t als o partiall y explain s hi s ultimat e rejec tion o f Ruskin's belief s concernin g readin g an d th e acquisitio n o f knowledge. Fo r Proust , readin g i s th e threshol d o f knowledg e and no t it s culmination , a s Ruskin woul d hav e it : "L a lectur e es t au seui l d e l a vi e spirituelle ; ell e peu t nou s y introduire : ell e n e la constitu e pas." 48 A t th e en d o f th e Narrator' s quest , Prous t

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leaves u s a t th e doo r wit h a splendi d guideboo k calle d A la recherche du temps perdu. We mus t decid e whethe r o r no t t o cros s over an d ente r ou r ow n "arrier e boutique, " wit h it s view o n th e infinite. All o f th e layer s o f th e Narrator' s past , bot h geographica l and personal , ar e brough t int o shar p metaphorica l focu s i n th e figure o f Mile d e Saint-Loup , wh o suddenl y stand s before hi m a t the Guermantes ' matinee . H e describe s he r feature s an d the n states: "J e l a trouvais bien belle: pleine encor e d'esperances , riante , formee de s annee s meme s qu e j'avais perdues, ell e ressemblai t a ma Jeunesse" (III , 1032) . Tim e manifest s itsel f i n th e gir l a s th e intersecting line s o f his past join t o for m th e radiatin g trajectorie s of a sta r ("l'etoit e carrefour") . Th e tw o way s (Swann' s an d th e Guermantes), th e people , an d the geograph y (Combray , Paris , an d Balbec) o f his past ar e united i n th e perso n o f this ultimat e gir l i n flower (III , 1029-31) . The famil y line s an d bloodline s o f hi s characters—eve n those h e though t foreve r separate d b y a n impenetrabl e wal l o f social distinctions—ar e joined i n th e end : "E t pou r mieu x fondr e tous mes passes, Mme Verduri n tou t comm e Gilbert e avai t epous e un Guermantes " (III , 1031) . Th e insistenc e o n "al l m y pasts " reminds u s o f the multipl e natur e o f Proust's conceptio n o f mem ory. Thi s i s the ultimat e incarnatio n o f the them e first sounde d i n the openin g page s o f th e book , suggestin g th e ric h nexu s o f memories tha t H e buried withi n eac h o f us: "U n homm e qu i dor t tient e n cercl e autour d e lui le fil des heures, l'ordre de s annees e t des mondes " (I , 5) . Th e fina l image s o f th e nove l brin g togethe r his entir e past , wit h whic h h e wil l construc t a ne w world. 49 I n Mile d e Saint-Loup , h e see s ho w th e thread s from th e divergen t paths o f hi s entir e lif e ar e wove n together : "entr e l e moindr e point d e notre pass e e t tou s les autres un rich e reseau d e souvenir s ne laiss e que le choix d e communications " (III , 1030) . Proust's Recherche is a n open-ende d nove l buil t o n th e model o f th e universe . I n fact , it s open-endednes s i s on e o f th e work's mos t moder n aspects . Writin g i n 1931 , Edmund Wilso n

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went s o far a s to declar e tha t Proust's novel was the literary equiv alent o f Einstein's theor y o f relativity: "H e ha s recreated th e worl d of th e nove l from th e poin t o f vie w o f relativity: h e ha s supplie d for th e first tim e i n literature a n equivalen t o n th e full scal e for th e new theor y o f physics." 50 Prous t seek s no t merel y t o tel l a stor y but t o captur e a world i n motion; hi s novel i s dynamic, freed from the effect s o f entropy , o f windin g dow n t o a conclusion . Th e Proustian universe , lik e th e rea l one , i s constantl y expanding . Proust sa w la Recherche not a s a static, frozen tex t but a s a dynami c entity "e n perpetue l devenir " (III , 1041) . On e i s reminded agai n of a primary characteristi c o f Proust's concep t o f art , namely , th e wedding o f stasis and kinesis. The for m o f th e work , lik e tha t o f the universe , i s circu lar. Indeed , it s circularit y i s suc h tha t th e en d mark s th e begin ning, th e birth o f the "real " novel , i n th e Proustia n sense , in tim e regained. Joan Rosasco ha s described th e utopi c natur e o f the cir cular topography o f Combray a s seen by the young Narrator : "L e Combray diurn e es t presente comm e u n paradi s printanier don t l a forme circulair e es t cell e d e toute s le s utopies." 51 Thi s character istic will be greatl y accentuated whe n Gilbert e reveal s to hi m tha t the tw o path s o f hi s yout h ar e not , a s h e ha d thought , separate , leading of f int o differen t directions , bu t th e sam e circula r way . The linkin g o f the tw o cStis represents th e symboli c unificatio n o f his entir e experience—a s doe s Mil e d e Saint-Loup , wh o incar nates th e poin t wher e al l the path s o f his life intersect . This desir e t o captur e a n entir e univers e explain s why , fo r Proust, revisio n always meant th e additio n o f new text s and multi ple views. The apparentl y shapeles s nature o f la Recherche has trou bled critic s sinc e th e publicatio n o f th e first volumes . However , many commentator s understan d th e organi c necessit y fo r Prous t to exten d constantl y th e circumferenc e o f la Recherche. Chantal Robin, fo r example , states : Proust aurai t pu san s cesse grossir son oeuvre , remanier son texte, sans que T unite profonde e n soit touchee. . . . Nier T existence d'un e unit e creatric e dan s la Recherche

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c'est nie r revolution spirituell e inscrit e dan s l'oeuvre : celle-meme d u narrateu r qu i v a vers l'unificatio n d u reel et Vexperience, qu i passe de la separation au lien. 52 Robin's interpretatio n o f Proust's ques t fo r unit y an d th e "poetic" shap e o f his nove l seem s close r t o th e mar k tha n tha t o f critics wh o accus e Prous t o f losin g contro l o f hi s material. 53 Proust's unit y lie s i n th e relationshi p o f th e part s t o th e whol e a s seen throug h th e uniqu e visio n o f th e artist . Th e unit y o f la Recherche is not a rigid structura l orde r but on e o f vision, o f poetic truth o f th e kin d th e Narrato r find s i n Elstir' s painting s an d Vin teuil's music. Proust speak s of such unifyin g visio n i n a letter: si on cherch e c e qui fait la beaute absolue de certaine s choses, o n voit qu e c e n'est pas la profondeur, o u tell e autre vertu qu i semble eminente. Non, c'es t une espece de fondu , d'unit e transparente , o u toute s choses , per dant leu r aspec t d e choses , son t venue s s e range r le s unes a cot e de s autre s dan s un e espec e d'ordre , penetrees de la meme lumiere. . . , 54 According t o Proust , eac h work o f art o r scientifi c discov ery represent s a new world , a smal l mirro r reflectin g th e infinite , and thu s i s profoundly emblemati c an d unifying . Proust' s vision i s cosmic i n th e sens e tha t h e believe s al l work s o f ar t an d scienc e are manifestation s o f universa l harmon y Th e dut y o f th e artis t i s to captur e th e visio n o f thi s unit y an d creat e it s aestheti c o r sci entific equivalent . Proust' s statement s t o thi s effec t impl y a belie f in th e ide a o f progress and perfectibility, o f the gradual creatio n b y artists an d scientist s past , present , an d futur e o f a fundamenta l unity consistin g o f all the fragment s o f true discoverie s an d corre sponding t o th e idea l universe , a harmoniou s unit y o f al l tha t exists. I n he r stud y o f mythology i n la Recherche, Mari e Miguet Ollagnier point s ou t tha t th e figure o f th e unicorn—t o whic h Proust's narrato r compare s Swan n a s he listen s t o Vinteuil' s musi c (I, 237)—wa s th e symbo l o f mystica l unit y i n medieva l mythol ogy, represente d b y th e unicorn' s singl e horn . Proust , wh o wa s

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well verse d i n medieva l mytholog y throug h hi s translation s o f Ruskin's writing s an d hi s readin g o f Emil e Male' s studie s o f medieval art , knew th e symboli c relationshi p between th e unicor n and mystica l unit y an d chos e t o utiliz e th e fabulou s beas t i n thi s passage, where Swan n come s closes t t o attainin g th e artist' s visio n of the fundamental unit y o f the universe. 55 The Proustia n cosmo s i s holographic , tha t is , it s totalit y can b e recreate d fro m an y singl e part : "tou t s e tient. " Wallac e Fowlie ha s see n thi s clearly : "Th e miracl e o f Proust's nove l i s th e relationship establishe d betwee n ever y character , ever y scene , every theme , withi n th e entir e work." 56 Th e holographi c natur e of Proust's work i s created, i n large measure, by means o f themati c orchestration an d a layering technique, base d o n Proust' s concep tion o f the nove l as a mirror o f the universe .

Explorers of the Invisible In a letter t o Jacques Riviere , Prous t speak s abou t hi s concep t o f working o n severa l level s a t th e sam e tim e i n orde r t o avoi d "plane" o r flat psychology . Th e autho r goe s o n t o explai n tha t i f the Cottard s ar e mentioned i n a certain passage, it is not merel y t o add variety to th e character s evoke d but t o provide "u n aperf u de s substructions e t de s etagements divers." 57 To describ e th e creatio n of the Narrator' s futur e novel , Proust chiefl y use s images o f struc turing draw n from bot h th e natura l worl d (geolog y an d astron omy) an d from man-mad e edifice s (architecture) . I n th e closin g pages, th e Narrator' s vo w t o creat e a cosmi c nove l i s identical t o Proust's own , a s quotes from th e letters and novel show : Bientot j e pu s montre r quelque s esquisses . Personn e n'y compri t rien . Mem e ceu x qu i furen t favorable s a ma perception de s verites qu e je voulai s ensuite graver dans le temple, me feliciterent d e les avoir decouverte s au "microscope" , quan d je m'etai s a u contrair e serv i d'un telescop e pour apercevoi r de s choses , tres petites en eflfet, mai s parce qu'elles etaient situees a une grande distance, et qui etaient chacune un monde. (Ill, 1041 )

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The cosmo s builde r i s primarily a discovere r o f truths , o f the law s tha t gover n nature , huma n behavior , an d aesthetics . Although Prous t i s capable o f observing and appreciatin g th e lim itlessness o f th e microcosm , h e reject s th e compariso n o f hi s examination o f the huma n experienc e t o tha t o f a scientist look ing throug h a microscope becaus e hi s principa l poin t o f view i s macrocosmic. 58 Th e challeng e take n u p by th e Narrato r i s not th e examination o f minutia e bu t th e discover y o f th e grea t law s tha t govern th e universe : "L a o u j e cherchai s le s grande s lois , o n m'appelait fouilleu r d e details " (III , 1041). 59 Thi s visio n o f cre ative peopl e a s explorer s o f th e unknow n an d fashioner s o f ne w laws, i s briefl y comprehende d b y Swan n whil e listenin g t o th e Vinteuil sonata ; i t i s no w assume d b y th e Narrato r a s hi s chie f artistic function . For Prous t th e rol e o f th e artis t an d scientis t i n societ y i s the same . The onl y differenc e betwee n th e wa y in which scientist s and artist s creat e i s procedural rathe r tha n substantive : "L'impres sion es t pour l'ecrivai n c e qu'es t Texperimentatio n pou r l e savant , avec cett e differenc e qu e che z l e savan t l e travai l d e l'intelligenc e precede e t che z l'ecrivai n vien t apres " (III , 880) . A s far a s visio n and imaginatio n ar e concerned , Prous t doe s no t distinguis h between artist s and scientists ; thei r commo n dut y i s to decode , t o make clea r wha t wa s obscure . Vinteui l i s compare d t o Ampere , Lavoisier, an d othe r pioneer s i n ar t an d scienc e whos e missio n i s to revea l th e law s tha t gover n th e univers e (I , 351) . Th e truth s derived from thes e law s ar e a s precis e i n ar t a s i n science : "L a verite, mem e litteraire , n'est pa s le fruit d u hasard. . . . Je croi s qu e la verit e (litteraire ) s e decouvr e a chaqu e fois , comm e un e loi physique. O n l a trouve o u o n n e l a trouve pas." 60 "Rendre visible " is , a s w e hav e seen , th e watchwor d o f the Proustia n artist , a watchword tha t he extend s t o hi s fellow sci entific explorers . Vinteui l i s th e idea l representativ e o f thi s bon d between ar t an d scienc e i n tha t music , wit h it s ancien t link s t o mathematics, make s th e connectio n betwee n ar t an d scienc e more evident . VinteuiP s musica l instrument s ar e mor e tha n jus t

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equipment capabl e o f producing sound ; the y becom e tool s wit h which t o explor e th e unknow n (III , 256) . I n hi s ambitio n t o become a writer , th e Narrato r refer s t o himsel f a s a n experi menter (I , 948). 61 Som e year s afte r Vinteuil' s death , th e Narrato r establishes anothe r lin k betwee n Vinteuil' s musi c an d scienc e b y comparing th e unpublishe d notebook s containin g th e composer' s greatest musi c t o th e illegibl e notebook s o f a chemis t o f genius , "les illisible s carnet s o u u n chimist e d e genie , qu i n e sai t pa s l a mort s i proche, a note de s decouvertes . . . " (Ill , 262) . Northrop Fry e ha s classifie d Proust' s boo k a s an encyclo pedic novel . I n man y ways , la Recherche represents th e summatio n of th e Wester n historica l an d artisti c tradition . Bu t thi s nove l i s not onl y encyclopedi c i n th e sens e o f accumulating an d encapsu lating th e pas t o f a given culture ; i t must als o be describe d a s cosmic i n it s presentatio n o f ne w law s an d vision s o f th e huma n experience an d eve n i n th e anticipatio n o f it s ow n oblivion. 62 Based o n th e experienc e o f his lifelon g quest , th e Narrato r for mulates th e sociology , psychology , sexuality , topography , biology , botany, geology , an d archaeolog y o f th e Proustia n cosmos . Hi s quest provide s a n etho s an d a n aesthetics , durin g th e cours e o f which man y o f ou r tenets , tastes , an d more s ar e expose d an d minutely examined . I n so doing , Proust create s new way s of looking a t th e world , makin g hi s nove l on e o f the mos t comple x an d stimulating optic s tha t w e hav e fo r viewin g ou r ow n lives . Through it s dynami c us e o f shiftin g perspective s a s th e Narrato r journeys towar d hi s goal , la Recherche offer s th e reade r a kaleido scopic vie w o f a world i n motion . Fe w writer s hav e give n u s s o many way s o f looking a t th e worl d an d ou r ow n experience . B y making u s awar e o f thes e unplumbe d layer s withi n ourselves , la Recherche celebrates an d expand s th e multiplicit y an d rang e o f human perception .

"Celui qui pourrait ecrire un tel livre strait heureux" Art, Prous t tell s us , i s the ultimat e refuge . I t i s a paradise, albei t a dynamic on e tha t constantl y change s throug h th e labor s o f th e

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artist. Thus , throug h a combinatio n o f events , luck , involuntar y memory, har d work , craft , an d will , th e Narrator , possessin g th e supreme vantag e poin t wo n b y ag e an d experience , i s at las t abl e to ascen d t o th e height s o f th e artist' s panoramic , stereoscopi c vision and t o plum b th e depth s o f hi s being . I n th e Proustia n schema o f movement i n space , th e creativ e perso n alon e i s capa ble o f progres s alon g th e vertica l axis . Th e past , no w tha t i t i s understood, ma y b e reconstructed , interpreted , an d transpose d into literature . Th e image s o f th e artis t a s airplan e pilo t an d a s a strong mine r represen t th e exploratio n an d exploitatio n o f th e inner an d oute r worlds . The Narrato r i s now abl e to construc t hi s vision o f th e cosmos , althoug h h e see s clearl y tha t th e range , scope, an d dept h o f his undertaking ar e immense. 63 If th e writer , a s conceive d b y Proust , canno t rende r exactly a person o r objec t a s seen i n a particular ligh t o r a s relived in memory , tha t momen t o r memor y i s lost an d th e fea r o f passing time an d deat h grow s more intense . The Narrator' s ques t i s to find a way to rescu e life from th e destructiv e forces o f time: waste, habit, insensitivity , an d othe r vice s embodie d i n th e fals e god s o f snobbery an d eroticism . T o complet e hi s tas k h e mus t creat e a complex, multilayere d styl e t o describ e no t onl y th e man y varia tions o f light, form , an d memory bu t als o the twisting s an d loop ings o f the Narrator' s min d a s he become s awar e o f multiple per spectives an d seeks to cas t them i n a work o f art. The concludin g sectio n o f Le Temps retrouui shows th e Narrator risin g above his entir e experience , abl e to se e in the past , present, an d futur e a s h e accept s th e responsibilit y o f th e Her culean labor s tha t awai t him . A s hi s her o i s initiate d int o th e requirements o f his craft , Prous t build s u p th e passag e throug h a n accumulation o f infinitives. 64 Th e artis t must labor t o sav e the pas t from th e destructiv e force s o f Time, yet ultimatel y lif e an d ar t ar e joined togethe r i n mutual intimation s o f immortality. quel labeur devant lui! . .. ca r cet ecrivai n . . . devrait preparer so n livre minutieusement, ave c de perpetuel s regroupements d e forces , comm e un e offensive , l e

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supporter comm e un e fatigue , l'accepte r comm e un e regie, le construire comme une eglise, le suivre comme un regime, le vaincre comme u n obstacle , le conquerir comme un e amide , l e suralimenter comm e u n enfant , le creer comme un monde. . . . (Ill, 1032) Like a religiou s ques t th e artist' s searc h i s transcendent . "Religious" i s used here i n th e classic , universal, an d literary sens e as a "sentimen t d e respect , d'obeissanc e exact e e t scrupuleus e envers c e qu e To n consider e comm e un e obligatio n morale " (Grand Larousse de la Languefrangaise). A t th e en d o f his ques t th e Narrator recognize s an d accept s th e mora l dut y o f th e artis t an d speaks o f it as a religious obligatio n ('Taccepte r comm e un e regie , le construir e comm e un e eglise") . H e ha s take n o n nothin g les s than th e challeng e t o creat e a cosmos , "l a transcriptio n d'u n univers qu i etai t a redessiner tou t entie r . . ." (III , 1046) . This challeng e wil l b e take n u p b y a write r who , i n hi s creative persona , i s a n androgynou s creature . Th e them e o f th e androgyne i s sounded i n th e openin g pages of the nove l when th e slumbering Narrato r recall s the place s and rooms h e ha s occupie d in th e past . Thes e ar e recalle d throug h bod y position s h e ha s assumed i n bed . Sometimes , h e says , a woma n i s born from hi s body a s Eve was born from Adam' s (I , 4). The androgynou s birt h of Eve results in th e separatio n o f the sexes , which wil l become — especially i n it s homosexua l manifestations—on e o f th e majo r themes o f the novel. 65 Durin g th e quest , th e protagonis t seek s t o recapture hi s los t wil l an d becom e a productive creator ; Proust' s analogies fo r thi s proces s ar e primaril y thos e o f a genetrix . Miguet-Ollagnier write s o f this aspect o f la Recherche: La quete a pris chez lui une forme particuliere: celle de la reunification d u masculin et du feminin. Surtou t ell e n'est pa s reste e un e theorie . L a structur e evenemen tielle du recit, les paysages, les ceuvres d'art imaginaires, nous on t installe s a u coeu r d e c e paradis retrouv e o u regne un Adam androgyne e t fecond. 66

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Elstir, on e wil l recall , i s viewed a s a new Ada m whe n h e produces painting s tha t ar e androgynous i n thei r minglin g o f land and se a (I , 834-35). 67 A t th e en d o f th e nove l th e Narrator , endowed wit h creativ e ability , rediscover s th e fundamenta l unit y represented b y Adam , th e androgynou s creator. 68 Th e write r describes himsel f as impregnated b y Albertine an d bearing withi n himself th e futur e work. 69 I t i s the sorro w cause d by his recogni tion o f th e extrem e distanc e betwee n himsel f an d Albertine— a distance a s vast a s that betwee n th e sexes—tha t impregnate s him : "c'est . . . parc e qu'ell e etai t s i different e d e moi , qu'ell e m'avai t feconde pa r l e chagri n . . . (Ill , 915*) . Wha t wa s destroye d b y pain an d sorro w become s th e embry o o f th e futur e work , repre sented by image s o f gestation an d delivery : "j e me sentai s accru d e cette ceuvr e qu e je portai s e n moi" (III , 1036) . In the earl y notes for Le Temps retrouvi, images of feminin e creativity predominate : th e Narrator' s futur e boo k wil l b e con structed with th e sam e car e Fran^oise take s in making her "bceu f mode" or a seamstress lavishes on a new dress. 70 In the final version, Proust frequently employ s images associated with a female givin g birth t o describ e the Narrator's creativ e attempts. Proust describe s the hero' s first—and, fo r man y years, only—literar y creatio n i n a feminine, reproductiv e analogy ; havin g writte n severa l page s describing the steeples of Martinville, the young man feels like a hen that has just laid an egg and begins to cro w at the top o f its voice (I, 182). Writin g abou t th e androgynou s aspect s o f hi s endeavor , Miguet-Ollagnier quote s from the Carnet de 1908: "L e travail nous rend un peu meres .Parfoi s me sentant pres de ma fin je me disais, ... sentant l'enfant qu i se formait dan s mes flancs, et ne sachant pas si je reunirais les forces qu'il faut pour enfanter, je lui disais avec un trist e et dou x sourire: *T e verrais-je jamais'."71 I n la Recherche the Narra tor sees his work i n terms of a mother an d son: "[Mon oeuvre ] etai t pour mo i comm e u n fils don t la mer e mourant e doi t encor e s'imposer l a fatigue d e s'occuper san s cesse" (III , 1041-42). 72 As a storyteller engaged in a nighdy battle against death, the protagonis t compares himself to Scheherazade (III , 131,1043). 73

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By presentin g th e androgynou s characteristic s o f th e cre ative process , Prous t continue s a n ancien t tradition . Bisexualit y was a recurring them e i n ancien t mythology , wher e a number o f creation myth s hav e a n androgynou s birt h a s the sourc e o f divin e and huma n races. 74 Many mythologie s endo w bisexuality , whic h is associated with god s an d fertilit y cults , with a positive symboli c value. Accordin g t o a medieval concept , th e inne r bein g wa s als o androgynous i n nature. 75 Th e sou l an d min d wer e divide d int o two parts , " a feminin e sensor y par t o n on e han d an d masculin e reason an d wil l o n th e other." 76 Thi s i s a belief that stil l has grea t currency today . Current belie f i n th e bisexua l natur e o f people , i n th e sense tha t a n individua l possesse s bot h mal e an d femal e charac teristics, wa s als o commonplac e i n late-nineteenth-centur y France, especiall y i n artisti c an d scientifi c circles . However , according t o Fran f oise Cachin , b y th e tur n o f th e centur y "l e reve androgyn e 'fi n d u siecle ' parai t ressorti r plu s d e l a negatio n du sex e qu e d e se s ressource s d e redoublement." 77 Wit h Proust , it i s clearl y th e opposit e tha t prevails ; h e see s th e coexistenc e o f masculine an d feminin e trait s withi n a n individua l a s a positive , enriching value . Prous t explaine d t o Gid e tha t Charlus' s abilit y t o understand an d appreciat e ar t i s du e t o hi s sexua l nature : "j e sui s convaincu qu e c'es t a son homosexualit e qu e M . d e Charlu s doi t de comprendr e tan t d e chose s qu i son t fermee s a so n frer e . . . d'etre tellemen t plu s fin, plu s sensible." 78 Th e richnes s o f th e double natur e o f th e androgyn e appeal s t o Prous t a s a symbo l fo r the integra l natur e o f th e artis t a s beholder, interpreter , an d cre ator o f ne w worlds . Th e sexe s tha t wer e sundere d a s a resul t o f the divisio n o f th e androgyn e i n tw o ar e reunite d i n th e inte grated bein g o f the cosmo s builder . Proust's her o i s th e creativ e person , th e tireles s seeke r o f new laws . Th e nove l end s i n a crescend o o f joy an d th e promis e of grea t effort s o n th e par t o f th e writer . Bu t th e Narrator , whose earlie r trial s wer e centere d o n th e lac k o f wil l an d vision , now face s a new an d equall y formidabl e obstacl e i n tha t h e mus t

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win th e rac e agains t death : "Cett e ide e d e l a mor t s'install a definitivement e n mo i comm e fai t u n amour . N o n qu e j'aimasse la mort, je l a detestais . . . . l'idee d e l a mor t m e tenai t un e com pagnie auss i incessant e qu e l'ide e d u moi " (III , 1042) . Lik e th e cathedral builders , h e i s a n architec t engage d i n a rac e agains t time; onc e th e edific e i s built , h e wil l clos e foreve r th e doo r o f his tom b (III , 1041) . La Recherche is a vast sermo n o n vanity , a "mis e e n garde " against love , friendship, snobbery , socia l prestige , an d fame . I f w e listen carefully , w e se e that al l human pursuits—eve n art , th e mos t exalted, accordin g t o Proust—ar e deal t wit h a s mercilessly a s i n Shelley's "Ozymandias. " Ther e i s a heroic qualit y in th e Narrator' s determination t o buil d somethin g monumenta l an d altruisti c i n the fac e o f apparen t oblivion : "San s dout e me s livre s eu x aussi , comme mo n etr e d e chair , finiraient u n jour pa r mourir . Mai s i l faut s e resigne r a mourir . . . . L a dure e eternell e n'es t pa s plu s promise au x oeuvre s qu'aux hommes" (III , 1043*) . The tru e artis t i s one wh o know s how t o se e and to mak e his vision accessible to other s by taking the bitter lessons of wasted time an d makin g o f the m a durabl e wor k o f art . Prous t cast s th e artist i n th e rol e o f a Promethea n craftsma n abl e t o fashio n machinery an d conver t powe r int o a n ascendan t force . Th e wor k of art—in th e Narrator' s case , the ideal book h e will now write — may contai n bas e elements , but i t wil l be awe-inspiring , encyclo pedic i n scope , an d transcendent , jus t lik e a cathedral . I t i s pre cisely because h e attempte d t o creat e th e aestheti c equivalen t o f cosmic unit y tha t Proust repeatedl y compare s his book t o a cathe dral. Followin g hi s lead , critic s hav e pointe d ou t a numbe r o f analogies between th e structure o f la Recherche and that o f a Gothic cathedral. A cathedra l i s an encyclopedi a i n ston e o f th e rea l an d ideal worlds , enclosin g i n th e sam e structur e th e univers e i n miniature: "L'imag e d e l'eglise e t cell e de l a cathedrale soulignen t l'intention d e donne r a l'oeuvre u n caracter e pantaculaire , a u sen s vrai du terme , c'est-a-dir e d'e n fair e comm e un e sorte d'abreg e d e rUnivers." 79 I n a letter t o Francoi s Mauriac , Prous t refer s t o th e

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scene a t Montjouvai n a s th e obscen e capita l o f hi s cathedral novel. 80 Although th e tympanu m an d othe r area s of the cathedra l may represent th e Las t Judgment, wit h it s sinister views o f victims trapped i n hell , th e overal l effec t o f flying buttresses , stained-glas s windows, an d spires is one o f elevation and exultation . Once Prous t understoo d tha t th e subjec t o f hi s boo k la y within himself , h e withdre w t o hi s ow n darkroom , acceptin g a voluntary sentenc e o f twelv e year s o f har d labor , writin g i n a corklined roo m wit h n o hea t (h e believe d th e fume s from th e fireplace irritate d hi s lungs). Th e boo k h e produce d i s one o f th e longest, mos t complex , an d riches t i n th e histor y o f Western cul ture. Despit e it s length an d th e amoun t o f time neede d t o rea d it , Proust's novel continue s t o liv e in th e minds o f readers al l over th e world. I t has never been ou t o f print. A s of this writing, ne w edi tions an d translation s proliferate . Ther e i s no doub t tha t th e cre ation an d publicatio n o f A la recherche du temps perdu is on e o f th e most sustaine d creativ e effort s i n th e histor y o f literature. 81 A t th e end o f la Recherche, th e Narrator' s ambitio n an d determinatio n t o be a writer ar e finally joined wit h Proust' s own . A t las t he wil l b e able to engrav e o n his monument: Hoc Fecit Marcellus.

Notes 1. The Age of Speed 1. Unles s otherwis e stated , al l page reference s ar e t o th e Gallimar d (Pleiade) edition s o f Proust's works: A la recherche du temps perdu, vols. I , II , an d III , edite d b y Pierr e Clara c an d Andr e Ferr e (Paris, 1954) ; Jean Santeuil and Les Plaisirs et les jours (vol. IV) , and Contre Sainte-Beuve, Pastiches et milanges, Essais et articles (vol . V) , both edite d by Pierre Clarac and Yves Sandr e (Paris , 1971) . Ref erences t o la Recherche giv e volum e an d pag e number s only . A reference followe d b y a n asteris k indicate s a passag e tha t wa s omitted fro m th e origina l editio n o f la Recherche but wa s included i n th e Pleiad e edition . I n reference s t o work s from th e other volumes , th e tid e o f th e wor k i s given , followe d b y th e volume an d pag e number . Al l translations , unles s otherwis e stated, are my own . Proust, wh o followe d wit h grea t interes t th e development s o f machine technology, referre d to hi s era more than once a s "locomotive" an d "un e epoqu e d e hate. " Se e Contre Sainte-Beuve (V, 202), and A la recherche du temps perdu, II, 815: "On disait qu'a une epoque d e hat e convenai t u n ar t rapide, absolumen t comm e o n aurait dit que la guerre future ne pouvait pas durer plus de quinz e jours, o u qu'ave c le s chemin s d e fe r seraien t delaisse s le s petit s coins cher s aux diligences e t que l'auto pourtant devai t remettre en honneur." (Ther e is another version o f this same statement at III, 888-89. ) I n "Mondanit e e t melomani e d e Bouvar d e t Pecuchet," Proust characterized the centur y as that of steam, uni versal suffrage, an d the bicycle. See Jean Santeuil (IV, 63-64). 2. Thi s information i s provided in Jacques Nathan, La Littirature du mital, de la vitesse, et du cheque de 1880 h 1930 (Paris : Didier , 1971), p . 12 . Wha t i s surprisin g abou t thi s otherwis e excellen t 241

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book is that Nathan, a Proust scholar with two prior books on the writer, make s onl y on e brie f mention o f him in thi s study . N o French writer o f the epoc h discussed in Nathan's book wa s more influenced b y th e advancements in modern technolog y o r mad e better narrative and metaphorical use of the material than Proust. 3. Se e the article by Eugene Nicole, "Le s Inventions modernes dan s La Recherche du temps perdu" Bulletin de la SociSU des Amis de Marcel Proust et de Combray 36 (1986) : 528-42 . 4. Charle s Baudoin , quote d b y Pa r Bergman i n "Modemolatria" et "Simultaneity": Recherches sur deux tendances dans Vavant-garde littiraire en Italie et en France h la veille de la premihe guerre mondiale, Studia Litterarum Upsaliensia, 2 (Bonniers : Svenska Bokforlaget , 1965), p. 8 . 5. Quote d b y Euge n Webe r i n France: Fin de Sihle (Cambridge , Mass.: Harvar d Universit y Press , 1986) , p . 236 . I n th e chapte r entided "The Cosmo s Builder," I discuss the similarities betwee n Proust's and Einstein's views o f the universe. 6. Quote d by Bergman, "Modemolatria" p. 16 . 7. Se e Correspondance de Marcel Proust, edite d b y Phili p Kol b (Paris : Plon, 1981) , 1912 , 11 : 292 . Unles s otherwis e stated , al l refer ences are to this edition, o f which twent y volumes have appeared to date . Eac h referenc e wil l b e give n a s follows: Correspondance, year, volume number , an d page number. 8. Weber , France: Fin de Sihle, p . 54. 9. Ibid. , p. 68 . 10. Se e A. D . Trottenberg' s introductio n t o Euglne Atget, A Vision of Paris (Ne w York : Macmillan, 1963) , pp. 11-28 . 11. Quote d b y Weber , France: Fin de Sihle, pp . 70-71 . "N o mor e rank, tides , o r race . . . . Al l i s mixed , confused , blurred , an d reshuffled i n a kaleidoscopic vision, " wrote edito r Francois Mainguy i n th e first issue (1890 ) o f Le Fin de Sihle, (p . 10) . Proust , too, utilize s the kaleidoscope a s one o f his principal metaphors t o describe socia l evolution . 12. Ibid. , p. 73. 13. Nathan , Literature du mital, p. 18 . 14. Ibid. , p. 41. 15. Elstir , Proust's fictional painter, give s the Narrator (wh o i s something of a classical idealist when h e arrive s at Balbec) hi s first lesson in wha t Baudelair e calle d "l a beaute moderne. " Se e Baude laire's essay in his Salon de 1846 entide d "D e l'heroisme d e la vie moderne," i n CEuvres completes, edite d b y Y.-G. L e Dante c an d

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Claude Pichois , Bibliothequ e d e l a Pleiad e (Paris : Gallimard , 1961), p . 952 . Claud e Mone t painte d th e meta l carcas s o f th e Saint-Lazare trai n station with th e sam e car e and styl e on e finds in hi s pictures o f th e Roue n cathedral . Man y artist s and writer s were inspire d b y th e ne w technology . Th e belie f tha t i t i s th e artist's vision an d not th e subjec t o f the painting that determine s its value is expressed by Elstir, who influence s th e Narrator's aesthetic ideas : "I I n' y a pa s d e gothique , i l n' y a pa s d e chef d'oeuvre, l'hopita l san s style vau t le glorieu x portail. . . . Tout l e prix est dans les regards du peintre" (II, 421). 16. Fo r the influence o f the bicycle o n social mores, fashion, an d the liberation o f women, se e Weber , France: Fin de Sihle, pp . 102 , 201, 203 . 17. Se e Bernard Straus' s article "Achille-Adrie n Proust , M.D. : Doc tor t o Rive r Basins," Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine 50 (1974) : 833-38 . 18. Se e UHygikne du neurasthinique (Paris : Masson, 1897) , p. 75. 19. I n la Recherche traces of anglomania ca n be seen in the fad for the monocle, whic h give s rise to on e o f the mos t amusing passages in Proust's novel , an d in Odette' s habi t o f sprinklin g he r sentence s with Englis h words. 20. Quote d in Weber, France: Fin de Sihle, p. 58 . 21. Se e Stephe n Kern , The Culture of Time and Space, 1880-1918 (Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University Press, 1983) , p. 113 . 22. Se e Weber, France: Fin de Sikle, pp . 69-70 . 23. Se e II, 996-97 . 24. Pau l Souriau , L'Esthitique du mouvement (Paris : Feli x Arcan , 1889), p. 23. 25. Se e Nathan, Literature du mttal, p. 13. 26. Quote d by Kern, The Culture of Time and Space, p . 118 . 27. Ibid.,p . 111 . 28. Bergman , "Modernolatria" p. 11. 29. Correspondance, 1907 , 7 : 263. 30. "E n memoire de s eglises assassinees," (V, 67). 31. Se e Rober t Cantwell' s "Brigh t Thread s i n Hi s Tapestry, " Sports Illustrated, Decembe r 17 , 1973 , pp. 82-96 . 32. Se e th e chapte r entitled "Spee d and Desire" for a detailed discussion of this subject. 33. Se e th e chapte r entide d "Deat h o f an Aviator" for a n analysis o f Agostinelli's character . 34. Th e wor d made its entry in Larousse in 1906 .

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35. Se e Lucien Metivet' s illustrations fo r Miche l Leblanc' s novel Void des axles! (Paris: Paul Ollendorff , 1898) . This nove l chronicle s th e liberating effec t o f a cycling tour o n tw o youn g couples . 36. Quote d b y Kern, The Culture of Time and Space, p . 113 . 37. Fernan d Leger , " A propo s d u cinema, " quote d i n Marce l L'Her bier's Intelligence du cinimatographe (Paris : Correa, 1946) , p. 337 . 38. Kern , The Culture of Time and Space, p . 118 . 39. Fernan d Leger , "Th e Origin s o f Paintin g an d It s Representa tional Value. " Quote d i n Kern , The Culture of Time and Space, p. 118 . 40. Se e Nathan, Littirature du mital, p . 58. 41. Apollinaire , Les Peintres cubistes, edited b y L . C . Breuni g an d J.-Cl. Chevalie r (Paris : Collectio n Savoi r Hermann , 1980) , pp. 55-56 . 42. Thi s experienc e i s discusse d a t lengt h i n th e chapte r entide d "The Cosmo s Builder. " 43. Marcel Proust et Jacques Rivibe: Correspondance, 1914-1922, edite d by Philip Kol b (Paris : Plon, 1955) , p. 264. Riviere' s emphasis . 44. Kern , The Culture of Time and Space, p . 147 . 45. Ibid. , p. 22. 46. Bergman , "Modernolatria," p . 32. 47. Se e th e chapter s entide d "Deat h o f an Aviator " an d "Th e Artis t and th e Aviator. " 48. Ma n Ray , wh o woul d photograp h Prous t o n hi s deathbed , expressed hi s preference fo r photograph y an d aviatio n i n a statement tha t reminds u s o f the Narrator' s first sighting o f an aviator : "A photograp h i s to a painting what a n automobil e i s to a horse. A ride r o n hi s horse i s a beautiful thing , bu t I prefer a man i n a n airplane." Quote d b y Claud e Nori , French Photography: From Its Origins to the Present (New York : Pantheon , 1979) , p . 34 . Th e translation i s by Lydia Davis. 49. Quote d b y Bergman, "Modernolatria," p. 5 . 50. Ibid. , p . 134 . 51. Matinie chez la Princesse de Guermantes, edite d b y Henri Bonne t i n collaboration wit h Bernar d Bru n (Paris : Gallimard , 1982) , p . 403. Thi s passag e i s a n exampl e o f a n airplan e perceive d a s a n airborne automobile . 52. I n anothe r passag e Fran9ois e i s describe d a s a n individua l "qu'une timidit e e t un e melancoli e ancestrales , appliquee s a un obje t inconn u d e se s peres, empechaien t d e s'approche r d u recepteur . . . " (Ill , 155) .

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53. Fo r a discussion of this subject, see Weber, France: Fin de Sikle, p . 4. 54. Th e scanda l cause d upheava l i n th e sportin g worl d a s well . I n 1900 discussio n abou t th e guil t o r innocenc e o f Dreyfus becam e so heate d amon g member s o f th e editoria l boar d a t th e majo r sports paper Le Vilo that a schism occurred. Th e anti-Dreyfusard s walked ou t an d create d a paper o f their own , VAuto-Vilo, whic h soon droppe d th e bikin g componen t an d becam e VAuto. Se e Weber, France: Fin de Sikle, p . 122 . 55. I n anothe r passag e Prous t describe s th e effec t o f tim e o n th e salon o f th e princess e d e Guermantes : "L e temp s n' y avai t pa s seulement defai t d'ancienne s creatures , i l y avai t rend u possibles , il y avai t cre e de s associations nouvelles " (III , 949) . 56. Terr y Eagleton , Literary Theory. An Introduction (Minneapolis : University o f Minnesota Press , 1983) , p. 185 . 57. Josep h Campbell , The Hero with a Thousand Faces, Bollingen Series 1 7 (Princeton , N.J. : Princeto n Universit y Press , 1949) , p . 30. Campbell' s emphasis . 58. "Encyclopedic " i s Northro p Frye' s descriptio n o f la Recherche. See hi s Anatomy of Criticism (Princeton, N.J. : Princeto n Univer sity Press, 1957) , p. 61.

2, Women as Landscapes 1. I n Gilberte' s case , mos t o f th e mobilit y wa s transferre d t o he r name: "Ains i passa-t-i l [c e no m d e Gilberte] , profer e au-dessu s des jasmins e t de s giroflees , . . . impregnant, irisan t la zon e d'ai r pur qu'i l avai t traverse e . . . " (I , 142) . 2. Prous t use s flowers throughou t la Recherche as a metaphor fo r sex uality: Swan n an d Odette' s privat e ter m fo r lovemakin g i s "fair e catleya"; th e filles-fleurs of A Vombre des jeunes filles enjleurs ar e erotic creatures ; th e fertilizatio n o f the duchess e d e Guermantes' s rare plan t serve s a s an analog y fo r th e Charlus-Jupie n homosex ual encounter . Fo r mor e o n Proustia n flowers , se e th e chapte r entitled "Th e Prison. " 3. Stephe n Kern ha s pointed ou t tha t "th e grea t historicist systems o f the nineteent h centur y a s wel l a s th e wor k o f Dilthey , Berg son, Prous t an d Freu d celebrate d th e historica l o r geneti c approach. . . . " Fo r a discussio n o f thi s point , see hi s boo k The Culture of Time and Space, 1880-1918 (Cambridge , Mass. : Har vard Universit y Press , 1983) , p . 51.

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4. I n la Recherche Prous t compare s th e physica l characteristic s o f Celeste's face an d her at times tempestuous nature to th e rivers o f her nativ e region , th e Massi f Centra l (II , 849-50) . Fran^oise' s character i s compare d t o a rough countr y road : "l e chemi n rus tique e t familie r qu'etai t l e caracter e d e Franfois e devenai t impraticable . . . " (I, 897) . Oriane' s voic e contain s "1'o r gras e t paresseux d'u n solei l d e province " (II , 205) . Mil e d e Stermari a embodies th e poetr y an d char m o f Brittany, "cett e vi e s i poe tique qu'ell e menai t e n Bretagn e . . . [qu'elle] contenai t enclos e en son corps" (I, 689). 5. On e i s reminded o f Emm a Bovary, who , whe n frustrated in he r desire to live in a great city, attempts t o "possess " Paris through a map. Se e Gustav e Flaubert' s Madame Bovary (Paris : Garnier Flammarion, 1986) , p. 118 . 6. Lik e hi s narrator , Prous t wen t t o n o en d o f troubl e t o obtai n photographs o f thos e who m h e worshiped . H e wrot e t o Mil e Simone d e Caillavet : "Quan d j'etais amoureux d e votre maman , j'ai fai t pour avoir sa photographie de s chose s prodigieuses. Mai s cela n'a servi a rien. Je refois encor e a u jour de Tan des cartes de Perigourdins ave c qu i je n e m'etai s li e qu e pou r tache r d'avoi r cette photographie! " Correspondance, 1910-1911 , 10 : 40 . Cf . la Recherche, I , 503. 7. Cf . th e Narrator's puerile wish to break with Albertine a s a pedal point for the same reason—a smooth, painless diminuendo—providing another link between th e pedals o f Albertine's bicycle an d the pedals of the organ: "de peur que, par une parole nouvelle . . . elle [Albertine ] vint blesser d'une dissonance le silence sensitif ou, comme grac e a quelque pedale , aurai t pu survivr e longtemp s e n moi l a tonalite d u bonheur" (II , 835) . O n anothe r occasio n th e Narrator muses: "je m'imaginais qu e le souvenir que je garderai s d'elle [Albertine ] serait comme un e sort e de vibration prolonge e par une pedale, de la minute de notre separation. Aussi je tenai s a choisir un e minut e douce , afi n qu e c e ru t ell e qu i continua t a vibrer en moi" (III, 393). Cf . th e closing of a letter that Madame Proust wrote t o her son in 1890 : "Adieu mon cheri je t'embrass e tendrement ave c un point d'orgu e a prolonger jusqu'au prochai n baiser" (Correspondance, 1880-1895,1:137) . Th e pedal point separation i s a subtl e lin k betwee n mama n an d Albertine . 8. Whe n Gasto n Gallimard , wh o woul d eventuall y publis h la Recherche, firstmet Proust at Cabourg in 1908, he was awed by the writer's phenomena l memory . A t dinne r someon e mentione d

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10.

11. 12.

7

Constantinople, whereupon Proust recited a full page on the city from on e o f Pierre Loti' s novels. When th e publisher remarke d about Proust' s extraordinar y memory , th e autho r advise d him , "Read th e Chai x trai n schedules ; it's eve n better!" Prous t the n recited whole sections of the schedules one would need to know to tak e the trai n from Paris t o variou s cities . See Gasto n Galli mard's recollection o f meeting Prous t entide d "Premier e Ren contre," in "Hommage a Marcel Proust: 1871-1922, " La Nouvelle Revue Frangaise, n.s. 112, vol. 20 Qanuary 1923): 65. This incident is also recounted i n Gallimard' s biography by Pierre Assouline , Gaston Gattimard: Un demi-silcle d'Sditionfrangaise (Paris: Balland, 1984), p. 38. When Albertin e first arouses his desire o n th e beac h a t Balbec, he compare s the desired girl to the flag of an unknown country : "je l a voyai s flotter e t claque r brillant e e t soupl e devan t mo i comme u n drapea u d'u n pay s inconnu . . . " (I, 874 , n. 1) . This metaphor was not retaine d in th e definitive text . Th e flag of an unknown countr y is ambiguous as is Albertine. Does it represent a have n o r danger ? Cf . th e followin g line s from Baudelaire' s poem "Femme s damnees": "Et le vent furibond d e la concupiscence / Fai t claque r votr e chai r ains i qu'u n vieu x drapeau. " Charles Baudelaire, CEuvres completes, edite d by Y.-G. Le Dantec and Claude Pichois, Bibliotheque de la Pleiade (Paris: Gallimard, 1961), p. 139. The Narrator, a s he often demonstrates , shares Baudelaire's "gout de 1'infini. " Cf . th e closin g line s o f Baudelaire' s "L e Voyage" : "Nous voulons, tant c e feu nou s brule le cerveau, / Plonge r a u fond d u gouffre , Enfe r o u Ciel , qu'importe ? / A u fon d d e l'lnconnu pou r trouve r d u nouveau!" Baudelaire's emphasis . Baudelaire, CEuures completes, p. 127 . As we shall see in the chapter entitle d "Th e Prison, " th e Proustia n love r wh o allow s hi s jealous desire to become obsessive creates his own hell. The solution to the dilemma will be an aesthetic one. Andr6 Ferre , La Giographie de Marcel Proust (Paris : Sagittaire , 1939), p. 29. Gilberte, wh o i s see n fo r th e first tim e a t Tansonville , evoke s the se a onl y onc e i n a n unflatterin g way . Whe n sh e an d th e Narrator ar e a t odd s wit h eac h other , he r fac e i s sai d t o b e like "ce s plage s ennuyeuse s o u l a mer , retire e tre s loin , vou s fatigue d'u n refle t toujour s parei l qu e cern e u n horizo n immuable e t borne " (I , 584) .

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13. Fo r a discussio n o f th e Fortun y materia l an d th e peacoc k a s a symbol o f resurrection, se e Peter Collier' s boo k Proust and Venice (Cambridge: Cambridg e Universit y Press , 1989) . 14. Th e detail s o f Agostinelli' s lette r ar e describe d i n th e chapte r entitled "Th e Deat h o f an Aviator. " 15. Cf . th e followin g passage , whic h show s tha t th e Narrato r i s a t times awar e o f the reaso n fo r hi s attraction t o th e seasid e band o f girls: "quand , mem e n e l e sachan t pas , je pensai s a elles . . . . c'etait l a mer qu e j'esperais retrouver. . . . L'amour l e plus exclusi f pour un e personn e es t toujour s l'amou r d'autr e chose " (I , 833) . Cf. als o this passage: "Mo n desi r d'elles , je pouvai s maintenan t l e mettre a u repo s . . . des figures dan s u n tablea u ayan t pou r fon d la mer . . . " (I, 865). 16. Cf . Proust' s descriptio n o f th e princess e d e Nassau , whos e eye s are compare d t o a n astronomica l cloc k becaus e the y contai n th e entire histor y o f her lif e (III , 979-80) . 17. Fo r th e impression s o f circlin g an d "capturing " a city , se e th e steeples o f Martinville passage (I , 180-82) . 18. Kol b date s this letter Septembe r 8 or 9 , 1903 . See Correspondance, 1902-1903, 3 : 418.

3. Girls in Motion 1. Se e Jacques-Henri Lartigue , Boyhood Photos ofJ.~H. Lartigue: The Family Album of a Gilded Age, edite d b y Jean Fondi n (Lausanne : Ami Guichard , 1966) , an d hi s Instants de ma vie (Paris : Chene , 1970), n . p. 2. Se e Claud e Nori , French Photography (Ne w York : Pantheon , 1979), p . 28 . 3. Cf . Andree' s (o r Gisele's ) startlin g leap ove r the elderl y gentlema n sitting in a beach chai r a t Balbec (I , 792) . 4. Jacques-Henr i Lartigue , Mimoires sans mkmoire (Paris: Robert Laf font, 1975) , p. 80 . Se e als o hi s Instants de ma vie under th e head ing Mars 1910. 5. Lucie n Daudet , Autour de soixante lettres de Marcel Proust, Le s Cahiers Marce l Proust , 5 (Paris : Gallimard, 1929) , p. 15 . 6. Cf . hi s effort s t o seiz e th e tru e element s o f Berma's greatnes s a s an actress : "J'aurai s voul u . . . arreter , immobilise r longtemp s devant mo i chaqu e intonatio n d e 1'artiste , chaqu e expressio n d e sa physionomie . . . mais dej a l'actric e avai t chang e d e place e t l e tableau qu e j'aurais voulu etudie r n'existai t plus " (I , 449).

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7. Proust , lik e hi s artist figure Elstir, als o fuse s element s o f land and sea. Th e fluid motio n o f the sea , wind , an d water are transferre d to stationar y lan d elements . Cf . th e mobilit y o f th e ivy-covere d church o f Carqueville : "alor s u n pe u d e ven t soufflait , faisai t fremir le porche mobile qu e parcouraient de s remous propages e t tremblants comm e un e clarte ; le s feuille s deferlaien t le s une s contre le s autres ; et , frissonnante , l a fafad e vegetal e entrainai t avec ell e le s pilier s onduleux , carresse s e t fuyants " (I , 715) . I n another passage th e ban d o f girls is described a s a hedge o f roses wafting i n th e breeze a s the wind caresse s the water, "l a ligne du flot de leur haie legere, pareille a un bosquet d e roses de Pennsyl vanie, ornemen t d'u n jardi n su r l a falais e . . . " (I , 798) . Th e church o f Saint-Hilair e i s sai d t o hav e saile d like a ship throug h the ages of time, from the distant past to th e present (I , 61). Mos t of the majo r art movements o f the tim e an d Einstein's theor y o f Relativity presen t u s with a universe tha t is in constan t flux. Se e the chapte r entitled "Th e Cosmo s Builder. " 8. Althoug h th e them e o f Vinteuil' s musi c a s sacre d an d profan e art bega n wit h th e Swann-Odett e relationship , i t wil l continu e and reac h it s resolutio n i n th e lov e affai r betwee n th e Narra tor an d Albertine . 9. Se e I , 130 , 132 , 383. 10. Cf . als o the followin g passage: "Ainsi s'etai t dissipe e toute la gracieuse mythologi e oceaniqu e qu e j'avais compose e le s premier s jours" (I, 949). 11. Cf . Proust' s technique o f presenting a human figure in motio n as "un torse feminin, mutil e comme un marbre antique par la vitesse qui nous entraine . . . une passante fragmentaire et fugitive ... " (I, 713). Elsewher e Prous t writes : "L e visag e humai n es t vraimen t comme celu i d u Die u d'un e theogoni e orientale , tout e un e grappe de visages juxtaposes dan s des plans differents e t qu'on n e voit pas a la fois" (I, 916-17). Many passages could be cited where a figure in motion is seen as fragmented. 12. Cf . th e followin g passage , i n whic h th e Narrato r explain s the attractio n o f girl s i n motio n an d the n goe s o n t o sa y tha t "les femme s qu e nou s frequentons finissent pa r devoile r leur s tares . . . " (I, 796) . Fo r mor e o n stigmatization , se e th e chapte r entitled "Th e Prison. " 13. Prous t explaine d hi s preferenc e fo r youn g girl s i n a lette r t o Georges de Lauris : "Moi je n'aim e guer e . . . que les jeunes filles comme s i la vi e n'etai t pa s dej a asse z complique e comm e cela .

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Vous me dire z qu'on a invente pour cela le mariag e mais ce n'es t plus une jeune fille, o n [n'] a jamais une jeune fille qu'un e fois. Je comprends Barbe-Bleue , c'etai t u n homm e qu i aimai t le s jeunes filles." Correspondance, 1908 , 8 : 326. 14. Prous t utilize s th e statuar y o f th e churc h o f Saint-Andre-des Champs to represen t the biological an d aesthetic continuatio n o f the classe s of French society throug h the ages (II , 409). 15. I n th e sam e passag e th e girl s ar e compare d t o Chopin' s musi c wherever "l a phrase la plus melancolique [es t semee] de gracieu x detours ou le capric e s e mele a la virtuosite" (III , 791). The Nar rator's inabilit y t o distinguis h thei r voice s i s give n a classica l Greek musica l analogy : "leur s paroles [comm e les ] strophe s de s temps antique s o u l a poesi e encor e pe u differencie e d e l a musique . . . " (I , 909) . Fo r othe r passage s wher e th e girl s ar e compared to music , see : I, 874 , n. 1 ; I, 877-78; I , 918 . 16. Se e I , 638 . Th e sourc e fo r thi s analog y i s likely th e littl e figure high o n th e cathedra l o f Rouen tha t Ruskin wrote abou t in The Seven Lamps of Architecture. Se e "E n memoir e de s eglise s assas sinees" (V , 124ff.) . Se e th e articl e b y J. Theodor e Johnson, Jr., entitled "Proust , Ruskin, e t la petite figure au portail des libraires a la cathedrale de Rouen," Bulletin de la SociSti des Amis de Marcel Proust et de Combray 23 (1973) : 1721-36 . 17. I n on e passag e thre e girl s seate d b y thei r bicycles a t an outdoo r cafe ar e compared to winged goddesses: "trois jeunes filles etaient assises a cote d e Tar e immense d e leur s bicyclette s posee s a cot e d'elles, comm e troi s immortelles accoudee s a u nuage o u au coursier fabuleu x su r lesquel s elle s accomplissen t leur s voyage s mythologiques" (III , 170) . Elsewher e telephon e operator s ar e compared t o goddesse s o f the invisible an d various othe r mythological figures. See, e . g., II , 136 . 18. Se e I , 665 , fo r a n earlie r versio n o f thi s experienc e durin g th e Narrator's first elevator ride. 19. Cf . Apollinaire : "le s moyens de locomotion, l e mouvement pou r tout dire , on t modifi e notr e fa$o n d e sentir . . . . " Anecdotiques (Paris: Gallimard, 1955) , pp. 218-20. 20. I n 1883 , when Prous t was onl y twelve , Dr . Adrie n Prous t wrot e an articl e opposin g th e complicate d an d cumbersom e clothin g worn b y women , insistin g tha t fo r purpose s o f hygien e h e favored simpler , mor e athleti c attire . Dr . Prous t note d tha t fash ions the n in style would no t be suitabl e for depiction o n a frieze: "On conviendr a qu'aujourd'hu i le s mouvement s impetueu x d e

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Demosthene e t l'harmonie de s periodes ciceronienne s jureraient avec no s vetement s etriques , e t qu'un e firise ou figurerait un e panathenee d e femmes parisiennes ave c leurs volants e t leur systeme compliqu e d e retroussis n'aurait rie n d e seduisant pour les yeux de 1'artiste et d u connaisseur " (EUments d'hygilne), quoted by Claud e Franci s an d Fernand e Gontie r i n Marcel Proust et les siens (Paris : Plon, 1981) , p. 110 . Her e w e se e tha t Dr . Prous t condemns th e cumbersom e femal e attir e fo r aestheti c a s well as hygienic reasons . Coul d Proust' s us e o f suc h a n analog y b e a reminiscence o f his father's articles? 21. A recen t manuscrip t discover y indicate s tha t Proust' s ultimat e choice for th e tide o f the next t o last volume o f la Recherche was Albertine disparue. Se e Albertine disparue, edite d by Nathalie Mau riac and Etienne Wolff (Paris: Grasset, 1987). 22. Lartigu e tell s us that th e slang term used by aviators for makin g their first flight wa s "t o los e you r virginity" : " l e r novembr e [1916]. Aujourd'hui , j'a i vole! C'etai t mo n 'depucelage' . C'es t le mo t pou r le s futur s eleve s pilotes qu i monten t pou r l a pre miere foi s e n aeroplane . . . . " Se e Lartigue , Mimoires, p . 233 . This usag e i s anothe r exampl e o f th e associatio n betwee n motion an d sexuality . Th e experience s o f kinesis mad e possibl e by th e ne w mode s o f transportation wer e s o powerful tha t th e novice makin g his first flight wa s transformed, an d th e transfor mation was given a sexual analogy. 23. Throughou t th e novel, the Narrator will be strongly attracted by working-class girls who shar e Albertine's enthusias m for biking . At Combray, when very young, he had the same desire for beautiful, youn g paysannes. W e know th e grea t attraction tha t Prous t felt fo r a t leas t on e membe r o f th e workin g class , namely , hi s chauffeur Agostinelli . Similarly, Morel, th e son of the Narrator' s uncle's valet, who becomes Charlus's great love; the latter is constandy in pursuit o f cabdrivers an d conductors. Proust recruite d young men from among the waiters at the Hotel Pdt z to be his secretaries or to com e visit him. Se e the interview with Camill e Wixler, a former waiter at the Ritz, in "Proust au Ritz: souvenirs d'un maitr e d'hotel," Adam International Review 394-9 6 (1976) : 14-21. In 1918 , Proust recruited Henri Rochat from the Ritz to become his secretary. See Correspondance, 1918 , 17: viii. 24. Fo r th e rol e o f Albertine' s pol o hat , se e Dian a Festa McCormick's boo k Proustian Optics of Clothes: Mirrors, Masks, Mores, Stanfor d French an d Italia n Studie s 2 9 (Saratoga : Anm a

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Libri, 1984) . She writes: "When Marcel reflects that the only way he ca n possess' th e young cyclis t . . . i s by getting hold o f 'what was in he r eyes, ' he mean s . . . that onl y b y devoiding he r o f all mystery can he be free from her. The polo hat has become a symbol o f the screen that Albertine interposes between them, o f that segment o f herself that she will alway s deny him . I t is a symbol, too, o f that which keep s Marcel's love obsessivel y alive " (p . 44). 25. Se e Euge n Weber, France: Fin de Sikle (Cambridge , Mass. : Har vard University Press, 1986) , pp. 37, 201. 26. Webe r remarks: "Even commentator s wh o appreciate d 'th e ne w wheels o f the chariot o f progress' could not help noticing that , i n their velvet breeches , wome n wer e beginnin g t o loo k lik e men " (p. 201). Se e Proust's essay "Impressions de route e n automobile," where Agostinell i i s compare d t o a "nu n o f speed " because hi s motoring attire , consistin g o f a long coa t an d hood, make s hi m look lik e a woman. Se e th e Lartigu e photograp h o f a chauffeu r standing o n th e sidewalk , p . 55 . Th e Narrato r onc e mistake s a chauffeur i n motorin g attir e for a woman (III , 137) . Se e als o th e chapters "Death o f an Aviator" and "The Artist and the Aviator." For mor e o n clothe s an d androgyny , se e Festa-McCormick , Proustian Optics of Clothes, pp. 42, 97 . 27. See , among othe r passages, th e following: "Albertin e aimai t tan t faire d e l'auto e t du yachting" (II , 1123) ; "Albertine , passionne e pour tous les sports" (III, 105) ; and "[Albertine ] aiman t plus qu e tout les sports" (III, 529) . Agostinelli's love o f sports and physical danger may have contributed to this aspect of Albertine's character. The Narrato r ofte n insist s upon hi s own sedentary role : "couch e entre ces jeunes filles, la plenitude de ce que j'eprouvais... debordait de mon immobilite et de mon silence..." (I, 910). 28. Lartigue , Instants de ma vie. Se e als o hi s Mimoires, pp . 129-30 . Here i s anothe r notatio n from th e diar y tha t Lartigu e kep t o f his photographs : "Un e 'aviette' , c'es t un e bicyclett e volante , grace a laquelle o n essaye , san s moteur , san s vent, san s se lance r dans l e vide , san s fair e tire r l'apparei l pa r un e automobile , d e 'voler comm e u n oiseau' , pa r se s propre s moyens! " Se e Pierr e Borhan an d Martine d'Astier , Les Envois de Jacques-Henri Lartigue et les dibuts de Variation (Paris : Philipp e Sers , 1989) , p . 60 . Thi s work wa s publishe d o n th e occasio n o f a n exhibitio n o f Lar tigue photograph s hel d a t th e Gran d Palai s i n Pari s i n Jun e 1989. Th e drea m o f human-powere d fligh t becam e a realit y i n 1979, whe n Brya n Allen pedaled th e Gossamer Albatross twenty-

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two an d a hal f mile s acros s th e Englis h Channel . O n Apri l 24 , 1988, Gree k cyclin g champio n Kanello s Kanellopoulo s pedale d the Daedalus seventy-four mile s acros s th e Aegea n Se a i n a flight that realize d th e ancien t myt h o f Daedalus . 29. Mauric e Leblanc , in his novel about th e bicycle, stresses the fervo r of cycling enthusiasts by callin g his opening chapte r "L a Nouvell e Religion." Se e Void des axles! (Paris: Paul Ollendorff, 1898) . 30. Quote d b y Jacques Nathan , La Littkrature du mital, de la uitesse et du chlque de 1880 h 1930 (Paris : Didier , 1971) , p . 119 . Fo r th e use o f "ange/peri " se e I , 793-94 . Cf . als o Agostinell i a t th e wheel o f th e car, wher e h e i s described a s a "nu n o f speed" an d likened t o Sain t Cecili a a t th e orga n (V , 67) . Se e th e chapte r entitled "Deat h o f an Aviator. " 31. Se e th e chapte r entitle d "Deat h o f a n Aviator. " Albertin e wil l always be associate d with sport s tha t involve speed an d wil l die as a result o f a horseback-riding accident . 32. Filipp o Marinetti , "Premie r Manifest e d u Futurisme, " Le Figaro, February 20 , 1909 , p. 1 . 33. Se e th e chapte r o n "Th e Prison. " Prous t ofte n present s character s who suffe r fro m obsession s as being enmeshe d i n gears ; tragedies , with thei r stric t rule s o f construction, ar e often see n a s wheels o r time-keeping mechanism s tha t crus h th e character s caugh t beneath o r withi n them . Albertine , wh o become s th e Narrator' s great goddes s o f tim e (III , 387) , ma y als o represen t fo r hi m a wheel o f fortun e i n tha t hi s experience s wit h he r plung e hi m into th e depth s o f despai r befor e h e learn s ho w t o reinterpre t their share d experienc e an d thu s ris e t o creativ e heights . Th e theme o f verticalization i s discussed i n th e chapte r entide d "Th e Artist an d th e Aviator. " 34. I n th e sam e passage, th e Narrato r expresse s th e guilt h e feel s ove r Albertine's deat h sinc e he presented he r with th e mean s o f killing herself: "d e m a prison ell e s'etait evade e pour alle r se tuer su r u n cheval qu e san s moi ell e n'eu t pa s possede. . . . " Although Prous t tried t o dissuad e Agostinelli from takin g flying lessons , it was th e writer's mone y tha t mad e th e lesson s possible . Se e th e chapte r entitled "Deat h o f an Aviator. "

4. Speed and Desire 1. Wallac e Fowlie , "Epiphanie s i n Prous t an d Dante, " i n The Art of the Proustian Novel Reconsidered, edite d b y Lawrenc e D . Joiner ,

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Winthrop Studie s on Major Modern Writers 1 (Rock Hill , S.C. : Winthrop College , 1979) , p. 3. 2. Marce l Proust , La Prisonnihe, edite d b y Jean Milly (Paris : Gar mer-Flammarion, 1984) , p. 529, n . 12 . 3. Thi s aspec t o f Proust' s characterizatio n wil l b e discusse d i n th e next chapter . 4. Fo r revelation s abou t Fenelon' s sexuality , se e Henr i Bonnet' s chapter "L'Amou r d e Prous t pou r Bertran d d e Fenelon " i n hi s book Les Amours et la Sexualitt de Marcel Proust (Paris: Librairi e A.-G. Nizet , 1985) , pp. 45-55 . 5. Se e Georg e D . Painter , Proust: The Later Years (Boston : Litde , Brown, 1965) , p. 225. 6. Se e m y articl e "Homosexualit y i n Fiction : Marce l Proust' s A la recherche du temps perdu?1 Adam International Review 413-15 (1979) : 56-62. 7. A related passage describes "l e perpetuel elanc e d e son monocle " (II, 93) . 8. Se e Georg e D . Painter , Proust: The Early Years (Boston : Litde , Brown, 1959) , pp . 366-67 . Cocteau , inspire d b y Nijinsk y an d the Ballet s russes , repeate d th e fea t i n 1911 , a n even t tha t wa s celebrated b y Prous t i n doggere l verse : "Afi n d e m e couvri r d e fourrure e t d e moir e / San s d e se s large s yeux renverse r l'encr e noire. / Te l u n sylph e a u plafond , te l su r l a neig e u n sk i / Jean saut a su r l a tabl e aupre s d e Nijinsky. " Se e Le C6ti de Guermantes, edite d b y Elyan e Dezon-Jones , 2 vols . (Paris : Gar nier-Flammarion, 1987) , 2 : 15-16 . 9. Albertine' s leg s o n th e bicycl e an d a t th e pianol a ar e discusse d in th e chapte r entitle d "Deat h o f a n Aviator. " I f th e passag e about "le s belle s jambes" an d th e pas t the y contai n ha s a real life source , i t i s Fenelo n an d no t Agostinelli . Th e kinshi p between Albertin e an d Saint-Lou p i s anothe r reaso n fo r choosing Bertran d d e Fenelo n a s on e o f th e prim e model s fo r the girl . 10. Fo r th e questionnaires , se e "Questionnaire : Su r u n albu m d'Antoinette Faure " (V, 335), and "Marcel Proust par lui-meme" (V, 336). Fo r more o n androgyny , se e th e chapte r o n "Th e Cos mos Builder." 11. Cf . th e passage s describin g th e churc h o f Saint-Hilair e movin g through th e age s (I , 61 ) an d th e vine-covere d churc h swayin g in th e win d (III , 715) . Cf . als o th e passag e depictin g th e church a t Lisieu x an d th e childre n wh o crow d aroun d Proust' s

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car (V , 66) ; th e latte r wil l b e discusse d i n th e chapte r entitle d "Death o f an Aviator. " 12. Mare y produced a number o f studies of the choler a epidemi c o f 1845-49. I n 1884 , he wrote a paper o n "Le s Eaux contaminee s et le cholera" (Se e Comptes rendus des siances de VAcadimie des Sciences, Octobr e 27 , 1884 , pp. 667-83) . Fo r a chronology: and a n idea of the range of Marey's genius, see Michel Frizot's illustrated book Etienne-Jules Marey (Paris: Centre National de la Photographic 1983) . " 13. Fo r a good summary of Muybridge's pioneering work, which led to th e inventio n o f motio n pictures , se e th e articl e b y Julian "Bud" Lesser , "1879—Th e Movin g Imag e I s Born," American Cinematographer 69 (March 1988) : 34-40. 14. Se e Louis Bolle, Marcel Proust ou le complexe d'Argus (Paris : Grasset, 1967) , p. 141. 15. Se e Pierre Cabanne, Entretiens avec Marcel Duchamp (Paris : Pierre Belfond, 1967) , p. 57. The Italia n Futurists knew Marey's work and wer e influence d b y i t throug h th e intermediar y o f Anto n Bragaglia and Giacomo Balla. 16. Se e Freud' s article "Mechanica l Excitation" i n th e chapte r enti tled "Infantil e Sexuality " in The Basic Writings ofSigmund Freud, translated an d edited , wit h a n introduction, b y Dr. A . B. Brill, The Moder n Librar y (Ne w York : Rando m House , 1938) , p . 600. 17. I n the chapte r "Deat h o f an Aviator" we will explor e th e eroti c associations of Albertine's legs with the bicycle and the pianola. 18. Quote d in Eugen Weber, France: Fin de Sikle (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Universit y Press , 1986) , p. 201. Such beliefs, o f which Proust certainl y must hav e been aware—w e hav e seen his fathe r writing abou t th e desirabilit y fo r wome n t o wea r mor e athleti c clothing—serve t o heighte n th e epithe t h e chos e for Albertine : la bacchante h bicyclette. 19. Bloch , in his usual boastful manner , insists upon the frequency of their lovemaking in relation to distance covered: "une professionnelle [Odette ] qu i s'es t donne e a mo i troi s foi s d e suit e e t d e la manier e l a plu s ramnee , entr e Pari s e t l e Point-du-Jour " (I, 778) . 20. Milto n Miller , Nostalgia: A Psychoanalytic Study of Marcel Proust (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1956) , p. 217. 21. Se e the intervie w wit h Germain e Bree , "Wha t Interest s Me I s Eroticism," in Homosexualities and French Literature, edite d with an

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contemporains: "L e moindr e bou t d e dialogu e s'elev e a la hauteu r de 1'esprit d'ou i l es t sorti comm e dan s les puits artesiens. " Correspondance, 1902-1903 , 3 : 80. 33. Proust' s fascinatio n wit h Pompei i doubtlessl y derive s i n par t from th e fac t tha t th e lav a permanentl y froze peopl e i n th e course o f thei r dail y activities , thu s turnin g livin g creature s int o instant statues . Cf . th e passag e o n Saint-Andre-des-Champ s (II, 409) . 34. Sinc e th e inventio n o f th e handhel d camer a mad e i t possibl e fo r anyone t o tak e photographs , thereb y democratizin g portraiture , the possessio n o f a camer a ma y reflec t Saint-Loup' s libera l socia l philosophy an d hi s intolerance o f hierarchies. 35. Fo r th e passages o n th e grandmother' s photograph , se e I , 786-87 , and II , 775-82 . 36. "Un e Cathedral e juive, " Bulletin des informations proustiennes 2 (Autumn 1975) : 47; emphasi s i n original . 37. W e recal l Balzac's famou s summar y i n Le Phe Goriot of the per son an d characte r o f Mme Vauquer : "tout e s a personne expliqu e la pension , comm e l a pensio n impliqu e s a personne. " La Comidie Humaine, 1 1 vols. , edite d b y Marce l Bouteron , Biblio theque d e la Pleiade (Paris : Gallimard, 1951) , vol. 2 , 852 . 38. Se e Louis Bolle, Marcel Proust ou le Complexe d'Argus (Paris : Grasset, 1967) , pp. 141 , 207.

5. The Prison 1. "j e croyai s encor e qu e 1'Amou r existai t reellemen t e n dehor s d e nous" (1 , 401). Cf . th e followin g passage : "e n c e temps-l a tou t ce qu i n'etai t pa s moi , la terre e t le s etres , m e paraissait plus pre cieux, plu s important , dou e d'un e existenc e plu s reell e qu e cel a ne parai t au x homme s faits . E t l a terr e e t le s etres , j e n e le s separais pas. . . . j'etais pour longtemp s encor e a l'age o u To n n' a pas encor e abstrai t c e plaisi r d e l a possessio n de s femme s dif ferentes ave c lesquelles o n l' a goute , o u o n n e l' a pas reduit a un e notion generat e qu i le s fait considere r de s lors comm e le s instru ments interchangeables d'u n plaisi r toujours identique " (I , 157) . 2. Quote d b y Jean-Yves Tadi e in Proust et le roman (Paris : Gallimard , 1971), p. 274. 3. Cf . Baudelaire' s formula , "transforme r m a volupt e e n connais sance"—expressed b y th e poe t i n hi s articl e o n Richar d Wag ner—with Proust' s descriptio n o f the Narrator' s early , frustrating

258 NOTE

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attempts t o write : "j e senti s qu e mo n devoi r eu t et e d e n e pa s tenir a ces mots opaque s e t de tache r de voir plus clair dans mo n ravissement" (I , 155) . Se e Charle s Baudelaire, "Richar d Wagne r et Tannhauser a Paris, " i n CEuvres completes, edite d b y Y.-G . L e Dantec an d Claud e Pichois , Bibliothequ e d e l a Pleiad e (Paris : Gallimard, 1961) , p. 1215 . 4. Listin g Proust' s ow n mania s an d disorder s ha s lon g bee n a favorite pastim e o f Prous t admirer s an d detractors . I n hi s book, Bernar d Straus , a docto r o f medicine , provide s suc h a list. Accordin g t o Straus , Prous t ha d n o les s tha n thirt y disor ders an d a t leas t te n phobias ! Se e hi s Maladies of Marcel Proust: Doctors and Diseases in His Life and Work (Ne w York : Holmes & Meier , 1980) , tabl e 1 , p . 163 . Loui s Gautier-Vig nal, wh o sa w Prous t ofte n fro m 191 4 unti l th e writer' s death , was convince d tha t Prous t suffere d onl y from ha y fever ; al l his othe r healt h problem s wer e brough t o n b y hi s die t an d odd schedule , a schedul e tha t require d soporific s t o g o t o sleep an d enormou s amount s o f caffein e t o wak e up : "Loi n de considere r Prous t comm e u n etr e maladif , o n peu t s'eton ner, a u contraire , qu'i l ai t p u resiste r auss i longtemp s a u n mode d'existenc e auss i deraisonnabl e qu e l e sien. " Proust: Connu et inconnu (Paris : Rober t Laffont , 1976) , p . 44 . Se e th e chapter i n Gautier-Vignal' s boo k entide d "L a Funest e Alter nance," pp . 34-57 . 5. Mari e Miguet-Ollagnie r ha s thi s t o sa y abou t priso n bed s i n la Recherche: "L e li t d e Leoni e es t plus encor e qu e l a chambr e u n resume d u monde ; i l es t a l a foi s tourn e ver s l'interieu r d u sanctuaire . . . e t ver s le mond e exterieur . . . . L e li t d u narra teur: *Un e foi s dan s m a chambre , i l fallu t bouche r toute s le s issues, ferme r le s volets , creuse r mo n propr e tombeau , e n defaisant me s couvertures , reveti r l e suair e d e m a chemis e d e nuit.' C e li t tragiqu e peut annonce r le lit-roche r o u es t enchain e M. d e Charlus-Promethee . Nou s somme s passes par degres d'u n centre heureu x d u monde , d'u n omphalos , a un e extremit e mythique d e l'univers , lie u de s reprouves. " La Mythologie de Marcel Proust (Paris : Le s Belles-Lettres , 1982) , pp . 345-46 ; se e also p. 327 , n . 15 . 6. A t on e poin t th e Narrato r equate s jealousy an d hell , th e depth s of whic h h e mus t sound , (III , 616) . Not e Proust' s us e o f th e vertical axis to indicate creativit y or the lack thereof; example s o f this are his earlier comparison of dilettantes to the first prototypes

NOTES 25

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of airplane s tha t coul d no t fly an d hi s frequent us e o f vertical ization t o indicat e creativity . Cf . Gasto n Bachelard' s descriptio n of Dant e a s "l e plu s verticalisan t de s poetes , l e poet e qu i explore le s deu x verticale s d u Paradi s e t d e l'Enfer. " Gasto n Bachelard, UAir et les Songes: Essai sur Vimagination du mouvement (Paris: Librairi e Jose Corti , 1943) , pp . 50-51 . Se e th e chapter s entitled "Deat h o f a n Aviator, " "Th e Artis t an d th e Aviator, " and "Th e Cosmo s Builder. " 7. Gautier-Vignal , Proust: Connu etinconnu, p. 243. 8. Cf . Serg e Doubrovsky, La Place de la Madeleine (Paris : Mercure d e France, 1974) , p . 94 : "L a mani e cliniqu e es t l'ultim e e t subti l refuge d e la deraison. C'es t bien pourquoi la partie de Tceuvre o u culmine T obsession logiqu e d u discour s theorisan t (la Prisonnihe et la Fugitive) es t justement cell e ou , tant e Leonie enfi n 'transmi gree' e n lui, ayan t enfin installe e n lui son 'systeme' , le narrateur, alite et reclus, atteint a 1'apogee d e son delire." 9. Cf . th e following , wher e th e Narrato r praises "L a nature d e m a grand'mere, natur e qu i etai t just e 1'oppos e d e mo n tota l egoisme . . . " (I , 852) . I n anothe r passag e h e describe s he r a s "ma grand'mere , si parfaite" (III , 109 ; emphasi s added) . 10. Charlu s wa s "tre s adonn e au x exercice s physiques , surtou t au x longues marche s . . . " (I, 748). 11. Miguet-OUagnie r quote s a passage &om Jean Santeuil where th e mother's good-nigh t kis s i s relate d i n a positive manne r t o th e funeral theme : "l e baiser de l a mere etai t pour 1'enfan t qu i allai t s'endormir 'l a douc e offrand e d e gateau x qu e le s Grec s atta chaient a u co u d e l'epous e o u d e l'am i defun t e n l e couchan t dans sa tombe, pour qu'il accomplit sans terreur le voyage souter rain, traversat rassasie les royaumes sombres.'" Mythologie, p . 205. 12. Cf . th e followin g passages : "c e defau t d e volonte qu e m a grandmere e t ma mere avaient redoute pour moi, a Combray . . . " (Ill, 343); "l a nuit peut-etre l a plus douc e e t l a plus trist e d e m a vi e ou j'avais, helas ! . . . obtenu de mes parents une premiere abdica tion d'o u je pouvai s fair e date r le decli n d e m a sant e e t d e mo n vouloir, mo n renoncemen t chaqu e jour aggrav e a une tach e dif ficile . . ." (Ill, 886-87) ; and "C'etait de cett e soiree, o u ma mere avait abdique, qu e datait, ave c la mort lente de ma grand'mere, l e declin de ma volonte, d e ma sante" (III, 1044) . 13. O n th e questionnaires , se e "Questionnaire . Su r u n albu m d'Antoinette Faure, " (V , 335) , an d "Marce l Prous t pa r lui meme," (V , 336).

260

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14. Victo r Brombert, The Romantic Prison (Princeton , N.J : Princeto n University Press, 1978) , p. 138 . 15. Correspondence, 1904 , 4 : 234. 16. Miguet-Ollagnier , Mythologie, p . 294. 17. Th e Champs-Elysee s ar e used both a s a mythical reference (field s of paradise) an d as a Paris neighborhood. Th e carriag e i n whic h the Narrato r an d hi s stricke n grandmothe r retur n hom e move s against a landscape tha t suggest s deat h an d destructio n b y fire: "Le solei l declinait ; i l enflammai t u n interminabl e mu r . . . mu r sur lequel l'ombre , projete e pa r le couchant , d u cheva l e t d e l a voiture, s e detachai t e n noi r su r le fon d rougeatre , comm e u n char funebre dan s une terr e cuite de Pompei" (II , 318). I n earlier versions o f this scene, th e grandmother' s attac k was linked to th e Narrator's erotic experiments , abou t which Kazuyoshi Yoshikawa has commented : "L e contrast e voul u pa r l'ecrivain nou s parai t evident entr e l a maladi e d e l a grand'mer e e t le s preoccupation s mondaines e t sensuelles du heros." Quoted by Miguet-Ollagnier , Mythologie, p. 113 . Fo r a thoroug h discussio n o f th e them e o f sexuality and punishment, se e her chapter entided "Mythe s d e la faute e t du chatiment , violenc e sacrificielle, " pp. 109-49 . 18. Sodome et Gomorrhe, edite d b y Emil y Eells-Ogee , 2 vols . (Paris : Garnier-Flammarion, 1987) , 2 : 322-23, n . 46 . 19. Correspondence, 1907 , 7 : 265. 20. Vladimi r Nabokov , Lectures on Literature (New York : Harcour t Brace Jovanovich , 1980) , pp . 210-11 ; pag e 13 9 contain s hi s remark about la Recherche being the greates t novel o f the century . For Serg e Doubrovsky' s commentar y o n th e book-within-th e book ide a an d hi s compariso n o f Proust t o Beckett , se e La Place de la Madeleine, p . 109 , wher e h e observe s tha t "l a naissance (d u livre), e'es t l a mort (d e son auteur)." 21. Thi s sam e passag e contain s a wonderful pendan t t o th e conclu sion o f Un amour de Swann, wher e Swan n realize s tha t h e ha s wasted hi s lif e o n Odette , wh o wa s no t hi s type . A t th e mat inee o f th e princess e d e Guermantes , Odett e tell s th e Narrato r that Swan n wa s just he r type : "Pauvr e Charles , i l etai t s i intel ligent, s i seduisant , exactemen t l e genr e d'homme s qu e j'aimais" (III , 1021) . 22. Prous t tol d Loui s d e Rober t tha t the profanation scen e wa s sug gested by a n anecdote the n curren t abou t Dr . Alber t Robi n an d his mistress , th e courtesa n Lian e d e Pougy : "L'ide e d e cett e scene m' a et e sugger e pa r differente s choses , mai s surtou t pa r

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ceci: u n homm e d e grand e valeu r e t for t conn u etai t l'aman t d'une courtisane , quoiqu'i l tu t mari e e t per e d e famille . Or , pour avoi r l e plaisi r complet , i l fallai t qu'i l dis e a cett e cour tisane 'l e peti t monstre ' e n parlan t d e so n propr e fils. Rentr e chez lui , i l etai t d'ailleur s tre s bo n pere. " Bu t i n Elisabet h d e Clermont-Tonnerre's account , i t wa s Lian e d e Poug y wh o forced th e docto r t o refe r t o hi s wif e an d so n a s "l e monstr e e t le peti t monstre. " Se e Loui s d e Robert , Comment dibuta Marcel Proust (Paris : Gallimard , 1969) , pp . 105-6 ; Elisabet h d e Cler mont-Tonnerre, Robert de Montesquiou et Marcel Proust (Paris : Flammarion, 1925) , p. 146 . Fo r Proust' s notatio n "l e peti t mon stre Gabardin e d e Robin, " se e Phili p Kolb' s editio n o f Le Carnet de 1908 (Paris : Gallimard , 1976) , p . 54 . 23. Proust' s respons e o n th e questionnaire , cite d earlier , wa s tha t what h e hate d mos t wa s whateve r evi l h e harbored : "C e que je dkteste par-dessus tout, — C e qu'i l y a de mal e n moi " (V , 337). 24. Se e Georg e D . Painter , Proust: The Later Years (Boston: Little , Brown, 1965) , pp . 268-69 . Painte r give s th e wron g mont h fo r Sachs's reminiscence , Historiette, whic h appeare d unde r th e rubri c "L'Air d u mois. " It was in th e Ma y 193 8 issue (pp . 863-64)—no t July—of L a Nouvelle Revue Frangaise. 25. Mauric e Sachs , Le Sabbat (Paris: Gallimard , 1960) , pp . 285 , 287 . Sachs's book , whic h read s lik e memoirs , bear s th e disclaimin g subtide roman. Sach s is not generall y considere d th e mos t reliabl e of witnesses. H e wa s fo r a tim e a protege o f Coctea u an d Gide , who influence d Gallimar d t o hir e Sach s i n 1933 . Sach s though t nothing o f stealin g origina l drawing s an d manuscript s fro m hi s friends, sellin g them , an d keepin g th e mone y fo r himself . Among th e book s sol d b y Sach s wer e autographe d edition s o f works b y Prous t an d Apollinaire . W h e n h e wa s caugh t a t suc h thievery, h e forge d a letter in Cocteau' s han d authorizin g hi m t o sell rar e paper s an d editions . I t wa s no t lon g befor e th e furiou s Gaston Gallimar d fired Sachs . See Pierre Assouline' s Gaston Gallimard: un demi-sikle dEdition jrangaise (Paris: Balland , 1984) , pp . 175-77. Fo r mor e o n Sachs' s escapade s an d misadventures , se e Henri Raczymow' s recen t biograph y entide d Maurice Sachs ou Les travaux fords de lafrivoliti (Paris : Gallimard, 1988) . 26. I n hi s introduction , Kol b trace s thi s them e fo r us : "[L e titre ] serait a rapproche r d e 1'episod e d e sadism e o u l e narrateu r remarque un e ressemblanc e entr e Mil e Vinteui l e t so n per e (I , 264). . . . dans La Prisonnihe, c'es t l e narrateu r qu i commenc e a

262 NOTE

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ressembler, no n pa r son visag e mai s par son langage e t se s habi tudes, a ses parents (III , 78-79) . Saint-Lou p ressembler a d e plu s en plu s a sa mer e (III , 703) . E t M . d e Charlus , entran t dan s l e salon d e Mm e Verdurin , a Tam e d'un e parent e d u sex e feminin' (II , 907) , faisan t remarque r qu e le s fils comm e lu i 'consomment dan s leu r visag e l a profanation d e leu r mere ' (II , 908)." Kolb, Le Garnet de 1908, p . 15 . 27. Se e III , 159 . Lon g before h e bega n writin g la Recherche, Prous t compared his early work t o a photograph o f himself in a letter to the Comt e d e Maugn y date d July 13 , 1899 : "Souven t o n mon tre a un ami qu i n e vous a connu qu e tard, une photographie o u Ton es t enfant . I I en es t ains i d e c e livre , Les Plaisirs et les jours, qui vous presente u n Marcel qu e vou s n'ave z pas connu" {Conespondance, 1896-1901 , 2: 291). 28. Se e III , 208-9* , wher e th e Narrato r talk s abou t th e write r i n Charlus that has been lost to th e world. 29. Se e als o III , 376 . Jacques-Henr i Lartigu e mention s a singer , Chenal, wh o wa s aske d o n auspiciou s occasion s t o sin g th e "Marseillaise," earnin g he r th e nicknam e "notr e Marseillais e nationale." Se e th e entr y unde r January 12 , 1916 , i n Lartigue' s Mimoires sans mimoire (Paris: Robert LafFont , 1975) , p . 227. I n la Recherche, Odett e i s ofte n representativ e o f precise span s o f time: "Mme Swann , n'est-c e pas , c'es t tout e une epoque? " (I, 619) . A t the en d o f th e novel , sh e i s sai d t o embod y th e World' s Fai r o f 1878 for those o f her own generatio n and the allee des Acacias o f 1892 for the Narrator (III, 950). 30. Afte r he r death , sh e appear s t o hi m in a dream as a stranger (II , 761). Followin g Albertine' s death , h e feel s guilt y o f a doubl e murder (III , 496) . Elyan e Dezon-Jone s remind s u s tha t i n th e scene following hi s telephone cal l to his grandmother from Don cieres—during whic h he r disembodied voic e reveal s t o hi m th e previously unnotice d fac t tha t sh e ha s grow n old—h e rushe s home t o find before hi m a stranger (II , 141) . Dezon-Jones com ments: "I I faut qu e la grand'mere meur e pour qu e naiss e le text e qui fer a du narrateu r u n ecrivain. " Se e he r editio n o f Le C6ti de Guermantes, 2 vols. (Paris , Garnier-Flammarion , 1987 ) 1 : 52-53. 31. Th e Narrato r ha d earlie r receive d a propheti c warnin g abou t jealousy fro m Swann , which , lik e al l suc h warnings , wen t unheeded: "l e danger de c e genr e d'amour s es t que la sujetion de la femme calm e u n momen t l a jalousie d e rhomme mai s la rend aussi plus exigeante. I I arrive a faire vivre sa maitresse comm e ce s

NOTES 26

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prisonniers qu i son t jour e t nui t eclaire s pour etr e mieu x gardes . Et cel a finit generalement par des drames" (I, 563). 32. Rathe r than ending their affair on a pedal point tha t will prolon g a moment o f calm contentment (cf . Ill , 393) , h e experience s th e endless anguis h o f th e priso n cell : 'Thorreu r d e ce s amour s qu e Tinquietude seul e a enfantee s vien t d e c e qu e nou s tournon s e t retournons sans cesse dans notre cage des propos insignifiants. . . . ce n'es t pa s notr e gou t delibere , mai s l e hasar d d'un e minut e d'angoisse (minut e indefinimen t prolonge e pa r notre faibless e d e caractere, laquelle refai t chaqu e soi r des experiences e t s'abaisse a des calmants) qu i a choisi pour nous" (III , 95) . 33. Cf . th e followin g passage : "Qu i m'eu t di t a Combray , quan d j'attendais l e bonsoi r d e m a mer e ave c tan t d e tristesse , qu e ce s anxietes gueriraient , pui s renaitraient u n jour non pour ma mere, mais pour un e jeune fille qu i n e serai t d'abord , su r Thorizon d e la mer, qu'un e fleur . . . " (Ill, 501) . Se e also III, 394 . 34. Obsession s ar e ofte n give n comi c touche s tha t serv e t o lighte n the priso n theme : Aun t Leonie' s curiosit y abou t th e world , although she refuses to leave her bed; the scene where th e Narra tor kisses Albertine th e first time; and the scenes of buffoonery i n the Verdurin salon. 35. Th e Oceanide s an d thei r air y musi c ar e mentione d twic e i n la Recherche. Bot h time s th e Narrato r i s describe d a s being boun d and unabl e t o answe r th e cal l o f th e music : "Enchain e a mo n strapontin comm e Promethe e su r so n rocher , j'ecoutai s me s Oceanides" (I , 720) . No r ca n h e tak e fligh t an d free himsel f when h e listen s t o the m besid e Albertine , wh o imprison s hi m in he r embrace : " A cot e d'Albertine , enchain e pa r se s bra s a u fond d e l a voiture , j'ecoutai s ce s Oceanides " (II , 994) . Cf . Miguet-OUagnier's comment s o n th e Oceanide s an d th e Prometheus myt h i n la Recherche: " A chaqu e foi s son t nette ment oppose s de s mythe s d e salu t e t d e degradation , d e grac e e t de pesanteur." Mythologie, p . 296 . 36. Chanta l Robin, Ulmaginaire du "Temps retrouvk": Hermitisme et icriture chez Proust, Topologi e d e l'lmaginaire 7 (Paris : Lettres Mod ernes, 1977) , p. 32. Charlus and Saint-Loup both manifest satanic qualities. Charlu s mingles th e sacre d and profane in his fidelity to his patron saint, Saint Michel, an d his infatuation with the violinist Morel. He , like the Narrator, sees the object of his obsession as an angeli c musicia n (II , 957) . I n anothe r passag e Saint-Loup , standing on the staircase, recites "un role de Satan" (III, 471).

264

NOTES

37. Celeste Albaret , Monsieur Proust (Paris: Rober t Laffont , 1973) , p. 240 .

38. Even th e detestabl e Verdurin s ar e th e donor s o f anonymous gift s (III, 325 , 327).

39. Claude Valle e link s thi s profanation t o tha t o f Vinteuil: "[Char -

40. 41.

lus] s e flatte d'avoi r demand e a u n enfan t d e choeu r so n adresse , le jour d e l'enterremen t d e s a femm e dont , ainsi , i l profan e la memoire, comm e Mil e Vinteuil l e portrait d e so n pere su r leque l crache un e d e se s amies a u cour s d'un e scen e indecente. " Se e hi s Entretiens sur Marcel Proust, edite d b y Fran£ois e Fabre-Luc e d e Gruson (Paris : Mouton, 1966) , p. 172 . See th e conclusio n o f Un amour de Swann (I , 382 ) fo r a descrip tion o f Swann's momen t o f recognition . In "Avan t l a nuit, " Prous t use s aesthetic s t o justify homosexua l behavior (IV , 169-70) . Se e III , 910 , o n th e subjectiv e natur e o f love an d homosexuality . Se e als o III , 205-6 , wher e Prous t make s the case tha t homosexual s ar e mor e sensitiv e an d therefor e mor e inclined t o be artistic . These passages provide additiona l example s of Proust' s us e o f flowers i n sexua l analogies . Th e passag e fro m "Avant la nuit" contain s a botanical reference: "Ains i les aptitude s physiques, plaisi r d e contact , gourmandise , plaisi r de s sens , re viennent s e greffe r l a o u notr e gou t d u bea u a pris racine " (IV , 170). Thi s floral metapho r i s echoe d i n th e obscen e doggere l sung b y Fran^ois e i n la Recherche: "Qu i d u cu l d'u n chie n s'amourose / I I lui parai t un e rose " (I , 123) . The exampl e o f th e jellyfish i s use d i n "Avan t l a nuit " an d i n Sodome et Gomorrhe to represent somethin g tha t mos t peopl e find repulsiv e bu t whic h can b e visuall y pleasing . Th e jellyfis h become s a flower an d i s named togethe r wit h th e orchi d t o represen t wha t Prous t describes a s the strang e beauty o f the encounte r betwee n Charlu s andjupien: "Meduse ! Orchidee ! Quan d j e n e suivai s qu e mo n instinct, l a medus e m e repugnai t a Balbec ; mai s s i je savai s la regarder, comm e Michelet , d u point d e vue d e l'histoire naturell e et d e l'esthetique , je voyai s un e delicieus e girandol e d'azur . N e sont-elles pas, avec le velours transparen t d e leurs petales, comm e les mauve s orchidee s d e l a mer? " (II , 626-27) . W e recal l tha t "faire catleya " become s Swan n an d Odette' s privat e expressio n for lovemaking . Th e initiatio n o f thei r lovemakin g i s subtl y linked t o th e Adami c fall , an d Swann , lik e th e first Adam , mus t find a nam e fo r thi s ne w pleasur e (I , 233-34) . Conside r Vallee' s comments: "L e ma l qu i revien t toujour s es t celu i qu i s'es t un e

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fois present e Swan n e t Odette , dan s cett e premier e parti e d e l a Bible de Proust, figurent Ada m e t Eve, et , pour marque r le carac tere origina l d e c e premie r amour , Prous t cre e 1'expressio n mythologique jwre catleya. Nomme r le s chose s es t u n attribu t d e la puissanc e divin e qu i jett e le s base s d'u n mond e e n mem e temps qu e le s fondement s d'un e religion , a laquell e s e rattach e dans le livr e d e Proust , comm e dan s la Bible, l'ide e d'un e faute " (Entretiens, p . 174) . I n a n earl y lette r t o a friend , Prous t urge d him t o accep t hi s ow n homosexua l advances , comparin g hi s sex ual urge s t o a flowe r tha t mus t b e plucke d befor e i t withers : "j e trouve toujour s trist e d e n e pa s cueilli r [la ] fleu r delicieuse , qu e bientot nou s n e pourron s plu s cueillir . Ca r c e serai t dej a l e fruit. . . defendu. Maintenan t c'es t vra i qu e t u la trouves empoi sonnee. . . ." (Correspondance, 1880-1895 , 1 : 102; Proust's ellipses) . In Sodome et Gomorrhe, Proust quote s a passag e fro m Racine' s Esther where th e daughter s o f Zio n ar e calle d "tende r flowers " (II, 665) . I n Wagner's Parsifal, th e her o i n searc h o f the hol y grai l "se retrouv e dan s un e prairi e a u milie u de s filles fleur s qu i son t envoyees par l e diable comm e autan t d e tentatrice s pour lu i fair e perdre s a purete." Dezon-Jones, Le C6ti d e Guermantes, 2 : 378, n . 81. I n early versions o f the novel , Charlu s bore the nam e Fleurus . 42. Fo r th e theme s o f night, hell , an d th e undergroun d labyrinth , se e Robin, Ulmaginaire du "Temps retrouvi," p. 23. 43. L a Rochefoucauld , CEuvres completes, edited b y Loui s Martin Chauffier, Bibliothequ e d e l a Pleiad e (Paris : Gallimard , 1964) , p. 412 . 44. Th e followin g i s Doubrovsky' s formulatio n o f Proustia n hell : "L'enfer proustie n tien t e n un e brev e formule : besoi n d e l'amour d e 1'autre , qu'o n es t incapabl e d'aimer , pa r quo i c e qu i remplit l e moi , c'es t cel a mem e qu i l'expulse. " La Place de la Madeleine, p. 44 . 45. Cf . Albertin e a s "une grand e deess e d u Temps " III , 387 . 46. Mauric e Bardech e acknowledge s tha t suc h scene s a s th e flagellation o f Charlu s ar e journalisti c reporting s rathe r tha n live d experiences, bu t h e attribute s t o th e Narrato r Proust' s psy chological makeu p regardin g jealousy . Se e hi s Marcel Proust: Romancier, 2 vols . (Paris : Le s Sep t Couleurs , 1971) , 2 : 303 . This attributio n seem s unnecessary , sinc e jealous lov e a s a des tructive forc e i s th e dominan t them e o f Racine' s Phidre, th e literary wor k mos t ofte n allude d t o i n la Recherche.

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47. I t is only in the Narrator's dreams that the two sexe s are reunited: "La race qu i l'habit e [Tappartemen t d u sommeil] , comm e cell e des premiers humains, es t androgyne" (II, 981). 48. I t wil l b e recalle d tha t i t wa s becaus e o f conversation s wit h Swann an d Legrandi n tha t th e youn g Narrato r wa s s o eage r t o go t o Balbe c an d se e th e architectur e o f th e churc h (I , 384-85) . Cf. als o th e followin g passage : "cett e eglis e . . . presqu e per sane [avai t orien t e] me s desir s ver s l e norman d byzantin . . . . " (Ill, 500) . Thes e page s contai n a summar y o f hi s expectation s regarding Balbec . Proust' s choic e o f th e nam e Balbe c fo r hi s Norman seasid e resor t mos t likel y ha s a Persian-Arabian source , based o n hi s readin g o f The Arabian Nights. Th e Narrator , wh o is t o becom e th e chronicle r o f Balbec , compare s himsel f t o Scheherazade, th e telle r o f tale s i n The Arabian Nights (III , 1043-44). Accordin g t o Joh n Porter Houston , th e orienta l crescent moo n usuall y appear s i n th e Pari s sky , ofte n a s a n annunciatory moti f prio r t o homosexua l encounters . Se e hi s "Theme an d Structur e i n A la recherche du temps perdu," Kentucky Romance Quarterly 17 (1970) : 220 . Suc h a moo n appear s after th e Charlus-Jupie n encounte r (II , 633) . Cf . als o th e fol lowing phrase : " . . . l e de l parisie n sou s l e sign e orienta l d u croissant" (III , 809) . Baalbec k an d Chilmina r were , accordin g to legend , tw o citie s buil t b y th e Geni i a s places t o hide . Baal , (pi. Baalim ) als o ha s a biblica l source ; i t wa s th e nam e o f th e Moabite god , a Bacchi c divinit y o f fields an d vineyard s t o whom th e Israelite s becam e attache d i n Shitti m (Num . 25:3 ) and wh o wa s associate d wit h licentiou s orgie s (Hos , 9:10) . Se e Brewer's Dictionary of Phrase & Fable, revised an d edite d b y Ivo r H. Evan s (Ne w York : Harpe r & Row , 1981) , pp . 66 , 228 . We recal l th e Narrator' s epithet s fo r Albertine : "l a bacchant e a bicyclette" an d "l a mus e orgiaqu e d u golf. " 49. I t will b e recalle d fro m th e scene s wher e th e Narrato r seduce s the slumberin g Albertin e tha t i t i s onl y whe n sh e i s aslee p tha t he ca n imagine her as an angel from paradise: "[son] haleine tiree plutot d'u n rosea u creus e qu e d'u n etr e humain , vraimen t paradisiaque pou r mo i qu i dan s ce s moments-l a sentai s Albertin e soustraite a tout , no n pa s seulemen t materiellement , mai s moralement, etai t le pu r chan t de s Anges (III , 113-14) . Se e als o the passage a t III, 384, where th e impression that he possesses i n her an angel musician is short-lived. Cf . Albertin e a t the pianola. 50. Doubrovsky , La Place de la Madeleine, p . 42.

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51. Cf . th e Dantesque wate r lily, discusse d earlier , tha t was intende d as a warning: "l e tourment . . . qui se repet e . . . pendant l'eter nite . . ." (I, 169) . 52. Cf . Mil e Vinteuil a s the artist of evil. 53. Cf . th e Narrator' s awareness , afte r hi s visit s t o se e Gilbert e an d Mme Swann , tha t hi s conversation s wit h the m continu e t o ru n through hi s mind , deprivin g hi m o f his ow n thought s an d causing hi m t o liv e "un e vi e d e salo n mentale " (I , 579) . Cf . th e fol lowing: "j e n'avai s plu s besoi n d e vivr e a l a surfac e d e moi meme . . . " (Ill, 70) . 54. Elsti r plays a n essentia l rol e a s mentor an d initiator fo r th e her o by showin g hi m what t o loo k fo r in ancien t architecture , exem plified b y Balbec' s church , an d i n moder n paintings . Miguet Ollagnier points ou t tha t h e als o serve s as a creator o f myths: "a propos de s motif s d e l'eglis e d e Balbec , i l insist e a plusieur s reprises su r la faute du touche r sacrileg e e t sur la punition (autr e version du voyeurisme, pech e qu i reparai t de volume e n volum e tout a u long de la Recherche), cependan t qu e l'eloge d e la Vierge, revocation d e 'tou s les cercles du cier (I , 831), es t le pendant triomphant de s cercle s d'enfe r qu' a traverses Swann , qu e traverser a Marcel dans les livres suivants. . . . " Mythologie, pp . 294-95. 55. Cf . her behavior at the deaths of her favorite pianist, Dechambr e (II, 896) , an d the princesse Sherbatof f (III , 238-39) . 56. Cf . th e passage at I, 190 , where Dr. an d Mme Cottar d announc e their intentio n t o spen d th e Easte r holiday s i n Auvergne . O n another occasion, Mme Verduri n does everythin g possible t o talk Charlus into letting her group accompany him on hi s pilgrimage to Mont Saint-Miche l (I , 957). 57. Th e followin g passage s provide example s wher e th e wome n th e Narrator pursue s hav e facia l blemishes : Orian e (I , 175 ; II , 61) ; his mother, wh o ha s a blemish unde r her ey e (I , 185) ; Albertin e (I, 874) ; Swann notice s tha t his "Zephora " has imperfect ski n (I, 225); Rache l ha s pimples an d a pockmarked fac e (II , 174-75) . Robin connect s facia l blemishe s t o th e experienc e o f hel l ("le s visages ronges"). Se e Ulmaginaire du "Temps retrouve" p. 70. 58. Cf . thi s reaction t o th e guil t later felt by the Narrato r in relatio n to his grandmother's death and that of Albertine, wh o become s a mother figure. 59. Thi s mistaking o f the profane fo r the divine is a variation on th e Odette/Botticelli error . 60. I n a letter to th e comtess e d e Maugny, Prous t describe d th e trai n

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he use d t o tak e whil e vacationin g i n Savoy : " A Thonon , lon g arret, o n serrai t l a mai n d'u n te l qu i etai t ven u accompagne r se s invites. . . une form e d e vie mondaine comm e un e autr e qu e ce t arret a Thonon. " Thi s lette r i s quote d i n th e Garnier-Flamma rion editio n o f Sodome et Gomorrhe, 1 : 317, n . 1 . 61. Cf . Bernar d Guyon' s remark : "L a vanit e es t pour lu i [Proust ] l e peche morte l par excellenc e . . . " Entretiens, p. 189 . 62. Ther e ar e momentar y exception s t o thi s state , a s we shal l se e i n the nex t chapter . Whe n sh e plays th e pianola , whic h allow s hi m to discove r th e hidde n secret s o f th e musica l selections , sh e becomes a muse , "Sainte-Cecile, " o r a n "ang e musicien ,, wit h divine rathe r tha n inferna l associations .

6. Death of an Aviator 1. Th e literar y them e o f CEdipu s an d patricid e wa s als o bein g exploited b y Sigmun d Freu d i n Vienn a durin g thi s period ; Proust wa s unawar e o f thi s coincidence . Se e Jean-Yves Tadie , Proust (Paris : Pierre Belfond , 1983) , p. 258. 2. Rober t Prous t wa s amon g th e first t o ow n a n automobile . According t o Rober t Soupault , "Robert , fer u d e sport , riche ment marie , achet a un e automobil e de s 1903 . Su r un e phot o a Illiers, aux cote s de l'oncle Jules, il est coiffe d'un e larg e casquett e a visiere , coiffur e a la mod e de s automobilistes , encor e tre s pe u nombreux." Se e hi s boo k Marcel Proust du cdti de la midecine (Paris: Plon, 1967) , p. 77. 3. Jacque s Bizet was apparently on e o f the founder s o f the compan y that buil t Uni c automobiles . Se e Henr i Bonnet , Marcel Proust de 1907 h 1914 (Paris : Nizet, 1971) , p. 47, n. 29 ; see als o th e lette r to Madame Strau s dated by Philip Kol b Octobe r 8 , 1907 , in Correspondance, 7 : 286, 290 , n . 10 . According t o Celest e Albaret , th e automobile-rental compan y was create d by th e Rothschilds , wh o were relate d t o Emil e Straus , an d wa s manage d b y Straus' s step son, Jacques Bizet . Se e he r Monsieur Proust (Paris : Rober t Laf font, 1973) , pp . 131-32 . Jacque s Bize t committe d suicid e i n 1922, shord y before Proust' s death . 4. Prous t als o me t th e drive r Jossien, whos e nam e ma y hav e con tributed t o tha t o f Jupien. 5. Th e earlies t detaile d accoun t o f Agostinelli' s relationshi p t o Proust's nove l is the on e Rober t Vignero n wrot e i n 1937 ; see hi s "Genese d e Swann, " Revue d'Histoire de la Philosophie et d'Histoire

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Ginirale de la Civilisation 5 (1937) : 67-115 . A mor e recen t account i s given in Henr i Bonnet' s book Les Amours et la sexualiti de Marcel Proust (Paris : Nizet , 1985) . Se e als o Correspondance, 1913-14, vols. 1 2 and 13 . 6. Correspondance, 1907 , 4 : 259. 7. Ibid. , pp . 62 , 160 , an d 263. 8. Se e Le Garnet de 1908, edite d b y Phili p Kol b (Paris : Gallimard) , 1976; idem ; "Historiqu e d u premie r roma n d e Proust, " Saggi e ricerche di letteraturafiancese 4 (1963) : 217-77 . 9. Correspondance, 1907 , 7 : 264-65 . I n thi s excerp t fro m a letter t o Georges d e Lauris , quote d i n th e chapte r entide d "Th e Prison " as a source for th e emotio n fel t b y th e Narrato r i n th e "Intermit tences d u coeur " episode , Prous t expresse s hi s regre t tha t hi s mother die d thinkin g h e woul d remai n a n invali d an d a failure : "Encore vo s succe s votr e mer e pouvait-ell e le s prevoir . L a mienne es t morte e n croyan t qu e je n e m e releverai s jamais." 10. Ibid. , p . 296. 11. Fo r a n accoun t o f on e suc h visit , se e Elisabet h d e Clermont Tonnerre, Robert de Montesquiou et Marcel Proust (Paris: Flammar ion, 1925) , pp. 101-2 . Se e als o Kolb , Le Garnet de 1908, p . 138 , n. 39 . 12. Correspondance, 1907 , 7 : 248-50 . Afte r Mal e replie d t o hi s letter , Proust wrot e agai n t o than k hi m an d aske d i f h e coul d sugges t "une vieill e vill e provinciale, balzacienne , intacte . . . " (p . 256). 13. Ibid. , pp . 263, 295. 14. Ther e i s a passage i n "Impression s d e rout e e n automobile " tha t Proust woul d subsequend y interpre t a s an ome n o f Agostinelli' s accidental deat h seve n years late r i n a n airplan e crash : "puiss e l e volant d e directio n d u jeune mecanicie n qu i m e condui t reste r toujours l e symbol e d e so n talen t pluto t qu e d'etr e l a prefigura tion d e son supplied " (V , 67). 15. Th e articl e wa s late r use d b y Prous t a s th e first chapte r o f Milanges, whic h h e entitle d "E n memoir e de s eglise s assassinee s I. Le s eglise s sauvees . Le s clocher s d e Caen . L a cathedral e d e Lisieux" (V , 63-69). Th e automobil e excursion s wit h Agostinell i were als o used i n la Recherche, wher e the y became thos e th e Nar rator make s with Albertin e i n Sodome et Gomorrhe (II , 995ff.) . 16. A slightl y differen t versio n o f thi s sectio n first appeare d a s "Albertine a u pianola : source s biographique s (L a Synesthesi e dans l'univers proustien), " Bulletin de la Sociiti des Amis de Marcel Proust et de Combray 36 (1986) : 517-24 .

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17. Prous t ha d talke d about purchasing a piano a s early as 1906 . Se e Correspondence, 1906 , 6 : 291, 294, n . 3 . 18. Correspondence, 1914 , 13 : 31-32. 19. Jacques-Henr i Lartigue , writin g i n 1914 , describe d th e enjoy ment hi s family derived from the pianola and the music rolls then available: "S i o n es t abonn e a u 'pianola' , o n peu t change r d e rouleaux autan t d e fois qu'o n l e desire . Je vien s d e recevoi r l e nouveau paquet , ave c le s morceau x qu e j'avai s choisi s su r l a liste: SchShirazade, d e Rimski-Korsakov , les Petites suites de De bussy. . . . J e viens d e les essayer , e'es t merveilleux . . . . " See hi s Mimoires sans mimoire (Paris : Robert Laffont , 1975) , p. 167 . 20. Apollinair e use d a simila r synestheti c techniqu e i n "L e Roi lune," where a specially adapte d piano reproduce s th e sound s o f different countries . Se e hi s CEuvres en prose, edite d b y Marce l Adema an d Miche l Decaudin , 2 vols. , Bibliothequ e d e l a Plei ade (Paris : Gallimard , 1977) , 1 : 303-19. 21. Prous t fel l int o th e sam e predicamen t becaus e o f hi s extrem e generosity toward Agostinelli. Th e write r did not have any beautiful object s in his bedroom o r on th e walls; worse, h e neve r go t around t o havin g th e famou s cor k wit h whic h h e ha d lined hi s room papere d o r covered . Loui s Gautier-Vignal , wh o visite d Proust ofte n afte r Agostinelli's death , say s that Proust' s room was "hideous." See hi s Proust connu et inconnu (Paris : Robert Laffont , 1976), pp. 157-58 . 22. W e recal l the restaurant scene from Jean Santeuil, wher e Bertran d de Reveillon' s legs embod y a past that the young hero Jean longs to possess. 23. Fran£ois e Lerich e doe s no t believ e th e Narrato r here . Se e he r article "L a seul e femme , e'es t l a femm e peinte, " Bulletin de la Sociiti des Amis de Marcel Proust et de Combray 36 (1986) : 487 504. I thin k tha t whil e th e Narrato r ma y continu e t o loo k a t Albertine a s one contemplate s a portrait—for it s "plastic " quali ties—he doe s reject Albertine a s a substitute for art. Otherwis e h e would have remained a failed artist like Swann. The ke y momen t in th e Narrator' s ques t wil l com e whe n h e learn s t o conver t th e fragments of his various experiences—aesthetic , intellectual , an d emotional—into art . Fo r the descriptio n o f thi s process, se e th e chapter entitled "Th e Cosmo s Builder." 24. Se e th e lette r written t o Rober t d e Montesquio u i n Correspondance, 1880-1895 , 1 : 296, n . 2 . 25. Correspondance, 1907 , 7 : xx . Th e androgynou s identificatio n o f

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Agostinelli first wit h a nun—becaus e o f hi s feminine-lookin g motoring coa t an d hoo d (se e illustratio n o n p . 55)—an d the n with Sain t Cecili a mark s a ke y transitio n poin t betwee n Agostinelli an d Albertine . Rober t Vigneron , fo r hi s part, finds the compariso n o f Agostinelli t o a nun an d then to Sain t Cecili a to b e "sacrilege s metaphores. " Se e hi s "Genes e d e Swann, " p . 103. I t seems that , o n th e contrary , th e images used by Proust i n his description o f car and cathedral constitute a renewal as well as a conservation o f traditional Christia n imagery. Image s o f wheels, crosses, an d supernatura l ligh t lin k th e ca r an d th e cathedral , since bot h ar e ship s i n time . Agostinelli-Albertin e a t th e car pianola work th e lever s that make th e voyage possible—a voyag e that, in Proust's article, end s with a nativity scene. 26. Mallarm e paid homage t o Sain t Cecilia in a poem entide d Sainte. She i s a cosmi c creatur e whos e music , lik e tha t o f th e spheres , may see m t o b e silent : "Musicienn e d u silence. " Se e hi s Poisies (Paris: Gallimard, 1945) , p. 73. 27. Meditatin g o n th e beaut y o f VinteuiTs septet , Prous t compare s the compose r t o Michelangel o paintin g th e Sistin e Chapel : "i l peignait sa grande fresque musicale, comm e Michel-Ange attach e a so n echell e e t lan$ant, l a tet e e n bas , d e tumultueu x coup s d e brosse au plafond d e la chapelle Sixtine " (III, 254). 28. I n Proust's symphon y o f street noises , musica l sound s ar e due i n part t o th e passag e o f cars : "L e ronflemen t d'u n violo n etai t d u parfois a u passage d'un e automobil e . . . " (Ill, 137) . I n th e nex t chapter, a s we shal l see , Prous t compare s Wagner' s musi c t o a n airplane. 29. Eve n th e wor d "chambre " i n thi s passag e anticipate s hi s rela tionship wit h Albertine-Sain t Cecilia , fo r i t i s bot h a bedroo m and a n organist' s chamber . 30. Give n his interest in resurrecting the past, Prous t had been struck by H . G . Wells' s notio n o f a time machine . I n "Sentiment s filiaux d'un parricide," he compare s the eye s of a person remember ing t o "machine s a explorer l e Temps , de s telescope s d e l'invi sible, qu i deviennen t a plu s longu e porte e a mesur e qu'o n vieillit" (V , 152) . I n a letter t o Mm e Straus , h e refer s t o a car as "une voitur e magiqu e ave c laquelle le s fees vou s fon t explore r le passe." Correspondence, 1912 , 11 : 222. I n another transpositio n o f art from literature t o architecture , readin g Racine i s depicted a s a trip through "un e ville ancienne. " Se e Proust' s "Journee s d e lec ture" (V, 192-93) .

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31. Th e term , foun d her e i n connectio n wit h genealog y an d archi tecture, i s often use d with planetary an d geologica l imagery . Thi s technique, whic h Prous t develope d mor e full y tha n an y othe r writer, wil l b e discusse d i n th e chapte r entitle d "Th e Cosmo s Builder." 32. Se e th e photograp h i n Monsieur Proust, opposite pag e 385 . Cf . the followin g description : "l a femm e . . . etai t laid e . . . e t peu agreable " (p . 232) . 33. Correspondance, 1914 , 13 : 239. Th e Narrato r ha s a simila r diffi culty comprehendin g Saint-Loup' s infatuatio n wit h Rachel . Th e actress-cum-prostitute i s no t attractiv e whe n see n u p close , hav ing a face tha t i s pockmarked (II , 175-77) . 34. Correspondance, 1913 , 12 : 109 , 214-15. 35. Ibid. , pp . 255 , 251 . See als o Georg e D . Painter , Proust: The Later Years (Boston : Little , Brown, 1965) , p. 192 . 36. Se e Vigneron, "Genes e d e Swann, " p. 106 . 37. Painte r relate s Agostinellf s passio n fo r spee d t o a "disguise d lov e of death." Se e Proust: The Later Years, p . 211. 38. Ibid. , pp. 209-10 . 39. Correspondance, 1914 , 13 : 228-29. 40. Prous t quote s himsel f t o thi s effec t i n a lette r t o Emil e Strau s dated June 3 , 1914 ; see Correspondance, 1914 , 13 : 228. 41. Albaret , Monsieur Proust, pp . 232-33. Lartigue observe d an d pho tographed th e flyers a t Bu c i n th e fal l o f 1913 , th e sam e perio d that Agostinell i wa s takin g flying lessons . Unde r th e entr y fo r October 8 , h e write s abou t th e exploit s o f on e o f th e daredevi l pilots: " A Buc, pour voi r Pegoud! le fameux! don t tou t l e mond e parle depui s quelque s jours. I I parait qu'i l fai t de s acrobatie s fan tastiques, de s virage s encor e plu s penche s qu e ceu x d e Garros ! des descentes a pics! Meme . . . il se retourn e e t avanc e ave c so n aeroplane a l'envers, su r le dos! £a y est ! Il . . . part, i l monte, fai t de chic s virages. . . ." See Mimoires, p. 157 . 42. Correspondance, 1914 , 13 : 220. 43. Celest e believe s tha t Ann a wa s largely responsibl e fo r th e sudde n departure o f th e Agostinellis . Accordin g t o her , Ann a di d no t like livin g i n Pari s an d wa s eage r t o retur n t o th e Riviera . Se e Albaret, Monsieur Proust, p . 233 . The dat e o f their departur e wa s determined b y Phili p Kolb ; see Correspondance, 1913 , 12 : 15. 44. Se e Correspondance, 1913 , 12 : 355-66 . Ther e ar e echoe s o f thi s episode throughou t La Prisonnihe and La Fugitive. See III , 436ff. , where Saint-Lou p i s sen t t o sp y o n Albertin e a s h e trie s t o wi n

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her retur n throug h negotiation s wit h he r aun t Mm e Bontemps . In La Prisonnibe, ther e i s probabl y a direc t transpositio n o f Proust's suspicions concernin g AgostineUi' s infidelities t o hi s wife . Albertine, wh o ha d bee n take n t o Auteui l b y a chauffeur , doe s not dar e g o ou t fo r fea r o f being see n (III , 334-35) . Se e als o III , 216-17, wher e th e insanel y jealous Charlu s ha s Morel taile d b y a private detectiv e agency . 45. Th e ide a tha t Agostinell i drowne d becaus e "h e ha d neve r learne d to swim " apparentl y originate d wit h Painter , wh o doe s no t cit e a sourc e fo r thi s information . Se e Proust: The Later Years, p . 213. Vigneron claim s tha t th e young aviato r wa s know n t o b e a goo d swimmer. Se e "Genes e d e Swann, " p . 101 . In fact , non e o f th e earlier account s stat e tha t Agostinell i coul d no t swim ; thi s asser tion tha t Agostinell i coul d no t swi m is repeated by J. E. River s i n Proust and the Art of Love (New York : Columbi a Universit y Press , 1980), p. 89 . 46. Fo r pres s account s o f Agostinelli's death , se e Vigneron , "Genes e de Swann, " p. 101 ; see also Correspondance, 1914 , 13 : 242, n . 3 . 47. Th e Narrato r learn s o f Albertine' s deat h i n a telegra m sen t b y Mme Bontemp s (III , 476) ; Kol b points ou t th e similarit y in Correspondance, 1914, 13 : 230 , n . 4 . Muc h late r i n th e novel , h e receives a wire tha t h e a t first believe s t o b e fro m Albertine . Hi s reaction t o thi s unexpected communicatio n wit h th e dea d make s him realiz e tha t h e ha s outlive d hi s lov e fo r Albertin e (III , 641 ff.). Georges Cattau i cite s Celest e Albare t a s having tol d hi m that no t lon g afte r Agostinelli' s death , Prous t receive d a n anony mous lette r from th e young man . Se e Cattaui' s articl e "Albertin e retrouvee: Alfre d Agostinell i a-t-i l inspir e La Prisonnibe'?" Adam International Review 26 0 (1957) : 83 . I f thi s i s true , Celest e doe s not mentio n i t in he r memoirs . 48. Albertin e own s mysteriou s ring s tha t bea r sprea d eagle s an d th e initial A , which , whe n inverted , closel y resemble s th e V symbo l for velocity . Se e III , 63 , 463. 49. Correspondance, 1914 , 13 : 238. 50. I n a letter t o Rober t d e Montesquio u writte n shortl y afte r Jun e 6, Prous t confided : "J'a i renonc e a corrige r le s epreuve s d e mo n second volum e qu i s e trouv e ains i ajourne , ca r je sui s incapabl e de m e relire . Je n'a i qu e l a forc e d e rendr e a la pauvr e veuv e l e courage qu i m e manque. " Ibid. , p . 241. 51. Ibid. , p . 239. 52. Ibid. , p . 354.

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53. Se e th e letter to Lionel Hauser. Ibid. , pp. 213, 214, n . 2 . 54. Ibid. , pp. 217-21. Proust's emphasis. 55. Ibid. , p . 13 . Cf . als o Tadie : "Le s autre s lettres d'Albertin e peu vent egalemen t etr e comm e u n monumen t e n l'honneu r d'Agostinelli." Proust, p. 282 . Tadi e remark s tha t Painte r ha d guessed correctl y abou t Proust' s us e o f Agostinelli's letters . Se e Painter, Proust: The Later Years, p . 212. 56. Se e Tadie, Proust, p . 280, n . 3 . 57. Correspondance, 1914 , 13 : 220-21 an d 223, n . 25 . 58. Se e Bonnet, Proust, p. 19 . The arriva l at Glisolles with Agostinell i is mentione d i n th e noteboo k fo r 1908 : "Hector , Agostinell i a Glisolles." Kolb, Carnet de 1908, p . 52 . O f course , w e hav e n o way o f knowin g ho w Prous t intende d t o develo p th e episode . Ultimately, a s we hav e seen , h e transpose d element s o f the tri p with Agostinelli t o th e pianola passage. 59. Se e Bonnet, Proust, p . 195 . 60. Fo r the fall tex t o f th e letter , se e Correspondance, 1914 , 13 : 217 21. I n hi s introduction , Kol b quote s th e Narrator' s lette r t o Albertine an d uses it t o she d light o n th e letter that Proust mus t have writte n t o Agostinell i alon g simila r lines ; se e pp . x v an d 222, n . 15 . Th e correspondin g passages in la Recherche are at III, 455-56. 61. Ibid. , p. 221, n. 8 . 62. Ibid. , p. xvi. 63. A s usual, Proust quote s from memory. Fo r the text o f Mallarme's sonnet, se e Poisies, pp. 123-24 . 64. Correspondance, 1913 , 12 : 357. 65. Albaret , Monsieur Proust, pp. 231, 233. According to Proust, it was his idea that Agostinelli become his secretary. The young man had lost hi s job an d had asked Proust t o hir e hi m as a chauffeur, bu t since thi s would b e unfai r t o Odilon , wh o alread y ha d th e job, Proust suggested that Agostinelli become his secretary: "Je lui avais sans confianc e propos e d e m e fair e l a dactylographi e d e mo n livre." Correspondance, 1914,13 : 228. 66. Correspondance, 1914 , 13 : 271ff. 67. Ibid. , p. 229 . 68. Ibid. , pp. 228, 229 , n . 3. 69. Ibid. , 1907 , 7 : 315 . Kol b point s ou t tha t Agostinelli' s lette r may hav e bee n th e basi s fo r a simila r congratulator y not e that th e Narrato r receive s i n La Fugitive: "C'etai t un e ecrit ure populaire , u n langag e charmant " (III , 591) .

NOTES 27

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70. Correspondance, 1914 , 13 : 245; see als o Bonnet, Proust, p . 200. 71. Se e Gautier-Vignal , Proust connu et inconnu, pp . 246-47 . 72. Bonnet , Amours, pp . 79-85. 73. Bonne t later told me that he purchased the notebook from a collector. 74. L e Cuziat' s mal e brothe l wa s th e mode l fo r Jupien' s i n th e novel (III , 815ff.) . 75. Correspondance, 1914 , 13 : 228. 76. Gautier-Vignal , Proust connu et inconnu, p . 243. 77. Cf . th e followin g passage : "i l m e semblai t qu e pa r m a tendress e uniquement egois t ej'avais laisse mouri r Albertine comm e j'avais assassine ma grand'mere" (III, 501). 78. Correspondance, 1914 , 13 : 345, 360 . 79. Se e Vigneron, "Genes e d e Swann," pp. 112-13 . 80. Gautier-Vignal , Proust connu et inconnu, p . 246. 81. Correspondance, 1915 , 14 : 135-36 . 82. Ibid. , pp 76, 130 . 83. Se e Bonnet, Amours, pp. 45-55. 84. Correspondance, 1915 , 14 : 281. 85. Ibid. , pp. 284-85 . 86. Correspondance, 1914 , 13 : 311-14 ; fo r th e complet e tex t o f th e letter, se e Correspondance, 1915 , 14 : 357-60. 87. Se e Correspondance, 1914 , 13 : 351, and 352, n . 6 . 88. Se e Correspondance, 1914 , 13 : p. xxiii, an d la Recherche, III , 559f . Maurice Bardech e believe s tha t La Fugitive was composed i n th e fall of 1914, before Prous t wrote A Vombre desjeunesfilles enjleurs, which precedes La Fugitive by several volumes in la Recherche. Se e his Marcel Proust: Romancier, 2 vols. (Paris: les Sept Couleurs, 1971 ) 2: 72-75. The letters to Scheikevitch and Hahn support this view. 89. Correspondance, 1915 , 14 : 285. 90. Quote d b y Jean Milly in his edition of La Prisonmate (Paris : Garnier-Flammarion, 1984) , p. 530 , n . 20 . Thi s text shows the Nar rator's premonition o f Albertine's deat h an d his anticipate d con solation. Se e I , 355 fo r the passage where Swan n imagines tha t i f Odette wer e dea d he would free himself from his fascinatio n fo r her. Thi s passage wa s in th e first set o f proofs o f D M cdtS de chez Swann and thus predated Proust's infatuation with Agostinelli . 91. Ravers , Proust and the Art of Love, p. 96. 92. Ibid. , p . 82 . River s mention s onl y on e critic , Jame s Rober t Hewitt, and one biographer, Celeste Albaret, among the offenders . 93. Ibid. , p. 106 .

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94. Correspondance, 1919 , 18 : 536. 95. Kolb , "Historiqu e d u premie r roman, " p. 247 . 96. Bonnet , Amours, p . 47ff . Tadi e make s th e sam e point : "L e per sonnage d e Maria , Tun e de s jeunes filles, esquiss e dan s le Cahie r 12 en 1909 , devient l'objet d e l'amour d u Narrateu r (Cahie r 29) , et Prous t annonc e la scen e d u baise r dan s l a chambr e d'hotel . Maria deviendr a Albertine : c'es t dir e qu'i l y avai t un e plac e pou r ce rol e avan t l a rencontr e d'Agostinelli. " Proust, pp. 269-70 . Se e also th e recen t editio n o f A la recherche du temps perdu, edited b y Jean-Yves Tadie , 4 vols . Bibliotheque d e l a Pleiad e (Paris : Galli mard, 1987-89 ) 1 : 1074 , 1084 . 97. Bardeche , Proust: Romancier, 2: 232 . A s Bonne t point s out , Painter's keys for Albertine ar e useless because Painte r merel y lists arbitrarily a s keys for he r characte r an y gir l who wa s no t consid ered a ke y for Gilbert e an d suc h youn g me n a s Albert Nahmia s and Henr i Rochat . Se e Bonnet , Proust, p . 196 . Se e Painter , Proust: The Later Years, p . 208. 98. Andr e Gide , Journal, 1889-1939, 2 vols. , Bibliothequ e d e l a Pleiade (Paris : Gallimard , 1951) , 1 : 694 . Thi s statemen t als o indicates Proust' s broa d toleranc e for a variet y o f sexua l expres sion. Se e m y articl e "Proust' s View s o n Sexuality, " Adam International Review 413-1 5 (1979) : 56-62 . 99. Quote d b y Francoi s Mauria c i n Du cdti de chez Proust (Paris : Table Ronde , 1947) , pp. 21-22 . 100. Dougla s W . Alden , Marcel Proust's Grasset Proofs, Nort h Carolin a Studies i n th e Romanc e Language s an d Literature s 19 3 (Chape l Hill: University o f North Carolin a Press , 1978) , pp. 39, 41. 101. Se e Milly , La Prisonnihe, pp. 12-13 . Ther e ar e othe r trace s of " Albertine" episode s i n Le Carnet de 1908. Se e Kolb' s generou s notes. 102. Milly , La Prisonnihe, p. 10 . 103. Painter , Proust: The Later Years, p. 239. 104. Correspondance, 1904 , 4 : 420-21 . D'Annunzio' s emphasis . 105. Th e metaphorica l valu e o f th e airplan e wil l b e discusse d i n th e next chapter , "Th e Artis t an d th e Aviator. " 106. Painter , Proust: The Later Years, p . 239. 107. Rivers , Proust and the Art of Love, p. 90 . 108. Al l quotation s fro m Plantevignes' s memoir s ar e take n from Avec Marcel Proust (Paris: Nizet, 1966) , pp. 350-53. 109. Se e Margaret Mein' s article, "Le s Ailes, le vol e t 1'aviation dans la Recherche e t dan s le s Cahiers d e Proust, " i n Etudes proustiennes IV:

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Marcel Proust et la critique anglo-saxonne, Cahier s Marcel Proust , 1 1 (Paris: Gallimard , 1982) , pp. 161-85 . This articl e was later incor porated i n chapter s o f he r boo k Proust et la chose envoUe (Paris: Nizet, 1986) . 110. Cf . Bonnet : "dan s l a premiere versio n . . . [le s jeunes filles] son t presentees comm e de s cavalieres. . . . " Proust, p. 197 . 111. Th e passag e fro m Plantevignes' s memoir s i s referre d t o b y Bon net (Proust, p . 199 , n . 41) , bu t onl y i n relatio n t o Bonnet' s attempts t o determin e th e dat e o f Albertine's first appearanc e i n Proust's notebooks . 112. Mill y als o sees Albertine's deat h a s contingent bu t inevitable . Se e his editio n o f La Prisonnihe, p. 13 . 113. I n hi s reference t o th e tex t o f the novel , Plantevigne s i s mistake n about th e conclusio n o f th e passag e i n la Recherche; the aviato r does no t lan d bu t instea d flie s of f into th e limitles s sky , the real m of freedom . 114. Se e Mein, "Le s Ailes, le vol, e t Taxation," pp . 166 , 169 . 115. Pa r Bergman , "Modernolatria" et "Simultaneity": Recherches sur deux tendances dans Vavant-garde litthaire en Italie et en France h la veille de la premihe guerre mondiale, Studia Litteraru m Upsaliensia , 2 (Bonniers : Svensk a Bokforlaget, 1965) , p. 138 . 116. Lartigue , Mhnoires, p. 78. Lartigue's emphasi s and punctuation . 117. Rivers , Proust and the Art of Love, p. 90 . 118. Se e Phili p Kol b an d Larki n B . Price , editors , Textes retrouvis (Urbana: Universit y o f Illinois Press , 1968) , pp. 206-8. 119. Ibid. , p . 196 , n . 2 . 120. Correspondance, 1909 , 9 : 229 , 230 , n . 4 . Se e als o Correspondance, 1912, 11 : 173, n. 2 . 121. Cf . th e followin g passag e fo r th e anticipatio n o f a voice-print : "Quand j e causai s ave c un e d e me s amies , je m'apercevai s qu e le tablea u original , uniqu e d e so n individualit y m'etai t ingenieusement dessine , tyranniquemen t impose , auss i bie n pa r les inflexion s d e s a voi x qu e pa r celle s d e so n visag e e t qu e c'etait deu x spectacle s qu i traduisaient , chacu n dan s so n plan , la mem e realit e singuliere " (I , 908) . Cf . als o th e following : "s a voix etai t comm e cell e qu e realisera , dit-on , l e photo-tele phone d e Tavenir : dan s l e so n s e decoupai t nettemen t l'imag e visuelle" (I , 930) . Se e als o Eugen e Nicole , "Le s Invention s modernes dan s La Recherche du temps perdu," Bulletin de la Sociiti des Amis de Marcel Proust et de Combray 36 (1986) : 529 .

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122. Painte r consider s th e pseudony m Marce l Swan n t o b e "absur d and pathetic." See Proust: The Later Years, p . 212. 123. Thi s passage is quoted in Milly's edition o£La Prisonnihe, p. 41.

7. The Artist and the Aviator 1. Th e first airplane s resemble d automobile s an d th e pilot s wer e sometimes referre d t o a s "drivers. " Th e plane s ha d t o "taxi " across a field t o gai n enoug h spee d t o ris e vertically . Jacques Henri Lartigu e offer s excellen t description s o f th e first "cars " that became airborne . I n his Mhnoires sans mbnoire (Paris : Robert Laffont, 1975) , h e write s tha t C Taeroplane roul e tou t seu l . . . comme un e drol e d'automobil e deguise e e n cabane " (pp. 70-71 ; also p. 94) . In a poe m entitle d " A mo n Pegase, " writte n i n 1905 , th e Futurist artis t Filipp o Marinett i penne d hi s ow n panegyric t o a n automobile tha t roar s across th e countrysid e befor e takin g flight . This wa s on e o f Marinetti' s mos t popula r poems , an d h e wa s often aske d t o recit e it . Th e lin e tha t describe s th e momen t o f lift-off reads : "Hurrah ! Plu s d e contac t ave c l a terr e immonde! " Quoted b y Pa r Bergman , "Modernolatria" et "Simultaneity": Recherches sur deux tendances dans Vavant-garde littiraire en Italie et en France & la veille de la premiere guerre mondiale, Studia Litter arum Upsaliensia , 2 (Bonniers : Svensk a Bokforlaget , 1965) , p. 44 . 2. Thi s lesso n wil l b e repeate d i n th e Narrator' s experience s wit h Elstir an d Albertine. A t on e point , th e protagonis t explain s tha t Albertine was more important t o his becoming a n artist than was Elstir (III , 167 , 907) . I n th e final pages o f th e novel , wher e th e Narrator finally understand s th e positiv e valu e o f hi s sufferin g and its connectio n t o Albertine , an d is read y t o us e thi s knowl edge in creatin g his great work, h e is able to mak e a similar con version. I n the passage o n Bergotte, th e Narrato r describes thes e individuals a s "ceux qu i on t e u l e pouvoir , cessan t brusquemen t de vivre pour eux-memes , d e rendre leur personnalite pareil a un miroir . . ." (I , 555). 3. I t will be recalle d that the sam e image o f an artist as projector o f light i s foun d o n a smaller scal e i n anothe r analog y tha t Prous t frequently employed : th e artis t a s magi c lantern . Speakin g o f Elstir, th e Narrato r note s tha t hi s painting s ar e "comm e le s images lumineuses d'une lantern e magiqu e laquell e eu t ete , dan s

NOTES 27

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le ca s present, l a tete de l'artiste" (II , 419). VinteuiTs music was a "mode su r lequel i l 'entendait ' e t projetait hor s d e lu i l'univers " (III, 375). 4. Th e imag e o f artist as airplane was also used by Proust in an article, publishe d posthumously, t o describ e th e musi c o f Reynald o Hahn. Th e musica l tex t wa s likened t o th e runwa y tha t allowe d the compose r t o gathe r spee d i n orde r t o achiev e a better an d higher flight : "C'es t a u contac t mem e d u texte , qu'i l pren d l a force d e s'eleve r plu s hau t qu e lui , comm e ce s aviateur s qu i courent su r l a terr e avan t d e s e servi r d e leur s ailes , mai s pou r mieux s'envole r e t plus haut " ("Reynald o Hahn" ; V, 556) . I n la Recherche, th e image is split and expanded. 5. Fo r a discussion o f the meanin g o f angels in Proust' s writing, se e Marie Miguet-Ollagnier' s articl e "Le s difierents Emploi s d u mo t 'Ange' dan s la Recherche du Temps perdu]' Bulletin de la Sociiti des Amis de Marcel Proust et de Combray 21 (1971) : 1167-77 , an d he r book La Mythologie de Marcel Proust (Paris: Le s Belles-Lettres , 1982), pp. 283-86. Se e als o Margaret Mein's article "Le s Ailes, l e vol e t Taviatio n dan s la Recherche e t dan s les Cahiers de Proust, " Etudes proustiennes IV: Marcel Proust et la critique anglo-saxonne, Cahiers Marce l Prous t 11 (Paris : Gallimard , 1982) , pp . 161-85 . Mein's stud y i s concerne d i n particula r wit h classica l allusion s related to flying. 6. Th e spectacl e o f the lethal air raids also fascinated Jacques-Henri Lartigue an d Paul Valery . Lartigu e wrot e i n 1918 : "Encor e un e chose a ne pas dire: j'aime les bombardements." Mhnoires, p . 284. Valery's reactio n wa s muc h th e same : "A n ai r raid sounded an d Valery 'jumpe d u p an d rushe d t o th e windo w an d hun g ou t t o see th e planes come ove r Paris, dropping bombs. . . . ' The famil y seemed accustome d t o thi s behavior: Francoi s [hi s younger son ] said, 'Pap a adore s thes e raids. ' Quote d b y Noe l Rile y Fitc h i n Sylvia Beach and the Lost Generation (Ne w York : Norton , 1983) , p. 403 . Cf . la Recherche: "j e lui parlai d e l a beaute de s avions qu i montaient dan s la nuit" (III , 758). 7. Stephe n Kern , The Culture of Time and Space, 1880-1918 (Cam bridge, Mass : Harvard University Press, 1983) , p . 242. 8. Pau l Souriau , UEsthithique du mouvement (Paris: Feli x Alcan , 1889), pp. 21, 22, 24 . 9. Cf . Proust' s admission: "Tou t c e qu e je fai s n'es t pas du vra i tra vail, mai s seulemen t d e l a documentation , d e l a traductio n etc. " Correspondance, 1902-1903 , 3 : 196 .

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10. I n a text fro m th e secon d noteboo k tha t was not use d in th e final version, Prous t ha d mad e th e associatio n betwee n th e churc h o f Saint-Hilaire an d th e airplan e eve n mor e explicit . I n th e earlie r version, a n airplan e i s spotte d i n th e sk y nea r th e steepl e an d i s said t o b e "u n insect e qu i trepidai t la-haut. " Quote d b y Henr i Bonnet i n Marcel Proust de 1907 a 1914 (Paris : Nizet , 1971) , p . 199, n . 41. 11. Marcel Proust: Textes retrouvis, edite d b y Philip Kol b and Larki n B. Price (Urbana : Universit y o f Illinois Press, 1968) , p. 28. 12. Aliso n Winton , Proust's Additions: The Making of "A la recherche du temps perdu" 2 vols . (Cambridge : Cambridg e Universit y Press, 1977) , I , p . 334 . 13. Wagner' s musi c i s frequentl y linke d t o mechanic s i n la Recherche. On e o f thes e connection s wa s first mad e i n "Impres sions d e rout e e n automobile, " wher e th e ca r hor n remind s Proust o f a scen e i n Tristan und Isolde (V, 69) . Thi s sam e musi c is use d i n th e nove l i n connectio n wit h anothe r mechanica l device, th e telephone : "j'entendi s tou t a coup , mecaniqu e e t sublime, comm e dan s Tristan l'echarpe agite e o u l e chalumea u du patre , l e brui t d e toupi e d u telephone " (II , 731) . Th e wa r with German y furthe r heightene d th e correspondenc e betwee n Wagner's musi c an d airplanes . Se e III , 758-59 , 777 , wher e th e German bomber s ar e portraye d a s Wagner' s Walkyrie . I n another passag e o n th e fighter plane s (III , 735 ) Prous t under scores th e huma n qualit y o f th e wartim e pilot s an d dissociate s them fro m th e aviato r h e sa w a t Versaille s o n hi s las t outin g with Albertine . 14. I n " A propo s d e Baudelaire, " Prous t mad e th e sam e complain t about Hugo : "l a fabricatio n . . . es t visible . . . . i l n' y a null e impression d e mystere " (V , 621) . Her e "mystere " i s use d i n it s ordinary sense , wherea s i n th e nove l Proust' s analog y o f th e French fighter plan e name d Mysthe take s o n ironi c overtone s because th e Narrato r a t tha t momen t doubt s th e existenc e o f such mystery , believin g instea d tha t th e illusio n o f myster y i s created b y th e impressiv e bu t nonetheles s blatantl y mechanica l vehicle. Prio r t o this , al l imager y involvin g airplane s ha d bee n associated wit h freedo m an d creativ e ability . Th e Narrato r seem s to b e o n th e verg e o f adoptin g a for m o f mysticis m b y longin g for wha t Prous t elsewher e calle d "l a rapidit e d u vo l san s l a materialite de s ailes. " Se e Textes retrouvis, p. 255 . Thi s remar k brings t o min d a lin e o f Baudelaire' s from "L e Voyage " tha t

NOTES 28

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Proust quote d i n th e articl e "Chose s d'Orient " (V , 350) : "Nou s voulons voyage r san s vapeur e t san s voile." 15. Th e Futurists , fo r thei r part , though t tha t th e noise s mad e b y modern invention s shoul d be a n integral part o f th e ne w music . See Bergman, "Modernolatria" p. 131 . 16. Cf . th e followin g passage : "c'es t tre s mysterieux , 1'amour , repri t la duchess e . . . avec Tintransigeant e convictio n d'un e wagneri enne qui affirm e a un homm e d e cercl e qu'i l n' y a pas qu e du bruit dans la Walkyrie" (II , 227). 17. I n a n earlie r text , Prous t use d a similar analog y t o sho w tha t i n life thing s tha t ar e dreamed o f ofte n d o com e true , bu t i n way s unforeseen. Th e live d experienc e the n become s a n unexpecte d blend of dream and reality, "ressemblan t a mes reves et cependan t puissamment charpente e d e realite, comm e le s aeroplanes dans le ciel." Quote d b y Henr i Bonne t i n Matinie chez la Princesse de Guermantes (Paris : Gallimard, 1982) , p. 404. Suc h a combinatio n of drea m an d realit y ma y serv e a s an accurat e definitio n o f th e Proustian novel . A s J. M . Cockin g ha s pointed out , "Proust , fo r all his aesthetic o f the separation of art and life, neve r takes us out of the rea l world, bu t transform s i t in al l its solid reality. " See hi s chapter entide d "Prous t an d Painting, " in Proust: Collected Essays on the Writer and His Art (Cambridge : Cambridg e Universit y Press, 1982) , p. 161 . 18. Correspondance, 1910-11 , 10 : 337 ; Proust' s emphasis . Thi s sam e remark i s repeate d i n a letter t o Mauric e Barre s o n Octobe r 1 , 1911, op . cit. , p . 353 . B y th e tim e Prous t wrot e La Prisonnihe, the aviato r ha d become th e dominan t symbo l fo r th e artis t an d the aircraf t spotte d a t Balbec represente d th e opposit e o f "lour deur," of a heavy earthbound object . Se e II , 1029 . 19. Th e trai n and other modes o f transportation are often th e impe tus fo r reflection s o n th e Narrator' s past an d moments o f transi tion in his life. We recal l his first departure for Balbec an d Albertine's revelation tha t sh e wa s a n intimate friend o f Mile Vinteui l and he r friend. Th e climacti c scen e o f th e nove l i s literally "se t in motion" by his experience o n th e train transporting him back to Pari s an d th e ca r tha t become s airborn e o n it s wa y t o th e princesse d e Guermantes's reception. 20. Tree s an d flowers ofte n appea r a s mysteriou s sign s tha t becko n to th e Narrato r i n th e cours e o f hi s quest , urgin g hi m t o begi n work, bu t h e i s unabl e t o follo w thei r admonitions: "i l me sem blait recevoi r d'eu x [de s arbre s pres d e Balbec ] l e consei l d e m e

282

21.

33.

NOTES

mettre enfi n a u travail , pendan t qu e n'avai t pa s encor e sonn e Theure d u repo s eternel " (II , 1013) . Whil e listenin g t o Vin teuil's septet , h e agai n feel s th e desir e t o writ e an d thereb y giv e purpose t o hi s life . A t Roussainvill e th e Narrato r expresse s hi s frustrated creative an d sexua l desire s whe n h e strike s tree s wit h his umbrell a (I , 158) . Whe n th e tree s a t Hudimesni l ar e con nected wit h th e first hearin g o f th e Vinteui l septet , i t i s clea r that they , too , ha d bee n urgin g hi m t o becom e a n artist , pro viding "le s amorce s pou r l a constructio n d'un e vi e veritable : l'impression eprouve e devan t le s clocher s d e Martinville , devan t une range e d'arbre s pre s d e Balbec " (III , 261) . Thus , hi s failur e to respon d t o thi s last group o f trees is particularly demoralizin g for him . Th e example s h e cite s ar e thos e o f vertical , kineti c appeals to hi s will, talent , an d ambition . Bibliotheque Nationale , Prous t manuscrip t 1674 2 NAF , p . 121 . Proust ha d revise d approximatel y one-thir d o f La Prisonnihe at the tim e o f his death . Se e Jean-Yves Tadie , Proust (Paris: Pierr e Belfond, 1983) , p . 315 . From th e first analogy , earl y i n th e novel , o f Bergott e a s th e artist-aviator t o th e Narrator' s ultimat e "take-off " i n hi s air borne taxi , Prous t use s flight o r othe r form s o f elevatio n t o symbolize th e superiorit y o f th e artist' s vision. Th e followin g i s a summar y o f vertica l imager y foun d i n th e concludin g sectio n of la Recherche: aviator s wh o hav e th e desir e t o fly o r wh o tak e off; dream s a s gian t airplane s t o explor e th e past ; aviator-artist s who fly from sta r t o star ; ol d peopl e perche d o n stilt s a s tal l a s their years; numerous planetar y images ; trees ; steeples ; angel s i n flight; geologica l an d archaeologica l strata ; th e sensatio n o f supraterrestrial joy; resurrections ; diver s wh o explor e unknow n depths; artesian wells; past impressions store d in seale d vases an d stacked verticall y a s hig h a s a person' s lifespan ; altimeter s t o measure elevation ; telescope s an d othe r device s symbolizin g ele vated o r cosmi c vision ; people compare d t o sta r formations; th e future boo k a s a Gothi c cathedral , a n edific e whos e extraordi nary verticalit y i s on e o f it s definin g elements . A s wa s note d elsewhere, th e artis t a s aviato r o r flying machin e i s a n analog y frequently employe d b y Prous t i n hi s writing s t o represen t th e creative power s o f painters , writers , musicians , an d scientist s h e admired; example s cite d includ e August e Renoir , Richar d ^ftfogner, Proust' s ow n fictional compose r Vinteuil , Jean-Jacques Antoine Ampere , an d Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier .

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23. Joh n F . McCauley e t al , "Subsurfac e Valley s an d Geoarcheolog y of th e Easter n Sahar a Reveale d b y Shuttl e Radar, " Science 21 8 Pecember 1982) : 1004 . 24. Thi s imagery is discussed in the concludin g chapter . 25. Roge r Shattuck , Proust's Binoculars (Ne w York : Random House , 1963). Se e chapte r 3 in particular. 26. Elstir' s art is remarkable because, amon g othe r things, it brings t o light certai n law s o f perspective : 'Tar t etai t l e premie r a le s devoiler" (I , 838) . Swan n ha s his mos t luci d momen t whe n h e meditates o n th e musi c o f Vinteuil an d sees tha t creativ e people , artists, an d scientist s ar e seekin g t o discove r th e law s o f the uni verse. Unfortunately, h e canno t sustai n the vision. Se e I , 351. 27. Cf . th e followin g passage : "S i j'avais compri s jadis qu e c e n'es t pas l e plu s spirituel , l e plu s instruit , l e mieu x relationn e de s hommes, mai s celu i qu i sai t devenir miroi r e t peut reflete r ains i sa vie, fut-ell e mediocre , qu i devient u n Bergotte . . . " (Ill, 722) . In another passage Bergotte's works ar e described a s "ces miroir s de l a verite" (I , 96) . Prous t himsel f compared Monet' s canvase s to magi c mirror s tha t hav e a "verticalizing" an d creativ e power : "Nous somme s la , penche s su r l e miroi r magique , nou s e n eloignant, essayan t d e chasse r tout e autr e pensee , tachan t d e comprendre l e sen s d e chaqu e couleur , chacun e appelan t dan s notre memoir e de s impression s passee s qu i s'associen t e n auss i aerienne e t multicolor e architectur e qu e le s couleur s su r la toil e et edifien t dan s notre imagination un paysage . . . " ("L e Peintre. Ombres — Monet" ; V, 675). 28. I n a letter tha t Proust' s mothe r wrot e t o hi m i n 1896 , sh e say s that sh e doe s no t car e fo r thos e wh o ar e spirituall y desiccated : "Moi qui n'aim e pa s le s sees . . . . " Correspondence, 1896-1901 , 2: 141 . Th e connectio n betwee n th e los t paradis e o f Combray , trees, an d th e them e o f spiritua l aridit y i s state d b y Prous t i n a note abou t th e Narrator' s final disillusionmen t befor e th e reve lation scene : "Avan t l a serviett e a u momen t de s arbre s qu i n e disent rien : Comm e malgr e l a promess e fait e jadi s au x aubepines m a vi e s'etai t desseche e depui s Combray. " Se e Bon net, Matinie, p . 288 . I t i s th e rea l presence o f th e grandmother , brought o n afte r he r deat h b y a n involuntary-memor y experi ence, tha t save s him , i f onl y temporarily , fro m aridit y o f th e soul: "L'etr e qui venai t a mo n secours , qu i m e sauvai t d e l a secheresse d e l'am e . . . " (II , 755) . Thi s scene , from a sectio n called "Le s Intermittence s d u coeur, " prefigure s (a s doe s th e

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madeleine passage ) th e ultimat e series o f "moment s bien heureux" whe n h e wil l becom e a n artis t an d thu s permanentl y escape spiritua l aridity . 29. Correspondance, 1914 , 13 : 169-70 . Thi s remar k i s repeate d i n a letter Proust wrote t o Madame Straus : "ne donnant que de s fragments j'ai prefere oppose r de s marine s au x paysages terrien s d e Combray . . ."p. 231. 30. Quote d i n Cocking, Proust: Collected Essays, p . 147 . 31. Ibid. , p . 147 . Roge r Kemp f link s Elstir' s visio n wit h tha t o f the aviator : "Terre , mer, cie l s e grignotent , s'epousen t o u s'echangent. E t comm e l e cie l s e tradui t par la mer , l'auteu r d u 'port d e Carquethuit 1, Elstir , apparai t a son insu comm e l e pein tre de l'aeronautiqu e naissante . . . . " Se e Kempf , "Su r quelque s vehicules," L'Arc 47 (1971) : 56. 32. I t i s significan t tha t ther e ar e n o eroti c association s connecte d with th e airplane, whereas numerous connection s ar e made wit h the bicycle , train , an d car . B y achievin g elevation , th e airplan e rises above such mundane pursuits as social triumphs and physical possessions. I t attains an almost godlike status; Proust maintains its symbolic purit y a s such throughou t th e novel . I n an interestin g article o n moder n invention s i n la Recherche, Eugen e Nicol e points ou t tha t th e airplan e i s the onl y inventio n tha t Proust di d not eventuall y banalize . Thi s i s s o precisely becaus e th e airplan e symbolizes th e artist . Se e "Le s Invention s moderne s dan s La Recherche du temps perdu," Bulletin de la SociSti des Amis de Marcel Proust et de Combray 3 6 (1986) : 531, 541 . I n the concludin g lin e of hi s articl e o n vehicle s i n Proust' s works , Roge r Kemp f als o realizes that the airplane is in a distinct categor y but not why thi s is so : "Ver s la fin d e la Recherche, l'avio n seu l conserv e tou t so n pouvoir." Se e "Su r quelque s vehicules, " pp . 47-57 . I n Proust' s hierarchy, it is the creativ e person alone who attain s demigod status, a condition whos e primar y attribute s ar e the abilit y t o tran scend and create.

#. The Cosmos Builder 1. I n a n essa y writte n t o mar k th e centennia l o f Proust' s birth , novelist Joh n Updik e single d ou t th e paradoxica l natur e o f Proust's her o an d th e cosmi c thrus t o f th e Proustia n quest : "In Proust' s cosmos , Marce l . . . i s bot h th e mos t supin e o f witnesses an d th e mighties t o f Creators. " Se e "Remembranc e

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of Thing s Past, 1' Horizon, 14 , no . 4 (1972) : 103 . 2. Chanta l Robin ha s shown tha t such celestia l nourishment i s con nected t o th e them e o f deat h an d resurrectio n i n a wa y tha t recalls th e fertilit y myths . Se e Ulmaginaire du "Temps retrouvk": HermStisme et kriture chez Proust, Topologi e d e l'lmaginair e 7 (Paris: Lettres Modernes, 1977) , p. 73. 3. A t approximatel y th e midpoin t o f th e novel , Proust' s narrato r reminds th e reade r o f his goal , realizin g tha t wha t stil l lies ahea d are "bie n de s annee s inutile s pa r lesquelle s j'allais encor e passe r avant qu e s e declara t l a vocatio n invisibl e don t ce t ouvrag e es t l'histoire" (II , 397). 4. Sorro w bolster s will by forcing u s to renounc e vai n pursuits: "Le s annees heureuse s son t le s annee s perdues , o n atten d un e souf france pou r travailler " (III , 909) . Cf . th e followin g passage : "l e bonheur seu l es t salutaire pour l e corps , mai s c'es t l e chagri n qu i developpe le s forces d e 1'esprit" (III, 905-6) . 5. Ther e ar e i n la Recherche z numbe r o f allusion s an d direc t refer ences t o Ulysses ' quest . Wallac e Fowli e point s t o on e tha t i s related t o Proust' s us e o f ardeur: "[Ulysses' ] narrativ e begin s wit h his leaving Circ e wh o ha d detaine d hi m a year nea r Gaeta . Afte r this sensua l experience , Ulysse s know s tha t h e want s mor e tha n that, an d h e voice s a kin d o f confession . . . . Th e litera l wor d 'ambitionu' i s no t i n Ulysses ' narrative , bu t ther e i s a stronge r word an d on e quit e clos e t o it s meaning : th e wor d ardore. Th e ardor h e fel t wa s tha t o f gainin g experienc e i n th e worl d an d o f human vic e an d worth. " Se e "Epiphanie s i n Prous t an d Dante, " in The Art of the Proustian Novel Reconsidered, edite d b y Lawrenc e D. Joiner, Winthro p Studie s o n Majo r Moder n Writer s 1 (Roc k Hill, S.C. : Winthrop College , 1979) , p. 7 . 6. I n a n earl y not e fo r Le Temps retrouvi, Proust wrote : "L a sensibi lite fourni t l a matier e o u 1'intelligenc e port e l a lumiere . Ell e es t le combustibl e [mettr e cel a q . q . part]. " Se e Matinie chez la Princesse de Guermantes, edited b y Henr i Bonne t i n collaboratio n with Bernar d Bru n (Paris : Gallimard , 1982) , p . 300 . I n th e final version, i t is pain tha t function s a s the combustibl e substance . 7. Robi n see s Charlu s a s th e primar y initiato r o f th e conversio n from hea t t o ligh t an d gives almos t n o weigh t t o th e Narrator' s experience wit h Albertine . Se e Robin , Ulmaginaire du "Temps retrouvi/' pp . 33-34 , 82 . I t is , however , thi s las t experienc e tha t determines th e hero' s ultimat e abilit y t o becom e a creativ e per son. H e passivel y witnesse d Charlus' s experience , wherea s h e

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actively lived th e on e wit h Albertine . Sh e is the rea l crucibl e fo r the Narrator's conversion. 8. Th e Narrato r ha s a dream in whic h h e see s th e tw o wome n fo r whose death s h e feel s a perhap s unwarrante d sens e o f guilt , Albertine an d his grandmother: "J e causais ave c ell e [Albertine] , pendant qu e je parlais ma grand'mere allai t et venait dans le fon d de l a chambre . Un e partie d e so n mento n etai t tombe e e n miettes comm e u n marbr e ronge , mai s je n e trouvai s a cela rie n d'extraordinaire" (III , 539) . Th e guil t he feel s ha s its roots in th e general failur e o f love; whil e th e tw o wome n wer e aliv e h e di d not kno w ho w t o cheris h the m enough . Th e lov e h e fel t fo r Albertine, like tha t of Gilberte before, disappear s into th e genera l law o f oblivio n (III , 644) . Hi s boo k wil l restor e i n a mor e durable for m what ha s been destroyed by time. 9. Cf . th e followin g passage , wher e Bergotte' s min d ha s becom e the substanc e o f hi s work : "I I etai t amaigr i comm e s'i l avai t ete oper e [d e se s livres] " (II , 328) . Prous t refer s i n hi s letter s to hi s ow n considerabl e weigh t los s durin g th e writin g o f hi s novel. Se e Correspondance, 1913 , 12 : 255 , an d 1915 , 14 : 83 . 10. Cf . th e following descriptio n o f the mature Narrator as the opti cian o f Combray : "E n realite , chaqu e lecteu r est , quan d i l lit , l e propre lecteur de soi-meme . L'ouvrag e d e l'ecrivain n'es t qu'un e espece d'instrument optiqu e qu'i l oflre a u lecteur arm de lui permettre d e discerner ce que , sans ce livre, il n'eut peut-etre pas vu en soi-meme " (III , 911) . Prous t avoid s didacticis m b y advisin g the reader to discar d the "optics " of the book i f he finds the lens distorting (III , 1033) . 11. Edmun d Wilson , Axel's Castle (Ne w York : Scribner's , 1931) , p. 163 . 12. Cf . th e author of Bergotte's books: "l'Esprit eternel " (I , 557) . 13. Joh n Updike call s this discovery " a kind of Godless Golde n Rul e and the germinatin g principle o f art. . . . " See "Remembrance, " p. 105 . 14. W e recal l tha t Proust represent s socia l "lights " as being vai n an d sterile. Cf . th e following : "Qu e tou t cel a fass e u n astr e dan s l a nuit!" (Ill , 718) . Th e comparison s o f figures o f Parisia n hig h society t o planets ar e too numerou s t o list. Suc h comparison s are ingrained i n th e Frenc h language , sinc e th e wor d mos t com monly use d t o describ e society— le monde —is the on e whos e lit eral meaning i s "world. " Suc h usag e doe s no t necessaril y desig nate th e planet Eart h but an y celestial sphere. Th e Frenc h use o f

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le monde (o r le beau monde) fo r high societ y an d le demi-monde (o r le bas monde) fo r low societ y allow s us to envisag e thes e division s as separate cosmi c entities . I f life a s it i s lived o n a daily basis i n society an d in love i s a dystopia, the n what is its opposite ? Wha t is th e Proustia n Utopia ? I t i s clea r tha t th e latte r contain s tw o major elements : th e rediscover y o f th e pas t throug h involuntar y memory an d th e wil l t o creat e a vision o f life throug h th e dis covery o f great laws in the domain s o f art and science. 15. Se e Le Carnet de 1908, edite d b y Phili p Kol b (Paris : Gallimard , 1971), p. 81. 16. W e recal l tha t whe n th e Narrato r first enter s Elstir' s studio , h e describes it as the laboratory for a new creatio n of the world. Cf . the followin g statements : "autan t qu'i l y a d'artistes originaux , autant nou s avon s de s monde s a notr e disposition " (III , 896) . "Par Tart seulement nou s pouvon s sorti r de nous , savoi r c e qu e voit u n autr e d e ce t univer s qu i n'es t pa s le mem e qu e l e notre , et don t le s paysages nou s seraien t reste s auss i inconnu s qu e ceu x qu'il peut y avoi r dans la lune" (III , 895) . I n a letter t o Antoin e Bibesco Prous t wrote : "L e plaisir qu e nou s donn e u n artist e es t de nou s fair e connaitr e u n univer s d e plus. " See Lettres de Marcel Proust a Bibesco, wit h a preface b y Thierr y Maulnie r (Lausanne : Editions de Clairefontaine , 1949) , p. 177 . 17. Jean-Pierr e Richar d suggest s tha t Prous t himsel f migh t b e th e little artist : "Prous t lui-meme , portrai t d e 1'artist e dan s u n coi n de so n tableau , imag e d e Tecrivai n e n trai n d e commence r so n livre. . . . " See Proust et le monde sensible (Paris : Editions d u Seuil , 1974), p. 236, n . 2 . 18. Cf . th e following : "Depui s qu e TOlympe n'exist e plus , se s habitants vivent sur la terre" (III, 167) . 19. Cf . th e followin g passage : "les vrais livres doivent etr e les enfant s non d u gran d jour e t d e l a causeri e mai s d e Tobscurit e e t d u silence" (III , 898). I n a note containe d in material to be use d fo r Le Temps retrouve, Prous t liken s himsel f t o Nehemia h an d say s that his refusal to descen d from his perch should be th e mott o o f every writer : "No n possu m descender e magnu m opu s facio. " The creativ e person shoul d n o mor e b e reproache d fo r remain ing i n a n ivor y towe r tha n bee s fo r stayin g i n thei r hive . Se e Bonnet, Matinee, p . 309. Cf . als o the passage, quoted earlier, fro m Contre Sainte-Beuue: "u n livre es t l e produi t d'u n autr e mo i qu e celui qu e nou s manifeston s dan s no s habitudes , dan s l a societe , dans nos vices" (V, 221-22).

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20. Accordin g t o Proust , "[Le ] roma n di t d'analys e . . . n e doi t etre nullemen t u n roma n d e l'intelligenc e pure . . . . I I s'agi t d e tirer hor s d e l'inconscient , pou r l a fair e entre r dan s l e domain e de l'intelligence , mai s e n tachan t d e lu i garde r s a vie , d e [n e pas] l a mutiler , d e lu i fair e subi r l e moin s d e deperditio n pos sible, un e realit e qu e l a seul e lumier e d e 1'intelligenc e sufErai t a detruire . . . . " Se e "Reponse s a un e enquet e de s annales " (V , 640-41). Th e subconsciou s wa s a ne w concep t i n Proust' s day ; the wor d "inconscient " onl y mad e it s entr y i n Littre' s Dictionnaire i n 1877 . 21. Prous t als o wrote th e followin g i n th e sam e essay : "C e qu i sem ble exterieur , c'es t e n nou s qu e nou s le decouvrons. Cosa mentale, dit pa r Leonar d d e Vinc i d e l a peinture, peu t s'applique r a tout e ceuvred'art" (V , 640). 22. Cf . Bonnet , Matinie, pp . 173-74 . Cf . als o th e following : "Le s etres le s plu s bete s . . . manifesten t de s loi s qu'il s n e per^oiven t pas . . ." (Ill, 901) . 23. I n a lette r t o Jacque s Rivier e date d Septembe r 1919 , Prous t wrote: "Vou s dirai-j e qu e je n e croi s meme pa s rintelligence premiere en nous . . . . je pos e avan t ell e l'inconscient qu'ell e es t des tinee a clarifier—mai s qu i fai t l a realite , l'originalit e d'un e oeuvre." Marcel Proust et Jacques Rivifre, Correspondance (19141922), edite d b y Phili p Kol b (Paris : Librairi e Plon , 1955) , pp . 51-52. Proust' s emphasis . 24. I n a n essa y written whil e h e was working o n Jean Santeuil, Proust states: " A chaqu e homm e [l a nature ] donn e d'exprime r claire ment, pendan t so n passag e su r la terre , le s mystere s le s plus pro fonds d e la vie e t de l a mort." Se e "Contr e robscurite " (V , 394). Cf. th e followin g statemen t b y th e Narrato r o f hi s belie f tha t each person possesses th e capacit y t o write : "j e m'apercevai s qu e ce livre essentiel , le seu l livre vrai, u n gran d ecrivai n n' a pas, dan s le sen s courant , a l'inventer , puisqu'i l exist e dej a e n chacu n d e nous, mai s a le traduire . L e devoi r e t l a tach e d'u n ecrivai n son t ceux d'u n traducteur " (III , 890) . 25. Loui s Gautier-Vignal , Proust connu et inconnu (Paris: Rober t Laf font, 1976) , p. 50. 26. Correspondance, 1917 , 16 : 133 . I n not e 5 Kol b cite s th e passag e from Montaigne' s essa y "De la solitude": "I I s e fau t reserve r un e arriere boutiqu e tout e nostre , tout e tranche , e n laquell e nou s establissons nostr e vraye liberte e t principale retraict e e t solitude. " Proust's bedroom-workroom , line d wit h unadorne d cork , i s hi s

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version o f Montaigne's famou s tower , o n whos e beam s th e essay ist inscribe d th e classica l quote s tha t inspire d him . Montaigne' s work bear s man y parallel s wit h Proust's , a s a numbe r o f com mentators hav e remarked . Wha t i s especiall y strikin g abou t th e two writer s i s th e dynamis m o f thei r texts . Cf . Montaigne' s remark, "j e n e sui s pas, je deviens " with Proust' s statemen t i n Le Temps retrouvk that "l'ide e d e mo n oeuvr e etai t dan s m a tete , tou jours l a meme , e n perpetue l devenir " (III , 1041) . Fo r Gid e o n Montaigne an d Proust , se e Marcel Proust/Andre Gide —Autour de "La Recherche"—Lettres, wit h a preface b y Pierre Assoulin e (Paris : Editions Complexe , 1988) , p. 110 . (Thi s i s a ne w editio n o f th e Proust-Gide letter s first published i n 194 9 by Ide s e t Calendes. ) 27. Th e essenc e o f seas, thei r salinity , an d starligh t bot h evok e Venu s in th e perso n o f th e girl-goddes s Albertine . Racine' s Phhdre always cast s a shadow ove r Proust's writings abou t passion . 28. Earl y i n hi s ques t th e Narrato r wa s awar e o f th e riche s tha t la y within him , bu t h e wa s unabl e t o exploi t them : "c'es t surtou t comme a des gisements profonds d e mon so l mental, comm e au x terrains resistant s su r lesquel s j e m'appui e encore , qu e j e doi s penser a u cot e d e Meseglise e t a u cot e de Guermantes " (I , 184) . 29. I n on e passage , memorie s ar e compare d t o bubble s o f ga s tha t rise throug h th e differen t strat a of the Narrator' s past while keep ing "leu r vert u specifiqu e a traver s le s couche s superposee s d e milieux different s qu'il s on t a franchir avan t d'atteindr e jusqu'a l a surface" (I , 662) . Saint-Loup' s physica l qualitie s ar e s o attractiv e that h e i s compare d t o a vei n o f precious ston e surrounde d b y baser material (I , 729). The undergroun d "galleries " o f sleep lea d us t o ou r past , whic h mus t b e excavated : "l e jardi n o u nou s avons et e enfant . I I n'y a pas besoi n d e voyage r pou r l e revoir , i l faut descendr e pou r l e retrouver . C e qu i a couver t l a terr e n'es t plus su r elle , mais dessous ; 1'excursion ne suffi t pa s pour visite r la ville morte , le s fouille s son t necessaire s . . . " (II , 91-92) . Jealousy provokes geologica l disturbance s o f th e min d (II , 1078) . Suffer ing cause d b y difference s betwee n lover s i s situate d a t a dee p layer o f our hear t (III , 88) . A desire d woma n wh o make s u s jealous create s a univers e "tou t e n profondeur s qu e s a jalousi e voudrait sonne r . . ." (Ill , 616) . 30. Se e Proust's essa y "A propos d e Baudelaire" (V , 618). 31. Th e passag e quote d i s from "E n memoir e de s eglise s assassinees " (V, 71-72). Se e als o "Contr e l'obscurite " (V , 394). I n a n earlie r passage, all poets are viewed a s one: "Tous les poetes me semblen t

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ne fair e qu'u n seu l Poet e don t le s nom s different s s'appliquen t seulement Gerard de Nerval a ses minutes vagabondes, Baudelaire a ses reminiscences. . . . " Quoted by Bonnet, Matinie, pp. 184-85 . In a note t o himsel f about death , Prous t reiterate s his belief that the individual is an ephemeral manifestation of eternal laws. Bonnet, Matinie, p. 352; see also pp. 366, 401. 32. I n a letter t o Antoin e Bibesco , Prous t wrote : "Cett e substanc e invisible d u temps , j'ai tach e d e l'isoler . Mai s pour cel a i l fallai t que Texperience put durer." Lettres h Bibesco, p . 175 . 33. Quote d by Bonnet, Matinie, p. 299. 34. Ibid. , p. 398. 35. Correspondance, 1907, 7 : 139 . Se e als o not e 23 , wher e Kol b points ou t tha t th e lette r announces th e maske d ball scen e i n Le Temps retrouvi (III , 945) . 36. Correspondence, 1902-1903 , 3: 196. 37. Se e Ramo n Fernandez , Proust, on la ginialogie du roman moderne (Paris: Grasset , 1979) , p . 133 . Se e als o pp . 232-33 , wher e Fer nandez speaks of Proust's multiplication o f metaphors an d corre spondences whe n describin g a fountain , flowers, o r th e sea . Whereas a novelist migh t wel l be conten t wit h a single aspec t t o convey a rich impression , Proust' s goa l i s t o captur e a n impres sion in its totality. 38. Se e Brian G . Rogers , Proust's Narrative Techniques (Geneva : Droz, 1965). 39. Fo r a n earlie r versio n o f thi s tex t o n Proust' s concep t o f meta phor a s the ke y elemen t o f his art , se e Bonnet , Matinie, p . 176 . 40. Watchin g a play is also a complex operation . When th e Narrato r sees Berma as Phedre, h e does not a t first comprehend th e great ness o f he r abilit y becaus e o f th e layerin g effect : th e actres s ha s superposed a masterpiece o f actin g o n Racine' s play . Onc e h e understands this , h e i s able to se e tw o superio r works simultane ously: Phidre and Berma's interpretation o f it (II , 51-52). 41. Rober t Prous t wa s sensitiv e t o thi s aspec t o f hi s brother' s nove l and describe d th e earl y influenc e o f th e philosoph y professo r Alphonse Darlu , wh o taugh t bot h Prous t boy s a t th e Lyce e Condorcet: "Dan s le s cour s consacre s a la critiqu e d e l a realit e du mond e exterieu r e t a s a subordinatio n a notre pense e crea trice, Darl u avai t un e form e personnell e e t intuitive , un e maniere d'expos e presqu e poetiqu e qu i plaisai t infinimen t a Marcel. . . . Mai s i l devai t lui-mem e ulterieuremen t penetre r bien plu s profondemen t dan s cett e analyse . C'es t ains i que , no n

NOTES 29

1

du poin t d e vu e physiqu e qu e necessit e l a theori e d e l a relati vite, mai s d u poin t d e vu e d e l'introspection , i l es t arriv e a s e faire un e notio n tre s personnell e d'u n veritabl e continuum de temps e t d'espace. " Se e Rober t Proust' s reminiscenc e entide d "Marcel Prous t Intime, ,, i n "Hommag e a Marcel Proust : 1871 1922," La Nouvelle Revue Frangaise, n.s. , 112 , vol . 2 0 (Januar y 1923): 25 . 42. Se e III , 979-80 , fo r the entir e passage. 43. Se e also I, 619. 44. "Prous t i s . . . th e greates t moder n creato r o f characters . . . . " Updike o n "Remembrance, " p . 104 . 45. Th e conception s w e for m o f eac h othe r ar e necessarily limite d and subjective: "notr e personnalite social e es t une creatio n d e l a pensee de s autres" (I , 19) . Thi s passage contain s anothe r impor tant statemen t abou t th e subjectiv e natur e o f vision : "Mem e l'acte s i simpl e qu e nou s appelon s Voi r un e personn e qu e nou s connaissons' es t e n partie u n act e intellectuel . Nou s remplisson s l'apparence physiqu e d e l'etr e qu e nou s voyon s d e toute s le s notions qu e nous avons sur lui. . . ." 46. I n a single volum e o f shor t quote s Justin O'Brie n ha s collecte d many o f Proust' s thought s o n th e huma n experience . Se e Justin O'Brien's Maxims of Marcel Proust (New York : Columbi a Uni versity Press , 1948) . A simila r volum e ha s recentl y appeare d i n France; se e Bernar d d e Fallois' s Marcel Proust: Maximes et Pensies dans "A la recherche du temps perdu" (Paris : Clu b Franc e d e Loisirs, 1989) . 47. Edmun d Wilso n see s Proust' s metho d o f characterizatio n a s on e of hi s majo r accomplishments : "thoug h [hi s characters ] appea r to u s in a succession o f different aspects , a s they ar e see n a t dif ferent time s an d differen t place s b y differen t observers , thei r behavior, thei r personalities , hav e a compellin g logic . Proust' s method o f presentin g them , however , s o a s t o sho w onl y on e aspect a t a tim e i s on e o f hi s grea t technica l discoveries . . . . " Axel's Castle, p. 147 . 48. Se e "Journee s de lecture," especially V, 178. 49. Cf . th e followin g passage , wher e Proust' s narrato r speak s o f al l the threads of his past coming together: "aujourd'hu i tou s ces fils differents s'etaien t reuni s pour faire la trame . . . " (Ill, 972-73) . 50. Wilson , AxeVs Castle, p . 189 . Du c6ti de chez Swann was published in 1913 , whe n Einstein' s theorie s wer e comin g t o b e widel y known. The y provide d th e first ne w mode l fo r th e physical

292 NOTE

S

universe sinc e Newton . Th e article s i n whic h Einstei n expounded hi s theor y o f relativity , o f whic h Prous t ha d n o knowledge a t the time , wer e published between 190 5 an d 1916 . See John D . Erickson , "Th e Proust-Einstei n Relation : A Stud y in Relativ e Poin t o f View," in Marcel Proust: A Critical Panorama, edited b y Larki n B . Pric e (Urbana : Universit y o f Illinoi s Press , 1973), pp . 247-76. Fo r an analysis o f Proust's and Einstein's defi nitions o f the creativ e person and the similarity o f their views o n religion, se e m y articl e "Proust , Einstein , e t l e sentimen t cos mique religieux, " Bulletin de la Sociiti des Amis de Marcel Proust et de Combray 37 (1987) : 52-62. 51. Joa n Rosasco , "L e Texte e t s a doublure," in Proust et le texte producteur, edited b y John D . Erickso n an d Iren e Page s (Guelph , Ont.: University o f Guelph Press , 1980) , p. 107 . 52. Robin , Ulmaginaire du "Temps retrouvi," pp. 93-94 . 53. Se e Alber t Feuillerat , Comment Marcel Proust a compost son roman (New York : AM S Press , 1973) ; Gerar d Genette , Figures III (Paris: Seuil , 1972) , pp . 57-5 8 (quote d b y Chanta l Robin , Ulmaginaire du "Temps retrouvi" p . 92) ; an d J. Theodor e John son, Jr., "Contr e Saint-Proust, " i n The Art of the Proustian Novel Reconsidered, pp . 105-43 . 54. Quote d by Robin, Ulmaginaire du "Temps retrouvi," p. 85. 55. Se e Mari e Miguet-Ollagnier' s stud y La Mythologie de Marcel Proust (Paris: Le s Belle s Lettres , 1982) , p . 362 . Claude-Henr y Joubert, speakin g o f Vinteuil' s sonata , ha s thi s t o sa y about th e unicorn: "Swan n parvient 'presque ' a rrahchir le dernie r obstacl e mais s a quete n'abouti t pas , i l n e compren d pas quell e fecondit e lui apport e l a 'blanch e sonate ' qui , comm e l a licorn e dan s l'iconographie gothique , es t l a messager e d'un e [sic] autr e monde." "L a Musique dan s A la Recherche du temps perdu," Bulletin de la Sociiti des Amis de Marcel Proust et de Combray 36 (1986) : 553. Alber t Mingelgrii n trace s th e ide a o f unit y perceive d through ar t an d musi c t o biblica l symbolis m an d th e Christia n idea o f paradise. Se e hi s stud y Thames et structures bibliques dans Vceuvre de Marcel Proust (Lausanne : Edition s L'Ag e d'Homme , 1978), pp. 136ff . 56. Wallac e Fowlie , A Reading of Proust (1975; rpt. Chicago : Univer sity o f Chicag o Press , 1985) , p . 68 . Robi n als o show s a kee n appreciation o f thi s aspec t o f la Recherche: "Chaqu e pa s d u per sonnage principa l suscit e l a reintegratio n d e tou s le s autre s themes e t personnages majeur s de l'ceuvre. . . . Ainsi , le s cellule s

NOTES 29

3

du reci t s'emboitent-elle s le s une s dan s le s autre s et , a parti r d'une cellul e isole e d u text e d e l a Recherche, il es t possibl e d e rejoindre la totalit e d e l'oeuvre , representatio n d e l a totalit e d u monde." Robin , Ulmaginaire du "Temps retrouvi," p. 85. 57. Marcel Proust et Jacques Rivifre, p . 36. 58. See , i n thi s connection , Proust' s essa y "Reponse s a un e enquet e des annales" (V , 640). I n an earlie r version o f the passage describ ing th e psycholog y o f spac e an d time , Prous t doe s includ e th e molecular level; see Bonnet, Matinie, pp . 174-75 . 59. Sinc e h e wa s a t a distinct disadvantag e becaus e i t wa s impossibl e for al l th e part s o f hi s nove l t o b e publishe d together , Prous t defended himsel f against suc h accusation s i n a number o f letters. The followin g reactio n t o a criti c date s fro m th e publicatio n o f Du cdtS de chez Swann: "[L e critiqu e d u Figaro dit: ] 'Vou s note z tout!' Mai s non, je n e not e rien . . . . Pas une seul e foi s un d e me s personnages n e ferm e un e fenetre , n e s e lav e le s mains , n e pass e un pardessus , n e di t un e formul e d e presentation . S'i l y avai t meme quelqu e chos e d e nouvea u dan s c e livre , c e serai t cela , e t d'ailleurs nullemen t voulu ; simplemen t j e sui s tro p paresseu x pour ecrir e de s choses qu i m'ennuient. " Correspondance, 1913 , 12 : 394. Se e also the lette r t o Loui s d e Robert , p . 231. 60. Correspondance, 1917 , 16 : 65 . Proust' s emphasis . Cf . th e follow ing: " U n artist e n e doi t servi r qu e l a verit e e t n'avoi r aucu n respect pou r l e rang. " Se e "U n salo n historique : L e salo n d e S . A. I . L a Princesse Mathilde " (V , 451). 61. Th e Narrato r suffer s "l a cruell e inquietud e d u chercheur, " (I, 446) . 62. Lik e Joh n Updike , Lawrenc e Durrell , a novelis t influence d b y Proust, als o see s th e cosmi c natur e o f la Recherche: "[Proust ] seems t o hav e summe d u p a particula r ai r pocket , a particula r cosmology really . . . . " Se e th e intervie w b y Julia Mitchel l an d Gene Andrewski , "Lawrenc e Durrell , Th e Ar t o f Fiction, " The Paris Review 2 2 (Autumn-Winte r 1960) : 55 . Prous t i s th e astronomer wh o seek s th e grea t law s o f th e universe . Ren e Girard ha s pointe d ou t tha t la Recherche i s a cosmi c syste m an d the Narrato r a n astronome r wh o measure s th e orbit s an d derives th e law s tha t gover n them . Se e hi s boo k Deceit, Desire, and the Novel: Self and Other in Literary Structure (Baltimore , Md.: Th e John s Hopkin s Universit y Press , 1965) , p . 213 . 63. Accordin g t o Updike , "Amon g othe r writer s onl y Dant e lift s u s to suc h a n altitude." "Remembrance, " p. 104 .

294

NOTES

64. Th e buildu p o f infinitives i s meant t o indicate tha t the labor will be lon g an d ma y neve r be entirel y finished; lik e th e univers e o f which i t i s a miniature version , la Recherche is capabl e o f infinit e expansion. Becaus e o f it s ambitiou s nature , h e realize s tha t hi s book, lik e th e monumenta l Gothi c cathedrals , ma y b e beyon d human capacit y t o finish: "Combie n d e grande s cathedrale s restent inachevees! " (Ill , 1033) . Prous t see s th e vastnes s o f th e great works o f the nineteent h centur y as one o f their most beautiful an d grandiose aspects : "[Le s ceuvre s d e Wagner] participen t a ce caracter e d'etre . . . toujours incompletes, qu i es t le caracter e de toute s le s grande s oeuvre s d u XIX e siecl e . . . don t le s plu s grands ecrivain s on t manqu e leur s livres, mais , s e regardan t tra vailler comme s'il s etaient a la fois l'ouvrier e t le juge, on t tir e de cette auto-contemplatio n un e beaut e nouvell e exterieur e e t superieure a Toeuvre , lu i imposan t retroactivemen t un e unite , une grandeu r qu'ell e n' a pas" (III , 160) . Th e author s h e ha s i n mind ar e Balzac, th e Hug o o f La Ugende des Sihles and La Bible de VHumaniti, and th e Michele t o f the Histoire de France an d th e Histoire de la Revolution. 65. Josep h Campbel l remind s u s tha t "befor e th e separatio n o f Eve, Adam was both mal e an d female." Se e The Masks of God: Primitive Mythology (New York : Penguin Books, 1976) , p. 104 . 66. Miguet-Ollagnier , Mythologie, p . 266. 67. Se e Miguet-Ollagnier's articl e on hermaphroditism, i n which sh e traces th e androgynou s origin s o f th e subject s o f Elstir's earlie r paintings. "L'Hermaphroditism e dan s l'oeuvre de Proust, " Bulletin de la Sociiti des Amis de Marcel Proust et de Combray 3 2 (1982) : 561-74. Joan Rosasc o remind s u s o f th e androgynou s natur e o f Venice: "A Venise la mer et la terre s'epousent enfi n comm e dan s les 'metaphores ' d'Elstir , e t o n n'oubli e pa s qu e c'es t l a ville qu i celebrait chaqu e anne e le s epousaille s d e l a mer." See "L e Text e et sa doublure," p. 133 , n. 33. 68. I n he r articl e o n hermaphroditism , Miguet-Ollagnie r refer s t o drawings o f hermaphrodite s Prous t mad e i n th e margin s o f hi s notebooks. Sh e say s they ar e inspired b y Christia n iconography , which Prous t knew from his readings and translations o f Ruskin's works (e.g. , th e hermaphroditi c birt h o f Ev e depicte d i n th e Bible o f Cologne) . Accordin g t o Miguet-Ollagnier , "l e rev e hermaphrodite l e plu s profon d d e Prous t . . . c'es t l e rev e d'engendrement hermaphrodite , seu l capabl e d'abouti r a la creation artistique . . . . Selon un e tradition , i l fallait qu'Ada m exi t e n

NOTES 29

5

lui u n princip e femini n pou r qu'Ev e naqui t d e lui. " Se e "L'Hermaphroditisme dan s l'oeuvre d e Proust," p. 569 . 69. Fo r J . E . River s thi s momen t o f androgynou s reunificatio n occurs in the presentation to th e Narrator of Mile d e Saint-Loup , who embodie s th e heredit y o f all the Proustia n characters : "Th e meeting o f th e tw o way s i n Mil e d e Saint-Lou p ha s a deepl y androgynous significance . I t is the final embrace o f art and eros." See Proust and the Art of Love (New York : Columbi a Universit y Press, 1980) , p. 253. 70. Bonnet , Matinie, p. 300. 71. Miguet-Ollagnier , "L'Hermaphroditism e dan s l'oeuvr e d e Proust," p . 571. 72. Se e also, III, 1032 , where the futur e work must be nourishe d like a child. River s quote s Leo Bersani, wh o see s the entir e conclud ing sequenc e o f la Recherche a s suggestin g th e variou s stage s o f pregnancy, includin g "th e joyful conceptio n o f th e ide a [fo r th e book] a t the Guermante s matinie, the weakness an d dizziness o n the staircas e som e tim e later , an d a painful delivery. " Se e Rivers , Proust and the Art of Love, p. 253. 73. Prous t remind s u s that th e Narrator' s model s wil l b e thos e othe r great work s writte n b y night : th e Mitte et une nuits an d th e Mimoires of Saint-Simon (III , 1043-44) . 74. Accordin g t o metaphysica l tradition , th e figure o f the androgyn e presides ove r births. Se e Elemir e Zolla , The Androgyne: Reconciliation of Male and Female (Ne w York : Crossroad , 1981) , p . 66 ; fo r the metaphysica l conceptio n o f cosmi c ma n a s a n androgyne , see page 48 . 75. Prous t finds vestige s o f androgyn y i n th e worl d o f dreams , th e domain o f the subconscious (II , 981) . 76. Zolla , Androgyne, p . 70. The them e o f androgyny is even found in the churc h o f Saint-Hilaire, whos e steepl e is one o f the principal unifying symbols of the novel. Hilaire was originally a female saint whose name , throug h morphologica l changes , becam e tha t o f a man (1,104-5). 77. Se e Franfois e Cachin' s stud y o f androgyn y i n late-nineteenth century Franc e entitle d "Monsieu r Venus e t l'Ange d e Sodome : PAndrogyne a u temp s d e Gustav e Moreau, " Nouvelle Revue de Psychanalyse 7 (1973) : 66 . Cachi n als o notes tha t "l e romantism e fran^ais a ete fascin e par le travestissemen t e t Tinversion—Mile de Maupin de Gautier , Sarrazine et La Fille aux yeux d'or de Balzac . Avec Seraphitus-Seraphita celui-ci repren d l e them e Sweden -

296 NOTE

S

borgien d e 1'androgyn e comm e imag e d e l'etr e parfait , d e l'etr e angelique" (p . 65). 78. Marcel Proust-Andrk Gide, p. 40. I n la Recherche, Prous t repeat s th e idea tha t Charlus' s abilit y t o appreciat e poetry , music , an d paint ing, a univers e "s i ferm e a u du e d e Guermantes " i s du e t o hi s sexual nature (III , 206) . 79. Robin , L'Imaginaire du "Temps retrouvi," p . 90. 80. Quote d b y Mauria c i n Du cdti de chez Proust (Paris : Tabl e Ronde, 1947) , pp. 21-22 . 81. Man y commentator s hav e hel d tha t Proust , wh o wa s bor n i n 1871, was only a social dilettante unti l afte r th e death s o f both hi s parents, b y whic h tim e th e autho r wa s thirty-five . Th e posthu mous publication of Jean Santeuil in 195 2 showed tha t Prous t ha d produced th e first draf t o f a thousand-pag e nove l betwee n 189 6 and 1899 , providing ampl e proof that durin g hi s early adult year s and hi s so-calle d societ y perio d h e wa s capabl e o f seriou s work . Philip Kol b ha s writte n convincingl y abou t Proust' s creativ e energy: "Pou r acheve r c e qu'i l a entrepris , i l a fall u . . . un e volonte presqu e surhumaine. " Se e "Le s 'Phares ' d e Proust, " i n Entretiens sur Marcel Proust, edite d b y Francois e Fabre-Luc e d e Gruson (Paris : Mouton, 1966) , pp. 107-8 .

Index Academie d e Medecine, 1 1 Adam, them e o f androgyny, 235-3 6 Aegean Sea , 25 2 n. 2 8 Aeneas, 9 4 Aeolian player piano, 13 7 Aesthetics, an d homosexuality, 26 4 n. 4 1 Agamemnon, 11 1 Agostinelli, Alfred, 2 , 8, 9, 10 , 14, 15, 31, 56 , 60, 72, 98,124, 134,136 , 137, 141,144 , 145,146 , 148 , 149 , 150, 152,154 , 155 , 158 , 159 , 190 , 193; secretary; Proust infatuated with, 133 , 274 n. 65; skill as driver, 136, 137 ; passion for aviation, 149 , 150, 161 ; model for Albertine, 60, 155-61, 163-79 , 184 , 252 n. 27 , 270 n. 25, 274 n. 69; adopts pseudonym Marcel Swann, 157 , 184; and Anna, 158-59 ; letter o n "Impressions de route en automobile," 159; his intelligence, 159 60; humble origins, 160 ; his death and la Recherche, 162 ; and prison theme in la Recherche, 173 ; and androgyny, 270 n. 2 5 Agostinelli, Emile , 152 , 15 4 Aime, 12 0 Albaret, Celeste , 10 , 17 , 115 , 148 , 160, 163 , 164 ; becomes Proust' s

housekeeper, 134 ; on Agostinelli , 150, 15 8 Albaret, Odilon , 134 , 15 0 Albertine, 10 , 14 , 16 , 19 , 26, 28 , 29 , 30, 31 , 32, 33, 34, 36, 43, 44, 45 , 46, 47 , 49 , 51 , 52, 53, 54, 56, 60 , 61, 63 , 64, 72-73, 80, 82-83, 85 , 89, 91 , 94, 97-98, 106 , 110 , 111 13, 117 , 118-24 , 140 , 146 , 149 , 150, 152 , 157-58 , 174 , 178 , 189 , 190, 192 , 193 , 196 , 197 , 198 , 199 , 212, 214 , 217, 226 , 227 , 236 ; and sports, 29, 49, 53-54 ; love o f speed, 60 ; and Saint-Loup, 64 ; as mother substitute , 113 ; and prison theme, 130-31 , 173 ; sea and Venus theme , 130 ; and role i n Narrator's quest, 131 , 173 , 184 , 209-10, 27 8 n . 2 , 28 5 n . 7 ; and Agostinelli, 133 , 156 , 159 , 161 , 163-79, 27 0 n . 25 ; at the pianola , 137-46; and Mile Vinteuil , 139 ; incarnation of Balbec, 142 ; as a work o f art, 142 ; and symbol o f aviator, 157 ; and Bertrand de Fenelon, 164 ; Proust on, 164 ; and theme o f jealousy, 170-72 ; nonAgostinelli sources , 170-78 ; first appearance i n notebooks, 178 ; genesis of character, 27 6 n . 9 6 297

298 INDE

X

Alden, Dougla s W., Marcel Proust's Grasset Proofs, 173 Algeria, 15 0 Allee de s Acacias, 39 , 42, 5 0 Allen, Bryan , 25 2 n . 2 8 Alton, Vicomt e d \ 17 8 Ampere, Andre-Marie , 185 , 23 2 Amsterdam, 17 1 Andree, 173 , 17 8 Androgyny, 25 2 n . 26 , 27 0 n . 25 ; and fashion, 9 ; and bicycle, 53-54 ; and creativ e person, 235 ; and Adam, 235-36 ; androgynou s nature o f la Recherche, 237 ; in latenineteendi-century France , 237 ; and Romanticism, 29 5 n . 7 7 Anna, Agostinelli' s common-la w wife, 148 , 149 , 150 , 152 , 15 4 Antibes, 152 , 16 1 Apollinaire, Guillaume , 40,58; o n Cubists, 13 ; and synesthesia, 27 0 n.20 Arena Chapel , 1 6 Arpajon, Mm e d \ 8 7 Art, an d speed, 83-9 1 Artist: and airplane , 27 9 n . 4 ; and society, 188 , 232-33 ; an d androg yny, 23 5 Auteuil, 39 , 100 , 272 n . 4 4 L'Auto, 15 6 Automobiles: an d Paris, 3 ; and spee d records, 6-7 ; an d aviation, 14-1 5 Auto-VSlo, L', 2 Avenel, Vicomt e d' , 4 Avenue du Bois, 3 9 Avenue Foch , 3 9 Aviation, 7 , 150 , 178-83 ; an d auto mobiles, 14-15 ; in France , 150 ; human-powered flight , 25 2 n . 2 8 Aviator: an d symbol o f artist, 133 , 284 n . 3 1

Aviettes, 15 , 5 8 Balbec, 4 , 10 , 16 , 21, 28, 29, 45, 47 , 50, 52 , 53, 64, 73 , 82, 94, 110 , 113, 118-24 , 135 , 137 , 139 , 145 , 157, 177 , 180 , 181 , 189 , 204 , 209 , 214, 228 ; and inferno theme , 128 29; Albertine o n beach , 13 1 Balleroy, 13 6 Ballet, Georges , 5 Ballets russes, 25 4 n . 8 Balzac, Honore de , 89-90 , 9 3 Bardeche, Maurice , 171 ; on compo sition of La Fugitive, 275 n . 8 8 Batde o f the Marne, 13 4 Baudelaire, Charles , 23 , 27 , 33 , 101 ; "Choses d'Orient, " 280 n . 1 4 Bay of Angels, 15 2 Bayeux, 13 6 Bayreuth, 19 4 Beethoven, Ludwi g von, Quarte t no . 14, 13 8 Benardaky, Mari e de , 1 0 Bergman, Far , 1 4 Bergotte, 16,44,103,128,144,187 , 188,198,202,203,204,211,213, 215; hi s books as mirrors, 283 n. 27 Bergson, Henri , Matihe et memoire, 83 Berma, 2 1 Biarritz, 3 9 Bibesco, Antoine, 172 , 22 2 Bible, 10 2 Biche, see Elstir Bicycle: an d awareness o f speed, 4 ; liberation o f body, 5 ; fashion, 5 , 53-54; womens* rights, 5 ; eroti cism, 9-10 , 52-53 , 56-5 8 Bisexuality, see Androgyny Bizet, Jacques, directo r o f Taximetre s Unic, 13 4 Blarenberghe, Henr i van , 108 , 13 4

INDEX 29 Bloch, 27, 80 , 226; his Jewishness and denial of, 21 9 Bloom, Leopold , 9 4 Bois de Boulogne, 3 , 39 , 40, 4 2 Bolle, Louis , 76, 9 1 Bon Marche, 3 6 Bonnet, Henri , 156 , 16 0 Bontemps, Mme, 18 , 15 8 Borodin, Mikhai l Markovich, 13 8 Botticelli, Sandro , Zephora, 25, 30 , 36, 104-5 , 22 6 Brichot, 109 , 22 0 Brittany, 58 , 60, 135 , 144 , 146 , 17 6 Brombert, Victor , 10 1 Buc, aviatio n school, 150 , 27 2 n . 4 1 Cabourg, 2 , 134 , 135 , 136 , 137 , 165 , 169, 177 , 178 , 18 2 Cachin, Francoise , 23 7 Caen, 137 ; and steeples of Martinville, 13 6 Cafe de la Paix, and motion pictures, 11 Cahen, Gerald , 8 9 Cairo, 15 0 Calmette, Gaston , 13 4 Cambremer, 12 8 Campbell, Joseph, definition o f m o n omyth, 20-2 1 Carmels, 13 0 Carpaccio, Vittore, 3 0 "Carte du Tendre," 24-2 5 Cathedral, an d la Recherche, 238-3 9 Characterization in la Recherche, 89 90; 226-27 ; Updike on , 29 1 n . 4 4 Charlotte, earl y sketch of Albertine, 171 Charlus, 4, 18 , 42, 64, 65 , 80, 81 , 85, 95, 99 , 104 , 107 , 109 , 114 , 115 , 116, 174 , 197 , 211 , 226, 237 ; his mother, 109 ; Mme Verdurin' s hatred of, 126 ; Jupien's male

9

brothel, 130 ; and theme o f jealousy, 170 ; Charlus-Fleurus i n Grasset proofs, 173 ; satanic quali ties, 263 n. 3 6 Chemin d e fer metropolitain (metro) , 4 Chenal, a singer, 26 2 n. 2 9 Chronophotography, 44 ; see Photography Cinema, and cubism, 13-1 4 Circularity, o f la Recherche, 22 9 Clermont-Tonnerre, 13 6 Cocking, J. M.,204, 20 5 Cocteau, Jean, 254 n. 8 Columbia, space shutde, 20 0 Combray, 16 , 19 , 23, 27, 74 , 87, 93 , 9 5 , 9 6 , 9 8 , 9 9 , 1 0 0 , 105,110 , 111, 117 , 140 , 142 , 172 , 184 , 194 , 196, 204 , 205 , 207, 212 , 221, 224, 225, 228 , 229 , 286 n . 10 ; edenic theme, 128-29 ; church of Saint Hilaire, 129 , 180 , 192 , 19 3 Compiegne, 2 5 Conches, 13 6 Cottard, Doctor, 4 , 220 , 23 1 Coubertin, Pierr e de, 6 Cubists, 45, 46, an d sense of speed and unity, 13 ; and depiction o f motion, 13 ; and Proust, 13 ; and motion pictures, 13-14 ; and mul tiple perspective, 1 4 Cygne, name of yacht for Albertine, 157 Daedalus, 189 , 20 5 Daedalus, 252, n. 2 8 D'Annunzio, Gabriele , L'Innocente (French translation L'Intrus), 175 76 Dante, 63 , 94, 97; inferno compare d to Verduri n salon, 12 6

300 INDE

X

Darlu, Alphonse, influenc e o n Proust, 29 0 n. 4 1 Darwinism, 24 , 18 8 Daudet, Lucien , 42, 149 , 155 , 17 2 Death: them e i n la Recherche, 31 , 26 0 n. 17 ; and resurrection theme, 28 5 n. 2 Degas, Edgar, 4 5 Delafosse, Leon , 14 3 Delaunay, Robert , painting s of the Eiffel Tower , 1 3 Desiccation, them e i n la Recherche, 203, 210 , 215-16 , 28 3 n. 2 8 Dezon-Jones, Elyane , o n grand mother's death , 26 2 n. 3 0 Dives, 13 6 Doncieres, 22 4 Doubrovsky, Serge , Freudia n reading of la Recherche, 12 3 Douville, 12 7 Doville, 1 7 Duchamp, Marcel, 69 ; influenced b y Marey's chronophotographs, 7 6 Dreyfus affair , 17 , 16 6 Durrell, Lawrence , o n cosmi c natur e of la Recherche, 29 3 n. 6 2 Eagleton, Terry , 19 , 2 0 Edison, Thoma s Alva, 17 ; kinetoscope, 11 , 1 2 Eiffel Tower , 1 3 Einstein, Albert, 2 , 89 , 210 , 229 , 29 1 n. 5 0 Eisenstein, Sergei , 20 1 Electric lighting , 3 Elevator boy a t Balbec, 14 5 Elstir, 44-45, 91 , 144 , 209 , 224 , 230 ; as Biche o r Tiche i n the Verduri n salon, 126 ; The Port of Carquethuit, 204; a s representative o f artist, 213; compare d to Adam, 236 ;

Impressionist doctrine an d Monet, 242 n. 15 ; fusion of land and sea elements, 24 9 n. 7 ; creator o f myths, 26 7 n . 54 ; as aviator, 28 4 n. 31 ; his studio, 287 n . 1 6 Erinyes, 9 5 Eroticism: and bicycle, 52-53 , 56 , 58 ; and motion, 46-53 ; and photogra phy, 25, 43-44, 104-5 ; and train, 78-82 Etretat, 3 9 Eugenie, Empress , 5 Eve, them e o f androgyny, 23 5 Evian-les-Bains, 3 2 Evreux, 13 6 Fashion: bicycle, 5 , 53-54 ; Adrien Proust on , 5-6 ; androgyny , 53-54 , 252 n. 2 6 Father, i n la Recherche, 19 2 Faubourg Saint-Germain, 18 , 12 5 Fenelon, Bertrand de Salignac , 10 , 65, 70 , 163 , 172 ; death of, 162 ; model fo r Saint-Lou p an d Albertine, 164 , 17 1 Fernandez, Ramon , 22 2 Ferre, Andre, 2 9 Figaro, Le, 8 , 108 , 134 , 137 , 143 , 154, 19 6 Flaubert, Gustave , L fEducation sentimentale, 63 ; Madame Bovary, 63, 81 Heurus, see Charlus Florence, 8 1 Flowers, an d sexuality, 26 4 n . 4 1 Foix, prince de , 6 8 Fontainebleau, 14 3 Forcheville, Mm e de , see Odette Fortuny y Madrazo , Mariano, 30 , 3 1 Fowlie, Wallace, 63 , 231; on Ulysse s and la Recherche, 28 5 n . 5

INDEX 30 Francoise, 17 , 73, 158 , 164 , 23 6 Franco-Prussian War, 6 Franz Ferdinand o f Austria, Archduke, 16 2 Freud, Sigmund , 78 , 87; Beyond the Pleasure Principle, 1 9 Frye, Northrop, o n encyclopedi c nature o f la Recherche, 23 3 Futurists, 46, 58 , 61 , 91, 180 ; and modern inventions , 15 ; glorifica tion of the modern world, 16 ; and Fascist ideologies, 2 1 Gallimard, Gaston , meets Proust , 24 6 n. 8 Garbero brothers, aviation school at La Grimaudiere, 15 2 Garbero, Joseph, 15 2 Gare Saint-Lazare , 8 2 Garros, Roland, 16 , 272 n . 41 ; aviation school a t Buc, 15 0 Gautier-Vignal, Louis , 98, 161 , 162 , 216; on Prous t and Agostinelli, 160 Geology, 217-2 2 Germany, 135 ; German bombers, 189 Gide, Andre, 237 ; Proust confides i n about Agostinelli, 160 ; Cory don, 172; Ainsi soit-il, 256 n . 3 1 Gilberte, 10 , 27 , 43 , 44, 48 , 52 , 101 , 210, 229 ; denies Swann , 125 ; becomes a Guermantes, 125 , 228 ; and the tw o ways , 129 ; sea imagery, 24 7 n . 1 2 Giotto, 16 , 5 0 Gomorrah, 112 , 11 6 Goncourt brothers, 227; Goncour t pastiche in la Recherche, 19 7 Gossamer Albatross, 252 n. 2 8 Gothic architecture , 136 ; la Recherche

1

compared t o cathedral , 238-39 , 294 n. 6 4 Grand Larousse de la Languefrancaise, 235 Grandmother, 9 , 31 , 45, 89 , 93, 98 100, 102 , 111 , 115 , 117 , 123 , 125 , 135, 136 , 180 , 210; Narrator' s sense o f guilt, 16 2 an d church o f Combray, 192 , 203; moral quali ties, 129 ; compared t o Leonie , 192 Grasset, Bernand, 162 ; Grasset proofs, 17 3 Greece, 11 6 Guermantes, 124 , 21 4 Guermantes, du e de , 87 , 103 , 226; system of values, 12 5 Guermantes, duchess e de , 21 , 25, 32 , 67, 125 ; and Swann, 12 5 Guermantes, prince de, 22 6 Guermantes, princesse de , see Mme Verdurin Guermantes salon, 1 8 Guermantes way connecte d t o Swann's way, 129 , 22 8 Guiche, Armand de , pioneer i n aerodynamics, 2 , 183 ; compared t o Leonardo d a Vinci, 18 3 Guides Michelin, 2 Hades, 10 2 Hahn, Reynaldo , 163 , 164 , 165 , 167 , 170, 172 , 175 , 183 , 221 ; his music and aviation analogy, 27 9 n . 4 Halevy, Genevieve , see Mme Strau s Halevy, Daniel , 17 5 Hauser, Lionel , 21 7 Haussmann, 10 2 boulevard, 133 , 15 0 Hermaphrodites, 29 4 n . 68 ; see Androgyny Holland, 17 1

302 INDE

X

Homer, 21 , 180 ; The Odyssey, 19 , 221-22 Homosexuality, 72 , 104-5 , 110-12 , 114-16, 117-18 , 160-61 , 172 ; Saint-Loup, 67; and aesthetics, 264 n . 41 ; and Orient, 26 6 n . 4 8 Honore, characte r in "La Fin de la jalousie," 17 9 Horizontal aspec t of quest, 15 , 199 205,211-12,216 Hotel Ritz , 21 6 Houlgate, 17 8 Hudimesnil, 20 3 Hugo, Victor , Les Chdtiments, 128; "Si mes vers avient des ailes," 183, "Booz endormi, " 219; lack o f mystery in his poetry; 280 n . 1 4 Hygiene, 5- 6 Icarus, 182 , 18 9 Impressionists, 24 , 43, 45, 46, 51 , 88, 216; Impressionis t doctrine, 24 2 n. 1 5 Issy, 15 0 Italy, 28, an d Futurists, 1 6 Jacob, 20 7 Jealousy: and speed, 119 , 121 ; theme in la Recherche, 17 4 Jean Santeuil, 71 , 72, 123 , 193 , 19 4 Jouhandeau, Marcel, noteboo k o n Proust's sexuality, 16 0 Joyce, James, Finnegans Wake, 2 0 Judeo-Christian concep t of hell, 11 7 Jupien, his male brothel, 67 , 80 , 104 , 107, 114 , 115 , 116 , 13 0 Kanellopoulos, Kanellos , 252 n. 2 8 Kern, Stephen, 13 , 190 ; on historicis t systems of nineteenth century, 24 5 n. 3

Kinetoscope, 1 2 Kitty Hawk, N.C. , 19 0 Kodak, 8 9 Kolb, Philip , 144 , 155 , 156 , 159 , 165, 167 , 171 , 175 , 183 ; o n Agostinelli's letters, 274 n . 6 9 Lacanian theory, 2 0 La Grimaudiere, 15 2 La Rochefoucauld, Francoi s due de , 117, 22 7 Lartigue, Bibi, 4 0 Lartigue, Jacques-Henri, 39-42 , 150 ; photographs of machines o f speed, 14-15; on aviettes, 56, 25 2 n. 28 ; on aviators , 181 , 272 n. 41 ; on aviation slang, 251, n. 22 ; o n pianola, 27 0 n. 19 ; on automo biles and airplanes, 278 n. 1 ; on air raids, 279 n. 6 Larue's restaurant, 7 0 Latham, aviator at Cabourg, 17 9 Lauris, Georges de , 32 , 102 , 149 , 196 Lavoisier, Antoine Laurent , 185 , 23 2 Laws, 231-33, 237-3 8 Lazarus, 20 8 Leblanc, Maurice, Void des ailes I, 58, 60 Le Cuziat , Albert, 107 , 115 , 16 1 Leger, Fernand , 8 ; on cinem a an d aviation, 1 2 Legrandin, 64, 65, 19 4 Lejeune, Philippe , 8 7 Lemaire, Madeleine, 14 3 Lemoine pastiches , 18 3 Leonardo d a Vinci, 121 ; Armand d e Guiche compare d to , 183-8 4 Leonie, 5 , 9, 56 , 95-96, 98 , 99, 107 , 123, 140 , 196 ; compared t o grandmother, 19 2

INDEX 30 Leriche, Francoise , on Albertine, 27 0 n. 2 3 Lesbianism, see Homosexuality Lisieux, 136 , 146 , 14 7 Lumiere brothers: cinematograph , 11; UArrive*e du train en gore de La Ciotat, 81 Maeterlinck, Maurice , 19 6 Male, Emile, 136 , 23 1 Mallarme, Stephane , "Sonnet, " 156 58 Manet, Edouard , 4 5 Maniai, 9 5 Mantegna, Andrea, 8 2 Marcel Swann , see Agostinelli Marey, Etienne-Jules, 73-74 , 76 ; chronophotography, 11 , 69; photographic gun , 1 1 Maria, pre-Agostinelli Albertinelik e figure, 171 , 276 n . 9 6 Marinetti, Filippo , 15 ; "L'EUisse e la Spirale," 180; "A mon Pegase, " 278 n . 1 Marseille, 1 Martinville, 9 , 14 , 137 , 203 , 23 6 Mass transportation, impac t o n French society, 2-3 , 4 Matricide, 108 , 12 7 Maugny, Clemen t de , 16 3 Mauriac, Francois , 23 8 McCauley, John F. , 20 0 Mein, Margaret , 177 , 18 0 Melusine, 4 8 Memory, involuntary , 207-8 , 218 , 224-25 Meseglise, 27 , 10 1 Metaphor, 223-2 4 Metzinger, Jean, on Cubist s and mul tiple perspective, 1 3 Miguet-Ollagnier, Marie , 101 , 230,

3

236; on androgynou s natur e o f la Recherche, 23 5 Miller, Milton , 80 , 8 1 Milly, Jean, 63; on diem e o f jealousy, 174; on Albertine cycle , 17 4 Mirbeau, Octave , 12 , 4 0 Modern inventions : and Frenc h society, 1-2 ; an d awareness of speed, 8-9; an d new perspectives, 15-1 7 Monaco, 13 4 Monaco, prince de, 15 4 Monet, Claude : water lilies, 205; model for Elstir, 242 n. 1 5 Montaigne, Miche l Eyque m de , 217 , 227, 28 8 n . 2 6 Montesquiou, Rober t de , 94; Chauves-souris, 14 3 Montjouvain, 101 , 111 , 113 , 239 ; importance i n la Recherche, 172-7 3 Morel, 80 , 174 ; and Mme Verdurin , 127 Moses, Swan n compared to , 18 5 Mother, 82 , 93, 98-99, 100 , 115 ; and Albertine, 123 ; theme o f matricide, 12 7 Motion: moder n invention s an d awareness of motion, 7 ; human figure in motion, 11 , 249 n. 11 ; and eroticism, 46-53; Motion pictures , 11-1 3 Multiple perspective, an d Cubism, 1 4 Multiple selves , 22 7 Muybridge, Eadweard , 73-74 , 76 ; zoopraxiscope, 11 ; "Occident Trotting," 11 , 74; "Sallie Gardne r Galloping," 7 4 Nabokov, Vladimir , 18 , 10 3 Nahmias, Albert, 152 ; dispatched t o secure Agostinelli's return, 15 8 Nancy, 15 0

304 INDE

X

Napoleon III , 1 Narrative voices , i n la Recherche, 222 23 Nassau, princesse de , 22 6 Nathan, Jacques, 7 Nehemiah, Narrato r compare d to, 287 n . 1 9 Nice, 81 , 15 2 Nijinsky, 25 4 n. 8 Nile River , 20 0 Noah, 216 ; Noah's Ark, 21 7 Noailles, Anna de , 14 8 Normandy, 8 , 58 , 60 , 135 , 144 , 146 , 165, 17 6 Nouvelle Revue Francaise, La, 13 , 15 4 Oceanides, an d theme o f degradation, 26 3 n. 3 5 Odette, 3 , 12 , 18 , 25, 26, 30 , 35 , 36 , 40, 44 , 49, 50 , 51 , 80, 81 , 82, 85, 97, 103 , 104 , 109-10 , 111 , 116 , 124, 140 , 142 , 159 , 173 , 174 , 185 , 197, 212 ; in Grasset proofs, 173 ; her various incarnations, 22 6 Oedipus, King of Thebes, 134 Oedipus Rex, 10 8 O'Followell, Ludovic , 8 0 Olympic Games , 6 Opera, 13 7 Opera-Comique, 137 , 14 3 Orestes, 11 1 Orient, see Homosexuality Orleans, 8 1 Ovid, 19 0 Oxford Classical Dictionary, 95 Pacific Ufe, 1A Painter, Georg e D. , 70 , 107 , 176 , 177; on Proust' s sexuality, 160 ; o n Agostinelli i n la Recherche, \1A Parallax vision, an d speed, 136-3 7

Pare des Princes, aviettes at the velo drome, 1 5 Paris, 1 , 3, 16 , 29, 32 , 66 , 67 , 111 , 114, 135 , 152 , 198 , 199 , 228 ; and impact of automobile, 3 ; Paris Exposition of 1889, 112; and war, 18 9 Parthenon, 5 0 Parville, 11 2 Pascal, Blaise, 210, 22 7 Pegoud, Adolphe, 27 2 n. 4 1 Peguy, Charles , UArgent, 1 Photography: an d study of motion, 10-11, 73-78 ; and eroticism, 25 , 43-44; 104-5 ; and Saint-Loup' s liberal philosophy, 25 7 n . 3 4 Pianola, 27 0 n. 1 9 Pierrefonds, 2 5 Place de la Madeleine, 7 0 Plantevignes, Marcel , Avec Marcel Proust, 177-80, 182-83 , 19 3 Pognon, Maria , bicycl e an d feminist congress of 1896 , 5 Polignac, Edmond de , 143 , 14 4 Polignac, princesse de , 22 2 Pompeii, 88 , 11 6 Pont-Audemer, 13 6 Pougy, Lian e de, 26 0 n. 2 2 Poulet, Quatuor , 13 8 Pouquet, Jeanne, 1 0 Prison theme: and Albertine, 130-31 ; and society, 125-27 ; prison beds, 258 n. 5 Profanation theme , 104-10 , 212-13 , 260 n. 22 , 261 n . 26 , 26 4 n. 3 9 Prometheus, 11 4 Proust, Adrien, 11 ; on hygiene, 5 ; o n fashion and bicycle, 25 0 n . 2 0 Proust, Jeanne, 100 , 106 , 10 7 Proust, Marcel: and modern inven tions, 7 , 15-17 , 184 , 241 n . 1 ; and Cubism, 13 ; synthesis of ancient

INDEX 30 and modern, 21-22; on photogra phy, 42 ; on motio n an d photography, 73-78 ; method o f characterization, 89-90, 24 6 n . 4 ; siblin g rivalry with brother, 123 ; death o f parents, 134 ; and caffeine, 136 ; o n ethics, 144 ; his jealousy compare d to Narrator's and Swarm's, 158 ; last letter to Agostinelli, 155-58 ; attempts to ai d Anna an d Emile Agostinelli, 159 ; on Agostinelli' s intelligence, 160 ; reaction t o Agostinelli's death , 155 , 162-69 ; on his love fo r Agostinelli, 163 ; his preoccupation with war, 163 ; letter to Marie Scheikevitc h o n Albertine, 164-65 ; on genius , 187 ; on intelligence, 215-16 , 28 8 n . 23; on reading, 227-28 ; and laws, 231-33, 28 9 n . 31 ; cosmic aspec t of his vision, 232-35; attraction t o working-class youths, 251 n. 23 ; on society, 28 6 n . 14 ; on writer as translator, 288 n . 24 ; and Montaigne, 28 8 n. 26 ; response t o crit ics, 29 3 n. 59 ; drawings o f hermaphrodites, 29 4 n. 6 8 Works by Proust: A la recherche du temps perdu: unity of, 229-31 ; sexuality in 256 n . 31 ; Du cote de chez Swann, 50, 149 , 150 , 162 , 172 , 174, 184 , 204; A Vombre desjeunes filles enfieurs, 166 ; Le CSte de Guermantes, 149, 154 , 162 , 204 ; Sodome et Gomorrhe, 29 , 64, 87 , 94, 102 , 116 , 117 , ("Le s Intermit tences du cceur," 135) , 172 , 179 ; La Prisonnibe, 52, 98 , 101 , 117, 138 , 163, 169,170,174,192 , 194; La Fugitive, 52 , 60, 117 , 155 , 167; date of composition, 27 5 n .

5

88; Le Temps retrouve, 13 , 16 , 65, 87, 94 , 96, 116 , 149 , 169 , 193 , 197, 204 , 234, 236; Les Plaisirs et les jours, 3 , 170 , 216; Jean Santeuil, 10, 63 , 70, 71, 72, 85, 170 , 191 ; Charlotte, earl y version of Albertine, 171 ; Vington, earl y version of Vinteuil, 193 ; "Journees de lec ture," 95, 134 ; Le Garnet de 1908, 108, 174 , 236; "La Confessio n d'une jeune fille, " 108 ; "Sentiments filiaux d'u n parricide," 108 , 134; "Dialogues, " 130 ; "Impressions de route e n automobile, " 134, 137 , 145 ; "La Fin de la jalousie," 149 , 174 ; "Avantl a nuit," 174 ; "Les OEuvres de M . Reynaldo Hahn, " 183 ; Cahier 57 , 185; "Reponses a une enquet e de s annales," 288 n . 2 0 Proust, Robert, 163 ; sibling rivalry, 123; early car enthusiast, 13 4 Quatuor Poulet, 13 8 Rachel, 67 , 89 , 174 ; and Saint-Loup , 127 Rameau, Jean-Philippe, 13 8 RaspeHere, La, 4, 126-2 7 Ray, Man , on photography an d aviation, 24 4 n. 4 8 Realism, 22 5 Reinach, Joseph, 16 6 Rembrandt, va n Rijn, 22 6 Reveillon, Bertrand de, 70, 71, 7 2 Reynaud, Emile , Optica l Theater , 1 1 Rivers, J. E., 168 , 170 , 177 , 18 2 Riviera, 15 2 Riviere, Jacques, 204, 231; on Prous t and Cubists , 1 3 Robbe-Grillet, Alain, 8 1

306 INDE

X

Robert, Hubert , 86 , 8 7 Robin, Dr . Alain, 26 0 n. 2 2 Robin, Chantal , 114 ; on unit y of la Recherche, 229-30 ; on them e o f death and resurrection, 28 5 n . 2 Rogers, Brian , 222-2 3 Rolls-Royce, 60 , 156 , 157 , 18 7 Romanticism, an d androgyny, 29 5 n. 7 7 Rosasco, Joan, 22 9 Rouen, 8 1 Roussainville, 23 , 27, 10 1 Rozier, Jacques du, see Bloch Rue L a Fontaine, 10 0 Ruskinjohn, 135 , 136 , 146 , 191 , 204, 222 , 231; on reading, 227-2 8 Sachs, Maurice, 107 ; his character, 261 n . 2 5 Sacripant, Miss , see Odette Sagan, prince de, 1 2 Sahara Desert, 20 1 Saint-Andre-des-Champs, 68 , 73 , 250 n . 1 4 Saint Cecilia, 142 , 143 ; Albertine compared to, 144 ; patron saint o f music, inventor of the organ, 145 ; Agostinelli compare d to , 14 6 Saint-Clair, George s de, 6 Sainte-Beuve, Charles-Augustin , 2 0 Saint-Euverte, Mm e de , 226; her salon, 18 5 Saint-Hilaire, see Combray Saint-Loup, Mile de , 228, 22 9 Saint-Loup, Robert de , 10 , 16 , 25, 8 0 , 8 5 , 8 9 , 9 9 , 1 1 0 , 115,121 , 152, 158 , 163 , 174 , 226; and speed, 64-73 , 76; marries Gilberte , 125; passion for Rachel, 127 ; Bertrand de Fenelon , 164 ; satanic qualities, 26 3 n. 3 6

Sand, George , Francois le Champi, 22 5 Satan, 11 7 Scheherazade, Narrato r compare s himself to, 23 6 Scheikevitch, Marie, 164 , 167 , 168 , 170, 17 5 Scudery, Madeleine de , Clelie, 25 Science, an d art, 232-3 3 Serpolette, Plantevignes' s horse, 17 8 Sexuality, an d flowers i n la Recherche, 264 n. 41 . See also Androgyny; Hermaphrodites; Homosexuality ; Profanation Shattuck, Roger , optic s and montage in la Recherche, 201 , 20 2 Shelley, Perc y Bysshe, 190 ; "Ozy mandias," 238 Sherbatoff, princesse , 4, 8 0 Society: an d prison theme, 125-27 ; and artist, 18 8 Sodom an d Gomorrah, 11 6 Souday, Paul , 16 9 Souriau, Paul , 7, 19 1 Space, an d characterization, 226-2 7 Speed: and motion perception, 39 ; and Saint-Loup, 64-73; and art, 83-91; and jealousy, 119 , 121 ; and parallax vision, 136-3 7 Sports, 6-7; sportin g attire and androgyny, 9 ; and Albertine, 29 , 49, 53-5 4 Stanford, Leland , 7 4 Stigmatization, 127-28 , 26 7 n . 5 7 Straus, Emile, 15 4 Straus, Mme Emile , 137 , 148 , 159 , 164; model for the duchess e d e Guermantes, 13 4 Suffering, art , 208- 9 Swann, Charles , 25, 26, 30 , 35, 36 , 44, 45 , 48, 49, 54 , 81, 82, 85, 95 , 98, 104 , 109-10 , 111 , 116 , 117 ,

INDEX 30 123, 140 , 142 , 150 , 174 , 197 , 211 , 214, 226 , 230, 231 , 232; and the duchesse d e Guermantes , 124 ; in the Verdurin salon, 125-26 ; his meditation on th e Vinteuil sonata , 131; and jealousy, 170 ; role in la Recherche, 184-85 ; compared t o Moses, 185 ; and Charlus , 198 ; compared to Narrator , 212 ; Swarm's way and Guermante s wa y connected, 129 ; Swann's way, 22 8 Swann, Mme, see Odette Swann, Marcel, see Agostinelli Symbolists, 21 6 Synesthesia, 138-44 ; 147-48 , 27 0 n. 2 0 Taximetres Unic, 13 4 Taylor, a cyclist, 4 Theatrophone, 137 , 13 8 Theodore, 2 8 Tiche, see Elstir Time, 221-22 , 22 8 Titian, 3 0 Toulouse-Lautrec, Henr i de, 6 Tour d e France , 4 Touraine, 89 , 121 , 13 5 Train, and eroticism, 78-8 2 Trieste, 11 1 Trois-Quartiers, 3 6 T u r n e r J . M . W . , 204- 5 Ulysses, 94, 213 , 221 ; references t o in la Recherche, 28 5 n . 5 Unicorn, a s symbol in la Recherche, 292 n. 5 5 Updike, John, 28 6 n . 13 ; on cosmi c nature o f la Recherche, 28 4 n . 1 ; on Proust's characterization, 29 1 n. 4 4 U.S. Geologica l Survey , 20 1

7

Uzanne, Octave , 8 Valery, Paul , on ai r raids, 279 n. 6 Vanity, 23 8 Velodrome 15 ; Buflalo, 56 , 5 8 Venice, 26 , 28 , 30 , 207 , 224 ; Grand Canal, 3 1 Venus, 28; Albertine an d the sea , 13 0 Verdurin, 4, 25 , 110 ; clan at Balbec, 128 Verdurin, Mme, 3 , 4, 18 , 48, 80 , 110, 128 , 140 , 190 , 198 , 199 , 207 , 228; her salon as a prison, 125-26 ; her hatred of Charlus, 126 ; salon compared to Dante's inferno , 12 6 Verlaine, Paul , 2 3 Vermeer, 105 , View of Delft, 203, 215 Veronese, 8 2 Versailles, 15 0 Vertical aspec t of quest, 15 , 199-205 , 211-12, 218 , 233-34 , 25 8 n . 6 , 281 n . 18 , 282 n. 2 2 Vington, characte r i n Jean Santeuil, 194 Vinteuil, 44,49,105-6,108,109,110 , 128,138,139,141,144,194,196, 197,230; Swann's meditation on his sonata, 131 ; his sonata, 185, 194,232,292 n. 55; his music and theme of sexuality and art, 139, 212; and relationship to Vington in Jean Santeuil, 194 ; and Richard Wagner, 194,212 ; role ofhis septet in la Recherche, 196,212 ; as representative of artist, 212; compared to Ampere and Lavoisier, 232; link between art and science, 232,23 3 Vinteuil, Mile , 23 , 49, 80 , 105 , 106 , 108, 109 , 110 , 111-13 , 119 , 122 , 139, 16 4

308 INDE

X

Virgil, 9 4 Vivonne River , 96 , 12 9 Wagner, Richard , 141 , 196 , 198 , 205; Gotterdammerung, 116 , "Rid e of the Valkyries," 116 ; andVin teuil, 194 , 212 ; Tristan und Isolde, 194; his artistic genius, 199 ; Tannhauser, 212 ; Parsifal, 221 ; his music an d mechanical analogie s i n la Recherche, 28 0 n . 1 3 Washerwoman a t Balbec, 121 , 12 2 Weber, Eugen , 53 , 8 0 Weil, Louis , 10 0 Weil, Mm e Nathe , 10 0 Whitman, Walt , 8 1 Wilde, Oscar , 11 7 Willpower, 19 , 93, 98-104, 114 ,

192-93, 197-98 , 205 , 213-14 , 25 9 n. 1 2 Wilson, Edmund, 89 ; role o f grandmother i n la Recherche, 210 ; com pares Proust to Einstein, 228 ; on Proust' s characterization, 29 1 n. 4 7 Winged Victory of Samothrace, 6 1 World War I , 17 , 40, 65 , 73 , 116 , 162, 169 , 27 9 n. 6 ; impact o n French society, 22 . See also Lartigue; Valery Wright brothers, 58 , 183 , 19 0 Xerxes, 3 6 Zeno o f Elea, 9 1 Zoopraxiscope, 1 1

About the Author William C. Carter is Professor o f French at the University of Alabama a t Birmingham. A member o f the editoria l board o f the Bulletin Marcel Proust and a permanent corresponden t o f the Proust Researc h Cente r a t the Sorbonne , his curren t projec t i s a documentary o n Proust funde d b y the National Endowment fo r the Humanities.

309