The Prehistory of Japan 9780231896450

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THE

PREHISTORY

OF JAPAN

T H E PREHISTORY OF JAPAN

By Gerard J. Groot, S. V.D. D I R E C T O R , A R C H A E O L O G I C A L I N S T I T U T E OF J A P A N

E D I T E D BY B E R T R A M S. K R A U S

New COLUMBIA

York •

1951

UNIVERSITY

PRESS

Copyright

1951

COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY PRESS, NEW YORK PUBLISHED I N GREAT B R I T A I N , CANADA, AND INDIA BY CEOFFREY CUMBERLECE, OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS LONDON, TORONTO, A N D BOMBAY

Manufactured in the United States of America

EDITOR' S PREFACE to receive, after a lapse of so many years, a work in a field which is so little known to most Western scholars. For the past seventy years intensive archaeological research has been going on in Japan; its results have been made known to us by a small group of American and European scholars who participated in some of the excavations. In the past twenty years or so we have lacked even this source of information, with the exception of a few scattered specialized articles by Japanese writing in European journals, for the most part. The result is that many of us speak of the "Jomon culture" and the "Yayoi culture" and thereby exhaust our fund of knowledge of Japanese archaeology. Whatever the reasons for it, this is regrettable. In "Current Problems in Japanese Prehistory," Southwestern Journal of Anthropology, III (No. I, 1947), 57-68, I expressed the need for a modem synthesis of the results of archaeological research in Japan, written in English. This need has been met in the present book by Father Gerard Groot. I T IS E X T R E M E L Y G R A T I F Y I N G

There are doubtless few scholars, other than Japanese, who could have made such a study as the present one. The difficulties facing the student who wishes to obtain a first-hand knowledge of Japanese archaeology are tremendous. To examine a reasonable sample of the archaeological contents of the thousands of excavated sites, he must visit almost innumerable public and private collections, many of which are in remote sections of the country. To peruse the literature one must not only have an unusual knowledge of the Japanese language—Father Groot points out that "even learned Japanese are not able to read many names"

—but also the time and the patience to hunt down the many rare and privately printed articles that are sometimes of considerable importance. Added to these obstacles there is the everpresent need of evaluating most critically, wherever possible, the excavating methods and techniques upon which the scientific interpretation of cultural remains depends so heavily. This procedure involves more than a study of excavation reports; I have never come across a report on a Japanese site in which the field methods are set forth step-by-step and in detail. In many cases it would be necessary to visit the sites themselves, interview the archaeologists, and perhaps run a few test trenches to confirm certain stratigraphie details. With all these difficulties in mind, we must be doubly appreciative of Father Groot's contribution. In a letter accompanying the manuscript, Father Groot wrote: "It is absolutely necessary to correct the English, [which is] not my mother tongue." I have striven to the best of my ability to "correct the English" of Father Groot's manuscript. In all fairness, however, to both Father Groot and to me, it must be pointed out that much more than a simple rearrangement of sentence structure and changes in number, tense, and other grammatical details was involved. Owing, doubtiess, to Father Groot's admitted inexpertness with the English language, a number of conclusions were stated by him in more positive terms than the evidence as set forth in the text warranted, according to my best judgment. The wording in such instances was rendered less positive, without, it is hoped, making any change in the author's intent or causing in-

vi

EDITOR'S

jury to his argument. When necessary the descriptive terminology used with regard to pottery and artifacts has been altered in accordance with that commonly employed by American archaeologists. In some instances, however, which will be readily apparent to the readers, Father Groot's terminology was retained because it could not be checked against illustrations either in the text itself or in my collection. In the chapter devoted to a discussion of problems in physical anthropology there were a number of passages of a technical nature whose meanings were ambiguous or obscure, at least to the editor. In such cases Father Groot's terms were retained, and it has been left to the wisdom or experience of the reader to interpret them as best he can. I myself am greatly interested in the field of Japanese archaeology and upon occasion I have delivered myself of certain opinions on the subject. That these opinions do not rest upon as broad an experience or as profound an erudition as are possessed by Father Groot is beside the point. What is pertinent to the reader's better understanding is that, while disagreeing on certain points with the author, I have tried in all sincerity not to inject either subtly or otherwise any of my opinions into the text. Simply to translate a book from one language to another offers neither as much opportunity nor as great temptation to alter the text as does the type of editing involved in the present volume. Only Father Groot, of course, can judge to what extent, if any, I have inadvertently altered his meaning or weakened or overemphasized his argument. To have noted in the text all such changes in English and shadings of interpretation as were deemed advisable would have added a running commentary that would exceed the text itself in bulk and fail to serve the primary purpose of this volume.

PREFACE There have been no changes in the factual material as such, although revisions in the order of presentation of this material have been made. The new prefectural names have been substituted for the old Japanese districts which Father Groot employed in his manuscript, for the same reason that one would locate sites in the United States by means of state boundaries instead of the old territorial districts. These substitutions were made with extreme care, since the old districts and the new prefectures do not correspond in any instance. If errors have been made in this respect, I am to blame. All diacritical marks have been omitted. The great bulk of the material presented herein is not only new to most Western archaeologists, it is also highly specialized and presupposes at the very least a generalized knowledge of anthropology on the part of the reader. It is therefore apparent that this is not a volume for popular consumption. On the other hand, there are doubtless many persons, whose knowledge of and interest in the modern Japanese nation have been greatly stimulated by recent world events, by whom the story of Japan's prehistoric cultures will be eagerly welcomed. For the specialist, needless to say, this volume will be indispensable, not only because it presents in English for the first time material of a highly significant nature but also because it is stimulating and provocative in its interpretation of this material. That many other works on Japanese archaeology will and should follow Father Groot's book does not detract one iota either from the timeliness of its appearance or the service it renders anthropologists in all the countries of the world. Not the least function performed by Father Groot will be the rekindling of foreign interest and research in Japan's prehistoric cultures.

EDITOR'S

With a feeling of heavy responsibility, I close with this note to both reviewer and reader: to Father Groot alone belongs the many praiseworthy features of this book; I must share, because of the nature of my

PREFACE

vii

task, the blame for any faults or failings that may be revealed. BERTRAM S. KRAUS

Tucson, Arizona February, 1951

AUTHOR'S I N T H I S B O O K I have endeavored to describe the various stages of the Japanese Stone Age and their relationships with foreign cultures. I realize, however, that I have but summarily treated the many problems that are connected with Japanese prehistory. Because of a number of conditions related to the study of Japanese prehistory any present treatment of the subject will eventually require numerous revisions, some of a fundamental nature. In addition, certain materials and problems of, perhaps, major importance may have been overlooked. The conditions that have, in part, been responsible for such errors of interpretation or omission are the following: the vast number of prehistoric sites in Japan which have been dug and which still await

PREFACE excavation; the great quantity of archaeological reports, of scientific or of amateurish caliber, which are dispersed throughout hundreds of books, journals, and papers; and the inadequate number of studies devoted to the problem of prehistoric cultural interrelationships. Nevertheless, I hope that this presentation may be of some service to archaeologists who are unfamiliar with the Japanese field and that it may provide a jumping-off point for a future revised work on the prehistory of Japan. GERARD GROOT,

Archaeological Institute Kichijoji, Japan April 18, 1946

S.V.D.

CONTENTS I. II.

Introduction

3

The Relative Chronological Sequence of Jomon Pottery Types

6

III.

Geology and Relative Chronology in the Jomon Period

10

IV.

The Proto-Jomon Period

21

V.

The Early-Jomon Period

36

The Moroiso Culture

43

The Middle-Jomon Period

48

VIII.

The Later-Jomon Period

57

IX.

The Final-Jomon Period

64

The Problem of the Identity of Jomon Man

76

Appendix A: The Jomon Period and Absolute Chronology

85

Appendix B: The Shouldered-Axe Culture in East Asia and Japan

86

Appendix C: The Violin-Shaped Axe on Formosa

87

VI. VII.

X.

Appendix D: Alphabetical List of Jomon Sites in Japan Correlated with List by Region, Province, and District

88

Appendix E: List of Jomon Period Sites by Region, Province, and District Bibliography Plates Index

91 107

following

118 119

M A P S I. II.

Physical Map of Japan

2

Japanese Archipelago, Showing Relation to the Asiatic Continent

4

III.

Maximum Land-Extension of Japan in Late Pleistocene Times

11

IV.

Jomon Sites along the Prehistoric Inlets of the Bay of Tokyo

18

Sites in the Motoara-gawa and Ayase-gawa Valleys

19

Honshu

52

Hokkaido

53

Distribution of Neolithic Cultures in Southeast Asia and the Neighboring Islands

55

Shikoku

69

Southern Saghalin, the Kuriles, and Part of Kamchatka

72

Kyushu and the Northern Ryukyus

73

V. VI. VII. VIII.

IX. X. XI.

FIGURES 1. Stratigraphy of Hanazumi Shell Mound B

13

2. Stratigraphy of Yoshii Shell Mound No. 3

13

3. Changes in the Elevation of Japan from Late Pliocene Times to the Present 14 4. Types of Pottery Bases Found in the Ogushi Site (Kilcuna Type)

36

5. Bone Artifacts of the Early Jomon Period from the Lower Levels of Ichioji in Aomori Prefecture: Perforated Needles, Harpoon Heads, and Hair Pins (?)

39

6. Types of Bone Fishhooks Found in the Early Cultures of the Old World

39

7. Neolithic Pottery of the Four-Cornered-Axe Culture outside Japan

40

8. Bone and Antler Artifacts of the Later Jomon Period from the Kwanto Plain 41 9. Evolution of the Decorative Pattern on Kamegaoka Pottery

65

10. Bone and Antler Implements of the Final Jomon Period from Miyagi Prefecture 75 11. Graphic Illustration of the Physical Relationship between Jomon Man and the Modem Ainu and Japanese

83

TABLES 1. Comparison of the Ainu of Hokkaido with Other Groups in Nine Physical Traits 78 2. Cranial Measurements of Ten Skeletons from the Ubayama Shell Mound —Middle- or Later-Jomon Period 80 3. Comparison of Jomon Skeletons from the Tsugumo Mound, Modern Ainu of Saghalin, and Modem Japanese of Kinai, Based upon the Differences in 29 Cranial Indices 84

P L A T E S FOLLOWING PAGE

I.

II.

Pottery of the Inaridai Type with Stone Artifacts from the Inaridai Site in Tokyo Pottery of the Inaridai Type from the Arai Site in Tokyo

III.

Proto-Jomon Pottery from Kozanji

IV.

Stone Artifacts from Kozanji

V. VI. VII.

118

Proto-Jomon Pottery of Central Honshu from the Hijiyama Site Pottery from the Tamukeyama Site in Kyushu Pottery from the Tado Site

VIII.

Pottery from the Kamidai and the Shimodai Sites

IX.

Proto-Jomon Pottery from Sumiyoshi, Hokkaido

X.

Stone Artifacts of the Proto-Jomon Period from Sumiyoshi

XI.

Pottery of the Shiboguchi Type from the Kwanto Region

XII.

Pottery of the Kayama Type from the Kwanto Region

XIII.

Kayama-Type Pot with Characteristic Shell Streaks from the Hanajima Site in Ibaragi Prefecture

XIV.

Shards of the Early-Jomon Period from the Kode Shell Mound

XV. XVI. XVII. XVIII.

Pottery of the Sekiyama Type from the Kwanto Region Cylindrical Pottery of the Early-Jomon Period from the Nakai Site Pottery of the Early-Jomon Period from Hokkaido Moroiso Pottery from the Kwanto Region

PLATES XIX. XX. XXI. XXII.

Moroiso Potshards from the Kwanto Region Moroiso Pottery from the Kwanto Region, from the Orimoto Shell Mound Stone Artifacts and Moroiso-Type Pottery from the Kokura Site Shards and a Stone Implement from the Early Level of the Kokura Site

XXIII.

Pottery of the Otamadai Type from the Ubayama Mound

XXIV.

Pottery of the Otamadai Type from the Ubayama Mound

XXV.

Pottery of the Otamadai Type from the Neda Mound

XXVI.

Pottery of the Katsuzaka Type from the Igusa Mound

XXVII. XXVIII. XXIX. XXX. XXXI. XXXII.

Katsuzaka Pottery from the Ubayama Mound in the Kwanto Region Katsuzaka Pottery from the Kwanto Region Katsuzaka Pottery from the Ubayama Mound Anthropomorphic Pottery of the Katsuzaka Type from Central Honshu Katsuzaka Pottery from Central Honshu Stone Artifacts of the Middle-Jomon Period

XXXIII.

Middle-Jomon Pottery from Northeast Honshu from the Nakai Mound

XXXIV.

Pottery of the Middle-Jomon Period from Niigata Prefecture, the Kurobo Site

XXXV.

Stone Artifacts of the Middle-Jomon Period from Niigata Prefecture, the Kurobo Site

XXXVI.

Fish Images Made of Stone

XXXVII.

Pottery of the Ubayama Type from the Kwanto Region, the Ubayama Shell Mound

XXXVIII.

Ubayama-Type Shards from the Kwanto Region, Ubayama Shell Mound

PLATES XXXIX. XL. XLI. XLII.

Artifacts from the Ubayama Site (Middle-Jomon Period) Stone Artifacts of the Later-Jomon Period from Negano Prefecture Pottery of the Horinouchi Type Pottery of the Horinouchi Type from the Kwanto Region

XLIII.

Pottery and a Stone Baton from the Horinouchi Shell Mound

XLIV.

Potshards from the Horinouchi Shell Mound

XLV.

Stone Artifacts of the Horinouchi Culture

XLVI.

Pottery of the Omori Type from the Kwanto Region

XLVII.

Pottery of the Omori Type from the Kwanto Region

XLVIII.

Pottery of the Omori Type from the Kwanto Region

XLIX. L. LI. LII.

Clay Figurines of the Omori Culture from the Kwanto Region Types of Shouldered Axes Pottery of the Kamegaoka Culture Clay Figurines of the Kamegaoka Culture

LIII.

Pottery from the Kamegaoka Site

LIV.

Stone Artifacts from the Kamegaoka Site

LV.

Pottery of the Early Angyo Culture

LVI.

Pottery of the Later Angyo Culture

LVII. LVIII.

Ear Ornaments and a Clay Figurine of the Angyo Culture from the Shinpukuji Site Pottery of the Final-Jomon Period from the Ikazuchi Site

THE

PREHISTORY

OF

JAPAN

MAP

I . P H Y S I C A L M A P OF J A P A N

CHAPTER

I

INTRODUCTION " J O M O N " IS A J A P A N E S E W O R D that means "cord-pattern." The decoration on the surface of a great quantity of Japanese prehistoric pottery was made with a cord that was either rolled over the outer surface of the vessel or wound around a thin stick which was then rolled over the outer surface. Because of the apparent predominance of this type of decorative technique, archaeologists have called the prehistoric pottery of Japan Jomon-dokki, that is, pottery with cordpattern decoration. Not all Japanese prehistoric pottery, however, has this type of decoration. The oldest ware—the so-called Proto-Jomon pottery— has no cord pattern. Likewise, it is absent in Middle-Jomon Period pottery of the Otamadai type. In addition, vessels lacking cord-pattem decoration are to be found throughout the entire prehistoric period of Japan. When I use the term "Jomon pottery," therefore, it is in a temporal rather than a technical sense, referring to all prehistoric Japanese pottery as such, regardless of special technological characteristics. The "Jomon Period" refers to that phase of the prehistoric period in which metals were still completely unknown in Japan.

The succeeding phase of the prehistoric period is known as the "Yayoi Period." It derives its name from a street in Tokyo where the first site of this later cultural phase was discovered. The culture of the early part of the Yayoi Period was still largely oriented to a stone technology, but metal was beginning to appear. With the Middle-Yayoi Period bronze comes into common use. This book will deal only with the Jomon Period of Japanese prehistory.

Japanese archaeologists often speak of "Jomon-bunka," which may mean either "Jomon culture" or "Jomon cultures." This term, conveying as it does a sense of homogeneity of culture in the former translation and a sense of generic relationship in the latter, is misleading. I prefer to speak merely of a "Jomon Period" and leave it open for future research to determine whether or not the many cultural manifestations of the Jomon Period are offshoots from a main stream of cultural development in prehistoric Japan. Japanese archaeologists have tended to concentrate their efforts and base their interpretations on the cultural picture within Japan itself, paying little attention to the archaeological manifestations found in adjoining regions. Their interpretations of Japanese prehistory, then, rest on the a priori assumption that outside culture contacts played little role in the development of Japanese culture. The rather complete stylistic sequence presented by the prehistoric pottery is offered as evidence of the uninterrupted evolutionary development of prehistoric Japanese culture. I submit that certain of the steps in the assumed evolutionary series may be merely quasi-transitional forms. The impact of outside cultural influences does not necessarily destroy the residual culture. It may cause only minor changes in certain material aspects of the culture. If the intrusive culture is dominant and persists, the older culture may be more or less completely transformed. At any rate, the change is generally not abrupt and can be detected in transitional forms of affected objects, namely, pottery,

4

INTRODUCTION

projectile points, and so forth. Without an awareness of the possibilities of outside cultural influences, these transitional forms can be easily accepted as the products of indigenous cultural development. In order to avoid the possibility of any such misinterpretation, one should plan future research in Japanese archaeology on a broader basis, embracing those areas in Eastern Asia from which cultural influences could have entered Japan. The cumulative effort of Japanese archaeologists has yielded many distinguishable types of Jomon pottery. It is regrettable, however, that similar efforts have not been expended on the description of other cultural remains, such as arrow points, axes,

MAP II.

JAPANESE ARCHIPELAGO,

bone implements, and so forth.1 We should like to know more than merely whether or not a particular axe is polished or a particular arrow point chipped. Nor is it sufficient to classify the pottery according to the various strata in which it is found. We must know also the nature of the archaeological context in which it is associated.

THE

QUESTION

OF

A

PALEOLITHIC

AGE

IN

JAPAN

The earliest Proto-Jomon culture is, according to my opinion, mesolithic. The suc1 An exception is the excellent "Survey of Types of Stone Artifacts in Japan," by N. Sakazume.

SHOWING R E L A T I O N TO T H E ASIATIC

CONTINENT

INTRODUCTION ceeding Jomon cultures are neolithic. If there was any paleolithic culture in Japan 2 it must have existed before the separation of Japan from the Asiatic continent. Many paleolithic sites have been discovered in North China and South Siberia, and it is not improbable that paleolithic man penetrated as far as the ancient seacoast of Japan and inhabited the large fertile plains that once lined the coast, but are now buried beneath the Pacific Ocean. The present plains of Japan were at that time high table land. Archaeologically, Japan has been rather thoroughly explored; many thousands of stone-age sites have been discovered, none of which can be assigned to a paleolithic horizon. There is, thus, no great hope that future investigation will turn up paleolithic sites. If there were ever paleolithic sites in Japan proper, they are now probably sunk below the ocean level. H. Matsumoto and N. Naora believed that one of their sites which yielded crudely chipped stone implements was assignable to the paleolithic, but these "implements" appear to be pebbles shaped by natural causes, as are many of the European "eoliths." In August, 1936, Tokunaga and Naora discovered artificially-marked deer bones in a cave on the island of Iejima, west of Okinawa, in the Ryukyus. These bones they consider to be paleolithic artifacts.4 They consist primarily of the shafts of leg bones forked at both ends, and the surfaces have evidently been scraped. Nearly all are of the same length. In a metacarpal bone two 2 This question has been dealt with at length by Prince Kashiwa Ohyama in "On Whether or Not a Palaeolithic Culture Existed in Japan." 3 Tokunaga, "Bone Artifacts Used by Ancient Man in the Loochoo Islands."

5

holes were bored, one being an artificial enlargement of a foramen. Included among the finds was a section of deer mandible, with one end forked. These artifacts were found, together with a large quantity of fossilized deer bones, in a one-meter-thick deposit on the floor of a cave formed in a coral reef. The deer found today on the Ryukyus were imported by the islanders. During the neolithic age there were evidently no deer in the islands. In none of the prehistoric shell mounds are deer bones found, although bones of the wild boar occur in great quantities. The fossil deer found on Iejima belonged to a species foreign to any now living in Japan, China, or northeast Asia. It seems safe to conclude, therefore, that the fossil deer of Iejima predate the neolithic age and probably belong to the period when Japan was separated from the Asiatic continent. The deer-bone artifacts may well be, then, the remains of a paleolithic bone culture of deer hunters. The cave of Iejima may be analogous to those of the bear hunters of Wildkirchili and Velden, who piled up huge numbers of bear bones in the Alpine caves of Central Europe. Possibly such caves were sacred places for the practice of bear cults. O. Menghin believes that in addition to the two distinct paleolithic cultures proposed by Abbe Breuil, a third should be added— the bone cultures.* The latter are widespread, including the bone cultures of Central Europe, Djalainor, Chihfeng, and Hokiakeu in Manchuria, Billa Surgam in South India, Guwa Lawa in Java, and northeast Nebraska in North America. It is with this third type of paleolithic culture that perhaps the deer-bone culture of Iejima should be included. * Menghin, Weltgeachichte 119-29.

der Steinzeit, pp.

C H A P T E R

T H E

R E L A T I V E

S E Q U E N C E

O F

situated in the great Kwanto Plain, is the scientific center of Japan. Its many universities play an outstanding role in the study of the prehistoric culture of Japan. Archaeological research has been particularly stimulated in this region because of the fact that some three thousand sites of the Jomon Period have been found throughout the Kwanto Plain.2 Because of this combination of circumstances the Kwanto area has undergone more intensive archaeological study than any other area in Japan. Research has brought to light the occurrence of many types of pottery throughout the Kwanto Plain, with each type having a wide distribution in the Kwanto sites. Numerous sites contain several pottery types, and a study of their stratigraphic occurrence in these sites yields a relative chronological pottery sequence. Such a study must be made with care and thoroughness, as the excavation at the Tsugumo site indicates. Here were found two types of pottery, one occurring in a layer of earth directly over a layer in which the second type predominated. Careful investigation revealed, however, that the layer with the older pottery had, by some land of slide, For the archaeology of the Kwanto region I rely heavily upon I. Kono, "The Evolution of the Stone Age Jomon Culture in the Kanto." For the Kwanto region and other areas of Japan I am indebted to I. Yawata, "The Stone Age Culture of Japan." For the Kwanto and Northeast Honshu I have referred frequently to Kakuda and Mitsumori, "The Prehistoric Age of East Japan." 2 Anthropological Institute, Imperial University of Tokyo, List of Stone Age Sites in Japan (5th edition). 1

C H R O N O L O G I C A L

J O M O N

TOKYO,

II

P O T T E R Y

T Y P E S

1

been superimposed over the layer with the younger pottery. There are rare instances in which two pottery-containing strata are separated by a distinct sterile geological layer; in this case the chronological sequence of the pottery types at that particular site can be accurately stated. By means of the stratigraphic method, then, it is possible to place the many types of pottery of the Jomon Period in the Kwanto Plain into a relative chronological series. On this sound basis we may proceed to a study of the changes that featured the development of pottery throughout the Jomon Period.

THE PROTO- AND EARLY-JOMON

POTTERY

Stratigraphic evidence at the shell mounds of Omotedani, Minowa, Sakaida, East Omotedani (mound 3 ) , Orukibashi, WestOmotedani, Kazahayadai, and Komaoka, provides the following chronological sequence of pottery types. Sekiyama

Kayama Moroiso A Moroiso B

Kurohama

At the Tado site three earth strata were observed: at the top, a superficial blackearth layer; next, a brown-earth layer; at the base, a fundamental loam layer. In the upper part of the brown-earth layer much Tado II type pottery was found. In the

7

C H R O N O L O G Y O F JOMON P O T T E R Y lower part of the same layer a great quantity of Tado I type was found, penetrating even into the upper 10 cm. of the loam layer. That Tado II and Tado I are two distinct types of pottery is revealed by the fact that in Tonofukuro and many other sites Tado I type is found exclusively, while in the Banshindai site Tado II type is found with other types, but not with Tado I. The lowest shell layer at the Kode site contained only Kikuna type pottery, but in the upper layers small quantities of Sekiyama pottery occurred. At the Kikuna site the Kayama type was found in the lower layers and the Kikuna type in the upper strata. At the same site Tado I pottery occurred below the Kayama layer. This Tado I-Kayama sequence was borne out at the Kaigarayama shell mound. The relationship, then, seems to be: Kayama

Tado I Kikuna Sekiyama

Tado II

Combining the two preceding diagrams, we get the following: Tado II Sekiyama

Tado I Kikuna Moroiso

Kayama Kurohama

Additional complications are introduced at the sites of Ohara and Shiboguchi. At the former site Moroiso pottery was found slightly mixed with Shakujii and Mito shards, but generally overlying a Shakujii layer, which in turn was superimposed upon a loam layer bearing Inaridai-type pottery. At Shiboguchi the pottery type of the same name was found in a shell layer superimposed upon a Shakujii earth layer. From this evidence the following chronological relationships are deduced.

Shakujii Shiboguchi

Inaridai

Mito Moroiso

We can now proceed to an analysis of the preceding diagrams and attempt to arrange an over-all chronological sequence of Proto- and Early-Jomon pottery types. The Tado I and Inaridai types represent the oldest pottery thus far discovered in the Kwanto Plain. Inasmuch as they are the only types found in the loam beds of the Kwanto, we may assume that they are approximately contemporaneous. The Shakujii and Mito types are both characterized by pointed or rounded bottoms only, a general lack of plant-fiber temper, and fiber-impressed, as opposed to cord-impressed, surfaces. Another group is formed by the Shiboguchi, Tado II, and Kayama types, which, though retaining certain characteristics of the Shakujii and Mito types, shows some innovations. Flat bottoms appear. On both surfaces there are streaks, apparently made by rubbing with the Andara shell. Fiber temper occurs in small quantity in the paste of Shiboguchi pottery, in greater quantity in Kayama pottery; and since the trend seems to be from complete lack of fiber tempering in the earliest stage to a relatively heavy use of this medium in later stages, we can postulate that Shiboguchi is at least contemporary with, if not somewhat earlier than, the Kayama type. Unfortunately, few sites have yielded the Shiboguchi type pottery and in those few the stratigraphy has not clarified its chronological relationship with Kayama. The pottery types just mentioned are referred to collectively by Japanese archaeologists as Soki-Jomon-Doki (Proto-Jomon Pottery). A third group of Kwanto pottery comprises the Kikuna, Sekiyama, and Kurohama types. It is characterized by surface decoration of complicated cord impressions

8

CHRONOLOGY OF JOMON

arranged in pinnate or rhomboid patterns. The Andara-shell streaks are less frequently found, and there is a greater use of fiber temper in the paste. Pointed and rounded bottoms have been completely replaced by flat or raised bottoms. Although the Kode site reveals the greater age of the Kikuna type with regard to the Sekiyama, the chronological relationship of both of these types with Kurohama is not clearly shown. At the Orukibashi site, however, both Kurohama and Sekiyama shards were found mixed together, indicating contemporaneity. A better baked and presumably later Period

POTTERY

Kurohama variety is often found with early Moroiso pottery. The Moroiso type forms the fourth group. The surfaces of the vessels are covered with simple, generally obliquely arranged cord impressions. Fiber temper is absent, and the vessels are very well baked. The third pottery group and the fourth pottery group are called Zenki-Jomon-Doki (Early-Jomon Pottery). In view of the above considerations, we may tentatively erect a chronological table for the earliest pottery horizons of the Jomon Period as follows.

Croup

Pottery Inaridai

I

Shakujii

Proto-Jomon

Shiboguchi

II

Mito

Tadol

Kayama

Tado II

Kikuna

HI Kurohama

Eaily-Jomon

Sekiyama Moroiso

IV

THE MIDDLE- AND LATER-JOMON POTTERY

Stratigraphy at the Nakanodai shell mound reveals that the Moroiso type is older than the Katsuzaka and Otamadai types. The Ubayama site shows the Ubayama type overlying the Katsuzaka and Otamadai types, while the Manda, Ara-

dachidai, and Kasori shell mounds provide evidence for the fact that the Horinouchi type follows in time the Ubayama type. At the Azusawa site the established sequence (from early to late) is: Horinouchi, Omori, Angyo. On the basis of clear-cut stratigraphy the following chronological order of Middle- and Later-Jomon pottery can be set up. Pottery

Period Early-Jomon Middle-Jomon

Types

Types

Moroiso Katsuzaka

Otamadai

Later-Jomon

Ubayama Horinouchi Omori

Final-Jomon

Angyo

C H R O N O L O G Y O F JOMON P O T T E R Y The Middle-Jomon types are distinguished by large vessels with thick elaborately decorated handles attached to the rims and surface decoration consisting of broad ribbons of spiral and curved lines in relief. The pottery of the Later-Jomon Period becomes progressively thinner and thinner. The large handles and broad ribbons of relief design become smaller and eventually disappear. Surface decoration is generally incised. The contemporaneity of the Katsuzaka and Otamadai types is indicated by a number of sites in which the two are mixed together. The Moroiso type has been di-

9

vided into three subtypes, designated A, B, and C. Subtype A, according to the stratigraphy at a number of sites, is older than subtype C, and according to the conditions at the Nakanodai shell mound is also older than either Katsuzaka and Otamadai. The chronological relationship of subtypes B and C, however, with Katsuzaka and Otamadai remains unclarified. Moroiso B is distinguished from A by the appearance of the relief ribbon type of decoration. In Moroiso C the ribbon decoration is treated with more elaboration. It may well be that Moroiso B and C evolved from A under influences from Katsuzaka and Otamadai pottery with which they were contemporary.

CHAPTER

GEOLOGY IN

AND THE

III

RELATIVE JOMON

DURING THE EARLY-PLIOCENE PERIOD Japan was lifted about 700 meters and thereby connected with the Asiatic continent. In the early Pleistocene Japan sank to its present level and towards the end of the Pleistocene was again raised, this time more than 1,500 meters. At the beginning of the Recent Period Japan sank to its present level. These changes in elevation are illustrated diagrammatically in Fig. 3. Japan therefore attained its maximum dry-land extension during the late Pleistocene, as shown in Map III. Both the Japan Sea and the Sea of Okhotsk were then large lakes. The contrasts between cold and warm periods during the Pleistocene in Japan were not as marked as were those in Europe, North Asia, and North America. Japan had no glaciations, probably because the cold currents were prevented from passing along the Japanese coasts by the land bridge that linked Siberia with North America. That there were alternate cold and warm periods throughout the Pleistocene is attested to by the layers of gravel which represent depositions of a pluvial period. In general it can be said that the Pleistocene of Japan resembles more that of South China and India than it does that of North China and Mongolia, although at the end of the Pleistocene the severe cold that enveloped Europe and North Asia reached Japan also. In several localities of Japan mammoth bones have been discovered in late Pleistocene formations. The mammoth probably entered from Siberia and has left no traces farther south than Sapporo in Hokkaido. Another sub-

CHRONOLOGY PERIOD

arctic animal, Lagomys pusillus, lived in Hokkaido during the late Pleistocene. In the region where Tokyo now is located conifers were then growing. Today these conifers are found only in the high Alps of Japan. The late Pleistocene of Japan was followed in the early Recent Period by a very warm climate. In strata immediately overlying late Pleistocene deposits bones of Elephas indicus have been found.1 The appearance of this form in the early part of the Recent Period proves that Japan was still linked with the continent. I would correlate this phrase of the Recent Period in Japan with the European Klima Optimum (6000 or 5000 B.C.). Deposits of marine shells provide us with information regarding the changing climate of the Recent Period in Japan. In Yuraku Street, in the heart of Tokyo, a succession of shell strata were found, dating from the beginning of the Recent Period to the present. The lowest layer consisted mainly of warm marine-shell Anadara granosa; the numbers of this warm-water variety decrease steadily in the upper layers, to be replaced by Ostrea gigas. The Anadara granosa is no longer found along the Pacific coast of northern Japan, and in Tokyo Bay only a few very small specimens can still be found. Today Anadara granosa is found 1 Remains of the Indian elephant have been found in Tokyo near the Edo bridge, in Gifu, Wakayama, and Aomori prefectures, ana in Hokkaido. At Sapporo mammoth bones were discovered in a Late Pleistocene level, with an Early Recent stratum containing bones of Elephas indicus immediately above.

G E O L O G Y AND R E L A T I V E C H R O N O L O G Y along the Pacific Coast from Shizuoka Prefecture southward, where the water is warm. In shell mounds of the Early-Jomon Period of Japan Anadara granosa are found in abundance as far north as northeast Tohoku, in the site of Taigi.

MAP

III.

M A X I M U M L A NTH EXTENSION

again in evidence of a change from a warm to a colder climate. Occasionally in the same shell mound successive layers will show a decrease in numbers of Anadara granosa from bottom to top and an increase in Pecten yesoensis, as in the shell mound of Miyato-jima.2 We may conclude, therefore, that during the Early-Jomon Period the 2 H. Matsumoto, "Evidence of the Postglacial Cycle of Climatic Change in Northeastern Japan, Based upon a Study of the Marine Molluscs and Mammae from Sites in the Providence of Rikuzen."

11

Pecten yesoensis is a cold-water mollusc which today is found along the Pacific coast of northeast Honshu, but is missing from Tokyo Bay southward. In the shell mounds of the Early-Jomon Period in northeast Honshu Pecten yesoensis is entirely absent,

F JAPAN IN L A T E

PLEISTOCENE

TIMES

climate was considerably warmer than it is at present and that the Later-Jomon Period and succeeding Yayoi Period had a climate similar to that of today. The existence of shell mounds in the plains along the present Pacific coast indicates that the coast line of Japan during the earliest culture period was not essentially different from what it is today; the earliest Jomon culture bearers must have entered Japan after the great subsidence by which Japan was cut off from the Asiatic continent.

12

G E O L O G Y AND R E L A T I V E

Confirmation of this is further provided by the fact that not a trace of Elephas indicus has been found in any shell mound. Although it is now apparent that the climate of Japan at the beginning of the Jomon Period was considerably warmer than it is today, it is impossible to assign absolute dates either to the beginning of the Jomon period or to the time of climatic change to warmer temperatures. However, the relative chronology of the shell mounds of the Jomon Period can be, and has been, fairly well established. Most of the thousands of Jomon shell mounds lie along the Pacific coast of Japan and in particular are concentrated around the Bay of Matsushima (northeast Honshu), the bays of Tokyo and Ise (central Honshu), the bays of Kojima and Matsunaga (southwest Honshu), and the Bay of Ariake (Kyushu). The many shallow inlets which deeply penetrate the eastern coast line were extremely favorable for the breeding and gathering of mussels. This feature is very rare on the Japan Sea coast, which explains the much smaller number of shell mounds found there. In the Kwanto Plain area of central Honshu there are nearly 3,000 sites of the Jomon Period, of which about 400 are shell mounds.3 The latter vary in size considerably, covering an area ranging from 30 square meters to 10,000 square meters. Many of these shell mounds are situated far from the seashore; the shell mound of Fukasaku, for example, is about 36 kilometers from the coast, and the shell mound of Motomachi lies about 46 kilometers from the Bay of Tokyo. Those shell mounds far inland generally consist of marine shells. They occupy valleys that in former days were inlets of the sea. During the Jomon Period the sea reached far inland, having many widespread branches. Men of the 3 Anthropological Institute, Imperial University of Tokyo, List of Stone Age Sites in Japan (5th edition).

CHRONOLOGY

Early-Jomon Period preferred to settle along the inmost shores of these inlets, where they could collect mussels and at the same time be close to the forests which provided them with plants, seeds, and tubers, in addition to the wild boar and the deer. Later in the Jomon Period the sea receded, and the former shallow inlets became fertile valleys, which today are covered with paddy fields. The recession was slow, and men of the Later-Jomon Period followed the receding inlet shores in order to maintain the food supply upon which they heavily depended. The deeper parts of these former inlets retained certain amounts of water and became shallow fresh-water lakes or marshes, fed by the streams that flowed eastward from the mountains. They became stocked with fresh-water mussels, chiefly the Corbicula leaena, and the shell mounds of the later Jomon inhabitants who settled around these lakes consist almost entirely of freshwater mussel shells. It is upon the recognition of these phenomena connected with the recession of the sea from the Pacific shore line of Japan that the Prehistorical Institute has based its reconstruction of the relative chronology of the Jomon Period cultural stages. The importance of this reconstruction for an understanding of the Jomon Period culture and chronology merits a somewhat detailed discussion. Since 1927 Prince Kashiwa Ohyama, founder of the Prehistorical Institute (completely destroyed by bombs in the Second World War), investigated more than 100 shell mounds situated in the following nine valleys in the Kwanto Plain 4 (see Map I V ) : (1) the valley of the Tsurumi-gawa; (2) the 4 A detailed description of the research of the Ohyama Institute was given by I. Kono, "The Evolution of the Stone Age Jomon Culture in the Kwanto." This study is supplemented by N. Sakazume's article, "On the Associations between the Species of Molluscs and the Pottery Types from the Stone Age Shell Mounds in South Kwanto."

Strata

Pottery Types Sterile Surface earth DOOOOOOOOOC DOOOOOOOOOC DOOOOOOOOOC ^or>r>r>r>rinr)r>

Otamadai and Katsuzaka

Middle earth layer

Small quantity of pottery from upper and lower layers * JUUUUUUUUUL DOOOOOOOOOC ^r>rtr>r>rtr>nnr>r

Kikuna

Upper shell layer

Lower shell layer Basic earth

Sterile FIGURE

1.

STRATIGRAPHY OF HANAZUMI

SHELL

MOUND

B

* This level, representing an interval of time between the Kikuna and the Otamadai-Katsuzaka types, is filled by the Moroiso subtype A on the basis of evidence from other mounds.

Strata

Pottery Types Surface earth

Horinouchi

DOOOOOOOOOC "OOOOOOOOOC QQOOOOOOOC OOOOOOOOOC DOOOOOOOOOC

Ubayama

Middle earth layer

Sterile °

Shell mixed with earth

Sekiyama, plus small quantity of Kayama J U U U U U U U U U L

Kayama

DOOOOOOOOOC

"loonnnnnonr

Lower shell layer Basic earth

Sterile

FIGURE 2 .

Upper shell layer

S T R A T I G R A P H Y O F YOSHH S H E L L

MOUND N O . 3

(see

Map

V)

• Chronologically the Katsuzaka and Otamadai types fill in this gap, according to evidence from other sites.

G E O L O G Y AND R E L A T I V E

14

valley of the Tama-gawa; ( 3 ) the valley of the Iruma-gawa; ( 4 ) the valley of the Ayase-gawa; ( 5 ) the valley of the Motoaragawa; ( 6 ) the valley of the Furutone-gawa; ( 7 ) the valley of the Nakatone-gawa; ( 8 ) Meters

UP Late pliocene

OF JAPAN F R O M L A T E PLIOCENE T I M E S TO P R E S E N T (after S. Miki, Japanese Journal of Botany, Vol. IX, No. 2, 1938) THE

the valley of the Iinuma-gawa; ( 9 ) the valley of the Kinu-gawa. The last three rivers flow into Kasumigaura Lake, north of the Chiba peninsula; the other six flow into the Bay of Tokyo. Formerly the Furutone-gawa had a much greater volume of water, but since the Tokugawa Period (1603-1868) most of the water has been diverted via the Nakatone-gawa into Kasumigaura Lake. The nine rivers have retained their present beds since the Tokugawa Period but formerly their courses were different. In addition to the above-mentioned valleys, there are several smaller valleys in the Kwanto Plain, all of which contain many shell mounds. An analysis of the shell mounds in the valleys of Kwanto Plain indicates that during the Proto-Jomon Period the arms of the sea were reaching still farther inland. This was doubtless the result of the last stages of the great land subsidence by which Japan earlier had been separated from the continent. The maximum exten-

CHRONOLOGY

sion of the sea inlets occurred during that part of the Jomon Period represented by the later Kurohama and the earlier Moroiso pottery. Soon afterward the sea began to retreat, and it has continued to do so up to the present time. Let us first turn our attention to the Motoara-gawa valley. In this wide valley there are two hills, the Kurohama and the Jionji (see Map I I I ) . Each sends out spurs toward the east on which are located a large number of shell mounds. Seven of the shell mounds on the Kurohama hill consist for the most part of marine shells. These mounds are called Sumigama (12), Shuku (13), Shuku-ura (14), Baba (15), Arai (16), Arai-Kochi (17), and Egasaki (20). Each of the seven mounds yielded Kurohama-type pottery mixed with a small quantity of Moroiso pottery. Two other mounds on the Kurohama hill yielded Katsuzaka pottery and consisted predominantly of fresh-water shells: Nagasaki (18) and Naka (19). We may interpret these facts as indicating that the Kurohama hill was entirely surrounded by sea water at the time the seven marine-shell mounds were being accumulated. The Nagasaki and Naka mounds represent a later period, when the sea had retreated and the salt content of the water had been considerably reduced. The relative positions of the Nagasaki and Naka mounds substantiate this conclusion; the Naka mound, which is farther inland along a narrow tributary valley, has a lower percentage of marine shells than does the Nagasaki mound, which overlooks the broad Motoara-gawa valley. The situation on Jionji hill is slightly more complicated. Here nine mounds are found, which consist for the most part of marine shells. Six of these yielded Kurohama pottery mixed with a small amount of Moroiso pottery: Kokaba (21), Ueno (22), Sakurayama (23), Omote-jionji (26), Tsukiyo-

G E O L O G Y AND RELATIVE C H R O N O L O G Y

15

misha (27), and Kamuro (30). The Kamuro mound, though it is situated deep inland, consists like the other five of marine shells predominantly. The Minami shell mound (24), which is also made up mostly of marine shells, yields pottery of the Sekiyama type, which, as we have already observed, is roughly contemporary with the Kurohama pottery. The Nonaka shell mound (28), likewise composed largely of marine shells, yields Moroiso pottery. The ninth shell mound is that of Hanazumi (25) whose stratigraphy has already been graphically presented in Fig. 1. The Hanazumi mound is like the others in shell content. It lies on the tip of the spur jutting out into the Motoara-gawa valley from Jionji hill and thus would have been the last site on the two hills to be deprived of the supply of salt-water mussels. This is borne out by the shell content of the two shell strata of the Hanazumi mound. According to N. Sakazumi, the percentage of marine shells in the upper layer was at least as great as that in the lower layer, and in addition it contained a small amount of fresh-water shells.5

tenth mound—Ura-Jionji (29)—which contained Horinouchi pottery consisted largely of fresh-water shells (Corbicula leaena). The situation on Iwatsuki hill, which lies between the Motoara-gawa valley and the Ayase-gawa valley, is, at first glance, rather puzzling. Here we find three shell mounds —Kakura-Jokuji (5), Kisora (7), and Kuroya (11)—which consist predominantly of marine shells and contain Kurohama pottery. The Kake mound (3), on the other hand, is made up for the most part of freshwater shells but also contains Kurohama pottery. The fact that the Kake mound is situated deeper inland than mounds 5, 7, and 11 is not adequate explanation in view of the even deeper inland location of most of the Jionji and Kurohama shell mounds which are composed of marine shells and contain Kurohama pottery. The theory which best fits the facts is that the Kake mound is older than the others. It must be pointed out that Moroiso shards are lacking in the Kake mound and that the Kurohama pottery appears, by reason of its poorer texture, to be an earlier manifestation of the Kurohama pottery type. We would postulate, then, that during the At the beginning of the Later-Jomon period represented by the earlier Kurohama Period the sea had receded from Jionji hill ware the inlets of the sea had not yet proper, and for this reason we find that a reached their maximum extension and the 8 The marine shells of the lower layer were from: Batillaria zonalis (Bruguiere); BatiUaria multiformis inhabitants of the Kake site were situated (Lischke); Rapana thomasiana (Crosse); Anadara closer to a fresh-water supply of mussels granosa (Linne); Ostrea laperousei (Schreibers); than to a marine source. During the later Meretrix meretriz (Linne); Cyclina sinensis (Gmelin); Mactra veneriformis (Reeve); Mya arenaria period, represented by the better-baked (Linne). Those of the upper layer comprised: Ha- Kurohama pottery, the sea had attained its liotií gigantea; Batillaria zonalis; BatiUaria multi- maximum encroachment upon the land and formis; Anomia lischkei (Deutschenberg and Fischer); Pisania ferrea (Reeve); Cerithidea rhizo- was providing a source of salt-water musporarum (Adams); Thais bronni (Dunker); Polini- sels to the inhabitants of Kurohama, Jionji, ces didyma (Bolten); Rapana thomasiana; Anadara and Iwatsuki hills. granoso; Anadara subcrenata (Lischke); Trapezium japonicum (Pilsbry); Ostrea gigas (Thunberg); Ostrea denselameUosa (Lischke); Meretriz meretriz; Cyclina sinensis; Mactra veneriformis; Solen gouldi (Conrad); Mya arenaria. The same

layer also contained the following fresh-water

shells: Corbicula leaena; Tympanotonus cingulatus

( Gmelin).

All the shell mounds, then, on the Iwatsuki, Kurohama, and Jionji hills, which contained the later Kurohama pottery, were composed mainly of marine shells. Along the valleys of the Ayase-gawa, Motoara-

16

G E O L O G Y AND R E L A T I V E

gawa and Tone-gawa, on the other hand, there is not a shell mound to be found which contains a preponderance of marine shells. This is adequate proof that the sea at its greatest penetration inland did not go beyond the three hills already mentioned, and it seems evident that the maximum penetration of the sea (or maximum land subsidence) took place during the later phase of Kurohama pottery. The Ebisu shell mound, which lies deeper inland than the mounds thus far discussed, has yielded Kasori-E type pottery of the Middle Jomon Period and contains but a small amount of marine shells. Evidently the Middle-Jomon men of this site transported some mussels from the seashore, perhaps loading them in plank boats on the river. The shell mounds of the Proto-Jomon Period, comprised mainly of marine shells and Kayama and Shiboguchi pottery, all lie nearer to the river mouth, that is, to the present seashore, than do those mounds containing the Kurohama pottery. This is explained by the fact that during the ProtoJomon Period the sea inlets had not yet penetrated as deeply inland as they did during the Early-Jomon Period. The shell mound of Shiboguchi, for example, is composed mostly of marine shells and is situated about halfway up the Tama-gawa. 6 Those mounds consisting for the most 6 The Shiboguchi mound contains the following types of shell. Marine types: Haliotis gigantea (Gmelin); Turbo

coreensis (Recluz); Lemintina imbricata (Dunker); Batillaria zonalis; BatiUaria multiformis; Cerithium kochi (Philippi); Polinices didyma; Rapana thomasiana; Thais clavigera (Küster); Anadara inflata (Reeve); Anadara subcrenata; Anadara granosa; Ostrea gigas; Ostrea denselamellosa; Trapezium japonicum; Meretrix meretrix; Dosinia japonica (Reeve); Cyclina sinensis; Venerupis philippinarum (Adams and Reeve); Mactra veneriformis; Solen gouldi; Mya arenaria.

Fresh-water

types:

Semisulcospira

(Could); Corhicula japonica fera margaritifera (Linne).

(Prime);

libertina

Margariti-

CHRONOLOGY

part of marine shells and lying at the greatest distance from the present shore line contain not only the later type of Kurohama pottery but also Moroiso-A and Moroiso-B pottery. Moroiso-C ware is never found in a shell layer of a mound, but only in earth layers. W e recall that the sea inlets had reached their greatest extension during the period represented by the later Kurohama, the Moroiso-A, and the Moroiso-B pottery. In the following period—the Middle Jomon —the sea was retreating, a movement begun at about the time when Moroiso-C type pottery was evolving. The people responsible for the Moroiso type of pottery did not follow the retreating seashore, but kept on living on the old sites, relying more and more heavily upon forest products for their food. For this reason, Moroiso-C pottery, which represents the traditional Moroiso ware influenced by the advancing Otamadai culture, is found only in earth layers in the shell mounds. In addition to the four shell mounds already discussed, other shell mounds are found on Iwatsuki hill. That of Sekiyama ( 1 ) contained Sekiyama pottery and that of Sakando ( 2 ) Kikuna pottery. Both pottery types are contemporary with the early Kurohama ware, and as would be expected the Sekiyama and Sakando mounds are deep inland and are composed mainly of freshwater shells. The Kashiwasaki mound ( 9 ) contained Moroiso pottery and a predominance of marine shells. The large Shinpukuji mound ( 8 ) , on the other hand, yielded Angyo pottery, the latest pottery type of the Jomon Period, and consisted almost entirely of the fresh-water shells of Corbicula leaena. Across the Ayase-gawa valley opposite the Iwatsuki hill lies the shell mound of Fukasaku ( 3 1 ) which contained Sekiyama pottery, but since it is situated much closer to the present river mouth than are the contemporary mounds of Sekiyama and

G E O L O G Y AND R E L A T I V E CHRONOLOGY Sakando, it is composed mainly of marine shells rather than fresh-water shells. From our discussion thus far, the followPeriod

ing chart has been drawn up to illustrate the correlation of pottery types with the advance and recession of the sea.

Sea Level

Pottery Types Kikuna

Inland penetration of the sea Early-Jomon

Middle-Jomon

Maximum penetration of the sea Recession

This interpretation is borne out by the archaeological and topographical situations in the other river valleys of the Kwanto Plain. The mounds along the valleys of the Tama-gawa and Tsurumi-gawa contain a lower percentage of fresh-water shells than do the contemporary mounds of the Motoara-gawa and Ayase-gawa valleys, although they are all at almost the same height above sea level. This is accounted for by the fact that the latter are much narrower than the former. Those mounds of the Tama-gawa valley situated farthest inland contain chiefly Moroiso pottery and are mixtures of marine and fresh-water shells. Along the Tsurumi-gawa valley the shell mounds consisting largely of marine shells and yielding Proto- or Middle-Jomon Period pottery lie nearer the river mouth than do those mounds likewise made up of marine shells, but producing Early-Jomon Period pottery. The Yoshida-Rokkancho and Nakanokubo mounds, for example, which are marine shell mounds and contain Kasori-E pottery (Middle-Jomon), are located halfway up the Tsurumi-gawa valley. The Orimoto and Kamisugeta mounds, also of marine shells, but containing Moroiso pottery, are located much farther up the Tsurumigawa valley.7

17

Sekiyama

Early Kurohama Later Kurohama Moroiso A and B Moroiso C

The situation along the Iruma-gawa valley reflects the general pattern. Almost all the shell mounds of this valley consist either of marine shells alone or of marine and freshwater shells mixed. Those of the upper valley are sites of the earlier phases of the Jomon Period with the exception of the Namiki mound which contains pottery of the Later-Jomon Period, but is at the same time composed almost entirely of freshwater shells (Corhicula leaena). The Kaminemura and Angyo mounds, containing the latest pottery types of the Jomon Period, consist largely of marine shells, but these two mounds are close to the present river mouth. The Buzo and Hirakata mounds are composed of marine shells for the most part. The Buzo mound contains the earlier Kurohama pottery and is situated nearer the river mouth than is the Hirakata mound which contains the later Kurohama pottery. This further substantiates the correlation presented in our chart. The Moromachi shell mound in the upper Furutone-gawa valley is predominantly a marine-shell mound; the Shinodai mound,

BatiUaria multiformis; Polinices didyma; Rapana thomasiana; Thais bronni; Thais clavigera; Babylonia japonlca; Anadara subcrenata; Mactra veneriformis; Anadara granosa; Ostrea gigas; Ostrea denselameUosa; Meretrix meretrix; Dosinia japonlca; Cyclina sinensis; Venerupis phiUppinarum; Mactra 7 The marine shells of the Orimoto mound com- svlcataria (Reeve); Solen gouldi. The only freshwater variety is Ciistaria pucata patiosa (Clessin). prise the following types: Umbontitm costatum;

18

G E O L O G Y AND R E L A T I V E

also in the upper Furutone-gawa valley, is predominantly a fresh-water shell mound. The pottery found in each explains this apparent contradiction. The Moromachi mound belongs to the Early-Jomon Period, when the sea had penetrated the valley to its maximum extent. The Shinodai mound is of the Later-Jomon Period when the sea had retreated down the valley and the only convenient source of mussels was freshwater lakes and streams. A more refined illustration of this phenomenon is provided by the Yamasaki mound, which contains in its lower stratum, composed mainly of marine shells, pottery of the Middle-Jomon Period, and in its upper stratum, consisting largely of fresh-water shells, pottery of the Later-Jomon Period. Likewise, the shell mounds of Hiresaki, Shimizu, and KamiShinjuku, all situated in the Furutone-gawa valley, belong to the Later-Jomon Period and consist mainly of fresh-water shells. Further examination of our data suggests that the elevation of the land which accounts for the recession of the sea from the inlets, a process correlated with MiddleJomon times, began in the west and advanced toward the east. Not a single shell mound of Kanagawa Prefecture composed of marine shells contained Angyo pottery denoting the Final-Jomon Period. In Tokyo-to and Chiba Prefecture, on the other hand, a considerable number of mounds consisting mainly of marine shells yielded Angyo I and Angyo II. The reason for this phenomenon is that in Kanagawa Prefecture, which is farther west, the sea had receded at an earlier date than it had in Tokyo-to and Chiba Prefecture, or, in other words, the western portion of the Kwanto Plain was elevated before the eastern portion was affected. We have already seen that in the area about the Kurohama and Jionji hills the sea had already receded during the Middle-

CHRONOLOGY

Jomon Period. This was not the case in the easternmost part of the Kwanto Plain; in Ibaragi Prefecture several mounds of marine shells containing Otamadai pottery, a variant of Middle-Jomon Period pottery, are

MAP IV.

J O M O N S I T E S ALONG T H E P B E -

HISTORIC I N L E T S O F T H E B A Y O F

TOKYO

(after Kono, "The Evolution of the Stone Age Jomon Culture in the Kwanto," SGZ, VII [May, 1935], 60)

MAP

V.

SITES IN T H E MOTOARA-CAWA AND AYASE-CAWA

VALLEYS

A A ^

Shell mounds built up predominantly of marine shells Shell mounds built up predominantly of fresh-water shells Shell mounds built up of both marine and fresh-water shells

20

GEOLOGY AND RELATIVE CHRONOLOGY

situated at a great distance from the present shore line. A comparison of the heights above sea level of the valley floors further supports this theory, namely, that the elevation of the land started in the west, with uplifts in the mountains of central Honshu, and proceeded eastward, the elevation of the western portion of the Kwanto Plain being greater than that of the eastern portion. The valley floors of the Tsurumi-gawa, Hayabuchi-gawa (a tributary of the Tsurumi-gawa), and the Tama-gawa are 13 meters above sea level at the point where those mounds, consisting mainly of marine shells and located farthest from the present seashore, are situated. These valleys are, of course, in the western part of the Kwanto Plain. In the eastern part of the Kwanto Plain are the valleys of the Irumagawa, Ara-gawa, and Ayase-gawa. Again measured at the point where the mounds of marine shells most distant from the coast are located, the valley floor of the Irumagawa is 11 meters above sea level, and of the Ara-gawa and Ayase-gawa, 10 meters.

Since all the mounds concerned were contemporaneous, at a time when the sea had penetrated most deeply inland, the uplift in the western Kwanto Plain must have been greater than in the eastern portion, roughly by about 2 meters. Another interesting phenomenon is to be observed in the difference in level between sites of the first and the second halves of the Later-Jomon Period in Chiba Prefecture. Those of the earlier half (Ubayama, Horinouchi, and early-type Omori pottery) are on a much higher level than those of the later half (later-type Omori and Angyo pottery). Evidently during the later phase the land was elevated rather suddenly. Numerous sites of the Proto-Jomon Period must have been submerged by the sea during the Early-Jomon Period, only to be exposed again during the Later-Jomon Period, when the sea was receding. The ShimoAkatsuka site, for example, containing pottery of the Tado type, lies only 1 meter above the present level of the Tsurumigawa. Many such instances are found along the periphery of the Hatogaya hill.

CHAPTER

THE

IV

PROTO-JOMON

POTTERY OF THE FIRST PHASE O F THE PROTOJOMON PERIOD

The earliest prehistoric pottery known in Japan, that of the first phase of the ProtoJomon Period, is rarely found in shell mounds. It appears to be widespread throughout Honshu and Hokkaido, but has not yet been reported in Kyushu or in Shikoku proper. In the Kwanto Plain this early ware has been subdivided into four types: Inaridai, Shakujii, Tado-I, and Mito. Elsewhere in central Honshu the early ProtoJomon pottery has been found in the prefectures of Niigata, Nagano, and Gifu. The vessels have a number of characteristics in common. They are generally somewhat funnel-shaped, with pointed or more or less rounded bottoms. Flat bottoms are entirely lacking. In only a few pots are plant fibers mixed in the paste and then only in small quantities. The outer surface is covered with fiber-wrapped-stick impressions. Generally two or more fibers, knotted in various ways, were wound around the stick. In some instances the stick itself was carved and then rolled over the soft surface. The surfaces of some vessels bear shell impressions and incised parallel lines. On the basis of the decorative technique we may divide the early Proto-Jomon pottery into three subgroups: carved-stick-impressed, fiber-impressed, and shell-impressed pottery. With each subgroup there appears a distinct stone industry. Fiber-Impressed Pottery. This type of early Proto-Jomon pottery is characteristic of the groups in the Kwanto region known as Inaridai and Shakujii. Fifteen sites in the Kwanto Plain have yielded the Inaridai type

PERIOD

(PL I C-D, PI. I I ) , eight of them in the city of Tokyo. In all these sites the Inaridai pottery is found in the soft loam that underlies the brown top soil at a depth of about 10 centimeters. With the exception of the Tado-I type, no other pottery in the Kwanto Plain is found in the loam layer. This would indicate that both the Inaridai and Tado-I types belong to the earliest pottery level in the Kwanto. The bottoms of this pottery group are more or less rounded. Many vessels show a slight expansion of the rim. The fiberimpressed outer surface was achieved in the following way. Two or more twisted plant fibers were wound around and through a thin split stick. The stick was then rolled over strips of clay in order to flatten the paste; a strip of clay with the fiber impressions was adjusted to the edge of the bottom which had been previously prepared. Other strips were then coiled around the vessel, one above the other, until the walls were complete. Three shards from the Inaridai site had fiber-impressed surfaces which had been made by rolling the twisted plant fibers themselves over the clay strips. Only two shards from this site bore carved stick impressions in a chevron design. Other sites yielding Inaridai pottery usually contained a small number of shards of the carved-stick-impressed type. The stone industry of the Inaridai site consisted of the following artifacts: a flat adze of andesite with polished edge (PI. I A; B, a); a shale adze, also with polished edge (Pi. I B , b); a chipped slate adze with a polished beveled edge (PI. I B , c); a chipped triangular sandstone axe (Pi. I B, d)\ two chipped triangular projectile

22

THE PROTO-JOMON PERIOD

points of obsidian. Many pieces of quartz and obsidian were found in the Inaridai site and must have come from the distant mountains.1 With the exception of adze and axe blades, stone polishing was a neglected technique in the Inaridai stone industry. At Fujimigaoka, also an Inaridai site, a stone axe was found with only one side chipped, the other being left in its natural state; the blade was not polished. In the Kwanto Plain the Shakujii pottery type is a later variant of the Inaridai type. In addition to the fiber-impressed pattern which continues in the Shakujii pottery, carved-stick impressions appear on a large number of shards. The patterns achieved by the latter technique include chevrons, ellipses, and checkers. Carved-Stick-Impressed Pottery. Pottery of this variety is widespread, being found in sites around the Inland Sea, in Shizuoka, Niigata, Nagano, and Gifu prefectures, in the Hokkaido prefectures of Kushiro, Kitami, and Ishikari, in southwest Honshu, and in Kyushu. Let us first turn our attention to the Inland Sea sites; three are well known—Kozanji (Hyogo Prefecture), Kurojima (Hiroshima Prefecture), and Kotsutajima (Kagawa Prefecture). The Kozanji site is a small shell mound situated 1 kilometer from the present shore line on a hill about 17 meters above sea level. The shell stratum is composed of marine shells (Anadara granosa and Meretrix meretrix predominated) which are no longer found in the nearby Bay of Tanabe, whose waters have become too cold. The thickness of the shell stratum varies from 20 centimeters to 1 meter. In it are found the bones of deer and wild boar. Beneath the shell layer is a stratum of brown loam 5 centimeters thick, in which a large number of shards were found. The bottoms of 1 Yawata, "Trade Relations during the Stone Age."

eight pots were found; seven are pointed, and one is rounded. The simple funnelshaped vessels sometimes are expanded slightly toward the rim. The clay is poorly baked, brittle, and porous, and the paste contains small stones and often mica. Most of the shards are covered with carved-stick impressions in the form of ellipses, checkerboard, and saw-tooth patterns, the former being most numerous. Shell-impressed shards are rare, while some shards have no decoration at all (PI. III). The paste of the undecorated shards is mixed with mica or a small quantity of plant fibers. A few specimens bear deeply incised parallel lines, a feature characteristic of the Tado and Mito pottery types. There are no shards which are fiber-impressed. None of the stonework bears any trace of polishing. All the artifacts are roughly chipped. There are seven categories of stone implements: triangular projectile points with concave base; handaxes, unworked except for the roughly chipped straight or round edge or point; net-sinkers of flat oval stones with both ends indented; "short-axes," completely chipped on one side and only partially on the other, with a straight upper edge and a rounded cutting edge; scrapers, resembling the "shortaxes," but more rounded and thinner; hammerstones showing signs of use; "violinshaped" stones of doubtful function (see PI. IV). The shell mound of Kurojima is on a small island of the same name about 1 kilometer off the coast and with a circumference of only 1 kilometer. The mound is 33 meters above sea level and contains a 35-centimeterthick shell layer about 1.35 meters below the surface. In this mound also Anadara granosa and Meretrix meretrix shells are the most numerous. Below the shell layer is a 15centimeter stratum of earth which overlies an earlier shell stratum of 20 centimeters.

THE PROTO-JOMON P E R I O D The lower shell stratum yielded chiefly the carved-stick-impressed pottery plus a small amount of very thin shards without any decoration. The upper shell layer contained the same kind of impressed pottery, together with a large amount of undecorated pottery which is much thicker than that of the lower stratum. Slightly raised ovals, regularly spaced at close intervals, are the most frequently occurring impressed design. There are some saw-tooth designs. Parallel lines are sometimes incised on the slightly expanded rims. The only stonework from the Kurojima mound consisted of one long axe with a polished edge and various crudely chipped stone implements. Unfortunately, it was not reported in which of the shell layers this material was found. The Kotsutajima shell mound is situated on a very small island about 2 kilometers from the town of Nio on the northeast coast of Shikoku. Excavation was made in two parts of the mound, known as Spot-A and Spot-B. In Spot-A the top soil, to a depth of 20 centimeters, yielded only thick pottery without decoration. Below this a shell stratum consisting mostly of Meretrix meretrix and Rapana thomasiana shells produced the same type of pottery plus a small number of carved-stick-impressed shards. Below the shell stratum was a layer of mixed earth and shell in which were found large quantities of shards, both without decoration and with the carved-stick-impressed designs. In the Spot-B excavation the top soil was sterile and in the underlying earth stratum, 30 to 40 centimeters thick and containing many shells, were found both types of shards found in Spot-A. In the two excavated sections only three shards bearing fiber impressions were found. Of the two main pottery types the carved-stick-impressed variety was funnel-shaped, with pointed bottoms, poorly baked, and thin

23

(about 6 mm.). On both inner and outer surfaces are found either the raised oval or the saw-tooth impressions. The undecorated variant, known as the Kotsutajima type, is very thin (1.5 to 3 mm.) and is better baked. There are two shapes: deep funnel-shaped pots and round-bodied pots with a wide orifice. On both surfaces there are thin streaks left on the wet clay by a brush of some kind. The paste is mixed with feldspar or quartzite, but there is no trace of fiber temper. The shards are blackish, reddish, or yellowish brown. The rim is slightly thicker than the walls and bears fingerprints. Most commonly the upper margin of the rim is smooth and flat, but occasionally it is indented or more or less waved. The stone industry of Kotsutajima is rather meager, consisting of some unworked pebbles used as rubbing stones, roughly chipped pebbles that appear to be scrapers, triangular projectile points with straight or concave bases, and leaf-shaped blades. In the northern part of the Izu peninsula in Shizuoka Prefecture are many sites containing carved-stick-impressed pottery with elliptical, checker-board, or saw-tooth pattern. As many as nine sites were found along one small tributary of the Kise-gawa.2 In Niigata Prefecture3 sites containing this type of pottery are very numerous; ten such sites were found in the village of Mabito alone.4 The pottery from this region is somewhat thicker (about 6 mm.), and the paste is mixed with fine sand. In Nagano Prefecture the carved-stick-impressed pottery came from the site of Sone on the bottom of Suwa Lake, together with shards decorated with nail-shaped impressions. The bases are pointed in all cases. The 2 E t o , Kawabe, and Sato, "Studies of the Early Jomon Culture on the Izu Peninsula." 3 S. Saito, "Rejport on the Stone Age Sites of Niigata Prefecture.' * See Appendix E , List of Jomon Period Sites by Region, Province, and District, Nos. 151-60.

THE PROTO-JOMON

24

site of Hijiyama in Gifu Prefecture yields a large amount of this type of pottery (PI. V ) . Several sites in Hokkaido, including those of Asahikawa and Wakkanai, yield pottery decorated by this technique. The site of Tsugumo, in southwestern Honshu, contained several shards of this type, both surfaces bearing the characteristic impressions. A glance at the situation in Kyushu, where many sites containing carved-stickimpressed pottery (PI. V I ) have been found, brings us face-to-face with a puzzling problem. On the one hand, certain archaeologists maintain that this so-called early Proto-Jomon pottery is always found in association with later pottery types—even the pottery of the Yayoi Period. Other archaeologists, on the other hand, assert—and not without justification—that the excavations of these sites were not carried out in a thoroughly scientific manner and suggest that future excavation will show that the carved-stick-impressed pottery is not associated with later types, but comes from early strata in every case. A third group of archaeologists contends that there are really two types of carved-stick-impressed pottery: one which is very old (found at the site of Senbagatani) and another which is contemporary with Yayoi pottery and has a large flat base. Mitsumori believes that the Early Yayoi pottery is, in fact, evolved from the Proto-Jomon pottery,5 in which case the beginning of the Yayoi Period must be placed back, at least in Kyushu, to a very early date. The total Yayoi assemblage, however, indicates clearly enough that the Yayoi culture of Japan had roots outside Japan. One thing is certain: there is great need for a more thorough investigation of the Jomon Period sites in Kyushu. Shell-Impressed Pottery. The third group of early Proto-Jomon Pottery is subdivided into two types: Tado-I and Mito. The Tado 5

Mitsumori, The Primitive Culture of

Japan.

PERIOD

site in Kanagawa Prefecture lies near the Pacific coast 60 meters above sea level. S. Yamanouchi distinguished two pottery types, designated Tado-I and Tado-II. The latter was found in the upper stratum and consists of fiat-bottomed fiber-tempered pots. It is a later Proto-Jomon Period type. The former was found in the lower stratum of the site and is an early Proto-Jomon pottery. Many sites in the prefectures of Shizuoka, Ibaragi, Tokyo-to, Chiba, and Kanagawa have yielded only Tado-I type pottery, not Tado-II. Most of the pottery found in the lower levels of the Tado site is of the Kotsutajima type. The Tado-I vessels are deep and funnel-shaped, with an expanding rim and characteristically decorated with many incised parallel lines. They also bear impressions made with a round or split bamboo stick and occasionally with the Anadara shell. A few shards are carvedstick-impressed with the familiar elliptical or saw-tooth patterns. The inner surfaces of some vessels are colored red with iron oxide. Others show streaks where they were rubbed with the edge of an Anadara shell (PI. VII-VIII). The excavation reports for the Tado site, as with numerous others, are somewhat vague as to the stratigraphy of the stone artifacts. It would seem, however, that the Tado-I stone industry consists of chipped triangular projectile points of obsidian, having straight or concave base, obsidian drills, broad scrapers, pebbles chipped to a point or with straight or rounded edges, stone plates, stone disks with a center-hole, roughly chipped "short axes," and a number of very small stone implements which might be termed microliths. The Mito type pottery is found in greatest quantity at the Mito site in Kanagawa Prefecture. In other sites only small amounts are found. At the Ohara site, for example, a few Mito shards are found in association

THE PROTO-JOMON with Shakujii pottery. Mito pottery closely resembles Tado-I. The vessels have many incised parallel lines, a small percentage showing patterns impressed by a carved stick. Shell impressions are rather rare, and the raised ribbons left by the impressions of a bamboo stick as seen on Tado-I pots are absent. Feldspar, steatite, and quartzite are used as temper, but never plant fibers. Mito pots are deep and of simple shape, with pointed bases. A variant of the Tado-I and Mito traditions is found in the Sumiyoshi site in the city of Hakodate in Hokkaido. The vessels have pointed bases, and the paste contains no plant fibers. They vary in that carvedstick and fiber impressions are completely absent, and parallel incised lines are rare. The surfaces are decorated almost entirely with shell-impressed patterns (Pi. I X ) . The stone industry associated with the pottery of Sumiyoshi is likewise dissimilar from the Tado-I and Mito material as well as from the stonework of the Inaridai and Kurojima sites. Stone polishing is completely lacking. Chipping is the sole technique and is developed to a far greater degree than in other early Proto-Jomon sites. All the stone implements are finely chipped, and the surfaces show retouching. Typical are the long blades with knobbed stems and willowleaf blades in the European Solutrean tradition (PI. X ) . The sites of Nakai and Todoroki in Aomori Prefecture contained a small amount of pottery closely resembling the Sumiyoshi variety. Farther south, in the site of Tsukinoki in Miyagi Prefecture, similar pottery was found in the lowest levels. Here the Sumiyoshi-type pottery was found in an earth stratum, while in the shell layer immediately overlying it fiber-tempered pottery occurred in abundance. The Tsulanoki pottery differs somewhat in having on the outer surface shallow grooves and impres-

PERIOD

25

sions made with a shell. Also, as on the Tado-I type, there are occasional thin raised ribbons around the outer surface and fine streaks made with the Anadara shell. Other sites with the Sumiyoshi variant type are: Soyama (Miyagi Prefecture), Mount Bandai (Fukushima Prefecture), and Kushigata (Ibaragi Prefecture). At the Kitahori site in Fukui Prefecture still another variant of early Proto-Jomon pottery was found: pointed-base pottery with nail-shaped impressions similar to those already noted for the Sone site in Suwa Lake. A few of these nail-shaped impressions were found on shards from Sumiyoshi. Carved-stick-impressed patterns also occur at Kitahori.

EARLY PROTO-JOMON PERIOD CULTURE CONTACTS WITH THE OUTSIDE WORLD

The "Mesolithic" Developmental

Level.

Using the classic European Stone Age criteria, the earliest cultural remains in Japan, as set forth in the previous chapter, seem to combine early neolithic and undoubted paleolithic features. The first known inhabitants of prehistoric Japan seem to have been in a transitional stage of development which in Europe is known as the mesolithic. In order to study this early Japanese culture in its proper perspective against the background of Asiatic Stone Age cultures, it might be well to review the cultural implications of the term "mesolithic." Of the four main culture complexes which are found in the neolithic—pottery, stonepolishing, agriculture, and the breeding of domestic animals—no trace can be proved for the paleolithic. All four seem to have originated and taken root in the transitional period known as the mesolithic. Stratigraphically, the mesolithic falls between the paleolithic and the neolithic as Edouard

26

THE PROTO-JOMON

Piette first discovered in 1887 in the cave of Mas d'Azil and as many subsequent discoveries have amply bome out. I regard the mesolithic as essentially paleolithic in structure; that is, in a stage of primitive economy consisting of gathering and hunting without community life at the village or town level, but possessing one or more of the four culture complexes which eventually brought about the neolithic stage of culture development. These complexes, however, when observed in a mesolithic assemblage, are at a most primitive level of development. The Azilian and the Tardenoisian cultures of the European mesolithic are characterized by extremely small stone artifacts, the so-called microliths. Today we know that these microlithic cultures were widespread over Africa, Southwest Asia, India, and Java. They help to fill in the gap between paleolithic and neolithic cultural stages, but they do not represent the only type of cultural transition. Two other mesolithic culture-types are now known; one is a stone-axe culture, the other a bone culture. Mesolithic stone-axe cultures include the Campignian, which is found throughout Europe, North Africa, and Asia Minor; the Gubanian of Central and South Africa; and the Bacsonian, which is known in East Asia (Sumatra, Malacca, Indo-China, the Philippines, and Japan). The bone cultures include the Kunda in the East Baltic region and the Shigir, which is found in North Russia and Siberia as far as the area east of Lake Baikal. In each of these three groups of mesolithic cultures (microlithic, stoneaxe, and bone) it can be demonstrated that pottery, agriculture, stone-polishing, and animal breeding had their first development. The presence of any one of these four culture-complexes in an archaeological assemblage is not proof that we are dealing with a neolithic culture. There is ample evi-

PERIOD

dence that pottery, for example, occurs in sites which are undoubtedly pre-neolithic in cultural development. In fact, pottery of a simple sort is found in most cases with mesolithic microlithic cultures, from which I contend that pottery had its origin in microlithic cultures. In the caves of the Vindhya Mountains in India a mesolithic culture of geometricallyshaped microliths was found superimposed upon a stratum containing a stone industry of geometrically-shaped implements which are not microliths.6 In both strata, however, pottery was found. In the Jubalpur region of southern India 7 pottery is associated with a microlithic industry, in which, however, the microliths are not of geometric design. The fact that microlithic sites are so numerous throughout India 8 suggests that the microlithic cultures of the mesolithic had their origin in India, not in North Africa. Geometric microliths first appear in the middle Capsian of North Africa, which retained many characteristics of the early Capsian, a late paleolithic culture resembling the European Aurignacian. Vignard describes hearths of hard-baked clay walls in the Middle Capsian of Egypt (Middle Sebilian ) and suggests that the ceramic art was known to this culture.9 Debruge discovered two crude potshards in the cave of Ali Bacha, both with comb decoration, and considers them as belonging to the late Capsian.10 At Abd-el Adhim cordimpressed pottery was found in a Final Capsian assemblage.11 In the lowest stratum Torii, Prehistoric Japan. Foote, "Notes on Prehistoric Finds in India." 8 Rivett-Camac, Some Implements from the Northwest Provinces of India. 9 Vignard, "Une nouvelle industrie litique, le Sebilien." 1 0 Debruge, "Essai de chronologie sur les escargotières." 11 Reygasse, "Etude sur une station ancienne du neolithique découverte a Abd el Adhim ( Grand E r g Occidental)." 0

7

THE PROTO-JOMON of Elementeita in Kenya baskets luted with baked clay were found together with an Aurignacian type of stone industry containing a few microliths.12 In an upper layer containing a similar stone industry, true pottery was found. In Europe, potshards resembling those found at Abd-el Adhim and apparently decorated with rope or plant-fiber impressions were discovered in an early Tardenoisian assemblage at Brandenburg. 13 In Belgium shards were found in an early Campignian site.14 While pottery seems to have been derived from microlithic cultures, agriculture probably owes its origin to the people of the mesolithic stone-axe cultures. Almost all European archaeologists consider certain types of Campignian implements to be pick-axes and hoes used in preparing the ground for cultivation. Junkermann calls attention to the fact that in the Teutoburger Wald in Westphalia Tardenoisian sites are generally found on the sandy unfertile lands of the south, while the early Campignian sites are located on the fertile clay land of the north. The stone-polishing technique likewise appears for the first time in the stone-axe culture of the Campignian, as well as in the related mesolithic cultures of Bacsonian and Tumbanian. 15 Domestication of the dog appears to be attributable to the mesolithic bone cultures which spread over the northern regions of Eurasia. The house dog is found in the Danish Magiemose culture,16 which is essentially an Arctic bone culture. The apparent southward spread of the North European bone-culture brought the domesticated dog Leakey, Stone Age in Africa. "Archaeological Reconnaissance on Kashoto off the East Coast of Taiwan." 14 Menghin, Weltgeschichte der Steinzeit, p. 215. 15 Capitan, La prehistoire, p. 42: "On peut également saisir l'origine du polisisage, au debut limité au tranchant, rendu ainsi plus vif et plus mordant." 18 Menghin, Weltgeschichte der Steinzeit, p. 271. 12

13 Kano,

PERIOD

27

into the Azilian culture of England and the final Capsian of Portugal ( Mugem shell mounds). The Maglemose culture was succeeded in the north by the Ertebolle, whose archaeological remains are found in many huge shell mounds. Here we find for the first time the cylindrical axe which is an important element in the later neolithic cultures. In the earlier phases of Ertebolle, the axe is only chipped. In later phases it is partially polished, and a primitive type of pottery makes its appearance. The domesticated dog becomes common.17 The later stages of the Ertebolle culture attain the aspects of an almost full-fledged neolithic status. There are no sharp lines, however, that can be drawn between the mesolithic and the neolithic cultures of North Europe or, for that matter, between the various mesolithic and neolithic cultures of the Jomon Period in Japan. The Mesolithic Cultures of North Asia. The oldest culture discovered to date in North Siberia is that of Shigir, a site named by Menghin after Lake Shigir near Sverdolensk at the foot of the Ural Mountains.18 It is a pure bone culture, and the fauna it contained are epiglacial—mammoth, Siberian rhinoceros, reindeer, stag, elk, auroch, horse, beaver, and brown bear. Possibly the epiglacial climate around the Urals continued later than in Europe, where the climatic stage characteristic of the Holocene had already set in. The Shigir culture may date to about 7000 B.C. The only stone objects found were net sinkers. Tolmatscheff found the following artifacts made of wood or bone: long, pointed bone projectile points with single or double-beveled base; bone harpoon heads with one to three large barbs 17 T. Suzuki, "The House Dog in the Stone Age Shell Mounds of Denmark." 18 Menghin, Weltgeschichte der Steinzeit, pp. 228-31; Tolmatschjew, "Antiquités du versant est des Monts Ourals."

28

THE PROTO-JOMON PERIOD

or many small barbs; wooden pick-axes; wooden spoon with a handle carved at the end to resemble the head of an elk. The Shigir culture was spread over a large territory. At Srjetensk, on the Transbaikal Railway, bone implements of the same type were found. At Krasnojarsk, in South Siberia, a late paleolithic culture with a stone industry of the Moustero-Aurignacian and Magdalenian tradition flourished. Remains of the mammoth and Siberian rhinoceros were likewise found with this culture.19 The Krasnojarsk culture was followed in South Siberia by the mesolithic culture of Wercholensk found at Mount Wercholensk near Irkutsk. Here the mammoth is entirely lacking, although the horse, auroch, and reindeer are found. The culture is a mixture of blade tools, stone axes, and bone implements. Mousterian flake implements reminiscent of Krasnojarsk are not absent. The tool inventory includes axes, drills, hammer-stones, leaf-shaped blades chipped in the Solutrean technique, and many implements of bone and deer antler, including nicely carved harpoon heads with bilateral rows of barbs and a stem near the base for attaching the line. At Shabarakh Usu, 800 miles west of Kalgan, in the center of Outer Mongolia, the American Andrews expedition discovered a vast workshop where flint chips by the thousands were scattered over the surface.20 All the artifacts among the 15,000 flakes collected were microliths, but they were not of the typical geometric forms. The most characteristic tool was a very small scraper with rounded edge. The stone used in making the Shabarakh implements had 1 9 O. Menghin, op. tit., pp. 198-99; Merhart, "The Palaeolithic Period in Siberia" and "Neuere Literatur iiber die Steinzeit Siberiens." 2 0 Menghin, op. cit., pp. 196-97; Nelson, "Notes on the Archaeology of Gobi"; Andrews, On the Trail of Ancient Man; Berkey and Nelson, Geology and Prehistoric Archaeology of the Gobi Desert.

been obtained from a flat plain 36 miles from Shabarakh Usu. Two successive cultures appear to be represented at Shabarakh in the excavations. In the earlier level stone projectile points and blades are lacking. In later levels there is a gradual transition to a fullblown neolithic culture. The Shabarakh was widespread in Mongolia. Another mesolithic culture in South Siberia was found on the Angara River, a tributary of the Yenissei. It contained pottery with pointed bottoms and with comb-incised and cord-impressed decoration. The Mesolithic Cultures of Southeast Asia. The following account owes much to the researches of Robert Heine-Geldern in southeast Asia.21 The oldest cultures of IndoChina, the Hoabinhian and the Bacsonian, were found in caves in the mountains of Hoa-binh and Bac-son, respectively, in the province of Tonking. The two mountainous regions are separated by a 120 kilometer delta plain, the Hoa-binh range lying to the north, the Bac-son to the south. In both cultures three successive stages were found in stratigraphic sequence in the caves. Hoabinhian I consisted of partially chipped stone artifacts of large size and crude technique. Stone polishing was unknown. There were three characteristic stone implements: stones untouched except for a roughly chipped point or edge; scrapers; "short-axes" (hache courte) with an unworked flat upper end and a pointed, round, or elliptical chipped edge. The Hoabinhian II stone assemblage contains the same category of implements, but they are smaller and the short-axes are more numerous. In addition, two new forms appear: a rather small flat elliptical adze chipped over one entire surface and, unworked on the other, with a single beveled edge occasionally polished; a similarly shaped adze which is completely 2 1 Heine-Geldem, "Urheimat und früheste Wanderungen der Austronesier."

THE PROTO-JOMON unworked on either surface, but has a single beveled polished edge. In the Hoabinhian III culture the stone tradition of the earlier phases is continued, but the size of the artifacts is even more decreased. Short-axes and pointed stones are abundant, as are those implements which appear for the first time in Hoabinhian II. A few crude bone artifacts are also found. In none of the cultural phases of Hoabinhian does pottery make an appearance. The earliest phase of the Bacsonian culture is characterized by the following stone implements: scrapers; unworked conical or pyramidal stones which may have been used as pestles; flat pieces of slate with two parallel grooves on the narrow side; and flat elliptical adzes like those of Hoabinhian II. Bacsonian II stone industry consists of numerous stone adzes of the unworked variety with a single beveled polished edge as in Hoabinhian II. Other implements are treated in the same manner, including bone axes. The Bacsonian III industry shows an increased use of the polishing technique and a decrease in the number of scrapers, grooved slate pieces, and the Bacsonian I elliptical adzes. Cord-impressed pottery makes its appearance in the later stages of Bacsonian III. In both the Bacsonian and the Hoabinhian cultures the occupational strata contain either marine or fresh-water shells. Hunting provided additional food, but there is no trace either of agriculture or of domesticated animals. Many human skeletons were recovered from the sites of both cultures. Five physical types can be detected in the Bacsonian and Hoabinhian population: (a) a hyperdolichocephalic group with ovoid skull contour—apparently of Papuan-Melanesian affinities; (b) a meso- to dolichocephalic type with pentagonal skull contour—a pseudo-Caucasoid type found today among the mountain peoples of Indo-China (Kaa and Moi) and in the interior of the Indo-

PERIOD

29

nesian islands; ( c ) a hyperdolichocephalic group of short stature; (d) a Mongoloid group; ( e ) a few Australoid-like individuals. Throughout the duration of both cultures the faunal life was the same as it is today in these regions. About 500 kilometers south of the Hoabinh range in the province of Annam is the famous site of Da-but, a shell mound located about 30 kilometers from the coast and consisting of fresh-water shells. The site revealed ten archaeological strata, in all of which pottery was found. In addition to many roughly chipped unpolished axes and scrapers, there were many stone axes with polished blades. Bone implements were also plentiful, among them many unperforated needles. In many sites on the Malay Peninsula the Hoabinhian and Bacsonian type of elliptical axes, chipped on one side only and with polished edge, is found. In the upper levels of these sites pottery occurs. Characteristic throughout all the Malay sites are flat stone mortars, grooved pestles, and great quantities of bone needles. In one cave near Lenggong none of the stone tools were polished. Sites similar in content to the Malay Peninsula mesolithic culture are found in North Sumatra and central Luzon; they, too, lack stone polishing. In Java, the cave of Guwa Lama contains three archaeological strata, the more recent representing a four-comered-axe neolithic culture. A mesolithic bone culture is found in the middle stratum, and in the earliest level are the remains of a mesolithic stoneaxe culture corresponding to that of Lenggong. The early Guwa Lama culture is distinguished from the Lenggong and Hoabinhian, however, by the appearance of chipped pinnate projectile points. A stone industry identical to that of Guwa Lama was found about 100 kilometers north, in the cave of Bokjonegoro. The pinnate projectile points

30

T H E PROTO-JOMON PERIOD

are frequently found in neolithic cultures, but are entirely lacking in paleolithic sites. They originated, I believe, in the mesolithic stone-axe cultures. The same type of projectile point is found in the caves of Oran in northwest Africa in a mesolithic Capsian assemblage, together with a coarse type of potshard. The microlithic cultures of the mesolithic, on the other hand, were responsible for the trapezium-shaped projectile points. The Early Proto-Jomon Culture and the Asiatic Mesolithic. There is a striking resemblance between the stone industries of the Japanese early Proto-Jomon Period on the one hand and the Hoabinhian and Bacsonian of Indo-China on the other.22 The stone implements of the Kozanji shell mound in particular correspond perfectly to those of Hoabinhian I; in both cultures stone polishing was unknown. The flat oval axe characteristic of Hoabinhian II and III and of the Inaridai culture is completely lacking in Hoabinhian I and Kozanji. The triangular projectile points with concave base found in Kozanji are similar to those of Guwa Lama and Bodjonegoro in Java, where, as we recall, a primitive Hoabinhian was found without stone polishing. The main difference between the Hoabinhian I culture found in Indo-China and Java and the Kurojima culture of Japan is the presence of pottery in the latter. Pottery, as we have seen, was wholly unknown throughout the Hoabinhian, and came in very late in Bacsonian III. Evidently there could have been no direct relationship between the Hoabinhian and the early Japanese ProtoJomon. Both cultures probably are derived 2 2 The Dutch archaeologist P. van Stein Callenfels first pointed out the occurrence of the typical Bacsonian axe in the early Jomon Period remains of Japan. His lecture on this subject at the Ohyama Institute has been published in German and Japanese in the review Shizengakuzasshi (Journal of Prehistory), Vol. IV (1932).

from an early basic Asiatic culture without pottery. Pottery was probably added from contact with another mesolithic culture after the split had occurred which sent one portion of the basic culture people into IndoChina. The early Proto-Jomon pottery is, in view of its texture, shape, and decoration, still in the early stages (mesolithic) of the ceramic art. Presumably the acquisition of pottery by the basic Asiatic mesolithic culture came not long before the early stages of the Proto-Jomon Period in Japan. Other cultural resemblances are to be found in the netsinkers of the Kozanji site; the same kind are found in the North Siberian bone culture of Shigir. The stone work of Inaridai and Shakujii shows many similarities to that of Hoabinhian II and III. In particular, they share the peculiar flat oval axes and the polished single-beveled-edge adzes. The pottery of the Inaridai and Shakujii cultures differs from that of the Inland Sea sites in type of decoration. That of the latter is carved-stickimpressed as is pottery found in South China and Siam. We have already noted the fact that with the exception of the three Inland Sea sites none of the early Proto-Jomon sites are shell mounds. The Hoabinhian-Bacsonian sites are generally shell mounds. From this we may be led to conclude that the early ProtoJomon culture of Japan was the result of two different waves of mesolithic Asiatic cultures, the earliest being that which was responsible for the Inland Sea sites, as well as for Hoabinhian I at an even earlier prepottery level. The "short-axe," which is found in abundance in Hoabinhian as well as in the Kurojima and Tado sites, is absent in the Bacsonian. On the other hand, the slate pieces with parallel grooves, which are characteristic of Bacsonian, are not found in Japan

THE PROTO-JOMON and appear only twice in Hoabinhian sites. This would indicate that Hoabinhian and Bacsonian are not directly related (they are, indeed, separated by a wide delta) and that of the two the Hoabinhian is more closely connected with the Inland Sea and Inaridai cultures of the early Proto-Jomon Period of Japan. The plate-shaped stone mortars of the Hoabinhian culture are duplicated in the Tado site of Japan. The Tado site is further characterized by its stone microliths, which might indicate a connection with the widespread Shabarakh culture of Mongolia. Of particular interest is the stone industry found on the site of Sumiyoshi; stone polishing is lacking, and all the implements are nicely chipped in the Solutrean technique. The laurel-leaf blades of Sumiyoshi are almost identical to those found in the mesolithic culture of Wercholensk in South Siberia. It is an interesting, though little-known, fact that throughout the entire Jomon Period the stone industry of northern Japan retains the special character that was already apparent in the Sumiyoshi site and clearly distinguishes it from the stone industries of central and southern Japan. In northern Japan, for example, the scrapers are rather long and narrow; in central and southern Japan they are broad. The leaf-shaped blades with knobbed stem which are abundant from earliest times in northern Japan are extremely rare elsewhere in Japan, while in central and southern Japan the triangular projectile point with concave base is common, but it is rare in the north. The pottery of Sumiyoshi lacks the characteristic carvedstick and fiber-impressed decoration of central and southern Japanese sites. From these facts I would conclude that it is necessary to postulate three different waves of mesolithic culture which reached Japan from the Asiatic continent in order to account for the cultural situations in Japan

PERIOD

31

in early Proto-Jomon times. The Sumiyoshi remains have an outspoken northern character; those of the Inland Sea and Inaridai point to the south. How the mesolithic cultures reached Japan rests largely on speculation, but it may be accounted for in the following manner. The rise of neolithic cultures in Eurafrica, with their superior organization and complex social structures, resulted in two great migrations, one of the Chinese and the other of the Austronesians. The march of these neolithic peoples eastward across Eurasia forced a withdrawal of the mesolithic culture-bearers of Asia toward the Pacific coast. That there was contact between the peoples of the two levels of cultural development can be hypothesized. How else could we account for the unusual mixture of physical types found in the Hoabinhian and Bacsonian sites of southeast Asia? In the process of withdrawal from the continent, three types of mesolithic culture entered Japan, one from the northern part of the continent, the others from the south. It is this eastward flight of mesolithic peoples that may account for the widespread cultural resemblances of mesolithic level over vast stretches of east Asia.23 2 3 G. B. Sanson writes (in Japan; A Short Cultural History, p. 6 ) : "The present writer suggests with diffidence that it is a mistake to suppose that the elements usually described by the advocates of their respective theories as Indonesian or Malaysian or Polynesian were introduced into Japan by migration from Indonesia, Malaysia, or Polynesia, whatever those entities may be. There can be very little doubt that it was diffusion from a common centre on the Asiatic mainland which at the same time peopled the islands of the south and furnished the southern strain in the people and culture of Japan. A good deal of evidence has been collected, which tends to show that this centre was in southern China. But all this is in the realm of conjecture." I shall attempt to point out in subsequent pages that at least at two different times here was a cultural stream emanating southward from Japan and that these cultural movements may account for the Japanese strain in several populations of the south.

32

T H E PROTO-JOMON PERIOD

POTTERY O F T H E LATER PHOTO-JOMON PERIOD

In general the pottery of the later phase of the Proto-Jomon Period bears a close resemblance to that of the earlier phase. In addition to the usual pointed or rounded bottoms, flat bottoms make their appearance. Characteristic of the later pottery are the streaks left on both surfaces by rubbing with the edge of the Anadara shells. In the Kwanto Plain area this pottery has been subdivided into three types: Tado-II, Shiboguchi, and Kayama. The Shiboguchi ware (PI. XI) has been found only in the Kwanto region and in large quantities only at the Shiboguchi site.24 Whole vessels of this type have never been recovered, but the shapes are well known from reconstructions. Two forms predominate: funnel-shaped pots without curved walls; pots with a slight outward curve of the body toward the rim, a somewhat indented neck, and a slightly expanded rim. The bases are more or less pointed; a few small flat bottoms appear, but they are rare. The pottery is thick, and the texture coarse. Plant fibers were used in small quantities as tempering material, but they were not mixed with the paste; rather the paste was plastered over bundles of plant fibers, which in baking became carbonized and turned black. Cord-impression may be considered entirely absent in Shiboguchi pottery; two cord-impressed shards found at the Shiboguchi sites were of doubtful stratigraphy. Included in this type are a number of underrated pots with pointed bases and of simple form which recall some of the pottery found in the Kotsutajima shell mound. Many of the vessels of the Shiboguchi type bear the Anadara shell streaks on inner and outer surfaces. (Pi. XI B, b, g) The decorative effects are confined to the area just be2 4 Yamanouchi, "The Very Early Culture of Japan."

low the rim and consist of one or more raised ribbons which encircle the pot parallel to the rim, and rows of punctates, or incised parallel lines made by trailing a comblike implement around the vessel. Occasionally impressions of the Anadara shell are found just above the raised ribbons. The rest of the assemblage found at the Shiboguchi site consists of stone, bone, antler, and shell artifacts. Polishing is still confined to the bits of axes which are like those of the early phase. Triangular projectile points with straight bases are the predominant type. Stone mortars are flat and oval. Net sinkers are flat oval stones, unworked except for the groove on each side for the line; they differ in no way from those found at Kozanji. Among the bone implements was a perforated needle. A Mya arenarca shell was found containing a large quantity of red pigment (iron oxide). The Kayama type of later Proto-Jomon pottery (PI. XII, XIII) was first discovered on a site of the same name by Dr. N. Akahoshi. Subsequently it was found in northeast and central Honshu, as well as throughout the Kwanto Plain. Kayama sites are generally small shell mounds consisting of either marine or fresh-water shells. The pottery shows two main forms; one is a deep funnelshape, with or without a slightly expanded rim (PI. XIV A), the other has a slightly incurved neck and a broad flaring rim. Generally the rim is flat, but there are several castellated rims. Both pointed and flat bases occur. The paste is mixed with plant fibers. In the matter of flat bases and fiber temper, the Kayama ware is closer to the succeeding Early Jomon Period pottery than is the Shiboguchi. Although some of the pots are well baked, most of the ware is brittle and porous. In addition to fibers, feldspar, quartzite, or mica is mixed with the paste. The pottery is moderately thick; thin-walled vessels are extremely rare. Color is varied,

THE PROTO-JOMON being either black, brownish black, or reddish brown. Of the 493 shards found at the Kayama site, 311 bore decoration (PI. X I I B ) and 182 showed only the streaks made by rubbing with the Anadara shell. The margins of the rims are frequently incised, often with simple spirals, or bear round punctates made with the end of a thin bamboo stick. In many cases, as with the Shiboguchi type, thin raised ribbons of clay encircle the upper part of the pot, while other decorative effects are found above them. On the ribbons themselves there are various incised or punctate markings or impressions. In some cases the areas between the raised ribbons are treated as decorative zones, containing recurring patterns of incised parallel lines or rows of punctates. The same zoning effect is found on the vessels not having the raised ribbons around the neck. The use of clay ribbons in relief is not confined to simple horizontal lines in some cases. Often this technique is employed to contain small recurrent decorative zones. A variant Kayama type is found in the Kaigarayama shell mound in Chiba Prefecture. Here the decorative technique is not as accomplished. Flat bases are entirely absent; the vessels are more cylindrical and have rounded bottoms. The rim is only slightly expanded. In contrast to the usual Kayama treatment, the areas between the incised lines or raised ribbons that encircle the neck are smoothed over by effacing the streaks left by rubbing with the Anadara shell. The Kaigarayama variant ware seems to have some affinities to the later ProtoJomon pottery found in Miyagi Prefecture, where rounded bottoms also are typical. The Kaigarayama site is of particular interest because the remains of three ancient pit-houses of the later Proto-Jomon Period were discovered there. One rounded floor was found at a depth of about one-half

PERIOD

33

meter. It had a radius of from 1.5 to 1.7 meters. Traces of a fireplace were found on the floor, which was covered to a maximum depth of fifteen centimeters with occupational debris mixed with shells, above which was a sterile earth layer of about forty centimeters. The debris on the floor contained shards of the type described above. A second floor, elliptical and measuring 4 by 1.2 meters, was found at almost a meter's depth. Here, too, the mixed debris over the floor contained the Kayama variant shards. The third pit-house floor was found dug into a slope of the mound. Its dimensions were 5.3 by 2.4 meters. On the floor were traces of two fireplaces and the remains of three supporting beams. The same pottery was found. Another unusual find at the Kaigarayama site was a sandstone axe with its entire surface polished. Other artifacts included the usual flat oval axes chipped on only one side, with or without a polished bit, unworked pebbles with a single beveled edge, stone hammers, triangular projectile points with concave or convex bases, curved stone beads (found at the nearby Shiro site), elliptical stone dishes, and various bone and antler implements.25 Kayama-type pottery is found in several sites in Miyagi Prefecture. That of the Tsukinoki mound is fiber-tempered, with round or pointed bases. Most of the shards bear cord-impressed patterns of simple design on their outer surfaces and have the familiar Anadara shell streaks on the inner surfaces. Some are undecorated except for shell streaks on both surfaces. The rims and necks are decorated with thin shellimpressed ribbons of raised clay, shallow grooves, or rows of round punctates made with the end of a bamboo stick. The Soyama shell mound, situated about forty kilometers 2 5 Ezaka, Shirazaki, and Serizawa, "Table of the Stone Age Sites of the Proto-Jomon Period in the Provinces of Izu, Sagami, and Musashi."

34

THE PROTO-JOMON

from Sendai (capital of Miyagi Prefecture), yielded pottery very similar to that of Tsukinoki, with the exception of the treatment of the rim, which in some cases is very deeply castellated, and the fact that many of the Soyama shards are not fiber-tempered. On many of the Soyama pots the area above the raised ribbons is impressed with twisted plant fibers; on the Tsukinoki vessels this area is often shell-impressed. In addition to the usual Kayama type of tool assemblage, the Soyama site produced many bones of the deer and wild boar. The stone polishing technique is notably absent at this site. Other Miyagi sites of the same culture-type are those of Funairijima, Azukdjima, and Shintomiyama.28 The pure Kayama-type pottery is not found in northern Japan or Hokkaido. Although excavation has not been as extensive or thorough as in other parts of Japan, it appears that this area produces a uniform variant of the Kayama type which is contemporaneous. The variant type is best known from the excavations at the site of Shiriyasaki which is situated on the southern coast of Hokkaido opposite the city of Hakodate and the site of Sumiyoshi. The pottery is cord-impressed and has pointed bases, but is without fiber-temper. The Anadara-shell streaks are apparent on the inner surfaces. In Nagano Prefecture, sites containing Kayama pottery are numerous.27 At the Gorinkubo and Kasuga sites the pottery is marked on both surfaces with horizontal Anadara-shell streaks; at Maruyama and Takinoyama the shell streaks are completely absent. Several sites in the vicinity of the city of Nagoya have yielded pottery of the Kayama type, notably among them the shell mound of Sobata. Here the majority of the S. Yamanouchi, "The Very Early Culture of Japan," and "Fiber-tempered Pottery from the Kwanto and Northeast Honshu." 27 Yawata, Archaeological Research in Kitasaku Gun.

PERIOD

pots are shaped like simple inverted truncated cones, but a number have pointed bottoms. The walls are generally thick, and the paste contains a small amount of fibertemper. None of the vessels are well baked; the shards are coarse, brittle, and porous. Most of the surface bears the usual shell streaks. The most common decorative technique is that of incised lines, although punctates and curved rows of nail-shaped impressions are not infrequent. The latter feature suggests some influence from the earlier ware found at Kitahori and Sone. Shell impressions and parallel incised lines also occur. Some of the rims have small rounded protuberances added, which may have served as lugs, and mammiformed projections just below the rim. The thin raised ribbons so typical of the Kayama pottery in the Kwanto area are lacking on the Sobata ware. The inhabitants of the Sobata site supplemented their diet of mussels with the meat of deer and wild boar, as well as with fish caught in their nets. They used a distinctive kind of stone scraper, long and narrow, but of a different type from that found in northern Japan. The Sobata mound lies on the bank of a small river, the Tempaku, in whose valley are many shell mounds representing the entire range of the Jomon Period. It is an interesting fact that throughout the Jomon Period the pottery found in the Tempaku valley retained many of the features of the Sobata ware, that is, the shell streaks on the surface, the flat bases, the coarseness of the texture, and the color. The beautiful ware of the Middle- and Later-Jomon Period is entirely lacking.

AN INTERPRETATION OF THE CULTURE OF THE LATER PROTO-JOMON PERIOD

28

Whereas among the sites of the early Proto-Jomon Period there were only three shell mounds, the cultural remains of the

THE PROTO-JOMON PERIOD later phase of this period are very often found in shell mounds. At some sites a shell stratum containing the later pottery is found superimposed on an earth layer containing the earlier ware, as at Tsukinoki and Shiboguchi. For the first time bone and antler artifacts appear, among them a perforated bone needle. The fiber- and carved-stickimpressed designs of the early pottery have been abandoned. In Hokkaido and northeast Honshu the outer surfaces of the vessels are completely covered with cord impressions. There is an increasing use of plant fibers for tempering material. In the early phase stone polishing, when it was practiced, was confined to the blades of the tools; in the later phase an occasional whole tool was polished. The economic and social structure

35

throughout the Proto-Jomon Period, as we can interpret it from the meager remains, is paleolithic in pattern. Subsistence depended upon gathering, hunting, and fishing. There were no large communities. Nevertheless, the later phase of the period represents a transitional stage, in certain respects, from an essentially mesolithic culture to a neolithic cultural level. In addition to the three waves of cultural influence which entered Japan in the early Proto-Jomon Period we must consider a fourth, which came from the north and accounted for the cord-impressed pottery, which was found only throughout Hokkaido and northeast Honshu in the later Proto-Jomon Period, but spread to southwest Honshu in the succeeding Early-Jomon Period.

CHAPTER

THE

V

EARLY-JOMON

discovered and named in the Kwanto Plain region, are recognized for the Early-Jomon Period. They share certain general traits, however; all have a large amount of fiber in their paste; pointed or rounded bases have been entirely superseded by flat bottoms. The outer surfaces of the vessels are covered with complicated cord-impressed designs in pinnate or rhomboid pattern. Further decoration consists of parallel incised lines drawn with a split bamboo stick. We shall discuss these three types—Kikuna, Sekiyama, and Kurohama—in turn, noting the nature of the archaeological context in which each is found. T H R E E T Y P E S OF P O T T E R Y ,

PERIOD

horizontal bands in a herring-bone pattern. The cord impressions themselves are rather coarse and shallow. Those parts of the surface not covered with cord impressions are generally shell-impressed. Few of the shell streaks so common in the earlier stages are apparent. The rim, which is tall and thicker than the walls of the vessel, gives the impression of a broad relief band encircling the top of the pot (PI. XIV). The sides of the rim offer a large area for decorative treatment, and we find them with a large variety of incised and punctate designs. A few Kikuna vessels are thin walled and obviously of a finer better-baked clay, containing a smaller amount of fiber-temper than is usually the case. The cord impressions of these vessels are also less coarse.

K I K U N A POTTERY

In the Kwanto Plain the chief Kikuna sites are the shell mounds of Miyatani (the type site, near Yokohama), Shimizusaka, Kode, Ogushi, Sakando, Sekiyama, and Hanazumi. In many cases Kikuna pottery is found associated with the earlier Kayama ware. The vessels are deep, sometimes with rounded belly, more often with straight sides. Many have a neck distinguished by a slight constriction below the expanding rim. The bases are circular, the flat outer rim generally projecting below the bottom of the pot and supporting the vessel. These raised bottoms are typical of Early-Jomon pottery (see Fig. 4). The walls are moderately thick and the clay is not well-baked. Some pots show no decoration whatsoever but most are cordimpressed over the entire outer surface, generally with the impressions zoned off in

F I G U R E 4 . T Y P E S OF POTTERY FOUND

IN

THE

OGUSHI

SITE

BASES

(KIKUNA

TYPE)

Flat oval axes continue on with the Kikuna-pottery type, as do the triangular projectile points.1 Flat axes, completely polished, are more numerous, being found at 1 Ezaka, Shirazaki, and Serizawa, "Table of the Stone Age Sites of the Proto-Jomon Period in the Provinces of Izu, Sagarni, and Musashi."

T H E EARLY-JOMON P E R I O D the Miyatani, Ogushi, and Shimogumi sites. The Miyatani mound yielded several perforated bone needles and afishhookmade of deer antler, with a barb at one end and a grooved knob at the other for the string. This latter find agrees with the fact that in the older shell mounds the bones of such large fish as the tunny and shark are found. In later phases of the Jomon Period the fishhooks are smaller, and so, too, are the fish whose bones are found in the sites. The usual net-sinkers and unworked pebbles with chipped points occur in the Kikuna sites, and pointed awls of deer antler or bone were found at Ogushi. The Miyatani site contained the tusk of a wild boar, with the end nicely polished to a beveled blade. The bones of a small species of domesticated dog were found in the shell mounds of Hanazumi and Miyatani, as many as ten skeletons coming from the latter. Probably in this period every family had its own house-dog.2

S E K I Y A M A POTTERY ( P L X V )

The chief sites for the Sekiyama type are in the Tokyo region—Sekiyama, Kurisaki, Minami, Fukasaku, and Sobayagato. In Chiba Prefecture the shell mounds of Unoyama and Kode contained large quantities of Sekiyama pottery (Pl. XIV, a-g). At the Kode site a number of pit-houses were found, the floors covered with debris containing shells and shards of the Kikuna type. In a higher stratum of the same site the Sekiyama type of pottery was found. The site of Shinoyama in Tochigi Prefecture and many sites in Gunma Prefecture yield the Sekiyama ware. In comparison with the Kikuna sites the Sekiyama sites are much more numerous. The artifacts found associated with the Sekiyama pottery are the 2 Naora, "On the Food Problem among the Prehistoric Japanese," pp. 87-93.

37

same as those found with the Kurohamatype pottery discussed below. A polished conical stone axe with a double-beveled edge and round in cross-section appears for the first time with the Sekiyama and Kurohama pottery. The typical Sekiyama pot is shaped like a morning glory, with narrow body which occasionally bulges in the middle and widely expanded rim and mouth. Some vessels have a clearly defined neck. The bases are completely flat or have the raised bottoms. The rims are characteristically flat, although a few castellated forms do appear. The clay is well mixed and finely baked and contains a large amount of plant fibers for temper. The entire outer surfaces are cord impressed in the typical herringbone or rhomboid arrangement. Some vessels bear shellimpressed designs. Zones of incised lines in various patterns enclosed by raised ribbons occur on the sides of the broad rims. A variant pattern consists of spirals and bows of incised parallel lines containing between them areas of punctate designs, both made with a thin split bamboo stick. In the Kurisaki and Minami mounds the same type of vessel was found with a round spout projecting just below the rim. At Kamifukuoka one pot had a spout set right in the rim itself (See PL XV b). A few shallow vessels are found in the Sekiyama assemblages.

K U R O H A M A POTTERY

This type of Early-Jomon Period pottery is found in many sites on the Kurohama hilL At these sites square pit-houses occurred, and at the Manda site the bones of the domesticated dog were found. The Kurohama pottery is generally thick-walled, coarse, and poorly baked. Several forms occur: inverted truncated cones; cylindrical vessels with constricted neck and mouth; pots with bulg-

38

THE EARLY-JOMON PERIOD

ing bodies, constricted necks, and broad expanding rims (this is a rare form). A popular form of decoration consisted of two parallel incised lines drawn with the end of a split bamboo stick in straight or wavy patterns. Sometimes a number of comb-incised lines occur, and in a few cases decoration is effected with the impressions of the Meretrix meretrix shell. Occasionally the cord impressions which frequently cover the outside surface are crossed by S-shaped incised lines. At the Funairijima mound in Miyagi Prefecture 8 the earth layer contained, as we have already pointed out, the Kayama type pottery of the Proto-Jomon Period. In the shell stratum above is found the fibertempered ware of the Early-Jomon Period. The decoration is simpler than that found in the Kwanto Plain area, consisting largely of cord impressions arranged in herringbone design. The same type is found in the sites of Murohama and Taigi in the same prefecture.4 The Taigi mound, excavated by Yamanouchi, contained 10 distinct strata, the two lowest yielding the early Jomon Period pottery. T. Saito discovered in the Murohama mound a jade bead. Up to this time it was thought that all jade in Japan was imported from South China or Tibet, but the occurrence of a jade object in early Jomon times suggests that some jade might be indigenous to Japan. In Aomori Prefecture the early Jomon type of pottery was found in the lower levels of the mounds of Ichioji, Osedo, and Nakai.5 3 Yamanouchi, "The Very Early Culture of Japan" and "Fiber-tempered Pottery from the Kwanto and Northeast Honshu." 4 Yamanouchi, "The Very Early Culture of Japan." s Dr. K. Hasebe was the first to excavate the shell mounds of Osedo, Nakai, and numerous other sites in northeast Honshu. Because of the predominance of a single form he called this type of pottery "endodokki" or "cylindrical pottery" (S. Saito, "Report on the Stone Age Sites of Niigata Prefecture"). S. Ya-

In the upper layers of the same sites pottery of the Middle-Jomon Period is found, with no fiber-temper, an abundance of decoration in relief, and thick walls. The EarlyJomon pottery of these sites is thin-walled and cylindrical, with broad flat bases. One or two raised ribbons of clay encircle the upper part of the pot (PI. XVI), and the area above them is impressed with twisted plant fibers. The large area below the ribbons bears the familiar cord-impressed herringbone pattern. A number of small round bosses occur on the outer walls of the vessels. The Ichioji site produced a number of stone scrapers with center- or off-center stems, a small flat pebble with sculptured figures on one face (perhaps functionally akin to the painted pebbles of Mas d'Azil), many bone awls with knobs, perforated bone needles (see Fig. 8), a narrow polished slate chisel, with both ends beveled, a wellpolished whalebone axe perforated at the blunt end, harpoon heads of deer antler, a spatula of the same material, chipped projectile points, leaf-shaped and with vague indications of a stem, and fishhooks of deer antler, without barbs, but with a groove for the string at the end of the shaft. The fishhooks are similar in form to those found in the East Baltic Kunda culture. The Osedo and Nakai sites produced fine leaf-shaped blades chipped in the Solutrean tradition. The latter site contained also a piece from a clay figurine.6 The Early-Jomon culture of Aomori Prefecture produced many more bone and deer antler artifacts than did the contemporary culture of the Kwanto Plain. The workmanship in this medium is much more advanced in the north. The occurrence in the sites of manouchi demonstrated that the pottery of the lower levels of these sites differed from that of the upper layers, the former corresponding to the Early-Jomon pottery of the Kwanto region; the latter to the Middle-Jomon pottery of the Kwanto. 6 See pp. 50 ff. (paragraphs on clay figurines).

T H E EARLY-JOMON P E R I O D such large quantities of animal andfishbones indicates a high development of and dependence upon hunting and fishing. In each of the three Aomori shell mounds discussed above a human skeleton was found, but there has been no report on these human remains, the oldest yet found in Japan. Pottery very similar to that found in Aomori Prefecture is reported in the lower layers of the Chitose and Ebetsu sites in

39

are covered with large-grained complicated cord impressions arranged in rhomboid or herringbone patterns or often with no par-

F I G U R E 6 . T Y P E S OF B O N E FISHHOOKS FOUND IN T H E E A R L Y C U L T U R E S OF T H E OLD WORLD

a Ertebollean, from Jutland; b Mesolithic bone culture, from Wislo, Poland; c Maglemosean, from Svaerdeborg, Seeland; d early Arctic culture, from Jaedem, Norway; e combceramic culture, from Esbo, Finlaind; f Somrong Sen culture, from South Indo-China; g—h early Jomon culture, from Ichioji, Aomori Prefecture; i early Jomon culture, from Miyatani in Yokohama;Modern types, from New Britain

ticular pattern at all. In other respects the pottery corresponds to the cylindrical vessels of the Kurohama type. South of Nagano Prefecture the amount of fiber temper found in the pottery paste F I G U R E 5 . B O N E ARTIFACTS OF T H E steadily diminishes. In Gifu Prefecture there E A R L Y JOMON PERIOD F R O M T H E L O W E R is very little fiber mixed with the paste of L E V E L S OF ICHIOJI IN AOMORI P R E F E C early Jomon pottery, and still farther south T U R E : P E R F O R A T E D N E E D L E S , HARPOON fiber temper is completely absent. H E A D S , AND H A I R PINS ( ? ) Foreign Relations of the Early-Jomon CulHokkaido (PI. XVII). A coarse, brittle fiber- ture. While bone implements of the Prototempered ware is found in the Kita-sakuma Jomon Period are few and of primitive district of Nagano Prefecture.7 The vessels manufacture, the fiber-tempered pottery of the Early-Jomon Period is accompanied, in 7 Yawata, Archaeological Research in Kitasaku Gun. Aomori Prefecture, by a rich bone industry.

FIGURE 7 . NEOLITHIC P O T T E R Y OF T H E F O U R - C O R N E R E D - A X E C U L T U R E OUTSIDE JAPAN

a From Petreny in Bessarabia ( after Stern ) b, c from Ning Ting Hsien in Kansu ( after Anderson ) d from Luang-Prabang (after H. Mansuy) e from Somron sen (after H. Mansuy)

THE EARLY-JOMON This points in the direction of the North Enrasiatic bone cultures of Kunda, Shigir, and Maglemose. Indeed, the barbless fishhooks of Ichioji and Miyatani are much like those found in the northern part of the continent, which are the oldest known outside of Japan (see Fig. 6). Barbed hooks similar to that found at Miyatani are known in the Melanesian islands, particularly in New Britain. It is not improbable that the cultural influences of the northern bone cultures were relayed from Japan to the South

1

* v\

F I G U R E 8 . B O N E AND A N T L E R ARTIFACTS O F T H E L A T E R JOMON PERIOD F R O M T H E KWANTO PLAIN

a From the Yoyama shell mound b from the Shiizuka shell mound c from the Kanno shell mound

PERIOD

41

Seas. The Greenland Eskimos likewise use a barbed fishhook. An important element of the early Jomon culture is the domesticated dog, which now first makes its appearance. These earliest Japanese dogs are small, not measuring more than 41 centimeters at the shoulder in height. Since the dog was first domesticated in the North Eurasiatic bone cultures, we have another link in the chain of evidence which connects the early Jomon culture of northern Honshu with the northern bone cultures. The dog was doubtless used by these primitive peoples for the pursuit of big game —in the case of the Japanese mesolithic inhabitants, the deer and wild boar. The bones of deep-sea fish in the shell mounds indicate that the early Jomon people ventured out onto the open sea. Another new cultural element was the thin-walled cylindrical pot found in Hokkaido and in northern Honshu. The complicated cord-impressed herringbone and rhomboid patterns which are closely associated with this pottery type evidently stem from the same source. The technique of cord impressing first appeared, as we have already seen, in Hokkaido and northeast Honshu in the later Proto-Jomo Period. This pottery complex can also be considered to have entered Japan from the north. The people of Early-Jomon Japan still lived in small family groups. The shell mound sites are small and seldom contain more than one pit-house floor. The stone axes with polished bit continue on into the EarlyJomon Period, but a new type makes its appearance, albeit only sporadically, that is, the cylindrical axe of round cross-section and double-beveled edge which is completely polished. This type of axe is found in Formosa, probably in Luzon, in Mindanao, Ceram, Gorong, Tanimbar, Leti, in the region of Minahassa (northern Celebes), and Borneo. It is widespread throughout eastern

42

THE EARLY-JOMON

Indonesia, but is absent in Malacca, Sumatra, Java, and Tonking. Little is known of its distribution in China, except that it is found in Yunnan.8 The known distribution of the cylindrical axe suggests the hypothesis that it, together with the barbed fishhook, was brought into eastern Indonesia on the waves of a cultural influence which emanated from the bone cultures of the north and passed southward through Japan. Shell bracelets, which are characteristic of the neolithic band-ceramic cultures of the continent 0 and of the Angara culture of south Siberia, first appear in Japan'in the shell mound of Miyatani. The spiral and geometric designs formed by double incised parallel lines on the Early-Jomon pottery is typical of the band-ceramic decoration. The 8 Heine-Geldern, "Urheimat und früheste Wanderungen der Austronesier," pp. 557-61. 9 Pfeiffer, Die steinzeitliche Muscheltechnik; Stifft-Gottlieb, "Linear keramische Graber mit Spondylusschmuck aus Eggenberg, Niederdonau."

PERIOD

pottery of the Angara culture, found in the second lowest stratum at Ula chada, is subdivided by Menghin into the following three types: 10 ( 1 ) pointed-bottom were incised with a comb-like instrument (like some of the Proto-Jomo pottery); ( 2 ) pottery incised with a stick (similar to much early Jomon decoration); ( 3 ) decoration consisting of wide raised ribbons of clay and spiral patterns (corresponding to the MiddleJomon pottery decoration). From this we may conclude that the culture of the EarlyJomon Period as a whole was influenced greatly by the cultures of North and South Siberia, although basically it developed out of the localized cultures of the Proto-Jomon Period in Japan. The rich bone industry, the fishhooks, the domesticated dog, and the polished cylindrical axe—all point to north Siberia. The flat-bottomed, cord-impressed pottery seems to suggest the south Siberian Angara culture as the point of origin. 10

Menghin, Weltgeschtchte der Steinzeit, p. 251.

CHAPTER

THE

MOROISO

A DESCRIPTION OF THE CULTURAL REMAINS

The so-called Moroiso ware is known from an increasingly greater number of sites throughout the Kwanto Plain.1 Many of these are located in the Tsurumi-gawa valley. In general the shell mounds containing Moroiso pottery are larger than those of the preceding period, but not as large as those of the succeeding Middle-Jomon Period. The archaeological context in which Moroiso pottery is found is more varied and more extensive than in previous horizons. In form the Moroiso vessels (PL XVIII, XX) are similar to those of the Kurohama type; in some sites the two pottery types are associated. It is not difficult, however, to distinguish the two types. The Moroiso pottery is not fiber-tempered and is much better baked. The cord impressions on Moroiso pots all run in the same direction, unlike the Kurohama cord-impressed vessels on which the herringbone and rhomboid arrangement of the impressions is quite complicated. Peculiar to the Moroiso pottery is the appearance of incised and impressed nail-shaped designs, arranged in rows along the upper half of the pot, very often within two incised parallel lines. These incised or impressed nail-shaped ornaments are made to form various patterns, such as bows, triangles, and other geometric figures. As on the Kurohama pottery, incised vertical S-shaped lines often cross the cord-impressed surface. Occasionally a Moroiso pot may be covered with impressions of the 1 There are many publications dealing with the Moroiso type pottery. Among the most detailed are those of I. Oba.

VI

CULTURE

Anadara or Meretrix shell, a decorative effect which had been practiced from earliest Jomon times, but seems to have been abandoned in the subsequent phases of the Jomon Period. On a number of vessels the designs are painted with a red pigment. The Moroiso pots are predominantly of four different forms: ( 1 ) tall vessels with bulging body and expanding rim (Pl. XVIII b); ( 2 ) deep vessels with tall cylindrical base, slightly bulged bodies, and a broad expanded mouth with incurved castellated rim (PL XX); (3) wide-mouthed bowls (PL XVIII c); (4) round-bottomed flask-type pots with constricted neck and very tall expanding rims (PL XVIII a). The latter type is not as common as the others and is distinguished by a special kind of decorative effect consisting of irregularly shaped zones of parallel incised lines in which the cord-impressed surface has been rubbed smooth. This type of decoration, rare in Moroiso pottery, comes into vogue during the Later-Jomon Period. Some Japanese archaeologists have distinguished Moroiso-A, -B, and -C types of pottery. That these types are real entities has been shown by stratigraphy and by distribution. In the shell mounds of Kazahayadai, West-Otomadai, and Komaoka, Moroiso-A type pottery was found in a stratum underlying a layer in which Moroiso-B type occurred. Moroiso-A alone came from the shell mound of Nakanodai in a stratum underlying a middle Jomon assemblage. At the Yonmaibata shell mound only Moroiso-B pottery was found, while the Kusabana site produced only Moroiso-C shards. Moroiso-B and Moroiso-C are dis-

44

THE MOROISO

tinguishable from Moroiso-A by the profuse use of raised ribbons of clay resembling plaited cords encircling the vessel and spiraling around the upper surfaces near the rim (PL X X b ) . The peculiar relief decoration on some shards found in the Orimoto mound (PI. XIX c, g) as well as the projections on the rims of some Moroiso-C pots which are carved to resemble animal heads (PL XIX i-f) seem to indicate an influence from pottery of the Middle-Jomon Period. We can assume that Moroiso-A type, which is chronologically earlier than the other two Moroiso pottery types, is contemporaneous with the later Kurohama pottery, since the two are found mixed together in the shell mounds of Sakaida, Shinobara, Mizuko, Kogaito, and Kaizuka. In the Higashikaizuka site the floor of a pithouse was covered with a deep layer of shells, in the lowest portion of which Kurohama shards alone were found. Higher in the shell layer Moroiso-A shards appear in increasing number, while the Kurohama shards steadily dimmish. Although Moroiso-A pottery was the earliest of the Moroiso ware to appear, it was not replaced by the later-appearing types. In the Yagami, Takata, Banshindai, and Honmuracho shell mounds Moroiso-A and Moroiso-B were completely mixed together, evidence that the earlier Moroiso ware continued to be made simultaneously with the newer styles. Although Kurohama pottery had ceased to be made at the time Moroiso-C ware was being fabricated, it Early Kurohama Moroiso A Later Kurohama Moroiso B—Moroiso A Otamadai—Katsuzaka Moroiso C Ubayama

seems to have influenced the Moroiso-C potters enough so that the use of plant

CULTURE

fibers as tempering material continued, but was no longer a common practice. The chronological position of the Moroiso pottery is outlined in the preceding column. With the Moroiso-C pottery there is an increased number of polished cylindrical axes, another indication of the influence upon Moroiso culture of the Middle-Jomon cultures of which these axes are characteristic. On the other hand, the flat oval axes worked on only one side remain as an inheritance from the Proto-Jomon cultures. There are now variations, however, of this early axe form—quadrangular oblong axes (which had already appeared in Early-Jomon times) and flat cochlear-shaped axes (which developed in the Later-Jomon Period into the chipped-shouldered axe). The rounded pebbles with roughly chipped points are also a heritage from earliest times. The rest of the Moroiso assemblage is composed of pitted stones, elliptical stone mortars with some polishing, flat oval netsinkers, comma-shaped ear ornaments of steatite,2 broad chipped stone scrapers with knobbed stems, triangular projectile points, shell bracelets, polished bone or deer antler needles—many perforated—and a bone pin with a carved knob. A perforated canine tooth of a carnivorous animal may have been the forerunner of the famed magatama, or comma-shaped stone bead, of the Tumuli Period. The bones of game animals are still relatively few compared with the large numbers found in the Middle- and Later-Jomon Period. The deer and the wild boar remained the most common game throughout the Jomon Period, but the bones of martens (Martes melanpus) 3 and raccoons (Nyptereutes sp.) 4 are also I. Oba, "On Ring-shaped Ear Ornaments." Ohyama and Ikegami, The Shell-Mound of Orimoto in the Village of Tsuda, Kanagawa Prefecture. 4 Ohyama and Ikegami, "The Group of Shellmounds at Shimosugeta in the City of Hokohama." 2 3

THE MOROISO found in Moroiso remains. The house dog is the only domesticated animal.5 The floors of pit-houses found in the shell mounds of Yagamiyato and Orimoto are square like those of the Kurohama sites. The Orimoto pit-house was 4 meters square and lay 1 meter below the surface. Large postholes were found in the four comers, in the center, and at the right and left corners of the entranceway. Numerous small postholes were situated between the larger ones.

MOROISO

CULTURAL

MANIFESTATIONS

IN

OTHER PARTS OF JAPAN

Moroiso-type pottery is found in many sections of Japan; in the mountainous inland prefectures of Nagano, Yamanachi, and Gifu; in the prefectures of Niigata and Fukui along the Japan Sea; in Aichi Prefecture in the vicinity of Nagoya; and on the island of Sado. A pottery type closely akin to the Moroiso ware of the Kwanto Plain and known as the Tsuboana type is found in the sites of Tsuboana, Nakazawa, Natsui, Nakayama, Asahi-ike, and Yashikiwari in Niigata Prefecture,6 and in the Chojadaira and Fuku-ura sites on Sado Island. It has the Middle-Jomon type of relief decoration. The bases are generally broad and flat. The commonest form consists of bulging sides and slightly expanded rim-collars. Others have less bulging sides, a slightly indented neck, and bulging collars with constricted mouths. The ware is well baked, and there is no fiber-tempering material. Generally the entire outer surface is cord-impressed without complicated arrangement. A few pots are completely 8 Naora, "On the Food Problem among the Prehistoric Japanese." 6 S. Saito, "Report on the Stone Age Sites of Niigata Prefecture."

CULTURE

45

without cord impressions. Impressions of the Anadara and Meretrix shells are arranged in various patterns over the surface. The typical Moroiso decoration of incised parallel lines and rows of nailshaped figures impressed with a split bamboo stick is to be found on many vessels. In addition there are rows of small stickimpressed rings. Thin raised ribbons encircle the vessel from top to bottom, often in spirals. The rims may be flat or castellated. The mouths are oval or round. In a few cases the tips of the castellated rims are carved to resemble animal heads. Occasionally the decorative elements are colored red. The stone, bone, and shell artifacts found with the Tsuboana pottery is precisely the same as accompanies the Moroiso ware. The Moroiso-type pottery found in Nagano Prefecture 7 is decorated with many parallel lines incised into the cord-impressed surfaces. A number of pots are not cord impressed, but are decorated with nailshaped impressions placed in the zones between parallel lines. None of the pottery is fiber-tempered, although it is in most cases associated with pottery types that are. The pots are better baked than are the fiber-tempered wares. In several Nagano sites pottery of the Moroiso-C type was found with the typical relief ribbons, each bearing oblique incised lines running in one direction on one ribbon and in the opposite direction on the next. This variation of the herringbone pattern is common on Moroiso pottery. Spiral relief ribbons encircle the collars of the vessels. This Moroiso-C variant in Nagano Prefecture is fiber-tempered. The mound of Nukazuka in Gifu Prefecture yielded a large quantity of yellowishgray Moroiso ware, found in a stratum to7 Yawata, Archaeological Gun.

Research

in

Kitasaku

46

T H E MOROISO C U L T U R E

getfaer with a fiber-tempered pottery. It possesses most of the typical Moroiso traits: thin walls (4 mm.), flat bottoms, castellated rims, double incised parallel lines and nail-shaped impressions, punctates, thin relief ribbons, red designs, and herringbone arrangement of cord impressions. Associated with this pottery were found: roughly chipped scrapers, triangular projectile points, stone awls, pitted stones, netsinkers, cylindrical beads, and ear ornaments. We have discussed the Sobata shell mound on the Tempaku-gawa in Aichi Prefecture. It contained, as we observed, a pottery similar to the Kayama type of the Kwanto region. One kilometer downstream is the Kaminoyama shell mound with pottery very similar to that of Sobata, but somewhat more evolved, leading us to postulate a slightly later date for the Kaminoyama mound. One kilometer below the latter site we find the shell mound of Hokonoki, which consists of marine shells and is a very small mound. The shell stratum, which lies only 5 centimeters below the surface, is 40 to 50 centimeters thick and produced four varieties of Moroiso pottery. All four groups have a number of features in common; the pots are tall and of simple form, very thin walls (3 to 4 mm.), fine texture, and generally without fiber-temper. The varieties of Hokonoki ware are as follows: (1) undecorated pots with both surfaces covered with shell streaks; (2) pots with the outer surface covered with a herringbone arrangement of cord impressions; (3) pots with rows of nail-shaped designs impressed over the already cord-impressed surface and painted red. Of this type there are two subtypes: (a) Some pots have very thin and long nail-shaped figures bounded on either side by a line of pointed punctates. (b) The majority of pots have shorter and

thicker nail-shaped elements which are bounded on either side by incised lines. (4) A small number of pots have the thin raised ribbons bearing short incised or impressed lines. The Hokonoki pottery is similar to the Nukazuka variety of Moroiso ware, but the latter appears to be more advanced in the treatment of the nail-shaped decorative element and completely lacks fiber-tempering material.8 The most important Jomon Period site in the region of Kinki (west-central Japan) is that of Kokura in Shiga Prefecture. The site comprises some 1,800 square meters and was excavated by Professor S. Umehara of Kyoto Imperial University. The pottery of this site (PL XXI, XXII), found at a depth of 30 to 60 centimeters, closely resembles that of Hokonoki, and the same four groups can be distinguished. Y. Kobayashi is of the opinion that these groups belong to chronologically different periods corresponding to those of the Kayama pottery (ProtoJomon), the fiber-tempered ware (EarlyJomon), and the Moroiso pottery of the Kwanto Plain. The fact, however, that all four groups were found mixed together in such sites as Hokonoki and Ko (Osaka Prefecture) is sufficient evidence for the conclusion that all four groups were produced simultaneously. In none of the shards at Kokura were plant fibers used in the paste. In addition to the four groups of pottery which are known also at Hokonoki, there was a fifth type with slight variations in the arrangement of already familiar elements. Only the lower part of the vessels were cord impressed in a single oblique direction; occasionally, however, the lower surface was left plain. The ware is thin, well baked, and colored reddish-black, yellow8 According to S. Yamanouchi the pottery found in levels 3 and 4 of the Taigi site in Miyagi Prefecture corresponds to the Moroiso ware of the Kwanto Plain. There is no published report on the Taigi site.

THE MOROISO ish-gray, or reddish-brown. The surfaces are well polished. There are often expanding collars decorated with the nail-shaped impressions. The rim is deeply castellated, and the nail-shaped elements, arranged in geometric or curved zones, are concentrated near the peaks of the rim. Occasionally the surface between the bands of nailshaped elements is cord impressed. A number of vessels of this type have thin relief ribbons encircling the body, bearing oblique incised markings. The pottery of the Ko site resembles that of the Kokura site, except that the familiar decorative motif consisting of herringbone arrangement of cord impressions and of rows of nail-shaped elements is absent. The site of Otoshiyama in Mie Prefecture yielded the same type of ware. In southwest Honshu pottery resembling type No. 4 at Kokura was found at the Isenomori site in Okayama Prefecture; the lower surface bore cord impressions in herringbone or rhomboid pattern, and the upper surface was decorated with nail-shaped impressed elements. Other very similar ware was reported from the lower layer of the Satogi site in Okayama Prefecture and at the site of Iwamoto on the island of Oki.

THE DERIVATION OF THE MOROISO CULTURE

In my opinion the Moroiso culture evolved directly from the cultures of the Early-Jomon Period in Japan. It possessed no element either in its stone, bone, or ceramic complex which is not found in Early-Jomon assemblages. Probably the Moroiso pottery first developed in the region of Kinki in west-central Honshu and thence spread towards the northeast and the southwest. This would account for the fact that in the Kwanto Plain the EarlyJomon fiber-tempered pottery is followed

CULTURE

47

immediately by a better-baked, nonfibertempered ware with a different type of decoration. It also explains why the oldest pottery discovered in southern Honshu— the Kokura type—is not fiber-tempered; it has not evolved from a traditionally fibertempered ware, but rather represents the spread southward of an early Moroiso-type pottery from the Kinki region. In the plain treatment of the surface (many vessels bear no decoration beyond the streaks made by rubbing of shells on both surfaces) the earliest southern Honshu pottery resembles the Kayama ware of the Kwanto Plain, which is much older than the Moroiso pottery. A number of the decorative combinations found at Hokonoki, Kokura, Ko, and other sites in west-central Honshu are absent in the Moroiso pottery of the Kwanto Plain. The long, thin, somewhat irregular nailshaped elements of the Kinki pottery, which are missing in the Kwanto ware, are, perhaps, an older form derived from the nailshaped impressions noted on the pointed Proto-Jomon pottery from the Sone site in Nagano Prefecture and the Kitahori site in Fukui Prefecture. Moroiso pottery spread from the Kinki region as far north as Miyagi Prefecture (Taigi site) and as far south as Okayama Prefecture (Satogi site). Moroiso pottery, so deeply rooted in the ceramic traditions of the Proto- and EarlyJomon Period in Japan, could not be entirely superseded by subsequent pottery types or innovations. It coexisted with the later Otamadai ware of the Middle-Jomon Period, exchanging influences with it to produce ultimately a type known as Ubayama. Cord impression remained a favored decorative technique and survived throughout the Jomon Period. In some regions it was even applied to pottery of the Yayoi culture.

CHAPTER

THE

VII

MIDDLE-JOMON

POTTERY OF T H E MIDDLE-JOMON PERIOD

The pottery of this period is distinguished by its many large vessels with massive raised or applied clay ornamentation in complicated patterns and with large handles attached to the rims. In the Kwanto Plain this ware resolves itself into two types —the Otamadai and the Katsuzaka—which are contemporary. The former is practically limited to the Kwanto region, where it has been found in many sites, chiefly along the ancient coast line. A few shards have been found in sites in the mountainous regions of Nagano Prefecture and were probably trade pieces. The Katsuzaka type probably originated in central Honshu in the prefectures of Yamanachi and Nagano and spread to the Kwanto. Variations of the Katsuzaka ware are found farther south in Gifu Prefecture, and in the mountainous portions of Shizuoka Prefecture. A few Katsuzakalike shards have been recovered at the Tsugumo and Ota sites in southwest Honshu. In Miyagi Prefecture, according to Yamanouchi, Katsuzaka and Otamadai pottery was found in stratum No. 7 at the Taigi site. In the northernmost part of Honshu a Middle-Jomon Period style of decoration is found on some of the earlier cylindrical pottery. It is apparent that the makers of the Otamadai pottery preferred to live close to the sea. The Katsuzaka people, according to R. Torii, had a hunting culture and kept to the mountains. With few exceptions (Pi. XXV c) the Otamadai pottery is not cord impressed. Muscovite (white mica) is used instead of plant fibers for tempering material. The most common form is that of a cylindrical

PERIOD

deep pot gradually expanding from base to rim. Large bowls with broad orifice are numerous (PI. XXIV b). Many vessels have large handles attached to the rim (PI. XXIV a, c). In most cases these appear to be exaggerated developments of the peaks of castellated rims (PI. XXIII b), perforated for a suspending rope or stick. Many pots have handles attached to the collars, which serve no function other than that of decoration in relief (PI. XXIV b). The color of the pottery ranges from light to dark yellowishbrown. The walls are moderately thick and the outer surfaces are frequently divided into horizontal bands by broad rope-like strips of clay in relief. These bands are filled with wavy or saw-tooth incised lines. The rope-like strips are themselves often treated with rows of punctates, incised lines, and impressed designs or may be lined with rows of punctates (see PI. XXV). Occasionally thin incised lines cover the entire surface of the vessel (PI. XXIII ft). On some vessels a comb-like instrument was used to achieve this effect, suggesting affiliations with the Siberian comb-ceramic ware. The Katsuzaka pottery of the Kwanto Plain area (PI. XXVI-XXIX) can be broken down into two groups. One is cordimpressed and very thick-walled. Both body and collar have bulging sides and are differentiated by an indented neck. The rims are slightly constricted. There are numerous upward projections of the rim, elaborately designed sometimes with human or animal heads and often perforated on opposite sides. The entire outer surface is treated with heavy rope-like applications in spiral and various curved patterns. In

THE MIDDLE-JOMON the areas between, incised lines and cord impressions are placed. Practically none of the external surfaces is left undecorated. The other pottery group is not cord-impressed. The vessels are likewise thickwalled, large, and reddish-brown in color. They are shaped like a flask, with a bulging collar placed upon the neck. The necks are very broad, plain, and somewhat cylindrical. The ornamentation is not as heavy or as complicated as that of the first group. Some vessels have a delicate-appearing basket-like treatment covering the entire surface (PL XXVIII c). In addition to the two groups of Katsuzaka ware just described, there are some vessels bearing no decoration, but finely polished and colored red.1 They take the form of thick plates or large-sized bowls. The Katsuzaka pottery of Nagano Prefecture (Pl. XXX, XXXI) has been subdivided by I. Yawata into six types, none of which are cord-impressed.2 1) Pots with widely bulging bellies, sharply indented necks, and bulging collars with constricted mouths. The neck is commonly encircled by one or two wavy rope-like strips of applied clay. On some vessels of this type the decoration in relief is made to resemble a woven bamboo basket. A few pots are without decoration. The color is black or reddish-brown. The walls average about one centimeter in thickness. The texture is poor, and little tempering material is found in the paste. 2) The walls of the vessels have many raised rope-like bands; the area between the bands is filled with various designs carved in low relief. This type takes various forms. A number of pots are tall and somewhat cylindrical. Others are more complex in shape with a slightly expanding lower portion, a broadly concave midportion, and a concave collar. The collar and body meet in a shelf-like projection. The outer Yawata, "Painted Pottery Discovered in the Shell-mound of Ubayama." 2 Yawata, Archaeological Research in Kitasaku Gun. 1

PERIOD

49

surface therefore presents an angular appearance from a lateral view. The concave portion of the body bears a heavy ornate decoration in relief. Another typical form is that of a shallow bowl or dish with a handle like that of a handbasket (PI. XXXI c). There are also a number of bowls with constricted mouths and pedestallike bases. 3) Large jars, decorated only on the upper part of the body just below the mouth with rope-like bands. The band-enclosed areas are filled with simple relief decoration. 4) A type very similar to No. 3, but with the interband decoration more carefully and clearly carved in relief. 5) Tall narrow vessels with slightly expanding bodies from bottom to top. The entire surface is covered with designs in high and low relief of less massive appearance than that of type No. 2. 6) Large vessels with expanding collars and heavy elaborate handle-like projections on the rim. The entire surface is treated with a bold massive relief decoration. In this type the technique of applying clay decorative elements and carving designs in low relief reached its. apogee. The site of Chojagahara, in Niigata Pre«fecture, produced large quantities of pottery resembling, with a few exceptions, that of the Katsuzaka type.3 The Chojagahara ware is rather thin, well baked, and nicelypolished. The entire surface is covered withi decoration in low relief, and the rims have pointed projections. Cord impressions are entirely lacking. This same Katsuzaka variant is found in other sites in Niigata Prefecture and farther to the south along the Japan Sea coast in Fukui Prefecture. OTHER CULTURAL ELEMENTS O F THE MIDDLEJOMON PERIOD

The archaeological assemblages of the Middle-Jomon Period are richer in kind and 3 S. Saito, "Report on the Stone Age Sites of Niigata Prefecture."

50

THE MIDDLE-JOMON

number than are those of any of the preceding periods. In general the Katsuzaka and Otamadai pottery types are accompanied by the same cultural remains. When there is an exception, it will be pointed out. The stone industry includes the usual triangular projectile points, many with concave base; broad scrapers; round mortars of andesite; andesite stones with one or more pits; and a large number of netsinkers. Axes of sandstone or slate are chipped on both surfaces. They are quadrangular, elliptical, or cochlear. Quarries from which material for their axes was transported to the Kwanto Plain were found in the steep valleys of the Tone-gawa, Tama-gawa, and Saga-gawa. Characteristic of the Middle-Jomon culture of the Kwanto Plain and the mountainous regions of central Honshu are the nicely polished cylindrical axes. At the Chojagahara site polished four-comered axes of quadrangular transverse section were found. They also appear in the Aoshima shell mound in Miyagi Prefecture (found by Dr. Matsumoto) associated with Middle-Jomon pottery. They were made by sawing deep grooves on either side of a flat stone slab and then breaking off the desired piece with one blow. A new type of stone object is the large stone baton, made of andesite (Pi. XXXII i). One specimen from the site of Morishita in Tokyo-to is 160 centimeters long. The carved tip represents a phallic symbol. Another large stone baton was discovered at the Iwao site on the Izu-peninsula in Shizuoka Prefecture. It was planted upright near the floor of a pit-house and was encircled at the base by a row of round pebbles. A stone slab had been placed across the top. Here we see for the first time a monolithic representation of the fertility cult which can be seen today everywhere in Japan.

PERIOD

yet either varied or profuse. As we go higher into the mountainous districts, the sites show a greater percentage of stone implements and a decreasing number of bone artifacts. The reverse is true as we approach the coast. With the exception of large fishhooks made of antler, the bone work is rather crude and unimpressive. Shell bracelets are found in increased numbers in Middle-Jomon assemblages. They are composed of the shells of Ostrea densamellosa. Some rather remarkable large jade beads were found. Jade, as we have noted before, is native to Japan. Some years ago blocks of jade were discovered in Niigata Prefecture. In the shell mound of Neda the image of a fish (PL XXXVI a), carved in sandstone, was found—the only specimen of its kind yet discovered in Japan. In the same site were found a number of bead necklaces made of the shell of Natica jantostome. Clay figurines of a grotesque type are often found in sites of Nagano Prefecture associated with Katsuzaka pottery. They generally represent the human female, and special stress is given the breasts and womb. Often a pregnant woman is represented. The rest of the body is summarily treated or even neglected entirely. Often, as if to emphasize the quality of the figurine, raised clay ribbons connect the breasts and the womb. Commonly the figurines have no legs, and compared to the clay figurines of the Later-Jomon Period, they appear large and flat. At the Hiromi site a well-preserved figurine was found standing within a circle of 37-centimeter diameter formed with small pebbles. Near by, another such circle surrounded a clay incense burner. At the site of Hirahata a Katsuzaka-type pot was surrounded on three sides by stone slabs. Such stone circles often are found near the remains of pit-houses. At the Koshigo site In central Japan the bone industry is not two large clay figurines were discovered in

THE MIDDLE-JOMON a sort of box formed by stone slabs. A figurine and pottery surrounded by a circle of stones piled one upon another were found at the Ohase site in Fukushima Prefecture. Clearly this type of remains has some connection with a religious ceremony or cult. The Nagano type of clay image is not unknown in the Kwanto Plain. In Kanagawa Prefecture such figurines have been found in two sites in Middle-Jomon assemblages. They had ring-shaped handles projecting from the backs. The characteristic ribbons connecting breasts and womb are present on all. The face is egg-shaped, and the body is narrow. The figurine found at the Tenshindai site is without surface decoration, but the careful treatment of the facial features is unusual. That found in the Manda site is decorated over the body with spiral designs. At the Tenshindai site the figurine was found only 24 centimeters from two large andesite slabs, each about 120 centimeters long. Possibly the two go together and represent the remains of an ancient shrine connected with a fertility cult. There is evidence that in the Middle-Jomon Period people began to collect in larger communities. A number of pit-house remains were found at the Ubayama and Dai sites.4 The square pit-house of former times is supplanted by a round one, which in turn gave way to the square plan in LaterJomon times. The Middle-Jomon round pithouses had an average diameter of 4 meters and sides one meter deep. Large posts were planted in each corner, and occasionally a central post is found. Ditches were dug inside the wall to drain off the water. The fireplace, which was situated in the center of the floor, often consisted of a single pot. * S. Goto, "Report on the Excavations of Stone Age Dwellings."

PERIOD

51

Human skeletons of the Jomon Period in Japan have thus far been found only in shell mounds, doubtless because of the far better preservative qualities of the shell layers. Burials in the soil disappear without leaving scarcely a trace. Men of the LaterJomon Period buried their dead more frequently in the shell mounds than did ¿lose of any other phase of the Jomon Period. At the Ubayama shell mound fifteen skeletons were found, one of which was buried in a fully flexed position in the earth just below the shell layer. Another skeleton, semi-flexed, was found in a specially prepared burial pit, with a deer antler pick lying near the left shoulder. On the floor of a pit-house at the same mound five skeletons were found, three placed one above the other. All five had shell bracelets on the arms. The custom of burying the dead in the shell mounds was widespread among mesolithic peoples of the world, who lived on shellfish and accumulated large heaps of shell refuse. We find this practice throughout North Africa, in Portugal, and in the Ertebollean culture of north Europe. From Europe the practice probably spread to Scandinavia, whence it influenced the mesolithic bone cultures of northern Eurasia. Along with other culture elements, this burial complex was received by Japan from North Siberia. Ordinarily, it might be thought that a people who buried their dead in the dirt and refuse piles around their homes had little regard either for their departed relatives or for the after-life. Applied to the mesolithic peoples, this opinion does not hold. We must first realize that Stone Age man held shells in high esteem. At the Hundsteig site, on the Danube River in Austria, numerous perforated shells were found in a middle Aurignacian assemblage;

52

THE

MIDDLE-JOMON

many of these shells had been transported great distances from the Mediterranean Sea. Middle Aurignacian man made many ornaments out of shell, using this material for necklaces, bracelets, and head and breast ornaments. Perforated shells were even sewn on cloth. In one Grimaldi cave in northern Italy more than a thousand perforated shells were discovered in place encircling the pelves of two small children; evidently they had been sewn on their gar-

SO

- 50

Sea.

IOO

" o f

ments. This high regard for the decorative effect of shells is characteristic of late paleolithic, mesolithic, and neolithic cultures 5 and of many Bronze Age and Iron Age societies. In Japan shell bracelets first appeared in the Early-Jomon Period and were common in all subsequent Jomon phases. De Vries observed, during his voyage to northern Japan in A.D. 1643 that the Ainus practiced two lands of burial; sometimes 5

Pfeiffer, Die steinzeitliche Muscheltechnik.

ISO M I L E S

f

PERIOD

HOKKAID

\JctpcLTt

. . . . . . . .

A

/

X

VamagataV*" S«nda. "

NugaLa-tr .

/

•' Fukushima

/ ^WUSHIMA

MAP VI. HONSHU

THE MIDDLE-JOMON the dead were placed in small wooden huts resting on four posts, and at other times they were given ordinary interment in the earth, followed by the spreading of a layer of shells over the corpse. It is a well-known fact that among many primitive peoples even today shells are used for trade and as a medium of exchange. The Chinese character for "coin" represents a round perforated piece of shell. Most of the Chinese

•

.

La. Pérouse

53

PERIOD

characters are composed of a significant element and a phonetic element. The significant element of a great number of characters meaning "to sell," "to buy," "to lend," "to borrow," "treasure," "precious," etc., consists of the character for "shell." With his high regard for shells, based partly on religious awe, partly on aesthetic appreciation, and undoubtedly somewhat upon the sustenance they provided, it is no Stra^

• Wakkanai Se a. op Sea

Okhotsk

oP.

• \Ja.p

,

S-

1

$ A \f/N^ ' Y

X \ Ì $ Obihiro s i o ° i fw i

Kushiro

HOKKAIDO

Tomakómai

Urakawa E sash Pacific'

• Oc }< rH

00 03 t-H 00

O) 0 eó f-H

0 ao O 00

O Ci co' d I—1

00 CO co 00

0 00 CD co

O cq ai co t-H

có

co

t-H in eó f-H

0 0 O in r-H

00 lO 00

0 co t^ ci f-H

CO d s

tCD oó CD

O a> 0 •«r f-H

a t~ t^

tcq ci f-H

O tO in f-H

ci

O 00 t-^ e-) 1—1

cq 00 t^

in i> ci co

O O

§

in f-H

0 00 t^ 00 1—(

05 in ai >0 f-H

0 t^ 00 1—i

O a> ci

0 co t^ 00 r-t

ci CD 1—1 CD

a

a I

0 CO

0 00 f-i co

0 f-H ci

0 CO 0 in f-H

Ci in 0 00

O in

co m ci 00

co in co 0

0 co 0 f-H

0 ci O 0

O tO in 1—i

co co ci t-

0 0 CÓ

oó in •—1

0 1—1 ori 00 t-H

0

CO 00 O 00

O co 0 0 rH

0 0 00

s

co oó in f—1

0 ao in 00 I-H

w

CO cq O co
1—(

0 co f—t in

co tco t-

O CD -t' CI rH

CI 0 ai in 1—
f-H

0 CO o> 1—(

0 in co

O t-; in

in t-n 0 oó in f—1

ao OÓ t-

ci 1—1

«

-C QV U

-c bc « W

00

S cf-H i f-H CO eó f-H

ao o> co 00

CI

00

O f-H

O CO f-H fj" f-H

M CD eó 00

t1—1 CO

O t-H ci t-H

O co

CD 03 ci CD

O CO aó rf t-H

in

o> f—t ci 00

m có CD

O CO

O co t^ 00

co 0 10

CO 0 có 00

00 i-H •«r CD

O CO ci fi f-H

ci co in 00

0 0 f-ì

co «I J f

CITY

28. The shell mound Shiboguchi

of

29. The site of Nakanoya M I N A M I - S A I T A M A COUNTY

The village of Jionji

früh*

39. The shell Nagasaki

mound

o

40. The shell Naka

mound

o

41. The shell Sumigama

mound

o

42. The shell Shuku

mound

o

43. The shell Shuku-ura

mound

o

t

f

k

30. The shell mound Sakurayama

of

44. The shell Arai

mound

o

31. The shell Minami

mound

of

45. The shell Arai-kochi

mound

o

32. The shell Kamuro

mound

of

46. The shell Egasaki

mound

o

47. The shell Baba

mound

o

«

LIST OF JOMON PERIOD The village of

Kashiwazaki

48. The shell mound of Kakura-Dounji

The village of

W

49. The shell mound of Kakura-Jokokuji

The village of

The village of Mihashi 65. The shell mound of Sobagayato

54. The shell mound of Sekiyama

66. The site of Azeyoshi

56. The shell mound of Kaizuka

TACHIBANA COUNTY

The village of Hiyoshi

Wado

67. The shell mound of Minowa

57. The shell mound of Kuroya

Toyoharu

60. The shell mound of Hanazumi

tei]

The village of Oishi

55. The shell mound of Sakando

The village of

Haruoka

64. The shell mound of Fukasaku

53. The shell mound of Kurisaki

59. The shell mound of Iwatsuki-Ota

jXJ&Mf

63. The site of Ohara

The village of Ayase

The small town of Iivatsuki

61. The shell mound of Kake

62. The shell mound of Sarugai (Angyo)

of

58. The shell mound of Kisora

Kawa-ai

The village of Angyo

52. The shell mound and peat-layer of Shinpuku ji

The village of

ft

93

KITA-ADACHI COUNTY

50. The shell mound of Ukiya 51. The shell mound Kashiwazaki

SITES

68. The shell mound of Yagami

** k

69. The site of Tonofukuro

j

The village of

Miyamae

70. The site of Jusanbodai

A

94 Tsuzun

L I S T

O F

J O M O N

P E R I O D

SITES

The village of Tasai

COUNTY

The village of Takada

79. The site of Kusabana

71. The shell mound of Nakaine

K I T A - T A M A COUNTY

The village of murayama

The village of Nakagawa

Higashi-

p & 4$ $fzj it

^.«Mt

80. The site of Nakanowari

72. The shell mound of Sakaida

M I N A M I - T A M A COUNTY

The village of Tsuda

The village of Kawaguchi

73. The shell mound of Orimoto

81. The site of Narahara

The village of Nitta

T H E PROVINCE OF SHIMOSA

74. The shell mound of Takata

COUNTY

The village of Omuro

The small town of Sekiyado

75. The shell mound of Kogaito

82. The shell mound of Motomachi

IREMA COUNTY

83. The shell mound of Shinodai

HIGASHI-KATSUCHIKA

The village of Fukuoka 76. The site Fukuoka

of

jDOj"

The small town of Noda

Kami84. The shell mound of Shimizu

The village of Mizutani

85. The shell mound of Nakanodai

77. The shell mound of Mizuko

The small town of Katsuchika

N I S H I - T A M A COUNTY

The small town of Ome 78. The site of Morishita

?r,i~ "

86. The shell mound of Tobinodai

f

E^sr

L I S T O F JOMON P E R I O D SITES 87. The shell mound of Kosaku The small town of

INBA COUNTY

The small town of Usui

Kogane

Kokubun

89. The shell mound of Horinouchi

97. The shell mound of Kuruwanochi

¿fe ' ft

The small town of Nagareyama 90. The shell mound of Hiregasaki The village of

ft

The small town of Iwai 98. The shell mound of Shiroyama

M-'z

K I T A - S O M A COUNTY

Jtjs&jgf'

The village of Monma

Arakawa

99. The shell mound of Tachigi

The village of

U N A K A M I COUNTY

Okashiwa

The village of Unakami

92. The shell mound of Ubayama

XMM S F R T ^ P

100. The shell mound of Yoyama

Umezato

93. The shell mound of Yamasaki

WJ-

SASHIMA COUNTY

91. The shell mound of Kami-Shin juku

The village of

f j ^

96. The shell mound of Tobedai

88. The shell mound of Kode The village of

95

¿L

YUKI COUNTY

The village of Iinuma KATORI COUNTY

The village of Yoshibumi

tiXM

The village of Ohanawa

94. The shell mound of Otamadai 95. The shell mound of Kaizuka

101. The shell mound of Unoyama

Mtg^vAJg^

102. The shell mound of Kaigarayama

H

96 CHEBA COUNTY

The village of Miyako 103. The shell mound of Kasnri Kasori

LIST OF JOMON PERIOD

Hep "

SITES

KOZA COUNTY

1

•The village of Araiso 111. The site of Katsuzaka

M »3

THE PROVINCE OF HITACHI

ICHIKAWA CITY

INASHIKI COUNTY

104. The three shell mounds of Suwada

The village of

Yasunaka 4 R + 4 T

112. The shell mound of Okadaira

T H E PROVINCE OF SAGAMI MIURA COUNTY

ftf

The village of Osuga The small town of Misaki 113. The shell mound of Fukuda

105. The shell mound of Moroiso

The village of

The small town of Uraga

114. The shell mound of Neda

106. The shell mound of Yoshii

The village of The village of Kurigahama

Funajima

^

Takata

^ 115. The shell mound of Shiizuka

107. The shell mound of Kayama

The village of Ami

The village of Hatsuse

ra

^

A>M

116. The shell mound of Hasamado

108. The site of Mito YOKOSUKA CITY

^

109. The site of Tado

*y

^ P , ^

^

TSUKUBA COUNTY

The village of

Itabashi

117. The shell mound of Kanno

NAKA COUNTY

The village of Asahi NAMEKATA COUNTY

110. The shell mound of Manda

Ä

ft®

The small town of Aso 118. The shell mound of Omiyadai

» L Ä J & P

LIST OF JOMON P E R I O D

97

SITES

T A C A COUNTY

K E S E N COUNTY

The village of Kusgigata

The village of Akasaki

119. The site of Kamidai

125. The shell mound of Obora

120. The site of Shimodai

The village of Suesaki

T H E PROVINCE OF KOZUKE

126. The shell mound of Hosoura

O R A COUNTY

fcMfr

The village of Nara

PROVINCE

OF

SHIMO-

TSUKE SHIMO-TSUGA COUNTY

The small town of

Fujioka

122. The shell mound of Shinoyama NORTHEAST HONSHU

The village of Hirota 127. The shell mound of Nakazawahama

121. The site of Itakuranuma THE

T I® T- # # flUft % ft

mijff

MONO COUNTY

The village of Ono 128. The shell mound of Takamatsu The village of Miyato small island)

(a

129. The shell mound of Murohama

T H E PROVINCE OF RIKUZEN T O Y O M A COUNTY MIYACI COUNTY

The village of

The village of Urado (a small island) 123. The shell mound of Funairijima The village hama

of

Shichiga-

124. The shell mound of Taigi

?f

ff^fc

«

Minamikata

130. The shell mound of Aoshima OSHIKI COUNTY

The village of

trts

Takaki

131. The shell mound of Numazu

t%

3k Jl(!

98

L I S T

S H I B A T A COUNTY

O F

J O M O N

P E R I O D

S I T E S

M I N A M I - T S U C A R U COUNTY

The small town of noki

The village of

Tsuki-

Ikarigaseki

139. The site of Yamamoto T H E PROVINCE O F U G O

m

K U R I H A R A COUNTY

K I T A - A K I T A COUNTY

¿ M F C F F L ^ P

The village of

The village of

132. The shell mound of Tsukinoki

Tamazawa

M

A

140. The site of Fujikabu

T O D A COUNTY

The village of Fudodo

134. The shell mound of Soyama

I S

Kamikawazoi

133. The site of Masugata

The village of

^

Nanakura

141. The site of Aso M I N A M I - A K I T A COUNTY

The village of

Umagawa

T H E PROVINCE OF M U T S U

142. The site of Takasaki S A N N O H E COUNTY

The village of

Korekawa

135. The shell mound of Nalcai N I S H I - T S U G A R U COUNTY

The village of

Tateoka

136. The site of Kamegaoka

T H E PROVINCE O F U Z E N Y O N E Z A W A CITY

143. The site of Narishima CENTRAL HONSHU (CHUBU) T H E PROVINCE O F ECHICO N A K A - K U B I K I COUNTY

K I T A - T S U G A R U COUNTY

The village of Aiuchi

The village of Sugahara 144. The site of Kurobo

137. The shell mound of Osedo

N I S H I - K U B I K I COUNTY

The small town of Nakasato

The small town of Itoigawa

138. The site of Fukoda

145. The site of Chojagahara

mftm xff

LIST O F JOMON P E R I O D SITES

99

158. The site of Sakanoshita

S A N T O COUNTY

The small town of Sekihara

*

® J

146. The site of Umataka

159. The site of Nakahara 160. The site of kanizawa

Kami-

H I G A S H I - K A N B A R A COUNTY T H E PROVINCE O F E T C H U

IT?

The village of Agekawa

T

T

®

N A K A - N H K A W A COUNTY

147. The site of Hirahata The village of Kazumi

The village of Hideya J F

Higashi-

IRA

148. The site of Miyano

161. The site of Chidori

149. The site of Chojayashiki

S H I M O - N I I K A W A COUNTY

T

A

T

J F J I U B F

The village of Nishi-Fuse K I T A - U O N U M A COUNTY

162. ThesiteofSakura-toge

The village of Kawai

The village of Ta-ie 150. The site of Myokoji N A K A - U O N U M A COUNTY

The village of Mabito, district of Uzaka

%

Ä

4

T

FTSBJEP

9OrSJft

163. The site of Ta-ie The village of Aimoto 164. The site of Aimoto

151. The site of Rinchu

H I M I COUNTY

152. The site of Ohira

The village of Asahi

153. The site of Kaino

165. The shell mound of Asahi

«

J

M

S

154. The site of Iwayamada The village of Unami 155. The site of Inarido 156. The site of Sakanakano-shita 157. The site of Hachimansama

m^ìÉL

166. The cave of Osakai

^ O f

N E I COUNTY

'"P

J L / J U T

The village of Hyakuzuka 167. The site of Hyakuzuka

100 The village of Nagaoka

LIST ^ ^

OF

/J^"

168. The site of Kitayo T H E PROVINCE OF ECHIZEN

JOMON

m n

PERIOD

SITES

«

N l U COUNTY

The village of Hirano 175. The site of Shonohata

JL' ha

The small town of ShimoSuwa

Tifcprsj

176. The site of Sone (on the bottom of the Suwa lake)

m

The village of Nishi-ago T H E PROVINCE OF SHINANO

169. The shell mound of Kitahori

SARASHINA COUNTY

The village of Sarashina

T H E COUNTY OF CHIISAGATA

177. The site of Haneo

The village of Maruko 170. The site of Koshigoe

%% ft

SUWA COUNTY

MM

m/b

KITA-SAXU COUNTY

The village of Goga

K A M I - I N A COUNTY

178. The site of Miyadaira

The village of Kawaminami

HIGASHI-TSUKUMA COUNTY

171. The site of Kogahara

The village of Tomiagata

The village of Kataoka

172. The site of MinamiFukuji

179. The site of Yokoyama T H E PROVINCE OF HIDA

The village of Miyada ONO COUNTY

173. The site of Komagahara

The village of Nishimiwa 174. The site of Habiro

The small town of Onata \S&

^

W

180. The site of Nukazuka 181. The site of Hijiyama

0-

5 *

LIST OF JOMON P E R I O D

SITES

188. The shell mound of Homi

T H E PROVINCE O F K A I K I T A - K O M A COUNTY

The small town of

101

«

k

Tahara

The village of Komai 182. The site of Sakai

189. The shell mound of Yoshigo

T H E PROVINCE O F I Z U

M I N A M I - S H I D A R A COUNTY

T A G A T A COUNTY

The village of

The village of

^

Kamitsugu

190. The site of Gyoninbara

Nakaomi

183. The shell mound of Shiro

H o i COUNTY

The village of The village of

%

Kosakai

Kannami

184. The site of Hirai T H E ISLAND O F O S H I M A

f* Kh

191. The shell mound of Inariyama T H E PROVINCE O F O W A R I

The village of Nomasu

NAGOYA C I T Y

185. The site of Nomasu (below a lava-layer)

Minami-gun

T H E PROVINCE O F T O T O M I

4

Ajlk.* ZtJkJf %

QL

192. The shell mound of Atsuta 193. The shell mound of Sobata

H A M A N A COUNTY

A

The village of Irino

9 to

Showa-gun 186. The shell mound of Shijimi-zuka

194. The shell mound of Fukiage

T H E PROVINCE O F M I K A W A

Aicm ATSUMI

COUNTY

COUNTY

(PENIN-

SULA)

The small town of

Fukue

187. The shell mound of Kameyama

The small town of Narumi 195. The shell mound of Hokonoki

VrJ^j j f j j

LIST OF JOMON PERIOD

102 196. The shell mound of Kaminoyama

Jz-

/

¿U

SITES

The village of Asahi

&

Q

204. The site on the bottom of the Biwa lake

197. The shell mound of Ikazuchi

M A

T H E PROVINCE OF K A W A C H I

T H E REGION OF KINKI

ML*;

NAKA-KAWACHI

COUNTY

T H E PROVINCE OF YAMATO

T

^

J&

Si % Zf*

The village of Kusaka Y O S H I N O COUNTY

I F

The small town of Oyodo 198. The site of Shimobuchi The village of

Nakasho

K^JSJ

205. The shell mound of Kusaka M I N A M I - K A W A C H I COUNTY

T Ä «

¿fa*!

B T fà to

The village of Domyoji 206. The site of Ko

$

ft

S H I K I COUNTY

T H E PROVINCE O F S E T T S U

^

%

The small town of Miwa

KOBE

teff

200. The site of Miwa

207. The site of Nakura

THE

208. The shell mound of Sogaito

199. The site of Miyatala

PROVINCE

OF

YAMA-

CITY

m

SHXRO T H E PROVINCE O F H A R I M A K Y O T O CITY A K A S H I COUNTY

The Kita-Shirakawa

district

BJI

The village of Tarumi

201. The site of Kokura

209. The site of Otoshiyama

202. The site of Kamiowari T H E PROVINCE OF K I I

203. The site within the compound of the school for agriculture ( Nogakuba-Konai ) T H E PROVINCE O F O M I H I G A S H I - A S A I COUNTY

ì l w

N I S H I - M U R O COUNTY

The village of I

L

M

Inada

210. The shell mound of Kozanji

È

«

LIST

OF

JOMON

SOUTHWEST HONSHU (CHUGOKU)

PERIOD

103

SITES

T H E PROVINCE OF BINGO

¿HA.®

NUMAKUMA COUNTY T H E PROVINCE OF BIZEN

The village of Takasu

KOJIMA COUNTY

The village of Tsubue

217. The shell mound of Ota

ft-

211. The shell mound of Isonomori

T H E PROVINCE OF

n

®

YOSHIKI COUNTY

212. The shell mound of Funamoto OKU COUNTY

Suwo

m

The village of Akiho $

t

®

The small town of Ushimado

218. The site of Minogahama T H E PROVINCE OF HOKI

213. The shell mound of Kurojima

SAIHAXU COUNTY

bUtith ft* «Mé gf>

The village of Korai T H E PROVINCE OF BITCHU

219. The site of Muki ASAGUCHI COUNTY TOHAKU COUNTY

The village of Oshima The small town of Yabase

214. The shell mound of Tsugumo

220. The site of Iwamoto THE ISLAND OF SHIKOKU

The village of Funaho 215. The shell mound of Satogi TSUKUBO COUNTY

The village of Obie 216. The shell mound of Hashima

1 * -

*f f

T H E PROVINCE OF IYO

knf ^

ONSEN COUNTY

The small town of Dogtiyuno 221. The site of Horuya

tto'Jtt

104

LIST

O F

J O M O N

M I N A M I - U W A COUNTY

The village of Gosho

H A T A COUNTY

SITES

S I H M O - M A S H I K I COUNTY

färfcH

222. The shell mound of Hiraki T H E PROVINCE O F T O S A

P E R I O D

The village of Toyota 227. The shell mound of Goryo

???

¿ • i t *

if

228. The shell mound of Ataka YATSUSHIRO COUNTY

The small town of Suktimo

The village of Yoshino

223. The shell mound of Sukumo

229. The site of Nishibira

T H E PROVINCE O F S A N U D

T H E PROVINCE OF H I Z E N

M I T O Y O COUNTY

KANZAKI COUNTY

The village of Nio

The village of Niiyama

224. The shell mound of Kotsutajima (a very small island)

230. The site of Senbagatani

THE ISLAND OF KYUSHU T H E PROVINCE OF H I G O U D O COUNTY

The small town of Matsuhashi

T H E PROVINCE OF C H K U Z E N

7L

'L'I'

R L i i ® f t - I f

%

ML

A

MUNAKATA COUNTY

The village of Misaki 231. The site of Kanegasala T H E PROVINCE OF SATSUMA

M

t

o

ISA COUNTY

225. The shell mound of Atario

The village of Hatsuki

The village of Todoroki

232. The site of Senoshita

226. The shell mound of Todoroki

233. The site of Tamukeyama

m m 'T f fi a A

LIST H I O K I COUNTY

The village of

A

U

O F

F

J O M O N

P

235. The shell mound of Ata

105

HAKODATE CITY

KAMI-ISO COUNTY

234. The shell mound of Xawakami

The village of Ata

SITES

239. The site of Sumiyoshi

Nishi-ichiki

K A WANABE COUNTY

PERIOD

The village of »1

% N$

FCSF

TO

Ishikawano

240. The site of Shiriyasaki T H E PROVINCE OF I SHIKARI ASAHIKAWA

CITY

I Z U M I COUNTY

241. The site of Asahikawa

The small town of Izumi

ISHIKARI COUNTY

236. The shell mound of Osaki

The small town of

Ebetsu

F L - W J

242. The site and graves of Ebetsu

T H E LOOCHOO ISLANDS

T H E PROVINCE OF IBURI 8 % CHITOSE COUNTY NAKAKAN COUNTY

The village of

The small town of Naha

The village of Nzato 238. The shell mound of Ifa T H E ISLAND OF HOKKAIDO T H E PROVINCE OF O S H I M A

Chitose

243. The site and graves of Chitose

237. The shell mound of Gusukutake

k2M •if a.

^

fJkzp

T H E ISLAND OF OKINAWA

T H E PROVINCE OF K I T AMI

fJk A

T

®

SOYA COUNTY

The small town of kanai

Wak-

244. The site of Wakkanai

* T I E R

BIBLIOGRAPHY ARCHAEOLOGICAL JOURNALS ( I N J A P A N E S E ) AND THE ABBREVIATIONS U S E D FOR T H E M

ARKIU Report upon Archaeological Research in the Department of Literature, Kyoto Imperial University (Kyoto Teikoku Daigaku Bungakubu Kokogaku Kenkyu-Hokoku ). This journal has appeared under the auspices of the late Professor K. Hamada, beginning in 1917. The reports are published with many beautiful plates and a résumé in English. JGZ Journal of the Anthropological Society of Nippon (Jinruigakuzasshi). First published in February, 1886, by the Anthropological Institute, Faculty of Science, Imperial University of Tokyo. JSK Lectures on Anthropology and Prehistory (Jinruigaku Senshigaku Koza). A compilation of lectures into eight volumes in 1940. KB Ancient Culture (Kodai-bunka). First published in March, 1929, as Archaeology (Koko-gaku) by the Society for the Study of Ancient Japanese Culture ( Nippon Kodai Bunka Kyokai ). KGZ Journal of Archaeology (Kokogakuzasshi ). Published by the Archaeological Society (Kokogakkai), first appeared September, 1910. PAIIUT Papers of the Anthropological Institute of the Imperial University of Tokyo (Tokyo Teikoku Daigaku Rigakubu Jinruigaku-kyoshitsu Kenkyu-hokoku). They contain many beautiful plates and a résumé in English.

SGZ Journal of Prehistory (Shizengakuzasshi). Published beginning February, 1929, by the Prehistorical Institute of Prince Ohyama ( destroyed in the bombing of Tokyo). UISIRH Reports on Historical Research, Imperial University of Sendai (Tohoku Teikoku Daigaku Ou-slyryo-chosabukenkyu-hokoku ). Contains many beautiful plates and a résumé in French.

BOOKS AND ARTICLES

Adachi, F. "The Cranium of the Stone Age People of Japan" JGZ, Vol. XXII (1907). In Japanese. Akaboshi, N. "Report on the Investigations of the Tado Site in the City of Yokosuka," SGZ, Vol. VII, No. 6 (1935). In Japanese. "The Shell Mound of Kayama and Its Pottery," SGZ, Vol. II, No. 6 (1930). In Japanese. "The Site of Mito in Sagami," KGZ, Vol. XIX, No. 11 (1929). In Japanese. Akagi, K. "New Data on the Early Jomon Pottery," Hidabito, Vol. Ill, No. 7 (1932). In Japanese. "The Pottery of Nukazuka," Hidabito, Vol. Ill, Nos. 3, 4, and 6 (1935). In Japanese. Andrews, R. C. On the Trail of Ancient Man. New York, London, 1926. Baba, S. "Fishing and Hunting Implements Excavated in the Kuriles," Ethnological Research (Minzokugaku Kenkyu), Vol.

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kari," KGZ, Vol. XXV, No. 5 (1935). In III, No. 2 (April, 1937). In Japanese. Japanese. "The Northern Kuriles Seen from the "Study of the Remains Excavated from Archaeological Viewpoint," JSK, Vol. VII (1940). the Old Graves of Hokkaido," KGZ, Vol. XXIV, No. 2 (1934). In Japanese. "Report on the Second Archaeological Expedition to Shumshir in the Northern Goto, Sh. Archaeology of Japan (Nippon Kokogaku). Seventh edition, 1936. In Kuriles," JGZ, Vol. LI, No. 3 (March, Japanese. 1936). In Japanese. Archaeology of Japan ( Nippon KogoBerkey, C. P., and N. C. Nelson. Geology and Prehistoric Archaeology of the Gobi gaku). Part II of the second edition Desert. 1926. American Museum Novi(1938) of Archaeology of the Far East tiates, No. 222. (Toyokokogaku). Also Volume II of the collection Outline History of the World Brown, J. A. "On Some Small Highly Spe(Sekai rekishi taikei). All in Japanese. cialized Forms of Stone Implements Found in Asia, North Africa and Europe," "Report on the Excavations of Stone Journal of the Royal Anthropological InAge Dwellings," [Journal reference not stitute, XVIII (1889), 134. supplied by author.—ED.] Capitan, L. La Préhistoire. Revised edition, Haguenauer, M. C. "Notions d'archeologie by M. Faguet, 1931. japonaise," Bulletin de la Maison FrancoJaponaise, Serie Française, Vol. III, Nos. Debruge, A. "Essai de chronologie sur les 1-2 (1931). escargotières," Réceuil des notes et mémoirs soc. arch, et géogr. Constantine, LV Hamada, K. Archaeological Studies (Koko(1925), 53. gaku Kenkyu). 1939. In Japanese. Egami, N. "Notes on the Tooth-Chipping "Report on the Excavation of the Stone Custom in South China," JGZ, Vol. LV, Age Site of Ko in Kawachi," ARKIU, Vol. No. 1 (January, 1940). II, No. 4 ( 1918). In Japanese with English Eto, Ch., S. Kawabe, and T. Sato. "Studies résumé, pp. 1-19. of the Early Jomon Culture on the Izu Hamada, K , and S. Shimada. "Report on Peninsula," KB, Vol. IX, No. 5; Vol. X, the Investigation of the Shell Mound of Nos. 5 and 8. Osaki in Izumi, Province of Satsuma," ARKIU, Vol. VI ( 1921 ). In Japanese. Ezaka, T., T. Shirazaki, and Ch. Serizawa. "Table of the Stone Age Sites of the Proto- Hamada, K., S. Shimada, and M. Sakakibara. Jomon Period in the Provinces of Izu, "Report on the Excavation of the Todoroki Sagami, and Musashi," JGZ, Vol. LIV, No. Shell Mound, in the Province of Higo," 7 (July, 1939). In Japanese. ARKIU, Vol. V (1920). In Japanese with English résumé, pp. 8-11. Foote, R. B. The Foote Collection of Indian Prehistoric and Protohistoric Antiquities. Hasebe, K. "The Cylindrical Ceramic CulMadras, 1916. ture," JGZ, Vol. XLII, No. 1 (1927). "Notes on Prehistoric Finds in India," "The Existence of Cattle Breeding durJournal of the Royal Anthropological Ining the Stone Age," JGZ, Vol. LIV, No. 10 stitute, XVI (1887), 70. ( October, 1939 ). In Japanese. Furon, R. Manuel de préhistoire générale. "Research on the Human Bones of the Paris, 1939. Stone Age Site of Ko in Kawachi," ARKIU, Goto, J. "On the Pit Graves in the Small Vol. IV (1920). In Japanese. Town of Ebetzu in the Province of Ishi"Views on the Investigation of the

BIBLIOGRAPHY Shell Mound of Obora in Rikuzen," JGZ, Vol. XLI, No. 10 (October, 1925). In Japanese. Hayakawa, S. The Prehistoric Culture of Etchu (Etchu Shizen Bunka). 1936. In Japanese. Heine-Geldem, R. "Urheimat und früheste Wanderungen der Austronesier," Anthropos, Vol. XXVII (1932). Higuchi, K. 'The Jomon Pottery of Shimobuchi," KGZ, Vol. XVII, No. 8 (1927). In Japanese. The Miwa Site and Its Remains (Miwa iseki to sono ibutsu). 1935. In Japanese. The Primitive Culture of Japan (Nippon genshi bunkashi). 1939. In Japanese. "A Study of the Shell Mound of Tsutajima in the Province of Sanuki," SGZ, Vol. VIII, No. 1 (1936). In Japanese. A Study of the Yamato Stone Age (Yamato sekkijidai kenkyu). 1935. In Japanese. "Two Sites Yielding Ainu Pottery Discovered in the Province of Iyo," KGZ, Vol. XVI, No. 10 (1926). In Japanese. Hirai, T. "Crania of the Saghalin Ainu," JGZ, Vol. XLII, Supplement No. 1 (1927). In Japanese. Hirai, T., and K. Kiyono. "The Femur, Patella, Tibia and Fibula of the Stone Age Man of Tsugumo," JGZ, Vol. XLIII, Supplement No. 4 (1928). In Japanese. "The Foot Bones of the Stone Age Man of Tsugumo," JGZ, Vol. XLIII, Supplement No. 5 (1928). In Japanese. The Stone Age Population of Japan (Nippon sekkijidaijinshu ni tsukite). "Treatise on the Stone Age Population of Japan Based on the Study of the Limbs," JGZ, Vol. XLIV, No. 6 (June, 1929). "The Upper Limbs of the Stone Age Man of Tsugumo," JGZ, Vol. XLIII, Supplement No. 3 (1928). In Japanese. Hirai, T., and T. Tabata. "The Femur,

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Stone Age Population of Japan," KGZ, Vol. XIX, Nos. 1 and 3 (1929). In Japanese. Kishinoue, K. "Prehistoric Fishing in Japan," Journal of the College of Agriculture (University of Tokyo), Vol. II (19091911). Kiyono, K. "A Reconsideration of the Reasons Why the Stone Age People of Tsugumo Were Not Ainu," KGZ, Vol. XVI, No. 9 (1926). In Japanese. Kiyono, K., and K. Kindaka. "The Custom of Tooth Chipping and Mutilation of the Stone Age Man of Yoshigo Province in Mikawa," SGZ, Vol. I, No. 3 (1939). In Japanese. Kiyono, K., and H. Miyamoto. "The Cranium of the Stone Age Man of Tsugumo," JGZ, Vol. XLI, Nos. 3 and 4 (1926). In Japanese. Human Bones of the Eneolithic Period (Kinsekki heiyojidai jinkotsu). On the Population of Protohistoric Japan (Nippon genshijidai no jinkotsu). Study of the Stone Age Population of Japan (Nippon sekkijidaijin kenkyu). Okashoin, Tokyo, 1928. In Japanese. Kiyono, K. "The Stone Age Peoples of Japan," Iwanami's Lectures on Biology, Tokyo, 1930. In Japanese. "Consideration of the Stone Age Population of Japan Based on the Measurements of the Pelvis," KGZ, Vol. XX, No. 9 ( September, 1930 ). In Japanese. Kiyono, K., and T. Tabata. Anthropological Treatise ( Minzokuron ). Vol. X of Lectures on Archaeology (Kokogaku koza), 1929. In Japanese. Kiyono, K., S. Shimada, and S. Umehara. "Report on the excavation of the Shell Mound of Tsugumo in the Village of Oshima, Province of Bitchu," ARKIU, Vol. V (1920). In Japanese, with English résumé, pp. 1-7. Koganei, Y. Anthropological Studies (Jin-

BIBLIOGRAPHY ruigaku kenkyu). Tokyo, 1926. In Japanese. "The Limbs of the Ainu," JGZ, Vol. V (1889). In Japanese. "On the Japanese Stone Age Custom of Chipping the Upper Canine Tooth," JGZ, Vol. XXXIV, Nos. 11 and 12 (1919). In Japanese. "On the Japanese Stone Age Custom of Tooth Mutilation," JGZ, Vol. XXXVIII, No. 6 (1923). In Japanese. "On the Skeletons from the Shell Mounds of Japan," JGZ, Vol. VI (1890). In Japanese. Kondo, K., and T. Kondo. "Trochlea-shaped Ear Ornaments and Other Remains Found in the Site of Umataka, Echigo Province," KB, Vol. VII, No. 10 (December, 1936). In Japanese. Kono, H. "Survey of the Stone Age of Hokkaido," Dolmen, Vol. IV, No. 6 (1935). Kono, H., and T. Natori. "The Prehistory of Hokkaido," JSK, Vol. VII (1940). In Japanese. Kono, I. "The Evolution of the Stone Age Jomon Culture in the Kwanto," SGZ, Vol. VII, No. 3 (May, 1935). In Japanese. "Fishing Hooks of the Japanese Stone Age," KB, Vol. XIII, No. 3 (March, 1942). In Japanese. "Notes on the Pipe for Inflating the Float," JGZ, Vol. LIV, No. 2 (February, 1939). In Japanese, with English résumé. "Report on the Research in the Shell Mounds of Shinpukuji in the Village of Kashiwasaki," No. 2 in Short Reports of the Prehistorical Society ( Shizengakkai shoho), June, 1928. In Japanese. "Report on the Stone Age Site of Nakai in the Village of Korekawa, Aomori Prefecture," SGZ, Vol. II, No. 4 (1930). In Japanese. Koya, Y., and others. Rassenkunde der Aino. Tokyo, 1937.

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